THE NEW WORLD
ENCYCLOPEDIA
A LIBRARY OF REFERENCE
Superbly and Profusely Illustrated with Hundreds of Subjects
in Full Color, Monotone, and Text Cuts
WITH A VALUABLE APPENDIX
Of often sought for facts in almost every department
of human knowledge, a
CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD
Showing the most important events in history
from the earliest times, and
A Most Comprehensive Narrative of the Great War
Editor-in-Chief
GEORGE J. HAGAR
Editor of Harper's Encyclopedia of United States History; compiler of the
Chronology of the World in the New Standard Dictionary; a reviser
of Appleton's New Practical, Standard American, New International,
Columbian, Imperial, and other Cyclopedias
Assisted by many Associate Editors, Special Contributors,
and United States and Canadian Government Officials
NEW YORK
THE CHRISTIAN HERALD
Copyright 1911, by F. E. Wright
Copyright 1912, by F. E. Wright
Copyright 1914, by F. E. Wright
Copyright 1918, by F. E. Wrigh;
Copyright 1919, by F. E. Wright
FOREWORD
For a cyclopedia to attain the dignity of a standard work of
reference, and to maintain that position, certain distinctive features are
essential. The chief of these, outside variety of topics and accuracy, are
independence, originality, progressiveness, convenience, lucidity, and
brevity.
Independence and originality cannot be acquired without departing from
the old-time methods of pedantic Latinity, unfamiliar scientific and
technical terms, and diffusiveness, which, even, in modern times, still
seek to make knowledge the prerogative of a privileged class. Progress-
iveness is obtained by adopting up-to-date methods of organization, prep-
aration, and production, and employing the ingenious principle of the
expansive card-index, so that the latest data may be added until the very
day of printing each edition. Convenience is found in the concise disposition
of matter, and its arrangement in the form of compact Volumes, of handy
size for ready reference, in place of large and clumsy volumes, inconvenient
to handle on account of their size and weight, which are by many supposed
to represent the correct style for all cyclopedic works of reference.
Lucidity and brevity are attained by the development, through the patient
and laborious work of editors and compilers, of the fine and difficult
art of condensation, in which the constant aim is to synthesize or crystallize
the ever-growing mass of ancient and modern information into the con-
crete and attractive form of "race knowledge." This term was introduced
by Professor Patton, of Princeton University, to distinguish the sifted
and verified knowledge of a subject useful to the whole world from the
detailed knowledge required by specialist or expert, and indicates a simple
and concise handling which, while meeting all reasonable demands of
scholarship, brings the profoundest learning within the comprehension of
any attentive or thoughtful mind.
Since the beginning of the twentieth century there has been enormous
activity among the publishers of leading nations to produce new cyclopedias,
with the purpose of presenting the whole range of universal information
according to modern standards and requirements, and of exhibiting the
wonderful progress made in all departments of human knowledge and
endeavor during the previous century.
In the making and distribution of cyclopedias, the need of a popular
reference work of more compact form than those in ordinary use was
made strikingly apparent both to editors and publishers, by the thousands
of questions poured daily into the offices of magazines and journals, which,
by arrangement were referred to the cyclopedists for reply. In the
majority of instances, the answers could have been found by reference to
the venerable and ponderous types of cyclopedias. But these, wherever
possessed, apparently had been relegated to the repose of library shelves,
after the novelty of possession had worn off, while the trouble attendant
on disturbing them for research was, apparently, greater than the slight
inconvenience caused by writing and waiting for a brief answer to a simple
question.
Under these circumstances, the conviction grew that a more convenient
form of reference work was necessary for ordinary use, one which, if kept in
the home on the reading-table, in the student's room on a handy shelf,
FOREWORD
or in the office or store on the work-desk, would become an indispensable
and authoritative source of the information needed in connection with
the current news of every- day life.
The ordinary skip method of reading newspapers, magazines, etc., is not
conducive to self-culture. Every day interesting information is given
about places and subjects of which most people know very little and re-
member less from the knowledge acquired in school days. But a ready
glance into a convenient reference work will put one in possession of the
necessary information, and if the knowledge is acquired at the time when
the subject is a topic of general discussion, it is likely to be permanently
retained.
The "reference habit' is one of the most delightful and profitable that
can be inculcated in young persons or cultivated by men and women for
the worthy purpose of extending education throughout the whole of adult
life. The more convenient the form of reference work at hand, the oftener
it will be used, and when this can be done with the least possible waste
of time, the reference habit frequently changes the whole mental attitude,
transforming an ordinary into a well-informed person.
With the conviction fully confirmed that such a convenient work of
reference was urgently needed, the publishers of the present work, after
mature deliberation, decided upon a striking departure and a revolution
in the ordinary methods of cyclopedia making. Adopting a novel and
original plan which would allow them to make use of the latest sources
of information right up to the date of publication, they determined to
build a work which should present the modern, solid, alive, and up-to-date
American view of everything worth knowing in the fewest possible words;
a work for the use of students and others which would fit them to take
part in the conversation or enjoy the society of any well-informed circle.
The result, as embodied herein, exhibits the truly American character-
istic of the exact knowledge sought; giving the pith of each subject, the
essential facts, condensed to the plainest terms consistent with accuracy
and clearness, and presented in a convenient form for ready reference.
The salient features of each topic treated and its modern aspect follow
the title and impress themselves at once upon eye and mind. The old,
stereotyped, pompous, so-called cyclopedic style gives way to a bright,
modern presentment of knowledge and facts. Without needless wading
through a mass of words, the reader immediately grasps the knowledge
sought. Every subject is condensed or distilled to an essence of crystal
clearness, in order to secure the compact and convenient size aimed at.
Moreover, this plan of condensation or crystallization has allowed the in-
clusion of a greater number of titles than are to be found in the larger
works of reference, for over 150,000 separate titles will be found in the
various volumes of this work, as compared with the 50,000 or 60,000
subjects in the ordinary cyclopedias.
The publishers have also aimed at making the work doubly attractive
by reason of its illustrations. Text-cuts, half-tones and artistic three-
color page plates, considerably beyond the plane of the average cyclopedic
illustrations, contribute largely to a full understanding of the crisp de-
scriptive matter. Special attention was also directed towards providing
a clear type, easy for reading and restful to the eyes, instead of the small,
fatiguing, eye-straining type, so frequently complained of in the larger
forms of cyclopedic dictionaries.
The whole work, modern in conception and treatment, accurate, clear,
concise, and up-to-date in a thoroughly practical sense, is a standard, ideal
FOREWORD
reference library, providing a short cut to all knowledge. No work on a
similar scale of convenience has been attempted hitherto, and the pub-
lishers, gratified by its comprehensive scope and reliability, feel confident
that its compact form will make it, though small, a powerful rival for
preferential and general use in school, home, store, or office, over the
larger types of cyclopedias, gazetteers, or dictionaries.
When the present work was projected the world war had not assumed
its monstrous proportions. Hence, the editors gave special attention to a
presentation of the countries, states, provinces, departments, and cities of
the world under their most advanced economic, educational, and philan-
thropic conditions. To this was added the inclusion of brief sketches of
the men and women whose achievements in. various directions had given
them a far-reaching reputation.
With the enlargement of the world war area and the enforced entrance
of the United States into it, the original plan of the cyclopedia was en-
larged to make it, in addition to its other features, a thorough exposition
of the unparalleled struggle for human freedom and a reign of popular
rights.
As a result, a very large number of cities, towns, villages, and other
localities that have experienced the horrors of war, and sketches of numerous
high military, naval, and civic officers of the belligerent nations, have been
introduced. Note has also been made of war activities in cities, towns,
and places already "in the books." These various subjects, geographical
and personal, have then been referred to an exceedingly comprehensive
chronology of the war in a special Appendix.
Part II of this Appendix treats exclusively of the activities of the United
States in the war, and Part III of the general progress of the war, inde-
pendently of the United States. These two parts, in connection with maps
of the belligerent countries, will enable the reader to trace with clearness
and accuracy the various campaigns, their progress, and special activities.
Part I of this Appendix is confined to the American campaign in Mexico
— the futile quest of Villa.
The editor and publishers wish to acknowledge here the most cordial
and efficient co-operation in their task by a very large number of dis-
tinguished specialists and of representatives of the United States and
Canadian Governments.
Among them should be especially mentioned, on the part of the
United States Government: Hon. William Gibbs McAdoo, Secretary
of the Treasury; Hon. Newton Diehl Baker, Secretary of War;
Hon. Josephus Daniels, Secretary of the Navy; Hon. Franklin Knight
Lane, Secretary of the Interior; Hon. David Franklin Houston, Secretary
of Agriculture; Hon. William Cox Redfield, Secretary of Commerce; Hon.
William Bauchop Wilson, Secretary of Labor; Hon. Albert Sidney Burleson,
Postmaster-General; Hon. George Otis Smith, Director of the United States
Geological Survey; Hon. Sam. L. Rogers, Director of the Bureau of the
Census; Hon. E. E. Pratt, Chief of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic
Commerce; and Hon. John Barrett, Director-General of the Pan-American
Union.
On the part of the Canadian Government: Hon. George E. Foster,
M. P., Minister of Trade and Commerce; Hon. J. D. Hazen, Minister of
Marine and Fisheries; and Hon. R. H. Coats, B. A., F. S. S., Dominion
Statistician and Controller of the Census.
a, the first letter in the
English and other alpha-
bets, ultimately derived
from the Phoenician, is
traced by some to a char-
acter belonging to the Egyptian h:er-
atic alphabet. Alpha, the Greek
name of the letter, corresponds closely
to aleph ("an ox"), the Phoenician
name (see ALPHABET). The form
which it has as a capital is the earliest.
The sound which originally belonged
to it, and which is still its character-
istic sound except in English, is that
heard in far, farther, palm, etc. A, in
music, is the sixth note in the diatonic
scale of C.
Aard-vark, (that is, "earth-pig"),
a burrowing insect-eating animal of
the order Edentata found in South
AABD-VABK.
Africa. The name "pig" is given to
it from the shape of its snout. It is
about 5 feet long, with a thin tapering
tail, and long upright ears. It is noc-
turnal in its habits and very timid.
Its flesh is considered a delicacy.
Aard-wolf, a singular carnivorous
animal, first brought from South Af-
rica by the traveler Delalande. Its
size is about that of a full grown for,
which it resembles in both its habits
and manners, being nocturnal, and con-
structing a subterraneous abode.
Aargau, or Argovie, a canton of
Switzerland, bounded on the N. by the
Rhine, which separates it from the
grand-duchy of Baden, elsewhere by
the cantons Zurich, Zug, Lucerne,
Bern, Solothurn, and Basel; area, 543
square miles. Pop. (1913) 23t>,860,
more than half of whom are Protes-
tants. The capital is Aarau.
Aarhans, a city of Denmark, capi-
tal of a division of the same name. It
is situated on the Cattegat, and has
an excellent and safe harbor, which
admits vessels of light draught, the
construction of such craft being the
chief industry of the place. It has
considerable manufacturing and is the
centre of a large trade, being connect-
ed with the rest of the Jutland region
by the State railway, and regular
steamers to Copenhagen and Great
Britain. The town is among the old-
est in Denmark, and is noted as being
the site of the first Christian church
in the kingdom. Its bishop's see
dates from 948. It has a cathedral
commenced in 1201, which is a fair
example of early 13th century Gothic
architecture. Pop. (1911) 61,755.
Aaron, son of Amram (tribe of
Levi), elder brother of Moses, and di-
vinely appointed to be his spokesman
in the embassy to the court of Pha-
raoh. By the same authority, avouched
in the budding of his rod, he was
chosen the first high-priest. He was
recreant to his trust in the absence
of Moses upon the Mount, and made
the golden calf for the people to wor-
Aaron
ship. He died in the 123d year of his
age, and the high-priesthood descended
to his third son, Eleazar.
Aaron's rod, in architecture, is a
rod like that of Mercury, but with
only one serpent twined around it.
Ab, the eleventh month of the civil
year of the Hebrews, and the fifth of
their ecclesiastical year, which begins
with the month Nisan. It answers to
the moon of July, that is, to part of
our month of July and to the begin-
ning of August ; it consists of 30 days.
Abaca, or MANILA HEMP, a strong
fibre yielded by the leaf-stalks of a
kind of plantain (Musa textilis)
which grows in the Indian Archipel-
ago, and is cultivated in the Philip-
pines. The outer fibres of the leaf-
stalks are made into strong ropes, the
inner into various fine fabrics.
Abaco, GREAT and LITTLE, two is-
of the Bahamas group.
Abacus, a Latin term applied to
an apparatus used by the Chinese for
facilitating arithmetical operations,
consisting of a number of parallel
cords or wires, upon which balls or
beads are strung, the uppermost wire
• • • = ~
ABACUS.
being appropriated to units, the nest
to tens, &c. — In classic architecture
it denotes the tablet forming the up-
per member of a column, and sup-
porting the entablature. In Gothic
architecture the upper member of a
column from which the arch springs.
Abaddon,, in the Bible, and in ev-
ery rabbinical instance, means the an-
gel of death, or the angel of the abyss
or " bottomless pit."
Abalone, a Californian name for
the ear-shells or sea-ears, a gastropod
of the family Haliotidae. The animal
feeds on sea-weeds, creeping along the
rocks. When in repose it draws all
its parts under the saucer-like shell,
and clings like a limpet to whatever it
is attached. The Chinese use the body
Cor food, and the shell is employed in
Abbey
making buttons, inlaying, and all pur-
poses for which mother of pearl is used.
Abatis, or Abattis, in military
affairs, a kind of defense made of felled
trees. In sudden emergencies, the trees
are merely laid lengthwise with the
branches pointed outward to prevent
the approach of the enemy.
Abba, Guiseppe Cesare, an Ital-
ian poet ; born in 1838 at Cairo Monte-
notte. He took part in the expedition
of Garibaldi into Sicily in 1860, which
he celebrated in his poem "Arrigo."
Abbas Hilmi, Pasha, Khedive of
Egypt, born in 1874, oldest son of
the Khedive Mehemet-Tewfik. He
succeeded his father as Khedive in
1892 ; was deposed in 1914, when
Great Britain assumed a protectorate
over Egypt ; and was succeeded by
Prince Hussein Kaniel Pasha.
Abbas I., surnamed the GREAT;
born in 1557, was the seventh Shah or
King of Persia of the dynasty of the
Cufis. He died Jan. 27, 1628.
Abbassides, the name of a race
who possessed the caliphate for 524
years. There were 37 caliphs of this
race who succeeded one another with-
out interruption. They drew their de-
scent from Abbas-ben-Abd-el-Motallib,
Mahomet's uncle. Their empir* ter-
minated in Mostazem in 1257.
Abbe, Cleveland, an American
meteorologist, born in New York city,
Dec. 3, 1838. He was the "Old Prob-
abilities" and meteorologist in the
U. S. Signal Service in 1871-91, and
meteorologist of the U. S. Weather
Bureau from 1891 till his death on
Oct. 28. 1916.
Abbey, a monastery or religious
community of the highest class, gov-
erned by an abbot, assisted generally
by a prior, sub-prior, and other subor-
dinate functionaries ; or, in the case of
a female community, superintended by
an abbess. Abbeys or monasteries first
arose in the East. The abbeys in Eng-
land were wholly abolished by Henry
VIII. at the Reformation. In the
United States the word "monastery"
is generally used for male religious
houses ; "convent" for female.
Abbey, Edwin Austin, an Amer-
ican artist, born in Philadelphia, April
1, 1852. Besides illustrating many
books and painting a number of no-
table pictures, he designed a series of
Abbot
paintings for the Boston Public Li-
brary, on the "Holy Grail." He was
commissioned by King Edward VII.
to paint the coronation scene in West-
minster Abbey. He died Aug. 1, 1911.
Abbot, the superior of a monastery
of monks erected into an abbey or
priory. Abbot is also a title given to
others besides the superiors of monas-
teries ; thus, bishops, whose sees were
formerly abbeys, are called abbots.
Among the Genoese, the chief magis-
trate of the republic formerly bore the
title of "Abbot of the People."
Abbot, Ezra, an American Greek
scholar, born at Jackson, Me., April
28, 1819. He was one of the Amer-
ican committee of New Testament re-
visers. He died at Cambridge, Mass.,
March 21, 1884.
Abbot, Henry Larcom, an Amer-
ican military engineer, born in Bever-
ly, Mass., Aug. 13, 1831 ; graduated at
the United States Military Academy in
1854 ; became brevet Major-General of
Volunteers in the Civil War, and sub-
sequently Colonel and Chief of Engi-
neers of the United States army, and
was retired in 1895.
Abbot, Willis John, an Amer-
can journalist and author, born in
Connecticut in 1863. With the excep-
tion of a "Life of Carter Harrison,"
his works consist principally of popu-
lar histories for young people. His
editorial writings are graceful and cul-
tured in style, and powerful in expres-
sion.
Abbotsford, the home of Sir Wal-
ter Scott, situated on the S. bank of
the Tweed a few miles above Mel-
rose. At the time Scott bought the es-
tate in 1811, it was called Clarty Hole,
but his antiquarian spirit moved him to
connect the place with the old monks
of Melrose Abbey, who formerly cross-
ed the river near the house. He re-
tained all of the ancient Scotch archi-
tecture that could be used, and en-
larged the building to its present di-
mensions. The property remains in
the possession of the author's descend-
ants to the fourth generation.
Abbott, Charles Conrad, an
American archaeologist, born at Tren-
ton, N. J., 1843. He has discovered
palaeolithic human remains in the Del-
aware valley, and shown the likeli-
hood of the early existence of the Eski-
Abbott
mo race as far south as New Jersey.
A large collection of archaeological
specimens made by him is now in the
Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass.,
where he was stationed in 1876-1889.
Abbott, Edwin Abbott an En-
glish theologian and Shakespearean
scholar, born in London, Dec, 20, 1838.
From the City of London School he
passed, in 1857, to St. John's College,
Cambridge.
Abbott, Emma, American dra-
matic soprano, born in Chicago, 111.,
in December, 1849. After years of
hard work, she went abroad in 1872
and studied with Sangiovanni at Mi-
lan, and Delle Sedie in Paris, and aft-
erward sang in opera with great suc-
cess. In 1878 she married E. J. Weth-
erell, of New York. She died in Salt
Lake City, Utah, Jan. 5, 1891.
Abbott, Jacob, an American
writer of juvenile stories, born in Hal-
lowell Me., Nov. 14, 1803; died Oct.
31, 1879. He graduated from Bow-
doin College, studied for the ministry,
was professor of mathematics at Am-
herst for four years, and in 1834 es-
tablished the Eliot Church in Roxbury,
after having been principal of a girls'
school in Boston. After 1839 he de-
voted his whole time to literature and
wrote and published more than 200
volumes, among them the famous Rol-
lo Books. In collaboration with his
brother John, he wrote a number of
histories for juvenile readers, with
whom he was a great favorite. His
works have a considerable sale in the
first years of the 20th century.
Abbott, Sir John Joseph. Cald-
well, a Canadian statesman, born in
1821. He took an active part in the
Senate, leading the Conservative side.
On the death of Sir John Macdonald,
in 1891, he become Premier, resigning
in the following year on account of ill-
health. He died in 1893.
Abbott, John Stevens Cabot, an
American author, born at Brunswick,
Me., Sept. 18, 1805 ; brother of Jacob
Abbott ; author of "History of Napo-
leon ; "History of the Civil War ;"
"History of Frederick the Great :" and
numerous other works on kindred
themes. He died, 1877.
Abbott, Lyman, an American
clergyman, borti at Roxbury. Mass.,
Dec. 18, 1835. At first a lawyer, he
Abbott
Abbreviation*
was ordained minister of the Congrega-
tional Church in 1860. After a pas-
torate of five years, in Indiana, he
went to New York, and rose rapidly
to distinction through his contributions)
to periodical literature. He was pas-;
tor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, in
1888-1898, being the immediate suc-
cessor of Henry Ward Beecher. He;
was associated with Mr. Beecher in the •
editorship of the " Christian Union," j
a-nd is now editor of " The Outlook,"
formerly the " Christian Union."
Abbott, Russell Bigelow, an'
American educator ; born in Brookville,
Ind., Aug. 8, 1823 ; was graduated at
the University of Indiana in 1847 ; and
received the degree of D. D. from
Galesville University in 1884. After
serving for several years as principal
of public schools in Muncie and New
Castle, Ind., and of Whitewater Pres-
byterian Academy, he was ordained in
the Presbyterian Church in 1857 ; held
pastorates in Brookville, Ind., seven
years, in Knightstown, Ind., two years,
and in Albert Lea, Minn., 15 years ;
and, founding Albert Lea College in
the latter city, became its president i .
1884. Dr. Abbott served as moderator
of the Presbyterian Synod of Minne-j
sota and several times as a delegate to
the General Assembly of his church.
Abbreviations, or " shortenings,"
are used in writing to save time and
space, or, it may be, to ensure secrecy
In the following list most of the abbre-
viations that are likely to be met with
by modern readers are alphabetically j
arranged :
A. or Ans. — Answer.
A. A. G. — Assistant Adjutant-General.
A. A. A. G. — Acting Assistant Adju-,
tant-General.
rA. A. P. S. — American Association for
the Promotion of Science.
A. A. S. — Academics Americans $0-1
cius, Fellow of the American Acad-
emy (of Arts and Sciences).
A. A. S. S. —Americance Antiquariance
Societatis Socius, Member of the
American Antiquarian Society.
rA. B. — Able-bodied seaman.
A. B. — Artium Baccalaureus, Bache-
lor of Arts.
A. B. C. F. M. — American Board of
Commissioners for Foreign Missions.
Abl.— Ablative.
Abp. — Archbishop.
Abr. — Abridgment, or Abridged.
A. B. S. — American Bible Society.
A. C. — Ante Christum, before the
birth of Christ.
Acad. — Academy.
Acad. Nat. Sci. — Academy of Natural
Sciences.
Ace. — Accusative.
Act. — Active ; Acting.*
Acct. — Account.
A. C. S. — American Colonization So-
ciety.
Advt. — Advertisement.
A. D. — Anno Domini, in the year of
the Lord.
A. D. C. — Aide-de-camp.
Adj. — Adjective.
Adjt — Adjutant.
Adjt-Gen. — Adjutant-General.
Ad lib. — Ad libitum, at pleasure.
Adm. — Admiral ; Admiralty.
Admr. — Administrator.
Admx. — Administratrix.
Ad v. — Ad valorem, at (or on) the
value.
Adv. — Adverb.
JEt. — ^tatis, of age; aged.
A. F. B. S. — American and Foreign
Bible Society.
Af r. — African.
A. G. — Adjutant-General.
Agl. Dept — Department of Agricul-
ture.
Agr. — Agriculture.
A. G. S. S. — American Geographical
and Statistical Society.
Agt. — Agent.
A. H. — Anno Hegirce, in the year of
the Hegira.
A. H. M. S. — American Home Mis-
sionary Society.
Al. — Aluminium.
Ala. — Alabama.
Alas. — Alaska.
Alb. — Albany.
Aid. — Alderman.
Alex. — Alexander.
Alf.— Alfred.
Alg. — Algebra.
Alt. — Altitude.
A. M. — Anno mundi, in the year of
the world.
A. M. — Ante meridiem, before noon;
morning.
A. M. — Artium Magister, Master of
Arts.
Am. Ass. Adv. Sci. — American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Sci-
ence.
Am. Assn. Sci. — American Association
for the Advancement of Science.
Amb. — Ambassador.
Abbreviations
Abbreviation!
Amer. — American.
Amer. Acad. — American Academy.
A. M. E. Z. — African Methodist Epis-
copal Zion.
Amt — Amount.
An. — Anno, in the year.
An. A. C. — Anno ante Christum, in
the year before Christ.
Anal. — Analysis.
Ann. — Annales ; Annals.
Anat — Anatomy.
Anc. — Ancient ; anciently.
And. — Andrew.
Ang.-Sax. — Anglo-Saxon.
Anon. — Anonymous.
Ans. — Answer.
Ant., or Antiq. — Antiquities.
Anth. — Anthony.
A. O. S. S. — Americans Orientalis So-
cietatis Socius, Member of the Amer-
ican Oriental Society.
Ap. — Apostle ; Appius.
Ap. — Apud, in writings of ; as quoted
by.
Apo. — Apogee.
Apoc. — Apocalypse.
Apocr. — Apocrypha.
App. — Appendix.
Apr. — April.
Aq. — Water (aqua).
A. Q. M. — Assistant Quartermaster.
A. Q. M. G. — Assistant Quartermas-
ter-General.
A. R. — Anno regni year of the reign;
A. R. A. — Associate of the Royal
Academy.
Ara. — Arabic.
Arch. — Architect ; Architecture.
Archd. — Archdeacon.
Ari. — Arizona.
Arith. — Arithmetic.
Ark. — Arkansas.
Arr. — Arrive ; Arrival.
A. R. S. A. — Associate of the Royal
Scottish Academy.
1A. R. S. S. — Antiquariorum Regite
Societatis Socius, Fellow of the
Royal Society of Antiquaries.
Art. — Article.
Artil. — Artillery.
A.-S. — Anglo-Saxon.
A. S., or Assist. Sec. — Assistant Sec-
retary.
A. S. A. — American Statistical Asso-
ciation.
Ass., Assn. — Association.
A. S. S. U. — American Sunday-School
Union.
A. T. S. — American Tract Society.
Atty. — Attorney.
Atty.-Gen. — Attorney-General.
A, U. A. — American Unitarian Asso-
ciation.
Aub. Theol. Sem. — Auburn Theologi-
cal Seminary.
A. U. C. — Anno urlis conditce, or ab
urbe condita, in the year from the
building of the city (Rome) .
Aug. — August.
Aus. — Austria ; Austrian.
Auth. Ver., or A. V. — Authorized
Version (of the Bible).
Av. — Average ; Avenue.
Avdp. — Avoirdupois.
Avoir. — Avoirdupois.
A. Y. M. — Ancient York Masons.
B. — Born.
B. A. — Bachelor of Arts.
Bal. — Balance.
Bait. — Baltimore.
Bapt. — Baptist.
Bar. — Barometer.
Bart, or bt. — Baronet
Bbl.— Barrel.
B. G. — Before Christ.
B. G. L. — Bachelor of Civil Law.
B. D. — Baccalaureus Divinitatis, Bach*
elor of Divinity.
Belg. — Belgic; Belgian^ Belgium.
Benj. — Benjamin.
B. I. — British India.
Bib.— Bible; Biblical.
Biog. — Biography ; Biographical.
Bisc. — Biscayan.
B. LL. — Baccalaureus Legum, Bach-
elor of Laws.
B. LL. — Same as LL. B.
Bis. — Bales.
B. M. — Baccalaureus Medicince, Bach-
elor of Medicine.
B. M.— Same as M. B.
Bot. — Botany.
Bp. — Bishop.
Br. — British.
Br. Univ. — Brown University.
Braz. — Brazil ; Brazilian.
Brig. — Brigade ; Brigadier.
Brig. -Gen. — Brigadier-General.
Brit. Mus. — British Museum.
Bro. — Brother.
B. S. — Bachelor in the Sciences.
Bush. — Bushel ; Bushels.
B. V. — Bene vale, farewell.
C.— Cent.
C. — Consul.
C., or Gels. — Celsius's Scale for the
thermometer.
C., or Cent. — Centum, a hundred :
Century.
C., Ch., or Chap. — Chapter.
Abbreviations
Ca. sa. — Capias ad satis faciendum, a
legal writ.
C. A. — Chief Accountant ; Commis-
sioner of Accounts.
Ca. resp. — Capias ad respondendum, a
legal writ.
Cset. par. — Cceteris paribus, other
things being equal.
Cal. — California ; Calends.
Cam., Camb. — Cambridge.
Can. — Canon.
Cant. — Canticles.
Cantab. — Of Cambridge (Cantabriff-
iensis ) .
Cantuar.— Of Canterbury.
Cap. or C. — Caput, capitulum, chap-
ter.
Caps. — Capitals.
Capt. — Captain.
Capt.-Gen. — Captain-General.
Car. — Carat.
Card. — Cardinal.
Cash. — Cashier.
C. B. — Cape Breton.
C. B. — Companion of the Bath.
C. C. — County Commissioner ; County
Court.
C. C. — Cubic centimeter.
C. C. P.— Court of Common Pleas.
Cd. — Cadmium.
C. D. V. — Carte-de-Visite.
C. E. — Civil Engineer.
C. E. — Christian Endeavor (Young
People's Society of).
Cel., or Celt. — Celtic.
Cent. — Centigrade, a scale of 100°
from freezing to boiling.
Cert. — Certify.
Certif. — Certificate.
C. G. — Commissary-General ; Consul-
General.
C. G. H.— Cape of Good Hope.
C. H. — Court house.
Ch. — Church ; Chapter ; Charles.
Chald.— Chaldea ; Chaldean ; Chal-
daic.
Chanc. — Chancellor.
Chap. — Chapter.
Chern. — Chemistry.
Ches. — Chesapeake.
Chic. — Chicago.
Chr. — Christ ; Christian.
Chr. — Christopher.
Chron. — Chronicles.
Cin. — Cincinnati.
Circ. — Circuit.
Cit. — Citation ; Citizen.
C. J. — Chief-Justice.
Cl.— Chlorine.
Clk.— Clerk.
C. M.— Common Meter.
Abbreviations
C. M. G. — Companion of the Order ot
St. Michael and St. George.
Co. — Company ; county.
Coch., or Cochl. — A spoonful (coch-
leare).
C. O. D. — Cash (or collect) on deliv-
ery.
Col. — Colorado; Colonel; Colossians.
Coll. — Collector ; Colloquial ; College ;
Collection.
Com. Arr. — Committee of Arrange-
ments.
Com. — Commerce ; Committee ; Com-
missioner ; Commodore.
Com. & Nav. — Commerce and Naviga-
tion.
Comdg. — Commanding.
Cornm. — Commentary.
Comp. — Compare ; Comparative ; Com-
pound ; Compounded.
Com. Ver. — Common Version.
Con. — Contra, against ; in opposition.
Con. Cr. — Contra, credit.
Conch. — Conchology.
Con. Sec. — Conic Sections.
Confed. — Confederate.
Cong. — Congress.
Conj. or conj. — Conjunction.
Congl. — Congregational ;Conglomerate.
Conn, or Ct. — Connecticut.
Const. — Constable ; Constitution.
Cont. — Contra.
Cop., or Copt. — Coptic.
Corn. — Cornwall ; Cornish.
Cor. — Corinthians.
Cor. Mem. — Corresponding Member.
Cor. Sec. — Corresponding Secretary.
Coss. — Consuls (consules).
C. P. — Common Pleas.
C. P. Court of Probate.
C. P. S. — Gustos Privati Sigilli,
Keeper of the Privy Seal.
Cr. — Chromium.
Cr. — Creditor ; credit.
C. R. — Gustos Rotulorum, Keeper of
the Rolls.
Cs. — Cases.
C. S. — Court of Sessions.
C. S. — Gustos Sigilli, Keeper of the
Seal.
C. S.A. — Confederate States of Amer-
ica ; Confederate States Army.
C. S. B. — Bachelor of Christian Science.
C. S. D. — Doctor of Christian Science.
Csk. — Cask.
C. S. N. — Confederate States Navy.
C. Theod. — Codice Theodosiano, in
the Theodosian Code.
Ct. — Court.
Cts. — Cents.
Abbreviations
Abbreviation*
Cub.— Cubic.
Cub. Ft — Cubic Foot.
Cur. — Currency.
C. W. — Canada West.
Cwt — Hundredweight.
Cyc. — Cyclopedia.
D. — Died.
D. — Five hundred.
D. — Penny; pence (denarius).
D. A. G. — Deputy Adjutant-General.
Dak. — Dakota.
Dan. — Daniel ; Danish.
Dat. — Dative.
D. B. or Domesd. B. — Domesday-
Book.
D. C. — District of Columbia.
D. C. L. — Doctor of Civil Law.
•D. C. S. — Deputy Clerk of Sessions.
D. D. — Divinitatis Doctor, Doctor of
Divinity.
D. D. S. — Doctor of Dental Surgery.
Dea. — Deacon.
Dec. — December ; Declination.
Dec. of Ind. — Declaration of Inde-
pendence.
Def . — Definition.
Def., Deft. — Defendant.
Deg. — Degree ; degrees.
Del. — Delaware ; Delegate.
Del., or del. — Delineavit, he (or she)
drew it.
Dem. — Democrat ; Democratic.
Dep. — Deputy.
Dept — Department.
Deut. — Deuteronomy.
D. F.— Defender of the Faith.
D. G. — Dei gratia, by the grace of
God.
D. G. — Deo gratias, thanks to God.
D. H.— Dead-head.
Diam. — Diameter.
Diet. — Dictionary ; Dictator.
Dim. — Diminutive.
Diosc. — Dioscarides.
Disc. — Discount.
Diss. — Dissertation.
Dist. — District.
Dist-Atty. — District-Attorney.
Div. — Division.
D. L. O. — Dead-Letter Office.
D M. — Doctor of Music.
Do. — Ditto, the same.
Doc. — Document
Dols. — Dollars.
D. O. M. — Deo optima maximo, to
God, the best, the greatest
Doz. — Dozen.
D. P. — Doctor of Philosophy.
Dpt. — Department.
Dr. — Debtor; Doctor.
Dr. — Drams ; Drachms.
D. Sc.-~ Doctor of Science.
D. T.— Doctor of Theology (doctor
theologice) .
Duo. — Duodecimo, twelve folds.
D. V. — Deo volente, God willing.
Dwt. — Pennyweight.
Dyn. — Dynamics.
E. — East
E. by S. — East by South.
E. & O. E. — Errors and omissions ex«
cepted.
E. B. — English Bible.
Eben. — Ebenezer.
Ebor. — York (Eboracum).
Eccl. — Ecclesiastes.
Ecclus. — Ecclesiasticus.
E. D. — Eastern District
Ed. — Editor; Edition,
Edin. — Edinburgh.
Edm. — Edmund.
Edw. — Edward.
E. E. — Errors excepted.
E. E. T. S. — Early English Text So-
ciety.
E. G. — Exempli gratia, for example.
E. G. — Ex grege, among the rest
E. Fl. — Ells Flemish.
E. Fr. — Ells French.
E. I. — East Indies or East India.
E. I. C., or E. I. Co.— East India
Company.
E. I. C. S. — East India Company's
Service.
Eliz. — Elizabeth.
E. Lon. — East longitude.
E. M. — Mining Engineer.
Emp. — Emperor ; Empress,
Encyc. — Encyclopedia.
Eng. Dept. — Department of Engineers.
Eng. — England; English.
E.-N.-E. — East-North-East.
Ent, Entom. — Entomology.
Env. Ext. — Envoy Extraordinary.
E. o. w. — Every other week.
Ep. — Epistle.
Eph. — Ephesians ; Ephraim.
Epis. — Episcopal.
E. S. — Ells Scotch.
Esd. — Esdras.
E.-S.-E. — East-South-East
Esq. — Esquire.
Esth. — Esther.
E. T. — English Translation.
Et al. — Et alii, and others.
Etc., or &c. — Et cceteri, et cteterce, et
ccetera, and others ; and so forth.
Eth. — Ethiopic ; Ethiopian.
Et seq. — Et sequentia, and what fol-
lows.
Abbreviations
Abbreviations
Etym. — Etymology.
E. U. — Evangelical Union.
Ex. — Example.
Ex. — Exodus.
Exc. — Excellency ; exception.
Exch. — Exchequer ; Exchange.
Ex. Doc. — Executive Document.
Exec. Com. — Executive Committee.
Execx. — Executrix.
Ex. gr. — For example (exempli gra-
tia).
Exr. or Exec, — Executor.
Ez. — Ezra.
Ezek. — Ezekiel.
F. and A. M. — Free and Accepted
Masons.
F., or Fahr. — Fahrenheit (thermome-
ter).
F. A. S. — Fellow of the Antiquarian
Society.
F. B. S.— Fellow of the Botanical
Society.
F. C. — Free Church of Scotland.
Fcap, or fcp. — Foolscap.
F. C. P. S. — Fellow of the Cambridge
Philological Society.
F. C. S.— Fellow of the Chemical So-
ciety.
F. D. — Defender of the Faith.
F. E. — Flemish ells.
Feb. — February.
Fee. — Fecit , he did it.
Fern. — Feminine.
F. E. S. — Fellow of the Entomological
Society ; Fellow of the Ethnographi-
cal Society.
Ff. — Following.
Ff. — The Pandects.
F. F. V. — First Families of Virginia, i
F. G. S. — Fellow of the Geological!
Society.
F. H. S.— Fellow of the Horticultural
Society.
Fi. Fa. — Fieri facias, cause it to be ,
done.
Fid. Def. — Defender of the Faith.
Fig. — Figure.
Fin. — Finland.
Finn. — Finnish.
Fir. — Firkin.
F. K. Q. C. P. I.— Fellow of King's
and Queen's College of Physicians,
Ireland.
Fl. E.— Flemish ells.
Fla.— Florida.
F. L. S. — Fellow of the Linnsean So-
ciety.
F.-M.— Field-Marshal.
F.-O.— Field-Officer.
Pol. — Folio.
For. — Foreign.
F. P. S.— Fellow of the Philological
Society.
Fr. — France; French.
Fr. — Francis.
Fr. — From.
F. R. A. S.— Fellow of the Royal As-
tronomical Society.
F. R. C. P.— Fellow of the Royal Col-
lege of Physicians.
F. R. C. S. L.— Fellow of the Royal
College of Surgeons, London.
Fred. — Frederick.
Fr. E.— French ells.
Fr., Frs. — Franc ; Francs.
F. R. G. S.— Fellow of the Royal
Geographical Society.
F. R. Hist. Soc. — Fellow of the Royal
Historical Society.
Fri. — Friday.
F. R. S. — Fellow of the Royal So-
ciety.
F. R. S. S. A.— Fellow of the Royal
Scottish Society of Arts.
F. R. S. E.— Fellow of the Royal So-
ciety, Edinburgh.
F. R. S. L.— Fellow of the Royal So-
ciety, London.
F. S. A. — Fellow of the Society of
Arts, or of Antiquaries.
F. S. A. E.— Fellow of the Society of
Antiquaries, Edinburgh.
F. S. A. Scot. — Fellow of the Society
of Antiquaries of Scotland.
F. S. S. — Fellow of the Statistical
Society.
Ft. — Foot; feet; Fort.
Fth. — Fathom.
Fur. — Furlong.
F. Z. S.— Fellow of the Zoological So-
ciety.
Ga. — Georgia.
G. A. — General Assembly.
Gal. — Galatians ; Gallon.
Galv. — Galvanism.
Galv. — Galveston.
G. B. — Great Britain.
G. B. & I. — Great Britain and Ire-
land.
G. C. — Grand Chapter; Grand Con-
ductor.
G. C. B. — Grand Cross of the Bath.
G. C. H. — Grand Cross of Hanover.
G. C. K. P. — Grand Commander of
the Knights of St. Patrick.
G. C. L. H. — Grand Cross of the Le-
gion of Honor.
G. C. M. G.— Grand Cross of St.
MichaeJ and St. George.
Abbreviations
Abbreviations
G. C. S. I. — Grand Commander of the
Star of India.
G. D. — Grand Duke ; Grand Duchess.
G. E. — Grand Encampment.
Gen. — Genesis ; General.
Gen. — Genus ; Genera ; Genealogy.
Gent. — Gentleman.
Geo. — George.
Geog. — Geography.
Geol. — Geology.
Geom. — Geometry.
Ger. — German; Germany.
Gl. — Glossa, a gloss.
G. L. — Grand Lodge.
G. M. — Grand Master.
G. M. K. P.— Grand Master of the
Knights of St. Patrick.
G. M. S. I. — Grand Master of the Star
of India.
G. O. — General Order.
Goth. — Gothic.
Gov. — Governor.
Gov.-Gen. — Governor-General.
Govt. — Government.
G. P. — Gloria patri (" Glory be to the
Father").
G. P. O.— General Post-Office.
G. R. — Georgius Rex, King George.
Gr. — Greek ; Gross.
Gr., Grs. — Grain ; Grains.
Grad. — Graduated.
Gram. — Grammar.
Grot. — Grotius.
G. S. — Grand Secretary ; Grand Sen-
tinel ; Grand Scribe.
G. T. — Good Templars ; Grand Tyler.
Gtt. — Drop; drops (gutta or guttce).
H. A. — Hoc anno, this year.
Hab. — Habakkuk.
Hab. corp. — Habeas corpus, you may
have the body.
Hab. fa. poss. — Habere facias posses-
sionem.
Hab. fa. seis. — Habere facias seisinan.
Hag. — Haggai.
Hants. — Hampshire.
H. B. C. — HTJdson Bay Company.
H. B. M. — His or Her Britannic Maj-
esty.
H. C. — House of Commons ; Herald's
College.
H. C. M. — His or Her Catholic Maj-
esty-.
H. E. — Hoc est, that is, or this is.
Heb. — Hebrews.
Heb. — Hebrew.
H. E. I. C. — Honorable East India
Company.
H. E. I. C. S. — Honorable East In-
dia Company's Service.
Her. — Heraldry.
Hf.-bd.— Half-bound.
Hg. — Hydrargyrum, mercury.
H.-G. — Horse-guards.
H. H. — His or Her Highness ; His
Holiness (the Pope).
Hhd. — Hogshead.
Hier. — Jerusalem ( Hierosolyma) .
H. I. H. — His or Her Imperial High-
ness.
Hind. — Hindu ; Hindustan ; Hindu-
stanee.
Hipp. — Hippocrates.
Hist. — History.
H. J. S. — Hie jacet sepultus. Here
lies buried.
H. M. — His Majesty.
H. L. — House of Lords.
H. M. P. — Hoc monumentum posuit,
erected this monument.
H. M. S. — His or Her Majesty's Ship.
Holl.— Holland.
Hon. — Honorable.
Hort. — Horticulture.
Hos. — Hosea.
H.-P. — High - priest ; Horse - power ;
Half-pay.
H. R. — House of Representatives.
H. R. E. — Holy Roman Empire.
H. R. H. — His Royal Highness.
H. R. I. P. — Hie requiescit in pace,
Here rests in peace.
H. S. — Hie situs. Here lies.
H. S. H. — His Serene Highness.
H. T. — Hoc titulum, this title; hoc,
tituli, in or under this title.
Hund. — Hundred.
Hung. — Hungarian.
H. V. — Hoc verbum, this word ; hit
verbis, in these words.
Hyd. — Hydrostatics.
Hypoth. — Hypothesis ; Hypothetical.
la. — Iowa.
Ib., or ibid. — Ibidem, in the same
place.
Icel. — Iceland ; Icelandic.
Ich. — Ichthyology.
Icon. Encyc. — Iconographic Encyclo-
pedia.
I. Ch. Th. U. S.— (1x07*) Jesus Christ
the Son of God, the Saviour (letous
Christos Theou Huiot Soter).
Ictus. — Jurisconsultus,
Id.— Idaho.
Id. — Idem, the same.
Id.— The Ides (Idus).
I. E. — Id est, that is.
I. H. S. — Jesus the Saviour of Men
(Jesus Hominum Salvator).
Abbreviations
Abbreviations
I., II., III. — One, two, three, or first,
second, third.
Ij. — Two (med.).
111. — Illinois.
Imp. — Imperative ; imperfect.
Imp. — Imperial ; Emperor (Impera-
tor).
In. — Inch ; inches.
In. — Indium.
Incog. — Incognito, unknown.
Incor. — Incorporated.
Ind. Ter. — Indian Territory.
I. H. P. — Indicated horse power.
I. N. D. — In nomine Dei, in the name
of God.
Ind. — Indiana ; Index. ,
Indef. — Indefinite.
Inf. — Infra, beneath, or below.
In f. — In fine, at the end of the title,
law, or paragraph quoted.
Inhab. — Inhabitant.
In lim. — In limine, at the outset.
In loc. — In loco, in the place ; on the
passage.
In pr. — In principio, in the beginning
and before the first paragraph of a
law.
I. N. R. I. — Jesus Nazarenus, Rex
JudcBorum, Jesus of Nazareth, King
of the Jews.
Inst. — Instant, of this month ; Insti-
tutes.
Inst. — Institute ; Institution.
In sum. — In summa, in the summary.
Int. — Interest.
Interj. — Interjection.
In trans. — In transitu, on the pas-
sage.
Int. Dept. — Department of the Inte-
rior.
Int. Rev. — Internal Revenue.
Introd. — Introduction.
I. O. O. F. — Independent Order of
Odd Fellows.
Ion. — Ionic.
I. O. S. M. — Independent Order of
the Sons of Malta.
I. O. U. — I owe you.
Ipecac. — Ipecacuanha.
I. Q. — Idem quod, the same as.
Ire. — Ireland.
I. R. O. — Internal Revenue Office.
Isa. — Isaiah.
Is., Isl. — Island.
I. T. — Inner Temple.
It— Italy.
Ital. — Italic; Italian.
IV. — Four or fourth.
I. W.— Isle of Wight
IX. — Nine or ninth.
J. — Justice, or Judge.
J. — One (med.).
J. A. — Judge- Advocate.
Jac. — Jacob.
J. A. G. — Judge Advocate-General.
Jam. — Jamaica.
Jan. — January.
Jas. — James.
J. C. D. — -Juris Civilis Doctor, Doctor
of Civil Law.
J. C. — Jurisconsult (Juris Consul'
tus) .
J. D. — Junior Deacon.
Jer. — Jeremiah.
J. G. W. — Junior Grand Warden.
JJ. — Justices.
Jno. — John.
Jona. — Jonathan.
Jos. — Joseph.
Josh. — Joshua.
J. P. — Justice of the Peace.
J. Prob. — Judge of Probate.
J. R. — Jacobus Rex, King James.
Jr., or Jun. — Junior.
J. U. D., or J. V. D. — Juris utriusque
Doctor, Doctor of both laws (of the
Canon and the Civil Law).
Jud. — Judicial.
Jud. — Judith.
Judg. — Judges.
Judge-Adv. — Judge-Advocate.
Jul. Per. — Julian Period.
Jus. P. — Justice of the Peace.
Just — Justinian.
J. W. — Junior Warden.
K. — King.
K. A. — Knight of St. Andrew, in Rus-
sia.
Kal. — The Kalends (Kalendce).
K. A. N. — Knight of Alexander Nev-
skoi, in Russia.
Kan. — Kansas.
K. B. — King's Bench.
K. B. — Knight of the Bath.
K. C. — King's Counsel
K. C. B. — Knight Commander of the
Bath.
K. G.— Knight of the Garter.
Kg., Kgs. — Keg; Kegs.
K. G. C. — Knight of the Grand Cross.
K. G. C. B. — Knight of the Grand
Cross of the Bath.
Kil. — Kilometer.
Kilo. — Kilogram.
Kingd. — Kingdom.
K. L. — Knight of Labor.
K. L. H. — Knight of the Legion ef
Honor.
K. M.— Knight of Malta.
K. Mess. — King's Messenger.
Abbreviations
Abbreviations
Knick. — Knickerbocker.
Knt. or Kt. — Knight.
K. P.— Knight of St. Patrick ; Knight
of Pythias.
K. S. M. & S. G.— Knight of St.
Michael and St. George of the Io-
nian Islands.
K. T.— Knight of the Thistle ; Knight
Templar.
Kt. — Knight.
Ky. — Kentucky.
L. — Fifty, or fiftieth.
L. — Liber, book.
L., or f . s. d. — Pounds, shillings,
pence.
£, or 1. — Pounds, English currency
(libra).
£ T. — Pounds, Turkish currency.
La. — Louisiana.
L. A. W. — League of American Wheel-
men.
Lam. — Lamentations.
Lang. — Language.
Lat. — Latitude ; Latin.
Lapp. — Lappish.
Lb., or Ib. — Libra, or librae, pound or
pounds in weight.
L. C. — Lower Canada ; Lord Cham-
berlain ; Lord Chancellor.
L. C. B.— Lord Chief Baron.
L. C. J. — Lord Chief-Justice.
Ld. — Lord : Limited.
Ldp. — Lordship.
Leg. — Legate.
Legis. — Legislature.
Leip. — Leipsic.
Lev. — Leviticus.
Lex. — Lexicon.
L. G. — Life Guards.
L. H. A. — Lord High Admiral.
L. H. C.— Lord High Chancellor.
L. H. D. — Doctor of Literature.
L. H. T. — Lord High Treasurer.
L. I. — Long Island.
Lib. — Liber, book.
Lieut.-Col. — Lieutenant-Colonel.
Lieut.-Gen. — Lieutenant-General.
Lieut.-Gov. — Lieutenant-Governor.
Lieut. — Lieutenant.
Lin. — Lineal.
Linn. — Linnaeus ; Linnsean.
Liq. — Liquor ; Liquid.
Lit. — Literally ; Literature.
Lith. — Lithuanian.
L., f , or 1. — Libra or librae, pound or
pounds sterling.
L. Lat. — Low Latin ; Law Latin.
LL. B. — Legum Bvecalaureus, Bache-
lor of Laws.
E 2.
LL. D. — Legum Doctor, Doctor of
Laws.
LL. M. — Master of Laws.
L. M. S. — London Missionary Society.
Loc. cit. — Loco citato, in the place
cited.
Lon. — Longitude.
Lond. — London.
L. P. — Lord Provost.
L. P. S.— Lord Privy Seal.
L. R. C. P. — Licentiate of the Royal
College of Physicians.
L. R. C. S. — Lincentiate of the Royal
College of Surgeons.
L. S. D. — Pounds, shillings, and pence.
L. S. — Locus sigilli, place of the seal.
Lt. — Lieutenant.
LX. — Sixty, or sixtieth.
LXX. — Seventy, or seventieth.
LXX. — The Septuagint (Version of
the Old Testament).
LXXX.— Eighty, or eightieth.
M. — Married.
M. Mile.
M. — Meridies, noon.
M. — Mille, a thousand.
M., or Mons. — Monsieur.
M. A. — Master of Arts.
M. A. — Military Academy.
Mace. — Maccabees.
Maced. — Macedonian.
Mad. — Madam.
Mag. — Magazine.
Maj. — Major.
Maj.-Gen. — Major-General.
Mai. — Malachi.
Man. — Manassas.
Mar. — March.
March. — Marchioness.
Marg. — Margin.
Marg. Tran. — Marginal Translation.
Marq. — Marquis.
Masc. — Masculine.
Mass. — Massachusetts.
Math. — Mathematics ; Mathematician.
Matt. — Matthew.
Max. — Maxim.
M. B. — Medicines Baccalaureus, Bach-
elor of Medicine.
M. B. — Musicos Baccalaureus, Bache-
lor of Music.
M. C. — Member of Congress ; Master
of Ceremonies ; Master Commandant.
Mch. — March.
M. C. S. — Madras Civil Service.
M. D. — Medicines Doctor. Doctor of
Medicine.
Md. — Maryland.
Mdlle. — Mademoiselle.
Mdpn. — Midshipman.
Abbreviations
Abbreviations
M. E. — Methodist Episcopal ; Military
or Mechanical Engineer.
M.E.,8. — Methodist Episcopal, South.
Me. — Maine.
Mech. — Mechanic ; Mechanical.
Med. — Medicine.
M. E. G. H. P.— Most Excellent
Grand High Priest.
Mem. — Memorandum.
Mem. — Memento, remember.
Merc. — Mercury.
Mess. & Docs. — Messages and Docu-
ments.
Messrs., or MM. — Messieurs, Gentle-
men.
Met. — Metaphysics.
Metal. — Metallurgy.
Meteor. — Meteorology.
Meth. — Methodist.
Mex. — Mexico, or Mexican.
Mfd. — Manufactured.
Mfs. — Manufactures.
Mic. — Micah.
M. I. C. E. — Member of the Institu-
tion of Civil Engineers.
Mich. — Michaelmas.
Mich. — Michigan.
Mil. — Military.
Min. — Mineralogy.
Min. — Minute.
Min. E. — Mining Engineer.
Minn. — Minnesota.
Min. Plen. — Minister Plenipotentiary.
Miss. — Mississippi. i
M. L. A. — Mercantile Library Asso-
ciation.
MM. — Their Majesties.
MM. — Messieurs ; Gentlemen.
Mme. — Madame.
M. M. S. — Moravian Missionary So-
ciety.
M. M. S. S. — Massachuset tensis Medi-
cines Societatis Socius, Fellow of the
Massachusetts Medical Society.
Mn. — > Manganese.
M. N. A. S. — Member of the National
Academy of Sciences.
Mo. — Missouri ; Month.
Mod. — Modern.
Mon. — Montana ; Monday.
Mons. — Monsieur ; Sir.
Mont. — Montana.
Morn. — Morning.
Mos., or mth. — Months.
Mos. — Months.
M. P. — Member of Parliament ; Mem-
ber of Police ; Methodist Protestant.
M. P. S. — Member of the Philological
Society ; Member of the Pharma-
ceutical Society.
M. R.— Master of the Rolls.
Mr. — Mister.
M. R. A. S. — Member of the Royal
Asiatic Society ; Member of the Roy-
al Academy of Science.
M. R. C. C.— Member of the Royal
College of Chemistry.
M. R. C. P. — Member of the Royal
College of Preceptors.
M. R. C. S.— Member of the Royal
College Of Surgeons.
M. R. 0. V. S.— Member of the Roya*
College of Veterinary Surgeons.
M. R. G. S. — Member of the Royal
Geographical Society.
M. R. I. — Member of the Royal Insti-
tution.
M. R. I. A.— Member of the Royal
Irish Academy.
Mrs. — Mistress.
M. R. S. L. — Member of the Royal
Society of Literature.
M. S. — Memoriw sacrum, Sacred to
the memory.
M. S. — Master of the Sciences.
MS. — Manuscriptum, manuscript.
MSS. — Manuscripts.
Mt. — Mount, or mountain.
Mus. B. — Bachelor of Music.
Mus. D. — Doctor of Music.
M. W. — Most Worthy ; Most Worship-
ful.
M. W. G. C. P.— Most Worthy Grand
Chief Patriarch. •
M. W. G. M. — Most Worthy Grand
Master; Most Worshipful Grand
Master.
M. W. P. — Most Worthy Patriarch.
Myth. — Mythology.
N. — North; Number; Noun; Neuter.
N.— Note.
N. A. — North America.
Nah. — Nahum.
Nap. — Napoleon ; Napoleonic.
N. A. S. — National Academy of Sci-
ences.
Nat. Ord. — Natural Order.
Nat. — Natural.
Nat. Hist. — Natural History.
Nath. — Nathanael, or Nathaniel.
Naut. — Nautical.
Naut. Aim. — Nautical Almanac.
N. B. — North Britain.
N. B. — New Brunswick; North Brit-
ish.
N. B. — Nota lene, mark well; take
notice.
N. C. — North Carolina.
N. D. — North Dakota.
N. E. — New England; North-east.
Neb. — Nebraska.
Abbreviations
Neb. — Nehemiah.
N. e. i. — Non est inventus, he is not
found.
Nem. con., or nem. diss. — Nemine con
tradicente, or nemine dissentiente, no
one opposing ; unanimously.
Neth. — Netherlands.
Neut — Neuter (gender).
Nev. — Nevada.
New Test, or N. T. — New Testament.
N. F. — Newfoundland.
N. G. — New Granada ; Noble Grand. ]
N. H. — • New Hampshire ; New Haven. •
N. H. H. S. — New Hampshire His-i
torical Society.
Ni. pri. — Nisi prius.
N. J. — New Jersey.
N. L — Non liquet, it does not appear. |
N. lat. — North latitude.
N. M. — New Measurement.
N. M. — New Mexico.
N.-N.-E. — North-north-east.
N.-N.-W. — North-north-west.
N, O. — New Orleans.
No. — Numero, number.
NoL Pros. — Nolle prosequi, unwilling
to proceed.
Nom., or nom. — Nominative.
Non con. — Not content; dissenting
(House of Lords).
Non cul. — Non culpabilis, Not guilty, i
Non obst. — Non obstante, notwith-l
standing.
N. o. p. — Not otherwise provided for.
Non pros. — Non prosequitur, he does
not prosecute.
Non seq. — Non sequitur, it does not
follow.
No., or Nos. — Numbers.
Nov. — November.
N. P. — Notary Public.
N. P. D. — North Polar Distance.
N. s. — Not specified.
N. S.— New Style (after 1752) ; No-
va Scotia.
N. S. J. C. — Our Saviour Jesus
Christ (Noster Salvator Jesus
Christus).
N. T. — New Testament.
N. u. — Name or names unknown.
Num. — Numbers ; Numeral.
N. V. — New Version.
N, V. M. — Nativity of the Virgin
Mary.
N.-W. — North-West
N.-W. T. — North- West Territory.
N. Y.— New York.
N. Z. — New Zealand.
O.— Ohio
Ob. — Obtit, he or she died.
Obad.— Obadiah.
Obs. — Obsolete ; Observatory ; Obser-
vation.
Obt, or Obdt — Obedient
Oct., or 8vo. — Octavo, eight pages.
Oct. — October.
O.-F.— Odd-Fellow, or Odd-Fellows.
Okl.— Oklahoma.
O. G. — Outside guardian.
O. H. M. S. — On his or her Majesty's
Service.
Old Test, or O. T. — Old Testament
Olym. — Olympiad.
O. M. — Old Measurement
Ont — Ontario.
Opt. — Optics.
Or. — Oregon.
Orig. — Originally.
Ornith. — Ornithology.
Os. — Osmium.
O. S. — Old Style; Outside Sentinel.
O. T.— Old Testament
O. U. A. — Order of United Americans.
Oxf. Gloss. — Oxford Glossary.
Oxf. — Oxford.
Oxon. — Oxonia, Oxonii, Oxford.
Oz. — Ounce.
P. — Pondere, by weight
P., or p. — Page ; Part ; Participle.
Pa., or Penn. — Pennsylvania.
Pal. — Palaeontology.
Par. — Paragraph.
Par. Pas. — Parallel passage.
Parl. — Parliament.
Pat Of. — Patent Office.
Pathol. — Pathology.
Pay t — Payment.
P. B. — Primitive Baptist.
P. B. — Philosophies Baccalaureits,
Bachelor of Philosophy.
P. C. — Patres Conscripti, Conscript
Fathers; Senators.
P. C. — Privy Council; Privy Coun-
cilor.
P. C. P. — Past Chief Patriarch.
P. C. S. — Principal Clerk of Sessions.
P. D. — Philosophic Doctor, Doctor
of Philosophy.
Pd.— Paid.
P. E. — Protestant Episcopal.
P. E. I. — Prince Edward Island.
Penn. — Pennsylvania.
Pent — Pentecost.
Per. — Persia; Persian.
Per, or pr. — By the, or per Ib.
Per an. — Per annum, by the year.
Per cent. — Per centum, by the hun-
dred.
Peri. — Perigee.
Peruv. — Peruvian.
Abbreviations
Abbreviations
Pet. — Peter; Petrine.
P. G.— Past Grand.
Phar. — Pharmacy.
Ph. B. — Philosophies Baccalaureus,
Bachelor of Philosophy.
Ph. D. — Philosophies Doctor, Doctor
of philosophy.
Phil. — Philip ; Philippians ; Philos-
ophy ; Philemon.
Phila., or Phil. — Philadelphia.
Philem. — Philemon.
Philom. — PhUomathes, a lover of
learning.
Philomat h. — Philomathematicus, a
lover of the mathematics.
Phil. Trans. — Philosophical Trans-
actions.
Phren. — Phrenology.
Pinx., or pxt. — Pinxit, he (she) paint-
ed it.
P.-L. — Poet-Laureate.
PL, or Plur. — Plural.
Plff.— Plaintiff.
Plupf. — Pluperfect.
P. M. — Post meridiem, afternoon,
evening.
P. M. — Postmaster ; Passed Midship-
man.
P. M. G. — Postmaster-General.
P. O. — Post-Office.
P. of H. — Patrons of Husbandry.
Pop. — Population.
Port. — Portugal, or Portuguese.
P. P. — Parish priest.
P. P. C. — Pour prendre conge, to take
leave.
Pp., or pp. — Pages.
PP. — Patres, Fathers.
Pph. — Pamphlet.
P. Q. — Previous Question.
P. R. — Populus Romanus, the Roman
people.
P. R. — Prize Ring; Porto Rico; the
Roman People (Populus Romanus).
P. R. A. — President of the Royal
Academy.
P, R. C. — Post Romam conditam,
from the building of Rome.
Preb. — Prebend.
Pref. — Preface.
Pref. — Preferred.
Prep. — Preposition.
Pres. — President.
Presb. — Presbyterian.
Prin. — Principally.
Prob. — Problem.
Proc. — Proceedings.
Prof. — Professor.
Pron. — Pronoun ; Pronunciation.
Prop. — Proposition.
Prot. — Protestant.
Prot. Epis. — Protestant Episcopal.
Pro tern. — Pro tempore, for the time
being.
Prov. — Proverbs ; Provost.
Prov. — Province.
Prox. — Proximo, next (month).
P. R. S. — President of the Royal So-
ciety.
Prs. — Pairs.
Prus. — Prussia ; Prussian.
P. S. — Post scriptum, Postscript.
P. S.— Privy Seal.
Ps. — Psalm, or Psalms.
Pt.— Part; Pint; Payment; Point;
Port
Pt. — Platinum.
P. T. O. — Please turn over.
P.-twp. — Post-township.
Pub. — Publisher ; Publication ; Pub-
lished ; Public.
Pub. Doc. — Public Documents.
P. v. — Post-village.
P. W. P.— Past Worthy Patriarch.
Pwt. — Pennyweight ; pennyweights.
Q — Quasi, as it were ; almost.
Q. — Queen.
Q. — Question.
Q. d. — Quasi dicat, as if he should say ;
quasi dictum, as if said ; quasi dix-
isset, as if he had said.
Q. e. — Quod est, which is.
Q. e. d. — Quod erat demonstrandum,
which was to be proved.
Q. e. f. — Quod erat faciendum, which
was to be done.
Q. e. i. — Quod erat inveniendum,
which was to be found out.
Q. 1. — Quantum libet, as much as you
please.
Q. M. — Quartermaster.
Qm. — Quomodo, how ; by what means.
Q. M. G. — Quartermaster-General.
Q. p., or q. pi. — Quantum placet, as
much as you please.
Qr. — Quarter.
Q. S. — Quarter Sessions.
Q. s. — Quantum suffidt, sufficient
quantity.
t. — Quart.
u., or qy. — Quaere, inquire ; query.
uar. — Quarterly.
ues. — Question.
Mess. — Queen's Messenger.
ue. — Quebec.
Q. v. — Quod vide, which see ; quantum
vis, as much as you will.
R. — Recipe, take.
R. — Regina, Queen.
R. — River; Rood; Rod.
Abbreviations
Abbreviations
R. A. — Royal Academy ; Royal Aca-
demician.
R. A.— Royal Arch.
R. A. — Royal Artillery.
R. C. — Roman Catholic.
RC. — Rescriptum, a counterpart.
R. D. — Rural Dean.
R. E. — Reformed Episcopal.
R. E. — Royal Engineers.
Rec. — Recipe, or Recorder.
Reed. — Received.
Rec. Sec. — Recording Secretary.
Rect. — Rector ; Receipt
Ref. — Reference.
Ref. — Reformed ; Reformation ; Ref-
erence.
Ref. Ch. — Reformed Church.
Reg. — Register ; Regular.
Reg. Prof. — Regius Professor.
Regr. — Registrar.
Regt. — Regiment.
Rel. — Religion.
Rep. — Representative ; Reporter.
Repts. — Reports.
Retd. — Returned.
Rev. — Reverend ; Revelation ( Book
of) ; Review ; Revenue ; Revise.
Rhet. — Rhetoric.
R. H. S. — Royal Humane Society ;
Royal Historical Society.
R. I. — Rhode Island ; in stock reports,
Rock Island, a railway.
R. I. H. S.— Rhode Island Historical
Society.
R. M. — Royal Marines ; Royal Mail.
R. M. S. — Royal Mail Steamer.
R. N.— Royal Navy.
R. N. R. — Royal Navy Reserve.
Ro. — Recto, right-hand page.
Robt — Robert.
Rom. — Romans (Epistle to the).
Rom. Cath. — Roman Catholic.
R. P. — Reformed Presbyterian.
R. P. — Regius Professor, the King's
Professor.
R. R. — Railroad.
R. R. June. — Railroad Junction.
R. R. Sta. — Railroad Station.
R. S. — Recording Secretary.
Rs. — Responsus, to answer ; Rupees.
R. S. A. — Royal Society of Anti-
quaries : Royal Scottish Academy.
R. S. V. P. — Repondez, s'il vous plait,
answer, if you please.
R. T. S. — Religious Tract Society.
Rt Hon. — Right Honorable.
Rt. Rev. — Right Reverend.
Rt. Wpful. — Right Worshipful.
Russ. — Russia ; Russian.
R. V. — Revised Version.
R. W. — Right Worthy.
R. W. D. G. M.— Right Worshipful
Deputy Grand Master.
R. W. G. R.— Right Worthy Grand
Representative.
R. W. G. S.— Right Worthy Grand
Secretary.
R. W. G. T.— Right Worthy Grand
Treasurer ; Right Worshipful Grand
Templar.
R. W. G. W. — Right Worthy Grand
Warden.
R. W. J. G. W.— Right Worshipful
Junior Grand Warden.
R. W. S. G. W.— Right Worshipful
Senior Grand Warden.
Ry. — Railway.
S. — Solidus, a shilling.
S. — South; Saint; Scribe; Sulphur;
Sunday ; Sun ; Series.
S. Afr. — South Africa.
S. A. — South America ; South Austra-
lia.
S. a. — Secundum artem, according to
art.
Sam. — Samuel.
Sansc., or Sansk. — Sanscrit, or Sans-
krit.
Sard. — Sardinia.
S. A. S. — Societatis Antiquariorum
Socius, Fellow of the Soc. of An-
tiquaries.
Sat. — Saturday.
Sax. — Saxon ; Saxony.
Sax. Chron. — Saxon Chronicle.
S. C. — Senatus Consultum, a decree
of the Senate; South Carolina.
Sc. — Sculpsit, he (or she) engraved it.
Sc. B. — Bachelor of Science
Sc., or scil. — Scilicet, namely.
Scan. Mag. — Scandalum magnatum,
scandal of the great or prominent.
Schol. — Scholium, a note.
Schr. — Schooner.
Sclav. — Sclavonic.
Scot. — Scottish ; Scotland.
Scr. — Scruple.
Scrip. — Scripture.
Sculp. — Sculpsit, he (or she) en-
graved it.
S. D. — Salutem dicit, sends health ;
South Dakota.
S.-E.— South-East.
Sec. — Secretary ; Second.
Sec. Leg. — Secretary of Legation.
Sec. leg. — Secundum legem, according
to law.
Sec. reg. — Secundum regulam, accord-
ing to rule.
Sect. — Section.
Sem. — Semlle, it seems.
Abbreviations
Abbreviation*
Sem. — Seminary.
Sen. — Senate ; Senator ; Senior.
Sept. — September ; Septuagint.
Seq. — Sequentia, following ; sequitur,
it follows.
Ser. — Series.
Serg. — Sergeant.
Serg.-Maj. — Sergeant-Major.
Servt. — Servant.
Sess. — Session.
S. G. — Solicitor-General.
Shak. — Shakespeare.
S. H. S. — Societatis Histories Socius,
Fellow of the Historical Society.
Sic. — Doubtful ; literally.
S. I. M. — Soc. for Increase of the
Ministry.
Sing. — Singular.
S. Isl. — Sandwich Islands.
S. J. — Society of Jesus.
S. J. C. — Supreme Judicial Court.
S. lat. — South latitude.
S. M. — State Militia; Short Meter;
Sergeant-Major; Sons of Malta.
S. M. Lond. Soc. Cor. — Societatis
Mcdicce Londonensis Socius Cor.,
Corresponding Member of the Lon-
don Medical Soc.
Soc. Isl. — Society Islands.
Sol. — Solomon ; Solution.
SoL-Gen. — Solicitor-General.
S. of Sol. — Song of Solomon.
Sp. — Spain ; Spanish.
S. P. A. S. — Societatis Philosophies
Americana Socius, Member of the
American Philosophical Society.
S. P. G. — Society for the Propagation
of the Gospel.
Sp. gr. — Specific gravity.
S. P. C. A. — Society for the Preven-
tion of Cruelty to Animals.
S. P. C. C. — Society for the Preven-
tion of Cruelty to Children.
S. P. Q. R. — Senatus Populusque Ro-
manus, the Senate and people of
Rome.
S. P. R. L. — Society for the Promo-
tion of Religion and Learning.
Sq. ft. — Square foot, or square feet.
Sq. in. — Square inch, or inches.
Sq. m. — Square mile, or miles.
Sq. yd.— Square yard.
Sr. — Senior.
S. R. I. — Sacrum Romanum Impe-
rium. Holy Roman Empire.
S, R. S. — Societatis Regies Socius,
Fellow of the Royal Society.
S. S. — Sunday-school.
SS.— Saints.
SS., or ss. — Scilicet, to wit.
Ss. — Semis, half ; Ses sions.
S.-S.-E. — South-south-east.
S.-S.-W. — South-south-west.
St. — Saint; Street; Strait.
Stat. — Statute.
S. T. B.— Bachelor of Sacred Theol-
ogy.
S. T. D. — Sacrce Theologies Doctor,
Doctor of Divinity.
Ster., or Stg. — Sterling.
S. T. P. — Sacrce Theologies Profess-
or, Professor of Divinity.
Str. — Steamer.
S ub j. — S ub j uncti ve.
Subst. — Substantive.
Sun., or Sund. — Sunday.
Sup. — Supreme.
Sup. — Supplement ; Superfine.
Supt. — Superintendent.
Surg. — Surgeon ; Surgery.
Surg.-Gen. — Surgeon-General.
Surv. — Surveyor.
Surv.-Gen. — Surveyor-General.
S. v. — Sub verbo, under the word or
title.
S.-W. — South-west
Sw. — Swiss.
Swe. — Sweden ; Swedish ; Sweden-
borg ; Swedenborgian.
Switz. — Switzerland.
Syn. — Synonym ; Synonymous.
Syr. — Syriac.
T., or torn. — Tome, volume.
Tab. — Table; Tabular.
Tan.— Tangent.
T. E. — Topographical Engineers.
Tenn. — Tennessee.
Ter. — Territory.
Tex. — Texas.
Text. Rec. — Textus Receptus, Received
Text.
Tf.— Till forbid.
Th., or Thurs. — Thursday.
Theo. — Theodore.
Theol. — Theology ; Theological.
Theoph. — Theophilus.
Thess. — Thessalonians.
Tho'. — Though.
Thos. — Thomas.
Thro'. — Through.
Tim. — Timothy.
Tit. — Titus.
T. O. — Turn over.
Tob. — Tobit.
Topog. — Topography ; Topographical.
Tp. — Township.
Tr. — Transpose ; Translator ; Trans-
lation ; Trustee.
T r a n s. — Translator ; Translation J
Transactions ; Transpose.
Treas. — Treasurer.
Abbreviations
Trin. — Trinity.
Tues., or Tu. — Tuesday.
T. S. — Twin screw.
Tr. S. — Triple screw.
Tur. — Turkey.
Hyp. — Typographer.
U. — Union.
U. B. — United Brethren.
U. C. — Upper Canada.
U. C. — Vrbe condita, year of Rome.
U. J. C. — Utriusque Juris Doctor,
Doctor of both Laws.
U. K. — United Kingdom.
U. K. A. — Ulster King-at-Arms.
Ult — Ultimo, last ; of the last month.
Unit. — Unitarian.
Univ. — University.
Univt. — Universalist
U. P. — United Presbyterian.
U. S. — United States.
U. s. — Ut supra, or uti supra, as
above.
U. S. A.— United States Army.
U. S. A. — United States of America.
U. S. M. — United States Mail.
U. S. M. — United States Marines.
U. S. M. A. — United States Military
Acad.
U. S. M. C. — United States Marine
Corps.
U. S. M. H. S.— United States Ma-
rine Hospital Service.
U. S. N. — United States Navy.
U. S. N. A. — United States Naval
Acad.
U. S. S.— United States Senate.
Ut — Utah.
V. — Village.
V., or vid. — Vide, see.
V. — Violin.
Vt — Vermont.
V., or vs. — Versus, against ; Versicu-
lo, in such a verse.
Va. — Virginia.
Val.— Value.
Vat. — Vatican.
V. C. — Victoria Cross ; Vice-Chair-
man ; Vice-Chancellor.
V. D. L. — Van piemen's Land.
V. D. M. — Verbi Dei Minister, Minis-
ter of God's word.
Ven. — Venerable.
Ver. — Verse.
V. Q, — Vicar General.
V. g. — Verbi gratia, as for example.
Vice-Pres., or V. P« — Vice-President.
Vise. — Viscount.
Viz., or vL — Videltcet, *o wit ; name-
ly; that is to say.
Abbreviation*
Vo. — Verso, left-hand page.
Vol. — Volume.
V. R. — Victoria Regina, Queen Vic-
toria.
V. S. — Veterinary Surgeon.
Vul. — Vulgate \. Version ) .
W. — West
Wash. — Washington.
W. B. M. — Woman's Board of Mis-
sions.
W. C. A. — Woman's Christian Asso-
ciation.
W. C. T. U. — Women s Christian
Temperance Union.
Wed. — Wednesday.
Wf. — Wrong font.
W. F. M. S. — Woman's Foreign Mis-
sionary Society.
W. H. M. A. — Woman's Home Mis-
sionary Association.
W. I. — West Indies.
Wis. — Wisconsin.
Wisd.— Wisdom (Book of).
Wk.— Week.
W. M. — Worshipful Master.
Wm. — William.
W. M. S. — Wesleyan Missionary So-
ciety.
W. N. C. T. U.— Woman's National
Christian Temperance Union.
W.-N.-W. — West-north-west.
W.-S.-W. — West-south-west.
WTt — Weight.
Wyo. — Wyoming.
W. Va. — West Virginia.
X., or Xt— Christ.
Xmas., or Xm. — Christmas.
Xn., or Xtian. — Christian.
Xnty., or Xty. — Christianity.
Xper., or Xr. — Christopher.
Yd.— Yard.
Ym.— Them.
Y. M. C. A. — Young Men's Christian
Association.
Y. M. C. U. — Young Men's Christian
Union.
Yn. — Then.
Yr. — Year.
Yrs. — Years; Yours-
Y. W. C. A.^- Young Women's Chris-
tian Association.
Zach. — Zachary.
Zech. — Zechariah.
Zeph. — Zephaniah.
Zool. — Zoology.
&. — And.
A. B. C. Mediators
Abdul-Medjid
A. B. C. Mediators, the diplo-
matic representatives in the United
States of Argentina, Bolivia, and
Chile, who, under an offer of friendly
offices by their respective governments,
attempted a settlement of the contro-
versies between the United States and
Mexico. Several conferences were
held at Niagara Falls and Washing-
ton in 1914-15, and a plan was draft-
ed for the restoration of order in Mex-
ico, but no practical results followed.
Abdallah-Ibn-Yarim, Moham-
medan conqueror of Spain, known as
"Theologian." He died 1058.
Abd-el-Kader, very renowned by
the persevering courage with which he
opposed the aggressions of the French
against his country, born in Oran in
1807. He preached a holy war against
the French occupation of Algiers, and
called upon the faithful to rise and
expel the infidels. For a period of 15
years he contrived to defend his coun-
try, and fight against the encroach-
ments of France ; but in 1847 he was
compelled to surrender himself a pris-
oner. He died May 26, 1883.
Abd-er-Rahman I., a Caliph of
Cordova, born in Damascus in 731.
He founded a Moorish dynasty in
Spain, made Cordova his capital and
became an independent sovereign. The
mosque at Cordova (now used as a
cathedral), ornamented with rows of
cupolas, supported by 850 pillars of jas-
per, was built by him. He died in 787.
Abdication, Royal, a resignation
of sovereign power, forced or volun-
tary. Noted modern instances include
Napoleon in 1814 and 1815; Charles
X., of France, in 1830; Louis Phi-
lippe, in 1848 ; Alexander of Bulgaria,
in 1886; King Milan of Servia, in
1889; William of Wied, Mpret (Em-
peror) of Albania, in 1914 ; and Czar
Nicholas of Russia and King Constan-
tine of Greece, both in 1917. King
Manoel of Portugal was dethroned by
a revolution in 1910.
Abd-nl-Aziz, the 32«3 Sultan of
the Ottoman Turks, was born Feb. 9,
1830, and succeeded his brother, Abd-
ul-Medjid, in 1861. His government
had great difficulties to contend with
in the Cretan insurrection, the strug-
gle of Rumania and Servia for full
autonomy, and finally the outbreak of
Mohammedan fanaticism. In 1871 the
Sultan strove to get the succession
settled upon his son, instead of his
nephew Murad, in accordance with
Turkish custom. At last a conspiracy
forced him to abdicate the throne,
May 30, 1876. Four days later, the
unhappy Sultan was found dead, it is
almost certain by foul play.
Abdul-Hamid II., 34th Sultan
of Turkey, born Sept. 22, 1842, the
second son of Sultan Abdul-ul-Medjid ;
succeeded to the throne in 1876, on
the deposition of his brother, Murad
V. Defeated in the war of 1877-1878
with Russia, he was compelled by the
Treaty of Berlin to surrender a small
portion of territory in Europe and
Asia, to recognize the independence of
the vassal States in Europe, and to
acknowledge Bulgaria as a tributary
principality. In 1895-1896, during the
massacres of the Armenians, he took
an active part in the negotiations
with the European powers. In 1897,
Greece forced war on Turkey in be-
half of the Cretans, and in 1898, after
another uprising in Crete, Great
Britain and Russia forced Turkey to
evacuate the island. A constitution
granted Turkey in 1876, before his
accession, was quickly suppressed by
him, and he ruled despotically until
1908, when he was forced to restore
it by a revolutionary party known as
the Young Turks. A legislative as-
sembly was elected and a large meas-
ure of liberty granted, but in April,
1909, a reactionary movement at Con-
stantinople led to the occupation of the
city by troops favoring the Young
Turks party, and the deposition and
exile to Salonica of the Sultan. He was
succeeded by his brother, Mohammed-
Reshad, under the title of Mohammed
V. At the outbreak of the war of the
Balkan States against Turkey, in 1912,
Abdul-Hamid was removed to Con-
stantinople, through fear that Russia
might restore him to the throne dur-
ing the excitement of the war.
Abdul-Medjid, a Sultan of Tur-
key, born April 23, 1822 ; succeeded to
the throne July 1, 1839, at the early
age of 17. The great event of his
reign was the Crimean War, in which
France and England allied themselves
with Turkey against the encroach-
ments of Russia, and which was ter-
minated by the fall of Sehastopol af-
ter a long siege, in 1856. He was sue-
Abdurrahman Klian
ceeded by his brother, Abdul Azia
Khan. He died June 25, 1861.
Abdurrahman Khan, Ameer of
'Afghanistan; born in Kabul in 1844;
was the eldest son of Ufzul Khan, and
nephew of the Ameer Shere Ali. In
July of 1880 he was formally chosen
by the leading men of Kabul and ac-
knowledged by the British Indian Gov-
ernment as Ameer of Afghanistan.
From the British Indian Government
he received a subsidy of $800,000 a
year, with large gifts of artillery, ri-
fles, and ammunition to improve his
military force. In March, 1900, he
declared his sympathy with England.
He died in Kabul, Oct. 3, 1901.
Abel, the second son of Adam and
brother of Cain. The latter was a
tiller of the ground ; Abel a shepherd.
Both brought their offerings before
the Lord; Cain, the first-fruits of the
ground ; Abel, the firstlings of the
fiock. God accepted the offering of
Abel ; the offering of Cain he rejected.
The latter, instigated by envy, mur-
dered his brother in the field.
Abel, Sir Frederick Augustus,
an English chemist, born in London
in 1827. Was president of the Brit-
ish Association in 1890. Died London,
Sept. 8, 1902.
Abel, Niels Henrik, a Norwe-
gian mathematician, born at Findo,
Aug. 5, 1802. He became a lecturer
at the University of Christiania, and
the school of engineering there. His
works deal mainly with the theory of
elliptical functions, which his discov-
eries greatly enriched. He died young,
April 6, 1829.
Abelard, (or Abailard), Pierre,
a monk of the order of St. Benedict,
equally famous for his learning and
his passion for Heloise; born in 1079,
near Nantes, in the little village of
Pallet, which was the property of his
father Berenger. His inclination led
him to prefer a literary life ; and in
order to devote himself fully to philos-
ophy he ceded his patrimony to his
brothers. He studied poetry, rhetoric,
philosophy, jurisprudence, and theol-
ogy, the Greek, Hebrew, and Latin
languages ; but scholastic philosophy
chiefly engaged his attention. Having
learned all that Brittany could teach
him, he went to Paris, the university
of which attracted students from all
parts of Europe^ Guillaume de Cham-
___ Abelard
peaux, a follower of Anselm and an
extreme Realist, was the most skillful
disputant of his time, and Abelard,
profiting by his instructions, was often
victorious over his master in contests
of wit and logical acumen. The
friendship of Qhampeaux was soon
succeeded by enmity ; and Abelard,
who had not yet completed his 22d
year, removed to Melun, whither he
was soon followed by a multitude of
young men, attracted from Paris by
his great reputation. Hostility still
pursued him, but he left Melun for
Corbeil, nearer the capital, where he
was still more admired and persecuted.
Soon after he ceased teaching to re-
cruit his strength ; and after two
years returned to Paris, and found
that his former teacher had removed
to a monastery outside the city.
He again joined issue with him and
gained so complete a triumph that he
opened in Paris a school of rhetoric,
the fame of which soon deprived all
the others of their pupils. Shortly
afterward he was appointed to his ri-
val's chair in the cathedral school of
Notre Dame, where he educated many
distinguished scholars, among whom
were the future Pope Celestin II., Pe-
ter of Lombardy, Bishop of Paris, Be-
renger, Bishop of Poictiers, and St.
Bernard.
At this time there resided close to
Notre Dame a young lady, by name
Heloise, niece of the canon Fulbert,
then of the age of 17, and remarkable
for her beauty, genius, and varied ac-
complishments. Abelard became in-
spired with such violent love for He-
loise as to forget his duty, his lectures,
and his fame. Heloise was no less
susceptible. Under the pretext of fin-
ishing her education, he obtained Ful-
bert's permission to visit her, and
finally became resident in his house.
His conduct in abusing the confidence
which had been placed in him opened
the eyes of Fulbert. He separated the
lovers, but too late. Abelard fled with
her to Brittany, where she was de-
livered of a son, who died early. Abe-
lard now resolved to marry her secret-
ly. Fulbert gave his consent, the mar-
riage was performed, and in order to
keep it secret Heloise remained with
her uncle, while Abelard retained his
former lodgings, and continued his
lectures. Abelard, however, carried
Ibercrombie
Ab er crombie
her off a second time, and placed her
in the convent of Argenteuil.
Fulbert erroneously believed it was
intended to force her to take the veil,
and under the influence of rage sub-
jected Abelard to mutilation. He be-
came, in consequence, a monk in the
abbey of St. Denis, and Heloise took
the veil at Argenteuil. After time had
somewhat moderated his grief he re-
sumed teaching. At the Council of
Soissons (1121), no defense being per-
mitted him, his " Essay on the Trin-
ity " was declared heretical, and he
was condemned to burn it with his
own hands. Continued persecutions
obliged him at last to leave the abbey
of St. Denis and to retire to a place
near Nogent-sur-Seine, where he built
a rude hut in which he determined to
live a hermit's life. Even here, how-
ever, students flocked to him, and they
built him an oratory, which he dedi-
cated to the Holy Ghost and hence
called Paraclete. Being subsequently
appointed abbot of St. Gildas de Ruys,
in Brittany, he invited Heloise and her
religious sisterhood, on the dissolution
of their monastery at Argenteuil, to re-
side at the above oratory, and re-
ceived them there. He lived for some
10 year? at St. Gildas. Ultimately,
however, he fled from it and lived
for a time in other parts of Brittany.
St. Bernard of Clairvaux, the lead-
ing opponent of the rationalistic school
of Abelard, laid his doctrines before
the Council of Sens, in 1140, had them
condemned by the Pope, and obtained
an order for his imprisonment. Abe-
lard appealed to the Pope, published
his defense, and went to Rome. Pass-
ing through Cluny, he visited Peter the
Venerable, who was abbot there. This
humane and enlightened divine effect-
ed a reconciliation between him and
his enemies, but Abelard resolved to
end his days in retirement. The se-
vere penances which he imposed upon
himself, together with the grief which
never left his heart, gradually con-
sumed his strength, and he died, a pat-
tern of monastic discipline, in 1142,
at the abbey of St. Marcel, near Cha-
lon-sur-Saone. Heloise begged his
body, and had him buried in the Para-
clete, of which she was at that time
the abbess, with the view of reposing
in death by his side. In 1800 the
ashes of both were carried to the
Museum of French Monuments at
Paris, and in November, 1817, were
deposited under a chapel within the
precincts of the church of Monamy.
The small chapel, in the form of a
beautiful marble monument, in which
the figures of the ill-fated pair are
seen reposing side by side, is now one
of the most interesting objects in the
Parisian cemetery of Pere la Chaise.
Abelard was distinguished as a
grammarian, orator, logician, poet,
musician, philosopher, theologian, and
mathematician. As a philosopher he
founded an eclectic system commonly,
but erroneously, termed Conceptual-
ism, which lay midway between the
prevalent Realism, represented in its
most advanced form by William of
Champeaux, and extreme Nominalism,
represented in the teaching of his other
master Roscellin, and largely ap-
proached the Aristotelian philosophy.
In ethics Abelard placed much empha-
sis on the subjective intention, which
he held to determine the moral value
as well as the moral character of man's
action. Along this line his work is
notable, owing to the fact that his
successors did little in connection with
morals, for they did not regard the
rules of human conduct as within the
field of philosophic discussion. His
love and his misfortunes have secured
his name from oblivion ; and the man
whom his own century admired as a
profound dialectician is now celebrated
as the martyr of love. The letters of
Abelard and Heloise have been often
published in the original and in trans-
lations. Pope's poetical epistle
" Eloisa to Abelard " is founded on
them. Abelard's autobiography, en-
titled " Historia Calamitatum," is still
extant. The chief work on the life
of Abelard is Remusat's " Abelard "
(two vols. Paris, 1845). See also
Compayre's " Abelard and the Origin
and Early History of Universities "
(1893 ; series of " Great Educators ").
A complete edition of his work was
published by Cousin (twyo vols. Paris,
1849-1859).
Abercrombie, John, in his day
the most eminent of Scottish physi-
cians, was born in 1780, at Aberdeen,
where his father was a parish min-
ister. His principal professional writ-
ings were treatises on the pathology of
the brain and on diseases of the stom-
Abercrombie
Abiathar
ach. Dr. Abercrombie died suddenly,
Nov. 14, 1844.
Abercrombie, Sir Ralph, a Brit-
ish general, born in 1738. He was
commander-in-chief in the West Indies,
in 1795; in the attempt against Hol-
land, in 1799, and in the expedition
to Egypt. Mortally wounded in the
beginning of the battle of Alexandria
(March 21, 1801), the general kept
the field during the day, and died some
days after his victory.
Aberdeen, the chief city and sea-
port in the North of Scotland, lies at
the mouth and on the N. side of the
river Dee, 111 miles N. of Edinburgh.
Population of the parliamentary burgh
X1901) 153,108.
Aberdeen, George Hamilton
Gordon, Earl of, born in 1784. He
took office as Secretary of State for
Foreign Affairs in 1828, in the min-
istry formed under the Duke of Wel-
lington, and in 1843 in the Peel min-
istry. Entering public life as a Tory,
his policy was that of non-interference
in the affairs of foreign states. In
1853, Earl Aberdeen was solected to
head a new ministry, which for some
time was extremely popular. He en-
deavored to prevent the country from
entering upon the conflict with Rus-
sia, but all his efforts were unavail-
ing. Failing to receive sufficient sup-
port to carry out his measures, he re-
signed in 1855. Died Dec. 14, 1860.
Aberdeen, Sir John Campbell,
Hamilton Gordon, seventh Earl
of, born in 1847. He served as Gov-
ernor-General of Canada (1893-1898),
and as Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland
in 1886 and after 1905. His wife,
born in 1857, is a daughter of Lord
Tweedmouth and a direct descendant
of Robert Bruce. She is an accom-
plished orator, and organized the Irish
Village at the Columbian Exposition
in Chicago in 1893. For many years
she has been conspicuous in plans for
promoting the welfare of women.
Abernethy, James, a Scotch
civil engineer, born in Aberdeen in
1815. As a boy he assisted his father :
on the extension of the London docks, i
and afterward designed and built the j
lock and dock at Aberdeen, the docks
at Swansea, Newport, Cardiff and
Hull, and the Cavour canal in Italy;
designed the accepted plan for the im-
provement of the Danube at Vienna ;
reclaimed Lake Aboukir, in Egypt,
and proposed the Manchester ship-
canal. He was the first to apply hy-
draulic power for working lock-gates.
He died March 8, 1896.
Abernethy, John, an eminent
English surgeon, founder of the School
of St. Bartholomew's ; born in London,
April 3, 1764. He died at Enfield, April
28, 1831.
Abert, John James, an American
military engineer, born in Virginia in
1788; served in the War of 1812;
was made chief of United States to-
pographical engineers in 1838 ; assist-
ed in developing important canals and
other works ; member of the Geo-
graphical Society of France. He died
in 1863.
Abesta, or Avesta, the name of
one of the sacred books of the Persian
magi, which they ascribe to their great
founder Zoroaster.
Abgar, or Abgarus, is the name
or title of 28 princes of Edessa, in
Mesopotamia. The most notable of
these princes is the 14th of the name,
a contemporary of Jesus, and was said
to have written a letter to Jesus and
to have received an answer from Him.
These letters, translated into Greek
from the Syriac by Eusebius of Caesa-
rea, were denounced as spurious by
Pope Gelasius in 494 and soon lost all
credit. The letter from Abgar con-
tains a request that Jesus should visit
him, and heal him of a certain dis-
ease. In the reply, Jesus is repre-
sented as promising to send a disci-
ple to heal him after His ascension.
What purported to be copies of this
correspondence came to light in 1900.
For other fables in this connection, see
Lipsius' " Die Edessenische Abgar-
sage" (1880).
Abgillus, surnamed Prester John,
a king of the Frisons. He attended
Charlemagne to the Holy Land, and
did not return with him, but made
great conquests in Abyssinia, which
was called, from him, the empire of
Prester John. He lived in the 8th
century.
Abiathar (the father of abun-
dance ) , a high-priest of the Jews, son
of Ahimelech, who had borne the sam^
office, and received David in his house.
This so enraged Saul that he put Ahim-
Ablb
Aboukir-
elech and 81 priests to death ; Abi-
athar alone escaped the massacre. He
afterward was high-priest, and often
fave King David testimonies of his
delity. But after this he conspired
with Adonijah, in order to raise him
to the throne of King David, his fa-
ther, which so exasperated Solomon
against him that he divested him of
the priesthood, and banished him A. M.
3021 (B. c. 1014).
Abib, a name given by the Jews
to the first month of their ecclesiasti-
cal year, afterward called Nisan. It
answered to the latter part of March
and beginning of April.
Abigail, the beautiful wife of Na-
bal, a wealthy owner of goats and
sheep in Carmel. When David's mes-
sengers T*ere slighted by Nabal, Abi-
gail took the blame upon herself, and
succeeded in appeasing the anger of
David. Ten days after, Nabal died,
and David sent for Abigail and made
her his wife. ( I Sam. xxv : 14, etc. )
Abilene, city and capital of Tay-
lor county, Tex.; on the Texas &
Pacific railroad; 200 miles N. of
Austin; has flour, cotton-seed oil, and
planing mills, machine shops, cream-
ery, chair and mattress factories, and
large cattle trade. Pop. (1910) 9,204.
Abiogenesis, name given by Prof.'
Huxley to the theory of spontaneous
generation, i. e., that living matter can
be produced from that which is not in
itself living matter. It is the antith-
esis of biogenesis.
Abishai, son of David's sister
Zeruiah, and brother to Joab.
Abo, Archipelago of, an exten-
sive group of low, rocky islands in
the Baltic Sea, spreading along the
S. and W. coasts of Finland, opposite
the city of Abo, rendering the naviga-
tion difficult and dangerous.
Abo, Peace of, a treaty concluded
Aug. 17, 1743, between Russia and
Sweden, by which Russia retained a
part of Finland and restored to Swe-
den the remainder on condition that
the latter power should elect the Prince
of Holstein-Gottorp successor to the
throne.
Abolitionists, in United States
history, those who advocated the abo-
lition of African slavery in the South-
ern States. The anti-slavery agita-
tion dates back even to colonial days.
Agitation became acute after the set-
tlement of the war troubles of 1812-
1815. In 1833, the formation of a Na-
tional Anti-Slavery Society took place
in Philadelphia, and in 1848 of the
Free Soil Party. The abolition move-
ment ivas powerfully promoted by
William Lloyd Garrison, who issued
a newspaper, " The Liberator," for
the better dissemination of his views ;
and also by Wendell Phillips, Charles
Sumner and others. The more extreme
agitators among them denied the duty
of obedience to the Constitution, since
it contained the clause warranting the
Fugitive Slave Law, and they de-
nounced it as " a covenant with death
and an agreement with hell." In prac-
tice they violated it by systematically
assisting in the escape of runaway
slaves. A line of stations known as
the " Underground Railroad " was se-
cretly arranged, along which the fu-
gitives were passed from point to
point, concealed from pursuers, and
cared for until they reached safety in
Canada. In Boston, Garrison was
mobbed, and the abolition cause in
the United States counted among its
martyrs Elijah Lovejoy, shot in Al-
ton, 111., in 1837, and John Brown,
hanged in Virginia in 1859. In 1840
the abolitionists divided on the ques-
tion of the formation of a political
anti-slavery party, and the two wings
remained active on separate lines to
the end. It was largely due to the
abolitionists that the Civil War, when
it came, was regarded by the North
chiefly as an anti-slavery conflict, and
they looked upon the Emancipation
Proclamation as a vindication of this
view.
Aboma, a large and formidable
American snake, called also the ringed
boa. Anciently it was worshipped by
the Mexicans.
Aborigines, the earliest known
inhabitants of any other land.
Aboukir, a small village on the
Egyptian coast, 10 miles E. of Alex-
andria. Aboukir bay is celebrated for
the naval battle in which Nelson an-
nihilated the French fleet on Aug. 1-2,
1798. This decisive victory gained
Nelson the title of Baron Nelson of
the Nile ; and the battle is often spo-
ken of as the battle of the Nile. See
APPENDIX: World War.
About
About, Edmond, a French novel-
ist, born in Dieuze, Lorraine. Feb.
14, 1828; died in Paris, Jan. 17, 1885.
Abra, a province of Luzon, Philip-
pine Islands; on the N. W. coast;
area, 1,484 square miles; pop. (1903)
51,860, of whom 14,037 were wild;
capita], Bangued.
Abracadabra, a magical word
among the ancients, recommended as
an antidote against several diseases.
It was to be written upon a piece of
paper as many times as the word
contains letters, omitting the last let-
ter of the former every time, and sus-
pended from the neck by a linen
thread. It was the name of a god wor-
shipped by the Syrians, the wearing
of whose name was a sort of invoca-
tion of his aid.
ABRACADABRA
ABRACADABR
ABRACADAB
ABRACADA
A B R A C A D
A B R A C A
A B R A C
ABRA
A B R
A B
A
At present, the word is used chiefly in
jest, to denote something without
meaning.
Abraham, son of Terah, and
brother of Nahor and II a run, the
progenitor of the Hebrew nation and
of several cognate tribes. At the
goodly age of 175, he was " gathered
to his people," and laid beside Sarah,
in the tomb of Machpelah, by his sons
Isaac and Ishmael.
A b r a h a m, Plains of and
Heights of, a table-land near Que-
bec, rising above the St. Lawrence,
wher« the battle of Quebec was fought
between the British and French
(1759).
Abranyi, Kernel, a Hungarian
poet, novelist, and publicist ; born in
Budapest, Dec. 31, 1849. As a mem-
ber of the Hungarian diet and as ed-
itor of the " Pesti Naplo," he is an
important political figure in Hungary.
Abrogation. The term is used
popularly as the equivalent of repeal,
whether by statute or contrary usage.
Abruzzi, Prince Lnigi Amadep,
Dnke of, Italian explorer ; born in
Rome, Jan. 30, 1873; a nephew of
Abstinence
King Humbert*; in May, 1899, he
started on an expedition, in the spe-
cially prepared steamer " Star of
Italy," for Franz Josef Land, intend-
ing, when frozen in, to use sledges in
a search for the North Pole and the
balloon explorer, Dr. Andrfie. He re-
turned to Norway in September, 1900,
after having reached a point in lati-
tude 86° 33' N., surpassing Nansen's
furthest N. record by 19'.
Absalom, the third son of David,
king of Israel, remarkable for his
beauty and for his unnatural rebel-
lion against his father, which led to
his untimely death.
Abscess, a gathering of pus in any
tissue or organ of the body. Abscesses
may occur in almost any portion of the
body. They are of three types : the acute
abscess, or phlegmon, arising from an
inflammatory tendency in the part ; the
chronic abscess, connected with scrof-
ulous or other weakness in the con-
stitution ; and the diffused abscess, due
to contamination in the blood.
Absenteeism, a term applied to
the owners of estates in a country
who habitually absent themselves from
that country, and spend the income
of their estates in it in another coun-
try. Used more particularly regard-
ing Irish landlords who live elsewhere.
Absinthe, a liqueur made princi-
pally in Switzerland, and much used
by the French ; composed of volatile
oil of wormwood, oil of anise and oth-
er ingredients mixed in alcohol. It is
an intoxicant, more agreeable to the
taste than usual alcoholic beverages,
but its persistent use leads to extreme
physical and mental disorders.
Absolution. The Roman Catholic
Church, since the fourth Lateran coun-
cil in 1215 A. D., invests the priest with
power in his priestly office to pro-
nounce absolution from sins that have
been confessed. In most other Church-
es, absolution is no more than
a general or formal declaration that
God will forgive the sins of penitents,
with exhortation to seek such forgive-
ness.
Abstinence, the act or habit of
refraining from something to which
we have a propensity, or in which we
find pleasure ; but it is more particu-
larly applied to the privation or spar-
ing use of food. Abstinence has been
enjoined and practiced for various
Abt
Abyssinia
ends, as sanitary, moral, or religious.
Abstinence of flesh on certain days is
obligatory in the Roman Catholic
Church.
The time during which life can be
supported under total abstinence from
food or drink, is usually stated to vary
from eight to ten days ; the period
may, however, be greatly prolonged.
Total abstinence, as a term, has also
special reference to alcoholic drinks.
Abt, Franz, a German song
writer ; born in Saxony, Dec. 22, 1819.
He studied theology at Leipsic, but
abandoned it for music. He is well
known as composer of the favorite
song, " When the Swallows Homeward
Fly." He visited the United States
in 1872. He died March 31, 1885.
Abu-Klea, a place in Egypt, on
the route across the country between
Korti and Metammeh, both on the
great bend of the Nile below Khar-
tum ; was the scene of a battle on Jan.
17, 1885, in which Sir Herbert Stew-
art defeated the Mahdi's forces.
Abnl-Abbas, Abd-Allah, the
first of the Arabian dynasty of Ab-
bassides; a caliph of incredible cruel-
ty, on account of which he was called
"al Suffah" ("The Sanguinary").
On assurances of amnesty, he be-
guiled 90 members of the Ommiad fam-
ily (the preceding dynasty) into a
hall, where they were slain with whips
and rods. He died in 754.
Abnna, the title given by the Ethi-
opian Christians to their metropolitan.
He is the chief of the secular clergy.
Abu-Simbel. Tbsambnl, or Ip-
sanibnl, the site of two temples on
the Nile, constructed by Rameses II.
The principal beauties of the facade of
the larger temple (119 feet broad, and
more than 100 feet high) are the four
sitting colossi,, each more than 65 feet
in height.
Abydos, a town and castle of Na-
tolia, on the Straits of Gallipoli. In
its neighborhood Xerxes, when he in-
vaded Greece, crossed with his im-
mense army the Hellespont, on a
bridge of boats. Memorable also from
being the scene of the loves of Hero
and Leander, and from Byron having
adopted its name in his " Bride of
Abydos." Also an ancient city of Up-
per Egypt, supposed to hare been the
ancient This, and to have been sec-
ond only to Thebes.
Abyssinia, or Habesb, an ancient
kingdom of Eastern Africa, now un-
der a monarch who claims the title of
emperor. Abyssinia may be said to
extend between lat. 8° and 16° N.,
and Ion. 35° and 41° E., having Nu-
bia N. and W., the Sudan W., the Red
Sea littoral (Erythrsea, Danakil coun«
try, etc.), E., and to the S. the Galls
country. The area within these limit*
is about 160,000 square miles, but thf
present ruler claims a much more ex«
tensive territory ; and latterly Abys*
sinia has come to be surrounded by re-
gions belonging to or influenced more
or less by Italy, France, and Great
Britain. The principal divisions of
Abyssinia are the provinces or king-
doms of Shoa in the S., Amhara in the
center, and Tigre" in the N., to which
may be added Lasta, Gojam, and other
territories. Addis Abeba in Shoa is
the present residence of the ruler, but
the Abyssinian royal residences large-
ly consist of houses very slightly built,
and thus resemble more or less perma-
nent camps rather than towns. Other
towns are Gondar, Adua, Aksum, An-
talo, and Ankober, none with a pop-
ulation exceeding 7,000.
The Abyssinians are of mixed Semi-
tic and Hamitic descent They were
converted to Christianity in the time of
the Emperor Constantine, by some mis-
sionaries sent from Alexandria. In the
6th century the power of the sover-
eigns of their kingdom had attained
its height ; but before another had ex-
pired the Arabs had invaded the coun-
try, and obtained a footing in Adel,
though they were unable to extend
their conquests farther. For several
centuries subsequently the kingdom
continued in a distracted state, being
now torn by internal commotions and
now invaded by external enemies (Mo-
hammedans and Gallas). To protect
himself from the last the Emperor of
Abyssinia applied, about the middle
of the 16th century, to the King of
Portugal for assistance, promising, at
the same time, implicit submission to
the Pope. The solicited aid was sent,
and the empire saved. The Roman
Catholic priests taving now ingrati-
ated themselves with the emperor and
his family, endeavored to induce them
to renounce the tenets and rites of the
Coptic Church, and adopt those of
Rome. This attempt, however, was
Acacia
Academy of Fine Art«
resisted by the ecclesiastics and the
people, and finally ended, after a long
struggle, in the expulsion of the Ro-
man Catholic priests about 1630. The
kingdom, however, gradually fell into
a state of anarchy, which, about the
middle of the 18th century, was com-
plete. The king, or negus as he was
called, received no obedience from the
provincial governors, who, besides,
were at feud with one another, and
severally assumed the royal title.
Abyssinia thus became divided into
a number of petty independent states.
A remarkable, but, as it proved, quite
futile attempt to resuscitate the unity
and power of the ancient kingdom was
commenced about the middle of the
19th century by King Theodore, who
aimed at the restoration of the an-
cient kingdom of Ethiopia, with him-
self for its sovereign. He introduced
European artisans, and went to work
wisely in many ways, but his cruelty
and tyranny counteracted his politic
measures. In consequence of a slight,
real or fancied, which he had re-
ceived at the hands of the British gov-
ernment, he threw Consul Cameron
and a number of other British sub-
jects into prison in 1863, and refused
to give them up. To effect their re-
lease an army of nearly 12,000 men,
under the command of Sir Robert Na-
pier, was dispatched from Bombay in
1867. The force landed at Zoulla on
the Red Sea in November, and march-
ing up the country came within sight
of Magdale, the capital of Theodore,
in the beginning of April, 1868. Af-
ter being defeated in a battle Theodore
delivered up the captives and shut
himself up in Magdala, which was
taken by storm on April 13. Theo-
dore was found among the slain, the
general opinion being that he had
fallen by his own hand.
In 1885 Italy asserted a protectorate
with disastrous results ; defeat by
Menelek's troops at Adowa in 1896
made them abandon all claims except
to the Eritrean colony on the Red
Sea. Menelek transferred his capital
to Adis Abeba, where British, Ameri-
can and French interests became
active. On Dec. 13, 1906, an agree-
ment was signed between Great Brit-
ain, France, and Itaty to conserve
their interests in Abyssinia, by main-
taining the political and territorial
status quo and the open door. The
principal States are Tigre on the N.,
Amhara in the center, and Shoa in the
S. Present capital, Adis Ababa. Pop.
(est.), 8,000,000.
Acacia, plants which abound in
Australia, in India, in Africa, tropical
America, and generally in the hotter
regions of the world. Nearly 300 spe-
cies are known from Australia alone.|
They are easily cultivated in green--
houses, where they flower, for the most'
part, in winter or early spring. In
Calfornia several species are cultivated
in the open for tannin and for timber.
The Black Watte has in its bark four
times as much tannin as the best oak.
Acadenras, a Greek mythical hero
who upon the Tyndaridean invasion
to rescue Helen after her abduction by
Thesues, revealed her hiding-place and
was thenceforth held in honor by the
Lacedaemonians. The term 'academy'
is derived from his name.
Academy, the gymnasium in the
suburbs of Athens in which Plato
taught, and so called after a hero,
by name Academus, to whom it was
said to have originally belonged. The
word is also applied to a high school
designed for the technical or other in-
struction of those who have already
acquired the rudiments of knowledge;
also a university.
Academy, French, an institution
founded in 1635 by Cardinal Riche-
lieu for the purpose of refining the
French language and style. It became
in time the most influential of all lit-
erary societies in Europe. Together
with the Academy of Inscriptions and
Belles Lettres, the Academy of Moral
and Political Sciences and the Acad-
emy of Sciences, it composes the Na-
tional Institute of France.
Academy of Arts, The Royal, a
British institution for the encourage-
ment of painting, sculpture, and de-
signing; founded in 1768 by George
III., with Sir Joshua Reynolds as
president.
Academy of Design, National,
an American institution, in New York'
city, founded in 1826, conducting
schools in various branches of the fine
arts, and holding semi-annual exhibi-
tions at which prizes are awarded.
Academy of Fine Arts, The, a'
French institution, originally founded
Academy of France
Acanthus
in 1648 at Paris under the name of
the Academy of Painting and Sulp-
ture. In 1795 it was joined to the
Academy of Architecture, and has
borne its present name since 1819.
Academy of France at Rome,
an institution for the advanced study
of the fine arts in Rome, Italy, found-
ed by Colbert in 1666, during the reign
of Louis XIV. It was at first estab-
lished in the ruined villa Mancini on
the Cprso, and, in 1803, at the villa
Medicis. The young artists, painters,
sculptors, architects, engravers and
musicians who secure the annual prizes
of the Academy of Fine Arts in Paris
spend four years there, with an an-
nual pension of 3,500 francs and trav-
eling expenses.
Academy of Inscriptions and
Belles Lettres, an institution found-
ed at Paris by Colbert in 1663, under
the name of Petite Academic. Com-
parative philology. Oriental, Greek,
and Roman antiquities and epigraphy
have received the attention of the
Academy, which has published a series
of invaluable records and works.
Academy of Medicine, a French
institution, founded in Paris in 1820,
for the purpose of keeping the gov-
ernment informed on all subjects ap-
pertaining to the public health.
Academy of Moral and Politi-
cal Science, founded at Paris in
1795, is composed of 30 members, di-
vided into 5 sections, with 5 free acad-
demicians, 5 foreign associates, and
30 corresponding members.
Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia, an institution
founded in 1812.
Academy of Political and So-
cial Science, American, an insti-
tution organized at Philadelphia in
1889 and incorporated in 1891.
Academy of Sciences, an insti-
tution founded at Paris, in 1666, by
Colbert and approved by Louis XIV.
in 1699, has now 66 members, in 11
sections, with two perpetual secreta-
ries and 100 corresponding members.
Academy of Sciences and Arts,
American, an academy established
in Boston in 1780 by the Council and
House of Representatives of Massa-
chusetts ; the successor of an institu-
tion founded by Franklin.
Academy of Sciences, The Im-
perial, a Russian institution, found-
ed in St. Petersburg by Catherine I.,
in 1725, and largely endowed by Cath-
erine II.
Academy of Sciences, The Na-
tional, an American institution,
founded in 1863, consisting of 100
members, elected from among the most
distinguished scientific men of the
United States ; analogous to the Roy-
al Society of London.
Academy of Sciences, The Roy-
al, a German institution, in Berlin,
founded by Frederick I., in 1700 ; is
divided into four sections, devoted to
mathematics, physics, philosophy, and
history.
Acadia, a former French colony in
North America, including Nova Scotia
and nearly all of New Brunswick, set-
tled in 1604. It grew so slowly that
it numbered only 900 inhabitants in
1684. When, by the peace of Utrecht
(1713), it was given to the English,
the inhabitants, having refused to take
the oath of allegiance, were ordered
to leave their homes, and 5,000 emi-
grated to Louisiana and Georgia, and
2,000 were transported' and scattered
over New England. The story of their
sorrow is touchingly introduced into
Longfellow's " Evangeline."
Acanthus, the name of three an-
cient cities of Egypt, of Caria and of
Macedonia. The latter is noted for.
COIN OF ACANTHUS.
the canal across the peninsula of Mt
Athos through which Xerxes sailed on
his way to Greece.
Acanthus, a genus of herbaceous
shrubs, order Acanthacese, mostly trop-
ical, two species of which, A. mollis
and A. spinosus (the bears-breech or
brankursine), are characterized by
large white flowers and deeply indent-
ed shining leaves. They are favorite or-
namental plants in gardens. — In archi-
tecture the name is given to a kind of
foliage decoration said to have been
Acapnloo
'suggested by this plant, growing
around a basket, and much employed
in Roman and later styles.
Acapnlco, a seaport of Mexico, on
the Pacific, with a capacious, well-
sheltered harbor ; a coaling station for
steamers, but with no great trade.
Pop. 4,000.
Acclimatization, the process of
accustoming plants or animals to live
and propagate in a climate different
from that to which they are indige-
nous. The numerous varieties which
many species of plants and animals
present are sufficient in any view to
afford considerable scope for adapta-
tion to climate.
Accolade, in heraldry, the cere-
mony by which in mediaeval times one
was dubbed a knight.
Accolti, Bernardo, an Italian
poet (1465-1535. Leo X. esteemed
him highly, and made him apostolic
secretary, cardinal, and papal legate
at Ancona. He drew up the papal
bull against Luther (1520).
Accordion, a well-known keyed
instrument with metallic reeds. The
accordion was introduced into Amer-
ica from Germany about 1828. Im-
provements have been made on it in
the flutina, the organ-accordion, and
the concertina.
Account, in banking, commerce
law, and ordinary language, a regis-
try of pecuniary transactions.
Aceldama, a field purchased by the
Jewish chief priests and elders with
the 30 pieces of silver returned by
Judas. It was used as a place of in-
terment for strangers. The tradition-
ary site is on a small plateau half way
up the southern slope of the valley of
Hinnom, near the junction of the lat-
ter with the valley of Jehoshaphat.
(See Matt, xxvii: 3-10; Acts i: 18.
Acetic Acid, an acid produced by
the oxidation of common alcohol, and
of many other organic substances.
Pure acetic acid has a very sour taste
and pungent smell, burns the skin, and
is poisonous. From freezing at ordi-
nary temperatures (58° or 59°) it is
known as glacial acetic acid. Vinegar
is simply dilute acetic acid. Acetic
acid is largely used in arts, in medi-
cine, and for domestic purposes.
Acetylene, a gas composed of car-
bon and hydrogen, colorless and with
E.3
Achemsia
a disagreeable odor, suggesting garlic.
Subjected to pressure it will liquefy at
a weight of 68 atmospheres. It is best
produced by the action of water on
carbide of calcium, and is used thus in
bicycle lamps. The production of the
gas is attended with considerable risk,
as a too sudden application of water
to the carbide will generate enormous
quantities which is liable to explode
when mixed with air and subjected to
the slightest heat, even rubbing the
vessel in which it is contained being
sufficient to produce an explosion. The
gas is much less poisonous than the or-
dinary illuminating gas, and under
proper conditions can be used as a safe
and cheap illuminant.
Achneans, one of the four races
into which the ancient Greeks were di-
vided. In early times they inhabited
a part of Northern Greece and of the
Peloponnesus. They are represented
by Homer as a brave and warlike
people. A confederacy or league ex-
isted among the twelve towns of this
region.
Achard, Franz Karl, a German
chemist, born in Berlin in 1754. He
devoted himself to the development of
the beet-sugar manufacture, and, after
six years of laborious endeavor, he dis-
covered the true method of separating
the sugar from the plant. He was ap-
pointed director of the class of physics
in the Academy of Science, in Berlin,
and died in 1821.
Achard, Louis Amedee, a French
novelist and publicist, born in 1814.
He died in 1875.
Achates, a friend of JEneas, whose
fidelity was so exemplary that fidus
Achates (the faithful Achates) be-
came a proverb.
Achenwoll, Gottfried, a German
scholar, born in Elbing, Prussia, Oct.
20, 1719 ; became professor at the Uni-
versity of Gottingen, first of philoso-
phy and afterward of law ; is regarded
as the founder of the science of statis-
tics. He died in Gottingen, May 1,
1 T T^.
Acheron, the river of sorrow,
which flowed around the infernal
realms of Hades, according to the
mythology of the ancients.
Acherosia, a lake of Campania,
near Capua. Diodorus mentions that,
in Egypt, the souls of the dead were
Achilles
conveyed over a lake called Acherusia,
and received sentence according to the
actions of their lives. The boat which
carried them was called Baris, and the
ferryman Charon, etc.
Achilles, son of Peleus, king of
the Myrmidons, in Thessaly, and of
Thetis. His mother's desire for his
safety made her try to make him in-
vulnerable when a child by anointing
him with ambrosia, and again by dip-
ping him in the river Styx, from
which he came out proof against
wounds, all but the heel, by which she
held him. He was the bravest of the
Greeks in the Trojan War, in which he
was slain. He is the hero of Homer's
Iliad, and was said to be invulnerable.
Achilles' Tendon, TENDON OF
ACHILLES, the strong tendon which
connects the muscles of the calf with
the heel, and may be easily felt with
the hand. The origin of name will be
understood from the above article.
Achmet Tewfik Pasha, a Turk-
ish statesman, born in 1818, at Con-
stantinople. His father was a Greek
convert ; his mother was a Jewess. In
1877 the Sultan appointed him Presi-
dent of the first Turkish Chamber of
Deputies ; then he became Governor-
General of Adrianople, and showed
himself a stern ruler in the war of
1877. In 1878 he was Premier and
signed the Peace of Santo Stefano.
He died in June, 1891.
Achromatic, in optics, transmit-
ting colorless light, that is, not de-
composed into the primary colors,
through having passed through a re-
fracting medium. A single convex lens
does not give an image free from the
prismatic colors, because the rays of
different color made up of white light
are not equally refrangible, and thus
do not all come to a focus together,
the violet, for instance, being nearest
the lens, the red farthest off. If such
a lens of crown-glass, however, is
combined with a concave lens of flint-
glass — the curvatures of both being
properly adjusted — as the two mate-
rials have somewhat different optical
properties, the latter will neutralize
the chromatic aberration of the form-
er, and a satisfactory image will be
produced. Telescopes, microscopes, &c.,
in which the glasses are thus com-
posed are called achromatic.
Acoustics
Acids, in chemistry, a salt of hy-
drogen in which the hydrogen can be
replaced by a metal, or can, with a
basic metallic oxide, form a salt of
that metal and water. Many organic
acids occur in the juices of vegetables,
some in animals, as formic acid in ants.
Acland, Christina Harriet Car-
oline Fox, daughter of the Earl of
Ilchester, born in 1750; died at Tet-
ten, near Taunton, England, July 21,
1815. Her husband, Major John Dyke
Acland, of the British Army, was cap-
tured with Burgoyne at Saratoga. He
being severely wounded, she joined
him in the American lines, and ten-
derly nursed him. Major Acland was
so touched by the kindness of the
Americans to himself and wife that,
after his return to England he fought
a duel with an officer who spoke in-
sultingly of Americans.
Acne, a genus of skin diseases con-
taining those characterized by pustules,
which, after suppurating imperfectly,
become small, hard, red, circumscribed
tubercles on the skin.
Acolyte, Acolyth, and Acolo-
thist, in the Roman Catholic Church,
one of the inferior orders of the clergy,
whose office it is to attend upon the
deacons and subdeacons in the minis-
try of the altar, to light and hold the
candles, to bear the incense, to present
the priest with wine and water, etc.
Aconite, a plant familiarly known
as the monk's-hood, or wolf's-bane.
Its active principle is aconitine.
Acorn, the well known fruit of the
oak. In the early ages, acorns consti-
tuted a principal part of the food of
man. At present they are used for the
feeding of pigs, etc.
Acosta, Joseph, a Spanish Jesuit,
who, from being a missionary in Peru,
became provincial of his order ; born
at Medina del Campo in 1547 ; died at
Salamanca in 1600. His "History of
the West Indies," first printed in
Spanish, is universally known.
Aconstics, the science of sound.
We are sensible of sound when we are
affected by certain vibrations in the
air or other matter in contact with our
organs of hearing. In ordinary cases
of hearing the vibrating medium is air,
but fishes hear under water, and all
substances that vibrate may be em-
ployed to propagate and conyey sound.
Acre
Actinism
Sound is reflected in a manner anal-
ogous to the reflection of light. When
it is reflected from a plain surface the
reflected sound comes as if it was prop-
agated from a point beyond the sur-
face at a distance equal to the dis-
tance of the real point of propagation
from the surface. Sounds produced
in one focus of a hollow ellipsoid are
reflected to the other focus. Whisper-
ing galleries are instances of the re-
flection of sound to a focus, or to form
sound caustics. Echoes are familiar
instances of reflection of sound. Lens-
es have been formed of collodion filled
with different gases, and by means of
these sound has been refracted in a
manner which is analogous to the re-
fraction of light by glass lenses.
Acre, an American and English
measure of land, containing 4,840
square yards.
Acre, or St. Jean d'Acre, a sea-
port of Syria, formerly called Ptole-
mais ; on a promontory at the foot of
Mount Carmel. This town, capital of
the pashalic of the same name, is fa-
mous for the memorable sieges it has
sustained.
Acropolis, the high part of any
ancient Greek city, usually an emi-
nence overlooking the city, and fre-
quently its citadel. Notable among
such citadels were the Acropolis of
Argos, that of Messene, of Thebes, and
of Corinth, but pre-eminently the Ac-
ropolis of Athens, to which the name
is now chiefly applied.
Acrostic, a poetical composition,
disposed in such a manner that the
initial letters of each line, taken in or-
der, form a person's name or other
complete word or words.
Act, in dramatic language, a por-
tion of a play performed continuously,
after which the representation is sus-
pended for a little, and the actors have
the opportunity of taking a brief rest.
Acts are divided into smaller por-
tions called scenes. (See Shakespeare
throughout.)
In parliamentary language, an ellip-
sis for an act of congress, legislature,
etc.
In law: (1) Anything officially done
by the court. (2) An instrument in
writing for declaring or proving the
truth of anything. Such is a report, a
certificate, a decree, a sentence, etc.
In bankruptcy, an act, the commis-
sion of which, by a debtor, renders him
liable to be adjudged a bankrupt.
Act of Settlement, an act of the
Parliament of England in 1701, vest-
ing the hereditary right to the English
throne in Sophia, Electress of Han-
over, and her Protestant descendants,
constituting the source of the sover-
eignty of the house of Hanover or
Brunswick, the present ruling line.
Act of Supremacy. (1) An act
of the Parliament of England, in 1534,
by which the king was made the sole
and supreme head of the Church of
England. (2) A re-enactment of the
above, with changes, in 1559.
Act of Toleration, an act of the
reign of William and Mary, granting
freedom of religious worship, under
certain comparatively moderate con-
ditions, to all dissenters from the es-
tablished Church of England, except
Roman Catholics and persons denying
the Trinity.
Act of Uniformity. (1) An act
of the Parliament of England (1559),
adopting a revised liturgy for the
Church of England, entitled "An Act
for the Uniformity of Common Prayer
and Service in the Church, and Admin-
istration of the Sacraments." (2) An
act of Parliament (1662), requiring
that the revised Book of Common
Prayer and Ordination of Ministers,
and no other, should be used in all
places of public worship and be assent-
ed to by clergymen. By this test more
than 2,000 non-conforming clergymen
were ejected from their churches.
Acta Sanctorum, or Martyrnm,
the collective title given to several old
writings, respecting saints and mar-
tyrs in the Greek and Roman Catholic
Churches, but now applied especially
to one extensive collection begun by
the Jesuits in the 17th century.
Actinic Rays, rays capable of
producing chemical decomposition, as
in photography, in the coloring of
flowers and fruit. All ether waves,
from all sources and of all lengths,
may now be considered as actinic, some
substances being decomposed by cer-
tain wave lengths and other substances
by different wave lengths.
Actinism, the chemical principle
of light. Three distinct principles ema-
Actimn
nate from the sun — light, heat, and
actinism. Numerous examples of the
effects of their influence occur daily,
which are erroneously attributed to
the light which we see. Itjs actinism
which fades colors, bleaches linen, rots
fabrics, tans the human skin, puts out
the fire, and performs the operations of
photography. It acts principally by
abstracting oxygen from the bodies
which it affects. There may be actin-
ism without light, or vice versa. Yel-
low glass transmits the latter, but
Btops the former. Dark blue glass,
which transmits but little light, is
quite pervious to actinism. Blue ob-
jects reflect great quantities of it,
while red or yellow ones reflect but
little or none. The electric and lime
lights give out great quantities of ac-
tinism from their blue tinge ; and gas
and candles but very little, from their
yellow color. The amount of actinism
received from the sun differs consider-
ably, according to the time of year,
being at its maximum about the end of
March, and gradually diminishing un-
til the end of December, when it ar-
rives at its minimum. Actinism, in
large quantities, is necessary to the
proper condition of the human system.
Actiuni, a promontory on the W.
coast of Greece, jutting out on the
N. W. extremity of Acarnania, not far
from the entrance of the Ambracian
Gulf (Gulf of Arta), at present called
La Punta. It is memorable on ac-
count of the naval battle fought here
between Antony and Octavianus Sept.
2, 31 B. 0., ending in victory for Octa-
vianus.
Actor, in the drama, one who rep-
resents some part or character on the
stage.
Acts of the Apostles, the fifth
book of the New Testament. It con-
tains a narrative of the achievements
of the leading apostles, and especially
of St. Paul, the greatest and most suc-
cessful of them all. Its author was
St. Luke (compare Luke i : 1-4 with
Acts i: 1), who was Paul's companion
from the time of his visit to Troas.
(Acts xvi : 8-11) to the period of his
life, when he penned the second epis-
tle to Timothy (II Tim. iv : 11).
Adab. See UD-NUN-KI.
Adalbert, a great German eccle-
siastic, born of a noble family about
1000 ; was appointed Archbishop of
Bremen and Hamburg in 1045, and
papal legate to the North in 1053. He
soon extended his spiritual sway over
Scandinavia, and carried Christianity
to the Wends. He died at Goslar.
March 16, 1072.
Adam and Eve, the names of the
first pair of human beings in the ac-
count of the creation given in the book
of Genesis. Adam is strictly a generic
name, applicable to both man and
woman, as used in the book of Genesis,
but it came to be a proper name, used
with the article, as in chapters ii, iii,
and iv. The origin of the name is un-
certain, but is usually connected with
the Hebrew root Adam, "to be red."
It is often derived from Adamah, "the
ground," but this is taking the simpler
from the more developed form.
Adam, Juliette (Miue. Edmond
Adam, ne'e Lamber), a French jour-
nalist and author of many works ;
born Oct. 4, 1836 ; editor of the "Nou-
velle Revue" (the organ of the Ex-
treme Republicans), which she found-
ed in 1879. Her second husband, Ed-
mond Adam, was a prominent politi-
cian ; became a life senator, and died
in 1877. She retired from journalism
in 1899.
Adam's Apple, in botany (1)
the name given by Gerarde and other
old authors to the plantain tree, from
the notion that its fruit was that sin-
fully eaten by Adam in Eden. (2)
The name given, for the same reason,
to a species of citrus.
In anatomy, a protuberance on the
fore part of the throat, formed by the
" os hyoides." The name is supposed to
have arisen from the absurd popular
notion that a portion of the forbidden
fruit, assumed to have been an apple,
stuck in Adam's throat when he at-
tempted to swallow it.
Adam's Peak, a mountain in the
middle of the island of Ceylon. It is
a resort of Moslem and Buddhist pil-
grims, and also notable on account of
an upright shadow which it casts, ap-
parently projected on vapor. Height,
7,420 feet.
Adams, Abigail, wife of John
Adams, second President of the United
States; ".orn at Weymouth, Mass.,
Nov. 23, 1744. Her letters, contain**
Adams
in "Familiar Letters of John Adams
and His Wife, Abigail Adams, during
the Revolution," evince keen political
sagacity, and throw valuable light upon
the men and the public affairs of the
time. She died at Quincy, Mass., Oct.
28, 1818.
Adams, Brooks, an American es-
sayist and politician, born at Quincy,
Mass., 1848. He is the son of Charles
Francis Adams, and a lawyer by pro-
fession. Besides contributions to mag-
azines, he has written "The Emanci-
pation of Massachusetts" (1887), and
"The Law of Civilization and Decay."
Adams, Charles, an American his-
torical and religious writer, born in
New Hampshire in 1808 ; was a Meth-
odist clergyman. He died in 1890.
Adams, Charles Francis, an
American statesman, born in Boston,
Aug. 18, 1807 ; was candidate for Vice-
president in 1848, twice elected to
Congress, was Minister to England
from 1861 to 1868, and member of the
Geneva Arbitration Commission of
1871. His chief literary work was
"Life and Works of John Adams" ( 10
vols., 1850-1856), his grandfather. He
also edited the writings of his father,
John Quincy Adams. He died in Bos-
ton, Nov. 21, 1886.
Adams, Charles Francis, Jr, an
American soldier and writer, born in
Boston, May 27, 1834. He graduated
from Harvard in 1856, served in the
Civil War from 1861 until 1866 when
he retired with the brevet rank of
brigadier-general in the regular army.
After 1874 he chiefly gave attention
to historical and financial questions,
everything he published attracting
widespread attention. He was presi-
dent of the Union Pacific Railroad un-
til 1890, and was regarded as one of
the chief living authorities on railroad
matters. He died March 20, 1915.
Adams, Charles Kendall, an
American educator and historian, born
at Derby, Vt., Jan. 24, 1835; died,
July 26, 1902. After graduating from
the University of Michigan in 1861, he
studied abroad, and after holding vari-
ous professorships, became president of
Cornell University in 1885. In 1892,
he became President of the University
of Wisconsin. He was editor of John-
ston's Encyclopaedia.
Adams
Adams, Henry, an American his-
torian, born in Boston, Mass., Feb. 16,
1838 ; grandson of J. Q. Adams. He
was for some time editor of the "North
American Review," and Professor of
History In Harvard College. His
principal work is the "History of the
United States from 1801 to 1817."
Adams, John, 2d President of the
United States ; born in Braintree,
Mass., Oct. 19, 1735. He was educat-
ed at Harvard and adopted the law as
a profession. His attention was di-
rected to politics by the question which
began to excite the colonies as to the
right of the English Parliament to im-
pose taxation upon them, and he took
up a position strongly opposed to the
claims of the mother country. In 1765
he published in the Boston "Gazette"
some essays, which were reprinted in
London in 1768, under the title of "A
Dissertation on Canon and Feudal
Law," the subject really treated in
which was the government of the colo-
nies and the rights of the colonists,
In 1774 he was chosen a delegate from
Massachusetts to the 1st Continental
Congress. On his return he was ap-
pointed a member of the Provincial
Congress, which had already begun to
take aggressive measures against the
home government. In 1775 he again
attended the Continental Congress at
Philadelphia, in which he set himself
in determined opposition to all at-
tempts at reconciliation with the home
government, and succeeded in persuad-
ing Congress to take means of national
defense. To secure the good-will of
Virginia he proposed Washington for
the command of the army. Next ses-
sion he was appointed a member of
committee on naval affairs and drew
up the regulations which still form the
basis of the American naval code. At
the beginning of 1776 he accepted the
post of chief-justice of Massachusetts,
but he soon after resigned the ap-
pointment. He published at this time
"Thoughts on Government, applicable
to the Present State of the American
Colonies," in which he supported self-
government by the different colonies
with confederation. He seconded the
motion for a declaration of independ-
ence proposed by Richard Henry Lee
of Virginia, and was appointed a mem-
ber of committee to draw it up, He
Adams
was a signer of the Declaration.
He was also appointed a member of the
Committee on Foreign Relations. He
was next appointed chairman of the
board of war and ordnance, a position
which he held for 18 months. Near
the end of 1777 he was sent to France
on a special mission, and for 10 years
he resided abroad as representative of
his country in France, Holland, and
England. He succeeded in negotiating
various loans with Holland, and after
taking part in the peace negotiations
was appointed, in 1785, the first min-
ister of the United States to the court
of St. James. He was recalled in 1788
and elected Vice-President of the re-
public under Washington. In 1790 he
published "Discourses on Davila," in
which he opposed the principles of the
French revolution. In 1792 he was
reflected Vice-President, and at the
following election he became President.
The country was then divided into two
parties, the Federalists, who favored
aristocratic and were suspected of
monarchic views, and the Republicans.
Adams adhered to the former party.
Hamilton did his utmost with his own
party to prevent the election of Ad-
ams, and his term of office proved a
stormy one, which broke up and dis-
solved the Federalist party. His re-
election was again opposed by Hamil-
ton, which ended in effecting the
return of the Republican candidate
Jefferson. Living to a great age he be-
came, as one of the last survivors of
the Revolution, a hero to the following
generation. In 1820 he became a mem-
ber of a State convention to revise the
constitution of Massachusetts. He died
July 4, 1826, on the 50th anniversary
of the Declaration of Independence,
and on the same day as Jefferson.
Adams's works were ably and care-
fully edited by his grandson Charles
Francis Adams.
Adams, John Quincy, 6th Presi-
dent of the United States, son of John
Adams, 2d President ; born in Brain-
tree, Mass., July 11, 1767. In his llth
year he accompanied his father on his
first embassy to France, and was
placed at school near Paris. He re-
turned with his father in about 18
months, but soon went back to Europe,
and attended school in Holland and at
the University of Leyden. At the age
Adams
of 15 Francis Dana, his father's secre-
tary of legation, who had been ap-
pointed on a diplomatic mission to
Russia, took him with him as his pri-
vate secretary. After 14 months' stay
in Russia he traveled back alone
through Sweden and Denmark to The
Hague. Soon after his father's ap-
pointment as ambassador at London
he returned home to complete his
studies. He graduated at Harvard in
1788, entered the office of Theophilus
Parsons, and in 1791 was admitted to
the bar. He now began to take an
active interest in politics. He wrote
a series of letters to the Boston "Sen-
tinel" under the signature of "Publi-
cola," in reply to Payne's "Rights of
Man," and in 1793 defended Washing-
ton's policy of neutrality under the
signature of "Marcellus." These let-
ters attracted attention, and in 1794
Washington appointed him minister to
The Hague. In 1798 he received a
commission to negotiate a treaty of
commerce with Sweden. On the acces-
sion of Jefferson to the presidency he
was recalled. The Federalist party
had still sufficient influence in Massa-
chusetts to elect him to the Senate in
1803. On the question of embargo, he
abandoned his party. Having lost his
reelection on this account, be immedi-
ately resigned his seat and retired to
the professorship of rhetoric at Har-
vard, which he held from 1806 to 1809.
On the accession of Madison he was
appointed (1809) ambassador to Rus-
sia. He assisted in negotiating the
peace of 1814 with England, and was
afterward appointed resident minister
at London. On the accession of Mon-
roe to the presidency he was offered
and accepted the post of Secretary of
State, and at the expiration of Mon-
roe's term of office he succeeded him
in the presidency (1825). In 1831 he
was returned to Congress by Massa-
chusetts,, and represented that State
till his death, Feb. 21, 1848.
Adams, Julius "Walker, an
American civil engineer, born in Bos-
ton, Mass., Oct. 18, 1812 ; took part of
the course at the United States Mili-
tary Academy ; was Colonel of the
G7th New York Volunteers in the Civil
War ; and was the pioneer engineer ol
the East River bridge. He died Dec.
13, 1899.
Adams
Adelsberg
Adams, Maude, an American act-
ress, born at Salt Lake City, Nov. 11,
1872; daughter of an actress who was
leading woman of a stock company in
that city, under the stage name of Ad-
ams. At 16 years of age Miss Adams
joined B. H. Sothern's company in the
" Midnight Bell ; " afterward she was I
in Charles Frohman's stock company,
and later supported John Drew. She
made a great success in J. M. Barrie's
" Little Minister " in 1899-1900.
Adams, Oscar Fay, an American
compiler and miscellaneous writer,
born in Worcester, Mass.
Adams, Samuel, an American
statesman and Revolutionary patriot,
born at Boston, Mass., in 1722. He
was elected to the Massachusetts legis-
lature in 1765, was a delegate to the
first Continental Congress in Philadel-
phia, and a signer of the Declaration!
of Independence. He was active ^in:
framing the constitution of his native j
state, which he served as President!
of the Senate, Lieutenant-Governor !
(1789-1794), and Governor (1794-!
1797). He was zealous for popular
rights, and fearless in his opposition to
monarchism. He died in 1803.
Adams, Sarah Flower, an Eng-
lish hymn-writer ; born at Great Har-
low, Essex, Feb. 22, 1805. In 1834
she was married to William Bridges
Adams, a noted inventor. She wrote
many lyrics and hymns, the most pop-
ular of which is " Nearer, My God, to
Thee." She died in August, 184&
Adams, "William Taylor, an
American author and editor, best
known by the pseudonym " Oliver Op-
tic ; " born July 30, 1822. He was a
voluminous and highly popular writer
of fiction for young readers, his works
including several series of travel and
adventure. He died March 27, 1897.
' Addams, Jane, an American phi-
lanthropist, born in Cedarville, 111.,
Sept. 6, 1860. She was graduated at
Rockford College in 1881, and after
post-graduate studies in Europe and
the United States, became an active
social reformer. She inaugurated in
1889 the establishment known as Hull
House, an adaptation of the " social
settlement " plan to Chicago condi-
tions. She has acted as street clean-
ing inspector in Chicago, and has lec-
tured on the improvement of the con-
dition of the poor in great cities. In
1909 she became president of the Na-
tional Conference on Charities and
Correction, and in 1917 was chairman
of the Woman's Peace Party. Notable
publications : "Democracy and Social
Ethics" (1902), and "A New Con-
science and an Ancient Evil" (1911).
Addison, Joseph, an English es-
sayist, son of the Rev. Lancelot Addi-
son, subsequently dean of Lichfield ;
born at his father's rectory, Milston,
Wiltshire, May 1, 1672. Died at Hol-
land House, June 17, 1719. He was
one of England's greatest writers.
Beside the independent efforts of his
own he aspired to be a judge and cen-
sor of the literary productions of oth-
ers, and he was, perhaps, beyond any
man of his day, well qualified for the
task. Certainly his judgments had
less force and perhaps less depth than
Johnson's, but they had much more
breadth, harmony, and completeness,
were woven with more art into a sys-
tem depending on theoretical princi-
ples, and were delivered with a grace
and eloquence of which the oracular
moralist was no master. If his system
was somewhat shallow, it had probably
the merit of directing attention more
to criticism, and preparing the way
for better and more philosophic stan-
dards of appreciation. Addison was
buried in Westminster Abbey.
Ade, George, an American jour-
nalist and author, born in Kentland,
Ind., Feb. 9, 1866. He has published
ftbles, etc., and is a popular writer.
Adee, Alvey Augustus, Second
Assistant Secretary of State of the
United States since 1886, born in As-
toria, N. Y., Nov. 27, 1842 ; appointed
Secretary of Legation at Madrid,
1870; Chief of Diplomatic Bureau,
1878; Third Assistant Secretary of
State, 1882; Second Assistant Secre-
tary of State, 1886. Appointed Secre-
tary of State ad interim to fill vacan-
cy, Sept. 17 to Sept. 29, 1898; was
acting Secretary of State during a
critical period of the Chinese troubles
in Aug. and Sept. 1900.
Adelsberg, a town of Austria-
Hungary, remarkable for stalactical
caves in its vicinity. The principal
Adelnng
one, in the mouth of which the Poik
disappears in a vast chasm, extends to
the distance of two or three miles, and
is found to terminate in a lake. After
proceeding 200 yards into it a vast
gloomy space, called the Dome, form-
ing a hall 3*00 feet long by 100 feet
high, is entered. The river is heard
rushing below, and on crossing it by a
wooden bridge and ascending a flight
of steps cut in the rock, a series of
lofty halls, supported by gigantic con-
cretions resembling lofty Gothic col-
umns, and apparently filled with stat-
ues of exquisite whiteness and delicacy,
meets the view.
Adelnng, Joliann Christoph, a
German philologist and lexicographer ;
born in Spantekow, Aug. 8, 1732. His
life was devoted to an exhaustive in-
vestigation of his native language,
which he traced to its remotest origins
with a patience and a thoroughness
that have remained unsurpassed. He
died in Dresden, Sept. 10, 1806.
Aden, a peninsula and town be-
longing to Great Britain, on the S. W.
coast of Arabia, 105 miles E. of the
strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the entrance
to the Red Sea. The peninsula is a
mass of volcanic rocks, 5 miles long
from E. to W., and rising to 1,776
feet. It is joined to the mainland by
a narrow, level, and sandy isthmus.
The town is on the eastern shore of the
peninsula, stands in the crater of an
extinct volcano, and is surrounded by
barren, cinder-like rocks. Frequently
the heat is intense ; but the very dry,
hot climate, though depressing, is un-
usually healthy for the tropics. It has
a garrison and strong fortifications,
and a population of over 41,000.
Adirondack Mountains, the
highest range in New York State,
covering an area of about 12,500
square miles, and occupying parts
of Clinton, Essex, Franklin, and
Hamilton counties. These mountains,
the geological formation of which are
chiefly granite, run in five parallel
ranges; the highest range, or Adiron-
dack proper, is on the E. side of the
district, and the peaks rise to a great
height Mt. Marcy is 5,345 feet ; Gray
peak, 4,900 feet; White Face, 4,870
feet, etc. This whole district, some-
times called the Adirondack Wilder-
ness, is covered with dense forests, ex-
Administration
cept the tallest peaks, and some of
these forests are still unexplored. The
1,000 lakes in the valleys beautifully
diversify the scenery.
Adirondack Park, a large district
principally forest land, set apart by
the State of New York, in 1892, for
the protection of the watershed of the
Hudson and other rivers of the State,
for public recreation, and for the prac-
tical study of forestry. It covers
Hamilton county, and parts of Essex,
Franklin, Herkimer and St. Lawrence
counties, and contains many moun-
tains and lakes. Area, 4,387 square
miles.
Adjutant, in military language, in
the United States army, an officer se-
lected by the colonel, whose duties in
respect to his regiment are similar to
those of an adjutant general with an
army. Adjutant general : the principal
organ of the commander of an army in
publishing orders. The same organ of
the commander of a corps, or depart-
ment, is styled assistant adjutant gen-
eral. The adjutant general has charge
of the drill and discipline of the army.
Adjutant Bird, a large grallato-
rial or wading bird of Asia belonging
to the stork family.
Adler, Felix, an American lecturer
and scholar, born at Alzey, Germany,
1851. The son of an eminent Jewish
rabbi, he emigrated when young to the
United States, where, and at Berlin
and Heidelberg, he was educated. Af-
ter being for some time professor at
Cornell University, he founded in New
York (1876) the Society of Ethical
Culture, of which he is lecturer. Sim-
ilar societies have been established
elsewhere in the United States and in
other countries. He is an effective
writer and speaker. He has published
"Creed and Deed" (1878); "The
Moral Instruction of Children "
( 1892) . In June, 1902, he was called
to the newly-created professorship of
social and political «thics in the de-
partment of philosophy in Columbia
University.
Adler, Hermann, a German writ-
er, born in Hanover, May 29, 1839.
He has lived most of his life in Eng-
land, having been, since 1891, Chief
Rabbi of the British Empire.
Administration, in law, the man-
agement of the personal estate of any-
'Admiral
one dying intestate, or without an
executor. The word is also applied to
the official terms of the President of
the United States, and the Governors
of States, mayors, etc., and to their
official advisers.
Admiral, the title of the highest
rank of naval officer. In 1917 the
United States navy had on the active
list one admiral and twenty-four rear-
admirals and on the retired list
seventy-four rear-admirals. After the j
declaration of war against the Im- |
perial German Government many re- j
tired rear-admirals were recalled to
active service.
Admiralty Island, a mountain-
ous island, 90 miles long, off the W.
coast of Alaska, to the N. E. of Sitka ;
belongs to the United States.
Admiralty Islands, a group of
40 islands, to the N.E. of New Guinea ;
Basco, the largest of them, being 60
miles in length, and is mountainous,
but fruitful. The total area of the
islands is 878 square miles. Together
with New Britain and some adjoining
groups, they were annexed by Ger-
many, in 1885, and now form part of
the Bismarck Archipelago.
Adobe, the name given in south-
western America to sun-dried bricks,
and the structures built of them.
Adonai, a Hebrew name for the
Supreme Being; a plural form of
Adon, "lord," combined with the pro-
noun of the first person. In reading
the Scriptures aloud, the Jews pro-
nounce "Adonai" wherever the old
name "Jhvh" is found in the text,
and the name Jehovah has risen out
of the consonants of "Jhvh," with the
vowel points of Adonai.
Adonis, a pheasant's eye. A genus
of plants so called because the red
color of the species made them look as
if they had been stained by the blood
of Adonis. It is a beautiful plant,
with bright, scarlet flowers, and hav-
ing very markedly composite leaves,
with linear segments. Plants of this
genus are easily cultivated.
Adoption, the act of taking a
stranger into one's family, as a son or
daughter; or the taking of a person, a
society, etc., into more intimate rela-
tions than formerly existed with an-
other person or society ; or the taking
Adrian IV.
as one's own, with or without acknow-
ledgment, an opinion, plan, etc., orig-
inating with another ; also the selecting
one from several courses open to a
person's choice.
Adrian, or Hadrian, Publins
JElins, a Roman emperor, born at
Rome, 76 A. D. Entering the army
quite young, he became tribune of a
legion, and married Sabina, the heiress
of Trajan, whom he accompanied on
his expeditions, and became successive-
ly praetor, governor of Pannonia, and
consul. On Trajan's death, in 117, he
assumed the government, made peace
•with the Persians, and remitted the
debts of the Roman people. In his
reign, the Christians underwent a
dreadful persecution. He built a tem-
ple to Jupiter, on Mount Calvary, and
placed a statue of Adonis in the
manger of Bethlehem ; he also had im-
ages of swine engraved on the gates
of Jerusalem, all of which acts indi-
cate a contempt for Christianity. Ad-
rian died at Baiae, in 139.
Adrian I., Pope, born at Rome;
succeeded Stephen III. in 772. Adrian
died after a pontificate of nearly 24
years, 795.
Adrian II., born at Rome; suc-
ceeded Nicholas I. in the papal chair
in 867. He had been married, and
had a daughter by his wife Stephania,
from whom he afterward separated in
order to live in celibacy. During the
pontificate of Adrian, Photius, Patri-
arch of Constantinople, withdrew from
the Church of Rome, from which time
the schism between the Greek and
Latin Churches dates, which continues
to this day. Adrian died in 872, and
was succeeded by John VIII.
Adrian IV., the only Englishman
who was ever raised to the dignity of
the papal chair, succeeded Anastasiua
IV. in 1154. His name was Nicholas
Breakespere; and for some time he
filled a mean situation in the monas-
tery of St. Albans. Being refused the
habit in that house, he went to France,
and became a clerk in the monastery
of St. Rufus, of which he was after-
ward chosen abbot. Eugenius III.
created him cardinal, in 1146, and, in
1148, made him legate to Denmark
and Norway, which nations he con*
verted to the Christian faith. When
nominated pope, he granted to Henry
Adrianople
1 1. a bull for the conquest of Ireland.
In 1155, be excommunicated tbe King
of Sicily; and, about the same time,
the Emperor Frederic, meeting him
near Sutinam, held his stirrup while
he mounted his horse. Adrian took
the Emperor with him, and conse-
crated him King of the Romans, in
St. Peter's church. The next year the
King of Sicily submitted, and was ab-
solved. Died, supposed of poison, in
1159.
Adrianople, the third city in what
was European Turkey, on the naviga-
ble Maritza (ancient Hebrus), 198
miles by rail W. N. W. of Constanti-
nople ; pop. over 80,000. The city was
the seat of the Ottoman sultanate in
1366-1453, and contains the most mag-
nificent Moslem temple extant — that
of the Sultan Selim. It has been con-
spicuous in warfare several times. See
APPENDIX: World War.
Adriatic Sea, a large arm of the
Mediterranean Sea, extending, in a
N. W. direction, between the E. coast
of Italy and the W. coast of the Bal-
kan peninsula.
Adulteration, a term applied to
the fraudulent mixture of articles of
commerce, food, drink, drugs, seeds,
&c., with noxious or inferior ingre-
dients. The chief objects of adultera-
tion are to increase the weight or vol-
ume of the article, to give a color
which either makes a good article more
pleasing to the eye or else disguises
an inferior one, to substitute a cheap-
er form of the article, or the same
Bubtances from which the strength has
been extracted, or to give it false
strength. Laws against the practice
have existed since the 13th century;
it is forbidden in civilized countries.
Advent, a term applied to cer-
tain weeks before Christmas. An-
ciently, the season of Advent con-
sisted of six weeks, and this is
still the duration of it in the
Greek Church. In the Roman Cath-
olic Church, however, and in the
Protestant Churches that observe Ad-
vent, it only lasts four weeks, begin-
ning with the Sunday nearest St. An-
drew's Day (Nov. 30), either before
or after.
Adventists, a sect in the United
States, founded by William Miller,
ind sometimes called Millerites, which
believed that Christ's second coming
would occur in October, 1843. When
their hopes were not realized, the num-
ber of believers decreased. The Ad-
ventists still look with certainty for
the coming of Christ, but not at a
fixed time. They are now divided into
the following bodies : Evangelical, Ad-
vent Christian, Seventh Day, Church
of God, Life and Advent Union, and
Churches of God in Jesus Christ. The
following table gives a summary of the
various Adventist Churches in the
United States as reported in 1916 in
the "Bulletin of Church Statistics" for
the previous year :
Com-
Minis- itiuni-
Denominations ters Churches cants
1. Evangelical 8 18 481
2. Advent Christian. 566 637 28,990
3. Seventh Day 552 1,987 73,343
4. Church of God... 34 22 800
6. Life and Advent
Union 12 12 509
6. Churches of God
in Jesus Christ. 61 66 2,224
Total Adventists.. 1,233 2,742 106,347
Advocate. (1) Originally one
whose aid was called in or invoked;
one who helped in any business mat-
ter; (2) In law, at first, one who
gave his legal aid in a case, without,
however, pleading.
Now, in English and American law,
one who pleads a cause in any court,
civil or criminal. It is not, properly
speaking, a technical word, but is used
only in a popular sense, as synony-
mous with barrister or counsel.
In the army the judge-advocate is
the officer through whom prosecutions
before courts-martial are conducted.
There is also a judge-advocate-general
for the army at large.
.ZEdile, in ancient Rome magis-
i trates who had charge of public and
I private buildings, of .aqueducts, roads.
I sewers, weights, measures, the national
worship, and, specially when there
were no censors, public morality.
.ZEgean Sea, the old name of the
gulf between Asia Minor and Greece,
now usually called the Grecian Archi-
| pelago.
.Xgina, a Greek island about 40
i square miles in area, in the Gulf of
Aeronautics
JEgis, the shield of Zeus, which had
been fashioned by Hephaestus (Vul-
can). It was the symbol of divine
protection.
JEneas, a Trojan prince, the hero
of Virgil's great epic.
JEneid, one of the great epic poems
of the world. It was written in Latin
by Virgil, and published after his
death, which took place about 16 B. c.
JEolian Harp, a harp played by
yEolus — in other words, by the wind.
It is made by stretching strings of cat-
gut over a wooden sound-box.
-?£olus, the god ef the winds, who
was fabied by the early poets to have
his seat in the floating island of
^Colia ; but the Latin and later Greek
poets placed him in the Lipari isles.
JEpinns, Francis Maria Tllric
Theodore, a distinguished electrician,
who was the first to see the affinity
between magnetism and electricity in
its full extent. Born at Rostock, Ger-
many, in 1724 ; died at Dorpat, in Li-
vonia, in 1802.
Aerodynamics, the science which
treats of the force exerted by air when
in motion.
Aeronautics, the art of aerial
navigation by ballooning and aviation.
Ballooning involves the use of a bag-
like receptacle which is made in vari-
ous shapes, of silk or other material,
rendered impervious by a coating of
rubber, linseed oil or suitable varnish,
and inflated with hydrogen, coal-gas,
or other gaseous matter, specifically
lighter than air. Aviation discards
anything in the shape of a balloon
and utilizes aeroplanes or lifting and
sustaining surfaces, with apparatus
heavier than air. Aerostation or
aerostatics, the science of weighing
air, has, somewhat erroneously become
a synonym for aeronautics.
The first form in which the idea of
aerial locomotion, naturally suggested
itself was that of providing men with
wings, and the myths of Daedalus and
Icarus show that the attempts of man
to soar above the earth commenced in
prehistoric times. A wooden pigeon
which sustained itself in the air for a
few minutes is recorded as having
been invented by Archytas of Taren-
tum, 400 years B. c. Suetonius states
that Simon Magus was killed in Rome
during the reign of Nero by attempt-
ing to fly from one house to another.
Friar Roger Bacon (1214-94) con-
structed a machine consisting of a
pair of hollow copper globes, ex-
hausted of air, which could rise in the
air supporting a man seated on a
chair. In the 13th century, Elmerus,
a monk, is said to have flown more
than a furlong from the top of a tower
in Spain. Father Francesco Lana
(1631-87), an Italian physicist, de-
scribes an ingenious but impracticable
flying machine. Giovanna Batista
Dante, a mathematician of Perugia,
made several flights above Lake
Thrasimene by means of artificial
wings attached to the body, near the
close of the 15th century, but dis-
continued them after an accident. In
the 17th century, Besnier, a locksmith
of Sable, France, prudently began to
laap from one story windows, and at
last ventured safely on flights from ele-
vated positions, passing over houses,
and over rivers of considerable breadth,
Bishop Wilkins, Sir George Caylay
end others, towards the end of the
18th century, busied themselves with
speculation and experiments on the
subject of aviation.
Henry Cavendish, about 1766, dis-
covered the great levity of hydrogen
gas — slightly over 14 times less than
that of atmospheric air — and the fol-
lowing year Dr. Black, of Edinburgh,
announced in his lectures that a thin
bladder, filled with this gas, must
ascend into the air. Cavallo made the
requisite experiments in 1782, and
found that a bladder was too heavy,
paper not air-tight, but that soap-bub-
bles filled with hydrogen rose to the
ceiling of the room, where they burst.
The first successful balloon was made
by the Montgolfier brothers, sons of
Peter Montgolfier, a paper manufac-
turer of Annonay, France. It was
a parallelepiped or six-sided bag of
silk, containing 40 cubic ft. ; inflated
with hot air from burning paper it
rose to a height of 36 ft. The broth-
ers, after seeing a petticoat sail to the
ceiling when left to dry by a fire, had
conceived the idea that a bag filled
with a cloud-like substance, such as
smoke, would float in the air. Larger
machines were constructed with great-
er success in ascension, a straw fire,
fed by chopped wool from time to
LATEST TYPES OP A
1 — School machine in flight.
2 and 3 — Inside views at an aeroplane factory.
4 — Biplane ready to take flight.
Copyright U. & U.
IRICAN AEROPLANES
5 — American warplanes on the French front.
6 — Speedy biplane with 135 H.P. motor.
7 — U. S. officers inspecting aeroplanes at a training camp.
Aeronautics
time, being kindled under the aper-
ture of the balloon to produce the
smoke cloud ; the true cause of ascen-
sion, the rarefaction of the heated
air, was not discovered till a later
period. The Montgolfier successes led
to Charles' experiments with hydrogen
gas. Within a short time several cap-
tive ascents by human beings were
successfully made in heated air bal-
loons, and on Nov. 21, 1783, Pilatre
de Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes
made the first independent aerial ex-
pedition rising 3,000 ft. and descending
safely, though not without being ex-
posed to considerable danger, 9,000 ft.
from their starting point. Ten days
later, on Dec. 1, Messrs. Charles and
Roberts ascended in a hydrogen bal-
loon fitted with a safety valve, and
travelled over 31 miles. Over 52 bal-
loon ascents are recorded in 1784.
Blanchard, the first professional aero-
naut, with Dr. John Jeffries of Bos-
ton, crossed the English Channel from
Dover to France, in a heated air bal-
loon, Jan. 1, 1785. On June 14, 1785,
Pilatre de Rozier with Mr. Remain at-
tempted to cross from the French side,
in a combination hydrogen and heated-
air balloon, but the machine caught
fire 3,000 ft. in the air and both men
were killed. The disaster was caused
through unfortunate negligence and
the cause of aeronautics did not suffer.
The parachute (q. v.) was invented by
Garnerin, who first made a descent
Oct. 22, 1797.
Following these early experiments,
among notable ascensions during the
19th century taken in the interests of
science were those of Messrs. Robert-
son and Lhoest in 1803-04, of Gay
Lussac and Biot in 1804, of Carlo
Brioschi and Andreani in 1806, of
Green, the English aeronaut, with
Messrs. Holland and Mason in 183G,
of Bixio and Barral in 1850, of Messrs.
Glaisher and Coxwell in 1862, when
they reached a height of 7 miles, and
of Messrs. Camille Flammarion, W.
de Fonvieville, and Gaston Tissandier,
1867-69. In July, 1859, Mr. John
Wise, the American aeronaut with
Mr. John La Mountain and two
others made a remarkable journey
from St. Louis, Mo., to Henderson in
Jefferson Co., N. Y., a distance of
1,150 m., in 19 h. 50 m., or at an aver-
age speed of nearly a mile a minute.
Aeronautics
Since the beginning of the 20th cent,
this has been exceeded onlv by Count
de la Vaulx's flight of 1,200 m. from
Paris to Russia.
Regular balloon corps are attached
to the armies of leading nations, and
in their interests numerous attempts
have been made to construct dirigible
balloons. Gaston and Albert Tissen-
dier achieved some success in 1884,
but the first notable dirigible flight
was that of Col. Renard on Apr. 9,
1884, when, in a cigar-shaped balloon,
with a powerful motor and a front
screw, he left Chalais-Meudqn, and re-
turned to his starting .point in 23 min-
utes after describing an oblong course
of five miles. Since then aerial navi-
gation has developed along the lines
of dirigible balloons and motor aero-
planes.
Two new forms of air-craft were
developed practically during 1913,
viz : the hydro-aeroplane, an aero-
plane capable of rising from the sur-
face of water with the aid of a float-
ing device, and the flying-boat, a com-
bination of a speed motor-boat that
can be operated as slowly as two
miles an hour or as rapidly as
fifty miles, to which is attached a
standard aeroplane. The apparatus
can be used on the water, in the air,
and, with an equipment of wheels, on
the ground, with equal ease and sur-
prising speed, and it quickly gave birth
to a new and exhilarating sport —
yachting in the air.
Owing to the commandeering of air-
craft and the enlistment of aviators for
military service in all the belligerent
armies, competitive aviation was so
restricted that from the outbreak of
the World War the International
Aviation Federation accepted no rec-
ords as claimed.
In 1915 many improvements were
made in air-craft, the better to fit the
various types for use as engines of
war. Their speed and carrying capac-
ity were greatly increased so that they
could convey more men and also bombs
and machine guns.
In the United States the Congress
passed an act, approved July 18, 1914,
creating an aviation section of the
signal corps to be composed of 60
captains and first lieutenants and 260
enlisted men. The act provided for an
increase in the pay of military avia-
Aeronautics
Aeronautic*
tors of 75 per cent., of juniors of 50
per cent., and of students of 25 per
cent. Enlisted men were required to
take part at regular periods in aerial
flights.
The Army Appropriation Act of Aug.
29, 1916, appropriated $13,000,000 for
the extension of the aerial service, and
plans which had been previously for-
mulated for extending the service were
further enlarged by the passage of the
act of July 24, 1917, appropriating
$640,000,000 for the construction of
air craft. This latter action, it is to
be noted, was taken after the United
States had entered the war (April 6,
1917).
The task of construction was speed-
ily undertaken in various sections of
the country, aviation schools were es-
tablished, American inventors made
many contributions to the effectiveness
of the latest types of foreign machines,
and experienced instructors from
France and England aided in the
training of the American airmen. As
rapidly as construction and instruc-
tion permitted machines and men were
hurried to the battle-fronts of France,
the first contingent being designated
the Lafayette Escadrille.
The war was still young when the
Germans inaugurated Admiral Von
Tirpits's "campaign of frightfulness,"
by bombing English coast sections from
Zeppelins and other types of craft,
killing inoffensive non-combatants,
and destroying property that should
have been immune, without gaining
any military advantage whatever.
Later the entente belligerents began
retaliating in kind, seeking, how-
ever, bases of supplies and munition
works.
No more terrible exposition of aero-
nautic warfare can be found than in
the record of six days in March, 1918,
viz:
March 9. Ten or twelve squadrons
of German bombing aircraft raided
Paris, killing 13 persons and wounding
50.
March 10. British army aviators
raided motor and munition factories
and other objectives at Stuttgart, Ger-
many, dropping over one and a quarter
tons of bombs.
March 11. Germans raided Naples,
Italy, without damage of a military
character, a hospital and private dwell-
ings chiefly being injured.
British made daylight raid on
Mainz, Germany, with but slight casu-
alties.
March 12. Nine squadrons of
German craft, aggregating nearly 60
units, attacked Paris ; 34 persons
killed, 79 injured, 66 suffocated while
in a refuge.
British aviators dropped a ton of
bombs on Coblenz, Prussia.
German Zeppelins made night raid
on eastern coast of England and
dropped bombs on Hull.
British dropped over thirteen and a
half tons of explosives on various tar-
gets at Mons and Bavay, on large
ammunition depots northeast of St.
Quentin, and on billets east of Lens,
and 7 tons of bombs on billets between
Lille and Cambrai.
March 13. British dropped 3 tons
of bombs on docks at Bruges.
March 14. Zeppelins made night
raid on northeast coast of England.
British airplanes attacked German
munition works and barracks at Frei-
burg, dropping nearly 10 tons of
bombs.
For a concise record of bombing
raids by airplanes from the beginning
of the war to the end of 1917 see
APPENDIX : World War.
A noteworthy feature of the pacific
side of aeronautics was the provision
for an aeroplane mail service between
New York, Philadelphia, and Wash-
ington, scheduled for inauguration
about May 15, 1918.
Excluding the records of phenome-
nal achievements in war air-flights
and of most courageous operations in
France by American aviators, the fol-
lowing shows the most notable of
recent records :
Oct. 6, 1908. Wilbur Wright, in
France, made first flight of more than
1 h. with a passenger.
Oct. 30, 1908. Farman, in France,
made first cross-country flight, 20
miles in 17 m.
July 25, 1909. Louis BleYiot made
first flight across English Channel in
31 m.
Aug. 28, 1909. Glenn H. Curtiss,
at Rheims, won first Gordon-Bennett
Aviation Cup, by 12.42 miles in 15
m. 501 s.
Oct. 19, 1909. Count Charles de
Lambert made first flight over a city,
at Paris, rounding the Eiffel Tower at
height of nearly 1,500 feet, making
Aeronautics
Aeronautics
journey of 50 kilometers in as many
minutes.
Jan. 7, 1910. Hubert Latham, at
Mourmelon, France, broke height rec-
ord with 3,600 feet.
Jan. 11, 1910. Curtiss, at Los An-
geles, Cal., broke record flight with
passenger, 55 miles an hour.
April 19, 1910. Louis Paulhan, at
Rheims, made new cross-country aero-
plane record, 130 miles.
April 28, 1910. Paulhan won $50,-
000 prize for flight from London to
Manchester, Eng., 185 miles, in 3 h.
56 m.
May 29, 1910. Curtiss won $10,-
000 prize for flight from Albany to
Governor's Island, N. Y., 150 miles, in
2 h. 32 m. ; also making both an
American cross-country record and
the world's speed record for such
flights.
June 2, 1910. Sir Charles S. Rolls
made first round-trip flight across
English Channel without stop, 42
miles in 90 m. He was killed in a
flight, July 12, following.
June 22, 1910. Count Zeppelin
opened the first regular airship pas-
senger service with his "Deutsch-
land," and carried 20 passengers from
Friedrichshaven to Diisseldorf, 300
miles, in 9 h. On the 28th the air-
ship was wrecked in a gale.
July 7, 1910. Latham broke pre-
vious height record with over 5,000
feet.
July 7, 1910. M. Olieslagers, at
Rheims, made new world's endurance
record, 158 miles without stop, in 2 h.
35 m. 30 s.
July 9, 1910. M. Labouchere, at
Rheims, made world's record for dis-
tance, 211.14 miles, in 4 h. 37 m. 45 s.
July 9, 1910. Leon Morane, at
Rheims, made new speed record, 6.20
miles, in 5 m. 27 s.
July 9, 1910. Walter Brooking, at
Atlantic City, N. J., broke world's
record for height, 6,100 feet.
July 15, 1910. J. Armstrong Drexel,
at Bournemouth, Eng., made an over-
sea flight of 21 miles in 34 m., and
Morane covered the distance in 25 m.
Aug. 11, 1910. Drexel, at Lanark,
Scotland, made height of 6,750 feet.
Sept. 23, 1910. Chavez crossed the
Alps between Switzerland and Italy
and died from injuries, 27th.
Oct. 15, 1910. Walter Wellman,
with five others, attempted to cross
the Atlantic from Atlantic City, N.
J., in the dirigible balloon "America,"
but was compelled by storm to
abandon the balloon off Cape Hat-
teras on the 18th, having been in the
air nearly 72 hours and covered about
850 miles.
Oct. 17-19, 1910. Alan R. Haw-
ley and Augustus Post, in balloon
"America II," made record for sus-
tained flight, from St. Louis, Mo., to
Chicoutimi county, Quebec, Canada,
about 1,350 miles.
Oct. 29, 1910. Grahame-White, at
Belmont Park, won the Bennett cup,
beating world's speed record for 100
kilometers (62.1 miles) in •€! m.,
4 74-100 s.
Oct. 31, 1910. Ralph Johnstone, at
Belmont Park, made biplane height
record, 9,714 feet ; was killed in flight
at Denver, Nov. 17.
Nov. 7, 1910. Phil O. Parmelee
made fastest cross-country flight and
was the first to carry freight : Dayton
to Columbus, O., 65 miles in 65 m.
Nov. 23, 1910. Drexel. at Phila-
delphia, Pa., claimed height of 9,970
feet, world's record ; claim rejected
by Aero Club, but accepted by U. S.
Weather Bureau.
Dec. 9, 1910. M. Legagneux, at
Pau, France, in monoplane, made
height of 10,499 feet ; world's record.
Dec. 10, 1910. Captain Bellanger,
French Army Aviation Corps, broke
speed records, Vincennes to Mour-
melon, 100 miles, in 70 m.
April 12, 1911. Prier flew from
London to Paris (251 miles) in 2 h.
56 m. with stop.
Aug. 2, 1911. Vedrines, from Lon-
don to Dieppe to Paris (267 miles)
in 3 h. 50 m.
Dec. 2, 1911. Prevost, with one
gassenger, made altitude flight at
ourcy, France (9,840 ft.).
Feb. 17, 1912. Tabuteau broke the
world's record for 2 hours' flight by
covering a distance of 227 kilom. 454
metres (141^ miles).
March 14, 1912. Salmet flew from
London to Paris (222 miles) in 2 h.
57 m., taking this short route with-
out stop.
July 27, 1912. H. E. Honeywell
won American National Champion-
ship balloon race from Kansas City,
914 m.
Aeronautics
Afghanistan
Aug. 15, 1912. R. E. Scott, late U.
S. A., won Michelin bomb-dropping
contest, France.
Sept. 9, 1912. Jules Vedrines
(France) won international contest
for Bennett Cup, Chicago ; average
speed, 105.03 m. per h.
Oct. 6, 1912. Pierre Daucourt
(France) made new world record
for single-day cross-country flight,
570 miles, in 8 h. 48 m.
Oct. 27, 1912. World's distance
record broken in balloon race for
Bennett Cup, Stuttgart, Bienaine of
France covering 1,364 miles, Le
Blanc of France, 1,240, and Watts of
U. S., 1,000.
Feb. 9, 1913. H. Faller made dura-
tion record with five passengers, Ger-
many, 1 h. 10 m. 17 s.
March 11, 1913. J. Perreyon alone
made height record, France, 19,600
ft. ; and June 3, made similar record
with one passenger. 16,270 feet.
March 19-21, 1913. E. Rumpel-
mayer made balloon distance record,
Lamotte-Voltchy-Iar, 1,503 miles.
April 15, 1913. F. Champel made
duration record with four passengers,
over circuit, France, 3 h. 1 m. 17 s.
Sept. 29, 1913. M. Prevost won
international contest for Bennett
Cup, Rheims, France, average speed,
101.82 miles per h.
Dec. 22. 1913. German military
officer made balloon flight of 1,740
miles in 87 h.
Feb. 11, 1914. M. Parmelin
(France) made flight over Mont
Blanc from Geneva, Switzerland, to
Aosta, Italy, rising to height of 17,384
ft.
June 24, 1914. Walter S. Brock
(U. S.) won race from London to
Manchester and return, 322 m. in 4
h. 42 m. 26 s.
July 11, 1914. Walter S. Brock
won race from London to Paris and
return, 502 m. in 7 h. 3 m. 6 s.
Reinhold Boehm (Ger.) set endur-
ance record at Johannisthal, Ger-
many, at 24 h. 12 m., covering 1,350
m.
July 14, 1914. Seinrich Oebreich
(Ger.) made altitude flight at Leipsic,
reaching 24,606 ft.
July 27, 1914. Achillo Laudini
(It.), with passenger, crossed the
Monte Rosa range of the Alps from
Novara, Italy, to Visp, Switzerland, at
elevation of over 15,000 ft., in about
3 h.
Oct. 8, 1914. Capt. H. L. Muller
(U. S. A.) made altitude flight at San
Diego, Cal., reaching 17,441 ft.
April 30, 1916. Theodore Mac-
Cauley (U. S.), in hydroplane with
6 passengers, remained in the air 1 h.
10 m. 51 s., traveled 85 m., and as-
cended 950 ft., at Newport News.
Nov. 2, 1916. Victor Carlstrom
(U. S.), in military biplane in attempt
to fly from Chicago to New York that
was interrupted by engine trouble,
traveled 652 m. in 6 h. 7^ m., and
made 480 m. between Chicago and
Erie, Pa., without a stop in 4 h. 1 m.
Nov. 19, 1916. Miss Ruth Law (U.
S.) flew from Chicago to Hornell,
N. Y., 590 m., without a stop ; then
went on to Binghamton, N. Y., making
967 m. in 8 h. 26 m.
Aug. 29, 1917. Capt. G. Laureami
made flight from Turin to Naples and
return, 920 m., in 10 h. 33 m.
Oct. 22, 1917. Lieut. A. Baldioli
made cross-country run between Nor-
folk, Va., and Mineola, L. L, 330 m.,
in 2 h. 55 m.
Afghanistan, the land of the Af-
ghans, a country in Asia, bounded
on the E. mainly by India, S. by
Baluchistan, W. by Persia, and N. by
the Russian Transcaspian territory,
Bokhara and the Russian Pamir
territory ; length about 560, breadth
about 450 miles ; area about 225,000
square miles ; pop. about 5,000.000.
The inhabitants belong to different
races, but the Afghans proper form
the great mass of the people. These
call themselves Pushtaneh or Pukta-
neh, Afghans being the Persian
name._ ^They^ are an Iranic race, and
are divided into a number of tribes,
nmpng which the Duranis and
Ghilzais are the most important, the
latter being the strongest of all the
tribes. A tradition, evidently mod-
ern and legendary, gives them an
Israelitish origin. The Afghans are
bold, hardy, and warlike, fond of
freedom and resolute in maintaining
it, but of a restless, turbulent tem-
per, and much given to plunder.
The boundary between Afghanistan
and British India was long uncertain,
but in 1893 an arrangement was come
Africa
Africa
to between the Ameer Abdur-Rah-
man, and Sir Mortimer Durand.
The boundary then agreed on was
demarcated shortly afterward and
is so drawn as to leave Chitral,
Bajaur, Swat, Chilas, and Wazir-
istan to Great Britain, while Af-
ghanistan is given the territories of
Asmar, Birmal, and Kafiristan. The
Ameer's annual subsidy was also in-
creased from 12 to 18 lacs, and restric-
tions on the import of arms, etc., were
removed. Abdur-Rahman died in Ka-
bul, Oct. 3, 1901. He was succeeded
by his son, Habibulla Khan, who was
said to be more friendly to Russian
influence than his father was, a fact
which for a time excited much anxiety
in Great Britain.
Africa, one of the three great di-
visions of the Old World, and the
third in area of the five continents,
lies nearly due S. of Europe and S.
W. of Asia. It is of a compact form,
being nearly equal at its extreme
points in length and breadth. The N.
section of the continent, however, has
an average breadth of nearly double
the S. This great change of form
arises mostly from the greater pro-
jection of the upper part toward the
W., and the transition on this side
from the broad to the narrow section
is effected suddenly by an inward turn
of the W. coast, which faces S. for
nearly 20° of longitude, forming the
Gulf of Guinea, the greatest indenta-
tion of the coast.
Africa is united to Asia at its N. E.
extremity by the Isthmus of Suez,
now crossed by a great ship canal.
From this point the coast runs in a
W. and somewhat N. direction to the
Strait of Gibraltar, the point of great-
est proximity to Europe. This N.
coast forms the S. shore of the Med-
iterranean Sea, and brings all the N.
countries of Africa into close proxim-
ity with the European and Asiatic
countries lying contiguous to that
great ocean highway, which formed
the chief medium of communication
between the principal divisions of the
ancient world.
The center of Africa possesses an
exuberant tropical vegetation. The
open pastoral belt at the extremities
of the tropics is distinguished by a
rich and varied flora. A special char-
acteristic of the vegetation of the S.
extremity of Africa is the remarkable
variety, size, and beauty of the heaths,
some of which grow to 12 or 15 feet,
in the fertile parts of Nubia.
The fauna of Africa is extensive
and varied, and numerous species of
mammals are peculiar to the conti-
nent. According to a common view of
the geographical distribution of ani-
mals, the N. of Africa belongs to the
Mediterranean sub-region, while the
rest of the continent forms the Ethi-
opian region. Africa possesses nu-
merous species of the order quadru-
mana (apes and monkeys), most of
which are peculiar to it. They abound
especially in the tropics. The most
remarkable are the chimpanzee and
the gorilla. The lion is the typical
carnivore of Africa. Latterly he has
been driven from the coast settlements
to the interior, where he still reigns
king of the forest. There are three
varieties, the Barbary, Senegal, and
Cape lions. The leopard and pan-
ther rank next to the lion among car-
nivora. Hyenas of more than one
species, and jackals, are found all
over Africa. Elephants in large herds
abound in the forests of the tropical
regions, and their tusks form a prin-
cipal article of commerce. These are
larger and heavier than those of
Asiatic elephants. The elephant is
not a domestic animal in Africa as it
is in Asia. The rhinoceros is found,
like the elephant, in Middle and
Southern Africa. Hippopotami abound
in many of the large rivers and the
lakes. The zebra and quagga used to
abound in Central and Southern Af-
rica, but the latter is said to be now
entirely extinct Of antelopes, the
most numerous and characteristic of
the ruminating animals of Africa, at
least 50 species are considered pecu-
liar to this continent, of which 23
used to occur in Cape Colony. The
giraffe is found in the interior, and is
exclusively an African animal. Sev-
eral species of wild buffaloes have
been found in the interior, and the
buffalo has been naturalized in the
N. The camel, common in the N. as
a beast of burden, has no doubt been
introduced from Asia. The horse and
the ass (onager) are natives of Bar-
bary. The cattle of Abyssinia and
Bornu have horns of immense size,
hut extremely light In Barbary and
Africa
the Cape of Good Hope the sheep are |
broad-tailed; in Egypt and Nubia
they are long-legged and short-tailed.
Goats are in some parts more nu-
merous than sheep. The ibex breed ex-
tends to Abyssinia. Dogs are numer-
ous, but cats rare, in Egypt and
Barbary.
There is a marked distinction be-
tween the races in the N. and E. of i
the great desert and those in the Cen-
tral Sudan and the rest of Africa and I
the S. The main elements of the
population of North Africa, including
Egypt and Abyssinia, are Hamitic
and Semitic, but in the N. the Ham- i
ite Berbers are mingled with peoples !
of the same race as those of prehis-
toric Southern Europe, and other
types of various origins, and in the
E. and S. E. with peoples of the negro
type. The Semitic Arabs are found
all over the N. region, and even in
the Western Sahara and Central Su-
dan, and far down the E. coast as
traders. The Somalis and Gallas are
mainly Hamitic. In the Central Su-
dan and the whole of the country
between the desert and the Gulf of
Guinea the population is pure negro
— people of the black, flat- or broad-
nosed, thick-lipped type, with narrow
heads, woolly hair, high cheek-bones,
and prognathous jaws. Scattered
among them are peoples of a probably
Hamitic stock. Nearly the whole of
the narrow S. section of Africa is in-
habited by what are known as the
Bantu races, of which the Zulu or
Kaffir may be taken as the type.
The languages of the Bantu peoples
are all of the same structure, even
though the physical type vary, some
resembling the true negro, and others
having prominent noses and compara-
tively thin lips. The Bushmen of
South Africa are of a different type
from the Bantu, probably the remains
of an aboriginal population, while the
Hottentots are apparently a mixture
of Bushmen and Kaffirs. Scattered
over Central Africa, mainly in the
forest regions, are pigmy tribes, who
are generally supposed to be the re-
mains of an aboriginal population.
The bulk of the inhabitants of Mada-
gascar are of Malay affinities. The
total population is estimated at about
175.000,000.
As regards religion, a great pro*
portion of the inhabitants are heath-
ens of the lowest type. Mohamme-
danism possesses a large number of
adherents in Northern Africa and
is rapidly spreading in the Sudan.
Christianity prevails chiefly among
the Copts of Egypt, the Abyssinians,
and the natives of Madagascar, the
latter having been converted in recent
times. Elsewhere the labors of the
missionaries have also been attended
with promising success. Over a great
part of the continent, however, civil-
ization is at a low ebb, and in the
Kongo region cannibalism is exten-
sively prevalent. Yet in various re-
gions the natives who have not come
in contact with a higher civilization
show considerable skill in agriculture
and various mechanical arts, as in
weaving and metal working.
Political Divisions. — By diplomatic
arrangements, mainly since 1884,
great areas in Africa were allotted to
Great Britain, France, Germany, Por-
tugal, Belgium, and Italy, as being
within their respective spheres of in-
fluence, in addition to colonial pos-
sessions proper. The areas claimed
by the European powers prior to the
outbreak of the World War were esti-
mated as follows: France, 4,000,000
square miles ; Great Britain, 2,700,-
000; Germany, 1,000,000; Portugal,
825,000 ; Kongo Free State, 900,000 ;
Italy, 200,000; Spain, 80,000. In
1910 the former British colonies of
Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal, and
Orange River were federated as prov-
inces in a Union of South Africa, with
Gen. Louis Botha as the first premier,
and the seat of the executive govern-
ment at Pretoria and the legislative
at Cape Town. Other British colonies
are Lagos, Gold Coast, Gambia, Sier-
ra Leone, and Mauritius. Egypt and
Tripoli were long under Turkish rule,
but Tripoli became an Italian colony
in 1912, and Egypt a British protec-
torate in 1914. The Kongo Free State
now belongs to Belgium. Abyssinia
and Morocco are the chief native
African independent States. Germa-
ny lost to the British, German South-
west Africa in 1915, Kameroon coun-
try in 1916, and German East Africa
also in 1916.
Commercial Conditions. — The an-
nual commerce of Africa amounts to
over $700,000,000, of which $429,000,-
Agamemnon
|000 represents the value of the im-
foorts. Necessarily in so large an area
Vith so many tribes and peoples who
keep no records of their transactions,
a considerable amount of commerce
.must pass without being recorded in
|any way.
Railroad development in Africa has
!been rapid in the past few years and
seems but the beginning of a great
system which must contribute to the
rapid development, civilization, and
enlightenment of the " Dark Conti-
nent." Already railroads run N. from
Cape Colony about 1,500 miles and S.
from Cairo about 1,200 miles, thus
completing 2,700 miles of the proposed
'* Cape to Cairo " railroad, while the
intermediate distance is about 3,000
miles. At the N. numerous lines skirt
the Mediterranean coast, especially in
the French territory of Algeria and
lin Tunis, aggregating Lbout 2,500
miles; while the Egyptian railroads
•are, including those under construc-
tion, about 1,500 miles in length.
Those of Cape Colony are over 3,000
miles in length, and those of Portu-
guese East Africa and the Transvaal
are another 1,000 miles in length. In-
cluding all of the railroads construct-
ed or under actual construction, the
total length of African railways is
nearly 12,500 miles, or half the dis-
!tance around the earth. A large pro-
portion of the railways thus far con-
structed are owned by the several
colonies or states which they traverse,
about 2,000 miles of the Cape Colony
system and nearly all of that of Egypt
belonging to the state.
That the gold and diamond mines
Jof South Africa have been and still
;are wonderfully profitable is beyond
^question. The Kimberley diamond
.mines, about 600 miles from Cape
Town, now supply 98 per cent, of the
diamonds of commerce, though their
existence was unknown prior to^ 1867,
and the mines have thus been in op-
eration but about 30 years. It is esti-
mated that $350,000,000 worth of
rough diamonds, worth double that
sum after cutting, have been produced
from the Kimberley mines since their
opening in 1868-1869, and this enor-
mous production would have been
greatly increased but for the fact that
the owners of the various mines there
formed an agreement to limit the out-
E. 4. '
Agapemone
put so as not to materially exceed
the world's annual consumption.
Equally wonderful and promising
are the great Witwatersrand gold
fields of South Africa, better known
as the Johannesburg mines. Gold
was discovered there in 1883, and in
1898 before the Boer War, which
temporarily suspended work, the an-
nual yield had reached over $55,000,-
000. Since the opening of the 20th
century, the development of the prin-
cipal European colonies has progressed
more rapidly than previously, not-
withstanding the Herreros war in Ger-
man S. W. Africa, and the maladmin-
istration of the Congo Free State. The
projection of railroads into the inte-
rior from seaboard towns, many to
eventually connect with the Cape to
Cairo route, is a powerful factor in
internal development. On that line, at
the great Victoria Falls of the Zambesi
River, a cantilever bridge, 560 ft. long,
built across the gorge by the American
Cleveland Bridge Co., was opened in
1905. Works, costing $3,000,000,
develop electric power at the falls and
operate railroads, copper and coal
mines, within a radius of 600 miles.
Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and
Argos, son of Atreus and Eriphyle,
brother of Menelaus and commander-
in-chief of the Grecian army at the
siege of Troy. Returning from Troy,
Agamemnon was treacherously mur-
dered by his wife; who, during his
absence, had formed an attachment
with ^Egisthus, son of the noted Thy-
estes. This catastrophe is the sub-
ject of the " Agamemnon " of JEschy-
lus, one of the most sublime composi-
tions in the range of the Grecian
drama.
Agana, town and seat of adminis-
tration of Guam, the largest of the
Ladrone Islands, ceded by Spain to
the United States after the war of
1898. It is an important naval and
cable station, between San Francisco
and Luzon in the Philippines.
Agape, a love feast, a kind of feast
held by the primitive Christians in
connection with the administration of
the sacred communion.
Agapemone, the name given by the
Rev. Henry James Prince, a clergy-
man who seceded from the English
Church, to a religions society founded
Agassis
on the principle of a community of
goods, which he established at Char-
linch, near Taunton, England, in
1845. New attention was called to
this sect in September, 1902, when J.
H. Smyth Piggott, successor to Prince,
publicly declared in the church of the
sect at Clapham, near London, that
he, in his own person, was Christ,
who had come again, and was received
as such by his congregation. An
angry mob sought to attack him, but
he was protected by the police.
Agassiz, Alexander, an Ameri-
can zoologist and geologist, son of J.
L. R. Agassiz, born in Neuchatel,
Switzerland, Dec. 17, 1835. He came
to the United States with his father
in 1849 ; graduated from Harvard in
1855 ; and received the degree of B. S.
from the Lawrence Scientific School
in 1857. In 1859 he went to Cali-
fornia as assistant on the United
States Coast Survey. From 1860 to
1865 he was assistant curator of the
Museum of Comparative Zoology at
Harvard University ; and, from 1860
to 1869, superintendent of the Calu-
met and Hecla mines, Lake Superior.
On the death of his father in 1873, he
was appointed curator of the Museum
of Comparative Zoology, holding that
position until he resigned in 1885. In
1900 he completed a series of deep sea
explorations for the United States
government. His chief works are
r'List of Echinoderms" (1863);
" Exploration of Lake Titicaca "
(1875-1876) ; "Three Cruises of the
Blake" (1880). He died at sea.
March 28, 1910.
Agassiz, Jean Louis Rodolplie,
a Swiss naturalist ; born in Motier,
Switzerland, May 28, 1807. In 1846
he came to the United States on a
lecturing and exploring tour. The
professorship of zoology and geology
in Harvard College was offered him in
1847, and as he had previously been
offered the use of the United States
survey vessels for exploring purposes
he accepted the offer. While at Har-
vard he wrote several volumes, some
of which were of a popular nature,
but most of them were devoted to
scientific research.
Among his more important works
were : " Principles of Zoology," in
connection with Dr. A. Gould (1848) ;
" Lake Superior, its Physical Char-
Agave
acter" (1850); "Contributions to
the Natural History of the United
States " (4 vols. 1857-1862) ; " Zo-
ulogie Gene-rale" (1854); "Methods
of Study in Natural History "
(1863). His contributions to the de-
velopment of the principles of natural
science in his special departments are
very numerous and of high authority.
In 1855 he was enabled by the liber-
ality of Nathaniel Thayer to make,
for the sake of his failing health, a
long-contemplated voyage to Brazil.
He was accompanied by his wife, who
wrote an account of the voyage. In
1871 he visited the S. shores both of
the E. and of the W. coast of North
America. After some years of un-
successful efforts to get a government
marine station established, he was en-
abled by private munificence to fit up
one on Penekese Island in Buzzard's
bay. Agassiz's last work was the or-
ganization of this establishment, ol
which he wrote an account in 1873
to the British Association. He died
in Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 14, 1873.
His widow, ELIZABETH CAEY AGAS-
SIZ, was born in Boston, Mass., in
1823; died June 27, 1907. She closely
identified herself with her husband's
scientific work, accompanying him on
many of his travels, and supplement-
ing his researches with her own lit-
erary work. Probably she will be best
remembered for her early agitation
for the collegiate education of women,
and as the president of the Harvard
Annex, now Radcliffe College, from
its institution till November, 1899,
when she resigned. Mrs. Agassiz pub-
lished " Louis Agassiz ; His Life and
Correspondence," and was joint au-
thor, with Alexander Agassiz, of
"Seaside Studies in Natural History."
Agate, a mineral classed by Dana
as one of the cryptocrystalline vari-
eties of quartz, some of the other min-
erals falling under the same category
being chalcedony, carnelian, onyx,
hornstone, and jasper.
Agave, an extensive genus of
plants. The best-known species is the
American aloe, called maguey by the
Mexicans. Its hard and spiny leaves
form impenetrable hedges. The fiber
makes excellent cordage. The expressed
juice is employed as a substitute for
soap; also manufactured into a cider-
Age
like liquor, called pulque by the Mexi-
cans.
Age, any period of time attributed
to something as the whole, or part,
of its duration ; as the age of man, the
several ages of the world, the golden
age.
Ageda, the name of a plain, 90
miles from Buda, where the Jewish
rabbis held a meeting, in 1650, to de-
bate whether the Messiah had come ;
the question was decided in the nega-
tive.
Agesilaus, King of Sparta (397-
3GO B. c.), was elevated to the throne
chiefly by the exertions of Lysander.
He was one of the most brilliant sol-
diers of antiquity. He died in his
84th year.
Agincourt, now Azinconrt, a
email village in the center of the
French department of Pas-de-Calais,
celebrated for a bloody battle between
the English and French, Oct. 25,
1415. The battle lasted three hours,
and was a signal victory for the Eng-
lish, due mainly to the archers.
Agnew. Cornelius Rea, an
American physician, born in New
York, Aug. 8, 1830 ; Professor of Dis-
eases of the Eye and Ear in New
York College of Physicians and Sur-
geons. He was a graduate of Colum-
bia College, and later studied in Eu-
rope ; was surgeon-general of the
State of New York at the beginning
of the Civil War, when he became
medical director of the New York
State Volunteer Hospital. As mem-
ber of the United States Sanitary
Commission, he contributed largely to
its success. In 1868, he founded the
Brooklyn Eye and Ear Hospital. He
was interested in the public schools of
New York ; became founder of the
Columbia College School of Mines,
and, in 1874, one of the trustees of
the college. His writings are chiefly
monographs on diseases of the eye and
ear. He died April 8, 1888.
Agnew, David Hayes, an Amer-
ican surgeon and medical writer, born
Nov. 24, 1818; for many years Pro-
fessor of Surgery at the University of
Pennsylvania. He died 1892.
Agnosticism, a word used by
Professor Huxley, to express the
thought, that beyond what man can
know by his senses, or feel by his
Agrarian
higher affections, nothing can be
known. Facts, or supposed facts,
both of the lower and the higher life,
are accepted, but all inferences de-
duced from these facts as to the ex-
istence of an unseen world, or of
beings higher than man, are consid-
ered unsatisfactory, and are ignored.
Agnostics, positivists, and secularists
have much in common, and many peo-
ple exist to whom any one of the three
names might be indifferently applied.
Agouti, a South American animal.
The agoutis live for the most part
upon the surface of the ground, not
climbing nor digging to any depth;
and they commonly sit upon their
haunches when at rest, holding their
food between their forepaws, in the
manner of squirrels. By eating the
roots of the sugar-cane, they are often
the cause of great injury to the plant-
ers. The ears are short, and the tail
rudimentary. The animal is nearly 2
feet long. It is found in Guiana,
Brazil, Paraguay, and some of the
Antilles. It feeds voraciously on veg-
etable food.
Agra. (1) A former division of
British India; now a part of the
United Provinces of Agra and Oudh;
area, 83,198 square miles ; pop. (1911)
34,624,040. (2) The capital of Agra
district, on the right bank of the
Jumna, 139 miles S. E. of Delhi, by
rail, and 841 miles N. W. of Cal-
cutta. The city is considered espe-
cially sacred through Vishnu's incar-
nation there as Parasu Rama. Pop.
(1911) 185,449.
Agrarian, as adjective (1) gener-
al, pertaining to fields or lands; (2)
special, pertaining to laws or cus-
toms, or political agitation in connec-
tion with the ownership or tenure of
land.
The agrarian laws, in the ancient
Roman republic, were laws of which
the most important were those carried
by C. Licinius Stolo, when tribune of
the people, in B. c. 367. The second
rogation, among other enactments,
provided (1) that no one should oc-
cupy more than 500 jugera (by one
calculation, about 280, and by an-
other, 333, acres) of the public lands,
or have more than 100 large and 500
small, cattle grazing upon them ; (2)
that such portion of the public lands
above 500 jugera, as was in possession
Agricola
Agricnltnral College*
of individuals should be divided
among all the plebeians, in lots of
seven jugera, as property; (3) that
the occupiers of public land were \
bound to employ free laborers, in a
certain fixed proportion to the extent
of their occupation. When, at a later |
period, efforts were made to revive the j
Licinian rogations, such opposition
was excited that the two Gracchi lost
their lives in consequence, and this,
with their other projects, proved
abortive. It is important to note
that the land with which the Licinian,
or agrarian, laws dealt was public
land, belonging to the State, and not,
as is popularly supposed, private prop- j
erty. The homestead laws of the
.United States are inspired by a pur-
pose similar to the old Roman agrarian
agitation — the distribution of lands
among the people. " Agrarian " in
Germany is the name of a political
party which seeks to secure special
protection for agricultural products.
Agricola, Cnaeus Julius, Roman
statesman and general, born in 37 :
A. D. He went to Britain in 77 A. D., |
strengthened the Roman power, and
extended it to the Scotch Highlands.
He died in 93.
Agricola, John, a polemical
writer of celebrity, born at Eisleben,
Saxony, in 1492 ; died at Berlin, in
1566. From being the friend and
scholar, he became an antagonist, of
Martin Luther. He entered into a
dispute with Melanchthon, advocating
the doctrine of faith in opposition to
the works of the law, whence the sect
of which he became leader received
the name of Antinomians.
Agricola, Rudolphus, the fore-
most scholar of the " New Learning,"
in Germany, was born near Gron-
ingen, in Friesland, Aug. 13, 1443.
His real name, ROELOF HUYSMANN
(husbandman), he Latinized into Ag-
ricola ; and from his native place he
was also called Frisius, or Rudolf of
Groningen. He died at Heidelberg,
Oct. 28, 1485.
Agricultural Chemistry, that
department of chemistry which treats
of the composition of soils, manures,
plants, etc., with the view of improv-
ing practical agriculture. The sci-
ence is comparatively young. The
most important bases of agricultural
chemistry to-day are the experimental
stations which are found in agricul-
tural colleges, and in many of the
universities in the United States and
elsewhere. The literature on the sub-
ject is particularly rich.
Agricultural Colleges, educa-
tional institutions, chiefly under gov-
ernment patronage, for the promotion
of scientific farming. In 1862, the
United States Congress passed a so-
called land grant act, by which land
scrip, representing 30,000 acres for
every Senator and Representative, was
issued to the States and Territories,
the object being to provide a special
fund for the creation of State and
Territorial agricultural colleges. The
land granted to the States by the act
of Congress of 1862 amounted to
10,929,215 acres, of which 1,090.924
acres remained unsold in 1916. From
the sale of lands permanent funds
were created amounting to $14.493.441
and yielding an income of $964,579
for the benefit of the colleges. The
total appropriation for the year ended
June 30, 1915, from the U. S.
Treasury in aid of colleges of agri-
culture and the mechanic arts under
the acts of Congress of 1890 and 1907
was $2,500,000, each of the forty-
eight States and the two insular pos-
sessions receiving $50,000. In 1916
there were 52 agricultural colleges for
white students with an enrollment of
114,905, and nineteen for colored
students with an enrollment of 10,070
The property held for the benefit of
the land-grant colleges had a total
value of $171,800,597 in 1915, and th»,
total income from the National ano1
State governments and private funds
was $36,027,005.
Several of the land-grant colleges in
Southern States have established
courses of study in textile industry,
with special reference to the manu-
facture of cotton goods. These insti-
tutions have provided buildings «f
regular cotton-mill design, equipped
with machinery and apparatus for
textile work.
The Act of 1862 was supplemented
by a second (Aug. 30. 1890), so that
under both acts, each State and Terri-
tory having an agricultural college re-
ceives an appropriation annually from
the United States treasury for its sup-
port.
MODERN AGRICUU
I — Tractor and Power Plow in Operation. 2 — Combined Reaper and Thresher
Agrippa
Agriculture, the art of cultivating
the ground more especially with the
plow and in large areas or fields, in
order to raise grain and other crops
for man and beast ; including the art
of preparing the soil, sowing and plant-
ing seeds, removing the crops, and also
the raising and feeding of cattle or
other live stock. This art is the basis
of all other arts, and in all countries
is coeval with the first dawn of civiliza-
tion. At how remote a period it must
have been successfully practised in
Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China we
have no means of knowing. Egypt
was renowned as a wheat country in
the time of the Jewish patriarchs, who
themselves were keepers of flocks and
herds rather than tillers of the soil.
During the Middle Ages agriculture ad-
vanced but slowly, the tools remained
unchanged, and the work was done la-
boriously and by rule of thumb, with-
out thought of scientific methods. The
first treatise on farming in English,
was published in 1534, but it was not
until more than 200 years later that
real progress was made, after the
introduction of clover into English
fields. Potatoes were cultivated in the
16th century, and early in the 17th
the Dutch gave particular attention to
the cultivation of root crops. So each
decade saw some improvement and
growth, but it was not until the devel-
opment of the virgin lands of the
United States called for improved ma-
chinery and methods, that agriculture
advanced with leaps and bounds. Un-
der scientific culture, old lands are re-
claimed and made as fruitful as ever ;
irrigation and the choice of crops j
suited to the soil, bring into profitable
use lands once so hopeless as to be
called desert, and the world's food sup-
ply promises to keep up with the
growth of population.
As a result of the new conditions, to
be a thoroughly trained and competent
agriculturist requires a special educa-
tion, partly theoretical, partly practi-
cal. In particular, no scientific culti-
vator can now be ignorant of agricul-
tural chemistry, which teaches the con-
stituents of the various plants grown
as crops, their relation to the various
soils, the nature and function of differ-
ent manures, &c. In most countries
there are now nsr'cultiirpl schools or
colleges supported by the state. In the
From the beginning of the World
War till July, 1917, when Congress
sanctioned an embargo on the expor-
tation of specified commodities, under
the belief that many shipments to
neutral countries found their way into
Germany, the United States was the
granary of the world. The following
figures, relating especially to the grain
crops in the calendar year 1916, in-
dicate the wonderful resource of the
country in this branch of the agricul-
tural industry :
Corn: Acreage, 105,954.000; pro-
duction, 2.583.241.000 bushels; farm
value, $2,295,783,000.
All wheat: Acreage. 52.785.000;
production, 639,886,000 bushels ; value,
$1,025,765,000.
Oats: Acreage, 41.539,000; pro-
duction, 1,251,992,000 bushels ; value,
$656.179,000.
Barley: Acreage, 7,674,000; pro-
duction, 180,927,000 bushels; value,
$159,534,000.
Rye: Acreage, 3,096,000; pro-
duction, 47,383,000 bushels; value,
$57,857,000.
Buckwheat : Acreage, 845,000 ;
production, 11,840,000 bushels ; value,
$13.364,000.
Flax seed: Acreage, 1,605,000;
production, 15,459,000 bushels ; value,
$38,350,000.
Rice: Acreage, 878,000; produc-
tion, 41,982,000 bushels; value, $37,-
186.000.
Total farm value, $4,284,018,000.
Agriculture, Department of,
an executive department of the United
States Government, established by
Congress in 1889 ; originally a bureau.
It disseminates throughout the United
States, by daily, monthly, and annual
reports, the latest and most valuable
agricultural information, and intro-
duces and distributes new and desir-
able seeds, plants, etc.
Agrippa II., Herod, tetrarch of
Abilene, Galilee, Iturea and Trachon-
itis, born in 27 A. D. During his
reign he enlarged Caesarea Philippi
and named it Neronias, in honor of
Nero. Maintained in his power by
the Romans, he remained faithful to
their interests, and tried to dissuade
the Jews from rebelling. After the
fall of Jerusalem he retired to Rome,
where he died. Before him the Apos-
tle Paul made his memorable defense.
Agne
Ague, an intermittent fever, in
whatever stage of its progress or
whatever its type. A person about to
be seized by it generally feels some-
what indisposed for about a fortnight
previously. Then he is seized with a
shivering fit, which ushers in the cold
stage of the disease. This passes at
length into a hot stage, and it again
into one characteristic of great per-
spiration, which carries off the disor-
der for a time. The remedy is quinine
or some other anti-periodic.
Agnilar, Grace, an English nov-
elist, born at Hackney, June 2, 1816;
was the daughter of Jewish parents of
Spanish origin. She died in Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, Sept. 16, 1847.
Agninaldo, Emilio, a leader in
the Philippine insurrection of 1896, and
their chief in the Spanish-American
War of 1898. He was born at Imus,
in the island of Luzon, in 1870, and
received all the advantages of such
educational facilities as existed in
Manila under the Spanish rule. In
course of time he became mayor of
Cavite Viejo, and because of the inter-
est he took in the troubles of 1896,
was forced to go to Hong Kong, re-
maining there in exile on condition of
a considerable payment by Spain. He
returned in 1898, and succeeded in rais-
ing a revolt against Spain. He or-
ganized a provisional government in
June 1898, of which he became presi-
dent later. During the next year he
attacked the American troops, and aft- |
er many conflicts was captured by a
stratagem, and in 1901 took the oath
of allegiance to the United States and
ceased to be a troublesome factor in
the Philippine problem. He proved
himself to be a man of great cunning,
of marked ability, and of extraordi-
nary personal magnetism.
Aliasuerns, a King of Persia, the
husband of Esther, to whom 0 the
Scriptures ascribe a singula^ deliver-
ance of the Jews from extirpation,
which they commemorate to this day
by the annual feast of Purim.
Ahmedabad, (better Ahmadabad) ,
chief town of a district in Guzerat,
India, second among the cities of the
Province of Bombay. Pop. 148,412.
Aliriman, a Persian deity, the de-
mon or principle of evil, the principle
of good being Oromasdes or Ormuzd.
Air-engine
Al, a species of sloth, with three
toes, on each foot, in this respect dif-
fering from the unau, which has but
two. It extends from Brazil to Mexico.
Ailantlius, Aliantus, or Alian-
thus, a tree introduced into the Uni-
ted States in 1784. During the first
half-dozen years it outstrips almost
any other deciduous tree, the leading
stems grow 12 or 15 feet in a single
season. In four or five years, there-
fore, it forms a bulky head, but after
that period it advances more slowly.
The odor of ailanthus trees is disgust-
ing to many persons, and for this rea-
son they are not so much in favor as
when first introduced.
Ainu, or Aino, the name of an un-
civilized race of people inhabitating the
Japanese island of Yezo, as also Sag-
halien, and the Kurile Islands, and be-
lieved to be the aboriginal inhabitants
of Japan. They do not average over 5
feet in height, but are strong and ac-
tive. They have matted beards 5 or 6
inches in length, and black hair which
they allow to grow till it falls over
their shoulders. Their complexion is
dark brown, approaching to black.
They worship the sun and moon, and
pay reverence to the bear. They sup-
port themselves by hunting and fishing,
Air, the gaseous substance of which
our atmosphere consists, being a me-
chanical mixture of 79.19 per cent, by
measure of nitrogen and 20.81 per
cent, of oxygen. The latter is abso-
lutely essential to animal life, while
the purpose chiefly served by the nitro-
gen appears to be to dilute the oxygen.
Oxygen is more soluble in water than
nitrogen, and hence the air dissolved
in water contains about 10 per cent,
more oxygen than atmospheric air. The
oxygen therefore available for those
animals which breathe by gills, is very
much diluted with water.
Air-brake. See BRAKE.
Air-engine, an engine in which air
heated, and so expanded, or compressed
air is used as the motive power. They
may be said to be essentially similar in
construction to the steam-engine,
though the expansibility of air by heat
is small compared with the expansion
that takes place when water is con-
verted into steam. Engines working
by compressed air have been found
very useful in mining, tunneling, &C^
Air-gun
and the compressed air may be con-
veyed to its destination by means of
pipes. In such cases .the waste air
serves for ventilation and for reducing
the oppressive heat.
Air-gun, an instrument for the
projection of bullets by means of con-
densed air, generally in the form of
an ordinary gun.
Air-pump, an apparatus by means
of which air or other gas may be re-
moved from an inclosed space ; or for
compressing air within an inclosed
space. An ordinary suction-pump for
water is on the same principle as the
air-pump ; indeed, before water reaches
the top of the pipe the air has been
pumped out by the same machinery
which pumps the water.
Airships. See AERONAUTICS ;
FLYING MACHINE.
Aisne, a river of France in the de-
partment of the same name ; an af-
fluent of the Oise ; scene of a French
defeat in 1915. See APPENDIX : World
War.
Aix-la-Chapelle (Ger. Aachen),
the capital of a district in Rhenish
Prussia, situated in a fertile hollow,
surrounded by heights, and watered by
the Wurm, 39 miles W. by S. of
Cologne. Pop. (1905) 144,095.
Ajaccio, the chief town of the
Island of Corsica, which forms a De-
partment of France. It is the hand-
somest city of Corsica, and the birth-
place of Napoleon I., whose house is
still to be seen. Pop. 18,846.
Ajax, the name of two heroes of
the Trojan War. Ajax, son of Tela-
mon, King of Salamis, was next in
warlike prowess of Achilles.
Aked, Charles F., Baptist min-
ister, born in Nottingham, England, in
1864. He visited the U. S. several
times, and in 1907-11 was pastor of
the Fifth Ave. Baptist Church, N.
Y. C.
Akron, city and capital of Sum-
mit county, Ohio ; on the Ohio canal
and the Baltimore & Ohio and other
railroads ; 40 miles S. E. of Cleve-
land. It is the trade center of a
large farming and manufacturing
section ; has one of the largest pri-
vate printing offices in the world and
extensive manufactories of rubber
Alabama
goods ; is the seat of Buchtel College
(Universalist) ; and has a property
valuation exceeding $27,500,000.
Pop. (1910) 69,067.
Akers, Benjamin Paul, an
American sculptor, born in 1825.
Studied in Florence and was espe-
cially noted for the rapidity of his
work. He died in May, 1861.
Alabama, a State in the East
South Central Division of the North
American Union ; bounded by Ten-
nessee, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi,
and the Gulf of Mexico ; area, 52,250
square miles ; admitted into the Union,
Dec. 14, 1819 ; seceded, Jan. 11, 1861 ;
readmitted, June 25, 1868 ; number of
counties, 67; pop. (1900) 1,828,697;
(1916) 2,332,608; capital, Mont-
gomery.
The State has large wealth in its
mineral resources, which include coal,
iron, asbestos, asphalt, pottery and
porcelain clays, marble, granite, phos-
phates, natural gas, gold, silver, and
copper. The most valuable of these
at present are coal and iron. The
coal is all bituminous, and the iron is
red and b,rown hematite. The value
of all mineral products in 1915 was
$29,457,407; coal, $8,545,555; iron,
$23,757,124.
In the S. part of the State the soil
is a light alluvial and diluvial ; in the
central, the cotton belt, limestone and
chalk lands predominate ; and in the
N. part, which contains the Tennessee
valley, there are very rich mineral
lands. Besides the agricultural, min-
eral, and grazing lands, there are large
tracts of valuable yellow pine forests.
The most valuable productions are cot-
ton and corn. In 1916 the cotton out-
put was valued at $48,956,000; the
corn at $47,622,000; and all farm
crops at $118,687,000.
In 1914 there were reported 3,242
manufacturing establishments, em-
ploying $227,505,000 capital and
78,717 wage earners, paying $33,897,-
000 for wages and $107,412,000 for
materials for use in manufacturing,
and yielding products valued at $178,-
798,000.
Under the Federal Reserve banking
system of 1913, Alabama is in the
Sixth district, of which Atlanta, Ga.,
is the reserve city. Official reports
for the year ended June 30, 1916,
Alabama Claims
Aladdin
excluding Federal Reserve banks,
showed a total of 361 reporting banks,
with $21,704,000 capital, $86,792,000
in deposits, $10,555,000 in surplus,
and total liabilities and assets balanc-
ing at $142,292,000.
Commercial activities at the Port
of Mobile were seriously affected by
the World War, the imports of mer-
chandise during the calendar year
1916 being reduced to $3,990,389, and
the exports to $32,660,338.
The school population was reported
in 1916 at 774,976, of whom 473,150
were enrolled in the public schools,
and 292,540 were in average daily
attendance. There were over 7,000
public schools, white and colored
pupils being taught separately ; 10,212
teachers ; public school property
valued at $2,127,054,930. For higher
instruction, there were 174 public
high schools ; 52 private secondary
schools ; 9 public normal schools ; 9
universities and colleges for men and
for both sexes ; and a State Agricul-
tural and Mechanical College at
Auburn.
The strongest denominations numer-
ically in the State are the Baptist,
Methodist, and Presbyterian bodies,
and all church property has a value
exceeding $15,000,000.
The railroad mileage, exclusive of
switching and terminal lines, exceeds
5,500, having been greatly increased
by the demands of industrial activ-
ities.
The governor is elected for
four years ; legislature meets quadren-
nially ; Senate has 35 members,
House 106 ; Representatives in Con-
gress, 9 ; State Democratic.
Alabama Claims, a series of
claims made in 1871, by the United
States against the English Govern-
ment for damages done to shipping
during the Civil War, after a formal
discussion between the two govern-
ments in 1865, and fruitless conven-
tions for their settlement in 1868 and
1869. These damages were inflicted
chiefly by the "Alabama," an armed
vessel of the Confederate States,
which was fitted out in a British port
and permitted to sail in violation of
existing international law. A tribunal,
created in 1871 to pass upon these
claims, held its sessions in Geneva,
Switzerland, during the year 1872,
and awarded the Unted States the
sum of $15,500,000 in gold, in satis-
faction of all claims at issue. The
Geneva tribunal was important as es-
tablishing an example of arbitration
in place of war in the settlement of
international differences, which, in
this case, barely averted a war, and in
defining the attitude of neutrals
toward nations at war.
Alabama, The, a Confederate
cruiser which devastated American
shipping during the Civil War. She
was a bark-rigged steamer of 1,040
tons, built under secret instructions
at Birkehhead, England. Her desti-
nation was suspected by the United
States minister, but when orders for
her detention were finally obtained,
she had departed (July 31, 1862).
She made for the Azores, where she
was equipped and manned by an Eng-
lish crew, under the command of Capt.
Raphael Semmes, of Maryland. She
then proceeded to capture and burn
vessels bearing the American flag, and
the destruction wrought in less than
two years amounted to 65 vessels, and
about $4,000,000 in property. . In
June, 1864, she put into Cherbourg,
France, for repairs. Here she was in-
tercepted by the Federal corvette
"Kearsarge," Captain Winslow, and,
after an hour's severe battle, the Ala-
bama was sunk. The vessel was vir-
tually a British privateer, and the
course of the British authorities in
permitting her to leave on her mission
of piracy showed connivance and sym-
pathy with the Confederacy (see ALA-
BAMA CLAIMS preceding). ^yhen
the Alabama was sinking, a private
British yacht, in rescuing survivors
(including Captain Semmes), also
saved them from capture by the Fed-
eralists.
Alabaster, in mineralogy, mas-
sive gypsum, white, delicately shaded
or banded.
Aladdin, the hero of an Arabian
Nights' tale. A poor boy in China, he
secures possession of a lamp and ring
possessing magical powers. Rubbing
the lamp brings to the service of the
owner the powers of the slave of the
lamp, who gratifies every desire. The
lamp is lost, but the slave of the ring
enables Aladdin to recover it, and he
Alamo
lives happily ever afterwards, enjoying
wealth and health.
Alamo, The, a mission church at
San Antonio, in what is now Bexar
co., Tex., converted into a fort. In
1836 it was occupied by about 150 of
the revolutionists in the Texan War
of Independence. Though attacked
by 4,000 Mexicans under Santa Ana,
the Texans held it from Feb. 23 to
March 6, when Santa Ana took it by
storm. All but seven of the garrison
perished, six of these being murdered
after their surrender, and one man
escaping to report the affair. In this
garrison were the celebrated David
Crockett and Col. James Bowie,
inventor of the bowie-knife. The
memory of this massacre became an
incitement to the Texans in subse-
quent encounters, and "Remember the
Alamo !" became a war-cry in their
struggle for freedom.
Alaska, a Territory in the West-
ern Division of the North American
Union, comprising the extreme north-
western part of the American conti-
nent; bounded by the Arctic and
Pacific Oceans, Bering Sea, British
Columbia, and the Northwest Terri-
tories of Canada ; gross area, as far
as determined, 590,884 square miles ;
purchased from Russia, in 1867,
for $7,200,000; seat of government,
Juneau; pop. (1915) 64,751.
When the United States acquired
this region, and till gold mining
set in, fur sealing was the only
industry. Oats, wheat, rye, barley,
and buckwheat, among cereals ; pota-
toes, turnips, peas, onions, and many
minor vegetables ; a variety of fruit
and excellent hay are grown to ad-
vantage. Large tracts for farming
have been reclaimed from wild areas,
and agricultural experiment stations
have been established at Sitka, Ram-
part, Fairbanks, Kadiak, and Matan-
aska.
The waters of Alaska contain over
100 species of food fish, but the
principal fisheries are those confined
to salmon, cod and herring. In con-
nection with the Alaska coast there
are at least 125,000 square miles
of cod fishing banks, the greater
part of which still awaits develop-
ment. Whales and halibut also
Alaska
abound, but as yet they do not sup-
port distinct industries.
Alaska's greatest wealth is found in
its vast mineral resources, which are
still subject to systematic exploitation.
Lignite coal, native copper, cinnabar,
graphite, iron ore, white marble, sul-
phur, mica, kaolin, manganese, as-
phalt, petroleum, and mineral springs
are found in various sections. Until
recently the quest of gold was the
leading mineral industry, but this has
been supplanted, largely through
government promotion, by profitable
operations in coal, copper, silver, pe-
troleum, gypsum, marble, and tin.
Gold was discovered here, on the
Kenai peninsula, in 1848, but mining
did not set in systematically till about
1880. It is interesting to note here
that while the territory cost the
United States in 1867 the sum of
$7,200,000, the production of gold
alone up to 1916 amounted in value to
$260,488,175. And all minerals, with
the output of fur sealing and the
fisheries, brought the total to $612,-
614,004 — a striking result of "Se-
ward's folly."
Means of communication greatly
retarded the economic development of
the territory. Now, the old trails and
wagon roads are giving way to the
modern railroad. In 1898 an aerial
railway was completed over Chilkoot
Pass, which greatly reduced the time
between tidewater and the headwaters
of the Yukon, and in 1914, after a
prolonged agitation, Congress appro-
priated $35.000,000 for the construc-
tion of a government railroad.
The territory is well provided with
banking, educational, religious, and
manufacturing activities, and has a
considerable trade with the United
States and foreign countries through
the port of Juneau. During 1915 the
exports of merchandise, precious
metals, and copper had a value of
$55,000,000. and the imports, $28,000,-
000. The World War greatly reduced
these figures in 1916.
When first occupied Alaska was
constituted a military district; in
1884 it was given a district govern-
ment ; and in 1912, a civil government
with a legislature, consisting of a
Senate of 15 members and a House of
30. It is represented in Congress by
one delegate.
Alaska-Yukon
Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Exposi-
tion, an international exhibition held
at Seattle, Wash., from June 1 to
Oct. 16, 1909, to exploit the re-
sources of Alaska and Yukon terri-
tories.
Albani, Marie Emma (Lajeu-
nesse), a dramatic soprano and opera
Binger, born in 1852, at Chambly,
near Montreal, Canada. After study-
ing with Lamperti, at Milan, she made
her debut at Messina (1870), in "La
Sonnambula," under the name Albani,
in compliment to the city of Albany,
where her public career began. In
1878 she married Ernest Gye, of the
Covent Garden Theater.
Albania, the name given to a re-
gion of West European Turkey be-
tween the Adriatic Sea, Greece, Mace-
donia, and Montenegro. The inhab-
itants form a peculiar people, the
Albanians, called by the Turks Ar-
nauts, and by themselves Skipetar.
The Albanians are half civilized
mountaineers, frank to a friend,
vindictive to an enemy. They are
constantly under arms, and are more
devoted to robbery than to cattle
rearing and agriculture. They live
in perpetual anarchy, every village
being at war with its neighbor.
Many of them serve as mercenaries
in other countries, and they form the
best soldiers of the Turkish army. At
one time the Albanians were all Chris-
tians ; but after the death of their last
chief, the hero Skanderbeg, in 1467,
and their subjugation by the Turks, a
large part became Mohammedans.
The Albanians took a conspicuous
part in the massacres in Macedonia
in 1903. In the early part of the
World War Prince William of Wied
became emperor, but was forced to
retire by Essad Pasha. The Italians
occupied Avlona, Dec. 25, 1914, and
Allied warships scattered an Austrian
squadron bombarding Durazzo, Dec.
29, 1915. See APPENDIX: World
War.
Albany, a city of the United
States, capital of the State of New
York, with a population (1910) of
100,253. Settled by the Dutch in 1610-
14. The State capitol is one of the
grandest buildings in America. Al-
bany has a university, an observatory,
Albert
and a State Library with over 90,000
volumes.
Albany Congress, an assembly of
representatives of the most important
British North American colonies,
which was called together in 1754 by
the British Government to consult in
regard to the threatening French war.
Two plans were proposed : First, a
league with the Indians, which was
carried out, and, second, a proposal
offered by Franklin for a political
union. In this a common president
was proposed and a great council, rep-
resenting the different colonies. This
plan was rejected by the British
crown, because it gave too much power
to the colonies, and by the colonies
because it gave top much power to the
crown. The significance of this con-
gress lies in the fact that it stimulated
the union of the colonies.
Albert I., King of the Belgians,
was born April 8, 1875, son of Prince
Philippe of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
and Princess Marie of Hohenzollern-
Sigmaringen ; succeeded his uncle,
King Leopold II., on Dec. 17,
1909 ; married Princess Elizabeth of
Bavaria, Oct. 2, 1900; offspring,
Prince Leopold, born Nov. 3, 1901,
Prince Charles, born Oct. 10, 1903,
Princess Marie-Jose', born Aug. 4,
1906. At the outbreak of the World
War (1914), the Germans violated
the guaranteed neutrality of Belgium
by invading it in order to get into
France for a dash on Paris. A reign
of terror was immediately inaug-
urated, and*the King and government
were forced into flight. ^ France
promptly offered protection and
asylum, resulting in the temporary
establishment of the capital at Havre.
See APPENDIX: World War.
Albert, Prince (Albert Francis
Augustus Charles Emmanuel),
Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, hus-
band of the late Queen Victoria,
of England ; the second son of Er-
nest I., Duke of Saxe-Coburg, and
of his first wife Louise, only
daughter of the Duke of Saxe-
Gotha ; born Aug. 26, 1819. He died
Dec. 14, 1861, after a short illness,
and was buried in St. George's Chapel,
Windsor, whence his remains were
afterward removed to the mausoleum
built by the queen at Frogmore.
Alberta
Alberta, a N. W. Province of Can-
ada (the former Territory of Alberta
with parts of Athabaska and Assini-
boia, organized 1881), admitted to the
Federation, Sept. 1, 1905. It lies N.
of the State of Montana and E. of
British Columbia, with the Rocky
Mountains on the W. Area, 255,285
square miles; pop. (1911) 374,663.
From the peaks 11,000 to 13,000 ft.
high, with abundant forests, coal and
other minerals in the foothills, the
land slopes N., E., and S., to well-
watered rolling prairies, containing the
great cattle ranges of Canada, of
which the chief centres are McLeod
and Calgary, the capital. Sheep are
raised in the south and cattle and
horses in the north. Around the grow-
ing towns of Lethbridge and Raymond,
Mormons from Utah and Idaho, with
irrigation works, have placed large
tracts under wheat and beet cultiva-
tion, and facilitated by neighboring
coal fields work flour and sugar mills,
exporting the products. The Cana-
dian Pacific R. R. Co. is placing 1,500,-
000 acres of land under irrigation be-
tween Calgary and Medicine Hat, and
is offering advantageous inducements
for practical farmers to settle in the
province. The revenue of the Province
in 1915 was $5.628,763; expenditure,
$5,402.195 ; and the public debt (1913)
was $22,733,533. Taxation is almost
wholly confined to land values.
Albertus Magnus, or Albert
the Great, Count of Bollstadt, Bish-
op of Ratisbon, a distinguished scholar
of the 13th century ; born in Lauin-
gen, Suabia, in 1193, or according to
some authorities in 1205. Among the
sciences studied or illustrated by him
were chemistry, botany, mechanics,
optics, geometry, and astronomy. He
fell into dotage some time previous to
his death, in 1280. Albertus was
probably the most learned man of his
age, and of course did not escape the
imputation of using magical arts and
trafficking with the Evil One.
Albigenses, a religious sect op-
posed to the Church of Rome, coming
first into prominence in the 12th cen-
tury, and taking its name from Albiga,
the old form of Albi, a city of South-
ern France, now capital of the de-
partment of Tarn. What their doc-
trines were has not been determined,
as no formal statement of them was
Albret
ever drawn up. They inveighed against
the vices and worldliness of the clergy,
and there was sufficient truth in their
censures to dispose their hearers to be-
lieve what they advanced, and reject
what they decried. They had increased
very much toward the close of the
12th century in the S. of France,
about Toulouse and Albi, and in Ray-
mond, Count of Toulouse, they found
a patron and protector. As the con-
demnation of their doctrines by the
Church produced no effect, ecclesias-
tical officials were specially sent by
the Pope to endeavor to extirpate the
heresy. The assassination of the
papal legate and inquisitor, Peter of
Castelnau, in 1208, led to the procla-
mation of a crusade against them by
Pope Innocent III., and after a strug-
gle of many years, in which hundreds
of thousands perished, they were vir-
tually extirpated by the sword and the
Inquisition.
Albinos, the name given to those
persons from whose skin, hair, and
eyes the dark coloring matter is ab-
sent. The skin of albinos, therefore,
no matter to what race they belong, is
of a pale milky hue, their hair is
white, while the iris of their eyes is
pale rose color. Their eyes are not
well suited to endure the bright light
of day, and they see best in shade or
by moonlight. The peculiarity of al-
binism or leucopathy is not confined to
the human race, having been observed
in horses, rabbits, rats, birds, and fishes.
Albion, the oldest name by which
the island of Great Britain was known
to the Greeks and Romans.
Alboni, Marietta, an Italian
contralto, born in Romagna, 1823.
She made her debut as Orsini in " Lu-
crezia Borgia." After singing in Eu-
rope for some years, she made a suc-
cessful tour of the United States. On
the death of her husband, Count Pe-
poli, in 1866, she left the stage, and
in 1877 she married M. Ziegir, a
French officer. She died in France
in 1894.
Albret, Jeanne d', daughter of
Margaret, Queen of Navarre, born in
1528. She married Antoine de Bour-
bon in 1548; gave birth in 1553 to a
son, who was afterward Henry IV. of
France; and on the death of her
father, in 1555, became Queen of Na-
Albright
varre. She lost her husband in 1562,
and eagerly began to establish the
Reformation in her kingdom. Being
invited to the French court to assist
at the nuptials of her son with Mar-
garet of Valois, she suddenly expired,
not without suspicion of having been
poisoned. Died in 1572.
Albright, Jacob, an American
minister of the Methodist Church,
born in 1759. His work lay among
the Germans of Pennsylvania. Be-
coming impressed with the decline of
religious life and of the doctrines and
morals of the surrounding churches,
he began a work of reform in 1790.
He traveled about the country at his
own expense, preaching his mission,
until he founded in 1800 the EVAN-
GELICAL ASSOCIATION. He died in
1808.
Albnera, a village of Spain, in the
province of Badajoz, on the Albuera
river; 13 miles S. E. of Badajoz.
Here (May 16, 1811) a British and
Portuguese army of 32,500, under
General Beresford, defeated in a san-
guinary battle a French army of 23,-
000 under Marshal Soult, the total
loss being 16,000, about equally di-
vided.
Albumen, or Albumin. In chem-
istry, the name of a class of albumin-
oids that are soluble in water, as
serum and egg albumen.
Albuminuria, a disease character-
ized by the presence of albumen in the
urine. It may be acute or chronic.
Acute albuminuria is a form of in-
flammation of the kidneys. Chronic
albuminuria, the commoner and more
formidable malady, arises from grave
constitutional disorders. It is often
attended by cf produces .dropsy.
Whether acute or chronic, but espe-
cially when the latter, it is generally
called Bright's disease, after Dr.
Bright, who first described it with ac-
curacy.
Albuquerque, Alfonso d% " the
Great," Viceroy of the Indies, was
born in 1453, near Lisbon. Albuquer-
3ue landed on the Malabar coast in
503, with a fleet and some troops ;
conquered Goa, which he made the
seat of the Portuguese Government,
and the center of its Asiatic com-
merce; and afterward Ceylon, the
Sunda Isles, the Peninsula of Malacca,
Alcohol
and (in 1515) the Island of Or muz at
the entrance of the Persian Gulf. He
died at sea near Goa, Dec. 16, 1515.
Alcseus, a Greek lyric poet ; native
of Mitylene ; flourished in the 6th cen-
tury B. c. Of his poems we have only
fragments.
Alcala de Henares, a town in
Spain, Cervantes' birthplace, on the
Henares, 21 miles E. of Madrid by
rail. Here was printed in 1517,
in six folio volumes, at an expense of
80,000 ducats, the great Compluten-
sian Bible.
Alcazar, the name of many castles
and palaces in Spain. Ciudad-Ro-
drigo, Cordova, Segovia, Toledo and
ALCAZAR IN SEGOVIA.
Seville _ have alcazars. The one at
Seville is an imposing relic of the Arab
dominion.
Alcibiades, a famous Grecian
statesman and warrior, son of Clinias
and Deinomache, born in Athens about
450 B. c. After a brilliant and erratic
career, distinguished equally by great
achievements and lack of moral prin-
ciple he was assassinated in 404.
Alcohol, a colorless, inflammable
liquid, of agreeable odor, and burning
taste, termed also spirit of wine, and
ethylic or vinic alcohol.
Alcohol
Aldrich
Alcohol, Denatured, alcohol for
use in the industries, in which medi- :
cinal properties have been destroyed;
authorized by Congress in 1905.
Alcott, Amos Bronson, an
American philosophical writer and
educator, one of the founders of the
transcendental school of philosophy
in New England, born in Wolcott,
Conn., Nov. 29, 1799. He died in
Boston, March 4, 1888.
Alcott, Louisa May, an Ameri-
can author, daughter of the preced-
ing, born in Germantown, Pa., Nov.
29, 1832. She died in Boston, Mass.,
March 6, 1888. Few writers are
more popular with children than Miss
Alcott
Alcnin, an English ecclesiastic,
born at York in 735. He died in
804. He made with his own hand a
copy of the Scriptures, which he pre-
sented to Charlemagne, and which be-
came of great assistance to later ed-
itors.
Alden, Henry Mills, an Ameri-
can editor and prose writer, born at
Mount Tabor, Vt., Nov. 11, 1836. He
was graduated at Williams College
and Andover Theological Seminary ;
settled in New York in 1861, became
managing editor of " Harper's
Weekly " in 1864, and editor of "Har-
per's Monthly Magazine " in 1868.
He has published " The Ancient Lady
of Sorrow," a poem ; " God in His
World " ; etc.
Alden, John, a magistrate of the
Plymouth colony, born in 1599. His
name is familiarized by the poem of
Longfellow, " The Courtship of Miles
Standish." He was originally a !
cooper of Southampton, was employed '
in making repairs on the ship " May-
flower," and came over in her with
the Pilgrim Fathers. By some ac-
counts he was the first to step ashore ',
at Plymouth. In Longfellow's poem
he is in love with and eventually mar-
ries Priscilla, with whom he had previ-
ously pleaded the cause of Miles
Standish. He was for over 50 years
a colonial magistrate. He died in
1687.
Alden, "William Livingston, an
American humorous writer and jour-
nalist, born at Williamstown, Mass.,
Oct. 9, 1837. He was for a time
at
United States Consul-General
Rome. He died Jan. 14, 1908.
Alder, the common name for a
genus of plants (alnus), of the oak
family. In the Eastern United States
it is a very common shrub, branching
freely from the roots, and forming
dense clumps along the banks of
streams and in other wet places. On
the W. coast it often attains a height
of from 40 to 60 feet in favorable loca-
tions. It is found in temperate and
cold regions.
Alderman, a title pertaining to an
office in the municipal corporations of
the United States and England.
Alderman, Edwin Anderson, an
American educator, born in Wilming-
ton, N. C., May 15, 1861. In 1896 he
was chosen President of the Univer-
sity of North Carolina; in 1900, of
Tulane University (New Orleans); in
1904, of the University of Virginia.
Alderney, a British island in the
English channel.
Aldershot Camp, a permanent
camp of exercise on the confines of
Hampshire, Surrey, and Berkshire, 35
miles S. W. of London.
Aldine Editions, the books print-
ed by Aldus Manutius and his family,
in Venice (149071597). They com-
prise the first editions of Greek and
Roman classics ; others contain cor-
rected texts of modern classic writers,
carefully collated with the MSS.
Aldrich, Nelson Wilmarth,
United States senator from Rhode Is-
land, recognized as the leading Ameri-
can authority on the protective tariff,
and generally understood to be the real
author of the McKinley Law as
adopted. Born, Foster, R. I., No-
vember 6, 1841. President Providence
Common Council, 1871-73; Speaker
R. I. General Assembly, 1876 ; in Con-
gress 1879 to 1883, when he resigned
to take seat in Senate. He died
April 16, 1915.
Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, an
American poet, essayist, and writer of
fiction, born in Portsmouth, N. H.,
Nov. 11, 1836. He spent his early
youth in Louisiana, but at the age of
17 entered a mercantile house in New
York. Removing to Boston in 1866,
he became editor of "Every Satur-
day," and, in 1881, editor of the "At-
Ale
lantic Monthly." He became equally
eminent as a prose writer and poet.
He died March 19, 1907.
Ale, a malt liquor, stronger than
ordinary beer. It was the current
name in England for malt liquor in
general before the introduction of "the
wicked weed called hops " from the
Netherlands, about the year 1524.
The two names, ale and beer, are both
Teutonic, and seem originally to have
been synonymous.
Alemanni, or Alamanni, a con-
federacy of several German tribes
which, at the commencement of the 3d
century after Christ, lived near the
Roman territory, and came then and
subsequently into conflict with the
imperial troops. It is from the Ale-
manni that the French have derived
their names for Germans and Ger-
many in general, namely, Allemands
and Allemagne, though strictly speak-
ing only the modern Suabians and
Northern Swiss are the proper de-
scendants of that ancient race.
Alembert, Jean le Bond d', one
of the most distinguished mathema-
ticians and literary characters of the
18th century ; born in Paris, Nov. 16,
1717. He died Oct. 29, 1783.
Alembic, a simple apparatus some-
times used by chemists for distillation.
Aleppo, a city of Turkey in Asia,
in Northern Syria, and capital of the
vilayet of Aleppo ; on the Koeik river, '
71 miles E. of the Mediterranean.
The foundation of Aleppo dates back
to about 2,000 years B. C. It was
nearly destroyed by an earthquake
in 1822, when it lost two-thirds of its
250,000 inhabitants. The present in-
habitants are Turks, Greeks, Arme-
nians, and Jews. Pop. about 127,000.
Aleutian Islands, or Catherine
Archipelago, a group of about 150
islands, extending W. from Alaska pen-
insula for a distance of 1,650 miles ;
belongs to Alaska Territory. The is-
lands are mountainous, with several
volcanic peaks. The principal islands
are Umnak and Unalaska. The in-
habitants are nearly all Aleuts, a peo-
ple allied to the Eskimos. These is-
lands were discovered by Bering in
1728. Pop. about 3,000.
Alewife, a North American fish,
belonging to the same family as the
herring and the shad.
Alexander
Alexander VI., Pope, Rodrigo Len-
zuoli Borgia, a Spaniard, of Valencia,
son of Isabelle Borgia, whose family
name be took, born Jan. 1, 1431. At
first he studied law, and then was ap-
pointed by his uncle, Pope Calixtus
III., a cardinal before he was 25 years
old. In 1458 he was made Archbishop of
Valencia. After the death of Innocent
VIII. he was crowned Aug. 26, 1492,
with great pomp and solemnity. To
his son John, Duke of Gandia, he pre-
sented the duchy of Benevento, in
1487, which was separated from the
estates of the Church. His daughter,
Lucretia Borgia, was married to Gio-
vanni Sforza, Lord of Pesarp, after-
ward to Alfonso di Biseglia, then
thirdly to Alfonso d'Este, Prince of
Ferrara. His son, Caesar, who after-
ward got complete control of him, was
made Archbishop of Valencia, and, in
1493, was appointed cardinal. After-
ward, in order to create for him a
secular principality, he made an alli-
ance with Louis XII. of France.
Caesar Borgia, therefore, left the
Church and became Duke of Valen-
tinois. In 1501 he became Duke of
the Romagna. On May 4, 1493, Alex-
ander issued a bull dividing the New
World between Spain and Portugal ;
on May 23, 1498, the execution of Sa-
vonarola took place by his order ; and
in 1501 he instituted the censorship
of books. Alexander died Aug. 18,
1503, from poison said to have been
intended for Cardinal Corneto.
Alexander I., Emperor of Russia,
son of Paul I. and Maria, daughter of
Prince Eugene, of Wurtemberg; born
Dec. 23, 1777. On the assassination
of his father, March 24, 1801, Alex-
ander ascended the throne. One of
the first acts of his reign was to con-
clude peace with Great Britain,
against which his predecessor had de-
clared war. In 1803 he offered his
services as mediator between England
and France, and two years later a
convention was entered into between
Russia, England, Austria, and Sweden
for the purpose of resisting the en-
croachments of France on the terri-
tories of independent States. He was
present at the battle of Austerlitz
(Dec. 2, 1805), when the combined
armies of Russia and Austria were de-
feated by Napoleon. Alexander was
compelled to retreat to his dominions
Alexander
at the head of the remains of his
army. In the succeeding campaign
the Russians were again beaten at
Eylau (Feb. 8, 1807), and Friedland
(June 14), the result of which was
an interview, a few days after the
battle, on a raft anchored in the Nie-
men, between Alexander and Napo-
leon, which led to the treaty signed at
Tilsit, July 7. The Russian emperor
now for a time identified himself with
the Napoleonic schemes. The seizure
of the Danish fleet by the British
brought about a declaration of war by
Russia against Great Britain and
Sweden, and Alexander invaded Fin-
land and conquered that long-coveted
duchy, which was secured to him by
the peace of Friedrichshamn (1809).
His having separated himself from
Napoleon led to the French invasion
of 1812. In 1813 he published the fa-
mous manifesto which served as the
basis of the coalition of the other Eu-
ropean powers against France. After
the battle of Waterloo, Alexander, ac-
companied by the Emperor of Austria
and the King of Prussia, made his sec-
ond entrance into Paris. He died in
the Crimea, Dec. 1, 1825.
Alexander II., Emperor of Rus-
sia ; born April 29, 1818 ; succeeded
his father Nicholas in 1855, before
the end of the Crimean War. After
peace was concluded the new emperor
set about effecting reforms in the em-
pire, among the first being the putting
of the finances in order. The greatest
of all the reforms carried out by him
was the emancipation of the serfs by
a decree of March 2, 1861. The czar
also did much to improve education in
the empire, and introduced a reorgan-
ization of the judicial system. During
his reign the Russian dominions in
Central Asia were considerably ex-
tended, while to the European portion
of the monarchy was added a piece of
territory, S. of the Caucasus, formerly
belonging to Turkey in Asia. A part
of Bessarabia, belonging since the Cri-
mean War to Turkey in Europe, but
previously to Russia, was also restored
to the latter power. The latter addi-
tions resulted from the Russo-Turkish
War of 1877-1878, in which the Turks
were completely defeated, the Russian
troops advancing almost to the gates
of Constantinople. Toward the end
of the czar's life several attempts at
Alexander
his assassination were made by Ni-
hilists, and at last he was killed by an
explosive missile Sung at him in a
street in St Petersburg, March 13,
1881. He was succeeded by his son,
Alexander III
Alexander HI., of Russia, son of
Alexander II., was born Maich 10,
1845, and married the daughter of the
King of Denmark in 1866. After his
father's death, through fear of assas-
sination, he shut himself up in his
palace at Gatschina. His coronation
was postponed till 1883, and was cele-
brated with extraordinary magnifi-
cence, and with national festivities
lasting several days. Through the fall
of Mery, the subjugation of the Turk-
omans in Central Asia was completed.
In 1885 hostilities with England with
regard to the defining of the frontier
between the Russian territories and
Afghanistan, for a time seemed immi-
nent. In European affairs he broke
away from the triple alliance between
Russia, Germany, and Austria, and
looked rather to France. He was ag-
grieved by the new Bulgarian spirit.
His home policy was reactionary,
though strong efforts were made to
prevent malversation by officials, and
stern economics were practiced. The
liberties of the Baltic Provinces and
of Finland were curtailed, the Jews
were oppressed, and old Russian or-
thodoxy was favored. Several Ni-
hilist attempts were made on his life,
and he kept himself practically a pris-
oner in his palace. He died at Li-
vadia, Nov. 1, 1894.
Alexander III., King of Scot-
land, born in -1241, in 1249 succeeded
his father, Alexander II. Riding on
a dark night between Burntisland and
Kinghorn, he fell with his horse and
was killed on the spot, March 12, 1286.
A monument (1887) marks the scene
of his death. His death led to the at-
tempt of Edward I. of England to
destroy the liberties of Scotland, which
resulted in the crushing defeat of the
English under Edward II. at Ban-
nockburn.
Alexander I., King of Servia,
born Aug. 14, 1876 ; son of King Milan
I. In 1889 Milan abdicated and pro-
claimed Alexander king, under a re-
gency till he should attain his ma-
jority (18 years). On April 13, 1893,
when in his 17th year, Alexander sud-
Alexander
Alexander the Great
denly took the royal authority into his
own bands, and summarily dismissed
the regent. On Aug. 5, 1900, he mar-
ried Mme. Draga Maschin. He was
the fifth of his dynasty, which was
founded by Milos Todorovic Obrenovic
in 1829. On the night of June 10,
1903, the military at Belgrade re-
volted, soldiers surrounded the palace,
and the leaders broke into the royal
apartments and murdered King Alex-
ander and Queen Draga, and also two
brothers of the Queen and members of
the Cabinet. This extinguished the
Obrenovitch dynasty, except as repre-
sented by a natural son of former King
Milan, whom the latter had acknowl-
edged and made legitimate.
Alexander, Archibald, an Amer-
ican clergyman, of Scottish de-
scent, was born in Virginia, April 17,
1772, and died at Princeton, N. J.,
Oct. 22, 1851. He studied theology,
and performed itinerant missionary
work in various parts of Virginia ; be-
came president of Hampton-Sidney
College in 1796, and pastor of a Pres-
byterian church in Philadelphia in
1807. On the establishment of Prince-
ton Theological Seminary in 1812, he
was appointed its first professor, a
position which he held till his death.
His eldest son. JAMES WADDELL ALEX-
ANDER (1804-1850), was a Presbyte-
rian minister in Virginia, New Jer-
sey, and at New York ; and afterward
professor in Princeton Theological
Seminary. He contributed to the
" Princeton Review," wrote more than
30 children's books, a life of his father,
and miscellaneous works. JOSEPH
ADDISON ALEXANDER, third son (1809-
1860), graduated at Princeton in
1826, lectured there on Biblical Criti-
cism and Ecclesiastical History, and
for the last eight years of his life filled
the chair of Biblical and Ecclesiastical
History. He was engaged at the time
of his death, along with Dr. Hodge, on
a commentary of the New Testament.
He is best known by his commentaries
and "Prophecies of Isaiah" (1846-
1847; revised edition, 1864), and the
" Psalms Translated and Explained "
(3 volumes, 1850) , both of which have
had a large circulation, and have been
reprinted in England.
Alexander Archipelago, or Al-
exander Islands, a group of islands
on the W. coast of North America,
extending from 54° 40> N. to 58° 25'
N. ; belong to Alaska Territory.
Alexander Jarostowitz Nevski,
St., Grand Duke of Vladimir and
Prince of Novgorod, born in 1219; a
Russian national hero and patron
saint of St Petersburg, where Peter
the Great founded in his honor the
magnificent monastery and the reli-
gious order that bear his name. He
died in 1263.
Alexander, John White, Ameri-
can portrait painter, born in Pitts-
burg, Pa., Oct. 7, 1856 ; studied at Mu-
nich, Paris, and in Italy ; became a
societaire of the Beaux Arts in Paris ;
was appointed one of the American
jurors on paintings for the Paris Ex-
position in 1900. Died June 1, 1915.
Alexander of Hales, a noted
English philosopher and theologian,
born at Hales, Gloucestershire. He
died in Paris, 1245.
Alexander Severus, (in full,
MARCUS AURELIUS ALEXANDER SEV-
ERUS) , a Roman emperor ; born in Ace
(the modern Acre), Phoenicia, in A. D.
205. Alexander was favorable to
Christianity, following the predilec-
tions of his mother, Julia Mammaea,
and he is said to have placed the
statue of Jesus Christ in his private
temple, in company with those of Or-
pheus and Apollonius of Tyana. He
was murdered A. D. 235.
Alexander the Great, the 3d
King of Macedon bearing the name
which he made so famous : born in
Pella, 356 B. c.
Alexander first appeared on the
stage of universal history in 339 B. c.
At the age of 16 the regency of Greece
was intrusted to him by Philip when
he set out on an expedition against
Byzantium ; and in that capacity it
fell to his lot to lead his first army
against an Illyrian rising, to found his
first Alexandria in the upper valley
of the Strymon, and to receive a depu-
tation of envoys from the King of Per-
sia. In the year after his appoint-
ment to the regency Alexander showed
eminent military capacity at the battle
of Chaeronea (338), and, on the mur-
der of Philip, ascended the throne in
336, before he had reached his 20th
year.
In tho autumn of 336 Alexander
marched into Greece, and was con-
Alexandria
Alexandrian Library
firmed iu the chief command against
Persia by the Amphictyones at Ther-
mopylae. In 335 he advanced to the
Haemus range (the Balkans), and
showed great ability in his campaign
against the Thracians, crossing the
Danube — apparently out of mere
bravado — in the face of the enemy
without losing a single man. He had
no real friends among the Greek
States. The Thebans, hearing a false
report of his death, became overt ene-
mies, proclaimed their independence,
and slew some Macedonian officers.
Alexander appeared in Boeotia with
amazing dispatch, and took Thebes by
storm on the third day of the siege.
Leaving Antipater to govern in Eu-
rope, he crossed over into Asia in the
spring of 334 with 30,000 foot and
5,000 horse. The Persian empire, the
conquest of which he undertook, was
at least 50 times as large as his own
and numbered about 20 times as many
inhabitants. It extended from the
Hellespont to the Punjab, from Lake
Aral to the cataracts of the Nile. But
it was a vast congeries of subject prov-
inces having no internal bond, and no
principle of cohesion but the will of
the king. Alexander entirely subdued
Persia, and formed the idea of con-
quering India. He passed the In-
dus in 327, and made an alliance
with Taxiles, under whose guidance
he reached the Hydaspes (modern
Jhelum). Here, after a severe strug-
gle, and unsatisfactory victory, he
built a fleet, in which he /sent part
of his army down the river, while the
rest proceeded along the banks.
In 323 Alexander arrived at Baby-
lon, where he found numberless envoys
from nations near and far, come to
pay their homage to the young con-
queror. He was engaged in very ex-
tensive plans for the future, including
the conquest of Arabia and the reor-
ganization of the army, when he fell
ill of a fever. He died in 323, after
a reign of 12 years and eight months.
The day before a rumor had gone
abroad that the great general was
dead, and that his friends were con-
cealing the truth. The dying king
caused his army to defile past his bed,
and feebly waved them a last farewell.
Alexandria, a city of Egypt,
founded by Alexander the Great in
331 B. c. The situation of the city,
E. 5.
at the point of junction between the
East and West, rendered it the center
of the commerce of the world, and
raised it to the highest degree of pros-
perity. In the Middle Ages it suf-
fered reverses, and gradually declined,
and when, in 1517, the Turks took
the place, the remains of its for-
mer splendor wholly vanished, walls
and buildings being reduced to ruins.
It is now again one of the most impor-
tant commercial places on the Medi-
terranean. Recent improvements,
to cost $10,000,000, are expected to
make the western harbor one of the
best on the Mediterranean.
Of the few remaining objects of an-
tiquity the most prominent is Pom-
pey's Pillar, as it is erroneously called.
Of the so-called Cleopatra's Needles
— two obelisks of the 16th century
B. c., which long stood there — one
was taken to England and erected on
the Thames Embankment in 1878;
and the other was set up in Central
Park, New York. Pop. 319,766.
Alexandria, independent city and
port of entry of Virginia; on the Po-
tomac river and the Baltimore &
Ohio and other railroads; 6 miles S.
of Washington; has a good harbor,
large shipments of grains, and con-
siderable manufacturing interests; is
the seat of the Virginia Theological
Seminary (P. E.) and was the
headquarters of General Braddock in
1775. Pop. (1910) 15,329.
Alexandrian Codex, an impor-
tant manuscript of the sacred Scrip-
tures in Greek, now in the British Mu-
seum. It is written on parchment, in
finely formed uncial letters, and is
without accents, marks of aspiration,
or spaces between the words. Its
probable date is the middle of the 5th
century.
Alexandrian Library, a remark-
able collection of books, the largest of
the ancient world, was founded by the
first Ptolemy. Theodosius the Great
permitted all the heathen temples in
the Roman empire to be destroyed, the
magnificent temple of Jupiter Serapis,
containing the library, was not spared.
A mob of fanatic Christians, led on
by the Archbishop Theophilus, stormed
and destroyed the temple, together, it
is most likely, with the greater part
of its literary treasures, in 391 A. D.
It was at this time that the destrnc-
Alexins Comnenns
Alger
tion of the Library was begun, and
not at the taking of Alexandria by the
Arabs, under the Caliph Omar, in 641,
when its destruction was merely com-
pleted.
Alexius Comnenns, Byzantine
Emperor, was born in 1048, and died
in 1118. He was a nephew of Isaac
the first emperor of the Comneni, and
attained the throne in 1081, at a time
when the empire was menaced from
various sides, especially by the Turks,
the Normans and the Crusaders. From
these dangers he extricated himself
by policy or warlike measures, and
maintained his position during a reign
of thirty-seven years.
Alfalfa, a prolific forage plant
belonging to the Legume family, large-
ly grown in the United States, and in
parts of Spanish America. Crops are
gathered three or four times a season.
Alfieri, Vittorio, Count, an
Italian dramatist, born in 1749 ; died
1803. His style founded a new school
in Italian drama.
Alfonso X., surnamed " the As-
tronomer," " the Philosopher," or
"the Wise" (El Sabio), King of
Leon and Castile, born in 1226 ; suc-
ceeded his father, Ferdinand III., in
1252. Alfonso was the founder of a
Castilian national literature. He died
in 1284.
Alfonso XII., King of Spain, the
only son of Queen Isabella II. and her
cousin, King Francis of Assisi, was
born Nov. 28, 1857. He left Spain
with his mother when she was driven
from the throne by the revolution of
1868. His mother had given up her
claims to the throne in 1870 in his
favor, and in 1874 Alfonso came for-
ward himself as claimant, and in the
end of the year was proclaimed by
Gen. Martinez Campos as king. Al-
fonso was successful in bringing the
Carlist struggle to an end (1876), and
henceforth he reigned with little
disturbance until his death in 1885.
He married first his cousin Maria de
las Mercedes, daughter of the Duke
de Montpensier; second, Maria Chris-
tina, Archduchess of Austria.
Alfonso XIII., King of Spain, son
of the late Alphonso XII. and Maria
Christina, daughter of the late Karl
Ferdinand, Arch-Duke of Austria, born
pfter his father's death, May 17, 1886.
as a male, becoming heir to the throne.
During his minority his mother was
made Queen Regent and directed his
education with great care. He form-
ally ascended the throne May 17, 1902.
On May 31, 1906, he married the
British Princess Victoria Ena of Bat-
tenberg. The wedding festivities were
marred by an attempt to assassinate
the royal pair, several persons being
killed by a bomb. In the early part
of the World War he declared a policy
of strict neutrality. Later a number
of Spanish vessels were torpedoed and
sunk by Teuton submarines. In 1917
parts of Spain were threatened with
revolution. See APPENDIX: World
War.
Alfred the Great, King of Eng-
land, and one of the most illustrious
rulers on record ; born in Wantage, in
Berkshire, 849 A. D. He defeated the
Danes, who were allotted that portion
of the E. of England which is now oc-
cupied by the modern counties of Nor-
folk, Suffolk, Cambridge, and Lincoln.
Alfred occupied himself with great
zeal in literary pursuits and in the
advancement of learning. This illus-
trious prince died, Oct 28, 901, in the
30th year of his reign.
Algae, the general name for the
sea-weeds and similar plants, mostly
growing in salt and fresh water.
Algebra, that department of math-
ematics which enables one, by the aid
of certain symbols, to generalize, and,
therefore, to abbreviate, the methods
of solving questions relating to num-
bers. It is now regarded as the most
extensive department of mathematics.
Alger, Cyrus, an American in-
ventor, born in West Bridgewater,
Mass., Nov. 11, 1781. He learned the
iron foundry business, and in 1809 es-
tablished himself in South Boston,
where he soon made himself widely
known by the excellence of the ord-
nance be manufactured. He supplied
the United States Government with a
large quantity of cannon-balls during
the war of 1812; produced the first
gun ever rifled in America, as well as
the first perfect bronze cannon ; and
supervised the casting of a mortar
which was the largest gun of cast-iron
that had then been made in the United
States. Subsequently he made im-
provements in the construction of time
Alger
fuses for bomb-shells and grenades ;
patented a method of making cast-iron
Chilled rolls ; and was the original de-
signer of the cylinder stove. He died
in Boston, Mass., Feb. 4, 1856.
Alger, Horatio, an American
writer of juvenile books, born at Re-
vere, Mass., Jan. 13, 1834. He died
in Natick, Mass., July 18, 1899.
Alger, Russell Alexander, an
American merchant, capitalist, and
politician, born in Lafayette, O., Feb.
27, 1836. He served in the Civil War,
rising from a captaincy to the rank
of brevet Major-General of Volunteers.
He acquired a large fortune in West-
ern enterprises, particularly the lum-
ber business. He was Governor of
Michigan from 1885 to 1887 ; a candi-
date for the Republican presidential
nomination in 1888; Commander-in-
Chief of the Grand Army of the Re-
public 1889-90 : U. S. Secretary of War
1897-99; published "The Spanish-
American War," 1901 ; became U. S.
Senator for Michigan 1902; re-elected
1903; died suddenly Jan. 24, 1907.
Alger, William Rounseville, an
American Unitarian clergyman and
writer, born at Freetown, Mass., Dec.
30, 1822. His chief works are " His-
tory of the Doctrine of a Future
Life" (1863) ; "Genius of Solitude"
(1865) ; and " Friendships of Wom-
en" (1867). He occupied pulpits in
New York, Denver, Boston, and San
Francisco. He died Feb. 7, 1905.
Algeria, a French colony in the N.
of Africa ; bounded on the N. by the
Mediterranean, on the E. by Tunis, on
the W. by Morocco, and on the S. by
the desert of Sahara. The country
now Algeria was for many years the
seat of a piratical despotism, tribu-
tary to the Sultan of Turkey, but
virtually independent. After the
Americans had gained independence
the Algerians were encouraged by the
British to prey on American com-
merce, so that the United States
might be prevented from rivalling
Great Britain in the Mediterranean.
American merchantmen were cap-
tured by the Algerian pirates, and
the crews were ransomed or enslaved.
In November, 1795, the United States
made a humiliating treaty agreeing
to pay to the Dey of Algiers a tribute
equal to $22,000 yearly for "protec-
Algonkian
tion " to American commerce. When
the War of 1812 broke out the Dey
of Algiers ignored the treaty, and at-
tacked and plundered American ves-
sels. Promptly upon the conclusion
of peace with England the American
government proceeded to take ven-
geance on the Algerians, and a
powerful squadron under Captains
Decatur and Bainbridge was sent to
the Mediterranean. The Algerians
had a strong navy, and met the Amer-
icans with a superior force in ves-
sels and guns. The Mashouda, the
Algerian flagship, was captured after
a sanguinary struggle. The Dey in
terror acceded to all American de-
mands, agreed to forego tribute, and
gave up the American captives, who
kissed the American flag and wept
for joy. In the following year, 1816.
the British bombarded Algiers, and
forced the Dey to agree to put a stop
to piracy — an agreement that was
not kept. In 1827 the French began
the work of conquering Algiers, and
after a struggle of about thirty years
they completely subdued the country,
and made it a peaceful and flourishing
colony of France. Algeria IB govern-
ed by a governor-general, who is assist-
ed by a council appointed by the
French government. The settled por-
tion of the country, in the three de-
partments of Algiers, Constantine, and
Oran, is treated much as if it were a
part of France and each department
sends two deputies and one senator to
the French chambers. The rest of the
territory is under military rule. Area
of Algeria proper, 221,771 square
miles; pop. (1911) 5,563,828, includ-
ing 752,043 Europeans. Area of Al-
gerian Sahara 141,563 square miles ;
pop. 494,306. Principal cities, Al-
giers (capital), pop. 172,397; Oran,
123,086; Constantine, 65,173; B6ne,
42,039; Philippeville, 27,137; and
Mostaganem, 23,166.
Algonkian, or Algonquin, an
Indian linguistic stock, originally the
most extensive in North America.
The constant wars with the English,
French, and Dutch colonists depleted
their numbers. They degenerated
into mere mercenaries, fighting on
either side for revenge or gain. After
the War of 1812, in which they took
the side of the British, the United
States Government resolved to send
Alliainbra
them as far W. as possible. After
1840, few of them remained E. of the
Mississippi. In Canada, they were
not removed from their homes, but
were limited as to territory. War and
disease have thinned their number,
until only 37,000 remain in the
United States, and 63,000 in Canada.
The chief occupations of the Algon-
k'ians were hunting, fishing and corn
raising. In character they were brave,
strong, and intelligent, but lacking in
steadfastness. They were not so united
as the Iroquois, owing to the multipli-
city of their languages.
Alhambra, the famous palace of
the Moorish kings of Granada, situat-
ed on a hill N. of the town of Gra-
nada. In spite of its neglected condi-
tion, the Alhambra is the most re-
markable and most perfect specimen
of Moorish art to be found in Europe.
Alien and Sedition Acts, a series
of enactments during the administra-
tion of John Adams, the purpose of
which was to restrain the activity of
those who sympathized with France.
The extreme partisan spirit of these
acts caused a reaction, which was ex-
pressed in the Kentucky and Virginia
resolutions.
Alimentary Canal, the alimen-
tary tube ; the great tube or duct by
which food is conveyed into the stom-
ach, and from which the waste and
undigested food is excreted.
Alison, Sir Archibald, a Scot-
tish historian and writer, born at
Kenley, Shropshire, Dec. 29 1792.
His mangum opus — "The history of
Europe from 1789 to 1815" was first
issued hi 10 volumes in 1833-1842. He
subsequently brought down the narra-
tive to 1852, the date of the birth of
the second French empire. Died 1867.
Alizarine, a substance contained
In the madder root, and largely used
In dyeing reds of various shades. Form-
erly madder root was largely employ-
ed as a dye-stuff, but the use of the
root has been almost superseded by the
employment of alizarine, prepared arti-
ficially from one of the constituents of
coaMar. It forms yellowish-red pris-
matic crystals, nearly insoluble in cold, ;
but dissolved to a small extent by boil-
ing water, and readily soluble in alco-
hol and ether. It possesses exceeding-
ly strong tinctorial powers.
Allegheny
Alkali, a strong base, capable of
neutralizing acids, so that the salts
formed are either completely neutral,
or, if the acid is weak, give alkaline
reactions. It was formerly restricted
to the hydrates of potassium, sodium,
lithium and ammonium, but now in-
cludes the hydrates of alkaline earths
(baryta, strontia and lime) and many
organic substances. Alkalies are more
or less soluble in water. Caustic pot-
ash is used in surgery as a cautery.
Alkaloid, a term applied to a class
of nitrogenized compounds having cer-
tain alkaline properties, found in liv-
ing plants, and containing their active
principles, usually in combination with
organic acids. Their alkaline quali-
ties depend upon the nitrogen they
contain. Their names generally end
in ine, as morphine, quinine, acon-
itine, caffeine, &c. Most alkaloids oc-
cur in plants, but some are formed by
decomposition. The only property com-
mon to all alkaloids is that of combin-
ing with acids to form salts, and some
exhibit an alkaline reaction with col-
ors. Alkaloids form what is termed
the organic bases of plants. Although
formed originally within the plant, it
has been found possible to prepare
several of these alkaloids by purely
artificial means.
Allah, compounded of the article
al and ilah — i. e., "the god," a word
cognate with the Hebrew Eloah), the
Arabic name of the supreme god among
the heathen Arabs, adopted by Mo-
hammed for the one true God. See
MOHAMMED and MOHAMMEDANISM.
Alleghanies, a word used as syn-
onymous with the APPALACHIAN
MOUNTAINS (q. v.), sometimes ap-
plied only to that portion of the sys-
tem which extends from Pennsylvania
to North Carolina, and which forms
the watershed between the Atlantic
and the Mississippi.
Allegheny, a former city in Alle-
gheny co., Pa.; at the confluence of
the Allegheny and Monongahela riv-
ers, which here form the Ohio; and
on several railroads; opposite the
city of Pittsburg, the county-seat.
Allegheny was laid out as a town in
1788: created a borough in 1828, and
consolidated with Pittsburg in 1907.
Pop. (1890) 105,287; (1900) 129,-
896. gee PITTSBUBG.
Allegheny River
All-Hallows' Ere
Allegheny River, a river of Penn-
sylvania and New York ; a headstream
of the Ohio. Its length is about 400
miles, and it is navigable for about
150 miles above Pittsburg.
Allen, Charles Grant Blairfin-
die, generally known as Grant Allen,
an English author, born 1848, died
1899. His best known and most pop-
ular works are on scientific subjects,
although he also wrote many novels.
Allen, Charles Herbert, an
American diplomatist, born in Lowell,
Mass., April 15, 1848; was graduated
at Amherst College in 1869 ; became
associated with his father in the lum-
ber business in Lowell ; served in both
branches of the State Legislature, and
in Congress in 1885-1889 ; was defeat-
ed as the Republican candidate for
governor of Massachusetts in 1891 ;
and succeeded Theodore Roosevelt as
Assistant Secretary of the Navy, in
May, 1898. On the passage by Con-
gress of the Porto Rico Tariff and
Civil Government bill, in April, 1900,
the President appointed him the first
civil governor of Porto Rico, an office
which he resigned in July, 1901.
Allen, Edward P., an American
Roman Catholic clergyman, born in
Lowell, Mass., March 17, 1853 ; now
fifth Bishop of Mobile, Ala.
Allen, Elizabeth Akers, an
American poet, born (ELIZABETH
CHASE) at Strong, Me., Oct. 9, 1832.
She was married in 1860 to Paul
Akers, the sculptor, who died in 1861,
and in 1865 to E. M. Allen, of New
York.
Allen, Ethan, an American Revo-
lutionary hero, born at Litchfield,
Conn., Jan. 10, 1737. His services in
the War of Independence, as Colonel
of the " Green Mountain Boys," cap-
turing Fort Ticonderoga " in the name
of the Great Jehovah and the Conti-
nental Congress," his attack on Mon-
treal, sufferings as a prisoner in Eng-
land, skillful diplomacy in behalf of
Vermont, etc., are well known. He
died near Burlington, Vt., Feb. 12,
Allen, James Lane, an Amer-
ican novelist, born near Lexington,
Ky., in 1850. His fame rests mainly
upon his powerful and popular novels
of manners and people in the " blue
jfrass " region and elsewhere.
Allen, Joel Asaph, an American
mammalogist, born in Springfield,
Mass., July 19, 1838. He went with
Agassiz on his expedition to Brazil in
1865 ; became assistant in ornithology
at the Cambridge Museum of Compar-
ative Zoology in 1870, and was ap-
pointed curator of the department of
vertebrate zoology in the American
Museum of Natural History, New
York, in 1885.
Allen, Joseph Henry, an Amer-
ican Unitarian minister, educator, his-
torian, and essayist, born at North-
borp, Mass., Aug. 21, 1821. He was
senior editor of the " History of Uni-
tarianism." He died in 1898.
Allen, Thomas, an American
landscape and animal painter, born at
St. Louis, Mo., Oct. 19, 1849. After
an education in St. Louis, he grad-
uated from the Royal Academy at
Dusseldorf, Germany. He studied in
France ; exhibited his first picture at
the Academy of Design in New York,
and at the salons at Paris ; became
vice-president of the Boston Art Stu-
dents' Association ; member of the
committee of the School of Drawing
and Painting of the Boston Museum
of Fine Arts.
Allen, William, an American
preacher and miscellaneous writer,
born at Pittsfield, Mass., Jan. 2, 1784 ;
died at Northampton, Mass., July 16,
1868.
Allen, William Henry, an Amer-
ican naval officer, born at Providence,
R. I., in 1784. He entered the navy
in 1800, and was in some of the great-
est naval battles in Amei lean history.
He died Aug. 15, 1813, from a wound
received the previous day in a naval
fight, and was buried in England.
Allentown, city and capital of
Lehigh county, Pa.; on the Lehigh
river and canal and several rail-
roads; 60 miles N. W. of Philadel-
phia. It has large manufacturing in-
terests, including iron, silk, hardware,
furniture, shoes, wire, .hosiery, and
thread; is the seat of Muhlenberg
College (Luth.) and Allentown Col-
lege for Women (Ref.); and has a
property valuation exceeding $35,-
000,000. Pop. (1910) 51,916.
All-Hallows' Eve, the 31st of Oc-
tober, the evening before All-Hallows
(commonly known as Hallow E'en).
Alliance
Alliance, a city in Stark county,
O., on the Mahoning river and the
Pennsylvania Co.'s railroad; 57 miles
S. B. of Cleveland; has large rolling
mills, steel-casting and boiler works,
and manufactories of gun-carriages,
steam hammers, and electric cranes;
seat of Mt. Union College (M. E.).
Pop. (1910) 15,083.
Allibone, Samuel Austin, an
American bibliographer, born at
Philadelphia, April 17, 1816. He was
at one time librarian of the Lenox
Library, New York. He died at
Lucerne, Switzerland, Sept. 2, 1889.
Allison, William Boyd, an
American legislator, born in Perry, O.,
March 2, 1829; was brought up on a
farm ; and subsequently educated at
Allegheny College, Pa., and Western
Reserve College, O. He practiced law
in his native State till 1857, when he
removed to Dubuque, la. In the early
part of the Civil War he served on
the governor's staff, and was actively
engaged in raising troops for the
Union army. In 1863-1871 he was a
representative in Congress ; and on
March 4, 1873, entered the United
States Senate as a Republican, to
which he was re-elected in 1878, 1884,
1890, and 1896. He was a delegate to
the Republican National Convention
in Chicago, in 1860 ; and several times
has been a conspicuous candidate for
the presidential nomination of his
party. He died Aug. 8, 1908.
Allopathy, a system of medicine
the object of which is to produce in
the bodily frame another condition of
things than that in or from which the
disease has originated. Allopathy is
opposed to homeopathy, which aims
at curing diseases by producing in
antagonism to them symptoms similar
to those which they produce. Up-to-
date doctors practise what they believe
to be good in both systems, and the
distinction is now largely nominal.
Alloy, a compound or mixture of
two or more metals.
All-Saints' Bay, in the State of
Bahia, on the coast of Brazil, forms
a superb natural harbor, in which the
navies of the whole world might ride
at anchor. Its length from N. to S.
is 37 miles ; its breadth from E. to W.,
27. The town of Bahia lies just with-
in it.
Almagro
All-Saints' Day, a festival insti-
tuted by Pope Boniface IV., early in
the 7th century, on the occasion of
his transforming the Roman heathen
Pantheon into a Christian temple or
church, and consecrating it to the Vir-
gin Mary and all the martyrs.
Allspice, a kind of pepper, consist-
ing of the dried berries of pimenta
officinalis, a tree belonging to the or-
der myrtaceae (myrtle blooms). It
is imported almost entirely from Ja-
maica, and is hence called Jamaica
pepper.
Allston, Washington, an emi-
nent American painter, poet, and ro-
mancer, born at Waccamaw, S. C.,
Nov. 5, 1779 ; graduated at Harvard
in 1800; studied at the Royal Acad-
emy, London, and . in Rome, and re-
turned to Boston in 1809. He died in
Cambridge, Mass., July 9, 1843.
Alma, a river in the Crimea, Rus-
sia, flowing westward into the Bay of
Kalamita, about half way between Eu-
patoria and Sebastopol. On the steep
banks of the stream, through the chan-
nel of which the British troops waded
amid a shower of bullets, a brilliant
victory was won on Sept. 20, 1854,
by the allied armies of England and
France, under Lord Raglan and Mar-
shal St. Arnaud, over the Russian
army commanded by Prince Menschi-
koff. It was the first battle of the
Crimean War.
Almaden, a town in Spain, 50
miles S. W. of Ciudad Real, situated
in the chain of the Sierra Morena. It
is famous for its 12 rich quicksilver
mines, employing about 4,000 miners,
and yielding an annual output of 2,-
500,000 pounds.
Almagro, Diego d', a Spanish
conquistador, was born in 1464 or
1475, and was a foundling who de-
rived his name from the town near
which he was found. After serving
in the army, he sailed to seek his for-
tune in the New World, where he
amassed considerable wealth by plun-
der, and became one of the leading
members of the young colony of Dar-
ien. In 1522 he formed, with Pizarro,
the design of conquering Peru — an
undertaking crowned 10 years after-
ward with marvellous success. Receiv-
ing permission from the Spanish court
to conquer for himself a special prov-
Almanac
ince S. of Pizarro's territory, he
marched on Chile in 1536, penetrated
as far as the Coquimbo, and returned
in 1537, just when the Peruvians had
flown to arms and shut up the Span-
iards in Cuzco and Lima. As these
towns lay S. of Pizarro's district, they
were claimed by Almagro. He dis-
persed the Peruvian army before Cuz-
co, and advanced against Lima, hoping
to make himself sole master of the
country. But on April 6, 1538, he
was defeated in a desperate engage-
ment with the Spaniards under Pizar-
ro near Cuzco ; and on the 26th he was
strangled in prison, and his corpse be-
headed in the market place of Cuzco.
His half-caste son, Diego, collecting
some hundreds of his father's follow-
ers, stormed Pizarro's palace, and
slew him (1541) ; then proclaimed
himself captain-general of Peru ; but,
defeated in the bloody battle of Chu-
pas, Sept 16, 1542, fie was executed
along with 40 of his companions.
Almanac, an annual compilation,
based on the calendar, embracing in-
formation pertinent to the various
days of the year, the seasons, etc.,
with astronomical calculations and
miscellaneous intelligence more or less
detailed, according to the special pur-
pose for which it is prepared.
Alma-Tadema, Sir Laurenz, dis-
tinguished figure painter, born in
Friesland, Jan. 8, 1836; educated
principally at the Antwerp Academy;
elected to the Royal Academy, London,
in 1879; officer of the Legion of Honor,
1878; and member of the leading
academies of Europe; studio in Lon-
don. He died June 24, 1912.
Almohades, the name of a Mos-
lem dynasty that ruled in Africa and
Spain during the 12th and 13th cen-
turies.
Almond, the fruit of the almond
tree, which grows usually to the height
of 12 or 14 feet. Its pink flowers,
composed of five petals, grow in pairs,
and appear very early in spring. The
almonds which are consumed in the
United States are imported, some-
times in the shell, and often without,
from France, Spain, Italy, and the
Levant.
Almonte, Jnan Nepomnceno, a
Mexican general, believed to be the
eoa of the priest Morelos, born in
Alphabet
1804. As a boy he took part in the war
for independence. He took part in the
battles of Buena Vista and Cerro Gor-
do in 1847. In 1861, when Juarez at-
tained power, he deposed Almonte,
who, led by party hatred and ambi-
tion, invited the French expedition to
Mexico. In the beginning of 1862 he
joined the French troops of occupation
at Vera Cruz; but, as the Mexicans
saw in him only a tool of the French
plans, they renounced the idea of
making him French dictator, support-
ed by French bayonets. The French
general, himself, deprived him of pow-
er, but when, on the 10th of June,
1863, he reached the City of Mexico
with the French, he was placed by the
conquerors at the head of the Regency
of the Mexican Empire. The Emperor
Maximilian appointed him field-mar-
shal, but, after Maximilian's death, he
fled to Europe, and died in Paris,
March 22, 1869.
Almqnist, Karl Jonas Ludvig,
a notable Swedish poet, novelist and
miscellaneous writer, born in Stock-
holm, Nov. 28, 1793. He died in Bre-
men, Sept 26, 1866.
Aloe, any species of the genus de-
scribed under botany (below), or even
of one, such as agave, with a close an-
alogy to it. The American aloe is
the agave americana, an amaryllid.
The aloe of Scripture is probably the
agallochum.
Alopecia, a variety of baldness in
which the hair falls off from the beard
and eyebrows, as well as the scalp.
Alpaca, the name given to a spe-
cies of llama, which has for a long
time back been domesticated in Peru.
Alpha and Omega, the first and
last letters of the Greek alphabet,
sometimes used to signify the begui-
ning and the end, or the first and the
last of anything ; also as a symbol of
the Divine Being. They were also
formerly the symbol of Christianity,
and engraved accordingly on the tombs
of the ancient Christians.
Alphabet, so called from alpha
and beta, the first two Greek letters,
is the name given to a set of graphic
signs, called letters, denoting element-
ary sounds, by the combination of
which words can be visibly repre-
sented. Nearly 200 alphabets, ancient
and modern, are known, of which
Alpine Plants
Altar
about 50 are now in use. Most of
them are developments from the prim-
cations connect it with nearly all the
mountain systems of Europe. The
culminating peak is Mont Blanc, 15,-
781 feet high, though the true center
is the St. Gothard, or the mountain
mass where it belongs, from the slopes
of which flow, either directly or by
affluents, the great rivers of Central
Europe, the Danube, Rhine, Rhone,
and Po.
Alsace-Lorraine (German, El-
sass-Lothringen ) , since its cession by
France, in 1871, a State or " imperial
territory" (Reichsland) of the Ger-
man empire. Area, 5,604 square
miles, population, 1,874,014 of whom
eighty per cent speak German. It
is governed as a subject province.
On May 9, 1902, Emperor William
directed that a bill be laid before
the Federal Council abolishing para-
graph 10 in the imperial constitution,
which imposed practically a dictator-
ship on the reichsland of Alsace-Lor-
raine. This imperial action was
wholly unexpected, and excited the
marked gratitude of the people
affected. The bill was passed, and
resulted in the establishment of a
Landtag of two chambers, the upper
house consisting of representatives of
the churches, universities, and profes-
sional classes, and the lower one of
60 members elected by secret ballot.
Alsace-Lorraine was lost to Ger-
many by the Peace of Ryswick in
1697, and France held control till the
Peace of Frankfort, after the Franco-
Pruslsian War of 1870, restored the
territory to Germany. The French
never abandoned the hope and expec-
tation of recovering the territory, and
one of their first movements after the
opening of the World War resulted in
operations (the battle began Aug. 19,
1914) by which a portion of the terri-
tory was occupied. In all the early
rumors of mutual peace terms, the
French insisted that this territory
should be wholly restored, while the
Germans declared that under no cir-
cumstances would they surrender this
Reichsland. See APPENDIX: World
War.
Altar, an erection made for the of-
fering of sacrifices for memorial pur-
poses, or for some other object. An
altar designed for sacrifice is mem-
tioned in Scripture as early as the
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ALPHABETS.
itive Phoenician alphabet, which was
itself ultimately derived from the
Egyptian hieroglyphic picture-writing.
Alpine Plants, the name given
to those plants whose habitat is in
the neighborhood of the snow, on
mountains partly covered with it all
the year round. As the height of the
snow-line varies according to the lati-
tude and local conditions, so also does
the height at which these plants grow.
Alps, the highest and most exten-
sive system of mountains in Europe,
included between lat. 44° and 48° N.,
and long. 5° and 18° E., covering the
greater part of Northern Italy, several
departments of France, nearly the
whole of Switzerland, and a large part
of Austria, while its extensive ramifi-
Alterative
time of Noah (Genesis viii : 20).
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob built sev-
eral altars in places .where for a brief
or more lengthened period they so-
journed. Most of these appear to
liave been for sacrificial purposes.and
one or two seem to have been for me-
morial ends; but the most unequivocal
case of the memorial altar was subse-
quently. (Josh, xxii: 10-34; Gen.
xii: 7, 8; xiii: 4, 18; xxii: 9; xxvi:
25; xxxiii: 20; xxxv: 1, 7.)
Alterative, a kind of medicine
which, when given, appears for a time
to have little or no effect, but which
ultimately changes, or tends to change,
a morbid state into one of health.
Altgeld, John Peter, author,
lawyer, and judge, born in Germany,
in December, 1847. When but a few
months old he was taken to Mansfield,
Ohio. He was Judge of the Supreme
Court at Chicago, in 1886-1891, and
Governor of Illinois in 1893. His
pardon of the Anarchists caused much
controversy. He died March 12, 1902.
Altitude, ni mathematics the per-
pendicular height of the vertex or
apex of a plane figure or solid above
the base. In astronomy it is the ver-
tical height of any point or body
above the horizion.
Alton, city in Madison county,
111.; on the Mississippi river and sev-
eral trunk line railroads; 3 miles
above the mouth of the Missouri, 25
miles N. of St. Louis. It is built on
a high bluff, with picturesque sur-
roundings; has a costly bridge span-
ning the Mississippi; contains the
Cathedral of Sts. Peter and Paul
(R. C.) and several collegiate and
charitable institutions; and flhips lime,
coal, and stone. Pop. (1910) 17,528.
Altoona, city in Blair county,
Pa.; on the Pennsylvania railroad,
at the 1 . base of the Alleghany
mountains; 117 miles E. of Pitts-
burg. It is a mining, manufactur-
ing, lumbering, and farming trade
center for Central Pennsylvania;
and, besides extensive machine shops
of the Pennsylvania railroad, has
large car works, rolling and planing
mills, and other industrial plants,
with annual product valued at over
$15,000,000. Pop. (1910) 52,127.
Altranstadt, an important village
in the Prussian Province of Saxony,
Alva
near Lutzen. Through the Treaty of
Altranstadt of Aug. 30, 1707, Charles
XII. obtained from the Emperor Jo-
hann Joseph I. religious liberty and
toleration for the Protestants of Si-
lesia.
Altruism, a term used in psychol-
ogy and ethics to denote disposition
and conduct directed toward the well-
being of others. It is contrasted with
egoism, or self-seeking disposition and
conduct.
Alum, the name given to double
salts of sulphate of aluminum with
sulphates of potassium, sodium, am-
monium, or of other monatomic met-
als, as silver, thallium, caesium, ru-
bidium. They crystallize in octo-
hedra. Alum has a sweet astringent
taste, reddens litmus paper, and dis-
solves in its own weight of boiling
water.
Aluminum, a metal discovered by
Wohler in 1827, as a gray powder, but
in 1847 in the form of small, glittering
metallic globules. It is a white metal,
somewhat resembling silver, but pos-
sessing a bluish hue, which reminds
one of zinc. It is very malleable and
ductile, in tenacity it approaches iron,
and it takes a high polish.
Alva, or Alba, Ferdinand Al-
varez de Toledo, Duke of, prime
minister and general of the Spanish
armies under Charles V. and Philip
II., was born in 1508, of one of the
most illustrious families of Spain.
He entered the army a mere youth,
and fought in the wars of Charles V.
in France, Italy, Africa, Hungary,
and Germany. He is more specially
remembered for his bloody and tyran-
nical government of the Netherlands
(1567-1573), which had revolted, and
which he was commissioned by Philip
II. to reduce to entire subjection to
Spain. Among bis first proceedings
was to establish the " Council of
Blood," a tribunal which condemned,
without discrimination, all whose
opinions were suspected, and whose
riches were coveted. The present and
absent, the living and the dead, were
subjected to trial and their property
confiscated. Many merchants and me-
chanics emigrated to England ; people
by hundreds of thousands abandoned
their country. The most oppressive
taxes were imposed, and trade was
Alvary
Amazon
brought completely to a standstill. As
a reward for his services to the faith,
the Pope presented him with a conse-
crated hat and sword, a distinction
previously conferred only on princes.
Resistance was only quelled for a
time, and soon the provinces of Hol-
land and Zealand revolted against his
tyranny. A fleet which was fitted out
at his command, was annihilated, and
he was everywhere met with insuper-
able courage. Hopeless of finally sub-
duing the country, he asked to be re-
called, and, accordingly, in December,
1573, Alva left the country, in which,
as he himself boasted, he had executed
18,000 men. He died Jan. 12, 1582.
Alvary, Max, a German tenor,
son of the painter, Andreas Achen-
bach, whose name, however, he never
used, born at DUsseldorf, May 1, 1858.
He was first a merchant ; then an
architect in Cologne ; studied singing
with Lamperti in Milan, and with
Stockhausen in Frankfort-on-the-
Main; and joined the court opera in
Weimar. In 1884 he went to New
York, where for five years he distin-
guished himself as " Tannhauser,"
" Siegfried," " Tristan," " Loge,"
"Walter Stolzing," and other Wag-
nerian characters. In 1890, he re-
turned to Germany and sang at the
City Theater in Hamburg. He re-
turned to the United States again in
1896. He died near Grosstabarz, Nov.
7, 1898.
Amadene, a common name in the
house of Savoy. Amadeus I., of Spain,
born in 1845, brother of King Victor
Emmanuel of Italy, was elected King
of Spain in 1870, abdicated in 1873,
and died in 1890.
Amalfi, a city and seaport, in the
Proviace of Salerno, Italy ; on the
Gulf of Salermo; 22 miles S. E. of
Naples. It contained a cathedral
with bronze doors cast in Constanti-
nople in 1066, and a Capuchin mon-
astery, which, in recent years, became
a popular hotel. On Dec. 24, 1899, a
portion of fie rocks and land facing
the Gulf suddenly slid into the water,
carrying down the ancient monastery
building and other structures.
Amalgam, the union or alloy of
any metal with quicksilver (mercury).
Amana, a communistic German col-
ony in Iowa, 28 miles W. of Iowa
City, founded by the Amanites, who
branched out from the so-called " In-
spiration Congregation," consisting of
seven villages, with over 2,000 inhabi-
tants, which, through agriculture, wool
and cotton spinning, have attained
great prosperity.
Amanita, a genus of fungi, nearly
allied to the mushrooms. Several of
YOUNG AMANITA. ADULT AMANITA.
the species are edible, notably the de-
licious orange (A. caesarea), but the
majority are poisonous.
Amarillo, city and capital of Pot-
ter county, Tex.; on the Fort Worth
& Denver City railroad; 82 miles N.
W. of Memphis; is in a stock raising
and farming section; and is a ship-
ping point for cattle and horses.
Pop. (1910) 9,957.
Amaryllis, a genus of plants, the
typical one of the order amaryllida-
ceae.
Amati, a family of Cremona, in
the 16th and 17th centuries, famous
for their violins, which are at the
present time valued very highly on ac-
count of their tone, which is beautiful
and pure, though not very strong.
They are sometimes called Cremona
violins.
Amaurosis, a disease of the eye,
arising from impaired sensibility of
the retina.
Amazon, a river of South America,
the largest in the world, formed by a
great number of sources which rise in
the Andes ; general course N. of E. ;
America
length, including windings, between
3,000 and 4,000 miles ; area of drain-
age basin, 2,300,000 square miles.
Amazon, or Amazone (from a =
without, and mazos^the breast, from
the story that the Amazons cut off
their right breast to prevent its inter-
fering with the use of the bow), a na-
tion on the river Thermpdon, the mod-
ern Termeh in Pontus, in Asia Minor,
said to consist entirely of women re-
nowned for their love of manly sports,
and as warriors. Men were excluded
from their territory, and commerce
was held only with strangers, while all
male children born among them were
killed.
Amber, as a mineral, called also
succinite, from Latin succinum = am-
ber. Its color is generally yellow, but ,
sometimes reddish, brownish, or whit- ;
ish and clouded. It is resinous in lus-
ter, always translucent, and sometimes
transparent. It is brittle, and yields
easily to the knife.
Ambergris, a substance derived
from the intestines of the sperm whale,
and found floating or on the shore.
Ambos Camarinea, a province
of Luzon, Philippine Islands, com-
prising two former provinces, and
forming a long peninsula with its
main frontage on the Pacific Ocean
facing N. E. and E.; area, with de-
pendent islands, 3,161 sq. m.; pop.
(1903) 239,405, of whom 5,933 were
wild; race, chiefly Vicoles.
Ambrose, St., a celebrated father
Of the Church; born in 333 or 334
A. B., probably at Treves, where his
father was prefect; died in 397. He
introduced the Ambrosian chant, and
compiled a ritual known by his name.
Ambrosia, in Greek mythology,
the food of the gods, as nectar was
their drink.
Ambrosian Library, a public li-
orary in Milan, founded by the Cardi-
nal Archbishop Federigo Borromeo, a
relation of St. Charges Borromeo, and
opened in 1609 ; now containing 160,-
000 printed books and 8,000 MSS. It
was named in honor of St. Ambrose,
the patron saint of Milan.
Ambrosins, Johanna, a German
poet and story writer, born at Leng-
wethen, East Prussia, Aug. 3, 1854.
Daughter of an artisan, and married
in 1874 to a peasant's son by the name
of Voigt, she led the hard life of a
peasant woman till middle age.
Ambulance, a hospital establish-
ment which accompanies an army in
its movements in the field for the pur-
pose of providing assistance and surgi-
cal treatment to the soldiers wounded
in battle. The name is also given to
one of the carts or wagons used to
transfer the wounded from the spot
where they fell to the hospital. Also
to the vehicles used in cities to con-
vey the very sick or injured to
hospitals.
Shortly after the outbreak of the
World War patriotic American citi-
zens fitted up and sent to France a
large number of ambulances, organ-
ized volunteer units to operate them,
and established, as a part of the field
service, base and temporary hospitals
in close proximity to the firing lines.
Amen, a Hebrew word of assever-
ation, equivalent to "Yea," "Truly."
Amendment, in law, the correc-
tion of any mistake discovered in a
writ or process.
In legislative proceedings, a clause,
sentence, or paragraph proposed to be
substituted for another, or to be in-
serted in a bill before Congress, and
which, if carried, actually becomes
part of the bill itself. As a rule
amendments do not overthrow the
principle of a bill.
In public meetings, a proposed alter-
ation of the terms of a motion laid
before a meeting for acceptance.
A Mensa et Tnoro, a legal term
used when a wife is divorced from her
husband (as far as bed and board are
concerned), liability, however, re-
maining on him for her separate main-
tenance.
Amentb.es, the unseen world of
the ancient Egyptians, the Hades of
the Greeks, who borrowed their ideas
about the lower world from Egypt.
America, or the New World, the
largest of the great divisions of the
globe except Asia, is washed on the
W. by the Pacific, on the E. by the At-
lantic, on the N. by the Arctic, and on
the S. by the Antarctic Ocean. On
the N. W. it approaches at Bering
Straits within 48 miles of Asia, and
on the N. E. Greenland approaches
within 370 miles of the European is-
land Iceland; but in the S. the dis-
America
tance between the American mainland
and the E. continent is much greater,
the shortest distance between its E.
coast and the W. coast of Africa being
1,600 miles, and between its W. coast
and the E. coasts x of Asia and Aus-
tralia from six to eight times more.
The extreme points of America are —
N., the point of Boothia Felix, in the
Strait of Bellot, lat. 71° 56' N., Ion.
94° 34' W. ; S., Cape Froward, lat.
53° 53' 45" S., Ion. 71° 18' 30" W.,
or, if the archipelago of Tierra del
Fuego is included, Cape Horn, lat. 55°
59' S., Ion. 67° 16' W. ; W., Cape
Prince of Wales, lat. 65° 33' N., Ion.
167° 59' W. ; and E., the Point de
Guia, lat 7° 26' S., Ion. 34° 47' W.
The entire American continent has a
length of about 9,500 miles ; a maxi-
mum breadth, between Cape Prince of
Wales and Cape Charles in North
America, of 3,500 miles ; a coast-line
of 43,200 miles; and a total area, in-
cluding the islands, estimated at about
15,896,000 square miles.
The climate of America, even in the
equatorial regions, is characterized as
comparatively cool and humid. This
is justly ascribed to the vast extent
of territory that may be classed as
insular — to the copious waters of
the interior, together with the mag-
nificent vegetation produced by them
— to the configuration of the surface
and the nature of the soil — to the
possession of a polar shore — and to
the prevailing winds. The rainy zone
is disproportionately extended in
America ; and as the continent
stretches over all the zones, the vege-
tation is remarkably diversified, from
the lowly moss of the N. to the lord-
ly banana of the tropics. The giant
coast chain of the Andes everywhere
rises above the snow-line. From the
sterile Peruvian coast, burned up by
tropical heats, one can look up to
summits covered with perpetual snow
and ice ; and one may climb from the
gigantic equatorial vegetation of Qui-
to to heights where only the condor
testifies to the existence of organic
life, and wings his flight over snow
fields and glaciers. In Peru the cul-
ture of cereals is carried on at the
height of 12,000, and near Quito at
9,000 feet. The N. and S. of Amer-
ica have the same length of day ; out
in the seasons, which depend not mere-
America
ly on astronomical but on a variety
of local causes, the analogy does not
hold, and very remarkable discrepan-
cies appear. Thus, for example, the
E. coast of Brazil has the rainy sea-
son from March to September, while
Peru, lying under the very same lati-
tude, has it from November to March.
Within the tropics the transition from
the rainy to the dry season takes place
almost instantaneously ; but in re-
ceding from the tropics on either side
the change of seasons becomes more
and more gradual, till at last in the
polar zones, nature, bound in icy
chains, affords for living existence
only a short awakening out of a long
winter sleep.
If America, in respect of the devel-
opment of vegetable life, takes prece-
dence of all other quarters of the
globe, it cannot advance the same
claim in respect of the animal world,
though it must be admitted that here
too it has its own peculiar features.
The American jaguar and cougar, or
puma, have not the majesty of the
Asiatic tiger or the African lion ; the
tapir is only a very humble represen-
tative of the elephant or hippopota-
mus, and the llama falls far short of
the camel. Still, America has many
animals whieh belong only to itself.
It has its own species of bears (the
grizzly being most formidable), wolf,
and deer, the bison and musk ox,
with special kinds of squirrels, etc.
To it also belong the Virginia stag,
the wild sheep of California, the opos-
sum, and raccoon. Characteristic of
Central and South America are sloths,
ant-eaters, and armadillos, the con-
dor among the heights of the Andes,
the most beautiful parrots as well as
peculiar monkeys in the woods, the
humming bird with its rich metallic
plumage, the rattlesnake, the alliga-
tor or cayman on the banks of the
streams, the electrical eel in the trop-
ical waters, swarms of mosquitoes on
the wide plains, and sea fowl in such
numbers on the W. coast as to have
furnished large deposits of guano, to
which some of the richest countries
of Europe are indebted for the means
of extending and largely increasing
the product of their agriculture.
The independent States of both
North and South America are now
all republican in their form of
American. Federation
Americanism*
government, though it was only in
1889 that Brazil became a republic
instead of an empire. The differ-
ent independent States are as
follows : In NORTH AMERICA — 1.
The United States ; 2. Mexico ; 3. Ni-
caragua ; 4. Honduras ; 5. Guatema-
la; 6. Costa Rica; 7. (San) Salva-
dor. In the WEST INDIES — 8. Cuba ;
9. Haiti ; 10. San Domingo. In
SOUTH AMERICA — 11. Venezuela ;
12. Colombia ; 13. Peru ; 14. Ecuador ;
15. Bolivia ; 16. Argentine Republic ;
17. Uruguay ; 18. Paraguay ; 19.
Chile; 20. Brazil; 21. Panama. The
European colonies in America are : the
Dominion of Canada, including the
provinces of Ontario, Quebec, ^Nova
Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba,
British Columbia, Prince Edward
Island, and the Northwest Territories,
etc. ; Newfoundland : and the Bermu-
das, all belonging to Great Britain ;
Greenland, belonging to Denmark ;
and St. Pierre and Miquelon to
France. The WEST INDIAN ISLANDS
comprise the republics of Haiti, San
Domingo, and Cuba ; Porto Rico, for-
merly Spanish, is now a territory of
the United States ; the British pos-
sessions of Jamaica, Trinidad, Bar-
bados, Grenada, St. Vincent, Tobago,
St. Lucia, Antigua, Montserrat, St.
Christopher, Anguilla, Nevis, Virgin
Islands, Dominica, the Bahamas,
Turk's Island, etc. ; the French pos-
sessions of Guadeloupe and depen-
dencies (including St. Bartholo-
mew's), Martinique, the N. part of
the island of St. Martin's ; the Dutch
possessions, the S. side of St. Mar-
tin's Curasao and its dependencies ;
Santa Cruz, St. Thomas and St.
John's, known as the Danish West
Indies, purchased by the United States
for $25,000,000 in 1917, and renamed
the Virgin Islands of the United
States. In South America the Brit-
ish possess (besides the Falkland
Island) a part of Guiana, the re-
mainder being owned respectively by
the French and Dutch.
The merit of first unlocking the
American continent to modern
Europe belongs to the Genoese
Christopher Columbus, who, after a
voyage of discovery as dangerous
as it was fortunate, discovered, in
October, 1492, Guanahani, one of
the Bahamas, and named it San
Salvador. It is certain, however,
that Europeans had in the earlier
part of the Middle Ages, and on dif-
ferent occasions, discovered the
American coasts. Northmen proceed-
ing from Iceland discovered the N.
polar land of Greenland. The Ice-
lander Bjorne Herjulfson in 986, got
a glimpse of the coasts of Massachu-
setts and Rhode Island, which in the
year 1000 were visited by Leif the
Lucky, and named by him Vinland.
In 1388 and 1390 Niccolo and Anto-
nio Zeni undertook voyages to the
North Atlantic Ocean, and were
wrecked on Frieslanda, probably the
Faroe Islands ; thereafter they saw
a part of the N. E. coast of Amer-
ica, probably Nova Scotia, which they
named Drogno. These discoveries,
however, had no influence on the en-
terprise of Columbus, and cannot de-
tract in the least from his merit ;
they were forgotten, and had never
been made known to the inhabitants
of the S. of Europe. Though Colum-
bus was the first of his time who
set foot on the New World, it has
taken its name not from him, but
from Amerigo Vespucci. The main-
land was first seen in 1497 by Sebas-
tian Cabot, who sailed under the
patronage of Henry VII. of England.
American Federation of La-
bor, a general representative organ-
ization of the labor unions and socie-
ties of the United States ; founded at
Columbus, O., in December, 1886, as
the successor of a somewhat similar
association which dated back to 1866.
Its principal objects are to promote
the interests and influences of trades
unions, to aid in creating new unions,
and to advance the general cause of
organized labor. It does not under-
take, however, to exercise any ab-
solute authority over affiliated socie-
ties, as is done by the Knights of
Labor. It has been especially active
in agitating for "eight-hour legis-
lation. In 1917, the Federation com-
prised 109 national and international
unions, 5 departments, 45 state
branches, 718 city central unions, 689
local unions ; membership, 2,045,793.
American Indians. See INDIANS,
AMERICAN.
Americanisms, a word defined as
a term, phrase, or idiom of the Eng-
lish language as spoken in America
Americanisms
for in the United States) which either
(a) originated in America; or, (b)
is peculiar to America; or, (c) is
chiefly employed in America. The fol-
lowing is a list of a few of the more
noteworthy Americanisms :
Around or round. — About or near.
To hang around is to loiter about.
Backwoods. — The partially cleared
forest regions in the western states.
Bayou. — In Louisiana, a term given
to a small stream. The same as "creek."
Bee. — An assemblage of persons to
unite their labors for the benefit of
an individual or family or to carry
out a joint scheme.
Bogus. — False ; counterfeit.
Boss. — An employer or superinten-
dent of laborers; a leader.
Bulldoze, to. — To intimidate,
Bunco. — A swindling game.
Buncombe or Bunkum. — A speech
made solely to please a constituency ;
talking for talking's sake, and in an
inflated style.
Calculate. — To suppose, to believe,
to think.
Camp-meeting. — -A meeting held in
the fields or woods for religious pur-
poses, and where the assemblage en-
camp and remain for several days.
Car. — A carriage or wagon of a
railway train. The Englishman "trav-
els by rail," the American takes, or
goes by, the cars.
Carpet-bagger. — A needy political
adventurer who carries a11 his earthly
goods in a carpet-bag ; originally ap-
plied to politicians from the Northern
States who sought offices in the South
after the Civil War.
Caucus. — A private meeting of the
leading politicians of a party to agree
upon the plans to be pursued in an
approaching election.
Chunk. — A short, thick piece of
wood or any other material.
Corn. — Maize. In England, wheat
or grain in general.
Corn-husking or Corn-shucking. —
An occasion on which a farmer invites
his neighbors to assist him in strip-
ping the husks from his corn.
Creek. — A small tributary of a large
river. Used chiefly in the West.
Dead-heads. — People who have free
admission to entertainments, or who
have the use of public conveyances, or
the like, free of charge.
Down East. — In or into the New
Americanisms
England States. A down-easter is a
New Englander.
Drummer. — A commercial traveler.
Dry goods. — A general term for
such articles as are sold by linen-
drapers, haberdashers, hosiers, etc., in
England.
Fix, to. — To put in order, to pre-
pare, to adjust. To fix the hair, the
table, the fire, is to dress the hair, lay
the table, make up the fire.
Fixings. — Arrangements, dress, em-
bellishments, luggage, furniture, gar-
nishments of any kind.
^ Fork. — Used in the Southwest in a
similar sense to " creek."
Freeze out. — To get rid of objec-
tionable persons.
Gerrymander. — To arrange politi-
cal divisions so that in an election one
party may obtain an advantage over
| its opponent, even though the latter
may possess a majority of votes.
Grab. — To gain a privilege without
proper payment.
Greenback. — A former kind of pa-
per money.
Guess, to. — To believe, to suppose,
to think.
Gulch. — A deep, abrupt ravine,
caused by the action of water.
Happen in, to. — To happen to come
in or call.
llatchet, to bury or take up the. —
To end or begin war.
Help. — The labor of hired persons
collectively; the body of servants be-
longing to a farm or household or fac-
tory.
Hoe-cake. — A cake of corn meal
baked on or before the fire.
Hoodlum. — A rough.
How ! — Indian abbreviation of "How
do you do?"
Jolly, to. — To flatter, to tease, to
poke fun at
Johnny cake. — A cake made of corn
meal mixed with milk or water.
Log-rolling. — The assembly of sev-
eral parties of wood-cutters to help
one of them in rolling their logs to
the river after they are felled and
trimmed ; also employed in politics to
signify a like system of mutual co-
operation.
Lynch law. — An irregular species
of justice executed by the people or a
mob, without legal authority or trial.
Mail letters, to. — To post letters.
Make tracks, to. — To run away.
American Municipal League
American Party
Mush. — A kind of hasty-pudding.
Nickel. — A five-cent coin.
Rations. — A term applied to every
variety of small wares.
One-horse. — A one-horse thing is a
thing of no value or importance; a
mean or trifling thing.
Oxbow. — The bend in a river or
the land inclosed within such a bend.
Peart (in the South). — Equal to
smart or well.
Piazza. — A veranda.
Picayune. — A trifle.
Pickaninny. — A negro child.
Pile. — A quantity of money.
Planks. — In politics, the several
principles which appertain to a party ;
" platform " is the collection of such
principles.
Pull. — A special individual favor.
Reckon, to. — To suppose, to think.
Right smart. — Very well.
Roast, to. — To criticise severely.
Scab. — A non-union workman.
Scalawag. — A scamp, a scapegrace.
Shake. — To leave a person.
Skedaddle, to. — To run away, a
word introduced during the Civil war.
Smart. — Used in the sense of con-
siderable, a good deal, as a smart
chance ; also equal to well, as " right
smart," very well.
Stakes, to pluck or pull up. — To
remove.
Stampede. — The sudden flight of a
crowd, or of cattle or horses.
Stiff. — In medical schools, a corpse.
Store. — Same as shop in Great
Britain; as a book store, a grocery
store.
Strike oil, to. — To come upon pe-
troleum ; hence, to make a lucky hit,
especially financially.
Stump' speech. — A speech calcu-
lated to please the popular ear, such
speeches in newly settled districts
being often delivered from the stumps
of trees.
Ticker. — A watch ; also a telegraph
receiver.
Ticket, to vote the straight. — To
vote for all the men or measures on
the ticket.
Truck. — The small produce of gar-
dens ; truck patch, a plot in which the
smaller fruits and vegetables are
raised.
Turn down, to. — To reject or ig-
nore ; used of office seekers especially.
Vamose, to. — To run off.
Vendue. — An auction ; to vendue,
to sell at auction.
Whoop it up. — To create an ex-
citement.
WUt. — To become soft or languid,
to lose energy, pith, or strength.
American Municipal Iieagne,
an organization with branches in all
important American and Canadian
cities, founded for the promotion of
municinal administration.
American Party, The, the name
of three separate organizations which
at different times held a prominent
place in the political affairs of the
United States. The first, organized
about 1852, at a time when the Whig
Party was near its dissolution was,
in fact, a secret society, and was bet-
ter known in later years as the "Know
Nothings," from the assumed ignor-
ance of its members when questioned
in regard to the objects and name of
the order. Its principal doctrine was
opposition to all foreigners and Ro-
man Catholics, and its motto was
" Americans must rule America." The
first National Convention of the Par-
ty was held in February, 1856, at
which resolutions were adopted, de-
manding a lengthening of the resi-
dence necessary to naturalization, and
condemning President Pierce's admin-
istration for the repeal of the Mis-
souri Compromise. A number of the
members withdrew because of the re-
fusal to consider a resolution regard-
ing the restriction of slavery. Mi Hard
Fillmore, of New York, was nominated
for President, and Andrew Jackson
Donelson for Vice-President, which
nominations were subsequently in-
dorsed by a Whig Convention. Fill-
more carried but one State, Maryland ;
his popular vote being about 850,000.
The party was successful in carrying
the State elections in Rhode Island
and Maryland in 1857, but never
gained any popularity in the Western
States. A second party, bearing the
same name, but directly adverse to the
first in that it was founded in opposi-
tion to secret societies, was organized
for political purposes by the National
Christian Association, at the adjourn-
ment of a convention held by the lat-
ter body at Oberlin, O., in 1872. The
organization was completed and the
name adopted at a convention in Syra-
cuse, N. Y., in 1874. At Pittsburg,
American Protective Asso.
America's Cup
.Tune 9, 1875, a platform was adopted
in which were demanded recognition
of the Sabbath, the introduction of
the Bible into public schools, prohibi-
tion of the sale of liquors, the with-
drawal of the charters of secret socie-
ties, and legislative prohibition of
their oaths, arbitration of internation-
al disputes, the restriction of land
monopolies, resumption of specie pay-
ment, justice to the Indians, and a
direct popular vote for President and
Vice-President. James B. Walker of
Illinois was nominated for President.
In 1880, the party again made nom-
inations, and in 1884, S. C. Pomeroy
was nominated, but withdrew in favor
of John P. St. John, the Prohibition
candidate. The third party to be called
by the name of American Party was
organized at a convention held at Phil-
adelphia, Sept. 10-17, 1887. Its prin-
cipal aims, as set forth in its plat-
form, were, to oppose the existing
system of immigration and naturaliza-
tion of foreigners ; to demand its re-
striction and regulation so as to make
a 14-years' residence a prerequisite of
naturalization ; to exclude from the
benefits of citizenship all anarchists,
and other dangerous characters ; to de-
fend free schools ; to condemn
alien proprietorship ; to declare for
the permanent separation of Church
and State, and in favor of the enforce-
ment of the Monroe Doctrine. But
little has been heard of the American
Party in the past few years.
American Protective Associa-
tion, popularly known as the "A. P.
A.," a secret order organized through-
out the United States, with branches
in Canada, which has attracted much
attention by its aggressive platform
and active agitation. Its chief doc-
trine, as announced in its declaration
of principle, is that " subjection to
and support of any ecclesiastical pow-
er not created and controlled by Amer-
ican citizens, and which claims equal,
if not greater, sovereignty than the
Government of the United States of
America, is irreconcilable with Amer-
ican citizenship ; " and it accordingly
opposes " the holding of offices in Na-
tional, State, or Municipal Govern-
ment by any subject or supporter of
such ecclesiastical power." Another
of its cardinal purposes is to prevent
all public encouragement and support
of sectarian schools. It does not con-
stitute a separate political party, but
seeks to control existing parties, and
to elect friendly and defeat objection-
able candidates, by the concerted ac-
tion of citizens affiliated with all par-
ties. The order was founded March
13, 1887, and claims a membership of
about 2,000,000.
American Psychological Asso-
ciation, an organization founded in
1892 for the advancement of psychol-
ogy as a science.
American Social Science Asso-
ciation, a society organized in 1865.
American Society of Civil En-
gineers, an association instituted in
1852 ; holds two meetings each month
(excepting in July and August) at
headquarters, 220 W. 57th st., New
York city ; membership, 2,200.
American Society of Mechani-
cal Engineers, an organization char-
tered in 1881 ; annual dues, members
and associates, $15 ; juniors,$10 ; en-
trance fee, members and associates,
$25, juniors, $15 ; membership unlim-
ited ; holds two meetings annually ;
headquarters, 12 W. 31st St, New
York city.
American System, a term used
by Henry Clay and applied to his plan
of protective duties and internal im-
provements, as proposed in the de-
bates in Congress which resulted in
the tariff law of 1824. At present it
is used to denote the policy of protec-
tion to home industries by means of
duties on imports.
America's Cnp, a yachting trophy,
originally known as the Queen's Cup,
offered as a prize to the yachts of all
nations by the Royal Yacht Squadron
of Great Britain, in 1851. The first
contest for it was held Aug. 22 of that
year, when it was won by the Ameri-
can yacht " America," whose owners
deeded it in trust to the New York
Yacht club. The subsequent success
of American yachts in keeping the cup
caused it to become known as the
" America's " Cup.
In 1903 Sir Thomas Lipton pre-
sented Shamrock III. as challenger
for the America's Cup, Reliance, built
by the Herreshoffs, being presented as
defender of the Cup by an American
syndicate, with Mr. Iselin as manager.
Several of the races were called off
America's Cup
America's Cup
RECORD OF CONTESTS FOR THE AMERICA S CUP.
Date.
Names of Yachts.
Course.
Time.
H. M. S.
Aug. 22, 1851
Aug. 8, 1870
Oct. 16, 1871
Oct. 18, 1871
Oct. 19, 1871
Oct. 21, 1871
Oct. 23, 1871
Aug. 11, 1876
Aug. 12, 1876
Nov. 9, 1881
Nov. 10, 1881
Sep. 14, 1885
Sep. 16, 1885
Sep. 9, 1886
Sep. 11, 1886
Sep. 27, 1887
Sep. 30, 1887
Oct. 7, 1893
Oct. 9, 1893
Oct. 13, 1893
Sep. 7, 1895
Sep. 10, 1895
Sep. 12, 1898
Oct. 20, 1899
Oct. 3, 1901
Oct. 4, 1901
Sep. 3, 1903
America
From Cowes, around the Isle of (
10 37 00
i N. Y. Y. C. course, about 39 miles i
iN. Y. Y. C. course...
3 58 21
4 37 38
6 10 44
6 46 45
3 07 41
3 18 15
4 02 25
4 17 35
5 39 02
6 09 23
4 16 17
5 11 55
5 23 54
5 34 53
7 18 45
7 46 00
4 17 00
4 45 39
4 54 32
5 33 47
6 06 05
6 22 24
5 63 14
5 04 53
5 26 41
5 38 43
6 49 10
7 18 09
4 53 18
5 12 41
5 42 56
5 54 45
4 05 47
4 11 35
3 25 01
3 55 38
3 24 3C
3 25 ISr
4 59 54
5 08 44
3 55 56
3 55 09
4 48 48
*
3 38 09
3 44 43
3 12 35
3 16 10
4 32 57
4 33 38
4 00 28
t
Cambria
> I
( 20 miles to windward off Sandy /
Hook lightship, and return )
j N. Y. Y. C. course — Columbia I
Columbia
\ 29 miles to windward off Sandy )
i Hook lightship and return )
{IK. Y. Y. C. course j
Livonia
Madeleine
1 N Y Y C course 5
Countess of Dutferin.
Madeleine
5 20 miles to windward off Sandy I
.( Hook lightship, and return )
[ N. Y. Y. C. course j
Countess of Dufferin.
C 16 miles to leeward from buoy 5 \
i off Sandy Hook lightship, and (
( return \
Puritan
[N. Y Y C course (
( 20 miles to leeward off Sandy i
Genesta
Mayflower
1 N. Y. Y. C. course <
Galatea
( 20 miles. to« leeward off Sandy )
> N. Y. Y. C. course j
Thistle 1
Volunteer
c 20 miles off Scotland lightship, >
Thistle
Vigilant
t 15 miles to windward off Sandy )
Valkyrie
(Irregular course: 10 miles to a)
Vigilant
i!5 miles to windward off Sandy >
Defender
15 miles to windward off Sandy j
Hook, and return }
Valkyrie III
Defender
Valkyrie III
3 15 miles to windward off Sandy )
Hook, and return >
Defender
Valkyrie III
( 15 miles to windward off Sandy >
Hook, and return )
(15 miles to windward off Sandy )
f Hook, and return )
Columbia
Shamrock II
fSO miles triangular course j
1 15 miles leeward and back ---i
Columbia
Reliance
j 15 miles to leeward off Sandy )
/ Hook, and return J
Shamrock III
* Did not finish.
Shamrock II. finished first, but lost race on time allowance of 43 seconds.
t Reliance won by 1 1 minutes.
Amerigo Vespucci
Amharlo
on account of the time limit, Reliance
being ahead in all of them, as well as
in the three races which decided the
contest. In the final race, Thursday,
Sept. 3, Reliance started at 1:01:56
THE AMERICA'S CUP.
p. m., Shamrock at 1 :02 :00 p. m. Re-
liance turned the outer mark at
3 :40 :30, to Shamrock III.'s 3 :51 :40.
Reliance won the race in four hours
and twenty-eight minutes.
Amerigo Vespucci. See VES-
PUCCI.
Ames, Adalbert, an American
military officer, born in 1835 ; gradu-
ated at West Point, 18G1 ; became
Brigadier-General and brevet Major-
General United States Volunteers, in
the Civil War; Provisional Governor
of Mississippi, 1868; resigned army
commission, 1870; United States Sen-
ator from Mississippi, 1870-1873,
Governor 1874-1876; and Brigadier-
General United States Volunteers in
the war with Spain, 1898.
Ames, Charles Gordon, an
American clergyman, editor, and lec-
turer, born in Dorchester, Mass., Oct.
3, 1828. He graduated at the Geauga
Seminary, Ohio ; was ordained in 1849
as a Free Baptist, but later became a
Unitarian, and pastor of the Church
of the Disciples, Boston. He was eu-
itor of the Minnesota " Republican "
and the " Christian Register," of Bos-
ton. He wrote " George Eliot's Two
Marriages." He died April 15, 1912.
Ames, Eleanor Kirk, an Ameri-
can author, born at Warren, R. I.,
Oct. 7, 1831. Among her many
books are " Information for Authors,"
" Beecher as a Humorist," " The In-
fluence of the Zodiac on Human Life,"
etc. She died June 24, 19G&
Ames, Fisher, an American ora-
tor and statesman, born in Dedham,
Mass., April 9, 1758. Admitted to the
bar in 1781, he became a member of
Congress in 1789, where he gained a
national reputation by his oratory.
Two of his finest efforts were in sup-
port of John Jay's treaty with Great
Britain, and a eulogy on Washington
before the Massachusetts Legislature.
He was elected president of Harvard
College in 1804, but declined. A bril-
liant talker, he was distinguished in
conversation for wit and imagination,
while his character was spotless. His
works consist of orations, essays, and
letters (2 vols., 1854). He *.ied in
Dedham, July 4, 1808.
Ames, Mary Clemmer, an Amer-
ican author, born in Utica, N. Y., ia
1839 ; was a frequent contributor to
the Springfield " Republican," and
afterward to the New York " Inde-
pendent." Married to and divorced
from the Rev. Daniel Ames, she be-
came, in 1883, the wife of Edward
Hudson at Washington. Among her
works are a volume of " Poems "
(1882) ; and biographies of Alice and
Phoebe Gary. She died in Washing-
ton, D. C., Aug. 18, 1884.
Ametabola, a class of wingless in-
sects, which do not undergo netamor-
phosis. They include bird lice, etc.
Amethyst, a precious stone, a va-
riety of quartz, named by Dana ame-
thystine quartz. The Oriental amethyst
is a rare purple variety of sapphire.
The best specimens are brougLt from
India, Armenia, and Arabia.
Amharic, or Amarinna, a Se-
mitic language with an intermixture
of African words; since the 14th cen-
Amherst College
Ammonite
tury the court and official language
of Abyssinia.
Amherst College, an educational
Institution in Amherst, Mass. ; found-
ed in 1821 and incorporated in 1825.
Amiel, Henri Frederic, a dis-
tinguished Swiss essayist, philosophi-
cal critic, and poet, born at Geneva,
Sept. 27, 1821. He died in Geneva,
March 11, 1881.
Animen, Daniel, an American na-
val officer, born in Brown county, O.,
May 15, 1820; entered the United
States navy, July 7, 1836. He was
executive officer of the North Atlantic
Blockading Squadron at the outbreak
of the Civil War. From 1861 to 1865
he rendered signal service in the at-
tacks on Port Royal, Fort Macallister,
Fort Fisher, and both the ironclad at-
tacks on Fort Sumter. On June 4,
1878, he was retired with the rank
of Rear-admiral. He was the designer
of the Ammen life raft and harbor de-
fense ram. Among his works are "The
Old Navy and the New," and "Navy
in the Civil War" J1883). He died
in Washington, D. C\, July 11, 1898.
Ammergau, Ober- and TTnter,
two adjoining villages in Upper Ba-
varia, in the higher part of the valley
of the Ammer, 42 miles S. W. by S. of
Munich. Ober-Ammergau is noted for
the performance of the " Passion
Play," a series of dramatic represen-
tations of the sufferings of Christ,
which is produced every tenth year
by about 500 performers, in accord-
ance with a vow made at the time of
the pestilence of 1634. During the in-
tervening years, the actors give a
series of representations of Old Tes-
tament legends. The performance gen-
erally lasts seven or eight hours, often
without intermission, and is partly a
religious service and partly a popular
festival. In 1889, a theater was built
just outside the place, with a stage
and auditorium capable of seating
6,000 persons. On the height near by
is a colossal memorial of " Christ on
the Cross, with Mary and John,"
modeled by Halbig, the gift of King
Ludwig II.
Ammiamis Marcellinus, a Ro-
man historian, born of Greek parents
at Antioch, in Syria, about 330.
Animon, the eponymic ancestor of
ft people, known in Hebrew and Bibli-
cal history as the "children of Ani-
mon " or Ammonites ; frequently men-
tioned in the Old Testament Ac-
cording to the account in Genesis
(xix: 38), Ammon was the son of
Lot.
Ammon, a god of the ancient
Egyptians, worshipped especially in
Thebes (No-Ammon), and early rep-
resented as a ram with downward
branching horns, the symbols of pow-
er; as a man with a ram's head; and
as a complete man with two high
feathers on his head, bearded, sitting
on a throne, and holding in his right
hand the scepter of the gods, in his
left the handled cross, the symbol of
divine life. The worship of Ammon.
spread at an early period to Greece,
and afterward to Rome, where he was
identified with Zeus and Jupiter.
Ammonia, a colorless, pungent
gas, with a strong alkaline reaction.
It can be liquefied at the pressure of
seven atmospheres at 15°. Ammonia
is obtained by the dry distillation of
animal or vegetable matter containing
nitrogen; horns, hoofs, etc., produce
large quantities; hence its name of
spirits of hartshorn. Guano consists
chiefly of urate of ammonia. But
ammonia is now obtained from the
liquor of gasworks, coal containing
about 2 per cent, of nitrogen. It is
used in medicine as an antacid and
stimulant ; it also increases the secre-
tions. Fxternally, it is employed as a
rubefacient and vesicant. Ammonia
is used as an antidote in cases of poi-
soning by prussic acid, tobacco, and
other sedative drugs.
AMMONITES.
Ammonite, a large genus of fossil
chambered shells.
Ammonites
Amsterdam
Ammonites, a Semitic race of
people, living on the edge of the Syr-
ian Desert ; according to Gen. xix : 38,
the descendants of Lot, and closely
akin to the Moabites. They inhabited
the country lying to the N. of Moab,
between the rivers Arnon and Jabbok.
Their chief city was Rabbath-Ammon.
The Israelites were often at war with
them. From the name of their
princes, it is evident that their lan-
guage was closely akin to Hebrew.
Their chief deity was Moloch.
Amnesty, an act of oblivion passed
after an exciting political period. Its
object is to encourage those who have
compromised themselves by rebellion
or otherwise to resume their ordinary
occupations, and this it does by giving
them a guarantee that they shall never
be called upon to answer for their
past offenses.
Amor, the god of love among the
Romans, equivalent to the Greek Eros.
Amorites, a powerful tribe of Ca-
naanites, who inhabited the country
N. E. of the Jordan, as far as Mount
Hermon.
Amos, one of the so-called minor
prophets of the Hebrews, was a herds-
man of Tekoa, in the neighborhod of
Bethlehem, and also a dresser of syca-
more trees. During the reigns of
Uzziah in Judah, and Jeroboam II. in
Israel (about 800 B. c.)» be came for-
ward to denounce the idolatry then
prevalent.
Amoy, a seaport town and one of
the treaty ports of China; on a small
island of the same name in the Prov-
ince of Fukien ; 325 miles E. by N. E.
of Canton, and directly opposite the
island of Formosa. During the in-
ternational military operations in
China, in 1900, the city was occu-
pied by the Japanese.
Ampere, the practical unit of elec-
tric current strength. It is the mea-
sure of the current produced by an
electro-motive force of one volt through
a resistance of one ohm. In electric
quantity it is the rate of one coulomb
per second.
Ampere, Andre Marie, a French
mathematician and physicist, was
born at Lyons in 1775. He died at
Marseilles, June 10, 1836.
Amphibia, in zoology, animals
Which can live indiscriminately on
land or water, or which at one part
of their existence live in water and
at another on land.
Amphictyonic Council, a cele-
brated council of the States of ancient
Greece. The members of this confed-
eration bound themselves by an oath
not to destroy any city of the Am-
phictyons, nor cut off their streams
in war or peace, and to employ all
their power in punishing those who
did so, or those who pillaged the prop-
erty of the god, or injured his temple
at Delphi.
Ampliion, in mythology, the son
of Jupiter and Antiope; the eldest of
the Grecian musicians. To express
the power of his music, and, perhaps,
of his eloquence, the poets said, that,
at the sound of his lyre, the stones
voluntarily formed themselves into
walls ; that wild beasts, and even
trees, rocks, and streams, followed
the musician.
Amphipolis, an important city of
Thrace or Macedonia; at the mouth
of the Strymon river; 33 miles from
the .ZEgean. The site is now occupied
by the Turkish town of Yenikeui.
Amphitheater, " a double theater.
The ancient theaters were nearly semi-
circular in shape ; or, more accurately,
they were half ovals, so that an am-
phitheater, theoretically consisting of
two theaters, placed with their
concavities meeting each other, was,
loosely speaking, a nearly circular, or,
more precise1 y, an oval building. The
Romans built amphitheaters wherever
they went. Remains of them are still
to be found in various parts of Eu-
rope ; but the most splendid ruins ex-
isting are those of the Coliseum at
Rome, which was said to have held
87,000 people.
Amsterdam, a city in Montgom-
ery county, N. Y.; on the Mohawk
river and several trunk line rail-
roads; 33 miles N. W. of Albany; is
especially noted for its manufactures
of knit goods, carpets, steel springs,
and paper. Pop. (1910) 31,267.
Amsterdam ("dam" or "dike of
the Amstel"), the capital of the
Netherlands. Almost the whole city,
which extends in the shape of a cres-
cent, is founded on piles driven 40 or
50 feet through soft peat and sand to
a firm substratum of clay.
Amulet
The population, which from 217,024
in 1794, sank to 180,179 in 1815, rose
steadily to 580,960, as reported on
Dec. 31, 1911, of whom the ma-
jority belong to the Dutch Re-
formed Church. Of the remainder,
about 80,000 are Catholics, 30,000
German Jews, and 3,200 Portuguese
Jews. The chief industrial establish-
ments are sugar refineries, engineer-
ing works, mills for polishing diamonds
and other precious stones, dock-
yards, manufactories of sails, ropes,
tobacco, silks, gold and silver plate
and jewelry, colors, and chemicals,
breweries, distilleries, with export
houses for corn and colonial produce ;
cotton-spinning, book-printing, and
type-founding are also carried on. The
present Bank of the Netherlands dates
from 1824, Amsterdam's famous bank
of 1609 having been dissolved in 1796.
Amulet, anything hung around the
neck, placed like a bracelet on the
wrist, or otherwise attached to the
person, as an imagined preservative
against sickness, witchcraft, or other
evils. Amulets were common in the
ancient world, and they are so yet in
nations where ignorance prevails.
Amundsen, Roald, a Norwegian
explorer ; born in Christiania in 1872.
He came from a family long identified
with sea life ; was educated at the
University of Christiania ; and on the
urging of his family began studying
medicine, but soon abandoned it to
engage in polar research. In 1898-9
he was with the Belgica Antarctic
expedition ; in 1903-5 he was the first
navigator to take a ship from the At-
lantic to the Pacific by way of the
Northwest Passage ; and on Dec. 14,
1911, he succeeded in reaching the
South Pole.
Amur, a river formed by the junc-
tion (about 53° N. lat., and 121° E.
long.) of the Shilka and the Argun,
which both come from the S. W. —
the former rising in the foothills of
the Yablonoi Mountains. From the
junction, the river flows first S. E.
and then N. E., and, after a total
course of 3,060 miles, falls into the
Sea of Okhotsk, opposite the island of
Sakhalin. ^ Its main tributaries are
the Sungari and the Ussuri, both from
the S. Above the Ussuri, the Amur
is the boundary between Siberia and
Anabaptist*
Manchuria; below it, the river runs
through Russian territory.
Amylic Alcohol, one of eight al-
cohols having the same chemical formu-
la, but with different properties. Two
of these are large constituents of
fusel oil. The union of some of these
alcohols with the compound ethers,
produce odors resembling pineapple,
strawberries, etc. Therefore fusel oil
is often used in making artificial fruit
flavors. The poisonous properties of
fusel oil, make such products highly
dangerous and justify the prohibitive
legislation which has been enacted in
some of the States.
Anabaptist*, a name given in re-
proach A. D. 253 by Stephen, Bishop of
Rome, to the Christians of Asia Minor,
Cappadocia, Galatea and Cilicia, who
held that no baptism was valid but that
administered to adults by immersion.
They are mentioned by Tertullian and
Agrippinus. The sect appeared in
1520. The most eminent of its early
leaders were Thomas Munzer Mark
Stubner, and Nicholas Storck. They
had been disciples of Luther; but, be-
coming dissatisfied with the moderate
character of his reformation, they cast
off his authority, and attempted more
sweeping changes than he was pre-
pared to sanction. During his ab-
sence, they, in 1521, began to preach
their doctrines at Wittenberg. Laying
claim to supernatural powers, they
saw visions, uttered prophecies, and
made an immense number of prose-
lytes. The ferment which the exciting
religious events taking place in Cen-
tral Europe had produced in men's
minds, had made them impatient of
social or political as well as of spir-
itual despotism ; and, in 1525, the
peasants of Suabia, Thuringia, and
Franconia, who had been much op-
pressed by their feudal superiors, rose
in arms, and commenced a sanguinary
struggle, partly, no doubt, for religious
reformation, but chiefly for political
emancipation. The Anabaptists cast
in their lot with the insurgent peas-
antry, and became their leaders in
battle. After a time the allied princes
of the empire, led by Philip, Land-
grave of Hesse, put down the rebellion,
and Munzer was defeated, captured,
put to the torture, and ultimately be-
headed. In 1532, some extreme Ana*
Anabasis
Anam
baptists from Holland, led by a baker
called John Matthias, and a tailor,
John Boccoldt, called also, from the
place whence he came, John of Ley-
den, seized on the city of Munster, in
Westphalia, with the view of setting
up in it a spiritual kingdom, in which,
at least nominally, Christ might reign.
The name of Munster was changed to
that of Mount Zion, and Matthias be-
came its actual king. Having soon
after lost his life in a mad, warlike
exploit, the sovereignty devolved on
Boccoldt, who, among other fanatical
freaks, once promenaded the streets of
his capital in a state of absolute nud-
ity. On June 24, 1535, the Bishop of
Munstex retook the city by force of
arms, and Boccoldt was put to death
in the most cruel manner that could
be devised. The excesses of the Ana-
baptists were eagerly laid hold of to
discredit the Reformation.
Anabasis, the name given by Xen-
pphon to his celebrated work describ-
ing the expedition of Cyrus the young-
er against his brother Artaxerxes
Mnemon, King of Persia.
Anaconda, a large serpent of the
boa family, common in inter-tropical
America. The head is comparatively
small, conical, very flat below, and
truncated in front. The color is gray-
ish-brown or olive above, with two
rows , of large black spots running
down the back and tail ; the sides are
adorned with black rings on a yellow
ground ; the under surface is ochre-
yellow with black spots. The anaconda
is the largest of living snakes, some-
times reaching a length of over 30
feet. Brazil and Guiana form its
chief habitat. It always lives in or in
the neighborhood of water; lies in
wait for its prey in the water, or
stretched on the sand ; seldom attacks
man ; and during the dry season buries
itself and becomes torpid.
Anacreon, a renowned lyric poet
of Greece, born at Teos in Ionia, 562
( ?) B. o. He died 477 B. 0.
Anaemia, bloodlessness ; a morbid
state of the system produced by loss
of blood, by deprivation of light and
air. The patient is characterized
by great paleness, and blood-vessels,
easily traceable at other times, be-
come unseen after great hemorrhage,
or in cases of anaemia.
Anaesthesia (Greek, "lack of
sensation"), a term used to express
a loss of sensibility to external im-
pressions, which may involve a part
or the whole surface of the body. It
may occur naturally as the result of
disease, or may be produced artificial-
ly by the administration of anaesthet-
ics, such as ether, etc.
The fact that sulphuric ether could
produce insensibility was shown by
the American physicians, Godwin
(1822), Mitchell (1832), Jackson
(1833), Wood and Bache (1834) ;
but it was first used to prevent the
pain of an operation in 1846, by Dr.
Morton, a dentist of Boston.
The employment of general anaes-
thetics in surgery has greatly increased
the scope of the surgeon's usefulness,
and has been a great boon to suffering
humanity. It is, however, fraught
with a certain amount of danger.
However much care may be taken in
its administration, an occasional fatal
accident occurs from the action of the
anaesthetics employed. In these cases,
there is generally disease of the heart,
or a hyper-sensitive nervous system,
predisposing to sudden sinking, or to
shock.
Local anaesthesia, artificially pro-
duced, is of great value in minor op-
erations, and, in painful affections of
limited areas of the body. It may be
induced by the application of cold, or
of medical agents.
Anagram, the letters of any word
read backward, or transposed to make
a new word or sentence, which has
some reference to the original.
Anatmac, a term signifying, in the
old Mexican language, " near the
water," the original name of the an-
cient kingdom of Mexico.
Analogy, similitude of relations
between one thing and other. The
thing to which the other is compared
is preceded by to or with. When both
are mentioned together they are con-
nected by the word between.
Analysis, in ordinary language, the
act of analyzing ; the state of being
analyzed; the result of such investi-
gation. The separation of anything
physical, mental, or a mere conception
into its constituent elements.
Anam, or Annam, a name given
by the Chinese in the 3d century A. ».
Anarajapnra
to an empire occupying the E. side of
the Indo-Chinese peninsula, along the
China Sea. It comprised Tonkin in
the N. ; Cochin-China in the S. ; and
the territory of the Laos tribes S. W.
of Tonkin ; with an aggregate area of
196,500 square miles, and a popula-
tion of 15,000,000. Since the French
occupation in 1884 Anam while theo-
retically still a native monarchy, ad-
ministratively forms the central divi-
sion of French Indo-China with an
area of 61,500 square miles. The King
rules with a council of six members
under the supervision of a French
resident at Hu6. Pop. 5,554,822.
Anarajapura, or Anuradha-
poora, a ruined city, the ancient cap-
ital of Ceylon, built about 510 B. c.,
and said to have covered an area of
200 square miles. The spacious main
streets seemed to have been lined with
elegant structures. There are still
several dagobas in tolerable preserva-
tion, but the great object of interest
is the remains of the sacred Bo-tree
planted over 2,000 years ago, and the
oldest historical tree in the world.
Anarchists, a revolutionary sect
or body setting forth as the social
ideal the extreme form of individual
freedom, and holding that all govern-
ment is injurious and immoral, that
the destruction of every social form
now existing must be the first step to
the creation of a new world. Their
recognition as an independent sect
may be dated from the secession of
Bakunin and his followers from the
Social Democrats at the congress of
the Hague in 1872, since which they
have maintained an active propaganda.
The congress at London in 1881 de-
cided that all means were justifiable
as against the organized forces of
modern society. There have been
comparatively few recognized anarch-
istic outrages in the United States.
A number of violent manifestations
popularly charged to anarchists were
really the out-croppings of labor
troubles ; but acknowledged anarch-
ists stirred up considerable apprehen-
sions after the United States was
drawn into the World War, till the
Federal authorities got after them.
Anastasius, the name of four
Popes, the first and most eminent of
whom held that office for only three
years (398-401). He enforced celi-
Anatomy
bacy on the clergy, and was an oppo-
nent of the Manichseans and Origen.
Anathema, a word originally sig-
nifying some offering or gift to the
gods, generally suspended in the tem-
ple. It also signifies a thing that
has been devoted to destruction (the
equivalent of the Hebrew Cherem) ;
and was ultimately used in its strong-
est sense, implying perdition, as in
Rom. ix., 3: Gal, i., 8-9. In the Ro-
man Catholic Church, from the 9th
century, a distinction has been made
between excommunication and anathe-
matizing; the latter being employed
only against obstinate offenders.
Anatomy, in the literal sense,
means simply a cutting up, but is now
generally applied both to the art of
dissecting or artificially separating the
different parts of an organized body
(vegetable or animal) with a view to
discover their situation, structure, and
economy ; and to the science which
treats of the internal structure of or-
ganized bodies. The branch which
treats of the structure of plants is
called vegetable anatomy or phytotomy,
and that which treats of the structure
of animals animal anatomy or zootomy,
a special branch of the latter being
human anatomy or anthropotomy.
Comparative anatomy is the science
which compares the anatomy of differ-
ent classes with quadrupeds, or that of
quadrupeds with fishes ; while special
anatomy treats of the construction,
form, and structure of parts in a sin-
gle animal. The history of anatomy is
virtually the history of medicine, the
practice of which is based upon the
revelations of anatomical study.
Among the ancient writers or auth-
orities on human anatomy may be
mentioned Hippocrates the younger
(460-377 B.C.), Aristotle (384-322
B.C.), Herophilus and Erasistratus of
Alexandria, (about 300 B.C., ) . Celsus
(53 B.C. — 37 A.D.), and Galen of Per-
gamus (140-200), the most celebrated
of all the ancient authorities on the
science. From his time till the revival .
of learning in Europe in the 14th cen-
tury anatomy was checked in its pro-
gress. In 1315 Mondino, professor at
Bologna, first publicly performed dis-
section, and published a System of
Anatomy, which was a text-book in
the schools of Italy for about 200
years. In the 16th century Fallopio of
Anaxagoras
Padua, Eustachi of Venice, Vesalius
of Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and
many others, enriched anatomy with
new discoveries. In the 17th century
Harvey discovered the circulation of
the blood, Asellius discovered the man-
ner in which the nutritious part of the
food is conveyed into the circulation,
while the lymphatic system was de-
tected and described by the Dane T.
Bartoline. Among the renowned anat-
omists of later times we can only men-
tion Malpighi, Boerhaave, William and
(John Hunter, the younger Meckel,
Bichat, Rosenmuller, Quain, Sir A.
Cooper, Sir C. Bell, Carus, Job, Mul-
ler, Hseckel, Owen, and Huxley, and
the Americans, Jeffries Wyman,
Dwight, Leidy, Marsh, and Cope.
Anaxagoras, a famous Greek phi-
losopher of the Ionic school, born
about 500 (?) B. c. He explained
eclipses anc! advanced physical science.
Anaximander, a Greek mathema-
tician and philosopher, successor of
Thales as head of the physical school
of philosophy, was born at Miletus, in
611 B. c. He is said to have discov-
ered the obliquity of the ecliptic, and
he certainly taught it. He appears to
have applied the gnomon, or style set
on a horizontal plane, to determine the
solstices and equinoxes. The inven-
tion of maps is ascribed to him.
Anaximenes, a philosopher of
Miletus, flourished about 556 B. c.
Pliny attributes to him the invention
of the sun-dial.
Anchoret, Anachoret, or An-
chorite, any person who, from reli-
gious motives, has renounced the
world, and retired into seclusion.
Anchovy, a fish which belongs to
the herring family. In general, its
length is from 4 to 5 inches ; but
specimens are found Ty% inches long.
Anchovy Pear, a tree, with large
leaves, which grows in the West In-
dies. The fruit which is eaten, tastes
like that of the mango.
Ancus Marcius, the fourth King
of Rome was the grandson of King
Numa Pompilius. He died in 616
B. c., after reigning 24 years.
Andalusia, a large and fertile re-
gion occupying the S. of Spain. Its
shores are washed both by the Mediter-
ranean and the Atlantic; and, though
it is not now a political division of
Anderson
Spain, it is more frequently spoken of
than the eight modern provinces into
which it has been divided. Its
breeds of horses and mules have long
been celebrated. The mountains yield
silver, copper, lead, iron, and coal ;
and some ores are extensively worked.
The Andalusians speak a dialect of
Spanish, manifestly tinctured with
traces of Arabic. Andalusia is divided
into the Provinces of Almeria, Jaen,
Malaga, Cadiz, Huelva, Seville, Cor-
dova, and Granada. The chief towns
are Seville, Cordova, and Cadiz. Area.
33,663 square miles. Pop. 3,450,209
Andamans, a group of thickly
wooded islands toward the E. side of
the Bay of Bengal, about 680 miles S.
of the Hooghly mouth of the Ganges,
with a British convict settlement.
In 1872 Lord Mayo, Viceroy of India,
was assassinated on Viper Island, by
a Mussulman convict. Pop. 18,190.
Andersen, Hans Christian, a
Danish novelist, poet, and writer of
fairy tales: born in Odense, April 2,
1805. Hans learned to read and
write in a charity school. After
many struggles he became a success-
ful author, and his fairy tales gained
worldwide fame. He died in Roli-
ghed, Aug. 4, 1875. Andersen's tales
show humor and tenderness.
Anderson, city and capital of
Madison county, Ind.; on a branch
of the White river, a notable hydrau-
lic canal, and several railroads; 35
miles N. E. of Indianapolis; is abun-
dantly supplied with natural gas, and
manufactures iron, steel, glass, wire,
paper, brass, lumber and machinery.
Pop. (1910) 22,476.
Anderson, Alexander, an Amer-
ican wood engraver, born in New York
city, April 21, 1775 ; began engraving
on copper and type metal when 12
years old, without instruction and
with a knowledge of the art gained
solely by watching jewelers. He pro-
duced the first wood engravings ever
made in the United States, and for
many years was the only engraver on
wood in New York. He made the
plates for the fractional paper curren-
cy issued by the Federal government,
and for the cuts in the first editions of
Webster's Spelling Book. He died 1870.
Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett,
an English physician, born in London
Anderson
in 1837. From 1876 to 1898 she was
Dean of the London Medical School
for Women.
Anderson, Martin Brewer, an
American educator, born in Bruns-
wick, Me., Feb. 12, 1815 ; was chosen
President of the newly organized Uni-
versity of Rochester (N. Y.), in 1853,
holding the post till 1888. He died
Feb. 26, 1890.
Anderson, Mary (Mrs. Navar-
re), an American actress, born in
Sacramento, Cal., July 28, 1859.
She played for the first time in Louis-
ville, in 1875, in the character of Ju-
liet. Her success was marked and
immediate, and during the following
years she played with increasing popu-
larity in the principal cities of the
United States in various rOles. In
1883 she appeared at the Lyceum
Theater, in London, and speedily be-
came well known in England. Since
her marriage in 1890 to Antonio Na-
varro de Viana, of New York, she has
retired from the stage, but it was
stated in September, 1903, that she
would probably consent to give the-
atrical readings in the United States.
Anderson, Rasmus Bjorn, an
American author, born in Albion,
Wis., Jan. 12, 1846, of Norwegian pa-
rents. He was educated at Norwegian
Lutheran College, Decorah, la. ; be-
coming Professor of Scandinavian
Languages in the University of Wis-
consin in 1875-1884, and United
States Minister to Denmark in 1885.
Anderson, Robert, an American
military officer ; born near Louisville,
Ky., June 14, 1805; was graduated at
the United States Military Academy
in 1825, and entered the artillery ;
was private secretary to the United
States minister to Colombia in 1825-
1826 ; instructor at the Military Acad-
emy for a while ; on ordnance duty
in 1828-1835; served in the Black
Hawk War in 1832 as colonel of vol-
unteers, taking part in the battle of
Bad Axe ; and in the Florida War in
1837-1838 on General Scott's staff,
and was made assistant adjutant-gen-
eral on the staff in May of the latter
year. He was with General Scott in
.his campaign in Mexico, taking part
I in the engagements at Vera Cruz, Cer-
ro Gordo, Amozoque, and at Molino del
Rey, where he was severely wounded.
Andersonville
He was commissioned major and was
placed in command of Charleston har-
bor, to succeed Colonel Gardiner, with
headquarters at Fort Moultrie, in
1860. After arriving at Fourt Moul-
trie he informed the government of the
weakness of the forts in the harbor,
and urged the necessity of immediately
strengthening them. As the govern-
ment did not respond, and he was left
to his own resources, he began to
strengthen Castle Pinckney and Fort
Moultrie. Fearing that Fort Moultrie
would be attacked at any moment he
applied to the government for instruc-
tions. Receiving none he decided to
remove with his garrison to Fort Sum-
ter. This he did on the evening of
Dec. 26. The Confederates were much
surprised the next day on discovering
the change, and asked him to explain
his conduct in acting without orders,
to which he replied that he did it to
save the government works. He was
attacked and surrendered the fort after
a heavy bombardment, April 12-13,
1861. In 1861 he was promoted Brig-
adier-General, U. S. A., and placed
in command of the Department of
Kentucky and of the Cumberland, but
failing health caused him to retire
from active service in 1863, when he
was brevetted Major-General. He
died in Nice, France, Oct 26, 1871.
Anderson, Rufus, an American
missionary, born in North Yarmouth,
Me., Aug. 17, 1796; was graduated at
Bowdoin College in 1818, and Andoyer
Theological Seminary in 1822; Assist-
ant Secretary of the American Board
of Commissioners for Foreign Mis-
sions in 1824-1858; a founder of
Mount Holyoke Seminary. He died
in Boston, May 30, 1880.
Andersonville, a village in Geor-
gia, noted as having been the seat of
a Confederate States military prison.
Between Feb. 15, 1864, and April, 1865,
49,485 prisoners were received, of
whom 12,926 died in that time of va-
rious diseases. What was formerly a
hamlet is now a town adorned with
gravel walks and trees, and containing
several churches. The cemetery is laid
out in a neat fashion with tablets that
mark the burial places of the dead.
The long trenches where the soldiers
were buried have since been laid ct-t
as a National cemetery, for the bodies
of Northern dead.
Andersson
Andersson, Carl Jan, an African
traveler ; born in the province of
Wermland, Sweden, in 1827. He died
in the land of the Ovampos, in West-
ern Africa, in July, 1867.
Andes, The, or, as they are called
by the Spanish in South America, Cor-
dilleras, a range of mountains, of
such vast extent and altitude as to
render them one of the most remark-
able physical features of the globe.
It follows the whole of the W. coast
of South America, from Cape Horn to
the Isthmus of Panama and the Car-
ibbean Sea. Sometimes it is spoken
of as a continuation of the Rocky
mountains in North America, but
there seems to be no other reason for
doing this than the continuity of the
two divisions of America, and the fact
that both ranges lie in the W. of their
respective continents. There is a suf-
ficiently marked break between the
ridges of the Isthmus of Panama and
the range of the Andes of South Amer-
ica, and a still more distinct hiatus be-
tween the Sierras of Central America
and Mexico and the Rocky mountains.
Andorra, a valley in the Eastern
Pyrenees, between the French depart-
ment of Ari£ge and the Spanish pro-
vince of Lerida, part of Catalonia. It
is inclosed by mountains, through
which its river, the Balira, breaks to
join the Segre at Urgel ; and its inac-
cessibility naturally fits it for being
the seat of the interesting little re-
public which here holds a kind of semi-
independent position between France
and Spain. Area (divided into six
communes), 175 square miles. Popu-
lation about 15,000.
Andover Theological Semi-
nary, a noted Congregational institu-
tion at Andover, Slass. ; founded in
1807.
Andral, Gabriel, a French phy-
sician and pathologist, born in Paris,
Nov. 6, 1797. He died Feb. 13, 1876.
Andrassy, Julius Count, Hun-
garian statesman, born March 8, 1823.
He was a conspicuous member of the
Congress of Berlin in 1878; negotiat-
ed the German-Austrian alliance with
Bismarck in 1879; and the same year
retired from public life. He died Feb.
18, 1890.
Andre, John, a British military
officer, born in London in 1751 ; enter-
___ Andre
ed the army in 1771 ; went to Canada
in 1774 ; and was made prisoner by the
Americans in 1775. After his ex-
change, he was rapidly promoted, and
in 1780 was appointed Adjutant-Gen-
eral, with the rank of Major. His
prospects were of the most flattering
kind when the treason of Arnold led
to his death. The temporary absence
of Washington having been chosen by
the traitor as the most proper season
for carrying into effect his design of
delivering to Sir Henry Clinton the
fortification at West Point, then un-
der his command, and refusing to con-
fide to any but Major Andre the maps
and information required by the Brit-
ish general, an interview became neces-
sary, and Sept. 19, 1780, Andre left
New York in the sloop-of-war " Vul-
ture," and on the next day arrived at
Fort Montgomery, in company with
Beverly Robinson, an American re-
siding at the lines, through whom the
communications had been carried on.
Furnished with passports from Ar-
nold, Robinson and Andr6 the next
day landed and were received by the
traitor at the water's edge. Having
arranged all the details of the proposed
treason, Arnold delivered to Andre"
drafts of the works at West Point
and memoranda of the forces under his
command, and the latter returned to
the beach in hopes of being immediate-
ly conveyed to the " Vulture." But
the ferrymen, who were Americans, re-
fused to carry him, and as Arnold
would not interpose his authority, he
was compelled to return by land. Un-
fortunately for him he persisted,
against the advice of Arnold, in re-
taining the papers, which he concealed
in his boot. Accompanied by Smith,
an emissary of Arnold, and provided
with a passport under his assumed
name of Anderson, he set out and
reached in safety a spot from which
they could see the ground occupied by
the English videttes. At Tarrytowii
he was first stopped, and then arrested,
by three Americans. Andr<§ offered
them his money, horse, and a large re-
ward, but without avail. They ex-
amined his person, and, in his boots,
found the fatal papers. He was then
conveyed to Colonel Jameson, com-
mander of the American outposts.
On the arrival of Washington, Andre
was conveyed to Tappan and tried by
Andre
a board of general officers, among
whom were General Greene, the presi-
dent, Lafayette, and Knox. Every ef-
fort was made by Sir Henry Clinton
to save him, and there was a strong
disposition on the American side to do
po. His execution, originally appoint-
ed for Sept. 30, did not take place till
Oct. 2. If possession could have been
obtained of the traitor, the life of
Andr6 would have been spared. His
remains, which were buried on the
spot, were afterward removed to Lon-
don, and now repose in Westminster
Abbey.
Andre, Louis Joseph. Nicolas,
a French military officer, born in
Nuits, Burgundy, March 29, 1838. He
was graduated at the Polytechnic
School, and in 1865 became captain,
serving in that capacity throughout the
Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871.
He became Major in 1877, Lieutenant-
Colonel in 1885, and Colonel in 1888.
He was made General of Brigade in
1893, and placed in charge of the Poly-
technic School. He married, in 1875,
Mile. Chapuis, a talented singer of the
Opera Comique. On May 29, 1900, he
was appointed Minister of War by
President Loubet, succeeding General
the Marquis de Gallifet , who held the
office during the exciting period of the
Dreyfus revision. Died March 18, 1913.
Andrea, Jakob, a German Pro-
testant theologian, born in Wiirtem-
berg, March 25, 1528; died in Tubin-
gen, Jan. 7, 1590.
Andrea, Johann Valentin, a
very original thinker and writer, born
in 1586, near Tubingen. He studied
at Tubingen, became a Protestant pas-
tor, and died in 1654 at Stuttgart,
where he was chaplain to the court.
Eminently practical in mind, he was
grieved to see the principles of Chris-
tianity made the subject of mere empty
disputations, and devoted his whole
life to correct this prevailing tendency
of his age.
Andree, Solomon Auguste, a
Swedish aeronaut, born Oct. 18, 1854 ;
educated for a civil engineer. In 1882,
he took part in a Swedish meteoro-
logical expedition to Spitsbergen. In
1884 he was appointed chief engineer
to the patent office, and from 1886 to
1889 he occupied a professor's chair
at Stockholm. In 1892 be received
Andrew*
from the Swedish Academy of Sci-
ences a subvention for the purpose of
undertaking scientific aerial naviga-
tion. From that time Dr. Andree de-
voted himself to aerial navigation, and
made his first ascent at Stockholm in
the summer of 1893. In 1895 he pre-
sented to the Academy of Sciences a
well-matured project for exploring the
regions of the North Pole with the aid
of a balloon. The estimated cost
amounted to about $40,000. A na-
tional subscription was opened, which
was completed in a few days, the King
of Sweden contributing the sum of
$8,280. With two companions, Dr. S.
T. Strindberg and Herr Fraenckell, he
started from Dane's island, Spitzber-
gen, July 11, 1897. His balloon was
07^4 feet in diameter, with a capacity
of 170,000 cubic feet. Its speed was
estimated at from 12 to 15 miles an
hour, at which rate the Pole should
have been reached in six days, pro-
vided a favorable and constant wind
had been blowing. Two days after his
departure, a message was received from
Dr. Andr6e by carrier pigeon, which
stated that at noon, July 13, they were
in latitude 82.2°, and longitude 15.5°
E., and making good progress to the
E., 10° southerly. This was the last
word received from the explorer.
Andrew, the first disciple, one of
the apostles of Jesus. His career
after the Master's death is unknown.
Tradition tells us that, after preach-
ing the gospel in Scythia, Northern
Greece, and Epirus, he suffered mar-
tyrdom on the cross at Patrse, in
Achaia, 62 or 70 A. D.
Andrew I., King of Hungary, in
1046-1049; compelled his subjects to
embrace Christianity ; he was killed in
battle in 1058.
Andrew, John Albion, war gov-
enor of Massachusetts. Was born at
Windham in 1818, died 1867. His "Let-
ters and Life" was published in 1904.
Andrews, Christopher Colum-
bus, an American diplomat and
writer, born at Hillsboro, N. H., Oct.
27, 1829; was brevetted Major-Gen-
eral in the Civil War; United States
Minister to Sweden from 1869 to 1877,
and Consul-General to Brazil from
1882 to 1885.
Andrews, Elisha Benjamin, an
American educator, born in Hinsdale,
Andrews
N. H., Jan. 10, 1844; he was grad-
uated at Brown University, 1870, and
Newton Theological Seminary, 1874 ;
President of Brown University in
1889-1898 ; became Superintendent of
Public Schools in Chicago in 1898,
and Chancellor of the University of
Nebraska in 1900; resigned in 1908.
Andrews, Ethan Allen, an
American educator and lexicographer,
born at New Britain, Conn., April 7,
1787. He died in 1858.
Andrews, Jane, an American ju-
venile story writer, born in Massachu-
setts in 1833. She died in 1887.
Andrews, John N., an American
military officer, born in Delaware, in
1838; was graduated at West Point
in 1860 ; served with distinction
through the Civil War ; commissioned
Colonel of the 12th United States in-
fantry in 1895 ; and appointed a Brig-
adier-General of Volunteers for the
war against Spain in 1898.
Andrews, Lorrin, an American
missionary, born in East Windsor,
•Conn. , April 29, 1795 ; was educated
at Jefferson College and Princeton
Theological Seminary, and went as a
missionary to the Hawaiian Islands in
1827. He founded, in 1831, the La-
hainaluna Seminary, which later be-
came the Hawaii University, where he
served 10 years as a professor. He
translated a part of the Bible into the
Hawaiian language. In 1845 he be-
came a judge under the Hawaiian
Government and Secretary of the
Privy Council. He produced several
works on the literature and antiquities
of Hawaii, and a Hawaiian diction-
ary. He died in 1868.
Andrews, Stephen Pearl, an
American writer, born at Templeton,
Mass., March 22, 1812; was a promi-
nent abolitionist, practiced law in the
South, and settled in New York in
1847. He died at New York, May 21,
1886.
Andromache, a daughter of
JEtion, King of Thebes in Cilicia, and
wife of Hector. After the conquest of
Troy she became the prize of Pyrrhu?,
son of Achilles, who carried her to
Epirus and had three sons by her,
but afterward left her to Helenus,
brother of Hector, to whom she bore
a son. Euripides has made her the
chief character of a tragedy.
Angel
Andromeda, in classical mythology
a daughter of Sepheus, King of Ethi-
opia and Cassiope. It was fabled that
she was chained to a rock by order of
Jupiter Ammon, and then exposed to
the attacks of a monster. Perseus re-
leased, and afterward married her. On
her death she was changed into the
constellation which bears her name.
In astronomy, a constellation, fanci-
fully supposed to resemble a woman
chained.
Andros Islands, a group of islands
belonging to the Bahamas.
Andros, Sir Edmund, an Eng-
lish provincial governor, born in 1637 ;
was governor of New York in 1674-
1682, and of New England, with New
York included, in 1686-1689. His
harsh execution of the orders of the
Duke of York caused him to be gener-
ally execrated, and, after his attempt
to deprive Connecticut of its royal
charter, he was seized by the people
of Boston and sent to England under
charges. He was also Governor of
Virginia in 1692-1698, and of the Is-
land of Jersey in 1704-1706. He died
in 1714.
Anemometer, an instrument de-
signed to measure the velocity of the
wind, on which its strength depends.
Anemone, a genus of plants be-
longing to the crowfoots.
^ In zoology, it is a popular name
given to various radiated animals
which present a superficial resemb-
lance to the anemone.
Anemoscope, an instrument for
rendering visible the direction of the
wind. In that commonly used there
is a vane exposed to the wind acting
upon an index moving round a dial-
plate on which the 32 points of the
compass are engraved.
Aneroid, not containing any li-
quid ; used chiefly in the expression,
" aneroid barometer."
Anenrism, a morbid dilation of the
aorta, or one of the other great arter-
ies of the body.
Angel, a messenger, one employed
to carry a message, a locum tenens, a
man of business.
In a special sense an angel is one of
an order of spiritual beings superior to
man in power and intelligence, vast in
number, holy in character, and thor-
oughly devoted to the worship and ser-
Angel Fish
vice of God, who employs them as his
heavenly messengers. Their existence
is made known to us by Scripture, and
is recognized also in the Parsee sacred
books.
Angel Fish, a fish of the shark
family, the reverse of angelic in
its look, but which derived its name
from the fact that its extended pec-
toral fins present the appearance ot
wings. It is called also monk-fish,
fiddle-fish, shark-ray, and kingston.
Angelica, a genus of plants mostly
herbaceous and perennial, natives of
the temperate and colder regions of
the northern hemisphere. Wild angel-
ica (A. sylvestris) is a common plant
in moist meadows, by the sides of
brooks, and in woods. The garden an-
gelica is a biennial plant, becoming
perennial when not allowed to ripen
its seeds.
Angelico, Fra, the commonest
designation of the great friar-painter
— in full, " II beato Fra Giovanni An-
gelico da Fiesole," " the blessed
Brother John the angelic of Fiesole."
Born in 1387 at Vicchio, in the Tus-
can province of Mugello, in 1407, he
entered the Dominican monastery at
Fiesole, in 1436 he was transferred to
Florence, and in 1445 was summoned
by the Pope to Rome, where thence-
forward he chiefly resided till his
death in 1455.
Angell, George Thoradike, an
American reformer, born in 1820, He
was graduated at Dartmouth, 1846,
and admitted to the bar, 1851. He
was active in promoting measures for
the prevention of crime, cruelties, and
the adulteration of food, and founded
the American Humane Educational
Society. He died in 1909.
Angell, James Bnrrill, an Amer-
ican educator and diplomatist, born in
Scituate, R. I., Jan. 7, 1827; was
graduated from Brown University in
1850. He became president of the
University of Vermont in 1866 and of
the University of Michigan in 1871;
was minister to China in 1880-81 and
to Turkey in 1897-98 ; again president
of the University of Michigan in 1900-
10. He died April 1, 1916.
Angell, Joseph Kinnicnt, an
American lawyer, born in Providence,
R. I., in 1794; best known for his
works on "Treatise on the Right of
Angle
Property in Tide- Waters," and " The
Limitation of Actions at Law and in
Equity and Admiralty." He died in
1857.
Angelo (Michelangelo). See MI-
CHELANGELO BUONABOTTI.
Angelns, The, a painting by J. P.
Millet. It represents two French
peasants who have stopped their work
in the field to listen to the Angelus
bell, and to pray. The American Art
Association bought the picture in 1899
for about 580,000 francs, exhibited it
about the country and sold it in 1890
for $150.000.
Angelns, in the Roman Catholic
Church, a short form of prayer in
honor of the incarnation, consisting
mainly of versicles and responses.
Angina Pectoris, the name first
given by Dr. Heberden in 1768, and
since then universally adopted as the
designation of a very painful disease,
called by him also a disorder of the
breast; by some others, spasm of the
chest, or heart stroke, and popularly
breast pang. It is characterized by
intense pain in the prsecordial region,
attended by a feeling of suffocation
and a fearful sense of impending
death. These symptoms may continue
for a few minutes, half an hour, or
even an hour or more. During the
paroxysm the pulse is low, with the
body cold, and often covered with
clammy perspiration. Death does not
often result from the first seizure, but
the malady tends to return at more or
less remote intervals, generally prov-
ing fatal at last. There are several
varieties of it : an organic and func-
tional form ; and again a pure or idio-
pathic and a complex or sympathetic
one have been recognized. Angina is
produced by disease of the heart. It
especially attacks elderly persons of
plethoric habits, men oftener than
women, generally coming on when
they are walking, and yet more, it
they are running up stairs or exerting
great effort on ascending a hill. Stim-
ulants should be administered during
the continuance of a paroxysm ; but it
requires a radical improvement of the
general health to produce a permanent
effect on the disorder.
Angle, the point where two lines
meet, or the meeting of two lines in a
point. Technically, the inclination ot
two lines to one another.
Angler Fish
Angler Fish, a fish called also sea
devil, frog, or frog fish. It has an
enormous head, on which are placed
two elongated appendages or filaments,
the first of them broad and flattened
at the end. These, being movable, are
maneuvered as if they were bait; and
when small fishes approach to examine
them, the angler, hidden amid mud and
sand, which it has stirred up by means
of its pectoral and ventral fins, seizes
them at once; hence its name.
Angles, a German tribe who ap-
pear to have originally dwelt on the E.
side of the Elbe between the mouth of
the Saale and Qhre, and to have re-
moved N. from their old abodes to the
modern Schleswig, where they dwelt
between the Jutes and Saxons. In
the 5th century they joined their pow-
erful N. neighbors, the Saxons, and
tools part in the conquest of Britain,
which from them derived its future
name of England.
Anglesey, or Anglesea, an island
and county of England, in North
Wales, in the Irish Sea, separated
from the mainland by the Menai
Strait. It is about 20 miles long and
17 miles broad. The Menai Strait is
crossed by a magnificent suspension
bridge, 580 feet between the piers and
100 feet above high-water mark, allow-
ing the largest vessels which navigate
the strait to sail under it ; and also
by the great Britannia tubular bridge,
for the conveyance of railway trains,
Holyhead being the point of departure
for the Irish mails.
HOOKS BAITED WITH WOBMS.
Anglican Church, The, means
collectively that group of autonomous
churches which are in communion
with, or have sprung from, the mother
^ Angling
Church of England. They are the
following: The Church of Ireland,
the Episcopal Church of Scotland, the
Protestant Episcopal Church of the
United States of America, the Church
of Canada, the Church of Australia,
the Indian Church, and the Church of
South Africa, which are all autono-
mous bodies under the jurisdiction of
their own metropolitans, and not
amenable to the ecclesiastical courts
of the Church of England, though they
all look to the Archbishop of Canter-
bury as patriarch. In addition tc
these autonomous churches in connec-
tion with the Anglican communion,
there are 12 missionary bishops, repre-
senting the English church in various
remote regions of Asia, Africa, and
America ; and three or four represent-
ing the Protestant Episcopal Church
of America. The Reformed Episcopal
Church of America and the Free
Church of England are not recognized
as authentic branches of the Anglican
Church. The American Church, le-
gally the Protestant Episcopal Church,
according to the U. S. census of 1910,
had 6,845 organizations, 77 dioceses
and missionary districts, 5,368 clergy,
886,942 communicants, and church
property valued at $125,040,498.
ARTIFICIAL FLIES.
Angling, the art of catching fish
with a hook, or angle (Anglo-Saxon,
ongel), baited with worms, small fish.
Anglo-American Com.
Aniline
flies, etc. We find occasional allusions
to this pursuit among the Greek and
Latin classical writers ; it is mentioned
several times in the Old Testament,
and it was practiced by the ancient
Egyptians. The oldest work on the
subject in English is the " Treatyse of
Fysbinge with an Angle." printed by
Wynkyn de Worde in 1496, along with
treaties on hunting and hawking, the
whole being ascribed to Dame Juliana
Berners, or Barnes, prioress of a nun-
nery near St. Alban. Walton's inim-
itable discourse on angling was first
printed in 1653.
Anglo-American Commission,
a joint international commission ap-
pointed in 1898, by the United States
and Great Britain, to negotiate a plan
for the settlement of all controversial
matters between the United States and
Canada. This commission settled the
Alaskan boundary.
Anglo-French Treaty, a diplo-
matic agreement between England and
France, signed April 8, 1904. By this
treaty, France gave up her claims to
certain sovereign rights on the New-
foundland shore ; the rights and privi-
leges of the two nations in Egypt,
Morocco, and Africa generally, are set
forth, and the position of France in
Siam, Madagascar, etc., defined.
Anglo-Japanese Alliance, a
protective agreement for the mutual
defense of interests in eastern Asia
and India, effected by treaties in 1902
and 1905, between Great Britain and
Japan.
Anglo-Saxons, the name used,
with doubtful propriety, by modern
historians to include the Angles, Sax-
ons, and Jutes, who settled in Britain
in the 5th and 6th centuries after
Christ, and thus became the ancestors
of the English people. These tribes
came from Germany, where they in-
habited the parts about the mouths of
the Elbe and Weser, and the first body
of them who gained a footing in Eng-
land are said to have landed in 449,
and to have been led by Hengist and
Horsa. The Jutes settled chiefly in
Kent, the Saxons in the S. and middle
of the country, and the Angles in the
N. Among the various Anglo-Saxon
States that afterwards arose those
founded by the Angles first gained the
preponderance, and the whole country
came in time to be called after them
Engla-land, that is, the land of the
Angles.
Angora Cat, Goat, etc., a variety
of these common animals, generally
supposed to have originated in Angora.
They are characterized by the length
and silkiness of the hair, which makes
the goat a valuable animal to raise.
In America, each generation of the
goat has a poorer fleece, the excellent
quality being retained only by frequent
crossings with the original stock.
Angostura Bark, the aromatic
bitter medicinal bark obtained chiefly
from Galipea officinal is, a tree of 10
to 20 feet high, growing in the north-
ern regions of South America ; natural
order rutacse. The bark is valuable
as a tonic and febrifuge, and is also
used for a kind of bitters.
Angonleme, Louis Antoine de
Bourbon, Due d', the eldest son of
Charles X. of France, and Dauphin
during his father's reign, born at Ver-
sailles Aug. 6, 1775. On the rev-
olution in July, 1830, he signed,
with his father, an abdication in
favor of his nephew, the Due de
Bordeaux ; and when the Chambers
declared the family of Charles X. to
have forfeited the throne, he accom'
panied him into exile, to Holyrood, to
Prague, and to Gorz. He died, 1844.
Anhalt, a duchy of North Ger-
many, lying partly in the plains of
the Middle Elbe, and partly in the
valleys and uplands of the Lower
Harz, and almost entirely surrounded
by Prussia; area, 906 square miles.
The united principality is now incor-
porated in the German Empire, and
has one vote in the Bundesrath and
two in the Reichstag. Pop. (1910)
331,128. The chief towns are Dessau,
Bernburg, Kothen, and Zerbst.
Ani, the name given to a division
of the Cuculidae, or cuckoos; the typ-
ical anis are found in South America,
the West Indies and Florida. They
are about the size of our blackbird.
Anichini, Ludwig, a Venetian
engraver of great celebrity. On see-
ing his pieces, Michael Angelo is said
to have exclaimed that the art of
engraving had reached perfection.
Aniline, an organic substance used
as the basis of brilliant and durable
dyes. It is found in small quantities
in coal-tar, but the aniline of com-
Annato
merce is obtained from benzene or ben-
zole, a constituent of coal-tar, consist-
ing of hydrogen and carbon. It is
a colorless oily liquid somewhat heav-
ier than water, with a peculiar vinous
smell, and a burning taste. Its name
is derived from anil, the Portuguese
Und Spanish name for indigo, from the
dry distillation of which substance it
was first obtained by the chemist Un-
?erdorben in 1826. The manufacture
of aniline or coal-tar dyes as a branch
of industry was introduced in 1856 by
Mr. Perkin of London.
Animal, an organized and sen-
tient living being. Life in the earlier
periods of natural history was attri-
buted almost exclusively to animals.
With the progress of science, how-
ever, it was extended to plants. In
the case of the higher animals and
plants there is no difficulty in assign-
ing the individual to one of the iwo
great kingdoms of organic nature, but
in their lowest manifestations, the veg-
etable and animal kingdoms are
brought into such immediate contact
that it becomes almost impossible to
assign them precise limits, and to say
With certainty where the one begins
and the other ends. From form no ab-
solute distinction can be fixed between
animals and plants. Many animals,
such as the sea-shrub, sea-mats, etc.,
so resemble plants in external appear-
ance that they were, and even yet
popularly are, looked upon as such.
Animal Chemistry, the depart-
ment of organic chemistry which in-
vestigates the composition of the fluids
and the solids of animals, and the
chemical action that takes place in
animal bodies.
Animal Magnetism. (See HYP-
NOTISM).
Anise, an umbelliferous plant, cul-
tivated in Malta and Spain for the
sake of its aromatic and carminative
seeds which form a profitable article
of export and commerce. Its scent
tends to neutralize other smells.
Anjon or Beagne, Battle of,
between the English and French ; the
latter commanded by the Dauphin of
France March 22, 1421. The Eng-
lish were defeated ; the Duke of Clar-
ence was slain by Sir Allan Swinton,
a Scotch knight, and 1,500 men per-
ished on the field; the Earls of Som-
erset, Dorset and Huntingdon were
taken prisoners. This was the first
battle that turned the tide of success
against the English.
Anna Comnena, daughter of Alex-
ius Comnenus I., Byzantine emperor.
She was born 1083, and died 1148.
After her father's death she endeav-
ored to secure the succession to her
husband, Nicephorus Briennius, but
was baffled by his want of energy and
ambition. She wrote (in Greek) a life
of her father Alexius, which, in the
midst of much fulsome panegyric, con-
tains some valuable and interesting in-
formation. She forms a character in
Scott's " Count Robert of Paris."
Anna Ivanovna, Empress of
Russia ; born in 1693 ; the daughter of
Ivan, the elder half-brother of Peter
the Great. Anna died in 1740.
Annals, a history of events in
chronological order, each event being
recorded under the year in which it
occurred. The name is derived from
the first records of the Romans, which
were called annales pontificum as
drawn up by the pontifex maximus
(chief pontiff). The name was applied
in later times to historical wor^o in
which the matter was treated with
special reference to chronological ar-
rangement as to the Annals of Tacitus.
Annapolis, the capical of Mary-
land, on the Severn, near its mouth,
about tffo miles from Chesapeake Bay.
It contains a college (St. John's), a
state-house, and the United States
naval academy. It has a fine harbor,
and is the seat of an extensive oyster
industry. Pop. (1910) 8,690.
Annapolis Convention, a con-
vention that met in Annapolis, Md.,
Sept. 11, 1786, to consider changes
in the Articles of Confederation, but
effected nothing.
Ann Arbor, city and capital of
Washtenaw county, Mich.; on the
Huron river; 38 miles W. of De-
troit; manufactures farm implements,
woolen goods, furniture, carriages,
and organs; and is the seat of the
State University. Pop. (1910) 14,817.
Annato, or Arnotto, an orange-
red coloring matter, obtained from a
shrub cultivated in Guiana, St. Do-
mingo, and the East Indies. It is
sometimes used as a dye for silk and
cotton goods, and is much used in
COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY F. E. WRIGH1
FUR-BEAR
ANIMALS
Anne of Austria
Anniversaries
medicine for tinting plasters and oint-
ments, and for giving a rich color to
cheese and butter.
Anne of Austria, daughter of
Philip III. of Spain, was born at Ma-
drid in 1602, and in 1G15 was married
to Louis XIII. of France. Richelieu,
fearing the influence of her foreign
connections did everything he could
to humble her. In 1G43 her husband
died, and she was left regent, but
placed under the control of a council.
But the parliament overthrew this ar-
rangement, and intrusted her with full
sovereign rights during the minority
of her son, Louis XIV. She, how-
over, brought upon, herself the hatred
of the nobles by her boundless confi-
dence in Cardinal Mazarin, and was
forced to flee from Paris during the
wars of the Fronde. She ultimately
quelled all opposition, and was able,
in 1661, to transmit to her son, unim-
paired, the royal authority. She spent
the remainder of her life in retire-
ment, and died Jan. 20, 1666.
Anne, Qneen of Great Britain
and Ireland, was born at Twick-
enham, near London, Feb. 6, 1664 ;
the second daughter of James II., then
Duke of York, and Anne, his wife,
daughter of the Earl of Clarendon.
She was educated according to the
principles of the English Church. In
1683 she was married to Prince
George, brother to King Christian V.
of Denmark. On the arrival of the
Prince of Orange in 1688, Anne wished
to remain with her father ; but she
was prevailed upon by Lord Churchill
(afterward Duke of Marlborough) and
his wife to join the triumphant party.
After the death of William III., in
1702, she ascended the English throne.
Her character was essentially weak,
and she was governed first bv Marl-
borough and his wife, and afterward
by Mrs. Masham. Most of the prin-
cipal events of her reign are connected
with the War of the Spanish Succes-
sion. The only important acquisition
that England made by it was Gibral-
tar, which was captured in 1704. An-
other very important event of this
reign was the union of England and
Scotland, under the name of Great
Britain, which was accomplished in
1707. She died, July 20, 1714. The
reign of Anne was distinguished not
only by the brilliant successes of the
E. 7.
British arms, but also on account of
the number of admirable and excellent
writers who nourished at this time,
among them Pope, Swift, and Addison.
Annealing, a process to which
many articles of metal and glass are
subjected after making, in order to
render them more tenacious, and which
consists in heating them and allowing
them to cool slowly
Annelida, a class of animals be-
longing to the sub-kingdom articulata,
the annulosa of some naturalists.
They are sometimes called red blooded
worms, being the only invertebrated
animals possessing this character.
Annexation, a national acquisi-
tion of territory. The term is properly
used when adjoining territory is an-
nexed, but in a loose way it is applied
to the extension of a nation's sov-
ereignty over any land.
Annihilationism, the theory of
the utter extinction of man's being,
both bodily and spiritual, either at
death or at some later period. Arch-
bishop Whately says that in the pas-
sages in Scripture in which 'death,'
'destruction,' 'eternal death,' are men-
tioned, the words may be taken as sig-
nifying literal death, real destruction,
the utter end of things. Of late those
who hold to this theory have adopted
the term ' conditional immortality.'
Anniston, city and county seat of
Calhoun Co.. Ala. The city is the cen-
tre of a region of coal, iron, and tim-
ber, and the seat of a large cotton
trade. Pop. (1910) 12,794.
Anniversaries, the yearly recur-
rence of the date upon which any past
event, of historical or personal in-
terest, has taken place. A number of
anniversaries of interest to Americans
are included in the following :
Jan. 1, 1863, Emancipation Procla-
mation, by Lincoln.
Jan. 8, 1815, Battle of New Or-
leans.
Jan. 17, 1706. Franklin born.
Jan. 17, 1781, Battle of the Cow-
pens, S. C.
Jan 19, 1807, Robert E. Lee born.
Jan. 27, 1859, German Emperor
born.
Feb. 12, 1809, Abraham Lincoln
born.
Feb. 15, 1P98, battleship "Maine"
blown UD.
Anniversaries
Annunciation
Feb. 22, 1732, George Washington
1x>rn.
Feb. 22-23, 1847, Battle of Buena
Vista.
March 5, 1770, Boston massacre.
March 15, 1767, Andrew Jackson
born.
April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered at
Appomattox.
April 12, 1861, Fort Sumter fired
upon.
April 12, 1777, Henry Clay born.
April 13, 1743, Thomas Jefferson
born.
April 14, 1865, Lincoln assassinated.
April 19, 1881, Primrose Day in
England, Lord Beaconsfield died.
April 19, 1775, Battle of Lexington
and Concord.
April 30, 1789, Washington was
inaugurated first President.
May 1, 1898, Dewey destroyed the
Spanish fleet at Manila.
May 13, 1607, first English settle-
ment in America, at Jamestown.
May 13, 1783, the Society of the
Cincinnati was organized by officers
of the Revolutionary army.
May 20, 1775, Mecklenburg, N. C.,
Declaration of Independence.
June 14, 1777, American flag adopt-
ed by Congress.
June 15, 1215, King John granted
Magna Charta at Runnymede.
June 17, 1775, Battle of Bunker
Hill.
June 18, 1815, Battle of Waterloo.
June 28, 1776, Battle of Fort Moul-
trie, Charleston, S. C.
July 1, Dominion Day in Canada.
July 1-2, 1898, general assault on
Santiago de Cuba.
July 1-3, 1863, Battle of Gettys-
burg.
July 3, 1898, Cervera's fleet de-
stroyed off Santiago.
July 14, 1789, the Bastile was de-
stroyed.
July 16, 1898, Santiago surrendered.
July 21, 1861, Battle of Bull Run.
Aug. 13, 1898, Manila surrendered
to the Americans.
Aug. 16, 1777, Battle of Benning-
ton, Vt.
Sept. 8, 1781, Battle of Eutaw
Springs, S. C.
Sept. 10, 1813, Battle of Lake Erie,
Perry's victory.
Sept. 11, 1814, Battle of Lake
Champlain, McDonough's victory.
Sept. 12, 1814, Battle of North
Point, near Baltimore.
Sept. 13, 1847, Battle of Chapulte-
pec.
Sept. 14, 1847, City of Mexico
taken bv United States troops.
Sept. 17, 1862. Battle of Antietam.
Sept. 19-20, 1863, Battle of Chick-
am auga.
Sept. 20, 1870, Italians occupied
Rome.
Oct. 7, 1780, Battle of King's Moun-
tain, N. C.
Oct. 8-11, 1871, great fire of Chi-
cabo.
Oct. 12, 1492, Columbus discovered
America.
Oct. 17, 1777, Burgoyne surrendered
at Saratoga.
Oct. 19, 1781, Cornwallis surren-
dered at Yorktown.
Nov. 5, 1604, Guy Fawkes Day in
England, the gunpowder plot discov-
ered.
Nov. 9, 1872, great fire of Boston.
Nov. 25, 1783, British evacuated
New York.
Dec. 14, 1799, Washington died.
Dec. 16, 1773, Boston "Tea Party."
Dec. 22, 1620, Mayflower pilgrims
landed at Plymouth Rock.
Dec. 25-26, 1776, Battle of Tren-
ton, N. J.
Anno Domini, A. D., the year of
Our Lord, in Latin. The Christian
era began Jan. 1, in the middle of the
fourth year of the 194th Olympiad,
the 753rd year of the building of
Rome, and in 4714 of the Julian pe-
riod. This era was invented by a
monk, Dionysius Exiguus, about 532.
It was introduced into Italy in the
6th century, and ordered to be used
by bishops by the Council of Chelsea,
in 816, but was not generally employed
for several centuries. Charles III. of
Germany was the first who added " in
the year of our Lord" to his reign, in 879.
Annuity, a fixed sum of money
paid yearly. In the United States the
granting of annuities is conducted by
private companies or corporations.
The purchase of annuities, as a sys^
tem, has never gained much foothold
— the endowment plan of life insur-
ance, by which, after the lapse of a
term of years, the insured receives a
sum in bulk, being preferred.
Annunciation, the declaration
of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin
Anode
Anste/
Mary informing her that she was to
become the mother of our Lord. An-
nunciation or Lady Day is a feast in
honor of the Annunciation, celebrated
on the 25th of March.
Anode, the name given by Fara-
day to what is called by Daniell the
zincode, and by various other writers
the positive pole of an electric bat-
tery ; or, more precisely, the " way "
or path by which the electric current
passes out and enters the electrolyte
on its way to the other pole.
Anodyne, a medicine which alle-
viates pain, though, if given in too
large doses, it induces stupor.
Anointing, rubbing the body or
some part of it with oil, often per-
fumed. From time immemorial the
nations of the East have been in the
habit of anointing themselves for the
sake of health and beauty. In the
Mosaic law a sacred character was
attached to the anointing of the
garments of the priests and things
belonging to the ceremonial of wor-
ship. The custom of anointing still
exists in the Roman Catholic Church
in the ordination of priests and the
confirmation of believers and the sac-
rament of extreme unction. The cere-
mony is also frequently a part of the
coronation of kings.
Anomalure, a genus of rodent an-
imals inhabitating the W. coast of Af-
rica, resembling the flying-squirrels,
but having the under surface of the
tail " furnished for some distance from
the roots with a series of large horny
scales, which, when pressed against
the trunk of a tree, may subserve the
same purpose as those instruments
with which a man climbs up a tele-
graph pole to set the wires."
Anonymous, literally " without
name," applied to anything which is
the work of a person whose name is
unknown or who keeps his name se-
cret. Pseudonym is a term used for
an assumed name.
Anoplotherium, an extinct ge-
nus of the ungulata or hoofed quad-
rupeds, forming the type of a distinct
family, which were in many respects
intermediate between the swine and
fhe true ruminants. These animals
were pig-like in form, but possessed
long tails, and had a cleft hoof, with
two rudimentary toes. Some of them
were as small as a guinea-pig, others
as large as an ass.
Anosmia, a disease consisting in
a diminution or destruction of the
power of smelling, sometimes constitu-
tional, but most frequently caused by
strong and repeated stimulants, as
snuff, applied to the olfactory nerves.
Anquetil-Duperron. Abraham
Hyacinthe, a French orientalist,
born in 1731. He died in 1805.
Anselm of Canterbury, a Chris-
tian philosopher and theologian ; re-
garded by some as the founder of
scholasticism ; born in Aosta, Pied-
mont, between April 21, 1033, and
April 21, 1034. In 1092 he went to
i England. In the following year he
' was nominated by William Rufus
Archbishop of Canterbury, and was
consecrated on Dec. 4, 1093. He died
in Canterbury, April 21, 1109; was
canonized in 1494.
Ansgar, or Anshar, called the
| Apostle of the North, was born in 801
in Picardy, and he took the monastic
vows in boyhood. In the midst of
many difficulties he labored as a mis-
sionary in Denmark and Sweden ; dy-
ing in 804 or 865, with the reputation
of having undertaken, if not the first,
the most successful, attempts for the
propagation of Christianity in the
North.
Anson, George, Lord, a cele-
brated English navigator, born in
1697; entered the navy at an early
age and became a commander in 1722,
and captain in 1724. He was for a
long time on the South Carolina sta-
tion, fiis victory over the French
admiral, Jonquiere, near Cape Finis-
terre in 1747, raised him to the peer-
age. He died in 1762.
Ansonia, a city in New Haven
county, Conn.; on the Naugatuck
river and the New York, New Haven
& Hartford railroad; 10 miles W. of
New Haven; is widely noted for its
extensive manufactures of clocks, and
brass, copper, and woolen goods.
;Pop. (1910) 15,152.
Ansted, David Thomas, an Eng-
lish geologist, born 1814; died 1880.
Anstey, F., pseudonym of THOMAS
ANSTEY GUTHRIE, an English humor-
ist, born in Kensington in 1856; grad-
uated from Cambridge in 1875, was
Ant
called to the bar in 1880, and joined
"Punch" staff in 1887.
Ant, the name that is commonly
applied to various genera of hymenop-
terous or membranous-winged insects.
Most of the species live in large com-
panies or societies, composed of three
sorts of individuals — males, females,
and neuters. The males and females
have long wings, which are not so
much veined as in other insects of the
same section, and are only temporary ;
the neuters, which are simply females
with imperfectly developed organs, are
smaller than the males and females,
and are destitute of wings. The neu-
ters perform all the labors of the ant-
hill ; they excavate the galleries, pro-
cure food, and wait upon the larva?
till they are fit to leave their cells, ap-
pearing always industrious and solici-
tous.
Male and female ants survive, at
most, till autumn, or to the commence-
ment of cool weather, though a very
large proportion of them cease to exist
long previous to that time. The neu-
ters pass the winter in a state of tor-
por, and of course require no food.
The zoological characters of the ant
family, which includes the familiar
ants, are found in the females being
of larger size than the males; in the
sexes being winged, while the neuters
are wingless ; and in the antennae pos-
sessing a long basal joint.
Antacid, an alkali, or any remedy
for acidity in the stomach. Dyspepsia
and diarrhrea are the diseases in which
antacids are chiefly employed. The
principal antacids in use are mag-
nesia, lime, and their carbonates,' and
the carbonates of potash and soda.
Antananarivo, the capital of
Madagascar, situated in the central
Province of Imerina ; of late years al-
most entirely rebuilt, its old timber
houses having been replaced by build-
ings of sun dried brick on European
models. It contains two royal pal-
aces, immense timber structures, one
of which is surrounded with a massive
stone veranda with lofty corner tow-
ers. It has manufactures of metal
work, cutlery, silk, "etc. Pop. about
100,000. See MADAGASCAR.
Antarctic, relating to the southern
pole or to the region near it. The
Antarctic Circle is a circle parallel to
Antelope
the equator and distant from the south
pole 23° 28', marking the area within
which the sun does not set when on
the tropic of Capricorn. The Antarc-
tic Circle has been arbitrarily fixed on
as the limits of the Antarctic Ocean,
it being the average limit of the pack-
ice ; but the name is often extended to
embrace a much wider area. The south-
polar region is much colder than the
northern, temperatures of 100° having
been frequently noted by the Discov-
ery Expedition ( 1902-1904) . The mam-
mals in the south polar region are seals
and cetaceans. Lieutenant Shackle-
ton, in command of a British expedi-
tion, reached a point 111 m. from the
South Pole in 1908, and discovered
the south magnetic meridian. Scme-
what later, Captain Robert F. Scctt
reached a point still further, and re-
turned to England to prepare a second
expedition. Meanwhile, early in 1909,
the Norwegian, Roald Amundsen, sailed
in the Fram and was lost sight of until
late in 1911. At that time he was in
the Antarctic Seas, not far from the
point previously reachec1 by Capt. Scott
and Sir Ernest Shackleton. Not long
after, he reached the South Pole (Dec.
14, 1911) and hoisted his country's flag.
It was not until March that he could
communicate the news of his discov-
ery, which he did from Tasmania. See
SOUTH POLAR EXPLORATIONS.
Ant-eater, a genus of mammalia,
belonging to the order Edentata. This
peculiar group of animals is exclusive-
ly found in the S. part of the Amer-
ican continent, where they aid in di-
minishing the numbers of immense
hordes of ants, which desolate the
country in the vicinity of their dwell-
ings.
Antediluvian, before the flood or
deluge of Noah's time ; relating to
what happened before the deluge. In
geology the term has been applied to
organisms, traces of which are found
in a fossil state in formations preced-
ing the diluvial, particularly to extinct
animals such as the paleotherium, the
mastodon, etc.
Antelope, the name given to the
members of a large family of rumi-
nant ungulata or hoofed mammalia,
closely resemblitij the deer in general
appearance, but essentially different in
nature from the latter animals. Wall
Antennae
known species are the chamois (Eu-
ropean), the gazelle, the a (Idas, the
eland, the koodoo, the gnu, the spring-
bok, the sasin or Indian antelope, and
the prongbuck of America.
Antennae, the name given to the
movable jointed organs of touch and
hearing attached to the heads of in-
sects, myriapods, etc., and commonly
called horns or feelers. They present
a very great variety of forms.
Antenor, a Grecian sculptor, who
lived at Athens about 500 B. c.
Anthelion, a luminous ring, or
rings, seen by an observer, especially
in Alpine and polar regions, around
the shadow of his head projected on
a cloud or fog bank, or on grass cov-
ered with dew, 50 or 60 yards distant,
and opposite the sun when rising or
setting. It is due to the refraction of
light.
Anthem, orginally a hymn sung in
alternate parts ; in modern use, a sa-
cred tune or piece of music set to
words taken from the Psalms or other
parts of the Scriptures.
Anthemius, a Greek mathemati-
cian and architect of Lydia ; designed
the Church of St. Sophia at Constan-
tinople, and is credited with the in-
vention of the dome ; died A. D. 544.
Anther, an organized body con-
stituting part of a stamen, and gen-
erally attached to the apex of the fila-
ment.
Anthology, the name given to sev-
eral collections of short poems which
have come down from antiquity.
Anthon, Charles, an American
classical scholar, born in New York
city, Nov. 19, 1797. He was for many
years Professor of Ancient Languages
at Columbia College. A beautiful edi-
tion of Horace first made him famous
among scholars. His best known work
was an edition of Lempriere's " Clas-
sical Dictionary" (1841). He was
also the editor of over 50 classical
text-books. He died July 29, 1867.
Anthony, Henry Brown, an
American legislator, born in 1815 ;
was graduated at Brown University
in 1833 ; became editor and publisher
of the " Journal," in Providence, R. I. ;
elected Governor of Rhode Island in
1849 and 1850; United States Sen-
ator from 1859 till his death ; and
Anthony
was elected President pro tern, of the
United States Senate in 1803, 1871,
and 1884. He died in 1884.
Anthony, St., the founder of
monastic institutions, born near Hera-
clea, in Upper Egypt, A. D. 251 ; died
356. His day, the 17th of Jan., is a
popular celebration in the Church.
Anthony's Fire, so called from
him, a disease of the Middle Ages that
dried up and blackened every limb it
attacked, as if it were burnt.
Anthony, St., Falls of, a noted
fall in the Mississippi river, now
within the city limits of Minneapolis,
Minn. The perpendicular fall is 17
feet, with a rapid below of 58 feet.
An island divides the river into two
parts. The entire descent of the
stream for three-quarters of a mile is
65 feet. The falls and surrounding
scenery, especially during the spring
floods, are exceedingly picturesque.
Anthony, Snsan Brownell, an
American reformer, born in South
Adams, Mass., Feb. 15, 1820; was of
Quaker parentage ; educated at a
Friends' school in Philadelphia, and
taught school in New York in 1835-
1850. In 1847 she first spoke in pub-
lic, taking part in the temperance
movement and organizing societies. In
1852 she assisted in organizing the
Woman's New York State Temperance
Society ; in 1854-1855 she held con-
ventions, in each county in New York,
in behalf of female suffrage. In 1857
she became a leader in the anti-slavery
movement, and in 1858 advocated the
coeducation of the sexes. She was in-
fluential in securing the passage by the
New York Legislature, in 1860, of the
act giving married women the posses-
sion of their earnings, and guardian-
ship of their children. In 1868, with
Mrs. E. C. Stanton and Parker Pills-
bury, she began the publication of the
" Revolutionist," a paper devoted to
the emancipation of woman. In 1872
she cast ballots at the State and Con-
gressional election in Rochester, N. Y.,
to test the application of the 14th and
15th Amendments of the United States
Constitution. She was indicted for
illegal voting, and fined, but the fine
was never exacted. Her last public
appearance of note was as a delegate
to the International Council of Wom-
en, in London, England, in 1899. In
Anthracene
Antilles
1900 her birthday was celebrated by
an affecting popular demonstration in
Washington, D. CM and she retired
from the presidency of the National
American Woman Suffrage Associa-
tion. She died March 13, 1906.
Anthracene, a substance obtained
in the distillation of coal-tar.
Anthracite, glance, or blind coal,
a non-bituminous coal of a shining
luster, approaching to metallic, and
which burns without smoke, with a
weak or no flame, and with intense
heat. It is found in large quantities
in the United States, chiefly in Penn-
sylvania.
Anthrax, a fatal disease to which
cattle, horses, sheep, and other animals
are subject, always associated with the
presence of an extremely minute mi-
cro-organism (Bacillus anthracis) in
the blood. It is also called splenic
fever, and is communicable to man,
appearing as carbuncle, malignant pus-
tule, or wool-sorter's disease. In re-
cent years the disease has become
quite prevalent in the United States,
especially among furriers and people
wearing fur coats and collars.
Anthropoid, resembling man : a
term applied especially to the apes,
which approach the human species.
Anthropology, the science of
man in the widest sense of the term.
Anthropometry, the measure-
ment of the human body to discover
its exact dimensions and the propor-
tions of its parts, for comparison with
its dimensions at different periods, or
in different races or classes.
Anti-Christ, anyone who denies
the Father and the Son ; or who will
not confess that Jesus Christ is come
in the flesh, or who, leaving the Church,
pretends to be the Christ (or Mes-
siah), and thus becomes a rival and
enemy of Jesus, the true Christ.
Anticosti, an island in the Gulf
of St. Lawrence, which it divides into
two channels, with lighthouses at dif-
ferent parts of the coast. It is about
140 miles long, and 30 miles broad in
the center. Pop. (1900) 250.
Antidote, c, medicine to counteract
the effects of poison. For ARSENIC,
use tablespoonful of " dialized iron,"
four doses in two hours, followed by
castor oil ; PHOSPHOEUS, MATCHES,
44 ROUGH os RATS," large amounts of
gum arable, emetics and epsom salts ;
CARBOLIC ACID, use epsom salts, sweet
oil, white of eggs ; CHOLORAL, ipecac
in water, 25-35 grains, hypodermic in-
jection of 20th part of grain of strych-
nine, friction, warmth and artificial
respiration ; OPIUM, MORPHINE, empty
the stomach, inhale ammonia, and give
half grain permanganate of potash
once an hour. Keep the patient from
sleep, and give frequent doses of 30
grains tincture of belladona, to keep
up circulation.
Antietam, a small river in Penn-
sylvania and Maryland which empties
into the Potomac six miles N. of Har-
per's Ferry. On Sept. 17, 1862, a bat-
tle was fought on its banks near
Sharpsburg, between a Federal army
of 87,164 men, under General McClel-
lan, and a Confederate army variously
reported at from 40,000 to 97,000
men, under General Lee. The Fed-
eral casualties aggregated 12, 469, and
the Confederate, from 12,000 to 25,-
000. General Lee recrossed the Po-
tomac on the following day, and the
general consensus is that the battle
was a Federal victory.
Antifebrin, a neutral chemical
product derived from acetate of ani-
line at an elevated temperature by a
dialytic action in which water is set
free.
Anti-Federalists, members of a
political party, in the United States,
which opposed the adoption and ratifi-
cation of the constitution, and failing
in this, strongly favored the strict con-
struction of that instrument. Thomas
Jefferson was its leader, but he par-
tially abandoned the principles of the
party when he sanctioned the Louisi-
ana Purchase.
Antigua, one of the British West
Indies, the most important of the Lee-
ward group ; 28 miles long, 20 broad ;
area, 108 square miles ; discovered by
Columbus, 1493. Pop., including Bar-
buda and Redonda (1911) 38,899.
Antilles, another name for the
West Indian Islands. Subdivided into
Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles.
Antigone, in Greek mythology the
daughter of CEdipus and Jocasta. cele-
brated for her devotion to her father
and to her brother Polynices, for
burying whom against the decree of
King Creon she suffered death.
Antimaclms
Antimachus, a Greek epic and
elegiac poet ; flourished about 400 B. c.
Anti-Masonic Party, a political
organization in opposition to Free-
masonry. In 1828 this party polled
33,000 in New York State; in 1829,
about 70,000 ; and in 1830, about 128,-
000.
Anti-Mission Baptists, a sect
in the United States who also called
themselves "Old School Baptists,"
founded about 1835. They do not be-
lieve in Sunday schools, colleges or
theological seminaries, holding that
the salvation of men does not depend
upon human instrumentalities, but
upon divine grace only.
Antimony, in chemistry, a triad
metallic element, but in some less sta-
ple compounds it appears to be pentad.
Antinomianism (Greek, anti,
"against," and nomos, "law"), the
doctrine or opinion that Christians are
freed from obligation to keep the law
of God. It is generally regarded, by
advocates of the doctrine of justifica-
tion by faith, as a monstrous abuse
and perversion of that doctrine, upon
•which it usually professes to bo based.
Antinons, a young Bithynian
•whom the extravagant love of Adrian
has immortalized. He drowned him-
self in the Nile in 122 A.D. Adrian
set no bounds to his grief for his loss.
He gave his name to a newly-discov-
ered star, erected temples in his honor,
called a city after him, and caused
him to be adored as a god throughout
the empire.
Antioch (ancient, Antiochia), cap-
ital of the Greek kings of Syria ; on
the Orontes ; about 21 miles from the
sea. It was founded by Seleucus Ni-
cator, in 300 B. c., and was named
after his father Antiochus. Famous
in ancient times, and the place where
the disciples of Christ were first
called Christians, it is now a poor
place with about 20,000 inhabitants.
Antiochus III., surnamed the
Great, born B. c. 242, succeeded in
B. c. 223. The Romans defeated him
by sea and land, and he was finally
overthrown by Scipio at Mount Sipy-
lus, in Asia Minor, B. c. 190, and very
severe terms were imposed upon him.
He was killed while plundering a tem-
ple in Elymais to procure money to
pay the Romans.
Antipope
Antiochus IV., called Epiphanes,
youngest son of the above, is chiefly
remarkable for his attempt to extir-
pate the Jewish religion, and to es-
tablish in its place the polytheism of
the Greeks. This led to the insurrec-
tion of the Maccabees, by which the
Jews ultimately recovered their inde-
pendence. He died B. c. 164.
Antipaedobaptist, one who is op-
posed to the doctrine of infant bap-
tism.
Antiparos, one of the Cyclades
(islands), in the Grecian Archipelago,
containing a famous stalactitic grotto
or cave.
Antipater, a general and friend
of Philip of Macedon, father of Alex-
ander the Great. He died in B. c. 317,
at an advanced age.
Antipater, procurator of Judea
for the Romans from 47 to 43 B. c.
He received the appointment from Ju-
lius Caesar ; and died from poison in
the last mentioned year. He was the
father of Herod the Great
Antipathy, a special dislike ex-
hibited by individuals to particular ob-
jects or persons, usually resulting from
physical or nervous organization.
Antiperiodics, medicines which
prevent or relieve the paroxysms of
certain diseases which exhibit a peri-
odic character.
Antiphlogistic, a term applied
to medicines or methods of treatment
that are intended to counteract in-
flammation, such as blood letting, pur-
gatives, diaphoretics, etc.
Antiphony, opposition or contra-
riety of sound ; also the alternate
chanting or singing in a cathedral, or
similar service by the choir, divided
into two parts for the purpose, and
usually sitting upon opposite sides.
Antipodes, the name given rela-
tively to the people or places on oppo-
site sides of the earth, so situated that
a line drawn from one to the other
passes through the center of the earth
and forms a true diameter. The longi-
tudes of two such places differ by
180°. The difference in their time
is about 12 hours, and their seasons
are reversed.
Antipope, a pontiff elected in op-
position to one canonical!}- chosen.
Antipyretics
Antipyretics, medicines, which
reduce the temperature in fever.
Antipyrine, an alkaloid exten-
sively used in medicine as an antipy-
retic, and possessing the valuable
property of materially reducing the
temperature of the body without the
production of any distressing bodily
symptoms. Hence, it is much resort-
ed to in fevers, pneumonia, acute rheu-
matism, phthisis, and erysipelas. To
produce a more rapid action the drug
is often injected hypodermically.
Antiquaries, those devoted to the
study of ancient times through their
relics, as old places of sepulcher, re-
mains of ancient habitations ; early
monuments, implements or weapons,
statues, coins, medals, paintings, in-
scriptions, books, and manuscripts,
with the view of arriving at a knowl-
edge of the relations, modes of living,
habits, and general condition of the
people who created or employed them.
The American Antiquarian Society
was organized in 1812, and has its
headquarters in Worcester, Mass.
Antique, a province of Panay,
Philippine Islands, on the W. coast;
area, with dependent islands, 1,340
square miles; pop. (1903) 131,245, of
whom 2,921 were wild; chief native
race, Visayan; is rich in minerals.
Anti-Rent Party, a party which
gained some political influence in New
York, and which had its origin in the
refusal of tenants, who were dissat-
isfied with the patroon system to pay
rent The matter was settled by com-
promise in 1850. The patroons were
early Dutch settlers who received vast
tracts of land in what is now New
York, on conditions which made them
virtually feudal lords of the soik The
tenants rebelled against these condi-
tions, and popular sympathy being
with them, the heirs of the patroons
were brought to terms by legislation
inimical to the system under which
they held their lands, while at the
same time the rights of property were
sustained.
Antiscorbutics, remedies against
scurvy. Lemon juice, ripe fruit,
milk, salts of potash, green vegetables,
potatoes, fresh meat, and raw or light-
ly boiled eggs, are some of the princi-
pal antiscorbutics.
Antithesis
Anti-Semites, the modern oppo-
nents of the Jews in Russia, Rumania,
Hungary, and Eastern Germany. In
France the second trial of Capt.
Alfred Dreyfus, in 1899, aroused an
intense anti-Semitic feeling. The
cruel massacre of Jews in Kishineff,
Russia, by an anti-Semitic mob, in
1903, excited indignation throughout
the civilized world.
Antisepsis, the exclusion of mi-
crobes or bacteria from wounds, etc.,
by the use of antiseptics or other
means in order to prevent putrefac-
tion, infection, or blood-poisoning.
Antiseptic, a substance which
has the effect of counteracting the ten-
dency to putrefaction. Garrod makes
disinfectants and antiseptics the sec-
ond order of his Division III. Chem-
ical agents used for other than their
medicinal properties. Antiseptics pre-
vent chemical change by destroying
the putrefactive microbes or bacteria,
the chemical composition of the body
still in many cases remaining the
same ; while disinfectants decompose
and remove the infectious matter it-
self. Antiseptics are called also coly-
tics. Among them may be named car-
bolic acid, alcohol, sulphurous acid,
chloride of sodium (common salt),
etc.
Antiseptic Surgery, treatment to
kill germs in accidental wounds, and
surgical operations.
Antispasmodi.es, medicines which
are used to prevent or allay spasms.
In all spasmodic diseases, cold baths
or sponging, sun-baths, moderate exer-
cise, and a plain but nutritious diet
should be employed ; late hours, a close
atmosphere, exhausting emotions, or
excessive mental or bodily work should
be avoided.
Antisthenes, a Greek philosopher
and the founder of the school of Cyn-
ics, born at Athens about B. C. 444.
He held virtue to consist in complete
self denial and disregard of riches,
honor, or pleasure of every kind. He
himself lived as a beggar. He died in
Athens at an advanced age.
Antithesis, a sharp opposition or
contrast between word and word,
clause and clause, sentence and sen-
tence, or sentiment and sentiment, es-
pecially designed to impress the lis-
tener or reader.
Antitoxine
Antitoxine, the name given to a
new remedy for diphtheria. The de-
crease of deaths from this disease
since the introduction of this remedy
is remarkable, and in most large cities
it is provided free to all unable to pay
for the medicine.
Anti- Trade, a name given to any
of the upper tropical winds which
move northward or southward in the
same manner as the trade-winds which
blow beneath them in the opposite di-
rection.
Antitrinitarians, all who do not
eceiye the doctrine of the Divine
Trinity, or the existence of three per-
sons in the Godhead ; especially ap-
plied to those who oppose such a doc-
trine on philosophical grounds, as con-
trasted with Unitarians, who reject the
doctrine as not warranted by Scrip-
ture.
Antlers, bony outgrowths from
the frontal bones of almost all the
members of the deer family. Except
in the reindeer, they are restricted to
the males.
Ant Lion, the larva of an insect,
of the order of neuroptera, remarkable
for its ingenious methods of captur-
ing ants and other insects, on which
it feeds, by making pitfalls in the
sand. Some species are common in
North America.
Antoinette, Marie (MABIE AN-
TOINETTE JOSEPH JEANNE DE LOR-
RAINE), Archduchess of Austria and
Queen of France ; the youngest daugh-
ter of the Emperor Francis I. and of
Maria Theresa ; born in Vienna, Nov.
2, 1755. She became wife of the dauph-
in, afterward Louis XVI. of France,
and perished with him in the Revolu-
tion. Louis was executed on Jan. 21,
1793. The dauphin, their son, who
afterward perished miserably in con-
finement, was next separated from the
queen, and on Aug. 2, 1793, Marie An-
toinette was transferred to the Con-
ciergerie to be brought before the Rev-
olutionary tribunal. The act of ac-
cusation was completed on Oct. 14.
She was condemned at 4 A. M. on Oct.
16, 1793, and at 11 A. M. was led from
the Conciergerie to the place of exe-
cution. She died with the firmness
that became her character.
Antonelli, Giacomo, Cardinal,
born 1806 ; was educated at the Grand
Antonius
Seminary of Rome, where he attracted
the attention of Pope Gregory XVI.,
who appointed him to several impor-
tant offices. On the accession of Pius
IX., in 1846, Antonelli was raised to
the dignity of cardinal-deacon ; two
years later he became president and
minister of foreign affairs, and, in
1850, was appointed Secretary of
State. During the sitting of the
CEcumenical Council (1869-1870) he
was a prominent champion of the
papal interest. He strongly opposed
the assumption of the united Italian
crown by Victor Emmanuel. He died
in 1876.
Antoninus, Wall of, a barrier
erected by the Romans in Britain,
across the isthmus between the Forth
and the Clyde, in the reign of An-
toninus Pius.
Antoninus Pins (TlTUS AUBE-
LIUS FULVUS), Roman emperor, of a
family originally from Nemausus
(now Nimes), in Gaul; was born in
Lavinium, in the neighborhood of
Rome, A. D. 86. He died A. D. 161.
His remains were deposited in the
tomb of Hadrian. His adopted sons
built a pillar to his memory, the frag-
ments of which were found at Rome
in 1705.
Antonins, Marcus (Mark An-
tony), Roman triumvir, born 83 B. c.,
was connected with the family of
Caesar by his mother. When war
broke out between Caesar and Pompey,
Antony led reinforcements to Caesar
in Greece, and, in the battle of Phar-
salia he commanded the left wing. He
afterward returned to Rome with the
appointment of master of the horse
and governor of Italy (47). In B. C.
44 he became Caesar's colleague in the
consulship. In the struggle for the
empire of Rome which followed the
murder of Caesar, Antony was over-
come by Octavianus (afterward called
Augustus), Caesar's nephew and heir.
His passion for Cleopatra, Queen of
Egypt, enthralled his faculties, and
made him an easy prey to his great
political rival. Antony lost, in the
naval battle at Actium (B. c. 31),
the dominion of the world. He
followed Cleopatra to Alexandria,
and, on the arrival of Octavianus his
fleet and cavalry deserted, and his in-
fantry was defeated. Plutarch says
that Antony commanded his slave
Ant Thrush
Apartment House
Eros to slay him, but the slave killed
himself instead. Moved by this exhi-
bition of heroic affection and deceived
by a false report which Cleopatra had
disseminated of her death, he fell upon
his own sword (B. c. 30). On being
told that Cleopatra was still alive, he
caused himself to be carried into her
presence, that he might die in her
arms.
Ant Thrush, a name given to
certain passerine or perching birds
having resemblances to the thrushes
and supposed to feed largely on ants.
Antwerp, the chief port of Bel-
gium, and the capital of a province
of the same name, on the Scheldt,
about 50 miles from the open sea. It
is strongly fortified, being completely
surrounded on the land side by a semi-
circular inner line of fortifications, the
defenses being completed by an outer
line of forts and outworks. The cathe-
dral, with- a spire 400 feet high, is one
of the largest and most beautiful speci-
mens of Gothic architecture in Bel-
gium. There are numerous and varied
industries. Pop. (1911) 308,618.
After the German invasion of Bel-
gium at the outbreak of the World
War, this beautiful city became an
early victim of Teutonic ruthlessness.
It was occupied by the invaders on
Oct. 9, 1914, after its most magnificent
buildings had been wrecked or dam-
aped by shell-fire. See APPENDIX:
World War.
Anns, the opening at the lower
or posterior extremity of the alimen-
tary canal through which the excre-
ment or waste products of digestion
are expelled.
Aorta, the great arterial trunk,
which rises from the left ventricle of
the heart, and with its branches, ex-
tends throughout the whole body. The
blood travels through the aorta at the
rate of 300 to 500 millimetres a
second.
Aoudad, a remarkable species of
sheep, with certiin affinities to the
goats. It inh-xbits mountainous re-
gions in Abyssinia and Barbary.
Apaches, a tribe of North Ameri-
can Indians, formerly very fierce and
numerous, living in portions of Texas,
New Mexico, and Arizona, and belong-
ing to the Athabascan family. They
were long the scourge of the frontiers,
and resisted obstinately every attempt
to civilize them. Long after the an-
nexation of their territory by the
United States they continued their
raids in spite of severe defeats. An
attempt made by the United States
Government to confine the Apaches
within a reserved territory in Arizona
led to bloodshed in 1871. The number
of the Apaches proper within the
United States may be put at nearly
7,000.
Apartment House, a structure
built to accommodate a number of
families each in its own set of rooms,
which form a separate dwelling with
AMERICAN APARTMENT HOUSE.
an entrance of its own. The term is
chiefly used in the United States,
where such dwellings are of compara-
tively recent introduction ; but houses
of this kind have long been built in
Europe. Nearly every large American
city now has many such buildings,
some costing over $1,000,000 each and
containing suites of rooms from five
to twenty-five each in number, with
yearly rentals as high as $20,000.
Ape
Apocalyptic 'Writings
Ape, a common name of a number
of quadrumanous animals, inhabiting
the Old World (Asia and the Asiatic
islands, and Africa), and including a
variety of species. The word ape was
formerly applied indiscriminately to
all quadrumanous mammals ; but it is
now limited to the anthropoid or man-
like monkeys. The family includes
the chimpanzee, gorilla, orang-ou-
tang, etc.
Apelles, the most famous of the
painters of ancient Greece and of an-
tiquity, was born in the 4th century
B. C., probably at Colophon. His re-
nown was at its height about B. C.
330, and he died about the end of the
century.
Apennines, a prolongation of the
Alps, forming the " backbone of
Italy." On the S. slopes volcanic
masses are not uncommon. Mount
Vesuvius, the only active volcano on
the continent of Europe, is an in-
stance. The lower slopes are well
clothed with vegetation, the summits
are sterile and bare.
Apepi, in heathen mythology, the
Great Serpent or Typhon, the embodi-
ment of evil.
Aperient, a medicine which, in
moderate doses, gently but completely
opens the bowels ; examples, castor-oil,
Epsom salts, senna, etc.
Aphasia, in pathology, a symptom
of certain morbid conditions of the
nervous system, in which the patient
loses the power of expressing ideas by
means of words, or loses the appropri-
ate use of words, the vocal organs the
while remaining intact and the intelli-
gence sound. There is sometimes an
entire loss of words as connected with
ideas, and sometimes only the loss of
a few. In one form of the disease,
called aphemia, the patient can think
and write, but cannot speak ; in an-
other, called agraphia, he can think
and speak, but cannot express his
ideas in writing. In a great majority
of cases, where post mortem examina-
tions have been made, morbid changes
have been found in the left frontal
convolution of the brain.
Aphelion, that part of the orbit
of the earth or any other planet in
which it is at the point remotest from
the sun.
Aphis, a genus of insects, the typi-
cal one of the family aphidae. The
species of aphides are very numerous,
and are generaly called after the
plants on which they feed.
Aphonia, in pathology, the great*
er or less impairment, or the complete
loss of the power of emitting vocal
sound.
Aphrodite, one of the chief di-
vinities of the Greeks, the goddess of
love and beauty, so called because she
was sprung from the foam (aphros)
of the sea. Aphrodite has had the
most important place in the history of
art as the Greek ideal of feminine
grace and beauty.
Apia, the principal town and com-
mercial emporium of the Samoan Is-
lands in the South Pacific Ocean; on
the N. coast of the island of Upolu,
about midway between the E. and W.
extremities of the island. It has a
small harbor, which is usually a safe
one. In 1899, during a hurricane, sev-
eral United States' and German war-
vessels were wrecked here, a British
man-of-war alone escaping.
Apis, a bull to which divine honors
were paid by the ancient Egyptians,
who regarded him as a symbol or
Osiris. At Memphis he had a splendid
residence, containing extensive walks
and courts for his entertainment, and
he was waited upon by a large train of
priests, who looked upon his every
movement as oracular. He was not
suffered to live beyond twenty-five
years, being secretly killed by the
priests and thrown into a sacred well.
Another bull, characterized by certain
marks, as a black color, a triangle of
white on the forehead, a white cres-
cent-shaped spot on the right side, &c.,
was selected in his place. His birth-
day was annually celebrated.
Apocalypse, the name frequently
given to the last book of the New Tes-
tament, in the English version called
the Revelation of St. John the Divine.
Apocalyptic Number, the mystic
number 666 found in Rev. xiii. 18. As
early as the 2d century ecclesiastical
writers found that the name Antichrist
was indicated by the Greek characters
expressive of this number.
Apocalyptic 'Writings, writings
such as, like the prophecies of Daniel,
their prototype, set forth in a figura-
Apoplexy
tive and pictorial manner the future
progress and completion of the world's
history, especially in its religious as-
pects. The two apocalyptic books re-
ceived into the canon of Scripture are
the books of Daniel and the Apoca-
lypse especially so-called, the Revela-
tion of St. John,,
Apocrypha, in the early Chris-
tian Church, (1) books published
anonymously; (2) those suitable for
private rather than public reading;
(3) books deemed unau then tic though
purporting to be written by sacred
authors ; (4) dangerous books written
by heretics.
Apodal Fishes, the name applied
to such malacopterous fishes as want
ventral fins. They constitute a small
natural family, of which the common
eel is an example.
Apogee, that point in the orbit of
the moon or a planet where it is at its
greatest distance from the earth ; prop-
erly this particular part of the moon's
orbit.
Apollinarians, a sect of Chris-
tians who maintained the doctrine that
the Logos (the Word) holds in Christ
the place of the rational soul, and con-
sequently that God was united in him
with the human body and the sensitive
soul. Apollinaris, the author of this
opinion, was, from A. D. 362 till at
least A. D. 382, Bishop of Laodicea, in
Syria.
Apollo, son of Zeus (Jupiter)
and Leto (Latona). From being the
god of light and purity in a physical
sense he gradually became the god of
moral and spiritual light and purity,
the source of all intellectual, social,
and political progress.
Apollodorus, a famous Athenian
painter, about B. c. 408.
Apollodorus, born in Damascus,
and lived in the reigns of Trajan and
Hadrian. His fame as an architect
caused the former to employ him in
building a great stone bridge over the
Danube, and other works. Apollodor-
us subsequently falling into disgrace
with the Emperor Hadrian, was put
to death by his command.
Apollonius, a Pythagorean philos-
opher, born at Tyana, about the be-
ginning of the Christian era. He died
at Ephesus about A. D. 97.
Apollonius of Ferga, Greek
mathematician, called the " Great Ge-
ometer," flourished about 240 B. c.,
and was the author of many works,
only one of which, a treatise on " Con-
ic Sections," partly in Greek and
partly in an Arabic translation, is now
extant.
Apollonius of Rhodes, a Greek
poet, born in Egypt, but long residing
at Rhodes, where he founded a school
of rhetoric. He afterward became
keeper of the famous library of Alex-
andria, B. c. 149.
Apollonius of Tyre, the hero of
a Greek metrical romance, very popu-
lar in the Middle Ages.
Apollos, a Jew of Alexandria, who
learned the doctrines of Christianity
at Ephesus from Aquila and Priscilla,
became a preacher of the gospel in
Achaia and Corinth, and an assistant
of Paul in his missionary work. Some
have regarded him as the author of the
Epistle to the Hebrews.
Apollyon, a name used in Rev. ix :
11 for the angel of the bottomless pit.
Apologetics, the department of
theology which treats of the establish-
ment of the evidences and defense of
the doctrines of a faith. Christian
apologetics, generally called simply
apologetics, treats of the evidences of
Christianity, and seeks to establish the
truth of the Bible and the doctrines
educed from it.
Apologue, a story or relation of
fictitious events intended to convey
some useful truths. It differs from a
parable in that the latter is drawn
from events that pass among mankind,
whereas the apologue may be founded
on supposed actions of brutes or inan«
imate things. JEsop's fables are good
examples of apologues.
Apology, a term at one time ap-
plied to a defense of one who is ac-
cused, or of certain doctrines called
in question.
Apoplexy, a serious malady, com-
ing on so suddenly and so violently
that anciently anyone affected by it
was said to be attonitus (thunder-
struck), or sideratus (planetstruck).
When a stroke of apoplexy takes place,
there is a loss of sensation, voluntary
motion, and intellect or thought, while
respiration and the action of the heart
and general vascular system still con-
Apostate
tinue. The disease now described is
properly called cerebral apoplexy, the
brain being the part chiefly affected.
Apostate, literally designates any-
one who changes his religion, what-
ever may be his motive ; but, by cus-
tom, the word is always used in an in-
jurious sense, as equivalent to one
who, in changing his creed, is actuated
by unworthy motives.
Apostle, one who is sent off or
away from ; one sent on some impor-
tant mission ; a messenger ; a mission-
ary. The name given, in the Chris-
tian Church, to the 12 men whom
Jesus selected from His disciples as
the best instructed in His doctrines,
and the fittest instruments for the
propagation of His religion. Their
names were as follows : Simon Peter,
Andrew, hie brother ; James the great-
er, and John, his brother, who were
sons of Zebedee ; Philip of Bethsaida,
Bartholomew, Thomas, Matthew ;
James, the son of Alpheus, commonly
called James the less ; Lebbeus, his
brother, who was surnamed Thaddeus,
and was called Judas, or Jude ; Simon
the Canaanite, and Judas Iscariot. Of
this number, Simon Peter, John,
James the greater, and Andrew were
fishermen ; and Matthew, a publican
or tax-gatherer. When the apostles
were reduced to 11 by the suicide pf
Judas, who had betrayed Christ, they
chose Matthias by lot, on the proposi-
tion of St. Peter. Soon after, their
number became 13, by the mi-
raculous vocation of Saul, who,
under the name of Paul became
one of the most zealous propa-
gators of the Christian faith.
Apostles' Islands, or The
Twelve Apostles, a group of 27
islands in Lake Superior. They be-
long to Wisconsin. They were first
settled in 1680 by the French.
Apostolic, or Apostolical, per-
taining or relating to the apostles.
Apostolic Church. — The Church in
the time of the apostles, constituted
according to their design. The name
is also given to the four churches of
Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jeru-
salem, and is claimed by the Roman
Catholic Church, and occasionally by
the Episcopalians.
Apostolic Constitutions and Canons.
— A collection of regulations attrib-
Apo strophe
uted to the apostles, but generally sup-
posed to be spurious. They appeared
in the 4th century ; are divided into
eight books, and consist of rules and
precepts relating to the duty of Chris-
tians, and particularly to the1 cere-
monies and discipline of the Church.
Apostolic Delegate. — A permanent
representative of the Pope in a for-
eign country. It is sometimes con-
founded with the word ablegate, the
latter meaning a temporary represen-
tative of the Pope for some special
function.
Apostolic Fathers. — The Christian
writers who, during any part of their
lives, were contemporary with the
apostles. There are five — Clement,
Barnabas, Hennas, Ignatius, Poly-
carp.
Apostolic King. — A title granted
by the Pope to the Kings of Hungary,
first conferred on St. Stephen, the
founder of the royal line of Hungary,
on account of what he accomplished
in the spread of Christianity.
Apostolic See.— The see of the
Popes or Bishops of Rome ; so called
because the Popes profess themselves
the successors of St. Peter, its
founder.
Apostolic Succession. — The uninter-
rupted succession of bishops, and,
through them, of priests and deacons
(these three orders of ministers being
called the apostolical orders), in the
Church by regular ordination from
the first apostles down to the present
day. All Episcopal churches hold the-
oretically, and the Roman Catholic
Church and many members of the Eng-;
lish Church strictly, that such succes-
sion is essential to the officiating
priest, in order that grace may be
communicated through his administra-
tions.
Apostrophe. In rhetoric, a fig-
ure of speech by which, according to
Quintilian, a speaker turns from the
rest of his audience to one person, and
addresses him singly.
In grammar, the substitution of a
mark like this (') for one or more let-
ters omitted from a word, as tho' for
though, 'twas for it was, king's for
kinges.
The mark indicating such substitu-
tion, especially in the case of the pos-
sessive.
Apothecary
Apping
Apothecary, the name formerly
given to members of an auxiliary
branch of the medical profession.
In the United States, state laws
generally require that apothecaries
shall be duly examined and licensed.
Apotheosis, a deification; the
placing of a prince or other distin-
guished person among the heathen
deities.
Appalachian Mountains, also
called Alleglianies, a vast mountain
range in 'North America, extending for
1300 miles from Cape Gaspe, on the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, S. W. to Ala-
bama. The highest peaks rise over
6,600 feet (not one at all approaching
the snow level), but the mean height
is about 2,500 feet. Lake Champlain
is the only lake of great importance in
the system, but numerous rivers of
considerable size take their rise here.
Magnetite, hematite, and other iron
ores occur in great abundance, and the
coal measures are among the most ex-
tensive in the world. Gold, silver, lead,
and copper are also found, but not in
paying quantities, while marble, lime-
stone, fire clay, gypsum, and salt
abound. The forests covering many of
the ranges yield large quantities of
valuable timber, such as sugar maple,
white birch, beech, ash, oak, cherry
tree, white poplar, white and yellow
pine, etc., while they form the haunts
of large numbers of bears, panthers,
wild cats, and wolves.
Appanage, properly, lands as-
signed as portions to the younger sons,
or sometimes the brothers of the
French king, who in general took their
titles from the appanages which they
held.
Apparition, according to a belief
held by some, a disembodied spirit
manifesting itself to mortal sight ; ac-
cording to the common theory an illu-
sion involuntarily generated, by means
of which figures or forms, not present
to the actual sense, are nevertheless
depictured with a vividness and in-
tensity sufficient to create a temporary
belief of their reality. Such illusions
are now generally held to result from
an overexcited brain, a strong imagi-
nation, or some bodily malady.
Appeal. The distinction between
an appeal, which originated in the
civil law, and a writ of error,
which is of common law origin, is that
the former carries the whole case for
review by the higher court, including
both the facts and the law ; while the
latter removes only questions of law.
Appendicitis, a disease caused by
inflammation, suppuration, and conse-
quent gangrene in the tissue of the
vermiform appendix, usually due to
insufficient circulation of blood in the
part itself.
Appendicitis usually occurs between
the ages of 10 and 50 years. It is
rare above or below those ages. It is
more frequently among males than fe-
males, the exact proportion being un-
known. The probable cause of this
difference is of very recent discovery
and is not even known generally among
the medical profession. Dr. Clado,
a French surgeon and investigator,
sought an explanation of the compara-
tive immunity of the female sex from
the malady and discovered that the
appendix in woman has an extra
blood vessel (a small branch of the
ovarian artery I that does not exist ia
man. This discovery was not only a
bit of new knowledge of great value,
but was an additional proof of the
theory that disease of the appendix is
often due in part to its want of vital
resistance.
Appiani, Andrea, a painter, born
at Milan in 1754. Napoleon appoint-
ed him court painter, and portraits of
almost the whole of the imperial fam-
ily were painted by him. He died in
1817.
Appian Way, the great Roman
highway constructed by the below-
mentioned Appius Claudius, from
Rome to Capua, and afterward ex-
tended to Brundusium, and finished
B. o. 312. It was built of stones four
or five feet long, carefully joined to
each other, covered with gravel, fur-
nished with stones for mounting and
descending from horseback, with mile-
stones, and with houses at which to
lodge.
Appins, Claudius Crassinns, a
Roman decemvir (451 to 449 B. c.).
Being passionately in love with Vir-
ginia, daughter of Virginius, a re-
spectable plebeian absent with the
army, he persuaded M. Claudius, his
client, to gain possession of her, under
the pretense that she was the daughter
Apple
of one of his slaves. Virginius, hur-
riedly recalled from the army by his
friends, appeared and claimed his
daughter ; but, after a mock trial, she
was adjudged to be the property of
Marcus Claudius. To save his daugh-
ter from dishonor, the unhappy father
seized a knife and slew her. The pop-
ular indignation excited by the caise
was headed by the senators Valerius
and Horatius, who hated the decem-
virate. The army returned to Rome
with Virginius, who had carried the
news to them, and the decemviri were
deposed. Appius Claudius died in
prison, by his own hand (as Livy
states), or was strangled by order of
the tribunes.
Apple, the fruit of the pyrus ma-
lus, a species of the genus pyrus. All
the different kinds of apple trees now
in cultivation are usually regarded as
mere varieties of the one species which,
in its wild state, is known as the crab-
tree. The uses of the apple for cul-
inary and conserving processes are
sufficiently well known. Cider, the
fermented juice of the apple, is a
favorite drink in some places of the
United States.
Apple of Discord, in Greek my-
thology, the golden apple thrown into
an assembly of the gods by the god-
dess of discord (Eris), bearing the in-
scription " For the fairest." Aphro-
dite (Venus). Hera (Juno), and Pal-
las (Minerva) became competitors for
it, and its adjudication to the first by
Paris so inflamed the jealousy and
hatred of Hera to all of the Trojan
race (to which Paris belonged) that
she did not cease her machinations till
Troy was destroyed.
Apple of Sodom, a fruit described
by old writers as externally of fair ap-
pearance, but turning to ashes when
plucked ; probably the fruit of sola-
num sodomeum.
Appleton, city and capital of
Outagamie county, Wis.; on the Fox
river and railroads; 100 miles N. W.
of Milwaukee; is in a farming and
lumbering section; has excellent
water power for manufacturing and
large industrial and mercantile inter-
ests; and is the seat of Lawrence
University. Pop. (lylO) 16,776.
Appleton, John Howard, an
'American chemist, born in 1844 ; was
Approximation
graduated at Brown University in
1863 ; was instructor in chemistry
there in 1863-1868; and in the last
year became professor of that depart-
ment.
Appleton, Nathan and Samuel,
American merchants and philanthro-
pists, brothers, born in 1779 and 1766
respectively ; engaged in the manufac-
ture of cotton goods ; were founders of
the city of Lowell, Mass. ; and widely
known for their active benevolence.
Nathan set up the first power loom
ever used in the United States, in hij
Waltham mill. Nathan died in 1861 ;
Samuel in 1853.
Appomattox Court Honse, a
village in Appomattox county, Va., 20
miles E. of Lynchburg. Here, on April
9, 1865, General Lee surrendered to
General Grant, and thus virtually con-
cluded the Civil War.
Apportionment Bill, a bill
adopted by the United States Con-
gress every 10 years, and directly af-
ter the completion of the Federal cen-
sus, which determines the number of
members that each State is entitled to
send to the National House of Repre-
sentatives, and provides for the neces-
sary reorganization of the Congress-
ional electoral districts. The appor-
tionment based on the enumeration of
1910 was one representative to 212,-
407 population.
Apprenticeship, in law, a con-
tract by which a person who under-
stands some art, trade, or business,
and called master, undertakes to teach
the same to another person, commonly
a minor, and called the apprentice,
who, on his part, is bound to serve the
master, during a definite period of
time, in such art, trade, or business.
Appropriation, a specific sum set
apart by the legislative power for a
designated purpose. In the United
States all bills for appropriating
money originate in the House of Rep-
resentatives; but may be amended in
the Senate. The same procedure is
observed in the several States.
Approximation, a term used in
mathematics to signify a continual ap-
proach to a quantity required, when
no process is known for arriving at it
exactly. Although, by such an approx-
imation, the exact value of a quantity
Apraxin
cannot be discovered, yet, in practice,
it may be found sufficiently correct.
1 Apraxin, Feodor Mateievitch,
a Russian admiral, born in 1671. He
may be considered as the creator of
the Russian navy, and was the most
powerful and influential person at the
court of Peter the Great, who made
him chief-admiral. He died in 1724.
Apricot, a fruit, that of the
prunus armeniaca ; also the tree on
which it grows. It is wild in
Africa and in the Caucasus, where
the mountains in many places are
covered with it ; it is found also
in China and some other countries. It
is esteemed only second to the peach.
April, the fourth month of the
year.
April-fools' Day. — The first day of
April, so called from the old custom of
sending any one, on this day, upon a
bootless errand. This strange custom
of April-fools' day exists throughout
Europe, and in those parts of the
United States where the traditions of
the mother-country prevail. One of
the explanations of the custom is as
follows : In the Middle Ages, scenes
from Biblical history were often rep-
resented by way of diversion, without
any feeling of impropriety. The scene
in the life of Jesus, where He is sent
from Pilate to Herod, and back again
from Herod to Pilate, was represented
in April, and may have given occasion
to the custom of sending on fruitless
errands, and other tricks practiced at
this season.
iLPTEBYX OB K1W1K1WI.
Apteryx, a genus of birds, the
typical one of the family apterygidse.
Two species are known — the A. aus-
tralis and A. mantelli, both from New
Aquarian*
Zealand. The natives call the former,
and probably also the latter, Kiwiki-
wi, which is an imitation of their pe-
culiar cry. The A. australis is some-
what less in size than an ordinary
goose. It runs when pursued, shelters
itself in holes, and defends itself with
its long bill ; but unable as it is to fly,
its fate, it is to be feared, will soon
be tbat of the dodo — it is now almost
extinct.
Apulia, formerly a part of Sapy-
gia (so called from Sapyx, son of Dae-
dalus) , including the modern Italian
provinces of Capitanata, Terra di
Bari, Terra d'Otranto, etc. Area 7,-
376 square miles ; pop. (1915) 2,237,-
791.
Apnre, a navigable river of Ven-
ezuela, formed by the junction of sev-
eral streams which rise in the Andes
of Colombia ; it falls into the Orinoco.
Apnrimac, a river of South Amer-
ica, which rises in the Andes of Peru ;
and being augmented by the Vilca-
mayu and other streams forms the
Ucayale, one of the principal head-
waters of the Amazon.
Aq.na, a word much used in phar-
macy and old chemistry. Aqua fortis
(=1 strong water), a weak and impure
nitric acid. It has the power of eat-
ing into steel and copper, and hence
is used by engravers, etchers, etc. Aqua
marina, a fine variety of beryl. Aqua
regia, or aqua regalis, a mixture of
nitric and hydrochloric acids, with the
power of dissolving gold and other no-
ble metals. Aqua Tofana, a poisonous
fluid made about the middle of the
17th century by an Italian woman,
Tofana or Toffania, who is said to
have procured the death of no fewer
than 600 individuals by means of it
It consisted chiefly, it is supposed, of
a solution of crystallized arsenic.
Aqua vitse (=water of life) , or simply
aqua, a name familiarly applied to
whisky, corresponding in meaning with
the usquebaugh of Ireland, the eau-de-
vie (brandy) of the French.
Aquamarine, a name given to
some of the finest varieties of beryl of
a sea-green or blue color. Varieties
of topaz are also so called.
Aquarians, or Aqnarii, Chris-
tians in the primitive Church who
] used water instead of wine in the
| Lord's Supper.
Aquarium
Aquarium, an artificial tank,
pond, or vessel, filled with salt or fresh
water, and used, in the former case
chiefly for the purpose of keeping
alive marine animals in circumstances
which render it easy to study their
habits, and in the latter for cultivat-
ing aquatic plants.
Aquarius, in astronomy (1) the
llth of the 12 ancient zodiacal con-
stellations, now generally called signs
of the Zodiac. It is generally quoted
as " Aquarius, the Water bearer."
Aquatic Animals, animals living
in or about water.
Aquatic Plants, plants growing
in or belonging to water.
Aqueduct, an artificial channel or
conduit for the conveyance of water
from one place to another ; more par-
ticularly applied to structures for con-
veying water from distant sources for
the supply of large cities.
There are a number of important
aqueducts in America. For 125 years,
the city of Otumba, in Mexico, re-
ceived its supply of water through the
aqueduct of Zempoala, which, how-
ever, has not been used since 1700,
though the aqueduct is said to be in
almost perfect condition. It is 27
miles long. New York is supplied
with water from Croton river, which
falls into the Hudson above Sing Sing.
The first aqueduct was constructed
between the years 1837 and 1842, is
88 miles long, with a general declivity
of 13^4 inches to the mile, and is 8
feet 5 inches in height, and 7 feet
8 inches in greatest breadth. Stone,
brick, and cement are used for the en-
casing masonry. When the conduit
reaches the Harlem river, the water
is conveyed in iron pipes over a splen-
did bridge, 150 feet above the river.
An aqueduct for supplying Boston
with water was first built in 1846-
J848, and exactly 30 years later a
Dew aqueduct was built from the Sud-
bury river to Boston, and was carried
across the Charles river and Waban
valley by two fine bridges. As the
supply of water did not prove suffi-
cient for the growth of the city, a
large reservoir was built, taking a
large part of the town of Boylston,
Mass., so that it was supposed the
supply of water, when the valley was
filled would suffice for many years.
E.8.
Arabesque
Aqueous Humor, the limpid wa-
tery fluid which fills the space between
the cornea and the crystalline lens.
Aqueous Rocks, mechanically
formed rocks, composed of matter de-
posited by water. Called also sedi-
mentary or stratified rocks.
Aqnifoliaceae, a natural order of
plants ; the holly tribe. The species
consists of trees and shrubs, and the
order includes the common holly and
the Paraguayan tea tree.
Aquila, a native of Pontus, cele-
brated for his close translation of the
Hebrew Scriptures into Greek.
Aquila, Kaspar, a German Prot-
estant theologian, born in Bavaria,
Aug. 7, 1488; assisted Luther in the
translation of the Old Testament ; be-
came pastor at Saalfeld in 1527; was
outlawed by Charles V. in 1548; fled
the country; and after 1552 returned
to Saalfeld, where he died Nov. 15.
1560.
Aquinas, Thomas, or Thomas
of Aquino, was of the family of the
Counts of Aquino, and was born about
1226, in the castle of Rocca Secca,
near Aquino, a small town half-way
between Rome and Naples. He treat-
ed Christian morals according to an
•arrangement of his own, and with a
comprehensiveness that procured him
the title of the " Father of Moral Phi-
losophy." He died at the Cistercian,
abbey of Fossa-Nuova, March 7., 1274.
Aquinas was canonized by John
XXII. in 1323, and proclaimed a
" Doctor of the Church," by Pius V.
in 1567.
Aquitania, later Aquitaine, a
Roman province in Gaul, which com-
prehended the countries on the coast
from the Garonne to the Pyrenees,
and from the sea to Toulouse. It was
brought into connection with England
by the marriage of Henry II. with
Eleanor, daughter of the last Duke of
Aquiline. The title to the province
was for long disputed by England and
France, but it was finally secured by
the latter (1453).
Arabesque, a style of ornamenta-
tion in which are represented men,
animals (the latter consisting of
mythic as well as actual forms) ;
plants, with leaves, flowers, and fruit;
mathematical figures, etc. ; the whole
put together in a whimsical way, 80
Arabia
that, for instance, the animals not
merely rest upon the plants, but grow
out of them like blossoms.
ARABESQUE ARCHWAY.
Arabia, the extreme S. W. part
of Asia, called by the natives Jeziret
el Arab, that is, the Peninsula of the
Arabs; and by the Turks and Per-
sians, Arabistan. Arabia is encom-
passed on three sides by the sea, name-
ly, on the N. E. by the Persian Gulf,
on the S. E. by the Indian Ocean, and
on the S. W. by the Red Sea. Arabia
includes also the peninsula of Sinai,
between the Gulf of Suez and that of
Akabah. The whole area of the vast
country thus described does not prob-
ably fall much short of 1,000,000
square miles.
The population of Arabia has been
estimated by some at 12,000,000, by
others at no more than 4,000,000. The
former number is certainly too high,
and it is believed that between 5,000,-
000 and 6,000,000 is very near the
truth.
The Arabs present, as a nation and
as individuals, much that is peculiar
in their mental and physical develop-
ment. They are of middle stature, of
a powerful make, and have a skin of
brownish color. Their features ex-
press dignity and pride ; they are nat-
urally active, intelligent, and courte-
ous ; and their character is marked by
temperance, bravery, and hospitality,
along with a strong propensity for
poetry. On the other hand, they are
revengeful in their disposition and
predatory in their habits. The women
Arack
have the entire education of the chil-
dren in their early years.
The mode of life of the Arabs is
either nomadic or settled, or in other
words, they either live in tents and
derive their subsistence from the rear-
ing of cattle, wherever sufficient pas-
ture is obtainable, and from the trans-
port of caravans through the desert ;
or from the pursuits of agriculture
and commerce. The nomadic tribes in
Arabia are termed Bedouins, Beduins,
or Bedawins ; those following settled
occupations, Hadji and Fellahs. A
considerable trade, partly overland,
partly maritime, is carried on, chiefly
in coffee, dates, figs, spices, and aro-
matic substances of various kinds,
though the present amount of traffic
is scarcely a shadow of what it was
in the times previous to the discovery
of the passage by the Cape of Good
Hope. Commerce is partly in the
hands of foreigners^ chiefly Jews and
Banian Hindus. In 1916 the Arabs
declared their independence. Grand
Shereef Hussein Ben Ali became sov-
ereign of an independent Kingdom of
Arabia, with capital at Mecca, in July,
Arabian Nights' Entertain-
ments, or " The Thousand and
One Nights," a celebrated collection
of Oriental tales, which have, since
their introduction to the civilized
world, become the delight of all who
peruse them. This collection, which
had long been famous throughout the
East, was brought to the notice of
Europeans by the translation of An-
toine Galland, a great French Orien-
talist, in 1704. It speedily became
translated into the other principal Eu-
ropean languages, fixed popular ad-
miration, and tp this day retains its
place in popular literature.
Aracari, the name given in Brazil
to several scansorial birds. They have
smaller bills than the toucans proper,
and are of brighter colors, being gen-
erally green, with red or yellow on
their breasts.
Arachnida, the class of animals
which contains spiders, scorpions, and
mites.
Arack, or Arrack, a spirituous
liquor manufactured in the East In-
dies from a great variety of substances.
It is often distilled from fermented
Arafat
rice, or it may be distilled from the
juice of the cocoanut and other palms.
Arafat, or Jebel er Rahmeh, a
hill in Arabia, about 200 feet high,
with stone steps reaching to the sum-
mit, 15 miles S. E. of Mecca ; one of
the principal objects of pilgrimage
among Mohammedans, who say that it
was the place where Adam first re-
ceived his wife, Eve, after they had
been expelled from Paradise and sep-
arated from each other 120 years. A
sermon delivered on the mount consti-
tutes the main ceremony of the Hadj
or pilgrimage to Mecca, and entitles
the hearer to the name and privileges
of a Hadji or pilgrim.
Arago, Dominique Francois, an
eminent French astronomer and physi-
cist ; born near Perpignan, Feb. 26,
1786. He died in 1853. As Minister
of War and Marine after the fall of
Louis Philippe he was instrumental in
abolishing negro slavery in the French
colonies.
Arago, Eticnne Vincent, a
French poet, journalist, and play-
wright, born at Perpignan, Feb. 9,
1802. He died in 1892.
Aragon, once a kingdom, now di-
vided into the three provinces of Sara-
gpssa, Huesca, and Teruel, in the N.
E. of Spain ; greatest length from N«
to S.. 190 miles; breadth. 130; area,
17,980 square miles; pop. (1910)
950,633. It is bounded on the N. by
the Pyrenees, and borders on Navarre,
the Castiles, Valencia, and Catalonia.
< Aragnay, or Araguaya, a large
river of Brazil, which rises in about
19° S. lat., near the Parana, flowing
to about 6 S. lat, where it joins the
Tocantins. The united stream, after
a course of 1,000 miles, falls into the
delta of the Amazon in S. lat. 1° 40'.
Many tribes of warlike Indians dwell
on its banks.
Aral Lake, separated by the pla-
teau of Ust-Urt from the Caspian Sea,
is the largest lake in the steppes of
Asia. It lies wholly within the limits
of Russian Central Asia, embracing
an area of about 24,000 square miles.
Aram, Eugene, a self-taught
scholar whose unhappy fate has been
made the subject of a ballad by Hood
and a romance by Lord Lytton, born
in Yorkshire. England, in 1704. In
1734 he opened a school at Knares-
Araucania
borough. About 1745 a shoemaker of
that place, Daniel Clarke, was sud-
denly missing under suspicious cir-
cumstances; and no light was thrown
on the matter till 13 years afterward,
when an expression dropped by one
Richard Houseman respecting the dis-
covery of a skeleton supposed to be
Clarke's, caused him to be taken into
custody. From his confession an or-
der was issued for the apprehension of
Aram, who had long quitted York-
shire, and was at the time acting as
usher at the grammar school at Lynn.
He was brought to trial on Aug. 3,
1759, at York, where, notwithstand-
ing an able and eloquent defense which
he made before the court, he was con-
victed of the murder of Clarke, sen-
tenced to death, and executed.
Aramaean, or Aramaic, a Se-
mitic language nearly allied to the
Hebrew and Phrenician, anciently
spoken in Syria and Palestine and
eastward to the Euphrates and Tigris,
being the official language of this re-
gion under the Persian domination.
Arapahoes, a tribe of American
Indians located near the head-waters
of the Arkansas and Platte rivers.
Arapaima, a genus of tropical
fishes, including the largest known
fresh water forms. They are found in
the rivers of South America, and are
sometimes taken in the Rio Negro, 15
feet in length, and 400 pounds in
weight. They are shot with arrows
or harpooned, and are highly esteemed
as food.
Ararat, a celebrated mountain in
Armenia, forming the point of contact
of Russia with Turkey and Persia, to
all of which it belongs. It rises, an
isolated cone, on the S. border of the
plain of the Aras of Araxes. The
summit of the Great Ararat rises 16,-
964 feet above the sea-level. It is
covered with perpetual snow and ice
for about 3 miles from its summit
downward in an oblique direction.
Mount Ararat was the resting place
of the ark when the flood abated.
Araucania, the country of the
Araucos or Araucanian Indians, in
the south of Chile. The Chilean prov-
ince of Arauco, lying between the
Andes and the Pacific Ocean, and
bounded on the N. by Concepcion, on
the S. by Valdivia, was formed in
Arbitration
1875, with an area of 2,446 square
miles, and a population of 59,237. A
large part of the territory in Arauco
and the more southerly province of
Valdivia, is occupied by Indians, who
have of late mostly submitted to Chil-
ean authority.
Arbitration, an adjudication by
private persons, called arbitrators, ap-
pointed to decide a matter or matters
in controversy, either by written or
oral submission, by agreement of the
disputants. It differs from a reference
which is made by the order of a court
of law. The proceeding generally is
called a submission to arbitration ; the
parties appointed to decide are termed
arbitrators, not referees : and their ad-
judication is called an award. This
mode of settling disputes has been
approved by some legislatures, and
there are statutes in a number of
States regulating the proceedings.
It cannot be said that the legal re-
quirements have helped to any great
extent in the settlement of disputes be-
between labor and capital. Either or
both sides claim that an injustice has
been done, and while a modus vivendi
may be determined, it is only that mat-
ters may be arranged for a more suc-
cessful outcome of the next difficulty.
The settlement of the great coal strike
of 1902 by the arbitrators selected by
President Roosevelt, ended the conflict
for the time being, but did not satisfy
either party to the dispute.
The first general treaty of arbitra-
tion ever drawn between nations was
signed Jan. 11, 1897, in Washington,
by Richard Olney, Secretary of State
for the United States, and Sir Julian
Pauncefote, Ambassador of Great
Britain to the United States, for
Great Britain. This treaty was
placed before the United State Sen-
ate, Jan. 11, 1897 accompanied by a
special message from President Cleve-
land, but the Senate refused to ratify
it. Since then similar treaties have
been made and ratified between Italy
and the Argentine Republic and be-
tween the Argentine Republic and
Uruguay. The International Peace
Convention at The Hague, in 1899, es-
tablished an International Court of
Arbitration which has been ratified by
the United States and other signatory
powers. In 1903, Holland accepted
Mr. Carnegie's offer of $1,500.000
Are
for a Temple of Peace and Interna-
tional Law Library at The Hague, for
the sessions of the Court.
Arbor Day, a day set apart to
encourage the voluntary planting of
trees by the people. The custom was
inaugurated by the Nebraska State
Board of Agriculture in 1874, which
recommended that the second Wednes-
day in April annually be designated
as Arbor Day, and that all public
school children should be urged to ob-
serve it by setting out young trees.
The custom has since been extended,
till now nearly every State and Terri-
tory in the country has set apart one
day by legislative enactment or other-
wise, for this purpose ; several of the
States making the day a legal holiday,
others making it a school holiday.
Arbor Vitae (lit. 'tree of life'),
the name of several coniferous trees
of the genus Thuja, allied to the cy-
press, with flattened branchlets, and
small imbricated or scale-like leaves.
The common Arbor Vitse (Thuja oc-
cidentalis) is a native of North Amer-
ica, where it grows to the height of
40 or 50 feet. The young twigs have
an agreeable balsamic smell.
Arbutus, a genus of plants belong-
ing to the order of ericaceae (heath
worts). Trailing arbutus is a creep-
ing or trailing plant; with rose colored
blossoms, found chiefly in New Eng-
land in the spring. Commonly called
Mayflower. In the Southern States it
is known as Ground Laurel.
Arc, in geometry, a portion of the
circumference of a circle, cut off by
two lines which meet or intersect it.
Its magnitude is stated in degrees,
minutes, and seconds, which are equal
to those of the angle which it subtends.
In mathematical geography, an arc
of the earth's meridian, or a merid-
ional arc, is an arc partly measured on
the surface of the earth from N. to S.,
partly calculated by trigonometry. It
was by these measurements that the
earth was discovered to be an oblate
spheroid.
In electricity, a voltaic arc is a lu-
minous arc, which extends from one
pencil of charcoal to another, when
these are fixed to the terminals of a
battery in such a position that their
extremities are one-tenth of an inch
apart.
Arcade
Arcade, a series of arches of any
form, supported on pillars, either in-
closing a space before a wall, or any
building which is covered in and
paved ; or, when used as an architec-
tural feature for ornamenting the
towers and walls of churches entirely
closed up with masonry. The cloisters
of the old monasteries and religious
houses were, strictly speaking, arcades.
The term is also applied to a covered
passage having stores on either side
of it
Arcadia, the classical name of
Middle Peloponnesus, now forming the
modern province of Arkadia, in the
Morea, Greece.
Arcesilans, a Greek philosopher,
founder of the New Acr.demy, was
born at Pitane in JEolia, Asia Minor,
316 B. c. He died B. c. 241.
Arch, in architecture, a series of
wedge-shaped stones or bricks, so ar-
ranged over a door or window in an
edifice for habitation, or between the
piers of a bridge, as to support each
other, and even bear a great superin-
incumbent weight The curved arch
was known to the Assyrians and the
Old Egyptians.
There is no mention of the genuine
arch in Scripture, the term "arches,"
in Ex.ek. xl : 16, being a mistranslation.
The arch was brought into extensive
use by the Romans, and everywhere
prevailed till the 12th century A. D.
when the arcl pointed at the apex, and
called in consequence the pointed arch
— the one so frequently seen in Gothic
architecture — appeared in Europe as
its rival. The forms of both curved
and pointed arches may be varied in-
definitely.
Arch, Triumphal, a structure
raised by the Romans to celebrate a
victory, or some great historical event ;
or to add an additional luster to the
commemoration of the military ex-
ploits of a victorious general. The
practice has been adopted by some of
the modern nations of which France
is the foremost.
Arch, Joseph, an English reform-
er, born in Barford, Warwickshire, in
1826, and, while still a farm laborer,
became a Primitive Methodist preach-
er. In 1872 be founded the National
Agricultural Laborers' Union, and
thereby, according to Justin M'Carthy,
Archelan*
" began the emancipation of the rural
laborers." He afterward visited Can-
ada to inquire into the labor and emi-
gration questions; and, in 1885-1886,
he represented in Parliament the
northwest division of Norfolk, which
again returned him in 1892 and 1895.
Archaeology, the science which
makes us acquainted with the antiqui-
ties of nations that have lived and
died, and the remains of various kinds
which throw a light upon the history
of those now existing. Every country
owns, in a greater or less degree, relics
of antiquity highly interesting to the
archaeologist. In Mexico and Cen-
tral America, evidences have been
found of the existence of a clever and
ingenious people who had died before
the discovery of America.
Archaeopteryx, a unique fossil
bird from the oolitic limestone of Sol-
enhofen, of the size of a rook, and dif-
fering from all known birds in having
two free claws representing the thumb
and forefinger projecting from the
wing, and about twenty tail vertebra
free and prolonged as in mammals.
Archangel, a seaport, capital of
the Russian government of same name,
on the right bank of the northeastern
Dwina, about 20 miles above its mouth
in the White Sea. Below the town the
river divides into several branches and
forms a number of islands, on one of
which, called Sollenbole, is the harbor.
The port is closed for six months by
ice. Archangel, was long the only
port which Russia possessed. Pop. 20,-
993.
Archdeacon, an ecclesiastical dig-
nitary next in rank below a bishop,
who has jurisdiction either over a part
of or over the whole diocese. He is
usually appointed by the bishop, under
whom he performs various duties, and
he holds a court which decides cases
subject to an appeal to the bishop.
Archduke, a duke whose authori-
ty and power is superior to that of
other dukes. In the present day, this
title is not assumed by any excepting
the princes of the imperial House of
Austria.
Archelaus, a Greek philosopher,
the disciple and successor of Anaxa-
goras. Archelaus is said to have had
Socrates for his pupil at Athens.
Flourished about 440 B. c.
Arclielaus
Architecture
Arclielaus, son of Herod the
Great. His reign is described as most
tyrannical and bloody. The people at
length accused him before Augustus
(Judea being then dependent upon
Rome). The Emperor, after hearing
bis defense, banished him to Vienne,
in Gaul. To avoid the fury of this
monster, 7 A. D., Joseph and Mary re-
tired to Nazareth.
Archer, Branch T., a Texan pa-
triot, born 1790; died 1856. In 1831
he left Virginia where he had practiced
medicine, and settled in Texas where
he took an active part in ^all the
troubles that preceeded the indepen-
dence of the territory. He was one of
the commissioners who asked aid from
the United States government, arid was
speaker of the Texas House of Repre-
sentatives, and Secretary of War for
the new Republic.
Archer, William, a Scottish crit-
ic, born at Perth, Sept. 23, 1856. He
graduated at Edinburgh University,
1876, and was called to the bar, 1883.
He has long been dramatic critic for
various London papers.
Archer Fish, the toxotes aculator,
which shoots water at its prey. It is |
found in the East Indian and Polyne-
sian Seas.
Archery, the art of shooting with
a bow and arrow. This art, either as
a means of offense in war, or as sub-
sistence and amusement in time of
peace, may be traced in the history of |
almost every nation. It always, how-
ever declines with the progress of
time, which introduces weapons more
to be depended on, and not so easily \
exhausted as a bundle of arrows. !
With the ancients, the sagitarii, or
archers, were an important class of
troops. The English archers were
famous in the Middle Ages, and turned
the side in important battles.
Archilochus, a Greek poet, flour-
ished in the 7th century B. c. Of his
life, nothing is definitely known. He
was classed by the ancients with the
greatest poets, Homer, Pindar, Sopho-
cles ; but of his works only a few frag-
ments have come down to us.
Archimedes, the most famous of
ancient mathematicians, was a native
of Syracuse. He possessed equal
knowledge of the sciences of astrono-
my, geometry, hydrostatics, mechanics,
and optics. Among his inventions
were the combination of pulleys for
lifting heavy weights, the revolving
screw, and a spherical representation
of the motion of the heavenly bodies.
His inventive genius was especially ex-
emplified in the defense of Syracuse
when besieged by Marcellus. It is
said that on this occasion he devised
a burning-glass, formed of reflecting
mirrors of such power that by it he set
tire to the enemy's fleet. This well
known story is, however, believed to
be equally an invention. Upon the
city being taken by storm, Archimedes,
then in his 74th year, was among those
who lost their lives, B. c. 212.
Archimedes, Principle of, a
well known principle in hydrostatics,
the discovery of which is attributed to
the celebrated philosopher whose name
it bears. This important theorem may
be thus defined : When a solid is im-
mersed in a fluid, it loses a portion of
its weight, and this portion is equal
to the weight of the fluid which it dis-
places, that is, to the weight of its
own bulk of the fluid.
Archimedian Screw, or Spiral
Pump, a machine invented by Archi-
medes, the celebrated Syracusan phi-
losopher, while studying in Egypt. Ob-
serving the difficulty of raising water
from the Nile to places above the reach
of the flood tides, he is said to have de-
signed this screw as a means of over-
coming the obstacle. It consists of a
pipe twisted in a spiral form around a
cylinder, which, when at work, is sup-
ported in an inclined position. The
lower end of the pipe is immersed in
water, and when the cylinder is made
to revolve on its own axis, the water
is raised from bend to bend in the
spiral pipe until it flows out at the
top. The Archimedian screw is still
used in Holland for raising water, and
draining low grounds.
Archipelago, a term applied to
such tracts of sea as are interspersed
with many islands. It is more es-
pecially applied to the numerous is-
lands of the ^Bgean Sea, or that part
of the Mediterranean lying between
Asia Minor and Greece.
Architecture, the art of bui'iing,
especially with a view to beauty or
magnificence. It is an art which is
ever advancing as the needs of civil-
ized man change and increase. Some
Archives
Arctic Expeditions
of the architectural work of the an-
cients has never been surpassed in
later ages in massiveness and in ;
beauty, and the grand architectural
monuments of the Middle Ages are '
the chief redeeming features of that j
period of intellectual gloom. The '
architecture of the twentieth century
bids fair to keep abreast of the mar-
vellous progress of other arts, and
nowhere is it achieving more signal
triumphs than in the United States,
with its mighty office-buildings, its
magnificent public structures, and its
residences including every comfort
and improvement.
Archives, the place in which rec-
ords are kept ; also the records and
papers which are preserved, as evi-
dence of facts.
Archons, the chief magistrates of
ancient Athens, chosen to superintend
civil and religious concerns.
Archytas, an ancient Greek math-
ematician, statesman, and general, whc i
flourished about 400 B. c., and belong-
ed to Tarentum, in Southern Italy.
The invention of the analytic method
in mathematics is ascribed to him, as
well as the solution of many geometri-
cal and mechanical problems.
Arc Light, that species of the
electric light in which the illuminating
source is the current of electricity
passing between two sticks of carbon
kept a short distance apart, one of
them being in connection with the pos-
itive, the other with the negative ter-
minal of a battery or dynamo.
Arcon, Jean Claude Lcmi-
ceaud d% a French engineer, born
in 1733. He distinguished himself by
the invention of the famous floating
batteries used at the siege of Gibral-
tar, in 1782. He died in 1800.
Arctic Circle, a small circle or
the globe, 23° 28' distant from the
North Pole, which is its center. It is
opposed to the Antarctic circle, which
is at the same distance from the South
Pole.
Arctic Expeditions, expeditions
projected to explore the regions sur-
rounding the North Pole. The ob-
ject with which these enterprises were
commenced by the English was to ob-
tain a passage by way of the polar re-
gions to India, Egypt being in Moham-
medan hands, and fear, which now
seems absolutely ludicrous, being felt
that the Portuguese would successfully
debar daring English seamen from
using the route by the Cape of Good
Hope. When the utter hopelessness
of finding either a northwestern or a
northeastern passage to India through
the polar regions became apparent, it
was felt that Arctic expeditions might
still profitably be sent out for purely
scientific exploration, one main object
now being to make as near an ap-
proach as possible to the Pole. They
have continued at intervals to our
own times, and are not likely ever to
cease. Two of the most notable events
in their history which have hitherto
occurred have been the discovery of
the northwest passage by Captain Mc-
Clure, of the " Investigator," on Oct.
26, 1850, and the tragic deaths of Sir
John Franklin and his crew, about the
year 1848, the catastrophe being ren-
dered all the more impressive to tBe
public mind by the uncertainty which
long hung over the gallant explorers'
fate.
In September, 1895, Lieut. Robert
E. Peary, of the United States navy,
returned from an Arctic expedition,
after an absence of two years. He
did not get so far north as some of
his predecessors, but in scientific re-
sults his expedition surpassed all
others of recent years. His surveys
and maps extend our knowledge of the
coast northward 2°. He started on
another expedition in 1897. On Aug.
13, 1896, Dr. Fridtjof Nansen, of Nor-
way, returned from an Arctic expedi-
tion, after an absence of more than
three years. The most northerly
point reached by him was 86° 14' N,
latitude, or 200 miles nearer the Pole
than ever reached before. He found
no indications of land N. of 82° N.
latitude, and in the higher latitudes no
open sea, only narrow cracks in the
ice.
The following are the farthest points
of N. latitude reached by Arctic ex-
plorers, up to present date :
Year Explorers North Latitude
1607. Hudson A .- 80° 23' 0"
1773. Phipps 7. 80° 48' 0"
1806. Scoresby 81" 12' 42"
1827. Parry 82" 50' 0"
1874. Meyer (on land)... 82° 0' 0"
1875. Markham and Parr
(Nares' expedition. 83" 20' 86"
1876. Payer 83" 07' 0*
Arctic Ocean
Are
Year Explorers North Latitude
1882. Lockwood (Greely's
party) 83° 24' 0"
1896. Nansen 86° 14' 0"
1900. Abruzzi 86° 33' 0"
1908. Peary 87° 6' 0"
1909. April 6. Peary The Pole
In 1902 Lieutenant Peary attained
lat. 84° 17', 404 statute miles from
the Pole. He pushed the advance on
the American side 30 miles beyond his
own best record in 1901. In 1906 he
came within 200.36 miles of his goal,
when he was forced back by insur-
mountable obstacles. The Baldwin
(1902) and the Fiala (1905) expedi-
tions, which proceeded by way of
Franz Josef Land, did not reach such
high latitudes. In 1909 tidings of
Arctic discovery were highly sensa-
tional in character. On Sept. 1 Dr.
Frederick A. Cook telegraphed that he
had discovered the Pole on April 21,
1908, and five days later Peary an-
nounced that he had reached it on
April 6, 1909. On their return the
rival claimants were honored at home
and abroad, but a scientific investiga-
tion of their records resulted in credit-
ing the achievement to Peary.
Arctic Ocean, in its widest sense,
that portion of the ocean which ex-
tends from the Arctic circle (lat. 66°
32' N.) to the North Pole, or more re-
etrictedly from about lat 70° N. As-
suming the former limit, the Arctic
Ocean is found entering deeply, in the
form of gulfs, bays, etc., into the N.
parts of the continents of Europe,
Asia, and America. The water of the
Arctic Ocean is extremely pure, shells
being distinctly visible at a great
depth ; it also presents rapid transi-
tions of color, chiefly from ultramarine
to olive-green, the latter variations of
color being produced by myriads of
minute animals, belonging for the most
part, to the Coelenterata and Mollusca.
Arctic Kegions, the regions
round the North Pole, and extending
from the pole on all sides to the Arctic
circle in lat. 66° 32' N. The Arctic
or North Polar circle just touches the
N. headlands of Iceland ; cuts off the
S. and narrowest portion of Green-
land ; crosses Fox Strait N. of Hudson
bay, whence it goes over the American
continent to Bering Strait. Thence
it runs to Obdorsk at the mouth of the
Obi ; then, crosing Northern Russia,
the White Sea, and the Scandinavian
peninsula, returns to Iceland.
Arct-urus, in astronomy, a fixed
star of the first magnitude, called also
Alpha Bootis. It is one of the very
brightest stars in the northern heav-
ens.
Ardahan, a village of about 300
houses, in the portion of Turkish Ar-
menia, ceded in 1878 to Russia, 35
miles N. W. of Kars. Its position
gives it strategic importance. Its
fortress was dismantled by the Rus-
sians in the war of 1854-1856 ; in 1878
the Berlin Congress sanctioned the ces-
sion to Russia of Ardahan, which had
been captured early in the war. On
account of the severity of the climate,
the houses of Ardahan are mainly con-
structed underground.
Ardennes, an extensive hill-coun-
try and forest, occupying the S. E.
corner of Belgium, between the Moselle
and the Meuse, but extending also into
France and Rhenish Prussia. It con-
sists of a broken mass of hills, for the
most part of no great elevation, which
gradually slope toward the plains of
Flanders. Enormous supplies of coal
are found in the north, a very impor-
tant element in Belgium's industrial
wealth. The region was the scene of
important military operations in the
early part of the World War.
Arditi, Luigi, an Italian musi-
cian and composer, born in. Piedmont,
July 16, 1822 ; studied music at the
Conservatoire of Milan. Famous first
as a violinist, then as a conductor, he
conducted Italian opera and concerts
in places as remote from one another
as New York and Constantinople.
He died in May, 1903.
Ardmore, city and capital of Car-
ter county, Okla.; in what was the
Chickasaw Nation, Ind. Terr. ; on the
Santa Fe and other railroads; 100
miles S. of Oklahoma City; is in a
cotton-growing, natural gas, petro-
leum, coal, and asphalt section; has
a Carnegie library, two colleges,
water, electric light, and telephone
services, and cotton compressers and
oil mill; and is chiefly engaged in the
cotton industry. Pop. (1910) 8,618.
Are, the unit of the French land
measure, equal to 100 square meters,
or 1,076.44 square feet.
Arena
Arena, the inclosed space in the
central part of the Roman ampmtnea-
ters, in which took place the combats
of gladiators or wild beasts. It was
usually covered with sand or saw dust
to prevent the gladiators from slip-
ping, and to absorb the blood.
Arecibo, city, seaport, and capital
of department of same name, Porto
Rico; on the Arecibo river, 40 miles
W. of San Juan; settled in 1616;
greatly damaged by hurricane in
1899; has a roadstead available only
by small vessels. Pop. (1910) 9,612.
Areolar Tissue, a tissue widely
diffused through the body, and com-
posed of white and yellow fibers, the
former imparting to it strength, and
the latter elasticity.
Areometer, an instrument de-
signed to measure the specific gravity
of liquids.
Areopagus, the name of a hill or
rocky eminence lying to the W. of the
Acropolis at Athens, which was the
meeting-place of the chief court of
judicature of that city; hence called
the Council of Areopagus. It was of
very high antiquity, and existed as a
criminal tribunal long before the time
of Solon. Solon enlarged its sphere
of jurisdiction, and gave it extensive
powers of a censorial and political na-
ture. Some say that the Apostle Paul
was taken before this council ; but the
Scripture does not bear out this idea.
It would seem, rather, that the Athen-
ians had taken him to the hill in or-
der to hear him expound his new doc-
trines.
Arequipa, a city of Peru, capi-
tal of the Department of the same
name ; 40 miles from the Pacific Ocean,
on the Chile river ; altitude, 7.850 feet
above sea level. Gold and silver are
mined in the vicinity. A great earth-
quake occurred, Aug. 13 and 14, 1868,
which destroyed more than $12,000,000
worth of property, and the lives of
more than 500 persons. Its public
buildings and dwellings are one or two
stories high and constructed of stone.
Near at hand Harvard University has
an observatory, at an altitude of over
8,000 feet.
Area, the Greek god of war, or
more particularly of its horror and tu-
mult. He is represented in Greek
Argenionr
poetry as a most sanguinary divinity
delighting in war for its own sake.
Aretaeus, a Greek physician of
Cappadocia, who flourished about 100
A. D. He is considered to rank next to
Hippocrates in the skill with which he
treated diseases; was eclectic in his
method ; and in the diagnosis of dis-
ease is superior to most of the ancient
physicians.
Aretino, Pietro, an Italian poet
and dramatist, born at Arezzo, April
20, 1492. His "Letters" are a val-
uable contribution to the history of the
times. He died in Venice, Oct. 21,
1556.
Argali, the name for some species
of the genus ovis, or sheep, which in-
habits the mountains and steppes of
Northern Asia. They are very keen-
sighted, quick of hearing, and possess
a delicate sense of smell. They attach
themselves closely to one locality, and
are noted for their great powers of
leaping, even from heights of 20 or 30
feet. The Big-horn sheep of the Rocky
Mountains are sometimes called Amer-
ican argali.
Argali, Sir Samuel, an ear/y
English adventurer in Virginia, born
about 1572 ; planned and executed the
abduction of Pocahontas, the daughter
of the Indian chief Powhatan, in order
to secure the ransom of English prison-
ers. He was Deputy Governor of Vir-
ginia (1617-1619), and was accused
of many acts of rapacity and tyranny.
By carrying on trade in violation of the
law he managed to acquire a fortune,
and was shielded from justice by the
Earl of Warwick. He died in 1639.
Argand. Lamp, a lamp named
after its inventor, Aim§ Argand, a
Swiss chemist and physician (born
1755, died 1803), the distinctive fea-
ture of which is a burner forming a
ring or hollow cylinder covered by a
chimney, so that the flame receives a
current of air both on the inside and
on the outside.
Argemone, a genus of plants be-
longing to the poppy-worts. It has
three sepals and six petals. The^A.
Mexicana, believed, as its name im-
ports, to have come from Mexico, has
conspicuous yellow flowers. From
having its calyx prickly, it is often
called Mexican thistle. The seeds are
a more powerful narcotic than opium,
Argent
Argent, in coats or arms, the her-
aldic term expressing silver ; repre-
sented in engraving by a plain white
surface.
Argenta, a town in Pulaski
county, Ark.; on the Arkansas river,
and the Choctaw, Oklahoma & Gulf
and other railroads; nearly opposite
Little Rock; chiefly engaged in the
live-stock and cotton industries. Pop.
(1910) 11.13&
Argentina, formerly called the
United Provinces of La Plata, a vast
country of South America ; extreme
length, 2,100 miles ; average breadth
a Tittle over 500 miles ; total area,
1,153,418 square miles. It is bounded
on the N. by Bolivia ; on the E. by
Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the
Atlantic; on the S. by the Antarctic
Ocean; and on the W. by the Andes.
With the exception of the N. W.,
where lateral branches of the Andes
run into the plain for 150 or 200 miles,
and the province of Entre Rios, which
is hilly, the characteristic feature of
the country is the great monotonous
and level plains called pampas. In the
N., these plains are partly forest-cov-
ered, but all the central and S. parts
present vast treeless tracts, which af-
ford pasture to immense herds of
horses, oxen, and sheep, and are varied
in some places by brackish swamps, in
others by salt steppes.
European grains and fruits, includ-
ing the vine, have been successfully in-
troduced, and are cultivated in most
parts of the republic, countless herds
of cattle and horses and flocks of sheep
are pastured on the pampas, and mul-
tiply there very rapidly. Gold, siver,
nickel, copper, tin, lead, and iron, be-
sides marble, jasper, precious stones,
and bitumen, are found in the moun-
tainous districts of the northwest,
while petroleum wells have been dis-
covered on the Rio Vermejo; but the
development of this mineral wealth has
hitherto been greatly retarded by the
•want of proper means of transport.
As a whole, there are not extensive
forests in the country, except in the
region of the Gran Chaco (which ex-
tends also into Bolivia), where thera
is known to be 60,000 square miles of
timber. Thousands of square miles are
covered with thistles, which grow to a
great height in their season. Cacti
also form great thickets. Peach and
Argon
apple trees are abundant in some dis-
tricts. The native fauna includes the
puma, the jaguar, the tapir, the llama,
the alpaca, the vicuna, armadilos, the
rhea or nandu, a species of ostrich, etc.
The climate is agreeable and healthful,
97° being about the highest tempera-
ture experienced. The native Indians,
few in number, give little trouble to
white settlers, although some of the
Gran Chaco tribes are warlike and
have killed foreign travellers. Some
tribes, still in a savage state, inhabit
less known districts and live by hunt-
ing and fishing. The typical inhabi-
tants of the pampas are the Gauchos,
a race of half-breed cattle- rearers and
horsebreakers, almost continually in
saddle, galloping the plains.
A. is divided into 14 provinces and
10 territories. Buenos Aires, the cap-
ital, is connected with other large
towns including Rosario, La Plata,
Tucuman, Cordoba, Santa F6, Men-
doza, Parana, etc., by extensive and
modern lines of railroads and tele-
graphs. Industries and commerce
have increased with the arrival of
large numbers of immigrants, averag-
ing about 300,000 yearly. In 1915 the
imports aggregated $220,085.951, and
the exports $541,532,224. The chief
foreign trade, in order of importance,
was with Great Britain, the United
States, Italy, France, and Brazil, and
was largely affected by the World
War.
The government is republican, sim-
ilar to that of the United States, and
the President is elected for six years.
The population was estimated in
1914 at about 9.000,000, Buenos Aires
having 1,700,000. The constitution
bears date of May 15, 1853, with
amendments in 1866 and 1898.
Argillaceous Rocks. Rocks in-
cluding slate, in which clay prevails.
Argol, a salt deposited by wine
on the inside of bottles and barrels.
It may be purified in hot water, and
clarified by adding clay, and recrys-
tallizing. In repeating the process it
becomes white and is called cream of
tartar.
Argon, a constituent gaseous ele-
ment discovered in our atmosphere by
Lord Rayleigh and Prof. Ramsay, in
1894. There is still much doubt con-
cerning its true status.
Argonaut
Argonaut, one of the heroes who
accompanied Jason in the ship
" Argo " when he sailed on his mythic
voyage in quest of the golden fleece
(generally used in the plural). The
tales describing the return of the Ar-
gonauts differ very essentially.
The word is also applied to a genus
of cephalopod mollusks, the typical one
of the family argonautidse. The best
known species is the argonaut, or pa-
per sailor. The shell is thin and
translucent. Aristotle supposed that
it floated with the concave side up, the
animal holding out its arms, after the
manner of sails, to catch the breeze.
Poets have since repeated the fable.
Argonne, a rocky, forest-clad pla-
teau, extending along the borders of
Lorraine, Germany, and Champagne,
France, watered by the Meuse, Marne,
and Aisne rivers ; noted as the scene
of Dumouriez's campaign against the
Prussians in 1792, of military move-
ments preceding the battle of Sedan
in 1870, and of struggles for the pos-
session of Alsace-Lorraine in the
World War.
Argos, a town of Greece, in the
N. E. of the Peloponnesus, between
the gulfs of JEgina and Nauplia or
Argos. This town and the surround-
ing territory of Argolis were famous
from the legendary period of Greek
history onward, the territory contain-
ing, besides Argos, Mycenae, where
Agamemnon ruled, with a kind of sov-
ereignty, over all the Peloponnesus.
Argosy, a poetical name for a
large merchant vessei ; derived from
Ragusa, a port which was formerly
more celebrated than now, and whose
vessels did a considerable trade with
England.
Argot, the jargon, slang or pecu-
liar phraseology of a class or profes-
sion ; originally the conventional slang
of thieves and vagabonds, invented for
the purpose of disguise and conceal-
ment.
Argument, a term sometimes used
as synonymous with the subject of a
discourse, but more frequently appro-
priated to any kind of method employ-
ed for the purpose of confuting or at
least silencing an opponent.
Argus. (1) In classical mythol-
ogy, a son of Arestor, said to have had
100 eyes, of which only two slept at
Arlan
! one time, the several pairs doing so in
! succession. When killed by Mercury,
his eyes were put into the tail of the
peacock, by direction of Juno, to whom
this bird was sacred. Argus was
deemed a highly appropriate name to
give to a vigilant watch dog.
(2) In zoology, a genus of birds.
It contains the argus, or argus pheas-
ant. The male measures between five
and six feet from the tip of the bill to
the extremity of the tail, and is an em-
inently beautiful bird, the quill-feath-
ers of the wings, which often exceed
three feet in length, being ornamented
all along by a series of ocellated spots,
about 80,000 in number.
Argyle, Campbells of, a historic
Scottish family, raised to the peerage
in the person of Sir Duncan Campbell
of Lochow, in 1445. JOHN, second
Duke and Duke of Greenwich, son of
Archibald, born 1G78, died 1743 ; served
under Marlborough at the battles of
Ramilies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet,
and assisted at the sieges of Lisle and
Ghent. He incurred considerable
odium in his own country for his ef-
forts in promoting the union with
England.
Ariadne, a daughter of Minos,
King of Crete, who, falling in love
with Theseus, then shut up by her
father in the labyrinth, gave him a
clue by which he threaded his way out.
Arian, a follower of Arius, Pres-
byter of Alexandria in the 4th cen-
tury A. D., or one holding the system
of doctrine associated with his name.
In the year 317, Alexander, Bishop of
Alexandria, having publicly expressed
his opinion that the Son of God is not
only of the same dignity as the
Father, but of the same essence (in
Greek, ousia), Arius, one of the
Presbyters, considered this view
as leaning too much to Sabel-
lianism, and, rushing to the other
extreme, he declared that the Son of
God was only the first and noblest of
created beings, and though the universe
had been brought into existence
through His instrumentality by the
Eternal Father, yet to that Eternal
Father He was inferior, not merely in
dignity, but in essence. The views of
Arius commended themselves to multi-
tudes, while they were abhorrent to
still more ; fierce controversy respect-
ing them broke out, and the whole
Ariel
Aristolmlus
Christian world was soon compelled to
take sides. It would occupy too
much space to detail the vicissitudes
of a highly checkered struggle ; suffice
it to say that the Arians greatly weak-
ened themselves by splitting into sects,
and the doctrines regarding the rela-
tion of the three Divine Personages
authoritatively proclaimed at Nice*
were at last all but universally adopt-
ed. They may be found detailed in
what are popularly termed the Nicene
and the Athanasian Creeds. They
were held almost without a dissentient
voice through the Middle Ages, and
were cordially accepted by the leading
reformers.
Ariel, the name of several person-
ages mentioned in the Old Testament ;
in the demonology of the later Jews a
spirit of the waters. In Shakespeare's
" Tempest," Ariel was the " tricksy
spirit " whom Prospero had in his ser-
vice.
Aries, in astronomy, the constel-
lation Aries, or the Ram, one of the
ancient zodiacal constellations, and
generally called the first sign of the
zodiac ; also the portion of the eclip-
tic between 0° and 30° longitude,
which the sun enters on March 21st
(the vernal equinox).
Arimanes, or Aliriman, the
principle of evil in the Persian theol-
ogy, which perpetually counteracts the
designs of Ormuzd or Oromazdes, who
denotes the principle of good.
Arimatlifea, a town of Palestine,
identified with the modern Ramleh, 22
miles W. N. W. of Jerusalem.
Arion, an ancient Greek poet and
musician, born at Methymna, in Les-
bos, flourished about B. c. 625. He is
said to have been rescued from
drowning by a dolphin, which at-
tracted by his music, bore him to land.
A fragment of a hymn 'M Poseidon,
ascribed to Arion, is extant.
Ariosto, I/udovico, an Italian
poet, born at Reggio, Sept. 8, 1474. i
Was one of the three great epic poets I
of Italy, and styled " The Divine " by
his countrymen. He died in Ferrara,
June 6, 1533.
Arista, Don Mariano, a Mex-
ican statesman, born in 1803. Of
Spanish descent, he at an early age
entered the army, in which he at-
tained to the rank of major-general.
He served with distinction in the war
against the United States, was, in
1848, appointed Minister of War, and,
in 1850, President of the Republic.
He was succeeded as President in
1852, by Don Juan Cebellos. He died
in 1855.
Aristarchns, a Greek grammar-
ian, who criticised Homer's poems
with the greatest severity.
Aristarchus of Samos, a famous
astronomer, born 267 B. c. First as-
serted the revolution of the earth
about the sun. His work on the mag-
nitude, and distance of the sun and
moon, is still extant. He is also re-
garded as the inventor of the sun-dial.
Aristides, a statesman of ancient
Greece, for his strict integrity sur-
named " The Just." He died at an
advanced age about B. c. 468, so poor
that he was buried at the public ex-
pense. It was customary in Athens
for citizens to vote by a ballot of
shells — hence called ostracism from
the Greek word for shell — for the
exile of any citizen who might be un-
popular, without any specific charge
being made against him. Aristides
was, on one occasion the victim of os-
tracism, and a citizen who voted
against him gave as a reason, that he
was tired of hearing him called " The
Just."
Aristippns, a disciple of Socrates,
and founder of a philosophical school
among the Greeks, which was called
the Cyrenaic, from his native city Gy-
rene, in Africa ; flourished in 380
B. C. His moral philosophy differed
widely from that of Socrates, and was
a science of refined voluptuousness.
His writings are lost.
Aristobulus, name of several roy-
al personages of Judea : ARISTOBULUS
I., son of John Hyrcanus, high priest
of the Jews ; from 105-104 B. C. King
of Judea. He is supposed to have
been the first of the Hasmoneans to
take the title of king. In the single
year of his reign he conquered por
tions of Iturea and Trachonitis, and
compelled the people to accept Juda-
ism. ARISTOBULUS II., son of Alex-
ander Jannsenus, was named as high
priest by bis mother, Queen Regent
Alexandra, while to Hyrcanus II.: his
elder brother, the throne was given.
In a contest for the throne, he was
Aristobnlns
Arizona
defeated by Pompey in 63 B. c., and
carried captive to Rome. He died
about 48 B. c. ARISTOBULUS III., a
grandson of Hyrcanus II. ; his sister,
Mariamne, was the wife of Herod I.,
who appointed him high priest, but,
fearing his popularity, had him assas-
sinated about 30 B. c. ARISTOBULUS
III. was the last male of the Hasmo-
nean family.
Aristobulus, an Alexandrian
Jew and peripatetic philosopher, who
lived about 170 B. c., was considered
by the early fathers as the founder of
the Jewish philosophy in Alexandria. |
Aristocracy, a form of govern- !
ment by which the wealthy and noble, |
or any small privileged class, rules i
over the rest of the citizens ; now
mostly applied to the nobility or chief
persons in a State.
Aristophanes, the greatest of the
Greek writers of comedy (B. c. 448?- '
380?), born at Athens.
Aristotle, the most renowned of
Greek philosophers, born at Stagira,
Macedonia, 384 B. c. ; was for 20 years
a student of philosophy in the school
of Plato at Athens, but at the same
time a teacher, in the meantime mas-
tering and digesting all the accessible
results of philosophical and scientific
research and speculation in his time.
After Plato's death, he opened a school
of Philosophy at the court of Hermias,
King of Atarnous, in Mysia, who had
been his fellow student in Plato's
Academy, and whose adopted daugh- 1
ter he afterward married. At the in- j
vitation of Philip of Macedon, he un- '.
dertook the education of his son, Alex- !
ander. When Alexander succeeded to
the throne, the philosopher returned
to Athens and opened a school in the
Lyceum, so called from the neighbor- ,
ing temple of the Lycian Apollo. He
taught in the Lyceum for 13 years,
and to that period we owe the compo- j
sition of most of his numerous writ- |
ings. _ The number of his separate
treatises is given by Diogenes Laer-
tius as 146 ; only 46 separate works !
bearing the name of the philosopher I
have come down to our time. He died
at Chalcis, Euboea, in 322 B. C.
Arithmetic, in its broadest sense,
the science and art which treat of the
properties of numbers. This defini-
tion, however, would include algebra,
which is considered a distinct branch.
Algebra deals with certain letters of
the alphabet, such as x, y, z, a, b, c,
etc., standing as symbols for numbers;
arithmetic operates on numbers them-
selves, as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. Viewed as a
science, arithmetic is a branch of
mathematics ; looked on as an art, its
object is to carry out for practical
purposes certain rules regarding num-
bers, without troubling itself to in-
vestigate the foundation on which
those rules are based.
Ari Thorgilsson, the father of
Icelandic literature (1067-1148).
Arizona, a State in the Mountain
Division of the North American
Union ; bounded by Nevada, Utah,
New Mexico, California and the Mex-
ican State of Souora ; gross area,
113,956 square miles ; organized as a
Territory Feb. 14. 1863 ; admitted into
the Union as a State, Feb. 14, 1912.
Number of counties, 14; pop. (1900)
122,212; (1916) 255,544; capital,
Phoenix.
A. abounds with mineral wealth in-
cluding coal, iron, gold, silver, copper,
lead, platinum, quicksilver, tin, etc. ;
mining, ranching and lumbering are
the chief industries.
Of the total area, embracing over
72,500,000 acres, only about 5,000,000
acres is farming land. The rainfall
is so small that irrigation is depended
upon to make agriculture profitable.
The construction of irrigating canals
and water storage reservoirs is being
steadily promoted and over 500,000
acres are now productive thereby. In
the calendar year 1916 farm crops
had a value of $13.597.000 and all
farm property, over $80,000,000. The
pine timber land covers an area of
nearly 4,000,000 acres, giving the Ter-
ritory resources for timber and build-
ing material unsurpassed anywhere in
the country. ,
The State is rich in mineral re-
sources, largely copper, coal, iron,
gold, silver, lead, quicksilver, and
precious stones. The value of all
productions in 1915 was $91,541,403,
copper yielding $80,495,152. In 1914
the manufacturing industries had a
combined output valued at $64.090,000
on a capital of $40,300,000. the lead-
ing industry being the smelting and
refining of copper.
The governor is elected for two
Ark
years. Legislature meets biennially ;
Senate, 19 members, House, 35. One
Representative-at-Large in Congress.
State officials and Legislature Demo-
cratic in 1917.
Ark, a chest or coffer for the safe-
keeping of any valuable thing ; a de-
pository. The large floating vessel in
which Noah and his family were pre-
served during the deluge.
The Ark of the Covenant, in the
synagogue of the Jews, was the chest
or vessel in which the tables of the
law were preserved.
Arkansas, a State in the West
South Central Division of the Nofth
American Union ; bounded by Mis-
souri, Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisi-
ana, Texas and Oklahoma ; gross area,
53,850 square miles ; admitted into the
Union, June 15, 1836 ; seceded, March
4, 1861; readmitted June 22, 1868;
number of counties, 75 ; pop. (1900)
1,311,564; (1916) 1,739,723 ; capital,
Little Rock.
The State contains semi-anthracite,
cannel, and bituminous coal ; iron and
zinc ores ; galena, frequently bearing
silver ; manganese ; gypsum, oil-stone
of superior quality ; marble ; alabas-
ter ; rock crystal ; copper ; granite ;
kaolin ; marl ; mineral ochers, and salt.
In 1915 the value of all mineral pro-
ductions was $6,558,693.
The soil varies with the geological
characteristics and surface conditions
already described. Agriculturally, the
most valuable soil is found in the
river bottom-lands, and as the surface
rises from these bottoms the soil be-
comes less productive. There are large
submerged tracts that only require
proper drainage to make them valu-
able to the farmer. The uplands gen-
erally are well timbered and well wa-
tered. The various crops of 1916 had
a value of $175.057,000, cotton lead-
ing with $107,430,000.
In 1914 there were 2,604 manufac-
turing establishments reported, em-
ploying $77,162,000 capital and 41,979
persons ; paying $20,752,000 for wages
and $44,907,000 for materials; and
having a combined output valued at
$83,940,000. The principal articles
were lumber, sawed and worked ; flour
and grist ; cotton-seed oil and cake ;
foundry and machine shop products ;
and brick and tile.
The public schools ar,e liberally
Arkansas
maintained and well attended. In
1914 the school census was reported
at 635,462, of whom 439,624 were en-
rolled in public schools and 298,597
were in average daily attendance.
There were 10,361 teachers in the
public schools, 6,429 buildings used
for public school purposes and public
school property valued at $11,950,315.
The principal universities and colleges
are Arkansas College (opened 1872,
Presb.) ; University of Arkansas
(1872, non-sect.) ; Philander Smith
College (1877, Meth. Epis.) ; Hendrix
College (1884, Meth. Epis. S.) ;
Ouachita College (1886, Bapt.) ;
Arkadelphia College (1890, Meth.
Epis.) ; Arkansas-Cumberland College
(1891, Cumb. Presb.) ; Central Col-
lege (1892, Women, Bapt.) ; and
Mountain Home College (1893,
Bapt.).
In 1916 the net State revenue was
$3,810,994; net expenditure, $4,010,-
281 ; the assessed valuation of all tax-
able property, $447,020,270; the tax
levy, $3,577,503 ; and the net debt, $2,-
183,538. There were over 5,400 miles
of steam railroad in operation. Under
the National Banking Act of 1913, the
State is included in Federal Reserve
District No. 8.
The Governor is elected for a term
of two years and receives a salary of
$5,000 per annum. Legislative ses-
sions are held biennially, and are lim-
ited to 60 days each. The Legislature
has 35 members in the Senate and 100
in the House. There are 7 Repre-
sentatives in Congress. In 1917 the
State was Democratic.
Arkansas Post, a village in Ar-
kansas county, Ark. ; on the Arkansas
River ; 117 miles S. E. of Little Rock.
Its elevated location gave it consider-
able military importance during the
Civil War. The Confederates estab-
lished strong works here, which were
reduced by a combined assault of a
portion of the United States army,
under General McClernand, and a na-
val command under Admiral Porter,
on Jan. 11, 1863.
Arkansas, University of, a co-
educational institution organized in
1872, with academic and technical de-
partments in Fayetteville, law and
medical departments in Little Rock,
and normal school for colored students
in Pine Bluff.
Armenia
Armenia
Armenia, together with Kurdistan,
forms a part of the Turkish Empire
in Asia. The total area is about
75,000 square miles, and the popula-
tion was recently estimated at, from
2,500,000 to about 5,000,000, but a
serious plan of extermination was
steadily pursued by Turkey through-
out 1915-16.
Tradition assigns the cradle of the
human race to Armenia. In 1916
the country was divided into three
vilayets or governments — Erzerum,
Mamuret ul Aziz, and Diarbekir, with
the districts of Bitlis and Van. The
inhabitants are of the Christian faith,
most of them belonging to the
Gregorian Church, which greatly re-
sembles the Greek Church in doctrine
and ritual. There are many, how-
ever, who acknowledge_ the authority
of Rome, although retaining their own
distinctive ritual. Sheep, cattle, and
wool are largely exported, and there
is a growing silk industry in Diar-
bekir.
Armenia was at one time subdivided
into First, Second and Third Armenia,
to which a Fourth was afterward
added ; but the division by which it was
almost universally known was into
Armenia Major and Armenia Minor,
or the Greater and the Less Armenia.
It would seem to have stretched from
the Caspian Sea and the Persian prov-
ince of Azerbijan on the E. to Asia
Minor on the W., and from the Kur
or Cyrus river on the N. to Kurdistan
and Mesopotamia on the S. Armenia
Major comprised the larger and E.
portion of this area, extending W. as
far as the Euphrates and the Anti-
Taurus, and having an area of about
84.000 square miles. Armenia Minor
extended from the Euphrates to Asia
Minor, and its area may be stated at
about 53,000 square miles. The
Euphrates thus intersects Armenia
almost centrally, and forms the
natural boundary between the two
divisions now described. The terri-
tory of this kingdom became parti-'
tioned among Turkey, Persia, and
Russia, Turkey possessing the largest
share.
The inhabitants are chiefly of the
genuine Armenian stock ; but besides
them, in consequence of the repeated
subjugation of the country, various
other races have obtained a footing.
Of these the principal are the Turco-
mans, who still maintain their no-
madic habits, and from whom the
country has received the name of Tur-
comadia. In the S. portion are the
predatory Kurds and the Turks ; on
the Tchorak, Georgians ; and through-
out the whole country, Greeks, Jews,
and Gypsies. Armenians are scattered
over various countries, and being
strongly addicted to commerce, play
an important part as merchants.
They are found over all Western
Asia ; about 200,000 are in Constanti-
nople and its vicinity ; numbers are
in Russia, Hungary, and Italy ; some
in Africa and the United States, and
many in India, chiefly in the great
marts, Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta.
The Armenians received Christian-
ity as early as the 3d century. Dur-
ing the Monophysitic disputes, being
dissatisfied with the decisions of the
Council of Chalcedon (451), they sep-
arated from the Greek Church in the
year 536. The Popes have at different
times attempted to gain them over to
the Roman Catholic faith, but have
not been able to unite them perma-
nently and generally with the Roman
Church. There are, however, small
numbers here and there of United Ar-
menians, who acknowledge the spirit-
ual supremacy of the Pope, agree in
their doctrines with the Catholics, but
retain their peculiar ceremonies and
discipline. At different times force
has been used to make them conform
to the religion of Mohammed ; but the
far greater part are yet Monophy-
sites, and have remained faithful to
their old religion and worship. They
have suffered the usual fate of Chris-
tian populations subject to Turkey,
and the massacres of Armenians in
1895, 1896, and 1915-16, excited the
horror of the civilized world.
In the early part of the World War,
while the British Expeditionary Force
was fighting under adverse conditions
in Mesopotamia, the Russian army in
the Caucasus, after a long period of
apparent inactivity, was striking hard
blows at the Turks in the mountain-
ous region of Armenia. On Jilne 17,
1916, the Russians broke the Turkish
center at Kopri-Keui ; on Feb. 16,
captured Erzerum ; on March 19, en-
tered Ispahan ; and on April 17,
forced the capitulation of Trebizond.
See APPENDIX: World War.
Armenian Literature
Armistice
Armenian Literature. Previous
to the introduction of Christianity by
Gregory (A. D. 300), the Armenians
had adhered to the Assyrian or Medo-
Persian system of culture ; but except-
ing a few old songs or ballads, no re-
mains of that early period exist. After
their conversion to Christianity, the
Greek language and its literature soon
became favorite objects of study, and
many Greek authors were translated
into Armenian. The Armenian lan-
guage has an alphabet of its own, con-
sisting of 36 letters, introduced by
Meisrob in 406. The most flourishing
period1 of Armenian Literature ex-
tends from the 4th to the 14th century.
The numerous Armenian theological
writers and chroniclers of this era sup-
ply materials for a history of the East
during the Middle Ages which have
hitherto been too much neglected.
These Armenian writers generally
copied the style of the later Greek and
Byzantine authors ; but in adherence
to facts and good taste, they are su-
perior to the general order of Oriental
historians. In the 14th century litera-
ture began to decline, and few remark-
able works were afterwards produced,
but since the time of their dispersion,
the Armenians have preserved recollec-
tions of their national literature ; and
wherever they are found — in Amster-
dam, Lemberg, Leghorn, Venice, As-
trakan, Moscow, Constantinople,
Smyrna, Ispahan, Madras, or Calcutta
— the printing-office is always a fea-
ture in their colonies. The most inter-
esting Armenian settlement is that of
the Mechitarists on the island of San
Lazaro, near Venice.
The Bible translated into Armenian
(the Old Testament from the text of
the Septuagint) by Meisrob and his
scholars is esteemed the highest model
of classic style. Translations of sev-
eral Greek authors, made about the
same time, have been partly preserved,
and contain some writings of which the
originals have been lost — namely, the
Chronicle of Eusebius ; the Discourses
of Philo ; Homilies by St. Chrysostom,
Severianus, Basil the Great, and
Ephraim Syrus. Several old geograph-
ical and historical works have been
preserved. Among philosophical and
theological writers may be mentioned :
David, the translator and commenta-
tor of Aristotle, Esnik, and Joannes
Ozniensis. The "Lives of Armenian
Saints, 12 vols. Ven. 1814," contains
many notices of the history of Ar-
menia. In poetry and fiction Arme-
nian Literature is poor. Somal, in his
work entitled "Quadro della Storia
Litteraria di Armenia" (Venice,
1829), gives a general view of the con-
tents of Armenian Literature. The
Armenian belongs to the Indo-Ger-
manic group of languages, but has
many peculiarities of structure. It is
harsh and disagreeable to the ear. The
old Armenian, the language of litera-
ture, is no longer a living tongue ;
while the new Armenian, split up into
four dialects, contains many Turkish
words and grammatical constructions.
Armida, one of the most prominent
female characters in Tasso's "Jerusa-
lem Delivered." As the poet tells us.
when the Crusaders arrived at the
Holy City, Satan held a council to de-
vise some means of disturbing the
plans of the Christian warriors, and
Armida, a very beautiful sorceress,
was employed to seduce Rinaldo and
other Crusaders. Rinaldo was con-
ducted by Armida to a remote island,
where, in her splendid palace, sur-
rounded by delightful gardens and
pleasure-grounds, he utterly forgot his
vows, and the great object to which
he had devoted his life. To liberate
him from his voluptuous bondage, two
messengers from the Christian army —
Carlo and Ubaldo — came to the island,
bringing a talisman so powerful that
the witchery of Armida was destroyed.
Rinaldo escaped, but was followed by
the sorceress, who was defeated by
Rinaldo, who persuaded her to become
a Christian. The story of Armida has
been made the subject of an opera by
Gluck and by Rossini.
Arminianism, the doctrine of
Arminius, a Protestant divine, who
maintained that God had predestinat-
ed the salvation or condemnation of
individuals only from having foreseen
who would and who would not accept
of offered mercy.
Arminius, Jacobus, a Protestant
divine, born at Oudewater, Holland,
1560, founder of the sect of the Ar-
minians. A life of perpetual labor
and vexation of mind at last brought
on a sickness, of which he died, 1609.
Armistice, the term given to a
truce or suspension of hostilities be-
A COMPRESSED STEEL INGOT.
BENDING AN ARMOR PLATE FOR A
CONNING TOWER.
MAKING AND TESTING
HEATING AN ARMOR PLAT1
MACHINING AN ARMOR PLATE— DR
PLANING AN ARMC
THE BOLT HOLES.
FORGING AN ARMOR PLATE.
TESTING AN ARMOR PLATE.
STEEL ARMOR PLATES.
Armitage
tween two armies or nations at war,
by mutual consent.
Armitage, Edward, an English
historical and mural painter, born in
London, May 20, 1817.
Armitage, Thomas, an American
clergyman ; born at Pontefract, Eng-
land, Aug. 2, 1819 ; was an important
influence in the Baptist Church in
New York city, and the prime mover
in the establishment of the American
Bible Union in 1850. He was presi-
dent of that bodv from 1856 to 1875.
Died, Yonkers, N. Y., Jan. 21, 1896.
Armor, a word formerly applied
to all such contrivances as served to
defend the body from wounds or to
annoy the enemy. Hence it was di-
vided into two kinds, defensive and
offensive. A complete suit of defen-
sive armor anciently consisted of a
casque or helm, a gorget, cuirass,
gauntlets, tasses, brassets, cuishes and
covers for the legs, to which the spurs
were fastened. This was called armor,
cap-a-pie, and was worn by cavaliers
and men-at-arms. The infantry had
only part of it, viz., a pot or head-
piece, a cuirass and tasses. The
horses had armor which covered the
head and neck. In the World War
trench fighters on both sides were pro-
vided with metal helmets and German
infantry were said to wear a metallic
covering for the chest and stomach.
The word is also applied to the pro-
tection given to warships, war motors,
etc., usually plates of steel.
Armored Train, one of the mod-
ern instruments of war that received
severe tests in the American opera-
tions against Filipino insurgents in
1898-1899, and in those of the British
against the Boers in 1899-1900.
Armor-Piercing Shells, projec-
tiles so constructed as to bore through
the metallic plates with which modern
ships of war are coated.
Armor Plates, slabs of metal with
which the sides of war vessels are cov-
ered to render them shot-proof.
Armour, Philip Danforth, an
American philanthropist, born in
Stockbridge, N. Y., May 16, 1832; re-
ceived a common school education ;
; was a Drainer in California in 1852-
i 1856 ; in the commission business in
Milwaukee in 1856-1863; and later
became the head of a large meat-pack-
E. 9.
Armstrong
ing concern in Chicago. He founded
the Armour Mission and the Armour
Institute of Technology, both in Chi-
cago ; the former at a cost of about
$250,000, and the latter with an en-
dowment of $1,500,000, subsequently
increased. He died Jan. 6, 1901.
Arms, a term applied to weapons
of offense, which are divisible into two
distinct sections — firearms, and arms
used without gunpowder or other ex-
plosive substance.
ABMOH-PIEBCING SHELLS.
Arms, Coat of, or Armorial
Bearings, a collective name for tha
devices borne on shields, banners, etc.,
as marks of dignity and distinction,
and, in the case of family and feudal
arms, descending from father to son.
They were first employed by the cru-
saders, and became hereditary in fam-
ilies at the close of the 12th century.
They took their rise from the knighta
painting their banners or shields each
with a jigure or figures proper to him-
self, to enable him to be distinguished
in battle when clad in armor.
Arms, Stand of, the Get of arms
necessary for the equipment of a sin-
gle soldier.
Armstrong, Sir Alexander, an
English physician, born in Ireland
Armstrong
about 1820; was educated at Trinity
College, Dublin, and at the University
of Edinburgh; and became widely
known as an explorer. He died July
5, 1899.
Armstrong, John, an American
author and soldier; born at Carlisle,
Pa., Nov. 25, 1758 ; served in the War
of the Revolution on the staff of Gen-
eral Gates ; was United States Min-
ister to France, 1804-1810, afterward
to Spain; and Secretary of War,
1813-1814. Author of " Newburg Let-
ters," begun in camp, 1783, anony-
mously, and intended to arouse Con-
gress to redress army grievances. They
gave General Washington displeasure.
He died at Red Hook, N. Y., April 1,
1843.
Armstrong, Samuel Chapman,
an American educator, born in Ha-
waii in 1839, a son of Richard Arm-
strong, an American missionary to the
Sandwich Islands. In 1860 he came
to the United States; in 1862 was
graduated at Williams College; and
in June of the same year he organized
a company for the 125th Regiment of
New York Infantry, and with it was
assigned to the Army of the Potomac.
At Harper's Ferry he was captured
and held prisoner for three months.
After the close of the war he was mus-
tered out of the volunteer service with
the rank of brigadier-general. During
his service he volunteered for the com-
mand of a regiment of colored troops,
with whom he served two years. In
1866 he took up the work of the Freed-
man's Bureau and at first had the
oversight of the colored people in 10
counties of Virginia. After two years
in this work he procured help from
the American Missionary Association
and personal friends in the North and
founded a school which afterward be-
came famous as the Hampton Normal
and Agricultural Institute. The United
States Government, recognizing the
great value of his work for colored
youth here, began sending Indian
youth to the Institute in 1878, and
since then the two races have been
educated together. General Armstrong
served as president of the Institute
till his death, May 11, 1893.
Armstrong, William George, !
Lord, an English inventor, born in I
1810 at Newcastle, where his father !
was a merchant. During the Crimean ;
Army "Worm
War, Armstrong was employed by the
War Office to make explosive appa-
ratus for blowing up the ships sunk
at Sebastopol. This led him soon af-
terward to consider improvements in
ordnance, and he devised the form of
cannon that bears his name. Cam-
bridge and Oxford conferred honorary
degrees on Armstrong, who was raised
to the peerage as Baron Armstrong in
1887. He died Dec. 27, 1900.
Army, the national military of a
country, usually divided into a stand-
ing, and the reserves, in the United
States known as militia, who are
called to arms only in emergency.
On Aug. 7, 1917, the United States
War Department issued orders provid-
ing for important changes in the or-
ganization of the army selected for
service abroad. The force was to be
apportioned into (1) armies, (2)
army corps, (3) divisions, and the
ordinary artillery and the machine
gun strength was to be greatly en-
larged. The various changes were for
the purpose of bringing the American
contingents into closer co-ordination
with the armies of the Entente Allies.
Army Corps, one of the largest
divisions of an army in the field, com-
prising all arms, and commanded by
a general officer ; subdivided into di-
visions, which may or may not com-
prise all arms.
Army Hospital Train, a rail-
way contrivance for military pur-
poses, introduced by the Surgeon-Gen-
eral of the United States Army during
the war with Spain, in 1898, for the
purpose of conveying sick and
wounded soldiers, on their arrival
from Cuba, at Florida ports, to the
various military hospitals in the
United States. This train had a full
staff of physicians, surgeons and
trained nurses, and was completely
equipped with everything necessary
for the medical and surgical treatment
of the soldiers. It is believed to have
been the first train service completely
organized for such purpose.
Army War College, a depart-
ment of the United States military
educational establishment authorized
by Congress in 1900.
Army Worm, the very destructive
larva of the moth, so called from its
habit of marching in compact bodies
of enormous number, devouring al-
Arnaud
most every green thing it meets. It
is about 1% inches long, greenish in
color, with black stripes, and is found
in various parts of the world, but is
particularly destructive in North
America.
Arnaud, Henri, the pastor and
military leader of the Vaudois of Pied-
mont ; born in 1641. At the head of
his people he successfully withstood
the united forces of France and Sa-
voy, and afterward did good service
against France in the War of the
Spanish Succession. He had to re-
tire from his country, and was fol-
lowed by a number of his people, to
whom he discharged the duties of pas-
tor till his death, which occurred in
1721.
Arnaud, Jacques Achille Le-
roy De Saint, Slarshal of France ;
born in Bordeaux, Aug. 20, 1796. In
March, 1854, he was appointed to the
command of the French army which
was engaged in the war against Rus-
sia. He died Sept. 29 following.
Arndt, Ernst Moritz, a German
writer and patriot, born at Schoritz,
Isle of Rugen, Dec. 29, 1769. He
died in Bonn, Jan. 29, 1860.
Arndt, Johann, a German Lu-
theran clergyman, born at Ballenstedt,
Anhalt, in 1555. His " True Chris-
tianity " was translated into most Eu-
ropean languages, and is yet popular
in Germany. Its object is edification.
He died at Celle, Hanover, in 1621.
Arne, Thomas Augustine, an
English musical composer, born in
London, March 12, 1710. He wrote
the music for the revival of Milton's
" Masque of Comus," in which first
appeared the song of " Rule Britan-
nia," since acknowledged as the na-
tional air of England. He died in
1778.
Arnee, one of the numerous In-
dian varieties of the buffalo, remark-
able as being the largest animal of
the ox kind known. It measured
about 7 feet high at the shoulders, and
from 9 to 10 *£ feet long from the
muzzle to the root of the tail. It is
found chiefly in the forests at the base
of the Himalayas.
Arneth, Alfred von, an Aus-
trian historian, born in Vienna, July
10, 1819. He died in Vienna, July
81, 1897.
Arnold
Arnica, a genus of plants belong-
ing to the order asteraceae, or com-
posites ; also the English name of
plants. As an outward application,
arnica is in constant use as a remedy
for sores, wounds, bruises, and ail-
ments of a similar kind. It ia also
employed as an internal medicine.
Arnim, Acliim von, a German
poet and novelist, born in Berlin, Jan.
26, 1781. He died at Wiepersdorf,
Jan. 31, 1831.
Arnim, Elizabeth von, better
known as BETTINA, wife of the Ger-
man novelist Louis Achim von Arnim,
and sister of the poet Clemens Bren-
tano ; born in Frankfort-on-the-Main,
April 4, 1785. She died in Berlin,
Jan. 20, 1859.
Arnim, Harry, Graf von, a Ger-
man diplomatist, born in Pomerania,
in 1824 ; from 1864 to 1870, was Prus-
sian ambassador at Rome, where he
supported the anti-infalliblists during
the Vatican Council. He was reward-
ed with the title of Graf, but, as Ger-
man ambassador to France (1872-
1874), he fell into Prince Bismarck's
disfavor, and, on a charge of purloin-
ing State documents, was sentenced to
three months', to six months', and to
five years' imprisonment. He had,
however, retired into exile, and died
at Nice, May 19, 1881.
Arno, a river of Italy, which rises
in the Etruscan Apennines, makes a
sweep to the South and then trends
westward, divides Florence into two
parts, washes Pisa, and falls, 4 miles
below it, into the Tuscan Sea, after a
course of 130 miles.
Arnold, Abraham Kerns, an
American military ofBcei, born in
1837; was graduated at the United
States Military Academy in 1859; en-
tered the cavalry branch of the army;
served through the Civil War and re-
ceived a Congressional medal of honor
for gallantry in action ; and after the
war served against the Indians on the
frontier. In 1898, he was commis-
sioned a Brigadier-General and served
in the field during the war with
Spain ; and in 1899 became command-
er of the 2d Division, 7th Army Corps,
in Cuba. He died Nov. 23, 1901.
Arnold, Sir Arthur, an English
statesman and author, born in 1833.
He acted as assistant commissioner to
Arnold
Arnold of Brescia
administer the Public Works Act dur-
ing the cotton famine, 1863-1866;
knighted in June, 1895.
Arnold, Benedict, an American
military officer, born in Norwich,
Conn., Jan. 14, 1741. He was set-
tled in extensive business at New
Haven when the War of Independence
broke out. After the news of the bat-
tle of Lexington, he raised a body of
volunteers, and received a colonel's
commission. After commanding, for
a short time, a small fleet upon Lake
Champlain, he was with General
Montgomery, charged with the diffi-
cult duty of leading a force of 1,100
men across the wilds of the country
to Quebec, to stir up rebellion there,
and displace the British garrison. In
this unsuccessful attempt Montgomery
was killed and Arnold severely wound-
ed. After this, we find him in vari-
ous important commands, but as often
involved in quarrels with Congress
and his fellow-officers. It would be of
little interest now to enter into a de-
tail of his grievances. He seems to
have been a singularly brave, but reck-
less and unprincipled, man. Washing-
ton valued him for his acts of daring,
and would gladly have overlooked his
faults; but Congress and his brother-
officers regarded him with dislike, and
sought every possible means to humble
and annoy him. After many disputes
about the honor that was due to him
for his services, he was invested with
the government of Philadelphia. There
his imprudence was most marked;
-indeed, it would be difficult to clear
him from the charge of actual dishon-
esty. He was brought before a court-
martial; four charges were urged
against him ; two of these were found
proven, and he was sentenced to be
reprimanded by the commander-in-
chief. Arnold could not bear the af-
front, nor longer endure the difficul-
ties into which he had brought him-
self. He, accordingly, formed the dis-
graceful design of deserting to the
ranks of the enemy, and put himself
in communication with Sir Henry
Clinton, the British commander.
Major Andre was sent by Sir Henry
to negotiate with Arnold, and they
had an interview near West Point,
which fortress Arnold had offered to
surrender to the enemy. On :-is way
to the British camp, however, the
young officer fell into the hands of the
Americans, and the whole plot was of
course discovered. The news of An-
dre's capture reached Arnold just in
time to enable him to make his es-
cape and reach the British camp in
safety. There he retained his rank
of brigadier-general, and fought with
as much daring against the cause of
American independence as he had be-
fore fought against the royal forces.
He took command in an expedition
against Virginia, and again in an in-
cursion into his native State. After-
ward he served in Nova Scotia and
the West Indies, and at last settled in
London, England, whose he died, June
14, 1801.
Arnold, Sir Edwin, an English
poet and journalist, born in Rochester,
June 10, 1832. He graduated from
Oxford in 1854 ; taught for a while in
Birmingham ; and became principal of
the Sanskrit College at Poona, in the
Bombay Presidency, where he render-
ed important service to the govern-
ment during the great rebellion in In-
dia. Returning to London in 1861, he
joined the editorial staff of the " Daily
Telegraph." He has twice visited the
United States. He died March, 1904.
Arnold, Edwin Lester, an Eng-
lish author, son of Sir Edwin Arnold.
Arnold, George, an American
poet, born in New York, June 24,
1834; died at Strawberry Farms. N.
J., Nov. 3, 1865.
Arnold, Hans, pseudonym of
BERTHA VON BULOW, a German story
writer, born at Warmbrunn, Silesia.
Sept. 30, 1850.
Arnold, Isaac Newton, an
American lawyer, politician, and
author, born at Hartwick, N. Y., Nov.
30, 1815 ; was a member of Congress
from 1861 to 1865. He died in Chi-
cago, 111., April 24, 1884.
Arnold, Matthew, an English
poet, critic, and essayist, born at Lale-
ham, Dec. 24, 1822 ; graduated at Ox-
ford in 1844, and was Professor of
Poetry there from 1857 to 1867. Ar-
nold first became known as a poet ot
classical taste by the volume of poems
and selections issued under his name
in 1854. He died in Liverpool, April
15, 1888.
Arnold of Brescia, one of the
reformers prior to the Reformation, a
Arnold of Winkelried
Arrack
disciple of Abelard of Paris, and of
Berengarius. As early as the middle
of the 12th century, his bold spirit,
his scriptural knowledge, and his elo-
quence, had succeeded in arousing
France and Italy against the abuses
of the Roman Church. Driven by the
clergy from Italy, he sought refuge in
Zurich, where he made many converts.
At length, through" the instigation of
St. Bernard of Clairvaux, he was
charged with heresy, and excommuni-
cated by Pope Innocent II. At this
juncture, serious popular tumults oc-
curred at Rome, and Arnold, hasten-
ing thither, was received with great
cordiality, and soon vested with su-
preme power. In 1155, however, Ad-
rian IV. interdicted and expelled him
from the city. For a time he lived in
Gampagna, but was seized, and taken
back to Rome, where he was executed,
and his ashes were thrown into the
Tiber.
Arnold of Winkelried, a Swiss
hero, who, at the battle of Sempach,
in 1386, sacrificed himself to insure
victory to his countrymen. The Aus-
trian knights, dismounted, had formed
themselves into a phalanx, which the
Swiss vainly strove to pierce ; when
Arnold, rushing on the spear points
of the enemy, and burying several in
his breast, thus opened a gap in the
fence of steel. The Swiss rushed in
through the opening, and routed the
Austrians with great slaughter.
Arnold, Thomas, an English
clergyman and historian, born in
Cowes, Isle of Wight, June 13, 1795.
He entered Oxford University in 1811,
and was elected a fellow of Oriel Col-
lege in 1815. While in this place he
vras the friend and contemporary of
the poet Keble, of Copleston, and of
Archbishop Whately. In 1828, Ar-
nold was elected to the head-master-
ship of Rugby School, which office he
held until his death, and raised it, by
the enlightened system of education
he inaugurated, to the highest rank
among the great public schools of Eng-
land. He died June 12, 1842.
Arnold, Thomas, an English
writer on literature, and editor of old
texts, son of Dr. Arnold, of Rugby,
and brother of Matthew Arnold, born
at Laleham, Nov. 30, 1823. He pub-
lished a manual of English literature
that is widely used. He was one of
those engaged in the Tractarian move-
ment, and was closely connected with
Cardinal Newman. He died in 1900.
Arnolfi, di Cambio, or di Lapo,
an Italian architect and sculptor, born
in Florence, in 1232. He died in 1300.
Arnott, Neil, a Scottish physicist,
born in Aberdeen, in 1788. He died
in 1874.
Arnotto, the waxy-looking pulp
which envelops the seeds in the ar-
notto-tree. This is detached by
throwing the seed into water, after
which it is dried partially, and made
up first into soft pellets, rolled in
leaves, in which state it is called flag,
or roll arnotto. Afterward, becom-
ing quite dry, it is formed into cakes,
and becomes cake arnotto. The South
American Indians color their bodies
red with it ; farmers here and else-
where use it to stain cheese, and
some dairymen also use it to color
butter; the Spaniards put it in their
chocolate and soups ; dyers use it to
produce a reddish color, and varnish
makers, to impart an orange tint to
some varnishes.
Arpostook, an American river ;
rises in Piscataquis county, Me. ; flows
more than 120 miles in a circuitous
course, receiving many important trib-
utaries ; and enters the St. John River
in New Brunswick. It was an im-
portant factor in the settlement of the
long-pending dispute concerning the
boundary between the United States
and British America.
Arpad, the conqueror of Hungary,
and founder of the Arpad dynasty,
which reigned till 1301, was born in
the second half of the 9th century. He
died in 907.
Arpent, formerly a French meas-
ure for land, equal to five-sixths of an
English acre ; but it varied in differ-
ent parts of France.
Arquebus, a hand-gun ; a species
of firearm resembling a musket, an-
ciently used. It was fired from a
forked rest, and sometimes cocked by
a wheel, and carried a ball that
weighed nearly two ounces. A larger
kind used in fortresses carried a heav-
ier shot.
Arrack, a term used in the coun-
tries to which the Arabs have pene-
trated, for distilled spirits.
Arras
Arras, a city of France ; capital of
the Department of Pas-de-Calais ; 27
miles S. W. of Lille, 60 miles S. E. of
Calais, 100 miles N. N. E. of Paris, at
the junction of the Scarpe and Crin-
chon rivers; pop. (1901) 25,813. It
was a noted place before the Christian
era ; was strongly fortified by Vau-
ban ; and has been the seat of many
historic conflicts, most recently giving
its name to a great series of battles
between the Allies and the Teuton
forces early in 1917. See APPENDIX:
World War.
Arrow, a missile weapon, designed
to be propelled by the impulse com-
municated by the snapping of the
string of a bow, temporarily bent into
an angular form, back to its normal
state of rest in a straight line. It is
one of the most ancient of weapons.
Arrow Lake, an expansion of the
Columbia river, in British Columbia,
Canada ; about 95 miles long from N.
to S. ; often regarded as forming two
lakes — Upper and Lower Arrow Lake.
Arrowroot. In botany, the Eng-
lish name of the botanical genus ma-
ranta. The root is a fleshy corm,
which, when washed, grated, strained
through a sieve, and again repeatedly
washed, furnishes the substance so
much prized as food for invalids.
Arrow-smith, Aaron, an Eng-
lish cartographer, born in 1750, died
in 1823. He raised the execution of
maps to a perfection it had never be-
fore attained.
Arm Islands, a group of over 80
islands in the Dutch East Indies, ly-
ing W. of New Guinea, with a united
area of about 2,650 square miles and
a population of some 15,000. The in-
habitants resemble the Melanesians of
New Guinea.
Arsaces, founder of the Parthian
monarchy. He induced his country-
men to rise against the Macedonian
yoke, 250 B. c., on which they raised
him to the throne. Arsaces was slain
in battle, after a reign of 38 years.
He was the first of a long line of mon-
archs of the same name, the last of
whom was put to death about 226 A. D.
Arsenal, a place appointed for the
making, repairing, keeping and issu-
ing of military stores of all kinds.
Art
The principal arsenals of the United
States in 1917 were the Allegheny
(Pa.) ; Augusta (Ga.) ; Benecia
(Cal.) ; Columbia (Tenn.) ; Fort
Monroe (Va.) ; Frankford (Pa.) ; In-
dianapolis (Ind.) ; Kennebec (Me.) ;
New York (N. Y.) ; Rock Island
(111.) ; San Antonio (Tex.) ; Water-
town (Mass.) ; and Watervliet (N.
Y.). There were regular powder
dep6ts at St. Louis (Mo.), and Dover
(N. J.), and many special ones estab-
lished in consequence of the World
War.
Arsenic, (symbol As, atomic weight
75), a metallic element of very com-
mon occurrence, being found in combi-
nation with many of the metals in a
variety of minerals. It is of a dark-
gray color, and readily tarnishes on
exposure to the air, first changing to
yellow, and finally" to black. In hard-
ness it equals copper ; it is extremely
brittle, and very volatile, beginning to
sublime before it melts. It burns with
a blue flame, and emits a smell of gar-
lic. Its specific gravity is 5.76. It
forms alloys with most of the metals.
Combined with sulphur it forms orpi-
ment and realgar, which are the yel-
low and red sulphides of arsenic. It is
usually seen in white, glassy, translu-
cent masses, and is obtained by sub-
limation from several ores containing
arsenic in combination with metals,
particularly from arsenical pyrites. Of
all substances arsenic is that which
has most frequently occasioned death
by poisoning, both by accident and
design. The remedies are hydrated ses-
quioxide of iron with copious draughts
of gummy liquids.
Arsinoe, a city of ancient Egypt
on Lake Mccris, said to have been
founded about B. c. 2300, but renamed
after Arsinoe, wife and sister of Ptol-
emy II. of Egypt, and called also
Crocodilopolis, from the sacred croco-
diles kept at it.
Arson, the malicious and willful
burning of a dwelling-house or out-
house belonging to another person by
directly setting fire to it, or even by
igniting some edifice of one's own in
its immediate vicinity. It is a penal
offense, whether successful or not.
Art, the power of doing something
not taught by nature or instinct ; as,
Art
to walk is natural, to dance is an art ;
— power or skill in the use of knowl-
edge ; the practical application of the
rules, or principles of science. A sys-
tem of rules to facilitate the perform-
ance of certain actions ; contrivance ;
dexterity ; address ; adroitness.
Art, Metropolitan Museum of,
a spacious edifice in Central Park,
New York, erected by the city for the
purpose to which it is devoted. It
was incorporated in 1870, and pos-
sesses an art collection amounting in
value to over $2,000,000.
Artaxerxes I., surnamed Longi-
manus, was the third son of Xerxes,
King of Persia, and, having murdered
his brother Darius, ascended the
throne 465 B. c. He died in 424 B. c.
and was succeeded by his only son,
Xerxes. This prince is generally sup-
posed to have been the Ahasuerus of
Scripture, who married Esther, and
by whose permission Ezra restored the
Jewish religion at Jerusalem. Some
modern authors, nevertheless, identify
Ahasuerus with Xerxes.
Artemis, an ancient Greek divin-
ity, identified with the Roman Diana.
She is variously represented as a hun-
tress, with bow and arrows ; as a god-
dess of the nymphs, in a chariot
drawn by four stags ; and as the moon
goddess, with the crescent of the moon
above her forehead.
Artemisia, wormwood ; named af-
ter Artemis, the Greek goddess, cor-
responding to the Roman Diana.
Several species, locally known as sage
brush, are found on the table-lands of
the Rocky mountains and on the West-
ern plains of the United States.
Arteritis, an inflammation occur-
ring in the arteries. It may be acute
or chronic.
Artery. The largest arteries which
leave the heart are the aorta and the
pulmonary artery ; both spring from
the base of the heart in front. They
branch and anastomose to a large ex-
tent. The contractility of the arteries
forces the blood to the extremities
from the heart, the valves of which
Srevent its return. The prominent
ifference between blood drawn from
the arteries and that from the veins
is to be found in the bright scarlet
color of the former and the dark red,
•Amost black, of the latter.
Arthur
Artesian 'Wells, deep wells
bored through impervious rock strata
to a porous water bearing rock strat-
um whence the water flows to the sur-
face and is discharged from the bore.
It is also applied, though less correct-
ly, to deep wells where the waters rise
to within a short distance of the sur-
face even if no real flow is establish-
ed. The principal condition of an ar-
tesian well is a pervious stratum pro-
tected above and below by a water-
tight bed. These layers come to the
surface in some elevated regions where
they get their rain flow, then pitch
downward to a considerable depth and
then rise again, thus forming a great
basin which retains the water. Rain
water and surface water fill the porous
stratum to the brim. If it be tapped
any, the water will rise in the bore
and be discharged as long as the sup-
ply equals the demand.
Arteveld, or Artevelde, the
name of two men distinguished in the
history of the Low Countries. (1)
JACOB VAN, a brewer of Ghent, born
about 1300; was selected by his fel-
low townsmen to lead them in their
struggles against Count Louis of
Flanders. A proposal to make the
Black Prince, son of Edward III. of
England, governor of Flanders, led to
an insurrection, in which Arteveld lost
his life (1345). (2) PHILIP, son of
the former, at the head of the forces
of Ghent, gained a great victory over
the Count of Flanders, Louis II., and
for a time assumed the state of a sov-
ereign prince. His reign proved short-
lived The Count of Flanders re-
turned with a large French force, fully
disciplined and skillfully commanded.
Arteveld was rash enough to meet
them in the open field at Roosebeke,
between Courtrai and Ghent, in 1382,
and fell with 25,000 Flemings.
Arthralgia, pain in a joint The
term is more particularly applied to
articular pain in the absence of ob-
jective disease.
Arthritis, any inflammatory dis-
temper that affects the joints, particu-
larly chronic rheumatism or gout.
Arthur, a prince of the Silures,
and King of Britain in the time of the
Saxon invasions in the 5th and 6th
centuries. The existence and exploits
of Arthur and of his paladins, the
Arthur
Knights of the Round Table, whether
they have any real foundation or are
but a mere historical fable, have been
for ages the theme of minstrels and
poets, even down to the present day ;
examples of which are the famous
romaunt of the " Mort d'Arthur " and
the " Idylls of the King."
Arthur, Chester Alan, 21st
President of the United States, born
in Fairfield, Vt., Oct. 15, 1830, his
father being pastor of Baptist church-
es in Vermont and New York. He
chose law as a profession, and prac-
ticed in New York. He became an
active leader in the Republican party.
During the Civil War he was energetic
as quartermaster-general of New York
in getting troops raised and equipped.
He was afterward collector of customs
for the port of New York. In 1880 he
was elected Vice-President, succeeding
as President on the death of James
A. Garfield, in 1881, and in this office
he gave general satisfaction. He died
in New York city, Nov. 18, 1886.
Arthur, Joseph Charles, an
American botanist, born in 1850 ; was
graduated at the Iowa Agricultural
College in 1872; took advance courses
at Johns Hopkins, Harvard, and Bonn
Universities ; was instructor in botany
at the Universities of Minnesota and
Wisconsin, and for several years bo-
tanist to the Agricultural Experiment
Station, Geneva, N. Y., subsequently
becoming Professor of Vegetable Phys-
iology and Pathology at Purdue Uni-
versity, and botanist to the Indiana
Experiment Station.
Arthur, Timothy Shay, an
American author, born in Newburg,
N. Y., in 1809. He died in Philadel-
phia, Pa., March 6, 1885.
Artichoke, a well-known plant
cultivated chiefly for culinary pur-
poses. The so-called Jerusalem arti-
choke is a species of sunflower which
grows wild in parts of South America
and yields roots or tubers resembling
those of the potato and used as food.
Article, in grammar, a part of
epeech used before nouns to limit or
define their application.
Articles of Confederation, the
title of the compact which was made
by the 13 original States of the United
States of America. It was adopted
and carried into force on March 1,
Articles
1781, and remained as the supreme
law, until the first Wednesday of
March, 1789.
Articles of War, a code of laws
for the regulation of the military
forces of a country. In the United
States the articles of war form an
elaborate code, thoroughly revised in
1880, but subject at all times to the
legislation of Congress.
Articles, The Six, in English ec-
clesiastical history, articles imposed
by a statute (often called the Bloody
Statute) passed in 1541, the 33d year
of the reign of Henry VIII. They de-
creed the acknowledgment of trans-
substantiation, the sufficiency of com-
munion in one kind, the obligation of
vows of chastity, the propriety of pri-
vate masses, celibacy of the clergy,
and auricular confession. Acceptance
of these doctrines was made obligatory
on all persons under the severest pen-
alties ; the act, however, was relaxed
in 1544, and repealed in 1549.
Articles, The Thirty-nine, of
the Church of England, a statement
of the particular points of doctrine, 39
in number, maintained by the English
Church ; first promulgated by a convo-
cation held in London in 1562-1563,
and confirmed by royal authority;
founded on and superseding an older
code issued in the reign of Edward
VI. The five first articles contain a
profession of faith in the Trinity ; the
incarnation of Jesus Christ, His de-
scent to Hell, and His resurrection;
the divinity of the Holy Ghost. The
three following relate to the canon of
the Scripture. The eighth article de-
clares a belief in the Apostles', Ni-
cene, and Athanasian creeds. The
ninth and following articles contain
the doctrine of original sin, of justifi-
cation by faith alone, of predestina-
tion, etc. The 19th, 20th, and 21st de-
clare the Church to be the assembly
of the faithful ; that it can decide
nothing except by the Scriptures. The
22d rejects the doctrine of purgatory,
indulgences, the adoration of images,
and the invocation of saints. The 23d
decides that only those lawfully called
shall preach or administer the sacra-
ments. The 24th requires the liturgy
to be in English. The 25th and 26th
declare the sacraments effectual signs
of grace (though administered by evil
men), by which God excites and con*
Artillery
firms our faith. They are two : bap-
tism and the Lord's Supper. Baptism,
according to the 27th article, is a sign
of regeneration, the seal of our adop- !
tion, by which faith is confirmed and !
grace increased. In the Lord's Sup-
per, according to article 28th, the
bread is the communion of the Body of
Christ, the wine the communion of
His Blood, but only through faith (ar-
ticle 29) ; and the communion must be
administered in both kinds (article
30). The 28th article condemns the
doctrine of transubstantiation, and
the elevation and adoration of the
Host ; the 31st rejects the sacrifice of
the mass as blasphemous ; the 32<1 per-
mits the marriage of the clergy ; the
33d maintains the efficacy of excom-
munication. The remaining articles
relate to the supremacy of the king,
the condemnation of Anabaptists, etc.
They were ratified anew in 1604 and
1628.
Artillery, all sorts of great guns,
cannon, or ordnance, mortars, howitz-
ers, machine-guns, etc., together with
all the apparatus and stores thereto
belonging, which are taken into the
field, or used for besieging and defend-
ing fortified places. It is often di-
vided into (1) horse artillery; (2)
field artillery; and (3) garrison artil-
lery.
Artillery, The Ancient and
Honorable, of Boston, Mass., was
formed in 1637, and was the first reg-
ularly organized military company in
America.
Arandelian Marbles, a series of
ancient sculptured marbles discovered
by William Petty, who explored the
ruins of Greece at the expense of and
for Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel,
who lived in the time of James I. and
Charles I., and was a liberal patron
of scholarship and art. After the
Restoration they were presented by
the grandson of the collector to the
University of Oxford. Among them is
the " Parian Chronicle," a chronolog-
ical account of the principal events in
Grecian, and particularly in Athenian,
history, during a period of 1318 years.
Arundel Society, a society insti-
tuted in London in 1848 for promoting
the knowledge of art by the publica-
tion of fac-similes and photographs.
Aryan Race'
Aruspices, or Haruspices, a
class of priests in ancient Rome, of
Etrurian origin, whose business was
to inspect the entrails of victims killed
in sacrifice, and by them to foretell
future events.
Aryan Languages, a great fam-
ily of languages, sometimes, though
rarely, and not quite accurately, called
Japhetic ; more frequently designated
as the Indo-European or Indo-Ger-
manic family of tongues. They have
reached a higher development than
those of the second great family, the
Semitic, better described as the Syro-
Arabian family, and are far in ad-
vance of the next one — that compris-
ing the Turanian tongues. Like the
Syro-Arabian forms of speech, they
are inflectional ; while those of Turan-
ian origin are only agglutinate.
Aryan Race, a designation, since
about 1845, of the ethnological divi-
sion of mankind otherwise called Indo-
European or Indo-Germanic. That
division consists of two branches geo-
graphically separated, an eastern and
western. The western branch compre-
hends the inhabitants of Europe, with
the exception of the Turks, the Mag-
yars of Hungary, the Basques of the
Pyrenees, and the Finns of Lapland;
the eastern comprehends the inhabi-
tants of Armenia, of Persia, of Af-
ghanistan, and of Northern Hindu-
stan. The evidence on which a family
relation has been established among
these nations is that of language, and
from a multitude of details it has been
proven that the original mother tongue
of all these peoples was the same. It
is supposed that the Aryan nations
were at first located somewhere in Cen-
tral Asia, probably E. of the Caspian,
and N. of the Hindu Kush and Paro-
pamisan Mountains. From this cen-
ter successive migrations took place
toward the N. W. The first swarm
formed the Celts, who at one time oc-
cupied a great part of Europe; at a
considerably later epoch came the an-
cestors of the Italians, the Greeks and
the Teutonic people. The stream that
formed the Slavonic nations is thought
to have taken the route by the N. of
the Caspian. At a later period the
remnant of the primitive stock would
seem to have broken up. Part passed
southward and became the dominant
race in the valley of the Ganges, while
Asclepiadei
the rest settled in Persia and became
the Medes and Persians of history. It
is from these eastern members that
the whole family takes its name. In
the most ancient Sanskrit writings
(the Veda), the Hindus style them-
selves Aryas, the word signifying " ex-
cellent," " honorable," originally "lord
of the soil."
Asa, son of Abijah, and third King
of Judah, conspicuous for his earnest-
ness in supporting the worship of God
and rooting put idolatry, and for the
vigor and wisdom of his government.
He reigned from 955 to 914 B. c.
Asafetida, Asafoetida, or As-*
saf oetida, the English name of two,
if not more, plants growing in Persia
and the East Indies. The extract
is a useful medicine in hysteria, asth-
ma, tympanites, dyspnoea, pertussis,
and worms ; it is sometimes given also
as a clyster.
Asama, an active volcano of Ja-
pan, about 50 miles N. W. of Tokio,
8,260 feet high.
Asbestos, a variety of hornblende,
which itself is classed by Dana as a
synonym or subdivision of emphibole.
Asbury, Francis, the first Meth-
odist bishop consecrated in America,
born at Handsworth, Staffordshire,
Aug. 20, 1745. When 16 years old he
became an itinerant Wesleyan preach-
er, and in 1771 he was sent as a mis-
sionary to America, where he was con-
secrated in 1784. During a long life
of almost incessant labor it is esti-
mated by his biographer that he trav-
eled about 270,000 miles (mostly on
horseback), preached about 16,500
sermons, and ordained more than 4,000
preachers. He died in Richmond,
Va., March 31, 1816.
Asbury Park, a city and popular
summer resort in Monmouth county,
N. J.; on the Atlantic Ocean and the
Pennsylvania and Central of New
Jersey railroads; 6 miles S. of Long
Branch. Wesley Lake separates it
•from Ocean Grove. Pop. (1910) 10,-
150; summer pop. 20,000.
Ascalon, Ashkelon, or Askelon,
one of the five cities of the Philis-
tines, on the Mediterranean, W. S.
W. of Jerusalem, on the main road
from Egypt through Gaza to Cen-
tral Palestine.
Ascension (discovered on Ascen-
sion Day), an island of volcanic ori-
gin belonging to Great Britain, near
the middle of the South Atlantic
Ocean, lying about lat. 7° 55' S. ; long.
15° 25' W.; 800 miles N. W. of St.
Helena ; area, about 3G square miles ;
pop. 165. It is retained by Great
Britain mainly as a station at which
ships may touch for stores.
Ascension, in astronomy, right as-
cension is the distance of a heavenly
body from the first point of Aries (the
ram), measured upon the equator.
Ascension Day, the day on which
our Saviour's ascension is commemo-
rated— the Thursday but one before
Whitsuntide, sometimes called Holy
Thursday.
Asceticism, the condition or prac-
tice of ascetics.
Ascetics, a name given in ancient
times to those Christians who devoted
themselves to severe exercises of piety
and strove to distinguish themselves
from the world by abstinence from
sensual enjoyments and by voluntary
penances.
Ascliam. Roger, an English
scholar and author, born at Kirby
Wiske, near Northallerton, in 1515 ;
graduated at Cambridge, and strug-
gled with poverty until patrons came
to his relief. He was famous for his
general knowledge and acquirements
in Greek and Latin, and is classed
with Spenser, Sir Thomas More, and
Sir Philip Sidney. His death, in
London, Dec. 30, 1568, was occasioned
by his too close application to the.
composition of a poem, which he in-
tended to present to the queen on the
anniversary of her accession.
Asclepiad, a kind of verse used by
Horace and other writers.
Asclepiades, the descendants of
the god of medicine, ^Esculapius, by
his sons Podalirius and Machaon,
spread, together with the worship of
the god, through Greece and Asia Mi-
nor. They formed an order of priests,
which preserved the results of the
medical experience acquired in the
temples as an hereditary secret, and
were thus, at the same time, physi-
cians, prophets, and priests.
Asclepiades, a Greek physician,
born at Prusa, Bithynia, who flour-
ished during the early part of the 1st
Asclepias
century B. c. He is said to have been
the first who distinguished between
acute and chronic diseases, and the
invention of laryngotomy is also as-
cribed to him ; but his knowledge of
anatomy was apparently very slight.
Asclepias, a genus of plants. The
species are found chiefly along the
eastern portion of North America, in
Bermuda, etc. Though all more ^ or
less poisonous, they are used medici-
nally.
Ascot Heath, a race-course in'
Berkshire, England, 29 miles W. S. \
W. of London, and 6 miles S. W. of
[Windsor.
Asdood, or Asdond, a small sea-
port of Palestine, on the Mediterra-
nean, 35 miles W. of Jerusalem. It
•was the Ashdod of Scripture, one of
the five confederate cities of the Phil-
istines, and one of the seats of the
•worship of Dagon (1 Sam. v: 5).
Asgard, the Heaven of Scandina-
vian mythology.
Ash, a genus of deciduous trees,
having imperfect flowers and a seed
vessel prolonged into a thin wing at
the apex (called a samara). There
are a good many species, chiefly indig-
enous to North America and Europe.
Ashanti, formerly an independent
Kingdom on the Gold Coast of West
Africa ; constituted a British protec-
torate Aug. 27, 1896; definitely an-
nexed by Great Britain Sept. 26,
1901 ; capital Coomassie ; area, 20,000
square miles; pop. (1911) 287,814. It
is in great part hilly, well watered,
and covered with dense tropical vege-
tation. The chief town is Coomassie,
which, before being burned down in
1874, was well and regularly built
with wide streets, and had from 30,-
000 to 50,000 inhabitants. Horrible
human sacrifices were a feature of
Ashanti worship when the country
was independent. In 1896 a British
expedition, from the Gold Coast,
forced the submission of the King,
who, with his principal chiefs, was
sent to Sierra Leone. A railway has
been built from the modern port of
Sekondi 168 m. to Coomassie, tele-
graph and telephone lines installed,
good roads made, and steamer river
traffic established, to the improve
ment of commerce. Modern agricul-
ture is rapidly extending.
Ashtaroth
Ashburton Treaty, a treaty
signed at Washington in 1842, by
Lord Ashburton for Great Britain,
and Daniel Webster for the United
States; defined the boundaries be-
tween the United States and Canada.
Asheville, city and capital of
Buncombe county, N. C.; at junction
of the Swananoa and French Broad
rivers, and on the Southern railroad;
275 miles W. of Raleigh. It is on
the Blue Ridge Mountains, 2,350 feet
above the sea; is a noted winter and
summer resort; and has several col-
leges, and normal and industrial
schools, Nearby is George Vander-
bilt's famous estate of Biltmore. Pop.
(1910) 18,762.
Ashland, city, port of entry, and
capital of Ashland county, Wis.; on
Lake Superior and several trunk line
railroads; 315 miles N. of Milwaukee;
has a magnificent harbor fringed with
enormous ore docks; is a notable ship-
ping point for the ore of the great Go-
gebic iron range; and besides iron ore
has a large lake traffic in lumber and
brownstone. The noted Apostle Is-
lands are nearby. Pop. (1910) 11,594.
Ashmun, Jehndi, an American
missionary, born at Champlain, N. Y.,
in April, 1794; became a professor in
the Bangor Theological Seminary.
On June 19, 1822, he sailed for Li-
beria, and there founded a colony,
which, when he left, six years later,
had increased to 1,200 inhabitants.
He died Aug. 25, 1828.
Ashtabula, a city in Ashtabula
county, O.; on the Ashtabula river
and the Lake Shore & Michigan
Southern railroad; 3 miles S. of Lake
Erie, 54 miles N. B. of Cleveland;
is a port of entry, with a fine harbor
and extensive trade in iron ore and
coal; manufactures leather and woolen
goods, farm implements, machinery,
gas fixtures, and stoves and fur-
naces. Pop. (1910) 18,266.
Ashtaroth, or Astaroth, plural
of Ashtoreth and Astarte, a god-
dess worshipped by the Jews in times
when idolatry prevailed ; the principal
female divinity of the Phoenicians, as
Baal was the principal male divinity;
and the plural Ashtaroth indicate
probably different modifications of the
divinity herself. Ashtoreth is the As*
Ashwanipi
tarte of the Greeks and Romans, and
is identified by ancient writers with
the goddess Venus (Aphrodite). She
is probably the same as the Isis of the
Egyptians, and closely connected with
the Asherah of Scripture.
Ashwanipi, or Hamilton, the
great river of Labrador, has its source
near the head waters of the E. branch
of the Moisic, and after a course of
600 miles, enters the Atlantic through
Esquimaux Bay, or Hamilton Inlet.
About 100 miles up occur the falls,
one of the grandest spectacles in the
world.
Ash. Wednesday, the first day of
Lent, so called from a custom in the
Western Church of sprinkling ashes
that day on the heads of penitents,
then admitted to penance.
Alia, the largest of the land divi-
sions of the world, occupies the north-
ern portion of the Eastern Hemisphere
in the form of a massive continent,
which extends beyond the Arctic cir-
cle, and by its southern peninsulas
nearly reaches the equator. The ori-
gin of its name remains unknown.
Europe and Asia constitute but one
continent, extending from W. to E.,
and having the shape of an immense
triangle, the angles of which are
Spain in the W., the peninsula of the
Tchuktchis in the N. E., and that of
Malacca in the S. E. The Arctic
Ocean in the N., the Pacific in the E.,
and the Indian Ocean, continued by
its narrow gulf, the Red Sea, which
nearly reaches the Mediterranean, in-
close the continent of Asia. The area
covered by Asia and its islands is 17,-
255,890 square miles ; that is, almost
exactly one-third of the land surface
of the globe (32 per cent). It is one-
seventh larger than the surface of
both Americas together, by one-half
larger than that of Africa, and more
than four times larger than Europe.
Geographically speaking, Europe is a
mere appendix to Asia, and no exact
geographical delimitation of the two
continents is possible. The line of sep-
aration from Africa is better defined
by the narrow Red Sea; but Arabia
participates so largely in the physical
features of Africa that it is in a sense
intermediate between the two conti-
nents.
Only four rivers, the Mississippi,
Amazon, Kongo, and Nile, surpass the
Asia
largest rivers of Asia, the Yenisei and
the Yang-tse-kiang, both as to length
and drainage areas ; but owing to the
scarcity of rain over large parts of
Asia, the amount of water carried
down by the largest rivers is, as a
rule, disproportionately small as com-
pared with American or European
rivers. The predominant feature of
Asia's hydrography is the existence of
very wide areas having no outlet to
the sea. On the great plateau of
Eastern Asia, the region which has
no outlet from the plateau, and whose
water does not reach even Lake Aral
or the Caspian, covers a surface larger
than that of Spain, France, and Ger-
many together. It is watered only by
the Tarim, which supplies some irri-
gation works in its upper parts, and
enters the rapidly drying marshes of
Lob-nor. This area is steadily in-
creasing, and since 1862 we have had
to add to it the drainage area (as
large as England and Wales) of the
Keruleu, which empties into Dalai-
nor, but no longer reaches the ArguS,
a tributary of the Amur. The Ulyasu-
tai River and the Tchagantogoi now
no longer reach Lake Balkash ; and
the Urungu, which obviously joined
the Upper Irtysh at no very remote
date, empties into a lake separated
from the Black Irtysh by a low isth-
mus not 5 miles wide. If we add to
this the drainage basins of Lake Bal-
kash with its tributaries, the Hi and
other smaller rivers ; the great Lake
Aral, with the Syr-daria (Jaxartes)
and Amudaria (Oxus), as also the
numerous rivers which flow toward it
or its tributaries, but are desiccated
by evaporation before reaching them,
and finally the Caspian with its tribu-
taries, the Volga, Ural, Kura, and
Terek, we find an immense surface of
more than 4,000,000 square miles ;
that is, much larger than Europe,
which has no outlet to the ocean. The
plateaus of Iran and Armenia, two
separate areas in Arabia, and one in
Asia Minor, represent a surface of 5,-
567,000 square miles.
A succession of great lakes or in-
land seas are situated all along the
northern slope of the high plateaus of
Western and Eastern Asia, their lev-
els becoming higher as we advance
farther E. The Caspian, 800 miles
long and 270 wide, is an immense sea,
A*ia
Aria
even larger than the Black Sea, but
its level is now 85 feet below the level
of the ocean ; Lake Aral, nearly as
wide as the ^Egean Sea, has its level
157 feet above the ocean ; farther E.
•we have Lake Balkash ( 780 feet ) ,
Zaison (1,200 feet), and Lake Baikal
(1,550 feet). Many large lakes ap-
pear on the plateaus of Tibet (Tengri-
nor, Bakha), and on the high plateau
of the Selenga and Vitim (Ubsa-nor,
Ikhe-aral, Kosogol, Oron) ; and small-
er lakes and ponds are numerous also
in the plateau of the Deccan, Ar-
monia, and Asia Minor. Three large
lakes, Urmia, Van, and Goktcha, and
many smaller ones, lie on the highest
part of the Armenian plateau. On
the Pacific slope of the great plateau,
the great rivers of China and the
Amur, with its tributaries, have along
their lower courses some large and
very many small lakes.
More than 120 active volcanoes are
known in Asia, chiefly in the islands
of the S. E., the Philippines, Japan,
the Kurile, and Kamchatka, and also
in a few islands of the Seas of Bengal
and Arabia, and in Western Asia.
Numerous traces of volcanic eruptions
are found in Eastern Tian-shan in the
northwestern border ridges of the high
Siberian plateau, and in the S. W. of
Aigun, in Manchuria. Earthquakes
are frequent, especially in Armenia,
Turkestan, and around Lake Baikal.
There are gold mines of great wealth
in the Urals, the Altai, and Eastern
Siberia ; and auriferous sands are
found in Korea, Sumatra, Japan, and
in the Caucasus Mountains. Silver is
extracted in Siberia ; platina, in the
Urals; copper, in Japan, India, and
Siberia ; tin, in Banca ; mercury, in
Japan. Iron ore is found in nearly
all of the mountainous regions, espe-
cially in Asia Minor, Persia, Turke-
stan, India, China, Japan, and Si-
beria; but iron mining is still at a
rudimentary st^ge. Immense coal-beds
are spread over China and the islands
of the Pacific (Hainan, Japanese
Archipelago, Sakhalin), Eastern Si-
beria, Turkestan, India, Persia, and
Asia Minor. They cover no less than
500,000 square miles in China alone ;
but the extraction of coal is as yet
very limited. Graphite of very high
quality is found in the Sayans and
Northern Siberia. The diamonds of
India, the sapphires of Ceylon, the'
rubies of Burma and Turkestan, the
topazes, beryls, etc., of the Urals and
Nertchinsk, have a wide repute. Lay-
ers of rock-salt are widely spread, and
still more so the salt lakes and springs.
The petroleum wells of the Caspian
shores already rival those of the
United States. A variety of mineral
springs, some of them equal to the
best waters of Western Europe, art
widely spread over Asia.
The aggregate population of Asia is
estimated at 865,000,000, being thus
more than one-half of the entire popu-
lation of the globe. This population,
however, is small, giving only an aver-
age of 49 inhabitants per square mile.
It is unequally distributed, and reach-
es 557 per square mile in some prov-
inces of China, denser than in Bel-
gium (539 per square mile), and 520
in some parts of Northwestern India.
It is greatest in those parts of Asia
which are most favored by rains.
Seven-tenths have scarcely more than
from 3 to 20 inhabitants per square
mile; and nearly one-tenth is quite
uninhabited. The inhabitants of Asia
belong to five different groups ; the
so-called Caucasian (fair type) in
Western Asia and India ; the Mongo-
lian in Central and Eastern Asia, as
also in the Indo-Chinese Peninsula ;
the Malay in Malacca and the Indian
Archipelago ; the Dravidas in South-
eastern India and Ceylon ; and the Ne-
gritos and Papuas in the virgin forests
of the Philippine Islands and Celebes ;
also a sixth great division comprising
the stems which inhabit Northeastern
Asia, the Hyperboreans, whose affini-
ties are not yet well known. The
Mongolian race alone embraces nearly
seven-tenths of the population of Asia ;
the Malay, about two-tenths, and the
Caucasian about one-tenth. The Eu-
ropeans reckon about 6,000,000 (Rus-
sians) in Caucasus, Turkestan and
Siberia; some 150,000 (English) in
India; and 45,000 in the Dutch Indies.
Asia has been the birthplace of re-
ligions; the Jewish, Buddhist, Chris-
tian and Mohammedan having their
origin in Asia, where they grow up
under the influence of still older re-
ligions, the Babylonian and that of
Zoroaster, both also of Asiatic origin.
At present the inhabitants of Asia be-
long chiefly to the Buddhist religion.
Asia Minor
Aspasia
which has 530,000,000 to 560,000,000
of followers, i. e., nearly one-third of
mankind. The old faith of Hinduism
has 187,000,000 of followers in India.
Most of the inhabitants of Western
Asia, as also of part of Central Asia,
follow the religion of Islam ; they may
number about 90,000,000. The Chris-
tians number about 20,900,000 in Ar-
menia, Caucasus, Siberia and Turke-
stan. Jews are scattered mostly in
Western and Central Asia. A few
fire-worshippers, Guebres or Parsi of
India and Persia, are the sole rem-
nant of the religion of Zoroaster ;
while vestiges of Sabseism are found
amidst the Gesides and Sabians on the
Tigris.
Asia Minor (Asia the Less, as
distinguished from Asia in the widest
extent), is the name usually given to
the western peninsular projection of
Asia, forming part of Turkey in Asia.
The inhabitants, some 7,000,000 in
number, consist of the most various
races. The dominant race are the Os-
manli Turks, who number about 1,200,-
000, and are spread over the whole
country; allied to these are the Turk-
omans and Yuruks, speaking a dialect
of the same language. The latter are
found chiefly on the tableland, leading
a nomadic life ; there are also hordes
of nomadic Kurds. Among the moun-
tains E. of Trebizond are the robber
tribes of the Lazes.
The Greeks and Armenians are the
most progressive elements in the popu-
lation, and have most of the trade.
Ask, in Scandinavian mythology,
the name of the first man created. Ac-
cording to the legend, one day three
gods, Odin, Haener and Loder, found
two trees by the seaside, an ash and
an elm. From these trees they created
the first man and first woman, Ask
and Embla, and gave them the earth
as their dwelling place.
Askew, Anne, a victim of reli-
gious persecution, born in 1521 ; was
a daughter of Sir William Askew of
Lincolnshire, and was married to a
wealthy neighbor named Kyme, who,
irritated by her Protestantism, drove
her from his house. In London, whith-
er she went, probably to procure a di-
vorce, she spoke against the dogmas
of the old faith, and, being tried, was
condemned to death as a heretic. Being
put to the rack to extort a confession
concerning those with whom she cor-
responded, she continued firm, and
was then taken to Smithtield, chained
to a stake, and burned, in 1546.
Askja, a volcano near the center
of Iceland, first brought into notice by
an eruption in 1875. Its crater is 17
miles in circumference, surrounded
by a mountain-ring from 500 to 1,000
feet high, the height of the mountain
itself being between 4,000 and 5,000
feet
Asmodai, or Asmodeus, an evil
spirit, who, as related in the book of
Tobit, slew seven husbands of Sara,
daughter of Raguel, but was driven
j away into the uttermost parts of
I Egypt by the young Tobias under the
direction of the angel Raphael. As-
modai signifies a desolator, a destroy-
ing angel. He is represented in the
Talmud as the prince of demons who
drove King Solomon from his king»
dom.
Asp, a species of viper found in
Egypt, resembling the cobra da capello,
and having a very venomous bite.
When approached or disturbed it ele-
vates its head and body, swells out its
neck, and appears to stand erect to
attack the aggressor. Hence the an-
cient Egyptians believed that the asps
were guardians of the spots they in-
habited, and the figure of this reptile
was adopted as an emblem of the pro-
tecting genius of the world. Cleopatra
is said to have committed suicide by
means of an asp's bite, but the inci-
dent is generally associated with the
horned viper.
Asparagus, a plant of the order
liliaceae, the young shoots of which, cut
as they are emerging from the ground,
are a favorite culinary vegetable.
Aspasia, a celebrated Grecian, be-
longing to a family of some note in
Miletus, and was early distinguished
for her graces of mind and person.
She went to Athens after the Persian
War, and, by her beauty and accom-
plishments soon attracted the atten-
tion of the leading men ef that city.
She engaged the affections of Pericles,
who is said to have divorced his for-
mer wife in order to marry her. Their
union was harmonious throughout;
he preserved for her to the end of his
life the same tenderness; she re-
Aspen,
mained the confidant of the states-
man's schemes, and the sharer of his
etruggles. She survived Pericles some
years, and is reported to have married
an obscure Athenian, Lysicles, whom
she raised by her example and pre-
cept to be one of the leaders of the
republic.
Aspen, a tree, the trembling pop-
lar. The tremulous movement of the
leaves which exists in all the poplars,
but culminates in the aspen, mainly
arises from the length and slender
character of the petiole or leaf-stalk,
and from its being much and laterally
compressed.
Aspern, a small village of Austria,
on the Danube, about 2 miles from
Vienna. Here, and in the neighbor-
ing village of Esslingen, were fought
the tremendous battles of the 21st and
22d of May, 1809, between the French
grand army, commanded by Napoleon,
and the Austrians under the Archduke
Charles. The French, after this con-
tinuous fighting, with vast loss to both
sides, were obliged to retreat, and oc-
cupy the island of Lobau.
Asphalt, or Asphaltum, the
most common variety of bitumen ; also
called mineral pitch. Asphalt is a
compact, glassy, brittle, black or
brown mineral, which breaks with a
polished fracture, melts easily with a
strong pitchy odor when heated, and
when pure burns without leaving any
ashes. It is found in the earth in
many parts of Asia, Europe and the
United States, and in a soft or liquid
state on the surface of the Dead Sea,
which, from its circumference, was
called Asphaltites. It is of organic
origin, the asphalt of the great Pitch
Lake of Trinidad being derived from
bituminous shales, containing vegeta-
ble remains in the process of trans-
formation. Asphalt is produced arti-
ficially in making coal gas. During
the process, much tarry matter is
evolved and collected in retorts. If
this be di«MHed. naphtha and other
volatile matters escape, and asphalt
is left behind.
What is known as asphalt rock is a
limestone impregnated with bitumen,
found in large quantities in the
United States and in Switzerland,
France, Alsace, Hanover, Holstein,
Sicil>, and other parts of Europe, the
Aspinwall
purest forms taking the names of elat-
erite, gilsonite, albertite, maltha, brea,
etc. In the trade there is wide dis-
tinction between these and the sand-
stones, and limestones impregnated
with bitumen, which are known as bi-
tuminous or asphaltic limestone, sand-
stone, etc. The latter are usually
shipped without being previously
treated or refined, and are used prin-
cipally in street paving. This class
is known as bituminous rock. The
production of all kinds of asphalt in
the United States in 1915 was 740,254
short tons, valued at $5.242,073; im-
ports for consumption, $680,357; ex-
ports, $1,174,637.
Asphodel, (Asphodel us), a genus
of plants, order Liliacesp. consisting of
perennials, with fasciculated fleshy
roots, flowers arranged in racemes, six
stamens inserted at the base of the
perianth, a sessile almost spherical
ovary with two cells, each containing
two ovules ; fruit a capsule with three
cells, in each of which there are, as a
rule, two seeds. They are fine garden-
plants, native of Southern Europe.
The king's spear, A. luteus, has yellow
flowers blossoming in June. Asphodel-
us ramosus, which attains a height of
5 feet, is cultivated in Algeria and else-
where, its tubercles yielding a very
pure a'cohol, and the residue, together
with t^e stalks and leaves, are used
in mak'ng pasteboard and paper. The
asphodel was a favorite plant among
the ancients, who were in the habit ox
planting it round their tombs.
Asphyxia, suspended animation ;
an interruption of the arterialization
of the blood, causing the suspension of
sensation and voluntary motion. It
may be produced by breathing some
gas incapable of furnishing oxygen, by
submersion under water, by suffoca-
tion, from an impediment to breathing
applied to the mouth and nostrils, by
strangulation, or by great pressure,
external or internal, upon the lungs.
If asphyxia continues unrelieved for a
short period, it is necessarily followed
by death.
Aspinwall. (See COLON).
Aspinwall, William, an Ameri-
can physician, born in Brookline,
Mass., May 23, 1743; was graduated
at Harvard University in 1764; stud-
ied medicine in Philadelphia; was ft
Aspinwall
volunteer in the fight at Lexington ;
and afterward became surgeon in the
Revolutionary army, having partial
charge of the military hospital at Ja-
maica Plains. After the war, he be-
came deeply interested in the subject
of vaccination, and, building a small-
pox hospital at Brookline, established
that remedy in American practice.
He died April 16, 1823.
Aspinwall, William H., an
American merchant, born in New
York city, Dec. 16, 1807 ; was trained
to commercial business by his uncles,
and became a member of the firm of
Howland & Aspinwall in 1837. He
is best remembered as the chief pro-
moter of the Panama railroad, and of
the Pacific Mail Steamship Company.
The eastern terminus of the railroad
was named in his honor, but has since
officially been given the name of Co-
lon. He died in New York city, Jan.
18, 1875.
Asquith, Herbert Henry, an
English lawyer, born in Morley, Sept.
12, 1852 ; was educated at Oxford
University, became a barrister at Lin-
coln's Inn in 1876; was appointed
Secretary of State for the Home De-
partment ; Ecclesiastical Commis-
sioner in 1882-1885 ; became Q. C. in
1890, and P. C. in 1892 ; was elected
to Parliament from East Fife in
1896 on the Liberal ticket; and be-
came Prime Minister and First Lord
of the Treasury in 1908.
Ass (asinus), a genus closely re-
lated to the horse. It differs from the
latter in having short hair at the root
of the tail and a long tuft at the end,
in the absence of warts on the hind
legs, and in the persistence of stripes,
except in albinos. The upright mane,
the long ears, the cross stripe on the
shoulders, and the dark bands on the
back, are also characteristic. The
stupidity for which the animal has
for long b*en proverbially reproached
seems largely the result of human in-
fluence. The female carries her foal
11 months. The mule is a hybrid bred
between mare and male ass ; while the
hinny is the rare result of hybridism
between horse and female ass.
Assam, a province at the N. E.
extremity of British India, with an
area of 53,015 square miles. In 1874
it was formed into a separate adminis-
Assassination
tration (including Cachar) under a
chief commissioner ; in 1905 it was
united with Eastern Bengal to form
a lieutenant-governorship ; and in
1912 it was again made a separate
province ; capital, Shillong ; pop.
(1911) 6,713,635.
Assassination, the act of taking
the life of anyone by surprise or
treacherous violence, either by a hired
emissary, by one devoted to the deed,
or by one who has taken the task
upon himself. Generally, the term
is applied to the murder of a public
personage.
History abounds in records of po-
litical assassinations from that of
Julius Caesar on March 15, B. c. 44.
The following are the most notable
ones since 1800, including the many
royal victims :
Czar Paul, Russia March 24, 1801
Due de Berri, France Feb. 14, 1820
* Duke Charles III., Parma. March 27, 1854
* President Lincoln April 15, 1865
Prince Michael, Servia Tune 10, 1868
» Marshal Prim, Spain Dec. 28, 1870
Archbishop Darboy, France. May 24, 1871
Earl Mayo. India Feb. 8, 1872
Sultan Abdul Aziz, Turkey. June 4, 1876
Czar Alexander, Russia . . March 13, 1881
* President Garneld Sept. 19, 1881
Lord Cavendish, Ireland May 6, 1882
President Carnot, France. . .June 24, 1894
* Premier Stambouloff,
Bulgaria July 18, 1895
Shah Nasr-ed-Din, Persia May 1, 1896
Premier Canovas del Castillo,
Spain April 22, 1897
President Borda, Uruguay. .Aug. 25, 1897
President Barrios,
Guatemala Feb. 18, 1898
Empress Elizabeth, Austria.Sept. 10, 1898
President Heureuax, Santo
Domingo July 26, 1899
Governor Goebel, Kentucky. Jan. 30, 1900
King Humbert, Italy July 29, 1900
* President McKinley Sept. 14, 1901
King and Queen, Servia. . . June 11, 1903
Gov.-Gen. Bobrikoff,
Finland June 16, 1904
Von Plehve, Russia July 28, 1904
Premier Delyannis, Greece. Tune 13, 1905
Gr. Duke Sergius, Russia. . .Feb. 17, 1905
King and Crown Prince,
Portugal Feb. 1,1908
Prince Ito, Japan Oct. 26, 1909
Premier Stolypin, Russia.. .Sept. 14, 1911
President Caceres, Santo
Domingo Nov. 11, 1911
Premier Canaleias, Spain.. .Nov. 12, 1912
Nazin Pasha, Turkey Jan. 23, 1913
Premier Araujo, Salvador Feb. 4, 1913
President Madero, Mexico.. Feb. 23, 1913
* Date of death.
Assassins
Vice-Pres. Suarez, Mexico. .Feb. 23, 1913
King George, Greece . March 18, 1913
Archduke Francis and wife,
Austria-Hungary June 28, 1914
Jean L. Jaures, Fr.
Socialist July 31, 1914
President Sam, Haiti July 28, 1915
Assassins, or Ismail!, a sect of
religious fanatics who existed in the
llth and 12 centuries. They derived
their name of assassins originally from
their immoderate use of hasheesh,
which produces an intense cerebral ex-
citement, often amounting to fury.
Their founder and law giver was Has-
san-ben-Sabah, to whom the Orientals
gave the name of Sheikh-el- Jobelz, but
who was better known in Europe as
the "Old Man of the Mountain."
They believed assassination to be meri-
torious when sanctioned by his com-
mand, and courted danger and death
in the execution of his orders. In the
time of the crusades, they mustered to
the number of 50,000.
Assay Offices, in the United
States, government establishments in
which citizens may deposit gold and
silver bullion, receiving in return its
value, less charges. The offices are in
New York city; Boise City, Ida.;
Helena, Mont. ; Denver, Col. ; Seattle,
Wash.; San Francisco, Cal. ; Char-
lotte, N. C. ; Deadwood, S. D. ; Salt
Lake City, Utah ; Carson City, Nev. ;
and New Orleans, La.
Assembly, General, official name
of the supreme ecclesiastical court of
the Established Church of Scotland,
of the Free Church of Scotland, of
the Presbyterian Church in Ireland,
and of the two Presbyterian Churches
in the United States. The term is
also used in the United States to des-
ignate the dual legislative body of the
several States, the branches being com-
monly spoken of as the Senate and the
House (of Representatives).
Assembly, National, a body set
up in France on the eve of the Revo-
lution. The members bound themselves
by oath not to separate until they had
furnished France with a constitution,
and the court was compelled to give
its assent. In the 3,250 decrees passed
by the Assembly were laid the foun-
dations of a new epoch, a_nd having
accomplished this task, it dissolved it-
self, Sept. 30, 1791. The term is also
applied to a joint meeting of the Sen-
Assiniboia
ate and Corps Legislatif, for the pur-
pose of electing a chief magistrate or
the transaction of other extraordinary
business.
Assets (French, assez, enough),
property or goods available for the
payment of a bankrupt or deceased
person's obligations. Assets are per-
sonal or real, the former comprising
all goods, chattels, etc., devolving upon
the executor as salable to discharge
debts and legacies. In commerce and
bankruptcy the term is often used as
the antithesis of liabilities, to desig-
nate the stock _ in trade and entire
property of an individual or an asso-
ciation.
Assideans, Chasideans, or Cha-
sidim, one of the two great sects
into which, after the Babylonish cap-
tivity, the Jews were divided with re-
gard to the observance of the law —
the Chasidim accepting it in its later
developments, the Zadikim professing
adherence only to the law as given by
Moses. From the Chasidim sprang
the Pharisees,' Talmudists, Rabbinists,
Cabbalists, etc.
Assignates, the name of the na-
tional paper currency in the time of
the French Revolution.
Assignee, a person appointed by
another to transact some business, or
exercise some particular privilege or
power. Formerly the persons ap-
pointed under a commission of bank-
ruptcy, to manage the estate of the
bankrupt on behalf of the creditors,
were so called, but now trustees, or
receivers.
Assignment, in law and com-
merce, the act of signing over to an-
other, rights or property which have
hitherto belonged to one's self. An
assignment of estate is a transfer, or
making over to another, of the right a
person has in any estate. In general,
assignments should be recorded in the
office prescribed by law, or are void as
against those claiming under subse-
quent assignments.
Assiniboia, the smallest of the
four districts into which a portion of
the Northwest Territories of Canada
was divided in 1881 and Sept. 1, 1905,
merged into the provinces of Alberta
and Saskatchewan. Its area was 89,-
535 square miles and pop. 67,385.
Coal mines are worked and irrigation
is improving the district.
Assouan
Assouan (also ESWAN; the an-
cient Syene), is the southernmost city
of Egypt proper, on the right bank
of the Nile, and beside the first or low-
est cataract. Near are the islands of
Philse and Elephantine, recently sub-
merged almost completely by the great
Nile dam. On the left bank are cata-
combs. There are some remains of
the ancient city, as granite columns
and part of a temple. In the neigh-
borhood are the famous granite quar-
ries from which so many of the huge
obelisks and colossal statues were cut
to adorn the temples and palaces of
ancient Egypt. From Syene, this
kind of granite came to be known as
syenite. Pop. about 4,000.
Assnmpsit, a verbal promise made
by anyone, or which he may in justice
be held to have more or less directly
made.
Assyria, an ancient Semitic king-
dom of Asia, the native name of which
was Ashur or Asshur, and thus also
called by the Hebrews. The area was
fluctuating — at first small, but,
though it gradually increased, it
probably never exceeded about 200,000
square miles.
The Assyrians were far advanced
in art and industry, and in civiliza-
tion. They constructed large build-
ings, especially palaces, of an impos-
ing character, the materials being
burned or sun-dried brick, stone, ala-
baster, slabs for lining and adorning
the walls internally and externally,
and timber for pillars and roof.
The Assyrians understood and applied
the arch ; constructed tunnels, aque-
ducts, and drains ; used the pulley, the
lever, and the roller ; engraved gems in
a highly artistic way; understood the
arts of inlaying, enameling, and over-
laying with metals ; manufactured
porcelain, transparent and colored
glass, and were acquainted ^with the
lens ; and possessed vases, jars, and
other dishes, bronze and ivory orna-
ments, bells, gold earrings and brace-
lets of excellent design and workman-
ship. They had also silver ornament-
al work. Their household furniture
gives a high idea of their skill.
Asten, Friedrich Emil von, a
German astronomer, born at Koln,
1842. His investigations have related
mostly to comets.
Astor
Aster, a genus of plants, so called
because the expanded flowers resemble
stars. In the United States these as-
ters grow wild in the meadows and on
the prairies.
Aster, Ernst Ludwig von, a
German military engineer, born in
Dresden, Oct. 5, 1778. He died in
Berlin, Feb. 10, 1855.
Asthma, a chronic shortness of
breath, from whatever cause it may
arise. Till a comparatively recent pe-
riod good medical writers used the
term in this wide sense, and non-pro-
fessional writers and the public do so
still. Asthma, or spasmodic asthma,
is " a difficulty of breathing, recur-
ring in paroxysms, after intervals of
comparatively good health, and usual-
ly accompanied by fever." It is most
common in persons possessing the
nervous temperament.
Aston, William George, an
English author, born near London-
derry, in 1841 r is a standard author-
ity on Japanese subjects.
Astor, John Jacob, an American
i merchant, born in Waldorf, Germany,
July 17, 1763. In 1783 he came to
the United States intending to engage
in the selling of musical instruments ;
but while on the voyage was induced
by a fellow passenger to engage in
buying furs from the Indians and sell-
ing them to dealers. On reaching
New York he entered the employ of a
Quaker furrier, with whom he learned
the details of the trade, and then be-
gan business on his own account. Soon
afterward he became American agent
for a London fur house, and, while ar-
ranging for his supplies, he opened
the first wareroom for the sale of mu-
sical instruments in the United States.
His success in the fur business led him
to become the owner of a number of
vessels, in which he shipped furs to
London and brought merchandise
therefrom. In furtherance of a scheme
for becoming independent of the Hud-
son Bay Company and establishing a
thoroughly American system of fur
trading, he sent out expeditions to
open up intercourse with the Indians
on the Pacific coast, by which the
present city of Astoria at the mouth
of the Columbia river in Oregon was
planted in 1811. An interesting out-
1 line of his projects in this connection
Astor
is given in Washington Irving's " As-
toria." Mr. Astor acquired large ;
wealth, invested heavily in real estate :
in New York city ; and at his death
left a fortune estimated at $20,000,-
000, and the sum of $400,000, with,
which to found a public library in \
New York city. He died March 29,
1848. See NEW YOBK PUBLIC Li-
BBABY.
Astor, John Jacob, an Ameri-
can capitalist, born in Rhinebeck, N.
Y., July 13, 1864; son of William,
grandson of John Jacob, and cousin of
William Waldorf Astor; was grad-
uated at Harvard University in 1888 ;
spent three years in European travel ; '•
and then became manager of the fam-
ily estate. He was appointed Col-
onel on the staff of Gov. Morton;
was commissioned a Lieutenant-Col-
onel of Volunteers in May, 1898, and
served on inspection and staff duty in
the United States and Cuba till the ,
surrender of Santiago. He presented :
the United States Government with
a completely equipped mountain bat-
tery which cost over $75,000, and
which rendered the government valu-1
able services during the war with Spain.
He published "A Journey to Other
Worlds; a Romance of the Future"
(1894). He was lost on the "Titanic,"
April 15, 1912.
Astor, William Backhouse, an
American capitalist, born in New York
city, Sept 19, 1792; eldest son of
John Jacob Astor ; was associated
with his father in business ; increased
the family fortune to $45,000,000;
gave $550,000 to Astor Library. Died
in New York, Nov. 24, 1875.
Astor, William Vincent, head of
the Astor family in the United States,
was born in New York city, Nov. 15,
1891 ; educated at Harvard ; succeeded
to a vast estate in money and prop-
erty at the drowning of his father,
John Jacob Astor, in the "Titanic"
disaster ; married Helen D. Hunting-
ton, April 30, 1914; and with his
wife engaged in patriotic relief work
in France in 1917.
Astor, William Waldorf, capi-
talist, born in New York city, March
31, 1848; admitted to the bar 1875.
He was elected to the New York As-
sembly in 1871. and to the Senate in
1879 ; and was United States Minister
Astrology
to Italy in 1882-1885. On the death
of his father, John Jacob Astor, he
became head of the Astor family, and
inherited a fortune of $100,000,000.
He removed to England in 1890 ; be-
came the owner of the " Pall Mall Ga-
zette " and " Pall Mall Magazine ; "
was naturalized a British subject on
July 1, 1899 ; and was created a baron
Dec. 31, 1915. He published " Valen-
tino " (1885) and " Sforza " (1889),
both romances.
Astrakhan, a Russian city, capi-
tal of the government of the same
name, on an elevated island in the
Volga, about 30 miles above its mouth
in the Caspian, communicating with
opposite banks of the river by numer-
ous bridges. It is the chief port
of the Caspian, and has regular steam
communication with the principal
towns on its shores. Pop. (1897)
113,001, composed of various races.
Astrakhan, a name given to
sheep-skins with a curled woolly sur-
face obtained from a variety of sheep
found in Bokhara, Persia, and Syria ;
also a rough fabric with a pile in im-
itation of this.
Astral Spirits, in the demonology
of the Middle Ages, spirits dwelling in
the heavenly bodies. As the belief in
spirits and witchcraft reached its
height in the 15th century, the demon-
ologist, or special students of this sub-
ject, systematized the strange fancies
of that wild period ; and astral spirits
were made to occupy the first rank
among evil or demoniacal spirits.
Astringents, substances which
produce contraction and condensation
of the muscular fiber : for instance,
when applied to a bleeding wound
they so contract the tissues as to stop
the hemorrhage. Astringents are use-
ful in various diseases.
Astrolabe, in its etymological
sense, any instrument for taking the
altitude of a star or other heavenly
body, a definition which would include
not merely the astrolabe properly so
called, but also the sextant, the quad-
rant, the equatorial, the altitude and
the azimuth circle, the theodolite, or
any similar instrument.
Astrology, originally a discourse
concerning the stars ; subsequently the
true science of astronomy; now the
Astronomy
pseudo science which pretends to fore-
tell future events by studying the po-
sition of the stars, and ascertaining
their alleged influence upon human
destiny.
Astronomy, the science that treats
of all the heavenly bodies, including
the earth, as related to them. It is
the oldest of the sciences, and .the
mother of those generally called exact
as mathematics, geodesy and physics.
Asymptote, in geometry, a line
which is continually approaching a
curve, but never meets it, however far
either of them may be prolonged. This
may be conceived as a tangent to a
curve at an infinite distance.
Atacama, the name formerly, of
two provinces, (1) Chilian and (2)
Bolivian ; most of the latter was trans-
ferred to Chile in 1884. (1) A north-
ern Province of Chile, with an area
of 30,720 square miles, and a popula-
tion (1895) of 59,713 About 1,000
silver and 250 copper mines are work-
ed, and gold is also found in consider-
able quantities.
Atahualpa, the last of the Incas,
succeeded his father in 1529 on the
throne of Quito, whilst his brother
Huascar obtained the Kingdom of
Peru. They soon made war against
each other, when the latter was de-
feated, and his kingdom fell into the
hands of Atahualpa. The Spaniards,
taking advantage of these internal dis-
turbances, with Pizarro at their head,
invaded Peru, and advanced to Atahu-
alpa's camp. Here, while Pizarro's
priest was telling the Incas how the
Pope had given Peru to the Spaniards,
fire was opened on the unsuspecting
Peruvians, Atahualpa was captured,
and, despite the payment of a vast
ransom in gold, was executed (1533).
Atalanta, in the Greek mythology,
a famous huntress of Arcadia. She
was to be obtained in marriage only by
him who could outstrip her in a race,
the consequence of failure being death.
One of her suitors obtained from Aph-
rodite (Venus) three golden apples,
which he threw behind him, one after
another, as he ran. Atalanta stopped
to pick them up, and was not unwill-
ingly defeated. There was another At-
alanta belonging to Bceotia, who can-
not very well be distinguished, the
same stories being told about both.
Atelier
Atavism, in biology, the tendency
to reproduce the ancestral type in ani-
mals or plants which hare become con-
siderably modified by breeding or cul-
tivation ; the reversion of a descendant
to some peculiarity of a more or less
remote ancestor.
Ataxy, Ataxia, in medicine, irreg-
ularity in the animal functions, or in
the symptoms of a disease. (See Lo-
COMOTOB ATA.XY).
Atcheen (also A CHIN or ATCHIN ;
called by the Dutch ATJEH), until
1873 an independent State in the N.
W. part of Sumatra, now a Province
of the Dutch Indies, with an area of
20,471 square miles, and a population
estimated on Dec. 31, 1905, at 582,175.
During the earlier half of the 17th
century Atcheen was a powerful sul-
tanate, but under the Dutcn nati»e
resistance lasted till 1906, 200 years.
Atchison, city and capital of At-
chison county, Kan.; on the Missouri
river and several railroads; 50 miles
N. of Kansas City; has an immense
trade in livestock and grains; con-
tains large grain elevators, flour mills,
and many factories; and is the seat
of the State Soldiers' Orphans' Home
and Midland (Luth.) and St. Bene-
dict's colleges. Pop. (1910) 16,429.
Atchison, David Rice, an Amer-
ican legislator, born in Frogtown, Ky.,
Aug. 11, 1807 ; was educated for the
bar, and began practicing in Missouri,
in 1830. In 1843, while Judge of Cir-
cuit Court, he was appointed United
States Senator to fill a vacancy. He
was twice elected to the last office,
and during several sessions was Presi-
dent pro tern, of the Senate. During
Sunday, March 4, 1849, he was the
legal President of the United States,
as Gen. Taylor, the President-elect,
was not sworn into office until the fol-
lowing day. The city of Atchison,
Kan., was named after him. He died
in Clinton county, Mo., June 26, 1886.
Ate, in Greek mythology, the god-
dess of hate, injustice, crime and ret-
ribution. Ate is seldom personified.
Ateles, a genus of South Ameri-
can monkeys, of the division with long
prehensile tails, to which the name
Sapajou is sometimes applied.
Atelier, in French, a workshop; a
studio ; more especially applied to an
artist's work-room. Ateliers Nation-
AtkaVasca
Athanasian Creed
aux, or National Workshops. Since
1845, it has been the custom in France,
daring severe winters, or in times of
distress caused by stagnation of trade,
to open temporary workshops, in or-
der to give employment to mechanics
who were out of work. These work-
shops were called Ateliers de Charite,
until 1848, when the Provisional Gov-
ernment of the Republic reopened a
.vast number of these establishments
under the name of Ateliers Nation-
aux. They were under the control of
a department called "The Committee
of the Government for the Workmen ;"
they were all, however, badly organ-
ized, and failed calamitously. The
principle on which they were conduct-
ed was, that every workman should
have a living provided for him on a
fixed scale. The result was, that
workmen soon left private employers,
and entered the national work-shops.
The numbers who flocked in soon be-
came alarming. More than 100,000
men enrolled themselves, and insubor-
dination soon began to show itself.
Danger was imminent, and the Na-
tional Assembly ordered the dissolu-
tion of the ateliers nationaux, an act
which became the pretext for the terri-
ble insurrection which ensanguined
Paris in June, 1848.
Athabasca, a river, lake and dis-
trict of Canada. The Athabasca
river rises on the E. slopes of the
Rocky Mountains in the district of
Alberta, flows in a N. E. direction
through the district of the same name,
and falls into Lake Athabasca after a
course of about 600 miles. Lake Ath-
abasca, or Lake of the Hills, is about
190 miles S. S. E. of the Great Slave
Lake, with which it is connected by
means of the Slave river, a continua-
tion of the Peace. It is about 200
miles in length from E. to W., and
about 35 miles wide at the broadest
part, but gradually narrows to a point
at either extremity. The district of
Athabasca, formed 1882, on Sept. 1,
1905, was merged in the provinces of
Alberta and Saskatchewan. It is in-
tersected by the Athabasca and Peace
.rivers and, as yet, has a scanty popu-
lation. The name is also given to a
family of Indians. The area of the
district was about 251,300 sq. m.
Athabascan Indiana, a linguistic
stock of North American Indians, ex-
tending from British North America
and Alaska to Mexico, who derive
their name from Lake Athabasca in
British North America.
Athaliah., daughter of Ahab,
King of Israel, and wife of Jehoram,
King of Judah, was born about 927,
and died about 878 B. c. She was a
woman of abandoned character, and
fond of power ; who, after the death of
her son Ahaziah, opened her way to
the throne by the murder of every
prince of the royal blood. She reign-
ed six years; in the seventh, the high-
priest Jehoiada placed Joash, the
young son of Ahaziah, on the throne
of his father, and Athaliah was put to
death.
Athanasian Creed, a formulary
or confession of faith, said to have
been drawn up by Athanasius, Bishop
of Alexandria, in the 4th century, to
justify himself against the calumnies
of his Arian enemies. That it was
really composed by this father seems
more than doubtful; and modern ^di-
vines generally concur in the opinion
of Dr. Waterland, that it was written
by Hilary, Bishop of Aries, in the 5th
century. It is certainly very ancient ;
for it had become so famous in the
6th century as to be commented upon,
together with the Lord's Prayer and
Apostles' Creed, by Venantius Fortu-
natus, Bishop of Poitiers. It was not,
however, then styled the Athanasian
Creed, but simply the Catholic Faith.
It is supposed to have . received the
name of Athanasius on account of its
agreeing with his doctrines, and being
an excellent summary of the subjects
of controversy between him and the
Arians. The true key to the Athana-
sian Creed lies in the knowledge of
the errors to which it was opposed.
The Sabellians considered the Father,
Son and Holy Spirit as one in per-
son; this was "confounding the per-
sons : " the Arians considered them as
differing in essence ; this was " divid-
ing the substance ; " and against these
two errors was the creed originally
framed. This creed was used in
France about the year 850; was re-
ceived in Spain about 100 years later,
and in Germany about the same time.
It was both said and sung in Eng-
land in the 10th century ; was com-
monly used in Italy at the expiration
of that century, and at Rome a little
Athanasins
Athletes
later. This creed is appointed to be
read in the Church of England.
Athanasius, St., one of the fa-
thers of the Christian Church, born
at Alexandria about 296 A. D. He
became Patriarch of Alexandria in
328, being afterward deposed and re-
instated five times. He died in Alex-
andria, May 2, 373.
Atheism, literally, disbelief in a
God, if such an attainment is possi-
ble; or, more loosely, doubt of the ex-
istence of a God; practically, a denial
that anything can be known about the
supernatural, supposing it to exist.
Athel, or .aJthel, an Old English
word meaning noble in blood, descent,
or mind; frequently a part of Anglo-
Saxon proper names.
Athenaeum, or Atheneum, a
public place frequented by professors
of the liberal arts, and where rhetori-
cians declaimed, and the poets read
aloud their works. At Athens these
assemblies first took place in the tem-
ple of Minerva, whence the name.
Athens, city and capital of Clarke
county, Ga.; on the Oconee river and
several railroads; 67 miles E. of At-
lanta; is principally engaged in cot-
ton-growing, trade, and manufactur-
ing; and is the seat of the State Uni-
versity, State College of Agriculture,
State Normal School, and Lucy Cobb
and Knox institutes. Pop. (1910)
14,913.
Athens, anciently the capital of
Attica and center of Greek culture,
now the capital of the Kingdom of
Greece. It is situated in the central
plain of Attica, about 4 miles from
the Saronic Gulf or Gulf of Mgina.,
an arm of the ^3gean Sea running in
between the mainland and the Pelo-
ponnesus. It is said to have been
founded about 1550 B. c. by Cecrops,
the mythical Pelasgian hero, and to
have borne the name Cecropia until
under Erechtheus it received the name
of Athens in honor of Athene.
It disputed with Sparta the su-
premacy of Greece, which was then
virtually the civilized world, and was
beaten in the struggle. It remained,
however, the centre of art and culture
until long after the rise of Rome, to
which with the rest of Greece it be-
came subject
The modern city mostly lies north-
ward and eastward from the Acropo-
lis, and consists mainly of straight
and well built streets. Among the
principal buildings are the royal pal-
ace, a stately building with a facade
of Pentelic marble (completed in
1843), the university, the academy,
public library, theater, and observa-
tory. The university was opened in
1836, and has 1,400 students. There
are valuable museums, in particular
the National Museum, and that in the
Polytechnic School, which embraces
the Schliemann collection, etc. These
are constantly being added to by exca-
vations. There are four foreign ar-
chaeological schools or institutes, the
French, German, American, and Brit-
ish. Tramways have been made in the
principal streets, and the city is con-
nected by railway with its port, the
Piraeus. From tie beginning of the
World War the city was almost con-
stantly in a state of turmoil because
of revolutionary demonstrations or
the actions of the Allies, as King
Constantine, though professing strict
neutrality was popularly believed to
be leaning toward the side of his
wife's brother, the German emperor.
Pop. (1907) 167,479. See APPENDIX:
World War.
Atherton, George William, an
American educator, born in Boxford,
Mass., June 20, 1837; was Pro-
fessor of Political Economy and Con-
stitutional Law in Rutgers College, N.
J., in 1869-1882; and became Presi-
dent of the Pennsylvania State College
in 1882. He died July 24, 1906.
Atherton, Gertrude Franklin,
an American author, born in San
Francisco, Cal. ; daughter of Thomas
L. Horn and Gertrude Franklin, and
great-grandniece of Benjamin Frank-
lin ; was educated in California and
Kentucky, and married the late George
H. B. Atherton. She began her liter-
ary work while living in San Fran-
cisco, in 1878, and has made a
specialty of describing Spanish life in
California as it was previous to 1846.
Athletes, combatants who took
part in the public games of Greece.
The profession was an honorable one;
tests of birth, position, and character
were imposed, and crowns, statues,
special privileges, and pensions were
( among the rewards of success. ID
Athos
Atlantic Ocean
1896, the ancient Olympic games
were revived at Athens (the 776th
Olympiad) under the personal patron-
age of the King of Greece; in 1900
they were held at the Paris Exposi-
tion; in 1904 at the St. Louis Expo-
sition; in 1906 at Athens; in 1908 at
London.
Athos, Mount, or Hagion-Oros,
or Monte-Santo, a famous moun-
tain of Turkey in Europe, on a pen-
insula projecting into the JEgean Sea,
between the Gulfs of Contesa and
Monte-Santo. In modern times,
Athos has been occupied for an
extended period by a number of
mpnks of the Greek Church, who live
in a sort of fortified monasteries-, in
number about 20, of different degrees
of magnitude and importance. These,
with the farms or metochis attached
to them, occupy the whole peninsula ;
hence it has derived its modern name
of Monte-Santo.
Atkinson, Edward, an American
political economist, born in Brook-
line, Mass., Feb. 10, 1827; was .edu-
cated in private schools and at Dart-
mouth College. He has become widely
known by his papers and pamphlets on
trade competition, banking, railroad-
ing, fire prevention, the money ques-
tion, etc. He died Dec. 11, 1905.
Atkinson, George Francis, an
American botanist, born in Raisin-
ville, Mich., Jan. 26, 1854; was grad-
uated at Cornell University in 1885 ;
Associate Professor of Entomology
and General Zoology in the University
of North Carolina, in 1886-1888 ; Pro-
fessor of Zoology and Botany in the
University of South Carolina; and
Botanist of the State Experiment
Station in 1888-1889; Professor of
Biology in the Alabama Polytechnic
Institute, and Biologist of the Experi-
ment Station in 1889-1892; became
Professor of Botany in Cornell Uni-
versity, and Botanist of the Experi-
ment Station there in 1896. He is a
member of numerous scientific socie-
ties, and author of "Biology of Ferns,"
"Elementary Botany," and many tech-
nical papers.
Atlanta, city and capital of the
State of Georgia and of Fulton coun-
ty ; on the Atlanta and West Point,
the Central of Georgia, the Georgia,
the Seaboard Air Line, the Southern,
and the Western and Atlantic rail-
roads ; 171 miles N. by W. of Augusta.
The city is not only the largest in the
State, but, commercially and histor-
icallv, is one of the most important in
the South. In 1914 it became the cen-
tral reserve city of the Sixth Federal
Reserve Banking District under the
act of Congress of 1913.
After being besieged by the Federal
army, under General Sherman, and
bombarded for 40 days, it was cap-
tured Sept. 2, 1864. General Sherman,
before starting on his march to the
sea, burned the city. After the war,
the city recuperated more rapidly than
any other in the South. In 1881 an
exposition of the Cotton States and in
1895 a great Cotton States and Inter-
national Exposition were held here, the
last in Piedmont Park, in which* the
United States and many of the North-
ern States, besides European and
South American countries, took part.
Pop. (1900) 89,872; (1910) 154,839.
Atlantic City, a city and widely
noted health and pleasure resort, in
Atlantic county, N. J. ; on Absecon
Beach island; 60 miles S. E. of
Philadelphia. It is a city of hotels,
shops, and cottages, with superior
railroad facilities, and has the largest
patronage of any seaside resort in
the country. Its famous board-walk
is over 5 miles long and 20-60 feet
wide. Permanent pop. (1910) 44,461.
Atlantic Ocean, the name given
to the vast expanse of sea lying be-
tween the W. coasts of Europe and
Africa, and the E. coasts of North and
South America, and extending from
the Arctic to the Antarctic Seas. Its
greatest breadth is between the W.
coast of Northern Africa and the E.
coast of Florida, 4,150 miles. Its
least breadth, between Norway and
Greenland, is about 930 miles.
'iue great currents of the Atlantic
are the Gulf Stream, the equatorial
current — which may be divided into
the main equatorial current, the N.
equatorial current, and the S. equa-
torial currents, the North African and
Guinea current, the South connecting
current, the Southern Atlantic cur-
rent, Cape Horn current, Rennel
current, and the Arctic current.
The Gulf Stream is a continuation
of the main equatorial current, and
partly of the N. equatorial current,
Atlantic Telegraph
Atlee
both W. drift currents produced by the
trade winds. The former passes across
the Atlantic to the American coast,
upon which it strikes from Cape St.
Roque to the Antilles. On being
turned by the coast it runs along it at
a rate of 30 to 50 miles per day, and
sometimes at a higher speed, till it
enters the Gulf of Mexico, from which
having previously received part of the
waters of the N. equatorial current,
it issues between Florida and Cuba
under the name of the Gulf stream.
It afterward flows nearly parallel to
the coast of the United States, sepa-
rated from it by a belt of cold water.
Off Cape Hatteras it spreads into an
expanding channel, reaching a breadth
of 167 miles, and consisting of three
warm sections with two cold belts in-
terposed. On passing Sandy Hook
it turns E. and continues to be recog-
nizable, partly by a blue color derived
from the silt of the Mississippi, till
about Ion. 30° W., where, with a
greatly diminished temperature, it is
found flowing nearly due E.
Atlantic Telegraph, lines laid on
the bed of the Atlantic Ocean. The
union of the Old and New Worlds by
means of the electric telegraph, prob-
ably the boldest feat of electric engi-
neering ever projected, was first sug-
gested by Prof. Morse in 1843. When
Lieut. Maury of the United States
navy discovered that between Ireland
and Newfoundland the bed of the ocean
was nearly level and covered with
soft ooze, and Cyrus W. Field and
others had thoroughly discussed the
practical methods, a company was
formed for the purpose, in 1856, to
which the Governments of Great Brit-
ain and the United States gave liberal
guarantees. This company, after a
fruitless attempt to lay an electric ca-
ble in 1857, finally succeeded in 1858.
The result was not encouraging.
The current obtained through the wire
was so weak that a congratulatory
message from the Queen to the Presi-
rent, consisting of 90 words, took 67
minutes to transmit. After a few
more messages, the cable became use-
less. In consequence of this failure, it
was not until 1865 that capital was
found to make another attempt.
The paying-out journey was com-
menced at Valentia, but when the ves-
sel was 1,064 miles from that port,
the cable broke from an accidental
strain. After a fruitless effort to fish
up the broken cable from the bottom,
it was abandoned for the season. In
1866 another line, so modified in con-
struction as to be both lighter and
stronger than the previous one, was
successfully laid by the " Great East-
ern." The 1865 cable was then, by
means of the same vessel, grappled for,
and brought up from a depth of two
miles, spliced, and completed to Trin-
ity Bay.
_The practicability of laying an elec-
tric wire across the Atlantic being
thus demonstrated, many lines have
been projected, and several of them
carried out. Marconi's wireless tele-
graph system has introduced a new
era in transatlantic telegraphy, but
has not, so far, been developed suffi-
ciently to interfere with the business
of the cable companies.
Atlantides, a name given to the
Pleiades, which were fabled to be the
seven daughters of Atlas or of his
brother Hesperus.
Atlantis, or Atlantica, an island,
said by Plato and others to have once
existed in the ocean immediately be-
yond the Straits of Gades; that is,
in what is now called the Atlantic
Ocean, a short distance W. of the
Straits of Gibraltar. Atlantis is rep-
resented as having ultimately sunk
beneath the waves, leaving only iso-
lated rocks and shoals in its place.
Geologists have discovered that the
coast-line of Western Europe did once
run farther in the direction of Amer-
ica than now; but its submergence
seems to have taken place long before
historic times.
Atlas, in Greek mythology, the
name of a Titan whom Zeus con-
demned to bear the vault of heaven.
The same name is given to a collection
of maps and charts, and was first used
by Gerard Mercator in the 16th cen-
tury, the figure of Atlas bearing the
globe being given on the title-pages
of such works.
Atlee, Washington Lemuel, an
American surgeon, born in Lancaster,
Pa., Feb. 22, 1808; became noted as a
pioneer in ovariotomy and the removal
of uterine fibroid tumors. He died
Sept 6. 1878.
Atxnometer
Atmometer, an instrument invent-
ed by Sir John Leslie for iiieasuring
the quantity of moisture exhaled in
a given time from any humid sur-
face.
Atmosphere, literally, the air sur-
rounding our planet, and which, as the
etymology implies, is, speaking broad-
ly, a "sphere" (not, of course, a
solid, but a hollow one). With strict
accuracy, it is a hollow spheroid. Its
exact height is unknown. At 2.7 miles
above the surface of the earth, half
its density is gone, and the remainder
is again halved for every further rise
of 2.7 miles. Some small density
would remain at 45 miles high. At 80
miles, this would have all but disap-
peared. But from sundry observa-
tions, made at Rio Janeiro and else-
where, on the twilight arc, M. Liais
infers that the extreme limit of the
atmosphere is between 198 and 212
miles. In the lower strata of the at-
mosphere, the temperature falls at
least a degree for every 352 feet of
ascent ; hence, even in the tropics,
mountains of any considerable eleva-
tion are snow-capped. The atmosphere
appears to us blue, because, absorbing
the red and yellow solar rays, it re-
flects the blue ones. It revolves with
the earth, but being extremely mobile,
winds are generated in it, so that it is
rarely long at rest. Evaporation, con-
tinually at work, sends into it quanti-
ties of water m a gaseous state ; clouds
are formed, and in due time descend in
ram. The atmosphere always con-
tains free electricity, sometimes posi-
tive and sometimes negative. There
appears to be no atmosphere around
the moon ; but the case seems different
•with the sun, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,
and Saturn.
Atmospheric Pressure, the pres-
sure exerted by the atmosphere, not
merely downward, but in every direc-
tion. It amounts to 14.7 pounds of
weight on each square inch, which is
often called in round numbers 15. On
a square foot it is =2,160 pounds, or
nearly a ton. It would act upon our
bodies with crushing effect were it not
that the pressure, operating in all di-
rections, produces an equilibrium. If
any gas or liquid press upon a surface
with a force of 15 pounds on a square
inch, it is generally described as hav-
ing a pressure of one atmosphere; if
60 pounds, of four atmospheres ; if 120
pounds, of eight atmospheres, and
so on.
Atmospheric Railway. ( See
PNEUMATIC DISPATCH).
Atomic Theory, a theory as to the
existence and properties of atoms ; es-
pecially, in chemistry, the theory ac-
counting for the fact that in compound
bodies the elements combine in certain
constant proportions, by assuming that
all bodies are composed of ultimate
atoms, the weight of which is different
in different kinds of matter. It is as-
sociated with the name of Dalton, who
systematized and extended the imper-
fect results of his predecessors. On
its practical side the atomic theory
asserts three Laws of Combining Pro-
portions : ( 1 ) The Law of Constant
or Definite Proportions, teaching that
in every chemical compound the na-
ture and proportion of the constituent
elements are definite and invariable ;
(2) The Law of Combination in Mul-
tiple Proportions, according to which
the several proportions in which one
element unites with another, invariably
bear towards each other a simple rela-
tion ; (3) The Law of Combination in
Reciprocal Proportions, that the pro-
portions in which two elements com-
bine with a third also represent the
proportions in which, or in some sim-
ple multiple of which, they will them-
selves combine. Without expressly
adopting the atomic theory, chemists
have followed Dalton in the use of the
terms atom and atomic weight, yet in
using the word atom it should be held
in mind that it merely denotes the pro-
portions in which elements unite.
Atonement, in theology, the sac-
rificial offering made by Christ I'M ex-
piation of the sins, according to the
Calvinists, of the elect only ; according
to the Arminians, of the whole human
race.
Atrato, a river of Colombia, inter-
esting because it has repeatedly been
made to bear a part in schemes for a
ship-canal across the Isthmus of Pana-
ma. Rising on the Western Cordillera
at an altitude of 10,560 feet, above
sea-level, it runs 305 miles northward
through low, swampy country, and
falls by several mouths, interrupted
by bars, into the Gulf of Darien. It
is navigable by steamers for fully 250
Attock
miles, being 750 to 1,000 feet wide,
and 8 to 70 feet deep. A route, sur-
veyed by the United States Govern-
ment in 1871, proposed to connect the
Atrato and the Jurador, flowing into
the Pacific, by a canal 48 miles long.
At the Paris International Congress
(1879), for deciding the best route for
the interoceanic canal, that route was,
with various others, discussed and re-
jected in favor of De Lesseps' line
from Limon to Panama. Gold-dust is
found in and about the Atrato.
Atrium, in ancient times, the hall
or principal room in an ancient Ro-
man house. In a large house ^ the
rooms opened into it from all sides,
and were lighted from it.
Atrophy, a wasting of the flesh
due to some interference with the nu-
tritive processes. It may arise from
a variety of causes, such as perma-
nent, oppressive and exhausting pas-
sions, organic disease, a want of prop-
er food or of pure air, suppurations in
important organs, copious evacuations
of blood, saliva, semen, etc., and it is
also sometimes produced by poisons,
for example, arsenic, mercury, lead, in
miners, painters, gilders, etc.
Atropin, or Atropine, a crystal-
line alkaloid obtained from the deadly
nightshade (atropa belladonna). It is
very poisonous and produces persist-
ent dilation of the pupil.
Attache, a military, naval or sub-
ordinate member of the diplomatic ser-
vice attached to an embassy or lega-
tion.
Attachment, in law, the taking
into the custody of the law the person
or property of one already before the
court, or of one whom it is sought to
bring before it
Attack, the opening act of hostil-
ity by a force seeking to dislodge an
enemy from its position.
Attainder, the legal consequences
of a sentence of death or outlawry
pronounced against a person for trea-
son or felony, the person being said
to be attainted.
In the United States, the Federal
Constitution declares that " No bill of
attainder shall be passed, and no at-
tainder of treason, in consequence of a
judicial sentence, shall work corrup-
tion of blood or forfeiture except dur-
ing the life of the person attainted."
Attar, Ferid eddin, a celebrated
Persian poet, born near Nishapur in
1119; died about 1229 (?).
Attar, or Otto, of Roses (oil of
roses), an essential oil obtained from
the petals of three species of roses,
viz. : rosa centifolia, moschata and
damascena.
Atterbury, Francis, an English
prelate, born March G, 1662, and ed-
ucated at Westminster and Oxford.
He died Feb. 15, 1732, and his body
was interred in Westminster Abbey.
Attic, pertaining to Attica or to
Athens. Pure ; elegant ; classical ;
poignant ; characterized by keenness
of intellect, delicacy of wit, purity of
elegance, soundness of judgment and
most expressive brevity; as, the Attic
Muse. Attic dialect is that dialect of
the Greek language which was spoken
hi Attica. It was the most refined
and polished of all the dialects of an-
cient Greece.
Attica, a State of ancient Greece,
the capital of which, Athens, was
once the first city in the world.
Atticns, Titns Pomponins, a
noble Roman, the contemporary of
Cicero and Caesar.
Attila, the famous leader of the
Huns, was the son of Mundzuk, and
the successor, in conjunction with his
brother Bleda, of his uncle Rhuas.
The rule of the two leaders extended
over a great part of Northern Asia
and Europe, and they threatened the
Eastern Empire, and twice compelled
the weak Theodosius II. to purchase
an inglorious peace. Attila caused his
brother Bleda to be murdered (444),
and in a short time extended his do-
minion over all the peoples of Ger-
many and exacted tribute from the
Eastern and Western emperors. He
invaded Italy and conquered and de-
stroyed Aquileia, Padua, Vicenza, Ve-
rona, and Bergamo, laid waste the
plains of Lombardy, and was march-
ing on Rome when Pope Leo I. went
with the Roman ambassadors to his
camp and succeeded in obtaining a
peace. Attila went back to Hungary,
and died on the night of his marriage
with Hilda or Ildico (453), either
from the bursting of a blood vessel or
by her hand.
Attock, a town and fort of the
Punjab, on the left or E. bank of the
Attorney
Aublet
Indus. The great railway bridge
across the Indus here was opened in
1883. It has five arches 130 feet high,
and renders continuous the railway
connection between Calcutta and Pesh-
awur (1,600 miles).
Attorney, a person appointed to
do something for and in the stead and
name of another. An attorney at law
is a person qualified to appear for an-
other before a court of law to prose-
cute or defend any action on behalf of
his client.
Attorney-General. In the United j
States the Department of Justice is
presided over by the Attorney-General,
whose duty it is to furnish all legal I
advice needed by Federal authorities,
and conduct all litigation in which the
United States is concerned. The !
States have similar officers.
Attraction, in natural philosophy,
a force in virtue of which the material
particles of all bodies tend necessarily
to approach each other.
Capillary attraction, meaning the
attraction excited by a hair-like tube
on a liquid within it, is, properly
speaking, a variety of adhesion.
In magnetism, the power excited by
a magnet or loadstone of drawing and
attaching iron to itself.
In electricity, the power possessed
by an electrified body of drawing cer-
tain other bodies to itself.
Atwater, Lyman Hotchkiss, an
American theologian, born in Hamp-
den, Conn., Feb. 23, 1813; died in
Princeton, N. J., Feb, 17, 1883.
Atwater, Wilber Olin, an Amer- I
ican chemist, born in Johnsburg, N.
Y., May 3, 1844; was graduated at
Wesleyan University in 1865 ; made a i
special study of chemistry in the Shef-
field Scientific School of Yale and the
Universities of Leipsic and Berlin ;
became Professor of Chemistry in
East Tennessee University in 1873 ;
was director of the Connecticut Agri- i
cultural Experiment Station in 1875- i
1877, and was appointed director of
the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Sta-
tion in 1887. He was connected for
several years with the United States
Depa rtment of Agriculture ; published
many papers on chemical and allied
subjects; and, after 1894, gave much
attention to nutrition investigations.
He died in 1907.
Atwill, Edward Robert, an
American clergyman, born in Red
Hook, N. Y., Feb. 18, 1840 ; was grad-
uated at Columbia College in 1862,
and at the General Theological Sem-
inary 1864 ; consecrated the first Prot-
estant Episcopal bishop of West Mis-
souri, Oct. 14, 1890. D. Jan. 24, 1011.
Atwood, Isaac Morgan, an
American educator, born in Pembroke,
N. Y., March 24, 1838; was ordained
in the Universalist Church in 1861 ;
held several pastorates ; edited " The
Christian Leader " 1867-1873 ; became
an associate editor of the " Universal-
ist Leader ; " and was chosen president
of the Canton (N. Y.) Theological
Seminary in 1879.
Atwood, Melville, an Anglo-
American geologist, born in Prescott
Hall, England, July 31, 1812 ; studied
lithology, microscopy, and geology
early in life, and engaged in gold and
diamond mining in Brazil. In 1843
he made a discovery that greatly en-
hanced the value of zinc ore. After
coming to the United States, in 1852,
he invented the blanket system of
amalgamation. He also established
the value of the famous Comstock sil-
ver lode, by an assay of minerals in
that region. He died in Berkeley,
Cal., April 25, 1898.
Anber, Daniel Francois Es-
prit, a French operatic composer,
born Jan. 29, 1782, at Caen, in Nor-
mandy ; was originally intended for a
mercantile career, but devoted him-
self to music, studying under Cheru-
bini. He died in Paris, May 13, 187L
Anberlen, Karl August, a Ger-
man Protestant theologian, born at
Fellbach, Wiirtemberg, Nov. 19, 1824 ;
died at Basel, May 2, 1864.
Anbert, Joachim Marie Jean
Jacques Alexandra Jules, a
French general and military writer;
born in 1804 ; prominent in several
campaigns, and was made commander
of the Legion of Honor in 1860. He
is best known to the public as a jour-
nalist and historical writer. He died
in 1890.
Aubertin, Charles, a French
scholar, born in St. Didier, Dec. 24,
1825.
Aublet, Albert, a French paint-
er, born in Paris ; studied historical
painting under Gerome ; won a first-
Aubry
class medal in the Paris Exposition of
1889, and the Legion of Honor in 1890.
Aubry de Montdidier, a French
soldier, supposed to have been mur-
dered by his comrade, Richard de
Macaire, in 1371. His dog peristed
in pursuing and harassing Macaire,
and this coming to the ears of King
Charles V., he ordered a fight be-
tween them. The dog was victori- 1
ous, and has since been famous in
story as the "Dog of Montargis;" ;
from the place of the fight.
Auburn, city and capital of An- ;
droscoggin county, Me.; on the An- :
droscoggin river and the Maine Cen-
tral railroad; 35 miles N. of Port-
land; is chiefly engaged in the manu-
facture of boots, shoes, cotton goods,
furniture, and farm implements; has
many points of local interest, includ-
ing a 60-foot fall of the river. Pop.
(1910) 15,064.
Auburn, city and capital of Cay-
uga county, N. Y.; on Central &
Hudson River and the Lehigh Val-
ley railroads. It contains a State ar-
mory, Auburn Theological Seminary
(Presb.), a State prison on the
" silent " system, a State Insane asy-
lum, a statue of William H. Sew-
ard, and important industrial plants.
Pop. (1910) 34,668.
Auclimuty, Richard Tylden, an
American philanthropist, born In
New York city in 1831; practiced
architecture for many years; with his
wife founded the New York Trade
Schools, at a cost of $250,000. J.
Pierpont Morgan, in 1892, gave it an
endowment of $500,000. Died 1893.
Auckland, a town in New Zealand,
in the North Island, founded in 1840,
and situated on Waitemata harbor,
one of the finest harbors of New Zea-
land, where the island is only 6 miles
across, there being another harbor
(Manukau) on the opposite side of
the isthmus. It was formerly the cap-
ital of tue colony. Pop. (1911), in-
cluding suburbs, 102,676.
Auckland Islands, a group lying
in the Pacific Ocean to the S. of New
Zealand. The largest of these islands
is about 30 miles long by 15 broad,
and is covered with dense vegetation.
They are almost entirely uninhabited,
belong to the British and are a sta-
tion for whaling ships.
Auersperg
Auction, the public disposal of
goods to the highest bidder.
Audiometer, or Audimeter, an
instrument devised by Prof. Hughes,
the inventor of the microphone. Orig-
inally its object was to measure with
precision the sense of hearing.
Audiphone, an invention to assist
the hearing of deaf persons in whom
the auditory nerve is not entirely de-
stroyed.
Audit, an examination into ac-
counts or dealings with money or
property, along with vouchers or other
documents connected therewith, espe-
cially by proper officers, or persons ap-
pointed for the purpose.
Andsley, George A slid own, a
Scottish-American architect, born in
Elgin, Scotland, Sept 6, 1838; estab-
lished himself in the United States in
1892, and subsequently became promi-
nent both as an architect and author.
Audubon, John James, an
American naturalist of French extrac-
tion, born near New Orleans, May 4,
1780; was educated in France, and
studied painting under David. In 1798
he settled in Pennsylvania, but, hav-
ing a great love for ornithology, he
set out in 1810 with his wife and
child, descended the Ohio, and for
many years roamed the forests in every
direction, drawing the birds which he
shot. In 1826 he went to England,
exhibited his drawings in Liverpool,
Manchester and Edinburgh, and final-
ly published them hi an unrivaled
work of double-folio size, with 435
colored plates of birds the size of life
("The Birds of America," 4 vols.,
1827-1839), with an accompanying
text ( " Ornithological Biography," 5
vols., 8 vo., partly written by Prof.
Macgillivray). On his final return to
the United States he labored with Dr.
Bachman on an illustrated work en-
titled " The Quadrupeds of America "
(1843-1850, 3 vols.). He died in
New York city, June 27. 1851.
Anerbacn> Berthold, a German
novelist, born at Nordstetten, Wtir-
temberg, Feb. 28, 1812. He died at
Cannes, France, Feb. 8, 1882.
Auersperg, Anton Alexander,
Graf von, a German poet, born at
Laibach, April 11, 1806. He died at
Gratz, Sept. 12, 1876. His poems are
very popular in Germany.
Auerstadt
Auerstadt, a village in the Prus- j
sian Province of Saxony, 10 miles W. j
of Naumburg. It is famous for the
great battle which took place there
Oct. 14, 1806, between the French un-
der Davoust, and the Prussian army
under Duke Charles of Brunswick,
which ended in a great victory for the
former. The Prussians, who num-
bered fully 48,000, left nearly half of
their men dead or wounded on the
ground, while the French (30,000) es-
caped with a loss of only 7,000. Na-
poleon, who had, on the same day,
defeated the main army of Frederick
William III. at Jena, made Davoust
Duke of Auerstadt.
Augeas, a fabulous king of Elis,
in Greece, whose stable contained
3,000 oxen, and had not been cleaned
for 30 years. Hercules undertook to
clear away the filth in one day in re-
turn for a 10th part of the cattle, and
executed the task by turning the river
Alpheus through it Augeas, having
broken the bargain, was deposed and
slain by Hercules.
Augsburg, Confession of, name
given to the celebrated declaration of
faith, compiled by Melanchthon, re-
vised by Luther and other reformers,
and read before the Diet of Augsburg,
June 25, 1530. It consisted of 28 arti-
cles, seven of which refuted Roman
Catholic errors, and the remaining 21
set forth the Lutheran creed. Soon
after its promulgation, the last hope
of reforming the Roman Catholic
Church was abandoned, and complete
severance followed. An answer by the
Roman Catholics was read Aug. 3,
1530; when the Diet declared that it
had been refuted. Melanchthon then
drew up another confession. The first
is called the unaltered, and the sec-
ond, the altered form.
Augsburg, Diet of, the most cel-
ebrated of the numerous diets held at
Augsburg. Pope Clement VII. refus-
ing to call a general council for the
settlement of all religious disputes,
the Emperor Charles V. summoned
one to meet at Augsburg, June 20,
1530. On the 25th the famous " Con-
fession " was read ; later an answer
was made by the Catholics, whereupon
the Protestants were ordered to con-
form in all points to the Church of
Rome, Charles V. giving them till
August
April 15, 1531, to reunite with the
Mother Church. On Nov. 22, the em-
peror announced his intention to ex-
ecute the edict of Worms, made severe
enactments against the Protestants,
and reconstituted the Imperial Cham-
ber. The Protestants put in a counter
declaration, and the Diet closed.
Augsburg, League of, a league
concluded at Augsburg, July 9, 1686,
for the maintenance of the treaties of
Miinster and Nimeguen, and the truce
of Ratisbon, and to resist the en-
croachments of France. The contract-
ing parties were the Emperor Leopold
I., the Kings of Spain and Sweden,
the Electors of Saxony and Bavaria,
and the circles of Suabia. Franconla,
Upper Saxony and Bavaria.
Augur, Christopher Colon, an
American military officer; born in
New York, July 10, 1821 ; was gradu-
ated at the United States Military
Academy in 1843 ; became Major of
the 13th United States Infantry in
1861; Colonel of the 12th Infantry
in 1866; Brigadier-General, United
States army, March 4, 1869; Major-
General in the volunteer service in
1862; mustered out of that service in
1866; and was retired in the regular
army, July 16, 1885. He commanded
a division in the battle of Cedar
Mountain, being severely wounded.
He died in Washington, D. C,, Jan.
16, 1898.
Augur*, a college of diviners in
ancient Rome, who predicted future
events and read the will of the gods
from the occurrence of certain signs,
connected with thunder and light-
ning ; the flight and cries of birds ; the
feeding of the sacred chickens ; the ac-
tion of certain quadrupeds or serpents ;
accidents, such as spilling the salt, etc.
The answers of the augurs and the
signs were called auguries ; bird-pre-
dictions were auspices. Nothing was
undertaken without the augurs, and
by the words " alio die " ( " meet on
another day "), they could dissolve the
assembly of the people and annul de-
crees passed at the meeting.
August, the eighth month of our
year, named by the Roman Emperor
Augustus, after himself, being asso-
ciated with several of his victories and
other fortunate events. Before this it
was called Sextilis or the sixth month
Augusta
(counting from March). July had
been named for Julius Caesar and the
Senate to please Augustus decreed that
August should have equal length, tak-
ing a day from February.
Augusta, city and capital of Rich-
mond county, Ga., on the Savannah
river and the Southern and other rail-
roads; 120 miles N. W. of Savannah.
The city is noted for its diversified
manufactures, which had in 1914 a
value of over $12,000,000, and its
large trade in cotton, lumber, fruit,
and vegetables. Pop. (1910) 41,040.
Augusta, city and capital of the
State of Maine and of Kennebec
county; on the Kennebec river and
the Maine Central railroad; 63 miles
N. E. of Portland. The city has
abundant water power for numerous
factories, and besides several State
buildings, has* a National Arsenal and
(4 miles out) a National Soldiers'
Home. Pop. (1910) 13,211.
Augusta, Victoria, Duchess of
Schleswig - Holstein - Sonderburg-Au-
gustenburg, born Oct. 22, 1858;
daughter of the late Duke Friedrich;
married Prince Friedrich Wilhelm,
afterward Wilhelm II., Feb. 27, 1881;
became Empress of Germany and
Queen of Prussia on the accession of
her husband to the throne in 1888.
Augnstiue, or Austin, St., the
Apostle of the English, flourished at
the close of the 6th century.
Augrnstulus, Romulus, the last
of the Western Roman emperors ;
reigned for one year (475-476), when
he was overthrown by Odoacer and
banished.
Augustus, Cains Julius Caesar
Octavianus, originally called CAIUS
OCTAVIUS, the celebrated Roman em-
peror, was the son of Caius Octavius
and Atia, a daughter of Julia, the sis-
ter of Julius Caesar. He was born
63 B. c., and died A. D. 14. He was
the first emperor of Rome in the full
sense of exercising imperial power as
a recognized monarch, and he was
also one of the greatest, if not the
greatest of the emperors, a liberal pa-
tron of art, and broad and sagacious
in the exercise of his authority. He
is said to have " found Rome of brick
and left it of marble."
Auk, the name given to several sea
birds, especially the great and the lit-
Aurifaber
tie auk. The great auk is from two
to two and a half feet high, with
short wings almost useless for flight.
In the water, however, it makes way
with astonishing rapidity. It is es-
sentially a northern bird. It seems to
be rapidly verging to extinction.
Aulic, an epithet given to a coun-
cil (the Reichshofrath) in the old
German Empire, one of the two su-
preme courts of the German Empire,
the other being the court of the im-
perial chamber ( Reichskamrmrge-
richt). It had not only concurrent
jurisdiction with the latter court, but
in many cases exclusive jurisdiction,
in all feudal processes, and in crim-
inal affairs, over the immediate feuda-
tories of the emperor and in affairs
which concerned the Imperial Govern-
ment. The title is now applied in
Germany in a general sense to the
chief council of any department, po-
litical, administrative, judicial or mili-
tary.
Aurelian, Lucius Domitius
Aurelianus, an Emperor of Rome,
distinguished for his military abilities
and stern severity of character ; was
the son of a peasant of Illyricum. He
was born about 212 A. D., and lost his
life, A. D. 275, by assassination, the
result of a conspiracy excited by a
secretary whom he intended to call to
account for peculation.
Aureola, or Aureole, in paint-
ings, an illumination surrounding a
holy person, as Christ, a saint, or a
martyr, intended to represent a lu-
minous cloud or haze emanating from
him.
Aureus, the first gold coin which
was coined at Rome, 207 B. C. Its
value varied at different times, from
about $3 to $6.
Auricles of the Heart, those two
of the four cavities of the heart which
are much smaller than the others, and
each of which, moreover, has falling
down upon its external face a flattened
appendage, like the ear of a dog, from
which the name of the whole struc-
ture is derived.
Auricula, a beautiful garden flow-
er. It is a native of the Alpine dis-
tricts of Italy, Switzerland, and Ger-
many, and occurs also in Astrakhan.
Aurifaber, the Latinized name of
JOHANN GOLDSCHMIDT, one Of Lu-
Auriga
ther's companions, born in 1519, be-
came pastor at Erfurt in 1566; died
there in 1579. He collected the un-
published manuscripts of Luther.
Auriga, in astronomy, the Wag-
oner, a constellation of the northern
hemisphere containing 68 stare, in-
cluding Capella of the first magnitude.
Auringer, Obadiah Cyrus, an
American poet, born at Glens Falls,
N. Y., June 4, 1849.
Aurora, a city in Kane county,
111.; on the Fox river and the Chi-
cago & Northwestern and other rail-
roads; 38 miles W. of Chicago; is
the farming and manufacturing cen-
ter of Kane and adjoining counties;
has large cotton and woollen mills
and locomotive and car works; and
claims the first electric lighting sys-
tem in the United States. Pop.
(1910) 29,807.
Aurora Borealis, a luminous me-
teoric phenomenon appearing in the
N. most frequently in high latitudes,
the corresponding phenomenon in the
southern hemisphere being called au-
rora austral is, and both being also
called polar light, streamers, etc.
Aurungzebe, known as the Great
Mogul, or Emperor of Hindustan,
born Oct: 22, 1618. He was the son
of Shah of Jehan, and properly named
Mohammed, but received from his
grandfather that of Aurungzebe (Or-
nament of the Throne), by which he
is known to history. Aurungzebe died
at Ahmednagar, in the Deccan, Feb.
21, 1707, master of 21 provinces, and
of a revenue of about $200,000,000.
Auscultation, the art of discov-
ering diseases within the body by
means of the sense of hearing. Being
carried out most efficiently by means
of an instrument called a stethoscope,
it is often called mediate auscultation.
Auspices, among the Romans,
omens, especially those drawn from
the flight or other movements of birds,
or, less properly, from the occurrence
of lightning or thunder in particular
parts of the sky. These were sup-
posed to be indications of the will of
heaven, and to reveal futurity.
Austen, Jaue, an English novelist,
born at Steventon, Hampshire, of
which parish her father was the rec-
tor, Dec. 16, 1775 ; died, July 18. 1817.
Austin
Austerlitz, a small town of Mo-
ravia, on the Littawa, 13 miles S. EL
of Briinn. In the vicinity, on Dec. 2,
1805, was fought the famous battle
that bears its name, between the
French army of 80,000 men, com-
manded by Napoleon, and the com-
bined Russian and Austrian armies,
numbering 84,000, under their respec-
tive Emperors ; in which the former
achieved a signal victory.
Austin, capital of the State of
Texas, and county-seat of Travis co. ;
on the Colorado river; 230 miles N.
W. of Galveston. It derives large
power for manufacturing from the riv-
er. Besides the State Capitol, the city
contains the main building of the State
University, four State asylums, the
State Confederate Home. The Capi-
tol, which cost $3,000,000, is in a
square of 10 acres. The recent con-
struction of a dam in the river has
given the city a large and beautiful
stretch of water, known as Lake Mc-
Donald. The city was originally
known as Waterloo ; was named after
Stephen F. Austin ; became the capital
of the Republic of Texas in 1839 ; and
the capital of the State in 1872. Pop.
(1900) 22,258; (1910) 29,860.
Austin, Alfred, an English poet,
critic, and journalist, born at Head-
ingly, near Leeds, May 30, 1835. He
graduated from the University of Lon-
don in 1853, was called to the bar in
1857, and was editor of the " National
Review," 1883-1893. He was ap-
pointed poet laureate of England in
1896. He died June 2, 1913.
Austin, George Lowell, an
American physician and writer, born
in Massachusetts in 1849 ; died in
1893.
Austin, Henry, an American law-
yer and legal writer, born in Boston,
Mass., Dec. 21, 1858; wrote several
valuable law books.
Austin, Jane Goodwin, an Amer-
ican novelist, born in Worcester,
Mass., Feb. 25, 1831 ; was educated
and thenceforth lived in Boston. She
died in Boston, March 30, 1894.
Austin, John, an English writer
on jurisprudence, born fn Creeling
Mill, Suffolk, March 3, 1790. From
1826 to 1835 he filled the chair of
, Jurisprudence at London University.
I Died in Weybridge, Surrey, in Decem-
Austin
Australia
her, 1859. His wife, SARAH, one of
the Taylors of Norwich, born in 1793,
produced translations of German
works, and other books bearing on
Germany or its literature. She died
in Weybridge, Surrey, Aug. 8, 1867.
Her daughter, LADY DUFF GOBDON,
translated several German works.
Austin, Stephen Fuller, an
American pioneer, born in Austinville,
Va., Nov. 31, 1793; a son of Moses
Austin, the real founder of the State
of Texas, who, about 1820, obtained
permission from the Mexican Govern-
ment to establish an American colony
in Texas, but died before his plans
were accomplished. Stephen took up
the work unfinished by his father, and
located a thrifty colony on the site
of the present city of Austin, in 1821.
Subsequently he was a commissioner
to urge the admission of Texas into
the Mexican Union ; was imprisoned
there for several months; and, in
1835 was a commissioner to the
United States Government to secure
the recognition of Texas as an inde-
pendent State. He died in Columbia,
Tex., Dec. 25, 1836.
Australasia, a division of tbe
globe usually regarded as comprehend-
ing the islands of Australia, Tasmania,
New Zealand, New Caledonia, the
New Hebrides, the Solomon Islands,
New Ireland, New Britain, the Ad-
miralty Islands, New Guinea, and the
Arru Islands, besides numerous other
islands and island groups ; area, 3,2d9-
199 square miles, pop. about five mil-
lions. It forms one of three portions
into which some geographers have di-
vided Oceania, the other two being
Malaysia and Polynesia.
Australia, Commonwealth of,
a British possession which includes
the island continent of Australia prop-
er (the largest island in the world)
and the island of Tasmania, is situ-
ated in the Southern Hemisphere, and
comprises in all an area of about
2,974,581 square miles, the mainland
alone containing about 2,948,366
square miles.
It k bounded on the W. and E. by
the Indian and Pacific Oceans respec-
tively: lies between long. 113° 9' E.
and 153° 39' E., while its northern
and southern limits are the parallels
of lat. 10° 41' S. and 39° 8* S., or,
including Tasmania, 43° 39' S. On
its north are the Timor and Arafura
seas and Torres Strait ; on its south
the Southern Ocean and Bass Strait.
The continent is a large plateau,
fringed by a low-lying, well-watered
coast, particularly on the eastern side.
No less than 1,149,320 square miles
belong to the tropical zone, and 1,020,-
720 to the temperate zone.
The area and population (exclusive
of aborigines) of the different states
composing the Commonwealth were
reported as follows on Dec. 31, 1915 :
Area
States and Territories Sq. M. Pop.
New South Wales 309,460 1,869,084
Victoria 87,884 1,417,803
gueensland 670,500 680,446
outh Australia 380,070 439,222
Western Australia 975,920 318,016
Tasmania 26,215 201,025
Northern Territory 523,620 4,563
Federal Territory 912 1,829
Total 4,455,005 4,931,988
The government is based on the
Constitution Act of 1900. A gover-
nor-general represents the Crown.
The Senate consists of thirty-six mem-
bers, six for each Original State, di-
rectly chosen by the people of the
State for a term of six years. The
House of Representatives consists of
seventy-five members, directly elected
for three years. A Referendum is pro-
vided. State governors are appointed
by the Crown, and State Parliaments
retain legislative authority in regard
to all matters not transferred to the
Federal Parliament.
The executive power is vested in the
governor-general, with an Executive
Council of seven Ministers ; the judi-
cial in Federal Supreme Court, called
the High Court of Australia, and
other courts vested with Federal ju-
risdiction. Trade, commerce, and in-
tercourse among the States is abso-
lutely free. The Commonwealth makes
uniform customs and excise duties.
The estimated revenue of the Com-
monwealth for the fiscal year 1915-16
was $142,453.000; estimated expen-
diture, $315,420,455 ; contributions to
the States, $31,734,975. During the
year the revenue was augmented by
loans aggregating $303,007,800. The
largest expenditure was for defence,
$248,649,875. The total debt of the
Australia
Australian
Commonwealth on March 1, 1916, was
$446,806,750, of which $175,225,100
was a 4^% war loan and $149,892,-
080 a war loan from the British Gov-
ernment. The total net debt of the
States on June 30, 1915, was $1,672,-
876,170, or about $340 per capita.
Production and industry in the cal-
endar year 1913 yielded the following
values.
Agricultural ? 231,300,000
Pastoral 289,330,000
Dairying, Poultry, etc 101,705,000
Forestry and Fisheries 31,690,000
Mining 129,040,000
Manufacturing 307,930,000
Total $1,090,995,000
The leading farm crops in 1914—15
were wheat, 24,892,402 bushels ; oats.
4,341,104; maize, 8,455,561; hay, 1,-
733,944 tons ; and sugar-cane, 2,104,-
239 tons. The live-stock comprised
78,600,334 sheep, 11,051,573 cattle, 2,-
521,272 horses, and 862,447 swine.
The value of all minerals produced in
1914 was $111,322,945, gold leading
with $43,649,735. Coal yielded $23,-
098,445.
Commercial relations in 1914-15
showed : imports of merchandise, spe-
cie, and bullion, $322,159,185; ex-
ports, $302,962,880. The principal ex-
ports were wool, wheat, skins, hides,
butter, copper and zinc, mutton and
lamb, flour, coal, and beef. During
the World War the government con-
trolled the export of the principal
food-stuffs. The Commonwealth gov-
ernment owns a line of steamships,
operated in trade only.
Internal communication is afforded
by 20,062 miles of railway, besides 2,-
055 miles of private lines ; 8,409 post-
ing and receiving offices which in 1914
handled 520,518,000 letters and post-
cards, 136,200,000 newspapers, etc.,
and 4,286,000 parcels ; and 4,624 tele-
graph offices, with 108,931 miles of
wire, dealing with 17,000,000 cable-
grams and telegrams.
Invalid and old-age pensions are
granted to a maximum annual amount
of $260 per capita, totalling in 1916,
$14,432,080 to 114,380 persons, and
maternity allowances of $25 on the
birtn of each child are granted, 33,-
250 claims being passed in 1915-16.
In 1917 the seat of the Parliament
was at Melbourne and a made-to-order
Federal Capital was under construc-
tion at Canberra, in New South
Wales on plans drafted by an Ameri-
can engineer.
The principal cities and towns, with
their population, 1911, are Sydney (N.
S. W.), 725,400; Melbourne (Vic.),
651,000; Adelaide (S. A.), 196,567;
Brisbane (A.), 154,000; Perth (W.
A.), 106,792; Newcastle (N. S. W.),
65,500; Ballarat (Vic.), 44,000; Ben-
digo (Vic.), 42,000; Hobart (Tas.),
39,107; Broken Hill (N. S. W.), 30,-
972; Geelong (Vic.) 28,900; and
Charters Towers (A.), 26,000.
At the outbreak of the World War
Australia responded promptly and ef-
fectively to the call of the mother
country. The Commonwealth has a
considerable naval fleet. That and a
strong military force were quickly
mobilized for service at home and
wherever needed. See APPENDIX :
World War.
Australia, South, one of the orig-
inal States in the Commonwealth of
Australia ; occupies the middle of Aus-
tralia, and stretches from sea to sea.
At first as the colony of South Aus-
tralia it extended between Ion. 132°
and 141° E., and from the Southern
Ocean to lat. 26° N. It now has an area
of about 903,690. Pop. (1911) 418,172.
Australia, Western, one of the
original States in the Commonwealth
of Australia ; embraces all that por-
tion of Australia W. of Ion. 129° E.,
bounded E. by South Australia, and
N., W., and S. by the Indian Ocean ;
area, 975,920 square miles; capital,
Perth. The coast-line measures about
3,000 miles, and, except on the S., is
indented by numerous bays, creeks, and
estuaries. From 1850 to 1868 it was a
place for the transportation of con-
victs. In 1890 the State received au-
tonomous government. On Oct. 16,
1906, the Legislature adopted a motion
to secede from the commonwealth, the
union being detrimental to the devel-
oping interests of the State. Pop.
(1911) 294,181.
Australian Federation, a poli-
tical union of all the Australian colo-
nies, the agitation for which began in
1852. Feb., 1899, a unanimous agree-
ment was reached by the colonial pre-
miers in conference at Melbourne, re-
garding the unsettled questions re-
Austria
ferred to them by the colonial Legisla-
tures, thus insuring the success of the
federation project. In 1900, a bill
making Federation effective was intro-
duced into Parliament, at London, and
passed, the only amendment offered
having reference to the royal preroga-
tive. Later in that year the Earl of
Hopetoun was appointed by the Queen
first Governor-General. He resigned
in May, 1902.
Austria, or Austria-Hungary ,
an extensive monarchy in Central Eu-
rope, inhabited by several distinct
nationalities, and consisting of two
semi-independent countries, each with
its own parliament and government,
but with one common sovereign, army,
and system of diplomacy, and also
with a parliament common to both.
The Austrian empire extends from
about lat. 42° to 51° N., or, exclusive
of Dalmatia and the narrower part of
Croatia, from about lat. 44° 30' to
51° N., and from Ion. 8° 30' to 26°
30' E., the total area in round num-
bers is 240,000 square miles. Its
Greatest length from E. to W. is about
60 miles ; its greatest breadth from
N. to S., with the exclusion above
stated, is about 400 miles ; bounded S.
by Turkey, the Adriatic Sea, and the
kingdom of Italy ; W. by Switzerland,
Bavaria, and Saxony ; N. by Prussia
and Russian Poland ; and E. by Rus-
sia and Rumania. On the shores of
the Adriatic, along the coasts of Dal-
matia, Croatia, Istria, etc., lies its
only sea frontage.
Besides being divided into the two
great divisions above mentioned, the
Austrq-Hungarian monarchy is fur-
ther divided into a number of govern-
ments or provinces. The following
table gives their name, area, and pop-
ulation :
Area in Pop. Dec.
_ Divisions sq. m. 31,1910
Austrian Provinces —
Lower Austria 7,658 3,531,814
Upper Austria 4,268 853,006
Salzburg 2,763 214,737
Styria 8,662 1,444,157
Carinthia 3,989 396,200
Carniola ..'. 3,845 525,995
Coast land 3,079 893,797
Tyrol and Vorarl-
berg 11,312 1,092,021
Bohemia 20,065 6,769,548
Moravia 8,583 2,622,271
Silesia 1,988 756,949
Galicia 30,321 8,025,675
Austria
Area in Pop. Dec.
Divisions sq. m. 31, 1910
Austrian Provinces —
Bukowina 4,033 800,098
Dalmatia 4,956 645,666
115,882 28,571,934
Hungarian Provinces —
Hungary Proper 108,977 18,142,200
Croatia and Slayonia 16,418 2,602,544
In military service. . . 141,743
Total Hungary 125,395 20,886,487
Total Empire 241,277 49,458,421
None of the European States, with
the exception of Russia, exhibits such
a diversity of race and language as
does this dual Empire. In Austria
alone the following ethical elements
on the basis of language were devel-
oped in the census of 1910 : German,
9,950,266; Bohemian, Moravian, and
Slovak, 6,435,983; Polish, 4,967,984;
Ruthenian, 3,518,854 ; Slovene, 1,252,-
940; Servian and Croatian, 783,334;
Italian and Ladin, 768,422; Ruma-
nian, 275,115; and Magyar, 10,974.
In Hungary the corresponding ele-
ments were : Magyar, 10,050,575 ;
German, 2,037,435; Slovak, 1,967,-
970; Rumanian, 2,949,032; Rutheni-
an, 472,587; Croatian, 1,883,162;
Servian, 1,106,471; all others, 469,-
255. Hence in the entire Empire the
linguistic elements were : German,
11,987,701 ; Bohemian, Moravian, and
Slovak, 9,656,893; Polish, 4,967,984;
Ruthenian, 3,991,441 ; Servian and
Croatian, 3,772,967; Italian and La-
din, 768,422; Rumanian, 3,224,147;
Magyar, 10.061,549; all others, 469,-
255. The Slavs, who amount to above
19,000,000, or 45 per cent, of the total
population, are the chief of the com-
ponent nationalities of the monarchy
in point of numbers, forming the great
mass of the population of Bohemia,
Moravia, Carniola, Galicia, Dalmatia,
Croatia and Slavonia, and Northern
Hungary, and half the population of
Silesia and Bukowina. This prepon-
derance, however, is only apparent, as
none of the other races are split up
into so many branches differing so
greatly from each other in language,
religion, civilization, manners, and
customs. These branches are the
North Slavic Czechs, Moravians, and
Slovaks, the Ruthenians and Poles,
and the South Slavic Slovenians,
MODERN
1 — Seven-passenger eight-cylinder touring car.
2 — Six-cylinder touring car — 66 H.P.
3 — Twin-six brougham, six-passenger.
DMOBILES
4 — Half-ton Light Delivery Wagon. 5 — One-and-a-half-ton Delivery Truck.
6 — Five-ton Heavy Service Truck.
Austria
Automobile*
Croats, Serbs, and Bulgarians. The
Germans are scattered over the whole
monarchy, and form almost the sole
population of the archduchy of Aus-
tria, Salzburg, the greatest portion of
Styria and Carinthia, almost the
whole of Tyrol and Vorarlberg, con-
siderable portions of Bohemia and Mo-
ravia, the whole of the W. of Silesia,
etc. ; and they are also numerous in
Hungary and Transylvania. The Mag-
yars or Hungarians form the great
bulk of the inhabitants of Hungary
and of the E. portion of Transylvania.
To the Italic or Western Romanic
stock belong the inhabitants of South
Tyrol and parts of the coast lands and
Dalmatia. A considerable portion of
the S. E. of the empire is occupied by
members of the Rumanian (or East-
ern Romanic) stock, who form more
than half the population of Transyl-
vania, besides being spread over the
S. E. parts of Hungary, Bukowina,
and part of Croatia and Slavonia.
The number of Jews is also very con-
siderable, especially in Galicia, Hun-
gary, Bohemia, and Moravia. There
are also several other races whose
numbers are small, such as the Gyp-
sies, who are most numerous in Hun-,
gary and Transylvania, and the Al-
banians in Dalmatia and neighboring
regions. The population is thickest
in Lower Austria, Bohemia, Silesia,
and Moravia ; thinnest in Salzburg
The State religion of Austria is the
Roman Catholic, and next in numbers
is the Greek Church. Calvinism and
Lutheranism are also professed by a
large body of the people ; the former
mostly in Hungary and Transylvania,
the latter in the German provinces and
in Galicia. The civil power exercises
supreme control in all ecclesiastical
matters, the emperor being, in every-
thing but the name, head of the
Church.
Military service is obligatory on all
citizens capable of bearing arms who
have attained the age of 20, and lasts
up to the age of 42, either in the ac-
tive army, in the landwehr, or the
landsturm. The period of service in
the active army is 12 years, of which
three are passed in the line, seven in
the reserve, and two in the landwehr.
The history of Austria-Hungary in
the last few years has been most
eventful. On Oct. 7, 1909, without
any previous hint, the annexation of
the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and
Herzegovina and the sanjak of Novi
Bazar was proclaimed. Turkey vain-
ly protested against the act, as a viola-
tion of the provisions of the Treaty
of Berlin. On June 28, 1914, the
Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdi-
nand, heir to the throne, and his wife,
the Duchess of Hohenberg, were as-
sassinated while on a visit to Sara-
jevo, ^Bosnia, by an alleged Servian.
This incident was made the immediate
pretext for the greatest war in his-
tory. The venerable Emperor, Francis
Joseph, died Nov. 21, 1916, and was
succeeded by his grand nephew, the
Archduke Charles Francis Joseph, as
Charles I. For a summary of the
participation of Austria-Hungary in
the war see APPENDIX: World War.
Author's Guild, American, an
organization founded in New York
city, in 1892, and incorporated, in
1895, has for its objects the promo-
tion of a professional spirit among
authors and a better understanding
between authors and their publishers,
and, in general, the protection of lite-
rary^ property and the advancement of
the interests of American authors and
literature. The guild has a pension
fund for members who become needy.
Autocracy, a word signifying that
form of government in which the sov-
ereign unites in himself the legislative
and the executive powers of the State,
and thus rules uncontrolled. Such a
sovereign is, therefore, called an auto-
crat. Nearly all Eastern governments
are of this form. Among European
rulers, the Emperor of Russia alone
bears the title of Autocrat, the name
indicating his freedom from constitu-
tional restraint of every kind.
Automobiles, a term under which
are comprised horseless carriages, mo-
tor vans, motor omnibus, and all the
motor traction vehicles adapted for
use on ordinary roads having no rails.
Electricity, steam and gasoline or
naphtha are the three main sources of
power that do the bidding of the man
behind the lever. Other sources of
power, such as compressed air, liquid
air, carbonic acid gas and alcohol,
have been experimented with ; but are
regarded as impracticable by experts.
The modern automobile, which was
led up to by the bicycle with its rub-
Autonomy
her tires, found its first great devel-
opment in France, encouraged by the
perfection of the highways in that
country. The United States census of
1914 on manufactures credited the au-
tomobile industry with having 300 es-
tablishments for producing complete
cars, which employed $312,870,000
capital, paid wage earners $79,307,-
000, used materials costing $292,598,-
000, and had an output valued at
$503.230,000. The manufacture of au-
tomobile bodies and parts had 971 es- |
tablishments, $94,854.000 capital, and
an output valued at $129,601,000. The
total registration of cars in the United
States was 1.127,940, an increase in
three years of 605,001. A tremendous
increase of motors for trucking, ambu-
lance, and artillery use developed dur-
ing the World War. In the calendar
year 1916 the exports of American
made automobiles and parts aggre-
gated 80.850, valued at $96,595,861,
the largest number going to Europe.
Autonomy, the arrangement by
which the citizens of a State manage
their own legislation and government;
and this evidently may, with certain
restrictions, be the case also within
limited bodies of the same people, such
as corporations, religious sects, etc.
Autopsy, eye-witnessing, a direct
observation ; generally applied to a
post mortem examination, or the dis-
section of a dead body.
Autumn, the season of the year
which follows summer and precedes
winter. Astronomically, it is consid- j
ered to extend from the autumnal equi-
nox, Sept. 23, in which the sun enters
Libra, to the winter solstice, Dec. 22, !
in which he enters Capricorn. Pop-
ularly, it is believed to embrace the
months of September, October and
November.
Auvergne, a province of Central
France, now merged into the Depart-
ments of Cantal and Puy-de-Dome,
and an arrondissement of Haute-
Loire. It contains the Auvergne Moun-
tains, the highest in France.
Anxetophone, a device which
greatly increases the sound produced
by the graphophone (q. v.).
Auzout, Adrian, a French math-
ematician ; inventor of the micrometer,
^ which is still in use among astron-
Avebury
omers to measure the apparent diam-
eter of celestial bodies. He was the
first who thought of applying the tel-
escope to the astronomical quadrant.
He died in 1691.
Ava, Arva, Yava, or Kava, a
plant possessing narcotic proprieties.
Until recently it was ranked in the
genus piper (pepper). It is a native
of many of the South Sea islands,
where the inhabitants intoxicate them-
selves with a fermented liquor pre-
pared from the upper portion of the
root and the base of the stem.
Avalanches, masses of snow or
ice that slide or roll down the decliv-
ities of high mountains, and often
occasion great devastation. They
are most common in July, • August
and September. Sudden avalanches,
larger or smaller, constitute one of
the special dangers of Alpine climbing.
Avars, a people, probably of Tu-
ranian origin, who at an early period
may have migrated from the region E.
of the Tobol in Siberia to that about
the Don, the Caspian Sea, and the
Volga. A part advanced to the Dan-
ube in 555 A. D., and settled in Dacia.
They served in Justinian's army, aid-
ed the Lombards in destroying the
kingdom of the Gepidae, and in the
6th century conquered under their
khan, Bajan, the region of Pannonia.
They then won Dalmatia, pressed into
Thuringia and Italy against the
Franks and Lombards, and subdued
the Slavs dwelling on the Danube, as
well as the Bulgarians on the Black
Sea. But they were ultimately lim-
ited to Pannonia, where they were
overcome by Charlemagne, and nearly
extirpated by the Slavs of Moravia.
After 827 they disappear from history.
Traces of their fortified settlements
are found, and known as Avarian
rings.
Avatar, more properly Avatara,
in Hindu mythology, an incarnation
of the Deity. Of the innumerable
avatars the chief are the 10 incarna-
tions of Vishnu, who appeared succes-
sively as a fish, a tortoise, a boar.
Avdyeyev, Michael Vassilye-
vich, a Russian novelist (1821-1876).
Avebnry, a village of England, in
Wiltshire, occupying the site of a so-
called Druidical temple, which origi-
nally consisted of a large outer circle
Avebnry
of 100 stones, from 15 to 17 feet in
height, and about 40 feet in circum-
ference, surrounded by a broad ditch
and lofty rampart, and inclosing two
smaller circles.
Avebnry, Lord. See LUBBOCK.
Avellaneda, Nicholas, an Ar-
gentine statesman, born in Tucuman,
Oct. 1, 183G; Minister of Public in-
struction in 1868-1874, and President
of the Republic in 1874-1886; pub-
lished several historical and economi-
cal works. He died Dec. 26, 1885.
Avellaneda y Arteaga, Ger-
trudis Gomez de, a distinguished
Spanish poet, dramatist and novelist,
born in Puerto Principe, Cuba, March
23, 1814. She died in Madrid, Feb.
2, 1873.
Ave Maria ("Hail, Mary"), the
first two words of the angel Gabriel's
salutation (Luke i: 28), and the be-
ginning of the very common Latin
prayer to the Virgin in the Roman
Catholic Church.
Average, formerly the apportion-
ment of losses by sea or elsewhere in
just proportions among different indi-
viduals; now the medium or mean
proportion between certain given
quantities. It is ascertained by ad-
ding all the quantities together and
dividing their sum by the number of
them.
Averell, William Woods, an
American military officer, born in
Cameron, N. Y., Nov. 5, 1832; was
graduated at the United States Mili-
tary Academy in 1855 ; served on the
frontier and in* several Indian cam-
paigns till the beginning of the Civil
War, when he was appointed Colonel
of the 3d Pennsylvania Cavalry, and
assigned to the command of the caval-
ry defenses of Washington. During
the war he distinguished himself on
numerous occasions as a cavalry raid-
er and commander, and at its close
was brevetted Major-General of volun-
teers. He was retired in 1888.
He was United States Consul-general
at Montreal in 1866-1869. He died in
Bath, N. Y., Feb. 3, 1900.
Avernus, or Averno, a lake in
the neighborhood of Naples, about 2%
miles N. W. of Puzzuoli, and near the
coast of Baiae, the waters of which
were so unwholesome and putrid that
DO birds ever visited its banks. The
Avignon
ancients made it the entrance of hell,
by which Ulysses and .<Eneas descend-
ed into the lower regions.
Averrhoa, a genus of plants. It
consists of two species, both of which
form small trees in the East Indies.
One has fruit resembling a small
cucumber. The latter is intensely
acid and cannot be eaten raw. It
is pickled or candied, or a syrup is
obtained from it by boiling with sugar,
and its juice is found an excellent
agent for removing iron mold or other
spots from linen. To the Malays it
answers the same purposes as the cit-
ron, the gooseberry, the caper and the
cucumber of Europe.
Avery, Benjamin Parke, an
American journalist and diplomatist,
born in New York city in 1829. From
1874 to 1875 he was United States
Minister to China. He died in Pekin,
China, Nov. 8, 1875.
Avery, Samuel Putnam, an
American merchant, born in New
York city, March 17, 1822; became a
copper-plate and wood engraver, and
subsequently an art publisher and
dealer, and retired from business in
1888. In 1891, with his wife, he cre-
ated and endowed the Avery Architec-
tural Library, in Columbia University,
as a memorial of his deceased son;
and in May, 1900, he presented to the
trustees of the New York Public Li-
brary a collection of etchings, litho-
graphs and photographs, numbering
more than 17,500 pieces, with many
volumes similarly illustrated. Died
Aug. 12, 1904.
Aviary, a building for birds.
Aviation. See AEBO^ATJTICS.
Avicennia, or White Man-
grove, a genus which consists of
trees or large shrubs resembling man-
groves, and, like them, growing in
tidal estuaries and salt marshes.
Ayienns, Bnfns Festus, a Latin
descriptive poet, who flourished about
the end of the 4th century after
Christ, and wrote " Descriptio Orbis
Terra," a general description of the
earth ; " Ora Maritima," an account
of the Mediterranean coasts, etc.
Avignon (ancient Avenio), a city
of France, capital of the Department
of Vaucluse, on the left bank of the
Rhone, 76 miles N. N. W. of Mar-
seilles, on the railway to Paris. In
Avlona ^^
1309, Clement V. transferred thither
the abode of the Popes, who continued
to reside here till 1377, when they re-
turned to Rome ; but two schismatical
Popes, or Popes elected by the French
cardinals, resided at Avignon till
1409. Avignon and its territory re-
mained the property of the Holy See
until 1797, when it was incorporated
with France.
Avlona, the principal seaport on
the coast of Albania, on the gulf of
the same name, supposed to be the
ancient Avion of the Greeks, fifty-
eight miles across the Strait of Otran-
to from Italy. For its share in the
great war, see APPENDIX: World
War.
Avocado, a West Indian fruit,
called also avocado pear, alligator
pear, avigato, and sabacca.
Avoirdupois, a system of weights
used for all goods except precious met-
als, gems, and medicines, and in which
a pound contains 16 ounces, or 7,000
grains, while a pound troy contains 12
ounces, or 5,760 grains. A hundred-
weight contains 112 pounds avoirdu-
pois.
Avon, the name of several Eng-
lish and Scottish rivers, the best
known of which is that Avon which
rises in Northamptonshire, and flows
into the Severn a't Tewkesbury, after
a course of 100 miles. On its banks
is Stratford-on-Avon, the birthplace
and abode of Shakespeare, who has
hence been styled the Bard of Avon.
Axayacat, or Axayacatl, a Mex-
ican fly, the eggs of which, deposited
abundantly on rushes and flags, are
collected and sold as a species of cavi-
are.
Axim, an important station and
port on the African Gold Coast, a* lit-
tle to the E. of the mouth of the Anco-
brah river. Inland from Axim, in the
basin of that river, and in the district
between it and the Prah, gold mining
operations have been carried on on a
large scale.
Axinomancy, a mode of divina-
tion much practiced by the ancient
Greeks, particularly with the view of
discovering the perpetrators of great
crimes. An ax was poised upon a
stake, and was supposed to move so
as to indicate the guilty person ; or the
names of suspected persons being pro-
Ayeshah
nounced, the motion of the ax at a
particular name was accepted as a sign
of guilt.
Axiom, a Greek word meaning a
decision or assumption, is commonly
used to signify a general proposition
which the understanding recognizes as
true, as soon as the import of the
words conveying it is apprehended.
Axis, a straight line, real or im-
aginary, passing through a body, and
around which that body revolves, or
at least may revolve ; also, the imag-
inary line connecting the poles of a
planet, and around which the planet
rotates.
Axis, a species of deer found in
India, called by Anglo-Indian sports-
men hog deer.
Axminster, a market town in
England, in the county Devon, on the
Axe, at one time celebrated for its
woolen cloth and carpet manufactures,
and giving name to an expensive va-
riety of carpet having a thick, soft
pile, and also to a cheaper variety.
Axolotl, a curious Mexican am-
phibian, not unlike a newt, from 8 to
10 inches in length, with gills formed
of three long, ramified or branch-like
processes floating on each side of the
neck. It reproduces by laying eggs,
and was for some time regarded as a
perfect animal with permanent gills.
It is said, however, that they frequent-
ly lose their gills like the other mem-
bers of the genus, though some au-
thorities maintain that the true ax-
olotl never loses its gills. The axolotl
is esteemed a luxury by the Mexicans.
There are a number of species in
North America.
Ayacucho, formerly Huamanga or
Guamanga, a town in the Peruvian
department of the same name, 220
miles E. S. E. of Lima. Here, on Dec.
9, 1824, the combined forces of Peru
and Colombia — the latter then com-
prising Ecuador, New Granada, and
Venezuela — totally defeated the last
Spanish army that ever set foot on
the continent.
Aye-aye, an animal of Madagas-
car, so called from its cry, now re-
ferred to the lemur family. It is about
the size of a hare, has large, flat ears
and a bushy tail.
Ayeshah, also Aysha, or Aisha,
the favorite wife of Mohammed, and
Aylmer
Azores
daughter of Abu-Bekr, was born at
Medina about 610 A. D. ; and was only
nine years of age when the Prophet
married her. She was the only one of
Mohammed's wives who accompanied
him in his campaigns. Although Aye-
shah bore no children to Mohammed,
she was tenderly beloved by him. She
died at Medina (677 A. D.), highly
venerated by all true Mussulmans, and
named the Prophetess and the Mother
of Believers.
Aylmer, Matthew, a Canadian
military officer, born in Melbourne, P.
Q., March 28, 1842 ; became Adjutant-
General of the Dominion militia, the
highest military office in Canada next
to that of the Major-General com-
manding, in 1896 ; baron in 1901.
AYE-AYE.
Ayr, a town of Scotland, a royal
and parliamentary borough and capi-
tal of Ayrshire, at the mouth of the
river Ayr. The house in which the
poet Burns was born stands with-
in 1^ miles of the town, between it
and the Church of Alloway ("Allo-
way's auld haunted kirk"), and a
monument to him stands on a height
between the kirk and the bridge over
the Doon.
Ayrer, Jacob, a German dramat-
ist ; next to Hans Sachs the most pro-
lific dramatist of Germany in the 16th
century. He died in Nuremberg,
March 26, 1605.
Ayres, Anne, an American au-
thor, born in England in 1816; was
the first member of an American sis-
terhood in the Protestant Episcopal
Church. She died in February, 1896.
Ayrton, William Edward, an
English electrician and inventor, born
in London, in 1847 ; was graduated at
University College, London, in 1867;
entered the Indian telegraph service,
having studied electrical engineering
with Prof. William Thomson ; became
electrical superintendent and intro-
duced throughout India the system of
determining the position of a fault by
electrically testing one end of a line.
He has been a voluminous writer and
is widely known for his " Practical
Electricity." He died Nov. 8, 1908.
Aytonn, Sir Robert, poet, born
in Fifeshire, Scotland, in 1570; died
in 1638.
Aytonn, William Edmond-
•toune, poet and prose writer, born
at Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1813. In
1848 he published a collection "of bal-
lads entitled " Lays of the Scottish
Cavaliers," which has proved the most
popular of all his works. He died at
Blackhills, Elgin, 1865.
Aynntamiento, the name given in
Spain to the councils or governing
bodies of towns.
Aynthia, the ancient capital of
Siam, on the Menam, 50 miles N. of
Bangkok. Some magnificent buildings
still remain, now crumbling into ruins
and overgrown with luxuriant vege-
tation; notable among them are Bud-
dhist temples, especially the Golden
Mount, 400 feet high.
Azalea, a genus of plants belong-
ing to the heathworts. Several for-
eign azaleas are cultivated in gardens
and greenhouses on account of the
abundance of their fine flowers, and,
in some cases, their fragrant smell.
Azeglio, Massimo Taparelli;
Marquis d', an Italian author, irt-
ist, diplomatist, and statesman, born
at Turin, in 1801. He died Jan. 15,
1866.
Azores, or Western Islands, a
Portuguese archipelago, in the mid-
Atlantic, between 36° 55' and 39° 55*
N. lat. and between 25° 10' and 31°
16' W. long., stretching over a dis-
tance of 400 miles.
The total area of the group is 922
Azov
Arnrine
square miles, and the pop. (1911)
242,613. The coast is generally steep
and rugged ; the interior abounds in
ravines and mountains. Perhaps the
greatest want of the group is a good
harbor. The Azores are regarded as
a province, not a colony, of Portugal.
Azov, Sea of, is a large gulf of
the Black Sea, formed by the Crimean
peninsula, or rather an inland lake
connected with the Black Sea by the
Strait of Yenikale or Kertch (an-
cient Bosporus Cimmerius), 28 miles
long, and barely 4 wide a,t the narrow-
est The whole sea is shallow, from 3
to 52 feet deep ; and measuring 235 by
110 miles, it occupies an area of 14,-
500 square miles.
Azrael, the name given to the
angel of death by the Mohammedans.
Aztecs, a race of people who set-
tled in Mexico early in the 14th cen-
Itury, ultimately extended their domin-
| ion over a large territory, and were
; still extending their supremacy at the
time of the arrival of the Spaniards,
I by whom they were speedily subju-
j gated. See MEXICO.
Azuline, or Aznrine, blue dyes
belonging to the coal-tar class.
Aznni. Domenicp Alberto, an
Italian jurist, born in Sassari, Sar-
dinia, in 1749. He became judge of
the Tribunal of Commerce at Nice,
and in 1795 published a work in which
he endeavored to reduce maritime
laws to fixed principles. He died Jan.
1 23, 1827.
Azure, the heraldic term for the
color blue, represented in engraving by
horizontal lines.
Aznrine, a fresh water fish of the
same genus as the roach, chub and
minnow ; called also blue r»acb.
b, the second letter in all i
European alphabets, in He-
brew, and most other Ian- 1
guages. It belongs to the !
mutes and labials, and as all j
labials are easy to be pronounced, b
is one of the first letters which chil-
dren learn to speak, after a, ba or pa
generally being the first syllable.
Baal, the chief male divinity among
the Phoenicians, as Ashtoreth was the
leading female one. The Carthagin-
ians, who sprang from the Phoenicians,
carried with them his worship to their
new settlements, as is proved, among
other evidence, by the names of some
of their world-renowned heroes; thus
Hannibal, written in Punic inscrip-
tions, Hannibaal, signifies the grace of
Baal ; and Hasdrubal, or Asdrubal,
Azrubaal = ""Help of Baal." The
worship of Baal early existed among
the Canaanites and the Moabites,
whence it spread to the Israelites, be-
coming at last for a time completely
dominant among the 10 tribes, and to
a certain extent even among the two.
Perhaps the Babylonian Bel was only
Baal with a dialectic difference of
spelling, though Prof. Rawlinson
thinks differently (Isa. xlvi: 1). There
was an affinity between Baal and Mo-
loch. The Beltein or Beltane fires, lit
in early summer in Scotland and Ire-
land, seem to be a survival of Baal's
worship.
Baalbek (ancient HEIJOPOIJS, city
of the sun), a place in Syria, in a
fertile valley at the foot of Antili-
banus, 40 miles from Damascus, fa-
mous for its magnificent ruins. Of
these, the chief is the temple of the
Sun, built either by Antoninus Pius
or by Septimius Severus. Some of the
blocks used in its construction are 60
feet long by 12 thick ; and its 54 col-
umns, of which 6 are still standing,
were 72 feet high and 22 in circum-
ference. Near it is a temple of Jupi-
ter, of smaller size, though still larger
than the Parthenon at Athens, and
there are other structures of an elab-
orately ornate type. Originally a
center of the sun-worship, it became
a Roman colony under Julius Caesar,
was garrisoned by Augustus, and ac-
quired increasing renown under Tra-
jan as the seat of an oracle. Un-
der Constantine its temples became
churches, but after being sacked by
the Arabs in 748, and more complete-
ly pillaged by Tamerlane in 1401, it
sank into hopeless decay. The work
of destruction was completed by an
earthquake in 1759.
Baba, a Turkish word, signifying
father, originating, like our word
papa, in the first efforts of children to
speak. In Persia and Turkey it is
prefixed as a title of honor to the
names of ecclesiastics of distinction,
especially of such as devote themselves
to an ascetic life; it is often affixed
in courtesy, also, to the names of
other persons, as Ali-Baba.
Babbage, Charles, an English
mathematician and inventor of a cal-
culating machine ; born near Teign-
mouth, England, Dec. 26, 1792. He
died in London, Oct. 18, 1871.
Babbitt, Isaac, an American in*
ventor, born in Taunton, Mass., July
26, 1799; learned the goldsmith's
trade ; early became interested in the
production of alloys; and in 1824
manufactured the first britannia wa*re
in the United States. In 1839, he dis-
covered the well known anti-friction
metal which bears his name, Babbitt
metal. For this discovery, the Massa-
chusetts Charitable Mechanics' Asso-
ciation awarded him a gold medal in
Babbitt Metal
Babn
1841, and subsequently Congress voted
him $20,000. He died in Somerville,
Mass., May 26, 1862.
Babbitt Metal, a soft metal re-
sulting from alloying together certaiu
proportions of copper, tin, and zinc,
or antimony, used with the view of as
far as possible obviating friction in
the bearings of journals, cranks, axles,
etc. Invented by Isaac Babbitt
Babcock, Earle Jay, an Amer-
ican educator ; born in St. Charles,
Minn., June 11, 1865 ; was graduated
at the University of Minnesota in
1899 ; worked extensively with the
United States Geological Survey ; and
in 1902 was director of the State
School of Mines of North Dakota, and
Professor of Chemistry and Geology in
the State University.
Babcock, Orville E., an Ameri-
can military officer, born in Franklin,
Vt, Dec. 25, 1835; served v;th dis-
tinction in the Civil War, a^u was a
member of Gen. Grant's staff. When
the latter was elected President, Bab-
cock became his secretary, and the
superintending engineer of several im-
portant public works. He was in-
dicted in 1876 for taking part in reve-
nue frauds, but on his trial was ac-
quitted. He died in Florida, June 2,
1884.
Babcock, Stephen Moulton, an
American educator ; born in Bridge-
water, N. Y., Oct. 22, 1843. He was
instructor of chemistry at Cornell
University in 1875-1876; Professor of
Agricultural Chemistry at the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin ; and chemist to
the New York State Experimental
Station. He died May 19, 1916.
Babel, a place or circumstances in
which confusion of sounds — as, for
instance, by several people speaking
at once — is the predominating char-
acteristic. The reference is to the
confusion of tongues divinely sent in
consequence of the building of the
Tower of Babel (Gen. xi : 1-9). The
magnificent temple of Belus, asserte_d
to have been originally this tower, is
said to have had lofty spires, and many
statues of gold, one of them 40 feet
high. In the upper part of this tem-
ple was the tomb of the founder, Be-
lus (the Nimrod of the sacred Scrip-
tures), who was deified after death.
The Tower of Babel is most frequent-
ly identified with the enormous ruin
atBirs, 2.000 ft. in base circumference,
156 ft. high, and two hours west of
Hillah on the site of the ancient bib-
lical city of Babylon.
Bab-el-Mandeb (i. e., the gate
of tears), the name of the strait be-
tween Arabia and the continent of
Africa, by which the Red Sea is con-
nected with the Gulf of Aden and the
Indian Ocean.
Babi, the name of a modern Per-
sian sect, derived from the title, Bab-
ed-Din (gate of the faith), assumed
by its founder, Mirza AH Mohammed,
a native of Shiraz, who, in 1843, after
a pilgrimage to Mecca, undertook to
form a new religion from a mixture
of Mohammedan, Christian, Jewish,
and Parsee elements. Babism enjoins
few prayers, and those only on fixed
occasions ; encourages hospitality and
charity ; prohibits polygamy, concu-
binage, and divorce ; discourages as-
ceticism and mendicancy; and directs
women to discard the veil, and share
as equals in the intercourse of social
life.
Babington, Anthony, a Roman
Catholic gentleman of Derbyshire, who
associated with others of his own per-
suasion to assassinate Queen Eliza-
beth, and deliver Mary, Queen of
Scots. The plot being discovered, the
conspirators were executed in 1586.
Babiroussa (a Malay word signi-
fying stag hog ) , a species of wild hog,
sometimes called the horned or stag
hog, from the great length and curva-
ture of its upper tusks or canines,
which curl upward and backward
somewhat like the horns of Rumin-
antia, the lower canines being also
very prominent It is nearly of the
size of a common hog, but rather
longer, and with more slender limbs.
The babiroussa is very numerous in
Celebes, the Moluccas, and Java. It
is hunted with dogs, and when taken
makes little resistance ; sometimes
when pressed it endeavors to reach the
sea, and eludes its pursuer by its dex-
terity in diving and swimming.
Baboo, or Babn, a Hindu title of
respect equivalent to sir or master,
usually given to wealthy and educated
native gentlemen, especially when of
the mercantile class.
Baboon
Bach
Baboon, a common name applied
to a genus of monkeys, natives of Af-
rica. They make a very obstinate re-
sistance to dogs, and only retreat be-
fore men when armed with guns. They
feed exclusively on fruits, seeds, and
other vegetable matter, and display a
great deal of cunning and audacity
when engaged in their marauding ex-
peditions. This animal has the re-
markable instinctive power of being
able to detect the presence of water,
and in South Africa is often employed
for this purpose when the ordinary
water supply fails. The baboon can
never be called tamed, however long
his confinement may have endured.
Babuyanes, or Madjicosima
Islands, a number of islands lying
about 30 miles N. of Luzon, and gen-
erally considered the most northern of
the Philippines. They are subject to
the Loo-Choo Islands ; aggregate pop.
about 12,000.
Babylon, the capital of Babylonia,
on both sides of the Euphrates, one of
the largest and most splendid cities
of the ancient world, now a scene of
ruins, and earth-mounds containing
them. Babylon was a royal city 1600
years before the Christian era; but
the old city was almost entirely de-
stroyed in 683 B. c. A new city was
built by Nebuchadnezzar nearly a cen-
tury later. This was in the form of a
square, each side 15 miles long, with
walls of such immense height and
thickness as to constitute one of the
wonders of the world. It contained
splendid edifices, large gardens and
pleasure-grounds, especially the hang-
ing-gardens, a sort of lofty terraced
structure supporting earth enough for
trees to grow, and the celebrated tow-
er of Babel, or temple of Belus, rising
by stages to the height of 625 feet.
(See BABEL.) After the city was
taken by Cyrus in 538 B. C., and Baby-
lonia made a Persian province, it
began to decline, and had suffered se-
verely by the time of Alexander the
Great. He intended to restore it, but
was prevented by his death, which
took place here in 323 B. c., from
which time its decay was rapid.
The great city of Babylon, or Babel,
was the capital of Babylonia, which
was called by the Hebrews Shinar.
The country was, as it still is, ex-
ceedingly fertile, and must have
anciently supported a dense popula-
tion. The chief cities, besides Baby-
lon, were Ur, Calneh, Erech, and Sip-
para. Babylonia and Assyria were
often spoken of together as Assyria.
Babylonish. Captivity, a term
usually applied to the deportation of
the two tribes of the kingdom of Ju-
dah to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar,
585 B. C. The duration of this cap-
tivity is usually reckoned 70 years,
though strictly speaking, it lasted only
50 years. A great part of the 10
tribes of Israel had been previously
taken captive to Assyria.
Baccarat, or Baccara, a game
played with the ordinary playing
cards. It acquired notoriety owing to
a fraud alleged to have been perpe-
trated by one of the persons present
in a game at which the Prince of
Wales, now King Edward, was
" banker," some years ago.
Bacchus (in Greek generally
Dionysos), the god of wine.
Bach, Alexander von, an Aus-
trian statesman, born in Loosdorf,
Jan. 4, 1813 ; was Minister of Justice
in 1848, of the Interior in 1849-1859 ;
and, subsequently, ambassador to
Rome. In 1855, he negotiated the
Concordat with the Papacy which
brought Austria into submission to
the Roman Church. He died Nov. 15,
1892.
Bach Heinrich a German musi-
cian, born Sept. 16, 1615 ; member of
the celebrated family of musicians,
father of Johann Christoph and Jo-
hann Michael Bach ; was organist at
Arnstadt, where he died July 10, 1691.
Bach, Johann Christian, a Ger-
man musician, born in Erfurt, in
1640 ; a member of the family of mu-
sicians ; son of Johannes Bach, the
great uncle of Johann Sebastian Bach.
He died in Erfurt, in 1682.
Bach, Johann Christian, a
German musician, born in Leipsic, in
1735 ; a son of Johann Sebastian
Bach ; died in London, in 1782.
Bach, Johann Christoph.
Friedrich, a German musician, born
in Leipsic, in 1732 ; a son of Johann
Sebastian Bach ; died in Biickeburg,
in 1795.
Bach, Johann Michael, a Ger-
man composer and instrument maker,
Bach
Bachelor's Buttons
born in 1648 ; a son of Heinrich
Bach ; father-in-law of Johann Sebas-
tian Bach. He died in Arnstadt, in
1694.
Bach, Johann Sebastian, a cel-
ebrated musician, born at Eisenach,
Upper Saxony, March 21, 1685. When
he was 10 years old his father, who
was a musician at Eisenach, died, and
Bach sought the protection of an elder
brother, who, dying soon after, he
was again left destitute, and, to earn
a livelihood, entered the choir of St.
Michael's, Luneberg, as a soprano
singer. In 1703 he became court mu-
sician at Weimar, the following year
organist at Arnstadt, and in 1708
court organist at Weimar. While
holding this office be labored to make
himself master of every branch of
music. In 1717 he was made Director
of Concerts, and six years afterward
Director of Music and Cantor to St.
Thomas' School, Leipsic, an appoint-
ment which he held to his death.
Bach's close studies affected his eyes,
and an operation left him^ totally
blind and hastened his death, in Leip-
sic, July 28, 1750. With the excep-
tion of Handel, Bach had no rival as
an organist.
Bach, Karl Philipp Emanuel,
a German musician, born in Weimar,
March 14, 1714 ; son of Johann Se-
bastian Bach ; was court musician in
the service of Frederick the Great in
1740-1767. He died in Hamburg,
Dec. 14, 1788.
Bache, Alexander Dallas, an
American scientist, born in Philadel-
phia, Pa., July 19, 1806; was gradu-
ated at the United States Military
Academy, at the head of his class, in
1825 ; became Professor of Natural
Philosophy and Chemistry at the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania in 1828; was
the organizer and first President of
Girard College, 1836; and was ap-
pointed superintendent of the United
States Coast Survey, in 1843. In the
last office he performed services of
lasting and invaluable character. He
was regent of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution in 1846-1867; an active mem-
ber of the United States Sanitary
Commission during the Civil War ;
and President of the National Acad-
emy of Sciences in 1863. He died in
Newport, R. I., Feb. 17, 1867.
Bache, Hartman, an American
military engineer, born in Philadel-
phia, Pa., Sept. 3, 1798; was graduat-
j ed at the United States Military
* Academy, in 1818. His most notable
achie>ements were the building of the
DeiaAare Breakwater and the appli-
cation of iron-screw piles for the foun-
dation of lighthouses upon sandy
I shoals and coral reefs. He died hi
I Philadelphia, Oct. 8, 1872.
Bache, Sarah, an American phi-
lanthropist, born in Philadelphia, Pa.,
Sept. 11, 1744; was the only daugh-
ter of Benjamin Franklin, and the
wife of Richard Bache. During the
Revolutionary War she organized and
became chief of a band of patriotic
ladies who made clothing for the sol-
diers, and in other ways relieved their
Bufferings, especially during the severe
i winter of 1780. At one time she had
nearly 2,500 women engaged under
her direction in sewing for the army.
She personally collected large sums
of money to provide the material for
this work, and also for the purchase
of medicines and delicacies for the
soldiers in the hospitals, where she
also personally acted as nurse. She
died Oct. 5, 1808.
Bacheller, Irving, an American
novelist, born in Pierpont, N. Y., Sept.
26, 1859. He was graduated at St.
Lawrence University in 1879 and be-
came a reporter of the Brooklyn
" Times." Subsequently he estab-
lished a newspaper syndicate. He has
written several novels, notable for
originality, and for fresh, and fasci-
nating pen pictures of American life.
Bachelor, a term applied anciently
to a person in the first or probation-
ary stage of knighthood who had not
yet raised his standard in the field. It
also denotes a person who has taken
the first degree in the liberal arts and
sciences, or in divinity, law, or medi-
cine, at a college or university ; or a
man of any age who has not been mar-
ried. A knight bachelor is one who
has been raised to the dignity of a
knight without being made a member
of any of the orders of chivalry such
as the Garter or the Thistle.
Bachelor's Buttons, the double
flowering buttercup with white or yel-
low blossoms, common in gardens.
Bachman
Bacliman, John, an American
clergyman and naturalist, born in
Duchess county, N. Y., Feb. 4, 1790;
became pastor of a Lutheran church
in Charleston, S. C. He is best known
by reason of his association with Au-
dubon in the making of the " Quad-
rupeds of North America," he writ-
ing the principal part of the text,
which Audubon and his sons illustrat-
ed. He died in Charleston, S. C.,
Feb. 25, 1874.
Bacillus, a name given to cer-
tain filiform bacteria, which have as-
sumed much importance of late, prin-
cipally because of their constant
presence in the blood and tissues in
splenic fever and malignant pustule.
See BACTERIA.
Back, Sir George, an English ex-
plorer, born in Stockport, Nov. 6,
1796. He died in London, June 23,
1878, after visiting both polar regions.
Backgammon, a favorite game of
calculation. It is played by two
persons, with two boxes, and two dice,
upon a quadrangular table, or board,
on which are figured 24 points, or
fle'ches, of two colors, placed alter-
nately. The board is divided into four
compartments, two inner and two
outer ones, each containing six of the
24 points (alternate colors). The
players are each furnished with 15
men, or counters, black and white.
Backliuysen, Ludolf, a cele-
brated painter of the Dutch school,
particularly in sea pieces, born in
1631. He died in 1709.
Backus, Truman Jay, an Amer-
ican educator, born in Milan, N. Y.,
Feb. 11, 1842; was graduated at the
University of Rochester in 1864 ; and
became President of the Packer Col-
legiate Institute in Brooklyn, N. Y.
After going to Brooklyn he served on
several State commissions. Died 1908.
Bacolor, a town in the Island of
Luzon, Philippine Islands; 10 miles
N. W. of Manila.
Bacon, a word applied to the
sides of a pig which have been cured
or preserved by salting with salt and
saltpeter, aad afterward drying with
or without wood smoke.
Bacon, Alice Mabel, an Ameri-
can educator, born in New Haven,
Conn., Feb. 26, 1858; was educated
Bacon
privately and took the Harvard exam-
inations in 1881 ; taught at the Hamp-
ton Normal and Agricultural Insti-
tute in 1883-1888, and in Tokio, Ja-
pan, in 1888-1889; returned to the
Hampton Institute in 1889, and found-
ed the Dixie Hospital for training
colored nurses in 1890.
Bacon, Benjamin Wismer, an
American educator, born in Litchfield,
Conn., Jan. 15, 1860; in 1896 became
Professor of New Testament Criticism
and Exegesis in Yale University.
Bacon, Edwin Mnnroe, an
American editor and author of many
historical works relating to Boston
and New England ; also of "Direct
Election and Law Making by Popular
Vote ;" born in Providence, R. I., Oct.
20, 1844.
Bacon, Francis, Viscount St. Al-
bans, one of the most remarkable men
of whom any age can boast ; a reform-
er of philosophy, by founding it on
the observation of nature, after it
had consisted, for many centuries, of
scholastic subtleties and barren dia-
lectics ; born in London, Jan. 22, 1561,
his father being Sir Nicholas Bacon,
lord keeper of the great seal. He
contracted an advantageous mar-
riage; was made solicitor-general
and then attorney-general ; in 1617
became lord keeper of the seals; in
1618 was made lord high chancellor
and created Baron of Verulam, and in
1621 Viscount St Albans. He might
have lived with splendor without de-
grading his character by those acts
which stained his reputation. He
was accused before the House of
Lords of having received money for
grants of offices and privileges under
the seal of State. He was unable to
justify himself, and, desiring to avoid
the mortification of a trial, confessed
his crimes and threw himself on the
mercy of the peers, beseeching them
to limit his punishment to the loss of
the high office which he had dishon-
ored. The lords sentenced him to
pay a fine of £40,000, and to be im-
prisoned in the Tower during the
pleasure of the king. He was also
declared forever incapable of place or
employment, and forbidden to sit in
Parliament or to appear within the
verge of the court. He survived his
fall only a few years, and died in
Bacon
Highgate, April 9, 1626. Efforts have
been made to prove him the real au-
thor of the works of Shakespeare, and
the controversy still goes on.
Bacon, Henry, an American paint-
er, born in Haverhill, Mass., in 1839.
He served in the Civil War, studied
art in Paris under Cabanel and Ed-
ward Frere, and painted, among oth-
ers, " Boston Boys and Gen. Gage "
*' Paying the Scot ; " etc.
Bacon, John, an English sculp-
tor, born in London, Nov. 24, 1740.
He died Aug. 4, 1799.
Bacon, John Mosby, an Ameri-
can military officer, born in Kentucky,
April 17, 1844; served in the Union
army, through the Civil War; was
appointed Captain in the 9th United
States Cavalry, in I860, and Colonel
of the 8th Cavalry, in 1897. On May
4. 1898, he was appointed Brigadier-
General of Volunteers and placed in
command of the Department of Da-
kota. In October of that year he put
down the outbreak of the Pillager
band of the Chippewa Indians in Cass
county, Minn. Subsequently, he was
assigned to duty in Cuba, with head-
quarters at Neuvitas, till May 8, 1899,
when he was retired. D. Mch. 19, 1913.
Bacon, Leonard, an American
clergyman, born in Detroit, Mich.,
Feb. 19, 1802 ; graduated at Yale in
1820, after which he studied theology
at Andover, Mass. * In 1825 he became
pastor of the First Congregational
church in New Haven, Conn., where
he died Dec. 24, 1881. He was joint-
editor of the "Independent" for 16
years and from 1866-1871 was Prof,
of Didactic Theology at Yale.
Bacon, Nathaniel, an Anglo-
American lawyer, born in Suffolk,
England, Jan. 2, 1642 ; became the
leader in BACON'S REBELLION (q. v.)
in Virginia, and died Oct. 29, 1676.
Bacon, Robert, American states-
man, b. Cape Cod, Mass., 1858; was
graduated at Harvard in 1880 ; mem-
er of the banking firm of J. Pierre-
pont Morgan & Co., in 1894-1903;
U. S. Assistant Secretary of State in
1905-9; Ambassador to France in
1909-12.
Bacon, Roger, an English monk,
and one of the most profound and
original thinkers of his day, was born
about 1214, near Ilchester, Somerset-
shire. He died in Oxford, in 1294.
Bactria
Baconian Philosophy, the in-
ductive philosophy of which it is some-
times said that Lord Bacon was the
founder. This, however, is an exag-
gerated statement. What Lord Bacon
did for this mode of ratiocination was
to elucidate and systematize it; to
point out its great value, and to bring
it prominently before men's notice;
lending it the support of his great
name at a time when most of his con-
temporaries were satisfied with the
barren logic of the schools. The great
triumphs of modern science have aris-
en from a resolute adherence on the
part of its votaries to the Baconian
method of inquiry.
Bacon's Rebellion, a popular
uprising of the Virginian colonists,
headed by Nathaniel Bacon, in pro-
test against certain government abus-
es, which prevailed under the ad-
ministration of Sir William Berkeley.
Bacon compelled Berkeley to take
refuge on* a warship, and burned
all the public buildings at Jamestown.
He died at the most critical moment,
and the rebellion came to an end.
Bacteria, a class of very minute
microscopic organisms or microbes
which are regarded as of vegetable
nature, and as being the cause of ac-
companiment of various diseases, as
well as of putrefaction, fermentation,
and certain other phenomena. Some
of the better known of these organ-
isms are so exceedingly minute, that
under the highest power of improved
microscopes they appear no larger
than the periods of ordinary type.
Various classifications have boen pro-
posed for them, for they differ largely
in size, form, and mode of multiplica-
tion.
Bacteriology, that branch of
biology which treats of bacteria. The
study of these microscopic organisms
has developed into one of the most
important branches of modern bio-
logical science. Their importance to
mankind rests chiefly in the fact that
their nourishment consists of albumi-
nous substances, which they convert
into complex chemical compounds,
many of which are highly poisonous.
Bactria, a province of the an-
cient Persian empire^ lying N. of the
Paropamisus (Hindu Rush) Moun-
tains, on the Upper Oxus. It corre-
i', I9IO, BY I. E. WRIGHT
ORDERSAND DECORATIONS OF HONOUR, PLATE I
i. Order of Christ (Pontifical) ; 2. Society of the Cincinnati (United States) ; 3. Order of the Thistle, with Collar
Attachment (Great Britain, Scotland); 4. Order of the Garter — the Great George, with Collar Attachment
(Great Britain) ; 5. Order of St. Gregory the Great (Pontifical) ; 6. Order of the Golden Fleece (Spain) ; 7. Guelfic
Order of Hanover; 8. Order of the Bath, Military Class (Great Britain) ; 9. Grand Army of the Republic (United
States); 10. Order of St. Michael and St. George (Great Britain); n. Order of the Rose (Brazil); 12. Order of
St. Patrick, with Collar Attachment (Great Britain, Ireland) ; 13. Order of the Holy Ghost (France) ; 14. Order
of the Tower and Sword (Portugal); 15. Order of the Holy Sepulchre (Pontifical); 16. Legion of Honour ( France)
17. Military Order, Loyal Legion (United States); 18. Order of the Star of India (England, India); 19, Order of
St. Andrew (Russia).
Baczko
Badger
sponded pretty nearly with the mod-
ern Balkh. Here many scholars locate
the original home of the Aryan or
Indo-European family of nations. Its
capital, Bactra, or Zariaspa, was also
the cradle of the Zoroastrian religion.
Baczko, Ludwig von, a German
historian and scholar, born in Lick,
Prussia, June 8, 1756 ; died March 27,
1823.
Badajoz, the fortified capital of
the Spanish province of Badajoz, on
the left bank of the Guadiana. It
was besieged by Wellington on March
16, and taken April 6, 1812, by one of
the most bloody assaults in history,
the British charging over the dead
bodies of their comrades.
Badakshan, a territory of Cen-
tral Asia, tributary to the Ameer of
Afghanistan. The inhabitants profess
Mohammedanism. Pop. 100,000.
Badeau, Adam, an American mil-
itary officer, born in New York city,
Dec. 29, 1831; educated at private
schools. He served with gallantry in ,
the Union army during the Civil War ;
was on the staff of General Sherman
in 1862-1863, and secretary to Gen-
eral Grant in 1864-1869; and in the
latter year was retired with the rank
of Captain in the regular army and of
Brevet Brigadier-General of Volun-
teers, and was appointed Secretary of
Legation in London. He was Consul-
General in London, 1870-1881, and
during this period was given leave of
absence to accompany General Grant
on his tour around the world (1877-
1878). In 1882-1884 he was Consul-
General in Havana. After the death
of General Grant he brought suit
against his heirs for payment of ser-
vices which he asserted had been ren-
dered in the preparation of General
Grant's " Memoirs," but lost his case.
He died in Ridgewood, N. J., March
19. 1895.
Baden, Grand Duchy of, one of
the more important States of the Ger-
man empire, situated in the S. W. of
Germany^ to the W. of Wiirtemberg.
It is divided into four districts, Con-
stance, Freiburg, Karlsruhe, and
Mannheim ; has an area of 5,819
square miles; pop. (1910) 2,142,833.
Baden sends three members to the
German Bundesrath, or Federal Coun-
cil, and 14 deputies to the Diet. Two-
thirds of the population are Roman
Catholics, the rest Protestants.
Baden-Baden, a town in the
Grand Duchy of Baden ; pop. (1910)
22,066. It is chiefly celebrated for
its medicinal springs, which were
known at the time of the Romans. Its
gaming tables, the most renowned in
Europe, were closed with the rest of
the licensed German gaming houses in
1872.
Baden-Powell, Robert Steven-
son Smyth, a British military offi-
cer ; born in London, Feb. 22, 1857.
In the war in South Africa in 1899-
1902, he signally distinguished himself
by his defense of Mafeking, Cape Col-
ony. In recognition of his heroism, the
queen promoted him to be a Major-
General. See BOY Scours.
Badeni, Connt Cassimir Felix,
an Austrian statesman ; born in Po-
land, Oct 14, 1846; Prime Minister
of Austria-Hungary, 1895; died, 1909.
Badge, a distinctive device, em-
blem, mark, honorary decoration, or
special cognizance, used originally to
identify a knight or distinguish his
followers, now worn as a sign of of-
fice or licensed employment, as a token
of membership in some society, or gen-
erally as a mark showing the relation
of the wearer to any person, occupa-
tion, or order.
Badger, a plantigrade, carnivorous
mammal, allied both to the bears and
to the weasels, of a clumsy make,
with short, thick legs, and long claws
on the fore feeL The species known
are the American and European.
The American badger is only found
in the remote W. sections of the Unit-
ed States and in some parts of the
British possessions in North America.
It is more carnivorous than the Eu-
ropean badger. The weight of the
American species is from 14 to 18
pounds.
Badger, George Edmund, an
American statesman, born in New-
bern, N. C., April 13, 1795; was grad-
uated at Yale College in 1813, and
was a judge and U. S. Senator.
He served in the State Convention
called to pass on the question of se-
cession, although oposed to that
measure, and after making a strong
speech in defense of the Union, was
afterward known as a member of the
Badger
Conservative Party. He died in Ral-
eigh, N. C., April 13, 1866.
Badger, Oscar L., an American
naval officer, born in Windham, Conn.,
Aug. 12, 1823; entered the United
States navy, Sept. 9, 1841 ; became
Lieutenant-Commander, July 16,
1862; Commander, July 25, 1866;
Captain, Nov. 25, 1872 ; Commodore,
Nov. 15, 1881 ; and was retired Aug.
12, 1885. He served on the steamer
" Mississippi " during the Mexican
War, taking part in the attack on Al-
varado, in 1846; led the party that
attacked and destroyed the village of
Vutia, Fiji Islands, while on the sloop
"John Adams," in 1855-1856; and
in the Civil War commanded the iron-
clads " Patapsco " and " Montauk,"
in the operations in Charleston harbor
in 1863 ; and was Acting Fleet Cap-
tain on the flag ship " Weehawken "
in the attack on Fort Sumter, Sept.
1, 1863. He died in Concord, Mass.,
June 20, 1899.
Badgley, Sidney Rose, a Cana-
dian architect, born near Kingston,
Ont, May 28, 1850. He has planned
and erected churches in almost all
parts of Canada and the United States.
Badliam, Charles, an English ed-
ucator, born in Ludlow, July 18,
1813; died in Sydney, Australia, Feb.
26, 1884.
Badlam, Stephen, an American
military officer, born in Milton, Mass.,
March 25, 1748; entered the Revolu-
tionary army in 1775 ; became com-
mander of the artillery, in the Depart-
ment of Canada. On the announce-
ment of the adoption of the Declara-
tion of Independence, he took posses-
sion of the heights opposite Ticonder-
oga, and named the place Mt Inde-
pendence. Subsequently he rendered
good service at Fort Stanwix, and in
1799 was made Brigadier-General. He
died in Dorchester, Mass., Aug. 24,
1815.
Bad Lands, tracts of land in the
N. W. part of the United States. The
absence of vegetation enables the rains
to wash clean the old lake beds, and
in many instances to disclose remark-
able fossils of extinct animals. They
were first called Bad Lands (mau-
yaises terres) by the French explorers
in the region of the Black Hills in
South Dakota.
Baffin
Badminton, a popular game, close-
ly resembling lawn tennis, played with
battledore and shuttlecock on a rec-
tangular portion of a lawn.
Badrinath, a peak of the main
Himalayan range, in Garhwal dis-
trict, Northwestern Provinces, India;
23,210 feet above the sea. On one of
its shoulders, at an elevation of 10,400
feet, stands a celebrated temple of
Vishnu, which some years attracts aa
many as 50,000 pilgrims.
Baedeker, Karl, a German pub-
lisher, born in 1801 ; originator of a
celebrated series of guide-books for
travelers. He died in 1859.
Baeyer, Adolf von, a German
chemist, born in Berlin, Oct. 31, 1835 ;
son of Johann Jakob Baeyer ; became
Professor of Chemistry at Strasburg
in 1872, and at Munich, in 1875, suc-
ceeding Liebig at the latter. He made
many important discoveries in organic
chemistry, especially cerulein, eosin,
and indol.
Baeyer, Johann Jakob, a Prus-
sian geometrician, born in Miiggels-
heim, Nov. 5, 1794 ; died in Berlin,
Sept 10, 1885.
Baez, Buenaventura, a Domin-
ican statesman, born in Azua, Haiti,
about 1810 ; aided in the establish-
ment of the Dominican Republic; was
its President in 1849-1853 ; was then
expelled by Santa Ana and went to
New York city; was recalled in 1856,
on the expulsion of Santa Ana, and
again elected President; and was re-
elected President in 1865 and 1868.
During his last term, he signed treat-
ies with the United States (Nov. 29,
1869), for the annexation of Santo
Domingo to the United States, and for
the cession of Samana Bay. The
treaties failed of ratification in the
United States Senate and caused the
downfall of Baez. He died in Porto
Rico, March 21, 1884.
Baffin, William, an English nav-
igator and discoverer, believed to have
been born in London about 1584.
In 1615 he took service as pilot
of the " Discovery," in search of a
northwest passage, and made a care-
ful examination of Hudson Strait
His recorded latitudes and notes
of the tides are in remarkable
agreement with those of a later date.
In the following year, with Capt By-
Baffin Land
lot, he discovered, charted, and named
Smith Sound, and several others, and
explored the large inlet now associated
with his name. His last voyages,
1616-1621, were to the East. At
the siege of Ormuz, which the Eng-
lish were helping the Shah of Persia
to recover from the Portuguese, he
was killed, Jan. 23, 1622.
Baffin Land, a Canadian island,
crossed by the Arctic Circle; area,
236,000 square miles.
Baffin Sea (erroneously styled a
Bay), a large expanse of water in
North America, between Greenland
and the lands or islands N. of Hudson
Bay. This sea was discovered by the |
English navigator, Baffin, in 1616, |
while in search of a passage to the '
Pacific Ocean.
Bagamoyo, a town of German
East Africa, on the coast opposite the
island of Zanzibar; pop. (1899),
about 13,000. It is- an important trad-
ing station for ivory, gum and caout-
chouc.
Bagasse, the sugar cane in its dry,
crushed state, as delivered from the
mill, and after the main portion of its
juice has been expressed ; used as fuel
in the su|;ar factory, and called also
cane trash.
Bagatelle, a game played on a
long, flat board, covered with cloth
like a billiard-table, with spherical
balls and a cue, or mace.
Bagby, George William, an
American physician and humorist,
born in Buckingham co., Va., Aug. 13,
1828; died in Richmond, Va., Nov.
29, 1883.
Bagdad, capital of the Turkish
vilayet and city of the same name, in
the southern part of Mesopotamia
(now Irak Arabi). Bagdad was found-
ed in 762, by the Caliph Almansur,
and raised to a high degree of splen-
dor, in the 9th century, by Haroun A)
Raschid. It is the scene of a number
of the tales of the " Arabian Nights."
In the 13th century it was stormed by
Hulaku, grandson of Genghis-Khan,
who caused the reigning caliph to be
slain, and destroyed the caliphate. The
vilayet has an area of 54,540 square
miles, and an estimated population of
900,000, and the city an estimated
population of 225,000. Germany had
E. IS.
Bagley
a concession for the construction of
a railway which would extend the An-
atolian line from Konia to Adana,
Mosul, Bagdad, and Bassa, with many
branch lines, but the great war inter-
rupted the work. See APPENDIX :
World War.
Bagehot, Walter, an English
economist, born in Somersetshire, Feb.
3, 1826 ; died March 24, 1877.
Baggage, a term supposed to be
derived from the old French word
bague, meaning bundle. As ordinar-
ily used, it includes trunks, valises,
portmanteaus, etc., which a traveler
carries with him on a journey.
Baggesen, Jens, a Danish poet ;
born in Korsor, Zealand, Feb. 15,
1764; died in Hamburg, Oct 3, 1826.
Bagirmi, or Baghermi, a coun-
try in Central Africa, bounded on the
W. by Bornu and a portion of Lake
Tchad, and with the powerful Sultan-
ate of Wadai to the N. E. Its area
is estimated at nearly 71,000 square
miles. The country was first vis-
ited by Earth in 1852. Most of it
was recognized as in the German
sphere by the Anglo-German agree-
ment of 1893; but it came under
French control in 1900.
Bagley, Wortn, an American na-
val officer, born in Raleigh, N. C.,
April 6, 1874 ; was graduated at the
United States Naval Academy in
1895 ; promoted to Ensign, July 1,
1897, and was detailed as inspector to
the new torpedo-boat " Winslow " in
November following. This boat went
into commission the next month, and
he was appointed her executive officer.
In April, 1898, the "Winslow" was
assigned to the American fleet off the
coast of Cuba, and on May 9, while
on blockading duty at the harbor of
Cardenas, with the " Wilmington "
and " Hudson," drew the fire of sev-
eral Spanish coast-guard vessels. All
the American vessels escaped untouch-
ed. Two days afterward, the three
vessels undertook to force an entrance
into the harbor, when they were fired
on by Spanish gunboats. The " Wins-
low " was disabled, and with difficulty
was drawn out of range of the en-
emy's guns. The " Wilmington " then
silenced the Spanish fire, and as the
action closed, Ensign Bagley and four
sailors on the " Winslow " were in-
Bagpipe
stantly killed by a shell, be being the
first American naval officer to fall in
the war with Spain.
Bagpipe, a musical wind instru-
ment of very great antiquity, having
been used among the ancient Greeks
for many ages, and is the favorite
musical instrument of the Scottish
Highlanders.
Bagration, Peter Ivanovich,
Prince, a Russian general, descended
from the royal family of the Bagra-
tidse of Georgia and Armenia, born in
1765. In the campaign of 1812, he
commanded the Second Russian Army
of the West He was mortally wound-
ed in the battle of Borodino, and died
Oct. 7, 1812.
Bahama Channel, Old and New,
two American channels; the former
separates the Great Bahama Bank and
Cuba; the latter, also called the Gulf
of Florida, is between the Great and
Little Bahama Banks and Florida,
and forms a part of the channel of the
great Gulf Stream, which flows here
at the rate of from 2 to 5 miles an
hour.
Bahama Islands, or Lncayos, a
group of islands in the West Indies,
forming a colony., belonging to Great
Britain, lying N. E. of Cuba and S. E.
of the coast of Florida, the Gulf
Stream passing between them and the
mainland. They extend a distance of
upward of GOO miles, and are said to
be 29 in number, besides keys and
rocks innumerable. Of the whole
group about 20 are inhabited, the
most populous being New Provi-
dence, which contains the capital,
Nassau, the largest being Andros,
100 miles long, 20 to 40 broad. They
are low and flat, and have in many
parts extensive forests. Total area,
4,404 square miles. Pop. (1911) 55,-
944.
Bahia, formerly San Salvador, a
city of Brazil, on the Bay of All
Saints, in the State of Bahia. The
harbor is one of the best in South
America ; and the trade, chiefly in
sugar, cotton, coffee, tobacco, hides,
piassava, and tapioca, is extensive.
Pop. (1911) 290,000. The State, area,
164,649 square miles ; pop. about 2.-
118,000, has much fertile land, both
along the coast and in the interior.
Ball
Bahia Honda, a seaport of Cuba,
on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico,
and lying on a small bay, bearing the
same name. The town and bay are
about 50 miles W. of Havana, being
commanded by a small fort.
Bahr, Johann Christian Felix,
a German philologist, born at Darm-
stadt, June 13, 1798; died Nov. 29,
1872.
Bahrein Islands, a group of
islands in the Persian Gulf, in an in-
dentation on the Arabian coast. The
Bahrein Islands are chiefly noted for
their pearl-fisheries, which were known
to the ancients, and which employ in
the season from< 2,000 to 3,000 boats
with from 8 to 20 men each. Total
pop., est. at 110,000.
Bahr-el-Ghazal, the name of the
old Egyptian province which incloses
the district watered by the southern
tributaries of Bahr-el-Arab and Bahr-
el-Ghazal, since the overthrow of the
Khalifa in 1899 known as the Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan. Slatin Pasha has
drawn attention both to the fertility
of the province and to its strategical
importance. To the W. of it lies the
Ubangi district of French Kongo ; and
it was thence that Major Marchand
made his way through the Bahr-el-
Ghazal to Fashoda in the summer of
1898.
Bahr Yusuf , or Bahr el Yusnf ,
an artificial irrigation channel from
the left bank of the Nile below Sint.
to the Fayum ; 270 miles long. Ac-
cording to Koptic traditions it was
constructed during Joseph's adminis-
tration.
Baikal, an extensive lake of East-
ern Siberia; crescent-shaped, and sur-
rounded by high and wild mountains
rising 3,000 to 4.000 feet above its
surface. Length, S. W. to N. E., 370
miles; breadth, 20 to 70 miles; alti-
tude, about 1,400 feet; greatest ascer-
tained depth, 4,500 feet; average
depth of its southern part, about 800
feet
Bail. (1) Of persons: Those who
stand security for the appearance of
rn accused person. The word is a col-
loctive one, and not used in the plural.
They were so called because formerly
the person summoned was bailie1, that
is, given into the custody of those who
were security for his appearance.
Bailey
(2) Pecuniary security given by re-
sponsible persons that an individual
charged with an offense against the
law will, if temporarily released, sur-
render when required to take his trial.
Bailey, Gamaliel, an American
journalist, born in Mount Holly, N.
J., Dec. 3, 1807; with J. G. Birney,
founded the anti-slavery journal, the
"Cincinnati Philanthropist" (1836),
the office of which was destroyed by a
mob, though it continued to be pub-
lished till 1847. He established the
well-known newspaper, the Washing-
ton "National Era5' (1847), in
which the famous novel, " Uncle Tom's
Cabin," appeared first. He died at
sea, June 5, 1859.
Bailey, Jacob "Whitman, an
American scientist, born in Auburn,
Mass., April 29, 1811; was graduated
at the United States Military Acad-
emy, in 1832; and from 1834 till his
death was Professor of Chemistry,
Mineralogy and Geology at the Mili-
tary Academy. He was the inventor
of the Bailey indicator and of many
improvements in the microscope, in
the use of which he achieved high dis-
tinction; and he is regarded as the
pioneer in microscopic investigation.
He was President of the American As-
sociation for the Advancement of Sci-
ence in 1857; held membership in the
principal scientific associations of the
world ; and was the author of numer-
ours papers on the results of his re-
searches. He died in West Point, N.
Y., Feb. 26, 1857.
Bailey, James Montgomery, an
American author, born in Albany, N.
Y., Sept. 25, 1841; died in Danbury,
Conn., March 4, 1894.
Bailey, Joseph, an American mil-
itary officer, born in Salem, O., April
28, 1827 ; entered the Union army as a
private in 1861, and signally distin-
guished himself in the Red River cam-
paign under Gen. N. P. Banks, in
1864, by building a dam and deepen-
ing the water in the channel, which
enabled Admiral Porter's Mississippi
flotilla to pass the Red River rapids
in safety, and so escape a perilous sit-
uation. For this engineering feat,
Bailey, who, before entering the army
was a plain farmer, was breveted
Brigadier-General, promoted Colonel,
voted the thanks of Congress, and
Bailiff
presented by the officers of the fleet
with a sword and purse of $3,000.
Subsequently, he was promoted to full
Brigadier-General, and was engaged
on engineering duty till his resigna-
tion, July 7, 1865. He died in Ne-
vada, Mo., March 21, 1867.
Bailey, Liberty Hyde, an Amer-
ican horticulturist and editor, born in
South Haven, Mich., March 15, 1858;
became chairman of the Roosevelt
Commission on Country Life in 1908.
Bailey, Philip James, an English
poet, born in Nottinghamshire, April
22, 1816; died Sept. 6, 1902.
Bailey, Samuel, an English po-
litical and mental philosopher, born
in Sheffield, in 1791; died in 1870.
Bailey, Theodorus, an American
naval officer, born in Chateaugay, N.
Y., April 12, 1805; entered the navy
in 1818; served on the W. coast of
Mexico during the Mexican War;
commanded frigate " Colorado," of
the Western Gulf Blockading Squad-
ron, in 1861-1862; and in the last
year commanded the right column of
Admiral Farragut's squadron in the
passage of Forts St. Philip and Jack-
son, and led the fleet at the capture of
the Chalmette batteries and the city of
New Orleans. In 1862-1865 he com-
manded the East Gulf Blockading
Squadron. He was commissioned
Rear-Admiral and retired in 1866.
! He died in Washington, D. C., Feb. 10,
1877.
Bailey, Vernon, an American
scientist, born in Manchester, Mich.,
June 21, 1863; received a university
education ; and became chief field
naturalist of the United States Bio-
logical Survey.
Bailey, William Whitman, an
American botanist, born in West
Point, N. Y., Feb. 22, 1843. He was
educated at Brown and Harvard, hav-
ing been a pupil of Prof. Asa Gray.
In 1867 he was botanist of the United
States Geological Survey of the 40th
Earallel; in 1867-1869 assistant li-
rarian of the Providence Athenaeum.
He was Professor of Botany at Brown
University in 1881-1906. He died
Feb. 20, 1914.
Bailiff, essentially a person in-
trusted by a superior with power of
superintendence. In the United States
the word bailiff has no precise mean-
Baillie
Baird
ing. The term is most frequently
used to denote a court officer whose
duty it is to take charge of juries and
wait upon the court.
Baillie, Joanna, a Scotch author ;
born in Bothwell, near Glasgow, Sept..
11, 1762 ; died Feb. 23, 1851.
Baillie, Robert, the " Scottish
Sidney," was a native of Lanarkshire,
who first came into notice in 1676
through his rescue of a brother-in-law,
the Rev. Mr. Kirkton, from the
clutches of Archbishop Sharp's prin-
cipal informer. In 1683 he took a
prominent part in a scheme of emi-
gration to South Carolina, as he saw
no other refuge 7 from the degrading
tyranny of the government. Accused
of conspiring against the King's life,
and of hostility to monarchical gov-
ernment, he was tried at Edinburgh
and condemned to death upon evidence
at once insignificant and illegal. The
sentence was carried into execution-
on the very day that it was passed,
Dec. 24, 1684.
Bailly, Jean Sylvain, a French
astronomer and statesman, born in
Paris, Sept. 15, 1736. The Revolu-
tion drew him into public life. As
mayor of Paris his moderation and im-
partial enforcement of the law failed
to commend themselves to the people,
and his forcible suppression of mob
violence, July 17, 1791, aroused a
storm which led to his resignation.
He was condemned by the Revolu-
tionary Tribunal, and executed on
Nov. 12, 1793.
Bailment, " a delivery of a thing
in trust for some special object or
purpose, and upon a contract, express
or implied, to conform to the object
or purpose of the trust." (Story, on
" Bailment.") The party who deliv-
ers the thing bailed to another is call-
ed the bailor; the one receiving it is
called bailee. Various degrees of dili-
gence are required of the bailee, ac-
cording to the nature of the bailment.
Baily, Edward Hodges, an Eng-
lish sculptor, born at Bristol in 1788.
He died in London in 1867.
Bain, Alexander, a Scotch writer
on mental philosophy and education,
born in Aberdeen in 1818. His most
important works are " The Senses and
the Intellect" (1855); "The Emo-
tions and the Will" (1859), together
forming a complete exposition of the
human mind. He died Sept., 1903.
Bain, Alexander, a Scotch elec-
trician, born in Watten, Caithness, in
1810; went to London and began a
series of electrical experiments in
1837 ; invented electric fire alarm and
sounding apparatus, and the auto-
matic chemical telegraph by which
high speed telegraphy was for the first
time possible. He died in 1877.
Bainbridge, 'William, an Amer-
ican naval officer, born in Princeton,
N. J., May 7, 1774 ; became a Captain
in 1800 ; and commanded the frigate
" Philadelphia " in the war against
Tripoli. In 1812 he was given com-
mand of a squadron including the
" Constitution," " Essex," and " Hor-
net." With the " Constitution " as
his fiagship, he conquered, in Decem-
ber of that year, the British frigate
" Java," carrying 49 guns. Later he
commanded a squadron in the Medi-
terranean, and was afterward station-
ed at various American coast cities.
He died in Philadelphia, July 28, 1833.
Bairaktar (more correctly Bai-
rak-dar), signifying "standard bear-
er," the title of the energetic Grand
Vizier Mustapha. Born in 1755, of
poor parents, he entered the military
service at an early age, and rose to
high command. He deposed the Sul-
tan Mustapha IV., and when the
Janissaries revolted, demanding Mus-
tapha's restoration, and besieged the
seraglio, Bairaktar defended himself
bravely. When he saw that the flames
threatened to destroy the palace, and
that he was in danger of falling alive
into his enemies' hands, he strangled
Mustapha, threw his head to the be-
siegers, and. then blew himself up.
Bairam, the name of the only
two festivals annually celebrated by
the Turks and other Mohammedan
nations. The first closes the fast of
the month Ramadhan or Ramazan.
The second commemorates Abraham's
offering of Isaac.
Baird, Absalom, an American
military officer, born in Washington,
Pa., Aug. 20, 1824; was graduated at
the United States Military Academy
and assigned to the artillery in>1849.
He became Captain and Major in the
regular army in 1861, and in the vol-
unteer army was commissioned a
Baird
Brigadier-General, April 28, 1862, and
brevetted Major-General, September
1864, for his conduct in the Atlanta
campaign. On March 13, 1865, he
was brevetted Major-General, United
States army, for his meritorious ser-
vices in the field during the war. In
1885, he was promoted Brigadier-
General and Inspector-General, Unit-
ed States army, and in 1888 was re-
tired. He died July 14, 1905.
Baird, Charles 'Washington, an
American historian and religious
writer, son of Robert Baird : born at
Princeton, N. J., Aug. 28, 1828; died
in Rye, N. Y., Feb. 10, 1881.
Baird, Henry Carey, an Ameri-
can political economist, nephew of
Henry C. Carey, bora in Bridesburg,
Pa., in 1825. He was a publisher at
Philadelphia. A strong protectionist,
his economical views generally were
similar to those of his distinguished
uncle, and made public in numerous
pamphlets. He died Dec. 31, 1912.
Baird, Henry Martyn, an Amer-
ican author and educator, born in
Philadelphia, Pa., 1832; died 1906.
Baird, Robert, an American his-
torian, born in Fayette county, Pa.,
Oct. 6, 1798; died at Yonkers, N. Y.,
March 15, 1863.
Baird, Spencer Fullerton, a
distinguished American naturalist,
born at Reading, Pa., Feb. 3, 1823.
His writings cover nearly every branch
of natural history. He died at Wood's
Holl, Mass., Aug. 19, 1887.
Bairenth, or Bayrenth, a city
and capital of the Bavarian province
of Upper Franconia, 43 miles N. N.
E. of Nuremberg by rail. A mag-
nificent National theater for the per-
formance of Wagner's music, finished
in 1875, was in the following year
opened with a grand representation of
his Nibelungen trilogy. On Feb. 14,
1883, the great master (who died in
Venice) was buried in the garden of
his villa here.
Baize, a sort of coarse woolen fab-
ric with a rough nap, now generally
used for linings, and mostly green or
red in color.
Bajazet, or Bayazeed, I., an Ot-
toman Sultan, born 1347, succeeded
his father, Amurath I., in 1389. He
was the first of his family who as-
sumed the title of Sultan. After de-
Baker
feating Hungarians, Germans, and
French ac Nicopoli, on the Danube,
Sept. 28, 1396, Bajazet is said to
have boasted that he would feed
his horse on the altar of St. Peter
at Rome. His progress, however,
was arrested by a violent attack
of the gout. Bajazet was prepar-
ing for an attack on Constantinople,
when he was interrupted by the ap-
proach of Timur the Great, by whom
he was defeated at Angora, in Ana-
tolio, July 28, 1402. He was taken
captive, and died about nine months
afterward, at Antioch in Pisidia. He
was succeeded by Mohammed I. Mod-
ern writers reject as a fiction the story
of the iron cage in which Bajazet was
said to have been imprisoned.
Baker, Sir Benjamin, an Eng-
lish engineer, born near Bath, in 1840.
In 1877 he superintended the removal
of Cleopatra's Needle from Egypt to
London. In conjunction with Sir
John Fowler he drew the plans for
the great bridge over the Firth of
Forth. He died May 19, 1907.
Baker, Benjamin W., an Amer-
ican educator, born in Coles county,
111., Nov. 25, 1841 ; was brought up on
a farm ; served in the Union army
through the Civil War ; was graduated
at the Illinois State Normal Univer-
sity in 1870; became a Methodist
Episcopal clergyman in 1874 ; and was
financial secretary of the Illinois Wes-
leyan University in 1883-1893 ; presi-
dent of Chaddock College in 1893-
1898; of the Missouri Wesleyan Col-
lege in Cameron, in 1898-1906; then
pastor in Florida.
Baker, Edward Dickerson, an
American soldier and politician, born
in London, England, Feb. 24, 1811;
came to the United States in youth.
He was elected to the Illinois Legisla-
ture in 1837, became a State Senator
in 1840, and was sent to Congress in
1844. He served under General Scott
in the war with Mexico and was elect-
ed United States Senator from Oregon
in 1860. He entered the Federal army
at the outbreak of the Civil War, and
was killed at the battle of Ball's Bluff,
Oct. 21, 1861.
Baker, Frank, an American zool-
ogist ; was graduated in the medical
department of Columbian University
in 1880 : was Professor or Anatomy in
the University ot Georgetown ; and
Baker
Baksheesh
became superintendent of the National
Zoological Park, in Washington. D. C.,
in 1900.
Baker, Harriette Newell
(Woods) (pseudonyms " Madeline
Leslie" and "Aunt Hatty"), an
American writer of juvenile stories,
born in 1815. She was a daughter of
Rev. Leonard Woods and wife of Rev.
Abijah R. Baker; died in 1893.
Baker, John Gilbert, an English
botanist, born in Guisbrough, York-
shire, Jan. 13, 1834; was appointed
assistant curator at the herbarium at
Kew in 1866. His voluminous writ-
ings include works on the flora of dis-
tricts so diverse as the North of Eng-
land, Madagascar, and Brazil.
Baker, Lafayette C., an Ameri-
can detective, born in Stafford, N. Y.,
Oct. 13, 1826 ; was chief of the Secret
Service Bureau during the Civil War ;
and reached the military rank of Brig-
adier-General. He superintended the
EursuSt of Wilkes Booth, President
incoln's assassin. He died at Phila-
delphia, Pa., July 2, 1868.
Baker, Marcus, an American
cartographer, born in Kalamazoo,
Mich., Sept 23, 1849; was graduated
at the University of Michigan in 1870 ;
became connected with the United
States Coast and Geodetic Survey, in
1873, and with the United States Geo-
logical Survey, in 1886; and was
made secretary of the United States
Board on Geographic Names. He was
cartographer to the Venezuela Bound-
ary Commission, and after spending
many years surveying and exploring
prepared, with William H. Dall, the
"Alaska Coast Pilot." He died Dec.
12, 1903.
Baker, Newton. Diekl, an Amer-
ican lawyer ; born in Martinsburg, W.
Va., Dec. 3, 1871 ; was private secre-
tary to Postmaster-General Wilson in
1896-7; began law practice in 1897;
was city solicitor of Cleveland, O., in
1902-12 ; mayor of that city in 1912-
14 and 1914-16 ; and was appointed
Secretary of War March 7, 1916. He
was recognized for many years as a
leader of the Ohio bar and of the mu-
nicipal reform movement in Cleveland.
Baker, Sir Samuel White, a
distinguished English traveler ; born
in London, June 8, 1821. He was
trained as an engineer, and at the age
! of 24 he went to Ceylon, where he
I founded an agricultural settlement at
Nuwara Eliya in 1847. In the early
! part of 1861, accompanied by his (sec-
ond) wife, he set out for Africa on a
journey of exploration. When he had
; ascended the Nile as far as Gondokoro
he met Speke and Grant returning
after their discovery of the Victoria
Nyanza lake, and learned from them
that another large lake in the district
had been spoken of by the natives.
This lake he determined to discover,
and after many adventures he and his
wife beheld the Albert Nyanza from a
height on March 14, 1864. On his re-
turn home he was received with great
honor and was knighted. In 1869 he
returned to Africa as head of an ex-
pedition sent by the Khedive of Egypt
to suppress the slave trade and to an-
nex and open up to trade a large part
of the newly explored country, being
raised to the dignity of pasha. He re-
turned home in 1873, having finished
his work, and was succeeded by the
celebrated Gordon. In 1879 he explor-
ed the island of Cyprus, and subse-
quently he traveled in Asia and
America. He died Dec. 30, 1893.
Baker, William Bliss, an Amer-
ican artist, born in New York in
1859, and is especially noted for his
landscapes. He died in Ballston, N.
Y., in 1889.
Baker, Mount, an occasionally
active volcano in Whatcom county,
Wash., belonging to the Cascade Range ;
very active in 1880; height 10,827 ft.
Baker's Dozen, a familiar phrase
said to have originated in an old cus-
tom of bakers who, when a heavy pen-
alty was inflicted for short weight,
used to give a surplus to avoid all
risk of incurring a fine.
Baking Powder, a mixture of bi-
carbonate of soda and tartaric acid,
usually with some flour added. The
water of the dou?h causes the libera-
tion of carbonic acid, which makes the
bread ' rise.'
Bakony Wald, a thickly-wooded
mountain range dividing the Hunga-
rian plains, famous for the herds of
swine fed on its mast.
Bakshish, an Eastern term for a
present or gratuity. A demand for
bakshish meets travellers in the East
i everywhere from Egypt to India.
Baku
Balata
Baku, a Russian port on the W.
shore of the Caspian, occupying part
of the peninsula of Apsheron, and a
noted centre of oil production. Some
of the wells have had such an
outflow of oil as to be unmanageable,
and the Baku petroleum now com-
petes successfully with r.ny other in
the markets of the world. Baku is
the station of the Caspian fleet, is
strongly fortified, and has a large
shipping trade. Pop. (1913) 232,200.
Bakuniu, Michael, a Russian
anarchist, the founder of Nihilism,
born in 1814 of rich and noble family.
Wherever he went, he was influential
for disturbance, and after undergoing
imprisonment in various States, wan
handed over to Russia, in 1851, by
Austria, imprisoned for five year^, and
finally set to Siberia. Escaping thence
through Japan, he joined Herzen in
London, on the staff of the " Kolo-
kol." His extreme views, however,
ruined the paper and led to a quarrel
with Marx and the International ; and
having fallen into disrepute with his
own party in Russia, he died suddenly
and almost alone at Berne, in 1878.
He demanded the entire abolition of
the State as a State, the absolute
equalization of individuals, and the
extirpation of hereditary rights and
of religion, his conception of the next
stage of social progress being purely
negative and annihilatory.
Balaam, a heathen seer, invited
by Balak, King of Moab, to curse the
Israelites, but compelled by miracle to
bless them instead (Num. xxii-xxiv).
Balaena, the genus which includes
the Greenland, or right whale, type of
the family balaenidse, or whale-bone
whales.
Balseniceps, a genus of wading
birds, belonging to the Sudan, inter-
mediate between the herons and storks,
and characterized by an enormous bill,
broad and swollen, giving the only
known species (also called shoe-bird)
a peculiar appearance.
Balsenidse, the true whales, the
most typical family of the order ceta-
cea and the suborder cete. They are
known by the absence of teeth and the
presence in their stead of a horny sub-
stance called whale-bone, or baleen.
Balaenoptera, fin-back whales. A
genus of balaenidse, characterized by
the possession of a soft, dorsal fin, and
by the shortness of the plates of ba-
leen. Balaenoptera boops is the north"
ern rorqual, or fin-fish, called by sail-
ors the finner. It is the largest of
known animals, sometimes reaching
100 feet in length.
Balaklava, a small seaport in the
Crimea, 8 miles S. S. E. Sebasto-
pol. In the Crimean War it was
captured by the British, and a
heroically fought battle took place
here (Oct. 25, 1854), ending in the
repulse of the Russians by the British.
The charge of the Light Brigade was
at this battle.
Balance, an instrument employed
for determining the quantity of any
substance equal to a given weight.
Balance Electrometer, an in-
strument invented by Cuthbertson for
regulating the amount of the charge
of electricity designed to be sent
through any substance.
Balance of Power, a political
principle which first came to be rec-
ognized in modern Europe in the 16th
century, though it appears to have
been also acted on by the Greeks in
ancient times, in preserving the re-
lations between their different States.
The object in maintaining the balance
of power is to secure the general in-
dependence of nations as a whole, by
preventing the aggressive attempts of
individual States to extend their ter-
ritory and sway at the expense of
weaker countries.
Balance of Trade, a term for-
merly used by political economists to
signify an excess of imports over ex-
ports, or of exports over imports in
the foreign trade of a country, which
required to be balanced by an export
or import of the precious metals.
After the outbreak of the great war in
Europe the world's balance of trade
came to the United States because it
was the greatest source of supplies.
Balata, the product of the bullet-
tree — its milk or juice, in fact —
which is a large forest tree, ranging
from Jamaica and Trinidad to Ven-
ezuela and Guiana. The tree grows
to a height of 120 feet, and has a
large, spreading head. A tree of aver-
age size yields three pints of milk. The
milk is dried in hollow wooden trays.
When it is sufficiently dry it is re-
Balbo
moved from the trays in strips and
hung up on lines to harden.
Balbo, Count Cacsare, an Ital-
ian author, born at Turin, in 1789.
He is chiefly remarkable from the fact
that his first important work, " Le
Speranze d'ltalia," published in 1844,
may be regarded as having given the
programme of the Moderate Party of
Italian politics, and as having to-
gether with the writings of d'Azeglio,
Durando, and others, created the Lib-
eral Party, in opposition to the Re-
publican Party as represented by Maz-
zini. Balbo was an accomplished
historian and translator. He died
in June, 1853.
Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, a cel-
ebrated Spanish discoverer, born at
Xeres de los Caballeros, in 1475. He
accompanied Rodrigo de Bastidas in
his expedition to the New World, and
first settled in Haiti (or, as it was
then termed, Hispaniola). Though
an adventurer in search of fortune, his
great ambition seems to have been to
extend the boundaries of geographical
knowledge, and especially to be able
to announce to Europe the existence
of. another great ocean. On Sept 1,
1513, he began his perilous enterprise.
Accompanied by a small band of fol-
lowers, he began to tread the almost
impenetrable forests of the Isthmus of
Darien, and, guided by an Indian
chief, named Ponca, clambered up the
rugged gorges of the mountains. At
length, after a toilsome and danger-
pus journey, Balboa and his compan-
ions approached, on Sept. 25, the sum-
mit of the mountain range, when Bal-
boa, leaving his followers at a little
distance behind, and advancing alone
to the W. declivity, was the first to
behold the vast unknown ocean, which
he afterward took solemn possession
of in the name of his sovereign, and
named it the Pacific Ocean, from the
apparent quietude of its waters. Sur-
rounded by his followers, he walked
into it, carrying in bis right hand
a naked sword, and in his left the
banner of Castile, and declared the
sea of the South, and all the regions
whose shores it bathed, to belong to
the crown of Castile and Leon. Dur-
ing his absence, however, a new gov-
ernor had been appointed to super-
sede Balboa in Haiti ; where, on his
return, jealousy and dissensions
Baldness
springing up between them, Balboa,
accused of a design to rebel, was be-
headed in 1517, in violation of all
forms of justice.
Balcony, a gallery or projecting
framework of wood, iron or stone,
in front of a house, generally on a
level with the lower part of the win-
dows in one or more floors.
Baldachin, a structure in form
of a canopy, supported by columns,
and often used as a covering for in-
sulated altars.
Bald Mountain, the name of
several eminences in the United
States, of which the following are
the principal: (1) In Colorado,
height, 11,493 feet; (2) in Califor-
nia, height, 8,295 feet; (3) in Utah,
height, 11,976 feet; (4) in Wyom-
ing, in the Wind River Range, height,
10,760 feet; and, (5) in North Car-
olina, height 5,550 feet. The last
one was the cause of much excite-
ment in May, 1878, because of inexpli-
cable rumblings which lasted for about
two weeks. The mountain shook as
if in the throes of an earthquake,
immense trees and rocks were hurled
down its sides, and, for a time, fears
were entertained lest a volcanic erup-
tion should follow. A subsequent ex-
amination showed that a large sec-
tion of the mountain had been split
asunder, but no further disturbance
occurred.
Baldness, an absence of hair on
the head. Congenital baldness (com-
plete absence of hair at birth) is
sometimes met with ; but, in most
cases, is only temporary, and gives
place, in a few years, to a natur-
al growth of hair. Occasionally, how-
ever, it persists through life. Senile
baldness (calvities) is one of the most
familiar signs of old age. It com-
mences in a small area at the crown,
where the natural hair is first re-
placed by down before the skin be-
comes smooth and shining. From
this area the process extends in all
directions. It is more common in
men than women. A precisely simi-
lar condition occurs not unfrequently
at an earlier age (presenile baldness).
It is generally due to hereditary ten-
dency ; but is favored by keeping the
head closely covered, especially with
a waterproof cap. The best author-
Baldric
ities agree that this form of bald-
ness is incurable.
Great loss of hair frequently fol-
lows severe illnesses or other causes
which produce general debility. As
health returns, the hair usually re-
turns with it.
Baldric, a broad belt formerly
worn over the right or left shoulder
diagonally across the body, often high-
ly decorated and enriched with gems,
and used not only to sustain the
sword, dagger, or horn, but also for
purposes of ornament, and as a mili-
tary or heraldic symbol. The fashion
appears to have reached its height in
the 15th century. In the United
States it now forms a part of the
uniform of Knights Templar and oth-
er fraternal organizations.
Baldwin, the name of a long line
of sovereign Counts of Flanders, of
whom the most celebrated was Bald-
win IX., who became, afterward, Em-
peror of Constantinople, under the
name of Baldwin I.
Baldwin II., the last Frank Em-
peror of Constantinople, born in 1217.
He was the son of Pierre de Courte-
nay, and succeeded his brother Robert
in 1228. Driven from his throne he
died in obscurity in 1273.
Baldwin, Charles H., an Amer-
ican naval officer, born in New York
city, Sept. 3, 1822. He entered the
navy as a midshipman, in 1839. Serv-
ing on the frigate " Congress " during
the war with Mexico, he figured in
several sharp encounters near Mazat-
lan. He commanded the steamer "Clif-
ton " at the passage of Forts Jackson
and St. Philip, and at the first attack
on Vicksburg. He became Rear-Ad-
miral in 1883, receiving the command
of the Mediterranean Squadron. He
died in New York city, Nov. 17, 1888.
Baldwin, Frank Dwight, a U. S.
military officer; born in Michigan,
June 26, 1842; entered the volunteer
army in 1861 and the regular army in
1866 ; became colonel of the 4th United
States Infantry, July 26, 190! ; and
was promoted Brigadier-General, U. S
A., June 9, 1902. He was awarded a
Congressional medal of honor for ser-
vice at the battle of Pine Tree Greet
Ga., July 20, 1864, and another for
gallantry in an action against Indians
in Texas. He greatly distinguished
Balen
himself in the Philippines, in the early
part of 1902.
Baldwin, James Mark, an Amer-
ican psychologist, born in Columbia,
S. C., Jan. 12, 1861; educated at
Princeton College, Leipsic, Berlin, and
Tubingen Universities; President of
the American Psychological Associa-
tion in 1897-1898.
Baldwin, John Denison, an
American journalist, politician, poet,
and writer on archaeology, born at
North Stonington, Conn., Sept. 28,
1809; died at Worcester, Mass., July
8, 1883.
Baldwin, Maurice Scollard, a
Canadian clergyman, born in Toronto,
June 21, 1836 ; was graduated at Trin-
ity College in that city, in 1862; be-
came rector of St. Luke's Church in
Montreal ; was Dean of Montreal in
1882-1883; and in the last year was
made Bishop of Huron.
Baldwin, Theodore Anderson,
American military officer, born in New
Jersey, Dec. 21, 1839; entered the
army as a private, May 3, 1862, and
served in that grade and as quarter-
master's sergeant in the 19th United
States Infantry, till May 31, 1865,
when he became First Lieutenant. He
was promoted Captain, July 23, 1867 ;
Major of the 7th Cavalry, Oct. 5,
1887; Lieutenant-Colonel of the 10th
Cavalry, Dec. 11, 1896 ; and Colonel of
the 7th Cavalry, May 6, 1899. From
Oct. 6, 1898, till Jan. 31, 1899, he
served as a Brigadier-General of Vol-
unteers. Retired in 1903.
Balearic Islands, a group of is-
lands, S. E. of Spain, including Ma-
jorca, Minorca, Iviza, and Formentera.
The islands form a Spanish province,
with an area of 1,935 square miles ;
pop. (1913) 329,831.
Baleen, whale-bone, in the rough
or natural state.
Bale-Fire, in its older and strict
meaning, any great fire kindled in the
open air, or in a special sense, the fire
of a funeral pile. It has frequently
been used as synonymous with beacon-
fire, or a fire kindled as a signal, Sir
Walter Scott having apparently been
the first to use the term in this sense.
Balen, Hendrik van, painter,
born at Antwerp, in 1560. His works,
chiefly classical, religious, and allegori-
cal — some of them executed in part-
Baler
Balfonr
nership with Breughel — are to be
found in most of the leading galler-
ies. Three of his sons also followed
the art, but the best of them, John
van Balen (1611-1654), was inferior
to his father. He died in 1632.
Baler, a town in the N. E. part
of Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the
Pacific coast. The population is sev-
eral thousand, mostly natives. The
most conspicuous edifice is a native
Catholic church. The town is noted
for the heroic defense of a Spanish
garrison in 1899, during a siege by the
Filipinos, lasting 11 months. The
Spaniards were commanded by Lieut.
Saturnine Martin Cerezo, who refused
to surrender the town even when di-
rected to do so by his superiors in
Manila. He entrenched himself in the
church and heroically resisted the be-
siegers until his supplies gave out,
when he surrendered with all the hon-
ors of war, July 2, 1899. Baler was
occupied by the American troops and
garrisoned with two companies of the
34th Volunteer Infantry, under Major
Shunk, in March, 1900.
Bales, Peter, a famous caligraph-
er, born in 1547. He was one of the
early inventors of shorthand. He died
about 1610.
Balestier, Charles Wolcott, an
American novelist, born in Rochester,
N. Y., Dec. 13, 1861; studied in Cor-
nell University ; and became connected
with a New York publishing house.
He was brother-in-law of Rudyard
Kipling. He died in Dresden, Sax-
ony, Dec. 6, 1891.
Balfe, Michael William, com-
poser, was born in Dublin, May 15,
1808. His musical talent received
early culture, and in his ninth year he
made his debut as a violinist, having
begun to compose at least two years
earlier. In 1826 he wrote the music
for a ballet, " La Perouse," performed
at Milan; and in 1827 he sang in the
Italian Opera at Paris with great ap-
plause, his voice being a pure, rich
baritone. In 1833 he returned to Eng-
land, and in 1846 was appointed con-
ductor of the London Italian Opera.
He died at Rowley Abbey, his estate
in Hertfordshire, Oct. 20, 1870.
Balfonr, Sir Andrew, a Scottish
botanist and physician, born in Fife-
shire, in 1630. He planned with Sir
Robert Sibbald, the Royal College of
Physicians at Edinburgh, and was
elected its first President.
Balfonr, Arthur James, a Brit-
ish statesman ; born in Scotland, July
25, 1848; educated at Eton and at
Trinity College, Cambridge ; entered
Parliament in 1874 ; was private sec-
retary to his uncle, the Marquis of
Salisbury, in 1878-1880, and accom-
panied him to the Berlin Congress;
was member of Parliament for Hert-
ford in 1879, and for the East Divi-
sion of Manchester in 1885 ; president
of the Local Government Board in
1885 ; Secretary for Scotland in 1886 ;
with a seat in the Cabinet; Lord Rec-
tor of St. Andrew's University in
1866; Secretary for Ireland in 1887-
1891 ; member of the Gold and Silver
Commission in 1887-1888; Lord Rec-
tor of Glasgow University in 1890;
Chancellor of Edinburgh University in
1891; First Lord of the Treasury
in 1891-1892; became the leader of
the Conservative opposition in the
House of Commons in 1892. In 1895
he again became First Lord of the
Treasury and leader of the House.
He was an effective speaker. As Chief
Secretary for Ireland, he was success-
ful. He passed the Crimes Act and
Law Act, secured a free grant for
railways, made a tour of investigation
and created the Congested Districts
Board. On the resignation of Lord
Salisbury. Mr. Balfonr became prime
minister, July 12, 1902. Iii 1903 lie
issued a pamphlet on "Insular Free
Trade," which caused a sensation as
the first blow at British free trade
from a British premier. In 1917 he
headed a distinguished mission to the
United States after Congress had de-
clared the existence of a state of war
against the Imperial German Govern-
ment. Congress gave him and his as-
sociates an exceptionally grand recep-
tion, and he met extreme cordiality on
every hand.
Balfonr, Nesbit, a British mili-
tary officer, born in Dunbog, Scotland,
in 1743 ; was promoted Lieutenant-
General in 1798 and General in 1803 ;
distinguished himself during the Amer-
ican Revolution ; was wounded in the
battle of Bunker Hill; fought at
the battles of Elizabethtown, Brandy-
wine, Germantown, and Long Island ;
and was present at the capture of
Bali
New York. He was appointed com-
mandant at Charlestown, in 1779. He
died in Dunbog, in October, 1823.
Bali, an island of the Indian Arch-
ipelago E. of Java, belonging to Hol-
land ; greatest length, 85 miles, great-
est breadth, 55 miles ; area, about
2,260 square miles. It is divided into
eight provinces under native rajahs,
and forms one colony with Lombok,
the united population being estimated
Dec. 31, 1912, at 1,207,310.
Baliol, or Balliol, John, King
of Scotland ; born about 1249. On the
death of Margaret, the Maiden of Nor-
way, and grandchild of Alexander III.,
Baliol claimed the vacant throne by
virtue of his descent from David, Earl
of Huntington, brother to William the
Lion, King of Scotland. Robert Bruce
(grandfather of the King) opposed
Baliol ; but Edward I.'s decision was
in favor of Baliol, who did homage
to him for the kingdom, Nov. 20, 1292.
Irritated by Edward's harsh exercise
of authority, Baliol concluded a treaty
with Prance, then at war with Eng-
land; but, after the defeat at Dunbar
he surrendered his crown into the
hands of the English monarch. He
was sent with his son to the Tower,
but, by the intercession of the Pope,
in 1297, obtained liberty to retire to
his Norman estates, where he died in
1315. His son, Edward, in 1332, land-
ed in Fife with an armed force, and
having defeated a large army under
the Regent Mar (who was killed), got
himself crowned King, but was driven
out in three months.
Baliol College, Oxford, founded
between 1263 and 1268 by John de
Baliol, father of John Baliol, King of
Scotland.
Balista, or Ballista, a machine
used in military operations by the an-
cients for hurling heavy missiles, thus
serving in some degree the purpose of
the modern cannon. They are said to
have sometimes had an effective range
of a quarter of a mile, and to have
thrown stones weighing as much as
300 Ibs. The balistse differed from the
catapultae, in that the latter were used
for throwing darts.
Balkan Peninsula, a region in Eu-
rope named from the Balkan Moun-
tains; between the Adriatic and Ionian
Seas on the W., and the Black Sea, Sea
Ball
of Marmora, and JEgean Sea on the
E. ; comprising Bulgaria, Servia,
Montenegro, Rumania, Eastern Rume-
lia, European Turkey, and Greece ;
area, about 125,500 square miles ; pop.
est. 17,700,000, about half Slavs. This
region was the scene of a war declared
by Bulgaria, Montenegro, Servia, and
Greece against Turkey and by Tur-
key against these allies in mid-Octo-
ber, 1912. On Nov. 3, beaten at every
point, Turkey sued for peace through
the Powers. It was also the scene
of important military operations in
the great war, for a summary of which
see APPENDIX : World War.
Balkhash. (Kirghiz Tengis ; Chi-
nese Sihai), a great inland lake, near
the E. border of Russian Central Asia,
between 44° and 47° N. lat. and 73
and 79° E. long. Lying about 780
feet above sea level, it extends 323
miles VV. S. W. ; its breadth at the W.
end is 50 miles ; at the E. from 9 to 4
miles ; the area is 8,400 square miles.
Its principal feeder is the river Hi. It
has no outlet.
Ball, Ephraim, an American in-
ventor, born in Greentown, O., Aug.
12, 1812 ; was brought up in the car-
penter's trade ; in 1840 established a
foundry for making plow castings ; in-
vented a plow, a turn-top stove, the
Ohio mower, the World mower and
reaper, the Buckeye machine, and the
New American harvester ; and for
many years before his death had an
extensive manufacturing plant at Can-
ton. He died in Canton, O., Jan. 1,
1872.
Ball, John, a priest, was one of
the leaders in the rebellion of Wat
j Tyler, and was in several respects a
I precursor of Wyclif, having been re-
I peatedly in trouble for heresy from
1 1366. He was hanged, drawn, and
quartered in 1381.
Ball, Sir Robert Stawell, an
English astronomer, born in Dublin,
July 1, 1840 ; studied at Trinity Col-
lege. He was knighted Jan. 25, 1886.
Ball, Thomas, an American sculp-
tor, born in Charlestown, Mass., June
3, 1819. Chief works : Equestrian
statue of Washington, in Boston ;
Webster statue in New York, and
"Emancipation," in Washington, D. C.
He died Dec. 11, 1911.
Ballad
Ballot Reform
Ballad, a narrative song, from the
French ballade, Italian ballata, an old
kind of song of a lyric nature. Bal-
lata is derived from ballare, to dance.
Ballantine, James, a Scottish |
artist and poet, born in Edinburgh,
June 11, 1808; was brought up as a
house painter, but afterward learned
drawing under Sir William Allen, and
was one of the first to revive the art
of glass painting. He was commis-
sioned to execute the stained glass
windows for the House of Lords. He
died Dec. 18, 1877.
Ballantine, •William Gay, an
American educator, born in Washing-
ton, D. C., Dec. 7, 1848; and Presi-
dent of Oberlin College in 1891-1896.
Dr. Ballantine was one of the editors
of the "Bibliotheca Sacra," in 1884r-
1891.
Ballarat, or Ballaarat, an Aus-
tralian town in Victoria, chief center
of the gold mining industry of the
State.
Ballinger, Richard Achilles, an
American lawyer; born in Boones-
boro, la., July 9, 1858; admitted to
the bar in 1886; Commissioner of the
General Land Office in 1907-1909;
Secretary of the Interior in 1909-11. |
His controversy with Gifford Pinchot, |
Chief Forester, on conservation inter- |
ests in Alaska, led to a Congressional '
investigation in 1910. Resigned and
resumed law practice in Seattle.
Balloon. See AERONAUTICS ; FLY-
ING MACHINE.
Ballot, a means of expressing an
individual choice for a public or other '
officer, or a measure of public impor- '
tance ; the medium through which a
voter indicates his preference at an
election.
The term ballot, at a club or private j
election, is applied to a ball used for i
the purpose of voting. In casting a
ball for or against an individual, the |
arrangement sometimes is that if the
vote be designed in his favor, then a
white ball is used, but if it be intended
to be against him, then one of a black
color is used — whence the phrase " to
blackball one." Other methods, how-
ever, may be adopted ; thus, a ball of
any color put through a hole into one
drawer may indicate a favorable vote,
and into another an unfavorable one.
The ballot, as a political institution,
is known from early times, having
been made use of in ancient Greece
and Rome. At Athens, the verdicts
given in the courts by the dicasts were
indicated by balls of stone or metal,
black or pierced balls indicating con-
demnation, while white or unpierced
meant acquittal.
When the measure called ostracism
was resorted to, the votes were given
by means of shells, on which the voters
wrote the name of the citizen whom
they wished banished. The method
known as petalism was employed at
Syracuse, the voters using olive leaves
as ballots. At Rome the ballot was
introduced in the election of magis-
trates in 139 B. c., and subsequently
in trials and legislation, the people
voting at first viva voce, but later
writing upon tablets the names of
their candidates. In the republic of
Venice a system of voting by ballot
prevailed for many centuries.
In the United States it was in use
in early colonial times; in France it
has been in operation in elections
since 1851 ; and in several of the Aus-
tralian colonies since 1855.
Ballot Reform, is a term applied
to such improvements in method? of
voting as tend to eliminate unfairness
at elections. Nearly every State in
the Union has adopted some plan in-
tended to make the ballot wholly se-
cret. There is a single ballot, usually
called a blanket ballot, because of its
size, on which the voter indicates his
choice — for a straight vote — by
marking a cross in the circle at the
head of the column containing the
nominees of his party, and for a scat-
tered or split vote, by making a cross
in the space before the desired name.
Two forms of the single ballot are in
use: (a) One, following the Austra-
lian plan, in which the titles of the
officers are arranged alphabetically,
the names of the candidates and the
party following ; (b) one which groups
all names and offices by parties.
In New York State the single bal-
lot has one column for each organiza-
tion that had made regular nomina-
tions, and another column containing
only the titles of the offices to be filled,
with a space on the left to indicate
the choice by making a cross, and a
space beneath the title of office, in
which the voter could write the name
Ballon
Balsam
of any person for whom he desired to
vote, whose name was not printed in
any of the party columns of the ballot.
Each of the columns is headed by
a registered party emblem, the circle
in which to indicate the choice for a
straight vote, and the name of the
party organization. Corruption is
baffled, if not defeated by the practical
inability of a voter to show how he is
voting.
A new feature of ballot reform is
the substitution for the ballot paper,
which is folded and deposited by hand,
of voting machines, which are contriv-
ances that both record the votes and
count them, enabling the inspectors to
see at any moment how many votes
have been cast, and for whom. No
machine has as yet come into gen-
eral use, but several States have
authorized their employment, and oth-
ers have referred the question of their
adoption to local option.
Ballon, Hosea, an American Uni-
versalist clergyman, journalist, and
historian, born at Halifax, Vt., Oct.
18, 1796; was the first President of
Tufts College (1854-1861), and was
very successful as editor of the " Uni-
versalist Magazine." He died at Som-
erville, Mass., May 27, 1801.
Ballon, Matnrin Murray, an
American journalist, son of Hosea
Ballou, born in Boston, April 14,
1820 ; died in Cairo, Egypt, March 27,
189o.
Ball's Bluff, a spot on the right
bank of the Potomac river in Loudon
county, Va., about 33 miles N. W. of
Washington; where the bank rises
about 150 feet above the level of the
river. It is noted as the scene of a
battle between a Union force under
Col. Edward D. Baker, and a Confed-
erate force under the command of Gen-
eral Evans, Oct. 21, 1861. The battle
resulted in the defeat of the Union
force and the death of Colonel
Baker.
Balm, a tree the specific name
being given because it was once sup-
posed to be the. Scriptural " Balm of
Gilead " — an opinion probably er-
roneous, for it does not at present
grow in Gilead, either wild or in gar-
dens, nor has it been satisfactorily
proved that it ever did. It is a shrub
or small spreading spineless tree, 10
to 12 feet high, with trifoliate leaves
in fascicles of 2-6, and reddish flow-
ers haying four petals. It is found on
both sides of the Red Sea, in Arabia,
Abyssinia, and Nubia. It does not
occur in Palestine.
Balm of Gilead Fir, a tree which
furnishes a turpentine-like gum. It
is a North American fir, having no
geographical connection with Gilead.
Balmaceda, Jose Manuel, a
Chilian statesman, born in 1840 ; early
distinguished as a political orator ; ad-
vocated in Congress separation of
Church and State; as Premier, in
1884, introduced civil marriage; elect-
ed President in 1886. A conflict with
the Congressional Party, provoked by
his alleged cruelties and official dis-
honesty, and advocacy of the claim of
Signer Vicuna as his legally elected
successor, resulted in Balmaceda's ov-
erthrow and suicide in 1891.
Balmerino, Arthur Elphin-
stoae, Lord, a Scottish Jacobite,
born in 1688. He took part in the
Jacobite rebellion of 1715, and fought
at Sheriffmuir. Having joined the
young Pretender in 1745, he was taken
prisoner at Culloden, tried at West-
minster, found guilty, and beheaded in
1746. His title was from Balmerino,
in Fife.
Balmoral Castle, the Highland
residence of King Edward, beautifully
situated on the S. bank of the Dee, in
the county of, and 45 miles W. of Ab-
erdeen. It stands in the midst of fine
and varied mountain scenery, is built
of granite in the Scottish baronial
style, was enlarged in 1888, and has a
massive and imposing appearance. The
estate, which is the King's private
property, comprises 25,000 acres, most-
ly deer forest.
Balsa, a kind of raft or float used
on the coasts and rivers of Peru and
other parts of South America for fish-
ing, for landing goods and passengers
through a heavy surf, and ^for other
purposes where buoyancy is chiefly
wanted. It is formed generally of two
inflated sealskins, connected by a sort
of platform on which the fisherman,
passengers or goods are placed.
Balsam, the common name of suc-
culent plants of the genus impatiens,
having beautiful irregular flowers, cul-
tivated in gardens and greenhouses.
Balsam
Balsam, an aromatic, resinous
substance, flowing spontaneously or by
incision from certain plants. A great
variety of substances pass under this
name. But in chemistry the term is
confined to such vegetable juices as
consist of resins mixed with volatile
oils, and yield the volatile oil on dis-
tillation.
Balta, Jose, a Peruvian states-
man, born in Lima, in 1816; retired
from the army with the rank of Colo-
nel in 1855 ; Minister of War in 1865 ;
one of the leaders in the insurrection
which overthrew the unconstitutional
President, Prado, in 1868; and was
President of Peru, in 1868M872. He
was murdered in a military mutiny in
Lima, July 26, 1872.
Baltic and North Sea Canal, a
German ship canal, starting at Hol-
tenau, on the Bay of Kiel, and joining
the river Elbe 15 miles from its
mouth; called by the Germans the
Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. The Emperor
William I. commenced the works on
June 6, 1887, so far as laying the foun-
dation of the Holtenau locks was con-
cerned, while William II. opened the
canal gates in 1895. The work was
thus actually completed in the esti-
mated time, eight years, and the esti-
mate of cost, $40,000,000, had not
been exceeded.
Baltic Provinces (in Russia), a
term very commonly used to compre-
hend the five Russian governments
bordering on the Baltic, viz., Courland,
Livonia, Esthonia, Petrograd, and
Finland ; in a restricted sense it desig-
nates the first three only. The Baltic
provinces once belonged to Sweden,
except Courland, which was a depen-
dency of Poland. The bulk of the
population is composed of Esths and
Letts; the Germans number above
200,000, the Russians only 65,000.
The three provinces combined have an
area of 35,614 square miles, and a
population (1914) of 3,049,500.
Baltic Sea, the great gulf or in-
land sea bordered by Denmark, Ger-
many, Russia, and Sweden, and com-
municating with the Kattegat and
North Sea by the Sound and the Great
and Little Belts. Its length is from
850 to 900 miles; breadth, from 100
to 200; and area, including the Gulfs
of Bothnia and Finland, 184,496
Baltimore
square miles, of which 12,753 are oc-
cupied by islands. Its mean depth is
44 fathoms, and the greatest ascer-
tained depth, between Gottland and
Courland, 140.
Baltimore, a coextensive city and
county of Maryland; sixth city in the
United States in pop. in 1900; (1910)
558,485; on an expansion of the
Patapsco river and seven railroads ; 38
miles N. E. of Washington, D. C., and
14 miles from Chesapeake Bay. The
city covers an area of 28 square miles,
and the expansion of the river gives
it a. spacious and secure harbor (con-
sisting of an outer bay accessible to
the largest ships, and an interior basin
for small vessels), which has become
the seat of a very large foreign and
coastwise trade. The entrance to the
harbor is defended by Fort McHenry,
an important military post, which
successfully resisted an attack by the
British fleet in the War of 1812. The
city is laid out in general at right
angles, with streets averaging 60 feet
in width, and is built up with red
brick", made from clay beds near the
city, white marble and granite, both
from quarries near by, and with iron.
The city is the largest oyster can-
ning place in the world, the indus-
try employing over 5,000 vessels and
boats of all kinds and several thousand
persons. It also ranks very high in
the various manufactures of tobacco,
and in the exportation of corn and
grains in general.
On Sept. 11, 1814, the British forces
under General Ross landed near Bal-
timore and attempted to carry the city
by assault. The American forces were
placed at a great disadvantage, and
were unable to resist the invasion ;
but in the assault the British com-
mander was killed, and his troops
abandoned their purpose. On the fol-
lowing day, the British fleet bombard-
ed Fort McHenry without practical
success. During the Civil War the
city was a scene of almost continual
excitement. On April 19, 1861, a fatal
assault was made on portions of the
Sixth Massachusetts and the Seventh
Pennsylvania Regiments as they were
passing through the city on their way
to Washington-; in the following
month General Butler occupied Fed-
eral Hill; in 1863-1864 the city was
fortified to resist a threatened attack
Baltimore
Baliac
by the Confederates ; and in the latter
year the National Republican Conven-
tion, which renominated President
Lincoln, met in the city. On Sunday,
Feb. 7, 1904, a fire broke out in the
centre of the city, and raged for two
days, destroying property of the value
of $50,000,000. It necessitated the re-
construction of that portion of the
city, and enabled other important im-
provements, wider streets, new build-
ings, electric lighting and transit,
improved harbor accommodation, etc.,
to be effectively accomplished in the
"Monumental City."
Baltimore is the oldest Roman
Catholic See in the United States,
dating from 1789. It has long been
one of the most important commercial
centers of the country, having, in the
calendar year 1916, imports of mer-
chandise valued at $38,941.666, and
exports valued at $291,167,696. Ac-
cording to the Federal census on
manufactures in 1910 the city had
2,502 establishments, employing $164,-
437,000 capital and 71,444 wage
earners, paying $107,024,000 for ma-
terials, and yielding products valued
at $186,978,000. During the year
ended Sept. 30, 1916, the exchanges
at the Baltimore clearing house aggre-
gated $2.192.008,000, an increase in a
year of $464,175,000.
Baltimore, George Calvert.
Lord, an English colonist, born in
Yorkshire about 1580 ; was for some
time Secretary of State to James L,
but this post he resigned in 1624 in
consequence of having become a Ro-
man Catholic. Notwithstanding this
he retained the confidence of the King,
who, in 1625, raised him to the Irish
peerage, his title being from Balti-
more, a fishing village of Cork. He
had previously obtained a grant of
land in Newfoundland, but, as this
colony was much exposed to the at-
tacks of the French, he left it, and ob-
tained another patent for Maryland.
He died (1632) before the charter was
completed, and it was granted to his
son, Cecil, who deputed the governor-
ship to his brother, Leonard.
Baluchistan, a country in Asia,
the coast of which is continuous with
the N. W. seaboard of India, bounded
on the N. by Afghanistan, on the W.
by Persia, on the S. by the Arabian
Sea, and on the E. by Sind. It has
an area of about 134,630 square miles,
and a population (1911) of 834,703.
In 1910 it was divided into (1) Brit-
ish and administered territory ; (2)
native States of Kalat and Las Bela ;
(3) and the Marri and Bugti tribal
areas. The British province had an
area of 54,228 square miles and pop.
of 414,412, and the native States
an area of 80,410 square miles and a
pop. of 420,291.
Balustrade, a range of balusters,
together with the cornice or coping
which they support, used as a parapet
for bridges or the roofs of buildings,
or as a mere termination to a struc-
BALUSTBADE.
ture; also serving as a fence or in-
closure for altars, balconies, terraces,
staircases, etc.
Balzac, Honore de, a French au-
thor, born at Tours, May 20, 1799;
died in Paris, August, 1850. From
1819 to 1830 he led a life of frequent
privation and incessant industry, pro-
ducing stories which neither found nor
deserved to find readers, and incurring
— mainly through unlucky business
speculations — a heavy burden of debt,
which harassed him to the end of his
career. He first tasted success in Ids
30th year on the publication of "The
Last of the Chouans," which was soon
afterward followed by "The Magic
Skin," a marvellous interweaving of
the supernatural into modern life, and
the earliest of his great works. After
writing several other novels, he formed
the design of presenting in the "Hu-
man Comedy" a complete picture of
modern civilization. All ranks, pro-
fessions, arts, trades, all phases of
manners in town and country, were to
Bambarra
be represented in bis imaginary sys-
tem of things. In attempting to carry
out this impossible design, he produced
what is almost in itself a literature.
His work did not bring him wealth ;
his yearly income, even when he was
at the height of bis fame, is said to
have rarely exceeded 12,000 francs.
In 1849, when his health had brok-
en ^ down, he traveled to Poland to
visit Madame Hanska, a rich Polish
lady, with whom he had corresponded
for more than 15 years. In 1850 she
became his wife, and three months
after the marriage, in August of the
same year, Balzac died at Paris.
Bambarra, one of the Sudan
States of Western Africa. The in-
habitants, a branch of the Mandigoes,
number about 2,000,000, and are su-
perior to their neighbors in intelli-
gence. The country is within the
French sphere.
Bamberger, Heinrich von, an
Austrian pathologist, born in Prague
in 1822 ; was graduated in medicine in
1847; became Professor of Special
Pathology and Therapeutics, first ir
the University of Wiirzburg, and, in
1872, in the University of Vienna. He
died in 1888.
Bambino, the figure of our Sa-
viour represented as an infant in
swaddling clothes. The " Santissimo
Bambino " in the Church of Ara Cceli
at Rome, a richly decorated figure
carved in wood, is believed to have a
miraculous virtue in curing diseases.
Bamboo, a giant grass some-
times reaching the height of 40 or
more feet, which is found everywhere
in the tropics of the Eastern Hemi-
sphere, and has been introduced into
the West Indies, the Southern States
of America, and various other regions
of the Western world. Bamboo is put
to all sorts of uses. Bows, arrows,
quivers, the shafts of lances, and
other warlike weapons can be made
from the stems of bamboo, as can
ladders, rustic bridges, the masts of
vessels, walking sticks, water pipes,
flutes, and many other objects. The
leaves are everywhere used for weav-
ing and for packing purposes. Finally,
the seeds are eaten by the poorer class-
es in parts of India ; and in the West
Indies the tops of the tender shoots
are pickled.
Bancroft
Ban, Bann, Banne, Bain, or
Bane, a proclamation, public notice,
or edict respecting a person or thing.
I. Military and feudal : A procla-
mation in time of war.
II. Historical. The ban of the em-
pire : A penalty occasionally put in
force under the old German Empire
against a prince who had given some
cause of offense to the supreme au-
thority.
III. Law, etc. Banns (plural) :
The publication of intended marriages,
proclamation that certain parties
named intend to proceed to marriage,
unless any impediment to their union
be proved to exist.
Ban, in Austro-Hungary : (1)
Formerly : A title belonging to the
warden of the Eastern Marshes of
Hungary. (2) Now : The Viceroy of
Temesvar, generally called the Ban of
Croatia. The territory he rules over
is called a banat or banate.
Banana, a fruit originally East
Indian, but much cultivated in warm
countries over the whole globe.
Banana, an island in West Afri-
ca, N. of the mouth of the Kongo;
also a seaport of the Kongo Free
State on_ the island. It has lost com-
mercial importance in recent years.
Banana-Bird, a bird belonging to
the family sturnidse (starlings), and
the sub-family oriolinse, or orioles. It
is tawny and black, with white bars
on the wings. It occurs in the West
Indies and the warmer parts of Con-
tinental America.
Banat, a large and fertile region
in Hungary, consisting of the coun-
ties of Temesvar, Torontal and Kris-
so; principal town, Temesvar. The
region originally belonged to Hun-
gary; was occupied by the Turks in
1652-1716; and was reunited to Hun-
gary in 1779. The population ex-
seeds 1,500,000.
Banca, an island belonging to the
Dutch East Indies, between Sumatra
and Borneo, 130 miles long, with a
width varying from 10 to 30; pop.
80,921, a considerable proportion be-
ing Chinese. II is celebrated for its
excellent tin, of which the annual yield
is above 4,000 tons.
Bancroft, Aaron, a Unitarian
clergyman, born in Reading, Mass.,
Nov. 10, 1755 ; graduated at Harvard,
Bancroft
in 1778 ; became pastor in Worcester
in 1785, where he remained nearly 50
years. Besides a great number of ser-
mons his works include a " Life of
George Washington" (1807). He
was the father of the historian, George
Bancroft. He died at Worcester,
Mass., Aug. 19, 1839.
Bancroft, George, an American
historian, born near Worcester, Mass.,
Oct. 3, 1800. He was educated at
Harvard and in Germany, where he
made the acquaintance of many liter-
ary men of note. In 1824 he pub-
lished a translation of Heeren's " Poli-
tics of Ancient Greece," and a small
volume of poems, and was also em-
ployed in collecting materials for a
history of the United States. Between
1834 and 1840 three volumes of his
history were published. In 1845 he
was appointed Secretary of the Navy,
and effected many reforms and im-
provements in that department. He
was American Minister to England
from 1846 to 1849, when the Univer-
sity of Oxford conferred on him the
honorary degree of D. C. L. He took
the opportunity, while in Europe, to
perfect his collections on American
history. He returned to New York in
1849, and began to prepare for the
press the fourth and fifth volumes of
his history, which appeared in 1852.
The sixth appeared in 1854, the sev-
enth in 1858, the eighth soon after,
but the ninth did not appear until
1866. From 1867 to 1874 he was
Jlinister Plenipotentiary at the Court
of Berlin. The 10th and last volume
of his great work appeared in 1874.
An additional section appeared, first
as a separate work, in 1882 : " His-
tory of the Formation of the Constitu-
tion of the United States," and the
whole came out in six volumes in
1884-1885. He settled in Washing-
ton on returning from Germany, in
1875, and died there, Jan. 17, 1891.
Bancroft, Hubert Howe, an
American historian, born in Granville,
Ohio, May 5, 1832. In 1852 he went
to California to establish a book busi-
ness, and began to collect documents,
maps, books and MSS. for a complete
" History of the Pacific States " from
Mexico to Alaska. In 1905 he gave
his library of 60,000 volumes and 500
original MSS. to the University of
California.
E. 13.
Band Fish
Bancroft, The, a steel gunboat of
the United States navy ; built express-
ly for a practice ship for the cadets of
the United States Naval Academy;
launched in 1892.
Bandai-San, a volcano in Japan;
140 miles N. of Tokio. Its summit
consists of several peaks, the highest
of which is 6,035 feet above the ocean,
and 4,000 feet above the surrounding
plain. On July 15, 1888, there was a
terrible explosion of steam which
blew out a side of the mountain, mak-
ing a crater more than a mile in width,
and having precipitous walls on three
sides. The debris of broken rock and
dust poured down the slope and over
an area of 27 square miles, killing 461
persons and covering many villages.
Banda Islands, a group belonging
to Holland, Indian Archipelago, S. of
Ceram, Great Banda, the largest, be-
ing 12 miles long by 2 broad. They
are beautiful islands, of volcanic ori-
gin, yielding quantities of nutmeg.
Goenong Api, or Fire Mountain, is a
cone-shaped volcano which rises 2,320
feet above the sea. Pop. about 7,000.
Banda Oriental, a State of South
America, now usually called UBU-
GUAY.
Bandel, Ernst von, a Bavarian
sculptor, born in 1800, at Ansbach ;
studied art at Munich, Nuremberg,
and Rome ; and from 1834 lived chiefly
at Hanover, engaged off and on, for
40 years, on his great monument of
Arminius, near Detmold, 90 feet high,
which was unveiled by the Emperor
Wilhelm on Aug. 16, 1875. He died
near Donauworth, Sept. 25, 1876.
Bandelier, Adolph Francis
Alphonse, a Swiss-American archae-
ologist, born in Berne, Aug. 6, 1840;
settled early in the United States,
where he did important work under
the Archaeological Institute of Amer-
ica. His studies were chiefly among
the Indians of New Mexico and
Arizona, Central America and Mexico.
He published many papers on the sub-
ject. Died March 19, 1914.
Band Fish. The red band fish.
It is about 15 inches long. Its bril-
liant appearance, when seen moving
in the water, has suggested the names
of fire-flame and red ribbon, by which
it is also known. The home of the
genus is in Japanese waters.
Bandicoot
Bandicoot, the largest known spe-
cies of rat, attaining the weight of
two or three pounds, and the length,
including the tail, of 24 to 30 inches.
It is a native of India, and is very
abundant in Ceylon. Its flesh is said
to be delicate and to resemble young
pork, and is a favorite article of diet
with the coolies.
Bandiera, Attilio and Emilio,
two brothers of a Venetian family,
lieutenants in the Austrian navy, who
attempted a rising in favor of Italian
independence in 1843. The attempt
was a failure, and they fled to Corfu ;
but, misled by false information they
ventured to land in Calabria with 20
companions, believing that their ap-
pearance would be the signal for a
general insurrection. One of their
accomplices had betrayed them, and
the party was captured at once by the
Neapolitan police. Attilio and Emilio
were shot along with seven of their
comrades in the public square of Co-
senza, on July 25, 1844.
Bandinelli, Baccio, son of a fa-
mous goldsmith of Florence, and one
of the best sculptors of his time, was
born at Florence in 1493. Among his
best works are his colossal group of
" Hercules," with Cacus at his feet,
his " Adam and Eve," his copy of the
" Laocoon," and the exquisite bassi-
rilievi which adorn the choir of the
Duomo in Florence, where he died in
1560.
Bauer, Johan Gnstafsson, a
Swedish general in the Thirty Years'
War, born in 1596 ; made his first
campaigns in Poland and Russia, and
accompanied Gustavus Adolphus, who
held him in high esteem, to Germany.
After the death of Gustavus, in 1632,
he had the chief command of the
Swedish army, and, in 1634, invaded
Bohemia, defeated the Saxons at Witt-
stock, Sept. 24, 1636, and took Tor-
gau. He ravaged Saxony again in
1639, gained another victory at Chem-
nitz, and, in 1640, defeated Piccolo-
mini. In January, 1641, he very near-
ly took Ratisbon by surprise. He
died in 1641.
Bang, Herman, a Danish novel-
ist, born in 1857. He came into no-
tice about 1879, from which time he
published a number of novels and
some poems. He died in 1912.
Bangkok
Bangalore, a town of Hindustan,
capital of Mysore, and giving its name
to a considerable district in the E. of
Mysore State. Pop. 180,366.
Bangkok, the capital city of Siam,
situated on both banks of the Menam,
about 20 miles from its mouth. The
population in 1910, 628,675, nearly
half of whom are Chinese, the others,
including Burmese, Annamese, Cam-
bodians, Malays, Eurasians, and Eu-
ropeans. The foreign trade of Siam
centers in Bangkok, and is mainly in
the hands of the Europeans and Chi-
nese. The approach to Bangkok by
the Menam. which can be navigated
by ships of 350 tons burden (large
sea-going ships anchor at Paknam, be-
low the bar at the mouth of the
river), is exceedingly beautiful. The
internal traffic of Bangkok is chiefly
carried on by means of canals, there
being only a few passable streets in
the whole city. Horses and carriages
are rarely seen, except in the neigh-
borhood of the palaces. The native
houses on land — of bamboo or other
wood, like the floating fiouses — are
raised upon piles, six or eight feet
from the ground, and are reached by
ladders. The circumference of the
walls of Bangkok, which are 15 to 30
feet high, and 12 broad, is about 6
miles.
Bangkok is now the permanent res-
idence of the King. The palace is sur-
rounded by high walls, and is nearly
a mile in circumference. It includes
temples, public offices, accommodation
for officials and for some thousands of
soldiers, with their necessary equip-
ments, a theater, apartments for a
crowd of female attendants, and sev-
eral Buddhist temples, or chapels.
Several of the famous white elephants
are kept in the courtyard of the pal-
ace. Throughout the interior are dis-
tributed the most costly articles in
gold, silver, and precious stones. The
chief exports are rice, sugar, pepper,
cardamoms, sesame, hides, fine woods,
ivory, feathers, and edible birds' nests.
The imports are tea, manufactured
silks and piece goods, opium, hard-
ware, machinery, and glass wares. In
1893, a treaty was concluded at Bang-
kok, by which Siam made large ces-
sions to France, two French gunboats
having forced their way to the capital
after an ineffective defense.
Bangor
Bangor, city, port of entry, and
capital of Penobscot county, Me.; at
juriction of the Penobscot and Ken-
duskeag rivers and on the Maine
Central railroad; 140 miles N. E. of
Portland; has exceptional power for
manufacturing from the Penobscot
river; is chiefly engaged in the lum-
ber industry; and is the seat of a
noted theological seminary. Pop.
(1910) 24,803.
Bangs, John Kendrick, an
American humorist and editor, born
in Yonkers, N. Y., May 27, 1862. He
was long famous for his light verse
and humorous stories.
Bangs, Lemuel Bolt on, an
American physician ; born in New
York, Aug. 9, 1842 ; was president of
the American Association of Genito-
urinary Surgeons (1895) and editor
of "American Text-Book of Genito-
Urinary Diseases." D. Oct. 4, 1914.
Bangweolo (also called Bemba),
a great Central African lake, discover-
ed by Livingstone in 1SG8, which is
150 miles long by 75 in width, and
3,700 feet above the sea. On its S.
shore Livingstone died.
Banian, or Banyan, an Indian
trader, or merchant, one engaged in
commerce generally^ but more particu-
larly one of the great traders of West-
ern India, as in the seaports of Bom-
bay, Kurrachee, etc., who carry on a
large trade by means of caravans with
the interior of Asia, and with Africa
by vessels.
Banim, John, an Irish novelist,
dramatist, and poet, born in Kilkenny,
April 3, 1798 ; died in Kilkenny, Aug.
13, 1842.
Banishment (the act of putting
under ban, proclamation, as an out-
law), a technical term for the punish-
ment of sending out of the country
under penalties against return.
Banister, John, an Anglo-Amer-
ican scientist, born in England ; set-
tled in the West Indies, and later in
Virginia, in the vicinity of James-
town, where he devoted himself to the
study of botany. He died in 1692.
His son, JOHN, born in Virginia, was
educated in England, and studied law
there ; became Colonel in the Virginia
militia; member of the Virginia As-
sembly ; and prominent in the patri-
Bank Note
otic conventions of the Revolutionary
period ; was a Representative from
Virginia in the Continental Congress
in 1778-1779, and one of the signers
of the Articles of Confederation. He
died near Hatchers Run, Va., in 1787.
Banjermassin, a former Sultan-
ate in the S. E. of Borneo, with an
area of 5,928 square miles, and a pop-
ulation of about 300,000, chiefly Mo-
hammedans. Tributary to Holland
since 1787, it was annexed on the
death of the last Sultan in 1857, and
is now governed by the Dutch Resi-
dent for the S. and E. of Borneo, who
has an assistant at Martapura, where
the Sultans formerly lived.
Banjo, a musical instrument with
five strings, having a head and neck
like a guitar, with a body or sound-
ing-board hollow at the back, and
played with the hand and fingers. It
is the favorite instrument of the plan-
tation negroes of the Southern States
and their imitators, and seems to have
had its origin in the bandore, a musi-
cal instrument like a lute or guitar,
invented by John Ross or Rose, a fa-
mous violin-maker, about 15G2.
Bank, primarily an establishment
for the deposit, custody and repay-
ment on demand, of money ; and ob-
taining the bulk of its profits from the
investment of sums thus derived and
not in immediate demand. The term
is a derivative of the banco or bench
of the early Italian money dealers. ^
Bank Acceptances, commercial
notes for discouut which the Federal
Reserve Banking Act of 1913 per-
mitted National banks to accept. This
system of financing trade has been in
operation abroad for many years and
to some extent in the United States,
but has never been extended to do-
mestic business lest the credit privi-
lege should be overdone. The process
is about the same as having an ordi-
nary note discounted at a bank, but is
largely restricted to foreign business.
Bankes, Henry, an English
statesman and historian ; born in Lon-
don in 1757 ; died Dec. 17, 1834.
Bankiva Fowl, a fowl living wild
'in Northern India, Java, Sumatra, etc.
Bank Note, an engraved certifi-
cate representing its face value in spe-
cie. In the production of bank notes,
the principal purpose is to render their
Bankruptcy Laws
Bank*
forgery impossible, or at least easy of
detection. This is sought to be effect-
ed by peculiarity of paper, design, and
printing.
In the United States, the bank notes
at present in circulation are manufac-
tured by the Government Bureau of
Engraving and Printing, the paper
being made by a private concern, un-
der a patented process, the chief in-
gredients being a mixture of linen
and cotton fiber, into which are in-
troduced threads of silk, so arranged
as to be perceptible after the notes
are printed. This style of paper is
furnished only to the government. Su-
perior skill is exercised in engraving
the plates, nearly all parts of them
being executed by the geometrical
lathe and the ruling machine the work
of which it is impossible to imitate
successfully by hand. The printing of
the notes is done in colored inks of the
best quality, sometimes as many as
four shades being used. The great ex-
pense of the machines used in the en-
graving, and the superior quality of
the work generally, renders successful
counterfeiting almost impossible. The
notes, when badly worn, are returned
to the United States Treasury, other
notes being issued in their stead.
Bankruptcy Laws, regulations
passed by a competent authority with
a view to distributing the property of
an insolvent equitably among his cred-
itors and free the debtor from further
obligation. In England, before 1841,
only a tradesman could be a bankrupt.
This distinction was then abolished.
It was abolished in the United States
in 1869. The act " to establish a
uniform system of bankruptcy
throughout the United States," was
passed by both Houses of the 55th
Congress, and by the approval of Pres-
ident McKinley, became a law on July
1, 1898.
The provisions under which a man
can be thrown into bankruptcy against
his will are as follows: (1) Where a
man has disposed of his property with
intent to defraud. (2) Where he has
disposed of his property to one or
more creditors to give a preference to
them. (3) Where he has given a
preference through legal proceedings.
(4) Where a man has made a volun-
tary assignment for the benefit of his
creditors generally. (5) Where a
man admits in writing that he is bank-
rupt. The last two provisions are
practically voluntary proceedings. Un-
der the common law, a man is consid-
ered insolvent when he cannot pay his
debts when they are due ; under the
new law, he is deemed insolvent only
when his property, fairly valued, is in-
sufficient to pay his debts. Only two
offenses are cited under the new law :
one when property is hidden away
after proceedings in bankruptcy have
been begun, and the other when per-
jury is -discovered. Discharges are to
be denied in only two cases ; one, in
which either of the offenses detailed
has been committed, and the other,
when it is shown that fraudulent
books have been kept. The term of
imprisonment for either of these of-
fenses is not to exceed two years.
The law provides a complete sys-
tem throughput the United States, and
for its administration by the United
States courts in place of the different
systems formerly in existence in the
various States administered by State
courts. In bankruptcy proceedings, a
bankrupt debtor may turn over all his
property to the court, to be adminis-
tered for the benefit of his creditors,
and then get a complete discharge
from his debts. A bankrupt may of
his own motion offer to surrender his
property to the administration of the
United States court and ask for his
discharge in voluntary bankruptcy, or
creditors may apply to the court to
compel a bankrupt to turn over his
property to be administered under the
act for the benefit of the creditors in
voluntary bankruptcy. The bankrupt
who has turned over all his property
and conformed to the provisions of the
act, is entitled to a judgment of court
discharging him from any future lia-
bility to his creditors.
Banks, Sir Joseph, an English
naturalist, born in London in 1743.
He died in 1820, and bequeathed his
collections to the British Museum.
Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss, an
American legislator and soldier, born
in Waltham, Mass., Jan. 30, 1816. At
first a factory worker, he studied law,
and became successively a member of
the State and National Legislatures.
He was Speaker of Congress in 1856,
, and in 1858, and in 1859 he was elect-
I ed Governor of his native State. On
Banks
Banks
the outbreak of the Civil War, he took
a command in the army, at first on
the Potomac, then at New Orleans,
and finally on the Red river. Relieved
of his command in 1864, he re-entered
Congress, voting mainly with the Re-
publican party. He died in Waltham,
Sept. 1, 1894.
Banks, Thomas, an English
sculptor, born in 1735. He died in
1805.
Banks in ike United States,
financial institutions comprising (1)
National banks; (2) Suite banks;
and (3) savings banks, consisting of
(a) mutual savings banks; and (b)
stock savings banks. These are gen-
eral throughout the entire country.
In addition to these, are (1) co-opera-
tive banks, common to New England,
especially Massachusetts; (2) loan and
trust companies, established in nearly
all the large cities; and (3) building
and loan associations, now represented
in most of the States and Territories.
The last three classes partake of some
of the features of regular banking, es-
pecially in the reception of money on
deposit, subject to call, and the pay-
ment of interest thereon. The first
three kinds of banks only are heie
considered.
The first bank in the United States
was organized in Philadelphia in 1780,
and a Bank of North America was
planned in 1781 and opened in 1782.
The Massachusetts Bank was incor-
porated in 1784; that of New York
was chartered in 1791, although, since
1784, under Alexander Hamilton's
" Articles of Association," it had
been doing business. Alexander Ham-
ilton also originated a plan for a
United States bank, with a capital of
$10,000,000, three-fourths to be paid
in United States stock, at 6 per cent.,
which plan was adopted and approved
by Washington in 1791. The bank
was reorganized in 1816 with a capital
of $35,000.000, the United States sub-
scribing $7,000,000, with interest at 6
per cent., but in consequence of a gen-
eral financial depression, was, the
next year, in great danger of failure.
Congress refusing to renew the char-
ter, a State bank, called the United
States bank, was chartered in Penn-
sylvania, and eventually failing, the
whole account was settled in 1856.
The $28,000,000 deposited by share-
holders was totally lost, while the Gov-
ernment realized $6,093.167 upon its
investments of stock. State banks
were afterward chartered in the inter-
ests of individual and dominant polit-
ical parties. The charters were some-
times fraudulently obtained and cur-
rency issued to three times the amount
of their capital, and, in 1814, 1837,
and 1857, many of them suspended
payment A reform movement in
bank currency was inaugurated in
Massachusetts in 1825, and a " safety-
fund " system, recommended by Mr.
Van Buren, adopted in 1829. In 1838
the Free Bank Act passed the New
York Legislature, which authorized
any number of persons to form a bank-
ing association, subject to certain
specified conditions and liabilities.
On Feb. 25, 1863, the National
banking system was organized, but the
act establishing it was modified by
that of June 3, 1864. This provided
for a National Bank Bureau in the
Treasury Department, whose chief
officer is the Comptroller of the Cur-
rency. Under it National banks could
be organized by any number of indi-
viduals, not less than five, the capital
t9 be not less than $100,000 except in
cities of a population not exceeding
6,000 ; in these banks could be estab-
lished with a capital of not less than
$50,000. In cities having a popula-
tion of 50,000 the capital stock could
not be less than $200,000. One third
of the capital was required to be in-
vested in United States bonds, which
were deposited in the Treasury for se-
curity, upon which notes were issued
equal in amount to 90 per cent, of the
current market value, but not exceed-
ing 90 per cent of the par value ; and
these notes were receivable at par in
the United States for all payments to
and from the Government, except for
duties on imports, interest on the pub-
lic debt, and in redemption of the na-
tional currency. On March 3, 1865,
an act was passed by which the cir-
culation of the State banks was taxed
10 per cent., which drove their notes
out of existence.
Various laws have since been passed
in relation to National banks. On
March 14, 1900, President McKin-
ley approved a new currency act,
which, among other things, established
Bannock
the gold dollar as the standard unit of
value, and placed at a parity with
that standard all forms of money is-
sued or coined by the United States.
The bill also made a number of im-
portant changes in the regulations
governing National banks. The new
law permitted National banks, with
$25,000 capital, to be organized in
places of 3,000 inhabitants or less,
whereas the minimum capital previ-
ously was $50,000. It also permitted
banks to issue circulation on all
classes of bonds deposited up to the
par value of the bonds, instead of 90
per cent, of their face, as before.
More recent features of banking inj
the United States are the Oklahoma
scheme for guaranteeing the deposits
of banks, which Attorney-General
Bonaparte nullified, as far as Na- j
tional banks were concerned, in 1908 ; j
the combined savings and insurance j
banks of Massachusetts, known as !
"Brandeis banks," established in I
1908 ; the1 SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS i
(or. v.) founded by J. H. Thiry, in j
New York, in 1885; and the POSTAL'
SAVINGS BANKS (q. v.), established
by Congress in 1910. At the special
session of Congress in 1913 an elabo-
rate scheme was introduced for re-
forming the national banking laws.
This resulted in the establishment of
the Federal Reserve System, under
which it was obligatory for National
banks and permissible for State banks
to become associated in the new organ-
ization (see FEDEBAL RESERVE SYS-
TEM; FEDERAL FARM BANKS).
On Nov. 17, 1916, there were 7,584 i
National banks in operation, having a
combined capital of $1,071,116,000;
deposits, $12,489,279,000; circulation,
$665,259.000; loans and discounts,
$8,345,784,000; reserve, $2,472,622,-'
000 ; and resources, $15,520,205,000.
Bannock, a tribe of North Amer-
ican Indians belonging to the Shoshoni
stock. They are divided into two sec-
tions, inhabiting Nevada and Montana.
Bannockbnrn, a village of Stir?
lingshire, Scotland, 3 miles S. S. E. of
Stirling, on the Bannock Burn, a lit-
tle affluent of the Forth. In the great
battle of Bannockburn, fought on June
24, 1314, Robert Bruce, with 30,000
Scotch, gained a signal victory over
Edward II., with 100,000 English, and
secured his throne and the independ-
Bantry Bay
ence of Scotland. The English are
said to have lost 30,000, and the
Scotch 8,000 men. Not far off was
fought the battle of Sauchieburn. In
September, 1903, it was reported that
Andrew Carnegie was negotiating to
acquire ownership of the battlefield in
order to preserve it as a national
memorial.
Banquo, a famous Scottish thane
of the llth century. In conjunction
with Macbeth, cousin of -Duncan, the
King, he obtained a victory over the
Danes, who had landed on the Scot-
tish coast. Macbeth, shortly after-
ward, violently dethroned Duncan,
and caused him to be secretly assass-
inated. Banquo, though not an ac-
complice, was a witness of the crime ;
and being subsequently regarded by
Macbeth with fear and suspicion, the
latter invited him and his son to sup-
per, and hired assassins to attack
them on their return home during the
darkness of night. Banquo was slain,
but the youth made his escape.
Shakespeare has interwoven this oc-
currence with the theme of his tragedy
of " Macbeth."
Banshee, a fay, elf, or other su-
pernatural being, supposed by some of
the peasantry in Ireland and the Scot-
tish Highlands to sing a mournful dit-
ty under the windows of the house
when one of the inmates is about to
die.
Bantam, a variety of the common
domestic fowl, originally brought from
the East Indies, and supposed to de-
rive its name from the above town. It
is remarkable for its small size, being
only about one pound in weight, and
for a disposition more courageous and
pugnacious than even that of a game-
cock.
Banting, William, an English*
man of notable corpulence, born in
1797, who, by adopting a simple diet
was able to relieve himself of his su-
perfluous flesh. The dietary recom-
mended was the use of butcher's meat
principally, and abstinence from beer,
farinaceous food, and vegetables. He
died in 1878.
Bantry Bay, a deep inlet in the
S. W. extremity of Ireland, in County
Cork. Here a French force attempted
to land in 1796. The coast around is
rocky and high.
Bantu
Bantu, the ethnological name of
a group of African races dwelling be-
low about 6° N. lat, and including the
Kaffirs, Zulus, Bechuanas, the tribes
of the Loango, Kongo, etc., but not
the Hottentots.
Banvard, John, an American
artist, poet, and dramatist, born in
New York about 1820 ; died in 1891.
Banvard, Joseph, an American
Baptist clergyman and historian,
brother of the preceding, born in New
York in 1810; died in 1887.
Banyan Tree, a species of the
genus ficus. It is regarded as a
sacred tree by the Hindus.
BANYAN TREK.
Bapanme, a small town of N.
France, 15 miles S. S. E. of Arras
and 25 miles N. W. of St. Quentin,
the scene of the great battle of Jan.
3, 1871, when the Germans were
forced back behind Somme. The town
also figures in the Peace of the
Pyrenees, in 1659, by which it was
ceded to Louis XIV., and in the great
Arras campaign of 1917. See APPEN-
DIX: World War.
Baptism (from the Greek baptize,
from bapto, to immerse or dip), a rite
which is generally thought to have
been usual with the Jews even before
Christ, being administered to prose-
lytes. From this baptism, however,
that of St. John the Baptist differed
Baptist*
because he baptized Jews also as a
symbol of the necessity of perfect
purification from sin. Christ himself
never baptized, but directed his disci-
ples to administer this rite to converts
(Matt xxviil: 19); and baptism,
therefore, became a religious ceremony
among Christians, taking rank as a
sacrament with all sects which ac-
knowledge sacraments. Three modes
of administering the rite have been
adopted — immersion, pouring and
sprinkling. The question, on which
I there have been innumerable disputes,
, turns upon the meaning of the Greek
I preposition following the verb. The
j advocates of baptism by immersion, as
the only valid form, claim that the
I preposition is "in ;" the advocates of
sprinkling contend that the preposi-
1 tion is, "with." The Greek Church
adopted the custom of immersion ; but
the Western Church adopted or al-
lowed the mode of baptism by pouring
or sprinkling, since continued by most
Protestants.
Baptists, a Protestant denomina-
tion based on the belief that immer-
sion is the only Scriptural mode of
baptism, and that those only are proper
subjects for this ceremony who are
converted and profess personal faith
!n Christ. They thus reject both in-
fant baptism and baptism by sprink-
ling or pouring of water as invalid.
There are, however, other sects, in-
cluding the Mennonites, the Chris-
tians, the Disciples of Christ, etc., who
accept the prominent principles of the
Baptists in whole or in part, and yet
are not classified with them, owing to
some minor differences. The Baptists
reject the name of Anabaptists as a
term of reproach, holding that it is in-
correct, because their members gener-
ally receive the rite on their admis-
sion to the church, and because they
were not identified with the Baptists
of Munster. The Baptists first ap-
peared in Switzerland, in 1523, and
soon spread to Germany, Holland, and
other continental countries, whence
they were driven to England by perse-
cution on account of their rejection of
infant baptism. The history of the
Baptists in England prior to the 16th
century is still a matter of contro-
versy. The first regularly organized
church was Arminian, and was estab-
lished in 1610 or 1611. A Calvinistic
Baptist
Baptist Church was founded about
1633. Those holding Arminian views
received the name of General Bap-
tists, and those holding Calvinistic
views the name of Particular Baptists.
In 1640 there were seven Baptist con-
gregations in London.
The Baptists in the United States
spring historically from the English
and Welsh Baptists ; but the first Bap-
tist church was organized by Roger
Williams, who was a minister in the
Massachusetts Colony previous to his
immersion. He was persecuted for
holding principles which inclined to
Anabaptism, and for antagonizing the
authorities of the colony in ecclesiasti-
cal matters. After being immersed,
in 1639, by Ezekiel. Holliman, whom
he in turn immersed with 10 others,
he organized a Baptist Church in
Providence, R. I. In 1644 he obtained
a charter which granted to the people
of Rhode Island entire freedom of
conscience. There were other Bap-
tists, however, who emigrated from
England in the 17th century, and, be-
fore the end of the 18th century, be-
came numerous in New England, New
York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Geor-
gia, and other States. In all the
British colonies, excepting Rhode Is-
land, the Baptists were persecuted for
a long time. In Massachusetts laws
were issued against them in 1644 ; sev-
eral of them were imprisoned in 1651 ;
others exiled in 1669; and a Baptist
meeting-house was closed in 1680.
New York issued laws against them in
1662, and Virginia in 1664. This per-
secution had greatly abate'd at the be-
ginning of the 18th century. After
the Revolutionary War the Baptists
increased with great rapidity, especial-
ly in the South and Southwestern
States, and have steadily increased
ever since.
There are at present three bodies of
Regular Baptists, the Northern, the
Southern, and the Colored, all of
whom agree in doctrinal and ecclesias-
tical principles, but each has its own
associations, State Conventions, and
general missionary and other associa-
tions. In 1845 a controversy concern-
ing slavery, which had been going on
for some time, caused a division be-
tween the Baptists in the Northern
and those in the Southern States, af-
ter which the Northern Baptists con-
Baptiii
tinued to support the Home Mission
Society and the American Baptist
Missionary Union, on an anti-slavery
basis. In 1879 the question of re-
uniting the divisions was agitated, but
nothing was accomplished. The
Southern Division is the largest branch
of white Baptists. After the division
of 1845 the Southern churches estab-
lished the Southern Baptist Conven-
tion, which holds annual meetings,
where the promotion and direction of
the denominational interests are con-
sidered, such as Sunday-schools, and
home and foreign missions. It is com-
posed of representatives from associa-
tions, other organizations, and from,
the churches. The Colored Baptists
compose the largest body of Regular
Baptists, although many Colored Bap-
tists are not members of this division ;
those only being included who have
separate churches, State Conventions,
and associations. The Colored Bap-
tists of the North are generally mem-
bers of churches belonging to white as-
sociations. In 1866 the first State
Convention of Colored Baptists was
organized in North Carolina, the sec-
ond in Alabama, and the third in Vir-
ginia, both in 1867, and the fourth in
Arkansas in 1868. There are (1900)
Colored conventions in 15 States and
the District of Columbia. Besides
these associations there are the Amer-
ican National Convention, which delib-
erates upon questions of general con-
cern ; the Consolidated American Mis-
sionary Convention, the General As-
sociation of the Western States and
Territories, the New England Mission-
ary Convention, and the Foreign Mis-
sionary Convention of the United
States.
Besides the three large divisions of
Baptists, there are 10 smaller ones.
(1) Six Principle Baptists date back
to Roger Williams and the year 1639
for their origin. They. differ from the
Regular Baptists in holding the Ar-
minian instead of the Calvinistic
creed, and in the practice of the laying
on of hands in the reception of mem-
bers. (2) Seventh Day Baptists, in
the United States, date their origin
back to 1671, when Stephen Mumford,
from England, organized the first
church in Newport, R. I. Their only
difference from other Baptists is found
in their keeping the seventh day as
Baptist
"the Sabbath of the Lord." (3)
Freewill Baptists. The first church
of this sect was founded by Benjamin
Randall in New Durham, N. H., in
1780. At first their organizations
were called simply Baptist churches,
but later the word " Freewill " was
applied to them, in allusion to their
doctrine concerning the freedom of the
will. (4) Original Freewill Baptists
date back to 1729, when a number of
General Baptist churches were found-
ed in North Carolina. In 1759 many
of these general churches became Cal-
vinistic. Those which did not join the
Calvinistic association were called
" Freewillers," because they held the
doctrine of the freedom of will. (5)
General Baptists are thus named, be-
cause they originally differed from the
Regular Baptists in holding that the
atonement was for the whole race and
not merely for those effectually called.
They date back to the beginning of the
18th century. (6) Separate Baptists
originated in the great Whitefield revi-
val. In doctrine they generally agree
with the Freewill Baptists. (7) Unit-
ed Baptists. A sect which sprang
from the opposition to the great revi-
val of George Whitefield. They hold
moderate Calvinistic views. (8) Bap-
tist Church of Christ. A sect organ-
ized in 1808 in Tennessee, where half
their number is found. They have a
mild form of Calvinism with a general
atonement. (9) Primitive Baptists
are variously known as Primitive, Old
School, Regular, and Antimission
Baptists. Their organization occurred
about 1835. They do not believe in
the establishment of Sunday-schools,
mission, Bible, and other societies,
which they hold are unscriptural be-
cause they are human institutions.
(10) Old Two-Seed-in-the-Spirit-Pre-
destinarian Baptists. A conservative
body of Baptists who are strongly Cal-
vinistic, believing firmly in predestina-
tion. The phrase " Two-Seed " is un-
derstood to mean their belief that
there are two seeds, one of the good
and one of the evil. The doctrine is
supposed to have been originated by
Elder Daniel Parker, who preached in
Tennessee in 1806-1817, in Illinois till
1836, and later in Texas, where he
died.
All Baptist denominations are con-
gregational in polity, with the possible
Barataria Bay
exception of the Original Freewill
Baptists. Each church, under its of-
ficers of pastor and deacons, manages
its own affairs. According to a spe-
cial Census report on " Religious
Bodies" (2 vols., 1910), there were
in the United States in 1906, 14 dis-
tinct Baptist bodies, with a total of
54,880 organizations, 52,338 places of
worship, 43,790 ministers, 5,662,234
communicants, property valued at
$139,842,656. and 2,898,914 Sunday
school scholars.
Baptist Young People's Union
o£ America, an association repre-
senting numerous young people's so-
cieties connected with the Baptist
Churches in all the States and in
Canada. Organized in June, 1891, in
Chicago, 111., which place has since
been its headquarters.
Bar, in hydrography, a bank of
sand, silt, etc., opposite the mouth of a
river, which obstructs or bars the en-
trance of vessels. The bar is formed
where the rush of the stream is ar-
rested by the water of the sea, as the
mud and sand suspended in the river
water are thus allowed to be deposited.
It is in this way that deltas are form-
ed at the mouths of rivers. The navi-
gation of many streams is kept open
only by constant dredging.
Barabbas, a noted robber in
Christ's time, who was awaiting
j death for sedition and murder. It
1 was a custom of the Roman govern-
j ment to conciliate the Jews, to re-
lease one Jewish prisoner, whom
they might choose, at the yearly
Passover. Pilate desired thus to re-
lease Jesus, but the Jews demanded
Barabbas.
Baracoa, a seaport town in the
province of Oriente, Cuba; on the
N. E. coast; 90 miles E. N. E. of
Santiago; is the oldest settlement in
Cuba and one of the oldest in the
New World (1514); has a small, shal-
low harbor. Pop. (1907) 27,852.
Baranoff Island, one of the Alex-
ander Islands, Alaska. It is about
75 miles long. On its coast is the
town of Sitka. The island derives its
name from the Russian trader, Bar-
anofif, who, in 1799, took possession
of it.
Barataria Bay, in the S. E. part
1 of Louisiana, extending N. from the
Baratier
Barbecue
Gulf of Mexico, between the parishes
of Jefferson and Plaquemine. This
bay is about 15 miles long by 6 wide.
It, and the lagoons branching out of
it, were rendered notorious about the
years 1810-1812 as being both the
headquarters and rendezvous of the
celebrated Lafitte and his buccaneers.
Baraticr, Johann Fhilipp, a
German litterateur, remarkable for
the precocity of his intellect, was born
in 1721. At the age of 7 he under-
stood Greek and Hebrew, and two
years later he compiled a Hebrew dic-
tionary. He was 13 when he trans-
lated the " Itinerary of Benjamin of
Tudela." Excess of work and, per-
haps, a too rapid development of his
intellectual faculties brought about a
languid malady, and, at the age of 19
years he died.
Barbacan, a projecting watch
tower, or other advanced work, be-
fore the gate of a castle or forti-
fied town. The term barbacan was
more especially applied to the out-
work intended to defend the draw-
bridge, which in modern fortifications
is called the tete du pont.
Barbadoes, or Barbados, the
most eastern of the West India Is-
lands, first mentioned in 1518, and
occupied by the British in 1625 ;
length 21 miles, breadth, 13; area,
106,470 acres, or 166 square miles ;
mostly under cultivation. Capital,
Bridgetown. It is more densely peo-
pled than almost any spot in the
world, the population on Dec. 31, 1914,
being estimated at 176,397, or over
1,062 to the square mile. The climate
is very hot, though moderated by the
constant trade winds ; and the island
is subject to dreadful hurricanes.
Barbaro, Francesco, one of the
most distinguished Italian authors of
the 15th century, born at Venice, in
1398; died in 1454.
Barbaroux, Charles Jean Ma-
rie, one of the greatest of the Giron-
dists, was born at Marseilles, March
6, 1767. He opposed the party of
Marat and Robespierre, and even di-
rectly accused the latter of aiming at
the dictatorship; consequently, he
was, in May, 1793, proscribed as a
royalist and an enemy of the Repub-
lic. He fled to Calvados, and thence
with a few friends to the Gironde,
where he wandered about the coun-
try, hiding himself as he best could
for about 13 months. At last, on the
point of being taken, he tried to shoot
himself ; but the shot miscarried, and
he was guillotined at Bordeaux, June
25, 1794.
Barbary, a general name for the
most northerly portion of Africa, ex-
tending about 2,600 miles from
Egypt to the Atlantic, with a breadth
varying from about 140 to 1,550
miles; comprising Morocco, Fez, Al-
geria, Tunis and Tripoli (including
Barca and Fezzan). The principal
races are the Berbers, the original
inhabitants, from whom the country
takes its name ; the Arabs, who con-
quered an extensive portion of it dur-
ing the times of the caliphs ; the Bed-
ouins? Jews, Turks, and the French
colonists of Algeria, etc. The coun-
try, which was prosperous under the
Carthaginians, was, next to Egypt,
the richest of the Roman provinces,
and the Italian States enriched them-
selves by their intercourse with it.
In the 15th century, however, it be-
came infested with adventurers who
made the name of Barbary corsair a
terror to commerce, a condition of
things finally removed by the French
occupation of Algeria.
Barbary Ape, or Magot, a mon-
key — the macacus inuus, found in
the N. of Africa, and of which a col-
ony exists on the Rock of Gibral-
tar. It is the only recent European
quadrumanous animal. It is some-
times called the magot, and is the spe-
cies occasionally exhibited, when
young, by showmen in the streets,
Barbazan, Arnanld Gnilhem,
Sire de, a French captain, who waa
distinguished by Charles VI. with the
title of " Chevalier Sans Reproche,"
and by Charles VIII. with that of
" Restaurateur du Royaume et de la
Couronne de France," born about the
end of the 14th century. He was kill-
ed at Bullegneville, in 1432.
Barbecne. 1. A beef dressed
whole, as is done in an election cam-
paign. To do this, the carcass of the
animal, split to the backbone, is laid
upon a large gridiron, under and
around which is placed a charcoal fire.
2. A large gathering of people, gen-
erally in the open air, for a social en-
Barbel
tertainment or a political rally, one
leading feature of which is the roast-
ing of animals whole to furnish the
numerous members of the party with
needful food.
Barbel. 1. A small fleshy thread
or cord, of which several hang from
the mouth of certain fishes.
2. A knot of superfluous flesh grow-
ing in the channels of a horse's mouth.
Barber, one who shaves beards and
dresses hair. In early times the op-
erations of the barber were not
confined, as now to shaving, hair-
dressing, and the making of wigs;
but included the dressing of wounds,
blood-letting, and other surgical op-
erations. It seems that in all coun-
tries the art of surgery and the art
of shaving went hand in hand. The
title of barber-chirurgeon, or barber-
surgeon, was generally applied to bar-
bers. The State of New York in 1903
adopted a law regulating the business
of barbers, enforcing stringent sani-
tary rules in their shops, and appoint-
ing a commission to enforce the law.
Barber, Edward Atlee, an
American archaeologist, born in Balti-
more, Md., Aug. 13, 1851 ; was grad-
uated at Williston Seminary in 1869,
end was assistant naturalist in the
United States Geological Survey in
1874-1875. Subsequently be was en-
gaged in gold dredging. His writ-
ings include a history of the ancient
Pueblos and a large number of mag-
azine articles on ceramics.
Barber, Francis, an American
general, born at Princeton, N. J.,
1751 ; died 1783. He graduated at
what is now Princeton University in
1767, entered the Revolutionary Army
as a major in 1776, and rose steadily
through meritorious service to the rank
of Adjutant-General. He was acci-
dently killed by a falling tree, after re-
covering from severe wounds received
at the battles of Momnouth, Newton,
and at Yorktown.
Barber, John Warner, an Amer-
ican author, born in Windsor, Conn.,
in 1798 ;. died in 1885. His writings
were mainly historical and include :
State Annals ; " Historical Scenes in
the United States," " Religious
Events," " Elements of General His-
tory," " Our Whole Country, Histori-
cal and Descriptive."
Barbierl
Barberini, a celebrated Floren-
tine family, which since the pontifi-
cate of Maffeo Barberini (Urban
VIII., 1623 to 1644), has occupied a
distinguished place among the nobil-
ity of Rome.
Barberry, or Berberry, the Eng-
lish name of the berberis. The com-
mon barberry is planted in gardens
or in hedges, being an ornamental
shrub, especially when covered with
a profusion of flowers or loaded with
fruit It has yellow flowers with an
unpleasant smell, which, however, are
much frequented by bees. Their juice
is acid, hence they are used for pre-
serves and confectionery.
Barber's Itch, a disease of the
skin of the face caused by the en-
trance of a fungus into the hair folli-
cles of the beard.
Barbet. Birds haying short,
conical bills, with stiff bristles at the
base, short wings, and broad and
rounded tails. It is from the bristles,
which have an analogy to a beard,
that the name is derived. These birds
are found in the warmer parts of both
hemispheres, the most typical coming
from South America.
Barbette, a mound of earth on
which guns are mounted to be fired
over the parapet.
In fortification. En barbette:
Placed so as to be fired over the top
of a parapet, and not through em-
brasures.
Barbiano, Abrecht da, an Ital-
ian military officer ; formed the first
regular company of Italian troops or-
ganized to resist foreign mercenaries,
about 1379. This organization, named
the " Company of St. George," proved
to be an admirable school, as from its
ranks sprang many future officers of
renown. He became Grand Consta-
ble of Naples in 1384, and died in
1409.
Barbier, Henri Auguste, a
French poet, born in Paris, April 29,
1805; died in Nice, Feb. 13, 1882.
Barbier, Jules, a French drama-
tist, born in Paris; 1825: d. 1901.
Barbieri, Giovanni Francesco,
otherwise known as GUERCINO (the
squinter) DA CENTO, an eminent and
prolific historical painter, born near
Bologna in 1590. He died in 1666.
Barbonr
PAOLO ANTONIO BARBIERI, a cele-
brated still-life and animal painter,
was a brother of Guercino; born
1596, died 1640.
Barbour, Erwin Hinckley, an
American geologist, born near Ox-
ford, O. ; was graduated at Yale Col-
lege in 1882 ; was assistant paleontol- j
ogist in the United States Geolog-
ical Survey in 1882-1888; Stone Pro-
fessor of Natural History and Geol-
ogy in Iowa College in ISS^lSdl ;
became Professor of Geology in the
University of Nebraska, and acting
State Geologist in 1891 ; and curator
of the Nebraska State Museum in j
1892. In 1893 he took charge 9f the
annual Morrill geological expeditions,
and since then he has also been en-
gaged in the United States Geologi-
cal and Hydrographic Surveys.
Barbour, John, a Scottish poet,
born about 1616. His great epic,
" The Bruce," tells the story of Rob-
ert Bruce and the battle of Ban-
nockburn. It was written in 1375
and brought him favor from the King.
He died in Aberdeen, March 13, 1395.
Barbour, John Humphrey, an
American educator, born in Torring-
ton, Conn., May 29, 1854. He was
rector of Grace Church, Hartford, till
1889, and then became Professor of
New Testament Literature and In-
terpretation at the Berkeley Divinity
School. He died in Middletown,
Conn., April 29, 1900.
Barbour, William McLeod, a
Congregational clergyman, born in
Fochabers, Scotland, May 29, 1827;
professor in Bangor Theological Sem-
inary in 1868-1877; Professor of Di-
vinity and college pastor in Yale,
1877-1887 ; became principal and Pro-
fessor of Theology in the Congrega- j
tional College in Montreal, Canada, '
in 1887. He died in 1892.
Barca, a commissariat of the Ital-
ian colony of Eritrea ; area, 12,700
square miles; pop. (1908) 36,862;!
capital, Agordat. The name was ;
formerly applied to the whole country
extending along the N. coast of Africa, ;
between the Great Syrtis (now the
Gulf of Sidra) and Egypt, and
bounded on the W. by Tripoli, and
on the S. by the Libyan Desert. It
was at one time considered a depart-
ment of Tripoli ; at another as an in-
Barclay de Tolly
dependent province, governed directly
from Constantinople.
Barcelona, the most important
manufacturing city in Spain, in prov-
ince of same name; pop. (1910) 587,-
411. The province of Barcelona has
an area of 2,681 square miles, and
pop. 1,163,242. Barcelona manufac-
tures silk, woolens, cottons, lace, hats,
firearms, etc., which form its princi-
pal exports. It imports raw cotton,
coffee, cocoa, sugar, and other colo-
nial produce ; also Baltic timber, salt
fish, hides, iron, wax, etc. Next to
Cadiz it is the most important port
in Spain. The harbor was extended
and its entrance improved in 1875.
Barcelona is noted for labor disturb-
ances.
Barclay, Robert, the apologist of
the Quakers, born in 1648, at Gor-
donstown, Moray, and educated at
Paris, where be became a Roman
Catholic. Recalled home by his fa-
ther, he followed the example of the
latter and became a Quaker. His first
treatise in support of his adopted
principles, published at Aberdeen in
the year 1670, under the title of
" Truth Cleared of Calumnies," to-
gether with his subsequent writings,
did much to rectify public sentiment
in regard to the Quakers. He died
in 1690. He was a friend of and
had influence with James II.
Barclay de Tolly, Michael*
Prince, a Russian military comman-
der, of Scottish descent, born in Li-
vonia in 1755. He began his military
career in the campaigns against the
Turks, the Swedes, and the Poles.
He was wounded at Eylau, when he
was made lieutenant-general. In
March, 1808, he surprised the Swedes
at Umea, by a march of two days
over the ice which covered the Gulf
of Bothnia. He was made governor-
general of Finland, and, in 1809, ap-
pointed Minister of War. He was
author of the plan of operations which
was followed with signal advantage
by the Russian army in the campaign
of 1812. After the battle of Baut-
zen, May 26, 1813, he was appointed
commander-in-chief of the Prusso-
Russian army ; and under him Witt-
genstein commanded the Russians;
Bliicher the Prussians ; and the
Grand Duke Constantine the Impe-
rial Guard. .On the day the allies _enr
Barclay- Allardice
Bariatinski
tered Paris he was created General
Field-Marshal. He died in 1818.
Barclay- Allardice, Robert,
known as Captain Barclay, the pe-
destrian, was born in 1779, and suc-
ceeded to the estate of Urie, near
Stonehaven, in 1797. He died May
8, 1854. His feat of walking 1,000
miles in 1,000 consecutive hours took
place at Newmarket, in June to July,
1809.
Barcocliba, or Barcokecas
("son of a star"), a famous Jewish
impostor, whose real name was Sim-
eon, and who lived in the 2d cen-
tury A. D. After the destruction of
Jerusalem by Titus, the Jews, at dif-
ferent periods, sought to regain their
independence ; and Barcochba, seeing
his countrymen still impatient of the
Roman yoke, resolved to attempt their
emancipation. With this view he
sought to sound the dispositions of
his co-religionists of Egypt, Mesopo-
tamia, Greece, Italy and Gaul, and
sent forth emissaries, who traveled
over all the provinces of the Roman
Empire. When all was ready Bar-
cochba, solemnly announced himself
as King and Messiah, and seized by
surprise on many fortified places. All
who refused to submit to him, par-
ticularly the Christians, were put to
death. The revolt was crushed by
the Romans after a five years' conflict
in which Barcochba perished miser-
ably.
Bard, a poet by profession, espe-
cially one whose calling it was to
celebrate in verse, song, and play the
exploits of the chiefs or others who
patronized him, or those of contem-
porary heroes in general. Bards of
this character flourished from the
earliest period among the Greeks, and
to a lesser extent among the Ro-
mans. Tacitus seems to hint at their
existence among the Germanic tribes.
It was, however, above all, among the
Gauls and other Celtic nations that
they flourished most.
Bard, Samuel, an American phy-
sician, born in Philadelphia, April 1,
1742 ; practiced in Philadelphia and
New York ; was the principal mover
in the establishment of the medical
school of Kings (Columbia) College;
president of the New York College of
Physicians and Surgeons that suc-
ceeded the medical school. He died
in Hyde Park, N. Y., May 24, 1821.
Barebone, or Barbone, Praise-
God, a member of the legislative body
assembled by Cromwell in 1653, after
the dissolution of the Long Parlia-
ment. The royalists facetiously dis-
tinguished him by calling the con-
vention "Barebone's Parliament."
Barefooted Friars, monks who
use sandals, or go barefoot. They are
not a distinct body, but may be found
in several orders of mendicant friars
— for example, among the Carmel-
ites, Franciscans, Augustinians. There
were also barefooted nuns.
Barents, Willem, a Dutch navi-
gator. He was one of the early Arc-
tic explorers; his attempt being to
find a northeast passage to China. In
his first voyage he reached lat. 77°-
78', and in his last, 80° 11'. He com-
manded several exploring expeditions
around Nova Zembla and Spitzber-
gen, on one of which he had seven
vessels loaded with rich goods for
Eastern trade. In the summer of
1596, he set out with two ships, wh.ch
were frozen in at Ice Haven in Sep-
tember. The following June they at-
tempted to reach the mainland in
boats, but most of them were lost.
Barliam, Rev. Richard Harris,
a humorous writer, born in 1788 at
Canterbury ; educated at Paul's School,
London, and at Brasenose, Oxford. He
published an unsuccessful novel, Bald-
win, wrote nearly a third of the arti-
cles in Gorton's Biographical Diction-
ary, and contributed to Blackwood's
Magazine. In 1824 he was appointed
priest in ordinary of the chapel-royal,
and afterwards rector of St. Mary
Magdalene and St. Greorgy-by-St-
Paul, London. In 1837, on the start-
ing of Bentley's Miscellany, he laid
the main foundation of his literary
fame by the publication in that period-
ical of the Ingoldsby Legends. He
died in 1845.
Bariatinski, Alexander Ivano-
vich., Prince, a Russian field-mar-
shal, born in 1814, and educated with
the future Czar, Alexander II. While
a young officer in the hussars, some
love passages with a Grand Duchess
caused his transfer to the Caucasus,
where his success against the famous
Shamyl secured him, in 1852, the rank
Baring
of lieutenant-general. He died in Ge-
neva, March 9. 1879.
Baring, family name of the found-
ers of one of the greatest financial
and commercial houses in the world ;
now known as Baring Brothers & Co.
The father of the founders was JOHN
BARING, a German cloth manufac-
turer, who started a small business
at Larkbear, near Exeter, England,
in the first half of the 18th century.
Two of his sons, FRANCIS and JOHN
(1730-1816), established in London
in 1770 the now existing house.
In 1885, the then head of the firm, i
Edward Charles Baring, was raised to
the peerage, as Baron Revelstoke.
Barite, or Baryta, a mineral
called also baroselenite, sulphate of
baryta and heavy spar. It is found
In the United States and on the conti-
nent of Europe. It is sometimes trans-
parent, sometimes opaque.
Baritone, or Barytone, a male
voice, the compass of which partakes
of those of the common bass and
the tenor, but does not extend so far
downward as the one, nor to an equal
height with the other.
Barium, the metallic basis of bary-
ta, which is an oxide of barium ; spe-
cific gravity 4 ; symbol Ba. It is only
found in compounds, such as the com-
mon sulphate and carbonate, and was
isolated by Davy for the first time in
1808. It is a yellow, malleable metal,
which readily oxidizes, decomposes wa-
ter, and fuses at a low temperature.
Bark, the exterior covering of the
stems of exogenous plants. It is
composed of cellular and vascular tis-
sue, is separable from the wood, and
is often regarded as consisting of four
layers. Bark contains many valua-
ble products, as gum, tannin, etc. ;
cork is a highly useful substance ob-
tained from the epiphloeum ; and the
strength and flexibility of bast make
it of considerable value. Bark used
for tanning is obtained from oak,
hemlock-spruce, species of acacia,
growing in Australia, etc. Angos-
tura bark, Peruvian, or cinchona bark,
cinnamon, cascarilla, etc., are useful
barks.
Bark, or Barque, a three-masted
vessel of which the foremast and
mainmast are square-rigged, but the
mizzenmast has fore-and-aft sails only.
Barker
Bark, Peruvian, is the bark of
various species of trees of the genus
cinchona, found in many parts of
South America, but more particularly
in Peru, and haying medicinal proper-
ties. Its medicinal properties depend
upon the presence of quinine, which
is now extracted from the bark, im-
ported, and prescribed in place of
nauseous mouthfuls of bark.
Barker, Albert S., an American
naval officer, born in Massachusetts,
March 31, 1843 ; was graduated at the
United States Naval Academy in
1859 ; served on the frigate " Missis-
sippi " in the operations to open the
Mississippi river in 1861-1863, taking
part in the bombardment and passage
of Forts Jackson and St. Philip and
the Chalmette batteries, the capture of
New Orleans, and the attempted pas-
sage of Port Hudson, where his vessel
was destroyed. He became Captain
May 5, 1892; commanded the cruiser
" Newark " during the war with
Spain ; subsequently succeeded to the
command of the battleship " Oregon,"
which he took to Manila; became a
Rear- Admiral, and was placed in com-
mand of the Norfolk Navy Yard in
1899 ; and in July, 1900, became com-
mandant of the Brooklyn Navy Yard.
He died Jan. 29, 1916.
Barker, Fordyce, an American
physician, born in Wilton, Franklin
co., Me., May 2, 1819; died in New;
York city, May 30, 1891.
BABK.
Barker, Matthew Henry, an
English novelist ; born at Deptford in
1790. Died in London, June 29, 1846.
Bark Louse
Bark Louse, or Scale Insect.
The bark lice are very small insects,
whose females are wingless, their bod-
ies resembling scales. They sting the
bark of trees with their long, slender
beak, drawing in the sap, and, when
very numerous, injure or kill the tree.
On the other hand, the males have two
wings, but no beak, and take no food.
Barksdale, "William, an Ameri-
can statesman and military officer,
born in Rutherford county, Tenn.,
Aug. 21, 1821. He entered Congress
in 1853, but gave up his seat when his
State seceded, and took command of a
regiment of Mississippi volunteers. He
was made a Brigadier-General after a
campaign in Virginia, and was killed
at Gettysburg, July 2, 1863.
Barley. Barley is the hardiest of
all the cereals, and was originally a
native of Asia, but it is now cultivated
all over the world, even as far N. as
Lapland. In former times, it was
largely used as an article of food, but
the greater proportion of the barley
now grown is used in the preparation
of malt and spirits.
Barleycorn, John, a personifica-
tion of the spirit of barley, or malt
liquor, often used jocularly, and in
humorous verse.
Barlow, Francis Channing, an
American military officer, born in
Brooklyn, N. Y., Oct. 9, 1834; was
graduated at Harvard College in 1855 ;
studied law in New York, and prac-
ticed there. In 1861 he enlisted as a
private in the 12th Regiment, New
York State National Guard, which
was among the first troops at the
front He was promoted Lieutenant
after three months' of service; Colo-
nel during the siege of Yorktown ; dis-
tinguished himself in the battle of
Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines, for which
he was promoted Brigadier-General ;
fought in almost every subsequent bat-
tle of the Army of the Potomac. He
was severely wounded at Chancellors-
ville, May 2, 1863, and at Gettysburg,
July 1, 1863. He was mustered out
of the service with the rank of Major-
General of volunteers. In 1866-1868,
he was Secretary of State of New
York; in 1871 became Attorney-Gen-
eral; and in 1873 resumed law prac-
tice in New York. He died in New
York city, Jan. 11, 1896.
Barnacle
Barlow, Joel, an American poet
and diplomatist ; born in Reading,
Conn., March 24, 1754. In the course
of his adventurous career he fell
in with the French army and was a
sharer in its memorable retreat from
Russia. Being overcome by cold and
privation, he died near Cracow, Dec.
22, 1812.
Barmecides, an illustrious family
of Khorassan, the romance of whose
history is equally familiar to Eu-
ropeans and Americans in the " Thou-
sand and One Nights " (Arabian
Nights' Entertainments), and to Ori-
entals in the pages of their historians
and poets; and who flourished at the
Court of the early Abbasside Caliphs.
BarmeCj or Barmek, the founder of
the family, transmitted the honors con-
ferred on him by the Caliph Abd-al-
Malik to his son, Khalid, and from
him they passed to his son, Yahia,
who, becoming tutor to the famous
Haroun-al-Raschid, acquired an influ-
ence over that Prince; which, with
Haroun's personal affection for the
family, carried his sons, Fadl, or Fazl,
Giaffar, Mohammed, and Mousa, to
the highest dignities of the Court. The
virtues and munificence of the Bar-
mecides were, for a long period, dis-
played under favor of Haroun, as well
as to the admiration of his subjects;
but one of the brothers, Giaffar, hav-
ing at last become an object of suspi-
cion to the cruel and treacherous ca-
liph, Yahia and his sons were sudden-
ly seized, Giaffar beheaded, and the
others condemned to perpetual impris-
onment. The year 802 is assigned as
the date of this tragedy.
Barnabas, St., or Joseph, a dis-
ciple of Jesus, and a companion of the
Apostle Paul. He was a Levite, and
a native of the Isle of Cyprus, and is
said to have sold all his property, and
laid the price of it at the feet of the
apostles (Acts iv: 36, 37). He was a
beloved fellow laborer with Paul.
Barnacle, a common crustacean
belonging to the group of stalked cir-
ripedia. It fixes itself to the bottoms
of vessels and other inanimate and
also animate objects, and its head
being thus attached kicks food into its
mouth with its legs. The term is often
applied to persons who are superfluous
fixtures in some institution or organ-
ization.
Barnard
Barnard, Edward Emerson, an
[American astronomer, born in Nash-
ville, Tenn., Dec. 16, 1857; graduated
at Vanderbilt University in 1887 ; was
astronomer in Lick Observatory, Cali-
fornia, in 1887-1895, and then became
Professor of Astronomy in Chicago
University and Director of the Yerkes
Observatory. His principal discover-
ies are the fifth satellite of Jupiter in
1892, and 16 comets. He has made
photographs ef the Milky Way, the
comets, nebulae, etc. The French Acad-
emy of Sciences awarded him the Le-
lande gold medal in 1892, and the
Arago gold medal in 1893, and the
Royal Astronomical Society of Great
Britain gave him a gold medal in 1897.
He is a member of many American
and foreign societies, and a contribu-
tor to astronomical journals.
Barnard, Frederick Augustus
Porter, an American educator, born
in Sheffield, Mass., May 5, 1809 ; was
graduated at Yale College in 1828 ; in-
structor there in 1830 ; Professor of
Mathematics and Natural Philosophy
in the University of Alabama in 1837-
1848, and afterward of Chemistry and
Natural History till 1854; Professor
of Mathematics and Astronomy in the
University of Mississippi, 1854-1861 ;
its president in 1856-1858; and its
Chancellor in 1858-4861. He was
president of Columbia College, New
York city, in 1864-1888. He died 1889.
Barnard, Henry, an American
educational reformer, born at Hart-
ford, Conn., in 1811 ; died there in
1900. He was graduated at Yale in
1830; entered the legal profession, be-
came interested in politics, and during
service in the legislature distinguished
himself by his interest in the public
school system, and the vigor with
which he urged reforms. He was in
succession School Commissioner of R.
I. ; Superintendent of Schools in Con-
necticut ; President of the University
of Wisconsin ; President of St. John's
College, Annapolis, and was first Uni-
ted States Commissioner of Education.
He organized the Bureau, and in his
reports suggested or supported the re-
forms that have since been made.
Barnard College, an educational
(non-sectarian) institution for women
only, in New York city; organized in
1889, and named in honor of Fred-
erick A. P. Barnard, through whose
Bar* Burners
efforts its foundation was largely due.
It was made essentially a part of Co-
lumbia University, certain courses of
study in the University and the use of
its library being open to the students
of Barnard. In January, 1900, the
college was formally incorporated with
Columbia University.
Bn.rE.ardo, Thomas J., an Eng-
lish philanthropist; founder of the
Barnardo Homes for homeless chil-
dren ; had his attention first turned in
this direction by the condition in
which he found a boy in a ragged
school in East London in 1866. Fol-
lowing up the subject, he began to
rescue children who had found their
only shelter at night under archways,
or in courts and alleys. These were
introduced to his homes, where they
received an industrial training, were
saved from a possible career of crime,
and enabled to achieve an honorable
position in life. He died in 1905.
Barnato, Barney, a South Afri-
can speculator. His real name is be-
lieved to have been Bernard Isaac. He
was born in London, England, about
1845, of Hebrew parents. He began
business there as a dealer in diamonds,
and in five years earned enough to buy
shares in the Kimberley diamond mines.
He established a partnership with Ce-
cil Rhodes, and, when, in 1886, gold
was discovered, secured possession of
the greater part of the region. He
committed suicide by jumping from
the deck of the steamer " Scot," bound
from Cape Town to Southampton,
June 14, 1897.
Barnave, Antoine Pierve
Joseph Marie, a French orator, was
born at Grenoble in 1761. The Con-
stituent Assembly appointed him their
President in January, 1791. After the
flight of- the King, he defended Lafay-
ette against the charge of being privy
to this step, and, upon the arrest of
the royal family, was sent, with Petion
and Latour-Maubourg, to meet them,
and to conduct them to Paris. When
the correspondence of the court fell
into the hands of the victorious party,
Aug. 10, 1792, they pretended to have
found documents which showed him
to have been secretly connected with
it, and he was guillotined Nov. 29,
1793.
Barn Burners, the nickname given
to the radical element of the Demo-
Barnegat Bay
cratic Party in New York State, which
supported Van Buren in the campaign
of 1848.
Barnegat Bay, a bay on the E.
coast of New Jersey, about 25 miles
in length. Barnegat Inlet connects
the bay with the Atlantic.
Barnes, Albert, an American
Presbyterian minister, born in Rome,
N. Y., Dec. 1, 1798. For 37 years
pastor of the First Presbyterian
Church in Philadelphia ; he was best
known by his " Notes " on the New
Testament (of which over 1,000,000
volumes are said to have circulated),
Isaiah, Job, Psalms, etc. He died at
Philadelphia, Dec. 24, 1870.
Barnes, Joseph K., an American
medical officer, born in Philadelphia,
July 21, 1817 ; was educated in the
medical department of the University
of Pennsylvania; became Assistant
Surgeon in the army in 1840, and
served at various posts through the
Mexican War. At the beginning of
the Civil W«ir he was summoned from
Oregon, and assigned to duty in the !
office of the Surgeon-General. In 1863, i
he was appointed a Medical Inspector, j
with the rank of Colonel, and in Sep-
tember of the same year was promoted
to Brigadier-General. In 1865 he
was brevetted Major-General, United
States Army. He was Surgeon-Gen-
eral of the army from 1864 till 1882,
when he was retired. He died in
Washington, D. C., April 5, 1883.
Barnes, William, an English
poet and philologist, born in Dorset-
shire, Feb. 22, 1800; died in Winter-
.bourne Came, in October, 1886.
Barne veldt, Jan Van Olden,
Grand Pensionary of Holland, born in
1549. He had scarcely reached his
20th year when he was called to the
office of Councilor and Pensionary of
.Rotterdam; and such was the opinion
even then entertained of his eminent
abilities and integrity that he was al-
lowed an important share in the man-
agement of those transactions with
France and England by which the
United Provinces sought to maintain
themselves against Spain, whose yoke
they had just thrown off. His con-
duct in the high office of Grand Pen-
sionary of Holland and West Fries-
land, which he afterward filled, not
only secured the independence, but re-
BLlfl.
Barnnm
stored the trade and improved the
finances of the United Provinces. Af-
ter the election of Maurice of Nassau
to the dignity of Stadtholder, Barne-
veldt became the champion of popular
liberties, and opposed with determina-
tion the ambitious designs of the new
prince. The latter finally carried the
day and Barneveldt was adjudged to
death as a traitor and heretic, by 26
deputies named by Maurice. The sen-
tence was carried into effect in 1619.
Barney, Joshua, an American na-
val officer, born in Baltimore, Md.,
July 6, 1759. He was captured by
the British in March, 1778, but was
exchanged in August of the same year ;
was captured again and held a prison-
er till he escaped in 1781. In April,
1782, he took the British ship "Gen-
eral Monk," off Cape May; in Novem-
ber, 1782, he carried dispatches to Dr.
Franklin in France, and brought back
a sum of money lent by the French
government. 1794 he went with Mon-
roe to France, and for six years served
in the French navy. In 1814, he com-
manded the fleet stationed in Chesa-
peake Bay. He died in Pittsburg, Pa.,
Dec. 1, 1818.
Barn Owl, a bird of prey belong-
ing to the family strigidae. It is called
also the white owl, the church owl,
the screech owl, the hissing owl, the
yellow owl, the howlet, and the hoolet.
It is found in the United States and
in Europe.
Barnnm, Frances Courtenay
(Baylor), an American novelist, born
in Arkansas, 1848.
Barnnm, Phineas Taylor, an
American showman, born at Bethel,
Conn., July 5, 1810 ; after various un-
successful business ventures, finally es-
tablished Barnum's Museum in New
York (1841), which was twice burned.
He introduced Tom Thumb, Jenny
Lind, Commodore Nutt, Admiral Dot,
the woolly horse, Jumbo, etc., to the
American public. In 1871 he estab-
lished his great circus. He was mayor
of Bridgeport, and four times member
of the Connecticut Legislature. His
benefactions were large and frequent.
He was a lecturer on temperance and
other popular subjects. He died at
Bridgeport, Conn., April 7, 1891.
Barnnm, William H., an Amer-
ican statesman, born in Boston Cor-
Barnwell
ners, N. Y., Sept. 17, 1818. He died
in Lime Rock, Conn., April 30, 1889.
Barnwell, Robert Woodward,
an American statesman, born in Beau-
fort, S. C., Aug. 10, 1801 ; was grad-
uated at Harvard University in 1821 ;
became a lawyer ; was a member of
Congress from South Carolina in
1829-1833; a United States Senator
from that State, 1850-1851; Commis-
sioner from South Carolina to confer
with the Federal Government regard-
ing the proposed secession of the State,
in 1860 ; member of the Provisional
Confederate Congress, 1861-18G2; a
Confederate Senator in 186^1866;
and then president of the University
of South Carolina (an office he had
held in 1835-1841) till 1873. He died
in Columbia, S. C., Nov. 25, 1882.
Baroda, the second city of Guz-
erat, and third in the Presidency of
Bombay, India ; capital of the terri-
tory of the Guicowar in the State of
the same name. It is 248 miles N. of
Bombay, with which it is connected
by railway. Baroda occupies an im-
portant situation between the coast
and the interior, and its trade is con-
siderable. Pop. (1911) 99,345.
Barometer, an instrument for
measuring the weight of the air and
the variations of its pressure in order
to determine changes in the weather,
the height of mountains, and other
phenomena. This most useful instru-
ment had its origin in an experiment
of Torricelli, an Italian, who flour-
ished about the middle of the 17th
century.
Baron, in the feudal system of the
Middle Ages, the title baron, derived
from the Latin varo, which signifies a
man, and, sometimes, a servant, was
given, at first, to the immediate tenant
of any superior. In England, baron
is the lowest grade of rank in the
House of Lords.
Baronet, originally a term appar-
ently in use as early as the time of
Edward III. for certain landed gen-
tlemen not of the dignity of lords,
summoned to the English Parliament
to counterbalance the power of the
clergy. Subsequently it became the
name given to three titled orders.
Baronins, or Baronio, Caesar, an
Italian ecclesiastical historian, born in
1538. He owes his fame to his work,
" Ecclesiastical Annals," comprising
valuable documents from the papal
archives, on which he labored from
the year 1580 until his death, June 30,
1607.
Barony, the lordship or fee of a
baron, either temporal or spiritual.
Barotse, or Marotse, an impor-
tant Bantu tribe inhabiting the banks
and the regions E. of the Upper Zam-
bezi, from about 14° to 18° S. lat. In
Livingstone's time the Makololo were
the dominant tribe in these parts of
South Africa, but since then they have
been almost entirely annihilated by
the Bantus, who now occupy the vast
territory from the Kabompo river to
the Victoria Falls.
Barouche, a four-wheeled carriage
with a falling top and two inside seats
in which four persons can sit, two
fronting two.
Barr, Amelia Edith, an Anglo-
American novelist, born in Ulvertqn,
Lancashire, England, March 29, 1831.
She was the daughter of the Rev. Wil-
liam Huddleston, and in 1850 married
Robert Barr. She came to the United
States in 1854, and lived for some
years in Texas ; but after her hus-
band's death (1867) removed to New
York, where her first book, " Romance
and Reality," was published in 1872.
She is a prolific writer, and her nov-
els are very popular.
Barr, Robert, a Scottish author,
born in Glasgow, Sept. 16, 1850; he
spent his childhood in Canada, drifted
into journalism, joined the staff of De-
troit " Free Press," and wrote under
the name of " Luke Sharp." He went
to London in 1881 and founded " The
Idler" with Jerome K. Jerome. He
died Oct. 22, 1912.
Barracan, strictly, a thick, strong
stuff made in Persia and Armenia of
camel's hair, but the name has been
applied to various wool, flax, and cot-
ton fabrics.
Barracand, Leon Henri, a
French poet and novelist, born at Ro-
mans, Drome, May 2, 1844.
Barrack, a hut or small lodge.
The plural, barracks, is now generally
applied to a large structure, either
erected expressly for the housing of
troops or one which has been impro-
vised for that purpose.
Barracuda
Barracuda, a pike-like seafish al-
lied to the mullets, common on both
coasts of America. The great barra-
cuda reaches a length of 8 feet and a
weight of 40 pounds. It is as savage
as a shark. Its flesh is pleasant flav-
ored, but is not always eaten, as there
are times when it it not wholesome.
Barranquilla, the principal port
of the Republic of Colombia, in the
Department of Bolivar, near the left
bank of the Main channel of the Mag-
dalena, 15 miles distant from the sea.
A railway connects it with the seaport
of Sabanilla, 20 miles to the north-
west. Trade is largely in the hands
of the Germans. A United States
consul is resident at Barranquilla.
Pop. (1912) 48,907.
Barras, Paul Francois Jean
Nicolas, Comte de, a French Jaco-
bin, born in Provence, in 1755, of an
ancient family ; served as second lieu-
tenant in the regiment of Languedoc
until 1775. July 14, 1789, he took
part in the attack upon the Bastille,
and Aug. 20, 1792, upon the Tuileries.
In 1792 he was elected a member of
the National Convention, and voted
for the unconditional death of Louis
XVI. In February, 1795, he was
elected President of the Convention,
and, in that capacity, declared Paris
in a state of siege, when the Assembly
was attacked by the populace. After-
ward, when the Convention was as-
sailed, Bonaparte, by Barras's advice,
was appointed to command the artil-
lery; and that general on the 13th
Vendemaire (Oct. 5, 1795), decisively
repressed the royafist movement. Na-
poleon's coup d'etat (Nov. 9, 1799),
effectually overthrow his power. He
died in Paris, Jan. 29, 1829.
Barre, a city in Washington
county, Vt.; on the Winooski river
and the Central Vermont and other
railroads; 6 miles S. B. of Mont-
pelier; is widely noted for its granite
quarries and interests connected
therewith. Pop. (1910) 10,734.
Barre, Isaac, a British soldier,
born at Dublin in 1726. Gazetted as
an ensign in 1746, he became friendly
with General Wolfe, under whom he
rose to the rank of Lieutenant-Colo-
nel. He was wounded in the cheek at
Quebec, was beside Wolfe when he
fell, and figures in West's picture of
"The Death of Wolfe." He entered
Parliament in 1761, and held office
successively under Lord Bute, Pitt,
Rockingham, and Lord Shelburne. In
Pitt's second administration he ex-
posed the corruptions of the ministry,
was a strong opponent of Lord North's
ministry, and opposed the taxation of
America. He died in London, July
20, 1802.
Barren Grounds, a large tract in
the Northwest Territories of Canada,
extending N. from Churchill river to
the Arctic Ocean, between Great Bear
and Great Slave Lakes and Hudson
Bay. It largely consists of swamps,
lakes, and bare rock.
Barrett, John, an American di-
plomatist, born in Grafton, Vt., Nov.
28, 1866; was graduated at Dart-
mouth College in 1889, and the same
year went to the Pacific coast and was
engaged in journalism till 1894. Dur-
ing 1894-1898 he was United States
Minister Resident and Consul-General
at Bangkok, Siam, and, after the ex-
piration of his term of office, repre-
sented several American newspapers
in Manila, Philippine Islands. After
the American victory in Manila Bay
he made a special study of conditions
in the Philippine Islands, and, return-
ing by way of London, addressed a
joint assembly of members of the
House of Commons and the London,
Chamber of Commerce, on the condi-
tion of trade in the Far East. He re-
turned to the United States in the
•summer of 1899, and later held sev-
eral diplomatic appointments ; became
Director-General of the Pan-American
Union in 1907.
Barrett, I*awrence, an American
actor, born in Paterson, N. J., April
4, 1838. His first appearance on the
stage was in 1853. In 1856 he ap-
peared as Sir Thomas Clifford in
"The Hunchback" at Chambers Street
Theater, New York city, and in 1857
he supported Mr. Burton, Charlotte
Cushman, Edwin Booth, and other
eminent actors. He served as a cap-
tain in the 28th Massachusetts Infan-
try in the early part of the Civil War.
Later he acted at Philadelphia, Wash-
ington, and at Winter Garden, in New
York, where he was engaged by Mr.
Booth to play Othello to his lago.
After this he became an associate
manager of the Varieties Theater, ia
Barrett
Barrow
New Orleans, where for the first time
he played the parts of Richelieu, Ham-
let, and Shylock. He gained steadily
in distinction both as manager and
actor. His last appearance was on
March 18, 1891, in the character of
Adrian du Mauprat to the Richelieu
of Mr. Booth. He died in New York
city, March 21, 1891.
Barrett, Wilson, an English dram-
atist, born in Essex, Feb. 18, 1846;
died July 22, 1904.
Barrie, town and capital of Sim-
coe county, Ontario, Canada; on an
arm of Lake Simcoe and the Grand
Trunk railroad; 64 miles N. W. of
Toronto; founded in 1832; incorpo-
rated in 1871; has steamers to all
lake ports. Pop. (1911) 6,420.
Barrie, James Matthew, a Scot-
tish author ; born in Kurriemuir, For-
farshire, May 9, 1860. He went to
London in 1885, to engage in journal-
ism. His peculiar talent for depicting
Scottish village life and rustic char-
acters with fidelity, pathos, and poetic
charm, brought him fame. He was
created a baronet in 1913.
Barrier Reef, a coral reef which
extends for 1,260 miles off the N. E.
coast of Australia, at a distance from
land ranging from 10 to 100 miles.
Barrili, Antonio Ginlio, an Ital-
ian novelist, born in Savona, in 1836.
Engaging in journalism when only 18,
he assumed the management of "II
Movimento" in 1860, and became pro-
prietor and editor of "II Caffaro" in
Genoa in 1872. He took part in
the campaigns of 1859 and 1866
(with Garibaldi in Tyrol) and in the
Roman expedition of 1867, and sat in
the Chamber of Deputies in 1876-
1879. He was one of the most prolific
writers of modern Italy. D. in 1909.
Barrios, Gerardo, a Central
American statesman, born about 1810 ;
became President of Salvador in 1860.
He was deposed by Duenas as the out-
come of the war with Guatemala, and,
while endeavoring to bring about a
revolution in order to become presi-
dent again, he was captured and exe-
cuted, in 1865.
Barrios, Jnsto Rufino, a Guate-
malan statesman, born in San Marcos,
about 1834 ; opposed President Cerna
in the revolutionary movements of
1867, and was active in overthrowing
the regime established by that presi-
dent (1871). Two years later, when
Granados took command of the army,
Barrios became President and, by suc-
cessive elections, he held the office till
his death. His administration was
marked by prosperity and freedom. A
war with Salvador resulted from a
proclamation intended to bring about
the union of all the Central American
nations in one republic. In an assault
upon Chalchuapa, Barrios, putting
himself at the head of a deserted regi-
ment, was killed April 2, 1885. His
widow lives in New York.
Barrister, Barraster, or Barre-
ter, in England, a member of the le-
gal profession who has been admitted
to practice at the bar; a counselor at
law. The term corresponding to bar-
rister is in the United States counselor
at law ; but the position of the latter
is not quite the same.
Barren, James, an American na-
val officer, born in Virginia in 1709;
became Lieutenant in the navy in
1798, and was soon promoted to Cap-
tain. He commanded the " Chesa-
peake " in 1807, and was attacked by
the British ship " Leopard " as a re-
sult of his refusal to allow the " Ches-
apeake " to be searched for deserters.
The " Chesapeake," which was quite
unprepared, discharged one gun pre-
vious to striking her colors. She was
captured and three alleged deserters
were found. Barren was court-mar-
tialed and suspended for five years.
Upon his restoration, as the outcome
of a long correspondence with his per-
sonal enemy, Commodore Decatur, a
duel was fought and Decatur was
killed. Barren became senior officer in
the navy in 1839. and died in Norfolk,
Va., April 21, 1851.
Barren, Samuel, an American
naval officer, born in Hampton, Va.,
about 1763 ; in 1805 commanded a
squadron of 10 vessels in the expedi-
tion against Tripoli. On his return to
the United States was appointed Com-
mandant of the Gosport Navy Yard,
but died immediately afterward, Oct.
29, 1810.
Barrow, an artificial mound or
tumulus, of stones or earth, piled up
over the remains of the dead. Such
erections were frequently made in an-
Barrow
cient times in the New and Old
Worlds. When opened they are often
found to contain stone cysts, calcined
bones, etc.
Barrow, Frances Elizabeth, an
American author, born in Charleston,
S. C., Feb. 22, 1822, was educated in
New York, where she was married to
James Barrow. She wrote, under the
name of AUNT FANNY, numerous
books for children. She died in New
York city, May 7, 1894.
Barrow, Sir John, a notable Eng-
lish writer on travels, born at Drag-
leybeck, Lancashire, June 19, 1764;
died in London, Nov. 23, 1848.
Barrows, John Henry, an Amer-
ican educator, born in Medina, Mich.,
July 11, 1847; was graduated at Oli-
vet College in 1867 ; subsequently stud-
ied in Yale College, Union and An-
dover Theological Seminaries, and at
Gottingen; was pastor of the First
Presbyterian Church, in Chicago, for
14 years ; organized and was president
of the World's Parliament of Re- i
ligions, at the World's Columbian Ex- '
position in Chicago, in 1893. He de- I
livered a course of lectures on Chris-
tianity in the principal universities in
India, under the patronage of the Uni-
versity of Chicago, in 1896-^1897, and
became President of Oberlin College
in 1898. He died in Oberlin, O., June
3, 1902.
Barrundia, Jose Francisco, a
Central American statesman, born in
Guatemala, in 1779. He became
President of the Central American
Republic in 1829; retaining office for
something over a year. In 1852 he
was again elected President. He came
to the United States in 1854, as Min-
ister from Honduras, to propose the
annexation of that territory to the
United States, but died suddenly be-
fore anything was accomplished, in
New York city, Aug. 4.
Barry, Ann Spranger, an Eng-
lish actress, born in Bath, 1734. As
Desdemona she had, during her whole
career, no competitor. She died in
London, in 1801, and is buried in
Westminster Abbey.
Barry, Sir Charles, an English
architect, born in London, in 1795. He
was knighted in 1852, and died sud-
denly in 1860.
Barry
Barry, John, an American naval
officer, boru in Tacumshane, Ireland,
in 1745. He settled in Philadelphia,
in 1760. When the Revolutionary
War broke out he was appointed com-
mander of the "Lexington," with
which he captured the British tender
"Edward," in 1776. He afterward
took command of the "Raleigh,"
which was captured by the British
"Experiment ;" but in his next com-
mand, the "Alliance," he captured the
British ships "Atlanta" and "Tre-
passy." He was chosen to convey La-
fayette and Noailles back to France;
and, in 1794 was appointed commo-
dore. He died Sept. 13, 1803.
Barry, Spranger, an Irish actor,
the great rival of Garrick, born in
Dublin, in 1719. He was brought up
as a silversmith ; but his matchless
form and voice led him to try the
stage. He died in London, in 1777.
Barry, Thomas Henry, an Amer-
ican military officer, born in New
York, Oct. 13, 1855 ; graduated at the
United States Military Academy in
1877; was a brigadier-general of vol-
unteers, serving in the China relief
expedition and in the Philippines, in
1900-1 : promoted brigadier-general,
U. S. A., Aug. 18, 1903, and major-
general, April 29, 1908; commanded
the pacification army in Cuba in
1907-9 ; superintendent United States
Military Academy 1910-13 ; comman-
der of the Eastern Department of
Governor's Island, N. Y., 1913-17;
then appointed to the newly-created
Central Department.
Barry, William Farquhar, an
American military o^icer, born in
New York city, Aug. 18, 1818; grad-
uated at the United States Military
Academy in 1838 ; and first saw active
service in the Florida war (1852-
1853). In the Mexican War he acted
as aide-de-camp to General Worth.
At the outbreak of the Civil War he
was made chief of artillery, and or-
ganized the artillery of the Army of
the Potomac. He subsequently be-
came chief of artillery to Sherman,
and took part in the march to the sea.
In 1865 he was brevetted Major-Gen-
eral. In 1867 he had charge of the
Artillery School at Fort Monroe. He
died near Baltimore, Md.. July 18»
1879.
Barry
Barry, William Taylor, an
American statesman, born in Lunen-
bure. Va^ Feb. 5, 1784. He served
in the War of 1812; and from 1814-
1816 was United States Senator from
Kentucky. In 1828 he was appointed
Postmaster-General under Jackson ;
and was on his way as Minister to
Snain when he died in Liverpool, Aug.
30, 1835.
Barry more, Ethel (Mrs. Rnssell
G. Colt), an American actress, born
in Philadelphia, Pa., Aug. 15, 1879;
made her debut with John Drew in
1896; appeared in leading roles with
Henry Irving, and subsequently
starred.
Barrymore, John (John Ely the),
an American actor, born Feb. 15,
1882, member of a notable theatrical
family ; made his debut in Chicago in
1903; later appeared in London and
Australia; became leading man in a
players' film company.
Bart, Earth, or Baert, Jean, a
French sailor, born at Dunkirk, 1650,
the son of a poor fisherman. He be-
came captain of a privateer, and, after
some brilliant exploits, was appointed
captain in the Royal Navy. In recog-
nition of his services, he was made
commodore and ennobled. He died
in 1702, and is regarded to this day
as the typical naval hero of France.
Bartn, Heinrich, a German trav-
eler, born in Hamburg in 1821. His
explorations, which extended over an
area of about 2,000,000 square miles,
determined the course of the Niger
and the true nature of the Sahara.
He died in 1865.
Barthelemy - Saint - Kilaire,
Jules, a French statesman ; born in
Paris, Aug. 19, 1805. He was on
the side of the Moderate party in
the revolution of 1848, and during the
troublous times of 1870-1871 he was
closely associated with M. Thiers. In
1875 he became a life senator, and in
the cabinet of M. Jules Ferry, consti-
tuted 1880, he was appointed minis-
ter of foreign affairs. The chief event
of his tenure of this office was the oc-
cupation of Tunis. He died in Paris,
Nov. 25, 1895.
Bartlioldi, Frederic Angnste, a
French sculptor, born in Colmar, Al-
sace, April 2, 1834; received the cross
of the Legion of Honor in 1865 ; prin-
Bartnolome-w
cipal works : the " Lion of Belfort ; "
statue of Lafayette, in Union Square,
New York ; bronze group of Lafayette
and Washington, in Paris (1895) ;
and the colossal figure in New York
harbor, " Liberty Enlightening the
World." He died in Paris, Oct, 1904.
Bartholomew, Edward Shef-
field, an American sculptor, born at
Colchester, Conn., in 1822; studied in
New York and in Rome, where he
lived during the latter part of his life.
Among his works are " Blind Homer.
Led by His Daughter," " Eve,'1
" Youth and Old Age," etc. He died
in Naples, May 2, 1858.
Bartholomew Fair, or Bar-
tlemy Fair, a celebrated fair, which
was long held in Smithfield, England,
at Bartholomew-tide.
Bartholomew, Massacre of St.,
the slaughter of French Protestants
in Paris, beginning Aug. 24, 1572. Af-
ter the death of Francis II., Catherine
de' Medici had assumed the regency
for her son, Charles IX., then only
10 years old, and was compelled, in
spite of the opposition of the Guises,
to issue an edict of toleration in favor
of the Protestants. The party of the
Guises now persuaded the nation that
the Catholic religion was in the great-
est danger. The Huguenots were
treated in the most cruel manner;
Prince Conde took up arms ; the Guis-
es had recourse to the Spaniards,
Conde to the English, for assistance.
Both parties were guilty of the most
atrocious cruelties, but finally con-
cluded peace. The queen-mother
caused the king, who had entered his
14th year, to be declared of age, that
she might govern more absolutely un-
der his name. Duke Francis de Guise
had been assassinated by a Huguenot,
at the siege of Orleans ; but his spirit
continued in his family, which consid-
ered the Admiral Coligny as the au-
thor of his murder. The king had
been persuaded that the Huguenots
had designs on his life, and had con-
ceived an implacable hatred against
them. Meanwhile, the court endeav-
ored to gain time, in order to seize the
persons of the prince and the admiral
by stratagem, but was disappointed,
and hostilities were renewed with
more violence than ever. In the battle
of Jarnac, 1569, Conde was made pris-
Bartholomew
oner and shot by Captain de Montes-
quieu. Coligny collected the remains
of the routed army ; the young Prince
Henry de Beam (afterward Henry
IV., King of Navarre and France),
the head of the Protestant party after
the death of Conde, was appointed
coinmander-in-chief, and Coligny com-
manded in the name of the Prince
Henry de Conde, who swore to re-
venge the murder of his father. The
advantageous offers of peace at St.
Germain-en-Laye (Aug. 8, 1570)
blinded the chiefs of the Huguenots,
particularly Admiral Coligny, wnc
was wearied with civil war. The king
appeared to have entirely disengaged
himself from the influence of the
Guises and his mother; he invited the
old Coligny, the support of the Hugue-
nots, to his court, and honored him
as a father. The most artful means
were employed to increase this delu-
sion. The sister of the king was mar-
ried to the Prince de Beam (Aug. 18,
1572), in order to allure the most
distinguished Huguenots to Paris.
Some of his friends endeavored to dis-
suade the admiral from this visit ; but
he could not be convinced that the
king would command an assassination
of the Protestants throughout his
kingdom. On Aug. 22, a shot from a
window wounded the admiral. The
king hastened to visit him, and swore
to punish the author of the villainy ;
but, on the same day, he was induced
by his mother to believe that the ad-
miral had designs on his life. " God's
death ! " he exclaimed : " kill the ad-
miral ; and not only him, but all the
Huguenots ; let none remain to dis-
turb us ! " The following night Cath-
erine held the bloody council which
fixed the execution for the night of
St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. Af-
ter the assassination of Coligny, a bell
from the tower of the royal palace, at
midnight, gave to the assembled com-
panies of burghers the signal for the
general massacre of the Huguenots.
The Prince of Conde and the King of
Navarre saved their lives by going to
mass, and pretending to embrace the
Catholic religion. By the king's or-
ders, the massacre was extended
through the whole kingdom ; and if,
in some provinces, the officers had
honor and humanity enough to dis-
obey the orders to butcher their inno-
Bartlett
cent fellow citizens, yet instruments
were always found to continue the
massacre. This horrible slaughter con-
tinued for 30 days, in almost all the
provinces; the victims are calculated
at 30,000. At Rome, the cannons were
discharged, the Pope ordered a jubilee
and a procession to the Church of St.
Louis, and caused the Te Deum to be
chanted. Those of the Huguenots who
escaped fled into the mountains and
to Rochelle. The duke of Anjou laid
siege to that city, but, during the
siege, received the news that the Poles
had elected him their king. He con-
cluded a treaty, July 6, 1573, and the
king granted to the Huguenots the
exercise of their religion in certain
towns. The court gained nothing by
the massacre of St Bartholomew.
Bartholomew, St., the apostle,
probably the same person as Nathan-
ael, mentioned, in the Gospel of St.
John, as an upright Israelite, and one
of the first disciples of Jesus.
Bartholomew, St., an island, one
of the West Indies, in the Leeward
group, belonging to France, being
transferred by Sweden in 1878. It is
a dependency of Guadeloupe. The
island has a mountainous surface and
is about 24 miles in circumference.
Bartlett, Edwin Julius, an
American chemist, born in Hudson,
O., Feb. 16, 1851 ; the author of many
papers on chemical subjects.
Bartlett, Sir Ellis Ash me ad, an
English politician, born in Brooklyn,
N. Y., of American parents, in 1849;
educated in England ; was Civil Lord
of the Admiralty in 1885-1886, and
1886-1892, and brother of William
Ashmead Bartlett, who married the
BARONESS BTTRDETT-COUTTS. He died
in London, Jan. 18, 1902.
Bartlett, Homer Newton, an
American composer, born in Olive, N.
Y., Dec. 28, 1846. He wrote a large
number of anthems, quartets, and
glees, etc. He died in 1905.
Bartlett, John, an American au-
thor and publisher, born in Plymouth,
Mass., June 14, 1820; became a pub-
lisher in Cambridge. 1836, and head of
the firm of Little, Brown & Co., 1878.
He died Dec. 3, 1905.
Bartlett, John Russell, an
American author: born in Providence,
R. L, Oct 23, 1805 ; was educated for
Bartlett
Barton
a mercantile career. After 1837, he
entered the book-importing trade in
New York. In 1850, he was appoint-
ed one of the commissioners to fix the
Mexican boundary. In 1855, be was
made Secretary of State of Rhode Isl-
and. He wrote various valuable rec-
ords, genealogies, local histories, etc.
His best known work is his "Diction-
ary of Americanisms" (1850). He
died in Providence, May 28, 1886.
Bartlett, John B., an American
naval officer, born in New York in
1843; was appointed an acting mid-
shipman in the navy from Rhode Isl.
in 1859. During the Civil War, he
took part in many important naval
conflicts, from New Orleans to the
capture of Fort Fisher. Subsequently
he was on surveying duty in Nicaragua
and on the United States Coast Sur-
vey : was promoted to Captain, July
1, 1892; and was retired July 12,
1897. After the declaration of war
against Spain, in 1898, he was re-
called to active service, and on July
9, succeeded Rear-Admiral Erben as
commander of the Auxiliary Naval
Squadron for the protection of the
Atlantic coast cities. He died at
St. Louis, Nov. 22, 1904.
Bartlett, Josiah, an American
physician and statesman, born in
Amesbury, Mass., in 1729; was one of
the signers of the Declaration of In-
dependence, and a member of the Con-
tinental Congress (1775-1776) ; be-
came Chief Justice of New Hampshire
(1788) ; and first Governor of New
Hampshire under the new State Con-
stitution. He died in 1795.
Bartlett, Panl Wayland, Ameri-
can sculptor ; born at New Haven,
1865. His chief works are the eques-
trian statue of General McClellan in
Philadelphia, and the statue of Lafa-
yette, presented to France by the chil-
dren of America, and now in Paris.
Bartlett, Samuel Colcord, an
American educator, born in Salisbury,
N. H., Nov. 25, 1817. In 1877 he ac-
cepted the presidency of Dartmouth
College, which he held until 1892,
•when he resigned. He died in Han-
over, N. H., Nov. 16, 1898.
Bartlett, William Francis, an
American military officer, born in
Haverhill, Mass., Jan. 6, 1840; was a
student in Harvard University at the
outbreak of the Civil War, but left to
enter the army ; was wounded in the
battle of Ball's Bluff, suffering the
loss of a leg ; but continued in the
service ; was twice wounded at Port
Hudson ; and in the battles of the
Wilderness, while leading the 57th
Massachusetts Regiment, was again
wounded, taken prisoner, and sent to
Libby Prison. At the close of the war,
he was made a Major-General of Vol-
unteers for distinguished services in
the field. He died Dec. 17, 1876.
Bartolini, Lorenzo, an Italian
sculptor, born at Vernio, in Tuscany,
in 1777 ; went to Paris while still a
young man. His chief patron was Na-
poleon, who, in 1808, sent him to Car-
rara, to establish a school of scupl-
ture. Besides an immense number of
busts, he. produced several groups, the
most celebrated are " Charity," " Her-
cules and Lycas." He died 1850.
Bartolomeo, di San Marco,
Fra, or Baccio Delia Porta, one
of the most distinguished masters of
the Florentine School of painting,
born at Savignano, in Tuscany, in
1469. He was a warm adherent of
Savonarola, after whose tragical end
in 1500 he took the habit of the clois-
ter. He died in Florence in 1517.
Bartolozzi, Francesco, an en-
graver, born at Florence in 1725, or
acording to others, in 1730, died at
Lisbon 1813. In Venice, in Florence,
and Milan he etched several pieces on
sacred subjects, and then went to Lon-
don, where he received great encour-
agement. After forty years' residence
in London he went to Lisbon on the in-
vitation of the Prince Regent of Port-
ugal to take the superintendence of a
school of engravers, and remained
there till his death.
Barton, Andrew, one of Scot-
land's first great naval commanders;
flourished during the reign of James
IV., and belonged to a family which
for two generations had produced able
and successful seaman. In 1497 he
commanded the escort which accom-
panied Perkin Warbeck from Scotland.
After doing considerable damage to
English shipping he was killed in 1512.
Barton, Clara, an American phi-
lanthropist ; born in Oxford, Mass.,
in 1830; was educated at Clinton, N.
Y . and early became a teacher, and
Barton
Bascinet
founded at Bordentown, N. J., a free
school, opening it with six pupils.
In 1854 it had grown to 600, when she
became a clerk in the Patent Office in
Washington. On the outbreak of the
Civil War she resigned her clerkship,
and became a volunteer nurse in the
army hospitals and on the battle-field.
On the breaking out of the Franco-
Prussian War, in 1870, she aided the
Grand Duchess of Baden in preparing
military hospitals, assisted the Red
Cross Society, and, at the request of
the authorities, superintended the dis-
tribution of work to the poor of Stras-
burg, in 1871, after the siege, and in
1872 did a like work in Paris. At
the close of the war, she was decorated
with the Golden Cross of Baden and
the Iron Cross of Germany. On the
organization of the American Red
Cross Society in 1881, she was made
its President In 1889 she had charge
of movements in behalf of sufferers
from the floods at Johnstown, Pa. ;
in 1892 distributed .relief to the Rus-
sian famine sufferers ; in 1896, per-
sonally directed relief measures at the
scenes of the Armenian massacres; in
1898 took relief to the Cuban re-
concentrados, and performed field
work during the war with Spain ; and
in 1900 undertook to direct the re-
lief of sufferers at Galveston, but
broke down physically. In 1903 she
undertook the re-organization of the
Red Cross Society in the United
States. She died April 12, 1912.
Barton, George Hnnt, an Amer-
ican geologist, born in Sudbury, Mass.,
July 8, 1852; was graduated at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
in 1880; assistant on Hawaiian Gov-
ernment survey, 1881-1883 ; assistant
in Geology in the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology in 1883-1884 ; then
Assistant Professor of Geology there;
also occupied the corresponding chair
in Boston University and the Teach-
ers' School of Science ; and was As-
sistant Geologist of the United States
Geological Survey. In 1896 he was a
member of the sixth Peary expedition
to Greenland. He is the author of
many technical papers.
Barton, William, an American
military officer, born in Warren, R.
I., May 26, 1748 ; learned the trade of
a hatter ; but joined the Revolutionary
Army soon after Bunker Hill. On
! the night of July 10, 1777, he per-
j formed the exploit which made him
I famous. Leading 38 men, in four
whale-boats, across Narragansett Bay,
he surprised and captured the British
General, Prescqtt, at his headquarters,
and hurried him away to Washing^
! ton's camp in New Jersey. Barton
received a sword from Congress, and
was brevetted Colonel. He was after-
ward a member of his State Conven-
tion which adopted the Federal Con-
stitution. He died in Providence, Oct.
22, 1831. In his later years, like some
other heroes of the Revolution, he was
much reduced in circumstances and
spent some time in a debtors' prison.
Barton, William Paul Crillon,
an American botanist, born in Phila-
delphia, Pa., Nov. 17, 1786; died in
Philadelphia, Feb. 29, 1856.
Bartram, John, an American bot-
anist, born in Chester county, Pa.,
March 23, 1699; died at Kingsessing,
near Philadelphia, Pa., Sept 22, 1777.
Bartram, William, an American
botanist and ornithologist, born in
Kingsessing, Pa., Feb. 9, 1739 ; a son
of John Bartram. He compiled a list
of American birds, which was the best
of its kind up to the time of Wilson.
He died in Kingsessing, July 22, 1823.
Barnch, in Church history, a son
of Neriah, who was a friend of Jere-
miah's, and at least occasionally acted
as his amanuensis (Jer. xxxii : 12;
xxxvi : 4,. 17, 32 ; xliii : 6 ; xlv : 1 ; li :
59). Two apocryphal books or let-
ters have been attributed to him.
Barye, Antoine Louis, a French
sculptor, born in Paris, Sept. 24, 1795 ;
died in Paris, June 25, 1875.
Baryta, or Barytes, or Oxide of
Barium, the earth present in the min-
erals witherite (carbonate of barium)
and heavy spar (sulphate of barium).
Basalt, a word said to have been,
derived from an African word, and to
have meant basaltoid syenite, from
Ethiopia or Upper Egypt. In general
the name is given to any trap rock of
a black, bluish, or leaden gray color,
and possessed of a uniform and com-
pact texture.
Bascinet, or Basnet, a light hel-
met sometimes with, but more fre-
quently without, a visor, in general
use for English infantry in the reigns
of Edward II. and III., and Richard II.
Baicom
Bascom, Florence, an American
educator; daughter of Dr. John Bas-
com, was educated at the University
of Wisconsin, and at Johns Hopkins
University, receiving from the first
the degree of B. A. and B. L. in 1882,
B. S., in 1884, and M. A. in 1887 ; and
from the latter that of Ph. D., in 1892.
She was the first woman to whom
Johns Hopkins granted a degree, and
the first to receive a Ph. D. from any
American college. Subsequently, she
was engaged in teaching ; became pro-
fessor at Bryn Mawr College ; and, in
1899, was chosen to supervise the geo-
logical survey of Chester county, Pa.
Bascom, Henry Bidleman, an
American clergyman, born in Han-
cock, N. Y., May 27, 1796. In 1850
he was made a Bishop of the Metho-
dist Episcopal Church. He edited the
" Quarterly Review " from 1846 till
1850. His writings were published in
185S. He died in Louisville, Ky.,
Sept. 8, 1850.
Bascom, John, an American edu-
cator and philosophical writer, born
at Geneva, N. Y., in 1827. He was
President of the University of Wis-
consin, in 1874-1887, and in 1891-
1901 was Professor of Political Sci-
ence in Williams College. He wrote
many works. He died Oct. 3, 1911.
2MJ-BAS6.
CATCHER,
BASE BALL DIAMOND.
Base Ball, a field game played
principally in the United States. It
Basel
originated in the English school-boy
game of " rounders ;" but it has been
so improved and so generally played
as to merit its name of " the Na-
tional game of America." The play-
ing of baseball has become largely a
business or a " profession," and skilled
players receive large salaries. As an
amateur game, however, it is also
most popular.
Basel Confession of, a Calvin-
istic confession introduced by CEcolam-
padius at the opening of the Synod
of Basel (1531). It was adopted by
the Protestants of Basle in 1534. Sim-
ple and comparatively moderate in its
terms, it occupies an intermediate
place between Zwingli and Luther.
Basel, Council of, a celebrated
Ecumenical council of the Church,
convoked by Pope Martin V. and his
successor, Eugenius IV. It was open-
ed Dec. 14, 1431, under the presidency
of the Cardinal Legate Juliano Cesa-
hini of St. Angelo. The objects of its
deliberations were to extirpate here-
sies (that of the Hussites in particu-
lar), to unite all Christian nations
under the Catholic Church, to put a
stop to wars between Christian
princes, and to reform the Church.
But its first steps toward a peaceable
reconciliation with the Hussites were
displeasing to the Pope, who author-
ized the Cardinal Legate to dissolve
the Council. That body opposed the
pretensions of the Pope. On the Pope
continuing to issue bulls for its dis-
solution the Council commenced a for-
mal process against him, and cited him
to appear at its bar. On his refusal
to comply with this demand the Coun-
cil declared him guilty of contumacy,
and, in May, 1439, it declared Eu-
genius, on account of his disobedience
of its decrees, a heretic, and formally
deposed him. Excommunicated by
Eugenius, they proceeded, in a regular
conclave, to elect the Duke Amadeus
of Savoy to the papal chair. Felix V.
— the name he adopted — was ac-
knowledged by only a few princes, cit-
ies, and universities. After this the
moral power of the Council declined;
its last formal session was held May
16, 1443, though it was not technical-
ly dissolved till May 7, 1449, when it
gave in its adhesion to Nicholas V.§
the successor of Eugenius.
Baslian
Bashan, a rich, hilly district, ly-
ing B. of the Jordan, and between the
mountains of Hermon on the N., and
those of Gilead and Ammon on the S.
The country takes its name (" fat,"
" fruitful ") from its soft and sandy
soil. It is celebrated in Scripture for
its stately oaks, fine breeds of cattle,
and rich pasturage.
i Baslif ord, James Whitford, an
American clergyman, born in Fayette,
Wis., May 27, 1849; graduated at the
Theological School of Boston Uni-
versity in 1876; became instructor of
Greek at the University of Wiscon-
sin in 1874; president of the Wesley-
an University of Ohio iu 1889; and
a bishop in 1904.
Baslii Bazouks, a body of irreg-
ular troops in the service of the Turk-
ish Sultan. They are principally of
Asiatic races, and formed a contin-
gent of the Turkish army during the
Russian War, 1853-1856. As light
cavalry they are considered excellent.
Bashkirtseff, Marie, a Russian
author, born in Russia in 1860. She
died in Paris in 1884.
Basil, St., sur mimed THE GREAT,
Bishop of Csesarea, in Cappadocia,
where he was born about 326. Af-
ter extensive travels, St. Basil re-
tired to the Desert of Pontus, and
there founded an order of monks. He
succeeded Eusebms in the See of
Csesarea in 370. He died in 380.
Basilan, the largest island of the
Sulu Archipelago, Philippine Islands.
This island is very mountainous, and
most of it is covered by virgin forests.
The soil is extremely rich and produces
e variety of valuable crops, including j
cotton, coffee, sugar, chocolate, tobac-
co, indigo, and spices of all sorts. Ba-
silan has about 15,000 inhabitants and
three excellent harbors. The name
Basilan is also applied to the whole
group of 34 adjacent islets. The lead-
ing port is Isabela, on Basilan Strait.
Basilica, originally the hall or
court-room in which the King admin-
istered the laws made by himself and
the chiefs who formed his council.
Many of the oldest and most splendid
of the Roman churches are built on
the plan of the basilica, and are call-
ed basilicas in consequence.
Basilisk, a fabulous creature for-
merly believed to exist, and variously
Bas-Relief
regarded as a kind of serpent, lizard,
or dragon. The name is now applied
to a genus of saurian reptiles with a
crest along the back and tail.
Basket Ball, an indoor game play-
ed upon a circumscribed space on a
floor, usually by five players on each
side. At each end of this playing
space a basket is placed at a height
of about 10 feet. The ball is round,
somewhat lighter than a foot-ball, and
is passed from one player to another
by throwing, or striking with the
hands only ; the ultimate object being
to lodge it in the opponent's basket,
which action counts one point. The
rules as to interference, playing out of
bounds, etc., are adapted from those
of foot-ball.
Baskett, James Newton, an
American zoologist, born in Kentucky,
Nov. 1, 1849; graduated at the Mis-
souri State University in 1872. He
has devoted himself to the study of
comparative vertebrate anatomy, with
ornithology as a specialty.
Basking Shark, a shark, called
in English also the sun fish and the
sail fish ; it is the largest known shark,
sometimes reaching 36 feet in length,
but it has little of the ferocity seen in
its immediate allies. It is called
basking because it has a habit of ly-
ing motionless on the water, as if en-
joying the warmth of the sun.
Basques, or Biscayans (in their
own language, Euscaldunac) , a re-
markable race of people dwelling part-
ly in the S. W. corner of France, but
mostly in the N. of Spain adjacent to
the Pyrenees. They are probably de-
scendants of the ancient Iberi, who
occupied Spain before the Celts. They
preserve their ancient language, for-
mer manners, and national dances, and
make admirable soldiers, especially in
guerrilla warfare.
Bas-Relief, that is, low relief, as
applied to sculpture; a representation
of one or more figures, raised on a flat
surface or background, in such a man-
ner, however, as that no part of them
shall be entirely detached from it.
Alto-rilievo, or high relief, is that in
which the figures project half of their
apparent circumference from the back-
ground. Mezzo-rilievo, or middle re-
lief, is a third species, between the
two. But, generally speaking, the
Bass
first term is made to comprehend both
the others.
I Bass, in music. (1) The string
(Which gives a bass sound. (2) An
instrument which plays the bass part ;
especially of the violoncello or bass-
viol, and the contrabasso or double
bass. (3) The lowest of the prin-
cipal human voices ; those higher in
pitch being, respectively, baritone,
tenor, alto or contralto, mezzo-soprano,
soprano.
Bass, the name of a number of
fishes of several genera, but originally
belonging to a genus of sea fishes of
the perch family, distinguished from
the true perches by Laving the tongue
covered by small teeth and the preoper-
culum smooth.
Bass, Edward, first Protestant
Episcopal Bishop of Massachusetts,
born in Dorchester, Nov. 23, 1726.
During the Revolution he omitted
from the church service all refer-
ence to the royal family and the
British Government For this he
was expelled from the Society for
Propagating the Gospel. In 1797
he was consecrated Bishop of Massa-
chusetts, and finally also of New
Hampshire and Rhode Island. He
died in Newburyport, Mass., Sept. 10,
1803.
Basset, a name used with some
latitude in France for any very short-
legged dogs, but especially for various
breeds of sporting dogs resembling
(though considerably larger than) the
dachshund.
Bassett, James, a Canadian-Amer-
ican missionary, born in Glenford,
Ontario, Jan. 31, 1834; served as a
chaplain in the Union army in 1862-
1863 ; and afterward in 1871, he went
as a missionary to Persia under the
direction of the Presbyterian Board.
There he finally obtained the estab-
lishment of a United States legation
in Persia. He died in 1906.
Bassett, John Spencer, an
American historian, born in Tarboro,
N. C., Sept. 10. 1867; Professor of
History in Trinity College, N. C., in
1893-1906, then at Smith College.
Bassia, the mohra or moho tree.
A large tree growing in the East
Indies ; it is also found in Africa.
The flowers have a heavy, sickening
smell, and an intoxicating spirit is
Bastille
distilled from them. It is the Indian
butter tree.
Bassora, or Bussora, a town of
Asiatic Turkey, on the W. bank of
the Euphrates, here called the Shat-
el-Arab, 56 miles from its mouth in
the Persian Gulf. The population,
once 150,000, had sunk in 1854 to
5,000, but the establishment of the
English Tigris and Euphrates Steam-
ship Company has altogether changed
the prospects of Bassora and the town
now probably contains at least 40,000
inhabitants, most of them actively en-
gaged in commerce.
Bass Strait, a channel beset with
islands, which separates Australia
from Tasmania, 120 miles broad, dis-
covered by George Bass, a surgeon in
the Royal navy, in 1798.
Basswood, the American lime tree
or linden, a tree common in North
America, yielding a light, soft timber.
Bastard, an illegitimate child. Ac-
cording to the Roman law, one born
out of wedlock might be legitimated by
subsequent marriage and acknowledg-
ment of his parents. The Roman law
has been long adopted in Scottish law,
and in that of some of the United
States.
Bastian, Adolf, a German trav-
eler and ethnologist, born in 1826.
He has travelled ve^ry extensively and
his numerous writings throw light on
almost every subject connected with
ethnology or anthropology, as well as
psychology, linguistics, non-Christian
religions, geography, etc. D. in 1905.
Bastian, Henry Charlton, an
English biologist, born in Truro in
1837 ; was an advocate of spontaneous
generation. He died Nov. 17, 1915.
Bastion-Lepage, Jules, a French
painter, born at Damvilliers, Nov. 1,
184& De died at the height of his
fame, Dec. 10, 1884.
Bastille, properly means any
strong castle provided with towers,
but as a proper name is applied to a
famous castle which once existed in
Paris, in which State prisoners and
other persons arrested by lettres de
cachet were confined. It was founded
by Hugues d' Aubriot in 1369, and
completed by the addition of four
towers in 1383. The lettres de cachet
mentioned above were issued in the
name of the king, but the names of
Bastion
the individuals were inserted by the
ministers, who were the depositaries
of these letters.
The invention of the lettres de
cachet immediately opened the door to
the tyranny of ministers and the in-
trigues of favorites, who supplied
themselves with these orders, in order
to confine individuals who had become
obnoxious to them. These arrests be-
came continually more arbitrary, and
men of the greatest merit were liable
to be imprisoned. On July 14, 1789,
the Bastille was surrounded by a tu-
multuous mob, who first attempted to
negotiate with the governor, Delaunay,
but this failing attacked the fortress.
For hours they continued the siege
without being able to effect more than
an entrance into the outer court of
the Bastille, but at last the arrival of
some of the Royal Guard with a few
pieces of artillery forced the governor
to let down the second drawbridge and
admit the populace. The governor was
seized, but on the way to the Hotel de
Ville he was torn from his captors and
put to death. The next day the de-
struction of the Bastille, commenced.
A bronze column has been erected on
its site. The event considered by it-
self was of no great national impor-
tance, but it marked the beginning of
the French Revolution.
Bastion, a projecting mass of
earth or masonry at the angle of a
fortification, having two faces and
two flanks, and so constructed that
every part of it may be defended by
the flank fire of some other part.
Basutoland, a native province and
British South African possession,
bounded by the provinces of the
Orange Free State, Natal, and the
Cape of Good Hope; area, 11,716
square miles ; pop. (1911) 404,507 na-
tives and 1,396 Europeans ; capital,
Maseru. The province is divided into
seven districts, and each district into
wards, mostly presided over by hered-
itary chiefs. The Basutos belong
chiefly to the Bechuanas, and have
made greater advances in civilization
than any other South African race.
Bat, the common name of all ani-
mals of the class mammalia which are
furnished with true wings, and so are
capable of really flying or propelling
themselves in the air. Bats are now
generally placed by naturalists ill the
Batchelder
order cheiroptera, although, like many
other animals of that great order, most
of them are by no means exclusively
LONG-EARED BAT.
carnivorous. Upward of 130 species
have been described, and there is great
probability that the actual number ex-
isting is very much greater.
Batanes, a group of small islands
in the extreme N. of the Philippines,
over which, and Cagayan, nearby,
American control was established in
March, 1900. Pop. (1903) 46,787.
Batangas, a province of Luzon,
Philippine Islands; on the S. W.
coast of the main body of Luzon;
area, 1,108 square miles; pop. (1903)
257,715, all civilized; dominant race,
Tagalog; capital, Batangas. It con-
tains 22 pueblos.
Batavia, properly the name of the
island occupied by the ancient Ba-
rtavi, became at a later date the
Latin name for Holland and the
whole kingdom of the Netherlands.
Batavia, village and capital of
Genesee county, N. Y.; on Tona-
wanda creek and the New York
Central & Hudson River and other
railroads; 37 miles E. of Buffalo; is
in a farming section; has varied in-
dustries; and is the seat of the State
Institution for the Blind and the
Dean Richmond Memorial Library.
Pop. (1910) 11,613.
Batavia, a city and seaport of Ja-
va, on the N. coast of the island, the
capital of all the Dutch East Indies,
founded in 1619. Its inhabitants are
chiefly Malay, with an admixture
of Chinese and a small number of Eu-
ropeans. Pop. (1905) 138,551.
Batchelder, Richard Napoleon,
an American military officer, born in
Lake Village, N. H., July 27, 1832;
Batcheller
Bates
entered the Union army at the begin-
ning of the Civil War; and was bre-
vetted Brigadier-General, United
States Volunteers, March 13, 1865;
became Brigadier-General and Quar-
termaster-General, United States
Army, June 26, 1890 ; and was retired
July 27, 1896. He was awarded aj
Congressional medal of honor for dis-
tinguished gallantry during the Civil
War. He died Jan. 4, 1901.
Batcheller, George Sherman,
an American jurist ; born in Batchel-
lerville, N. Y., July 25, 1837; grad-
uated at Harvard University ; was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1858 ; entered the
Union army at the beginning of the
Civil War; was taken prisoner at
Harper's Ferry, and exchanged in
1863. In 1889 he became Assistant
Secretary of the United States Treas-
ury; in 1890, United States Minister-
Resident, and Consul-General to Portu-
gal; and in 1897, a member of the
International Tribunal of Egypt
again. In the last year he received
from King Humbert the decoration of
the great cordon of the Order of the
Crown of Italy, in recognition of his
services as President of the Universal
Postal Congress which met in Wash-
ington in May, 1897. D. in 1908.
Bate, William Brimage, an
American legislator, born near Cas-
talian Springs, Tenn., Oct. 7, 1826.
In the Civil War he rose from pri-
vate to the rank of Major-General
in the Confederate army, and was
three times dangerously wounded. He
was an Elector-at-Large for Tennes-
see on the Democratic ticket in 1876;
was elected Governor in 1882 and
a U. S. Senator, 1887, 1893, 1899.
He died Mar. 9. 1905.
Bateman, Kate Josephine, an
American actress, born in Baltimore,
Md., Oct. 7, 1842. About 1851 she
and her sister Ellen began to act, they
being known as the Bateman Sisters.
She became rich and famous, and, hav-
ing married George Crowe, an Eng- ,
lish physician, identified herself with !
the management of a London theater.
Bates, Alfred E., an American
military officer, born in Monroe,
Mich., July 15, 1840; was a Briga-
dier-General, U. S. V., in the war with
Spain in 1898. He died Oct 13, 1909.
Bates, Arlo, an American author,
born in East Machias, Me., Dec. 16,
1850. He graduated from Bowdoin in
1876, when he engaged in literary
work in Boston, and afterward be-
came Professor of English Literature
in the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
Bates, Charlotte Fiske, an
American poet and miscellaneous
prose-writer, born in New York city,
Nov. 30, 1838. She was married in
1891 to Adolphe Roge, who died in
1S96.
Bates College, an educational in-
stitution at Lewiston, Me. This was
the first college in the East to provide
for the higher education of women.
In 1916 it had a faculty of 30, and
472 students.
Bates, Ed-ward, an American
lawyer, born in Belmont, Va.. Sept. 4,
1793. He was Attorney-General of
ti*e United States in Lincoln's first
administration ; and had been a candi-
date for the presidential nomination in
1860. He died in St. Louis, Mo.,
March 25, 1869.
Bates, Harriet Leonora (Vose),
better known as ELEANOB PUTNAM,
an American story and sketch writer,
wife of Arlo Bates, born in 1856 ; died
in 1886.
Bates, Henry Walter, an Eng-
lish naturalist, born in Leicester, Feb.
18, 1825. In 1848 he began an ex-
ploration of the Amazon region in
Brazil. He died in London, Feb. 16,
1892.
Bates, John Coalter, an Amer-
ican military officer, born in St.
Charles co., Mo., Aug. 26, 1842; edu-
cated at Washington University, St
Louis; entered the regular army as a
Lieutenant in the llth United States
Infantry, May 14, 1861 ; served on the
staff of General Meade from the battle
of Gettysburg to the close of the war ;
promoted Captain, May 1, 1863; Ma-
jor, May 6, 1882; and Colonel of the
2d United States Infantry, April 25,
1892. On May 4, 1898, he was ap-
pointed a Brigadier-General of Volun-
teers ; on July 8, was promoted Major-
General for his services in the Santi-
ago campaign ; on April 13, 1899, was
honorably discharged under this com-
mission, and on the same day was re-
commissioned a Brigadier-General of
Bates
Volunteers. In February, 1899, he
was appointed Military Governor of
the province of Santa Clara, Cuba,
and in April following, was ordered to
duty in the Philippines, where he sev-
eral times greatly distinguished him-
self in the latter part of that year and
the early part of 1900. In March,
1900, he was assigned to the com-
mand of the department of Southern
Luzon ; was promoted Major-General,
U. S. A., June 9, 1902, and Feb. 1,
1906, was promoted Chief of Staff and
Lieutenant-General ; retired.
Bates, Joshua, an American finan-
cier, born in Weymouth, Mass., in
1788. Mr. Bates was the principal
founder of the Boston Public Library,
and in 1852, the first year of its ex-
istence, he made it a gift of $50,000,
and later gave it 30,000 volumes.
Died in London, Sept. 24, 1864.
Bates, Katharine Lee, an Amer-
ican story writer, poet, and educator,
born in Falmouth, Mass., Aug. 12,
1859 ; was called to the chair of Eng-
lish Literature in Wellesley College
in 1891 ; has edited collections of bal-
lads, etc. ; and written juvenile stories.
Bates, Samuel Penniman, an
American historian, born in Mendon,
Mass., Jan. 29, 1827 ; State Historian
of Pennsylvania, 1866-73; died 1902.
Batfish, a fish found in the waters
of Florida and the West Indies ; noted
for its peculiar shape. Its ventral
and pectoral fins resemble the legs of
a frog.
Bath, Order of the, in heraldry,
etc., an order of knighthood, so called
because the recipients of the honor
were required formerly to bathe the
evening before their creation. It was
instituted by Henry IV. in 1399, and,
falling into disuse, was revived by
George I. in 1725.
Bath Chair, a small carriage or
chair on wheels, drawn by a chairman,
and intended for the conveyance of in-
valids or others for short distances.
Bathometer, an instrument for
measuring the depth of sea beneath a
vessel without casting a line.
Bathori, a Hungarian family,
which gave Transylvania five princes,
and Poland one of its greatest kings.
Bathori, Elizabeth, niece of
Stephen, King of Poland, and wife of
Baton
Count Nadasdy, of Hungary ; a histor-
ical monster. By means of large
bribes, she induced an old man servant
and two female servants to kidnap
and convey to her, either by stratagem
or force, young girls from the neigh-
boring country, whom she slowly put
to death in the dungeons of her castle
by the most horrible tortures. In-
quiry was at length made into the ap-
palling rumors, when it was discover-
ed that this female fiend had murdered
in cold blood, not fewer than 650
maidens. The domestics who assisted
her were either beheaded or burned
alive. The Countess, who merited cer-
tainly the greater punishment, died
quietly in 1614, in her fortress of Esej,
where she had been confined for life.
Bath-sheba, the wife of Uriah.
David caused her husband to be slain,
and afterward took her to wife. These
sins displeased Jehovah, who sent the
prophet Nathan to David, with the
parable of the ewe lamb. David bit-
terly repented, but yet was punished.
Bath-sheba was the mother of Solo-
mon, whose succession to the throne
she took pains to secure.
COLLAB AND BADGE, OBDEB OF BATH.
Baton, a short staff or truncheon,
in some cases used as an official badge,
as that of a field marshal. The con-
ductor of an orchestra has a baton
for the purpose of directing the per-
Baton Rouge
Battle
formers as to time, etc. In heraldry
the bastard bar is a baton sinister.
Baton. Rouge, city and capital of
the State of Louisiana and of East
Baton Rouge parish; on the Missis-
sippi river and several railroads; 89
miles N. W. of New Orleans; built
on a bluff commanding a fine view j
of its environment. Besides the State :
Capitol, it contains the State Uni- ,'
versity, State Penitentiary, State '.
Asylums for the Deaf, Dumb, and ;
Blind, insane asylum, and many
charitable institutions. It was the
State capital in 1847-1864 and since
1880. The State ordinance of seces-
sion was adopted here in 1861, and
the city was held by Federal troops
in 1862-65. Pop. (1910) 14,897.
Batonm, or Batumi, a Russian
port on the E. coast of the Black Sea. |
Battering Ram, an ancient mili- j
tary contrivance used for battering I
down walls. It existed among the i
Assyrians, the Greeks, and the Ro-
mans. It consisted of a pole or
beam of wood, sometimes as much
as 80, 100, or even 120 feet in
length. It was suspended by its ex-
tremities from a single point, or from
two points in another beam above, j
which lay horizontally across two
BATTEBING BAM.
posts. When at rest it was level, like
the beam above it. When put in ac-
tion against a wall, it was swung hori-
zontally by men who succeeded each
other in constant relays, the blow
which it gave to the masonry at each
vibration being rendered all the more
effective that one end of it was armed
with iron.
Battery, in law, the unlawful
beating of another, or even the touch-
ing him with hostile intent. In mil-
itary usage, a certain number of artil-
lerymen united under the command of
a field officer, and the lowest tacti-
cal unit in the artillery. In a bat-
tery there are gunners who work the
guns, and drivers who drive the horses
by which these guns are transported
from place to place. Batteries are
usually distinguished as horse, field,
and garrison.
Batthyanyi, one of the oldest and
most powerful of the noble families
of Hungary, which traces its origin
as far back as the invasion of Pan-
nonia by the Magyars, in 884 A. D.,
and has given to Hungary many dis-
tinguished warriors, statesmen, and
churchmen.
Battle, a town in Sussex, Eng-
land, 6 miles N. W. of Hastings. An
uninhabited heathland then, Senlac
by name, it received its present name
from the battle of Hastings, fought
here on Oct. 14, 1066, which won
England for the Normans.
Battle, Cullen Andrews, an
American military officer ; born in
Powelton, Ga. ; June 1, 1829. At the
outbreak of the Civil War he enter-
ed the Confederate army, and during
the war was wounded seven times,
promoted Brigadier-General on the
field of Gettysburg, and Major-Gen-
eral in October, 1864. After the war
he devoted most of his time to jour-
nalism in Newbern, N. C. D. in 1905.
Battle, Kemp Plnmmer, an
American educator ; born in Frank-
lin Co., N. C., Dec. 19, 1831; grad-
uated at the University of North Car-
olina in 1849; was a member of the
State Convention of North Carolina
in 1861 that passed the ordinance of
secession ; State Treasurer, 1866-
1868; president of the University of
North Carolina, in 1876KL891; and
afterward Professor of History there.
Battle, Lorenzo, an Uruguayan
military officer ; born in Montevideo,
in 1812. He was minister of war in
1866-1868; and president of the re-
public in 1868-1872, when he resigned
and resumed military service.
Battle
Bauxite
Battle, Trial by, or Wager of
(originally battel), an old method of
deciding disputes by personal combat.
Battle Creek, a city in Calhoun
county, Mich. ; on the Kalamazoo
river and the Michigan Central and
other railroads ; 45 miles S. W. of
Lansing ; is largely engaged in man-
ufacturing, producing, among other
commodities, a vast amount of break-
fast and health foods. It is the seat
of Battle Creek College (Adv.), and
one of the largest sanitaria in the
country. Pop. (1910) 25,267.
Battle-Ground, a town in Tip-
Eecanoe Co., Ind., where the famous
attle of Tippecanoe was fought be-
tween the United States troops under
General Harrison and the Indians un-
der Tecumseh and his brother, "The
Prophet," on Nov. 7, 1811.
Battleship, a term specifically ap-
plied to a warship designed for fight-
ing in the first line of battle, and to
be able to give and receive the sever-
est possible blows ; hence its armor is
the least vulnerable, its guns are the
heaviest, and the qualities of the
cruiser and armored cruiser are sub-
ordinated to its protection and arma-
ment. The development of the battle-
ship has been one of rapid progress
among the maritime nations of Eu-
rope, and from the rivalry to secure
the most formidable type have come,
in recent years, the Dreadnaught and
Super-Dreadnaught classes. In 1916
the United States navy had twenty-
six vessels classed as battleships of
the first line and an equal number
classed as battleships of the second
line. Each bore the name of a State,
and all ranged in displacement from
10,288 tons to 32,000. Several of the
most powerful ones are popularly des-
ignated as Dreadnaughts and Super-
Dreadnaughts, but the official class-
name is battleship.
Batnm, or Batonm, a port on the
east coast of the Black Sea, acquired
by Russia by the Treaty of Berlin, on
condition that its fortifications were
dismantled and it were thrown open
as a free port. It rapidly grew to be
the main outlet for Transcaucasia, in-
cluding the traffic in petroleum, im-
mense quantities of which are shipped ;
its harbor was enlarged for alleged
commercial reasons ; an arsenal was
E 15.
built outside it ; it was connected by a
military road with Kars ; and finally,
in July, 1886, the Russian govern-
ment declared it to be a free port no
longer. Its importance as a naval and
military station to Russia, is unques-
tionably great, and it will probably
rank as one of the strongest positions
on the Black Sea. The water is of
great depth close inshore, and the ship-
ping lies under protection of the over-
hanging cliffs of the Gouriel Moun-
tains. Pop. (1913) 44,900.
Baudelaire, Charles, a French
poet, born April 9, 1821; died 1867.
He was the herald, if not the founder
of the so called decadent school of
Freach literature. He seems to have
striven to be as offensive as possible
in the expression of his peculiar views
of lifo, nature and God, yet his work
will live because of its wonderful tech-
nique, which is not equalled in French
poetry.
Bandry, Paul, a French painter,
born Nov. 7, 1828, at La Roche-sur-
Yon ; died Jan. 17, 1886.
Bauer, Wilhelm, a German in-
ventor, born in Dillingen, in 1822. He
served as an artilleryman during the
Scbleswig-Holstein War (1866), and,
meanwhile, conceived the plan of a
submarine vessel for coast defense.
It was subsequently adopted by Russia.
He afterward made improvements in
torpedoes. He died in 1875.
Bauemfeld, Eduard von, an
Austrian dramatist, born in Vienna,
Jan. 13, 1802 ; died Aug. 9, 1890.
Banm, Friedrich, a German mili-
tary officer in the British service in
the Revolutionary War. He arrived in
Canada in 1776, and in Burgoyne's
expedition acted as Lieutenant-Colonel
of the Brunswick dragoons. He was
sent out with 800 men and two pieces
of artillery on a foraging expedition.
Near Bennington. Vt., be was attack-
ed by the New Hampshire militia un-
der Stark, and utterly defeated. He
himself was killed Aug. 16, 1777.
Bauxite, a mineral occurring in
round, concretionary, disseminated
grains: found extensively in France
and other parts of Europe, and in the
United States, principally in Alabama
and Georgia. The purest bauxite is
called aluminum ore, because com-
mercial aluminum is made from it.
Pa-asset
Bausset, Louis Francois, Car'
dinal, born in Pondiccherry, India,
Dec. 14, 174& His father, who held
an important position in the French
Indies, sent young Bausset to France
when he was but 12 years of age. He
was educated by the Jesuits, and be-
came bishop of Alais in 1784. After the
restoration of Louis XVIII., in 1815,
he entered the Chamber of Peers ; the
following year he became a member of
the French Academy; and, in 1817,
he received the appointment of Cardi-
nal. He died in Paris, June 21, 1824.
Bautain, Louis Eugene Marie,
a French philosopher, born in Paris,
Feb. 17, 1796; died Oct. 18, 1867.
Bavaria, a kingdom of Central
Europe, in the S. of Germany, com-
posed of two isolated portions of un-
equal size. Bavaria is estimated to
contain an area of 30,346 English
square miles, and is divided into eight
circles (kreise). The total population
in MHO was 6,887,291.
Bavaria is one of the most favored
countries in Germany, in respect of
the fruitfulness of its spiL In the
plains and valleys the soil is capable
of producing all kinds of crops. The
forests of Bavaria, composed chiefly of
fir and pine trees, cover nearly a third
of its entire surface, and yield a large
revenue to the State; much timber
being annually exported, together with
potashes, tar, turpentine, and other
products peculiar to these wooded re-
gions. The principal mineral products
are salt, coal, and iron. Some of the
mining works belong to the State, and
contribute something to the public rev-
enue; but the minerals are not
wrought to the extent they might be.
In the rearing of cattle and sheep the
Bavarians are somewhat backward.
Swine are reared in great numbers in
all parts of the country, and poultry
and wild fowl are abundant. The
wolves and bears, with which the for-
ests of Bavaria were at one time in-
fested, are nearly extinct
^ The manufactures of Bavaria are
singly not very important, being most-
ly on a small scale, and conducted by
individuals of limited capital. The
principal articles manufactured are
linens, woolens, cottons, silks, leather,
paper, glass, earthen and iron and
steel ware, jewelry, etc., but the sup-
ply of some of these articles is inade-
Bavaria
quate to the home consumption. Of
leather, paper, glass, and ironware,
rather large quantities are exported.
The optical and mathematical instru-
ments made at Munich are the best on
the Continent, and are prized accord-
ingly. But the most important branch
of manufacture in Bavaria is the
brewing of beer — the universal and
favorite beverage of the country.
There are over 7,500 schools in Ba-
varia, attended by more than 1,091,800
pupils. Attendance at school is com-
pulsory up to 16 years of age. There
are three universities in Bavaria — •
two of which (Munich andWurzburg)
are Roman Catholic, and one (Erlan-
gen) Protestant. The capital, Munich,
contains a library of 800,000 volumes,
including 25,000 MSS. ; several scien-
tific and literary institutions, acade-
mies, and national societies, and ex-
tensive collections of works of art.
The religion of the State is Roman
Catholicism, which embraces more
than 70 per cent, of the population.
The Protestants number about 21 per
cent. ; the Hebrews 1 per cent., the re-
mainder being Mennonites, etc.
Bavaria was formerly a member of
the Germanic Confederation, and now
forms part of the German empire. The
executive is in the hands of the king.
The legislature consists of two cham-
bers — one of senators, and one of
deputies ; the former composed of
princes of the royal family, the great
officers .of the State, the two arch-
bishops, the heads of certain noble
families, a bishop named by the king,
the president of the Protestant Gen-
eral Consistory, and any other mem-
bers whom the king may create hered-
itary peers; the latter, of members
chosen indirectly, one to every 38,000
persons of the total population.
In 1805 Bavaria was raised, by the
treaty of Presburg to the rank of a
kingdom, with some further accessions
of territory, all of which were con-
firmed by the treaties of 1814 and
1815. In the war of 1866 Bavaria
sided with Austria, in consequence of
which it was obliged, by the treaty of
August 22 in the same year, to cede
a small portion of its territory to
Prussia, and to pay a war indemnity
of 30,000,000 florins. Soon after Ba-
vaia entered into an alliance with
Prussia, and in 1867 joined the Zoll-
Baxter
verein under Prussian regulations. In
the Franco-German War of 1870-1871
Bavaria took a prominent part, and
since 1871 it has been one of the con-
stituent States of the German empire,
represented in the Bundesrath by 6 ;
in the Reichstag by 48 members. In
1886 King Louis II. committed suicide
from alienation of mind. His brother
Otto succeeded, but he being also in-
sane, his uncle Luitpold became re-
gent. The latter died Dec. 12, 1912,
and was succeeded by his son, pro-
claimed King as Ludwig III., Nov. 5,
1913. Bavaria staunchly supported
the Kaiser's policies in the great
World War.
Baxter, Richard, an English
Nonconformist preacher and theologi-
cal writer ; born in Shropshire in
1615. He early entered the Church,
and, taking sides with the Parliamen-
tary party, became chaplain to one of
the regiments of the Commonwealth.
But, either his Republican opinions
were offensively prominent or his
enemies took advantage of his public
preaching to denounce him ; for, after
enduring much persecution, he, then
70 years old, was brought before Judge
Jeffreys, who abused him in court,
and fined him £500, with imprison-
ment till paid. Baxter was a prolific
writer, a large portion of his works
being polemical. D. Dec. 8, 1691.
Baxter, Sylvester, an American
publicist, born in West Yarmouth,
Mass., Feb. 6, 1850; was educated in
Germany ; spent many years as a
newspaper correspondent in various
parts of the world ; "father" of the
Greater Boston movement.
Bay, an arm or inlet of the sea
extending into the land, with a wider
mouth proportionally than a gulf.
Bay, a berry, and especially one
from some species of the laurel ; also
the English name of the laurus nobilis.
A fine tree, with deep green foliage
and a profusion of dark purple or
black berries.
Bayadere, a name originally given
by the Portuguese to the singing and
dancing girls of Hindustan. They are
of two kinds — those who are em-
ployed as priestesses in the temples,
and those who go about the country
as itinerants. The former class cele-
brate with song and dance the festi*
Bay City
vals of the gods ; the latter are em-
ployed by the grandees of India to
amuse and cheer them at their ban-
quets.
Bayamo, or San Salvador, a
town in the interior of the E. part of
the island of Cuba, situated in a fer-
tile and healthy district on the north-
ern slope of the Sierra Maestra. It is
connected by a railway With Manzan-
illa.
Bayard, or more properly Bayart,
Pierre du Terrail, Chevalier de,
called the " knight without fear and
without reproach " ; born in 1476, in
the castle of Bayard, near Grenoble,
was one of the most spotless charac-
ters of the Middle Ages. He was sim-
ple and modest; a true friend and
tender lover; pious, humane, and mag-
nanimous. He died April 30, 1524.
Bayard, Thomas Francis, an
American statesman and diplomatist,
born in Wilmington. Del., Oct. 29,
1828. He was admitted to the bar
in 1851 and practiced law until 1868,
when he succeeded his father, James
A. Bayard, in the United States
Senate. In the Democratic National
Convention of 1872 he received 15
votes for the presidential nomination,
and in 1880 and 18&4 his name was
voted on in the National conventions.
In 1885 Mr. Bayard was chosen Sec-
retary of State, and in 1892, was ap-
pointed United States Ambassador to
the Court of St. James, being the
first to bear that title. Mr. Bayard
filled this office with high honor to
himself and his country. During his
official residence in London he was
the recipient of marked attentions,
and by his public utterances and his
engaging personality promoted the
best feeling in both social and govern-
ment circles. He died in Dedham,
Mass., Sept. 28, 1898.
Bay City, city and capital of Bay
county, Mich., on the Saginaw river
and several railroads; 13 miles N. of
Saginaw; includes since 1905 the
former city of West Bay City, on
the opposite side of the river. The
city is a port of entry; is in a rich
farming section; and is engaged in
manufacturing, the salt industry, the
fisheries, and the cultivation of beet
sugar and chicory. Pop. (1910)
45,166.
Baycux
Bayenx, an ancient city of Nor-
mandy, in the French Department of
Calvados, on the Aure. The Gothic
cathedral — the oldest, it is said, in
Normandy — was rebuilt after a fire
by William the Conqueror, in 1077;
bat the present edifice dates mainly
from 1100 to the 13th century.
Baycnx Tapestry, a celebrated
roll of linen cloth or canvas, 214 feet
in length and 20 inches wide, contain*
Ing, in 72 distinct compartments, a
representation, in embroidery, of the
events of the Norman invasion of Eng-
land, from Harold's leave-taking of
Edward the Confessor, on his depart-
ure for Normandy, to the battle of
Hastings. It contains the figures of
623 men, 202 horses, 55 dogs, 505 ani-
mals of various kinds n«t hitherto
enumerated, 37 buildings, 41 ships and
boats, and 49 trees — in all 1,512 fig-
ures. These are all executed by the
needle, and are believed to have been
the handiwork of Matilda, the queen
of William the Conqueror, and by her
presented to the Cathedral of Ha. you x.
This piec« of tapestry is exceedingly
valuable, lx>th as a work of art of the
referred to, and as correctly
represent ing the costume of the time.
It has been engraved, and several
works upon the subject nave been pub-
lished.
Bay Islands, a small group in the
Bay of Honduras, 150 miles 8. E. of
Knlizc. The cluster was proclaimed a
British colony in 1852, but in 1859
they were ceded to the Republic of
Honduras.
Bayle, Pierr«, French critic and
miscellaneous writer, the son of a Cal-
vinfst preacher, born at Carlat (Lan-
guedoc) in 1047, died at Rotterdam
1700. His chief work is n Dictionary
of History and Criticism, which he
first published in 1««. This work,
much enlarged, has passed through
many editions. It is a vast store-
house of farts, discussions, and opin-
ions, and though it was publicly <•< -n-
xured by the Rotterdam consistory for
its frequent impurities, its pervading
Hecptirism, nnd tacit atheism, it long
remained n favorite l»ook both with
literary men and with men of the
world. The articlen in his dictionary,
in themselves, are generally of little
value, and serve only as a pretext for
Bayonet
the notes, in which the author dis-
plays, at the same time, his learning
and the power of his logic.
Bayley, James Roosevelt, an
American theologian, born in New
York city, Aug. 23, 1814; studied at
Trinity College, Hartford, and became
minister of the Protestant Episcopal
Church ; but, in 1842, was converted
to the Roman Catholic faith ; and, af-
ter studying at Paris and Rome, be-
came a priest in 1844. After serving
as secretary to Archbishop Hughes, be
was consecrated the first Bishop of
Newark, N. J., in 1853. In 1872 he
became Archbishop of Baltimore, Md.
He was the founder of Seton Hall
College and several other institutions.
He died in Newark, N. J., Oct. 3, 1877.
Bayley, William Shirley, an
American geologist, born in Baltimore,
Md, Nov. 10, 1801; graduated at
Johns Hopkins, in 1883; since 1887
has been Assistant Geologist of the
Lake Superior division of the United
States Geological Survey, and since
1886 associate editor of the "Ameri-
can Naturalist"
Baylor University, a coeduca-
tional institution in Waco, Tex. ; now
under the auspices of the Baptist
Church.
Bayly. Ada Ellen, an English
novelist, best known as EDNA LYAJLL.
Bayly, Thomas Haynes, an Eng-
lish song-writer and author; born in
Bath, Oct 13, 1797. After deserting
successively both law and church, Bay-
ly, during a short sojourn in Dublin,
first discovered his powers as a ballad
writer nnd achieved his earliest suc-
cesses. He died April 22, 1839.
Baynes, Thomas Spencer, an
English editor, born in Wellington,
Somerset, in 1823. He studied under
Sir William Hamilton at Edinburgh,
and in 1804 he was appointed to the
Chair of Logic, Rhetoric, and Meta-
physics in St. Andrews University, a
post he held till his death, in London,
in 1887.
Bayonet, a straight sharp-point-
ed weapon, generally triangular, in-
tended to be fixed upon the muzzle of
a rifle or musket, which is thus trans-
formed into a thrusting weapon. It
was probably invented about 1040, in
Bayonne (though this is doubtful).
but was not universally introduced
Bayonne
until after the pike was wholly laid
aside, in the beginning of the 18th cen-
tury. About 1690 the bayonet began
to be fastened by means of a socket
to the outside of the barrel, instead of
being inserted as formerly in the in-
side. A variety of the bayonet, called
the sword bayonet, is widely used.
Bayonne, a city in Hudson county,
N. J.; on New York harbor. Newark
bay, and the Contra] Railroad of
New Jersey; 7 miles S. W. of New
York city; is principally engaged in
shipping coal and refining petroleum;
and has a fine residential section.
Pop. (1910) 55,545.
Bayonne Conference, a confer-
ence held at Bayonne, in June, 1565,
between Charles IX. of France, the
queen mother, Catherine de Medic-is,
Elizabeth, Queen of Spain, and the
Duke of Alva, envoy of Philip II., to
arrange plans for the repression of the
Huguenots. It is generally believed
that the massacre of St. Bartholo-
mew's Day was determined upon at
this meeting.
Bayonne, Treaty of, a treaty of
peace agreed to May 4, 1808, and
signed on the next day, between Na-
poleon I. and Charles IV., King of
Spain. The latter resigned his king-
dom, and Napoleon I. engaged to main-
tain its integrity, and to preserve the
Roman Catholic religion. His son,
Ferdinand VII., confirmed the cession
May 10.
Bayrenth. See BEYBOUT.
Bayrlioffor, Karl Theodore, a
German Hegelian philosopher, and
radical politician, born in Marburg in
1812, was Professor of Philosophy
there, taking the chair in 1845. In
1846 his radical views caused his ex-
pulsion. During the brief rule of lib-
eralism in Hesse, be was chosen pres-
ident of the Chamber; but, in 1853.
he was forced to flee to the United
States. He died in Jordan, Wis., Feb.
3, 1888.
Bay Rum, an aromatic, spirituous
liquid, used by hair dressers and per-
fumers, prepared in the West Indies
by distilling rum in which bay leaves
have been steeped.
Bay Salt, a general term for
coarse grained salt, but properly ap-
plied to salt obtained by spontaneous
B as tan
or natural evaporation of sea water
in large shallow tanks or bays.
Bay Window, a window projecting
beyond the line of the front of a
house, generally either in a semi-hex-
agon or semi-octagon.
Bazaine, Francois, Achille, a
French military officer, born in Ver-
sailles, Feb. 13, 1811. He served in
Algeria, in Spain against the Carlists,
in the Crimean War, and joined the
Mexican expedition as general or di-
vision, in 1862, and, in 1864, was
made a marshal of France. He com-
manded the 3d Army Corps in the
Franco-Prussian War, when he capit-
ulated at Metz, after a seven weeks'
siege, with an army of 175,000 men.
For this act he was tried by court-
martial in 1871, found guilty of trea-
son and condemned to death. This
sentence was commuted to 20 years'
seclusion in the Isle St. Marguerite,
from which he escaped and retired to
Spain. He died in Madrid, Sept 23,
1888. His widow, who had clunk
faithfully to him in his adversity, and
had plotted successfully for his escape,
died in Mexico City, Jan. 8, 1900.
She was a woman of aristocratic birth
and much beauty.
Bazan, Emilia Par do, a Span-
ish author, born in Coruna, in 1852;
published works on history and phil-
osophy, and was the author of " Stud-
ies in Darwinism," " Saint Francis of
Assisi," and many novels. These,
translated into English, have become
very popular.
Bazar, an exchange; a market
place; a place where goods are ex-
posed for sale. Bazar is a term orig-
inally derived from the Arabic, and
literally signifies the sale or exchange
of goods. The name has of late years
been adopted in many American and
European cities, and is applied to
places for the sale of fancy goods, etc.
Baztan, or Bastan, a Pyrenean
valley in the extreme N. of Spain;
having a length of 9 miles, and an
average breadth of 4 miles. It is in-
habited by about 8.000 people, who
form, under Spanish supervision, a
sort of diminutive republic, at the
head of which is the mayor of Elizon-
do. The citizens of this republic rank
with the Spanish nobility and hold
special privileges, which were granted
Bdellium
them for former services to the Span-
ish crown.
Bdellium, in Scripture, is in He-
brew bedholachh, rendered in the Sep-
tuagint of Gen. ii: 12, anthrax (lit-
erally, burning coal). Some modern
writers, following the Septuagint
translation, make it a mineral, as are
the gold and the onyx stone, with
which it is associated in Gen. ii : 12.
Others think that it was the gum de-
scribed below; while the Rabbins, Bo-
chart, and Gesenius consider that it
•was a pearl, or pearls.
Beach, Alfred Ely, an American
publisher and inventor, born in Spring-
field, Mass., in 1826; son of Moses
Yale Beach, editor of the old New
York " Sun." In 1846 he established
the " Scientific American," in connec-
tion with Orson D. Munn. For nearly
50 years he was editor of this paper
and director of its patent business. He
died in New York city, Jan. 1, 1896.
Beach, Amy Marcy Cheney, an
American composer, and one of the
chief of the few women who are dis-
tinguished as creative musicians. She
was born in New Hampshire, Sept. 5,
1867. Her most important works are
"The Gaelic Symphony," for full or-
chestra, a "Jubilate," written for the
dedication of the Woman's Building at
the Chicago Exposition, and a cyclus
of fourteen songs.
Beach, Moses Tale, an American
publisher and inventor, born 1800 ;
died 1868. He became owner of the
New York " Sun " three years after its
establishment. His inventions relate
to the manufacture of paper, and in-
clude a rag-cutting machine.
Beaconsfield, Benjamin Dis-
raeli, Earl of, an English states-
man and author; born in London,
England, Dec. 21, 1804 ; the eldest son
of Isaac D'Israeli, the well-known au-
thor of the " Curiosities of Litera-
ture " ; his mother also being of Jew-
ish race. Little is known of his early
education, though it is certain he
never attended a public school or a
university. In 1817 he was baptized
into the Church of England. He ac-
quired a good reputation as an author,
and sought eminence in politics.
His first appointment to office was
in 1852, when he became chancellor of
the exchequer under Lord Derby. In .'
Beale
February, 1868, he reached the
summit of his ambition, becoming
premier on the resignation of Lord
Derby, but being in a minority
after the general election he had
i to give up office the following Decem-
i ber. In 1874 he again became prime
minister with a strong Conservative
majority, and he remained in power
for six years. This period was marked
by his elevation to the peerage in
1876 as Earl of Beaconsfield, and by
the prominent part he took in regard
to the Eastern question and the con-
clusion of the treaty of Berlin in
1878, when he visited the German
capital.
In the spring of 1880 Parliament
was rather suddenly dissolved, and
the new Parliament showing an over-
whelming Liberal majority, he re-
signed office, though he still retained
the leadership of his party. Not long
after this, the publication of a novel
called " Endymion " (his last, " Lo-
thair," had been published 10 years
before) showed that his intellect was
still vigorous. His physical powers,
however, Were now giving way, and
he died April 19, 1881, after an ill-
ness of some weeks' duration. His
wife had died in 1872 after having
been created Viscountess Beaconsfield.
Bead Snake, a beautiful little
snake, variegated with yellow, car-
mine, and jet black. Though venom-
ous, it rarely uses its fangs. It is
about two feet long.
Beagle, a small hunting dog.
Beagle Island, an island discov-
ered by Admiral Fitzroy, during a
voyage in the " Beagle," to survey
Patagonia, in 1828-1834. The chan-
nel of the same name is on the S. side
of the Island of Tierra del Fuego.
Beal, George Lafayette, an
American military officer, born in Nor-
way, Me., May 21, 1825. When the
Civil War broke out, he was captain
of the Norway Light Infantry. On
Jan. 15, 1866, he was mustered out of
service with the brevet of Major-Gen-
eral of Volunteers. In 1880-:1885 he
was adjutant-general of Maine, and
in 1888-1894, State treasurer. He
died in Norway, Me., Dec. 11, 1896.
Beale, Edward Fitzgerald, an
American diplomatist, born in Wash-
ington, D. C., Feb. 4, 1822 ; graduated
Beale
at the United States Naval Academy
in 1842, and at the beginning of the
Mexican War was assigned to duty in
California, under Commodore Stock-
ton. After the war, he resigned his
naval commission and was appointed
Superintendent of Indian Affairs for
California and New Mexico. He was
commissioned a Brigadier-General in
the army by President Pierce. He
served in the Union army in the Civil
War, and at its close engaged in stock
raising in Los Angeles, Cal., till 1876,
when President Grant appointed him
United States Minister to Austria.
He died in Washington, D. C., April
22, 1893.
Beale, Lionel Smith, an English
physiologist and microscopist, born in
London, Feb. 5, 1828. He is a mem-
ber of the Royal Medical and Chirur-
gical, the Microscopical, and other
English and foreign societies, and is
the author of a number of medical and
scientific works.
Beall, John Young, a Confeder-
ate guerilla, born in Virginia, Jan. 1,
1835 ; was appointed an acting master
in the Confederate naval service in
1863. On Sept 19, 1864, he and a
number of followers were shipped on
the Lake Erie steamer " Philo Par-
sons " as passengers, and at a given
signal, took possession of the vessel,
making prisoners of the crew. They
also scuttled another boat, the " Isl-
and Queen," and tried to wreck a
railroad train near Buffalo, N. Y. In
spite of a proclamation of Jefferson
Davis assuming the responsibility of
this expedition, Beall was hanged on
Governor's Island, New York, Feb.
24, 1865, on the ground that, if act-
ing under orders, he should have
shown some badge of authority.
Beam, a long, straight and strong
piece of wood, iron, or steel, especially
when holding an important place in
some structure, and serving for sup-
port or consolidation ; often equivalent
to girder. In a balance it is the part
from the ends of which the scales are
suspended. In a loom it is a cylin-
drical piece of wood on which weavers
wind the warp before weaving; also,
the cylinder on which the cloth is
rolled as it is woven. In a ship, one
of the strong transverse pieces stretch-
ing across from one side to the other
Bean
to support the decks and retain the
sides at their proper distance ; hence,
a ship is said to be on her beam ends
when lying over on her side.
Beaming, the art of winding the
web on the weaver's beam in a manner
suitable for weaving, with regard to
firmness and evenness. It is to some
extent a special employment, followed
by workmen trained as beamers.
Bean, a well known cultivated
plant which may be primarily divided
into the garden bean and the field
bean. Of the former, there are numer-
ous sub-varieties. The earliest is the
mazagan, which is small seeded ; while
the largest is the Windsor. The field
bean runs into two leading sub-varie-
ties, a larger and a smaller one. The
navy bean is the common white bean
used as an article of diet.
The word is also applied to any
leguminous plant resembling a bean,
though not of the genuine genus. Such,
for example, as the Florida bean,
which is the seed, not the fruit, of a
West Indian plant. These seeds are
washed up on the Florida shore, and
are sometimes used as food, and some-
times they are polished and used as
ornaments.
Bean, Nehemiah S., an Ameri-
can inventor, born in Gilmanton, N.
H., in 1818; learned the machinist's
trade. In the winter of 1857-1858 he
built his first steam fire engine, which
he named the " Lawrence, and sold
it to the city of Boston. In 1859 be
took the management of the Amos-
keag Locomotive Works in Manches-
ter, where he had been employed in
1847-1850. During 1859 he built the
" Amoskeag Steam Fire Engine, No.
1," the first of a class of engines which
now is used everywhere. He died in
Manchester, N. H., July 20, 1896.
Bean, Tarleton Hoffman, an
American ichthyologist, born in Bain-
bridge, Pa., Oct. 8, 1846 ; graduated at
Columbian University in Washington,
in 1876. He was curator of the De-
partment of Fishes, United States
National Museum, in 1880-1895;
represented the United States Fish
Commission at the World's Colum-
bian Exposition in 1893, and at At-
lanta in 1895. Paris in 1900, and St.
Louis in 1904; became New York
State Fish Culturist in 1906.
Bear
Bear, the English name of the va-
rious species of plantigrade mammals
belonging to the ursus and some neigh-
boring genera. The term plantigrade,
applied to the bears, intimates that
they walk on the soles of their feet;
not, like the digitigrade animals, on
their toes. Though having six incisor
teeth in each jaw, like the rest of the
carnivora, yet the tubercular crowns
of the molar teeth show that their food
is partly vegetable. They grub up
roots, and, when they can obtain it,
greedily devour honey. They hiber-
nate in winter. The best known spe-
cies is ursus arctos, the brown bear,
the one sometimes seen dancing to the
amusement r*f children in the streets.
They are wild in this country, on the
continent of Europe, and in Asia.
The grizzly bear, black bear and Polar
bear are well known in menageries.
In Stock Exchange parlance, a
bear is one who contracts to sell on a
specified day certain stock not be-
longing to him, at the market price
then prevailing, on receiving imagi-
nary payment for them at the rate
which obtains when the promise was
maJe. It now becomes his interest
that the stock on which he has specu-
lated should fall in price ; and he is
tempted to effect this end by circulat-
ing adverse rumors regarding it ; while
the purchaser, called a " bull," sees it
to his advantage to make it rise. The
origin of the term is uncertain.
In astronomy, the word is applied
to one or other of two constellations,
Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, called
respectively the Great Bear and the
Little Bear. When the word Bear
stands alone, it signifies Ursa Major.
Beard, the hair that grows on the
chin, lips, and adjacent parts of the
face of men, and sometimes, though
rarely, of women. Its growth is the
distinctive sign of manhood.
Beard, Daniel Carter, an Amer-
ican artist and author, born in Cincin-
nati, O., June 21, 1850 ; first engaged
in civil engineering, but later stud-
ied art and has since become
known as a Book and magazine illus-
trator. He founded and became teach-
er of the Department of Animal Draw-
ing in the Woman's School of Applied
Design, believed to be the first class
of this character in the world.
Bear Lake
Beard, George Miller, an Amer-
ican physician and hygienic writer,
born at Montville, Conn., May 8,
1839 ; made a specialty of the study of
stimulants and narcotics, hypnotism,
spiritualism, etc. He died in New
York, Jan. 23, 1883.
Beard, Henry, an American paint-
er, born in Ohio, in 1841 ; son of
James Henry Beard, and nephew of
William Holbrook Beard ; served in
the Union army during the Civil
War; and, after his removal to New
York city, in 1877, was chiefly en-
gaged in illustrating books and period-
icals. He died in New York, Nov. 19,
1889.
Beard, James Henry, an Amer-
ican painter, born in Buffalo, N. Y.,
in 1814. In his childhood his parents
removed to Ohio. He became a por-
trait painter in Cincinnati, and paint-
ed the portraits of Henry Clay and
other distinguished men. He died in
Flushing, N. Y., April 4, 1893.
Beard, William Holbrook, an
American painter, born in Paines-
ville, O., April 13, 1825; brother of
James H. Beard ; was a traveling por-
trait painter from 1846 till 1851,
when he settled in Buffalo, N. Y. He
made many studies of decorative archi-
tecture. He died in New York city,
Feb. 20, 1900.
Beard Moss, a lichen of gray
color, forming a shaggy coat on many
forest trees.
Beardsley, Aubrey, an English
author and illustrator, born in Bright-
on, in 1874; died in Mentone, France,
March 16, 1898.
Beardsley, Samuel, an American
jurist, born in Hoosic, N. Y., Feb. 9,
1790. He became Associate Judge of
the Supreme Court of New York in
1844, and three years later succeeded
Judge Bronson as Chief Justice. On
his retirement he devoted himself to
the practice of his profession. He died
in Utica, N. Y., May 6, 1860.
Bearer Company, a British or-
ganization for removing wounded sol-
diers from the field of battle to the
dressing station or temporary hospital.
Bear Lake, Great, an extensive
sheet of fresh water in the Northwest
Territory of Canada.
Bear River
Bear River, a river of the United
States, 400 miles long ; rises in the N.
of Utah, and flows N. into Idaho;
turns abruptly S., re-enters Utah, and
empties into Great Salt Lake.
Bear's Grease, the fat of bears,
esteemed as of great efficacy in nour-
ishing and promoting the growth of
hair. The unguents sold under this
name, however, are in a great measure
made of hog's lard or veal fat, or a
mixture of both, scented and slightly
colored.
Beast Fables, stories in which
animals play human parts, a widely
spread primitive form of literature,
often surviving in more or less devel-
oped forms in the more advanced civ-
ilizations.
Beat, in music, the beating or pul-
sation resulting from the joint vibra-
tions of two sounds of the same
strength, and all but in unison. Also
a short shake or transient grace-note
struck immediately before the note it
is intended to ornament.
Beatification, in general, the act
of rendering supremely blessed, also
the state of being rendered supremely
blessed. In a special sense an act by
which the Pope declares, on evidence
which he considers himself to possess,
that a certain deceased person is in
the enjoyment of supreme felicity in
Heaven. It is the first step toward
canonization, but it is not canoniza-
tion itself.
Beaton, David, Cardinal Arch-
bishop of St. Andrew's, Scotland, born
in 1494. He became Abbot of Arb-
roath in 1525, Lord Privy Seal three
years later, was sent on several mis-
sions to France, received a cardinal's
hat in 1538, and in the following year
became Primate. On the death of
James V., he, by craft and determina-
tion, secured to himself the chief pow-
er in Church and State, being named
Lord High Chancellor of Scotland,
and Papal Legate. He opposed an
alliance with England, and especially
distinguished himself as a persecutor
of the Reformers. The trial and burn-
ing of George Wishart for heresy took
place under his direction, and, a short
time afterward Beaton was assassinat-
ed at St. Andrew's, in May, 1546.
With his death, church tyranny came
to an end in Scotland.
Beaufort
Seattle, James, a Scottish poet
and miscellaneous writer, born at
Laureucekirk, Kincardineshire, Oct.
25, 1735. In 1765 he published a
poem, the "Judgment of Paris," and
in 1770 his celebrated "Essay on
Truth," for which the University of
Oxford conferred on him the degree of
LL. D. ; and George III. honored him,
when on a visit to London, with a
private conference and a pension. He
died in Aberdeen, Aug. 18, 1803.
Beatty, Sir David, a British nav-
al officer born in Cheshire, -England,
Jan. 17, 1871 ; was appointed a naval
cadet in 1884 ; became a lieutenant in
1892 ; accompanied Lord Kitchener's
expedition to Egypt ; was in China at
the Boxer uprising ; was promoted to
rear-admiral in 1910 and vice-admiral
in 1914; won the first sea battle in
the World War off Helgoland Bight ;
and commanded the battle-cruiser di-
vision of the British fleet in the great
naval battle off Jutland, May 31,
1916. Sir David married Ethel, only
daughter of the late Marshall Field of
Chicago. See APPENDIX : World War.
Beatty, John, an American legis-
lator, born in Bucks county, Pa., Dec.
19, 1749 ; was educated at Princeton,
and took up the study of medicine
with Dr. Rush of Philadelphia. He
fought with distinction through the
Revolutionary War, reaching the rank
of Colonel; was Delegate to the Con-
tinental Congress in 1783-1785;
Speaker of the House; served in the
convention which adopted the Fed-
eral Constitution ; was a member of
Congress in 1793-1795 ; and Secretary
of State of New Jersey in 1795-1805.
He died in Trenton, N. J., AprU 30,
1826.
Beatty, John, an American mili-
tary officer, born near Sandusky, O.,
Dec. 16, 1828. He fought on the
Union side in the Civil War, rising
from private to Brigadier-General,
and showing intrepid courage at Stone
River, 1862-1863. He was a member
of Congress in 1868-1874; Repub-
lican Presidential Elector-at-Large in
1884 ; and author of " High Tariff or
Low Tariff, Which?" He died Dec.
21, 1914.
Beaufort, Margaret, an English
countess, born in 1441 ; daughter of
John, first Duke of Somerset, and
Beanharnais
mother of Henry VII., King oi Eng-
land. In the Wars of the Roses, she
and her son, Henry, became more or
less dangerous to the Yorkists and
were for a long time in retirement or
exile. Henry was attainted by a Par-
liament under Richard III., and Mar-
garet's estates forfeited. After the
accession of her son as Henry VII.
she took no part in public affairs. Her
life forms one of the romantic episodes
of English history. She was devoutly
religious, and founded several religious
institutions.
Beauharnais, Eugene de, Viceroy
of Italy, and a Prince of the French
Empire, son of Alexandre de Beau-
harnais and Josephine, born in Paris
in 1781. After his mother's marriage
to Napoleon, he, in 1796, became aide-
de-camp to the latter, and served with
distinction in the campaigns of Italy
and Egypt Beauharnais was wound-
ed at Acre, contributed to the victory
of Marengo, was created Prince of the
Empire in 1805, and Viceroy of Italy.
In 1806, he married the Princess Ama-
lie Augusta, of Bavaria, and in the
same year was adopted by the Em-
peror as his son, and appointed gover-
nor of Lombardy and Venice. He
served in the campaign of 1809, de-
feated the Austrians at Raab, and
distinguished himself at Wagram. His
military talents were particularly
evinced in the retreat from Moscow,
and in the following campaigns of
1813-1814. To Beauharnais may be
mainly ascribed the victory of Lutzen.
After the fall of Napoleon, he retired
to Munich, was allowed, by the Treaty
of Fontainebleau and the Congress of
Vienna, to retain his extensive posses-
sions in Italy, and took his place as
Duke of Leuchtenberg among the Ba-
varian nobles. His children subse-
quently ranked as members of the im-
perial family of Russia. He died Feb.
21, 1824.
Beaumarchais, Pierre Angus-
tin, Baron de, born in Paris, Jan.
24, 1732. He was a mar of singular
versatility of talent, being by turns
politician, artist, dramatist, and mer-
chant. At the beginning of the Amer-
ican War of Independence (1777),
Beaumarchais entered into a specula-
tion for supplying the colonies with
arms, ammunition, etc. ; he lost sev-
eral vessels, three of which were taken
Beauregard
in one day by the English cruisers in
coming out of the river of Bordeaux,
but the greater number arrived in
America, and inspired the colonists
with renewed hope. He died in Paris.
May 18, 1799.
Beaumont, city and capital of
Jefferson county, Tex.; on the Neches
river and the Gulf & Interstate and
other railroads; 30 miles N. of
the Gulf of Mexico; is in a region
abounding in petroleum and yellow
pine and cypress forests; raises con-
siderable rice; ships large quantities
of lumber and shingles; and has rice,
saw, shingle, stave, and heading
mills, foundry and machine shops,
and car works. Pop. (1910) 20,640.
Beaumont, a picturesque town in
N. France, near the left bank of the
Meuse, 12 miles E. by S. of the bat-
tlefield of Sedan and the same dis-
tance from the Belgian border. It was
conspicuous in the Franco-Prussian
war of 1870, and later in the great
World War. See APPENDIX: World
War.
Beaumont, Francis, and Fletch-
er, John, two eminent English dra-
matic writers, contemporaries of
Shakespeare, and the most famous
of literary partners. The former was
born at Grace-Dieu, in Leicestershire,
in 1584. At the age of 16 he pub-
lished a translation, in verse, of Ovid's
fable of " Salmacis and Hermaphrodi-
tus." He died March 6, 1616, and
was buried in Westminster Abbey.
JOHN FLETCHEB was born at Rye,
Sussex, in December, 1579. His
father was successively Dean of Peter-
borough, Bishop of Bristol, Worcester,
and London. The " Woman Hater,"
produced in 1606-1607, is the earliest
work known to exist in which he had
a hand. He died in 1625.
Beaumont, William, an Ameri-
can surgeon, born in Lebanon, Conn.,
in 1785. His experiments on diges-
tion with the Canadian St. Martin,
who lived for years after receiving a
gunshot wound in the stomach which
left an aperture of about two inches
in diameter, were of great importance
to physiological science. He died in
St. Louis, Mo., April 25, 1853.
Beau regard, Pierre Gust are
Toutant, an American military offi-
cer, born in St. Martin's parish, La.,
Beaux
May 28, 1818; was graduated at the
United States Military Academy and
appointed a brevet Second Lieutenant
of Artillery in 1838. He distin-
guished himself in the Mexican War,
where he won the brevet of Major.
He resigned his commission after
the secession of Louisiana in Feb-
ruary'following; was appointed com-
mander of the Confederate forces
at Charleston, S. C., and there
opened the hostilities of the Civil War
by bombarding Fort Sumter, on April
11. After the evacuation of the fort
by Major Anderson, General Beaure-
gard was transferred to Virginia,
where he commanded the Confederate
forces in the battle of Bull Run, on
July 21. In March, 1862, he was or-
dered to the Army of the Mississippi,
under Gen. Albert S. Johnston, and in '
April following fought the battle of
Shiloh, gaining a victory over the Na-
tional forces the first day, but being
defeated by General Grant on the sec-
ond day. Failing health kept him
from active duty till June, 1863, when
he took charge of the defense of
Charleston against the combined land
and naval forces. He remained in
command there till April, 1864, when
he was ordered to Richmond to
strengthen its defenses. On May 16,
he attacked General Butler in front
of Drury's Bluff, and forced him back
to his intrencbments between the
James and the Appomattox rivers.
He attempted to aid General Jo-
seph E. Johnston in opposing Gen-
eral Sherman, but in April surren-
dered with the former to the latter.
lAiter the war he became president of
the New Orleans, Jackson and Missis-
sippi Railroad Company, Adjutant-
General of the State, and a manager
of the Louisiana State Lottery. In
1866 the chief command of the Ru-
manian army was tendered him, and
in 1869 that of the army of the
Khedive of Egypt, both of which he
declined. He died in New Orleans,
Feb. 20, 1893.
Beaux, Cecilia, an American art-
ist, born in Philadelphia about 1877.
She won nearly every prize for which
she competed in America, and became
a member of the National Academy in
1892, and also of the Soci£te des
Beaux-Arts in Paris. Her work is
exclusively portraiture.
Beaver
Beaver, a quadruped "of the order
Rodentia, or gnawers, the only species
of its genus. It is very widely dis-
BEAVEB.
tributed, being found in the N. parts
of Europe, Asia, and America, nowa-
days most abundantly in the N. and
thinly peopled parts of North Amer-
ica, dwelling in communities on the
banks of rivers and lakes.
At one time immense numbers of
these animals were killed for their fur,
which was largely used in making
hats, but in more recent times they
have suffered less persecution on this
account, their fur now not being held
in the same estimation.
The beaver is about two feet in
length; its body thick and heavy; the
head compressed, and somewhat
arched at the front, the upper part
rather narrow; the snout much so.
The eyes are placed rather high on
the head, and the pupils are rounded;
the ears are short, elliptical, and al-
most concealed by the fur. The skin
is covered by two sorts of hair, of
which one is long, rather stiff, elastic,
and of a gray color for two-thirds of
its length next the base, and termin-
ated by shining, reddish-brown points ;
the other is short, thick, tufted, and
soft, being of different shades of sil-
ver-gray or light lead color. The hair
is shortest on the head and feet. The
hind legs are longer than the fore, and
are completely webbed. The tail is
10 or 11 inches long, and, except the
part nearest the body, is covered with
hexagonal scales.
Bcauvais
Beauvais, a town of N. France, at
the confluence of the Therain and Ave-
lon, 49 miles N. by W. of Paris. It
was besieged by the English in 1346
and 1433, and by the Duke of Bur-
gundy in 1472, and was in the field
of operations during the World War.
See APPENDIX : World War.
Beaver, James Ad dams, an
American military officer and states-
man, born in Millerstown, Pa., Oct.
21, 1837 ; was graduated at Jefferson
College, Canonsburg, Pa., in 1856;
and studied law with H. N. McAllis-
ter, Bellefonte, Pa., whose partner he
afterward became. On the outbreak
of the Civil War he was made Lieu-
tenant-Colonel of the 45th Pennsyl-
vania Volunteers. At the battle
of Ream's Station, he was se-
verely wounded and lost a leg; and
was retired with the rank of Brig-
adier-General of Volunteers (Dec.
22, 1864). He then resumed the
practice of law ; became Major-Gen-
eral of the Pennsylvania State Mi-
litia ; was defeated as a Republican
«andidate for Governor in 1882 ;
elected in 1887; President of the
Board of Trustees of the Penn-
sylvania State College; Vice-Modera-
tor of the Presbyterian General As-
sembly in 1888 and 1895 ; and mem-
ber of the Commission on Investiga-
tion of the War Department in 1898.
He died Jan. 31, 1914.
Bebeerine, in chemistry, an un-
crystallizable basic substance, extract-
ed from the bark of the greenheart
tree of Guiana. In pharmacy, the
sulphate of bebeerine is a ^ very yalu-
ble medicine, being used like quinine
as a tonic and febrifuge.
Bebek, a beautiful bay on the
European side of the Bosphorus, with
a palace of the Sultan, known as the
Humayunabad, and built in 1725.
Bebel, Ferdinand August, a
German Socialist, born in Cologne in
1840. He settled in Leipsic in 1860,
joined various labor organizations,
and became one of the editors of
the "Volkstaat" and the better
known " Vorwarts." Membership in
the North German Reichstag was fol-
lowed by his election to the German
Reichstag, of which he was a member
from 1871 to 1881, and which he en-
tered again in 1883. He died Aug. 13,
1913.
Becker
Bee, a celebrated abbey of France,
in Normandy, near Brionne, now rep-
resented only by some ruins. Lan-
f ranc and Anselm were both connected
with this abbey.
Beccaria, Cesare Bonesana,
Marquis de, an Italian political
philosopher, born at Milan, March 15,
1738. He is chiefly known as author
of the celebrated "Treatise on Crimes
and Punishments," which first appear-
ed in 1764, and advocated great re-
forms in criminal legislation. He died
in Milan, Nov. 28, 1794.
Becerra, Caspar, a Spanish
painter and sculptor, born in 1520.
He studied under Michael Angelo at
Rome, and is credited with the chief
share in the establishment of the fine
arts in Spain. He died in 1570.
Beche, Sir Henry, an English
geologist, born in 1796. He founded
the Geological Survey of Great Brit-
ain, which was soon undertaken by
the Government, De la Beche being
appointed director general. He also
founded the Museum of Practical Ge-
ology, and the School of Mines. He
died in 1855.
Bechnanaland, an extensive tract
in South Africa, inhabited by the Be-
chuanas, extending from 28° S. lat. to
the Zambesi, and from 20° E. long, to
the Transvaal border. The colony
was annexed to Cape Colony and the
protectorate placed under a British
commissioner in 1895.
Beck, James Burnie, an Ameri-
can lawyer, born in Dumfriesshire,
Scotland, Feb. 13, 1822; came to the
United States when a youth, and set-
tled in Kentucky. He was elected a
Democratic Representative to Con-
gress in 1866, 1868, 1870, and 1872,
and United States Senator in 1876,
1882, and 1888. He died in Wash-
ington, D. C., May 3, 1890.
Beck, James Montgomery, an
American lawyer, born in Philadel-
phia, Pa., July 9, 1861 ; was admitted
to the bar in 1884 ; and was assistant
attorney-general of the United States
in ISge-^OO. During the World War
he published a number of critical re-
views of conditions which attracted
wide attention.
Becker, George Ferdinand, an
American geologist, born in New
York, Jan. 5, 1847 ; graduated at Har-
Becker
vard University in 1868; was Instruc-
tor of Mining and Metallurgy in the
University of California in 1875-
1879; attached to the United States
Geological Survey since 1879, and
Special Agent of the 10th Census,
1879-1883. He was appointed a spe-
cial agent to examine into the mineral
resources of the Philippine Islands in
1898.
Becker, Karl Ferdinand, a
German musician, born in Leipsic,
July 17, 1804; died in Leipsic, Oct.
26, 18771
Becker, Karl Ferdinand, a Ger-
man philologist, born in Liser, April
14, 1775; died in Offenbach, Sept. 5,
1849.
Becker, Karl Friedrick, a Ger-
man historical writer, born in Berlin,
1777 ; wrote various popular works
on historical topics. He died in Ber-
lin, March 15, 1800.
Becket, Thomas, the most cele-
brated Roman Catholic prelate in the
English annals ; born in London in
1117 or 1118. He was the son of
Gilbert, a London merchant. His
mother is said to have been a Saracen
lady, to whose father Gilbert was pris-
oner in Jerusalem, having become a !
captive during the Crusades. The
lady is said to have fallen in love with
the prisoner, to have assisted him in
obtaining his liberty , and afterwards
to have followed him to London,
where she found him with the greatest
difficulty. After studying at Oxford
and Paris, Becket studied civil law
at Bologna, Italy, and returning to
England was made Archdeacon of Can-
terbury and Provost of Beverly.
In 1158 Becket was appointed high-
chancellor, and at this time was a
complete courtier, conforming in every
respect to the humor of the king.
Henry II. raised his favorite to the
primacy, on the presumption that he
would aid him in those political views,
in respect to Church power, which all
the sovereigns of the Norman line em-
braced, and which, in fact, caused a
continual struggle till its termination
by Henry VIII.
Becket was consecrated archbishop
in 1162, and immediately affected an
austerity of character which formed
a very natural prelude to the part
which he meant to play. Pope Alex-
Becket
ander III. held a general council at
Tours in 1163, at which Becket at-
tended and made a formal complaint
of the infringements by the laity on
the rights and immunities of the
Church. On his return to England he
began to act in the spirit of this rep-
resentation, and to prosecute several
of the nobility and others holding
Church possessions, whom he also pro-
ceeded to excommunicate. Finding
himself the object of the king's dis-
pleasure, he soon after attempted to
escape to France ; but being intercept-
ed, Henry, in a Parliament at North-
ampton, charged him with a violation
of his allegiance, and all his goods
were confiscated.
After much negotiation a sort of
reconciliation took place in 1170, on
the whole to the advantage of Becket,
who, being restored to his see, with
all his former privileges, behaved on
the occasion with excessive haughti-
ness. After a triumphal entry into
Canterbury the young Prince Henry,
crowned during the lifetime of his
father, transmitted him an order to re-
store the suspended and excommuni-
cated prelates, which he refused to do,
on the pretence that the Pope alone
could grant the favor, though the lat-
ter had lodged the instruments of cen-
sure in his hands.
The deposed prelates thereupon im«
mediately appealed to Henry in Nor-
mandy, who in a state of extreme ex-
asperation exclaimed, " What an un-
happy prince am I, who have not
about me one man of spirit enough to
rid me of a single insolent prelate, the
perpetual trouble of my life ! " These
rash and too significant words in-
duced four of the attendant barons,
Reginald Fitz-Urse, William de Tracy,
Hugh de Morville, and Richard Brete,
to resolve to wipe out the king's re-
proach. Having laid their plans, they
forthwith proceeded to Canterbury,
and having formally required the arch-
bishop to restore the suspended prel-
ates, they returned in the evening of
the same day (Dec. 29, 1170), and
placinc soldiers in the courtyard,
rushed with their swords drawn into
the cathedral, where the archbishop
was at vespers, and advancing toward
him threatened him with death if he
still disobeyed the orders of Henry.
Becket, without the least tokei> of
Beckwith
Bede
fear, replied that he was ready to die
for the rights of the Church; and
magnanimously added, " I charge you
in the name of the Almighty, not to
hurt any other person here, for none
of them have been concerned in the
late transactions." The confederates
then strove to drag him out of the
church; but not being able to do so,
On account of his resolute deportment,
they killed him on the spot with re-
peated wounds, all which he endured
without a groan.
Thus perished Thomas Becket in
his 52d year, a martyr to the cause
which he espoused, and a man of un-
questionable vigor of intellect. He
was canonized two years after his
death. In the reign of Henry III.
his body was taken up and placed in a
magnificent shrine erected by Arch-
bishop Stephen Langton; and of the
popularity of the pilgrimages to his
tomb the " Canterbury Tales " of
Chaucer will prove an enduring testi-
mony.
Beckwitli, Sir George, an Eng-
lish military officer, born in 1753.
His scene of action was largely in
America — in the United States, and
the West Indies. He fought with the
English in the American Revolution
in 1776-1782, and was intrusted with
important diplomatic commissions in
1782-1791, as there was then no Brit-
ish Minister to the United States. In
1804, he was made governor of St.
Vincent, and four years later gov-
ernor of Barbadoes. As England was
then at war with France, he organ-
ized an expedition and conquered Mar-
tinique, for which he obtained the
thanks of the House of Commons.
Later (1810) he conquered Guade-
loupe, the last possession of the
French in that part of the world.
When he returned to England, after
nine years' service in the West In-
dies, a set of silver plate was given
to him by the legislature of the Bar-
badoes, and the King conferred upon
him armorial distinction. He died in
London, March 20, 1823.
Beckwitli, James Carroll, an
American genre painter, born in Han-
nibal, Mo., Sept. 23, 1852; was a pu-
pil of Carolus Duran, and became a
member of the National Academy in
1894.
Beckwith, John Watrus, an
American Episcopal bishop, born in
Raleigh, N. C., Feb. 9, 1831; was
graduated at Trinity College, Hart-
ford, in 1852 ; ordained priest in
1855 ; and was elected Bishop of
Georgia, being consecrated in Savan-
nah, April 2, 1868. He was an elo-
quent and powerful preacher, and pub-
lished several sermons and addresses.
He died in Atlanta, Ga., Nov. 24,
1890.
Becquerel, Antoine Cesar, a
French physician, and member of the
Institute, born in Chatillon-sur-Loing,
March 7, 1788. In early life he served
in the French army in Spain as an
officer of engineers. He invented a
new psychometer in 1866. He died in
Paris, Jan. 18, 1878. His son, AUEX-
ANDRE EDMOND (1820-1891) and his
grandson ANTOINE HETNRI (1852-1908),
son of Alexandre, were also eminent
physicists, and made valuable re-
searches on the nature and chemical
effects of light, and the magnetic
properties of many substances. The
latter discovered the luminous ema-
nations called " Becquerel Rays."
Bed, in ordinary language, an ar-
ticle of domestic furniture to sleep
upon.
In law, a divorce from bed and
board, is the divorce of a husband and
wife, to the extent of separating them
for a time, the wife receiving support,
under the name of alimony, during
the severance.
In mechanics, a bed is the founda-
tion piece or portion of anything on
which the body of it rests, as the bed
piece of a steam engine ; the lower
stone of a grinding mill; or the box,
body, or receptacle of a vehicle.
Bede, or Bseda, generally known
as the Venerable Bede, the greatest
figure in ancient English literature,
was born near Monkwearmouth, Dur-
ham, about G73. Left an orphan at
the age of six, he was educated in the
Benedictine Abbey at Monkwear-
mouth, entering the monastery of Jar-
row, where he was ordained priest in
his 30th year. His industry was
enormous. Bede wrote homilies, lives
of saints, hymns, epigrams, works on
grammar and chronology, and the
great " Ecclesiastical History of Eng-
land," in five books, gleaned from na-
Bede
tive chronicles and oral tradition.
This was translated from Latin into
Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred. The
first editions were issued from Stras-
burg in the 15th century. He died in
the monastery of Jarrow, May 26,
735.
Bede, Cuthbert, pseudonym of
EDWARD BRADLEY, an English author,
born in Kidderminster in 1827 ; died
in Lenton, Dec. 12, 1889.
Bedell, Gregory Tliurston, an
American clergyman, born in Hudson,
N. Y., Aug. 27, 1817 ; in early life was
rector of the Protestant Episcopal
Church of the Ascension, New York
city. In 1859 he was consecrated As-
sistant Bishop of Ohio, and in 1873
Bishop of that State. He died in
New York city, March 11, 1892.
Bedford, Gunning, an American
patriot, born in Philadelphia, Pa.,
about 1730; was a lieutenant in the
French War ; entered the Revolution-
ary army with the rank of Major;
was wounded at White Plains ; became
Muster-Master-General in 1776; was
a delegate to the Continental Con-
gress ; and was elected Governor of
Delaware in 1796. He died in New-
castle, Del., Sept 30, 1797.
Bedford, Gunning, an Amer-
ican lawyer, born in Philadelphia,
Pa., in 1747; was graduated at
Princeton in 1771 ; became a lawyer ;
acted for a time as aide-de-camp to
General Washington ; represented Del-
aware in the Continental Congress in
1783-1786; and became Attorney-
General of the State, and United
State? Judge for the District of Dela-
ware. He died in Wilmington, Del.,
March 30, 1812.
Bedford, Gunning S., an Amer-
ican physician, born in Baltimore,
Md., in 1806; introduced into the
United States obstetrical clinics for
the gratuitous treatment of poor
women. He died in New York city,
Sept. 5, 1870.
Bedford Level, an eastern dis-
trict of England, comprising about
450,000 acres. It was a mere waste of
fen and marsh, until the time of
Charles I., when, in 1634, a charter
was granted to Francis, Earl of Bed-
ford, who undertook to drain the level,
on condition of being allowed 95,000
acres of the reclaimed land. He ac-
Bee
complished the undertaking at an
enormous expense, and it now forms
one of the most fertile and grain-pro-
ductive districts of the kingdom.
Bedlam, a contraction from Beth-
lehem, a famous English hospital for
lunatics.
Bedloe's Island, an island in
New York harbor ; ceded to the United
States Government, in 1800; the site
of Fort Wood, erected in 1841 and
mounted with 77 guns ; now the loca-
tion of Bartholdi's colossal statue of
" Liberty Enlightening the World."
Bedmar, Alfonso de la Cueva,
Marquis of, Cardinal Bishop of Ovk-
do, a Spanish diplomatist, born in
1572. He was created Cardinal in
1622, was afterward Spanish gover-
nor of the Netherlands, made himself
detested by the Flemings, and retired
to Rome, where he died in 1655.
Bedouins, a Mohammedan people
of Arab race, inhabiting chiefly the
deserts of Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and
North Africa. They lead a nomadic
existence in tents, huts, caverns and
ruins, associating in families under
sheiks or in tribes under emirs.
Bee, the common name given to a
large family of hymenopterous or
membranous-winged insects, of which
tne most important is the common hive
or honey bee (apis mellifica). It be-
longs to the warmer parts of the East'
era Hemisphere, but is now natural-
ized in the Western. A hive com-
monly consists of one mother or queen,
from 600 to 800 males or drones, and
DRONE BEE.
from 15,000 to 20,000 working bees,
formerly termed neuters, but now
known to be imperfectly developed fe-
males. The last mentioned, the small-
est, have twelve Joints to their anten-
na?, and six abdominal rings, and are
provided with a sting ; there is, on the
"Beech
Beeclier
outside of the hind legs, a smooth,
hollow, edged with hairs, called the
basket, in which the kneaded pollen or
bee bread, the food of the larvae, is
QUEEN BEE.
stored for transit. The queen has the
same characteristics, but is of larger
size, especially in the abdomen ; she
has also a sting. The males, or drones,
differ from both the preceding by hav-
ing 13 joints to the antennae ; a
rounded head with larger eyes, elon-
gated and united at the summit; and
no stings. The queen has two large
ovaries, consisting of a great number
of small cavities, each containing 10
or 17 eggs. The inferior half-circles,
except the first and last, on the abdo-
men of working bees, have I each on
their inner surface two cavities, where
the wax secreted by the bee from its
saccharine food, is formed in layers,
and comes out from between the ab-
dominal rings. Respiration takes place
WOBKEB BEE.
by means of air tubes which branch out
to all parts of the body, the bee being
exceedingly sensitive to an impure
atmosphere. Of the organs of sense
the most important are the antennae,
deprivation of these resulting in a spe-
cies of derangement. The majority of
entomologists regard their function as
in the first place auditory, but they
*.re exceedingly sensitive to tactual
impressions, and are apparently the
principal means of mutual communi-
cation. Bees undergo perfect meta-
morphosis, the young appearing first
as larvae, then changing to pupae, from
which the images or perfect insecti
spring.
The bumblebees, or bumblebees, ot
which over 60 species are found it
North America, belong to the genus
bombus, which is almost world wide in
its distribution. Of these species soli-
tary females which have survived the
winter, commence constructing small
nests when the weather begins to be
warm enough ; some of them going
deep into the earth in dry banks, oth-
ers preferring heaps of stone or gravel,
and others choosing always some bed
of dry moss. In the nest the bee col-
lects a mass of pollen and in this lays
KOYAL CELLS.
some eggs. The cells in these nests are
not the work of the old bee, but are
formed by the young insects similarly
to the cocoons of silk worms ; and when
the perfect insect is released from
them by the old bee, which gnaws off
their tops, they are employed as
honey-cups. The bumblebees, how
ever, do not store honey for the win-
ter, those which survive till the cold
weather leaving the nest and penetrat-
ing the earth, or taking up some other
sheltered position, and remaining there
till the spring.
Beech, a tree. The wood is brittle
and not very lasting, yet it is used by
turners, joiners, and millwrights. The
fine thin bark is employed for making
baskets and band-boxes.
Beeclier, Catherine Esther, an
American author and educator, daugh-
ter of Lyman, and sister of Henry
Ward Beecher, born in Easthampton,
L. I., Sept. 6, 1800. The latter
part of her life was devoted to
Beecher
training teachers and supplying them
to needy fields, especially in the West-
ern and Southern States. She wrote
numerous works on education and on
the woman question. She died in El-
mira, N. Y., May 12, 1878.
Beecher, Henry Ward, an Amer-
ican clergyman, born in Litchfield,
Conn., June 24, 1813. He was the
eon of Lyman Beecher; graduated
from Amherst in 1834; studied in
Lane Theological Seminary, near
Cincinnati, Ohio ; and began clerical
duty as pastor of a church in Law-
renceburg, Ind., removing to Indian-
apolis in 1839. From 1847 until his
death he was Pastor of Plymouth
Congregational Church in Brooklyn.
He was one of the founders of the
" Independent " and of the " Christian
Union" (now the "Outlook"). He
was also a prominent anti-slavery ora-
tor, as well as a famous lecturer. He
died in Brooklyn, N. Y., March 8, 1887.
Beecher, Lynian, an American
clergyman, born in New Haven, Conn.,
Oct. 2, 1775. His ancestors were Pu-
ritans. He graduated from Yale in
1796, and became pastor of the Pres-
byterian Church in East Hampton,
L. I. ; then of a Congregational church
in Litchfield, Conn., in 1S10; and
then of the Hanover Street Congrega-
tional Church in Boston, Mass. In
1832 he became President of Lane
Theological Seminary, near Cincin-
nati, Ohio. His influence throughout
the country was very great, especially
on the questions of temperance and of
slavery. His " Six Sermons on In-
temperance " had a great effect, and
have been frequently republished and
translated into many languages. His
sermon on the death of Alexander
Hamilton, in 1804, with his " Remedy
for Dueling" (1809), did much
toward breaking up the practice of
dueling in the United States. He died
in Brooklyn, N. Y., June 10, 1863.
Beecher, Thomas Kinnicntt,
an American clergyman, son of Ly-
man, and brother of Henry Ward
Beecher, born in Litchfield, Conn.,
Feb. 10, 1824. He became pastor in
Brooklyn in 1852, and in Elmira, N.
Y., in 1854. He was a very success-
ful lecturer and an effective writer on
current topics. He died in Elmira,
N. Y., March 14, 1900.
E. 16.
Beers
Beechey, Frederick William,
an English naval officer, born in Lon-
don, Feb. 17, 1796. He died in Lon-
don, Nov. 29, 1856. Beechey Island
in the Arctic Archipelago was named
after him.
Bee Eater, in the singular the
English name of a genus of birds,
more fully called the yellow throated
bee eater of Africa.
Beelzebub. (1) The fly-god, a god
worshipped in the Philistine town of
Ekron. (II. Kings i: 3) (2) An evil
spirit. (3) Any person of fiendish
cruelty, who is nicknamed by his ad-
versaries, or, in cpntempfc of moral
sentiment, appropriates the appella-
tion to himself and cherishes it as if
it were an honorable title.
Beer, an alcoholic drink made from
the malted grains of barley, boiled with
hops and then fermented with yeast.
The manufacture of ale or beer is of
very high antiquity. Herodotus ascribes
the invention of brewing to Isis, and
it was certainly practised in Egypt.
Xenophon mentions it as being used in
Armenia, and the Gauls were early ac-
quainted with it. Pliny mentions an
intoxicating liquor made of corn and
water as common to all the nations of
the west of Europe, and in England
ale-booths were regulated by law as
early as the 8th century. A rude pro-
cess of brewing is carried on by many
uncivilized races ; thus chica or maize
beer is made by the South American
Indians, millet beer by various Afri-
can tribes, etc. The beers common In
the United States are: lager beer —
that is, store beer, the name being
given to it because it is usually kept
for four to six months before being
used. In brewing it the fermentation
is made to go on rather slowly and at
a low temperature ; Schenk beer,
brewed in winter for immediate use;
bock beer, brewed extra strong and
served during the spring months. The
alcohol in beer averages about 4 per
cent.
Beerboliin-Tree, Herbert, an
English actor, born in London, in
1853. In 1897 he opened his new
theatre, Her Majesty's, in the Hay-
market. He died July 2, 1917.
Beers, Henry Augustin, an
American author, born in Buffalo, N.
Beerslieba
Y., July 2, 1847. He graduated from
Yale in 1859 ; became tutor there in
1871, and Professor of English Liter-
ature in 1880.
Beersheba (now Bir-os-Seba,
"the well of the oath"), the place
where Abraham made a covenant with
Abiinelech, and in common speech,
representative of the southernmost
limit of Palestine, near which it is sit-
uated. It is now a mere heap of ruins
near two large and five smaller wells,
though it was a place of some impor-
tance down to the period of the cru-
sades.
Beet, a genus of plants distin-
guished by its fruit being inclosed in a
tough woody or spongy five-lobed en-
larged calyx. The garden beet, or
beet of general cultivation, is of bi-
ennial duration, and has a tender
fleshy root. Red beet is principally
used at table, in salad, boiled, and
cut into slices, as a pickle, and
sometimes stewed with onions; but
if eaten in great quantity it is
said to be injurious to the stom-
ach. The beet may be taken out of
the ground for use about the end of
August, but it does not attain its full
size and perfection till the month of
October. When good it is large and
of a deep red color, and when boiled
is tender, sweet, and palatable.
Beethoven, Ludwig von, one of
the greatest musical composers of
modern times, was born in Bonn, in
1770. His genius was very early dis-
played, and his musical education was
begun by his father, and continued by
the court organist, who introduced him
to the works of Sebastian Bach and
Handel. He soon attempted composi-
tion, and showed wonderful facility in
improvisation. About 1790, he set-
tled at Vienna, where Mozart quickly
recognized his marvellous powers.
When about 40 years of age, he was
attacked with deafness, which became
total, and lasted through life. He be-
came, gradually, the victim of mor-
bid irritability and hopeless melan-
choly, ending in confirmed hypochon-
dria, and, finally, dropsy and delirium.
He continued to compose, however,
long after he had ceased to hear him-
self play, and received homage and
honors from all parts of Europe. He
died unmarried, in Vienna, March 26,
Beet Sugar
1827. Vast power, intense passion,
and infinite tenderness- are manifested
in all his compositions, which abound
no less in sweetest melodies than in'
grand and complicated harmonies. A
statue of Beethoven, by Ilulmel, was
erected at Bonn, in 1845.
Beet Sugar, the sugar obtained
from the beet ; similar to cane sugar ,
but inferior in sweetening power. Beet
root contains an average of about 10
per cent, of saccharine matter; sugar
cane, 18 per cent. Of the varieties,
the white Selvig beet is richest.
Of the 985,508,640 pounds of sugar
produced in the United States in 1901,
about one-third was from beets and
two-thirds from cane, and of the 599,-
774,613 pounds of beet sugar imported,
484,344,004 pounds came unrefined.
The annual statement of the American
Beet Sugar Company furnishes ample
proof of the advance which has been
made by the beet sugar industry in the
United States. In 1880 the domestic
production of beet sugar was 357 tons,
and in 1901 it had increased to 124,-
859 tons, a gain in 20 years of nearly
350 per cent.
The quantity of beet sugar pro-
duced in the United States in the
year ending June 30, 1910, was
1,025,000,000 pounds, against 73,000,-
000 pounds in 1899, an increase of
952,000,000 pounds as compared with
an increase of 181,000,000 pounds of
cane sugar in the same period. Of
the total beet sugar production, Ha-
waii furnished 1,111,000,000 pounds;
Porto Rico, 569,000,000; and the
Philippines, 176,000,000. In 1905 there
•>vere ol beet sugar factories in the
United States which had a combined
product valued at $24,393,794; and in
1909 there were 1,273 beet sugar
factories in Europe, which used
40,067,000 tons of beets, and pro-
duced 5,740,000 tons of sugar, and,
excluding the United States, the
world's production was 6,061,000 tons.
The beet sugar industry was started
by Marggraf, in Germany, in 1747,
who was the first to discover that
sugar could be extracted from the com-
mon beet. The first factory for its
manufacture was erected by Archard,
at Kunern, in Silesia, in 1802. Na-
poleon issued an imperial decree in
the early part of his reign establish-
ing this industry in France, and in
Beetle
1812 he ordered the building of 10 fac-
tories and placed Delessert in charge
of their construction. In 1830 at-
tempts were made in the United States
,to introduce the cultivation of the
cugar beet. It was not, however, till
1876 that the first successful beet
sugar factory was built, being erected
in Alvarado, Cal.
Beetle, a name often used as syn-
onymous with the term Coleoptera,
but restricted by others to include all
those insects that have their wings
protected by hard cases or sheaths,
called elytra. Beetles vary in size from
a mere point to the bulk of a man's
fist, the largest, the elephant beetle of
S. America, being 4 inches long. The
so called 'black beetles' are not prop-
erly beetles at all, but cockroaches,
and of the order Orthoptera.
Beggars, a term first applied to
the 300 Protestant deputies under
Henri de Brederode and Louis de Nas-
sau, who protested against the estab-
lishment of the Inquisition in Holland,
in April, 1566. The Dutch patriots
assumed this designation when they
rebelled against Spain in 1572.
Beghards, Begnards, or Be-
gards, various spellings of a name
said by some to be derived from their
begging favor from God in orayer, and
to the fact that they were religious
mendicants.
Begonia, an extensive genus of suc-
culent-stemmed herbaceous plants, or-
der Begoniacese, with fleshy oblique
leaves of various colors, and showy
unisexual flowers, the whole perianth
colored. Tfiey readily hybridize, and
many fine varieties have been raised
from the tuberous-rooted kinds. From
the shape of their leaves they have
been called elephant's ear. Almost all
the plants of the order are tropical.
Begnines, Beguins, or Begui-
nse. Associations of praying women
which arose in the Netherlands in the
13th century, the first being formed
at Nivelles, in Brabant, in A. D. 1226,
and spread rapidly in the adjoining
countries. They used to weave cloth,
live together under a directress, and
leave on being married, or indeed
whenever they pleased. They still ex-
ist in some of the Belgian towns,
notably at Ghent, where they are re-
nowned as makers of lace, though un-
Beliistnn
der different rules from those formerly
observed.
Begum (a feminine form corre-
sponding to beg, or bey), an Indian
title of honor equivalent to princess,
conferred on the mothers, sisters, or
wives of native rulers. The Begum
of Oudh is well known in Indian his-
tory.
Beliaim, or Behem, Martin, a
German mathematician and astrono-
mer, born in Nuremberg about 1430.
He colonized the Island of Fayal,
where he remained for several years,
and assisted in the discovery of the
other Azores ; was afterward knighted,
and returned to his native country,
where, in 1492, he constructed a tep
restrial globe, still preserved. He died
in Lisbon in 1506.
Behemoth, the animal described
in Job xi: 15-24. It is probably the
hippopotamus, which, in the time of
Job, seems to have been found in the
Nile below the cataracts, though now
it is said to occur only above them.
A second opinion entertained is that
Job's behemoth was the elephant;
while a few scholars make the less
probable conjecture that it was the
rhinoceros.
BEGONIA. BEX.
Behistun, or Bisutun, a moun-
tain near a village of the same name
in Persian Kurdistan, celebrated for
the sculptures and cuneiform inscrip-
tions cut upon one of its sides — a
rock rising almost perpendicularly to
the height of 1,700 feet. These works,
which stand about 300 feet from the
ground, were executed by the orders
Bell ni
Bel and the Dragon
of Darius I., King of Persia, and set
forth his genealogy and victories. To
receive the inscriptions, the rock was
carefully polished and coated with a
hard, siliceous varnish. Their prob-
able date is about 515 B. c. They were
first copied and deciphered by Rawlin-
BO n.
Bclim, Ernst, a German geog-
rapher, born in Gotha, Jan. 4, 1830 ;
died in Gotha, March 15, 1884.
Behn, Aphra, or Afra, or Aph-
ara, an English author ; born in
Wye, in 1640. Early in life she spent
several years in the West Indies,
where she met the Indians, who be-
came the model of her famous " Oroo-
noko." She was the first woman
writer in England who earned a live-
lihood by her pen. She died in Lon-
don, April 16, 1689.
Behring, another spelling of BEE-
ING.
Beissel, Johann Conrad, a Ger-
man mystic, born in Eberbach, in
1690. He settled in Pennsylvania in
1720, and established the German
Seventh-Day Baptists, at Ephrata, in
1728. He died in Ephrata, in 1768.
Beit, Alfred, So. African finan-
cier, b. Hamburg, 1853, d. London,
July 16, 1906. He was associated
with Cecil Rhodes (q. v. ) and left an
immense fortune in benefactions.
Beitzke, Heinrich Imdwig, a
German historian, born in Muttrin,
Feb. 15, 1798 ; died in Berlin, May 10,
1867.
Bejapoor, a ruined city of Hin-
dustan, in the Bombay Presidency,
one of the largest cities in India until
its capture by Aurungzebe in 1686.
The ruins are chiefly Mohammedan,
the principal being Mahomet Shah's
tomb, with a dome visible for 14 miles.
Pop. 13,245.
Beke, Charles Tilstone, an
English geographer, explorer, and au-
thor, born in London, Oct. 10, 1800.
In 1834 he published " Origines Bib-
licae ; or, Researches in Primeval His-
tory," one of the first attempts to
reconstruct historv on the principles
of the young science of geology. He
explored Abyssinia, Godjam and the
countries lying to the W. and S., pre-
viously almost entirely unknown to
Europeans. He died in London, July
31, 1874.
Bekker, Immannel, a German
scholar distinguished by his recensions
of the texts of Greek classics, born in
Berlin, May 21, 1785 ; died in Berlin,
June 7, 1871.
Bel, in Accadian, Assyrian and Bab-
ylonian mythology, a god ; mentioned
in Scripture, in Is. xlvi : 1 ; Jer. 1:2,'
li : 44 ; in the Septuagint, in Baruch
vi: 40, and in the apocryphal addi-
tions to the Book of Daniel, as well
as by classical authors. It has
been discovered that, prior to 1600
B. c., the highly interesting Turan-
ian people called Accadians, the in-
ventors of the cuneiform writing,
who wielded extensive authority in
Western Asia before the Semitic As-
syrians and Babylonians had come
into notice, worshipped as their
first triad of gods, Anu, ruling over
the heaven ; Elu, Belu, or Bel, over
the earth ; and Ea, over the sea. Bel's
three children, or three of his children,
were Shamas, the sun-god ; Sin, the
moon-god ; and Ishtar, the Accadian
Venus. Sayce shows that some first
born children were vicariously offered
in sacrifice by fire to the sun-god.
From the Accadians, human sacrifice
passed to various Semitic tribes and
nations. Bel's name Elu identifies him
with the Phoenician El, who, in a time
of trouble, offered his first born son,
" the beloved," on a high place, by
fire. It is not settled whether or not
Bel was the same also as the Phoeni-
cian Baal. To the wrath of Bel the
deluge was attributed. In Scripture
times he was known exclusively as a
Babylonian divinity, being distinguish-
ed from both Nebo and Merodach.
In the later Babylonian Empire, how-
ever, Merodach came to be generally
identified with Bel, though sometimes
distinguished from him, being called
" the lesser Bel."
Bel and the Dragon, one of the
books of the Apocrypha, or, more pre-
cisely, certain apocryphal chapters ad-
ded to the canonical Book of Daniel.
The Jews consider them as no part of
their Scriptures. They were penned
probably by an Alexandrian Jew, the
language used being not Hebrew, nor
Aramaean, but Greek. The Church of
Rome accepts Bel and the Dragon as
part of the Holy Scripture ; most, if
not all, Protestant churches reject it.
The story of Bel and the Dragon tells
Belcher
how Daniel enlightened Cyrus, who is
represented as having been a devout
worshiper of Bel, by proving that the
immense supplies of food laid before
the idol were really consumed, not by
it or by the inhabiting divinity, but
by the priests and their families. On
Cyrus urging that the dragon, also
worshipped, was at least a living God,
Daniel poisoned it, for which he was
thrown into a lions' den, where the
Prophet Habakkuk fed him. Ulti-
mately he was released, and his perse-
cutors put to death.
Belcher, Sir Edward, an Eng-
lish naval officer, born in 1799.
Knighted in 1843, and for five years
employed on surveying service in
the East Indies, he was, in 1852
appointed to the command of the
unfortunate expedition sent out by
the government to search for Sir
John Franklin. He died March 18,
1877. Belcher Channel, an inlet of
Jones' Sound (Baffins Bay), is named
from him, its discoverer.
Belem, a town in Portugal, W. of
Lisbon ; noted for a monastery found-
ed in 1500, to commemorate the voy-
age of Vasco da Gama, and now used
as an orphan asylum.
Belemnite, a genus of fossil
chambered shells.
Belfast, a seaport and municipal
and parliamentary borough of Ireland
(in 1888 declared a city), principal
town of Ulster, and county town of
Antrim, built on low, alluvial land on
the left bank of the Lagan, at the
head of Belfast Lough. Previous to
about 1830 the cotton manufacture
was the leading industry of Belfast,
but nearly all the mills have been con-
verted to flax spinning. The iron ship-
building trade is also of importance,
and there are breweries, distilleries,
flour mills, oil mills, foundries, print
works, tan yards, chemical works,
rope works, eta The commerce is
large. An extensive direct trade is
carried on with British North Amer-
ica, the Mediterranean, France, Bel-
gium, Holland, and the Baltic, besides
ports of the British Islands. Belfast
is comparatively a modern town. It
returns four members to Parliament.
Pop. (1911) 386,947.
Belgium, a kingdom of Europe,
bounded N. by Holland, N. W. by the
Belgium
North Sea, W. and S. by France, and
E. by the duchy of Luxemburg, Rhen-
ish Prussia, and Dutch Limburg ;
greatest length, 165 miles; greatest
breadth, 120 miles ; area, about 11,400
square miles. For administrative pur-
poses it is divided into nine provinces
— Antwerp, South Brabant, East
Flanders, West Flanders, Hainaut,
Liege, Limburg, Luxemburg, and Na-
mur. Pop. (1912) 7,571,387.
The greater part of the country is
well adapted for agricultural opera-
tions, and the inhabitants have so hap-
pily availed themselves of their nat-
ural advantages that they early began,
and in some respects still deserve, to
be regarded as the model farmers of
Europe.
The mineral riches of Belgium are
great, and, after agriculture, form the
most important of her national inter-
ests. They are almost entirely con-
fined to the four provinces of Hainaut,
Liege, Namur, and Luxemburg, and
consist of lead, manganese, calamine
or zinc, iron, and coal. All these
minerals, however, are insignificant
compared with those of iron and coal.
The coal field has an area of above
500 square miles. The export is about
5,000,000 tons, forming one of the
largest and most valuable of all the
Belgian exports, and employing about
125,000 persons. Nearly the whole of
this coal is taken by France.
The industrial products of Belgium
are very numerous, and the superiority
of many of them to those of most oth-
er countries is confessed. The fine
linens of Flanders, and lace of South
Brabant are of European reputation.
Scarcely less celebrated are the car-
pets and porcelain of Tournay, the
cloth of Verviers, the extensive foun-
dries, machine works, and other iron
and steel establishments of Liege, Se~
raing, and other places. The cotton
and woolen manufactures, confined
chiefly to Flanders and the province
of Antwerp, have advanced greatly.
Other manufactures include silks,
beet sugar, beer. Prior to 1914 there
were 17 active pig iron works ; 46 iron
manufactories ; 15 steel works ; 123
sugar factories ; and 25 refineries ;
and 240 distilleries.
The railways have a length of about
2,900 miles, three-fourths belonging to
the State. The value of the general
Belgium
commerce in 1913 was : imports,
$916,725,000 and exports $715,365,-
000. In the first six months of 1914,
immediately preceding the outbreak of
the great war and the German viola-
tion of Belgian territory, the imports
were $460,630,000 and exports $370,-
795,000.
The Belgian population is composed
of two distinct races — Flemish, who
are of German, and Walloons, who
are of French extraction.
Almost the entire population belong
to the Roman Catholic Church. Prot-
estantism is fully tolerated, and even
salaried by the State, but cannot
count above a mere fraction (some
10,000) of the population among its
adherents. Education is in a very un-
satisfactory state. At the census of
1890 nearly 27 per cent, of the popu-
lation above 15 years of age could
neither read nor write. French is the
official language of Belgium and in
general use among the educated class-
es, and there can scarcely be said to
be a national literature.
The Belgian constitution combines
monarchical with a strong infusion of
the democratic principles. The execu-
tive power is vested in a hereditary
king ; the legislative in the king and
two chambers — the Senate and the
Chamber of Representatives — the for-
mer elected for eight years, the latter
for four, but one-half of the former
renewable every four years, and one-
half of the latter every two years. The
senators are elected partly directly,
partly indirectly (by the provincial
councils) and must be 40 years of
age. Their numbers depend on popu-
lation. The deputies or representatives
are elected directly, one for every 40,-
000 inhabitants at most. In 1914 the
Senators numbered 120, and the Rep-
resentatives 186.
According to a new military law
passed in 1913 the army is recruited
by annual calls to the colors by vol-
untary engagements, the calls com-
prising 49 per cent, of those inscribed
on the rolls. Military service is com-
pulsory for those called to the colors.
Active army service is eight years, fol-
lowed by five years in the reserves.
The field army consisted of six army
divisions and two cavalry divisions.
The army estimates for 1914 aggre-
gated $20,219,250.
After being for centuries under
Belgium
Spanish, Austrian and French dom-
ination, Belgium was united by the
Congress of Vienna to Holland, under
the title of the kingdom of the Nether-
lands. A most injudicious measure
of the Dutch government, an at-
tempt to assimilate the language of
the provinces by prohibiting the use
of French in the courts of justice,
excited an opposition, which, en-
couraged by the success of the French
revolution of 1830, broke out into
revolt. The electoral system, more-
over, gave the preponderance to the
N. provinces, though inferior in
population, and the interests of the
provinces were diametrically opposed
in matters of taxation. Belgium
was agricultural and manufacturing,
Holland commercial ; the one wished
to tax imports and exports, the other
property and industry. In the cham-
bers three different languages were
spoken, Dutch, German, and French ;
and the members frequently did not
understand each other. Nothing but
the most skillful government could
have overcome these difficulties, and
no statesman appeared fitted to
grapple with them. The revolutionary
movement became general in the S.,
and the Dutch troops, at first success-
ful before Brussels, were finally re-
pulsed, and compelled by the arrival
of fresh bands of insurgents from all
quarters to retire. The Flemings sa-
luted the volunteers of Liege, Mons,
and Tournay by the ancient title of
Belgians, and this name, which prop-
erly distinguished only a section of the
people of the S. provinces, became
henceforth recognized as the patriotic
designation of the whole.
A convention of the great powers
assembled in London to determine on
the affairs of the Netherlands and
stop the effusion of blood. It favored
the separation of the provinces, and
drew up a treaty to regulate it. In
the meantime the National Congress
of Belgium offered the crown to the
Duke of Nemours, second son of Louis
Philippe, and, on his declining it, they
offered it, on the recommendation of
England, to Leopold, Prince of Saxe-
Coburg, who acceded to it under the
title of Leopold L, on July 21, 1831.
In November of the same year the
five powers guaranteed the crown to
him by the treaty of London.
Belgrade
During the reign of Leopold, a pros-
perous period of 34 years, Belgium
became a united and patriotic com-
munity. Arts and commerce flour-
ished, and a place was taken in the
family of nations upon which the Bel-
gian people could look with compla-
cency. Leopold II. succeeded his fa-
ther in 1865. In recent years the
chief feature of Belgian politics has
been a keen struggle between the cler-
ical and the liberal party. At the elec-
tions in June, 1878, the liberals gained
a majority, which they lost in 1884,
and failed to regain in 1890, but, after
a revision of the constitution, they
were returned by a large majority in
1894. In 1908 Belgium annexed the
KONGO FREE STATE (q. v.). King
Leopold II. died Dec. 17, 1909, and
was succeeded by his nephew, as Ax-
BEBT I. (q. v.).
Belgium was the first victim of
Teutonic ruthlessness in the war in
Europe. It was invaded by the Ger-
mans, notwithstanding that Germany
was one of the guarantors of its in-
tegrity, Aug. 3, 1814 ; the capital was
removed to Antwerp, Aug. 18, to Os-
tend, Oct. 8, and to Havre, France,
Oct. 12. See APPENDIX : World War.
Belgrade, a city and capital of
Servia, on the right bank of the Dan-
ube in the angle formed by the junc-
tion of the Save with that river, con-
sists of the citadel or upper town, on
a rock 100 feet high ; and the lower
town, which partly surrounds it. Of
late years many modern improvements
have been introduced and many fine
edifices have been built. It man-
ufactures carpets, silks, etc. The city
suffered severely in the various move-
ments that led to the crushing of
Servia. See APPENDIX: World War.
Pop. (1911) 90,890.
Belisarius, the great general of
the Roman Emperor Justinian, was
a native of Illyria. He commanded
an expedition against the King of
Persia about 530; suppressed an in-
surrection at Constantinople ; con-
quered Gelimer, King of the Vandals,
and put an end to their dominion in
Africa ; was recalled and honored with
a triumph. In 535, Belisarius was
sent to Italy to carry on war with
the Goths, and took Rome in 537. He
was there unsuccessfully besieged by
Vitiges, whom he soon after besieged
in turn, and captured at Ravenna, but
was recalled, through jealousy, before
he had completed the conquest of
Italy. Belisarius recovered Rome from
Totilus in 547, and was recalled the
next year. He was afterward sent
against the Huns. He was charged,
in 563, with conspiracy against Jus-
tinian, but was acquitted. That he
was deprived of sight, and reduced to
beggary, appears to be a fable of late
invention. Died in 565.
Belize, or BH+fsh Honduras, a
British colony washed on the E. by
the Bay of Honduras, in the Carib-
bean Sea, and elsewhere surrounded
by Guatemala and Mexico. It forms
the S. E. part of the peninsula of
Yucatan, and measuring 180 by 60
miles, has an area of 7,562 square
miles. Since 1862 Belize has ranked
as a British colony, with a lieutenant-
governor, whose rank was raised, in
1884, to that of governor. Pop. (1901)
36,998. Belize, the capital, is a depot
for foreign goods for Central America,
and has a population of about 6,600.
Belknap, George Eugene, an
American naval officer, born in New-
port, N. H., Jan. 22, 1832; was ap-
pointed midshipman in the navy in
1852, rose to Rear-Admiral in 1889;
and was retired in 1894. He took
part in the capture of the Barrier
Forts on the Canton river, China, in
1856; and in the Civil War. In 1873,
while engaged in deep sea sounding in
the North Pacific Ocean, he made dis-
coveries concerning the bed of the ocean
that found high favor among scientists.
He was appointed Superintendent of
the United States Naval Observatory
in 1885. He died in 1903.
Belknap, William Worth, an
American military officer, born in
Newburg, N. Y., Sept 22, 1829 ; grad-
uated at Princeton, and read law in
Keokuk, la., where he was elected to
the Legislature in 1857. In 1861 he
entered the Union army as Major of
the 15th Iowa Volunteers and was
engaged at Shiloh, Corinth, and Vicks-
burg ; but became most prominent in
Sherman's Atlanta campaign. He
was promoted to Brigadier-General,
July 30, 1864, and Major-General,
March 13, 1865. He was collector of
internal revenue in Iowa from 1865
to Oct. 13, 1869, when he was ap-
Bell
Bell
pointed Secretary of War, which of-
fice he occupied till March 7, 187G.
He resigned in consequence of accusa-
tions of official corruption. Subse-
quently he was tried and acquitted.
He died in Washington, D. C.f Oct.
12, 1890.
Bell, a holloa, sounding instru-
ment of metal. The metal from which
bells are usually made ( by founding ) ,
is an alloy, called bell-metal, com-
monly composed of 80 parts of copper
and 20 of tin.
Bells, as the term is used on ship-
board, are the strokes of the ship's
bell that proclaim the hours. Eight
bells, the highest number, are rung at
noon and every fourth hour after-
wards, i. e:, at 4, 8, 12 o'clock, and
BO on. The intermediary periods are
indicated thus: 12:30, 1 bell; 1
o'clock, 2 bells ; 1 :30, 3 bells, etc.,
until the eight bells announce 4
o'clock, when the series recommences
4:30, 1 bell; 5 o'clock, 2 bells, etc.
The even numbers of strikes thus al-
ways announce hours, the odd numbers
half hours.
Bell, Alexander Graham, in-
ventor of the telephone, was born in
Edinburgh, March 3, 1847; son of
Alexander Melville Bell. He was ed-
ucated at Edinburgh and in Germany,
and settled in Canada in 1870. In
1872 he came to the United States
and introduced for the education of
deaf mutes the system of visible
speech contrived by his father. He
became Professor of Vocal Physiology
in Boston University, and at the Phil-
adelphia Exhibition, in 1876, exhibit-
ed his telephone, designed and partly
constructed some years before. He
was also the inventor of the photo-
phone in 1880, of the graphophone in
1887, and of kindred instruments.
Bell, Alexander Melville, a
Scotch elocutionist, born at Edin-
burgh in 1819. He is inventor of the
system of visible speech, in which all
the possible articulations of the hu-
man voice have corresponding 'char-
acters designed to represent the re-
spective positions of the vocal organs.
This system has been successfully em-
ployed in teaching the deaf and dumb
to speak. Besides writing on this
subject he has written on elocution,
stenography, etc. Died Aug. 7, 1905,
Bell, Andrew James, a Cana-
dian educator, born in Ottawa, May
12, 1856 ; educated at the University
of Toronto, and at Breslau Universi-
ty; became Professor of Latin and
Literature in Victoria University, in
1889. He is an active member of the
Canadian Institute, and has contrib-
uted some important papers to its
" Transactions."
Bell, Benjamin Taylor A., a
Scotch-Canadian mining expert, born
in Edinburgh, July 2, 1863 ; was edu-
cated in Edinburgh ; went to Canada
in 1882. In 1890 he organized the
General Mining Association of the
Province, and in 1892 he was instru-
mental in uniting the coal, gold, and
other mineral interests of Nova Scotia
into a like organization.
Bell, Henry, a Scotch engineer,
born in Linlithgowshire in 1767. In
1798 he turned his attention es-
pecially to the steamboat, the prac-
ticability of steam navigation hav-
ing been already demonstrated. In
1812 the "Comet," a small 30-ton
vessel built at Glasgow under Bell's
directions, and driven by a three
horse-power engine made by him-
self, commenced to ply between
Glasgow and Greenock, and continued
to run till she was wrecked in 1820.
This was the beginning of steam navi-
gation in Europe. Bell is also cred-
ited with the invention of the " dis-
charging machine " used by calico
printers. He died in Helensburgh, in
1830. A monument has been erected
to his memory at Dunglass Point on
the Clyde.
Bell, Henry Haywpod, an Amer-
ican naval officer, born in North Caro-
lina, about 1808; was appointed a
midshipman irom that State in
1823. Shortly after the outbreak
of the Civil War, he became Fleet
Captain of the Western Gulf Squad-
ron. He commanded one of the
three divisions of the fleet which cap-
tured New Orleans, and was sent to
raise the United States flag over the
custom house and the city hall. In
1866 he was promoted to Rear-Ad-
miral ; and, in 1867, retired. He was
drowned at the mouth ef the Osaka
river, Japan, Jan. 11, 1868.
Bell, Isaac, an American philan-
thropist, born in New York city. Aug.
Bell
4, 1814 ; died in New York city, Sept.
30, 1S97.
Bell, James Franklin, an Amer-
ican military officer, born in Shelby-
ville, Ky., Jan. 9, 1856; was gradu-
ated at the United States Military
Academy in 1878 ; was promoted to
First Lieutenant, Dec. 29, 1890 ; Cap-
tain, March 2, 1899, and Colonel of
the 36th United States Infantry, July
5 following. In an action with the
Filipino insurgents near Porac, Lu-
zon, Sept. 9, following, he so signally
distinguished himself that President
McKinley directed that a Congression-
al medal of honor be presented to him.
He had much to do with the estab-
lishment of the United States War
School for Cavalry and Light Artil-
lery at Fort Riley, Kan. ; was chief
of staff, U. S. A., 1906-10; became
commander of the Eastern Depart-
ment, Governor's Island, New York,
in March, 1917.
Bell, John, an American states-
man, born near Nashville, Tenn., Feb.
18, 1797; "was admitted to the bar in
1816 ; member of Congress from 1827
to 1841; Speaker in 1834, and Secre-
tary of War in 1841. During this
period he became from an ardent free
trader, a protectionist and supporter
of the Whigs, and favored the recep-
tion of petitions for the abolition of
slavery in the District of Columbia ;
afterward (1858) he vigorously op-
posed the admission of Kansas as a
slave State. He sat in the United
States Senate from 1847 to 1859, and,
in 18GO, was nominated for the Presi-
dency by the " Constitutional Union "
Party, but received only 39 electoral
votes, cast by the States of Tennes-
see, Kentucky and Virginia. He after-
ward took no active share in politics,
and died at Cumberland Ironworks,
Sept. 10, 1869.
Bell, Liberty, a famous bell
•which was rung when the Continental
Congress declared the independence of
the United States in 1776. The order
for founding it was given in 1751. The
State House of Pennsylvania, in Phil-
adelphia, work on which had been sus-
pended for a number of years, was
then approaching completion. The
lower floors were already occupied by
the Supreme Court in the Chamber,
while in the other assembled the Free-
Bell
men of the Province of Pennsylvania,
then consisting of one body. A com-
mittee was appointed by the Freemen,
with Peter Norris as chairman, and
empowered to have a new bell cast for
the building. The commission for the
bell was, in the same year, awarded
to Robert Charles, of London, the
specification being that the bell should
weigh 2,000 pounds and cost £100
sterling. It was to be made by the
best workmen, to be examined care-
fully before being shipped, and to con-
tain, in well shaped letters around it,
the inscription : " By order of the
Province of Pennsylvania for the
State House in the City of Philadel-
phia, 1752." An order was given to
place underneath this the prophetic
words from Leviticus xxv : 10 : " Pro-
claim liberty throughout the land and
to all the inhabitants thereof." The
reason for the selection of this text
has been a subject of much conjecture,
but the true reason is apparent when
the full text is read. It is as follows :
"And ye shall hallow the 50th year
and proclaim liberty throughout the
land and to all the inhabitants there-
of." In selecting the text the Quakers
had in memory the arrival of William
Penn and their forefathers more than
half a century before. In August,
1752, the bell arrived, but though in
apparent good order, it was cracked
by a stroke of the clapper while being
tested. It was recast successfully, and
placed in position in June, 1753. Af-
ter the Declaration of Independence it
rang out the memorable message of
" Liberty throughout the land and to
all the inhabitants thereof." For 50
years the bell continued to be rung on
every festival and anniversary, until
it eventually cracked. An ineffectual
attempt was made to cause it to con-
tinue serviceable by enlarging the
cause of its dissonance and chipping
the edges. It was removed from its
position in the tower to a lower story,
and only used on occasions of public
sorrow. Subsequently, it was placed
on the original timbers in the vesti-
bule of the State House, and, in 1873,
it was suspended in a prominent posi-
tion immediately beneath where a
larger bell, presented to the city in
1866, now proclaims the passing
hours. In 1893 it was taken to Chi'
BeU ^
cago and placed on exhibition at the
World's Columbian Exposition.
Bell, Lilian, an American novel-
ist, born in Kentucky in 1867.
Bell, Robert, a Canadian geolo-
gist, born in the township of Toronto,
Ont, June 3, 1841; author of about
130 reports and papers, a list of which
is found in the " Biblio of the Royal
Society."
Bell, Samuel Dana, an Ameri-
can jurist, born in Francestown, N.
H., Oct. 9, 1798; died in Winchester,
N. H., July 31, 1868.
Belladonna, a European plant,
atropa belladonna, or deadly night-
shade, natural order solanaceae. It is
native in Great Britain. All parts of
the plant are poisonous, and the in-
cautious eating of the berries has often
produced death. The inspissated juice
is commonly known by the name of
extract of belladonna. It is narcotic
and poisonous, but is of great value
in medicine, especially in nervous ail-
ments. It has the property of causing
the pupil of the eye to dilate. The
fruit of the plant is a dark, brownish-
black shining berry. The name signi-
fies beautiful lady, and is said to have
been given from the use of the plant
as a cosmetic.
Bellamy, Edward, an American
writer, born in Chicopee Falls, Mass.,
March 29, 1850. He was educated in
Germany ; admitted to the bar ; was
on the staff of the " Evening Post " of
New York in 1871-1872; and on his
return from the Sandwich Islands in
1877, he founded the Springfield
" News." He is best known by his
novel "Looking Backward" (1888),
a socialistic work, of which an im-
mense number of copies were sold in
two years. He died in Chicopee Falls,
Mass., May 22, 1898.
Bellamy, Mrs. Elizabeth
Whitfield, (Groom), an American
novelist, writing under the pseudonym
KAMBA. THORPE, born at Quincy, Fla.,
1839. She died in 1900.
Bell Bird, a bird, called also the
arapunga. It is pure white in color,
about a foot in length, and has a voice
like the tolling of a bell. It inhabits
Guiana.
Belle de Nnit, a name sometimes
given to the Marvel of Peru (mira-
Belligerent
bilis jalapa), sometimes also to cer-
tain tropical American and West In-
dian species of convolvulacese, with
extremely beautiful and fragrant flow-
ers, which open only during the night.
Belle - Isle, or Belle - Isle - en
Mer, a French island in the Bay of
Biscay, Department of Morbihan, 8
miles S. of Quiberon Point ; length, 11
miles ; greatest breadth, 6 miles. Pop.
about 10,000, largely engaged in the
pilchard fishing. The capital is Le
Palais, on the N. E. coast.
Belle-Isle, a rocky island 9 miles
long, at the E. entrance to the Strait
of Belle-Isle, the channel, 17 miles
wide, between Newfoundland and the
coast of Labrador.
Belle-Isle, an island in the James
river, near Richmond, Va., where
Union prisoners were confined during
the Civil War.
Belles Lettres, polite, or elegant
literature : a word of somewhat vague
signification. Rhetoric, poetry, fiction,
history, and criticism, with the lan-
guages in which these works are
written come under this head.
Belleville, city and capital of St.
Clair county, 111.; on the Illinois
Central and other railroads; 14 miles
S. E. of St. Louis, Mo.; is in a
wheat, corn, oats, hay, and vegetable
section; has valuable coal mines
nearby; and manufactures traction
engines, glass, stoves and ranges,
machinery, bricks, and farming im-
plements. Pop. (1910) 21,122.
Bellville, city, port of entry, and
capital of Hastings district, Ontario,
Canada; on the Moira river, Quinte
bay, and Grand Trunk railroad; 113
miles E. of Toronto; has a fine har-
bor; superior water-power, and steamer
connection with Canadian and United
States points; is the seat of Albert
College (M. E.); and is chiefly en-
gaged in manufacturing and farming.
Pop. (1911) 9,876.
Belligerent, a nation or a large
section of a nation engaged in carry-
ing on war. When a revolted party
of great numerical strength are able
to form a regular government and rule
over the whole, or part of the territory
which they claim, humanity dictates
that they should not be treated as
rebels guilty of treason, but should,
if captured, be regarded as prisoners
Bellingliam
Bellows
of war. To attain this result, it is
needful for those who have risen in
arms against the government to make
every effort to obtain for their party
the position of belligerents. In the
contest between the Federals and Con-
federates, in the war of 1861-1865,
the latter, at the commencement of
the struggle, claimed the privilege of
belligerents. Their demand was ac-
ceded to by the British Government,
on which the Federal authorities
took umbrage, contending that the
recognition had been premature.
Bellingliam, city, port of entry,
and capital of Whatcom county,
Wash.; on Bellingham bay and sev-
eral railroads; 80 miles N. of Seattle;
comprises the former cities of Fair
Haven and Whatcom, united in 1903;
has an excellent harbor on Puget
sound, state normal school, two Car-
negie libraries gnd varied manufac-
tures. Pop. (1910) 24,298.
Bellingham, Richard, an Eng-
lish colonial governor, born in 1592 ;
arrived in Boston in 1634, and in the
following year became deputy gover-
nor of Massachusetts. In 1641 he was
candidate for governor against Win-
throp, and was elected ; was re-elected
in 1654 and 1665 ; and held the gover-
norship at the time of his death. In
1664 he refused to go to England at
the command of the King, to defend
his administration. He became Majpr-
General in the same year. He died
Dec. 7, 1672.
Bellini, the name of a Venetian
family which produced several re-
markable painters. GIOVANNI BELLI-
NI, born in 1426, died in 1512, was
the founder of the older Venetian
school of painting, and contributed
greatly to its progress. His best works
are altar pieces.
Bellinzona, a town of Switzer-
land, capital of the canton of Ticino ;
charmingly situated on the left bank
of the Ticino, about 5 miles from its
embouchure in in the N. end of Lago
Maggiore. It occupies a position of
great military importance.
Bellman, Carl Michael, a Swe-
dish poet, born in Stockholm, Feb. 4,
1740. His poems were often improvisa-
tions, and the airs of his songs were
largely of his own composition. As
singer of the rollicking life of a capi-
tal city, he is unsurpassed. A colossal
bronze bust of Bellman, by Bystrom,
was erected in the Zoological Garden
at Stockholm in 1829, and there a
popular festival is held yearly in his
honor. He died in Stockholm, Feb.
11, 1795.
Bello, Andres, a Spanish-Ameri-
can diplomatist and author, born in
Caracas, Venezuela, Nov. 30, 1780.
From 1810 to 1828 he represented
Venezuela in London ; in 1829, became
an official of the Bureau of Finance;
in 1834, Minister of Foreign Affairs
for Chile; in 1842, the first rector of
Santiago University. He was the au-
thor of " Principles of International
Law" (1832), and his entire works
were printed after his death at the
expense of the State. He died in San-
tiago, Chile, Oct. 15, 1865.
Bellona, the goddess of war, and
sister or wife, or sister-wife and chari-
oteer of Mars.
Bellot, Joseph Rene, a French
naval officer, born in Paris in 1826.
In 1851 he joined the expedition to
the Polar regions in search of Sir
John Franklin, and took part in sev-
eral explorations. He was drowned
in an attempt to carry despatches to
Sir Edward Belsher over the ice, in
1853. His diary was published in
1855.
Bellot Strait, the passage on the
N. coast of North America, which
separates North Somerset from Boo-
thia Felix, and connects Prince Re-
gent Inlet with Franklin Channel. Its
E. entrance was discovered in 1852 by
Lieut. Joseph Rene Bellot.
Bellows, an instrument for blow-
ing the fire in manufactories, forges or
private houses.
Bellows, Albert F., an American
painter born in Milford, Mass., Nov.
20, 1829 ; was one of the first to suc-
ceed with water colors. He died in
Auburndale, Mass., Nov. 24, 1883.
Bellows, Henry 'Whitney, an
American Unitarian clergyman and
writer, born at Walpole, N. H., June
11, 1814; became pastor of All Souls
Church, New York, 1839; was chief
founder and long editor of the " Chris-
tian Inquirer" (1846); chief origi-
nator of the United States Sanitary
Commission, and its President during
the Civil War (1861-1865). He was
Bellows Fish.
an effective preacher and public speak-
er. He died in New York, Jan. 30,
1882.
Bellows Fish, called also the trum-
pet fish or sea snipe. It is 4 or 5
inches long, and has an oblong, oval
body and a tubular elongated snout,
which is adapted for drawing from
among sea-weed and mud the minute
Crustacea on which it feeds.
Bell Rock, or Inch. Cape, a dan-
gerous reef surmounted by a light-
house, situated in the German Ocean,
about 12 miles from Arbroath, nearly
opposite the mouth of the river Tay.
It is said that in former ages the
monks of Aberbrothock caused a bell
to be fixed on this reef, which was
rung by the waves, and warned the
mariners of this dangerous place. The
reef is partly uncovered during the ebb
tides.
Bell-Smith, Frederic Marlett,
an English artist, born in London,
Sept. 26, 1846; went to Canada in
1866. He was for seven years Art Di-
rector at Alma College, St. Thomas,
and teacher of drawing in the public
schools of London, Ont. About 1888
he became a portrait and figure paint-
er ; but he is best known as a painter
of landscapes.
Belmont, a town in the E. part
of Cape Colony, midway between
Orange River Junction and Kimber-
ley. It was the scene of one of the
earliest engagements in the war of
1899-1900, between the Boers and the
British under Gen. Lord Methuen.
The town was attacked by the British
on Nov. 23, 1899, while on the march
to the relief of Kimberley, and the
battle resulted in a victory for them.
Two days later Lord Methuen took
Graas Pan, 10 miles N. of Belmont,
after again defeating the Boers.
Belmont, August, an American
banker, born in Alzey, Germany; ed-
ucated at Frankfort, and was appren-
ticed to the Rothschild's banking
house in that city when 14 years old.
In 1837 he went to Havana to take
charge of the firm's interests, and soon
afterward was sent to New York city,
where he established himself in the
banking business and as the represent-
ative of the Rothschilds. He was
Consul-General of Austria, in 1844-
1850 ; became Charge d'Affaires at
Beloit
The Hague in 1853; and was Minis-
ter-Resident there in 1854-1858. He
was a delegate to the Democratic Na-
tional Convention in 1860, and when
a portion of the delegates withdrew
and organized the convention in Balti-
more, he was active in that body, and
through it became Chairman of the
National Democratic Committee, an
office he held till 1872. He was an
active worker in the party till 1876,
when he closed his political career.
He died in New York city, Nov. 24.
1890.
Belmont, August, an American
banker, born in New York city, Feb.
18, 1853 ; son of the preceding. He
was graduated at Harvard University
in 1875 ; at once entered his father's
banking house, and on the death of
his father became head of the firm of
August Belmont & Co., also repre-
senting the European banking firm of
the Rothschilds. In February, 1900,
he organized the Rapid Transit Sub-
way Construction Company to back
John B. McDonald, who had been
awarded the $35,000,000 contract for
the construction of the rapid transit
system in New York city. He became
largely interested in railroad and
banking affairs.
Belmont, Perry, an American
lawyer, born in New York, Dec. 28,
1851 ; son of August Belmont ; grad-
uated at Harvard University in 1872,
and at Columbia College Law School
in 1876 ; was admitted to the bar and
practiced in New York till 1881, when
he was elected as a Democrat to Con-
gress, and served till 1887, being a
member of the Committee on Foreign
Affairs. In 1885 he was appointed
Chairman of the Committee on For-
eign Affairs, and in 1888 United
States Minister to Spain. He was
one of the principals in the execu-
tion of the great contract for the
construction of a rapid transit sys-
tem in New York city, in 1900.
Beloit, a city in Rock county,
Wis.; on the Rock river and the
Chicago & Northwestern and other
railroads; 84 miles S. W. of Milwau-
kee; is the seat of Beloit College
(Cong.); has ample power from the
river for its factories; and, besides
one of the largest wood-working ma-
chinery plants in the world, manu-
Belsliazzar
Ben
factures wind-mills, towers and
tanks, shoes, and building paper.
Pop. (1910) 15,125.
Belsliazzar, the last of the Baby-
lonian kings, who reigned conjointly
with his father Nabonadius. He per-
ished B. C. 538, during the successful
storming of Babylon by Cyrus.
Belt, in astronomy, a varying num-
ber of dusky, belt-like bands or zones
encircling the planet Jupiter parallel
to his equator, as if the clouds of his
atmosphere had been forced into a
series of parallels through the rapidity
of his rotation, and the dark body of
the planet was seen through the com-
paratively clear spaces between.
In physical geography, two pas-
sages or straits connecting the Baltic
with the German Ocean, viz. (a) the
Great Belt, between the islands of
Seeland and Laland on the N. and
Fuhnen and Langeland, on the W.
(b) The Little Belt, between the
mainland of Denmark on the W., and
the island of Fuhnen on the E.
Beltane, a superstitious observ-
ance now or formerly practiced among
the Scottish and Irish Celts, as well
as in Cumberland and Lancashire.
The Scotch observe the Beltane f°sti-
val chiefly on the 1st of May (old
style), though in the W. of that coun-
try St. Peter's Day, June 29, was pre-
ferred. In Ireland there were two
Beltanes, one on the 1st of May, and
the other on the 21st of June. The
ceremonies varied in different places,
but one essential part of them every-
where was to light a fire. At Cal-
lander, in Perthshire, the boys went
to the moors, cut a table out of sods,
sat round it, lit a fire, cooked and ate
a custard, baked an oatmeal cake, di-
vided it into equal segments, black-
ened one of these, drew lots, and then
compelled the boy who drew out the
blackened piece to leap three times
through the fire. Merry-makings came
at length to attend the Beltane festi-
val.
Beluga, a species of fish — the
great or Hausen, sturgeon. It is
sometimes 12 to 15 feet in length, and
weighs 1,200 pounds, or in rare cases
even 3,000. The best isinglass is made
from its swimming bladder. Its flesh,
though sometimes eaten, is occasional-
ly unwholesome. It is found in the
Caspian and Black Seas and the large
rivers which flow into them. The
word is also applied to a cetacean. It
is called also the white whale. It is
from 18 to 21 feet in length, and in-
habits Davis Straits and the other
portions of the Northern Seas, and
sometimes ascends rivers.
Being, the Roman name of the
Assyrian and Babylonian divinity
called Bel in Isaiah xlvi : 1.
Belns, a Phoanician river at the
base of Mt. Carmel. Its fine sand,
according to tradition, first led the
Phoenicians to the invention of glass.
Belns, Temple of, an enormous
temple in ancient Babylon, rebuilt by
Nebuchadnezzar, about 604 B. c. Its
site is thought, by some authorities,
to be the modern Bers-Nimrud, and by
others, Babil.
Belvedere, in architecture the up-
permost story of a building open to
the air, at least on one side, and fre-
quently on all, for the purpose of ob-
taining a view of the country and for
enjoying cool air. A portion of the
Vatican has this name.
Bembo, Fietro, an Italian schol-
ar, born at Venice in 1470. Pope
Paul III. conferred on him, 1539, the
hat of a cardinal, and soon after the
bishoprics of Gubbio and Bergamo.
He died in 1547.
Bemis, Edward Webster, an
American economist, born in Spring-
field, Mass., April 7, I860; graduated
at Amherst College in 1880 ; was Pro-
fessor of Economical Science in the
Kansas State Agricultural College,
1897-9 ; later engaged in economic
research work in Cleveland, O., Chi-
cago, 111., New York city, and else-
where ; author of numerous papers
and articles on city administration.
Bemis (incorrectly BEMUS)
Heights, a village in Saratoga coun-
ty, N. Y., on the Hudson river, fam-
ous as the scene of the first battle of
Stillwater, Sept. 19, 1777.
Ben (Hebrew, "son"), a prepos-
itive syllable signifying in composition
" son of," found in many Jewish
names, as Bendavid, Benasser? etc.
Ben, a Gaelic word signifying
mountain, prefixed to the names of
many mountains in Scotland N. of the
Firths of Clyde and Forth; as, Ben
Nevis, Ben MacDhui, etc.
Benaiah
Benaiah, the name of 12 different
persons mentioned in the Bible, the
one chiefly important being a son of
Jehoida, a chief priest. He was made
commander-in-chief in Joab's place by
Solomon.
Benalcazor, Belasazor, or Ve-
lalcazor, Sebastian de, the name
given to SEBASTIAN MOVANO from his
native town ; a Spanish soldier who
figured in the Spanish conquests in
South America. His gallant conduct
attracted the attention of Pizarro,
w.ho promoted him. He took the city
of Quito, made an expedition into Co-
lombia and reduced Popayan, and was
appointed governor of that part of
the country in 1538. He was forced
to resign this office in consequence of
legal complications and died when
about to return to Spain, in 1550.
Benares, a town in Hindustan,
Northwest Provinces, administrative
headquarters of a district and division
of the same name, on the left bank of
the Ganges, from which it rises like
an amphitheater, presenting a splen-
did panorama of temples, mosques,
palaces, and other buildings, with
their domes, minarets, etc. Fine
ghauts lead down to the river. It _is
one of the most sacred places of pil-
grimage in all India, being the head-
quarters of the Hindu religion. The
principal temple is dedicated to Siva,
whose sacred symbol it contains. It
is also the seat of government and
other colleges, and of the missions of
various societies. Benares carries on
a large trade in the produce of the
district and in English goods, and
manufactures silks, shawls, embroid-
ered cloth, jewelry, etc. The popula-
tion in (1911) 203,804.
Benbow, John, an English admi-
ral, born in Shrewsbury about 1650,
died 1702. For his skill and valor in
an action with a Barbary pirate he
was promoted by James II. to the com-
mand of a ship of war. William III.
employed him in protecting the En-
glish trade in the Channel, which he
did with great effect, and he was soon
promoted to the rank of rear-admiral.
In 1701 he sailed to the West Indies
with a small fleet, and in August of
the following year he fell in with the
French fleet under Du Casse, and in
the heat of action a chain-shot carried
Benedict
away one of his legs. At this critical
instant, being most disgracefully aban-
doned by several of the captains under
his command, the whole fleet effected
its escape. Benbow, on his return to
Jamaica, brought the delinquents to a
court-martial, by which two of them
were condemned to be shot He him-
self died of his wounds.
Bench Warrant, a warrant is-
sued by the court before which an in-
dictment has been found to arrest the
accused, that he may appear and find
bail for his appearance at the trial.
It is used extensively in the United
States to bring into court persons who
have neglected to obey an order of
court, such as delinquent jurymen.
Bencoolen, a seaport on the W.
coast of Sumatra Island, Dutch East
Indies ; capital of a Residency of the
same name. It was founded in 1685
by the English and ceded to the Dutch
in 1824. Area of Residency, 9,399
square miles ; pop. of Residency, 214,-
272; of town, 5,000.
Bendemann, Eduard, a German
painter, born in Berlin, Dec. 3, 1811s
died in Dusseldorf, Dec. 27, 1889.
Bendire, Charles Emil, a Ger-
man-American military officer and or-
nithologist, born in Darmstadt, Ger-
many, April 27, 1836, came to the
United States in 1852, and entered
the army in 1854. He served through
the Civil War, becoming a Captain in
the 1st Cavalry. After the war he
was transferred to the West, and was
retired April 24, 1886. During his
stay in the West he applied himself to
the study of ornithology, and collected
a vast amount of material in various
branches of natural history. In 1870
he began to collect the eggs of North
American birds, which finally number-
ed more than 8,000 specimens, and
this collection he presented to the
United States National Museum. He
is the author of " The Life Histories
of North American Birds, with Spe-
cial Reference to their Breeding Hab-
its and Eggs."
Benedetti, Vincent, Count de,
a French diplomatist of Italian ex-
traction, born in Bastia, Corsica,
April 29, 1817; died in Paris, March
28, 1900.
Benedict, a married man ; from
the Latin benedictus (a happy man).
Benedict VII.
Benedict VII., Pope, succeeded
John XIII. in 972. After the death
of the Emperor Otho I., the Romans
imprisoned Benedict, who was stran-
gled in the castle of St. Angelo, in
974.
Benedict XIV., Pope, was born
at Bologna in 1075, of the noble fam-
ily of Lambertini. Benedict was
learned, not only in theology, but in
history and literature, and had also
a taste for the fine arts. His works
were published at Rome, in 12 vol-
umes quarto. He died in 1758, and
was succeeded by Clement XIII.
Benedict XV., Pope (Giacoma
Cardinal Delia Chiesa), born in Pog-
li, Italy, Nov. 21, 1854 ; was educated
at the Academy of Noble Ecclesiastics
in Rome ; ordained in 1878 ; became
archbishop of Bologna in 1907, a car-
dinal in 1914, and Pope, in succession
to Pius X., on Sept 3, 1914. He had
a thorough training in diplomacy,
which was utilized in attempts to
ameliorate conditions in the warring
countries and to bring about a speedy
peace. See APPENDIX : World War.
Benedict, St., the founder of the
Order of the Benedictine Monks, was
born at Nursia, in the Dukedom of
Spoleto, in Italy, in 480 A. D. Authors
are not agreed upon the time and
place of his death.
Benedict, Frank Lee, an Amer-
ican novelist and poet, born in New
York in 1834.
Benediction (from the Latin be-
nedicere, literally, " to speak well of ;"
"to commend"), a solemn invocation
of the Divine blessing upon men or
things. The ceremony in its simplest
form may be considered almost coeval
with the earliest expressions of religi-
ous feeling. The Sabbath is said to
have been blessed. Christ " took bread |
and blessed it," and " lifting up His
hands," blessed His disciples. In the
primitive Church the custom gradual-
ly developed itself in various liturgi-
cal forms. In Protestant churches a
form of benediction is used at the
close of religious services. In the Ro-
man Church a priestly benediction has
been defined as a formula of impera-
tive prayer, which, in addition to the
desire which it expresses, transmits a
certain grace or virtue to the object
over which it is pronounced.
Benevolence
Benedictns, the name given to
the hymn of Zacharias (Luke i: 68),
used as a canticle in the morning ser-
vice of the Episcopal Church to fol-
low the lessons. This position it has
occupied from very ancient times. It
is also used in the Church of Rome.
Benefice, under the feudal sys-
tem, an estate held by feudal tenure.
Formerly, and even sometimes yet,
the word was applied to an ecclesiasti-
cal living of any kind, any church en-
dowed with a revenue, whether a dig-
nity or not.
Benefit of Clergy, the advantage
derived from the preferment of the
plea " I am a clergyman." When in
medieval times, a clergyman was ar-
raigned on certain charges he was
permitted to put forth the plea that
with respect to the offense of which
he was accused, he was not under the
jurisdiction of the civil courts, but,
being a clergyman, was entitled to be
tried by his spiritual superiors. The
cases in which the benefit of clergy
might be urged were such as affected
the life or limbs of the offender, high
treason, however, excepted. The ex-
emption has never been recognized in
Ame.rica, and is abolished in Great
Britain.
Benevento (ancient Beneventum),
a city of Southern Italy, 32 miles N.
E. of Naples, and is the capital of a
province of same name. Near Bene-
vento, in 1266, was fought the great
battle between Charles of Anjou and
his rival, Manfred, in which the latter
was killed, and his army totally de-
feated. During the reign of Napo-
leon I., Benevento was formed into a
principality conferred on Talleyrand.
In 1815, it again reverted to the Pope.
In 1860, it was annexed to the king-
dom of Italy. Pop., province (1911),
254,726; city, 25,123.
Benevolence, in the history of
the law of England, was a species of
forced loan or contribution, levied by
kings without legal authority. It was
first so called in 1473, when asked
from his subjects by Edward IV. as a
mark of good will toward his rule.
James I. tried, but with little success,
to raise money by this expedient, and
it was never again attempted by the
crown; Charles I. expressly declining
to have recourse to it.
Benezeth
Benhani
Benezcth, Anthony, a French-
iAjnerican philanthropist, was born in
St. Quentin's, France, Jan. 31, 1713;
lived from infancy in England and the
United States. The greater part of
his writings were in the form of tracts
against the slave trade and in favor
of the American Indians. He died in
Philadelphia, Pa., May 3, 1784.
Benfey, Theodor, a German Ori-
entalist and comparative philologist,
born of Jewish parents near Got-
tingen, Jan. 28, 1809. In 1862 he
was appointed to the chair of San-
skrit and Comparative Philology in
the University of Gottingen, which he
held till his death, June 26, 1881.
Benga, an African tribe, living on
the Spanish island, Corisco, off the
W. coast, having moved from the in-
terior within a few generations. The
American Presbyterian Board of Mis-
sions have translated books into the
language, which closely resembles the
Kamerun and Dualla.
Bengal, a province in British In-
dia, formerly a presidency, reconsti-
tuted a province in 1912 ; comprises
the deltas and . lower valleys of the
Ganges ; area, 78,412 square miles ;
pop. (1911) 45,483,077; area with the
native States of Cooch Behar and
Hill Tippera included, 83,805, pop.
46,305,655. The chief town and port
is Calcutta, pop. (1911) 1,222,315.
The English first got a firm footing
in Bengal about 1644, and in
1707, Calcutta was erected into a
presidency, and the foundation of
British power in India laid. A bill
conferring upon agricultural tenants
a transferable interest in their hold-
ings and protecting them against evic-
tion was passed in 1885.
Bengal, Bay of, that portion of
the Indian Ocean which lies between
Hindustan and Farther India, or Bur-
ma, Siam, and Malacca, and may be
regarded as extending S. to Ceylon
and Sumatra. It receives the Ganges,
Brahmaputra, and Irrawadi.
Bengal, or Bengola, Light, a
kind of firework, giving a vivid and
Bustained blue light It is used for
signals at sea.
Bengongh, John 'Wilson, a Ca-
nadian poet, born in Toronto, April 5,
1851 : studied in the Whitley District
and Grammar School. In 1873 be es-
tablished the " Grip," a humorous
weekly, in Toronto. His political car-
toons in this paper were highly artis-
tic. He is also widely known as a
lecturer and a poet.
Bengnela, a district belonging to
the Portuguese on the W. coast of
South Africa; bounded N. by Angola,
and S. by the Kunene river; founded
by the Portuguese in 1617.
Benguet, a province of Luzon,
Philippines; separated from the cen-
tral W. coast by the province of La
Union; area, 990 square miles; pop.
(1903) 22,745; capital, Baguio, 143
miles N. of Manila; native races,
Ilocano and Igarrotes.
Ben-Hadad, or Benhaddad, the
name of three kings of Syria. The
first was a contemporary of Asa, King
of Judah (929-873 B. c.), I Kings,
xv. The second (860-824 B. c.) of
the time of Ahab, King of Israel, I
Kings, xx. The third at the time of
Jehoahaz, King of Israel (856-839
B. C.), II Kings, xiii.
Benhani, Andrew Ellicott
Kennedy, an American naval officer,
born in New York, April 10, 1832;
entered the navy in 1847 ; was com-
missioned Rear-Admiral in 1890, and
was retired in 1894. During the Civil
War he served in the South Atlantic
and West Gulf Blockading Squadrons.
In April, 1893, he commanded one of
the divisions in the great naval display
at New York ; in 1894, as commander
of a squadron at Rio de Janeiro, Bra-
zil, he forced the commander of the in-
surgents' squadron to raise the block-
ade of the city and to cease firing on
American vessels ; in 1898 was naval
gize commissioner in Savannah, Ga.
e died Aug. 11, 1905.
Benhani, Henry W., an Ameri-
can military engineer, born in Ches-
hire, Conn., in 1816; was graduated
at the United States Military Academy
in 1837; and became Colonel of the
United States Engineers, and Brevet
Major-General, United States army.
He commanded the engineer brigade
and laid several pontoon bridges under
fire during the Chancellorsville bat-
tles ; constructed and commanded the
defenses at City Point ; devised the
picket shovel ; and made many im-
provements in the construction of
pontoon bridges, in which he was a
Beni
recognized expert. He died in New
York, June 1, 1884.
Beni, a river of Bolivia, South
America ; formed by the union of all
the streams flowing down the Eastern
Cordillera.
Beni-Hassan, a village of Mid-
dle Egypt, on the E. bank of the Nile,
remarkable for the grottoes or cata-
combs in the neighborhood.
Beni-Israel, a race in the W. of
India (the Konkan sea board, Bom-
bay, etc.) who keep a tradition of
Jewish origin, and whose religion is a
modified Judaism ; supposed to be a
remnant of the ten tribes.
Benin, a former negro kingdom of
West Africa, on the Bight of Benin,
extending along the coast on both sides
of the Benin river, W. of the lower
Niger, and to some distance inland.
The chief town is Benin (pop. 15,-
000), situated on the river Benin,
one of the mouths of the Niger.
In February, 1897, the Benin coun-
try was included within the Niger
Coast Protectorate, and a British
Resident was installed in the chief
town. The whole territory was then
between 3,000 and 4,000 square miles
in extent, contained about 400 towns
and villages, and had a population of
which no trustworthy estimate could
be formed.
Benin, Bight of, part of the
Gulf of Guinea, West Africa, which
extends into the land between the
mouth of the river Volta and that of
the Nun.
Benjamin, the youngest son of
Jacob and Rachel (Gen. xxxv: 16-
18). Rachel died immediately after
he was born, and with her last breath
named him Ben-oni, the " son of my
sorrow ;" but Jacob called him Ben-
jamin, " son of my right hand.'*
.The tribe of Benjamin, small at first,
was almost exterminated in the days
of the Judges, but afterward it great-
ly increased. On the revolt of the
ten tribes, Benjamin adhered to the
camp of Judah ; and the two tribes
ever afterward closely united. King
Saul and Saul of Tarsus were both
Benjamites.
Benjamin, Jndali Philip, an
American lawyer, born in St. Croix.
iWest Indies, Aug. 11, 1811; was of
E. 17.
Bennett
English parentage and of Jewish
faith. He was educated at Yale Col-
lege ; admitted to the bar in New Or-
leans, in 1832 ; and elected to the
United States Senate in 1852 and
1858. At the beginning of the Civil
War, he resigned from the Senate and
declared his adhesion to the State of
Louisiana. In 1861 he accepted the
office of Attorney-General in the Cab-
inet of Jefferson Davis, and afterward
became successively Confederate Sec-
retary of War and Secretary of State.
After the war he went to London,
England, where he was admitted to
the bar in 1806. He gained a suc-
cessful practice, and in 1872 was for-
mally presented with a silk gown. He
wrote a " Treatise on the Law of Sale
of Personal Property" (1868). He
died in Paris, May 7, 1884.
Benjamin, Park, an American
journalist, poet, and lecturer, born at
Demerara, British Guiana, Aug. 14,
1809. He studied law originally. His
poems, of a high order of merit, have
never been collected. He died in New
York, Sept. 12, 1804.
Benjamin, Park, an American
lawyer, editor, and miscellaneous
writer, son of the preceding, born in
New York, May 11, 1849. A gradu-
ate of the United States Naval Acad-
emy (1867), he ser-ved on Admiral
Farragut's flagship, but resigned in
1869. As a lawyer he has been a
patent expert. He edited the " Scien-
tific American " (1872-1878).
Benjamin, Samuel Green
Wheeler, an American traveler,
artist, and miscellaneous writer, born
at Argos, Greece, Feb. 13, 1837. He
was United States Minister to Persia
(1883-1885). He died July 19, 1914.
Bennett, Charles Wesley, an
American Methodist clergyman and
educator, born at East Bethany, N.
Y., July 18, 1828; was Principal of
Genesee Wesleyan Seminary (1869-
1871), Professor of History and
Logic at Syracuse University (1871-
1885), Professor of Historical Theol-
ogy at Garrett Biblical Institute,
Evanston (1885-1891). He died at
Evanston, 111., April 17, 1891.
Bennett, Edmund Hatch, an
American lawyer, born in Manches-
ter, Vt, April 6, 1824 ; was gk-aduated
at the University of Vermont in 1843.
Bennett
Benson
and admitted to the bar in 1847.
From 1871 he was Professor and Dean
at the Law School of Boston Univer-
sity. He died Jan. 2, 1898.
Bennett, James Gordon, a
Scotch-American journalist ; founder
and proprietor of the New York
" Herald," born in Newmill, Keith,
Sept. 1, 1795. Trained for the Ro-
man Catholic priesthood, he emigrated
to the United States in 1819, where
he became in turn teacher, proof read-
er, journalist, and lecturer; he
founded the New York " Herald,"
May 6, 1835, price one cent. He
spared no effort and expense in se-
curing news, and laid the foundation
of its after enormous success. It was
the first newspaper to publish the
stock lists and a daily money article.
He died in New York, June 1, 1872.
Bennett, James Gordon, an
American journalist, born in New
York city, May 10, 1841; son of
James Gordon Bennett, founder of the
New York " Herald," of which he
became managing editor in 18G6, and
from that time largely controlling,
and becoming proprietor on the death
of his father in 1872. In 1870 he
sent Henry M. Stanley on the explor-
ing expedition which resulted in the
finding of Dr. Livingstone, and, in
conjunction with the London " Daily
Telegraph," supplied the means for
his journey across Africa by- way
of the Kongo in 1874-1878. He
founded the "Evening Telegram "
in New York, and established daily
editions of the " Herald " in Paris
and London. He early gave much
attention to yachting. He resides
mainly in Paris, collecting foreign
news, and directing by telegraph
the management and policy of his
newspapers. The New York " Her-
ald " was incorporated in 1899.
Bennett, Joseph H., an Amer-
ican philanthropist, born in Julius-
town, N. J., Aug. 16, 1816. He en-
gaged in the clothing business in Phila-
delphia, Pa., when 16 years old. His
property was said to be worth $3,000,-
000, and it is estimated that he gave
$1,000,000 to charity. He bequeathed
$500,000 to the University of Penn- i
Bylvania for its proposed college for
women. He died in Philadelphia,
Sept 29, 1898.
Bennett, Sanford Fillmoie, an
American hymnologist, born in Eden,
I N. Y., in 1836. He settled in Elk-
horn, Wis., in 1860, and became editor
of the " Independent." Resigning this
place, he entered the 40th Wisconsin
Volunteers and served with them
throughout the war. In 1867 he
aided J. P. Webster, the composer, in
preparing "The Signet Ring," a Sun-
day School hymn book, to which he
contributed about 100 hymns. "The
Sweet Bye and Bye " was one of the
first of these. Many of Mr. Bennett's
hymns and songs have been published
in sheets. He died in Richmond, 111.,
June 12, 1898.
Ben-Nevis, the most lofty moun-
tain in Great Britain, in Invernes-
shire, immediately E. of Fort William
and the opening of the Caledonian
canal, at the S. W. extremity of Glen-
more. It rises to the height of 4,406
feet, and in clear weather yields a
most extensive prospect. An observa-
tory was established on its summit in
May, 1881, by the Scottish Meteoro-
logical .Society.
Benningsen, or Bennigsen,
Levin August, Baron, a Russian
general, born in Hanover in 1745. He
entered the service of Catherine II.,
and distinguished himself by great
gallantry. He died in 1826.
Bennington, town and county-
seat of Bennington co., Vt. ; on the
Bennington and Rutland and the Leb-
anon Springs railroads; 36 miles E.
of Troy, N. Y. Bennington is histor-
ically famous on account of the battle
fought Aug. 16, 1777, when General
Stark with his " Green Mountain
Boys " defeated a large British detach-
ment sent from General Burgoyne's
army to capture the public stores near
N. Bennington. Pop. (1910) 6,211.
Benson, William Shepherd, an
American naval officer, born in Ma-
con, Ga., Sept. 25, 1855 ; was gradu-
ated at the United States Naval Acad-
emy in 1877; promoted to captain,
July 24, 1909, and rear-admiral, May
11, 1915 ; was commandant of the
Philadelphia navy yard in 1913-15 ;
and was appointed chief of the newly-
created Bureau of Operations in 1915.
His last duty was rendered extremely
onerous by the entrance of the United
States into the great war in 1917.
Benteen
Benteen, Frederick •William,
an American military officer, born in
Petersburg, Va., Aug. 24, 1834; was
educated in his native State ; and at
the outbreak of the Civil War went to
Missouri and organized a company of
Union volunteers. His most brilliant
service after the war was in his cam-
paigns against the Indians. He died
in Atlanta, Ga., June 22, 1898.
Bent Grass, a genus of grasses,
distinguished by a loose panicle of
small, flowered, laterally compressed
spikelets. The species are numerous
and are found in almost all countries
and climates.
Bentliam, Jeremy, an English
jurist, born in London, Feb. 15, 1748 ;
educated at Westminster and Oxford ;
entered Lincoln's Inn, in 1763. He
was called to the bar, but did not
practice, and, having private means,
devoted himself to the reform of civil
and criminal legislation. He died in
London, June 6, 1832, leaving his body
for dissection. His remains are to be
seen at University College, London.
Bentley, Richard, a celebrated
English divine and classical scholar,
distinguished as a polemical writer ;
born near Wakefield, in Yorkshire,
Jan. 27, 1662. He died at the mas-
ter's lodge at Trinity, July 14, 1742.
Benton, Thomas Hart, an Amer-
ican statesman, born near Hillsboro,
N. C., March 14, 1782 ; settled in Ten-
nessee, where he studied law, and was
elected to the Legislature. In 1812
he raised a regiment of volunteers,
and also served on General Jackson's
staff. After the war, he started a
newspaper in St. Louis, by which he
became involved in several duels. On
the admission of Missouri as a State,
he was chosen United States Senator
in 1820, and, in this post, during 30
years' continuous service, took a lead-
ing part in public affairs. A deter-
mined opponent of Calhoun's nullifica-
tion scheme, he afterward supported
Jackson in his war on the United
States bank, and earned the sobriquet
of " Old Bullion " by his opposition
to the paper currency. He died in
.Washington, April 10, 1858.
Benzene, or Benzol (CB H8), a
carbon compound, best obtained from
the destructive distillation of coal-tar.
It is the source from which is derived
Berbera
all the aniline colors, and artificial
flavors.
Benzine (C9 H14), a liquid hydro-
carbon obtained from a fractional dis-
tillation of petroleum. It may also
be got by distilling 1 part of crystal-
lized benzoic acid intimately mixed
with 3 parts of slacked line. It is
quite colorless, of a peculiar, etheral,
agreeable odor, is used by manfactur-
ers of india-rubber and gutta-percha,
on account of its great solvent powers,
in the preparation of varnishes, and
for cleaning gloves, removing grease-
spots from woollen and other cloths,
etc., on account of its dissolving fats
and resins. It is highly inflammable,
and must be used with great caution.
It must not be confounded with ben-
zene.
Benzoin, a solid, fragile, vegeta-
ble substance, of a reddish-brown
color. Benzoin is obtained from the
tree called Styrax benzoin, and per-
haps from some others. On making
incisions into the bark, it flows out
in the form of a balsamic juice, having
a pungent taste and an agreeable odor.
Beothnkan, (red man, or Indian),
a linguistic stock of North American
Indians, inhabitants of the region of
the Exploits river in Northern New-
foundland, and believed to have been
limited to a single tribe, the last known
survivor of which died hi 1829.
Beowulf, an Anglo-Saxon epic, the
only manuscript of which belongs to
the 8th or 9th century, and is in the
Cottonian Library (British Museum).
The poem, which is the longest and
most important in Anglo-Saxon liter-
ature, is in many points obscure, and
the manuscript is somewhat imperfect.
Beranger, Pierre Jean de, the
national poet of France; born in
Paris, Aug. 19, 1780. He died in
Paris, July 16, 1857, and received the
honor of a public funeral, at which
the most eminent men in France, both
of the world of literature and politics,
attended.
Berand, Jean, a painter of great
power, born in St. Petersburg, of
French parentage, in 1845. His sub-
jects are usually chosen from Parisian
life. His latest works have been modern-
ized scenes from the New Testament.
Berbera, a seaport of British
Somaliland, Eastern Africa, with a
Berber*
good harbor, on a bay of the Gulf of
Aden. It was conquered by Egypt in
1875, but in July, 1884, the British
Government took possession of it, and
a small Indian force is now stationed
here. It is the scene of a large an-
nual fair, which brings over 30,000
people together from all quarters in
the East. Coffee, grains, ghee, gold
dust, ivory, gums, cattle, ostrich
feathers, etc., are brought hither from
the interior, and exchanged for cot-
ton, rice, iron, Indian piece goods, etc.
Berbers, a people spread over
nearly the whole of Northern Africa,
from whom the name Barbary is de-
rived. The chief branches into which
the Berbers are divided are, first, the
Amazirgh, or Amazigh, of Northern
Morocco, numbering from 2,000,000 to
2,500,000. They are for the most part
quite independent of the Sultan of
Morocco, and live partly under chief-
tains and hereditary princes and part-
ly in small republican communities.
Second, the Shuluh, Shillooh, or Shel-
lakah, who number about 1,450,000,
and inhabit Southern Morocco. They
are more highly civilized than the Am-
azirgh. Third, the Kabyles in Algeria
and Tunis, who are said to number
900,000; and fourth, the Berbers of
the Sahara, who inhabit the oases.
Their language has affinities to the
Semitic group, but Arabic is spoken
along the coast. They are believed to
represent the ancient Mauritanians,
Numidians, Ga>tulians, etc.
Berbice, a river of British Guia-
na ; flows generally N. E. into the At-
lantic. It is navigable for small ves-
sels for 165 miles from its mouth, but
beyond that the rapids are numerous
and dangerous.
Berea College, a co-educational
(non-sectarian) institution, in Berea,
Ky. ; organized in 1858. Under the
guidance of the able men who directed
its course, this institution did an al-
most incredible work among the moun-
taineers both black and white in the
Southern States. In the winter of
1903-3904, the Kentucky legislature
forbade co-education of white and
blacks, and Berea was obliged to estab-
lish branch for its colored students.
Berean, a Scottish religious sect
founded by the Rev. J. Barclay in
1773. and also called Barclayans.
Beresfcrd
Berengarins, of Tours, a theo-
logian of the llth century. He was
born at Tours in 908, long held an ec-
clesiastical office there, and was after-
ward archdeacon of Angers. He was
thoroughly versed in the philosophy
of his age, and did not hesitate to ap-
ply reason to the interpretation of the
Bible. He denied the dogma of tran-
substantiation, and was charged with
heresy. He died on the Isle of St.
Cosmos, near Tours, in 1088.
Berenice, a daughter of Herod
Agrippa I., who was the son of Aristo-
bulus, who was the son of Herod the
Great (Acts xii ; Matthew ii). She
was the sister of Herodes Agrippa II.,
before whom Paul preached A. D. 63
( Acts xxv : 13 ), and the wife of Hero-
des of Chalcis, who seems to have
been her uncle, and left her a young
widow. After the capture of Jerusa-
lem she went to Rome (A. D. 75), and
Titus is said to have been so much at-
tached to her that he promised to mar-
ry her ; but on the death of his father
he sent Berenice from Rome, much
against his will and hers, when he
found that the proposed match was
disagreeable to ±he people.
Beresford, Lord Charles de la
Poer, an English naval officer, born
in Ireland, Feb. 10, 1846; became a
Cadet in 1857; Lieutenant, 1868;
Captain, 1882; and Rear-Admiral,
1897. In 1882 he commanded the
" Condor " in the bombardment of
Alexandria, and was especially men-
tioned and honored for his gallantry.
In December, 1899, was appointed
the second in command of the
British squadron mobilized in the
Mediterranean Sea. Lord Beres-
ford accompanied the Prince of
Wales on his visit to India in
1875-187G, as naval aide-de-camp,
and held the same relation to the
Queen in 1896-1897. He has served
several terms in Parliament. Besides
the numerous honors for gallantry a3
an officer he has received three med-
als for saving life at sea under trying
circumstances. In 1898 he visited
China at the request of the Associated
Chambers of Commerce of Great Brit-
tain to make a study of the compli-
cated commercial conditions existing
there ; and on his return, in 1899, he
passed through the United Statea
JJeresiiia
and was received with distinguished
honors by official and commercial bod-
ies. He has done much to promote
the " open door " policy as a condi-
tion of international commerce in
China.
Beresina, or Berezina, a river of
Russia in Europe ; rendered famous
on account of its disastrous passage
by the French army during the retreat
of Napoleon I. from Russia, in 1812.
Berezpvsk, a village in the Rus-
sian province of Perm, near Ekaterin-
burg, gives name to a famous gold
field, wrought since 1744.
Berg, Frederick William
Rambert, a Russian general, chiefly
notorious for the severity with which
he treated the unfortunate population
of Poland during the insurrection of
1863, and which excited the horror
and indignation of the civilized world.
Bergamot, a fruit tree, a variety
or species of the genus citrus, various-
ly classed with the orange, citrus au-
rantium, the lime, atrus limetta, or
made a distinct species as citrus ber-
gamia. It is probably of Eastern ori-
gin, though now grown in Southern
Europe, and bears a pale yellow, pear-
shaped fruit with a fragrant and
slightly acid pulp. Its essential oil
is in high esteem as a perfume. Ber-
gamot is also a name given to a num-
ber of different pears.
Bergen, a seaport on the W. coast
of Norway, the second town of the
kingdom, about 25 miles from the
open sea, on a bay of the Byford.
The trade is large, timber, tar, train
oil, cod liver oil, hides, and particular-
ly dried fish (stock fish) being export-
ed in return for corn, wine, brandy,
coffee, cotton, woolens, and sugar. In
1445 a factory was established here
by the Hanseatic cities of Germany.
Pop. (1910) 76,867.
Bergerac, Savinien Cyrano de,
a French author, born in Paris in
1619, distinguished for his courage in
the field, and for the number of his
duels, more than a thousand, most of
them fought on account of his mon-
strously large nose. He died in 1655.
His writings are often crude, but full
of invention, vigor, and wit. He was
made the hero of a drama bearing his
name, written by Edmond Rostand,
the French playwright, which had a
Beriberi
phenomenal success in the United
States in 189^1900, and was the oc-
casion of a suit for plagiarism.
Bergerat, Auguste Entile, a
French journalist, playwright and
novelist, born in Paris, April 29, 1845.
son-in-law of Theophile Gautier, and
since 1884, particularly known as the
amusing chronicler of the " Figaro "
under the pseudonym of " Caliban."
He "also wrote two novels.
Bergh., Henry, an American phi-
lanthropist, born in New York in
1823; was founder and President of
the American Society for the Preven-
tion of Cruelty to Animals (1866),
founder of the American Society for
the Prevention of Crueity to Children
(1881), Secretary of Legation and
acting Vice-Consul at St. Petersburg
(1862-1864). He died in New York
city, March 12, 1888.
Bergh, Pieter Theodoor Hel-
vetius van den, a Dutch dramatist
and poet, born in 1799; died in 1873.
Bergnans, Heinrich, a German
geographer, born in Cleves, Prussia,
May 3, 1797 ; died in Stettin, Feb. 17,
1884.
Bergman, Ernest von, a Ger-
man surgeon, born in Riga, Dec. 16,
1836. He was educated at Vienna,
Dorpat, and Berlin. He served in
the Prussian army during 1866-1870;
was Professor of Surgery in the Uni-
versity of WUrzburg in 1878-1882;
and became Director of the Surgical
Clinic at Berlin University in 1882.
He died March 25, 1907.
Bergman, Torbern plof , a Swe-
dish physicist and chemist, born in
Catherineberg, March 20, 1735. His
theory of chemical affinities greatly in-
fluenced the subsequent development
of chemistry. He died July 8, 1784.
Bergmann, Carl, a German mu-
sician, born in Ebersbach, Saxony,
April 11, 1821. Being implicated in
the Revolution of 1848, he left Ger-
many for the United States in 1849.
An enthusiastic Wagnerite, he was
himself the composer of an opera, a
symphony and many concert pieces.
He died in New York city, in August
1876.
Beriberi, Beriberia, Berriber-
ri, or Barbiers, an acute disease
characterized by oppression of breath-
ing, by general oedema, by paralytic
Bering
Berlii
weakness, and by numbness of the
lower extremities. It is generally fatal
It occurs frequently in Ceylon among
the colored troops, and on some por-
tions of the Indian coast.
Bering, or Bearing, Vitus, a
Danish explorer, born in Jutland, in
1680. After making several voyages
to the East and West Indies, he en-
tered the service of Russia, while still
young; became a captain-commander
in 1772 ; and was sent by the Empress
Catharine in charge of an expedition
(planned by Peter the Great before
his death), the object of which was to
determine if Asia and America were
united. Crossing Siberia he sailed
from the river Kamchatka in July.
1728; and reached lat 67° 18' N.,
having passed through the strait since
called after him, without knowing it.
Discovering that the land trended
greatly to the W. he concluded that
the continents were not united, and
returned ; without, however, seeing
America. In another voyage, in 1774,
he touched upon the American coast,
in lat 58° 21' N. ; and gave name to
Mount St. Elias. In returning his
ship was cast upon an island, since
named after him, an outlier of the
Aleutian group, and here he perished,
in December, 1741.
Bering Sea, that part of the North
Pacific Ocean between the Aleutian
Islands, in 55°, and Bering Strait, in
66° N., by which latter it communi-
cates with the Arctic Ocean. The
United States having claimed the ex-
clusive right of seal fishing in the Ber-
ing Sea in virtue of the purchase of
Alaska from Russia, and this right
having been disputed by the British,
it was decided in August, 1893, by an
arbitration tribunal, to which the
question was referred, that no such
right existed, but at the same time
regulations for the protection of the
fur seal were drawn up and agreed to
between the two powers, the chief
being the prohibition of seal fishery
within the zone of 60 miles round the
Pribilof Islands, inclusive of the terri-
torial waters, and the establishment
of a close season for the fur seal from
May 1 to July 31 inclusive, applying
to the part of the Pacific and Bering
Sea, N. of 35° and E. of the 180th
meridian from Greenwich.
Bering Strait, the channel which
separates Asia and America at their
nearest approach to each other. It
was discovered by Bering in 1728, and
first explored by Cook in 1788.
Berkeley, a town in Alameda
county, Cal.; on the Southern Paci-
fic railroad; 8 miles N. E. of San
Francisco; is the seat of the State
University and of the State Institu-
tion for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind.
Pop. (1910) 40.434.
Berkeley, Dr. George, Bishop of
Cloyne, born in Ireland in 1685 ; be-
came fellow of Trinity College, Dublin,
in 1707 ; in 1724 Dean of Derry. He
published proposals for the conversion
of the American savages to Chris-
tianity by the establishment of a col-
lege in the Bermuda Islands. He
arrived at Rhode Island in 1728, but,
the plan lacking support, he returned
and became Bishop of Cloyne. He
died suddenly at Oxford in 1753.
Berkeley holds an important place in
the history of philosophy. His most
celebrated philosophical work is : Trea-
tise on the Principles of Human
Knowledge, 1710, in which his philo-
sophical theory is fully set forth.
Berkeley, Sir John, one of the
proprietors of New Jersey, born in
1607. He was a prominent Royalist
during the contest of Charles I. with
Parliament. Charles II. granted him,
with Sir George Carteret, a proprie-
tary interest in New Jersey and Caro-
lina. He died Aug. 28. 1678.
Berkeley, Sir William, an Eng-
lish colonial Governor, born near Lon-
don, about 1610. In 1632 he was a
Commissioner of Canada, and in 1641
became governor of Virginia. In
1676 he resigned and returned to
England. He died July 13, 1677.
Berkshires, The, or Berkshire
Hills, a range of mountains in the
N. W. of Alassachusetts; in Berk-
shire county; stretching 16 miles N.
and S.
Berlin, town and capital of
Waterloo county, Ontario, Canada;
on the Grand river and the Grand
Trunk and other railroads; 63 miles
W. of Toronto; contains a Roman
Catholic college and several manu-
facturing plants. Pop. (1911) 15,186.
Berlin, the capital of the Prus-
sian dominions and of the German em-
Berlin
pire, the residence of the Emperor of
Germany and foreign ambassadors ;
in the province of Brandenburg ; the
'largest city in Germany, and, for the
beauty and size of its buildings, the
regularity of its streets, the impor-
tance of its institutions of science and
art, and its activity, industry, and
trade, one of the first in Europe. It
is situated on a dreary sandy plain,
4).bout 126 feet above the level of the
gea, on both sides of the Spree, a slug-
gish stream, here about 200 feet broad,
which winds through the city from S.
E. to N. W., and divides into several
branches and canals. The main
stream and its branches are spanned
by a large number of bridges.
The literary institutions of the city
are numerous and excellent. They in-
clude the university, the academy of
sciences ; the technical high school, the
mining academy, the high school of
agriculture, the academy of arts, the
school of music, the seminary for
Oriental languages, the military acad-
emy and school of engineering, many
gymnasia and real-schools ; an institu-
tion for instructing the deaf and
dumb, etc. The chief libraries are the
royal library, founded in 1659, and
now containing 900,000 volumes and
25,000 manuscripts ; and the univer-
sity library, with about 300,000 vol-
umes. The public museums and pic-
ture galleries are on a scale adequate
to the importance of the city. The
Evangelical Lutheran Cathedral dedi-
cated 1905, in the presence of Kaiser
Wilhelm II., is one of the finest modern
churches in the world.
The most important branches of
manufacturing industries are steam
engines and other machinery ; brass-
founding, the making of lamps and
other articles of metal ; printing
and the kindred arts, spinning and
weaving, the making of sewing
machines, paper, tobacco and cigars,
pottery and porcelain, pianos and
harmoniums, artificial flowers, brew-
ing, etc. A considerable quantity
of the manufactures are exported In
the royal iron-foundry, busts, s*atues,
bas-reliefs, etc., are cast, together with
a great variety of ornaments of un-
rivaled delicacy of workmanship. Ber-
lin is well supplied with city and
other railways. Berlin has rapidly
risen to be the first city in Germany.
Bermudas
Pop. (1910) 2,071,257. On Feb. 1,
1916, the population was officially
stated as 1,828,418.
Berlin, University of, a cele-
brated institution of learning in Ber-
lin, Germany. It is, with the excep-
tion of Bonn, the youngest of the Ger-
man universities, but is probably the
most famous of them all.
Berlioz, Hector, a French com-
poser, born in La Cote St. Andre, Dec.
11, 1803. He forsook medicine to
study music at the Paris Conserva-
toire, where he gained the first prize
in 1830 with his cantata, " Sardan-
apale." He died in Paris, March 9,
1869. After his death appeared " Me-
moires," written by himself.
Berm, or Berme, in fortification,
a narrow, level space at the foot of
the exterior slope of a parapet, to keep
the crumbling materials of the para-
pet from falling icto the ditch.
In engineering, a ledge or bench on
the side or at the foot of a bank, para-
pet, or cutting, to catch earth that
may roll down the slope or to
strengthen the bank. In canals, it is
a ledge on the opposite side to the tow-
path, at the foot of a talus or slope,
to keep earth which may roll down the
bank from falling into the water.
Slopes in successive benches have a
berme at each notch, or, when a change
of slope occurs, on reaching a different
soil.
Bermuda Cedar, a species of ce-
dar which covers the Bermuda Is-
lands. The timber is made into ships,
boats and pencils.
Bermuda Grass, a species of
grass, called in Bermuda, devil grass.
It grows in the American Southern
States and in Southern Europe. It is
much esteemed for pasture.
Bermuda Hundred, a locality in
Chesterfield county, Va. ; the scene of
a battle in the Civil War between the
Union troops under General Butler,
and the Confederates under General
Beauregard. The battle was fought
May 16, 1864, and resulted in a de-
feat for Butler.
Bermudas, The, or Spmer's
Islands, a group of small islands,
about 300 in number, in the North
Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Great
Britain, stretching N. E. by E. and
S. W. by W. about 20 miles, the light-
Beriuudez
house on Gibb's Hill being 580 miles
S. E. of Cape Hatteras; area, about
30 square miles. The principal islands
are those of Bermuda, St. George, Ire-
land, and Somerset. The protection af-
forded to shipping by their numerous
bays, and their position in the track of
the homeward bound West India ves-
sels, have led to the conversion of the
Bermudas into a maritime rendezvous,
and likewise, into a British naval sta-
tion for West Indian fleets. The har-
bor of St. George's Island has been
greatly improved, is fortified, protected
by a breakwater, and has water and
space enough to float the largest fleet.
The principal productions are fruits,
vegetables, maize, and tobacco. Pineap-
ples are very abundant and largely ex-
ported. The climate is mild and salu-
brious ; almost realizing the idea of a
perpetual spring. Fish abounds, and
forms a profitable source of industry
to the inhabitants. Breadstuffs, etc.,
are imported from the United States,
and manufactured goods from Eng-
land. Hamilton, on Bermuda Island,
is the seat of the colonial government.
Pop. (1914) 20,443. These islands
were discovered by Bermudez, a Span-
iard, in 1522, and settled by the Eng-
lish in 1607, and are supposed to be
the " still vexed Bermoothes," men-
tioned in Shakespeare's " Tempest."
They are a favorite winter resort.
Berinudez, Remigio Morales, a
Peruvian statesman, born in Tarapaca
Province, Sept. 30, 183G; began busi-
ness in the nitrate trade in his native
province. In 1854, as a lieutenant,
he joined the revolutionary army,
which finally overthrew General Ech-
inique's government. In 1864 he
joined the revolution against Presi-
dent Castilla. In the war with Chile,
he led the force that marched to
Africa. When Caceres was elected
President, in 1886, Bermudez was
chosen Vice-President, and was elect-
ed President in 1890. He died in
Lima, March 31, 1894.
Bern, or Berne, a Swiss canton,
bounded on the N. by France. It is
the most populous, and next to the
Grisons, the most extensive canton of
Switzerland, its area being 2,657
square miles, and its pop. (1913) 660,-
640, more than one-sixth of the Swiss
people.
Bernard
Bern, the chief city of the above
canton, was, by the decision of the
Council of the Confederation, in
1848, declared to be the political cap-
ital of the Commonwealth. Pop.
(1913) 94,700. Bern was founded by
Duke Berthold V., of Zahringen, in
1191, and was made a free and im-
perial city by a charter from the Em-
peror Frederick II., dated May, 1218.
Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste
Jules, a French general, afterward
raised to the Swedish throne, was the
son of an advocate of Pau, born Jan.
26, 1764. He enlisted at 17, became
sergeant-major in 1789, and subaltern
in 1790. In 1794 he was appointed
a General of Division, and distin-
guished himself greatly in the cam-
paign in Germany, and on the Rhine.
In 1798 he married Mademoiselle
Clary, sister-in-law of Joseph Bona-
parte. The following year he became
for a short time Minister of War, and
on the establishment of the Empire
was raised to the dignity of Marshal
of France, and the title of Prince of
Ponte-Corvo. On the death of the
Prince of Holstein-Augustenburg, the
heir apparency to the Swedish crown
was offered to the Prince of Ponte-
Corvo, who accepted with the consent
of the Emperor, went to Sweden, ab-
jured Catholicism, and took the title
of Prince Charles John. In the main-
tenance of the interests of Sweden, a
serious rupture occurred between him
and Bonaparte, followed by his acces-
sion, in 1812, to the coalition of sov-
ereigns against Napoleon. At the bat-
tle of Leipsic, he contributed effectual-
ly to the victory of the allies. At the
close of the war strenuous attempts
were made by the Emperor of Austria
and other sovereigns to restore the
family of Gustavus IV. to the crown ;
but Bernadotte, retaining his position
as Crown Prince, became King of
Sweden on the death of Charles XIII.,
in 1818, under the title of Charles
XIV. During his reign agriculture
and commerce made great advances,
and many important public works
were completed. He died March 8,
1844, and was succeeded by his son
Oscar.
Bernard, Charles de (properly
BERNARD DU GRAIL DE LA VILLETTE),
at French novelist, born in Besancon,
Bernard
Feb. 25, 1804; died in Neuilly, March
6, 1850.
Bernard, Claude, a French phy-
siologist, born in 1813 ; died in Paris
in 1878.
Bernard, Sir Francis, an Eng-
lish administrator, born in Nettleham,
in 1714 ; was Governor of New Jer-
sey in 1758-1760, and of Massachu-
setts Bay in 1700-1769. He did a
great deal toward precipitating the
Revolution by his aggressive attempts
to strengthen the royal authority. He
was finally recalled on account of the
unpopularity resultant on his bring-
ing troops into Boston. He died in
Aylesbury, England, June 16, 1779.
Bernard, Mountague, an Eng-
lish lawyer, born in Gloucestershire,
Jan. 28, 1820. In 1872 he assisted
Sir Roundell Palmer in preparing the
British case for the Geneva Arbitra-
tion Tribunal. He died at Overross,
Sept. 2, 1882.
Bernard, Great St., a celebrated
pass of the Pennine Alps in Switzer-
land in the canton Valais, on the
mountain road leading from Martigny
to Aosta in Piedmont.
The dogs kept at St. Bernard to as-
sist the brethren in their humane la-
bors are well known. In the midst
of tempests and snowstorms the
monks, accompanied by some of these
dogs, set out for the purpose of track-
ing those who have lost their way.
Bernard, Little St., a mountain
of Italy, belonging to what are called
the Graian Alps, about 10 miles S. of
Mont Blanc. The pass across it is
one of the easiest in the Alps, and is
supposed by many to be that which
Hannibal used. The Hospice at the
summit of the pass has an elevation
of 7,192 feet.
Bernard, St., Abbot of Clair-
vaux, was born of a noble family in
Burgundy, in 1091. He was educated
at the University of Paris. At the
age of 23 he entered the recently
founded monastery of Citeaux, accom-
panied by his brothers and 20 of his
companions. He observed the strict-
est rules of the Order, and so distin-
guished himself by his ability and ac-
quirements that he was chosen to lead
the colony to Clairvaux, and was made
abbot of the new house ; an office
which he filled till his death. In 1128
Bernardino
he prepared the statutes for the Order
of Knights Templar. He was founder
of 160 monasteries ; and was the chief
promoter of the second crusade. St.
Bernard died at Clairvaux in 1153,
and was canonized in 1174.
Bernard, Simon, a French engi-
neer, born in Dole, April 28, 1779.
He served under Napoleon as his aide-
de-camp ; was wounded at the battle
of Leipsic ; superintended the defense
of Torgau, and was present at Water-
loo. In 1816 he came to the United
States ; was commissioned a Brigadier-
General of Engineers ; and planned an
elaborate system of seacoast defenses,
the most important of the works built
by him being Fort Monroe. In 1831
he returned to France ; was made aide-
de-camp to Louis Philippe, and de-
signed the fortifications of Paris. In
1834 he was appointed Minister of
War. He died in Paris, Nov. 5, 1839.
Bernard, William Bayle, an
Anglo-American dramatist, born in
Boston, Mass., Nov. 27, 1807. Hia
first work was a nautical drama
called the " Pilot." This proved suc-
cessful and encouraged him to pursue
a literary career. He wrote in all 114
plays, of which the best known is
" Rip Van Winkle." He died in
Brighton, England, Aug. 5, 1875.
Bernard Dog, St. The St. Ber-
nard, as bred to modern ideas, is an
immense red or orange colored dog,
marked with white on muzzle, neck,
chest, feet, and tip of tail. Many of
the finest St Bernards measure over
30 inches high at the shoulder and
weigh over 150 pounds.
Bernard of Chartres, surnamed
SYLVESTRIS, a writer of the 12th cen-
tury.
Bernard of Treviso, an Italian
alchemist, born in Padua in 1406;
died in 1490.
Bernardino, the name given to
the Cistercian monks, a branch of the
old Benedictines, from St. Bernard,
who, entering the order, gave it such
an impulse that he was considered its
second founder.
Bernardino, St., of Siena, born in
1380 at Massa-Carrara, of a distin-
guished family, made himself famous
by his rigid restoration of their prim-
itive rule among the degenerate order
of the Franciscans, of which he be-
Bemhard
Berrien
came a member in 1404. He died in
1444, and was canonized in 1450.
Bernliard, Karl, pseudonym of
NICOLAI DE SAINT AUBAIN, a cele-
brated Danish novelist, born in Co-
penhagen, Nov. 18, 1798; died in
Copenhagen, Nov. 25, 1865.
Bernhardi, Tlieodor von, a
German historian and diplomat, born
in Berlin, Nov. 6, 1802 ; died at Kun-
ersdorf, Silesia, Feb. 12, 1887.
Bernliardt, Rosinc Sarah, a
French actress, born in Paris, Oct. 22,
1844. At an early age her Jewish
parents placed her in a convent at
Versailles. When 14 years old she
left the convent, and entered the Paris
Conservatoire, and there studied trag-
edy and comedy. In 1862 she made
her debut at the Theatre Francais, in
Racine's " Iphigene " and Scribe's
" Valerie," but, not achieving a suc-
cess, she retired for a time from the
stage. Her first great success was as
Marie de Neuberg, in Victor Hugo's
"Ruy Bias," in January, 1867. Be-
coming very popular by her represen-
tations, notably in " Andromaque "
and " La Sphinx," she was recalled to
the Francais, and was soon recognized
as the foremost actress in French
tragedy. In 1879 she visited London
with the company of the Comedie
Francaise and was warmly received ;
in 1880, 1887, 1891, 1896, 1900, and
1910-1911 made successful tours in the
United States, and between and after
these dates visited Switzerland. Hol-
land, South America, Italy, Algeria,
Australia, etc. In 1916-17 she was
again in the United States and sub-
jected to a severe surgical operation.
She has also done considerable work
in painting, sculpture, and literature.
Bernhardy, Gottfried, a Ger-
man classical philologist, born in
Landsberg-on-the-Warthe, March 20,
1800 ; died in Halle, May 14, 1875.
Bernier, Francois, a __ French
physician and traveler, born in Angers
about 1625 ; set out on his travels in
1654, and visited Egypt, Palestine,
and India, where he remained for 12
years as physician to the Great Mogul
Emperor Aurungzebe. He died in
Paris in 1688.
Bernina, a mountain of the Rhae-
tian Alps, 13,290 feet high, in the
Swiss canton of Grisons, with remark-
able and extensive glaciers. Its sum-
mit was first attained in 1850.
Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo
(known also as IL CAVALIERE BEB-
NINI), an Italian painter, born in
Naples in 1598, and obtained, among
his contemporaries, the reputation of
being the modern Michael Angelo, on
account of his success as painter, stat-
uary, and architect. He died in 1680.
Bernoulli!, or Bernoulli, a fam-
ily which produced eight distinguished
men of science. The family fled from
Antwerp during the Alva administra-
tion, going first to Frankfort, and aft-
erward to Basel. JOHN, born iu
Basel, in 1667, wrote with his brother,
James, a treatise on the differential
calculus ; developed the integral cal-
culus, and discovered, independently
of Leibnitz, the exponential calculus.
He died in 1748.
Bernstorff, Count Johann, a
German diplomat, born in London,
Eng., Nov. 14, 1862 ; was educated in
Dresden and Ratzeburg ; entered the
diplomatic service in 1889 ; filled im-
portant posts in various countries till
1908, when he became ambassador to
the United States ; continuing in that
relation till the declaration of a state
of war against the Imperial German
Government, April 6, 1917.
Berqnin, Lonis de, the first prot-
estant martyr in France, born in 1490.
He was a gentleman of Artois, a
friend of Badius, the savant. When,
in 1523, the police began to seize Lu-
ther's works, with a view to suppress-
ing Protestantism, they found among
Berquin's books some manuscripts of
his own writing that were pronounced
heretical. As he refused to retract,
he was thrown into prison. Francis
I., whose counselor he was, obtained
for him his freedom, but he was
burned alive in Paris, April 17, 1529.
Berrian, William, an American
Episcopal clergyman and writer, born
in New York in 1787; was rector of
Trinity Church, New York (1830-
1862). He died in New York city,
Nov. 7, 1862.
Berrien, John McPherson, an
American statesman, born in New Jer-
sey, Aug. 23, 1781 ; graduated at
Princeton College in 1796, and was ad-
mitted to the bar in Georgia when 18
Berro
Bertillon System
years old. He represented Geor-
gia in the United States Senate in
1825-1829 and 1840-1852 ; was Attor-
ney-General of the United States in
1829-1831, and a delegate to the Bal-
timore Convention in 1844. In 1829
he delivered a speech so clear and im-
pressive against certain measures be-
fore Congress that the title of " Amer-
ican Cicero " was given him. He died
in Savannah, Ga., Jan. 1, 1856.
Berro, Bernardo Prndencio, an
Uruguayan statesman, born in Monte-
video about 1800. He was President
of the republic in 1860-1864. The
revolution of Flores was successful
soon after the expiration of his term.
In 1868 he stirred up a revolt against
Flores, was imprisoned, and soon af-
terward shot through a window in his
cell, in April, 1868.
Berry, a succulent fruit, in which
the seeds are immersed in a pulpy
mass inclosed by a thin skin. Popu-
lary it is applied to fruits like the
strawberry, bearing external seeds on
a pulpy receptacle, but not strictly
berries.
Berryer, Antoine Pierre, a
French advocate and statesman, born
in Paris in 1790. In 1814 he pro-
claimed at Rennes the deposition of
Napoleon, and remained till his death
an avowed Legitimist. In 1840 he
was one of the counsel for the defense
of Louis Napoleon after the Boulogne
fiasco. He gained additional reputa-
tion in 1858 by his defense of Monta-
lembert, and was counsel for the Pat-
terson-Bonapartes in the suit for the
recognition of the Baltimore marriage.
He died in 1868.
Bersaglieri, a corps of riflemen or
sharpshooters, introduced into the
Sardinian army by Gen. Delia Mar-
mora, about 1849. They took part in
the Russian War and also assisted at
the battle of the Tchernaya, Aug. 16,
1855. They were likewise employed
in the Italian Wars of 1859 and 1866.
Bersezio, Vittorio, an Italian
novelist and playwright, born at Pev-
eragno, Piedmont, in 1830.
Bert, Paul, a French statesman
and physiologist, born in Auxerre, Oct.
17, 1833. While engaged in public
life, M. Bert still pursued with ardor
his scientific investigations, attracting
World-wide attention by his experi-
ments in vivisection. Appointed by
the French Ministry to the governor-
ship of Tonquin and Annam, he went
out there in 1886, but died Nov. 11,
of the same year. The anti-religious
views of M. Bert excited much contro-
versy.
Bertlielot, Pierre Eugene Mar-
cellin, a French chemist, born in
Paris, Oct. 25, 1827. In 1878 he be-
came president of the committee on ex-
plosives, which introduced smokeless
powder. His labors also led to the
discovery of dyes extracted from coal-
tar. He died March 18, 1907.
Bcrtliier, Alexander, Prince of
Neufchatel and Wagram, Marshal,
Vice-Constable of France, etc. ; born
in Versailles, Nov. 20, 1753; killed
himself, June 1, 1815.
Berthold of Ratisbon, a cele-
brated German preacher and Francis-
can monk ; ranked as the most power-
ful preacher of his time in the Ger-
man world. It is said that as many aa
60,000 people flocked to hear him in
the open fields. His sermons have
been preserved. He died in 1272.
Bertillon, Alphonse, a French
anthropologist, born in Paris in 1853;
is widely noted as the founder of a
system of identification of criminals.
In 1880, while Chief of the Bureau of
Identification in the Prefecture of Po-
lice, he established his system of meas-
urements which has given marvelous
results for their precision. The sys-
tem has since been adopted by the
police authorities of the large cities of
Europe and the United States. He
was one of the expert witnesses in
handwriting in the trial of Capt.
Dreyfus in 1899, and soon after its
close was removed from his office. He
was author of numerous works bear-
ing upon his system. He died Feb. 13,
1914.
Bertillon System, a system of
identification of criminals, introduced
into France by Alphonse Bertillon.
The system depends upon accurate
measurements of various portions of
the human body, especially the bones,
which in adults never change. The
parts measured are the head, ear, foot,
middle finger, the extended forearm,
height, breadth, and the trunk. These
measurements are placed upon a card,
and together with photographs of the
Bertram!
Bessarioi
bodily features, take the place of the ] which regulate the combinations form-
old portraits in the rogues' gallery.
Bertram!, Eugene, a French op-
eratic manager, born in 1835 ; died in
Paris, Jan. 21, 1900.
Bertrand Henri G., Count, a
French military officer, born in Cha-
teauroux in 1773, and early entered
the armies of the Revolution as engi-
neer. He accompanied the expedition
to Egypt, and directed the fortifica-
tion of Alexandria. He distinguished
himself at Austerlitz and became Na-
poleon's adjutant; and, after the bat-
tle of Aspern, in 1809, for his share in
saving the French army by bridges, he
was created count and governor of II-
lyria. After serving with credit in
the subsequent campaigns, he retired
with the Emperor to Elba, was his
confidant in carrying out his return to
ing the structures of the animal and
vegetable kingdoms ; and of thus open-
ing the way for the discoveries of
Mulder, Liebig, Dumas, and others.
To him, chemistry is indebted for the
discovery of several new elementary
bodies, more especially selenium, thor-
ium, and cerium ; and to his skill as a
manipulator may be traced many of
the analytical processes at present in
use. He died Aug. 7, 1848. All the
scientific societies of the world enroll-
ed his name among their members.
Berzelium, (See CABOLINITJM).
Besancon, a city in the N. E. of
France, the capital of the Depart-
ment of Doubs, on the river Doubs.
It contains Roman remains, including
an amphitheater, aqueduct and trium-
phal arch of Mars, as well as a cathe-
France, and finally shared his banish- j dral of diversified architectural style,
ment to St Helena. On Napoleon's and the Renaissance palace of Cardi
death, Bertrand returned to France,
where, though sentence of death had ancon.
been pronounced upon him — a sen-
tence which Louis XVIII. had wisely
recalled — he was restored to all his
dignities, and, in 1830, appointed
Granwelle, who was born in Bes-
Commandant of the Polytechnic
School. In 1840, he formed part of
the expedition which brought back the
remains of Napoleon to France. He
died in Chateauroux, Jan. 31, 1844.
Berwick, or more fully, Berwick-
on-Tweed, a seaport town of Eng-
land, formerly a Parliamentary bor-
ough and (with small adjoining dis-
trict) a county by itself, but now in-
Victor Hugo was also a na-
tive of Besancon. Watch-making is
the principal industry. Pop. (1911)
57,978.
Besant, Annie, an English thc-
osophist and author, born in London,
Oct. 1, 1847 ; was married in 1867 to
the Rev. Fank Besant, brother of Sir
Walter Besant, but was legally sepa-
rated from him in 1873. In 1889 she
joined the Theosophical Society, and
has since been active in theosophical
propaganda in Great Britain and the
United States.
Besant, Sir Walter, an English
«,*. •*•«•/ «* X.VrUUl.r MJ * LO^li, LSI! I, U\J TT 1AJ. . . *. • -r^ , . »
corporated with Northumberland, and ! novelist ; born in Portsmouth,
_ T» i? _ 3! _. lonH Anor 14 1 K.-5h • \vn« pnilpn
giving name to a Parliamentary divi-
sion of the county.
Beryl, a colorless, yellowish, bluish i
or less brilliant green variety of em- '
land, Aug. 14, 1836 ; was educated in
London and at Christ's College, Cam-
erald, the prevailing hue being green | j vinea<?' -toni
of various shades? but always pale, the Bessarabia
want of color being due to absence of _f* „ M ^\r
died in London,
being
chromium, which gives to the emerald
its deep, rich green.
Beryllium, a rare white malleable
metal, the same as glucinum.
Berzelius, Johann Jakob, Ba-
ron, a Swedish chemist, born in Ost-
gothland, Aug. 29, 1779. To him pre-
eminently belongs the honor of apply-
ing the great principles which had
been established by Dalton, Davy,
Gay-Lussac, and himself, in organic
a province of Russia
extending N. W. from the Black Sea,
ibetween the Pruth and Danube and
the Dniester; area, 17,143 square
miles; pop. (1914) 2,657,300; capi-
tal, Kishinef. It has been alternately
in the possession of Turkey and Rus-
sia several times between 1474 and
1878. The inhabitants are chiefly
Walladrians, Gipsies, and Tartars.
Bessarion, John, a Greek scholar,
born in Trebizond in 1395, one of the
most eminent restorers of learning in
chemistry, to the study of the laws i the 15th century, and founder of the
Bessel
library of St. Mark at Venice ; was a
monk of the Order of St. Basil. He
died in Ravenna, Nov. 19, 1472.
Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm, as-
tronomer, born in Minden, Prussia,
July 22, 1784. He died in Konigs-
berg, March 17, 1846.
Bessels, Emil, a German natural-
ist, born in Heidelberg, June 2, 1847 ;
died in Stuttgart, March 30, 1888.
Bessemer, Sir Henry, an Eng-
lish inventor, born in Charlton, Hert-
fordshire, Jan. 19, 1813 ; began mod-
eling and designing patterns when 18
years old ; chose engineering as a pro-
fession, and, after long and costly ex-
periments, announced, in 1856, his
discovery of a means of rapidly and
cheaply converting pig iron into steel,
by blowing a blast of air through the
iron when in a state of fusion. For
this discovery the Institution of Civil
Engineers awarded him the Gold Tel-
ford Medal, and several foreign gov-
ernments honored him with valuable
tokens. In the United States appre-
ciation of his great discovery took the
form of creating industrial cities and
towns under his name. He was elect-
ed President of the Iron and Steel In-
stitute of Great Britain in 1871;
knighted by the Queen in 1879, and
received the freedom of the city of
London in 1880. He died in London,
March 15, 1898.
Bessemer Steel, steel made from
pig iron, from which practically all
the carbon, etc., has been removed by
exposing the molten mass to a current
of air.
Bessey, Charles E., an American
botanist, born in Wilton, O., May
21, 1845; educated at Harvard Uni-
versity ; Professor of Botany in the
Iowa Agricultural College in 1870-
1884 ; Professor of Botany in the Uni-
versity of Nebraska since 188^. He
was also President of the Society for
the Promotion of Agricultural Science
in 1883-1885; President of the Ne-
braska Academy of Sciences in 1891 ;
acting Chancellor of the University of
Nebraska in 1888^1891 ; Fellow of the
American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science. Died in 1915.
Bessieres, Jean Baptiste, Duke
of Istria, a marshal of the French
Empire, born of poor parents at Preis-
sac, Aug 6, 1768. At the accession
Bethania
of Napoleon (1804) to the throne, be
became Marshal of France. He showed
his usual conspicuous courage at Aus-
terlitz, Jena, Eylau, and Friedland,
and, raised to the rank of Duke of Is-
tria, commanded in Spain in 1808—
1809. In the Russian campaign he led
the cavalry of the Guard, and did
much by his sleepless courage and
presence of mind to save the wreck of
the army in the disastrous retreat
from Moscow. On the morning of the
battle of Lutzen (May 1, 1813), he
fell mortally wounded by a cannon
ball.
Bestiary, the name given to a class
of written books of great popularity
in the Middle Ages, describing all the
animals of creation, real or fabled,
composed partly in prose, partly in
verse, and generally illustrated by
drawings.
Betanzos, Juan Jose de, a Span-
ish historian and adventurer of the
16th century ; was author of an ac-
count of the conquest of Peru by Pi-
zarro.
Betel, or Betle, the English name
of the piper betle, a shrubby plant
with evergreen leaves, belonging to the
typical genus of the pepperworts. It
is extensively cultivated in the East
Indies. Its leaf is used as a wrapper
to inclose a few slices of the areca
palm nut with a little shell lime. The
Southern Asiatics are perpetually
chewing it to sweeten the breath, to
strengthen the stomach, and, if hun-
ger be present, to deaden its cravings.
Betham-Edwards, Matilda, an
English author, born in Suffolk, in
1836 , was educated privately ; has
published numerous works in poetry,
fiction, and on French rural life. She
was made an officer of public instruc-
tion in France in 1891.
Bethania, or Bethany, a town
in Syria, about 2 miles S. E. of Jeru-
salem, on the way to Jericho. It is
now a small place, inhabited by a few
Turkish families, by whom it is called
Lazari, in memory of Lazarus, who
dwelt here, and who was here raised
from the dead. The inhabitants show
the pretended, sites of the houses of
Lazarus, of Martha, of Simon the
leper, and of Mary Magdalene. The
alleged tomb of Lazarus, a large ex-
cavation in the rock, is also shown.
Bethany College
The situation of Betbania is extreme-
ly picturesque.
Bethany College, a co-education-
al institution in Linsborg, Kan. ; or-
ganized in 1881 : under the auspices of
the Lutheran Church.
Bethany College, a co-education-
al institution in Bethany, W. Va. ; or-
ganized in 1841 ; under the auspices
of the Church of the Disciples.
Bethel, a town of Palestine, about
10 miles from Jerusalem, now called
Beitin, or Beiteen. The patriarch
Jacob here had a vision of angels, in
commemoration of which he built an
altar. Interesting ruins abound in the
vicinity.
Bethel College, an educational in-
stitution in Russellville, Ky. ; organ-
ized in 1854 ; under the auspices of the
Baptist Church.
Bethesda, a pool in Jerusalem,
near St. Stephen's Gate, and the Tem-
ple of Omar.
Bethlehem, the birthplace of Je-
sus Christ and of King David, and
the Ephratah of the history of Jacob ; '
is now a small, unwalled village of
white stone houses, in the midst of a
most interesting country, 6 miles S.
of Jerusalem. The population, about
3,000, is wholly Christian — Latin,
Greek, and Armenian. The Convent i
of the Nativity, a large, square build- '
ing, resembling a fortress, was built
by the Empress Helena, in 327 A. D.,
but destroyed by the Moslems in 1236, j
and, it is supposed, restored by the
crusaders. Within it is the Church ;
of the Nativity, which is subdivided
among the Latins, Greeks, and Ar- j
rnenians, for devotional purposes. The
Bethlehemites chiefly gain their sub-
sistence by the manufacture and sale
of crucifixes, beads, boxes, shells, etc.,
of mother-of-pearl and olive wood.
Bethlehem, a borough in North-
ampton and Lehigh counties, Pa.; on I
the Lehigh river and canal and sev-i
eral railroads; 57 miles N. of Phila-|
delphia; since 1904 includes the for-
mer borough of West Bethlehem;
contains a Moravian theological
seminary and other educational in-
stitutions, and has silk mills, rolling
mills, machine shops, and brass and
spelter works. It was founded in
1741 by Moravians under Count Zin-
zendorf. Pop. (1910) 12,837.
Beveridge
Bethsaida, a village on the W.
shore of the Lake of Galilee, the birth-
place of Peter and Andrew and Philip.
Bethnne, a town of N. France, 24
miles N. N. W. of Arras ; in the
midst of the richest coal mines in
France ; has large industrial inter-
ests ; was once strongly fortified ;
ceded to France by the Peace of Nijm-
wegen in 1678 ; occupied by the allied
forces in 1710; restored to France by
the Treaty of Utrecht ; pop. about 15,-
000. Bethune was in the sphere of
the great Arras campaign. See AP-
PENDIX: World War.
Betterton, Thomas, English act-
tor, born in 1635 ; excelled in Shake-
speare's characters of Hamlet, Othello,
Brutus, and Hotspur, and was the
means of introducing shifting scenes
instead of tapestry upon the English
stage. He died in 1710, and was
buried in Westminster Abbey.
Betting, or Wagering, a con-
tract by which two or more parties
agree that a certain sum of money or
other thing shall be paid or delivered
to one of them on the happening or
not happening of an uncertain event.
At common law, wagers are not per
se, void, but statutes prohibiting bet-
ting have been passed by many of the
States.
Betts, Craven Langstrath, an
American poet and story writer, born
in New Brunswick, in 1853.
Betty, William Henry West,
better known as the YOUNG Roscius,
an English actor, born at Shrewsbury
in 1791 ; died in London, Aug. 24,
1874.
Beust, Friedrich Ferdinand,
Count von, an Austrian statesman,
born in Dresden, Jan. 13, 1809. He
entered the service of Austria as Min-
ister of Foreign Affairs, became Presi-
dent of the Ministry, Imperial Chan-
cellor, and, in 18G8, was created
Count. In 1871-1878 he was Ambas-
sador in London, in 1878-1882, in
Paris. He died near Vienna, Oct. 24,
1886.
Beveridge, Albert Jeremiah, an
American lawyer, born in Highland
county, O., Oct. 6, 18G2; was brought
up on a farm ; graduated at De Pauw
University ; and engaged in law prac-
tice in Indianapolis. He entered po-
litical life in 1883, and soon won a
Beverly
reputation as an effective orate t. He
served as U. S. Senator for Indiana
during 1899-1911.
Beverly, a city and popular sum-
mer-resort in Essex county, Mass.;
Biberach
beautiful and perhaps the only true
philosophical poem in the whole range
of known literature. Its teaching is
pantheistic. It consists of 18 lec-
tures. It has been translated into
on the North Shore and the Boston many languages.
& Maine railroad; 18 miles N. E. ofi Bhamo, a town of Burma on the
Boston; is the seat of the New Eng- Upper Irrawaddy, about 40 miles from
land Industrial School for Deaf j the Chinese frontier. It is the start-
Mutes; and under President Taft ing-point of caravans to Yunnan.
was the " summer capital " of the
United States. Pop. (1910) 18,650.
Bewick, Thomas, an English
wood engraver, born in Northumber-
land in 1753. He died in 1828.
Beyle, Marie-Henri, better known
under the pseudonym of " Stendhal,"
a French novelist and critic, born in
Grenoble, Jan. 23, 1783 ; died in Paris,
March 23, 1842.
Beyrout, or Beirut, a flourishing
commercial town, situated in a most
picturesque position on the coast of
Syria, and at the foot of Lebanon, 55
miles from Damascus, and 147 from
Jerusalem. It is the chief seaport,
market-town, and emporium of all the
trade with the shores of Syria, Pales-
tine, and Cilicia, with a regular ser-
vice of Egyptian, French, and British
steamers. The American vice-consul
at this place was shot at during a riot
in September, 1903, and warships were
sent there. Pop. about 150,000.
Bezants, or Byzantines, coins of
the old Byzantine empire.
Beza, or Beze, Theodore de, a
French Protestant theologian and re-
former, born in Vezelai, in 1519.
In 1558, he was sent to ask
the intercession of several German
princes in behalf of the persecuted
Huguenots in France. The next year
he settled at Geneva, and was thence-
forth the associate of Calvin till his
death, and his successor as Professor
of Theology and head of the Protes-
tant party. His energy and activity
of mind, like his bodily health, con-
tinued unabated till he was nearly 80
years of age, and he only ceased
preaching in 1GOO. He died in 1G05.
Beziqne, or Besiqne, a game of
cards of French origin.
Bhagavatgita, or Bhagavadgi-
ta, in Sanskrit literature, a song re-
lating a discourse between Krishna
and his pupil Arjun in the midst of a
battle. Schlegel considers it the most
Bheels, or Bhils, a Dravidic race
inhabiting the Vindhya, Satpura, and
Satmala Hills, a relic of the Indian
aborigines driven from the plains by
the Aryan Rajputs. Their total num-
bers are about 750,000.
Bhutan, an independent State in
the Eastern Himalayas ; area about
20,000 square miles ; pop. est. 250,-
000. The Bhutanese are a back-
ward race, governed by a Dharm
Rajah, regarded as an incarnation of
deity, and by a Deb Rajah, with a
council of eight. They are nominally
Buddhists.
Biafra, Bight of, a large bay on
the W. coast of Africa, at the head of
the Gulf of Guinea, between Capes
Formosa and Lopez.
Bianchini, Francesco, an Ital-
ian astronomer, born in Verona, in
16G2. He died in 1729.
Biard, Auguste Francois, a
French genre painter, born in 1798 :
died in 1882.
Biarritz, a watering-place and
noted winter resort in France ; on the
Bay of Biscay in the Department of
the Basses-Pyrenees ; 4 miles S. W. of
Bayonne. It was the royal summer
residence during the Second Empire.
Biart, Lucien, a French novelist,
poet and writer of travels, born in
yersailles, June 21, 1829. He pub-
lished a number of novels, containing
masterly descriptions of Mexican and
South American nature and customs.
Bias, one of the seven sages of
Greece ; a native of Priene, in Ionia ;
celebrated for his practical knowledge
and strict regard to justice. He flour-
ished about 550 B. c., and died at a
very advanced age.
Biberach, a town of Wurtemberg,
delightfully situated on the Reiss, 23
miles S. S. W. of Ulm. It retains its
old ramparts and towers, and in front
of the theater is a monument to Wie-
Bible
Bible
land, who was born in the neighbor-
'hood.
Bible (French bible, with similar
forms in other languages, from Greek
biblia, books, from biblos, the inner
bark of the papyrus, used for writing
on, hence a book) , the collection of
Sacred Writings or Holy Scriptures
of the Christians. The older and ^
larger division of these writings is j
also received by the Jews as embody- j
ing their faith, and is called the Old j
Testament, or Scriptures of the Old
Covenant, because the Jewish religion
was represented as a compact or cove-
nant between God and the Jews, and
the Greek word for covenant signifies
also last will or testament The same
figure was applied to the Christian re-
ligion, which w°s considered as an ex-
tension of the old covenant, or a cove-
nant between God and the whole hu-
man race. The sacred writings
peculiar to the Christians are, there- ,
fore, called the Scriptures of the New j
Covenant, or the New Testament.
Protestants and Roman Catholics do
not altogether agree as to the books
that ought to be admitted into the
canon or list of writings belonging to
the Old Testament A certain num-
ber of books classed by the former
under the head of Apocrypha are
called by the latter " deutero-canoni-
cal," as being admitted into the canon
at a later date than the rest, but are
held to be of equal authority.
The scriptures were, no doubt, orig-
inally written on skins or parchments
rolled up into rolls or volumes.
The earliest and most famous ver-
sion of the Old Testament is the Sep-
tuagint, or Greek translation, complet-
ed it is believed in the 2d century B. o.
The Syriac version, called the Peshito,
was made in the 2d century after
Christ, and is celebrated for its fideli-
ty. The famous Latin version of St.
Jerome, known as the Vulgate, was
finished in 405.
The New Testament, besides being
originally written in Greek, also dif-
fers remarkably from the Old in this
respect, that while the writings com-
prehended in the earlier collection
range over a period of 1,000 years,
those included in the latter were pro-
duced almost contemporaneously —
most of them probably between A. D.
50 and A. D. 70. The collection con-
sists of 27 writings, ascribed either to
apostles or to persons intimately asso-
ciated with them. Five of the works
are in the form of historical narra-
tives, four of which relate from dif-
ferent points of view the story of
Christ's life, while the fifth describes
the formation and extension of the
Church by the ministry of the leading
apostles. Twenty-one are epistolary.
Thirteen of these bear the name of St.
Paul as their author, nine being ad-
dressed to various Christian communi-
ties, three (I and II Timothy, and
Titus) — called the pastoral epistles
— to office-bearers in the Churcn,
and - one to a private individual
(Philemon). The epistle to the
Hebrews formerly ascribed to Paul is
believed to have been written by Apol-
los. Seven other letters — one ascribed
to James, two to Peter, three to
John, and one to Jude — are often
known as the catholic (that is, gen-
eral) epistles, as haying been intended
for the use of Christians in general.
The only remaining work is the Apoc-
alypse or Revelation of St. John. Of
these writings the epistles are the ear-
liest in date and were written to va-
rious Christian communities to give
advice in special circumstances, to ex-
plain points of doctrine, or to warn
against mistaken beliefs. They are
adapted to the special conditions and
mental attitude of those to whom they
were addressed ; thus in the letters to
the Corinthian Christians, who dwelt
in Greece, various speculative ques-
tions are discussed. The first three
Gospels, called the synoptic Gospels,
were probably written in or near A. D.
70, that of Mark being perhaps the
earliest. The fourth Gospel is of
much later date (about A. D.
100), and has a markedly different
character. It gives an account of
Christ's life not so much from an ob-
jective and historical as from a sub-
jective and personal point of view.
All the books of the New Testament
have come down to us as originally
written in the Greek language. The
writers of the New Testament
were all, or nearly all, Jews ; and
while employing the Greek language,
BiLlc Societies
Bible Societies
they exhibit many traces of their na-
tive idiom, so that their writings pre-
sent more or less of a Hebraic color-
ing. The body, as has been well said,
is Greek ; the spirit is Hebrew. The
first translation of the whole Bible into
English was by Wycliffe and his co-
adjutors, who translated from the Lat-
in and published their work in 1382.
William Tyndale made a translation
from the original tongues of the New
Testament and part of the Old, which
he printed at Worms in 1525. It was
proscribed and burned in England,
but copies were smuggled over and
used in secret. The Pentateuch was
published by Tyndale in 1530. He also
translated some of the prophetical
books. His translation was superior
to all previous versions in purity,
perspicuity, and accuracy, and it
formed the basis of all subsequent
translations.
Tyndale suffered martyrdom in 1536,
but his work was taken up by Miles
Coverdale. He and his coadjutors com-
pleted the translation and the whole
Bible was issued in one large volume.
In 1537 a new and revised edition was
published. Another version appeared
in 1560 known as the Genevan Bible,
or more familiarly as the Breeches
Bible, from its rendering of Genesis 3 :
7. This, however, was not popular
with the Church of England, and in
1568 a revision of Coverdale's version
was made. This was known as the Bish-
op's Bible, because of the number of
bishops who assisted in its production.
In the reign of James I. a demand
was made for a new translation,
and at the Hampton Court Confer-
ence (1604) the suggestion was made
by Dr. Rainolds of Oxford, as spokes-
man of the Puritan representatives,
and a«cepted by the king. The work
was committed to 54 scholars, but
only 47 took part in it They were
divided into six companies, who had
their respective tasks assigned them
and met apart. The revision was be-
gun in 1607, and occupied three years.
The whole work was revised by 12 of
the translators, two out of each com-
pany, and a final revision was made
by Dr. Myles Smith, the writer of
the preface, and Dr. Bilson, Bishop of
Winchester. The completed work was
published in a folio volume in 1611.
E 18.
The translators were enjoined to fol-
Iqw the ordinary Bible read in the
churches commonly called the Bish-
ops' Bible, and not to make altera-
tions unless the meaning of the origi-
nal could be more accurately con-
veyed. The general accuracy of this
translation, which is usually known
as the Authorized Version, and the
purity of its style, so won the appro-
bation of scholars and commended it
to readers generally that from the
time of its adoption it has superseded
all other versions. Latterly, however,
the advances made in Hebrew scholar-
ship and biblical criticism gave rise to
a general demand among those inter-
ested in the study of the Bible for a
revision of the Authorized Version,
and the task was undertaken by a
number of the Anglican clergy, with
the aid of associates from various
other bodies. The work was set afoot
by the convocation of Canterbury,
which in 1870 appointed a committee
to consider the question of revision.
The committee in a few months re-
ported favorably on the scheme, rec-
ommending that " the revision be so
conducted as to comprise both margi-
nal renderings and such emendations
as it may be found necessary to insert
in the text of the authorized version ";
stating also " that in the above reso-
lutions we do not contemplate any
new translation of the Bible, or any
alteration of the language, except
where in the judgment of the most
competent scholars such change is
necessary." Two companies were soon
formed — one for the Old, the other
for the New Testament, including a
number of scholars belonging to the
United States — and the revised ver-
sion of the New Testament was issued
in 1881, while that of the Old Testa-
ment appeared in 1885. In accuracy
at least the revised version is greatly
superior to the old, on which it made
10,000 emendations. Of other trans-
lations than the English Authorized
Version, that of Luther, which formed
an epoch in the history of the German
language, is the most remarkable. It
was finished in 1534.
Bible Societies, societies formed
for the distribution of the Bible or
portions of it in various languages,
either gratuitously or at a low rate.
A clergyman of Wales, whom the
Bible Statistics
Bible
want of a Welsh Bible led to London,
occasioned the establishment of the
British and Foreign Bible Society,
which was founded in London, March
7, 1804.
In the United States the great
American Bible Society, formed in
181(3, acts in concert with the aux-
iliary societies in all parts of the
Union. The annual income of the
society is now over $500,000, and its
total issue has amounted to about
04,000,000 copies. These have been
mostly in English, Spanish, and
French, from the society's plates. The
managers have occasionally purchased
Bibles in Europe, and issued them to
applicants, in German, Dutch, Welsh,
Gaelic, Portuguese, modern Greek,
and some other European languages.
They have also furnished money to
print translations into pagan lan-
guages, by American missionaries. It
is the object of the society to supply
every one who can read in the United
States, before devoting much attention
to distribution abroad. Yet Spanish
America and Ceylon, Greece, and the
Sandwich Islands have been furnished
with Bibles by the society. Other
American societies are the Pennsyl-
vania Bible Society, the American and
Foreign Bible Society, and the Amer-
ican Bible Lnion.
Bible Statistics, an interesting
compilation, said to be the fruits of
three years' labor by the indefatigable
Dr. Horne, and given by him in his
introduction to the study of the Scrip-
tures. The basis is an old English Bi-
ble of the King James version.
Old Testament — Number of books,
39; chapters, 929; verses, 23,214;
words, 593,493; letters, 2,728,100.
New Testament. — Number of books,
27; chapters, 260; verses, 7,959;
words, 181,253; letters, 838,380.
The Bible. — Total number of books,
66; chapters, 1,189; verses, 31,173;
words, 773,746; letters, 3,566,480.
Apocrypha. — Number of books, 1-| ;
chapters, 184 ; verses, 6,031 ; words,
125,185.
Old Testament— The middle book
of the Old Testament is Proverbs. The
middle chapter is Job xxix. The mid-
dle verse is II Chronicles xx, between
verses 17 and 18. The shortest book
is Obadiah. The shortest verse is
I Chron. i: 25. The word "and"
occurs 35,543 times. Ezra vii : 21
contains all the letters of our alpha-
bet. The word " Selah " occurs 73
times and only in the poetical books.
II Kings xix and Isaiah xxxvii are
alike. The Book of Esther does not
contain the words God or Lord. The
last two verses of II Chronicles and
the opening verses of the Book ot
Ezra are alike. Ezra ii and Nehe-
miah vii are alike. There are nearly
30 books mentioned, but not found in
the Bible, consisting of civil records
and other ancient writings now nearly
all lost. About 26 of these are al-
luded to in the Old Testament
New Testament — The middle book
is II Thessalonians. The middle chap-
ter is between Romans xiii and xiv.
The middle verse is Acts xvii : 17.
The smallest book is II John. The
smallest verse is John xi : 35. The
word " and " occurs 10,684 times. The
name Jesus occurs nearly 700 times in
the Gospels and Acts, and in the Epis-
tles less than 70 times. The name
Christ alone occurs about 60 times in
! the Gospels and Acts, and about 240
times in the Epistles and Revelation.
The term Jesus Christ occurs 5 times
in the Gospels.
The Bible. — The middle book is Mi-
cah. The middle (and smallest) chap-
ter is Psalm cxvii. The middle verse
is Psalm cxviii : 8. The middle line is
II Chronicles iv : 16 ; the largest book
is that of the Psalms ; the largest
chapter is Psalm cxix. The word Je-
j hovah (or Lord occurs 6,855 times.
The word " and " occurs 46,227 times.
The number of authors of the Bible is
50. The Bible was not until modern
times divided into chapters and verses.
The division of chapters has been at-
tributed to Lanfrank, Archbishop of
Canterbury, in the reign of William
I. ; but the real author of this division
was Cardinal Hugo de Sancto-Caro,
about 1236. The number of languages
on earth is estimated at 3,000; the
Bible or parts of it have been ren-
dered into only about 180, or, lan-
guages and dialects together, 345. The
first English translation complete of
the Bible was by Wyclif in 1380. The
first American edition was printed in
Boston in 1752.
Bible, The Seven, the seven prin-
cipal Bibles of the world are the Ko-
ran of the Mohammedans, the Eddas
Biblical Archaeology
Biddle
of the Scandinavians, the Tripitikes of
the Buddhists, the Five Kings of the
Chinese, the three Vedas of the Hin-
dus, the Zend Avesta and the Scrip-
tures of the Christians. The Koran
is, except the Eddas, the most recent
of these seven Bibles and not older
than the 7th century of our era. It
is a compound of quotations from the
Old and New Testaments, the Tal-
mud and the gospel of St. Barnbas.
The Eddas of the Scandinavians was
first published in the 14th century.
The Tripitikes of the Buddhists con-
tain sublime morals and pure aspira-
tions ; their author lived and died in
the 6th century before Christ.
The sacred writings of the Chinese
are called the Five Kings, king mean-
ing web of cloth or the warp that
keeps the threads in their place. They
contain the best sayings of the best
sages on the ethico-political duties of
life. These sayings cannot be traced
to a period earlier than the llth cen-
tury before Christ. The three Vedas
are the most ancient books of the Hin-
dus, and it is the opinion of Max Mul-
ler, Wilson, Johnson and Whitney
that thej7 are not older than 11 cen-
turies before Christ. The Zend Aves-
ta of the Persians is the grandest of
all these sacred books next to our
Bible. Zoroaster, whose sayings it
contains, was born in the 12th century
before Christ. It is the sacred book
of the fire worshippers.
Biblical Archaeology, Society
of, a society founded in London Dec.
9, 1870, " for the investigation of the
archaeology, history, arts, and chron-
ology of ancient and modern Assyria,
Palestine, Egypt, Arabia, and other
Biblical lands; the promotion of the
study of the antiquities of those coun-
tries, and the record of discoveries
hereafter to be made in connection
therewith."
Biblical Criticism, the science
•which deals with the text of the Bible.
It is of two kinds : the Lower, or
Textual Criticism, which is concerned
with the accuracy and meaning of the
passages ; and the Higher or Literary
Criticism, which seeks to discover the
origin, date, authorship and relations
of the various books, and to find out
by internal evidence whether they are
based on earlier documents and wheth-
er they have undergone revision since
they were first composed.
Bibliography, the science or
knowledge of books, their authorship,
the dates of their first publication,
and of the several editions they have
gone through, with all other points
requisite for 'iterary history.
Bichloride of Gold, in chemis-
try and pharmacy, a substance which
has risen into notoriety on account of
the use made of it in the cure of dip-
somania and chronic alcoholism. Its
employment by Dr. Keeley produced a
profound impression on the medical
world.
Bicycle, a light-wheeled vehicle
propelled by the rider, consisting of
two wheels attached to a frame com-
posed of tubing. Between these is ar-
ranged an axle, attached to lower part
of frame, to which are affixed two
.pedals, one on either side ; to this axle
is attached a sprocket-wheel over which
runs an endless chain connecting with
a smaller sprocket on the rear wheel.
There are also chainless bicycles, in
which a system of cogs takes the
place of the chain. The frames are dis-
tinguished as "diamond" and "drop ;"
the former used by men, the later by
women cyclists. The rider sits upon a
saddle attached to a seat-post affixed
to the frame ; he there steers the ma-
chine by means of a handle-bar, which
turns the front wheel in any direction
required. The momentum of the vehi-
cle, and the proper use of the steering
bar keeps it in an upright position.
Biddeford, a city in York county,
Me.; on the Saco river and the Bos-
ton & Maine railroad; 15 miles S. W.
of Portland; settled in 1630; has
trolley to famous Old Orchard Beach
(4 miles); has good water-power, cot-
ton and woollen mills, and large trade
in lumber and farm products. Pop. *
(1910) 17,079.
Biddle, Anthony Joseph Drex-
el, an American author and explorer;
born in Philadelphia, Oct. 1, 1874.
Biddle, Arthur, an American
lawyer, born in Philadelphia, Pa.,
Sept. 23, 1852; graduated at Yale in
1873; studied law and was admitted
to the bar in 1878. Later he became
a member of his father's firm and de-
voted much time to the study of cer-
tain branches, the results of which
Biddle
were published in his works. He died
in Atlantic City, N. J., March 8, 1897.
Biddle, Clement, the " Quaker
Soldier," was born in Philadelphia,
May 10, 1740. Although a strict
Quaker, he identified himself with the
Revolutionary cause even to the ex-
tent of going to war. He was present
at the battles of Princeton, Brandy-
wine, Germantown and Monmouth.
He also shared the sufferings of Val-
ley Forge. He resigned active service
in 1780, but assisted in the making
of the Federal Constitution in 1787.
After that he was United States mar-
shal of Pennsylvania. He died in
Philadelphia, July 14, 1814.
Biddle, James, Rn American na-
val officer, born in Philadelphia, Pa.,
in 1793 ; entered the navy as a mid-
shipman on the " Philadelphia " in
1800, and was on that frigate when
she was wrecked on the Barbary coast
in 1803. In the War of 1812 he
served on the " Wasp " in the capture
of the British sloop " Frolic," and
was captain of the " Hornet " at the
capture of the " Penguin." In 1845
he was given command of the East
India Squadron and concluded the
first treaty between the United States
and China. He died in Philadelphia,
Oct. 1, 1848.
Biddle, John, father of the mod-
ern Unitarians, born in Wotton-under-
Edge, in Gloucestershire, in 1615 ;
was educated at Oxford, and became
master of a free school at Gloucester.
He was repeatedly imprisoned for his
anti-Trinitarian views. A general act
of oblivion restored him to liber-
ty, when he immediately disseminat-
ed his opinions both by preaching and
by the publication of his " Twofold
Scripture Catechism." He was again
imprisoned, and the law of 1048 was
to be put in operation against him
when, to save his life, Cromwell ban-
ished him to St. Mary's Castle, Sicily,
and assigned him 100 crowns annual-
ly. Here he remained three years, un-
til the Protector liberated him in 1658.
He then continued to preach his opin-
ions till the death of Cromwell, and
also after the Restoration, when he
was committed to jail in 1662, and
died a few months after.
Biddle, Nicholas, an American
naval officer, born in Philadelphia,
Pa., Sept. 10, 1750. After serving in
the British navy and in the Arctic ex-
ploring expedition led by Captain
Phipps, he returned to his native
country at the outbreak of the Revo-
lution, and was one of the five officers
who received the rank of captain at
the organization of the American,
navy in 1775. In command of the
" Andrea Doria " he accompanied
Fleet-Captain Hopkins to the Baha-
mas, and was present at the capture
of New Providence. In 1777 he took
command of the 32-gun ship " Ran-
dolph," the first American frigate
ever launched. He met the British
" Yarmouth," 64 guns, on March 7,
1778, and in the ensuing action the
" Randolph " blew up, causing the
death of her captain and about 315
others.
Biddle, Nicholas, an American
financier, born in Philadelphia, Pa.,
Jan. 8, 1786; became secretary to
John Armstrong, United States Min-
ister to France, in 1804, and subse-
quently went to England as secretary
to James Monroe, then United States
Minister. He returned home In 1807,
was elected to the Pennsylvania Legis-
lature in 1810, and was appointed a
director of the United States Bank in
1819. He became president of the
bank in 1823 and managed it ably
down to the expiration of its charter.
He died in Philadelphia, Feb. 27, 1844.
Bid-well, John, an American po-
litician, born in Chautauqua county,
N. Y., Aug. 5, 1819. In 1831 his par-
ents moved to Ashtabula county, O.,
where he acquired an academical edu-
cation and taught school. He went
to California in 1841 ; served in the
Mexican War, reaching the rank of
Major ; was a member of the Consti-
tutional Convention of 1849; and of
the National Democratic Convention
in Charleston, in 1860. In the Civil
War he was brigadier-general of Cali-
fornia militia. In 1864 he was elect-
ed to Congress as a Republican; in
1866 was a member of the Philadel-
phia Convention ; in 1890 was the un-
successful Prohibition candidate for
Governor of California; and. in 1892,
unsuccessful candidate of his party
for the Presidency. He died in Chico,
Gal., April 5, 1900.
Biela, Wilhelm, Baron von, an
Austrian army officer, born in Roslau,
Bif la's Comet
Prussia, March 19, 1782 ; known from
his discovery of the comet bearing his
name. He died in Venice, Feb. 18,
1856.
Biela's Comet, a comet which took
its name from Major Biela of the Aus-
trian army, who traced it out in 1826
and furnished such data regarding its
movements as to convince the other
astronomers of his day that he had a
proprietary right to it. The same
comet had been noticed on March 8,
1772, and again in 1805.
Biehlesohle, a stalactite cavern in
the Harz Mountains, on the right
bank of the Bode.
Biennial, a plant that requires
two seasons to come to maturity,
Bienville, Jean Baptiste le
Moyne, a French colonist, born in
Montreal, Feb. 23, 1680. In 1698,
with his brother, Iberville, he left
France to found a colony at the mouth
of the Mississippi. In 1700 he con-
structed a fort 54 miles above the
mouth of the river, and in 1701,
he succeeded to the direction of the
colony, the seat of which became Mo-
bile. In 1718 he received a commis-
sion as governor of Mississippi, and
about this time founded the city of
New Orleans. In 1724 he was sum-
moned to France, and, on Aug. 9,
1726, was removed from office. In
1733 he was sent back to the colony
as governor, with the rank of lieu-
tenant-general. In 1743 he was again
removed and returned to France,
where he died in 1765.
Bierstadt, Albert, an American
painter, born near Dusseldorf, Ger-
many, Jan. 7, 1830 ; removed with his
parents to Salem, Mass., in 1831 ; be-
gan to paint in oils in 1851 ; and in
1853 returned to Dusseldorf to study
his art, spending a winter in Rome,
traveling in Italy and Switzerland,
and returning to the United States in
1857. In 1859 he accompanied Gen-
eral Lander's expedition to the Rocky
Mountains, and spent several months
in studies of mountain scenery. He
was elected a member of the National
Academy in 1860. In 1861 he finished
his painting, " Laramie Peak," and in
1863 " View of the Rocky Mountains
— Lander's Peak." These at once
gave him a high reputation. He died
in New York city, Feb. 18, 1902.
Bigelow
Bies-Bosch, a marshy sheet of wa-
ter interspersed with islands, between
the Dutch Provinces of North Bra-
bant and South Holland, formed in
1421 by an inundation which destroy-
ed 72 villages and 100,000 people.
Bigamy, in civil law, the act of
marrying a second time, while the first
husband or wife is still known to be
living, and not divorced.
Big ' Bend Country, a volcanic
plain near the center of the State o£
Washington. It covers 4,800 square
miles, a third of it being gently roll-
ing, brown loam prairie, suitable for
farming, and the rest low hills and
plateaus of bunch grass and sage
brush, where livestock is ranged. The
Columbia river curves round this re-
gion, flowing in a ravine 1,500 feet be-
low the general level. It is traversed
by several remarkable chasms, many
miles long, and from a furlong to half
a league wide, with sheet walls ot
black basalt 500 feet high.
Big Bethel, a village in Virginia,
on the peninsula between the York
and James rivers ; the scene of a bat-
tle, June 10, 1861, between the Fed-
eral and Confederate forces. It re-
sulted in the defeat of the Federal
army.
Big Bone Lick, a salt spring, in
Boone county, Ky., 11 miles S. of
Burlington, where fossil remains of
mastadons and other extinct fauna
have been found.
Bigelow, Erastus Brigham, an
American inventor, born in Boylston,
Mass., April 2, 1814; became a lead-
ing manufacturer in Clinton, Mass. ;
invented looms for suspender weaving,
for counterpanes, for coach lace and
for carpets. He died in Boston, Dec.
6, 1879.
Bigelow* Frank Hagar, an
American clergyman and meteorolo-
gist, born in Concord, Mass., Aug. 28,
1851 ; graduated at Harvard in 1873»
and at the Episcopal Theological
School at Cambridge, Mass. ; was or-
dained in 1880, and became assistant
rector at St. John's Church in Wash-
ington, D. C. In 1873-1876 and
1881-1883 he was Astronomer at the
Cordoba Observatory, Argentine Re-
public in 1884-1889, Professor of
Mathematics at Racine College, Wis-
consin ; and in 1893 became Professor
Bigelow
of Meteorology in the United States
Weather Bureau.
Bigelow, Jacob, an American
physician, born in Sudbury, Mass.,
Feb. 27, 1787; graduated at Harvard
College in 1806, and began medical
practice in Boston in 1810. He early
became known as a botanist, and a
number of plants were named for him
by Sir J. E. Smith. He died in Bos-
ton, Jan. 10, 1879.
Bigelow, John, an American au-
thor, born in Maiden, N. Y., Nov. 25,
1817; graduated at Union College, in
1835, and became first a lawyer and
afterward a journalist. In 1845-1846
he was inspector of Sing Sing pris-
on ; in 1849-1861 one of the editors of
the New York " Evening Post ; " in
1861-1864, United States Consul-Gen-
eral at Paris ; and in 1864-1867, Min-
ister to France. He was Secretary of
State of New York in 1875-1877. In
his will Samuel J. Tilden appointed
him his biographer and a trustee of the
bulk of his estate, set apart for a pub-
lic library in New York city. He died
Dec. 19, 1911.
Bigelow, John, Jr., an American
military officer, born in New York,
May 12, 1854 ; son of the preceding ;
was educated in Paris, Bonn, Berlin,
Freiburg, and Providence, R. I. ; grad-
uated at the United States Military
Academy in 1877 ; and was assigned
to the 10th United States Cavalry. In
1887-1889 was adjutant-general of the
militia in the District of Columbia ;
and in 1894-1898, Professor of Mili-
tary Science at the Massachusetts In-
stitute of Technology. During the
war with Spain he was wounded in
the attack on San Juan, Cuba, July 1,
1898. Retired as major in 1904.
Bigelow, Poultney, an American
author, born in New York, Sept. 10,
1855 ; son of John Bigelow ; graduated
at Yale University and at the Colum-
bia Law School in 1882, and was ad-
mitted to the bar. In 1875-1876 he
took a journey around the world in a
Bailing ship, which was wrecked on
the coast of Japan. He traveled ij
China, Africa, the West Indies, and
Demerara. He has made canoe voy-
ages on the principal waters of Eu-
rope, and was the first person to take
a canoe through the Iron Gates of
the Danube.
Big Trees
Bigelow, Timothy, an American
military officer, born in Worcester,
Mass., Aug. 12, 1739. On May 23,
1775, he led a company of minute men
to Cambridge, and became a Major in
Ward's regiment. He was under Ar-
nold in the expedition to Quebec in
1775, and was there captured, remain-
ing a prisoner till 1776. He became
a Colonel in 1777, and assisted in the
capture of Burgoyne. He also saw
service' at Valley Forge, Monmouth,
West Point, and Yorktown. He died
in Worcester, Mass., March 31, 1790.
Biggs, Asa, an American jurist,
born in Williamston, N. C., Feb. 4,
1811; died in Norfolk, Va., March 6,
1878.
Big Horn, the wild sheep of the
Rocky Mountains, named from the
size of its horns, which are 3% feet
long, the animal itself being of the
same height at the shoulder.
Big Horn Mountains, a range
of mountains beginning near the cen-
ter of Wyoming and running N. into
Montana, containing heights of from
8,000 to 12,000 feet, and covering 7,-
500 square miles.
Big Horn River, a river of Mon-
tana and Wyoming ; rises in the
Rocky Mountains near Fremont's
Peak, and flows N. E. into the Yel-
lowstone. Along its course is some of
the grandest mountain scenery in the
world.
Bignonia, a genus of plants (that
of the trumpet flowers). It has four
perfect stamina, two long and two
short. The species, which are numer-
ous, are nearly all of an ornamental
character, owing to their fine, large,
trumpet like, monopetalous corolla's,
colored red, blue, yellow, or white.
Big Trees, the sequoia gigantea,
" big tree " of California, is found
only on the .W. slope of the Sierra,
while the " redwood," belonging to
the same genus, is confined to the
Coast Range.
The Calaveras Grove of sequoia gi-
gantea is the northernmost of the Cal-
ifornia groves of big trees, and it is
the nearest to San Francisco. It is,
however, comparatively seldom visit-
ed, as the Mariposa Grove is conven-
iently included in the usual route to
the Yosemite. The Calaveras Grove
covers an area 1,100 yards long and
Big Woods
70 yards wide, 4,750 feet above the
sea, and contains about 100 trees of
large size, besides many smaller ones.
The tallest now standing is the Key-
stone State, which is 325 feet high
and 45 feet in girth. The Mother of
the Forest (denuded of its bark) is
315 feet high and has a girth of 61
feet, while the prostrate Father of
the Forest measures 112 feet in cir-
cumference. Two other trees are over
300 feet high, and many exceed 250
feet. A house has been built over a
stump with a diameter of 24 feet. The
bark is sometimes 1% feet in thick-
ness. About 5 miles to the S. is the
Stanislaus or South Grove, also con-
taining many fine trees.
The Marippsa Grove of big trees, so
called from its situation in Mariposa
county, occupies a tract of land (6,-
500 feet above the sea) 4 square miles
in area, reserved as a State Park, and
consists of two distinct groves, one-
half mile apart. The Lower Grove
contains about 100 fine specimens of
the sequoia gigantea, including the
Grizzly Giant, the largest of all, with
a circumference of 94 feet and a diam-
eter of 31 feet. Its main limb, 200
feet from the ground, is 6% feet in
diameter. In ascending to the Upper
Grove, which contains 365 big trees,
the road passes through a tunnel, 10
feet high and 91/^ feet wide (at the
bottom), cut directly through the
heart of a living sequoia, 27 feet in
diameter. About 10 of the trees in the
Mariposa Grove exceed 250 feet in
height (highest 272 feet) and about
20 trees have a circumference of over
60 feet, three of these being over 90
feet. The Calaveras Gi'ove has taller
trees than any of the Mariposa Grove,
but the latter has those of greater cir-
cumference. The wood of the sequoia
gigantea, like that of the sequoia sem-
pervirens, is easily worked, durable,
and susceptible of a high polish. The
sequoia sempervirens, or redwoods,
sometimes reach a height of 300 feet.
The Santa Cruz Grove of big trees
contains about a score of the genuine
redwood with a diameter of 10 feet
and upward. The largest is 23 feet
across ; one of the finest, named the
Pioneer, has a girth of 70 feet. The
redwood is one of the most prized va-
rieties of lumber, and is shipped in
great quantities to the Eastern States,
Bilge
where its ornamental qualities are
fully appreciated.
Big Woods, a forest region in the
S. E. part of Minnesota, extending S.
from St. Cloud to Le Sueur, where it
crosses the Minnesota, and sends
branches toward Faribault and Man-
kato.
Bihe, a fruitful district of South
Africa, E. of Benguela, and under
Portuguese influence. Bihe is an im-
portant caravan center, as the only
route across the continent passes
through it. Pop. 95,000.
Bijapnr, a decayed city in the
Bombay Presidency, 160 miles S. E. of
Poona. It was for centuries the capi-
tal of a powerful kingdom. Pop.
(1911) 27,615.
Bikaner, a native State of Raj-
putaua, India, under the superinten-
dence of a political agent and the
governor-general's agent for Rajput-
ana. Area, 23,315 square miles ; pop.
(1911) 700,983; city, 55,826.
Bilaspur, a district in the chief
commissionership of the Central Prov-
inces of India. Area, 7,618 square
miles ; pop. 1,146,223.
Bilbao, a town of Northern Spain,
the capital of the Basque Province of
Vizcaya, is situated in a mountain
gorge on the Nervion, 8 miles S. E. of
its mouth at Portugalete, and 63 miles
N. by E. of Miranda by rail. Bilbao
is well built. The place, which is
purely a trading town, prides itself on
being kept exceptionally clean. Pop.
(1910) 93,536.
Bilberry, the name given to one
or two species of a genus of plants
belonging to the order cranberries. It
is also called the whortleberry. It
has angular stems, drooping, urceolate,
almost waxy flowers, greenish with a
red tinge, and black berries very pleas-
ant to the tasle. It grows in woods
and healthy places. The great bil-
berry or bog whortleberry is an allied
species with rounded stems, smaller
flowers, and less agreeably tasted
fruit. It grows in mountain bogs. It
is called also the bleab.erry or blae-
berry. The name is also applied to
the fruit of the species described.
Bilge, the breadth of a ship's bot-
tom, or that part of her floor which
approaches to a horizontal direction,
on which she would rest if aground.
Bilguer
Bilgner, Paul Rudolf von, a
Prussian military officer, born in
Ludwigslust, Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
Sept. 21, 1815. He was a lieutenant
in the army, and was best known as
an authority on chess. He died in
Berlin, Sept. 10, 1840.
Biliary Calculus, a concretion
which forms in the gall bladder or bile
ducts ; gall stone. It is generally
composed of a peculiar crystalline
fatty matter which has been called
cholesterine.
Bill, a written or printed paper
containing a statement of any partic-
ulars. In common use a tradesman's
account, or a printed proclamation
or advertisement, is thus called a bill.
In legislation a bill is a draft of a
proposed statute submitted to a legis-
lative assembly for approval, but not
yet enacted or passed and made law.
When the bill has passed and received
the necessary assent, it becomes an
act
Billancl-Varcniies, Jacques N.,
the son of a French advocate at Ro-
chelle, born in 1756 ; was educated at
the same college as Fouche, and
proved himself one of the most vio-
lent'and sanguinary characters of the
French Revolution. He bore a prin-
cipal part in the murders and massa-
cres which followed the destruction
of the Bastille ; voted immediate death
to Louis XVI. ; and officiated as pres-
ident of the Convention on Oct. 18,
1793. He was afterward deported to
Cayenne, and subsisted on a small
pension allowed him by Petion. He
died in Haiti, in 1819.
Bill Broker, a financial agent or
money dealer, who discounts or nego-
tiates bills of exchange, promissory
notes, etc.
Bille, Steen Andersen, a Danish
naval officer, born in Copenhagen,
Dec. 5, 1797. He was a member of
the expedition that went to South
America in 1840, and had command
of a scientific expedition round the
world, in the corvette " Galatea,''
1845-1847, of which he wrote an in-
teresting account. He died in Copen-
hagen, May 7, 1883.
Billeting, a mode of feeding and
lodging soldiers when they are not in
camp or barracks by quartering them
on the inhabitants of a town.
Billingsgate
Billiards, a word probably de-
rived from old French billiard, "a
stick with a curved end ;" in English,
introduced as the name of a game,
and made plural. The origin of bil-
liards is uncertain.
Billings, John Shaw, an Amer-
ican surgeon and librarian, born
in Switzerland county, Ind., April
12, 1839; was graduated at Miami
University, in 1857, and the
Ohio Medical College, in I860; was
demonstrator of anatomy in the
last institution, in 1860-1861; enter-
ed the Union army as an Assistant
Surgeon, in 1801 ; was promoted to
Lieutenant-Colonel and Deputy Sur-
geon General, June 6, 1894 ; and was
retired, Oct 1, 1895. He was Pro-
fessor of Hygiene in the University of
Pennsylvania, in 1893-1896; and in
the last year was appointed Director
of the New York Public Library (As-
tor, Lenox and Tilden foundations).
After the close of the war Dr. Bil-
lings took charge of the library in the
Surgeon-General's office ; reorganized
the United States Marine Hospital
Service; was Vice-President of the
National Board of Health, in 1879-
1882; and had charge of the compila-
tion of vital statistics in the Eleventh
Census. He died March 11, 1913.
Billings, William, an American
composer, born in Boston, Oct 7,
1746. One of the earliest of Ameri-
can composers, he is accredited with
having introduced into New England
a spirited style of church music. He
died in Boston, Sept. 26, 1800.
Billingsgate, a word said to have
been derived from Belinus Magnus, a
somewhat mythic British prince,
father of King Lud, about B. c. 400.
More probably it came from some un-
known person called Billing. It is
applied to the celebrated London fish
market existent at least as early as
A. D. 979, made a free market in 1699,
extended in 1849, rebuilt in 1852, and
finally exposed to the rivalry of an-
other market begun 1874, completed
1876. The word is also used to indi-
cate foul, abusive language, such as
is popularly supposed to be mutually
employed by fish-wives who are unable
to come to an amicable understanding
as to the proper price of the fish about
which they are negotiating.
Billion
Binary Arithmetic
Billion, in English notation 1,000,-
000 times 1,000,000, and in England
it is written 1,000,000,000,000, i. e.,
with twice as many ciphers as 1,000,-
000 has. In the United States and
in France the notation is different,
the word billion signifying only 1,000
millions, written 1,000,000,000.
Billiton, a Dutch East Indian is-
land between Banca and the S. W. of
Borneo, of an irregular, sub-quad-
rangular form, about 40 miles across.
It produces iron and tin, and exports
gago, cocoanuts, pepper, tortoise shell,
trepang, edible birds' nests, etc. It
was ceded to the British in 1812 by
the Sultan of Palembang, but in 1824
it was given up to the Dutch. Pop.
(1890) 38,779.
Bilney, Thomas, an English mar-
tyr, born about 1495, probably at
Norwich ; studied at Trinity Hall,
Cambridge, and was ordained in 1519.
He was opposed to the formal " gooa
works " of the Schoolmen, and de-
nounced saint and relic worship ; and
to these mild Protestant views he con- 1
verted Hugh Latimer and other young
Cambridge men. In 1527 he was ar-
r» igned before Wolsey, and on recant-
ing, absolved, but was confined in the
Tower for over a year. Stung by re-
morse, after two years of suffering, he
began to preach in the fields of Nor-
folk, but was soon apprehended and
condemned ; and although allowed to
receive the sacraments of the Church
from which he differed so little, he
was burned as a heretic at Norwich,
Aug. 19, 1531.
Biloxi, a city in Harrison co.,
Miss., the site of the first settlement
on tho Mississippi by white men, un-
der the direction of d'Iberville, in
1699. Pop. (1910) 7,988.
Biloxi Indians, the name given to
on of the 10 groups of tribes into
which the Siouan stock of Nortn
American Indians is divided.
Bimetallism, a term invented by
Henry Cernuschi and currently used
to denote a double monetary standard
of value. A Bimetallic Congress was
held at Brussels in April, 1896, repre-
sentatives from Great Britain,
France, the United States, Germany,
Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark,
Holland, Rumania, and Russia being
present. Ultimately the members
constituted themselves a permanent
committee, and expressed their opin-
ion that a preliminary and immediate
agreement might result from the re-
establishment of bimetallism by the
United States, the reopening of the
Indian mints for the coinage of sil-
ver, the turning into silver of part of
the metallic reserve of the Bank of
England, and the absorption of a suf-
ficient amount of silver by the vari-
ous European States. The currency
question in the United States influ-
enced very materially the canvass for
the Presidency in 1896. It appeared,
as the year wore on, that free silver
doctrines had captured a majority of
the Democratic party, and at the Chi-
cago Convention (July 7th) this ma-
jority adopted a platform demanding
" the immediate restoration of the
free and unlimited coinage of gold and
silver at the present legal ratio of 16
to 1, without waiting for the aid or
consent of any other nation," and
that " the standard silver dollar shall
be full legal tender equally with gold
for all debts, public and private."
WILLIAM JENNINGS BET AN was nom-
inated for the Presidency, but was de-
cisively beaten by WILLIAM McKiN-
LET, the Republican candidate, who
favored a single gold standard, though
he pledged himself to promote action
by international agreement. To this
end he sent commissioners to France,
Great Britain and Germany, in 1897,
and they, together with the French
Ambassador, laid various proposals
before the British Government, the
chief of which were that the Indian
mints should be reopened, and that
Great Britain should annually pur-
chase $50,000,000 of silver. The In-
dian Government, however, declined
to agree to the first suggestion, and
no action resulted.
Binary Arithmetic, a method of
notation invented by Leibnitz, but
which appears to have been in use in
China about 4,000 years ago. As the
term binary implies, there are only
two characters in this notation ; these
are 1 and 0. By it, our 1 is noted by
1, our 2 by 10, 3 by 11, 4 by 100, 5
by 101, 6 by 110, 7 by 111, 8 by 1,000,
9 by 1,001, 10 by 1,010, etc. The
principle is that 0 multiplies by 2 in
place of by 10, as on the common sys-
tem.
Binary Engine
Binary Engine, usually an en-
gine having one cylinder, the piston
being impelled by steam, which, hav-
ing done its work there, is exhausted
into another part of the apparatus,
where it is allowed to communicate
its unutilized heat to some liquid vola-
tile at a lower temperature ; the va-
por of this second liquid, by its ex-
pansion in a second cylinder, yields
additional useful force.
Bingen, a German town in the
Province of Rhine-Hesse, Hesse ; on
the left bank of the Rhine, and the
right of the Nahe. It is of con-
siderable historical interest, contain-
ing the ruins of the Castle of Klopp,
blown up by the French in 1689 ; the
remains of a 12th century monastery ;
and the tower, which, tradition tells
us, was the scene of the tormenting
death of Hatto, Archbishop of Mainz,
said to have been eaten alive by mice
in the 9th century. A statue of " Ger-
mania," heroic size, has been erected
here to commemorate the German vic-
tories of 1870-71. Pop. (1900) 9,670.
Bingham, Hiram, an American
Congregational clergyman, born in
Bennington, Vt, Oct. 30, 1789; was
one of the first missionaries of the
Congregational Church to be sent to
the Sandwich Islands, where he ac-
quired much influence with the na-
tives. He died in New Haven, Conn.,
Nov. 11, 1869.
Bingham, John A., an American
politician, born in Mercer, Pa., in
1815; became a lawyer in 1840; mana-
ger of the trial of President Johnson;
minister to Japan in 1873-1885. He
died, March 20, 1900.
Bingham, Kinsley S., an Amer-
ican legislator, born in Camillus, N.
Y., Dec. 16, 1801; went to Michigan in
1833; was a member of Congress in
1849-1851; Governor in 1855-1859,
and United States Senator in 1859-
1861. He died, Oct. 5, 1861.
Binghamton, city and capital of
Brooine county, N. Y.; at junction of
the Chenango and Susquehanna rivers
and on several railroads; 50 miles E.
of Elmira; has a Government Build-
ing, State Asylum for the Insane,
Armory, and the Commercial Trav-
eler's Home; is one of the largest
cigar manufacturing cities in the
country. Pop. (1910) 48,443.
Binturong
Binlcy, "Ward, the Garrick of
the Dutch stage, was born at Rotter-
dam in 1755, of English parents. In
1799 he made his debut on the stage
of Amsterdam, and from the first
took his place at the head of his
profession. He died at The Hague
in 1818.
BINNACLE.
He
Binnacle, corrupted from bittacle,
| a wooden case or box in which the
compass on board a
ship is kept to pro-
tect it from injury.
Binney, H i b-
bert, a Canadian
clergyman, born in
Nova Scotia, Aug.
t 12, 1819 ; graduated
i at Oxford University
! in 1842. He became
i Bishop (Anglican)
, of Nova Scotia and
i Prince Edward Is-
, land, in 1851, this be-
ing the first instance
of England founding
a bishopric in her
colonies. He attend-
ed the General Con-
vention of the Prot-
e s t a n t Episcopal
Church held in Chicago in 1886.
died in 1887.
Binney, Horace, an American
lawyer, born in Philadelphia, Jan. 4,
1780 ; was graduated at Harvard in
1797; and for many years was at the
head of the Pennsylvania bar. He
had a number of distinguished cases
in his career ; the most noted one be-
ing the defense of the city of Philadel-
phia against the executors of Stephen
Girard. He was also a director in the
United States Bank. He wrote many
valuable papers, and was the author
of "The Leaders of the Old Bar of
Philadelphia," and "The Privilege of
the Writ of Habeas Corpus Under the
Constitution." He died in Philadel-
phia, Aug. 12, 1875.
Binocular, literally, having two
eyes or pertaining to both eyes; an
instrument having two tubes, each
furnished above with an eye glass,
so as to enable one to see with both
eyes at once.
Bintnrong (bear-marten), a ge-
•nus of carnivores in the civet section.
Its resemblance to raccoons, beside
Binne
which it used to be placed, is entirely
superficial. It is a slow, arboreal and
nocturnal animal, partly vegetarian,
indeed omnivorous, in its diet, with
lank body, coarse, dark hair, long,
tufted ears, and prehensile tail. There
is but one species found in India, Ala-
lay, Sumatra and Java. It is easily
tamed.
Binne, or Benuc, the largest and
most important tributary of Niger
river, West Africa. It rises in the
mountains N. of Adamawa and at Lo-
koja joins the Niger.
Biobio, the largest river of Chile,
has a W. N. W. course of about 200
miles, from near the volcano of An-
tuco in the Andes to Consepcion on
the Pacific Ocean. It is 2 miles wide
at its mouth, and navigable for 100
miles. The river, since 1875, has
given name to a province with an
area of 5,353 square miles, and a pop.
(1914) of 103,873.
Biograph, an apparatus that dis-
plays in rapid sequence a long series
of photographs. It differs from the
kinetoscppe in that instead of showing
small pictures through an enlarging
lens by reflected light, it projects them
on a screen where they are shown life
size, or larger if desired.
Biology, a term first introduced by
Treviranus of Bremen, adopted by
the leading English speaking natural-
ists, and now having universal cur-
rency. It is used in two senses : ( 1 )
(In a more restricted sense) : Physi-
ology; (2) (In a wider sense) : The
science of life in its widest accepta-
tion.
Biot, Jean Baptiste, French
mathematician and physicist born at
Paris 1774, and died there 1862. He
became professor of phvsics in the
College de France in 1800, in 1803
member of the Academy of Sciences,
in 1804 was appointed to the Observ-
atory of Paris, in 180G was made
member of the Bureau des Longitudes,
in 1809 became also professor of physi-
cal astronomy in the University of
Paris. IH connection with the meas-
urement of a degree of the meridian
he visited Britain in 1817. He is es-
pecially celebrated as the discoverer of
the circular polarization of light.
Biotite, a hexagonal and an opti-
cally uniaxial mineral, formerly called
Bird
magnesia mica, hexagonal mica, and
uniaxial mica ; named after Jean Bap-
tiste Biot
Biped, a descriptive term, some-
times applied to man, but more fre-
quently to birds.
Birch, the English name of the
trees and shrubs belonging to the bo-
tanical genus betula. The common
birch grows best in healthy soils and
in Alpine districts. The drooping or
weeping birch is a variety of this tree.
It grows wild on the European conti-
nent and in Asia. The wood of the
birch is tough and white. It is used
for making brooms; it is often burned
into charcoal ; twigs are by many em-
ployed for purposes of castigatipn.
The oil obtained from the white rind
is used in tanning Russia leather. The
Russians turn it to account also as a
vermifuge and as a balsam in the
cure of wounds. In some countries
the bark of the birch is made into
hats and cups. The canoe birch, of
which the North American Indians
constructed their portable caooes is
so ca'led for that reason.
Birch, Samuel, an English Ori-
entalist, born in London, Nov. 3, 1813.
He entered the British Museum as As-
sistant Keeper of Antiquities, in 1836,
and ultimately became Keeper of the
Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities.
He was especially famed for his ca-
pacity and skill in Egyptology, and
was associated with Baron Bunsen in
his work on Egypt, contributing the
philological portions relating to hiero-
glyphics. He died Dec. 27, 1885.
Bird, Charles, an American mili-
tary officer, born in Delaware, June
17, 1838. On March 2, 1867, he was
brevetted First Lieutenant and Cap-
tain in the United States army for
gallantry in the battle of Fredericks-
burg, Major for Spottsylvania, and
Lieutenant-Colonel for Petersburg,
Va. He was appointed a Second
Lieutenant, 14th United States In-
fantry, in 1866; promoted to Major
and Quartermaster in 1895 ; commis-
sioned Colonel of United States Vol-
unteers in 1898 ; Brigadier-General
and retired in 1902.
Bird, Frederic Mayer, an Amer-
ican clergyman, born in Philadelphia,
June 28, 1838; graduated at the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania in 1857, and
Bird
at the Union Theological Seminary in
1860. He was rector at Spotswood,
N. J., in 1870-1874; Chaplain and
Professor of Psychology, Christian
Evidences and Rhetoric, at Lehigh
University in 1881-1886; and acting
chaplain there in 1893-1898. He was
noted as a hymnologist, and as the
collector of one of the most complete
and valuable musical libraries in the
United States. Died April 2, 1908.
Bird, Robert Montgomery, an
American dramatist and novelist,
born in Newcastle, Del., about 1803 ;
died in Philadelphia, Jan. 22, 1854.
Bird-Catching Spider, a name
applied to a gigantic spider, a native
of Surinam and elsewhere which preys
upon insects and small birds which it
hunts for and pounces on.
Bird Lice, the common name
given to the small parasites so fre-
quently seen infesting birds.
Bird Lime, a substance whitish
and limy in appearance ; used, as its
name imports, for capturing birds. It
is, in general, manufactured from the
bark of the holly.
Bird of HI Omen, a phrase often
applied to a person who is regarded as
unlucky ; one who is in the habit of
bringing ill news. The ancients
thought that some birds indicated
good luck, and others evil.
Bird of Paradise, the English
designation of a family of conirostral
birds. They are closely allied to the
crows, with which, indeed, they are
united by some writers. They have
magnificent plumage, especially the
males, who can, moreover, elevate
quite a canopy of plumes behind their
necks.
Bird's Eye, the eye or eyes of a
bird. In botany, the name of several
plants with small, bright, usually blue,
flowers.
Bird's-Eye Maple, curled maple,
the wood of the sugar maple when
full of little knotty spots, somewhat
resembling birds' eyes, much used in
cabinet work.
Bird's-Eye View, the representa-
tion of any scene as it would appear
if seen from a considerable elevation
right above.
Bird's Nest the nest of a bird.
Those of the several species vary in
Birkenfeld
their minor details so as to be in most
cases distinguishable from each other.
Edible birds' nests are nests built
by the collocalia esculenta, and cer-
tain other species of swallows inhabit-
ing Sumatra, Java, China, and some
other parts of the East. The nests,
a Chinese luxury, are formed of a
mucilaginous substance, secreted by
the birds from their salivary glands.
See SALANGANE.
Birds of Passage, birds which
migrate with the season from a colder
to a warmer, or from a wanner to a
colder climate.
Bireme, a Roman ship of war
with two banks of oars. It was in-
ferior in magnitude and strength to
the trireme.
Biren, Ernest John, Duke of
Conrland, a Lithuanian of mean fam-
ily, was born in 1690, and went in
1714 to St. Petersburg. Anna, Duch-
ess Dowager of Courland, made him
her favorite, and when she became
Empress of Russia, intrusted to him
the administration of the kingdom.
On the death of the Empress he as-
sumed the regency, by virtue of her
will ; but, in 1740, a conspiracy was
formed against him by Marshal Mu-
nich, and he was condemned to death,
which sentence was changed to banish-
ment. Peter III. recalled him, and
Catherine II. restored him to his for-
mer dignity. In 17G3, Biren re-en-
tered Mitau ; and, profiting by the les-
sons of misfortune he had experienced,
governed for the remainder of his life
with mildness and justice. He died
in 1772.
Birge, Edward Asahel, an Amer-
ican naturalist, born in Troy, N. Y.,
Sept 7, 1851; graduated at Williams
College in 1873 ; studied physiology
and histology at Leipsic in 1880-1881.
He became Instructor of Natural His-
tory in the University of Wisconsin
in 1875 ; Professor of Zoology in
1879 ; and Dean of the College of Let-
ters and Science in 1891. In 1897 he
became Director of the Geological and
Natural History Survey of Wiscon-
sin.
Birkenfeld, a German principali-
ty belonging to Oldenburg, but sur-
rounded by the Prussian Rhine Prov-
ince, and intersected by the railway
from Bingen to Saarbruck. It has an
RARE BIRDS OF BRILLIANT PLUMAGE
Birmingham
area of nearly 200 square miles, with
a population of (1910) 50,496; it
Las been connected with Oldenburg,
300 miles distant, since 1817. The
capital, Birkenfeld, has a population
of about 3,000.
Birmingham, city and county-
seat of Jefferson co., Ala. ; at the
junction of several trunk railroads;
96 miles N. W. of Montgomery, the
State capital. Birmingham was in-
corporated as a city in 1871 with a
population of less than 1,000. Its
noticeable development began in 1880
and its remarkable progress may be
eaid to date from 1890. In 1896 its
tv.-Q largest iron and steel corporations
began selling pig iron for export at
prices as satisfactory as those ob-
to ined on domestic orders ; and since
then it has had a larger development
in the iron and steel industry than
any city S. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890)
2G,178; (1900) 38,415; with suburbs,
about 100,000; (1910) 132,685.
Birmingham, a city of England,
on the Rea river near its confluence
with the Tame, in the N. W. of War-
wickshire, with suburbs extending
into Staffordshire and Worcester-
shire; 112 miles N. W. of London,
and 97 S. E. of Liverpool. It is the
principal seat of the hardware manu-
facture in Great Britain. Bir-
mingham is known to have existed in
the reign of Alfred, in 872, and is
mentioned in the Domesday Book
H086) by the name of Bermengeham.
Another old name of the town is
Bromwycham, a form still preserved
very nearly in the popular local pro-
nunciation, Brummagem. Pop. (1801)
73,670; (1891) 478.113; (1901) 523,-
179; (1911) 525,833.
Birney, David Bell, an American
military officer, born in Huntsville,
Ala., May 29, 1825 ; son of James Gil-
lespie Birney ; studied law in Cin-
cinnati, and. in 1848, began practice
in Philadelphia. At the outbreak of
the Civil War he entered the Union
army. He distinguished himself in
the battles of Yorktown, Williams-
burg, Fredericksburg, Chancellors-
ville and Gettysburg. He died in
Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 18, 1864.
Birney, James Gillespie, an
American statesman and publicist,
born at Danville, Ky., Feb. 4, 1792. i
Birth -Rate
Though a Southern planter, he eman-
cipated his slaves and became a prom-
inent anti-slavery leader in the South,
proprietor and editor of the anti-slav-
ery journal, " The Philanthropist,"
etc. He was candidate of the Liberty
Party for President in 1840 and 1844.
He died at Perth Amboy, N. J., Nov.
25, 1857.
Birney, William, an American
lawyer, born in Madison county, Ala.,
May 28, 1819 ; was educated in Paris ;
took part in the Revolution of 1848;
and was appointed, on public compe-
tition, Professor of English Litera-
ture in the College at Bourges,
France. In 1861 he entered the
United States army as a private, and
was promoted to brevet Major-Gen-
eral. In 1863-1865 he commanded
a division. He died Aug. 14, 1907.
Biron, Armand de Gontanlt,
Baron de, Marshal of France; born
about 1524. He took a prominent
part in the civil wars of Huguenot
and Catholic, and served at the bat-
tles of Dreux, St. Denis and Moncon-
tour. He negotiated the peace of St.
Germain, and narrowly escaped at the
massacre of St. Bartholomew. He
was killed at the siege of Epernay, in
1592.
Biron, Charles de Gontanlt,
Dnc de, son of the preceding; born
in 1562, was Admiral and Marshal of
France, and is noted for the. friend-
ship which Henry IV. entertained for
him, and for his treason toward that
monarch. He early covered himself
with glory at the battles of Arques
and Ivry, and at the sieges of Paris
and Rouen. The king loaded him
with honors, saved his life at the fight
of Fontaine Francaise, and made him
ambassador to England. Biron en-
tered into a conspiracy with Spain
and Savoy against his sovereign ; and
the plot being revealed by Lafin. its
instigator, he was beheaded in 1602.
Birth-Rate, the proportion of
births to each 1,000 inhabitants. It is
affected by economic and social condi-
tions, war, famine, etc., the well-to-do
having a lower rate than the average.
In the United States the rate among
foreign residents is 38.29; natives,
26.35; general average, 26.68. As a
rule, about 105 boys are born to 100
girls.
Biru
Bismarck
Birn, the name of a warlike chief
of South America, who flourished in
the 16th century. In 1526, this name
was given to the empire of the Incas,
now known as Peru.
Biscay or Vizcaya, the most
northerly of the Basque Provinces of
Spain, is bounded N. by the Bay of
Biscay, E. and S. by its sister prov-
inces, Guipuzcoa and Alava, and W.
by Santander. It has an area (very
mountainous in the S.) of 836 square
miles, and pop. (1913) of 363,587. !
Chief town, Bilbao; pop. 93,536.
Biscay, Bay of, that portion of
the Atlantic Ocean which sweeps in
along the N. shores of the Spanish
Peninsula in an almost straight line
from Cape Ortegal to St. Jean tie
Luz, at the W. foot of the Pyfenees,
and thence curves N. along the W.
shores of France to the island of
Ushant. Its extreme width is ab&ut
400 miles, and its length much about
the same.
Biscuit, in genera! language, iiin
flour cake which has been baked in the
oven until it is highly dried.
In pottery, articles molded and
baked in an oven, preparatory to the
glazing and burning. In the biscuit
form, pottery is bibulous, but the glaze
sinks into the pores and fuses in the
kiln, forming a vitreous coating to the
ware.
Bishop (a word derived frcm the
Greek episcopos, that is, overseer,
through the Saxon biscop), in the
early Christian Church, the name of
every person to whom tbe care of a
Christian congregation was intrusted.
Every congregation even in country
districts had at least one such over-
seer. The word was accordingly
used in the early history of the
Church in exactly the same sense as
presbyter or elder.
In the United States a bishop is
the highest dignitary in the Greek,
Catholic and Protestant Episcopal
Churches. These bishops generally
claim to be successors of the apostles.
In the Methodist Episcopal and Prot-
estant Episcopal Churches the bishop
is elected by the Conference or Con-
vention representing the respective
churches of the diocese. In the Ro-
man Catholic Church growth has been
sufficient in the opinion of the ruling
functionaries of that communion, to
warrant the establishment of the
greater hierarchy, and as a conse-
quence the office and dignity of a
bishop have become secondary — the
highest places being occupied by a
cardinal and numerous archbishops.
A new bishop is appointed by the
Pope from a list of three recommended
by the clergy of a vacant diocese.
Bishop, Mrs. (ISABELLA L. BIRD),
traveler and author, born in York-
shire, England, 1832, died 1904.
Bishop, John Remsen, an Amer-
ican educator ; born in New Bruns-
wick, N. J., Sept. 17, 1860 ; was grad-
uated at Harvard University in 1882 ;
taught Greek and English at St.
Paul's School, Concord, N. H., in
1882-1883; was principal of the
Princeton Preparatory School in
1884-1887; instructor of Greek and
Latin at Hughes High School, Cincin-
nati, in 1888-1895; and became prin-
cipal of the Walnut Hills High
School, Cincinnati, in 1895.
Bishop, Louis Fangeres, an
American phvsician, born in New
Brunswick, N. J., March 14, 1864;
graduated at Rutgers College in 1885,
and at the New York College of Phy-
sicians and Surgeons in 1889. He
was resident physician of St. Luk3*s
Hospital, New York, in 1889-1892,
and secretary of the New York Acad-
emy of Medicine and Chairman of its
Section of Medicine in 1900.
Bishoi), Seth Scott, an American
surgeon, born in Fond du Lac, Wis.,
Feb. 7, 1852 ; graduated at the North-
western University, in 1876. He be-
gan practice in Chicago, and has been
a professor in various medical colleges.
Bishops Suffragan, a class of
bishops in England appointed by the
crown to take the places of the early
bishops in partibus, who were assist-
ants to the active bishops of English
sees, and who held their warrant at
the pleasure of the bishops to whom
they were assigned. They were dis-
tinguished from suffragan bishops in
the Church of England, as every regu-
lar bishop was a suffragan of his su-
i perior or metropolitan.
Bismarck, city, capital of the
State of North Dakota, and county-
seat of Burleigh co. ; on the Missouri
, river, and the Northern Pacific rail-
Bismarck
Bismarck-Schonliausen
road ; 194 miles W. of Fargo. It con-
tains the State Capitol (which cost:
over $500,000), the State Peniten- i
tiary, court-house, city hall, opera
house, a State Hospital for the In-
sane, St. Paul Seminary, and an im-
mense river warehouse. The river is
here spanned by a bridge that cost
$1,000,000. Pop. (1910) 5,443.
Bismarck, Herbert, Prince von,
a German statesman, born in Berlin,
Dec. 28, 1849; son of Otto Eduard
Leopold, Prince von Bismarck-Schon-
hausen. He ranked high as a diplo-
mat. He died Sept. 18, 1904.
Bisiuarck-Schonliausen, Otto
Eduard Leopold, Prince von, a
German statesman, born at Schon-
hausen in Brandenburg, of an old
family, of which various members
gained a reputation both as soldiers '
and statesmen, April 1, 1815. He re- ;
ceived his university education at Got-
tingen, Berl'n, and Griefswald. Be-
fore 1847 he was little heard of, but
about that time he began to attract
attention in the new Prussian Parlia-
ment as an Ultra Royalist. He op-
posed the scheme of a German Empire
as proposed by the Frankfort Parlia-
ment of 1849.
In the spring of 1862 King Wil-
liam, on the urgent advice of the
Prince of Hohenzollern, transferred
Bismarck as ambassador to Paris, in !
order to give him an insight into the i
politics of the Tuileries. During his '
short stay at Paris Bismarck visited j
London, and had interviews with the
leading politicians of the time, in- i
eluding Lord Palmerston and Mr. Dis- j
raeli. In the autumn Bismarck was
recalled, to take the portfolio of the j
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the !
presidency of the Cabinet. Not being
able to pass the reorganization bill
and the budget, he closed the Cham-
bers (October, 1862), announcing to
the Deputies that the king's govern-
ment would be obliged to do without
their sanction. When the " conflict
era," as it was called, approached a
crisis, the death of the King of Den-
mark reopened the Schleswig-Holstein
question, and excited a fever of na-
tional German feeling, which Bis-
marck was adroit enough to work so
as to aggrandize Prussia by the acqui-
sition of the Elbe duchies.
The action of France in regard to
the candidature of Prince Leopold of
Hohenzollern for the throne of Spain
gave Bismarck the opportunity of car-
rying into action the intensified feel-
ing of unity among Germans. Dur-
ing the War of 1870-1871, Bismarck
was the spokesman of Germany ; he
it was that in February, 1871, dictated
tho terms of peace to France. Hav-
ing been made a Count in 1866, he
was now created a prince and Chan-
cellor of the German Empire. Fol-
lowing the Peace of Frankfort (May
10, 1871), the sole aim of Bismarck's
policy, domestic and foreign, was to
consolidate the young empire of his
own creating.
In 1884 Bismarck inaugurated the
career of Germany as a colonizing
power, a new departure which brought
him into sharp but temporary conflict
with the England of Gladstone. For
the rest, his foreign policy mainly
aimed at isolating France and render-
ing her incapable of forming anti-Ger-
man alliances. On the other hand, he
gradually combined the central powers
of Europe into a peace league, aiming
at counteracting the aggressiveness of
Russia and France, separately or com-
bined, on the Danube or the Rhine.
The nucleus of this peace league was
formed in 1879 by the Austro-German
Treaty of Alliance (published in Feb-
ruary, 1888), which Italy formally
joined in 1886, and which entitles Bis-
marck to be called the " peacemaker "
and the " peacekeeper " of Europe.
Bismarck's life was often threat-
ened, and twice actually attempted —
once at Berlin in 1866, just before the
Bohemian campaign, by Ferdinand
Cohen (or Blind), a crazy youth who
aimed at making himself the instru-
ment of popular dissatisfaction with
Bismarck, as the champion of abso-
lutism and the fancied apostle of a
fratricidal war; and again in 1874 at
Kissingen, by a Catholic tinsmith
named Kullman.
Emperor William died on March 9,
1888. The short reign of Emperor
Frederick followed and then the pres-
ent Emperor ascended the throne. On
March 18, 1890, Bismarck fell. The
cause of his fall has not yet been told.
When Bismarck's 81st birthday was
celebrated there was talk of reconcilia-
tion between the Prince and his sover-
eign. The Emperor sent his photo-
Bismarck Archipelago
Bissell
graph to Bismarck, the latter returned
thanks, and little by little the way
was paved for a meeting between the
two men? and eventually for the State
visit which the Emperor paid to Bis-
marck at Friedrichsruhe. where the
statesman died July 30, 1898.
In September, 1903, letters haves
been published showing the close and
cordial relations between Bismarck
and Kaiser William the First, and
that the emperor attributed Germany's
triumph in 1870-1871 to what he
called Bismarck's " world-historical
achievements."
Bismarck Archipelago, the name
officially given by Germany to New
Britain, New Ireland, New Hanover,
and several smaller adjoining islands
in the South Pacific.
Bismuth, a triad metallic element,
found associated with the ores of nick-
el, cobalt, copper and silver, in Sax-
ony, Austria, Peru, Australia and Bo-
livia.
Bison, the name applied to two
epecies of ox. One of these, the Euro-
pean bison or aurochs (Bos bison or
Bison Europoeus), is now nearly ex-
tinct, being found only in the forests
of Lithuania and the Caucasus. The
other, or American bison (Bison
Americanus) , is found only in North
America, and is remarkable for the
great hump or projection over its fore
shoulders, and for the length and fine-
ness of its woolly hair.
The American bison, or buffalo, was
once extensively diffused over what is
now the territory of the United
States, except that part lying on the
E. of Hudson river and Lake Cham-
plain, and narrow strips of coast on
the Atlantic and Pacific. Southward
its range extended to the delta of the
Mississippi and into part of Mexico,
while in the N. W. it reached even as
far as the Great Slave Lake. The
great prairies connected with the
Mississippi system formed its favorite
feeding-grounds, and here it used to
be seen in herds whose numbers were
well-nigh incredible.
All this is now a thing of the
past, and the wholesale destruction of
thi, bison is one of the most melan-
choly stories in the history of zoology.
So long as it was pursued only or
mainly by the Indians there was little
to fear for it, though many tribes
were almost wholly dependent on these
animals for food, clothing, tents, uten-
sils, etc. Vast multitudes owing to
this were slaughtered annually ; but it
is to be deeply regretted that the
white hunters (especially after the
spread of railroads) were in the habit
of destroying these interesting and
valuable beasts in the most wanton
and unnecessary manner. It was
common for such persons to shoot
bisons, even when they had abundance
of food, for the sake of the tongue or
hump alone, or even because the ani-
mals came so near as to present a fair
aim. It is therefore not to be won-
dered that, from all causes of diminu-
tion, the bison should become less and
less numerous every year till it is now
practically extinct, at least in the wild
state.
Of late years the National Museum
of the United States thought it neces-
sary to send out an expedition to col-
lect a few specimens in view of this
contingency; and a report furnished
to the museum in 1886 shows what
difficulty the expedition had in ful-
filling its mission in consequence of
the extermination of the bison having
been already so nearly effected. " It
is firmly believed by good authorities,"
the report states. " that there are not
now more than from 50 to 100 buffa-
loes in the whole of Montana (where
this animal used to be remarkably
abundant) outside of the National
Park, where there are probably from
200 to 300 head."
Bissagos Islands, a group of
small volcanic islands, about 30 in all,
off the W. coast of Africa, opposite
the mouth of the Rio Grande.
Bissao, an island and Portuguese
station closer to the African coast
than the Bissagos and opposite the
Jeba's delta.
Bissell, Edwin Cone, an Ameri-
can Congregational clergyman and
writer, born at Schoharie, N. Y.,
March 2, 1832. Having served in the
Civil War (1862-1863), he became
pastor in Massachusetts and Califor-
nia, missionary in Austria (1873-
1878), Professor in the Hartford
Congregational Theological Seminary
(1881-1892), and the McCormick
Presbyterian Theological Seminary,
Chicago (1892-1894). He died in
Chicago, April 9, 1894.
Bissell
Bitter Sweet
BisseH, Wilson Shannon, an
American lawyer, born in New Lon-
don, N. Y., Dec. 31, 1847; died Oct.
6, 1903 ; graduated at Yale University
in 1869; and studied law in Buffalo
with Cleveland & F9lsom. In 1872 he
formed a partnership with Lyman K.
Bass, the firm of which Grover Cleve-
land became a member in 1873. When
Mr. Cleveland was elected governor of
New York the firm was disbanded.
Subsequently it was reorganized, and,
in 1900, consisted of Bissell, Carey &
Cooke. He was a delegate to sev-
eral State Conventions; in 1884 was
a Democratic Presidential Elector;
and in 1893-1896 was Postmaster-
General. He died Oct. 6, 1903.
Bissen, Wilhelm, a Danish sculp-
tor, born in Schleswig in 1798, and
from 1823 to 1833 studied in Rome
under Thorwaldsen, who, in his will,
commissioned him to complete his un-
finished works. He died March 10,
1868.
Bissextile Year, the early name
for Leap Year. In the Julian calen-
dar, the 24th of Feb. was counted
twice (bis), and as it was the sixth
(sextus) before the Kalends of March
it was called bis-sextilis.
Bistineau, a navigable lake in N.
W. Louisiana ; 25 miles long by 2
miles wide ; discharges into the Red
river.
Bitlis, a town of Turkish Armenia,
in a vilayet of the same name, 62
miles W. of Van, over 5,000 feet
above the sea-level. It has numerous
mosques and convents of dancing der-
vishes, and manufactures of a noted
bright-red dyed cotton cloth. In the
great war it was occupied by the Rus-
sians on March 2, 1916, and evacu-
ated by them on Aug. 8 following.
Pop. est. at 40,000. See APPENDIX :
World War.
Bitter, Arthur, pseudonym of
SAMUEL HABEBSTICH, a Swiss poet
and story writer, born in Ried near
Schlosswyl, Oct. 21, 1821. He died
in Bern, Feb. 20, 1872.
Bitter Lakes, salt lakes on the
line of the Suez canal.
Bittern. The bitterns are distin-
guished from the herons proper, be-
sides other characteristics, by having
the feathers of the neck loose and di-
E.19.
vided, which makes it appear thicker
than in reality it is.
BITTERN'.
Bitter Nut, a tree of North Amer-
ica, of the walnut order, the swamp
hickory, which produces small and
somewhat egg-shaped fruits, with a
thin, fleshy rind ; the kernel is bitter
and uneatable.
Bitter Root, a plant of Canada
and part of the United States, order
mesembryacese, so called from its
root being bitter though edible, and
indeed esteemed as an article of food
by whites as well as Indians.
Bitter Boot Mountains, a range
of the Rocky Mountains, in Montana,
deriving its name from a plant with
rose colored blossoms.
Bitter Root River, a tributary
of the Columbia in Montana, flowing
N. into Clark's river in Missoula
county ; length about 110 miles.
Bitter Root Valley, on the E.
of the Bitter Root Range, in Montana,
is 90 miles long and 7 miles wide, en-
walled by lofty mountains, and
abounding in farms and cornfields.
Bitter Sweet, the woody night-
shade.
Bitumen
Bitumen, a mineral substance, re-
markable tor its inflammability and
its strong, peculiar odor; generally,
however, supposed to be of vegetable
origin.
Bituminous Coal, coal which
burns with a yellow, smoky flame, and
on distillation gives out hydrocarbon
or tar.
Bituminous Limestone, lime-
Stone impregnated with bitumen.
Bitzius, Albert (better known
under the nom de plume of JEREMIAS
GOTTHELF), a Swiss author, born in
Murton, Canton of Freiburg, Oct. £,
1797. As a pastor in retired districts,
he sa"7 the hard conditions of the
poor, and in 1837 wrote " The Peas-
ant's Mirror," a vividly realistic pre-
sentation of peasant life. He died at
Lutzelfluh, Bern, Oct. 22, 1854.
Bivalves, those mollusks whose
coverings consist of two concave shel-
ly plates or valves united by a hinge.
SHELL OF A BIVALVE.
A. The line across marks the thickness.
B, a, anterior extremity; b. posterior; c, d,
muscular impressions; e, f, palleal impres-
sions; g, lower edge of the left valve.
Bivouac, an encampment of sol-
diers in the open air without tents,
each remaining dressed and with his
weapons at hand.
Bizerta, a fortified seaport, Alge-
ria, the most northern town of Af-
rica ; at the extremity of a bay formed
by Capes Ras-el-Zebib and El-Arid.
The town is built on the shore of a
lake which communicates with the sea
by a canal ; and in the time of Bar-
Black
barossa it was a city of great strength
and magnificence. The lake is the
chief source of trade, as it abounds ill
many valuable kinds of fish. Beside
the fishery there are valuable coral,
grape, olive, and pottery industries.
The port is surrounded by walls and
defended by two castles. Bizerta stead-
ily declined in commercial and politi-
cal importance till 1892, when the
French Government began converting
it into a magnificent naval port. Three
years were occupied in this work,
which included the opening and im-
provement of the lake, which is now
large enough to accommodate at one
time all the navies of the world.
Bizet, Georges, (ALEXANDEB CE-
SAH LEOPOLD), the composer of the
opera " Carmen." He was born in
France 1837 ; died 1875.
Bjornson, Bjornstjerne, a Nor*
wegian novelist, poet, and dramatist,
born at Kvikne, Norway, Dec. 8, 1832.
He published his first story, " Syn-
nove Solbakken," in 1857, and that,
with "Arne" (1858) and "A Lively
Fellow" (I860), established his repu-
tation as a novelist. He published a
volume of " Poems and Songs " in
1870. He died April 26, 1910.
Black, the negation of all color,
the opposite of white.
Black, Adam, a Scotch publisher,
born in Edinburgh, Feb. 20, 1784. In
1808 he began business as a book*
seller, and later with his nephew,
Charles B. Black, established a pub-
lishing house in Edinburgh. Their
most famous publications were " En-
cyclopaedia Britannica," and the *'Wa-
verly Novels." Adam Black was
twice Lord Provost of Edinburgh and
in 1856-1865 represented that city in
Parliament. He declined the honor of
knighthood, and a statue was erected
in Edinburgh in recognition of his
public services, in 1877. He died Jan.
24, 1874.
Black, Frank Swett, an Ameri-
can lawyer, born in Limington, Me.,
March 8, 1853; graduated at Dart-
mouth College in 1875 ; was editor of
the " Journal " in Johnstown, N. Y.
He studied law at Troy in the office
of Robertson & Foster, and was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1879. He won
much popularity by his activity in
prosecuting the men who murdered
Black
Blackburn
Robert Ross in the election riots in
Troy in 1892. In 1895-1897, he was
a member of Congress, and in 1897-
1899 Governor of New York. He died
March 22, 1913.
Black, Jeremiah Sullivan, an
American lawyer, born in Glades, Pa.,
Jan. 10, 1810 ; studied law, and was
admitted to the bar in 1831. In 1857
he was appointed Attorney-General of
the United States by President Bu-
chanan, and in 1SGO-1861 was United
States Secretary of State. On the ac-
cession of President Lincoln he re-
tired from public life.. He died in
York, Pa., Aug. 19, 1883.
Black, John Charles, an Amer-
ican lawyer, soldier, and statesman,
born in Lexington, Miss., Jan. 27,
1839; graduated at Wabash College,
Crawfprdsville ; entered the Union
army in 1861 as Colonel of the 37th
Illinois Volunteers ; was severely
wounded in the service ; and was
brevetted Brigadier-General. After
the war he was elected Congressman-
at-large from Illinois ; was appointed
Commissioner of Pensions, United
States District Attorney for the
Northern District of Illinois, and TJ.
S. Civil Service Commissioner (Presi-
dent 1904-13). He died Aug. 17, 1915,
Black, William, a Scottish nov-
elist, born in Glasgow in November,
1841. He received his education at
private schools. In 1874 he aban-
doned the career of journalism, which
he had successfully pursued, visited
the United States in 1876, and, re-
turning to London, devoted himself
anew to literature. In addition to an
interesting story, his novels contain
fine descriptions of scenery. They are
very popular. He died in Brighton,
England, Dec. 10, 1898.
Black Art, exorcism, the alleged
ability to expel evil spirits from
haunted houses or from persons be-
witched ; necromancy, or anything sim-
ilar.
Black Assize, in English history,
an assize held at Oxford in 1557,
when the High Sheriff and 300 other
persons died of infectious disease
caught from the prisoners.
Black Belt, an agricultural re-
g!on> of Alabama ; 70 miles wide, ex-
tending entirely across the State, be-
tween 33° and 31° 40'; so called from
the fact that the negroes greatly pre-
dominate in numbers.
Blackberry, a plant common in
the northern portions of the United
States and in most parts of Europe,
and also in Northern Central Asia.
Black Bird, a well known bird.
There are two American species, red
winged blackbird, and the crow black-
bird.
Blackburn, a town and parliamen-
tary borough of England, 21 miles N.
N. W. from Manchester. It is pleas-
antly situated in a sheltered valley
and has rapidly improved since 1850,
Blackburn is one of the chief seats of
the cotton manufacture, there being
upward of 140 mills as well as works
for making cotton machinery and
steam engines. The cottons made in
the town and vicinity have an annual
value of about £5,000,000. Pop.
(1911) 133,064.
Blackburn, Joseph Clay Styles,
an American lawyer, born in Wood-
ford county, Ky., Oct. 1, 1838; was
graduated at Center College, Danville,
Ky., in 1857. He was admitted to the
bar in 1859, and practiced in Chi-
cago. During the Civil War he served
in the Confederate army, and after
the war resumed practice in Ken-
tucky. In 1871 he was elected to the
Kentucky Legislature, and in 1874 to
Congress ; and was a United States
Senator in 1885-1897. During the
presidential campaign of 1896 he was
a leader in the free coinage silver
movement
Blackburn, Luke Pryor, an
American physician, born in Fayette
county, Ky., June 16, 1816 ; was grad-
uated at Transylvania University,
Lexington, Ky., hi 1834, and began
practicing in that city. When cholera
broke out in the town of Versailles he
went there and gave his services free
during the epidemic. In 1846 he went
to Natchez, Miss., and in 1848, when
yellow fever appeared in New Or-
leans, as health officer of Natchez, ho
originated the first quarantine against
New Orleans that had ever been
known in the Mississippi valley. Dur-
ing the Civil War he was a surgeon
on the staff of General Price. In
1875, when yellow fever broke out in
Memphis, he hastened to the city and
organized a corps of physicians and.
BlAckburn
nurses, and in 1878 gave his services
to the yellow fever sufferers at Hick-
man, Ky. He was elected Governor
of Kentucky in 1879. He founded the
Blackburn Sanitarium for Nervous
and Mental Diseases in 1884. He
died in Frankfort, Ky., Sept. 14, 1887.
Blackburn, 'William Maxwell,
an American Presbyterian clergyman
and educator, born at Carlisle, Ind.,
Dec. 30, 182a He became President
of the University of North Dakota in
1884 and of Pierre University, South
Dakota, in 1885, and President-Emer-
itus of the last (now Huron College)
iu 1898. He died in 1900.
Black Cap, a European passerine
bird of the warbler family. It ranks
next to the nightingale for sweetness
of song. The American black cap is a
species of tit-mouse, so called from
the coloring of the head.
Black Death, The, one of the
most memorable of the epidemics of
the Middle Ages, was a great pesti-
lence in the 14th century ; which de-
vastated Asia, Europe and Africa.
The whole period of time during
which the black death raged with de-
structive violence in Europe was from
1347 to 1350 ; from this latter date to
1383 there were various pestilences,
bad enough, indeed, but not as vio-
lent as the black death.
Blackfeet Indians, a tribe of
American Indians, partly inhabiting
the United States, partly Canada,
from the Yellowstone to Hudson Bay.
Blackfisli, a fish caught on the
coast of the United States, especially
in the vicinity of Long Island.
Black Flags, an organization of
Chinese rebels who established them-
selves in the Red River valley in Ton-
quin, after the suppression of the Tai-
ping Rebellion in Southern China
(1850-1854). From their warlike
character and desperate deeds they
were called Black Flags as distin-
guished from the peaceable Yellow
Flags. They were responsible for the
massacre in 1884 of missionaries and
native Christians.
Black Forest, a great forest, sit-
nated in Baden and Wurtemberg, near
the source of the Danube.
Black Friars, friars of the Do-
minican Order: so called from their
costume.
Black Hills
Black Friday, the Friday, Sept.
24, 1869, when the attempt of Jay
(Sould and James Fisk, Jr., to create
a corner in the gold market by buying
all the gold in the banks of New York
city, amounting to $15,000,000, cul-
minated. For several days the value
of gold had risen steadily, and the
speculators aimed to carry it from
144 to 200. Friday the whole city
was in a ferment, the banks were
rapidly selling, gold was at 162^, and
still rising. Men became insane, and
everywhere the wildest excitement
raged, for it seemed probable that the
business houses must be closed, from
ignorance of the prices to be charged
for their goods. But in the midst of
the panic it was reported that Secre-
tary Boutwell of the United States
Treasury had thrown $4,000,000 on
the market, and at once gold fell, the
excitement ceased, leaving Gould and
Fisk the winners of $11,000,000. The
day noticed above is what is gen-
erally referred to as Black Friday in
the United States, but the term was
first used in England, being applied
j in the first instance to the Friday on
, which the news reached London, Dec.
i 6, 1745, that the young Pretender,
Charles Edward, had arrived at Der-
i by, creating a terrible panic ; and
finally to May 11, 1866, when the
failure of Overend, Gurney & Co.,
London, the day before, was followed
by a widespread financial ruin.
Black Hand, common name in
j the United States for an offshoot
I of two long-established societies of
an intricate and powerful order of
Italian criminals, known in their re-
spective strongholds of Naples and
Sicily as the " Camorra " and " Ma-
fia." The habit of the members of
signing blackmail and threatening
letters with the words " black-hand,"
or a rude representation of one, gave
these desperadoes in the United
States their distinctive name.
Black Hawk, a famous chief of
the Sac and Fox Indians, born in
1767. He joined the British in 1812,
and fought against the United States
in 1831-1832. He died in 1838.
Blackheath, a village and heath,
in Kent, England, about 6 miles S.
E. of London Bridge.
Black Hills, a mountainous re-
gion in the S. W. of South Dakota,
Black Hole
Black Sea
extending into the E. part of Wyom-
ing ; long. 103° to 105s. It was pur-
chased from the Indians in 1876, for
whom it had been one of the finest
hunting grounds in the West. In I
1877-1878 thousands of miners went '
there, and in 1880 there had already j
sprung into existence three towns, i
Deadwood, Central City, and Lead-
ville. Around these lay also groups
of smaller towns and villages. From
1880 the gold mines yielded about $4,-
000,000 annually, and the silver mines
about $3,000,000 annually.
Black Hole of Calcutta, a small
chamber, 20 feet square, in the old '
fort of Calcutta, in which, after their |
capture by Surajah Dowlah, the whole
garrison of 146 men were confined
during the night of June 21, 1756.
Only 23 survived. The spot is now
marked by a monument.
Blackie, John Stuart, a Scot-
tish author, born in Glasgow in July,
1809; died in Edinburgh, March 2,
1895.
Black Lead, Graphite, or Plum-
bago, a mineral consisting chiefly of
carbon, but containing also more or
less of alumina, silica, lime, iron, etc.,
to the extent of 1 to 47 per cent, ap-
parently mixed rather than chemically
combined. Black lead is the popular
name, and that by which it is general-
ly known in the arts, though no lead
enters into the composition of the
mineral ; graphite is that generally
preferred by mineralogists.
Black List, a list of bankrupts or
other parties whose names are official-
ly known as failing to meet pecuniary
engagements. The term is also ap-
plied to a list of employes who have
been discharged by a firm or corpora-
tion and against whom some objection
is made and reported to other firms ^or
corporations to prevent them obtain-
ing employment.
Blackmail, a certain rate of mon-
ey, corn, cattle or the like, anciently
Said, in the N. of England and in
cotland, to certain men who were al-
lied to robbers, to be protected by
them from pillage. It was carried to
such an extent as to become the sub-
ject of legislation. Blackmail was
levied in the districts bordering the
Highlands of Scotland till the middle
of the 18th century. In the United
States, the word is applied to money
extorted from persons under threat of
exposure for an alleged offense; hush-
money.
Black Monday. (1) A name for
Easter Monday, in remembrance of
the dreadful experiences of the army
of Edward III., before Paris, on
Easter Monday, April 14, 1360. Many
soldiers and horses perished from the
extreme cold. (2) The 27th of Feb.,
1865, a memorable day in Melbourne,
Australia, when a destructive sirocco
prevailed in the surrounding country.
Black Mountains, the group
which contains the highest summits of
the Appalachian system, Clingman's
Peak being 6,701 feet, Guyot's Peak,
6,661.
Black Republic, a name applied
to the Republic of Haiti, which ia
under the dominion of the African
race.
Black Republicans, in the United
States, a name applied to members of
the Republican Party by the Pro-
Slavery Party.
Black River, the name of several
-ivers in the United States: (1) An
affluent of the Arkansas river, in Ar-
kansas, 400 miles long. It is naviga-
ble to Poplar Bluff, 311 miles; (2) a
river in New York, rising in the Adi-
rondacks, and emptying into Lake On-
tario near Watertown, length 200
miles; (3) a river in Wisconsin, flow-
ing S. W., and emptying into the Mis-
sissippi river near Lacrosse; length
200 miles ; (4) a river rising in the S.
E. o£ Missouri, flowing nearly S., and
entering the White river, of which it
is the chief tributary, at Jacksonport,
Ark.; length, 350 miles, of which 100
miles are navigable.
Black Rock Desert, a tract of
nearly 1,000 square miles, N. of Pyra-
mid Lake, in Nevada. In summer it is
a barren level of alkali and in winter
covered in places with shallow water.
Called also " Mud Lakes."
Black Rood of Scotland, a cross
of gold in the form of a casket, al-
leged to contain a piece of the true
Cross.
Black Sea (ancient Pontus Eux-
inus), a sea situated between Europe
and Asia, and mainly bounded by the
Russian and Turkish dominions, being
Black Sheep
connected with the Mediterranean by
the Bosporus, Sea of Marmora, and
Dardanelles, and by the Strait of
Kertsch with the Sea of Azov, which
is, in fact, only a bay of the Black
Sea; area of the Black Sea and the
Sea of Azov about 175,000 square
miles, with a depth in the center of
more than 150 fathoms and few shoals
along its shores. The water is not
so clear as that of the Mediterranean,
and is less salt on account of the
many large rivers which fall into it.
Black Sheep, a tribe of Turko
mans, so called from their standard.
A black sheep : a disgrace to the
family ; a mauvais sujet ; a workman
who will not join in a strike.
Black Snake, a common snake in
North America, reaching a length of
5 or 6 feet, and so agile and swift as
to have been named the racer, with no
poison fangs, and, therefore, compara-
tively harmless.
Blackstone, Sir William, an
English jurist, born in London, July
10, 1723; educated at the Charter
House and Pembroke College, Oxford.
In 1743 he was elected fellow of All-
Soul's College, Oxford, and in 1746
was called to the bar; but, having
attended the Westminster law courts
for seven years without success, he re-
tired to Oxford. Here he gave lec-
tures on law, which suggested to Mr.
Viner the idea of founding a profes-
sorship at Oxford for the study of
the common law ; and Blackstone was,
in 1758, chosen the first Vinerian
Professor. In 1765 he published
the first volume of his famous " Com-
mentaries on the Laws of England."
He died Feb. 14, 1780.
Black Tin, tin ore when dressed,
stamped, and washed ready for smelt-
ing, forming a black powder.
Black Walnut, a valuable timber
tree of the United States and its
fruit. The great size often reached
by this tree, the richness of the dark
brown wood, the unique beauty of the
grain sometimes found in burls, knots,
feathers and in the curl of the roots,
all conspire to make this the most
choice and high priced of all our na-
tive woods.
Blackwell, Mrs. Antoinette
Lonisa (Brown), an American wom-
an suffragist and Unitarian minister,
Blaine
born at Henrietta, N. Y., May 20,
1825. A graduate of Oberlin (1847),
she " preached on her own orders," at
first in Congregational churches, be-
coming at length a champion of wom-
en's rights. She married Samuel C.,
a brother of Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell
(1856).
Blackwell, Elizabeth, an Amer-
ican physician and medical and ethical
writer, born at Bristol, England, 1821.
She was the first woman who ob-
tained the degree of M. D. in the
United States (1849), beginning prac-
tice in New York (1851). Died 1910.
Blackwell, Lucy Stone, an
American woman suffragist, born in
West Brookfield, Mass., Aug. 13,
1818; was graduated at Oberlin Col-
lege in 1847; became a lecturer on
woman suffrage, and a contributor to
the press. In 1855 she married Henry
B. Blackwell, a merchant of Cincin-
nati. She died in Dorchester, Mass.,
Oct. 20, 1893.
Blackwell's Island, an island be-
longing to the city of New York, in
the East river, containing about 120
acres. On it are the penitentiary,
almshouse, lunatic asylum for females,
workhouse, blind asylum, hospital for
incurables, and a convalescent hospi-
tal.
Blackwood, William, a Scotch
publisher, born at Edinburgh, Nov.
20, 1776. He started as a bookseller
in 1804, and soon became also a pub-
lisher. After his death the business,
which had developed into a large pub-
lishing concern, was carried on by his
sons, and the magazine still keeps its
place among the leading periodicals.
He died Sept 16, 1834.
Blaeu, Blaenw, or Blanw, a
Dutch family celebrated as publish-
ers of maps and books.
Blaine, James Gillespie, an
American statesman, born in West
Brownsville, Pa., Jan. 31, 1830. He
graduated at Washington College, Pa.,
in 1847. In 1854 he removed to Au-
gusta, Me., and engaged in journalism.
He was one of the founders of the
Republican Party, and in 1856 was
a delegate to the first Republican Na-
tional Convention, which nominated
Fremont for the Presidency. In 1858
he was elected to the Legislature of
Maine, and in 1862 to the House
Blair
Blake
of Representatives of the National
Congress. He became Speaker of the
House in 1869, and held that office for
six years; was a member of the Sen-
ate from 1876 to 1881; was twice
Secretary of State (1881-1882 and
1889-1892). He was defeated for
the Presidency in 1884, by Grover
Cleveland. Besides his numerous
speeches and writings on the public
questions of his day, his best known
work is his " Twenty Years in Con-
gress " (2 vols., 1884-1886), a his-
torical production of great and per-
manent value. He died in Washing-
ton, D. C., Jan. 27, 1893.
Blair, Austin, an American law-
yer, born in Caroline, N. Y., Feb. 8,
1818; was elected Governor of Michi-
gan in 1860, becoming one of the War
Governors. In 1866-1870 he was a
member of Congress. He died in
Jackson, Mich., Aug. 6, 1894.
Blair, Francis Preston, an
American journalist and politician,
born in Abingdon, Va., April 12, 1791 ;
died at Silver Spring, Md., Oct. 18,
1876.
Blair, Francis Preston, Jr., an
American military officer and legis-
lator, born in Lexington, Ky., Feb.
20, 1821 ; son of the preceding. He
was a Representative in Congress i
from Missouri in 1857-1859 and 1861-
1863 ; became a Major-General in the
Union army in the Civil War, taking
an active part in the Vicksburg cam-
paign and Sherman's march to the
sea ; was an unsuccessful Democratic
candidate for Vice-President in 1868,
and United States Senator in 1870-
1873. He died in St. Louis, July 5,
1875.
Blair, Henry William, an Amer-
ican legislator, born in Campton, N.
H., Dec. 6, 1834 ; received an acade-
mic education ; was admitted to the
bar in 1859 ; served through the Civil
War, becoming Lieutenant-Colonel of
the 15th New Hampshire Volunteers,
and being twice wounded. After serv-
ing in both branches of the State
Legislature he was a member of Con-
gress in 1875-1879 and 1893-1895,
and a United States Senator in 1879-
1891.
Blair, Hugh, a Scotch clergyman
and educational writer, born in Edin-
burgh, in 1718; was noted for the
eloquence of his sermons, and also
for "Lectures on Rhetoric" (1783),
which attained great popularity,
" Blair's Rhetoric " being familiar to
all students. He died in 1800.
Blair, John Insley, an American
philanthropist, born in Belvidere, N.
J., Aug. 22, 1802 ; was in early life a
merchant and banker; subsequently
becoming the individual owner of
more miles of railroad property than
any other man in the world. He ac-
quired a very large fortune; loaned
the Federal Government more than
$1,000,000 in the early part of the
Civil War; built and endowed at a
cost of more than $600,000, the Pres-
byterian Academy in Blairstown, N.
J. ; rebuilt Grinnell College, Iowa ;
erected Blair Hall and made other
gifts to Princeton University ; was
equally liberal to Lafayette College;
and had erected more than 100 church-
es in different parts of the West, be-
sides laying out many towns and vil-
lages on the lines of his numerous
railroads. He died in Blairstown, N.
J., Dec. 2, 1899.
Blair, Montgomery, an American
lawyer, born in Franklin county, Ky.,
May 10, 1813 ; was graduated at the
United States Military Academy in
1835; resigned from the army in
1836; admitted to the bar in 1839;
began practice in St. Louis. He acted
as counsel for the plaintiff in the
widely known Dred Scott case. In
1861-1864 he was Postmaster-Gen-
eral. In 1876-1877 he acted with the
Democratic Party in opposing Mr.
Hayes' title to the office of President.
He died in Silver Springs, Md., July
27, 1883.
Blake, Edward, an English states-
man, born in Cairngorm, Ont., Cana-
da, Oct. 13, 1833; was educated at
Upper Canada College and Toronto
University ; called to the bar in 1856 ;
and engaged in practice in Toronto.
He entered public life in 1867; was
Premier of Ontario in 1871-1872,
Minister of Justice in 1875-1877, and
the recognized leader of the Canadian
Liberal Party. In 1892 he was
invited by the leaders of the Anti-
Parnellites in Ireland to enter the
British House of Commons as the rep-
resentative of an Irish constituency.
Consenting, he removed to South Long-
ford, was elected for that district, and
Blake
in 1895 was re-elected. In 1896 he
was appointed a member of the Judi-
ciary Committee of the Privy Council.
Blake, Eli 'Whitney, an Ameri-
can inventor, born in Westboro, Mass.,
Jan. 27, 1795; graduated at Yale
University in 1816. He began busi-
ness with his uncle, Eli Whitney, in
the manufacture of fire-arms ; and in
1834 founded, near New Haven,
Conn., the pioneer factory for the
manufacture of domestic hardware.
He died in New Haven, Conn., Aug.
17, 1886.
Blake, Mrs. Lillie (Deverenx)
TJmstead, an American advocate of
woman's rights, and novelist, born at
Raleigh, N. C., 1835. Her first hus-
band, Frank G. Quay Umstead, died
in 1859; she married Grenfill Blake
in 1866, who died in 1896.
Blake, William Phipps, an
American mineralogist, born in New
York city, June 1, 1826; was grad-
uated at the Yale Scientific School in
1852. He became Geologist and Min-
eralogist to the United States Rail-
road Expedition in 1853; was Mining
Engineer in connection with explora-
tions in Japan, China, and Alaska in
1861-1863; appointed Professor of
Geology and Mineralogy in the College
of California, 1864 ; Director of the
School of Mines in the University of
Arizona, 1900 ; died 1910.
Blakeley, Johnston, an Ameri-
can naval officer, born near Seaford,
Ireland, October, 1781 ; entered the
United States navy as a midshipman
in 1800; commanded the "Enterprise"
in the early part of the War of 1812 ;
and was captain of the " Wasp "
when she captured the English " Rein-
deer " in June, 1814. Soon after this
he sailed with the " Wasp " on an-
other cruise, but the vessel was lost
at sea with all on board.
Blanchard, Jonathan, an Amer-
ican educator, born in Rockingham,
Vt, Jan. 19, 1811 ; graduated at Lane
Theological Seminary in 1832; and
was ordained a Presbyterian minister
in 1838. He was American Vice-Presi-
dent of the World's Anti-Slavery Con-
vention in London in 1843; and in
1846 became President of Knox Col-
lege at Galesburg, 111. He was Presi-
dent of Wheaton College, 111., in
1880-1882; and, on resigning, was
Blanco
chosen president-emeritus. He died in
Wheaton, 111., May 14, 1892.
Blanco, Antonio Guzman, a
Venezuelan military officer, born in
Caracas, Feb. 29, 1828. He became
prominent in the Federalist revolts,
1859-1863, and when his party tri-
umphed, was made first Vice-President
in 1863 under Falcon, who was de-
posed in the Revolution of 1868.
Blanco led a successful counter revo-
lution in 1870, became President, and
retained the office till 1882. In 1893
he was appointed Minister to France,
where he resided till his death, July
29, 1899.
Blanco, Jose Felix, a Venezue-
lan historian, born in Mariana de
Caracas, Sept. 24, 1782. At different
times he acted in the capacity of
priest, soldier, and statesman. He
was one of the leaders in the Revolu-
ton at Caracas, April 19, 1810, and
was the first editor of the great his-
torical work, " Documentos para la
historia de la vida publica del Liber-
tador," etc. He died in Caracas, Jan.
8, 1872.
Blanco, Pedro, a Bolivian states-
man, born in Cochabamba, Oct. .19,
1795. He joined the Spanish araay in
1812, but soon deserted to the patriots,
and served with them till the end of
the Revolution. In 1828 he became a
general, and in the same year, when
Sucre fell, was made President of
Bolivia, but was superseded in the
Revolution of Dec. 31, 1828. He was
shot in Sucre, hi January, 1829.
Blanco, Ramon y Arenas, Mar-
quis de Pena Plata, Captain-Gen-
eral of the Spanish army hi Cuba
during the Spanish-American War;
was born at San Sebastian, Spain, in
1833, and began his military career at
the age of 22, entering the army in
1855 as a Lieutenant; was promoted
to a captain in 1858, and won the
rank of Lieutenant-Colonel in the war
with San Domingo. When the Span-
iards were driven from the island
Blanco went to the Philippines as
governor of Mindanao. When he re-
turned to Spain he was assigned to
the Army of the North, and in the
war with the Carlists made a brilliant
record. He successfully stormed Pena
Plata, for which achievement he was
created a Marquis of that name. He
Blanco Encalada
Blarney
Bucceeded General Weyler in command
of the army in Cuba, where his career
terminated with the U. S. occupation.
He died April 4, 1906.
Blanco Encalada, Manuel, a
Spanish-American military officer,
born in Buenos Ayres, Sept. 5, 1790;
distinguished himself in the Chilian
War of Independence. He was chosen
President of Chile in July, 1826, but
soon resigned, and was made General
of the army. He unsuccessfully in-
vaded Peru in 1837, and was not al-
lowed to retire till he had signed a
treaty of peace. Chile annulled this
treaty, and he was court-martialed,
but freed. In 1847 he was Intendant
of Valparaiso, and in 1853-1858 Min-
ister to France. He died in Santiago,
Chile, Sept 5, 1875.
Bland, Richard Parks, an Amer-
ican legislator, born in Kentucky,
Aug. 19, 1835 ; received an academical
education, and, between 1855 and
1865, practiced law in Missouri, Cali-
fornia, and Nevada, and was engaged
for some time in mining. In 1865 he
settled in Rolla, Mo., and practiced |
there till 1865, when he removed to |
Lebanon in the same State. He was j
a member of Congress in 1873-1895 j
and from 1897 till his death. In 1896
he was a conspicuous candidate for
the Presidential nomination in the
Democratic National Convention, but
on the fourth ballot his name was
withdrawn, and the vote of his State
was cast for William J. Bryan. Mr.
Bland was best known as the leader
in the Lower House of Congress of
the Free-Silver movement, and the
author of the Bland Silver Bill. At
the time of his death he was a mem-
ber of the Committees on Coinage,
Weights and Measures, and Expendi-
tures on Public Buildings. He died!
in Lebanon, Mo., June 15, 1899.
Bland, Theodoric, an American
military officer, born in Prince George
county, Va., in 1742; studied medicine
in the University of Edinburgh, and
for a time practiced in England. He
returned home in 1764, and was active
in his profession until the outbreak
of the Revolutionary War, when he
sided with the colonists, and became
Captain of the First Troop of Vir-
ginia cavalry. In 1777 he joined the
main arm; as a Lieutenant-Colonel,
and later became a ColoneL He dis-
tinguished himself at the battle of
Brandywine, and was placed in com-
mand of the prisoners taken at Sara-
toga, who were marched to Charlotte-
ville, Va. In 1780-1783 he was a
member of the Continental Congress,
and was a Representative from Vir-
ginia to the 1st Federal Congress in
1789. He died in New York city,
June 1, 1790.
Bland Silver Bill, one of the
most notable measures of American
Congressional history. The original
bill, as introduced by Representative
Bland and passed by the House late
in 1877, provided simply for the free
and unlimited coinage of silver by all
the mints of the United States. This
programme represented the full policy
of the Silver men. The silver dollar
had been demonetized by the act of
1873, and its coinage had been wholly
abandoned. The Bimetallists desired
to restore it to perfect equality with
gold as a standard of value, and the
original Bland bill, permitting owners
of silver bullion to have their com-
modity coined into dollars by the
mints, was intended as the means to
accomplish that object But the Sen-
ate amended the measure materially.
The free coinage clause was stricken
out, and, as a concession to the Silver
men, it was directed that the Secre-
tary of the Treasury should purchase
monthly not less than $2,000,000 and
not more than $4,000,000 worth of
silver bullion, at the market price of
the metal, and coin it into standard
silver dollars, which should be unlim-
ited legal tender for all debts. The
amended bill was reported by Senator
Allison, Chairman of the Finance
Committee, and hence received the
name of the Bland-Allison Act It
was vetoed by President Hayes, but
passed over his veto, Feb. 28, 1878, by
196 to 73 in the House, and 46 to 19
in the Senate. The silver purchase
clause in this act was repealed by the
Sherman Act of 1890.
Blank Verse, verse which is void
of rhyme.
Blarney, a village in Ireland, 4
miles N. W. of the city of Cork, with
Blarney Castle in its vicinity. A stone
called the Blarney Stone, near the
top of the castle, is said to confer on
those who kiss it the peculiar kind of
Blashfield
persuasive eloquence alleged to be
characteristic of the natives of Ire-
land.
Blashfield, Edwin Howland,
an American artist, born in New York
city, Dec. 16, 1848; studied in Paris
under Leon Bonnat ; and began ex-
hibiting in the Paris Salon in 1874.
lie returned to the United States in
1881, and has since distinguished him-
self by the execution of large decora-
tive works.
Blasphemy, slander or even well
merited blame, applied to a person or
in condemnation of a thing .
The word is particularly applied to
any profane language toward God ;
blasphemy against the Holy Ghost
means the sin of attributing to Satanic
agency the miracles which were ob-
viously from God.
Blast Furnace, a structure built
of refractory material in which metal-
lic ores are smelted in contact with
fuel and flux, the combustion of the
fuel being accelerated by air under
pressure.
Blasting, the operation of break-
ing up masses of stone or rock in situ
by means of gunpowder or other ex-
plosive. In ordinary operations, holes
are bored into the rock of from one to
six inches in diameter, by means of a
steel pointed drill, by striking it with
hammers or allowing it to fall from
a height. After the hole is bored to
the requisite depth it is cleaned out,
the explosive is introduced, the hole
is tamped or filled up with broken
stone, clay or sand, and the charge
exploded by means of a fuse or by
electricity.
Blaratsky, Helene Petrovna, a
noted theosophist; born in Yekaterin-
oslay, Russia, in 1831 ; founded the
Theosophical Society in New York in
1875. She died in London, May 8,
1891.
Blazonry, the art of describing a
coat of arms in such a way that an
accurate drawing may be made from
the verbal statements given.
Bleaching:, the art of whitening
linen, wool, cotton, silk, wax, also the
materials of which paper is made, and
other things.
Bledsoe, Albert Taylor, an
American clergyman and writer; born
Blennerhasset
in Frankfort, Ky., Nov. 9, 1809. He
was Assistant Secretary of War, of
the Southern Confederacy, and both
an Episcopal and a Methodist minis-
ter. He died in Alexandria, Va., Dec.
1, 1877.
Bleeding, or Hemorrhage, one
of the most serious accidents which
can happen to an animal, and consti-
tutes the most anxious complication
in surgical operations.
Blenheim, a village situated in
the circle of the Upper Danube, in
Bavaria, on the Danube. Here was
fought, Aug. 13, 1704, the famous bat-
tle of Blenheim (or, as it is more com-
monly called on the European Conti-
nent, the battle of Hochstadt, from
another village of this name in the
vicinity), in which Marlborough and
Prince Eugene, commanding the al-
lied forces of England and the Ger-
man empire, gained a brilliant victory
over the French and Bavarians.
Blennerhasset, Harman, an
Englishman of Irish descent, noted for
his connection with Aaron Burr's con-
spiracy, born in Hampshire, Oct. 8,
1764 or 1765 ; was educated at Trin-
ity College, Dublin ; studied law ; and
came to the United States in 1797.
In the following year he built a beau-
tiful residence on a little island in
the Ohio river below Parkersburg,
where Aaron Burr, after his fortunes
were broken and he did not feel safe
in New York, was received as a guest.
Burr proposed his scheme for taking
Mexico, where, in case of success,
Burr was to be Emperor and Blen-
nerhasset a duke and ambassador to
England. Large sums were expended
to fit out the expedition and when
Burr was arrested, and Blennerhas-
set as a suspected person with him,
creditors seized the island and home,
and Blennerhasset found himself
bankrupt. After this all projects
failed with him. In his last years he
was supported by the charity of a rel-
ative. He died on the Island of
Guernsey, Feb. 1, 1831. His wife
was a daughter of Governor Agnew,
of the Isle of Man, and the author of
many poems, including " The Desert-
ed Isle," " The Widow and the Rock,"
etc. After her husband's death she
petitioned Congress for a reparation
of her losses, but died before any ac-
tion was taken. Their son, Joseph
Blesbok
Lewis Blennerhasset, was a lawyer in
Missouri.
Blesbok, an antelope of South
Africa with a white marked face, a
general purplish chocolate color, and
K saddle of a bluish color; found in
great numbers in the late Boer repub-
lics in South Africa and much hunted.
Blessington, Margaret, Count-
ess of, was born near Clonmel, Ire-
land, 1789, died at Paris 1849. At the
age of fifteen, she was married to a
Captain Farmer, who died in 1817 ;
and a few months after his death
his widow married Charles John Gard-
iner, earl of Blessington. After the
earl's death in 1829, Lady Blessington
took up her abode in Gore House,
Kensington. Her residence oecame
the fashionable resort for all the celeb-
rities of the time ; and that notwith-
standing a doubtful connection which
she formed with Count D'Orsay, with
whom she lived till her death. No
name is more frequently mentioned by
writers of the time.
Bligh, William, the commander
of the English ship " Bounty " when
the crew mutinied in the South Seas
and carried her off, was born at Ply-
mouth in 1753. The "Bounty" had
been fitted out for the purpose of pro-
curing plants of the bread fruit tree,
and introducing these into the West
Indies. Bligh left Tahiti in 1789,
and was proceeding on his voyage for
Jamaica when he was seized, and,
with 18 men supposed to be well af-
fected to him, forced into *he launch,
sparingly provisioned, and cast adrift ;
but Bligh, with 12 of his companions,
arrived in England in 1790, while the
mutineers settled on Pitcairn Island,
where their descendants still exist.
Bligh became Governor of New South
Wales in 1806, but his harsh and
despotic conduct caused him to be de-
posed and sent back to England. He
afterward rose to the rank of Admiral,
and died in London in 1817.
Blight, a diseased state of culti-
rated plants, especially cereals and
grasses. The term has been very
vaguely and variously used, having, in
fact, been applied by agriculturists to
almost every disease of plants in turn,
however caused, especially when the
plant dies before reaching maturity. It
is now applied scientifically only to
_____ BUM
such diseases as are caused by para-
site fungi or bacteria, as apple-blight,
cherry-blight, potato-blight, etc.
Blind Fish, the name of several
species of fish inhabiting the Amer-
can cave streams. They are all small,
the largest not exceeding five inches.
Bliss, Cornelius Newton, an
American merchant, born in Fall
River, Mass., Jan. 26, 1833; was ed-
ucated in New Orleans; entered his
stepfather's counting room there ; en-
gaged in the commission business in
Boston, and became head of the dry
goods commission house of Bliss,
Fabyan & Co., New York city, in
1881. He was a member of the Pan-
American Conference ; Chairman of
the New York Republican State Com-
mittee in 1877-1878; and Treasurer
of the National Republican Commit-
tee in 1892 and 1896; declined to be
a candidate for Governor of New
York in 1885 and 1891 ; and was Sec-
retary of the Interior Department in
Prpsident McKinley's cabinet in 1897-
1898. He died Oct. 9, 1911.
Bliss, Daniel, an American mis-
sionary, born in Georgia, Vt., Aug. 17,
1823 ; was graduated at Amherst Col-
lege in 1842, and at the Andover The-
ological Seminary in 1855 ; was or-
dained a Congregational minister, Oct.
17, 1855 ; in missionary work in Syria
in 1855-62 ; became President of the
Protestant College in Beyrout, 1866.
He died July 18, 1916.
Bliss, Edwin Elislia, an Ameri-
can missionary, born in Putney, Vt.,
April 12, 1817; graduated at Amherst
College in 1837, and at Andover Theo-
logical Seminary in 1842; was or-
dained as a missionary in 1843, and
joined the American Mission in Tur-
key. He died in Constantinople, Dec.
29, 1892.
Bliss, Frederick Jones, an Amer-
ican explorer, born in Mt. Lebanon,
Syria, Jan. 23, 1859; son of Daniel
Bliss ; was graduated at Amherst Col-
lege in 1880, and at the Union Theo-
logical Seminary in New York in
1887; was principal of the prepara-
tory department of the Syrian Prot-
estant College of Beyrout for three
years ; was appointed Explorer to the
Palestine Exploration Fund in 1890,
and is best known for his excavations
and finds in Jerusalem in 1891-1897.
Bliss
Bliss, Porter Cornelius, an
American diplomatist, born in Erie
county, N. Y., Dec. 28, 1838 ; became
private secretary to James Watson
Webb, United States Minister to Bra-
zil ; explored the Gran Chaco for the
Argentine Government ; compiled the
various Indian dialects and investi-
gated the antiquities of that region ;
and, in 1866, became private secretary
to Charles A. Washburn, United
States Minister to Paraguay. In
1870-1874 he was Secretary of the
Legation in Mexico. Died Feb. 2, 1885.
Bliss, Tasker Howard, an Amer-
ican military officer, born in Lewis-
burg, Pa., Dec. 31, 1853 ; was gradu-
ated at the United States Military
Academy in 1875 and at the Artillery
School in 1884 ; Professor of Military
Science at the Naval War College in
1885-8; served through the Porto
Rican campaign in 1898; chief of Cu-
ban Customs Service in 1898-1902;
special envoy to negotiate a reciproc-
ity treaty with Cuba in 1902 ; in serv-
ice in the Philippines in 1905-9 ; com-
manded the provisional brigade on the
Mexican border in 1911 ; brigadier-
general, July 21, 1902 ; major-general,
Nov. 20, 1915 ; became assistant to
the Chief of Staff, U. S. A., in 1915.
Bliss, William Dwight Porter,
an American clergyman, born in Con-
stantinopk, Turkey, in 1856; was
graduated at Amherst College in 1878,
and the Hartford Theological College
in 1882; was ordained a Congrega-
tional clergyman : became an Episco-
pal priest in 1887; organized the first
Christian Socialist Society in the
United States in 1889.
Blizzard, a modern American word
whose origin is in doubt. As applied
to a severe snow storm the word came
into general use in the American
newspapers during the bitterly cold
winter of 1880-1881, although some
papers claim its use as early as the
'70's. It is employed in the Western
States to describe a peculiarly fierce
and cold wind, accompanied by a very
fine, blinding snow which suffocates as
well as freezes men and animals ex-
posed to it. These storms come up
very suddenly and overtake the trav-
eler without premonition. The sky
becomes darkened, and the snow is
driven by a terrible wind which comes
Blockade
with a deafening roar. The blizzard
which will long be remembered in the
Eastern States began March 11, 1888,
and raged until the 14th, New York
and Philadelphia being the cities most
affected. The wind at one time blew
at the rate of 46 miles an hour. The
streets and roads were blocked, rail-
road trains snowed up for days, tele-
graphic communication cut off, and
many lives were lost.
Block, a pulley or
a system of pulleys ro-
tating on a pintle
mounted in its frame
or shell with its band
and strap. There are
many kinds of blocks,
as a pulley block, a
fiddle block, a fish
block, a fly block, a
heart block, a hook
block, etc. A block
and tackle is the block
and the rope rove
through it, for hoist-
ing or obtaining a
purchase.
Blockade, the act
of surrounding a city
with a hostile army,
or, if it be on the seaj
coast, of placing a I
hostile 'army around
its landward side, and
ships of war in front
of its sea defenses, so
as, if possible, to pre-
vent supplies of food
and ammunition from entering it by
land or water. The object of such an
investment is to compel a place too
strong or too well defended to be at
once captured by assault, to surrender
on account of famine. The investment
of a place by sea is to prevent any
ships from entering or leaving its har-
bor. The practice seems to have been
introduced by the Dutch about 1584.
To break the blockade is to forcibly
enter a blockaded port, if not even to
compel the naval force investing it to
withdraw. To raise a blockade is to
desist from blockading a place or to
compel the investing force to do so.
To run a blockade is to surreptitiously
enter or leave a blockaded port at the
risk of being captured. As a blockade
seriously interferes with the ordinary
commercial right of trading with every
BLOCK AND
TACKLE.
Block Books
place, international law carefully lim-
its its operation, by certain provisions
regarding the rights of nations not in-
terested in the war.
Block Books, before, and for a
short time after, the invention ot
printing, books printed from wooden
blocks each the size of a page and
having the matter to be reproduced,
whether text or picture, cut in relief
on the surface.
Block House, a fortified edifice of
one or more stories, constructed chiefly
of blocks of hewn timber. Block
houses are supplied with loopholes for
musketry and sometimes with em-
brasures for cannon, and when of
more than one story the upper ones
are made to overhang those below.
Block Island, an island in the At-
lantic off the coast of Rhode Island,
to which it belongs; named from
Adrian Block, a Dutch navigator who
discovered it in 1616.
Block Printing, the method of
printing from wooden blocks (pro-
ducing block books) , as is still done in
calico printing and making wall paper.
Block System, in railroad par-
lance, the division of a railroad into a
certain number of telegraphic dis-
tricts, the distance between which is
determined by the amount of traffic,
each block station having signaling in-
struments by which the signal man
can communicate with the operator
on each side of him. When a train
enters any block a semaphore signal is
lowered, and no train is allowed to
follow until the one in front has
reached the end of the block.
Blodget, Lorin, an American phy-
sicist, born near Jamestown, N. Y.,
May 25, 1823 ; was educated at Ho-
bart College ; appointed Assistant
Professor at the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, Washington, D. C., in charge of
researches on climatology, in 1851.
He is credited with having laid the
foundation of American climatology.
He died in Philadelphia, Pa., March
24, 1901.
Blodgett, Samuel, an American
inventor ; born in Woburn, Mass.,
April 1, 1724. He took part in the
French and Indian War ; was a mem-
ber of the expedition against Louis-
burg, in 1745 ; and subsequently be-
came a judge of the Court of Com-
Bloemf ontei«
mon Pleas, in Hillsboro county, N. H.
He was the inventor of an apparatus
by which he recovered a valuable cargo
from a sunken ship near Plymouth,
Mass., in 1783. In 1793 he began the
construction of the canal around
Amoskeag Falls in the Merrimac
which now bears his name, but did
not live to complete the work. He
died in Haverhill, Mass., Sept. 1, 1807.
Blodgett, Henry Williams, an
American jurist, born in Amherst,
Mass., July 21, 1821 ; was educated at
Amherst Academy ; studied surveying
and engineering ; was admitted to the
bar in 1844 ; and settled in Wauke-
gan, 111., to practice, in the following
year. He served in the Lower House
of the Legislature in 1852-1854, and
in the State Senate in 1859-1865 ; and
was United States District Judge for
the Northern District of Illinois from
1869 till 1893, when he retired. He
was appointed one of the counsel on
the part of the United States before
the Arbitration Tribunal on the Ber-
ing Sea fur seal controversy between
the United States and Great Britain,
in 1892. Died, Feb. 9, 1905.
Bloemf ontein, city and capital of
the former Orange Free State (name
changed by the British, May 29, 1900,
to Orange River Colony), South Af-
rica ; on the Modder river, 200 miles
W. by N. of Durban, the base of Brit-
ish operations in the war against the
Boers. It occupies an elevated site ;
is connected with Natal and Cape
Colony by telegraph; and is the seat
of an Anglican bishopric, and a col-
lege. In the war between Great Brit-
ain and the South African and Orange
Free State Republics in 189^1900 it
was the seat of important military op-
erations. In June, 1899, a confer-
ence was held here between President
Kruger of the South African Repub-
lic and Sir Alfred Milner, the British
Commissioner of Cape Colony, with a
view of averting war. After the ap-
pointment of Lord Roberts to the su-
preme command of the British forces
operating against the Boers, he led an
expedition against the city and forced
its surrender on March 13, 1900,
President Steyn escaping capture.
Soon afterward the part of the repub-
lic occupied by the British was for-
mally placed under British adminis-
tration.
Blois
Bloody Falls
Blois, the capital of the French
Department of Loir-et-Cher, 99 miles
S. S. W. of Paris, on the Loire.
Blondel, a French minstrel and
poet of the 12th century, a confidential
servant and instructor in music of
Richard Co?ur de Lion. While his
master was the prisoner of the Duke
of Austria, Blondel, according to the
story, went through Palestine and all
parts of Germany in search of him.
He sang the king's own favorite lays
before each keep and fortress till the
song was at length taken up and an-
swered from the windows of the cas-
tle of Loewenstein, where Richard
was imprisoned.
Blondiu, Charles, a French rope
dancer, born at St. Omer, Pas-de-
Calais, in 1824, was trained at Lyons,
where he made such rapid progress
that he was designated " The Little
Wonder." After making a several
years' tour of the United States, on
June 30, 1859, before a crowd of 25,-
000 persons, he crossed the Falls of
Niagara on a tight-rope in five min-
utes ; on July 4, he crossed blindfold,
trundling a wheelbarrow; on Aug. 19,
he carried a man on his back ; on
Sept 14, 1860, he crossed on stilts in
the presence of the Prince of Wales.
His last appearance was in 1888. He
died Feb. 22. 1897.
Blood, the fluid which circulates
through the arteries and veins of the
human body and that of other animals,
which is essential to the preservation
of life and nutrition of the tissues.
In insects and in others of the lower
animals there is an analogous fluid
which may be colorless, red, bluish,
greenish, or milky. The venous blood
of mammals is a dark red, but in pass-
ing through the lungs it becomes oxi-
dized and acquires a bright scarlet
color, so that the blood in the arteries
is of a brighter hue than that in the
veins. The central organ of the blood
circulation is the heart. The specific
gravity of blood varies from 1.045 to
1.075. and its normal temperature is
99° Fahr. 1000 parts contain 783.37
of water, 2.83 fibrin, 67.25 albumen,
126.31 blood corpuscles, 5.16 fatty mat-
ters and salts. The blood corpuscles
or globules are characteristic. These
are minute, red and white bodies float-
ing in the fluid of the blood. The red
ones give color, and are flattish discs,
oval in birds and reptiles, and round
in man and most mammals. In man
they average l-3300th inch in diame-
ter, and in the Proteus, which has
them larger than any other vertebrate,
l-400th inch in length and l-727th in
breadth. The white or colorless cor-
puscles are the same as the lymph or
chyle corpuscles, and are spherical or
lenticular, nucleated, and granulated,
and rather larger than the red globules.
Blood, Council of, the name pop-
ularly applied to the Council of Trou-
bles, established by the Duke of Alva,
in the Netherlands, in 1567. Although
it had no charter or authority from
any source, it was omnipotent and
superseded all other authorities. In
the first three months alone its vic-
tims numbered 1,800, and soon there
was hardly a Protestant house in the
Netherlands that had not furnished a
victim.
Blood-hound, a variety of hound
or dog, so called from the ability which
it possesses to trace a wounded animal
by the smell of any drops of blood
which may have fallen from it.
Blood Indians, a tribe of North
American Indians of the Siksika Con-
federacy, dwelling in the Northwest
Territories of Canada ; known also as
Kino Indians.
Blood Poisoning, a name loosely
used of pya?mia and allied diseases.
Blood-vessels, the tubes or ves-
sels in which the blood circulates.
They are divided into two classes-
arteries and veins — which have two
points of union or connection — the
first in the heart, from which they
both originate, and the other in the
minute vessels or network in which
they terminate.
Bloody Assizes, the name given
by the people to those courts which
were held in England by the infamous
Judge Jeffreys, in 1685, after the sup-
pression of the Duke of Monmouth's
rebellion. Upward of 300 persons were
executed after short trials ; very many
were whipped, imprisoned and fined;
and nearly 1,000 were sent as slaves
to the American plantations, some of
whom established families.
Bloody Falls, the lowest cataract
of the Copper Mine river in the North*
FIG 4
SECTION OF THF HEAR
KEY TO FIG. I
A THE GSEAT ARTERIAL TRUNK
B THE GREAT BRANCH
C. THE LEFT CAROTID ARTERY
D. THE LEFT SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY
E. THE TWO ILIAC ARTERIES
F. THE GREAT VEIN
(ASCENDING VtNA CWA)
G THE GREAT VEIN
'DESCENDING VENACAVA)
KEY TO FIG. 4
1 THE GREAT VEIN (DUCINDINGVCHAWI
2 THE GREAT VFIN (*SCENOING VDIACWA)
3 UPPER PART OF THE CAVITY OF THE RIGHT AURICLE
4 UPPER PART OF THE RIGHT VENTRICLE
5 THE THREE POINTED VALVE
6 VALVES AT THE ORIFICE OF THE PULMONARY ARTERY
FIG. 5
SECTION OF AIR TUBE
FIG.I PLAN OF THE ARTERIES
FIG. 3
THREE VALVES
AT THE COMMENCEMENT
OF THE PULMONARY
ARTERY
FIG. 2
SECTION OF VEIN
(SHOWING VALVES)
COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY F. E. WRIGHT
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD
'Bloody Mary
west Territories of Canada ; so named
because of a massacre here of Eski-
mos by Chippewa Indians, in 1770.
Bloody Mary, an epithet popular-
ly applied to Mary, Queen of Eng-
land, on account of the persecutions
of the Protestants during her reign.
Bloomer, Amelia Jenks, au
American reformer, born in Homer,
N. Y., May 27, 1818; died in 1894.
She will be remembered because of
her adoption of a costume of a short
skirt and Turkish trousers.
Bloomfield, a town in Essex
county, N. J.; on the Morris canal,
several railroads, and a trolley line
connecting it with all nearby cities;
10 miles N. W. of New York city;
founded in 1685; is the seat of a
German theological seminary and of
a noted mountainside hospital; manu-
factures organs, hats, shoes, rubber
goods, electric elevators, and paper;
and is theresidenceof many New York
business men. Pop. (1910) 15,070.
Bloomfield, Maurice, an Ameri-
can educator, born in Bielitz, Aus-
tria, Feb. 23, 1855; came to the
United States in 1857; became an
Associate in Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity in 1881; and subsequently Pro-
fessor of Sanskrit and Comparative
Philology there.
Bloomington, city and capital of
McLean county, 111.; on several rail-
roads; 60 miles N. E. of Springfield;
is the seat of the Illinois Wesleyan
University, of a Roman Catholic
college, and of the general offices of
the Chicago & Alton railroad; and
nearby are the State Normal Uni-
versity and the State Soldiers' Or-
phans' Home. The city has important
manufactures, is in a rich corn and
oat section, and has large interests
in raising cattle, swine, and fine
horses. Pop. (1910) 25,768.
Blouet, Paul (MAX O'REtr), a
French lecturer and author, born in
Brittany, France, March 2, 1848.
After the publication of his first
book, " John Bull and His Island v
(1883), he devoted himself to litera-
ture. He made several lecturing
tours of the United States. Died in
Paris, June, 1903.
Blount, James H., an American
legislator, born in Macon, Ga., Sept.
12, 1837. He made his first appear-
Blow Fly
ance in public affairs in 1872, when
he was elected to Congress from the
Sixth District of Georgia. He held
his seat by successive re-elections till
1893, when he declined a further
term. As he finished his last term the
House paid him the unusual honor of
suspending its proceedings to give
the members an opportunity to testify
to their appreciation of his worth. In
his last term he was Chairman of the
Committee on Foreign Affairs, and his
familiarity with American relations
with other countries led President
Cleveland to appoint him a Special
Commissioner to Hawaii in March,
1893, for the purpose of investigating
the deposition of the royal government
and the establishment of the Ameri-
can protectorate over the kingdom. On
his arrival in Honolulu he at once
caused the American flag to be hauled
down from the Provisional Govern-
ment House, and the United States
marines to be withdrawn from the
locality. This proceeding led to con-
siderable excitement in the United
States; the withdrawal of United
States Minister Stevens from Hono-
lulu ; the appointment of Commission-
er Blount as his successor ; and a
renewal both in Washington and Hon-
olulu of the agitation for the annexa-
tion of Hawaii to the United States.
On the completion of his mission Min-
ister Blount resumed private practice
at his home. Died March 6, 1903.
BLOW-FLY.
Blow Fly, the name popularly
given to such two winged flies as de-
posit eggs in the flesh of animals,
thus making tumors arise. Several
species of musca do this, so do breeze
flies, etc.
Blowing Machine
"BVacher
Blowing Machine, an apparatus
for producing an air blast for metal-
lurgical purposes.
Blowitz, Henry Georges Steph-
ane Adolphe Opper de, a French
journalist, born in Pilsen, Austria,
Sept 28, 1832 ; settled in France ; was
successively appointed Professor of
German in the Lycee of Tours and at
Limoges, Poitiers, and Marseilles ;
was naturalized a French citizen in
1870 ; and became the Paris corre-
spondent of the London " Times " in
1871. He died January 19, 1903.
Blowpipe, a small instrument
used in the arts for glass blowing and
soldering metals, and in analytical
chemistry and mineralogy, for de-
termining the nature of substances by
the action of an intense and continu-
ous heat. Its utility depends on the
fact, that when a jet of air or oxygen
is thrown into a flame, the rapidity of
combustion is increased, while the ef-
fects are concentrated by diminishing
the extent or space originally occu-
pied by the flame.
Blowpipe, a kind of weapon much
used by some of the Indian tribes of
South America, both in war and for
killing game. It consists of a long,
straight tube, in which a small poi-
soned arrow is placed, and forcibly
expelled by the breath.
Blubber, the fat of whales and
other large sea animals, from which
train oil is obtained. The blubber
lies under the skin and over the mus-
cular flesh. It is eaten by the Eski-
mos and the seacoast races of the
Japanese Islands, the Kuriles, etc.
The whole quantity yielded by one
whale ordinarily amounts to 40 or 50,
but sometimes to 80 or more hundred
weights.
Blncher, Gebhard Leberecht
Ton, a distinguished Prussian Gen-
eral, born at Rostock, Mecklenburg-
Schwerin, Dec. 16, 1742. He entered
the Swedish service when 14 years of
age and fought against the Prussians,
but was taken prisoner, in his first
campaign, and was induced to enter
the Prussian service. Discontented at
the promotion of another officer over
his head, he left the army, devoted
himself to agriculture, and by indus-
try and prudence acquired an estate.
After the death of Frederick II. he
became a Major in his former regi-
ment, which he commanded with dis-
tinction on the Rhine in 1793 and
1794. After the battle of Kirrweiler
in 1794 he was appointed Major-Gen-
eral of the Army of Observation sta-
tioned on the Lower Rhine. In 1802,
in the name of the King of Prussia,
he took possession of Erfurt and
Muhlhausen. Oct. 14, 1806, he fought
at the battle of Auerstadt. After the
Peace of Tilsit he served in the De-
partment of War at Konigsberg and
Berlin. He then received the chief
military command in Pomerania, but
at the instigation of Napoleon was
afterward, with several other distin-
guished men, dismissed from the ser-
vice. In the campaign of 1812, when
the Prussians assisted the French, he
took no part ; but no sooner did Prus-
sia rise against her oppressors than
Blucher, then 70 years old, engaged
in the cause with all his former activ-
ity, and was appointed commander-in-
chief of the Prussians and the Rus-
sian corps under General Winzinger-
ode. His heroism in the battle of
Lutzen (May 2, 1813), was rewarded
by the Emperor Alexander with the
Order of St. George. The battles of
Bautzen and Hanau, those on the
Kat/bach and Leipsic, added to his
glory. He was now raised to the rank
of Field-Marshal, and led the Prus-
sian army which invaded France early
in 1814. After a period of obstinate
conflict the day of Montmartre
crowned this campaign, and, March
31, Blucher entered the capital of
France. His King, in remembrance
of the victory which he had grained at
the Katzbach, created him Prince of
Wahlstadt, and gave him an estate
in Silesia. On the renewal of the
war in 1815 the chief command was
again committed to him, and he led
his army into the Netherlands. June
15 Napoleon threw himself upon him,
and Blucher, on the 16th, was de-
feated at Ligny. In this engagement
his horse was killed, and he was
thrown under his body. In the battle
of the 18th Blucher arrived at the
most decisive moment upon the
ground, and taking Napoleon in the
rear and flank assisted materially in
completing the great victory of Belle
Alliance or Waterloo. He was a
rough and fearless soldier, noted for
Bine Law*
his energy and rapid movements,
which had procured him the name of
Marshal Vorwarts (Forward). He
died at Krieblowitz, Silesia, Sept. 12,
1819.
Blue, one of the seven colors into
which the rays of light divide them-
selves when refracted through a glass
prism, seen in nature in the clear ex-
panse of the heavens; also a dye or
pigment of this hue.
Blue, Victor, an American naval
officer, born in Marion, S. C., Dec. 6,
1865 ; entered the United States Naval
Academy in 1883 ; was commissioned
a passed naval cadet in 1887 ; trans-
ferred to the Engineer Corps in 1889,
and promoted to Ensign, Dec. 12,
1892. After serving on the "Alli-
ance " and " Thetis " he was assigned
to duty at the Naval Academy in
1896, and early in 1898 was promoted
to Lieutenant, junior grade. In the
war against Spain he traversed the
enemy's lines during the bombardment
of Santiago, and reported the location
of Cervera's vessels. Chief of Staff,
Pacific fleet, 1910-11 ; and became
chief of the Bureau of Navigation,
with the rank of rear-admiral, 1913.
Blue Beard, the name of the
blood thirsty husband in the familiar
tale of " Blue Beard," best described
in Perrault's "Tales" (1697). The
original of this monstrous personage
was a character celebrated in Breton
legend, Gilles de Laval, Baron de Retz
(1396-1440), famous in the wars of
Charles VII. According to tradition
he used to entice the children of peas-
ants into his castle, and there sacri-
fice them to the Devil and practice
sorcery with their remains. After 14
years of such a course he grew so bold
that his crimes were discovered, and
a heap of children's bones found in
his castle. He was condemned to
death, strangled, and his corpse
burned at the stake at Nantes in
1440. Another Breton legend repre-
sents de Retz with a red beard about
to marry a beautiful girl after haying
already made away with seven wives.
The bride expostulates at the altar.
De Retz offers her fine clothes, cas-
tles, all his possessions, finally his
body and soul. " I accept ! " shrieks
the bride, turning into a blue devil
and making a sign which transforms
de Retz's beard from red to blue.
£.20
Henceforth he belonged to Hell, and
became the dread of the country
round, under the name of Blue Beard.
Bine Berry, a name given in the
United States to the genus vaccinium,
that which contains the bilberry,
called in Scotland the blae berry.
Bine Bird, a beautiful bird. Its
whole upper parts are sky blue, shot
with purple, with its throat, neck,
breast, and sides reddish chestnut, and
part of its wings and its tail feathers
black.
Bine Book, a printed volume, is-
sued by authority of the British Par-
liament containing a report.
Bine Bottle, a two-winged fly, the
body of which has some faint resem-
blance to a bottle of blue glass.
Blnefields, town, seaport, and cap-
ital of the former Mosquito Indian
Reservation ; now the Department of
Zelaya, Nicaragua, on the Atlantic
coast near the mouth of the Bluefielda
river, and 165 miles E. of Managua.
The reservation lies along the Atlan-
tic coast extending S. almost to Gray-
town, one of the termini of the pro-
jected Nicaragua canal.
Bine Fish, a species of coryphsena
found in the Atlantic ; also, a fish like
a mackerel but larger, found on the
Atlantic coast, and sometimes called
horse mackerel and salt water tailor.
Bine Grass, a grass cultivated for
pasturage in Northern and Central
Kentucky, deriving its name from the
underlying strata of blue limestone
which gives it a luxuriant growth.
Bine Hen State, a sobriquet for
the State of Delaware. During the
War for Independence, a certain pop-
ular officer of Delaware, named Cap-
tain Caldwell, asserted that a game
cock to be unconquerable must be
" a blue hen's chicken." This name
was at once applied to his regiment
and later to the State and its people.
Bine Jay, a common North Amer-
ican bird of the crow family, and oc-
cupying in the New World the place
held by the jays of the Old.
Bine Laws, a name given to cer-
tain rulings or decisions of colonial
magistrates reported by Rev. Samuel
A. Peters, a Church of England cler-
gyman, of Connecticut, as the actual
laws of the New Haven _ colony..
Blue Monday
Though one of them forbade a woman
to kiss her child on the Sabbath or a
fast day, and another provided in what
fashion men should cut their hair,
they have been soberly accepted by
great numbers of people as actually
enacted laws, illustrative of Puritan
illiberality. They appear in Peters'
44 General History of Connecticut,"
and were evidently a somewhat spite-
ful satire upon the Puritan legislation,
which contained many statutes con-
cerning Sabbath observances and the
vices of drinking and gambling that
would now be deemed inquisitorial.
The term is generally applied to any
law one does not like that affects per-
sonal habits.
Blue Monday, in Bavaria and
some other parts of Europe, a name
formerly given to the Monday before
Lent, when the churches were deco-
rated with blue. It was kept as a
holiday by classes whose ordinary avo-
cation required them to labor on Sun-
days. As this led to violent disturb-
ances the custom was legally abol-
ished.
Blue Mountains, a beautiful
wooded range of mountains in Oregon,
from 8,000 to 9,000 feet high, which,
with the Powder River Mountains,
separate the Columbia valley from the
Great Basin.
Blue Mountains, the central
mountain range of Jamaica, the main
ridges of which are from 6,000 to
8,000 feet high.
Bine Point, the S. extremity of
Patchogue Bay, Long Island, N. Y.,
which lends its name to the well
known oysters — blue points.
Bine Print Paper, paper sensi-
tized by potassium ferricyanide and
citric acid ; used for making blue
print photographs and print plans,
mechanical drawings, etc., giving
white lines on blue ground.
Blue Ridge, the most easterly
range of .the Alleghany Mountains. It
forms the continuation of the chain
called South Mountain in Pennsylva-
nia and Maryland. It is known as the
Blue Ridge till it crosses the James
river; thence to North Carolina as Al-
leghany Mountains ; and in North Car-
olina again as Blue Ridge.
Bine Stockings, a literary wom-
an, generally with the imputation that
Blunt
she is more or less pedantic. Boswell,
in his " Life of Johnson," states that
in his day there were certain meet-
ings held by ladies to afford them op-
portunity of holding converse with
eminent literary men. The most dis-
tinguished talker at these gatherings
was a Mr. Stillingfleet, who always
wore blue stockings. His absence was
so felt that the remark became com-
mon, " We can do nothing without
the blue stockings." Hence the meet-
ings at which he figured began to be
called sportively Blue Stocking Clubs,
and those who frequented them blue
stockings.
Blum, Robert, a German Liberal
leader, born in very humble circum-
stances at Cologne, Nov. 10, 1807;
was secretary and treasurer of a thea-
ter at Cologne, and subsequently at
Leipsic, until 1847, when he estab-
lished himself as bookseller and pub-
lisher. His leisure was devoted to
literature and politics, and in 1840 he
founded at Leipsic the Schiller So-
ciety, which celebrated the poet's an-
niversary, as a festival in honor of
political liberty. When the revolu-
tionary movement broke out in 1848,
he was one of its foremost leaders.
At Vienna he joined the insurgents,
was arrested, and was shot on Nov. 9.
Blumenbach, Johann Fried-
Rich, a German naturalist, born in
Gotha, May 11, 1752. He advocated
the doctrine of the unity of the human
species, which he divided into five va-
rieties, Caucasian, Mongolian, Negro,
American, and Malay. His anthrop-
ological treatises, and memoirs of his
life by Marx and Flourens, were
translated into English. He died in
Gottingen, Jan. 22, 1840.
Blunderbuss, a short gun, unri-
fled and of large bore, widening
toward the muzzle. It is by no means
to be ranked with arms of precision,
but is loaded with many balls or slugs,
which scatter when fired, so that there
is a certainty of some one of them hit-
ting the mark.
Blunt, Edmund March, an
American author, born in Ports-
mouth, N. H., June 20, 1770; was
noted for his publication of the
"American Coast Pilot" (1796), de-
scribing all the coasts of the United
States, and containing a vast amount
Blunt
of invaluable information for seamen.
. More than 30 editions of this work
have been published, and it is still in
use in the United States and the prin-
cipal European countries, having been
translated into nearly every foreign
language. He also compiled a num-
ber of nautical books and charts. He
died in Sing Sing, N. Y., Jan. 2, 1862.
Blunt, George William, an
lAmerican hydrographer, born in New-
buryport, Mass., March 11, 1802; a
eon of Edmund March Blunt. He
went to sea when 14 years old and
served as a sailor till nearly 21 ; and
in 1822-1866 was a publisher of
charts and nautical books in New
York. He made original surveys of
many American harbors ; was one of
the committee that organized the pres-
ent system of pilotage for New York
city ; made several revisions of the
" American Coast Pilot ;" and was in-
fluential in causing the Federal Gov-
ernment to adopt the French system
of lighthouses and to organize the
Lighthouse Board. He died in New
York city, April 19, 1878.
Blunt, Stanhope English, an
American military officer ; born in
Boston, Mass., Sept. 29, 1850; was
graduated at the United States Mili-
tary Academy and commissioned 2d
lieutenant in 1872. He rose through
the ranks to colonel in the ordnance
department; retired in 1912.
Blushing, a sudden reddening of
the skin, induced by various mental
states, particularly those involving
shame or humiliation, shyness or mod-
esty.
Blyden, Edward Wilmot, a ne-
fro author, born at St. Thomas, W.
., Aug. 3, 1832. After vainly seek-
ing, in 1845, admission to some col-
lege in the United States, he went to
Liberia, and graduated at the Alex-
ander High School, of which he after-
ward became principal. In 1880 he
became President of Liberia College.
He was commissioner to the Presby-
terian General Assembly of the United
States in 1861 and 1880. He died
Feb. 8, 1912.
Blythe, Herbert (better known as
MAUBICE BARRYMORE) , an American
actor ; born in India in 1847 ; was
graduated at Cambridge University,
England ; studied for the civil service ;
Boardman
was admitted to the bar but did not
practise this profession, giving it up
for the stage. Died March 25. 1905.
Boa, the name of a genus of rep-
tiles belonging to Cuvier's tribe of
serpents proper.
The species properly belonging to
this genus are among the largest of
the serpent tribe, some of them, when
full .grown, being 30, and even 40 feet
long. Though destitute of fangs and
venom, nature has endowed them
with a degree of muscular power
which renders them terrible. Hap-
pily, they are not common in situa-
tions much frequented by mankind,
but are chiefly found in the vast
marshy regions of Guiana and other
hot parts of the American continent.
Boabd.il (properly Abu-Abdallah,
and nicknamed Ez-Zogoiby, " the un-
lucky"), the last Moorish King of
Granada, dethroned his father, Abu-1-
Hasan, in 1481, and two years later
was defeated and taken prisoner by the
Casti Hans near Lucena. He was set
free on condition of paying tribute,
and returned to Granada to struggle
with his father and with his heroic
uncle, Es-Zaghal, for the throne.
Going to Africa, he there flung away
his life in battle.
Boadicea, Queen of the Iceni, in
Britain, during the reign of Nero.
Having been treated in the most igno-
minious manner by the Romans, she
headed a general insurrection of the
Britons, attacked the Roman settle-
ments, reduced London to ashes, and
put to the sword all strangers to the
number of 70,000. Suetonius, the
Roman general, defeated her in a de-
cisive battle (A. D. 62), and Boadicea,
rather than fall into the hands of her
enemies, put an end to her own life by
poison.
Boanerges, a Greek word trans-
lated in Mark iii:.17, "sons of thun-
der." It is of doubtful etymology,
but is probably the Aramaic pronun-
ciation of Hebrew beni regesh, regesh
in Hebrew meaning tumult or uproar,
but in Arabic and Aramaean thunder.
It is an appellation given by Christ
to two of His disciples, the brothers
James and John, apparently on ac-
count of their fiery zeal.
Boardman, George Dana, an
American missionary, born in Liver-
Boardman
more, Me., Feb. 8, 1801. He studied
at Andover and was ordained in the
Baptist Church. In 1825 he went to
Burma, where he labored assiduously
in spreading Christianity. The mis-
sion planted by him became the cen-
tral point of all Baptist missions in
Burma. He died In Burma, Feb. 11,
1831.
Boardman, George Dana, an
American clergyman and author,
born in Tavoy, British Burma, Aug.
18, 1828; son of the American Bap-
tist missionary of the same name. He
was educated in the United States,
graduating at Brown University in
1852, and at Newton Theological In-
stitution in 1855. He became pastor
at Barnwell, S. C. ; afterward at
Rochester and Philadelphia. D. 1903.
Boardman, Mabel T., an Amer-
ican executive widely known for her
activities in the American National
Red Cross, of which she was a vice-
chairman in 1917. Of her work Pres-
ident Taft wrote : "The moving spirit
of the American Red Cross today is
Miss Mabel Boardman. It is due to
her indefatigable industry, her wide
acquaintance, her high character as a
woman, and the confidence that
wealthy and benevolent men have in
her that the association has become
so prosperous and powerful for good."
Boas, Franz, a German ethnolo-
gist, born in Minden, Westphalia,
July 9, 1858; studied at Heidelberg,
Bonn, and Kiel Universities, in 1877-
1882; traveled in the Arctic regions
in 1883-1884; was assistant in the
Royal Ethnographical Museum in
Berlin, and privat decent in geogra-
phy at the University in 1885-1886;
and teacher oi; anthropology in Clark
University, Worcester, Mass., in
1888-1892
Boat Bill, the English name of
a genus of birds belonging to the true
herons. The bill, from which the
English name comes, is very broad
from right to left, and looks as if
formed by two spoons applied to each
other on their concave sides. It in-
habits the hot and humid parts of
South America.
Boatswain, an officer on board
a ship, whose function it is to take
charge of the rigging, cables, cordage,
anchors, sails, boats, flags and stores.
Bock
He must inspect the rigging every
morning and keep it in good repair;
and must either by himself or by dep-
uty steer the life boat. If on a ship
of war he must call the men to their
duty by means of a silver whistle given
him for the purpose ; besides taking
into custody those condemned by a
court martial, and, either by himself
or by deputy, inflict on them the pun-
ishment awarded.
Boaz, a Bethlehemite of means,
who took upon himself the duty of
providing for Ruth, as the near rela-
tion of her dead husband's family.
From him Jesus Christ was directly
descended.
Bobbin, a reel or other similar
contrivance for holding thread.
Bobbin Ket, a machine made cot-
ton net, originally imitated from the
lace made by means of a pillow and
bobbins.
Bobolina, a Greek woman, cele-
brated for her courage in aid of the
Greek revolt. After her husband had
been slain by the Turks in 1812, she
resolved to avenge his death. In 1821,
she equipped three vessels at her own
expense, fought with extraordinary
courage at Tripolitiza and Naupha
and was killed in action, in 1825.
Bob-o-link, Boblink, Reed
Bird, or Rice Bird, a common
American bird found from Paraguay
to Canada, the only one of its kind,
and that difficult to classify. Sqms
place it near the Baltimore bird,
others near starlings, but both the
characteristics and the character of
the bob-o-link exhibit much that is
unique.
The name — originally Bob Lin-
coln — is an imitation of the bird's
note. In song, the full throated male
bob-o-Iink is unique, rivaling the lark,
inimitable by the mocking bird.
Bob White, popular name of a
small game bird of the United States,
given because of its peculiar call. In
the Northern States it is known as
QUAIL, and in the Southern as PART-
EIDGE.
Boccaccio, Giovanni, an Italian
novelist and poet, son of a Florentine
merchant, born in 1313 ; died in Cer-
taldo, in 1375.
Bock, Karl Ernst, a German
anatomist, born in 1809; died in
COPYRIGHT, IfciiJ, BY F. E. WRIGHT
BOATS OF VARIOUS CLIMES
Bock Beer
Bog
1847. His title to fame rests chiefly
on his " Handbook of Human Anat-
omy."
Bock Beer. (See BEER).
Bode, John Elert, German astron-
omer, born 1747, died 1826. His best
works are his Astronomical Almanac
and his large Celestial Atlas (Him-
melsatlas), giving a catalogue of 17,-
240 stars (12,000 more than in any
former chart). — Bode's Law is the
name given to an arithmetical formula,
previously made known by Kepler and
Titius of Wittenberg, expressing ap-
proximately the distances of the plan-
ets from the sun. It assumes the se-
ries 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, etc., each
term after the second being double the
preceeding term ; to each term 4 is add-
ed, producing the series 4, 7, 10, 14, 28,
56, 100, etc. These numbers are, with
the exception of 28, roughly propor-
tional to the distances between the
planets and the sun. The law has no
theoretical foundation.
Bodin, Jean, a French political
writer; born in 1530, or 1529. His
great work " De la Rgpublique "
(1576) has been characterized as the
ablest and most remarkable treatise
on the philosophy of government and
legislation produced from the time of
Aristotle to that of Montesquieu. Ac-
cording to his view, the best form of
government is a limited monarchy.
He died in Laon in 1596.
Bodleian, or Bodleyan, libra-
ry, a library founded at Oxford, Eng-
land, by Sir Thomas Bodley, in 1597.
All members of Oxford University who
have taken a degree are allowed to
read in it, as are literary men of all
countries.
Bodmer, Georg, a Swiss inven-
tor, born in Zurich, Dec. 6, 1786. He
invented the screw and cross wheels ;
and made valuable improvements in
fire arms and in various kinds of ma-
chinery, particularly in that of wool
spinning. He died in Zurich, May 26,
1864.
Bodmer, Johann Jakob, a Swiss
literary critic, born near Zurich, July
19, 1698; was the first to make Eng-
lish literature known in Germany ;
and wrote dramas, and epics. He was
leader of the movement which released
German literature from French clas-
sicism. He died Jan. 2, 1783.
Boece, or Boyce, Hector, a Scot*
tish historian, born in Dundee about
1465 ; died in 1536.
Boehm. Sir Joseph Edgar, &
British sculptor, born in Vienna, July
6, 1834. He executed busts of Glad-
stone, John Bright, John Ruskin, etc.,
and designed the effigy of Queen Vic-
toria for the coinage commemorative
of the 50th year of her reign. He
died in London, Dec. 12, 1890.
Boehme, Jacob, a German mysti-
cal writer, born in 1575. A sect, tak-
ing their name from Boehme, was
formed in England. He died in 1624.
Bosotia, a division of ancient
Greece, lying between Africa and
Phocis, and bounded E. and W. by the
Euboean Sea and the Corinthian Gulf
respectively, had an area of about
1,100 square miles. With Attica,
Bceotia now forms a department of the
"old territory" of Greece, with a pop.
(census of 1907) of 407,063.
Boerhaave, Hermann, a cele-
brated Dutch physician, one of the
most influential medical authorities
living in the 18th century ; born in
Woorhout, near Leyden, Dec. 12, 1668.
He died Sept 23, 1738.
Boers (Dutch, boer, a peasant or
husbandman), the name commonly ap-
plied to the South African colonists of
Dutch descent.
Boethus, a Greek sculptor, bom
in Chalcedon in the 2d century B. c.
He is celebrated for his statues of
children.
Boethius, Anicius Manlius Se-
verinns, a Roman statesman and
philosopher, called " the last of the
classic writers " ; born in Rome or
Milan, of an ancient family, about
A. D. 470; was educated in Rome, in
a manner well calculated to develop
his extraordinary abilities. Theodoric,
King of the Ostrogoths, then master
of Italy, loaded him with marks of
favor and esteem, and raised him to
the first offices in the empire.
Later, however, he was accused of a
treasonable correspondence with the
court of Constantinople. He was ar-
rested, imprisoned, and executed A. D.
524 or 526.
Bog, a piece of wet, soft, and
spongy ground, where the soil is com-
posed mainly of decaying and decayed
vegetable matter. Such ground is
Bogardns
valueless for agriculture until reclaim- 1
ed, but often yields abundance of peat
for fuel.
Bogardus, Everardus, a minis-
ter of the Dutch Reformed Church
in New Amsterdam, now New York;
husband of Anneke Jans. The latter
owned a farm of 60 acres, comprising
now one of the most valuable sections
of New York city. The Bogardus
heirs have for many years endeavored
unsuccessfully, to recover this proper-
ty, which is held by the corporation
of Trinity Church. He died Sept 27,
-10"! i •
Bogardus, James, an American
Inventor, born in Catskill, N. Y.t
March 14, 1800; was apprenticed to a
watchmaker, and early showed the
bent of his mind by improvements in
the construction of eight-day clocks,
and by the invention of a delicate en-
graving machine. The dry gas meter
is his invention, as is also the trans-
fer machine to produce bank note
plates from separate dies ; and in 1839
his plan for manufacturing postage
stamps was accepted by the British
Government Later he introduced
improvements in the manufacture of
india rubber goods, tools, and machin-
ery; and invented a pyrometer, a deep
•ea sounding machine, and a dynamo-
meter. He died in New York, April
13, 1874.
Boggs, Charles Stuart, an Amer-
ican naval officer, born in New Bruns-
wick, N. J., Jan. 28, 1811 ; entered the
navy in 1826; served on the
"Princeton" in the Mexican War;
was assigned to the gunboat " Va-
runa" in Farragut's Gulf Squadron
in 1861. In the attack on Forts St
Philip and Jackson, in April, 1862, he
destroyed six Confederate gunboats
and two rams, and in the last mo-
ments of the fight his own vessel was
sunk. In 1869-1870 he served with
the Europe'an fcquadron; in the lat-
ter year was promoted to Rear-Ad-
miral; and in 1873 was retired. He
died in New Brunswick, April 22,
1888.
Bogomilian, a Sclavonic Chris-
tian sect, founded in the 12th cen-
tury by a monk called Basil. His
tenets were akin to those of the Mani-
cheans and of the Gnostics. He be- i
lieved that the human body was ere- 1
Bohemia
ated by a demon cast from Heaven,
and was burned for his heresy.
Bogoslof Islands, a volcanic trip-
let in the Aleutian chain. The first
appeared May, 1796 ; the second Sept.,
1883 ; the third May, 1906, after the
San Francisco earthquake.
Bogota, capital of the Republic of
Columbia, situated within the limits
of the department of Cundinamarca,
on a tableland which, at an elevation
of 8,694 feet above the sea, separates
the basin of the Magdalena from that
of the Orinoco. The tableland has an
area of about 400 square miles, and is
bounded on all sides by mountains,
which, though lofty enough to give
shelter, are yet below the line of per-
petual snow. This extensive plain —
a temperate zone on the verge of the
equator, with a salubrious climate and
an average temperature of 60° F. — is
exceedingly fertile, being as rich in
pasture as in grain. The few manu-
factures of the city include soap,
leather, cloth, and articles made from
the precious metals. In 1912 the de-
partment of Cundinamarca had an
area of 8,046 square miles and pop.
of 713,968 ; Bogota had a pop. of 121,-
257.
Bogne, David, one of the found-
ers of the London Missionary Society,
was born in Berwickshire, in 1750.
Bogue also took an active part in the
establishment of the British and For-
eign Bible Society and the Religious
Tract Society. He was on the point
of going as a missionary to India in
1796, when the East India Company
refused to sanction the scheme. Bogue
died at Brighton, Oct. 25, 1825.
Bohemia, a former Kingdom, now
a Province of the Austro-Hungarian
monarchy (Austrian or Cisleithan por-
tion) bounded by Bavaria, Saxony,
the Prussian Province of Silesia, Mo-
ravia, and the Archduchy of Austria ;
area about 20,060 square miles, of
which less than 1 per cent, is not till-
able. Population (1910) 6,769.548,
(over 2,000,000 Germans). In 1916
Bohemia had 130 deputies in the
Reichsrath. The prevailing religion
is the Roman Catholic, the coun-
try being an archbishopric with
three bishoprics. The language of the
country is the Czech dialect of the
Slavonic in some districts, and in most
BENDING ROLLS
COMBINED SHEARING AND PUNCHING MACHINE
MODERN PLATE W
RIVETING MACHINE
KING MACHINERY
Bohlen Lectures
Boise
of the cities, German is spoken. Bo-
hemia is surrounded on all sides by
mountains, and has many large for-
ests. Its plains are remarkably fer-
tile. The chief rivers are the Elbe
and its tributary the Moldau, which
is even larger.
Bohlen Lectures, a lecture course
on a foundation of $10,000 furnished
by John Bohlen, a lay member of the
Protestant Episcopal Church. They
are delivered each year in Philadel-
phia, Pa., by eminent representatives
of that Church.
Bohol, one of the Philippine
Islands, belonging to the Visayas or
Bisayas group. It has an area of
about 1,300 square miles and a popu-
Jation of 245,000. Sugar cane is
grown and the island is reputed rich
in gold deposits.
Boiardo, Matteo Maria, Count
of Scandiano, one of the greater
Italian poets, was born in 1434 at
Scandiano, a village situated at the
foot of the Lombard Apennines. He
died at Reggio, in 1494.
Boieldieu, Francois Aurien, a
French musical composer, born in
1775; died in 1835.
Boies, Horace, an American law-
yer, born in Aurora, Erie co., N. Y.,
Dec. 7, 1827. His opposition to the tar-
iff and prohibition policy of the Re-
publican Party caused him to unite
with the Democrats ; and, in 1890-
1894, he served two terms as Governor
of Iowa, being defeated for a third
term in 1893. He was a conspicuous
candidate for the presidential nomina-
tion in the National Democratic Con-
ventions in 1892 and 1896 ; and in the
campaign of 1896 he supported Mr.
Bryan.
Boii, a powerful Celtic people who
dwelt originally in Transalpine Gaul,
part of whom settled in the modern
Bohemia, and bequeathed their name
to that country.
Boil, a disease called by medical
men furunculus. It is a phlegmonous
tumor, which rises externally, attend-
ed with redness and pain, and some-
times with a violent, burning heat.
Ultimately it becomes pointed, breaks,
and emits pus. A substance called the
core is next revealed. It is purulent,
but so thick and tenacious that it
looks solid, and may be drawn out in
the form of a cylinder, more pus fol-
lowing. The boil then heals. A!
blind boil is one which does not sup-
purate.
Boileau, Nicolas, a French poet,
born at Paris, Nov. 1, 1636. He died
March 13, 1711.
Boiler, the name applied to any
vessel or cauldron for boiling large
quantities of liquor, but most com-
monly used as the designation of a
metallic vessel in which water is con-
verted into steam by the action of
fire, the steam being intended by its
expansive force to give motion to a
steam engine, or to be used for a va-
riety of manufacturing purposes.
Boilers may be subdivided into the fol-
lowing clases : (a) Shell or tank
boilers, (b) Water-tube boilers.
Boiling, in general, the change of
a substance from the liquid to the
paseous state which takes place
throughout the liquid. The boiling
point, in science, is the point or de-
gree of the thermometer at which any
liquid boils.
Boisard, Francois Marie, a
French fabulist, born in 1774; died
in 1833.
Bois d'Arc (sometimes corrupted
into BODOCK), also bow-wood, or ps-
age orange, a tree which is a native
of the Southern United States. Its
large, beautiful orange like fruits are
scarcely eatable, but its pines make it
useful as a hedge plant. Its wood is
strong, and hard, and elastic, and
hence was used by the Indians in the
manufacture of their bows.
Bois de Bologna, a pleasant
grove near the gates on the W. of
Paris, so named after the suburb Bou-
logne-sur-Seine.
Boise, city, capital of the State of
Idaho, and county-seat of Ada co. ; on
the Boise river and the Union Pacific
railroad; 45 miles S. W. of Idaho
City. It occupies the site of a for-
mer trading post of the Hudson Bay
Company; is in an agricultural and
a rich mining region; and is supplied
with pure hot water from a flowing
boiling well. The city is said to be
the only one in the world having a
natural supply of hot water. Pop.
(1910) 17,358.
Boise, James Robinson, an
American educator, born in Bland-
Boisgobey
ford, Mass., Jan. 27, 1815; died in
Chicago, Feb. 9, 1895.
Boisgobey, Fortune-Abraham
du, a French novelist, born in Gran-
ville, Sept 11, 1821; died February,
1891.
Bok, Edward William, an Amer-
ican editor; born in 1863. He edited
the " Ladies' Home Journal," and is
a popular literary authority.
Boker, George Henry, an Amer-
ican poet and dramatist ; born in
Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 6, 1823. He
graduated from Princeton in 1842;
studied law ; and was United States
minister to Turkey in 1871-1875, and
to Russia in 1875-1879. He died
Jan. 2, 1890.
Bokhara, a Russian vassal State
in Central Asia, bounded on the N. by
the Russian provinces of Syr-Daria
and Samarkand, on the E. by the
province of Ferghana, on the S. by
Afghanistan, and on the S. W. by the
Russian Trans-Caspian province and
the Khanat of Khiva. Area, 83,000
square miles ; pop. about 1,250,000.
It formerly occupied considerably
more territory than it does now, hav-
ing been reduced by the conquests and
encroachments of Russia, which have
been only partially compensated by
additions.
Bokhara, the capital of the above
state, is 8 or 9 miles in circuit and
is surrounded by a mud wall. It is
poorly built, consisting of extremely
narrow streets and paltry houses. The
principal edifices are the palace of the
amir, crowning a height near the cen-
cer of the town and surrounded by a
brick wall 70 feet high ; and numer-
ous mosques, the largest of which is
enameled with tiles of azure blue, and
has a tower 210 feet high. The trade
was formerly large with India, but
has now been almost completely ab-
sorbed by Russia. The pop. is esti-
mated at 75,000.
Boldrewood, Rolf, pseudonym of
THOMAS ALEXANDER BBOWNE, an
Australian author, born in England
in 1827.
Boleyn, Anne, second wife of
Henry VIII. of England, was the eld-
est daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn,
and Elizabeth Howard, daughter of
the Duke of Norfolk. She was born
according to some accounts, in 1507,
•, Boliva*
but according to more probable ones
about 1501. About 1522 she became
lady of honor to Queen Catharine,
whom she soon supplanted. The king,
passionately enamored of her, found
an unexpected opposition to his wishes,
and Anne firmly declared that she
could be had on no terms but those of
marriage. She knew that the king
already meditated a divorce from his
wife, Catharine of Arragon ; but she
also knew what difficulties the Catho-
lic religion opposed to the execution
of this plan. Cramner offered his ser-
vices to bring about the accomplish-
ment of the king's wishes, and thua
gave the first occasion to the separa-
tion of England from the Roman
Church. But the impetuous Henry
did not wait for the ministers of this
new religion to confirm his divorce;
on the contrary, he married Anne in
January, 1533, having previously
created her Marchioness of Pembroke.
Cranmer declared the first marriage
void, and the second valid, and Anne
was crowned queen at Westminster
with unparalleled splendor. In 1533
she became the mother of the famous
Elizabeth. She could not, however,
retain the affections of the king, as
inconstant as he was tyrannical ; and
as she had supplanted her queen while
lady of honor to Catharine, she was
now supplanted herself by Jane Sey-
mour, her own lady of honor. She
was tried and condemned to death on
false charges of infidelity, and was
executed May 19, 1536.
Bolingbroke, Henry St. John,
Viscount, an English statesman and
political writer; born in Battersea,
near London, of an ancient family, in
1678. He died in Battersea in 1751.
Bolivar, Simon, an American
military officer and statesman (named
EL LIBERTADOR, from his having res-
cued Central South America from the
Spanish yoke), born in Caracas,
July 24, 1783. At Venezuela he en-
tered upon his military career as a
colonel in the service of the newly
founded republic. At length, in 1821,
the Independent troops were successful
in the battle of Carabobo, where the
Royalists lost upward of 6,000 men,
and which decided the cause against
Spain. On Aug. 20 of the same year
a Republican Constitution was adopt-
ed, and decreed to continue, as then
Bolivia
defined, till 1834. Bolivar was chosen
President, and he turned his attention
to the internal administration of the
country. In 1823 he assisted the Pe-
ruvians to obtain their independence,
and was declared their liberator, and
invested with supreme authority. On
Feb. 10, 1825, however, he convoked a
Congress, and resigned his dictator-
ship. He now visited the Upper Prov-
inces of Peru, which, calling a con-
vention at Chuquisaca, gave the name
of Bolivia to their country, in honor
of their liberator, and appointed him
Perpetual Protector, and to draw up
a constitution. On May 25, 1826, he
presented his Bolivian code to the
Congress of Bolivia, which was after-
ward adopted, with some dissatisfac-
tion, however, although it was also
subsequently adopted by the Congress
of Lima, where, under its provisions,
he himself was elected President for
life. He now set out for Colombia,
where disaffection and party strife
were at their height. His conduct
here was misconstrued, and he was
supposed to be assuming the powers
of a dictator. In 1829 new disturb-
ances arose, and, in 1830, a conven-
tion was called for the purpose of
framing a new constitution for Colom-
bia. The proceedings were begun by
Bolivar, who once more tendered his
resignation. This was his last act
which had relation to public affairs.
He died at San Pedro, near Cartha-
gena, Dec. 17, 1830.
Bolivia, a republic of South Amer-
ica ; bounded on the N. by Peru and
Brazil ; on the E. by Brazil and Para-
guay ; on the S. by the Argentine Re-
public and Chile ; and on the W. by
Peru and Chile ; area 514,155 square
miles; pop. (est. 1915) 2,889,970;
capital and largest city La Paz; pop.
(1915) 100,097. The boundary dis-
putes of Bolivia with Brazil and with
Chile were settled by treaties in 1903
and 1904 respectively ; that with Peru
was settled by direct negotiations in
1911-12 ; and that with Paraguay,
long pending was still unsettled at the
end of 1916.
Agriculture is still in a backward
condition, although it is estimated
that fully 4,940.000 acres are under
cultivation. Wheat, maize, barley,
beans, and potatoes are produced for
local consumption ; coffee is raised
chiefly for export; sugar cane is
Bollworm
grown for distillation; and rubber,
cinchona, and cocoa are important
and increasing products. Rubber is
produced on 40,642,000 acres, and
makes Bolivia rank as the second rub-
ber exporting country of South Amer-
ica, Brazil ranking first. Cattle,
sheep, and llamas are extensively bred.
Bolivia has a very large mineral
wealth in silver, copper, tin, lead,
zince, antimony, bismuth, gold, borax
and salt, producing one quarter of the
total tin output of the world. The
metallic exports in 1915 had a value
of $28,535,055, to which tin contrib-
uted $19,813,740.
The constitution (Oct 28, 1880)
vests the executive power in a Presi-
dent, elected by direct popular vote,
for a term of four years, and ineligi-
ble for re-election at the end of his
term of office. The legislative au-
thority rests in a Congress, compris-
ing a Senate of 16 members, elected
for six years, and a Chamber of
Deputies of 70 members, elected for
four years. There are also two Vice-
Presidents, and a Ministry divided
into the Departments of Foreign Re-
lations and Worship, Finance, Justice
and Industry, Government and Public
Works, War and Colonization, and
Education and Agriculture. The
suffrage is possessed by all who can
read and write. The republic is di-
vided into eight departments and
these into provinces and cantons. The
Roman Catholic is the recognized re-
ligion of the republic, and the exercise
of other forms of worship is permit-
ted. Primary instruction is free and
nominally obligatory, and is under the
care of the several municipalities. In
1913 there were 798 miles of railroad
open and about 2,300 miles of cart
roads connecting important towns,
and 2,730 miles of State and 1,080
of private telegraph lines. Imports
1915, $7.893.225 ; exports, $33,951,355.
In 1879 Chile declared war against
Bolivia. Peru came to the aid of
the latter and the Chilians de-
feated their allied opponents. As a
result of this war Bolivia mortgaged
to Chile the Littoral Department,
which has an area of 29,910 square
miles, and contains the important port
of Antofagasta, thus losing her entire
seacoast.
Bollworm, the caterpillar of the
nocturnal moth, Heliothis Armigera.
Bolo
The creature feeds on almost every va-
riety of vegetable and cultivated crop,
and is known in each locality by the
name of the plant on which it feeds,
as the corn-worm, tobacco-worm, cot-
ton-worm, etc. Its first choice is cot-
ton, and then corn, and in the South
where both crops grow it has proven
very destructive wherever it has been
permitted to make headway. There
are 4 or 5 broods each year ; the July
brood attacks corn, the August brood
eats the cotton, and the last brood con-
tinues the race. It is as the cotton-
worm that it is called boll-worm, as
the young grub eats the unfolded boll
or bud of the cotton plant. The gen-
eral government is making strenuous
efforts to kill the pest.
Bolo, a short, broad, lance-shaped
weapon ; used by the Filipinos in their
FILIPINO BCLO.
operations again?, the American
troops. The blade is about 18 inches
in length by nearly 3 inches in
breadth at its broadest dimension. It
Boma
tapers from the middle toward the
haft as well as toward the point, mak-
ing it strongly resemble the ancient
short sword. It is not double edged,
however, but tapers from a thick back
to an extremely keen edge. In April
1904, the United States troops operat-
ing in the Philippines, were supplied
with bolos.
Bologna, one of the oldest, largest
and richest cities of Italy, capital of
the Province of same name, in a fer-
tile plain at the foot of the Apen-
nines, between the rivers Reno and
Savena, surrounded by an unfortified
brick wall. In the 12th and 13th cen-
turies it was one of the most flourish-
ing of the Italian republics ; but the
feuds between the different parties of
the nobles led to its submission to the
papal see in 1513. Several attempts
were made to throw off the papal yoke,
one of which, in 1831, was for a time
successful. In 1849 the Austrians
obtained possession of it. In 1860 it
was annexed to the dominions of King
Victor Emmanuel. Population (1915)
189,770.
Bolognese School, an Italian
school of painting, founded in the 14th
century, probably by Franco. The
great master of the school was Fran-
cesco Francia, a contemporary of Ra-
phael, celebrated for the purity and
serenity of his Madonnas.
Bolometer, a most sensitive elec-
trical instrument invented by Langley
in 1883 for the measurement of ra-
diant heat.
Bolt on Abbey, a notable English
structure in Yorkshire ; in a highly-pic-
turesque district on the river Wharfe,
6 miles E. of Skipton, and 21 N. W.
of Leeds. Founded for Augustinian
canons about 1150, it has been cele-
brated by Wordsworth in " The White
Doe of Rylstone " and "The Force of
Prayer."
Bolton, Sarah Tittle, an Ameri-
can poet, born in Newport, Ky., Dec.
18, 1815. She is known for her pa-
triotic and war poems, including " Pad-
dle Your Own Canoe," " Left on the
Battlefield," etc. She died in Indian-
apolis, Ind., Aug. 4, 1893.
Boma, city and capital of the
former Kongo Independent State, an-
nexed to Belgium by treaty of 1907,
till 1876 was the extreme inland post
Bomb
Bombay
of the Dutch and Portuguese traders.
It contains the establishment of the
governor-general and also the local
government of the administrative dis-
trict of the same name. It has an ex-
tensive import and export trade. Area
of colony, 909,654 square miles ; pop.
officially estimated, 15,000,000.
Bomb, in ordnance, the same as
a bomb shell ; a hollow iron ball,
spheroid, or anything similar, filled
with gunpowder, and provided with a
time or percussion fuse. It is fired
from a mortar or howitzer.
Modern political upheavals have in-
duced a traffic in packages of ex-
plosives, which have been christened
bombs. These terrific agents of de-
struction have been used with murder-
ous effect in the larger European cit-
ies : St. Petersburg, Madrid and
Paris ; also in Chicago. The anar-
chists have regularly established fac-
tories for the production of these mis-
siles, in which the elements are com-
bined with great nicety and scientific
precision. The usual method of con-
struction is to fill a hollow sphere
with some high explosive together
with pieces of scrap iron, nails, bul-
lets, or anything that will wound.
Bomba, a title popularly conferred
upon King Ferdinand II. of Naples
and by which he will be recorded in
history. This appellation he received
from the violation of his solemn oath
to the citizens of Palermo, which city
he perfidiously bombarded in 1840 ;
thus outraging his own plighted word,
the laws of humanity, and the consti-
tutional policy he had sworn to ob-
serve.
Bombardier Beetle, a name ap-
plied to many coleopterous insects.
They are called bombardier beetles on
account of a remarkable property they
possess of violently expelling from the
anus a pungent acrid fluid, which, if
the species be large, has the power of
producing discoloration of the skin,
similar to that produced by nitric acid.
It also changes blue vegetable colors
to red, and then to yellow. Found in
this country and the tropics.
Bombardment, an attack with
bombs. Specifically, the act of throw-
ing shells and shot into a town, fort,
or ship.
Bombax, also known as the silk
cotton tree. The fruit is larger than
a swan's egg, and when ripe opens in
five parts, displaying many roundish,
pea-lake seeds enveloped in dark cot-
ton. This tree yields a gum, given in
conjunction with spices in certain
stages of bowel complaints. The five
leaved silk cotton tree rises to a great
height. Its native country is South
America and the adjacent West India
Islands, where its immense trunk is
scooped into canoes.
Bombay, the third largest of the
provinces of British India. It stretch-
es along the west of the Indian penin-
sula, and is irregular in its outline
and surface, presenting mountainous
tracts, low, barren hills, valleys, and
high tablelands. It is divided into a
Northern, a Central, and a Southern
Division, the Sind and Aden Divisions
and the island of Bombay. Total area,
123,059 square miles ; pop. (1911) 19,-
672,642, including the city and terri-
tory of Aden in Arabia, 80 square
miles (pop. 46,165). The native or
feudatory States connected with the
province (the chief being Kathiawar)
have an area of 63,864 square miles ;
pop. (1911) 7,411,675. The Portu-
guese possessions, Goa, Daman, and
Diu, geographically belong to it.
Many parts, the valleys in particular,
are fertile and highly cultivated ;
other districts are being gradually de-
veloped by the construction of roads
and railroads. The southern portions
are well supplied with moisture, but
great part of Sind is the most arid
Eortion of India. The climate varies,
eing unhealthful in the capital, Bom-
bay, and its vicinity, but at other
places, such as Poonah, very favorable
to Europeans. The chief productions
of the soil are cotton, rice, millet,
wheat, barley, dates, and the cocoa
palm. The manufactures are cotton,
silk, leather, etc. The great export is
cotton. The administration is in the
hands of a Governor and council.
The chief source of revenue is the
land, which is largely held on the
rayatwar (small farmer) system. Of
the entire population in 1911, 14,922,-
965 were Hindus.
Bombay, the chief seaport on the
W. coast of India, and capital of the
Province of the same name; at the
southern extremity of the island of
Bombay is divided into two portions,
one known as the Fort, and formerly
Bombazine
Bonaparte
surrounded with fortifications, on a
narrow point of land with the harbor
on the E. side and Back Bay on the I
W. ; the other known as the City, a I
little to the N. W. In the Fort are
Bombay Castle, the Government offi-
ces, and almost all the merchants'
warehouses and offices ; but most of
the European residents live outside of
the mercantile and native quarters of
the city in villas or bungalows. Bom-
bay has many handsome buildings,
both public and private, as the cathe-
dral, the university, the secretariat,
the high court, the post and telegraph
offices, etc. Various industries, such
as dyeing, tanning, and metal work-
ing, are carried on, and there are
large cotton factories. The commerce
is very extensive, exports and imports
of merchandise reaching a total value I
of over $300,000,000 annually. The
harbor is one of the largest and safest
in India, and there are commodious
docks. There is a large traffic with
steam vessels between Bombay and
Great Britain, and regular steam com-
munication with China, Australia,
Singapore, Mauritius, etc. The island
of Bombay, which is about 11 miles
long and 3 miles broad, was formerly
liable to be overflowed by the sea, to
prevent which substantial walls and
embankments have been constructed.
The harbor is protected by formidable
rock batteries. After Madras, Bom-
bay is the oldest of the British pos-
sessions in the East, having been ceded i
by the Portuguese in 1661. Pop. 1
(1911) 979,445.
Bombazine, a mixed silk and
woolen twilled stuff, the warp consist-
ing of silk and the weft of worsted.
Black bombazine has been much in
use for mourning garments.
Bomb Lance, a harpoon used in
whale fishing which carries a charge
of explosive material in its head.
Bombon, a large, fresh water lake
in Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 50
miles S. of Manila. It is 105 square
miles in area. There is a small
island in the center, from which rises
the volcano of Taal, the lowest in the
world, its height being only 850 feet.
The waters of the lake find an outlet
to the sea through the Pansipit river.
Bona Dea, a mysterious Italian
goddess of fertility, who is variously
described as the wife, sister, or daugh-
ter of Faunus. She was worshipped
at Rome from the most ancient times,
but only by women, even her name
being concealed from men. Her sanc-
tuary was a grotto on Mons Aven-
tinus ; but her festival ( the 1st of
May) was celebrated in the house of
the consul. The solemnities were per-
formed generally by high bom vestals.
At this celebration, no males were al-
lowed to be present ; even portraits of
men were veiled. During the celebra-
tion in the house of Caesar the in-
famous Clodius was discovered dis-
guised as a female musician. The
symbol of the goddess was a serpent.
Bona Fides, literally, good faith ;
honesty, as distinguished from mala
fides (bad faith). The law requires
all persons in their transactions to
act with good faith; and a contract,
when the parties have not acted bona
fide, is void at the pleasure of the in-
nocent party.
Bonanno, an Italian architect and
sculptor of the 12th century. In 1174
he commenced, with Wilhelm of Inns-
bruck, the famous Leaning Tower of
Pisa. He was also the designer of
the celebrated bronze doors of the
cathedral of that city, which were, all
but one, destroyed by a conflagration
in 1596.
Bonaparte (pronounced in Italian
in four syllables ; in French and Eng-
lish in three), the name of a famous
family, which was spelt Buonaparte
by the Emperor Napoleon and his
father till 1796, though the more
usual, modern form also occurs in old
Italian documents. In the 13th cen-
tury and afterward, several families
named Bonaparte figure with distinc-
tion in Italian records — at Florence,
San Miniato, Sarzano, and Genoa.
But as the name of Bonaparte occurs
in Corsica as early as the 10th cen-
tury, it is probable that the island
may have been their original home. In
the 16th century mention is again
found of the Bonapartes in Corsica,
where in Ajaccio they occupied a re-
spectable position as a patrician or
leading family. In the 18th century
this family was represented by three
male descendants, all residing at Ajac-
cio : the archdeacon, LUCIEN BONA-
PARTE ; his brother, NAPOLEON BONA«
PASTE; and his nephew, CHABLES.
Bonaparte
CHARLES BONAPARTE, father of the
Emperor Napoleon, was born at Ajac-
cio in 1746 ; studied law at Pisa ; and
married, in 1767 — without the con-
sent of his uncles — a beautiful young
patrician lady, named Letizia Ramo-
lino. He died in 1785.
MARIA LETIZIA RAMOLINO, mother
of Napoleon I., lived to see her fam-
ily placed on the thrones of Europe,
and also witnessed their downfall.
She was born at Ajaccio in 1750. Af-
ter the death of her husband she lived
for some time in Corsica, and in 1793,
when the island came under British
rule, removed with her family to Mar-
seilles, where she lived in poverty,
mainly supported by the pension given
to Corsican refugees. After her son
became First Consul she removed to
Paris, and when her son was crowned
in 1804 received the title Madame
Mere, and was made patroness of all
the benevolent institutions of the em-
pire. A brilliant court household was
given to her, which, however, was
never pleasing to her modest tastes.
Remembering former adversities, and
foreboding reverses of the splendid
success of her sons, she was prepared
for all that followed. After the down-
fall of Napoleon, Letizia lived with
her stepbrother, Cardinal Fesch, in
winter at Rome, and in summer at Al-
bano, and submitted to her change of
fortune with remarkable dignity. She
died in 1836, leaving a considerable
property, the result of saving habits
during her prosperity.
JOSEPH BONAPARTE, eldest brother
of Napoleon, was born at Corte, in
Corsica, in 1768. After the coronation
of Napoleon Joseph Bonaparte was
made commander-in-chief of the army
of Naples ; in 1805, ruler of the Two
Sicilies; and in 1806, King of Naples.
In 1808 Joseph Bonaparte was sum-
marily transferred by his brother to
the throne of Spain, and Murat took
his place as King of Naples. For Jo-
seph, this was no favorable change ;
he found himself unprepared to cope
with the Spanish insurgents, and after
the defeat of the French at Vittoria in
1813, he returned to his estate at Mor-
fontaine, in France. After Waterloo
Joseph sailed to the United States,
became an American citizen, and lived
for some years at Bordentown, N. J.,
where he employed himself in agri-
Bonaparte
J culture, and was highly esteemed by
| his neighbors. In 1832 he returned to
Europe, and be died at Florence in
1844.
LUCIEN BONAPARTE, Prince of Ca-
nino, and brother of Napoleon, was
born at Ajaccio in 1775, and received
his education in the college of Autun,
the military school at Brienne, and
the seminary at Aix. Lucien was a
Republican in opinion, and, therefore,
opposed to the absolute rule of his
brother; and his second marriage to
the widow of a stockbroker did not
improve their relations. On condi-
tion that he would divorce his wife,
the crowns of Italy and Spain were
offered him ; but he refused them, and
preferred living in retirement at his
estate of Canino, in the Province of
Viterbo, near the frontiers of Tus-
cany, where he devoted his time to art
and science. Here he enjoyed the
friendship of the Pope, who created
him Prince of Canino and Musignano ;
but, having denounced in his private
capacity the arrogant and cruel policy
of his brother toward the Court of
Rome, he was advised to leave the
city in which he was at that period
residing. In 1810 he took ship for
America, but fell into the hands of
the English. After the defeat at
Waterloo, Lucien Bonaparte alone
seems to have preserved his presence
of mind. He immediately advised his
brother to dissolve the Chambers, and
assume the place of absolute dictator.
After the second ascent of the throne
by Louis XVIII., Lucien lived in and
near Rome, and died at Viterbo in
1840.
Louis BONAPARTE, third brother of
Napoleon, born in 1778, was educated
in the ' artillery school at Chalons,
where he imbibed anti-Republican
principles. After rising from one
honor to another he was made King
of Holland in 1806; but, in fact, was
never more than a French Governor
of Holland, subordinate to the will of
his brother. Yet he seems to have
done his best to govern in the interests
of his Dutch subjects, and when he
found his efforts useless, he resigned
in favor of his son in 1810. He re-
turned to Paris in 1814, where he was
coldly received by the Emperor. After
living for some years in Rome —
where he separated from his wite —
Bonar
he removed in 1826 to Florence, where
he lived in retirement. He died at
Leghorn in 1846.
The amiable and accomplished
HORTENSE EUGENIE BEAUHARNAIS,
the adopted daughter of Napoleon,
Queen of Holland and Countess St.
Leu, was born at Paris in 1783. She
became the wife of "Louis Bonaparte,
Napoleon's third brother, and their
son, Charles Louis Napoleon, became
Emperor of the French as Napoleon
the Third. She died at Arenenberg
in 1837, and was buried near the re-
mains of her mother, Josephine, at
Ruel, near Paris.
JEROME BONAPARTE, youngest broth-
er of Napoleon, was born at Ajaccio
in 1784. After receiving his education
in the college at Juilly, he served as
naval lieutenant in the expedition to
Haiti. When war broke out between
France and England in 1803, Jerome
was cruising off the West Indies, and
was compelled to take refuge in the
port of New York. While in the
United States he married Elizabeth
Patterson (1785-1879), daughter of a
merchant in Baltimore. He fought in
the war against Prussia, and in 1807
was made King of Westphalia. His
administration of his kingdom was
careless, extravagant, and burdensome
to his subjects. The battle of Leipsic
brought the reign of Jerome to a close.
He fought by the side of the Emperor
at Waterloo. After his brother's ab-
dication he left Paris and visited
Switzerland and Austria, but ulti-
mately settled in Florence. At the
outbreak of the February Revolution
(1848), Jerome Bonaparte was in
Paris, where he was appointed Gover-
nor of the Invalides, and in 1850 was
made a French marshal. He died in
1860.
His marriage with Elizabeth Patter-
son having been declared null by Na-
poleon, Jerome was forced, after he
had gained the Westphalian crown, to
marry Catharine, daughter of King
Frederick I. of Wurtemberg. After
the battle of Waterloo, her father
wished to annul the marriage ; but
she declared her resolution to share
through life the fortunes of her hus-
band. Jerome Bonaparte left in the
United States one son, Jerome Na-
poleon (1805-1870), by his first mar-
riage, who was a wealthy resident,
Bond
though he never became a naturalized
citizen. He left two sons, (1) JEROME
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, born in Balti-
more, hi 1832. He served with credit
in the United States and French ar-
mies. (2) CHARLES JOSEPH BONA-
PARTE, b. Baltimore, 1851 ; graduated
in law at Harvard ; became a promi-
nent public man ; U. S. Sec. of Navy
1905; and in 1906 U. S. Atty. Gen.
By his second wife, Jerome Bonaparte
had three children. Of the Emperor
Napoleon I. and his brothers, Joseph
and Louis, male issue is now extinct.
The Emperor's brothers, Lucien and
Jerome, are represented by living de-
scendants. (See NAPOLEON).
Bonar, Horatins, a celebrated
Scotch hymnist, born in Edinburgh,
Dec. 19, 1808; wrote "Hymns of
Faith and Hope," many of which have
been taken into the hymnals of most
of the Protestant Churches. He also
wrote more than 20 volumes on theo-
logical and religious subjects. He died
July 31, 1889.
Bonaventnra, St., an Italian
friar of the Order of St. Francis, born
in Tuscany in 1221. He died July
15, 1274, from sheer ascetic exhaus-
tion.
Bona Vista, a bay, cape, and town
on the E. coast of Newfoundland. The
town is a port of entry, and one of
the oldest settlements in the island.
Bonchamp, Charles, Marquis
de, a Vendean leader, was born in
Anjou, May 10, 1760. He served as
a volunteer in the American Revolu-
tionary War, and was a captain in
the French army at the outbreak of
the French Revolution. A strong
Royalist, he naturally disliked the
Revolution, and consequently lived in
retirement until chosen leader of the
Anjou insurgents. In the encounter
at Cholet, Oct. 17, 1793, Bonchamp
received a fatal shot in the breast,
and when his followers vowed to re-
venge his death on 5,000 Republican
prisoners, the dying hero exclaimed :
" Spare your prisoners. I command
it ! " This, his last command, was
obeyed.
Bond, a written acknowledgment
or binding of a debt under seal. The
person who gives the bond is called
the obligor, and he to whom it 10
given the obligee.
Bond
Bone Manure
Bond, in masonry, a stone or brick
which is laid with its length across a
wall, or extends through the facing
course into that behind, so as to bind
the facing to the backing.
Bond, George Phillips, an Amer-
ican astronomer, born in Dorchester,
Mass., May 20, 1825; a son of Wil-
iian Cranch Bond ; assisted his father
in the Harvard College Observatory,
and at the time of the la tier's death
wns appointed director. He discov-
ered independently 11 new comets, and
was the author of an elaborate me-
moir on the appearance of Donati's
comet in 1858. Died Feb. 17, 1865.
Bond, Sir Robert, an English
colonial statesman; born in Torquay,
England, Feb. 25, 1857; was edu-
cated for the bar, but early entered
political life; became premier and
colonial secretary of Newfoundland
in 1900; was long conspicuous in
international negotiations concerning
the Newfoundland fisheries; and con-
cluded the Bond-Blaine convention in
1890 and the Hay-Bond treaty, which
the United States Senate rejected, in
1902.
Bond, William Cranch, an
American astronomer, born in Port-
land, Me., Sept 9, 1789; began life
as a watch maker, and constructed the
first ship's chronometer made in the
United States. He established a pri-
vate observatory at Dorchester, Mass.,
which was at the time the finest in
the country. Invited to move his ob-
servatory to Cambridge, he accepted
the invitation of the Harvard College
authorities, and in 1840 was appointed
Astronomical Observer to the univer-
sity, and later to the directorship of
the observatory erected there in 1843-
1844. He was the inventor of the
method of registering the beats of a
clock by galvanic circuit, together
with the observed transits of stars
over the wires of a transit instrument,
upon a chronograph, and he invented
the spring governor, which bears his
name, for controlling the motion of
the chronograph barrel. His most im-
portant work was in connection with
the determination of longitudes, both
of points in the United States from
the Harvard College Observatory, and
that of the observatory itself from
Greenwich by the observation of a
vast number of ocultations of stars by
the moon, both at Dorchester and
Cambridge. He died Jan. 29, 1859.
Bonded Warehouses, places
where taxable imports or manufac-
tures may be left in government cus-
tody, under bond for payment of the
duty, till the importer or manufac-
turer is prepared to make full pay-
ment of duty.
Bondi, Clemente, one of the most
popular poets of modern Italy ; born
in Mizzano, in, the duehy of Parma,
June 27, 1742; died in Vienna, June
20, 182L
Bone. The bones are the hardest
and most solid parts of animals; they
constitute the frame, serve as points
of attachment to the muscles, and af-
ford support to the softer solids. They
are the instruments, as muscles are
the organs, of motion. In the mam-
malia, birds, fish, and reptiles, the
whole system of bones united by the
vertebral column is called the skele-
ton.
Bone, or Bona, a town and sea'
port of Algiers, 85 miles N. E. of Con-
stantine, at the mouth of the Sey-
bouse river. It is built on the site of
Aphrodisium, the port of ancient Hip-
po. The Vandals having destroyed
Aphrodisium, an Arab town arose on
its ruins. The city having outgrown
its former limits, the present ramparts
are beyond the old walls. Bone has
been modernized to some extent, many
old buildings being removed to make
room for new ones. The surface is
irregular and some of the streets steep.
There are mosques, a cathedral and
other churches and a synagogue.
Bone Ash, ash made of calcined
bones.
Bone Bed, in geology, a bed con-
taining numerous fragments of fossil
bones, teeth, etc.
Bone Back, animal charcoal. It
is obtained by charring bones. It has
the power of absorbing gases, remov-
ing the coloring matter and alkaloids,
etc., from their solutions. It is used
to disinfect ulcers, etc., also to decol-
orize sugar and other organic sub-
stances ; its properties can be re-
stored by heating it to redness in
closed vessels.
Bone Manure, one of the most im-
portant fertilizers in agriculture. The
value of bones as manure arises chief-
Boner
ly from the phosphates and nitro-
fenous organic matters they contain,
t is of most service, therefore,
where the soil is deficient in -Ibis re-
spect, or in the case of crops whose
rapid growth or small roots do not en-
able them to extract a sufficient sup-
ply of phosphate from the earth, tur-
nips, for instance, or late sown oats
and barley.
Boner, John Henry, an Ameri-
can poet and literary worker, born at
Salem, N. C., Jan. 31, 1845.
Boneset, or Thorough-wort, a
useful annual plant, indigenous to the
United States, and easily recognized
by its tall stem, 4 or 5 feet in height,
passing through the middle of a large,
double, hairy, leaf, and surmounted
by a broad, flat head of light purple
flowers. It is much used as a domes-
tic medicine.
Bongabong, a town in the S. E.
part of Luzon, Philippine Islands,
with an estimated popplation of 20,-
000. It lies in a mountainous dis-
trict, and attained military impor-
tance as the headquarters of a regi-
ment of United States troops. The
town has a municipal government
based upon popular election.
Bonheur, Rosa, (properly MARIE
ROSA), celebrated French artist and
painter of animals was born at Bor-
deaux, March 22, 1822. She received
early tuition from her father, a draw-
ing teacher, and when only 18 years
of age, exhibited at the Salon, two
pictures, " Goats and Sheep," and
"Two Rabbits eating Carrots." Among
her famous pictures are, " Ploughing
in the Nivernais," " Haymaking in
Auvergne," " The Normandy Horse
Fair," and " Deer in the Forest "
(the last two in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York city).
She died at By, May 25, 1899.
Boniface, St., a saint of the Ro-
man calendar, and a native of Eng-
land, who was sent by Gregory II. to
convert the Germans. Gregory III.
made him an archbishop. Born in
Devonshire in 680, slain by some peas-
ants in Friesland, in 755. His let-
ters were printed in 1616.
Bonington, Richard Parkes, an
English painter in oil and water col-
ors, born near Nottingham. Oct. 25,
180L He died Sept. 23, 1828.
Bonner
Bonivard, or Bonnivard, Fran-
cois de, cadet of a family holding
large possessions under the House of
Savoy, was born about 1496 at Seys-
sel, on the Rhone, and in 1513 became
prior of St. Victor at Geneva. Fall-
ing under the suspicion of the Duke of
Savoy, he was taken prisoner by him
in 1519. After 20 months' imprison-
ment he was set free, but in 1530 he
was again seized, and taken to the
castle of Chillon at the E. end of the
Lake of Geneva, where he was im-
prisoned for six years, the last four
in that subterranean vault which the
genius of Byron has made famous by
his poem on the sufferings of " The
Prisoner of Chillon." He died in
1570, leaving the town his books,
which were the nucleus of the Geneva
library.
Bonn, a German town in the
Rhenish Province of Prussia, beauti-
fully situated on the left bank of the
Rhine, with magnificent promenades
and prospects in the environs. It has
some trade and manufactures, but is
chiefly important for its famous uni-
versity, founded in 1777 by Elector
Maximilian Frederick of Cologne, and
for its cathedral, which has a crypt
of the llth century and mediaeval
wall paintings. Enlarged and amply
endowed by the King of Prussia, in
1818, the university is now one of the
chief seats of learning in Europe,
with a library of more than 200,000
volumes, an anatomical hall, mineral-
ogical and zoological collections, mu-
seum of antiquities, a botanical gar-
den, etc. The teachers in the five fac-
ulties number about 150, and the stu-
dents nearly 2,000. Lange, Niebuhr,
Ritschl, Brandis, and other names
famous in science or literature are
connected with Bonn, and Beethoven
was born here. Bonn was long the
residence of the Electors of Cologne,
and finally passed into the hands of
Prussia by the arrangements of the
Congress of Vienna, in 1815. Pop.
(1910) 87,978.
Bonner, Edmund, an English
prelate of infamous notoriety, was
born about 1495, of obscure parentage.
He took a doctor's degree at Oxford,
in 1525, and, attracting the notice of
Cardinal Wolsey, received from him
several offices in the church. On the
dealth of Wolsey he acquired the favor
Bonncr
Bonsai
of Henry VIII., who made him one
of his chaplains, and sent him to
Rome to advocate his divorce from
Queen Catharine. In 1540 he was
consecrated Bishop of London, but on
the death of Henry ( 1547 ) , having
refused to take the oath of supremacy,
he was deprived of his see and thrown
into prison. On the accession of Mary
he was restored to his bishopric, and
he distinguished himself during this
reign by a persecution of the Protest-
ants, 200 of whom he was instrumental
in bringing to the stake. After Eliza-
beth succeeded he remained unmolest-
ed until his refusal to take the oath
of supremacy, on which he was com-
mitted to the Marshalsea (1560),
where he remained a prisoner until his
death in 1569.
Bpnner, Robert, an American
publisher, born near Londonderry,
Ireland, April 28, 1824. He came to
the United States in early youth, and
learned the trade of a printer, In
1844 he removed to New York, and,
in 1851, purchased the " Ledger," then
an insignificant paper. He made it
remarkably successful. As a result
he became very rich, and gratified
his taste for fast horses by purchas- i
ing the most celebrated trotters in the :
world, though withdrawing them from |
the race course. Among these are
"Peerless," "Dexter," "Maud S.,"
which he bought from William H.
Vanderbilt for $40,000, her record of
speed being 2.09%, which he afterward
reduced to 2.08%, and " Sunol." He
made large gifts of money to Prince-
ton University and was widely known
for his many benefactions. He re-
tired from active control of the " Led-
ger " in 1887, giving it into the hands i
of his sons. He died in New York
city, July 6, 1899. He prided himself
on the facts that he had never raced a
horse for money, never made a bet,
never borrowed a dollar, and never
gave a note in his life.
Bonnet, a head dress ; a dress or
covering for the head worn by wom-
en ; a cap or head covering, much used
before the introduction of hats, and
still worn by the Scotch Highlanders.
Bonneville, Benjamin L. E., an
American soldier and explorer, born
in France, in 1793 ; explored in the
Rocky Mountains and California ;
fought in the Mexican War; was
E.21.
wounded at Churubusco ; served as su-
perintendent of barracks and recruit-
ing officer in Missouri during the Civil
War of 1861-1865. He died in Port
Smith, Ark., June 12, 1878.
Bonney, Charles Carroll, Ameri-
can lawyer, born at Hamilton, N. Y.,
Sept. 4, 1831; finished his studies at
Colgate University, which gave him
the degree LL.D. After a teaching
and lecturing career in Illinois, aid-
ing in the establishment of the State's
educational system, he joined the
Illinois bar in 1852. He was presi-
dent of the International Law and
Order League (1885-93); president of
the World's Congress Auxiliary of the
Chicago Columbus Exposition (1893);
and president of the World's Religi-
ous Parliament Extension. He wrote
valuable legal text-books. D. 1903.
Bonnivard. See BONIVABD.
Bonnycastle, Charles, an Anglo-
American mathematician, born in
Woolwich, in 1792. He was Professor
of Mathematics at Woolwich Military
Academy, Professor of Natural Philos-
ophy in the University of Virginia
(1825-1827) and of Mathematics
there from 1827. He died in Char-
lottesville, Va., October, 1840.
Bonnycastle, Sir Richard
Henry, an English military engi-
neer, born in 1791 ; spent the greater
part of his life in British North
America ; died in 1848.
Bonpland, Aime, a French bo-
tanist, born in Rochelle, Aug. 22, 1773.
While pursuing his studies at Paris he
made the acquaintance of Alexander
von Humbpldt, and agreed to accom-
pany him in his celebrated expedition
to the New World. During this expe-
dition he collected upward of 6,000
Slants, previously unknown, and on
is return to France, in 1804, was
made Director of the Gardens at Na-
varre and Malmaison. On the Restor-
ation be proceeded to South America,
and became Professor of Natural His-
tory at Buenos Ayres. Subsequently,
while on a scientific expedition up the
river Parana, he was arrested by Dr.
Francia, the Dictator of Paraguay, as
a spy and detained for eight years.
He afterward settled in Brazil, where
he died in 1858.
Bonsai, Stephen, an American
journalist, born in Virginia in 1865.
Book of Mormon
He was educated at Concord and Hei-
delberg. In the Bulgarian-Servian
War he was special correspondent of
the New York " Herald," serving in
the same capacity in Macedonia and
Cuba. He served as Secretary of Le-
gation of the United States in Pekin,
Madrid, Tokio, and Korea in 1891-6 ;
appointed Commissioner of Public
Utilities in the Philippines in 1914.
Bontebok, an antelope of South
Africa, allied to the blesbok.
Bonzano, Giovanni, Apostolic
Delegate to the United States, born
in Vigevano, Province of Pavia, Italy,
in 1867 ; was ordained in Rome in
1890; served as vicar-general of the
diocese of yigevano; appointed a
Papal domestic prelate in 1904, rector
of the Pontifical Urban College in
Rome in 1906, and Apostolic Delegate
to the United States, Feb. 1, 1912;
and consecrated Archbishop of Mili-
tene on March 3 following.
Booby, (Sula fusca), a swimming
bird allied to the gannet, and so named
by early mariners, owing to the stupid-
ity with which it allowed itself to be
killed without attempting to escape.
Book Binding, the art of stitch-
ing or otherwise fastening together
and covering the sheets of paper or
similar material composing a book.
Bookkeeping, the art of keeping
books in which pecuniary transactions
are so unremittingly and so accurate-
ly entered that one is able at any time
to ascertain the exact state of his
financial affairs, or of any portion of
them, with clearness and expedition.
It is generally divided into bookkeep-
ing by single and bookkeeping by double
entry. In the former every entry is
single, i. e., is placed to the debit or
credit of a single account, while in
the latter it is double, that is, it has
both a debtor and creditor account.
In other words, by single entry each
transaction is entered only once in
the ledger, and by double entry twice.
Book of Common Prayer, the
book that forms the liturgy of the
Church of England. It is a develop-
ment from the " Breviary Missal "
and "Manual" compiled in the llth
century by Osmund, BisBop of Salis-
bury. A revision of the " Breviary "
was made in 1516, by order of Cardi-
nal Wolsey, and it was again revised
in 1531, and the "Missal" in 1533.
In 1542 a Committee of Convocation
was appointed whose work, a litany,
in English, was issued in 1544. In
1547 Cranmer's rendering of the " Mis-
sal " into English appeared as the
" Order of Communion." In 1548 the
first version of the present " Book of
Common Prayer " was reported to the
convocation and adopted by Parlia-
ment, as a part of the Act of Uni-
formity of 1548-;1549. A second re-
vision was sanctioned by Parliament
in 1552. This was repealed by Queen
Mary, and restored by Elizabeth, with
changes in 1559. The Puritans sup-
pressed the book, but it was restored at
the Restoration. The Savoy Confer-
ence of 1661 modified it by concession
to the Puritans. It was adopted in
Ireland in 1662 and has since been
used by the Anglican Church, in ita
various branches. It consists of va-
rious tables, Morning and Evening
Prayers, the /Litany, Prayers and
Thanksgivings, Collects, Epistles and
Gospels chosen in accordance with the
Church calendar, Order of Commun-
ion and other special services, as
Matrimony, and Burial of the Dead,
the Catechism, the Psalter services
connected with the imposition of the
clerical and lay offices, and Articles
of Religion. The " Prayer Book " of
the Protestant Episcopal Church of
the United States is a revision of the
Anglican book, authorized in 1789,
and revised again, 1886-1893.
Book of Martyrs, a history of
the persecution of Reformers in Eng-
land, by John Fox.
Book of Mormon, a book form-
ing the authoritative scriptures of the
members of the Church of Jesus Christ
of Latter-Day Saints. Joseph Smith,
an American, of Manchester. N. Y.,
professed to have heard in 1823 the"
Angel Moroni reveal to him in visions
that the Bible of the Western Conti-
nent was buried in a box near his resi-
dence. This, according to his own
account, he at length found — a vol-
ume six inches thick, with leaves of
thin gold plate, eight inches long by
seven broad, bound together with three
gold rings ; on which leaves was a mys-
tic writing that he characterized as
reformed Egyptian. With the book
he professed to have found a pair of
magic spectacles, by means of which
he was able to read the contents,
Bookplate
which he dictated to an amanuensis.
This book consists of an alleged his-
tory of America from 600 B. c., when
Lehi and his family (descended from
the dispersion after the building of the
Babel tower) landed in Chile. Be-
tween the descendants of Nephi, Lehi's
youngest son, and the offspring of his
older brothers, who are the North
American Indians, long conflicts were
waged ; the Nephites finally being al-
most annihilated. There remained a
fragment, among whom were Mormon
and his son, Moroni. They collected
the records of their people, and bur-
ied them in the hill of Cumorah, on
the Divine assurance that they would
be found by the Lord's prophet. Be-
sides this history, the book, as it final-
ly was received, has various moral and
religious teachings.
Bookplate, an English name for
labels of ownership frequently placed
on the inside covers of books.
Bookworm, any grub which feeds
on the paper of books. Most people
are familiar with the effects of the
bookworm's ravages ; but the creatures
are extremely rare in the United
States, especially since so many chem-
ical substances have been introduced
into the manufacture of paper. In
the United States books in libraries,
though usually free from the ravages
of the bookworm, are inrested and
damaged by a small cockroach.
Boom, a beam, tree, or pole. In
navigation, a long pole run out from
any part of a ship to stretch the foot
of any particular sail ; whence, jib
boom, main boom, studdingsail boom,
etc. In fortification, in marine de-
fenses, a strong chain or cable
stretched across the mouth of a river
or harbor, to prevent the enemy's
ships from entering, and having a
number of poles, bars, etc., fastened to
it ; whence the name ; as, to cut or
burst the boom. In navigation, a
pole set up as a sea mark to point out
the channel to seamen, when navigat-
ing in shallows. The word is also ap-
plied to a hollow, roaring sound ; as
the boom of a cannon ; the reverberat-
ing cry of the bittern ; and likewise to
a sudden rise in the market value of
real estate, stocks or commodities; an
enthusiastic popular movement in
favor of any person, cause or thing;
Boot
as, a real estate boom, a political
boom; a boom in sugar.
Boomerang, a missle weapon in-
vented and used by the native Aus-
tralians, who are generally deemed the
lowest in intelligence of any tribe or
race of mankind. It is a curved stick,
round on one side and flat on the
other, about three feet long, two niches
wide, and three-quarters of an inch
thick. It is grasped at one end and
thrown sickle-wise, either upward into
the air, or downward so as to strike
the ground at some distance from the
thrower. On throwing it downward
to the ground, it rebounds in a
straight line, pursuing a ricochet
motion until it strikes the object at
which it is thrown. The most singu-
lar curve described by it is when it
is thrown at an angle of about 45°.
Boone, city and capital of Boone
county, la.; on the Chicago & North-
western and other railroads; 37 miles
N. W. of Des Moinesi is in a fire
and pottery clay section; has large
milling, manufacturing, and coal min-
ing interests; and contains extensive
railroad and machine shops. Pop.
(1910) 10,347.
Boone, Daniel, the pioneer of
Kentucky, born in Bucks county, Pa.,
Feb. 11, 1735. He was a Colonel in
the United States service, and signal-
ized himself by his many daring ex-
ploits against the Indians, and also by
his extensive surveys and explorations
of the State of Kentucky. In 1793
he removed to Upper Louisiana, then
belonging to the Spaniards, and was
appointed by them commandant of a
district there. He was one of the
most successful of the enterprising
American pioneers of the 18th cen-
tury, and may be said to have ex-
plored and aided in the settlement of
the country from the Alleghany Moun-
tains to the frontier of Missouri.
Many places have been named in his
honor. Died in Missouri, Sept. 26, 1820.
Boot, an article of dress, general-
ly of leather, covering the foot and ex-
tending to a greater or less distance
up the leg. Hence the name was given
to an Instrument of torture made of
iron, or a combination of iron and
wood, fastened on to the leg, between
which and the boot wedges were in-
troduced and driven in by repeated
blows of a mallet, with such violence
Bootes
Booth
as to crush both muscles and bones.
The special object of this form of
torture was to extort a confession of
guilt from an accused person.
Bootes. In astronomy, a constella-
tion called also Arctophylax, or the
Bear river. It contains 54 stars, in-
cluding 1 of the first magnitude, Arc-
turus, 7 of the third, and 10 of the
fourth.
Booth, Balling-ton, General of
the Volunteers of America, born in
Brighouse, England, July 28, 1859.
He is a son of Gen. William Booth,
founder of the Salvation Army, with
which body he was officially connect-
ed until 1896, when he seceded and
founded the Volunteers, a religious
military body organized in the interest
of the unchurched masses. His wife,
MAUDE, has ably seconded her hus-
band's efforts, and is very popular on
the lecture platform.
Booth, Barton, an eminent Eng-
lish actor, born in 1681; died in 1733.
Booth, Edwin Thomas, an
American actor, born near Belair,
Md., Nov. 13, 1833; the fourth son
of Junius Brutus Booth. When 16
years of age, he made his first ap-
pearance on the stage, in the part of
Tressel, his father acting as Richard
III. Two years later he himself suc-
cessfully assumed the part of Richard
in place of his father, who unexpect-
edly refused to fulfill an evening's en-
gagement. The following year the
two went to California, where the
son remained for several years, visit-
ing Australia meanwhile. Meeting
with little pecuniary success, in 1856,
he returned tp the Atlantic States, and
from that time forward was recog-
nized as a leading member of his pro-
fession. He visited England (1861-
1862), and in 1864 produced "Ham-
let " at New York for 100 nights con-
secutively. In 1869 he opened a
splendid theater in New York, whose
building cost over $1,000,000, but j
which involved him in pecuniary ruin. '
He revisited California in 1876, and
in the spring of 1877 was able to set-
tle with his creditors, having" earned ,
during the season over $600,000. ]
Booth visited Great Britain and Ger-
many in 1880-1882, and was every-
where received with enthusiasm. He
died in New York, June 7, 1893.
Booth, John Wilkes, an Ameri-
can actor, born in Hartford county,
Md., in 1838; another son of JUNIUS
BRUTUS BOOTH. He sided with the
Confederates in the Civil War, and
to avenge the defeat of their cause he
formed a conspiracy against the life
of President Lincoln. He mortally
wounded the President, while the lat-
ter was attending a performance in
Ford's Theater, in Washington, on
April 14, 1865; broke his own leg in
escaping from the building; and con-
cealed himself in Virginia till the
26th, when, on being discovered, and
refusing to surrender, he was shot.
Booth, Junius Brutus, an An-
glo-American tragedian, born in the
parish of St. Pancras, London, May
1, 1796. He received a classical edu-
cation, but early manifested a predi-
lection for the stage, and when 17
years of age appeared in some unim-
portant parts. Subsequently he played
Richard III., at Covent Garden, a part
in which he suddenly became famous.
In 1821 he went to the United States,
where for the ensuing 30 years he
followed his profession with much
success. He died suddenly on board
a Mississippi river steamer, Nov. 12,
1852.
Booth, Mary Louise, an Ameri-
can journalist and author, born in
Yaphank, Long Island, N. Y., April
19, 1831 ; was widely known as the
editor of " Harper's Bazar," which
place she held from 1867 till her
death in New York city, March 5,
1889.
Booth, William, founder and
General of the Salvation Army, was
born at Nottingham, England, April
10, 1829, was educated there, and
from 1850 to 1861, acted as minister
of the Methodist New Connection.
From the first he was zealous in hold-
ing evangelistic services, but the new
departure which led to the creation
of the Salvation Army on military
lines began ir 1865 with mission work
among the lower classes in the East
End of London. Since 1878 Booth's
movement has been known as the Sal-
vation Army, of which he had con-
tinued to be the mainspring and con-
trolling power, directing its move-
ments at home and abroad from his
headquarters in London. His enthusi-
Booth-Tucker
Borden
asm and wonderful organizing power
gave much life to the religious military
system, of which he was really ''gen-
eral." The property of the Salvation
Army is held for its exclusive use by
Booth. His wife was associated with
him in the publication of several hymns
and religious works dealing with the
movement, till her death in 1890. He
died Aug. 21, 1912.
Booth-Tucker, Emma Moss,
daughter of William Booth of the Sal-
vation Army, and wife of F. St.
George Booth-Tucker, was born in
1860, and died in Oct. 1903, the victim
of a railway accident. She held the
rank of Consul, and with her husband,
directed the army in the United States.
She possessed remarkable executive
ability, and was loved by all with
whom she came in contact.
Booth-Tucker, Frederick St.
George de Lautour, commander
of the Salvation Army in the United
States, was born in India, in 1S53.
He held important official posts in In-
dia, but resigned them in 1881 to
join the Salvation Army. Upon his
marriage with Emma Moss Booth,
daughter of Gen. William Booth of
the Salvation Army, he prefixed Booth
to his own name of Tucker. In 1896
he became commander of the United
States branch of the Salvation Army.
Bora, Katharina von, wife of
Luther, was born in 1499. She took
the veil early ; but feeling unhappy in
her situation, applied, with eight other
nuns, to Luther. The nuns were re-
leased from their convent, and, in
1525, Luther married her, having him-
self by this time laid aside the cowl.
After Luther's death she kept board-
ers for her support. She died at Tor-
gau, in 1532.
Borax, the anhydroborate of sodium,
forms large transparent six-sided
prisms, which dissolve readily in wat-
er, effloresce in dry air, and when
heated melt in their water of crys-
tallization, swell up, and finally fuse
to a transparent glass. In this state
borax dissolves metallic oxides which
frequently impart to it characteristic
colors. From this property borax is
employed in soldering metals, as it
removes films of oxide, and leaves
the metals in metallic contact with
each other and with the solder. It ia
also employed in making fine glaze for
porcelain, as it renders the materials
more fusible. In medicine it is em-
ployed in ulcerations and in skin dis-
eases.
Borcligrevink, Carsten Ege-
bert, a Norwegian explorer and lec-
turer, born hi Christiania, in 1864,
his mother being English and his
father a Scandinavian. He went to
sea at an early age, but returned to
go to college. In 1898 he went to
Australia, joined the Survey Depart-
ment, and scaled Mount Lindsay. In
1894-1895 he was in Antarctic waters,
a region fully explored by him in
1897, when he attempted to reach the
South Pole without success. In 1899
(Feb. 17) he had, however, reached
Kobertston Bay. Returning to Lon-
don in 1900 he reported having
reached lat. 78.50 S., long. 195.50 E.
In 1902 he investigated volcanic con-
ditions at St. Pierre.
Bordeaux, a city and port of
France, capital of the Department of
Gironde, on the Garonne river, about
70 miles from the sea. It is built in a
crescent form round a bend of the
river, which is here lined with fine
quays and crossed by a magnificent
stone bridge, and consists of an old
and a new town. The former is mostly
composed of irregular squares and
narrow, crooked streets ; while the
latter is laid out with great regular-
ity, and on a scale of magnificence
hardly surpassed by any provincial
town in Europe. The chief exports
are wine and brandy ; sugar and other
colonial produce and wood are the
chief imports. Shipbuilding is the
chief industry, and there are sugar re-
fineries, woolen and cotton mills, pot-
teries, soap works, distilleries, etc.
On Sept. 2, 1914, when the Germans
were attempting the capture of Paris,
the French government removed to
Bordeaux. See APPENDIX : Wofld
War. Pop. (1911) 261,678.
Borden, Robert Laird, a Cana-
dian statesman ; born in Halifax, N.
S., in 1854 ; engaged in law practice ;
elected to the Dominion Parliament,
1896 ; became Conservative leader,
1901 ; succeeded Sir Wilfred Laurier
as Premier, 1911.
Borden, Simeon, an American
inventor and surveyor, born in the
present Fall River, Mass., Jan. 29,
Borgia
1798. He instructed himself in math-
ematics and devised successful survey-
ing instruments. The first American
geodetic survey was his work. In 1846
he began the construction of railroads.
He died in Fall River, Oct. 28, 1856.
Bordentown, a city in Burling-
ton co., N. J., on the Delaware river,
the Delaware and Raritan canal, and
the Pennsylvania railroad; 57 miles
S. W. of New York city. It is noted
as being a former residence of Joseph
Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon I. and
for many years the house and grounds
belonging to the estate possessed much
interest. Pop. (1910) 4,250.
Bore, or Eagre, a sudden influx
of the tide into the estuary of a river
from the sea, the inflowing water ris-
ing to a considerable height and ad-
vancing like a wall against the cur-
rent. Chief among American bores
are those of the rivers emptying into
the Bay of Fundy ; in Europe the
eagres of the Severn and Trent, Eng-
land ; and the mascaret of the Seine,
France. See also EAGRE.
Bore, in metallurgy, a tool bored
to fit the shank of a forged nail, and
adapted to hold it while the head is
brought to shape by the hammer. The
depression in the face of the bore is
adapted to the shape required of the
chamfered under part of the head.
The word is also applied to the cavity
of a steam engine cylinder, pump bar-
rel, pipe, cannon, barrel of a firearm,
etc.
Boreas, a bellowing \vind; the
Northern wind; a cold, Northerly
•wind. In mythology, the son of As-
trseus and Eos, usually worshipped as
the god of the North Wind. The as-
siduity with which the worship of
Boreas was cultivated at Athens pro-
ceeded from gratitude, the North Wind
having on one occasion destroyed the
fleet of the Persians when meditating
the invasion of Attica. A similar
cause induced the inhabitants of Me-
galopolis to consider Boreas as their
peculiar divjnity, in whose honor they
instituted an annual festival. Boreas
was usually represented with wings
dripping with golden dewdrops, and
the train of his garment sweeping
along the ground.
Borghese, a Roman family, which
derives its origin from Sienna, and
[which held the highest offices in this
republic from the middle of the 15th
century. Pope Paul V., who belonged
to this family, and ascended the papal
chair in 1605, loaded his relations
with honors and riches.
Borghese, Princess Marie
Pauline, the beautiful sister of Na-
poleon; born in Ajaccio, Oct. 20,
1780. She died in Florence, June 9,
1825. She left many legacies, and a
donation, the interest of wlych was to
enable two young men of Ajaccio to
study medicine and surgery. The rest
of her property she left to her
brothers, the Count of St Leu and the
Prince of Montfort. The whole prop-
erty amounted to 2,000,000 francs.
Borgia Cesare, the natural son
of Pope Alexander VI., and of a Ro-
man lady named Vanozza, born in
1478. He was raised to the rank of
Cardinal in 1492, but afterward di-
vested himself of the office, and was
made Due de Valentinois by Louis
XII. t In 1499 he married a daughter
of King John of Navarre, and accom-
panied Louis XII. to Italy. He then,
at the head of a body of mercenaries,
carried on a series of petty wars, made
himself master of the Romagna, at-
tempted Bologna and Florence, and
had seized Urbino when Alexander VI.
died, 1503. ^ He was now attacked by
a^ severe disease, at a moment when
his whole activity and presence of
mind were needed. He found means,
indeed, to get the treasures of his
father into his possession, and assem-
bled his troops in Rome ; but enemies
rose against him on all sides, one of
the most bitter of whom was the new
Pope, Julius II. Borgia was arrested
and carried to Spain. He at length
made his escape to his brother-in-law,
the King of Navarre, and was killed
before the castle of Viana, March 12,
1507. He was charged with the mur-
der of his elder brother, of the hus-
band of his sister Lucretia, and the
stiletto or secret poisoning was freely
used against those who stood in his
way. With all his crimes he was a
patron of art and literature.
Borgia, Imcretia, daughter of
Pope Alexander VI., and sister of Ce-
sare Borgia, was born in 1480. She
was accused of almost every species of
crime ; but several modern writers
maintain that the charges against her
Boring
are false or much exaggerated. She
patronized art and literature. She
died in 1523.
Boring, a process in mechanical
and engineering operations, variously
performed according to the medium
dealt with.
Bornemann, Wilhelm, a Low
German dialect poet, born in Garde-
legen in 17G6. He is one of the fore-
most representatives of modern Low
German poetry. He died in 1851.
Borneo, an island, next to Austra-
lia and Papua, the largest in the
world, is situated in the Indian Archi-
pelago. It is bounded on the E. by
the Sea of Celebes and the Macassar
Strait. S. by the Sea of Java, W. and
N. by the Gulf of Siam and the China
Sea. Of the estimated total area of
300,000 square miles and pop. of 1,-
846,000, Great Britain claims an area
of 31,106 square miles and pop. of
208,183, and the Netherlands an area
of 212,737 square miles and pop. of
1,250,000.
British Borneo is north of the Madei
Mountains ; Dutch Borneo to the south.
The lowlands are malarious and un-
healthful ; the north highlands temper-
ate. Nutmegs, cloves, cinnamon, pep-
per, betel, ginger, rice, millet, sweet
potatoes, yams, cotton in Amuntai,
sugar cane in Sambas and Montrado,
indigo, tobacco, coffee in Sambas, pine-
apples, cocoanuts, etc., are cultivated.
The mountains and forests contain
many monkeys, among which is the
orang outang. Tapirs, a small kind of
tiger, small Malay bears, swine, wild
oxen or banteng, and various kinds of
deer abound. The elephant is only
found in the N., and the rhinoceros in
the N. W. The few domesticated ani-
mals are buffaloes, sheep, goats, dogs,
and cats. A few horses are seen in
Banjermassin. Among the birds are
eagles, vultures, argus pheasants, pea-
cocks, flamingoes, pigeons, parrots,
and also the swifts, which construct
the edible nests prized by the Chinese
for making soup. The rivers, lakes,
and lagoons swarm with crocodiles,
and many kinds of snakes, frogs, liz-
ards, and leeches. Fish is plentiful,
and the coasts are rich in tortoises,
pearl mussels, oysters, and trepang.
Brilliant butterflies and moths are in
great variety. Among the mineral
products are coal, gold, and copper,
Borniy
especially in Montrado ; antimony,
iron, tin, platina, nickel, diamonds and
other precious stones, rock crystals,
porcelain clay, petroleum, and sulphur.
The diamond mines are chiefly in Lan-
dak and Pontianak ; Sambas produces
the greatest quantity of gold ; the
kingdom of Brunei, Kutei, and Ban-
jermassin, the largest amount of coal.
The Pengaron coal field, worked by the
Dutch Government, is one of the most
important.
Tfie population consists of threa
classes, the Dyaks or Dayaks, who
are the. aboriginal heathen inhabitants,
and constitute the great bulk of the
population; the Mohammedans or Ma«
lays — for this name is extended so
as to include all professors of Islam,
whether true Malays, Buginese, Ja-
vanese, Dyaks, or Arabs ; and the Chi-
nese. The Dyaks live chiefly in the
interior, and employ themselves with
tillage and the collecting of gutta
percha, resin, gums, rattans, gold dust,
and wax. They are divided into nu-
merous tribes. The Malays (taking
the name ethnographically ) dwell on
the coasts, are traders and bold sail-
ors. They are more civilized than the
Dyaks, cultivate the grounds around
their houses, lay out gardens, keep cat-
tle, and live partly by fishing. The Chi-
nese, chiefly from Canton, have pene-
trated far into the interior. The prin-
cipal exports are gold, gold dust, dia-
monds, coal, rattans, gutta percha, edi-
ble nests, cotton, wax, timber, dye
woods, mats, resins, sandalwood, cam-
phor, etc. ; the imports, earthenware;
iron, steel, and copper work, piect
goods, yarns, woolen and silk fabrics,
medicines, provisions, wines, spirits,
rice, sugar, tea, tobacco, opium, tre-
pang, gambir, gunpowder, etc.
Hornier, Henri, Vicomte de,
a French dramatist, member of the
Academy, born at Lunel, Dec. 25,
1825. His plays are notable for splen-
dor of diction. He is the author of
several successful novels and ro-
mances. He died in 1868.
Bornn, formerly a negro kingdom
of Central Africa; now divided
between England, France and
Germany; bounded on the E. by
Lake Tchad, and N. by the Sahara.
The soil is fertile, yields plentiful
crops of tropical produce. Wild
beasts are very numerous. Coats of
Boro Bndor
Bosnia
mail are made both for horses and
their riders. The population, which
is estimated at about 5,000,000, are
mostly of negro race, and called Bor-
nuese or Kanuri. The ruling race,
called Shuwas, are of Arab descent
and bigoted Mohammedans ; but many
traces of fetichism remain among the
masses. Whatever they have of civil-
ization is derived from the Arabs. The
shores and islands of Lake Tchad are
inhabited by negro pirates. The slave
trade is eagerly prosecuted in Bornu.
Boro Budor (the "Great Bud-
dha"), the ruin of a splendid Bud-
dhist temple in Java, Kadu Residency,
near the junction of the Ello and !
Progo, is the most elaborate monu-
ment of the Buddhist style of architec- !
ture anywhere existing. Buddhism was I
early introduced into Java, and Jav-
anese chronicles place the building of
the temple in the beginning of the 7th
century ; there are no inscriptions, but
it was probably finished between 1400
and 1430.
Borodino, a village of Russia, 70
miles W. of Moscow ; on the Kaluga,
an affluent of the Moskwa. It gave
name to the great battle fought be-
tween the French army under Napo-
leon and the Russians under Kutusoff,
Sept. 7, 1812. Out of 257,000 men
engaged, between 70,000 and 80,000
were killed and wounded. The Rus-
sians retreated on the following day,
but in the most perfect order, and,
therefore, claim this battle as a vic-
tory; but the French, who name the
battle from the Moskwa, have always
maintained a similar claim.
Borough, originally a fortified
town. In England, a corporate town
or township ; a town with a properly !
organized municipal government. If
it sends a representative or representa-
tives to Parliament it is a Parliamen-
tary borough, if not, it is only a muni-
cipal borough. The name is given to
the five local divisions of the city of
New York.
Borroxnean Islands, a group of
four email islands on the W. side of
Lago Maggiore, Northern Italy.
Borrow, George Henry, traveler,
linguist, and writer on gypsy life, born
in Norfolk, England, in 1803. Chief
works, " The Bible in Spain," " Laven- ,
*ro," "The Romany Rye," Died 1881.1
Borsippa, a very ancient city of
Babylonia, the site of which is marked
by the ruins Birs Nimrud.
Bpscawen, Edward, a British
admiral, son of the first Viscount Fal-
irouth, born in Cornwall, Aug. 19,
1711. His chief exploit was a great
victory, in 1759, over the Toulon fleet,
near the entrance of the Straits of
Gibraltar. He died in Surrey, Jan.
10, 176L
Bosch Bok, the bush buck, a name
given to several South African species
of antelope.
Bosch Vark, the bush hog or
bush pig of South Africa, one of the
swine family, about 5 feet long, and
with very large and strong tusks. The
Kaffirs esteem its flesh as a luxury,
and its tusks, arranged on a piece of
string and tied around the neck, are
considered great ornaments.
Boscobel, a locality in Shropshire,
England, remarkable historically as the
hiding place of Charles II. for some
days after the battle of Worcester,
Sept. 3, 1651.
Bosna-Serai, or Serajeyo, the
capital of Bosnia, on the Migliazza,
570 miles W. N. W. of Constantinople.
It contains a palace, built by Moham-
med II., to which the city owes its
name. It was formerly surrounded
with walls, but its only defense now
is a citadel, built on a rocky height at
a short distance E. from the town.
Bosna-Serai is the chief mart in die
province, the center of the commercial
relations between Turkey, Dalmatia,
Croatia and South Germany, and has,
in consequence, a considerable trade,
with various manufactures. It was
here that the Archduke Francis Fer-
dinand, heir to the Austrian throne,
and his wife, were assassinated on
June 28, 1914, by an alleged Servian
plotter. The act was the immediate
cause of the great war. See APPEN-
DIX: World War. Pop. (1910) 51,-
919.
Bosnia, a former Turkish prov-
ince in the N. W. of the Balkan Pen-
insula, W. of Servia ; with the prov-
ince of Herzegovina and the sanjak of
Novi-bazar annexed to Austria-Hun-
gary in 1908; area (including Herze-
govina and Novi-bazar), 19,768 square
miles (of which Bosnia Proper occu-
Bosporus
pies 16,000) ; pop. (1910) 1,898,044,
mostly of Slavonian origin, and main-
ly speaking the Servian language.
The principal religions are Moham-
medanism, Catholic and Greek.
Bosnia, in anctent times a part suc-
cessively of Illyria, Pannonia and Dal-
matia, was, during the great migra-
tions occupied by Slavs or Slavonized
Illyrians, at first dependent on Hun-
gary; but it became a kingdom in
1376, under Tivartko, a native prince.
Occupied by the Turks in 1401, it was
annexed in 1463, but not recognized
by Europe as a Turkish Province till
1699. Extortionate taxation caused a
rebellion of the Christians, in 1849,
suppressed by Omar Pasha ; but a
more determined rising in 1875, which
the Turks failed to put down, led to
the occupation of the Province by the
Austro-Hungarians, which the Moslem
population opposed in a fierce but un-
availing struggle. The Treaty of Ber-
lin formally intrusted the administra-
tion to Austria-Hungary, the nominal
supremacy of the Sultan being recog-
nized in 1879. Since 1880 Austrian
methods of government have been
gradually introduced.
Bosporus, or Bosphorus, the
strait, 19 miles long, joining the Black
Sea with the Sea of Marmora, called
also the Strait of Constantinople. It
is defended by a series of strong forts ;
and by agreement of the European
powers no ship of war belonging to
any nation shall pass the Bosporus
without the permission of Turkey.
Over this channel (about 3,000 feet
wide) Darius constructed a bridge of
boats on his Scythian expedition. The
Cimmerian Bosporus was the name
given by the ancients to the strait that
leads from the Black Sea into the Sea
of Azov. There was also, anciently,
a kingdom of the name of Bosporus, so
called from this strait, on both sides
of which it was situated.
Boss, an elevated or thickened por-
tion, usually around an aperture, or a
swage or stump used in shaping sheet
metal. In Gothic architecture it is
the protuberance in a vaulted ceiling
formed by the junction of the ends of
several ribs, and serving to bind them
together.
Boss, Lewis, an American astron-
omer, born in Providence, R. I., Oct.
E6, 1846 ; was graduated at Dartmouth
Boston
College, in 1870; astronomer of the
Northern Boundary Survey for the de-
termination of the line between the
W. part of the United States and Brit-
ish America ; and, since the completion
of that work, Director of the Dudley
Observatory, Albany, N. Y. He was
chief of the United States party sent
to Chile in 1882 to observe the transit
of Venus ; elected to the National
Academy of Science in 1889, and as
honorary foreign associate of the Roy-
al Astronomical Society, in 1890 ; best
known for his work on star declina-
tions. He died Oct. 5, 1912.
Bossuet, Jacques, Benigne, il-
lustrious French preacher and theo-
logian, was born in 1627, died in 1704.
In 1652 he was ordained priest, and
made a canon of Metz. In 1670 he
was appointed preceptor to the Dau-
phin, and in 1681 he was raised to the
see of Meaux. He drew up the fa-
mous propositions adopted by the as-
sembly of French clergy, which secur-
ed the freedom of the Gallican Church
against the aggressions of the Pope.
He was unrivalled as a pulpit ora-
tor, and greatly distinguished for his
strength and acumen as a controver-
sialist. His wife was largely occupied
in controverting Protestantism.
Boston, a city, capital of the State
of Massachusetts ; the commercial me-
tropolis of New England; and the
fifth city in population in the United
States according to the Federal cen-
sus of 1910. It is built at the W. end
of Massachusetts Bay, and comprises
Boston proper, East Boston, South
Boston, Roxbury, Dorchester, Charles-
town, Brighton, West Roxbury, and
adjoining territory, giving it, in 1910,
an area of about 47% square miles.
Old Boston, or Boston proper, occu-
pied a peninsula of about 700 acres, of
uneven surface, originally contain-
ing three hills, known as Beacon,
Copp, and Fort. These hills caused
the early settlers to call the place Tri-
mountain, since changed to Tremont.
Boston, East Boston, Charlestown,
and South Boston contain the slips of
the ocean steamers. Extending about
two miles along the harbor and sep-
arated from Boston proper by an arm
of it, is South Boston, containing
large railroad docks and warehouses.
Several bridges across Charles river
connect the city with Charlestown
Boston
and Cambridge. The harbor is an in-
dentation of Massachusetts bay, em-
bracing about 75 square miles, with
numerous arms, and containing many
islands presenting picturesque views.
The population of the city, according
to the Federal census of 1880, was
448,477; 1900, 560,892; 1910, 670,-
585; State census (1915) 745.439.
Boston is especially noted for its
magnificent park system. Among the
attractions of the system are the Com-
mon, a park of 84 acres in the heart
of the city ; the Public Garden, sep-
arated from it by Charles street, and
comprising 22 acres; the Back Bay
Fens; the Jamaica Pond; Bussey
Park ; the Arnold Arboretum ; Marine
Park at City Point; and the Charles
River Embankment. In the Common
is a Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument,
erected near the site of the famous
Old Elm, which was destroyed in a
gale in 1876. In the Public Garden
are an equestrian statue of Washing-
ton, a bronze statue of Edward Ever-
ett, a statue of Charles Sumner, one
representing " Venus Rising from the
Sea," and a monument commemorat-
ing the discovery of ether as an anaes-
thetic.
The State House stands on Beacon
Hill, and is a structure 490 feet long,
and 211 feet wide, with a colonnade
in front and an imposing gilded dome.
Statues of Daniel Webster and Horace,
Mann ornament tne terrace in front
of the building, and within it are
statues and busts of a number of the
eminent men of Boston and Massachu-
setts, a collection of battle flags, and
a variety of interesting historical arti-
cles. The new building of the Public
Library, which was occupied in 1895,
is, next to the Library of Congress,
the largest one in the country, The
Old State-house, erected in 1748, at
the head of State street, contains an
historical museum in its upper floors,
and business establishments in its
lower. The City Hall, one of the
most striking buildings of the city,
on School street, is built of white Con-
cord granite in the Italian Renaissance
style, and is surmounted by a dome
over 100 feet high. What is consid-
ered the most interesting building, his-
torically, in the United States, next
to Independence Hall in Philadelphia,
to Faneuil Hall, known as " The Cra-
Boston
die of Liberty " erected in 1742, de-
stroyed by fire in 1761, rebuilt in 1768,
and remodeled to its present size in
1805. The basement of the building
is now used as a market, and the sec-
ond floor for large public gatherings.
Occupying the site of the Old Redoubt
on Breed's Hill, in the Charlestown
district, is the famous Bunker Hill
Monument In the Charlestown dis-
trict also is located the United States
Navy Yard, which, among other ob-
jects of interest, contains the largest
rope walk in the country, and an im-
mense dry dock.
Boston is widely noted for the num-
ber and high character of its educa-
tional institutions. The institutions
for higher education include Boston
College (Roman Catholic), opened in
1872 ; Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology (non-sectarian), opened in
1865 ; Boston Normal School ; Massa-
chusetts Normal Art School ; Kinder-
farten Training School, and Training
chools for Nurses at the Almshouse
and Hospital, City Hospital, Chil-
dren's Hospital, Massachusetts Gen-
eral Hospital, Massachusetts Homoeo-
pathic Hospital, New England Baptist
Hospital, New England Deaconess'
Home and Hospital, New England
Hospital for Women and Children, St.
Elizabeth's Hospital, Somerville Hos-
pital, and Women's Charity Club Hos-
pital. In the public school system,
there were 12 high schools^ and of
various secondary schools there were
12.
Boston was settled in 1630, by a
party of Puritans from Salem. It was
named after a town in Lincolnshire,
England, from which most of the col-
onists had come. In 1632 the first
meeting house was erected, and in
1635 a public school was built. In
the same year the first grand jury hi
the country met here. A memorable
massacre occurred here in 1770, and
in 1773 several cargoes of English tea
were thrown overboard in the harbor,
by citizens exasperated by the impo-
sition of taxes. During the early
part of the Revolution the British
were quartered in the town.' The .bat-
tle of Bunker Hill was fought on
Breed's Hill, within the present city
limits, June 17, 1775. Washington
forced the British to evacuate in 177ft
The city charter was granted in 1822,
Boston
and in 1872 a great fire broke out in
the business portion of the city and
destroyed about 65 acres of buildings.
This part of the city was soon rebuilt,
and, since then, Boston has been one
of the most prosperous cities in the
United States.
Boston is the central reserve city of
the First Federal Reserve District un-
der the banking act of 1913, and the
exchanges at its clearing house in the
year ended Sept. 30, 1916, aggregated
$10,180,120,000, an increase in a year
of $2,698,779,000. The commercial
transactions in the calendar year 1916
were : Imports of merchandise, $202,-
990,325 ; exports, $183,924,962, a con-
siderable increase over the totals of
each of the two preceding years. The
manufacturing interests in 1910
showed 3,155 establishments, $175,-
182,000 capital, 85,158 wage earners,
$124,577,000 cost of materials used in
manufacturing, and $237,457,000
value of products, printing and pub-
lishing ($28.021,000), and boots
and shoes ($26,147,000) leading. In
1917 the net public debt was $86,-
517,831, and the assessed valuation
of all taxable property $1,608,701,- !
oOO.
Boston, a seaport in Lincolnshire,
England, 107 miles N. E. of London.
Its name is a contraction of Botolph's
town, and it is commonly supposed to
occupy the site of the Benedictine Ab-
bey founded on the Witham by St.
Botolph in 654, and destroyed in 870
by the Danes. Foxe, the martyrolo-
gist, and Herbert Ingram, founder of
the " Illustrated London News," were
natives of Boston.
Boston Tea Party, The, a fa-
mous exploit preceding the American
Revolution. In order to make as em-
phatic a protest as possible against
the British crown's policy of taxing
imports, a party of Bostonians, dis-
guised as Indians, threw into the
water on the night of Dec. 16, 1773,
the cargoes of three English tea ships
that had just arrived in the harbor.
Enraged at this act, Parliament
passed (March, 1774) the Boston
Port Bill, taking away from that town
the privileges of a port of entry from
June 1, 1774, on. This bill aroused
much indignation in the colonies and
was an important factor in precipi- j
tating the outbreak of hostilities.
Botany Bay
Boswell, James, a Scotch biog-
rapher: the son of Lord Auchinleck;
born in Edinburgh, Oct. 29, 1740. In
1791 appeared his " Life of Johnson,"
a work which he had been long pre-
paring, and which at once gave read-
ers the same delight as it has ever
since inspired. A second and enlarged
edition came out in 1793. By this
time Boswell's health had greatly suf-
fered from his too convivial habits,
and he died in London May 19, 1795.
Bosworth, Francke Hunting-
ton, physician and author, born at
Marietta, Ohio, Jan. 25, 1843, gradu-
ate of Yale, and of Bellevue Hospital
Medical College, where he became
throat specialist. His publications
treat mainly of his specialty.
Botanic Gardens, establishments
in which plants from all climates are
cultivated for the purpose of illus-
trating the science of botany, and also
for introducing and diffusiug useful or
beautiful plants from all parts of the
world. Until modern times their sole
design was the cultivation of medici-
nal plants. In the United States the
chief are those of New York, Wash-
ington, Philadelphia, and Cambridge.
Botany, or Phytology, the sci-
ence which treats of the vegetable
kingdom. It thus forms one of the
two great divisions of biology, or the
science of organization and life, the
other being zoology. During the 19th
century, and especially in the latter
half of it, enormous progress was made
in the study of vegetable anatomy,
histology, and physiology, and crypto-
gamic botany was carried to great
perfection. This was mainly due to
the great improvement of the micro-
scope, but much of the work done was
inspired by the wider conceptions in-
troduced into the science by the work
of Darwin, Wallace, an<^ other scien-
tific evolutionists.
Botany Bay, a bay of New South
Wales, Australia, 5 miles S. of Syd-
ney. It was discovered by Captain
Cook, on his first voyage, in 1770, and
named by him from the great number
of new plants found in its vicinity. In
1787 it received England's first penal
colony in the East ; and, though it was
supplanted the very next year by Port
Jackson, yet it long continued to be
the popular designation, not merely
of this penal settlement, but of the
Bot Fly
Australian convict settlements gener-
ally.
Bot Fly, a stout bodied, hairy fly,
with antennae inserted in rounded
pits, and with rudimentary mouth
parts, developing from thick, spiny
maggots, which are parasites in cat-
tle, horses, sheep, etc.
Botha, Lonis, a Boer statesman,
born in Greytown, Natal, about 1863.
He began life as a farmer, and, as a
young man, had a share in the estab-
lishment of the Transvaal Republic.
Later he fought in the Kaffir cam-
paign. He was elected to the Volks-
raad at Pretoria. Upon the outbreak
of the Boer War with England in
1899, he was given a subordinate com-
mand, and, upon the death of General
Joubert, in March, 1900. he became
commander of the Boer forces. In
1910 he became premier of the South
African Union, and on July 8, 1915,
he forced the surrender of German
South-West Africa, renamed the
South-West Africa Protectorate. See
APPENDIX: World War.
Bothnia, Gulf of, the N. part of
the Baltic Sea, which separates Swe-
den from Finland ; length about 450
miles, breadth 90 to 130, depth from
20 to 50 fathoms. Its water is but
slightly salt, and it freezes in the win-
ter, so as to be crossed by sledges and
carriages.
Both well, James Hepburn, Earl
of, known in Scottish history by his
marriage to Queen Mary ; born about
1526. It is believed that he was
deeply concerned in the murder of
Darnley, Mary's husband. He made
love to the widowed queen, and seiz-
ing her at Edinburgh, he carried her a :
prisoner to Dunbar Castle, and pre-
vailed upon her to marry him. Mary
was soon a prisoner in Edinburgh, and
Bothwell was forced to flee to Den-
mark, where he died in 1576.
Botocndos, the most barbarous of
the Indian tribes of Brazil, inhabit-
ing the East Coast range, between the
Rio Pardo and Rio Doce. They wear
pieces of wood in their lower lips and
ear lobes.
Bo Tree, the peepul, or sacred fig
tree of India and Ceylon, venerated
by the Buddhists and planted near
their temples.
Bottle Nose
Botrychium, the rattlesnake fern,
from its growing in such places as
'those venomous reptiles frequent.
Bottesini, Giovanni, an Italian
violinist, born in Crema, in Lombar-
dy, Dec. 24, 1832. A concert tour,
begun in 1840, and extending to the
United States, established his fame as
the greatest master of the double bass
fiddle. He died in Parma, in 1889.
Bottger, or Bottiger, Johann
Friedricli, a German alchemist, the
inventor of the celebrated Meissen
porcelain, born in Schleiz, Feb. 4,
1682. He found refuge in Saxony,
where the Elector erected a laboratory
for him, and forced him to turn his
attention to the manufacture of porce-
lain, resulting in the invention asso-
ciated with his name. He died in
Dresden, March 13, 1719.
Botticelli, Sandro, (for Alessan-
dro), an Italian painter of the Floren-
tine school, born in 1447, died 1515.
Working at first in the shop of the
goldsmith Botticello, from whom he
takes his name, he showed such talent
that he was removed to the studio of
the distinguished painter Fra Lippo
Lippi. Frem this master he took the
fire and passion of his style, and
added a fine fantasy and delicacy of
his own. He paints flowers, especially
roses, with incomparable skill. In
1481 Botticelli was in charge of the
decorations in the new chapel of the
Vatican, and painted a number of the
portraits of the popes, and three of the
large frescoes : Life of Moses, Temp-
tation of Christ, and the Punishment
of Korah, Dathan and Abiram. He
also drew illustrations for Dante's In-
ferno. His Madonnas are the best ex-
amples of his work, for nowhere else
does he show such feeling and energy.
The best known of his paintings is the
" Primavera " or " Spring " in the
Florence Academy of Fine Arts. In
his later years Botticelli became an
ardent disciple of Savonarola, and is
said by Vasari to have neglected his
painting for the study of mystical the-
ology.
Bottle Gourd, a gourd called
also the white pumpkin. The Hindus
cultivated it largely as an article of
food.
Bottle Nose, a cetacean, the bottle
nosed whale, very destructive to food
Botts
fishes, and of comparatively little eco-
nomic value itself.
Botts, John Minor, an American
legislator, born in Dumfries, Va., Sept.
16, 1802. He studied law and, in
1833, entered the Virginia legislature.
He was elected to Congress in 1839
and was frequently re-elected. Upon
the outbreak of the Civil War he as-
serted his devotion to the Union, and,
in 1862, he suffered imprisonment on
that account. After the war he was
one of Jefferson Davis' bondsmen ;
and attended the Convention of South-
ern Loyalists, in Philadelphia. He
died in Culpepper, Va., Jan. 7, 1869.
Boucher, Jonathan, an American
loyalist during the period prior to the
Revolutionary War. He was born in
England in 1738, came to America at
the age of 21, and later became rector
of William and Mary College in Vir-
ginia. With all the force of a vigorous
nature he opposed the Revolution with
voice and pen, until he was forced to
leave the country and return to Eng-
land. In a volume of collected dis-
courses, which he dedicated to Wash-
ington with whom he was on terms of
intimate friendship, he sets forth the
position of the American loyalists dur-
ing the agitation that led up to the
Revolution.
Boncicanlt,. Dion, a dramatic
author and actor, born in Dublin, Dec.
26, 1822 ; educated at London Univer-
sity. He produced his first dramatic
work, " London Assurance," before he
was 19 years old. It was signally suc-
cessful, and its success determined his
career in life. Once embarked in the
profession of a play writer, Boucicault
produced piece after piece in rapid
succession, and greatly increased the
reputation which his first attempt had
brought him. Boucicault distinguished
hjmself equally in comedy, farce and
melodrama. When he went upon the
stage, as he soon did, he added a high
reputation as an actor to the reputa-
tion he had previously gained as an
author. From 1853 to 1860 he was in
the United States, where his popular-
ity was scarcely less than it had been
in England. His chief works include
" The Octoroon," " Colleen Bawn,"
" Arrah-na-Pogue," " Used up," " The
Corsican Brothers," "The Shaugraun."
Died, New York city, Sept. 18. 1890.
Bo nil 16
Bondinot, Ellas, a distinguished
American patriot and philanthropist,
born in Philadelphia, May 2, 1740;
was President of the Continental Con-
gress (1782), and first President of
the American Bible Society (1816-
1821). He died in Burlington, N. J..
Oct. 24, 1821.
Bougainville, Louis Antoine
de, a French navigator, born in Par-
is, Nov. 11, 1729. At first a lawyer,
he afterward entered the army and
fought bravely in Canada, under the
Marquis of Montcalm. After the bat-
tle in which Montcalm was killed,
Bougainville returned to France and
served with distinction in the cam-
paign of 1761, in Germany. After the
peace he entered the navy, and be-
came a distinguished naval officer.
Bougainville then made a voyage
round the world, which enriched ge-
ography with a number of new discov-
eries. In the American War of In-
dependence he distinguished himself
at sea, but withdrew from the service
after the Revolution. He died in Paris,
April 31, 1811.
Boughton, George Henry, an
English-American landscape and genre
painter, born near Norwich, England,
in 1834. His parents came to the
United States in 1839, and settled in
Albany. He studied art without a
master, and, in 1853, went to London
and Paris to continue his studies. He
died in London, Jan. 19, 1905.
Boughton, Willis, an American
educator, born in Victor, N. Y., April
17, 1854. He has won note in the
work of university extension.
Bouguereau, Guillaume
Adolphe, a French painter, born
1825. His admirers consider him pre-
eminent as a painter of flesh, but there
is a certain theatric air about his
work that fails to recommend it to the
most discriminating. He was president
of the SocietiS des Artistes in 1885.
His paintings always attract atten-
tion and are well known through re-
productions, his pictures of child-life
being especially striking. Among his
later works are " Psyche et 1 "Amour,"
" L'Admiration," and " Compassion,"
He died April 19, 1905.
B o u i 1 1 e, Francois Claude,
Amour, Marquis de, a French gen-
eral, born in Cluzel, Nov. 19, 1739 j
Bonlainvilliers
entered the army at the age of 14 and
served with distinction in Germany
during the Seven Years' War. In
1768 he was appointed governor of the
island of Guadeloupe, and afterward
commander-in-chief of all the French
forces in the West Indies. When war
broke out in 1778, he successively took
from the British, Dominica, Tobago,
St Eustache, Saba, St. Martin, St.
Christopher's, and Nevis. Louis XVI.
nominated him a member of the As-
sembly of Notables in 1787-1788; in
1790 he was made commander-in-chief
of the army of the Meuse, the Saar,
and the Moselle. His decision of char-
acter prevented the dissolution of the
army and the outbreak of civil war.
For his share in the attempted escape
of Louis XVI. he had to flee from
France. In 1791 he entered into the
service of Gustavus III., of Sweden,
and afterward served in the corps of
the Prince of Conde. He rejected a
proposal, made in 1793, that he should
take the chief command in La Vendee ;
and went to England, where his advice
in West Indian affairs was useful to
the government He died in London,
Nov. 14, 1800.
Boulainvilliers, Henry, Count,
a French author, descended from an
ancient family in Picardy, born in St.
Saire, Normandy, Oct 11, 1658 r died
in Paris, Jan. 23, 1722.
Bonlanger, Georges Ernest
Jean Marie, a French soldier, born
in Rennes, April 29, 1837. After a
successful career in Algeria and in the
East he became Minister of War. In the
ministerial crisis of 1887 he lost his
portfolio, and was appointed to the
command of the 13th Army Corps, but
was retired March 28, 1888. In Jan-
uary, 1889, be was elected Deputy to
the National Assembly by 81,000 ma-
jority, in consequence of which the
Floquet ministry resigned. In August,
1889, he was charged with embezzle-
ment, treason and conspiracy, and
found guilty by the Senate ; the elec-
tions in the 12 cantons were annulled,
and he was sentenced to deportation.
He died in Brussels, Sept. 30, 189L
Bonlder, a large, rounded block of
stone, which, whether lying loose on
the surface of the ground or imbedded
in the soil, is of different composition
from the rocks adjacent to which it
DOW rests.
Bounty Jumper
Bonlder Formation, a forma-
tion consisting of mud, sand, and clay,
more frequently unstratified than the
reverse, generally studded with frag-
ments of rocks, some of them angular,
others rounded, with boulders scatter-
ed here and there through the mass.
Boulevard, a French word for-
merly applied to the ramparts of a
fortified town, but when these were
leveled, and the whole planted with
trees and laid out as promenades, the
name boulevard was still retained.
Modern usage applies it also to many
streets which are broad and planted
with trees.
Boulogne* or Bo-alogne-STir-
Mer, a fortified seaport of France,
Department of Pas de Calais, at the
mouth of the Liane. It consists of the
upper and lower town. The former
is surrounded with lofty walls, and has
well planted ramparts; the latter,
which is the business part of the town,
has straight and well built streets. In
the castle, which dates from 1231,
Louis Napoleon was imprisoned in
1840. Napoleon, after deepening and
fortifying the harbor, encamped 180,-
000 men here with the intention of in-
vading England at a favorable mo-
ment ; but, upon the breaking out of
hostilities with Austria, in 1805, they
were called to other places. Pop.
(1911) 53,128.
Bonltpn, Matthew, an English
mechanician, born in Birmingham,
Sept. 3, 1728. He engaged hi busi-
ness as a manufacturer of hardware,
and invented and brought to great
perfection inlaid steel buckles, buttons,
watch chains, etc. The introduction of
the steam engine at Soho led to a con-
nection between Boulton and James
Watt, who became partners hi trade,
in 1769. He died in Soho, Aug. 16,
1809.
Bounty, a grant or benefaction
from the Government to those whose
services directly or indirectly benefit
it, and to whom, therefore, it desires
to accord some recompense, OF at least
recognition.
Bounty Jumper, a term used
during the Civil War in the United
States to denote one who enlisted in
the United States military service to
secure the bounty paid by the Gov-
ernment for volunteers, and then de-
serted.
Bouquet de la Grye
Bonrke
Bouquet de la Grye, Jean
Jacques Anatole, a French hydro-
graphical engineer, born in Thiers,
May 20, 1827. He became a member
of the Institute ; commander of the
Legion of Honor, and a member of
the Academy. A project which he
long urged was to make Paris a sea-
port by means of a ship-canal up the
Seine, He died in 1909.
Bourbon, an ancient French fam-
ily which has given three dynasties to
Europe, the Bourbons of France,
Spain, and Naples. The first of the
line known in history is ADHEMAB,
who, at the beginning of the 10th cen-
tury, was Lord of the Bourbonnais
(now the Department of Allier). The
power and possessions of the family
increased steadily through a long series
of Archambaulds of Bourbon, till, in
1272, BEATRIX, daughter of Agnes of
Bourbon and John of Burgundy, mar-
ried Robert, sixth son of Louis IX. of
France, and thus connected the Bour-
bons with the royal line of the Ca-
pets. Their son, Louis, had the bar-
ony converted into a dukedom and be-
came the first Due de Bourbon. Two
branches took their origin from the
two sons of this Louis, Duke of Bour-
bon, who died in 1341. The elder line
was that of the Dukes of Bourbon,
which became extinct at the death of
the Constable of Bourbon in 1527, in
the assault on the city of Rome. The
younger was that of the Counts of La
Marche, afterward Counts and Dukes
of Vendome. From these descended
ANTHOXY of Bourbon, Duke of Ven-
dome, who, by marriage, acquired the
kingdom of Navarre, and whose son,
HENRY of Navarre, became Henry IV.
of France.
By the death of the Count of Cham-
bord, in 1883, the elder line of the
Bourbons of France became extinct,
and the right of succession merged in
the Count of Paris, grandson of King
Louis Philippe, representative of the
younger, or Orleans line.
Bourbon, Charles, Duke of, or
Constable of Bourbon, son of Gil-
bert, Count of Montpensier, born in
1489, and, by his marriage with the
heiress pf the elder Bourbon line, ac-
quired immense estate. He received
from Francis I., in the 20th year of
his age, the sword of Constable, and
in the war in Italy rendered important
services by the victory of Marignano
and the capture of Milan. On May
G, 1527, his troops took Rome by
storm, and the sacking and plundering
continued for months. But the Bour-
bon himself was shot as he mounted
the breach at the head of his soldiers.
He was but 38 years of age.
Bourbonnais, a village of Illinois
in Kankakee county, 55 miles south of
Chicago. Noted since 1S65 as the seat
of the R. C. College of St. Viateur's,
and of Notre Dame Academy.
Bonrdalone, Louis, a Jesuit, and
one of the greatest preachers France
ever produced, was born in 1632. The
extreme popularity of his sermons in-
duced his superiors to call him to
Paris, and he became the favorite
preacher of Louis XI V. Died in 1704.
Bourdon (named after Mr. Bour-
don of Paris, who invented it in 1849 ) ,
a barometer consisting of an elastic
flattened tube of metal bent to a circu-
lar form and exhausted of air, so that
the ends of the tube separate as the
atmospheric pressure is diminished,
and approach as it increases.
Bourgeoisie, a name applied to a
certain class in France, in contradis-
tinction to the nobility and clergy as
well as to the working classes.
Bourget, Paul, a French novel-
ist, born in Amiens, Sept. 2, 1852.
He was admitted to the Academy in
1894. He ranks among the first of
the present day French novelists.
Bonrinot, John George, a Ca-
nadian publicist, born in Sydney,
Nova Scotia, Oct. 24, 1838. He was
educated at Trinity College, Toronto;
founded and edited the " Halifax Re-
porter," became clerk of the Dominion
Parliamemt in 1880 ; was created a
member of the Order of St. Michael
and St. George in 1890; and in 1892
became President of the Royal So-
ciety of Canada. Died, Oct. 12, 1902.
Bonrke, John Gregory, an
American military officer, born in
Philadelphia, Pa., June 23, 1846. He
was graduated at West Point in 1869,
and saw much service against the In-
dians, rising through various grades
to the rank of major. He became an
expert in American ethnological lore.
He was an officer of great courage and
ability. He died in Philadelphia, Pa.,
June 8, 1896.
Bonrmont
Bonrmont, Louise Angustc
Victor de Ghaisne, Cpmte dc,
Marshal of France, born in Anjou,
Sept. 2, 1773 ; died in Anjou, Oct. 27,
1846.
Bourne, Hugh, founder of the
sect of Primitive Methodists, born iii
Staffordshire, England, April 3, 1772.
In the course of his life he visited
Scotland, Ireland, Canada, and the
United States, where his ministrations
•were attended with great success. He
died in Bemersly, Oct 11, 1852.
Bourrienne, Fauvclet de, a
French diplomatist, born in 1769,
and educated along with Bonaparte at
the School of Brienne, where a close
intimacj sprang up between them.
Bourrienne went to Germany to study
law and languages, but, returning to
Paris in 1792, renewed his friendship
with Napoleon, from whom he ob-
tained various appointments, and, lat-
terly, that of minister plenipotentiary
at Hamburg. Notwithstanding that
his character suffered from his being"
involved in several dishonorable mone-
tary transactions, he continued to fill
high State offices, and, in 1814, was
made prefect of police. On the abdi-
cation of Napoleon he paid his court
to Louis XVIII., and was nominated
a Minister of State. The Revolution
of July, 1830, and the loss of his
wealth affected him so much that he
lost bis reason, and died in a lunatic
asylum in 1834.
Bourse, an exchange where mer-
chants, bankers, etc., meet for the
transaction of financial business. Used
especially of the Stock Exchange of
Paris.
Bousaa, or Bnssang, a city of
Africa, in the Sudan, on the Niger,
Dear which are rapids. It was here
that Mungo Park met his death in
1805. Pop. est. 12,000 to 18,000.
Boutelle, Charles Addison, an
American legislator, born in Damar-
iscotta, Me., Feb. 9, 1839; served in
the navy during the Civil War, enter-
ing as an acting master, and being
promoted to lieutenant for gallantry
in action. In 1870 he became the edi-
tor of the Bangor " Whig and Cou-
rier." He was elected to Congress in
1882, and held his seat till December,
1900, when he resigned, and was made
a captain on the retired list of the
Bowditcu
navy. He was author of the bill
(1890) authorizing the construction
of the first modern battleship of the
United States Navy. He died in
Waverly, Mass., May 21, 1901.
Bontwell, George Sewell, an
American statesman, born in Brook-
line, Mass., Jan. 23, 1818; was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1836; served in
the state Legislature in 1842-1851;
Governor of Massachusetts in 1851-
1852 ; was organizer of the Republican
Party in 1854 ; appointed the first
commissioner of the newly established
Department of Internal Revenue in
1862 ; a Representative in Congress in
1863-1869 ; one of the managers of the
impeachment trial of President John-
son ; Secretary of the Treasury in
1869-1873 ; and a U. S. Senator, 1873-
79. He died Feb. 28, 1905.
Bouvard, Alexis, a Swiss mathe-
matician and astronomer, born in
1767; went to Paris about 1785 to
study mathematics and astronomy,
and in 1793 obtained a position in the
Paris Observatory. He is celebrated
for his researches in the theory of
planetary motions, especially those of
Jupiter and Saturn. Later he took
up the theory of Uranus, and was the
first to suggest that the discrepancies
between the old and new observations
could only be reconciled by the hypoth-
esis of another undiscovered disturb-
ing planet, an opinion which he re-
tained till his death, three years be-
fore the discovery of Neptune.
Bovidse, the ox family of ruminat-
ing animals, containing not merely
the oxen, but many others animals,
placed in other families, such as the
bison, buffalo, yak, zebu, etc. They
are generally of large size, with broad,
hairless muzzles; most of them have
been domesticated.
Bowditch, Henry Ingersoll, an
American physician, born in Salem,
Mass., Aug. 9, 180& He discovered
the law of soil moisture as a cause of
consumption in New England; intro-
duced several new features in surgical
treatment, and was author of many
general and special works in medical
science. He died in Boston, Mass.,
Jan. 14, 1892.
Bowditcn, Henry Pickering, an
American educator, born in Boston,
Mass., April 4, 1840;. was graduated
Bowdoin
at Harvard in 1861, and subsequently
studied chemistry and medicine, and,
after the Civil War, in which he
reached the rank of major in the
Union service, he took a special course
in physiology in France and Germany.
In 1871-1876 he was Assistant Pro-
fessor of Physiology in the Harvard
Medical School, and in 1876 was
elected to the full chair. He was a
member of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, as well as of nu-
merous medical societies, and has pub-
lished many papers on physiological
subjects. He died March 13, 1911.
Bowdoin, James, an American
patriot, born in Boston, Aug. 8, 1727.
He was prominent in Massachusetts
during the Revolution. He became
governor of his State in 1785, and, in
the following year, suppressed Shay's
rebellion. Bowdoin College was named
after him. He died in Boston, Nov. 6,
1790.
Bowdoin College, a co-education-
al institution in Brunswick, Me. ; or-
ganized in 1794 under the auspices of
the Congregational Church ; but is now
non-sectarian. Its several departments
have about 400 students, and 40 in-
structors.
Bowen, Henry Chandler, an
American editor and publisher, born
in Woodstock, Conn., Sept. 11, 1813.
He received a common school educa-
tion and entered business. In 1848 he
helped found " The Independent," in
New York. He died in Brooklyn, N.
Y., Feb. 24, 1896.
Bowen, Herbert Wolcott,
United States Minister to Venezuela,
who acquired world-wide repute as a
diplomatist by his management in be-
half of Venezuela of negotiations with
England, Germany, and Italy, which
brought to a close the blockade of
Venezuela ports by those powers in
1902-1903. Mr. Bowen was born in
Brooklyn, N. Y., Feb. 29, 1856 ; studied
at the Brooklyn Polytechnic, in Europe
and at Yale, and was graduated
with honor from the Columbia Law
School in 1881. He practiced law in
New York, and was appointed in 1890
Consul and Consul-General to Barce-
lona, and afterward Minister to Per-
sia. In June, 1901, he was appointed
Minister to Venezuela. When the al-
lies began war on Venezuela to compel
E. 22.
Box
payment of certain claims President
Castro requested Mr. Bowen to act in
behalf of Venezuela in arranging terms
for a settlement. He was a successful
diplomat, but in June, 1905, was dis-
missed from government service owing
to injudicious charges against his
predecessor, Assist. Sec. of State F.
B. Loomis.
Bower Birds, the name given to
certain birds found in Australia. The
name is given because these birds are
in the habit of building bowers as well
as nests.
Bowery, The, a New York street.
It begins at Chatham Square and ter-
minates at Cooper Union. It was long
notorious for the resorts located along
its length, but its character has under-
gone improvement.
Bowie, James, an American fron-
tiersman, born in Burke county, Ga.,
about 1790. He took part in the re-
volt of Texas against Mexico, and fell
in the Alamo massacre, March 6, 1836.
He gave his name to the bowie knife.
Bowling, an ancient English game,
still exceedingly popular. The favor-
ite form in the United States is
played indoors, in an " alley " 50-65
feet long and about 6 feet wide. At
the further end 10 " pins," generally
of ash wood, are set up in the form
of a triangle. The players roll wooden
balls at these, with the object of
knocking down as many as possible
at each throw.
Bowman, Edward Morris, Amer-
ican organist and musical theorist, b.
Barnard, Vt., in 1848 ; studied in Ber-
lin, Paris, and London, under famous
masters ; and was the first American
A. R. C. O. of London. In 1877 he pub-
lished " Bowman- Weitzmann's Manual
of Musical Theory ;" in 1891 succeed-
ed Dr. F. L. Ritter at Vassar; was
organist of the Bapt. Temple, Brook-
lyn, 1895-1905; then of Calvary
Church, N. Y. C. He died Aug. 27,
1913.
Bowne, Borden Parker, an
American philosophical writer, born
in Leonardsyille, N. J., Jan. 14, 1847.
He was religious editor of the New
York "Independent," 1875-1876, be-
coming Professor of Philosophy at
Boston University in 1876. D. 1910.
Box, the English name of buxus,
a genus of plants. In its wild state
Boxers
it is a small tree. It is found all
over the world in some form of spe-
cies. It is an evergreen.
Boxers, members of a Chinese se-
cret society which aims ostensibly at
the expulsion of foreigners. The
origin of the Boxers appears to have
been due to fanatic opposition to
Christian missionaries, and to the en-
croachments of European powers upon
Chinese territory.
Early in 1900 the native popu-
lation in Shantung were found to be
rallying around the standard of the
Boxers and adopting its motto, " Up-
hold the dynasty, drive out the for-
eigners." The Diplomatic Corps at
Peking called upon the Imperial Gov-
ernment to suppress the movement.
In May, 1900, they began a
concerted movement upon the Chinese
capital which, notwithstanding the
protests of the Diplomatic Corps, re-
mained unchecked.
The situation had been rendered ad-
ditionally threatening by the action of
the allies in opening fire upon the forts
at Taku. On June 17 the warships
of the Powers were in force at that
port ; when fired upon by the Chinese
they opened a bombardment. The
demonstration before Taku had been
Deprecated by the United States com-
mander, Admiral Kempff, who did not
participate in the bombardment. His
warning that hostilities would unite
the Chinese against the foreigners was
justified by events.
In June, 1900, Peking was reduced
to a state of siege by the Boxers. The
position of the foreigners in the capi-
tal became precarious. The entire
Diplomatic Corps was cut off from
communication with the outside world.
After capturing Tien-Tsin the forces
of the powers advanced on Peking, de-
feating the Chinese who opposed them,
and rescuing the legations from de-
struction. The troops were just in
time to save the inmates of the lega-
tions, and a large number of native
Christians from outrage and, massacre.
The Chinese court fled from Peking,
and after many months of desultory
warfare and negotiation China con-
sented to pay full indemnity and to
punish the officials guilty of inciting
the Boxers. The society is still a
menace to foreigners.
Boxing. See PUGILISM.
Boycotting
Box Tortoise, a name given to
one or two North American tortoises
that can completely shut themselves
into their shell.
Boyaca, a Department of Colom-
bia, touching Venezuela. In the W. it
is mountainous; in the E. it has vast
prairies, and is watered by the Meta
and its tributaries. The Muzo emer*
aid mine is the richest in the world,
and the Department is rich in salt
springs, coal, .iron, plumbago, and
copper ore. Area, 16,460 square
miles; population (1912) 586,499.
Capital, Tunja.
i>oyar, Boiar, or Boyard, a
name first used by the Bulgarians,
Serbs and Russians, subsequently
adopted by the Moldavians and Walla-
chians, and synonymous with bojarin,
used by the Bohemians, Poles, and
other Slavic tribes, to qualify the high-
est social condition ; corresponding in
certain respects to that of an English
peer.
Boycotting, a practice which
owes its name to Capt. C. C. Boycott
(died June 21, 1897), of Lough Mask
House, in Mayo, Ireland, and agent,
in 1880, of Lord Erne, an Irish noble-
man. The former gentleman having
given offense about agrarian matters to
the people among whom he lived, dur-
ing the land agitation of 1880-1881,
no one would gather in his crops. The
case being reported in the " Press,"
about 60 Orangemen, belonging to the
North of Ireland, each man carrying
a revolver, organized themselves into
a " Boycott relief expedition." The
Government gave them a strong es-
cort of cavalry, besides foot soldiers
and constabulary, artillery also being
added on the return journey. The
crops were gathered in and sent away,
and the Captain himself brought off to
a region of greater security. The ob-
ject of a boycott is to put a person
outside the pale of the society, amid
which he lives, and on which he de-
pends; socially to outlaw him, to re-
fuse to sell to, and decline to buy from,
him ; to refuse to work for or to em-
ploy him.
In the United States and in England
the boycott is made use of by trade
unionists as a strike measure. It has
in some instances been enjoined by the
courts, and in some States laws have
been passed against it.
Boyd
Boyd, Belle, a Confederate spy,
born in Martinsburg, VV. Va., May 9,
1843. She rendered aid to the South-
ern cause by detecting the Federal
plans of campaign and revealing them
to the Confederates. Gen. " Stone-
wall " Jackson sent her a letter of
thanks. She died at Kilbourn, Wis.,
June 11, 1900.
Boyd, Thomas Duckett, an
American educator, born in Wythe-
ville, Va., Jan. 20, 1854. He was
graduated at Louisiana State Univer-
sity, and has held important posts in
the educational institutions of Louisi-
ana. Since 1896 he has been Presi-
dent of Louisiana State University.
Boyden, Seth, an American in-
ventor, born in Foxboro, Mass., Nov.
17, 1788; was brought up on a farm,
and attended a district school. Me-
chanically inclined, he spent much
time experimenting in a blacksmith
shop. His first invention was a ma-
chine for making nails, and in 1809
he undertook to manufacture both
nails and files. Soon afterward he in-
vented a machine for splitting leather,
and in 1815, he took it to Newark, N.
J., where he engaged in the leather
business. In 1816 he invented a ma-
chine for cutting brads, and followed
this by the invention of patent leather,
which he manufactured till 1831, when
he began making malleable iron cast-
ings, on a system of his own. In 1835
he turned his attention to steam en-
gines ; substituted the straight axle for
the crank in locomotives ; and invented
the cut-off now used instead of the
throttle valve. In 1849 he went to
California, but was unsuccessful, and
returned to New Jersey, where he ap-
plied himself to farming, and devel-
oped a variety of strawberry previous-
ly unequaled in size or quality. He
died in Middleville, N. J., March 31,
1870.
Boyer, Jean Pierre, President of
the Republic of Haiti, was a mulatto,
born in Port-au-Prince in 1776. He
was educated in France, and, in 1776,
entered the military service. He
was unanimously elected President of
the Republic in 1818. He arranged
the financial affairs, collected funds
into the treasury, improved the admin-
istration, and encouraged arts and sci-
ences. After the death of Christophe,
be united the monarchical part of the
Boyton
island with the Republic in 1820 ; and,
in 1821, the eastern district also,
which had hitherto remained under the
dominion of Spain; and he urgently
sought the recognition of the inde-
pendence of the youthful State by
France, which was obtained, in 1825,
upon payment of an indemnity of 150,-
000,000 francs. Boyer carried on the
government of the Republic of Haiti
for 15 years from this time with the
most perfect peace ; but his policy,
which was rather arbitrary, and direct-
ed to the object of depressing the ne-
groes in favor of his own race, result-
ed in a victorious insurrection in 1843.
Boyer fled to Jamaica. In 1848 he
went to Paris, and died there, July 9,
1850.
Boyesen, Hjalmar Hjorth, an
American novelist, born at Frederiks-
varn, Norway, Sept. 23, 1848. He
came to the United States in 1869;
returned to Europe in 1872 and studied
Germanic Philology at Leipsic two
years; then, returning to this country,
he was Professor of German in Cor-
nell University for six years, and then
of Germanic Languages and Litera-
ture in Columbia College till his death.
He died in New York, Oct. 4, 1895.
Boy Scouts, a semi-military or-
ganization, founded' in England in
1910 and introduced into the United
States the same year. The object is
to develop patriotism, discipline, cour-
age, and self-control in boys, as well
as to put the Golden Rule into daily
practice. The unit of the organiza-
tion is the " patrol " of from six to
eight boys; a "troop" comprises two
or more "patrols;" and the "scout
master " is the officer in charge of
a troop. Lieut.-Gen. Sir Robert Ba-
den-Powell was the father of the boy
scout movement in England, and
Ernest Thompson, Seton in the United
States. In both countries the idea
took at once with boys and found
general favor among their elders. In
1910 the founder visited New York
in its interest.
Boyton, Paul, an Irish-Ameri-
can swimmer, born in Dublin, June 29,
1848; served in the United States navy
in 1863-1865. He invented a life-pre-
serving suit, in which in 1874, he
leaped from a vessel off the coast of
Ireland, and, after remaining seven
hours in the water, reached land safe-
Bozrah
Bradford
ly. On May 28, 1875, he crossed the
[English Channel in this suit, swim-
ming across in 24 hours. In 1876 he
made the run from the Bayou Goula
to New Orleans, La., 100 miles, in
24 hours. In May, the same year,
he descended the Danube from Linz to
Budapest, 460 miles, in six days.
Later he went from Oil City, Pa., to
the Gulf of Mexico, 2,342 miles, hi 80
days, being exposed at first to great
cold and later to extreme heat. In
November, 1879, he descended the
Connecticut river from Canada to
Long Island Sound. On Sept.
17, 1881, he started from Cedar
Creek, Mont, to swim to St. Louis,
Mo., and accomplished the long jour-
ney, 3,580 miles, Nov. 20. In 1888 he
made a voyage down the Ohio river.
He published an account of his travels.
Bozrah, an ancient city of Pales-
tine, E. of the Jordan, and about 80
miles S. of Damascus.
Bozzaris, Marcos, a Greek pa-
triot, born in 1789. He was a Su-
liote, and distinguished himself by his
devotion to his country, in defending
it against the Turks. He fell in a
night attack upon a body of the Turco-
Albanian army, who were advancing
with the view of taking Missalonghi,
which he had successfully defended
for a considerable time, Aug. 20,
1823.
Brabant, the central district of
the lowlands of Holland and Belgium,
extending from the Waal to the
sources of the Dyle, and from the
Meuse and Limburg plains to the
Lower Scheldt. It is divided between
the Kingdoms of Holland and Belgium,
into three provinces, (1) Dutch or
North Brabant, area 1,920 square
miles, pop. (1913) 657,672; (2) Bel-
gian Province of Antwerp, area 1,093
square miles, pop., 1,004,909 ; and
(3) the Belgian Province of South
Brabant, area, 1,268 square miles,
pop., 1,522,941.
Brachiopoda, animals with arm-
like feet ; one of the great classes into
which the moluscous sub-kingdom of
the animal kingdom is divided.
Bracken, or Brake, a species of
fern very common in the United States
and Europe generally, and often cov-
ering large areas on hillsides and
waste grounds.
Braddock, a borough in Alle-
gheny county, Pa.; on the Mononga-
hela river and the Pennsylvania and
other railroads; 10 miles S. E. of
Pittsburg; has extensive iron and
steel, wire, chain, car, and ice plants,
and large coal-mining interests. It
was the scene of Gen. Braddock's
defeat. Pop. (1910) 19,357.
Braddock, Edward, a British
soldier, born in Perthshire, Scotland,
about 1695, entered the Coldstream
Guards in 1710, and was appointed
Major-General in 1754. Nine months
later he sailed as commander against
the French in America, and, with a
force of nearly 2,000 British and
provincial troops, reached the Monon-
gahela, on July 8, 1755. On the 9th
he pushed forward to invest Fort
Duquesne, on the present site of
Pittsburg, Pa. On the right bank of
the river he was attacked by a party
of 900 French and Indians, and 63 out
of 86 officers, and 914 out of 1,373
men engaged, were either killed or
wounded. Braddock was carried
from the field, and died July 13.
Bradford, city in McKean co., Pa.;
on several railroads; 67 miles S. of
Buffalo, N. Y.; is in a noted petroleum,
natural gas, and coal-mining region;
has oil pipe-lines to seaboard; and
manufactures machinery, glass, boil-
ers, motor-cycles, chemicals, and tanks
and well supplies. Pop. (1910) 14,544.
Bradford, a municipal and par-
liamentary borough and important
manufacturing town in the W. Riding
of Yorkshire, England, the chief seat
in England of the spinning and weav-
ing of worsted yarn and woolens.
Pop. (1911) 288,458. 1
Bradford, Joseph, an American
journalist and dramatic author, born
near Nashville, Tenn., Oct. 24, 1843.
His real name was WILLIAM RAN-
DOLPH HUNTER. Besides satirical
verses he wrote a number of poems
which were highly esteemed, especially
those on the death of Victor Hugo
and of General Grant. He died in
Boston, Mass., April 13, 1886.
Bradford, Royal B., an Ameri-
can naval officer, born in Turner, Me.,
July 22, 1844. He was graduated at
the United States Naval Academy in
1865, and received promotion through
various grades to the rank of Coir
Bradford
mander. He made a specialty of
equipment, and after 1897 was chief
of the Bureau of Equipment of the
Navy. He died Aug. 4, 1914.
1 Bradford, William, an Ameri-
can painter, born in New Bedford,
Mass., in 1827. He entered business
early in life, but abandoned it for art
His subjects were the ice fields of the
North Atlantic. He died in New York
city, April 25, 1892.
Bradford, William, an Ameri-
can colonial governor and author, born
in Austerfield, Yorkshire, England, in
March, 1588. He was one of the sign-
ers of the celebrated compact on the
Mayflower ; and, in 1621, on the death
of the first governor, John Carver, was
elected to the same office, which he
continued to fill (with the exception
of a brief period when he declined re-
election) until his death. His admin-
istration was remarkably efficient and
successful, especially in dealing with
the Indians. He died in Plymouth,
Mass., May 9, 1657.
Bradlee, Nathaniel, an Ameri-
can architect, born in Boston in 1829 ;
began the study of architecture in
1846. He achieved wonderful suc-
cess, having been the architect of over
500 prominent buildings in the city of
Boston. In 1869 he made a national
reputation by moving bodily the large
brick structure known as the Hotel
Pelham to the corner of Tremont and
Boylston streets. The work attracted
wide attention, both in this country
and in Europe. He subsequently su-
perintended the removal of the Boyls-
ton Market He died in 1888.
Bradley, John Edwin, an Amer-
ican educator, born in Lee, Mass. He
was graduated at Williams College, in
1865. He served as principal of the
High School at Pittsfield, Mass., and
at Albany, N. Y. In 1892-1900 he
was President of the Illinois College.
Bradley, Joseph Philo, an Amer-
ican jurist, born in Berne, N. Y.,
March 14, 1843; was graduated at
Rutgers College in 1836; admitted to
the bar in 1839; and became a
Justice of the United States Supreme
Court in 1870. As a member of the
Electoral Commission he cast the vote
which gave the Presidency to General
Hayes, in 1877. He died in Washing-
ton, D. C., Jan. 22, 1892.
Bragg
Bradstreet, Anne, the earliest
American poet, born in Northampton,
England, in 1612. She was a daugh-
ter of Gov. Thomas Dudley. In 1630
she emigrated to America with her
husband, Simon Bradstreet, Governor
of Massachusetts. Her poems are
quaint and literal in style. She died
Sept 16, 1672.
Brady, Cyras Townsend, author
and P. E. clergyman, born in Alle-
gheny, Pa., Dec. 20, 1861; graduated
1883 at the United States Naval Acad-
emy ; and was ordained priest in 1890.
His published writings include several
volumes of fiction, and semi-historical
works, all exceedingly popular.
Bragg, Braxton, an American
military officer; born in Warren Co.,
N. C., March 22, 1817; graduated at
West Point, in 1837; was appointed
Second Lieutenant in the 3d Artillery ;
served with distinction under General
I Taylor in the Mexican War ; and re-
| tired to private life in 1856. At the
outbreak of the Civil War, he became
a Brigadier-General in the Confeder-
ate army, and was stationed at Pensa-
cola to act against Fort Pickens. In
1862, having been appointed a general
of division, with orders to act under
Gen. A. S. Johnston, commanding the
Army of the Mississippi, he took an
important part in the two days" bat-
tle of Shiloh. On Johnston's death he
was appointed to his command, with
the full rank of General, and succeed-
ed General Beauregard as commander
of the Department, in July of the
same year. The last command he re-
signed in December, 1863. His chief
success was at Chickamauga, in Sep-
tember, 1863, when he inflicted a de-
feat on the army of General Rose-
crans, but was himself, in turn, de-
feated by General Grant, which led to
his temporary removal from command
in January, 1864, and he was appoint-
ed military adviser to Jefferson Davis.
In 1864, he assumed command of the
Department of North Carolina. After
the war he was chief engineer of the
State of Alabama, and superintended
the improvements in Mobile Bay. He
died in Galveston, Tex., Sept. 27, 1876.
Bragg, Edward Stnyvesant, an
American legislator, born in Unadilla,
N. Y., Feb. 20, 1827; educated at
Geneva, now Hobart, College, and ad-
mitted to the bar in New York, in
Bragi
1848. He removed to Fond du Lac,
Wis., served in the Union army during
the Civil War, and won his way to
the rank of Brigadier-General. He
was a member of the Union Conven-
tion, at Philadelphia, in 1866; Repre-
sentative in Congress in 1877-1885;
and a delegate to the Democratic Na-
tional Conventions of 1872, 1884, 1892,
and 1896. In the Convention of 1884,
he seconded the renomination of Gro-
ver Cleveland, when he uttered the
memorable phrase, " We love him for
the enemies he has made." In 1888
he was appointed minister to Mexico;
and in June, 1902, became the first
United States consul-general in Ha-
vana under the new republic of Cuba,
retiring the same year on account of
a letter which he wrote reflecting on
the Cubans. He died June 20, 1912.
Bragi, the Scandinavian god of
poetry. He is represented as an old
man with a long flowing beard, like
Odin; yet with a serene and unwrin-
kled brow. His wife was Idunna.
Brake, Tycho, a Swedish astron-
omer, born in Knudstrup, near Lund,
Dec. 14, 1546. He was descended from
a noble family, and was sent, at the
age of 13. to the University of Copen-
hagen, where he had not been more
than a year, when an eclipse of the
sun turned his attention to astronomy.
His uncle destined him for the law,
but Brahe, while his tutor slept,
busied himself nightly with the stars.
In 1573 he married a peasant girl.
After some time spent in travel, Brahe
received from his sovereign, Frederic
II., the offer of the island of Hven or
Hoene, in the Sound, as the site for
an observatory, the King also offering
to defray the cost of erection, and of
the necessary astronomical instrur
ments, as well as to provide him with
a suitable salary. Brahe accepted
the generous proposal, and, in 1576,
the foundation stone of the castle of
Uraienburg ("fortress of the heav-
ens ") was laid. Here, for a period of
20 years, Brahe prosecuted his obser-
vations with the most unwearied in-
dustry. So long as his munificent pat-
ron, Frederick II., lived, Brahe's posi-
tion was all that he could have de-
sired, but on his death in 1588 it was
greatly changed. For some years, un-
der Christian IV., Brahe was just tol-
erated; but in 1597 his persecution
Brainard
had grown so unbearable that he left
the country altogether, having been
the year before deprived of his ob-
servatory and emoluments. After re-
siding a short time at Kostock and at
Wandsbeck, near Hamburg, he accept-
ed an invitation of the Emperor Ru-
dolf II. — who conferred on him a pen-
sion of 3,000 ducats — to Benatek, a
few miles from Prague, where a new
Uranienburg was to have been erected
for him; but he died at Prague on
Oct. 24, 1601.
Brahma, the name of the first of
the three gods who constitute the triad
of principal Hindu deities. The epi-
thets applied to this divinity are very
numerous.
Brahman, Brahmin, Bramin,
or Brachman, one of the Aryan
conquerors of India, who discharged
priestly functions, whose ascendency,
however, over his fellows was intellec-
tual and spiritual, but not yet political
or supported by the caste system ; also
one of the four leading castes of India.
Brahmanism, or Brahminism,
the system of religious belief and prac-
tice introduced and propagated by the
Brahmans.
Brahmaputra, a large river of
Asia, whose sources, not yet explored,
are situated near Lake Manasarovara,
in Tibet, near those of Indus.
Brahmo-Spmaj, or the Thiestic
Church of India, was founded in 1830
by an enlightened Brahman, who
sought to purify his religion from im-
purities and idolatries.
Brain, the encephalon, or center
of the nervous system and the seat of
consciousness and volition in man and
the higher animals.
Brainard, David Legge, an
American explorer, born in Herkimer
county, N. Y., Dec. 21, 1856. He re-
ceived a common school education and
enlisted as a private in the United
States army in 1876. He rose to dis-
tinction in various conflicts with the
Indians and in the Greeley and other
Arctic Expeditions, and was promoted
to Colonel, June 8, 1912. In 1899 he
became Chief Commissary at Manila.
Brainard, John Gardiner, Cal-
kins, an American poet, born in New
London, Conn., Oct. 21, 1796 ; died in
New London, Conn., Sept. 26, 1828.
Brain*
Bramante d'TJrbino
Braine, Daniel Lawrence, an
American naval officer, born in New
York city, May 18, 1829. He entered
the United States navy in 1846 and
became a Rear-Admiral. He served
with distinction through the Mexican
and Civil Wars. In 1873 he obtained
the surrender by Spain of 102 sur-
vivors of the " Virginius " prisoners.
He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., Jan. 30,
1898.
HUMAN BBAIN.
Median Longitudinal Section through
Head and Upper Part of Neck, to Show
Relation of Brain to Cranium and the
Spinal Cord.
C, cerebrum; cb, cerebellum; sc, spinal
cord; spc, spinal column; mo, medulla
oblongata passing, through foramen
magnum, into the spinal cord; pv, pons
Varolii; cp, cerebral peduncles or crura
cerebri; cqa, anterior corpora quadrige-
mina; cqp, posterior corpora quadnge-
mina; pg, pineal gland; pb, pituitary
body; cc, corpus collosum, divided trans-
versely; f, fornix; mg, marginal gyrus;
f^i gyrus fornicatus; ctng, calloso-mar-
ginal suleus; O, occipital lobe; po,
parieto-occipital fissure; cf, calcarine fis-
sure; dm, dura mater, separating cere-
brum from cerebellum.
Brainerd, David, an American
missionary, born at Haddam, Conn.,
April 20, 1718. He entered Yale Col-
lege in 1739, but three years later was
expelled for declaring that one of the
college tutors had no more of the grace
of God than a chair. That same year
he was licensed to preach, and sent as
a missionary to the Indians in Massa-
chusetts. He labored afterward among
the Indians in Pennsylvania, and with
much success in New Jersey, baptizing
there no fewer than 77 converts, of
whom 38 were adults. He died in
Northampton, Mass., Oct. 9, 1747.
Brain Fever, a term in common
use for inflammation of the lining
membranes of the brain, meningitis;
or of the brain itself, cerebritis. Brain
fever is characterized by violent head-
ache, intolerance of light, excitement,
extreme sensitiveness, hyperffimia, de-
lirium, convulsions, and coma.
Braintree, a town in Norfolk
county, Mass.; on the New York,
New Haven & Hartford railroad; 10
miles S. of Boston; is noted as the
birth-place of many of the Adams
family; and is chiefly engaged in
granite quarrying. Pop. (1910) 8,066.
Brake, a device for regulating or
stopping motion by friction. Rail-
road air-brakes consist of a cylinder
and piston under each car, connected
by tubes with a reservoir for com-
pressed air, automatically filled by a
special engine under control of the
engineer.
Braniah, Joseph, an English in-
ventor; born in Yorkshire in 1749;
especially known for an ingenious lock,
and for the hydraulic press. He died
in Pimlico, Dec. 9, 1814.
Bramante d'TTrbino (real name
DONATO LAZZARI), an Italian archi-
tect, born in 1444. Showing an early
taste for drawing, he was brought up
to the profession of a painter, but he
quitted it to dedicate bis talents to
architecture, which he cultivated with
uncommon success. He first designed
and commenced in 1513, the erection
of St. Peter's at Rome, carried on and
finished by other architects after his
death. He was a great favorite with
Pope Julius II., who made him super-
intendent of his buildings, and, under
that pontiff, he formed, the magnificent
project of connecting the Belvidere
Palace with the Vatican by means of
two grand galleries carried across a
valley. He built many churches, mon-
asteries, and palaces at Rome, and in
other I'talian cities, and was employed
by Pope Julius as an engineer to forti-
fy Bologna, 1504. Bramante painted
portraits with ability, and he was
Brambanan
skilled in music and poetry. He died
in 1514.
Brambanan, a district of the
Province of Surakarta, Java, rich in
remains of Hindu temples, of which
there are six groups, with two appar-
ently monastic buildings. The edifices
are composed entirely of hewn stone,
and no mortar has been used in their
construction. The largest is a cruci-
form temple, surrounded by five con-
centric squares, formed by rows of de-
tached cells or shrines, embracing an
area of 500 feet square. In several of
these dagobas the cross-legged figures
of Buddha remain but the larger fig-
ures which must have occupied the
central temples have disappeared from
all but one.
Bramble, or Blackberry, a
plant having prickly stems, which
somewhat resemble those of the rasp-
berry. The flowers do not appear till
the summer is considerably advanced,
and the fruit ripens toward the end
of it, continuing to be produced till
the frosts of winter set in. The fruit
is too well known to need description.
In the United States blackberries are
extensively cultivated for their fruit.
Bramwcll, John Milne, a Brit-
ish physician and author, born at
Perth, New Brunswick, Canada, 1852.
He graduated from the University of
Edinburgh, and made a specialty of
hypnotism, combining with consider-
able success the Parisian and Nancy
methods of hyponosis. His published
writings include " What is Hypno-
tism?"
Bran, the skins or husks of
ground maize, wheat, rye, or other
grain, separated from the flour. The
nutritive value of these husks in-
creases as we proceed from the out-
side of the grain toward the interior.
The outer skin, or coarse bran, is very
indigestible, owing to the presence of a
layer of silica.
Branch, that part of a plant which
is produced from a lateral leaf bud on
the primary axis or stem. It is looked
upon as part of the stem, and not as
a distinct organ.
Branchia, the gills of fishes and
various other inhabitants of water.
They are the apparatus for enabling
the animal to extract oxygen from the
water, instead of being dependent on,
Brandenburg
the atmosphere.
Brand, Sir John Henry, a Boer
statesman, born in Cape Town, Dec.
6, 1823. Queen Victoria knighted him
in recognition of his aid. Brandford
i was named in his honor, and Lady-
brand was named in honor of his wife.
I He died July 15, 1888.
Brandeis, Louis Dembitz, an
American jurist, born in Louisville,
Ky., Nov. 13, 1856; was admitted to
the bar in 1878 ; began practice in
Boston in 1879 ; gave special atten-
i tion to railroad problems ; was spe-
cial counsel for the Interstate Com-
merce Commission in 1913-14, also in
various Federal and municipal inves-
tigations ; chairman of the Provisional
Committee for General Zionist Affairs
in 1914-15 ; widely known as an effi-
ciency expert ; was confirmed as an
Associate Justice of the United States
Supreme Court, June 1, 1916.
Brandenburg, a province of
Prussia, surrounded mainly by Meck-
lenburg and the provinces of Pome-
rania, Posen, Silesia, and Prussian
Saxony. The soil consists in many
parts of barren sands, heaths, and
moors ; yet the province produces much
frain, as well as fruits, hemp, flax, to-
acco, etc., and supports many sheep.
The forests are very extensive. The
principal streams are the Elbe, the
Oder, the Havel, and the Spree ; but
the first two merely skirt the territory.
Brandenburg carries on an active
trade in manufactured articles, and is
well situated for commerce, since it
has many canals, rivers, good roads,
and is intersected by the railways from
Berlin to Leipsic, etc. The province
of Brandenburg includes, besides some
other districts, the greater part of the
former mark of Brandenburg, which
formed the cradle of the Prussian mon-
archy, and the center round which the
present extensive kingdom has grown
up. > It is divided into the three ad-
ministrative divisions of Berlin, Pots-
dam, and Frankfort, and it has a total
area of 15,376 square miles, with a
pop.. (census 1910) 4,092,616. Most
of the inhabitants are Lutherans ; the
rest are chiefly Roman Catholics and
Jews. From 1685 to 1688 many
French refugees, Walloons, and inhab-
itants of Lorraine and of Palatinate,
settled here. It is now the most impor-
tant Prussian province, including as it
Brandes
does the capital (Berlin) , and the gov-
ernments of Potsdam and Frankfort.
Brandes, Georg, a Danish liter-
ary critic of Jewish family ; born in
Copenhagen, Feb. 4, 1842, where he
graduated at the university in 1864.
Several books on aesthetic and philoso-
phic subjects brought on him a charge
of skepticism which was not removed
by an epoch-making series of lectures,
delivered before large audiences. In
1882 he returned to Copenhagen,
his countrymen having guaranteed
him an income of 4,000 crowns,
with the one stipulation that he should
deliver public lectures on literature.
Branding, an ancient mode of
punishment by inflicting a mark on
an offender with a hot iron. It is gen-
erally disused under the English civil !
law, but is a recognized punishment
for some military offenses, as deser-
tion. It is not, however, now done by
a hot iron, but with ink, gunpowder,
or some other preparation, so as to be
visible, and not liable to be obliterated.
The mark is the letter " D," not less
than an inch in length, and is marked
on the left side two inches below the
armpit
Brandt, Sebastian, a German
author ; born in Strasburg, in 1458 ;
studied law and the classics with zeal
at Basel, where he received permis-
sion to teach ; and soon became one
of the most influential lecturers in
that city. The Emperor Maximilian
showed his regard for Brandt by ap-
pointing him an imperial councilor.
His fame rests wholly upon " The
Ship of Fools," a satire on the follies
and vices of the time (1494). Its
distinguishing note is its abounding
humor ; but it owed its great popular
success very largely to the clever j
woodcuts with which it was illustrat-
ed. He died in Strasburg in 1521.
Brandy, a spirit produced by the
distillation of both white and red
wines, and largely manufactured in
the United States.
Brandy wine Creek, in Pennsyl-
vania and Delaware, is formed of two !
forks, the E. and W., which effect a
junction in Chester county of the first
named State, and, taking a S. E.
course, empties into Christiana creek
at Wilmington. Here, Sept 11, 1777,
was fought a severe battle between
Brass
the British and German troops, 18,000
strong, under Howe, and the Ameri-
cans numbering 13,000 men, under
Washington. The consequence of this
battle was the occupation of Philadel-
phia by the British troops.
Branner, John Casper, geolo-
gist, born in New Market, Tenn., 1850,
graduated at Cornell University in
1874 : was attached to the Brazilian
i Imperial Geological Commission 1875-
1877, and in 1899 became vice-presi-
i dent of Leland Stanford University.
His geological works are valuable.
Brant, Joseph, a Mohawk chief,
born in Ohio in 1742. He participat-
ed in the campaign of 1755, and held
the post of secretary to Col. Johnson,
superintendent-general of Indian af-
fairs. On the outbreak of the Ameri-
can Revolution, Brant took an active
part in raising an Indian force to op-
pose the colonists, and was present at
the action of Cherry Valley, and in
other engagements. In 1786 he vis-
ited England and collected funds for
an Anglican Church, the first erected
in Canada West. He passed the clos-
ing years of his life at Burlington
Bay, on Lake Ontario, on an estate
granted him by the British Govern-
ment One of Brant's sons command-
ed a mixed Canadian and Indian force
during the War of 1812. He died in
Canada, Nov. 29, 1807.
Brantford, city and capital of
Brant county, Ontario, Canada; on
the Grand river and the Grand Trunk
and other railroads; 65 miles S. W.
of Toronto; contains many beautiful
churches, Wickcliffe Hall (Y. M. C.
A.), Court-house and county build-
ings of white brick, City Hospital,
Technical School, and a number of
benevolent homes; and manufactures
farm implements, brass and iron cast-
ings, engines and mill machinery.
Pop. (1911) 23,132.
Brasenose, one of the colleges of
Oxford University, founded in 1509.
Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc,
of a bright yellow color, hard, ductile,
and malleable. The best brass con-
sits of two parts by weight of copper
to one of zinc. Before zinc was ob-
tained in its metallic form brass was
manufactured from calamine (native
carbonate of zinc) mixed with copper
and charcoal. Even now this process
Brasses
is easier than the direct fusion togeth-
er of the two metals. The proportion
of copper and zinc vary.
Brasses, Monumental, large
plates of brass, or of the mixed metal
called latten or laton, inlaid on slabs
of stone, and usually forming part of
the pavement of a church.
Brassey, Lady Anne, an English
descriptive writer born in London,
about 1840. After her marriage she
spent half of her life at sea, on Lord
Brassey's. yacht, the "Sunbeam."
She died at sea Sept 14, 1887.
Brassey, Thomas, an English en-
gineer and railroad contractor, born
in Baerton, Cheshire, Nov. 7, 1805.
After receiving an ordinary education,
be was, at the age of 16 years, ap-
prenticed to a surveyor, whom he suc-
ceeded in business. After building
parts of the Grand Junction and the
London and Southampton railways, he
contracted in 1840, in partnership with
another, to build the railway from
Paris to Rouen. In a few years he
held under contract, in England and
France, some 10 railways, involving a
capital of $180,000,000, and employ-
ing 75,000 men. In partnership with
Betts and Peto he undertook the
Grand Trunk of Canada, 1.100 miles
in length. He died Dec. 8, 1870. His
son THOMAS, 1st Lord Brassey, born
183G, is an active British statesman.
He has written " Work and Wages,"
"The British Navy," and other eco-
Domical works.
Brassicacese, an order of plants
toore generally called cruciferae (cruci-
fers). Among the well known plants
ranked under the order may be men-
tioned the wall flower, the stock, the
•watercress and other cresses, the cab-
bage, the turnip, etc.
Bravi, the name formerly given in
Italy, and particularly in Venice, to
those wno were ready to hire them-
selves out to perform any desperate
undertaking. The word had the same
signification in Spain.
Bravo, Nicholas, a Mexican
statesman, born in 1790. He partici-
pated in the revolution against Spain
(1810-1817), and later aided Iturbide
in establishing a republic. Under
Santa Ana he twice acted as Presi-
dent He died in 1854.
, Brazil
Bravura, an air requiring great
skill and spirit in its execution, each
syllable being divided into several
notes. It is distinguished from a sim-
ple melody by the introduction of
florid passages, a style of both music
and execution designed to task the
abilities of the artist
Braxy, a disease in sheep. Thia
term is frequently applied to totally
different disorders, but the true braxy
is undoubtedly an intestinal affection,
attended with diarrhoea and retention
of the urine.
Bray, a small English parish, neat
Maidenhead, Berkshire, of which Si-
mon Aleyn was vicar from 1540 to
1588, during the reigns of Henry
VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Eliza-
beth. He kept his vicarage by chang-
ing his faith according to that of the
State for the time being, becoming a
Protestant with Henry, Catholic again
in the reign of Mary, and Protestant
again on the accession of Elizabeth.
His principle was to live and die Vicar
of Bray, and to it he adhered.
Bray, Anna Eliza, an English
woman^ of_ letters, born in London,
Dec. 25, 1790. Her maiden name was
Kempe; was married to Charles A.
Stothard, son of the famous artist,
and, after his death, became the wife
of the Rev. Edward A. Bray, Vicar of
Tavistock. She died in London, Jan.
21, 1883.
Brazil, now called officially the
UNITED STATES OF BBAZIL, a vast re-
public in South America, occupying a
space nearly equal to one-half of that
entire continent It is of extremely
irregular outline and varying dimen-
sions; its greatest diameter being, E.
to W., or from Cape Augustin to the
Yavari or Jabary river, which sepa-
rates it from Peru, 2,630 miles; and,
N. to S., from Cape Orange E. of
Oyapok bay, to the S. extremity of
Lake Mirim, 2,580 miles ; area 3,209,-
878 square miles. It is bounded S. E.,
E., and N. E. by the Atlantic Ocean;
N. by French, Dutch, and English
Guiana, and Venezuela ; W. and S.
W. by Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Para-
guay, and the Argentine provinces of
Missiones, and by the republic of Uru-
guay. Its entire coast-line, from the
extreme S. point already mentioned,
to the head of the Bay of Oyapok is
Brazil
upward of 3,700 miles. Throughout
this vast extent of coast there are few-
great indentations, though in some
parts smaller harbors and inlets are
pretty numerous, many of the former
excellent and generally surrounded by
flats.
With the exception of the Rio Fran-
cisco and the Parana, all the large
rivers of Brazil empty themselves on
its N. shores, and nearly all run par-
allel courses from S. to N., traversing
the vast plains which occupy the cen-
ter and N. W. portions of the coun-
try, and presenting means of internal
communication, unequaled in any oth-
er part of the globe.
Brazil is divided, politically, into 21
States (formerly provinces) of which
there are at least nine each exceeding
Great Britain in superficial extent It
is, however, difficult to obtain the area
of the States, and of the whole coun-
try, the existing data being very un-
satisfactory and conflicting. The fol-
lowing table gives the areas of the
States and the population as officially
reported in 1900:
Area in
States. sq. Miles. Pop. 1900.
Alagoas 22,583 642,249
Amazonas 732,439 249,756
Bahia 164,643 2,117,956
Ceara 40,247 849,127
Espirito Santo 17,312 209,783
Goyaz 288,536 255,284
Maranhao 177,561 459,508
Matto Grosso 532,683 118,525
Minas Geraes 221,951 3,594,471
Para 443,903 445,356
Parahyba 28,854 490,734
Parana 85,451 327,130
Pernambuco 49,573 1,178,150
Piauhy 116,523 334,328
Rio de Janeiro (city) . 538 730,951
Rio de Janeiro 26,634 926,035
Rio Grande do Norte. 22,195 274,317
Rio Grande do Sul... 91,335 1,149,070
Sao Paulo 112,307 2,282,279
Santa Catharina 28,632 320,289
Sergipe 15,093 356,264
Total 3,218,991 17,318,556
In 1913 the population was es-
timated at 24,308,219 exclusive of
perhaps 600,000 uncivilized Indians,
and the area 3,290,564 square miles.
The most important towns in Brazil
are the capital, Rio de Janeiro, Bahia,
Pernambuco, Para or Belem, San
Brazil
Paulo, Parahyba, Ceara, and Porto
Algre.
In remarkable contrast to the coun-
tries on the W. side of the South
American continent, Brazil has no
mountains of very great elevation. The
higher mountains of Brazil, most of
them occurring at greater and lesser
distances from the E. coast, extend
generally in a direction more or less
from S. to N., though numerous in-
ferior ranges traverse the country in
various other directions. The river
system of Brazil is unequaled, per-
haps, in any other part of the world
for the number and magnitude of the
streams of which it is composed, the
surface of the whole N. W. portion
being interlaced with rivers of every
length and volume; presenting the
complex appearance of vessels in the
human body, to which the Amazon
and its larger tributaries may be said
to stand in the relation of main ar-
teries. By far the greater portion of
these numberless streams have more or
less of a N. direction, and finally find
their way, either directly or through
their principals, to the Amazon. The
largest river of Brazil, and the largest,
it is believed, in the world, though not
the longest, is the Amazon, which en-
ters the country from the W., about
lat 4° 30' S. ; Ion. 70° W., and after a.
N. E. course from the point named of
about 800 miles, flows into the Atlan-
tic near the equator. In order of mag-
nitude follow the Rio Negro and Me-
deira, both tributaries of the Amazon ;
the former flowing from the N. W.,
the latter from the S. W. The other
large rivers in this portion of the
country are the Branco, a tributary
of the Rio Negro ; the Tapajos and
Xingu, other two large tributaries of
the Amazon ; the Araguay, Tocantins,
Maranhao, and Paranahyba. The
next in size is the Rio Francisco,
which, after flowing N. for about 800
miles, suddenly turns due E., and
subsequently S. E., falling into the sea
about lat. 11° S. Passing along the
coast, S. from the embouchure of the
Francisco, the following considerable
rivers occur — the Vazabarris, Itapi-
curu, Paraguassu, Belmonte or Jequit-
inhonha, in the State of Bahia ; Doce,
State of Espirito-Santo ; and the Pa-
raiba-do-Sul, the S. boundary of the
same State. In this enumeration of
Brazil
Brazil
the rivers having their embouchures j
on the E. coast of Brazil, we have j
omitted an immense number of smaller j
streams, perhaps not many below a
hundred. In the interior of the S. '
portion of the country occur the large !
rivers Uruguay, Yguazu, Paranapan- !
ema, Tieta, Para, Paraguay, and Pa- |
rana, with numerous smaller streams |
— - smaller in comparison to these, but
still large rivers — winding in all di-
rections through every province. Al-
though unrivalled in the number and
magnitude of its rivers, Brazil has
comparatively few lakes of any great \
extent. The largest is the Lagoa dos
Patos, a lagoon in the State of Rio
Grande do Sul, the extreme S. of the
Brazilian States ; it is about 150 miles
in length, and 35 miles in breadth at
the widest part, and is separated from
the sea by a narrow strip of land only ;
it discharges its water into the ocean
by a channel called the Rio Grande.
Farther N. several smaller lakes oc-
cur, the largest of which may be from
20 to 30 miles in length. There are
hardly any others worth mentioning.
The mineral wealth of Brazil is con-
siderable, and includes gold, silver, and
iron, diamonds, topazes, and other
precious stones. Among the earliest
discovered and first wrought gold
mines were those of Jaragua, but they j
have long ceased to be regularly
worked, the precious metal being found
more easily and in greater abundance
mingled with the sands and alluvial
deposits of rivers. The process of
separation, the gold being in small par-
ticles, is effected by repeated washings,
which are continued till nothing but
the pure metal remains at the bottom
of the vessel. The entire quantity of
gold produced has now greatly fallen
off, being hardly a fourth of what it
formerly was, owing chiefly to the
auriferous sand having been exhausted.
Large quantities of diamonds have
been obtained in Brazil. The district
from which most stones have been de-
rived is Diamantina in Minas Geraes,
adjoining the Serra do Espinhaco. The
diamonds have been hitherto found in
the beds of rivers only, and are washed
from the sand and stones with which
they are mingled much in the same way
as the gold. The largest known Bra-
zilian diamond was found in the Rio
Bogagens, and weighed 254^ carats.
The negro who found a diamond
weighing 17 carats, used to obtain his
liberty, a variety of proportionate re-
wards being appointed for those of
lesser value. About 20,000 negroes
were at one time employed in the dia-
mond mines. The government re-
ceived one-fifth of the total value of
all the gold and diamonds found in
the country. Notwithstanding the
sounding names of these two items of
the mineral wealth of Brazil, neither
of them has been nearly so profitable,
nor so beneficial to the general inter-
ests of the country as the homeliest of
its agricultural productions. In the
short space of a year and a half the
exports of sugar and coffee amounted
to more than the value of diamonds
found throughout a period of 80 years
within the limits of Brazil.
As almost the whole of Brazil lies
S. of the equator, and in a hemisphere
where there is a greater proportion of
sea than land, its climate is generally
more cool and moist than that of coun-
tries in corresponding latitudes in the
Northern Hemisphere. This is partic-
ularly applicable to the flat portions of
the country, where impenetrable for-
ests occupy the alluvial plains, and,
by preventing the sun's rays reaching
the earth, cut off one of the principal
sources of heat — radiation. In the
S. parts of Brazil, in consequence of
the gradual narrowing of the conti-
nent, the climate is of an insular char-
acter— cool summers and mild win-
ters. The quantity of rain that falls
in Brazil differs widely in the amount
in different localities. The N. States
generally are subject to heavy rains
and violent storms ; but the S. regions
rejoice in a settled, mild, and salu-
brious climate. The rainy season
commences in October, and usually
lasts till March, setting in with heavy
thunder-storms. At Rio, where the
climate has been much modified by the
clearing away of the forests in the
neighborhood, the mean temperature of
the year is 72° ; and the rains have
been so diminished as to have seriously
reduced the supply of water to the
city. Generally the climate of Brazil
is delightful, diffusing and maintaining
a perpetual summer throughout this
favored land. In the N. parts the air
in the lower tracts is somewhat sultry
and oppressive ; but vegetation is vig-
orous and profuse, the ground being
Brazil
Brazil
covered with flowers, and the trees
with a foliage that is ever green ; while
the nights are deliciously cool. Near
the coast the temperature is modified
by the trade wind, which, after tra-
versing the Atlantic, fans the shores
of Brazil, imparting a refreshing cool-
ness to the atmosphere.
The soil of Brazil, so far as its
capabilities have been tested, is highly
fertile. Altogether but a comparative-
ly small portion has yet been subjected
to this test, probably not more than a
hundredth part of the surface being
under cultivation, and this portion is
almost entirely limited to the coast,
and to the N. E. part of the country,
which seems peculiarly well adapted
for the cultivation of maize, sugar,
and coffee. The pastures, moreover,
are of vast extent, and, as they afford
food for immense numbers of horned
cattle, they form one of the principal
sources of the wealth of the country.
Being almost wholly within the limit
of the palm region, the vegetation of
Brazil is characterized generally by
the peculiar physiognomy which tha'
beautiful family of vegetables impresses
on tropical countries. Of these nearly
200 species are known as native to the
country. The chief food-supplying
plants are sugar, coffee, cacao, rice,
maize, wheat, manioc (cassava),
beans, bananas, yams, lemons, oranges,
figs, etc. — the two first, sugar and cof-
fee, being the staple products of the
republic. The manioc is a native of
Brazil, and its farina is almost the
only kind of meal used in that coun-
try. An acre of manioc is said to
yield as much nutriment as six acres
of wheat. The Indians find in this
beautiful and useful plant a compen-
sation for the rice and other cereals
of the Old World. But it is in the
boundless forests of Brazil that the
vigor of the vegetative power is ex-
hibited in its most imposing form.
Rubber, drugs, dyes, fibers, vegetable
ivory, and cabinet woods are all prod-
ucts of the Brazilian forests. Among
the trees are the andaacu, or Purga da
Paulistas, the seeds of which yield a
purgative oil; the cacao or chocolate
tree ; the Brazil-wood tree, used, under
the name of Pernambuco wood, for
dyeing silk of a crimson color ; the
rosewood tree, the fustic, mahogany,
and a variety of others well adapted
; for various purposes. The beauty, va-
i riety, and abundance of the flowers of
this extraordinary country are no less
remarkable than any other of its vege-
table productions.
The principal domestic animals of
Brazil are horned cattle and horses;
the numbers of the former are prodigi-
ous, covering the boundless plains of
the interior. The greatest part of
them live in a wild or semi-wild state.
Horses are numerous in the S. prov-
inces ; they are of a middling size, from
12 to 14^j hands high, but strong, live-
ly, and swift. Mules are reared in the
S. States. Sheep are in little repute,
the meat being ill flavored and the
wool of indifferent quality. Goats
and hogs are abundant. The woods
of Brazil swarm with wild animals,
including the puma, jaguar, sloth, ar-
madillo, etc. Wild hogs are also com-
mon, as well as an amphibious animal
called the water hog or capybara, re-
sembling a hog in form, but of the size
of a heifer. Monkeys are likewise nu-
j merous ; and vampire bats are in some
localities so destructive as to prevent
the rearing of cattle. Among the
feathered tribes are, the smallest, the
humming-bird, and one of the largest,
the rhea or ostrich. There are also
parrots in great variety, and a power-
ful eagle, the harpy. Water-fowl, es-
pecially geese and ducks, abound in
certain seasons on the lakes and la-
goons at the S. extremity of Brazil.
The reptiles consist of the boa constric-
tor and other species of serpents, some
of them venomous, especially the jar-
raraca, which is much dreaded by th«
natives. When full grown it is usu-
ally about six feet long, and is nearly
allied to the rattlesnake genus. It
prevails over all the S. States. Its
bite is attended with great suffering,
and with the most serious conse-
quences, even where death is averted.
In the marshy countries of the S. the
boa or python is said to attain a
length of over 20 feet Other im-
portant reptiles are several species of
alligator and different kinds of turtle,
which, on the Amazon in particular,
supply abundance of food. The in-
sects of Brazil are, many of them, re-
' markable for the beauty of their col-
ors and their size, especially the but-
terflies and moths, of which as many
as 14,000 species are known. In
Brazil
some localities insects are so numerous
in the woods that their noise is heard
in a ship at anchor some distance
from the shore. The white ants are
especially numerous and destructive.
The scorpions of Brazil attain a length
of six inches. Most of the bees of the
country are stingless, there being no
fewer than 30 species of that descrip-
tion. The shores and rivers abound
with fish. Among the most valuable
of those caught on the former is the
garopa, which attains a length of from
12 to 20 feet, and is well flavored;
they are most numerous on the coast
of Bahia, where great quantities are
annually taken and exported. The
numbers of fish caught in the Amazon
and other rivers of the country are
very great, constituting a principal
part of the subsistence of the inhab-
itants.
In every town schools for teaching
the first rudiments are now to be
found, to which the children of all
citizens are admitted free. There are
no universities, but there are govern-
ment colleges of law, medicine, etc. In
all large towns there are professor-
ships of Latin, Greek, English, French,
philosophy, rhetoric, geometry, chem-
istry, botany, etc. ; and printing
Eresses are now common throughout
razil.
The varied population of Brazil con-
sists of people of pure Portuguese
blood, who form a comparatively small
minority of the whole ; of full-blooded
negroes, who form the largest unmixed
element in the population ; of abor-
igines or native Indians ; and of peo-
ple of mixed race, the most numerous
of all ; besides a certain number of
German and other European immi-
grants. The Portuguese portion of
the population have made Portuguese
the national language of the country.
The native Indians are copper-colored,
robust, well-made, but of short stature.
They generally go naked, paint their
skins, and are fond of ornament-
ing their heads with feathers. A
number are nominally Christians.
They belong to various tribes of which
the chief are the Tupi, Guarani, and
the Onagua. In recent years there
has been a considerable immigration of-
European colonists, the majority
Italians. Italy enjoys a " favored
nation " tariff with Brazil. In Dec..
___ BrarU
1906, it was reported that the German
govt. offered exemption from military
service to German settlers in Rio
Grande. Commercial activities in
1915 showed imports (excluding spe-
cie), $150,440,000; exports, $264,850,-
000 (coffee, $160,950,000). Exports
comprise coffee (the most valuable
product), sugar, rubber, cotton, hides,
drugs, gums, and diamonds. There
are over 16,000 m. of railroad, over
42,000 m. of telegraph wire and ex-
tending telephonic systems. A feature
of the telegraphic system is the cable
laid on the bed of the Amazon river
and giving Para, Manaos and other
towns on its banks telegraphic con-
nection with the rest of the world.
There is now no established religion
in Brazil, but practically all excepting
100,000 of the population are Catho-
lics. Until recently the government
was monarchial, hereditary, constitu-
tional, and representative. Since the
overthrow of the empire in 1889 repub-
lican institutions have been estab-
lished, each of the old provinces being
now a State, whose internal affairs are
administered without interference
from the central federal government.
At the head of affairs is a president,
by whom, and the national congress,
legislation is carried on. The con-
gress consists of a chamber of 212
deputies and a senate of 63 members,
the former elected by direct vote as
representative of the different States ;
while the senators are chosen by di-
rect vote, three for each State and the
Federal District for nine years. On
Jan. 1, 1915, the foreign debt was
$409,728,800 ; internal debt, $172.649,-
935 ; State and municipal debts, $158,-
436.135.
The revenue of the republic in 1915
aggregated $194,570,275; and the ex-
penditures $134,652,575. The mili-
tary budget for 1915 was $36,270,-
695. The navy comprised two dread-
naughts, two old battleships, three
protected cruisers, and twenty-three
gunboats, destroyers, torpedo boats,
etc.
Brazil was discovered Jan. 26, 1500,
by Vincente Yanez Pincon, one of the
companions of Columbus, and was sub-
sequently taken possession of by Pedro
Alvares de Cabral. Emanuel, King of
Portugal, had equipped a squadron for
a voyage to the East Indies, under the
Brazil
command of Cabral. The admiral,
quitting Lisbon, March 9, 1500, fell in
accidentally, April 24, with the conti-
nent of South America, which he at
first supposed to be a large island on
the coast of Africa. In this conjec-
ture he was soon undeceived, when the
natives came in sight. Having discov-
ered a good harbor, he anchored his
vessels, and called the bay Puerto Se-
guro. On the next day he landed with
a body of troops, and having erected
the cross, took possession of the coun-
try in the name of his sovereign, and
called it Terro da Vera Cruz ; but the
name was afterward altered by King
Emanuel to that of Brazil, from the
red wood which the country produces.
The value of Brazil to Portugal con-
tinued steadily to increase after the
discovery of the gold mines in 1698,
and the discovery of the diamond mines
in 1728. Up to the year 1810 Brazil
had sent to Portugal 14,280 hundred-
weights of gold and 2,100 pounds of
diamonds, which foreign countries,
and especially Great Britain, at last
succeeded in purchasing at the Lisbon
market. Rio Janeiro now became the
mart for the proceeds of the Brazilian
mines and native productions. But
the administration was anything but
adapted to promote the prosperity of
the country. The attention of the gov-
ernment was turned almost exclusively
to the gold washings and to the work-
ing of the diamond mines ; and the
policy of the administration consisted
in the exaction of taxes and duties,
which were collected from the fortified
ports, to which trade was solely con-
fined. Foreigners were excluded or
jealously w itched, and trade was par-
alyzed by numerous restrictions. In
the interior, the lands situated on the
great rivers, after being surveyed,
were frequently presented, after the
year 1640, by the kings of the house
of Braganza. to the younger sons of
the Portuguese nobility, whom the sys-
tem of entails excluded from the pros-
pect of inheritance. These grantees
enlisted adventurers, purchased negro
slaves by thousands, and subjected the
original inhabitants or drove them
from their districts, and ruled their
dominions with almost unlimited sway.
The missions of the Jesuits also re-
ceived similar donations from the
kings.
Brazil
On the invasion of Portugal in 1808
by the French, the sovereign of that
kingdom, John VI., sailed for Brazil,
accompanied by his court and a large
body of emigrants. Soon after arriv-
ing there he began to improve the con-
dition of the country by placing the ad-
ministration on a better footing, and
throwing open its ports to all nations.
On the fall of Bonaparte the king
raised Brazil to the rank of a kingdom,
and assumed the title of King of Por-
tugal, Algarve, and Brazil. The revo-
lution which took place in Portugal in
1820, compelled the king to return
to that country; he next year sailed
for Lisbon, leaving Pedro, his eldest
son and successor, as lieutenant and
regent. But as the Portuguese Cortes
was not willing to grant the entire
equality of civil and political relations
demanded by the Brazilians, and had
expressly declared that Brazil was to
be divided into governments, and ruled
by the ministry of State at Lisbon,
and the prince-regent was to be re-
called to Portugal — such violent con-
vulsions were excited in Rio Janeiro
and various parts of Brazil, December,
1821, that it was explicitly declared to
the prince-regent that his departure
would be the signal for establishing an
independent republic. The prince,
therefore, resolved to remain in Bra-
zil, and gave a public explanation of
his reasons, Jan. 9, 1822, to his father,
to the Cortes in Portugal, and to the
people of Brazil. The Portuguese
troops were removed from Brazil. The
prince-regent assumed, May 13, 1822,
the title of " perpetual defender of
Brazil," and in June convened a Na-
tional Assembly, composed of 100 dep-
uties, to frame a separate constitution
for the country. The National Assem-
bly of Brazil declared the separation
of that country from Portugal, Aug.
1, 1822. and Oct. 12, appointed Dom
Pedro the constitutional Emperor of
Brazil. The new emperor retained, at
the same time, the title of " perpetual
defender of Brazil."
The king, after some slight and in-
effectual attempts to re-establish the
former relations between Portugal and
Brazil, acknowledged the independence
of the latter country in 1825. Some
years afterward a series of tumultuary
proceedings ended in the abdication of
Dom Pedro, who left Brazil on April
Brazilian Grass
Brazos
7, 1831, leaving his son, who was un-
der age, as his successor. The rights
of the latter were recognized and pro-
tected, and a regency of three persons
appointed by the Chamber of Deputies
to conduct the government during his
minority. In 1840 the young emperor
was declared of age, being then in his
15th year, and was crowned on July
18, 1841. The new government had
considerable difficulty in crushing the
republican and revolutionary party,
which kept up a series of struggles in
several provinces for some years. In
1845 the insurgents had all laid down
their arms, but in 1848 a new rising
took place, which was put down not
without difficulty in the following
year. In 1851 a war broke out with
Rosas, dictator of Buenos Ayres, in
which Brazil was joined by Paraguay,
Uruguay, Corrientes, and Entre Rios,
and which ended in favor of the allies.
From this war Brazil received a cer-
tain impulse. The trade now in-
creased, the finances of the country
improved, and the government began
to further the development of the
country by constructing roads, encour-
aging immigration, and fostering the
education of the people. In 1853 the
Bank of Brazil was founded, and the
construction of railways began. In
1859 a minister for agriculture, com-
merce, and public work was appointed,
and a large government loan for the
construction of railways was author-
ized. In 1863, in consequence of the
arrest of three English naval officers,
a misunderstanding arose with Eng-
land, which led to the termination of
diplomatic relations for a time between
the two countries. Meanwhile (No-
vember, 18G4) hostilities had been
commenced by the Paraguayans under
President Lopez against Brazil, in
consequence of the interference of the
latter in the affairs of Uruguay; and
in May, 1865, an alliance for the pur-
pose of carrying on war against Par-
aguay was concluded between Brazil,
the Argentine Confederation, and Uru-
guay. This war, the brunt of which
had to be borne by Brazil, lasted till
1870, the Paraguayans having main-
tained a heroic resistance, and having
only given up the contest on the death
of their leader, Lopez, in battle against
the Brazilians (March 1, 1870). This
struggle was attended with an im-
mense expenditure of men and money
to Brazil, but it established her repu-
tation as a great power and secured
the freedom of the navigation of the
La Plata river system. For some
years after this a movement toward
greater freedom went on in Brazil. In
1888 it took the form of a total abol-
ition of slavery without compensation,
and in 1889 it received further devel-
opment in a revolution which over-
threw the monarchy. On Nov. 16 a
provisional government was formed,
the emperor with his family sailed for
Europe, and a new constitution pro-
claimed the Republic of the Federated
United States of Brazil. In 1893-94
an insurrection, confined chiefly to the
navy, was suppressed after some fight-
ing by Pres. Peixoto. In 1906 the
Third International Congress of Amer-
ican Republics assembled at Rio de
Janeiro, the object being to improve
in every way possible the relations
between North, Central, and South
American republics. Mr. Elihu Root,
Secretary of State, headed the delega-
tion from the U. S., and discussions
of the Monroe and Drago doctrines
were features of the Congress.
Brazilian Grass, an incorrect
popular name applied to a substance
used in the manufacture of a very
cheap kind of hats, known as Brazil-
ian grass hats.
Brazil Nuts, the seeds of a Bra-
zilian tree. The nuts or seeds are
largely exported from Para, whence
they are sometimes called Para nuts.
Brazil Tea, a tree — the mate,
the leaves of which are used in South
America as a substitute for Chinese or
India tea.
Brazil Wood, a kind of wood
used for dyeing, and extensively im-
ported from the West Indies, Brazil,
and other tropical countries.
Brazing, the act of soldering to-
gether the surfaces of iron, copper,
brass, etc., with an alloy composed of
brass and zinc, sometimes with the ad-
dition of a little tin or silver.
Brazos, a large river of the United
States, in Texas, rising in the N. W.
part of the State, and flowing into the
Gulf of Mexico, after a course of 900
miles, 40 miles W. S. W. of Galves-
ton. During the rainy season, from
February to May inclusive, it is navi-
Breach
Breakwater
gable by steamboats for about 300
miles.
Breach, the aperture or passage
made in the wall of any fortified place
by the ordnance of the besiegers for !
the purpose of entering the fortress, j
Breach, in law, any violation of a '
law, or the non-performance of a duty
imposed by law.
Bread. In the earliest antiquity
we find the flour or meal of grain used
as food. Bread, as is well known, is
made from the flour or meal of the
cereals, Indian corn, millet, and rice
being principally used for the purpose
in the more S. countries, rye, barley, !
and oats in the more N., and wheat in
the intermediate and temperate re-
gions ; but other vegetable products,
such as beans, peas, lentils, turnips,
carrots, potatoes, and even the bark of
trees, are also sometimes employed <
either alone or mixed with the flour
of the cereals
Breadfruit. The breadfruit is ai
large, globular fruit of a pale-green
BEEADFBTJTT.
color, about the size of a child's head,
marked on the surface with irregular
Bix-sided depressions, and containing a
white and somewhat fibrous pulp,
which when ripe becomes juicy and
yellow. The tree that produces Jt
grows wild in Tahiti and other is-
lands of the South Seas. It is about
40 feet high, with large and spreading
branches, and has large bright green ;
E.
leaves, deeply divided into seven or
nine spear-shaped lobes. The eatable
part of this fruit lies between the skin
and the core, and it is as white as
snow and somewhat of the consistence
of new bread. When gathered it is
generally used immediately ; if it be
kept more than 24 hours, it becomes
hard and choky. The inhabitants of
the South Sea Islands prepare it as
food by dividing the fruit into three
or four parts and roasting it in hot
embers. Its taste is insipid, with a
slight tartness.
As the climate of the South Sea Is-
lands is not very different from that
of the West Indies, it was thought de-
sirable that some of the trees should
be transferred in a growing state to
the British islands there ; and it was
for this purpose that the " Bounty "
sailed in 1787 to the South Seas, un-
der the command of the well-known
Bligh. This expedition being unsuc-
cessful, a second, also under Bligh,
was fitted out in 1791. He arrived in
safety at Tahiti, and after an ab-
sence from England of about 18
months, landed in Jamaica with 352
breadfruit trees in a living state, hav-
ing left many others at different places
in his passage thither. From Jamaica
these trees were transferred to other
islands; but the negroes, having a
general and long-established predilec-
tion for the plantain, the breadfruit
is not much relished by them. Where,
however, it has not been generally
introduced as an article of food, it is
used as a delicacy; and whether em-
ployed as bread or in the form of pud-
ding, it is considered highly palatable
by the white inhabitants.
Breakwater, a pier, wall, mole,
sunken hulk, or anything similar,
placed at the entrance of a harbor, at
the exposed part of an anchorage, or
in any such situation, with the view
of deadening the force of the waves
which roll in from the ocean. There
are several notable breakwaters in this
country — one of the longest and most
notable being that in Lake Michigan,
protecting the harbor of the city of
Chicago. It is peculiar in its con-
struction, being built perpendicalarly
and encased with wooden beams. The
Delaware breakwater, in Delaware
Bay, is built with sloping sides, being
much broader at its base than on top.
Bream
Breech
Bream, the carp bream. It is of a
yellowish white color, which changes,
through age, to a yellowish brown.
The sides are golden, the cheeks and
gill covers silver white, the fins, light
colored, tinged, the ventral one with
red and others with brown. It is
found in deep waters and lakes. It
is sought after by anglers, who, how-
ever, consider the flesh insipid.
Breastwork, in fortification, a
hastily constructed parapet made of
material at hand, such as earth, logs,
rails, timber, and designed to protect
troops from the fire of an enemy. In
architecture, the parapet of a build-
ing. In shipbuilding, a railing or bal-
ustrade standing athwartships across
a deck, as on the forward end of the
quarter deck or roundhouse. The
beam supporting it is a breastbeam.
Breckinridge, Clifton B,., an
American legislator and diplomatist,
born in Lexington, Ky., Nov. 25, 1846 ;
received a public school education and
served in the Confederate army and
navy. After the war he attended
Washington College (now Washing-
ton and Lee University) for three
years, and engaged in mercantile busi-
ness in Pine Bluff, Ark. He was
elected to Congress in 1882 as Repre-
sentative-at-large. On July 19, 1894,
he was appointed United States Min-
ister to Russia, serving until 1897.
Breckinridge, or Breckenriclge,
John, an American statesman, born
in 1760. In 1795 he was made Attor-
ney-General of the new _State of Ken-
tucky, and he served in its Legislature
from 1797 to 1800. He entered the
United States Senate, in 1801, becom-
ing four years later Attorney-General
in Jefferson's cabinet, in which office
he died in 180&
Breckinridge, John Cahell,
Vice-President of the United States,
born near Lexington, Ky., Jan. 21,
1821 ; practiced law in Lexington un-
til 1847, when he was chosen major of
a volunteer regiment for the Mexican
War. He sat in Congress in 1851-
1855, and in 1856 was elected Vice-
President, with James Buchanan as
President. In 1860 he was the pro-
slavery candidate for the presidency,
but was defeated by Abraham Lin-
coln. A United States Senator from
March to December, 1861, he then en-
tered the Confederate army, was ap^
pointed a Major-General, in 1862, and
held some important commands during
the Civil War. He was Secretary of
War in Jefferson Davis' cabinet at the
close of the struggle, and escaped to
Europe, whence he returned in 1868.
He died in Lexington, May 17, 1875.
Breckinridge, Joseph Cahell,
an American military officer, born in
Baltimore, Md., Jan. 14, 1842; a
cousin of Gen. John C. Breckenridge
of the Confederate army. He prac-
ticed law in Danville, Ky., till the be-
ginning of the Civil War, when he
joined the Union army. He was made
a First Lieutenant in the Regular
army Aug. 1, 1863, a Captain in 1874,
Brigadier and Inspector-General in
1889, and Major-General of Volun-
teersj May 4, 1898. He served in the
Santiago campaign and had a horse
shot under him.
Breckinridge, Robert Jeffer-
son, a Presbyterian clergyman and
theological writer, born at CabelPs
Dale, Ky., March 8, 1800. He was
originally a lawyer. He was Presi-
dent of Jefferson College in 1845-
1847; from 1847 he was pastor at
Lexington, Ky. He was a leader in
the division of the Presbyterian Church
in 1837 into Old and New Schools.
He died in Danville, Ky., Dec. 27,
1871.
Breda, a town in Holland, Pro-
vince of North Brabant, at the conflu-
ence of the Merk and the Aa. Breda
was once a strong fortress and of
fereat military importance as a strat-
egical position. From the 16th to the
end of the 18th century Breda has an
interesting military history of sieges,
assaults and captures, with which the
names of the most famous generals of
their time, the Duke of Parma, Mau-
rice of Orange, the Marquis Spinola,
Dumouriez, and Pichegru, etc., are
connected. It was the residence for a
time of the exi^ Charles II. of Eng-
land, and it was in the Declaration of
Breda that he promised liberty of
conscience, a general amnesty, etc.,
on his restoration.
Breech, in firearms and ordnance,
the rear portion of a gun ; the portion
behind the chamber; in shipbuilding,
the outer angle of a knee timber; t*ie
inner angle is the throat.
Breeches Bible
Breeches Bible, a name given to
a Bible printed in 1579 ; and so called
from the reading of Gen. iii: 7:
" They sowed figge tree leaves together
and made themselves breeches."
Breech Loader, a firearm in
which the charge is introduced at the '
rear instead of at the muzzle.
Breech. Pin, in firearms, a plug •
screwed into the rear end of a barrel, {
forming the bottom of the charge
chamber. Otherwise called a breech
plug or breech screw.
Breech Screw, in firearms, the
plug which closes the rear end of the
bore of a firearm barrel. The parts
are known as the plug, the face, the
tenon, the tang, and the tangscrew I
hole.
Breech Sight, the hinder sight of
a gun. In conjunction with the front i
sight, it serves to aim the gun at an
object
Breeding, the art of improving
races or breeds of domestic animals, |
or modifying them in certain direc-
tions, by continuous attention to their
pairing, in conjunction with a similar
attention to their feeding and general
treatment.
No sooner had the Revolutionary
War closed than importations of im-
proved stock began. This was kept
up till the War of 1812 temporarily
checked it
Mr. Rommel says that the year 1817
•will always be memorable in American
cattle history. In that year, follow-
ing the short-horn importations of
1812, came the beginning of the Devon
and Hereford importations, together
with still another arrival of short-
horns. Growth was slow up to 1827,
when there came renewed activity, es-
pecially in short-horns. Companies
were formed and the improvement of
cattle was marked. In point of num-
bers the shorthorn breed rapidly as-
sumed the foremost position, and till
about the year 3880 was the only beef
of prominence.
The expansion of the cattle business
was rapid. Up to the opening of the
Union Pacific railroad it was mainly
carried on in the part of the country
E. of the Missouri river. Then came
the discovery of the great opportuni-
ties offered by the far Western plains i
for grazing. The grrowth in tie cat- ,
tie raising industry was then abnor-
mal. " In the early eighties," says
Mr. Rommel, " pure-bred cattle by the
thousands were brought from England
to supplement the American herds in
breeding bulls for the range, and the
nearest that the Hereford and Angus
breeds ever came to having a boom in
this country was at this time. After
the collapse, which was bound to fol-
low, the cattle business is now on
what is thought to be a substantial
and healthy foundation.
Breed's Hill, a slight elevation in
the Charlestown district of Boston,
Mass., about 700 yards from Bunker
Hill. Although the famous engage-
ment of June 17, 1775, is known as
the Battle of Bunker Hill, most of the
fighting was done on Breed's Hill.
Here was located the American re-
doubt, against which the British made
their three historical charges, and here
Warren fell. The Bunker Hill monu-
ment stands on Breed's Hill.
Breitenf eld, a village of Saxony,
5 miles N. of Leipsic, remarkable for
three battles fought in its neighbor-
hood. In the first, fought on Sept 17
(old style, 7th), 1631, Gustavus Adol-
phus inflicted a decisive defeat upon
the imperialists under Tilly, who, as
well as his generals, Pappenheim and
Furstenberg, was wounded. The sec-
ond battle was also a victory of the
Swedes under Torstenson over the im-
perial forces under the Archduke Leo-
pold and Piccolomini, Nov. 2 (old
style, Oct 23), 1642. The third bat-
tle was one act of the great " Battle
of the Nations" at Leipsic, Oct 16,
1813.
Bremen, a free city of Germany,
an independent member of the Empire,
one of the three Hanse towns, on the
Weser, about 50 miles from its mouth,
in its own small territory of 99 square
miles, besides which it possesses the
port of Bremerhayen, at the mouth of
the river. The city is partly on the
right, partly on the left, bank of the
Weser, the larger portion being on the
former. Its situation renders Bremen
the emporium for Hanover, Bruns-
wick, Hesse, and other countries tra-
versed by the Weser, and next to Ham-
burg it is the principal seat of the ex-
port and import and emigration trade
of Germany. Only small vessels can
pass up to the city itself; the great
Bremer
bulk of the shipping trade centers in
Bremerhaven and in Geestemunde.
Bremerhaven is now a place of (1910)
24,275 inhabitants, has docks capable
of receiving the largest vessels, and is
connected by railway with Bremen,
where the chief merchants and brokers
have their offices. The chief imports
are tobacco, raw cotton and cotton
goods, wool and woolen goods, rice,
coffee, grain, petroleum, etc., which
are chiefly re-exported to other parts
of Germany and the Continent. Ag-
gregate value of imports 1913, $622,-
825,000; of exports, $598,500,000.
Population of city (1910) 299,526.
Bremer, Fredrika, a Swedish
novelist, was born at Tuorla, Finland,
Aug. 17, 1801 ; was brought up at
Arsta, about 20 miles from Stockholm.
She varied her literary labor by long
journeys in Italy, England, the United
States, Greece, Palestine. She died in
Arsta, Dec. 31, 1865.
Brennns, the name of two individ-
uals known in history. (1) The first
was the hero of an early Roman leg-
end which relates to the migration of
the Gauls into Italy and their march
to Clusium and Rome. In the account
given by Livy, he figures as the Regu-
lus Gallorum, or chieftain of the
Gauls. When he' arrived at Clusium,
the inhabitants called on the Romans
for aid. He engaged with and de-
feated the Romans on the banks of the
Allia, the name of which river they
ever after held in detestation. The
whole city was afterward plundered
and burned, and the capitol would
have been taken but for the bravery
of Manlius. At last, induced by fam-
ine and pestilence, the Romans agreed
that the Gauls should receive 1,000
pounds of gold, on the condition that
they would quit Rome and its terri-
tory altogether; the barbarian
brought false weights, but his fraud
•was detected. The tribune Sulpicius
exclaimed against the injustice of
Brennus, who immediately laid his
sword and belt on the scale, and said,
" Woe to the vanquished." The dicta-
tor, Camillus, arrived with his forces
at this critical time, annulled the ca-
pitulation, and ordered him to prepare
tor battle. The Gauls were defeated ;
there was a total slaughter, and not
a man survived to carry home the
news of the defeat. (2) A king of
Breslan
the Gauls, who, B. c. 279, made an ir-
ruption into Macedonia with a force
of 150,000 men and 10,000 horses. Pro-
ceeding into Greece, he attempted to
plunder the temple at Delphi. He
engaged in many battles, lost many
thousand men, and himself received
many wounds.
Brent, Charles Henry, an Amer-
ican clergyman ; born in Newcastle,
Ontario, Canada, in 1862 ; was grad-
uated at the University of Trinity Col-
lege in 1884 ; ordained deacon in the
Protestant Episcopal Church in 1886,
priest in 1887 ; consecrated the first
bishop of the Protestant Episcopal
Church for the Philippine Islands in
December, 1901 ; declined the bishop-
ric of Washington, 1908, and of New
Jersey, 1914.
Brent Goose, a wild goose, smaller
than the common barnacle goose and
of much darker plumage, remarkable
for length of wing and extent of mi-
gratory power, being a winter bird of
passage in the United States, Can-
ada, etc. It breeds in high northern
latitudes ; it feeds on drifting seaweeds
and saline plants, and is considered
the most delicate for the table of all
the goose tribe.
Brescia, a city of Lombardy, North
Italy. Brescia is a place of consider-
able trade and manufacturing indus-
try. Near it are large iron-works,
and its firearms are esteemed the best
that are made in Italy. It has also
silk, linen, and paper factories, tan-
yards, and oil mills, and is an impor-
tant mart for raw silk. But_ it de-
rives its greatest interest from its fine
Roman remains, having been at one
time the seat of a Roman colony. In
1796 it was taken by the French, and
was assigned to Austria by the general
treaty signed at Vienna on June 9,.
1815. In 1849 it was involved in the
commotions of Continental Europe;
its streets were barricaded ; but the
city was eventually captured by the
Austrians under General Haynau. It
was ceded to Sardinia by the treaty
of Zurich in 1859. Pop. (1915) 89,-
622.
Breslan, a large city of the Ger-
man empire, and the second in the
Prussian dominions, being excelled in
population only by the capital, Ber-
lin ; is the capital of the province of
Silesia. It is situated in a spacioui
Brest
plain at the confluence ' of the Qhlau
and the Oder, the latter dividing it
into two main portions, which, with
islands in the river, are connected by
a large number of bridges. There are
electric and other tramways. The
public squares and buildings are hand-
some. The fortifications which sur-
rounded the old or inner city have been
converted into promenades, and the
ditch into an ornamental sheet of
water. Pop. (1910) 512,105.
Brest, a seaport in the N. W. of
France, Department of Finistere. It
has one of the best harbors in France,
and is the chief station of the French
marine, having safe roads capable of
containing 500 men-of-war in from 8
to 15 fathoms at low water. The en-
trance is narrow and rocky, and the
coast on both sides is well fortified.
The design to make it a naval arsenal
originated with Richelieu, and was
carried out by Duquesne and Vauban
in the reign of Louis XIV., with the
result that the town was made almost
impregnable. Brest stands on the
summit and sides of a projecting ridge,
many of the streets being exceedingly
steep. Several of the docks have been
cut in the solid rock, and a break-
water extends far into the roadstead.
Pop. (1911) 90,540.
Bretagne or Brittany, one of the
Provinces into which France was di-
vided. It now forms the Departments
of Finistere, Cotes-du-Nord, Morbihan,
and Loire-Inferieure. In ancient
times, under the name of Armorica, it
was the central seat of the confeder-
ated Armorican tribes, who were of
Celtic and Kymric origin. Traces of
them still remain in the old Kymric
dialect of the three most westerly De-
partments, and in the numerous so-
called Druidical monuments. The
Breton has generally a tinge of melan-
choly in his disposition ; but often
conceals, under a dull and indifferent
exterior, lively imagination and strong
feelings. The greater number of the
people are found to be ignorant and
coarse in their manners, and their ag-
riculture is of a very rude character,
by no means calculated to develop the
natural resources of the country.
The Duchy of Bretagne was incor-
porated with France in 1532, by Fran-
cis I., to whom it had come by mar-
riage, and subsequently shared in the
Brewer
general fortunes of the kingdom, but
retained a local parliament until the
outbreak of the Revolution. During
the Revolution Bretagne, which was
intensely loyal, was the arena of san-
| guinary conflicts, and especially of the
movements of the Chouans, who re-
appeared as recently as 1832. The
Bretons are also intensely Roman
Catholic, and have made violent re-
j sistance in 1903 to the enforcement of
i the law closing unauthorized religious
establishments.
Breton, Jules Adolplie, a French
! painter, born in Courrieres in 1827 ;
I was educated at St. Omer and at
Douai, and trained as a painter under
Felix Deyigne at Ghent, and in Droll-
ing's atelier at Paris. The subjects of
I his earlier pictures are taken from the
i French revolutionary period ; but he
i soon turned to the scenes from peasant
life which he has treated in a most
poetic and suggestive manner, with an
admirable union of style with real-
ism. Breton was also known as a poet
and author. Many of his pictures
are in this country. He died July 6,
1906.
Brets, Brettys, or Brits, Britons,
the name given to the Welsh, or an-
cient Britons, in general ; also, to
those of Strathclyde, as distinguished
from the Scots and Picts.
Bretten, a town of Baden, Ger-
many, the birthplace of Melanchthon,
16 miles E. N. B. of Karlsruhe by
rail. The house in which the Reform-
er was born belongs now to a founda-
tion bearing his name for the support
of poor students, established in 1861.
A monument was erected in 1867.
Breughel, the name of a celebrated
Dutch family of painters, the first of
whom adopted this name from a vil-
lage not far from Breda.
Breve, in music, a note or charac-
ter of time, equal to two semibrevea
or whole notes. It was formerly
square in shape, but is now oval. It
is the longest note in music.
Brewer, David Josiah, an Ameri-
can jurist, born in Smyrna, Asia Mi-
nor, June 20, 1837 ; graduated at Yale
College, 1856. He studied law in the
office of his uncle, David Dudley
Field, and was admitted to the bar in
New York city in 1858. Removing to
Kansas, he became prominent in his
Brewer
profession. He was judge of the Su-
preme Court of Kansas, 1870-1881,
and was appointed United States
Judge for the 8th Circuit in 1884. He
rendered a memorable decision on the
Kansas Prohibition Law, affirming the
right of liquor manufacturers to com-
pensation, for which he was severely
criticised by the Prohibitionists. Pres-
ident Harrison elevated him to the
Supreme Court of the United States
in 1889. He was made a member of
the Venezuelan Commission by Presi-
dent Cleveland in 1896, and its chair-
man. He died March 28, 1910.
Brewer, Thomas Mayo, an
American ornithologist, born in Bos-
ton, Mass., Nov. 21, 1814; died in
Boston, Mass., Jan. 23, 1880.
Brewer, William Henry, an
American scientist, born in Poughkeep-
sie, N. Y., Sept. 14, 1828. He was
graduated at Yale Scientific School in
1852. He made important government
surveys, and after 1864 was Professor
of Agriculture at Sheffield Scientific
School (Yale). He died Nov. 2, 1910.
Brewing, the operation by which
beer is made, including under this term
all kinds of liquors produced from
gram by fermentation. The name
beer, may be given to any drink pro-
duced by the fermentation of a fluid
consisting of water sweetened with
honey, sugar, or molasses; but, strict-
ly speaking, the term should only be
applied to beverages prepared, either
wholly or partially, from malted grain
by fermentation.
Brewster, Benjamin Harris, an
American lawyer, born in Salem Co.,
N. J., Oct. 13, 1816. He was grad-
uated at Princeton in 1834, was ad-
mitted to the Philadelphia bar in 1838,
and in 1881 became Attorney-General
of the United States in President Ar-
thur's cabinet, in which capacity he
prosecuted the Star Route cases. He
died in Philadelphia, Pa., April 4,
1888.
Brewster, Sir David, a Scotch
natural philosopher, born in Jedburgh
in 1781. His discoveries in reference
to the properties of light have led to
great improvements in the illumina-
tion of lighthouses. He died in Mon-
trose, Scotland, Feb. 2, 1868.
Brewster, William, one of the
Massachusetts Pilgrims, born in
Brice
Scrooby, England, in 1560. He came
of a well known family ; was educated
at the University of Cambridge, and
was for a time postmaster at Scrooby.
He accepted the Separatist doctrines
taught by Hooker and others, and, in
consequence, had to flee to Holland,
where he supported himself by print-
ing. He was one of the leaders of
those who sailed for the New World
in the " Mayflower," and, as elder of
the church, encouraged his fellow
colonists at Plymouth both by his
preaching and his example. He died
in Plymouth, Mass., April 10, 1644.
Brian (surnamed BOROIMHE),
King of Ireland, for many years
ruled his dominions with vigor and
prosperity; but fell in the battle of
Clontarf, on Good Friday, 1014.
Briand, Aristide, French states*
man; born at Nantes, March 281862;
became a lawyer and Socialist deputy;
Minister of Justice and Public Wor-
ship in the Clemenceau Cabinet; ac-
quired high reputation for statesman-
ship and parliamentary ability by his
conduct on the debate on separation
of Church and State ; handled with
firmness the railroad strike of 1910;
was several times premier.
Briarens, a famous giant, son of
Coelus and Terra, who had 100 hands
and 50 heads, and was called by men
^Egeon, and only by the gods Briareus.
Bribery, in the United States, the
word applied to an attempt to cor-
ruptly influence, by means of offers of
reward, the course of legislation, the
result of an election, the verdict of a
jury, the decision of a magistrate, etc.
It is not necessary to constitute an in-
dictable offence that the bribe be ac-
cepted. The tender of the bribe is the
essence of the crime. If a bribe be
offered a witness to swear falsely the
crime is not bribery, but is merged
into subordination of perjury. The
penalty for bribery is fine or imprison-
ment, or both.
Brice, Calvin Stewart, an Amer-
ican capitalist, born in Denmark, O.,
Sept. 17, 1845; attended Miami Uni-
versity, and while there enlisted in a
university company in 1861. In 1862
he resumed his studies and graduated
in 1863. He practiced law in Cincin-
nati from 1866 to 1880, when he be-
came interested in railroad and various
Brick
other financial undertakings. He was
presidential elector on the Tilden tick-
et in 1876 and the Cleveland ticket in
1884, and chairman of the Democratic
National Committee in 1888. In 1890
he was elected United States Senator
from Ohio, and served on the Appro-
priations, Pensions, Pacific Railroad,
and Public Buildings and Grounds
Committees. Shortly before his death,
in New York city, Dec. 15, 1898, he
formed a syndicate which secured vast
railroad and mining concessions in
China.
Brick, a kind of artificial stone,
made of clay, molded in prismatic
form, dried in the sun and baked in a
kiln. The word is also applied to the
block in its previous condition as a
molded plastic mass, and as a dried
block in which the water hygrometri-
cally combined with the clay is driven
off. When this condition is accepted
as a finality, the block so dried is an
adobe. Bricks were made at a re-
mote period of antiquity by the Egyp-
tians, the Babylonians, the Assyrians,
and some of them, being inscribed with
written characters, have been of price-
less value in conveying historic facts
to the present age.
In the United States every State
and Territory, excepting Alaska, now
produces bricks and tiles, and the
value of the combined output in 1909
was $92,777,000. The trade classifica-
tion is common or building, vitrified
paving or block, front, enameled, fancy
and ornamental, and fire.
Bridge, the short name of a com-
paratively recent and increasingly
popular form of the card game of
whist. Its rules and points are too
numerous to be given here, and the
reader is referred to special works.
Bridge, a structure consisting of
an arch or series of arches support-
ing a roadway above it, designed to
unite two banks of a river or the
two sides of an open space.
The Brooklyn Suspension bridge,
across the East river, between New
York and Brooklyn, opened in 1883, is
built of steel. It has a central span
of 1,595 V£ feet, and two land spans of
930 feet each ; making, with ap-
proaches, a total length of 5,989 feet,
or about one mile and one furlong.
The anchorage at each end is a solid
cubical structure of stone, measuring
Bridge
119 feet one way, by 132 feet the
other, rising to a height of 90 feet
above high water mark, weighing 60,-
000 tons each. The towers are 278
feet high. The weight of the whole
structure suspended between the tow-
ers is nearly 7,000 tons. The stress of
suspension is borne by four cables of
5,296 steel wires each, 15% inches in
diameter. The foundations of the
towers were laid by means of caissons
and compressed air, at a level of about
80 feet below high water mark. The
roadway presents five parallel avenues
of an average width of 16 feet each.
The two outmost avenues, 19 feet
wide, are devoted to vehicles ; the cen-
tral avenue, 15% feet wide, for foot
passengers ; and on the two intermedi-
ate avenues are laid railways for car
traffic.
Cantilever Bridges. — A cantilever
is a bracket. It is a structure over-
hung from a fixed base. The bridge
across the river Forth on the North
British railway system is one of the
largest and most magnificent bridges
in the world. The site of the bridge
is at Queensferry. At this place, the
estuary of the Forth is divided by the
Island of Inchgarvie into two chan-.
nels, whose depth, as much as 200
feet, precluded the construction of in-
termediate piers. Hence, two large
spans of 1,700 feet each were adopted.
Between these, the central pier is
founded on the island midway across,
and is known as Inchgarvie pier.
There are two other main piers, shore
piers, known respectively as the Fife
pier and the Queensferry pier. Of
these three piers respectively three
double lattice work cantilevers like
scalebeams, 1,360 feet, or a quarter of
a mile in length, are poised in line,
reaching toward each other, and con-
nected at their extremities by ordi-
nary girders 350 feet long, by which
the two main spans are completed.
The bridge consists of two main spans
of 1,700 feet, or nearly one-third of a
mile each ; two of 675 feet each, being
the shore ends of the outer cantilev-
ers; and 15 spans of 168 feet each.
The total length of the viaduct, in-
cluding piers, is 8,296 feet or a little
over 1% miles, of which almost exact-
ly one mile is covered by the great
cantilevers. The clear headway under
the center of the bridge is 152 feet at
Bridge
high water, and the highest part of the
bridge is 361 feet above the same level.
There are several of these bridges
in the United States, the first of any
size being the Niagara cantilever,
built in 1883. Its total length is 910
feet, and it is 295 feet above the sur-
face of the river, with steel towers 130
feet high. The Hudson river bridge j
at Poughkeepsie, built in 1889, has a j
length of 6,767 feet and is built in five !
spans ; the first, third and fifth being j
true cantilever spans with fixed con- j
tinuous spans connecting them.
The new East River bridge is also
a late example of the suspension
bridge. The new Blackwell's Island
bridge is an example of the cantilever. !
There are four channel piers, 85 by 45
feet at the base, and 135 feet above j
high tide. These piers contain 810,-
000 cubic feet of granite. The bridge
is 2 miles in length, with two channel
spans of 846 feet each, and a span ;
across Blackwell's Island of 613 feet. !
The distance from the floor of the
bridge to the top of the girders form-
ing the span is 100 feet, making the
top of the structure 235 feet above
high tide. Other notable cantilever
bridges are those across the Colorado
river at Red Rock, Cal., and across
the Mississippi river at Memphis,
Tenn.
Bridges in the shape of arches are
often built in places where a more
artistic structure than a truss is de^
sired. The High Bridge and Washing-
ton Bridge across the Harlem river in
New York city are examples of this
style of bridge. The High Bridge was
built to carry the Croton Aqueduct
across the Harlem river. It consists
of 13 granite arches, the highest one
being 116 feet above the river. The
bridge, crossing the river and valley,
is 1,460 feet long. The Washington
Bridge is situated a short distance N.
of the High Bridge and consists of
nine arches, three of granite on the E.
side, four of granite on the W. and
two central steel spans connecting
them. The entire length of the bridge
is 2300 feet, and width, 80 feet; the
central spans being each 510 feet long
and 135 feet above high water. An-
other noted bridge built 1906-07 is
the suspension span, 230 ft. long,
across the Grand CaQon Gorge, 2,627
ft. above the Arkansas River between
Bridgeton
Florence and Canon City, Col. The
floor is glass set in steel, to allow the
view beneath.
One of the best examples of Amer-
ican long-span iron-bridge construc-
tion is the bridge across the Kentucky
river on the Cincinnati Southern rail-
road, noteworthy for its economical
design and comparatively light weight.
The iron work of the bridge is 1,138
feet hi length, and it consists of three
spans of 375 feet each. It crosses a
limestone canon at a height of 280
feet above the bed of the stream. The
piers are of stone to a height of 60
feet, to clear the highest recorded
floods ; and they are about 34 feet
thick at the flood level. Above the
stonework the piers are of iron.
The iron lattice bridge, so called
from having sides constructed with
cross bars, like lattice work, is the
natural outcome of the tubular bridge
for long spans, developing equal
strength with considerable economy of
material and labor. Lattice girders
are now almost universally adopted
for iron bridges for long spans.
Of the rock formations called nat-
ural bridges, the most remarkable is
the natural bridge over Cedar Creek,
in Virginia, 125 miles W. of Rich-
mond. The mass of siliceous lime-
stone through which the little river
passes is presumably all that remains
of a once extensive stratum. The
cavern or arch is 200 feet high and 60
feet wide. The solid rock walls are
nearly perpendicular, and the crown
of the arch is 40 feet thick.
Bridge, Sir Frederick, an Eng-
lish organist and composer, born in
Oldbury, Worcestershire, Dec. 5, 1844;
was organist of Trinity Church, Wind-
sor, Manchester Cathedral, and, since
1875, full organist of Westminster
Abbey.
Bridgeport, Conn., a city and port
of entry, at the mouth of the Pequon-
nock, on an inlet of Long Island
Sound, 58 miles N. E. of New York.
It has fine buildings, and statues to
Elias Howe and P. T. Barnum, prom-
inent citizens. Its main importance
is due to its large sewing machine,
cartridge, and other factories. A
large coasting trade also is carried on.
Pop. (1910) 102,054.
Bridgeton, a city, pprt of entry,
summer resort, and capital of Cum-
Bridgewater
berland .county, N. J.; on the navi-
gable Cohansey creek and several
railroad, 38 miles S. of Philadelphia.
It is the trade center of an extensive
farming section, has large fruit and
vegetable canning interests, and
manufactures foundry and rolling-
mill products, glass, nails, woolen
goods, machinery, and carriages.
Pop. (1910) 14,209.
Bridgewater, Francis Egerton,
third Duke of, the " Father of In-
land Navigation in Great Britain,"
born in 1736. For the purpose of con-
necting the cities of Liverpool and
Manchester, he completed a navigable
canal, with the assistance of the cele-
brated engineer, Brindley, in 1761.
He afterward promoted the Grand
Trunk Canal navigation. He became
ultimately the possessor of immense
wealth, realized from the results of
his life's labors. He died in London,
March 3, 1803.
Bridgnian. Frederic Arthur, an
American artist, born in Tuskegee,
Ala., Nov. 10, 1847. He studied at
the Brooklyn Art School and National
Academy of Design, and was a pupil
of J. L. Gerome, and at the Ecole des
Beaux Arts. He has since 1871 had
a studio in Paris. He is noted for
figure pieces and Oriental and archaeo-
logical pictures.
Bridgnian, Laura, an American
blind mute, born in Hanover, N. H.,
Dec. 21, 1829. At two years of age
both sight and hearing were entirely
destroyed by fever. In 1839 Dr. Howe,
of Boston, undertook her care and edu-
cation at the deaf and dumb school.
The first attempt was to give her a
knowledge of arbitrary signs, by which
she could interchange thoughts with
others. Then she learned to read em-
bossed letters by touch ; next, em-
bossed wprds were attached to differ-
ent articles, and she learned to asso-
ciate each word with its corresponding
object. Her touch grew in accuracy
as its power increased ; she learned to.
know people almost instantly by the
touch alone. In a year or two more
she was able to receive lessons in
geography, algebra, and history. She
learned to write a fair, legible, square
hand, and to read with great dexter-
ity, and at last even to think deeply,
and to reason with good sense and
discrimination. She died May 4, 1889.
Brig
Bridle Bit, a bit connected with a
bridle. Such bits are seen in Assyr-
ian and Egyptian paintings and sculp-
tures, and are subsequently mentioned
by Xenophon.
Brief, from the Latin brevis, short,
a brief or short statement or summary,
particularly the summary of a client's
case which the solicitor draws up for
the instruction of counsel.
Briel, or Brielle, sometimes The
Brill, a fortified seaport town of
South Holland, on the N. side of the
Island of Voorne, near the mouth of
the Maas. It contains a government
arsenal and military magazines, and
possesses a good harbor. The tower of
St. Peter's Church serves as a light-
house. Pop. 5,000, chiefly engaged as
pilots and fishermen. Briel may be
considered as the nucleus of the Dutch
republic, having been taken from the
Spaniards by William de la Marck in
1572. This event was the first act of
open hostility to Philip II., and paved
the way to the complete liberation of
the country from a foreign yoke.
Brienne, a town of France, in the
Department of Aube ; 15 miles N. W.
of Bar-sur-Aube. It is remarkable as
formerly possessing a military college
where the Emperor Napoleon I. re-
ceived the first rudiments of his edu-
cation. Here also he attacked Blu-
cher, Jan. 29, 1814, forcing him from
the town, which was reduced to ashes,
and compelling him, on the following
day, to retreat to Trannes.
BBIG.
Brig, (contracted from brigantine),
a vessel with two masts, square-rigged
on both.
Brigade
Brindisi
Brigade, a portion of an army,
whether infantry, cavalry, or artil-
lery, consisting of two or more regi-
ments, under the command of a briga-
dier-general. A division consists of
two or more brigades under the com-
mand of a major-general, and an army
corps, the largest division of our
army, consists of two or more divi-
sions, and is commanded by a major-
general.
Brigade Major, a staff officer at-
tached to the brigade to assist the offi-
cer by whom it is commanded.
Brigadier, an abbreviation of brig-
adier-general. It is in common use in
the armies of modern civilized na-
tions, the forces being divided into
brigades in charge of brigadiers.
Brigadier-General, a military
officer of intermediate rank between
a major-general and a colonel.
Brigands, a name originally given
to the mercenaries who held Paris
during King John's imprisonment
(1358), and who made themselves no-
torious for their ill behavior. It was
applied by Froissart to a kind of ir-
regular foot soldiery, and from them
was transferred to simple robbers ; it
is now used especially of such of these
as live in bands in secret mountain or
forest retreats.
Brigantine, a sailing vessel with
two masts, the foremast rigged like a
brig's, the main mast rigged like
a schooner's.
Briggs, Charles Augustus, an
American clergymen and religious
writer, born in New York city, Jan.
15, 1841. In 1874 he was appointed
Professor of Hebrew in Union Theo-
logical Seminary in New York city.
He was tried for heresy in 1892, but
was aquitted. In 1899 he formally
severed his connection with the New
York Presbytery and was ordained a
clergyman of the Protestant Episcopal
Church. He died June 8, 1913.
Briggs, Henry, an English mathe-
matician, born near Halifax, York-
shire, in 1561 ; died in Oxford, Jan.
26, 1631.
Bright, John, an English states-
man, son of Jacob Bright, a Quaker
cotton spinner and manufacturer at
Rochdale, Lancashire, born in Lan-
cashire, Nov. 16, 1811. When the
Anti-Corn Law League was formed in
1839 he was one of its leading mem-
bers, and, with Mr. Cobden, engaged
in an extensive free-trade agitation
throughout the kingdom. He was in-
cessant, both at public meetings and
in Parliament, in his opposition to the
Corn Laws. In 1845 he obtained the
appointment of a select committee of
the House on the Game Laws, and
also one on the subject of cotton cul-
tivation in India. Elected in 1857
for Birmingham, he seconded the mo-
tion against the second reading of the
Conspiracy Bill which led to the over-
throw of Lord Palmerston's govern-
ment. Though he only once held office
in the administrations of his time — as
president of the Board of Trade
in 1868 and Chancellor of the Duchy
of Lancaster — he is credited with
having exercised a greater influence
upon the conduct of public affairs in
England and abroad than, perhaps,
any other man. Died March 27, 1889.
Brighton, a borough and chief
seaside resort of England; on th<J
English channel; 47 miles S. of Lon-
don; has a notable sea-wall drive and
promenade, a grand " Royal Pavil-
ion," a college for noblemen's sons,
and a statue of Queen Victoria.
Top. (1911) 131,237.
Bright's Disease, a granular dis-
ease of the cortical portion of the kid-
neys, so called because it was first
diagnostically described by Dr. Rich-
ard Bright, an English physician. It
| is first emphasized by the secretion of
j urine containing a large amount of al-
| bumen, and this symptom is followed
by other complications, usually in
rapid sequence. The most commonly
observed pathological effects are drop-
sy, uraemia, and, in some cases, petri-
fication of the kidneys and ureters.
Brindaban, or Brindrahan, a
town of the Northwest Provinces,
British India ; on the right bank of
the Jumna, 6 miles N. of Muttra. It
is one of the holiest cities of the Hin-
dus, and crowds of pilgrims go there
from all parts of India.
Brindisi, (ancient BRUNDUSIUM),
a seaport and fortified town, Province
of Lecce, Southern Italy, on the Adri-
atic. In ancient times Brundusium
was an important city, and with its
excellent port became a considerable
naval station of the Romans. Its im-
Brindley
portance as a seaport declined in the
Middle Ages, but it has recently be-
come an important torpedo station.
Brindley, James, an English civil
engineer, born in 1716. After distin-
guishing himself by the contrivance of
water engines and other mechanical
apparatus, he became known to the
Duke of Bridgewater, then planning
his great scheme of inland navigation
for connecting Liverpool and Manches-
ter by means of a canal, and after al-
most insuperable difficulties, the suc-
cess of this bold attempt was triumph-
antly established. In 1766 Brindley
commenced the formation of the Grand
Trunk Canal, uniting the rivers Trent
and Mersey ; which undertaking was
completed after his death (1772), in
1777.
Brine, water saturated with com-
mon salt. It is naturally produced in
many places beneath the surface of the
earth, and is also made artificially, for
preserving meat, a little saltpetre
being generally added to the solution.
Brine Shrimp, the only animal,
except a species of fly, which lives in
the Great Salt Lake of Utah. It is a
phyllopod crustacean, with stalked
eyes, a delicate, slender body, which is
provided with 11 pairs of broad, pad-
dle-like or leaf-like feet. It is about
% of an inch long. Similar forms
live in brine vats in various parts of
the world.
Brinton, Daniel Garrison, an
American surgeon, archaeologist and
ethnologist, born at Thornbury, Pa.,
May 13, 1837. During the Civil War
he was a surgeon in the Union army.
From 1867 to 1887 he was editor of
the " Medical and Surgical Reporter."
He was a high authority on all Amer-
ican archaeological topics. He died in
Atlantic City, N. J., July 31, 1899.
Briquette, the name, originally
French ("small brick"), given to a
comparatively new form of fuel, made
mostly from waste coal dust, and used,
not merely for household purposes, but
in various industries. A briquette is
simply an admixture of coal dust with
pitch, molded under pressure and heat,
the pitch or some similar substance
being introduced to form the cement-
ing material.
Brisbane, the capital, a seaport
and chief seat of trade of Queensland,
Bristol
Australia, situated about 500 miles N.
of Sydney, in Moreton District. It
stands about 25 miles from the mouth
of a river of its own name, which falls
into Moreton Bay, and it is divided
into the four divisions of North Bris-
bane, South Brisbane, Kangaroo Point,
and Fortitude Valley. Pop. of por-
tions within a 10-mile radius (1914)
154,011.
Brisson, Eugene Henri, a French
politician and journalist, born in
Bourges, July 31, 1835. He entered
the Chamber of Deputies, in 1871, and
won much attention by urging am-
nesty, for the Communists and other
political offenders. Afterward he was
one of the foremost members of the
Radical Party. He was elected Presi-
dent of the Chamber, in 1881, and re-
tained that office until the overthrow of
the Ferry ministry in 1885, when he
accepted the Premiership. He was re-
elected to the Presidency of the Cham-
ber in 1894, and, in 1895, retired and
was a conspicuous candidate for the
Presidency of France. He died April
14 1912
Brissbt de Warville, Jean
Pierre, a French political writer;
born in 1754. Embracing the Revolu-
tion, he was elected to the National
Assembly for Paris and to the Con-
vention for the Department of the
Eure et Loir. As leader of the Giron-
dist party, his history belongs hence-
forward to the history of France. He
voted, out of policy, for the death of
Louis XVI., subject to confirmation
by the vote of the people ; and he
caused war to be declared against
Holland and England in February,
1793. This was his last political act.
He was executed in Paris, Oct. 30,
1793.
Bristles, the strong hairs growing
on the back of the hog and wild boar,
and extensively used in the manufao
ture of brushes, and also by shoemak-
ers and saddlers.
Bristol, a cathedral city of En-
gland, a municipal and a parliamentary
borough, situated partly in Gloucester-
shire, partly in Somersetshire, but
forming a county in itself. It stands
at the confluence of the rivers Avon
and Frome, which unite within the
city, whence the combined stream (the
Avon) pursues a course of nearly 7
miles to the Bristol Channel. Th«
Bristol Bay
British Empire
Avon is a navigable river, and the
tides rise in it to a great height. Se-
bastian Cabot, Chatterton, and Sou-
they were natives of Bristol. Pop.
(1911) 357,048.
Bristol Bay, an arm of Bering
Sea immediately N. of Alaska.
Bristol Channel, an arm of the
Atlantic, extending between the S.
shores of Wales and the S. W. penin-
sula of England, and forming the con-
tinuation of the estuary of the Severn.
It is remarkable for its high tides.
Bristow, Benjamin Helm, an
American lawyer, born in Elkton, Ky.,
June 20, 1832. He was admitted to
the bar in Kentucky in 1853. He
served with distinction in the Civil
War, and at its close was appointed
United States District Attorney of
Kentucky. In 1874 he became Secre-
tary of the Treasury, and made his
name memorable by the exposure and
prosecution of a notorious whiskey
ring. He died in New York city, June
22, 1896.
Bristow Station (old form, now
Bristoe), a village in Prince William
Co., Va. ; 4 miles S. W. of Manassas
Junction. On Aug. 27, 1862, a drawn
battle took place here between the
Federal army under General Hooker,
and a Confederate one under General
Early, and on Oct. 14, 1863, the Fed-
eral troops under General Warren re-
pulsed with severe loss a Confederate
attack under Gen. A. P. Hill.
Brittannia, the name applied by
Caesar and other Roman writers to the
island of Great Britain.
Britannia Metal, an alloy of
brass, tin, antimony, and bismuth, used
to make cheap spoons, teapots, etc.
Brittany. See BEETAGNE.
British Association for the
Advancement of Science, a society
first organized in 1831, mainly through
the exertions of Sir David Brewster,
whose object is to assist the progress
of discovery, and to disseminate the
latest results of scientific research, by
bringing together men eminent in all
the several departments of science.
British Central Africa Protec-
torate, The, former name (since 1907
the Nyassaland Protectorate) of the
part of British Central Africa border-
ing the shores of Lake Nyassa. It in-
cludes all British Nyassaland, as well
as the Shire Highlands, and the great*
er part of the basin of the river Shire.
Thp area of the Protectorate is about
39,315 square miles ; the European in-
habitants number about 831, and the
native inhabitants are about 1,088,000.
British Columbia, a Province
(including Vancouver Island) of the
Dominion of Canada, bounded on the
N. by the 60th parallel of lat. ; E. by
the Rocky Mountains ; S. by the
United States ; and W. by Alaska, the
Pacific Ocean, and Queen Charlotte's
Sound ; area, 355,855 square miles ;
pop. (1911) 392,480 ; capital, Victoria.
It is to its mineral wealth that
British Columbia owes its present im-
portance. Gold was discovered in
1857, and was the cause of the estab-
lishment of the separate colony. In
1897 the disclosing of the phenomenal
gold field in the Klondike region led
to great excitement throughput both
Canada and the U. S., and since gold
mines have been worked extensively
at Rossland. Branch lines of the Can-
adian Pacific and the U. S. Great
Northern railroads have opened up
rich mineral, farming, and fruit-grow-
ing districts.
This Province has probably the
richest fisheries in the world, the only
obstacle to their rapid development
being their remoteness from the con-
sumers. Salmon is the principal
catch, and is famous all over the
world. British Columbia was origin-
ally a portion of the Hudson Bay Ter-
ritory, and known as New Caledonia*
In 1858 it was created a colony ; in
1866 the colony of Vancouver Island
was united to it ; and in 1871 the
united colony was admitted to the
Dominion of Canada.
British East Africa, a territory
of East Africa, between former Ger-
man East Africa and the Italian pro-
tectorate of Somalila-nd. In 1916, it
comprised the protectorates of Nyns-
aland (39,573 sq. m., pop. 1,139.900,
capital, Zomba) ; East Africa (248,-
000 sq. m., pop. est. 4,000.000, capi-
tal, Mombasa) ; Uganda (109,119 sq.
m., pop. 2,927,494, capital, Entebbe) ;
Zanzibar (1,020 sq. m., pop. 197.199,
capital, Zanzibar) ; and Somaliland
(68,000 sq. m., pop. 300,000, capital,
B.erbera).
British Empire, The. Britain,
or rather Britannica, was the name
British Empire
British Empire
which was given by the Romans to
modern England and Scotland. The
name Great Britain was applied to
England and Scotland after James I.
ascended the English throne in 1603.
Extent of Empire. — The European
dominions of the British empire com-
prise — in addition to Great Britain,
Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the
Channel Islands — the rocky promon-
tory of Gibraltar, captured from Spain
in 1704; and Malta, Gozo, and ad-
jacent islets, ceded to Great Britain
in 1800. The most important of the
Asiatic possessions of Great Britain
is India, acquired gradually since the
incorporation of the East India Com-
pany in 1600, and especially during the
great struggle with France in the 18th
century. Great Britain also possesses
Ceylon, acquired by conquest from the
Dutch and from native rulers in 1796-
1815; the Straits Settlements of Sin-
gapore (ceded in 1824), Penang
(1786), Wellesley Province (1800),
and Malacca (1824), on which are de-
pendent various native States of the
Malay peninsula ; the island of Hong-
Kong (taken in 1841) and territory
on the adjacent mainland ; portions of
the islands of Borneo, namely British
North Borneo (company chartered in
1881), to which is attached the island
of Labuan (ceded 1846), the sultan-
ate of Brunei, and Sarawak (practi-
cally British since 1842) ; Aden
(1839), the island of Perim, the Koo-
ria Mooria Islands, and the Bahrein
Islands. Cyprus, though belonging to
Turkey, has since 1878 been adminis-
tered by Great Britain. In Africa
Great Britain owns Cape Colony,
gradually developed since its final ac-
quirement in 1806, and including Wal-
fisch bay; Basutoland (British since
1868) ; the Bechuanaland Protector-
ate (acquired in 1884) ; Natal (pro-
claimed British in 1843), to which are
now annexed Zululand, and Tonga-
land (acquired in 1887) ; Rhodesia,
including Matabeleland, Mashonaland,
Barotseland, etc., recently begun to be
developed by the British South Africa
Company; the Central Africa Protec-
torate (acquired in 1889-1890, and
proclaimed a protectorate in 1891) ;
the West African Colonies; namely,
Gambia (recognized as British in
1783), the Gold Coast (partly ac-
quired in the 17th century), Sierra
Leone (ceded 1787 )? and Lagos, with
dependencies (occupied in 1861) ; Ni-
geria, including the Niger Coast Pro--
tectorate (1884) and the territories!
formerly administered by the Royal
Niger Company (chartered in 1886) ;
the East Africa Protectorate, pro-
claimed in 1895 over territories pre-
viously under the Imperial British
East Africa Company (chartered
1888) ; the Uganda Protectorate, now
including also Unyoro, Usoga, etc.
(proclaimed in 1894) ; the Zanzibar
Protectorate, consisting of the islands
of Zanzibar and Pemba (under the
protection of Great Britain since
1890) ; the Somali Coast Protectorate
(acquired in 1884) ; the islands of
Mauritius (taken from France in
1810), with its dependencies the Sey-
chelles, etc. ; the island of Socotra
(1886) ; and the Atlantic islands, St.
Helena (1651), Ascension (1815),
and Tristan d'Acunha (1816). Be-
sides Great Britain virtually rules
Egypt and the reconquered Egyptian
Sudan (1898), though the former is
nominally part of the Ottoman em-
pire ; and, since the South African
War, the former territories of the
Orange Free State, and the Transvaal.
Her possessions in the New World
comprise the Dominion of Canada,
most of which was obtained from
France by conquest and treaty be-
tween 1713 and 1763; the island of
Newfoundland, the oldest English col-
ony (discovered by John Cabot in
1497), with its dependency Labrador;
British Honduras (1783) ; the Bermu-
das Islands (1609) ; the West Indian
Islands, namely, Jamaica (1655), the
Bahamas (1629), several of the Lee-
ward Islands (Antigua, St. Christo-
pher, Dominica, etc.), the Windward
Islands (Barbados, St. Lucia, St.
Vincent, Grenada, the Grenadines, To-
bago, etc.), and Trinidad (1797);
British Guiana (1814) ; and the
Falkland Islands (organized 1833)
and South Georgia. The British em-
pire in Australasia includes Australia
(explored and settled from the latter
part of the 18th century onward) ;
Tasmania (settled by Englishmen in
1803) ; New Zealand (begun to be
colonized in 1839) ; a portion of New
Guinea (1884) ; the Fiji Islands
(1874) ; and many small islands U)
the PacifiCt
British Museum
Brocoob
Early results of the World War ac-
cruing to Great Britain include the
establishment of a protectorate over
Egypt, Dec. 19, 1914, and the occupa-
tion of German Togoland, Aug. 27,
1914 ; German Samoa, Aug. 29, 1914 ;
German New Guinea, Sept. 11, 1914 ;
German Southwest Africa, July 8,
1915 ; and the German Kamerun col-
ony, in February, 1916.
British Museum, the great na-
tional museum in London, owes its
foundation to Sir Hans Sloane, who,
in 1753, bequeathed his various collec-
tions, including 50,000 books and
MSS., to the nation, on condition
of $100,000 being paid to his heirs.
The British Museum is under the
management of 48 trustees, among the
chief being the Archbishop of Can-
terbury, the Lord-Chancellor, and the
Speaker of the House of Commons.
The museum is open daily, free of
charge. Admission to the reading-
room as a regular reader is by ticket,
procurable on application to the chief
librarian, there being certain simple
-conditions attached. The institution
contains something like 2,000,000
volumes in the department of printed
books. A copy of every book, pam-
phlet, newspaper, piece of music, etc.,
published anywhere in British terri-
tory, must be conveyed free of charge
to the museum.
British South Africa Com-
pany, a corporation founded in 1889,
with a royal charter, by Cecil Rhodes
and others, for the purpose of con-
trolling, settling, administering and
opening up by railways and telegraphs,
etc., certain territories in Central
South Africa. Mashonaland was first
settled, and, in 1893, Matabeleland
was annexed and settled after the de-
feat of King Lobengula. In 1895,
North Zambezia, in British Central
Africa, was added, as well as a strip
of territory in the Bechuanaland Pro-
tectorate. This territory is now
known as Rhodesia (q. v.), has an
area of 438,575 square miles and a
pop. est. at 1,570,559, and is divided
into two parts by the Zambesi river,
Northern and Southern Rhodesia.
Rhodes resigned from the company in
1896, and a joint administrator of the
territory was appointed.
Britton, Nathaniel Lord, an
American botanist ; born on Staten
Island, N. ¥., Jan. 15, 1858. He was
Professor of Botany in Columbia
School of Mines in 1888-1896, and
later Director of the New York Bo-
tanical Garden.
Broad Arrow, the mark cut or
stamped on all English government
property and stores. It was the cog-
nizance of Henry, Viscount Sydney,
Earl of Romney, Master-General of
the Ordnance, 1693-1702, and was at
first placed only on military stores.
It is also the mark used in the Brit-
ish Ordnance Survey to denote points
from which measurements have been
made.
Broad Bill, a species of wild duck,
the shoveler ; also the spoon bill.
Brpadhead, Garland Car, an
American geologist ; born in Albemarle
Co., Va., Oct. 30, 1827. He studied at
the University of Missouri and was
long the State Expert in Geology.
From 1887 to 1897 he was Professor
of Geology at the University of Mis-
souri. He died in 1912.
Broad Mountain, a mountain
ridge of Pennsylvania, in Carbon and
Schuylkill counties, about 50 miles
long.
Broad River, a river of North
Carolina, rising in the Blue Ridge
mountains, and making a junction
with the Saluda at Columbia to form
the Congaree ; about 200 miles long.
Broad Top Mountain, a moun-
tain in Bedford and Huntington coun-
ties, Pennsylvania ; extensively mined
for anthracite coaL Height about
2,500 feet
Broadway, the great business
street of New York. Starting from
Bowling Green, at the lower extremity
of the island, it runs northward in a
somewhat diagonal direction, separat-
ing the city into substantially equal
eastern and western parts. It was
formerly the Boulevard above 59th
street, but the whole length of the
thoroughfare is now known as Broad-
way. It is part of a continuous road
from New York to Albany. A portion
of the rapid transit subway has been
built under Broadway, and an under-
ground trolley line is on the surface
in New York city.
Broccoli, a late variety of the
cauliflower, hardier and with more
color in the lower leaves. The part
Brock
of the plant used is the succulent
flower stalks. Although broccoli is
inferior in flavor to cauliflower it
serves as a fair substitute.
Brock, Sir Isaac, a British mili-
tary commander, born in Guernsey,
Oct. 6, 1709 ; suppressed a threatened
mutiny in Canada in 1802 ; made Lieu-
tenant-Governor of Upper Canada in
1810 ; took Detroit from the Ameri-
cans under General Hull in 1812 ; and
was killed at the battle of Queens-
town, Oct. 13, 1812. A monument to
his memory stands on the W. bank of
the Niagara river.
Brocken, the culminating point of
the Hartz Mountains, in North Ger-
many, Kingdom of Saxony, cultivated
nearly to its summit, which is 3,740
feet above the level of the sea. The
phenomenon called the " Specter of
the Brocken " is here occasionally seen
at sunset and sunrise. It is caused by
the rising of the mists from the val-
ley opposite to the sun.
Brockton, a city in Plymouth
county, Mass.; on the New York,
New Havea & Hartford railroad; 20
miles S. of Boston; is one of the
largest boot and shoe manufacturing
places in the country, with also a a
extensive output of shoe machinery,
rubber goods, and sewing machines,
and has a property valuation exceed-
ing $40,000,000. Pop. (1910) 56,878.
Brockville, a port of entry and
capital of Leeds county, Ontario,
Canada; ou the St. Lawrence river
and the Grand Trunk and other rail-
roads, 125 miles S. W. of Montreal.
Pop. (1911) 9,374.
Broderick, David Colbretli, an
American legislator, born in Washing-
ton, D. C., Feb. 4, 1820; was defeated
for Congress in New York in 1846;
went to California, and was elected a
member of the Constitutional Conven-
tion of 1849 ; served as Speaker of ^the
Senate ; and was elected to the United
States Senate in 1856, where he ac-
tively opposed the admission of Kan-
sas. He was killed in a duel by Judge
David S. Terry, Sept. 16, 1859.
Brodhead, John Romeyn, an
American historian, born in Philadel-
phia, Jan. 2, 1814; graduated at Rut-
gers College in 1831 ; made a valuable
collection of documents in Europe
bearing upon American history that
Broker
was published by the State of New
York ; author of a " History of the
State of New York." He died in New
York city, May 6, 1873.
Brody, a town of Galicia, Austria,
62 miles E. of Lemberg by rail and
9 miles from the Russian frontier ;
long noted for its extensive commer-
cial interests, especially with Russia.
Pop. about 19,000, of which two-thirds
are Hebrews. The town was conspic-
uous in the great Galicia campaign of
1916-17. See APPENDIX : World War,
Broglie, a prominent French fam-
ily, of Piedmontese origin. JACQUES
VICTOB ALBEBT, Due de Broglie, born
June 13, 1821, early entered the field
of literature, and was elected an Acad-
emician in 1862. Returned as a dep-
uty in 1871, he was, till May, 1872,
Ambassador at London ; he then be-
came leader of the Conservative Right
Center, and with a view to force a
monarchial government on France,
he brought about the resignation of
Thiers, and the election of MacMa-
hon, in 1873. He was twice Premier,
resignation being on both occasions
forced by Gambetta's exposures. He
died Jan. 19, 1901.
Broiling:, the cooking of meat or
fish on a gridiron above a fire, or by
laying it directly on the coals, a very
wholesome method of cookery.
Broke, Sir Philip Bowes Vere,
a British admiral, born near Ipswich,
Sept 9, 1776; distinguished himself
particularly in 1813, as commander of
the " Shannon," in the memorable ac-
tion which that vessel fought with the
United States vessel " Chesapeake "
off the American coast, and in which
the latter was captured. He died in
London, Jan. 2, 1841.
Broken Wind, a disease of the
organs of respiration in horses, com-
monly produced by the rupture of the
lung cellular tissue.
Broker, an agent employed to
make bargains and contracts between
other persons, in matters of commerce,
for a compensation commonly called
brokerage. A broker usually confines
his attention to one particular mar-
ket, as wool, sugar, or iron, and the
special knowledge he thus acquires
renders his services useful to the gen-
eral merchant, who has no such inti-
mate acquaintance with the trade.
Bromide
Jtironte
The broker is strictly a middleman, or
intermediate negotiator between the
parties, finding buyers or sellers as re-
quired. He does not act in his own
name, nor has he generally the custody
of the goods in which he deals, thus
differing from a factor, and he cannot
cell publicly like an auctioneer. He is
treated as the agent of both parties,
though primarily he is deemed the
agent of the party by whom he is
originally employed. Besides ordinary
commercial brokers, there are several
ether sorts, such as stock-brokers,
ehare-brokers, ship-brokers, insurance-
brokers, bill-brokers, etc.
Bromide, a combination of bromine
with a metal or a radical. Bromides
are soluble in water, except silver and
mercurpus bromides; lead bromide is
very slightly soluble.
Bromine, a non-metallic element.
Bromine has been applied externally
as a caustic, but rarely. Its chief
officinal preparations are bromide of
ammonium, useful in whooping cough,
infantile, convulsions, and nervous
diseases generally ; and bromide of po-
tassium, now very extensively used,
especially in epilepsy, hysteria, deli-
rium tremens, diseases of the throat
and larynx, bronchocele, enlarged
spleen, hypertrophy of liver, fibroid
tumors, etc. Also, as an antaphro-
disiac, for sleeplessness, glandular
ewellings, and skin diseases. Its al-
terative powers are similar to but less
than those of the iodides. It has a
pungent saline taste, no odor, and oc-
curs in colorless cubic crystals, close-
ly resembling the iodide. As a hypnot-
ic its usefulness is much increased by
combining it with morphia or chloral
hydrate.
Bronchi, the two branches into
which the trachea or windpipe divides
in the chest, one going to the right
lung, the other to the left, and rami-
fying into innumerable smaller tubes
— the bronchial tubes.
Bronchitis, inflammation of the
air tubes leading to the pulmonary
vesicles, accompanied by hoarseness,
cough, increase of temperature, and
soreness of the chest anteriorly. The
uneasy sensations begin about the re-
gion of the frontal sinuses, passing
from the nasal mucous passages, tra-
chea, and windpipe to_ the chest, with
hoarseness, cough, and expectoration;
but in capillary bronchities the cough
is dry and without expectoration. In
acute cases the sputum is first thin,
then opaque and tenacious, lastly pu-
rulent ; the breathing is hurried and
laborious, the pulse quickened, and the
skin dry. The danger increases in
proportion as the finer bronchial
tubes become involved, and, instead of
the healthy respiratory sound we have
sharp, chirping, whistling notes, vary-
ing from sonorous to sibilant. The
sharp sound is most to be feared, as
arising in the smaller tubes; the
grave, sonorous notes originate in the
larger tubes. Spitting of blood some-
times occurs, and hi severe cases per-
sons actually die suffocated from the
immense quantity of mucus thrown
out, obstructing the tubes and causing
collapse of the vesicular structure of
the lungs. The ratio of the respira-
tion to the pulse is high, going up to
GO or even 70 in the minute, with a
pulse rate of 120 or 130. Chronic
bronchitis, or bronchial catarrh, is ex-
tensively prevalent, especially among
the aged, recurring once or twice a
year in spring or autumn, or both, till
it becomes more or less constant all
the year round.
Bronchocele, an indolent tumor
on the forepart of the neck caused by
enlargement of the thyroid gland, and
attended by protrusion of the eyeballs,
an&mia, and palpitation.
Brongniart, Alexander, a
French geologist and mineralogist,
born in Paris, Feb. 5, 1770; died in
Paris, Oct. 7, 1847. His son, ADOLPHB
THEODORE BBONGNIART, born in 1801,
died in 1876, became Professor of Bo-
tany at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris,
1833, and was the author of several
botanical works held in high esteem.
Bronte, a town of Sicily, at the
W. base of Alt. Etna, 33 miles N. W.
of Catania. The lava streams of 1651
and 1843 lie on either side, but the
district around is fertile, and produces
wine. Lord Nelson was created Duke
of Bronte by the Neapolitan Govern-
ment in 1799. Pop. (1901) 20,366.
Bronte, Anne, an English novelist
and poetess, born in Haworth, York-
shire, March 24, 1820 ; sister of CHAB-
LOTTE BRONTE. She died in Scarbor-
ough, May 28, 1849.
SJronte
Bronte, Charlotte, (afterward
Mrs. Nicholls), an English novelist,
born in Thornton, Yorkshire, April
21, 1816; was the third daughter of
the Rev. Patrick Broate, rector of
Thornton, from which he removed in
1820 on becoming incumbent of Ha-
worth, in the West Riding of York-
shire, about 4 miles from Keighley.
Her mother died soon after this re-
moval, and her father, an able though
eccentric man, brought up Charlotte
and her sisters in quite a Spartan
fashion, inuring them to every kind of
industry and fatigue. After an edu-
cation received partly at home and
partly at neighboring schools, Char-
lotte became a teacher, and then a
governess in a family. In 1844 ar-
rangements were entered into by the
three sisters to open a school at Ha-
worth, but from the want of success
in obtaining pupils no progress was
ever made with their scheme. They
resolved now to turn their attention
to literary composition ; and, in 1846,
a volume of poems by the three sis-
ters was published, under the names of
CXJRRER, ELLIS and ACTON BELL. It
was issued at their^ own risk, and at-
tracted little attention, so they quitted
poetry for prose fiction, and produced
each a novel. Charlotte (CuBREB
BELL) entitled her production "The
Professor," but it was everywhere re-
fused by the publishing trade, and
was not given to the world till after
her death. Emily ( ELLIS BELL) with
her tale of " Wuthering Heights,"
end Anne ( ACTON BELL) with "Ag-
nes Grey," were more successful. I
Charlotte's failure, however, did not
discourage her, and she composed the I
novel of " Jane Eyre," which was pub- j
lished in October, 1847. Its success
was immediate and decided. Her sec-
ond novel of " Shirley " appeared, in
1849. Previous to this she had lost
her two sisters, Emily dying on Dec.
19, 1848, and Anne May 28, 18491
(after publishing a second novel, the
" Tenant of Wildfell Hall "). In the
autumn of 1852 appeared Charlotte's
third novel, " Villette." Shortly af-
ter, she married her father's curate,
the Rev. Arthur Bell Nicholls, but in
nine months died of consumption,
March 31, 1855. Her originally re-
jected tale of " The Professor " was
published after her death in 1857, and
E. 24.
Bronze!
the same year a biography of her ap-
peared from the pen of Mrs. Gaskell.
Brontosaurus Excelsus, a species
of herbivorous dinosaur of the Trias-
sic and Jurassic periods. It is sup-
posed to have been a hippopotamus-
like animal, and to have lived on vege-
tation in the waters. It was about 60
feet long, and 15 feet high at the
middle of the body, and, although its
body was of this great size, it had one
of the smallest heads known among
vertebrates.
Brontotherinm, or Titanother-
ium, a genus of the extinct mammals
first found in the Bad Lands of South
Dakota, and later in Nebraska and
Colorado. The brontotherium was
about the size of the elephant. The
nose was evidently flexible, but there
was no true proboscis.
Bronx, The, a borough of Greater
New York, lying N. and E. of the
borough or Manhattan, between the
Hudson river, East river, and Long
Island Sound, including City, Riker's,
Hunter's, Twin, Hart, High and sev-
eral adjacent islands; area, 25,270
acres; pop. (1916) 575,877. It con-
tains an extensive public park, with a
botanical garden of 250 acres, and is
the site of the newly established New
York Zoological Gardens. The statis-
tics of this borough are included with
those of Manhattan borough. See
NEW YORK CITY.
Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin.
It was usejd by the ancient Assyrians
and Egyptians. Layard brought many
ornaments and other articles of this
metal from Assyria. Bronze is more
fusible, as well as harder than copper.
It is also a fine-grained metal, taking
a smooth and polished surface; hence
its universal use, both in ancient and
modern times, in making casts of all
kinds, medals, bas-reliefs, statues, etc.
Its color is a reddish-yellow, and is
darkened by exposure to the atmos-
phere. Its composition varie^ accord-
ing to the purpose for which it is to be
employed, and other constituents be-
sides copper and tin frequently enter
into it. Whatever alloy is principally
formed of these metals, however, is
called bronze.
Bronzes, in archaeology, works of
art cast in bronze. Bronze was con-
sidered by men of ancient times as
Bronzing
sacred to the gods ; and the Roman
emperors who struck gold and silver
coins could not strike them of bronze
without the permission of the senate ;
hence the inscription S. C. (Senatus
consulto).
Bronzing:, the process of giving a
bronze-like or antique metallic ap-
pearance to the surface of metals or
plaster casts.
Brooch, a kind of ornament worn
on the dress, to which it is attached
by a pin stuck through the fabric.
Brooke, Henry, an Irish novelist
and dramatist; born in Rantavan,
County Cavan, Ireland, about 1703 ;
died in Dublin, Oct. 10, 1783.
Brooke, Sir James, Rajah of Sar-
awak, was born in Benares, India,
April 29, 1803. In 1838, having gone
to Borneo, he assisted the Sultan of
Brunei (the nominal ruler of the
island) in suppressing a revolt For
his services he was made Rajah and
Governor of Sarawak, a district on
the N. W. coast of the island, and,
being established in the Government,
he endeavored to induce the Dyak na-
tives to abandon their irregular and
piratical mode of life and to turn
themselves to agriculture and com-
merce ; and his efforts to introduce
civilization were crowned with won-
derful success. He was made a K. C.
B. in 1847, and was appointed Gover-
nor of Labuan. He died in Devon-
shire, England, June 11, 1868.
Brooke, John Rutter, an Ameri-
can military officer, born in Pottsville,
Pa., July 21, 1838. He entered the
army as captain in a volunteer regi-
ment on the breaking out of the Civil
War in 1861, and resigned in Febru-
ary, 1866, with the rank of Brevet
Major-General. In July of the same
year he was appointed Lieutenant-
Colonel of the 37th United States In-
fantry. He was promoted to Colonel
in March, 1879; Brigadier-General,
April 6, 1888, and Major-General,
May 22, 1897. After the declaration
of war against Spain, he was placed
in command of the First Provisional
Army Corps, and subsequently distin-
guished himself in the campaign in
Porto Rico, and was made a member
of the joint military commission to
arrange the cession of the island to
the United States. On Dec. 13, 1898,
Brooklyn
he was appointed Military and Civil
Governor of Cuba, a post which he
held tilJ April, 1900, when he was
succeeded by Gen. Leonard Wood. On
May 10, following, he succeeded Ma-
jor-General Wesley Merritt as com-
mander of the Military Department of
the East, with headquarters in New
York. Retired in 1902.
Brooke, Stopford Augustus, an
English Unitarian preacher, born in
Dublin in 1832. He was educated at
Trinity College, Dublin. He has held
important curacies in London, and in
1872 was appointed Chaplain in Or-
dinary to the Queen. He subsequently
became a Unitarian.
Brook Farm Association, a
community which originated in 1841,
with William Henry Channing, George
Ripley, and Sophia, his wife, with
whom were united from time to time
George William Curtis, Nathaniel
Hawthorne, Theodore Parker, Charles
Anderson Dana, John Sullivan Dwight,
Margaret Fuller, and other personages
ol a philosophic turn of mind. The
scheme of the association contemplat-
ed utilizing the labor — physically
and intellectually — of each of its
members, at a certain fixed rate, the
intention being to dispose of the re-
sults of such labor to the outside pub-
lic, and with such profit that all the
delights and adornments of life were
to be procurable therefrom, and were
to be held in common by the mem-
bers. The whole undertaking came
to an end in 1846.
Brookline, a town in Norfolk
county, Mass. ; on the Charles river
and the Boston & Maine railroad ; 3
miles W. of Boston ; manufactures
electrical and philosophical appli-
ances ; is best known as one of the
wealthiest and most beautiful resi-
dential sections in the country ; has
a property valuation exceeding $150,-
000,000. Pop. (1915) 33,490.
Brooklyn, a former city, and the
fourth in population in the United
States, according to the Federal cen-
sus of 1890; since Jan. 1, 1898, one
of the five boroughs of the city of
Greater New York ; situated on the
W. extremity of Long Island, on New
York Bay and the East river, which
separates it from New York and con-
nects Long Island Sound with New
York Bay. Brooklyn is connected
Brooklyn
with New York by several bridges,
tunnels, and numerous ferries. It com-
prises Brooklyn proper, Williamsburg,
Gravesend, Flatbush, Flat Lands, New
Lots, New Utrecht and several smaller
suburban towns that were united with
it prior to its consolidation with New
York. It now extends from the At-
lantic Ocean at Coney Island to the
East river and New York harbor, and
occupies the whole of Kings county ;
area 66.39 square miles ; pop. (1900)
1,166,582; (1916) 1,928,432.
There are 30 parks in Brooklyn,
with an area of 1,126 acres. Prospect
Park is the largest, with 526 acres,
including 77 acres of lakes and water-
ways, 70 acres of meadows, 110 acres
of woodland, and 259 of plantations.
It is situated on an elevated ridge and
commands a magnificent view of the
ocean, the Sound, Long Island, New
Jersey, and New York city. It has
been left to a great extent in its origi-
nal wooded condition, making it one
of the most picturesque parks in the
United States. There are 8 miles of
drives, 11 miles of walks, and 4 of
bridle paths. The Flatbush avenue
entrance, or the Plaza, is paved with
stone and surrounded by grass. There
is a Soldiers' and Sailors' Memorial
Arch and a statue of President Lin-
coln at this entrance. Of the other
parks, Washington Park, the site of
Revolutionary fortifications, of which
Fort Green is the principal one, is the
largest. A memorial to Lafayette was
dedicated by Marshal Joffre, of the
French War Mission, in 1917.
The most notable and important
navy yard in the United States is lo-
acted here, and is always a place of
large patriotic interest, because of its
buildings, its relics, and the old and
new types of warships that are gen-
erally to be seen here.
Brooklyn has been widely known as
the City of Churches. There are now
about 650 of such edifices and chapels.
The Roman Catholic, with 113 church-
es, is the strongest denomination.
Then follow the Methodist Episcopal
(54) ; Protestant Episcopal (86) ;
Baptist (52) ; Lutheran (64) ; Pres-
byterian (49) ; Congregational (38) ;
Reformed (40) ; synagogues^ (40) ;
and others of various denominations
(about 100). In 1912 there were 603,-
475 church members ; 138,136 Sunday
Brook*
School scholars, and, in the same year,
the churches owned property, church-
es, chapels, parsonages, etc., valued at
$42,500,000.
The most important hospitals in
Brooklyn are the Long Island College,
Brooklyn, Brooklyn Homoeopathic,
General, St. Mary's Methodist, St.
John's, and St. Peter's. The city has
24 dispensaries, 5 training-schools for
nurses, 25 orphan asylums and indus-
trial schools, 11 homes for the aged,
and 6 nurseries. The public institu-
tions are mostly at Flatbush, and con-
sist of the Insane Asylum, Hospital,
and Almshouse. There is an Inebri-
ates' Home in Bay Ridge.
The borough is noted for the number
and standing of its educational insti-
tutions, public and private. The
Packer Institute for girls, the Poly-
technic Institute for boys, Adelphi Col-
lege, and the Pratt Institute have na-
tional renown. The Brooklyn Insti-
tute of Arts and Sciences, an out-
growth from an association founded in
1823, is another noted institution. It
includes 25 departments with lectures,
so that its teaching methods resemble
those of a large university.
Brooklyn was settled by the Dutch
in 1636 at New Utrecht. In 1646 five
small towns consolidated under the
name of Breuckelen, from the Dutch
town whence most of the settlers
came. In 1666 the first Dutch church
was built in Breukelen. About this
time the English came into possession
of New York and Long Island, and
Breuckelen became a part of West
Riding. On Aug. 27, 1776, the battle
of Long Island was fought in Brook-
lyn, and the village was held by the
British till 1783. Brooklyn was in-
corporated as a village in 1816 ; and
in 1834 it became a city. Several ad-
joining towns were annexed from time
to time, and in 1896 Brooklyn com-
prised all of Kings county. On Jan.
1, 1898, Brooklyn was consolidated
with Greater New York, under the
name of the Borough of Brooklyn.
Brooks, Eldredge Streeter, an
American author; born in Lowell,
Mass., in 1846 ; died in Somerville,
Mass., Jan. 7, 1902.
Brooks, Maria Gowan, an Amer-
ican poet, pseudonym MARIA DEL Oc-
CIDENTE, born in Medford, Mass.,
Brooks
about 1795 ; spent her youth in
Charlestown, Mass., and the rest of
her life in London, New York and
Cuba. She died in Matanzas, Cuba,
Nov. 11, 1845.
Brook*, Noah, an American jour-
nalist and author, born in Castine,
Me., Oct. 30, 1830. Died Aug. 16, 1903.
. Brooks, Phillips, an American
clergyman of the Episcopal Church,
born in Boston, Dec. 13, 1835. He
was rector of Protestant Episcopal
churches successively in Philadelphia
and in Boston, and was made Bishop
of Massachusetts in 1891. He was an
impressive pulpit orator, had great
spiritual force, and published many
volumes of sermons and lectures. He
died in Boston, Jan. 23, 1893.
Brooks, Preston Smith, an
American legislator, born in Edgefield,
S. C., Aug. 14, 1819. He served in
the Mexican War ; was elected to Con-
gress in 1853, and on May 22, 1856,
he assaulted Senator Charles Sumner
in the Senate Chamber, beating him
into insensibility with a cane. He
afterward resigned, but was immedi-
ately returned to the House by his
District He died in Washington, D.
G, Jan. 27, 1857.
Brooks, William Keith, natu-
ralist, born in Cleveland, O., March
25, 1848, graduated LL. D. from Will-
iams College (1870) ; Ph. D. Harvard
(1874). From 1876 assistant-profes-
sor, and after 188?, professor of zool-
ogy in Johns Hopkins University. His
works include " Invertebrate Zoology."
He died Nov. 12, 1908.
Brother Jonathan, a phrase ap-
plied to the people of the United
States, as " John Bull " is to the peo-
ple of England. Washington, on as-
suming command of the New England
Revolutionary forces, was in great
straits for arms and war material.
The governor of Connecticut, Jona-
than Trumbull, was a man of excellent
judgment and an esteemed friend of
Washington. In the emergency Wash-
ington said, " We must consult Broth-
er Jonathan." This expression was
repeated on other difficult occasions,
and became a convenient name for the
whole people.
Brotherhoods, Religions, were
societies instituted for pious and ben- ,
Brougham
evolent purposes, and were numerous
in the Middle Ages.
Brotherhood of Andrew and
Phillip, founded in 1888 by Rev.
Rufus W. Miller of the Second Re-
formed Church, Reading, Pa., has
grown into a religious and social order
among 15 Protestant denominations ;
with 1,402 chapters and 18,000 mem-
bers in the United States, and chap-
ters also in Canada, Japan, and Aus-
tralia.
Brotherhood of St. Andrew,
of the Protestant Episcopal Church,
founded in Chicago in 1883 by the
Rev. W. H. Vibbert and James Hough-
teling for " the spread of Christ's
Kingdom among young men ;" has 1,-
200 active chapters, and about 13,000
members.
Brotherhood of St. Paul, of the
Methodist Episcopal Church, founded
1895 by the Rev. F. D. Leete, Roches-
ter, N. Y., comprises the Orders of
Jerusalem, Damascus, and Rome, for
various grades of membership.
Brougham, Henry Peter, Lord
Brougham and Vanx, a British
statesman, orator, and author, born in
Edinburgh, Sept. 19, 1778; entered
the University of Edinburgh in 1792.
In 1802 he helped to found the " Ed-
inburgh Review," contributing to the
first four numbers 21 articles, and to
the first 20 numbers 80 articles. The
article on Byron's " Hours of Idle-
ness " provoked the poet to write his
" English Bards and Scotch Review-
ers." In 1810 Brougham entered
Parliament, where his remarkable elo-
quence gave him at once a command-
ing place. He was counsel for Queen
Caroline in George IV. 's suit against
her (1820), winning a decisive vic-
tory, which raised him to the height
of fame and popularity. He became
Lord Chancellor in 1830, and was at
the same time created a baron ; he re-
signed on the defeat of the Whigs in
1834, and never again held public
office, though still taking effective part
in the business and debates of the
House of Lords. He died in Cannes,
France, May 7, 1868.
Brongham, John, an American
actor and playwright, born in Dublin,
Ireland, May 9, 1810; made his debut
as an actor in England in 1830. He
came to the United States in 1842,
Bremgliton
Broi
and, with the exception of a short re-
turn trip to England in 1800, re-
mained here until bis death. He was
the author of over 100 comedies,
farces, and burlesques. He died in
New York, June 7, 1880.
Bronghton, Rhoda, an English
novelist, daughter of a clergyman,
born in Wales, 1840. Among her works
are "Alas !" ; "Scylla or Charybdis" ;
"Dear Faustina" ; "Foes in Law", etc.
Broussa, Brussa, or Boursa, the
ancient Prusa, where the Kings of
Bithynia usually resided, situated in
Asiatic Turkey, at the foot of Mount
Olympus, in Asia Minor, 13 miles S.
of the Sea of Marmora. Broussa is
pleasantly situated, facing a beautiful
and luxuriant plain. The water sup-
ply is good, and water flows down the
center of some of the streets, which
are clean, but for most part narrow
and dark, and the bazaars very good.
It contains about 200 mosques, some
of which are very fine buildings, also
three Greek churches, an Armenian
and several synagogues. The vilayet
of Broussa has an area of 25,400
square miles and pop. of 1,626,800.
Broussais. Francois Joseph
Victor, a French physician, born in
St Malp, Dec. 17, 1772. Professor at
the Military Hospital of Val de Grace
in 1820, he became Professor of Gen-
eral Pathology in the Faculty of Med-
icine, in Paris, 1832, and afterward
was made a member of the Institute.
The influence of Broussais in his gen-
eration was unbounded, and his so-
called " Physiological Doctrine " rap-
idly acquired a great sway, the traces
of which are visible even now, though
a more exact knowledge of physiology
has demonstrated that the views of
Broussais were one-sided and exag-
gerated. The basis of Broussais' doc-
trine was the assumption that the ani-
mal tissues are endowed with a prop-
erty called irritability, a property
which is called" into play by the action
of stimuli of various kinds, and by the
operations of which all vital phenom-
ena are produced. He died in Paris,
Nov. 17, 1838.
Brown, the color produced when
certain substances — wood or paper,
for example — are scorched or par-
tially burned. Brown is not one of
the primary colors in a spectrum. It
is composed of red and yellow, with
black, the negation of color. It is
also the name of a genus of colors, of
which the typical species is ordinary
brown, tinged with grayish or black-
ish. The other species are chestnut
brown, deep brown, bright brown,
rusty, cinnamon, red brown, rufous,
glandaceous, liver colored, sooty, and
lurid.
Brown, Benjamin Gratz, an
American politician, born in Lexing-
1 ton, Ky., May 28, 182G ; graduated at
Yale in 1847. He practiced law in
! Missouri, and was a member of the
State Legislature in 1852-1858. In
the Civil War he served in the Union
army, recruiting a regiment, and be-
coming a Brigadier-General of volun-
teers. In 1863-1867 he was United
States Senator from Missouri, and in
1871 was elected governor of his State.
He was the candidate for the Vice-
Presidency of the United States on
the ticket with Horace Greeley in
1872. He died in St. Louis, Dec. 13,
1885.
Brown, Charles Brockden, an
American novelist, born in Philadel-
phia, Jan. 17, 1771, was of a highly
respectable family, of Quaker descent.
He studied law, but took a disgust to
the practice of the profession, and
abandoned it for literature. In 1798
he established himself in New York,
and when the yellow fever broke out
there he refused to forsake his friends
and neighbors ; and, after performing
the last offices of affection for one of
them, a young physician, was himself
attacked by the pestilence. Between
1803 and 1809 he published three po-
litical pamphlets, which excited gen-
eral attention. He died Feb. 22, 1810.
Brown, Charles Ruf us, an
American clergyman and Hebrew
scholar, born in East Kingston, N. H.,
Feb. 22, 1849. He was ordained a
Baptist minister in 1881, and became
Professor of Hebrew at Newton The-
ological Institution 1886. He died
Feb. 2, 1914.
Brown, Elmer Ellsworth, an
American educator, born in Kiantone,
N. Y., Aug. 28, 1861; was United
States Commissioner of Education in
1906-11; then became Chancellor of
the University of New York.
Brown, Emma Elizabeth, ("B.
E. E."), an American author and
Brown
artist, born in Concord, N. H., Oct.
18, 1847.
Brown, Sir George, an English
military officer, born near Elgin in
1790 ; served in the Peninsular War,
and in the American campaign of
1814. He became lieutenant-general
in 1851 ; and distinguished himself in
the Crimean War at Alma, Inker-
mann, and Sebastopol. He was made
K. C. B. in 1855, and died in 1865.
Brown., Goold, an American gram-
marian, born in Providence, R. I.,
March 7, 1791 ; died in Lynn, Mass.,
March 31, 1857.
Brown, Harvey, an American
army officer, born in Rahway, N. J.,
in 1795 ; graduated at West Point in
1818. He was in constant service for
more than 45 years. In the Black
Hawk expedition, the Seminole In-
dian campaigns, in the Army of Occu-
pation in Mexico, and to the time of
the Civil War, he did gallant duty,
for which he received several brevets.
In 18G2 he was brevetted a Brigadier-
General in the Regular army and pro-
moted Colonel, and in 1863 was pro-
moted to Major-General, U. S. A., and
retired. He died in Clifton, Staten
Island, N. Y., March 31, 1874.
Brown, Henry Kirke, an Ameri-
can sculptor, born in, Leyden, Mass.,
Feb. 24, 1814. He made the eques-
trian statue of Washington in Union
Square, New York, the altar piece for
the Church of the Annunciation in
the same city, portrait busts of Wil-
liam Cullen Bryant, Dr. Willard
Parker, Erastus Corning and other
New York men, and the statue of De
W7itt Clinton in Greenwood cemetery.
The last named was the first bronze
statue cast in the United States. Mr.
Brown brought skilled workmen from
Europe and did the firct work in
bronze casting attempted in this coun*
try. Some of his other well known
works are a statue of Lincoln in Pro >
pect Park, Brooklyn, and equestrian
statues of Gen. Scott and Nathanael
Greene for the National Government,
etc. He died in Newburg, N. Y., July
10, 1886.
Brown, Jacob, an American army
officer, born in Bucks county, Pa., May
9, 1775. He was a commander on the
Canadian frontier in the War of 1812.
In the engagements at Fort Erie he
Brown
so distinguished himself as to receive
the thanks of Congress, Nov. 13, 1814.
The city of New York also voted him
its freedom. At the close of the war
he was in command of the Northern
Division of the army, and, in March,
1821, became general-in-chief of the
United States army. He died in
Washington, D. C., Feb. 24, 1828.
Brown, John, an American oppo-
i nent of slavery, born in Torrington,
Conn., May 9, 1800. He early con-
! ceived a hatred for slavery, and, hay-
ing removed to Osawatomie, Kan., in
I 1855, he took an active part against
the pro-slavery party, the slavery
j question there having given rise al-
i most to a civil war. In the summer
of 1859 he rented a farmhouse about
6 miles from Harper's Ferry, and or-
ganized a plot to liberate the slaves of
Virginia. On Oct. 16, he, with the
aid of about 20 friends, surprised and
captured the arsenal at Harper's Fer-
ry, but was wounded and taken pris-
oner by the Virginia militia next day ;
and was tried and executed at Charles-
town, Dec. 2, 1859. His fate aroused
much sympathy in the North, and un-
doubtedly hastened the great anti-
slavery conflict. " John Brown's body
lies moldering in the grave, But his
soul is marching on," was a favorite
marching song of the Union troops in
the Civil War.
Brown, John George, an Anglo-
American painter, born in Durham,
England, Nov. 11, 1831; was edu-
cated in the common schools in New-
castle-on-Tyne, and came to the Unit-
ed States in 1853. He studied in the
schools of the National Academy of
Design ; was elected an Academician
in 1863 ; received honorable mention
at the Paris Exposition in 1899; and
in 1900 was president of the American
Water Color Society. Died, 1913.
Brown, John Hamilton, an
American inventor, born in Liber-
ty, Me., July 28, 1837. At the age of 18
he was apprenticed to a gunsmith and
in 1857 he entered business in Haver-
Jiill, Mass. He served in the Civil
War as a sharpshooter, and in 1882
was a member of the American Rifle
Team at Wimbledon. He began in
1883 to perfect the invention of a
weapon for military use later known
as the Brown segmental wire-wxmnd
Brown
gun, which, after numerous Govern-
ment tests, was pronounced a success.
Brown, John Howard, an Amer-
ican editor, born in Rhinebeck, N. Y.,
Nov. 8, 1840. After studying law in
New York city and engaging in jour-
nalism in Washington, D. C., and Au-
gusta, Ga., he became a publisher in
New York city. He. was a member of
the American Academy of Political
and Social Science ; the Society of
American Authors, and the American
Social Science Association. D. 1917.
Brown, Joseph Emerson, an
American statesman, born in Pickens
county, S. C., April 15, 1821; edu-
cated at Calhoun Academy, and grad-
uated at Yale in 1846. He settled in
Canton, Ga. ; served in the State Leg-
islature, and was elected governor in
1857 ; serving three terms. As war
governor he opposed Jefferson Davis
in the matter of the conscription laws
and raised 10,000 recruits to oppose
Sherman's march to the sea ; but
would not allow them to leave the
State. After the war he gave hearty
support to the reconstruction meas-
ures, and supported Gen. Grant for
the Presidency. He was Chief Jus-
tice of Georgia in 1868, and United
States Senator in 1880-1891. He
died hi Atlanta, Ga., Nov. 30, 1894.
Brown, Nicholas, an American
merchant, born in Providence, R. I.,
April 4, 1769 ; best known as the chief
patron of Brown University. In hon-
or of his gifts, which exceeded $100,-
000, the name of the institution was
changed, in 1804, from Rhode Island
College to Brown University. He
gave also magnificent sums to other
public institutions of Providence. He
died Oct. 27, 1841.
Brown (or Browne), Robert,
founder of an English religious sect
first called Brownists, and afterward
Independents, was born about 1540,
and studied at Cambridge, where, in
1580, he began openly to attack the
government and liturgy of the Church
of England as anti-Christian.
Brown, Robert, a Scotch botan-
ist, born in Montrose, Dec. 21, 1773.
In 1800 he was appointed naturalist
to Flinders' surveying expedition to
Australia. He returned with nearly
4,000 species of plants. He died in
London, June 10, 1858. As a natural-
Browning
ist Brown occupied the very highest
rank among men of science.
Browne, Charles Farrar, an
American humorist, best known as
ABTEMUS WARD, born at Waterford,
Me., April 26, 1834. Originally a
printer, he became editor of papers in
Ohio, where his humorous letters be-
came very popular. He subsequently
lectured in the United States, and
in England, where he contributed to
" Punch." He died in Southampton,
England, March 6, 1867.
Browne, William, an English
poet, born in Tavistock, Devonshire,
in 1591; died in Ottery St. Mary
about 1643.
Brownell, Franklin P., a Cana-
dian artist, born in New Bedford,
Mass. His specialties are portrait and
figure painting. He has for some
years been principal of the Ottawa
Art School.
Brownell, Henry Howard, an
American poet and historian, born in
Providence, R. I., Feb. 6, 1820. His
first poetic venture was a spirited ver-
sification of Farragut's " General Or«
ders " to the fleet below New Orleans.
Afterward he was appointed to an hon-
orary place on the " Hartford," flag-
ship, and had opportunity to observe
actual naval warfare. In " The Bay
Fight " he describes, with truth and
force, the battle of Mobile Bay. He
died at East Hartford, Conn., Oct 31,
1872.
Brownell, William Crary, an
American essayist and critic, born in
New York city, Aug. 30, 1851. He
graduated from Amherst, and devoted
himself to critical and editorial work
in New York.
Brownie, an imaginary being to
whom evil properties were attributed;
a domestic spirit or goblin, meager,
shaggy, and wild, supposed to haunt
many old houses, especially those at-
tached to farms.
Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, a
distinguished English poet, regarded
by some as the greatest which England
has ever produced ; born in London,
March 6, 1809. In 1846 she was mar-
ried to Robert Browning, and died at
Florence, Italy, June 29, 1861.
Browning, Robert, one of the
greatest of the Victorian poets ; born
in Gamberwell, England, May 7, 1812.
Brownlow
Bruce
His father, who was a clerk in a bank,
iad the boy educated in a school at
Peckham, after which he attended lec-
tures at University College. At the
age of 20 he traveled on the Conti-
nent and resided for some time in
Italy, where he made diligent study
of its mediaeval history. In 1846 he
married Elizabeth Barrett, and settled
with her in Florence, where they re-
mained for nearly 15 years. Recog-
nition of his literary fame, which
came slowly, was made in 1867, when
he was elected an honorary fellow of
Baliol, an M. A. of Oxford, and later
an LL. D. of Cambridge. He died in
Venice, Dec. 12, 1889. His body was
taken from Venice to England, where,
in national recognition of his genius,
it was buried in Westminster Abbey
between Cowley and Chaucer.
Bro willow, William Gannaway
("PABSON BBOWNXOW"), an Ameri-
can politician, journalist, and author,
born in Wythe county, Va., Aug. 29,
1805. During his early career he
was an itinerant preacher, editor, and
lecturer. He was a Union champion
during the Civil War, and was ban-
ished from the Confederate lines on
that ground. In 1865 he was elected
Governor of Tennessee, and was re-
elected in 1867. He was United
States Senator from 1869 to 1875.
He died in Knoxville, Tenn., April
29, 1877.
Brown-Sequard, Charles Edon-
ard, Franco-American physiologist and
physician, was born in Mauritius in
1818, his father being a sea captain
from Philadelphia, who married on the
island a lady named Sequard. The
son studied in Paris, and graduated
M. D. in 1846. He devoted himself
mainly to physiological research, and
received numerous prizes, French and
British, for the results of valuable ex-
periments on blood, muscular irrita-
bility, animal heat, the spinal cord,
and the nervous system. In 1864 he
became Professor of Physiology at
Harvard, but in 1869 returned to
Paris as Professor of Pathology in the
School of Medicine. In 1873 he be-
came a medical practitioner in New
York, treating especially diseases of
the nervous system ; and in 1878 he
succeeded Claude Bernard as Profes-
sor of Experimental Medicine at the
College de France. He died in Paris,
April 1, 1894.
Browason, Orestes Augustus,
an American author ; born in Stock-
bridge, Vt., Sept. 16, 1803; died in
Detroit, Mich., April 17, 1876.
Brownsville, city, port of entry,
and county-seat of Cameron Co., Tex. ;
on the Rio Grande and the Rio
Grande railroad, opposite Matamoras,
Mexico. In the suburbs is Fort
Brown, a garrisoned United States
post. In May, 1840, Brownsville was
occupied and fortified by a small body
of United States troops, who main-
tained their position in the face of a
heavy bombardment that lasted for 160
hours; and in November, 1863, it was
taken from the Confederates by a-
Federal army under General Banks.
Pop. (1910) 10,517.
Brown University, a co-educa-
tional institution in Providence, R. I. ;
organized in Warren in 1764 as Rhode
Island College ; removed to Providence
in 1770, and renamed in honor of
Nicholas Brown in 1804. It has al-
ways been affiliated with the Baptist
Church, but its management is non-
sectarian.
Brozik, Vacslav, a Bohemian ar-
tist, born in Pilsen in 1852. His pic-
ture, " Columbus at the Court of Isa-
bella," was presented to the city of
New York by Morris K. Jesup, and is
in the Metropolitan Museum. He is
a pupil of Pilaty and Munkacsy, and
is considered the foremost historical
painter living.
Brace, Catherine Wolfe, an
American patron of science, born in
New York city. She was a cousin of
Catherine Lorillard Wolfe, from whom
she inherited a fortune, which she
used in furthering astronomical study
at Harvard. She gave $50,000 to the
Harvard Observatory In 1888. The
Bruce Memorial Telescope at Are-
quipa, Peru, was her gift. In 1897
she established a gold medal fund for
the Astronomical Society of the Pa-
cific. She died in New York, March
13, 1900.
Bruce, Edward, a brother of
Robert I., who, after distinguishing
himself in the Scottish War of Inde-
pendence, crossed in 1315 to Ireland
to aid the native septs against the
English. After many successes he
Bruce
was crowned King of Ireland at Car-
rickfergus, but fell in battle near Dun-
dalk in 1318.
Bruce, James, an African trav-
eler, born in Stirling, Dec. 14, 1730.
In 1768 he set out for Cairo, navigated
the Nile to Syene. crossed the desert
to the Red Sea, passed some months
in Arabia Felix, and reached Gondar,
the capital of Abyssinia, in 1770. In
that country he ingratiated himself
with the sovereign and other influen-
tial persons, and in the same year suc-
ceeded in reaching the sources of the
Aba'i, then considered the main stream
of the Nile. Bruce lost his life by an
accident, April 27, 1894.
Bruce, Robert, the greatest of the
Kings of Scotland, born in 1274. In
1296, as Earl of Carrick, he swore
fealty to Edward I., and in 1297
fought on the English side against
Wallace. He then joined the Scot-
tish army, but in the same year re-
turned to his allegiance to Edward
until 1298, when he again joined the
National party, and became in 1299
one of the four regents of the king-
dom. In the three final campaigns,
however, he resumed fidelity to Ed-
ward, and resided for, some time at
his court ; but, learning that the King
meditated putting him to death on in-
formation given by the traitor Comyn,
he fled, in February, 1306, to Scot-
land, stabbed Comyn in a quarrel at
Dumfries, assembled his vassals at
Lochmaben Castle, and claimed the
crown, which he received at Scone,
March 27. Being twice defeated, he
dismissed bis troops, retired to Rath-
lin Island, and was supposed to be j
dead, when, in the spring of 1307, he j
landed on the Carrick coast, defeated
the Earl of Pembroke at Loudon Hill,
and in two years had wrested nearly
the whole country from the English.
He then in successive years advanced
into England, laying waste the coun-
try, and on June 24, 1314, defeated at
Bannockburn the English forces ad-
vancing under Edward II. to the re-
lief of the garrison at Stirling. In
1316 he went to Ireland to the aid of
his brother Edward, and, on his re-
turn in 1318, in retaliation for inroads
made during his absence, he took Ber-
wick and harried Northumberland and
Yorkshire. Hostilities continued un-
til the defeat of Edward near Byland
Bruise
Abbey in 1323, and though in that year
a truce was concluded for 13 years,
it was speedily broken. Not until
March 4, 1328, was the treaty con-
cluded by which the independence of
Scotland was fully recognized. Bruce
did not long survive the completion of
his work, dying at Cardross Castle on
June 7, 1329.
Bruce, Wallace, an American
poet, born in Hillsdale, N. Y., Nov.
10, 1844; graduated at Yale College
in 1867 ; and was United States Con-
sul at Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1889-
1893.
Bruges, a city of Belgium, capital
of West Flanders, at the junction of
the canals from Ghent, Ostend, and
L'Ecluse, 7 miles from the North Sea,
and 60 miles N. W. of Brussels. The
city has a circumference of nearly 4*£
miles, and is entered by six gates.
Many large and noble ancient man-
sions and spacious public edifices pre-
sent their pointed gables to the streets,
and afford interesting specimens of
the ornamental Gothic architecture of
the Middle Ages. Among the most re-
markable public edifices are the Ca-
thedral of Notre Dame (Onser
Vrouw), the old Gothic Hospital of
St. John, and the elegant church of
St. Saviour. In the great square is a
lofty Gothic tower or belfry, the most
beautiful in Europe, and its chimes
are harmonious. In this tower there
are 48 bells, some weighing six tons;
they are played upon every quarter of
an hour by means of an immense cop-
per cylinder communicating with the
clock, and weighing about nine tons.
Pop. (1912) 53,635. The city was oc-
cupied by the Germans and greatly
damaged by shell-fire on their violation
of Belgian sovereignty on Oct. 15,
1914. See APPENDIX : World War.
Bruhns, Carl Christian, a re-
markable self-taught astronomer, born
in Plon, Holstein, Nov. 22, 1830, the
son of a locksmith ; died in Leipsic,
July 25, 1881.
Bruise, or Contusion, signifies an
injury inflicted by a blow or sudden
pressure, in which the skin is not
wounded, and no bone is broken ot
dislocated. Both terms, and especial-
ly the latter, are employed in surgery
to include all such injuries in their
widest range, from a black eye to a
Brnmaire
Brunn
thoroughly crushed mass of muscle. j
In the slighter forms of this injury,
as in ordinary simple bruises, there is
no tearing, but only a concussion of I
the textures, the utmost damage done i
being the rupture of a few small blood j
vessels, which occasions the discolora-
tion that is always observed in these
cases.
Brnmaire, the second month of
the year in the French Revolutionary
calendar. It commenced on the 23d i
of October, and ended on the 21st of i
November, thus comprising 30 days, i
It received its name from the fogs that
usually prevail about this time. The
18th of Brumaire, VIII. year (Nov. j
9, 1799), is celebrated for the over- 1
throw of the Directory and the estab-
lishment of the sway of Napoleon.
Brumniel, George Bryan, (the
sometime famous BEAU BBUMMEL) ,
born in London, June 7, 1778. He
was educated at Eton, and there
formed intimacies with the younger
nobility of the day. On his father's
death, inheriting a fortune of about
$150,000, he began his career as a
man of fashion, and became the inti- ;
mate associate of the Prince of Wales ''
(afterward George IV.). He it was
who inaugurated the reign of dandy-
ism, and for a period of 20 years exer-
cised almost despotic sway over Eng- 1
lish society in the matter of dress. !
His fortune being soon swallowed up,
he maintained his position in society
by bis success at play, and the inde-
scribable charm of his manner and
conversation. After a rupture with
the Prince, his influence gradually de-
clined ; and oppressed by debt, and the
falling off of former friends, he re-
tired to Calais, and afterward to Caen,
where he was appointed British con-
sul, and where he died, March 30,
1840.
Brunei, a State in the northern or
British part of the Island of Borneo,
lying N. E. of Sarawak; area 4,000 j
square miles ; pop. estimated at 30,-
000. It was formerly an independent
Mohammedan territory, whose sultan i
was the overlord of the entire island.
Both Brunei and Sarawak were placed
under British protection in 1888, and
the sultan surrendered the adminis-
tration to the British in 1906.
Capital. Brunei ; pop. about 12,000.
Brunei, Sir Marc Isambard, a
French civil engineer, born in Hao
queville, near Rouen, April 25, 1769.
He entered the mercantile marine,
made several voyages to the West In-
dies, and, when the French Revolution
of 1793 drove him from his country,
he went to New York, with the reso-
lution of endeavoring to turn his en-
gineering skill to some account. Ac-
cordingly, he, conjointly with another,
surveyed the ground for the canal
which now connects the Hudson river
at Albany with Lake Champlain. In
1825 he began excavating for the
Thames tunnel. This extraordinary
work was opened to the public in
1843; but previously, in 1841, the
honor of knighthood had been con-
ferred upon him. He died in London,
Dec. 12, 1849.
Brnnel, Isambard Kingdom,
son of the above, born in Portsmouth,
England, April 9, 1806; was educated
at the College of Henri IV., at Caen,
France, and began the study of civil
engineering under his father. He was
the resident engineer of the Thames
tunnel, and the designer and civil en-
gineer of the " Great Western," the
first steamship built to cross the At-
lantic. He was also the constructor
of the magnificent iron steamship, the
" Great Eastern," which was built at
Millwall. He died in Westminster,
Sept. 15, 1859.
Bruneticre, Ferdinand, a
French critic ; born in Toulon, July
19. 1849. He was critic of the " Re-
vue des Deux Mondes " ; became an
Academician 1893; and 1897 lectured
in the U. S. He inclined to the ideal-
ist as opposed to the naturalist school,
and denounced literary fads. He died
Dec. 9, 1906.
Brunn, Heinrich, a German ar-
chaeologist; born in Worlitz, Anhalt,
Jan. 23, 1822; became Professor of
Archfeology at Munich ; and published
seveial works of high repute among
scholars. He died in Munich, July
23, 1894.
Brnnn, an Austrian city, capital of
Moravia, on the railway from Vienna
to Prague, nearly encircled by the
rivers Schwarzawa and Zwittawa. It
is the center of Moravian commerce, a
great part of which is carried on by
fairs. Near it is the fortress of Spiel-
Bruno
Brunswick
berg, in which Trenck and Silvio Pel-
lico were confined. Pop. (1891)
95, 342; (1911) 125,737.
Bruno, Giordano, an Italian phil-
osopher, one of the boldest and most
original thinkers of his age, born in j
Kola, about 1550. He became a Dom-
inican monk, but his religious doubts,
and his censures of the monastic or- ,
ders, compelled him to quit his mon-
astery and Italy. He embraced the
doctrines of Calvin at Geneva, but
doubt and free discussion not being in
favor there, he went, after two years'
stay, to Paris. He gave lectures on
philosophy there, and, by his avowed
opposition to the scholastic system, '
made himself many bitter enemies. He
next spent two years in England, and
became the friend of Sir Philip Sid-
ney. In 1585 he went again to Paris
and renewed his public lectures. Af-
ter visiting and teaching in various
towns in Germany, he returned, in
1592, to Padua, and went afterward
to Venice, where he was, in 1598, ar-
rested by the Inquisition and sent to
Rome. He lay in prison two years,
and on Feb. 17, 1600, was burned as a
heretic.
Brnno the Great, one of the most
eminent men of his time, born about
925, the third son of Henry the Fowl-
er. He became archbishop of Cologne,
and chancellor of the Empire under
his brother, Otto I., and afterward, as
a reward for his services, Duke of
Lorraine. He strove to reform the
monasteries and advance the love of
learning among the clergy. He died in
Rheims, Oct. 11, 965.
Brunswick, Duchy of, in Ger-
many, consists of five detached por-
tions of territory on the rivers Weser,
Seine, Ocker and 'Aller. It occupies
part of the vast plain which stretches
from the foot of the Ha'rtz Mountains
and their continuations (the Soiling)
to the German Ocean and the Baltic,
with a portion of the rise of those
chains on the N. side. The largest
portion contains the districts of
Wolfenbuttel and Schoningen, in
which the cities of Brunswick and
Wolfenbuttel, and the towns of Kon-
igsbutter and Helmstadt, are situated.
Two small detached portions of terri-
tory, viz., the circles of Theding-
hausen on the Weser, and that of
Badenburg, are inclosed by the Han-
overian territory, and form part, the
former of the Weser district, the lat-
ter of the Seine district. Finally, the
detached circle of Kalvorde, inclosed
within the Prussian Province of Sax-
ony, belongs to the district of Schon-
ingen. The duchy has an area of 1,526
square miles. The inhabitants are
mostly engaged in agricultural and
mining pursuits. Iron is the chief
produce of the mines worked in the
three districts of the Hartz, Weser
and Blankenburg. Nearly the whole
of the inhabitants are members of the
Lutheran Church. Pop. (1910) 494,-
339. Brunswick, the capital, is on the
Ocker, in a level and fertile district.
A fine avenue of linden trees leads to
the ducal palace, which, destroyed by
fire in 1830 and 1865, was rebuilt in
1869. Pop. (1910) 143,552.
Brunswick, Family of, a distin-
guished family founded by Albert
Azo II., Marquis of Reggio and Mo-
dena, a descendant, by the female line,
of Charlemagne. In 1047 he married
Cunigunda, heiress of the Counts of
Altorf, thus uniting the two houses
of Este and Guelph. His son Guelph,
was created Duke of Bavaria in 1071,
and married Judith of Flanders, a de-
scendant of Alfred of England. From
Guelph was descended George Louis,
son of Ernest Augustus and Sophia,
granddaughter of James I. of Eng-
land, who succeeded his father as
Elector of Hanover in 1698, and was
called to the throne of Great Britain
in 1714 as George I.
Brunswick, Friedrich Wil-
helm, Duke of, fourth and youngest
son of Duke Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand
of Brunswick, born in 1771. During
the war against France in 1792 and
subsequently, he fought in the Prus-
sian armies, was twice wounded, and
once made prisoner with Blucher at
Lubeck. For the campaign of 1809
he raised a free corps in Bohemia, but
was compelled to embark his troops
for England, where he was received
with enthusiasm. His corps immedi-
ately entered the British service, and
was afterward employed in Portugal
and Spain, returning to his hereditary
dominions, 1813. The events of 1815
called him again to arms, and he fell
at Quatre Bras, 1815. Caroline, wife of
George IV., was a sister of this prince.
Brush
Brutus
Brash, Charles Francis, an
American scientist ; born in Euclid,
near Cleveland, O., March 17, 1849.
He was graduated at the University
of Michigan, in 1869. He invented
the modern arc system of electric
lighting and founded the Brush Elec-
tric Company.
Brussels, the capital of Belgium ;
on the river Senne, communicates with
Antwerp and the Baltic Sea by means
of the Scheldt canal, and railroads
connect it with Germany, France, and
Holland, as well as with all the prin-
cipal towns of Belgium. Pop. (1912)
with suburbs, 663,647.
On the outbreak of the World War
(July, 1914), Germany invaded Bel-
gium on its attempted march on Paris.
On Aug. 20 the Germans occupied
Brussels, on Oct. 9, Antwerp, and on
Oct. 15, Ostend. The Belgian Gov-
ernment then accepted asylum in
Havre, France, and Germany assumed
the civil government of the occupied
territory. From October, 1915, to
October, 1916, the Germans levied on
Belgium 480,000,000 francs, payable
monthly. See APPENDIX: World
War.
Brussiloff, Alexei Alexeiviteh,
a Russian military officer ; born in the
Caucasus of Russian parents, his
father being a military officer, in
1848 ; entered the army at an early
age, choosing the cavalry branch ; was
given an important command in
Galicia in the campaign of 1914, se-
cured Russia's early successes in the
Carpathians, and penetrated the
famous Dukla Pass ; was appointed
commander-in-chief of the Russian
armies in June, 1917; resigned his
command on the subsequent defection
of the Russian forces facing the Ger-
mans ; and later agreed to resume it.
It was he who commande_d the bril-
liant Russian offensive in Galicia,
Volhynia, and Bukowina in the sum-
mer of 1916. See APPENDIX : World
War.
Brains, Lucius Jnnins, a Roman
hero ; son of Marcus Junius and the
daughter of the elder Tarquin ; saved
his life from the persecutions of Tar-
quin the Proud by feigning himself
insane, on which account he received
the surname Brutus (stupid). Dur-
ing a plague that broke out at Rome
he accompanied the son of Tarquin to
the oracle in Delphi. When Lucretia,
the wife of Collatinus, plunged a dag-
ger into her bosom that she mignt not
outlive the insult which she had suf-
fered from Sextus, the son of Tarquin,
Brutus, being present, threw off his
mask. He drew the dagger, all
bloody, from the wound, and swore
vengeance against the Tarquins. The
people submitted to him, and he caused
the inhabitants to be assembled, and
the body to be publicly exposed. He
then urged the banishment of the Tar-
quins. After this had been resolved
on, Brutus proposed to abolish the
regal dignity, and introduce a free
government. It was then determined
that two consuls should exercise su-
preme power for a year, and Junius
Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus
were chosen for the first term. Tar-
quin, who had seen the gates shut
against him, and found himself de-
serted by his army, sent ambassadors
to Rome to demand a restoration
of his private property, and, at the
same time, to promise that he would
make no attempt against the re-
public. His request was granted.
The ambassadors, however, set on foot
a conspiracy, and drew into it many
young men, among whom were the
two sons of Brutus and the nephews
of Collatinus. But a slave named
Vindex discovered the plot. The crim-
inals were imprisoned, and the consuls
caused the people the next morning to
be called to a meeting. All were deep-
ly shocked to see the sons of Brutus
among the prisoners, and their father
on the judgment seat to condemn
them. Collatiuus wept, and even the
stern Valerius sat silent. But Brutus
arose firmly, and, after the crime had
been proved beyond a doubt, ordered
the lictors to execute the law. Neither
the entreaties of the people nor of his
sons could alter his resolution. He
returned to the Assembly when Col-
latinus wished to save his guilty neph-
ews. The people condemned them all,
and chose Valerius consul in place of
Collatinus. In the meantime, Tar-
quin, supported by Porsenna, collected
an army and marched against Rome.
The consuls advanced to meet him.
Brutus led the cavalry, Aruns, son of
Tarquin, commanded the body opposed
to him. They pierced each other with
their spears at the same moment, and
both fell 509 B. c. The Romans came
off conquerors, and Brutus was bur-
Brutus
ied with great splendor. The women
lamented him a whole year, as the
avenger of the honor of their sex.
The details of the story of Brutus,
which may be regarded as a poetical
legend, have been shown by Niebuhr
to be irreconcilable with history.
Brutus, Marcus Junius, one of
the most distinguished Romans at the
close of the republican period ; born
of a plebeian family 85 B. c. He was
at first an enemy of Pompey, who had
slain his father in Galatia, but for-
got his private enmity, and wa» recon-
ciled to him when he undertook the de-
fense of freedom. He did not, how-
ever, assume any public station, and,
after the unfortunate battle of Phar-
salia, surrendered himself to Caesar,
who received him generously, allowed
him to withdraw from the war, made
him in the following year governor of
Cisalpine Gaul, and afterward con-
ferred on him the government of Ma-
cedonia. Notwithstanding these ben-
efits, Brutus allowed himself to be
drawn into, and made the head of the
conspiracy against Caesar. He was
led into the conspiracy by Cassius,
who, impelled1 by hatred against Cae-
sar, sought, at first by writing, and
then by means of his wife, Junia, sis-
ter of Brutus, to gain his favor ; and
when he thought him prepared for the
proposal, disclosed to him verbally the
plan of a conspiracy against Caesar,
who had now made himself master of
the supreme power in the State.
Brutus was induced to agree to the de-
sign, and his influence led many of
the most distinguished Romans to em-
brace it also. Caesar was assassinated
in the senate house. In public
speeches Brutus explained the reasons
of this deed, but he could not appease
the dissatisfaction of the people, and
retired with his party to the capital.
He soon after took courage, when the
consul, P. Cornelius Dolabella, and
the praetor, L. Cornelius Cinna,
Caesar's brother-in-law, declared them-
selves in his favor. But Antony,
whom Brutus had generously spared,
was reconciled to him only in appear-
ance, and obtained his leave to read
Caesar's will to the people. By means
of this instrument Antony succeeded in
exciting the popular indignation
against the murderers of Caesar, and
they were compelled to flee from Rome.
Bryam
Brutus went to Athens and endeav-
ored to form a party there among the
Roman nobility ; he gained over, also,
the troops in Macedonia. He then be-
gan to levy soldiers openly, which
was the easier for him, as the remain-
der of Pompey's troops since the de-
feat of their general, had been roving
about in Thessaly. Hortensius, the
governor of Macedonia, aided him ;
and thus Brutus, master of all Greece
and Macedonia, in a short time stood
at the head of a powerful army. He
went now to Asia and joined Cassius,
whose efforts had been equally suc-
cessful. In Rome, on the contrary,
the triumvirs prevailed. All the con-
spirators had been condemned and the
people had taken up arms against
them.
Brutus and Cassius having finally
with difficulty subdued the Lycians
and Rhodians, returned to Europe to
oppose the triumvirs. The army
passed over the Hellespont, and 19
legions and 20,000 cavalry were as-
sembled on the plains of Philippi, in
Macedonia, whither also the trium-
virs, Antony and Octavianus (after-
ward the Emperor Augustus),
marched with their legions. Although
Roman historians do not agree in their
accounts of the battle of Philippi, this
much at least seems certain, that Cas-
sius was beaten by Antony ; that Bru-
tus fought with greater success against
the division of the army commanded
by Octavianus; that 20 days atter he
was induced, by the ardor of his sol-
diers, to renew the contest ; and that
he was this time totally defeated. He
escaped with only a few friends, passed
the night in a cave, and as he saw
his cause irretrievably ruined, ordered
Strato, one of his confidants, to kill
him. Strato refused a long time to
perform the command ; but, seeing
Brutus resolved, he turned away his
face, and held his sword, while Brutus
fell upon it, and died in 42 B. C.
Bryan, William Jennings, an
American political leader, born in
Salem, 111., March 19, 1860. He was
graduated at Illinois College in 1881,
preparing subsequently for the bar at
Union College, Chicago. In 1887 he
removed to Lincoln, Neb., and was
elected to Congress in 1890, and again
in 1892. Four years later he was
nominated for the presidency of the
Bryant
United States by the Democratic Na-
tional Convention at Chicago. He ad-
vocated the free and unlimited coin-
age of silver by the United States at a
ratio of 16 to 1, and was defeated in
the presidential campaign. He was
Col. of a regt. of volunteers during the
Spanish War. In 1900, he was again
defeated for the presidency by Wil-
liam McKinley. He founded " The
Commoner," a weekly political peri-
odical which he edits. In 1905-1906
he made a tour of the world, and was
received at foreign courts with dis-
tinction. In 1908 he was defeated a
third time for the Presidency, by Wil-
liam H. Taft. In 1913 he was ap-
pointed Secretary of State in the
Cabinet of President Wilson ; negoti-
ated with foreign nations thirty trea-
ties providing for an initial investiga-
tion of all differences prior to forceful
action ; resigned June 9, 1915, because
of dissatisfaction with the President's
war policy.
Bryant, William Cnllen, an
American poet ; born Nov. 3, 1794, in
Cummington, Mass. His father, a
man of great literary culture, practiced
as a physician. He prepared, when
he was but 14, a collection of poems,
which were published in Boston in
1809. In that volume appeared " The
Embargo," the only poem dealing with
the politics of the day he ever wrote.
In the following year Bryant entered
Williams College as a student of law,
but left without taking a degree in
1815, when he was admitted to the
bar. In that year he became a con-
tributor to the " North American Re-
view," in which appeared the follow-
ing year his " Thanatopsis," a poem in
blank verse, which received much laud-
atory criticism. Six years later he
published a second collection of poems
which brought him into real fame.
He definitely abandoned law for liter-
ature in 1825, and went to New York,
where he founded the " New York Re-
view," and a year after became the
editor of the "Evening Post," an old
established paper with which he was
connected till his death. A complete
edition of his poems up to 1855 was
published in that year, and in 1863
appeared a small volume entitled
" Thirty Poems." His last works of
importance are his translations of the
" Iliad " (1870) and the " Odyssey "
Bubalis
(1872, translations which many
American critics rank above any that
had hitherto appeared, in the English
language. Early in 1878 appeared
" The Flood of Years," his last poem
of any great length. On the occasion
of uncovering a statue to Mazzini
(May 30, 1878) he had to stand un-
covered for about an hour under a
burning sun. On his way home he
met with an accident which was fol-
lowed by concussion of the brain, and
on June 12 he expired.
Bryce, James, a British diplomat,
born in Belfast, May 10, 1838. After
graduating at Oxford in 1862, he
studied at Heidelberg, and subsequent-
ly practiced law in London. From
1870 till 1893 he was Regius Profes-
sor of Civil Law in Oxford, and has
had a distinguished political career.
In 1907-13 was British ambassador
to the United States ; and in 1914 was
raised to the peerage as Viscount
Bryce. He was a voluminous author,
his most noted works being " The
American Commonwealth" (1888),
revised edition (1910), and his report
on German atrocities in Belgium, as
chairman of a distinguished investi-
gating commission (1915).
Bryn Mawr College, an educa-
tional institution for women, at Bryn
Mawr, Pa. ; founded in 1880 by Joseph
Taylor. Its standard of admission is
very high ; its system of undergraduate
studies combines required courses and
varied elective groups.
Bryppnyllnnt, a genus of plants
belonging to the houseleeks. Its na-
tive country is the East Indies, whence
it has been carried to other places. In
Bermuda, where it is naturalized and
grows abundantly, it is called life
plant.
Bnbalis, a genus in the antelope
division of hollow horned, even toed
ruminants, not to be confused with
Buffalo. The species of bubalis are
among the more oxlike antelopes, and
one of them is supposed to be the bu-
balus of the ancients. In this genus
the head is elongated, the snout broad,
the horns twisted and present in both
sexes, the tear pits small, the back
sloping off behind, the teats two in
number. The bubaline of the North
African deserts is a handsome animal
of a reddish brown color, standing
Bubonic Plague
Buccaneer
about 5 feet high at the shoulder, liv-
ing ir herds, and readily tamed. It is
figured oh Egyptian monuments. The
hartebeest is found in the S., is per-
haps slightly larger, has a general
gray browti color (black on the outside
of the legs and on middle of forehead,
with large white spots on haunches),
and is at home on the mountains. The
sassaby, the bastard hartebeest of the
Cape Colonists, is slightly smaller, and
is differently colored. The bontebok
is a smaller and more beautifully col-
ored form of the S. interior, where
another species, the violet colored bles-
bok, is also abundant.
Bubonic Plague, a disease sup-
posed to be identical with the plague
known as the Black Death, which had
its origin in China, and made its first
appearance in Europe 543 A. D., at
Constantinople. It derives its mod-
ern name from the fact that it attacks
the lymphatic glands in the neck, arm-
pits, groins and other parts of the
body. The swollen parts are extreme-
ly sensitive to the touch, the patient
suffers from headache, vertigo, high
fever, vomiting and great prostration.
Another feature is the appearance of
purple spots and a mottling of the
skin. In severe cases death generally
ensues in 48 hours, and, at best, re-
covery is slow. At the Hoagland
laboratory in Brooklyn, N. Y., exten-
sive experiments have been made, both
in the culture of the germs and in an
anti-toxin. The disease has been
called " the poor's plague," from the
fact that it first attacks the half
starved masses who congregate in the
slums of the cities. This was the case
in Bombay, where so fatal were its
ravages that a panic ensued and more
than 450,000 people, one-half the pop-
ulation, left the city. The first au-
thentic description of the bubonic
plague is contained in the writings of
Rufus of Ephesus, who described the
disease as having existed in Northern
Africa during the 3d or 4th century
B. C. lie presented the testimony of
physicians of that period to corrobor-
ate his arguments. Since that time
the disease has been variously describ-
ed by writers tinder the name of Le-
vantine, Oriental and Bubonic Plague
and the black plague, or black death.
These designations are more or less
open to criticism and lack scientific
foundation. In the reign of Justinian,
542 A. D.. the disease appeared in
Egypt, and within a year extended to
Constantinople, where it is said to
have caused the death of 10,000 per-
sons in one day. In 1352 the plague
spread through the whole of Europe
and nearly one-fourth of the popula-
tion died. It is estimated by Hecker
that during this reign of terror, out of
2,000,000 inhabitants of Norway, but
300,000 survived. It was estimated
by Pope Clement VI. that the mortal-
ity from black death for the entire
world was 40,000,000. This outbreak
lasted about 20 years. During the
great plague of London, in 1665, there
were 63,596 deaths out of a popula-
tion of 460,000. It was believed the
infection was introduced by bales of
merchandise from the Levant. The
sanitary condition of London, at the
time, was notoriously bad. It is a
significant fact that those who lived
out of town and on barges and ships
on the Thames did not contract the
disease. In 1903 the disease was re-
ported in Southern Russia and other
eastern regions, and great care was
exercised to keep it out of the United
States.
Buccaneer, an order of men, not
quite pirates, yet with decidedly pirat-
ical tendencies, who for nearly 200
years infested the Spanish main and
the adjacent regions. A bull of Pope
Alexander VI., issued in 1493, having
granted to Spain all lands which might
be discovered W. of the Azores, the
Spaniards thought that they possessed
a monopoly of all countries in the New
World, and that they had a right to
seize, and even put to death, all inter-
lopers into their wide domain. The
association of buccaneers began about
1524, and continued till after the Eng-
lish revolution of 1688, when the
French attacked the English in the
West Indies, and the buccaneers of the
two countries, who had hitherto been
friends, took different sides, and were
separated forever. Thus weakened,
they began to be suppressed between
1697 and 1701, and soon afterward
ceased to exist, pirates of the normal
type, to a certain extent, taking their
place. The buccaneers were also
called " filibusters," or " filibusters "
— term which was revived in connec-
tion with the adventures of " General "
Bucclcugli
Walker, who sought to establish him-
self as a ruler in Central America.
Bnccleugh, the title (now a duke-
dom) of one of the oldest families in
Scotland, tracing descent from Sir
Richard le Scott in the reign of Alex-
ander III.
Buccntanr, a mythical monster,
half man and half ox. The splendid
galley in which the Doge of Venice an-
nually wedded the Adriatic bore this
name, doubtless because of the figure
of a bucentaur on her bow.
Bucephalus, the celebrated horse
of Alexander the Great, whose head
resembled that of a bull, whence his
name. Alexander was the only one
who could mount him. In an engage-
ment in Asia, where he received a
heavy wound, he immediately hastened
out of the battle, and dropped dead
as soon as he had set down the King
in a safe place. Alexander built on
the river Hydaspes, in India, a city
which he called after his name.
Bncer, Martin, a Protestant re«
former; born in Schlestadt, Alsace, in
1491. In 1521 he left the Dominican
Order, and became a convert to Lu-
theranism. He was at first preacher
at the court of Frederick, the Elector
of the Palatinate; afterward in Stras-
burg ; and at the same time professor
in the university there for 20 years.
He died in Cambridge in 1551. In
1557 Queen Mary caused his bones to
be burned,* to show her detestation of
Protestantism.
Buchanan, Andrews Hays, an
American educator; born in Washing-
ton Co., Ark., June 28, 1828; was
graduated at Cumberland University
in 1853 ; and took a special course in
civil engineering and mathematics in
Lincoln University ; taught civil engi-
neering in 1854-1861 ; was military
topographical engineer in the Confed-
erate army during the Civil War; and
became Professor of Mathematics and
Civil Engineering in Cumberland Uni-
versity in 1860. He was the author
of "_Plane and Spherical Trigonom-
etry " ; etc. He died in August, 1914.
Buchanan, James, an American
statesman, 15th President of the Unit-
ed States, born near Mercersburg, Pa.,
April 23, 1791; graduated at Dickin-
son College in 1809, admitted to the
bar in 1812. He supported the War
Bucharest
of 1S12, although affiliated with the
Federalist Party. In 1820 he was
elected to Congress, serving successive
terms by re-election for 10 years,
where he made some reputation in the
advocacy of bills for reorganizing the
courts and judiciary. In 1828 he sup-
ported Andrew Jackson for tfie Presi-
dency, who, in turn, appointed him
Minister to Russia, where he distin-
guished himself by arranging an im-
portant commercial treaty. In 1834,
he entered the United States Senate,
serving there 12 years, where he de-
fended the spoils system instituted by
Jackson, and declared against the right
or power of the Government to inter-
fere with slavery in the States. He
was appointed Secretary of State by
President Polk, after which service he
was in retirement for four years. Un-
der President Pierce he was sent in
1853 as Minister to England, where
his advocacy of the annexation of
Cuba by the United States led to his
nomination to the Presidency in 1856.
His cabinet contained men who sup-
ported the secession of South Carolina,
and eventually joined the Confeder-
acy. He announced in a message
(I860) that the President had neither
the right nor the constitutional power
to prevent a State from seceding. His
unwillingness to take decisive action
enabled the seceding States to arm
and prepare for war before the Gov-
ernment did anything to prevent. Af-
ter he retired, however, he supported
the Union cause. He died in Lancas-
ter, Pa., June 1, 1868.
Buchanan, Robert Williams,
English poet, novelist and playwright ;
born in Warwickshire, Aug. 18, 1841 ;
died in London, June 10, 1901.
Bucharest, the capital of the for-
mer principality of Wallachia and of
the present kingdom of Rumania,
stands 265 feet above sea level, in the
fertile but treeless plain of the small,
sluggish Dambovitza. A strange meet-
ing point of East and West, the town
as a whole is but meanly built, but
the streets are mostly paved and light-
ed with gas and electricity. An elab-
orate system of fortification was un-
dertaken in 1885. There are some
handsome hotels; and the metal
plated cupolas of the innumerable
Churches gives to the place a pictur-
esque aspect. Bucharest is the entre-
Bnchner
pot for the trade between Austria and
the Balkan Peninsula, the chief arti-
cles of commerce being textile fabrics.
(rain, hides, metal, coal, timber, and
cattle. Its manufactures are unim-
portant, and the workmen are chiefly
Hungarians and Germans. Bucharest
has been several times besieged; and
between 1798 and 1812 suffered twice
from earthquakes, twice from inunda-
tions. pace from fire, and twice from
pestilence. Important treaties were.
signed here, 1812 and 1836. On Aug.
27, 1916, Rumania made its long de-
bated declaration of war against the
Central Powers, ami at once advanced
into Transylvania, but it soon suffered
a severe attack by the Germans on
all the defences of its capital (Dee.
4), and in a year was practically con-
quered. See APPENDIX: World Wur.
l',.p. tii'in 345,628.
Buchner. Max, a German traveler
and scientist, born in Hamburg, April
25, 1846. In 1878 be bore presents
from the Emperor to Muatiau
the Kingdom of Lunda, in K»ju:itorial
Africa. After several Tain attempts
to break through toward the N., be re-
turned to the coast In 1884 be ac-
companied Nachtigal in founding the
colonies of Togo and Kamerun, in
West Africa, where he acted tem-
porarily as representative of the Ger-
man Kmpire.
Bnchtel College, a co-educational
institution in Akron. O. ; founded in
1871, nnder the auspices of the Uni-
vers.ilist Church.
Buck, a name sometimes distinct*
Ively appropriated to the adult male
of the fallow deer, the female of which
is a doe. The term is often also ap-
plied to the male of other species of
deer, as of the roebuck, although never
to that of the red deer, which, when
mature, is a stag or a hart.
Back. Dudley, an American or-
ganist, composer, and author, born in
Hartford. Conn.. Marrh 10, 1839t He
was widely known through hist instru-
mental and vocal music, and besides
a number of cantatas, he wrote sev-
eral books on musical ..topics. D. 1900.
Bnekbe&a, the English name of
menyanthes, a genus of plants belong-
big to the gentian worts. An infusion
of its leave* is bitter. In Sweden two
ounces of the leaves are substituted for
E. 25
a pound of hops. In Lapland the roots
are occasionally powdered and eaten.
Buckeye, the American horse
chestnut tree. The term is also ap-
plied to the State of Ohio.
Buckingham, George VUliers.
Duke of, favorite of James I. and
Charles I., of England, bora in 1590;
his father being George VUliers,
Knight He was stabbed on Aug. 24,
1628, by John Felton, an ex-lieutenant
who had been disappointed in being
promoted.
Buckingham, James Silk, an
English traveler, writer, and lecturer,
born near Falmouth, Aug. 25, 1786.
After trying several professions, and
wandering over a great part of the
world, he went to London, where he
established the " Athcna>um," well
known as a literary journal. Subte-
Sently be made a tour of three years
the United States. In 1S43 he be-
came secretary to the British and For-
eign Institute. He also published
volumes on his Continental tours and
an autobiography. He died in Lon-
don, June 30, 1856.
Buckingham. William Alfred,
an American statesman, bora in Leb-
anon, Conn., May 28, 1804; was Mr
nine years Governor of Connecticut
(1858-1866) ; called the " War Gov-
ernor" for his seal in furnishing
troops in the Civil War; and was
United States Senator from I860 till
his death. He was active in the tem-
perance cause, and a patron of Yale
College. He died in Norwich, Oomv,
Feb. 3, 1875.
Buckingham Palace, a royal
palace in London, facing St James*
Park, and forming one of <he resi-
dences of Queen Victoria.
Bnckland. Cyrus, an American
inventor, bora in Springfield. Mass.,
Aug. 10, 1790; after assisting in build-
ing the machinery for the first cotton
mills erected in Chicopee Falls, be-
came, in 1828, the pattern maker hi
the united States armory, in Spring-
field. He remained hero for 28 years,
becoming master-mechanic. He de-
signed machinery and tools for the
manufacture of firearms; remodeled
old weapons and designed new ones;
perfected a lathe for turning out gun
stocks; invented machines to bore and
turn gun barrels and for rifling mus-
Buckland
kets, and many other novelties in the
manufacture of firearms and ordnance.
Much of his machinery was adopted
by foreign governments. Having re-
ceived nothing for his labor at the ar-
mory, excepting his salary, Congress
voted him $10,000 when ill-health com-
Selled him to resign. He died in
pringfield, Feb. 26, 1891.
Buckland, Francis Trevelyan,
an English naturalist ; born in Oxford,
Dec. 17, 182G. His preferences were
for practical science, and, after retir-
ing from his place as surgeon to the
2d Life Guards, he founded the jour-
nal, " Land and Water," of which he
was editor. He was an authority on
fish culture, and as such was consulted
by foreign governments. He was a
resolute opponent of Darwinism. He
died Dec. 19, 1880.
Buckland, William, an English
geologist, born in Tiverton, Devon-
shire, March 12, 1784. In 1845 he
was made Dean of Westminster ; but,
under his great and continuous labors
to benefit others, his mental faculties
gave way seven years before his death,
which took place Aug. 14, 1856.
Buckle, Henry Thomas, an Eng-
lish historian, born in Kent, Nov. 24,
1822. His chief work, a philosophic
" History of Civilization," of which
only two volumes (1858 and 1861)
were completed, was characterized by
much novel and suggestive thought,
and by the bold co-ordination of a vast
store of materials drawn from the most
varied sources. He died, while travel-
ing, at Damascus, March 29, 1862.
Buckles, metal instruments, con-
sisting of a rim and tongue, used for
fastening straps or bands in dress,
harness, etc. They were formerly used
on shoes, but are now supplanted by
strings.
Buckley, James Monroe, an
American religious editor, born in
Rah way, N. J., Dec. 16, 1836. He
studied theology at Exeter and joined
the Methodist Episcopal Church.
Since 1881 he has been editor of the
New York " Christian Advocate." He
has written " Travels in Three Conti-
nents," " Oats, or Wild Oats," etc.
Bncknell University, a co-educa-
tional institution in Lewisburg, Pa. ;
oragnized in 1846, under the auspices
of the Baptist Church.
Buckwheat
Buckner, Simon Bolivar, an
American soldier and politician, born
in Kentucky in 1823. He was grad-
uated at West Point in 1840, and
served in the Mexican War. He rose
to distinction in the Confederate army
during the Civil War, attaining the
rank of Lieutenant-General. He was
one of the pall bearers at Gen. Grant's
funeral in 1885, by the personal selec-
tion of the ex-President, who had been
warmly attached to him for many
years. In 1896 he was nominated for
Vice-President by the Gold Demo-
crats, serving a term as Governor ot
Kentucky. He died Jan. 8, 1914.
Buckram, a coarse textile fabric
stiffened with glue and used in gar-
ments to give them or keep them in
the form intended.
Buckshot, a kind of leaden shot
larger than swan-shot. About 160 or
170 of them weigh a pound. They are
especially designed to be used in hunt-
ing large game.
Buckskin, a kind of soft leather,
generally yellow or grayish in color,
prepared originally by treating deer-
skins in a particular way, but now in
general made from sheepskins. This
may be done by oil, or by a second
method, in which the skins are grained,
brained and smoked.
Buckthorn, the English name of
a genus of plants. The berries of the
common species are black, nauseous,
and, as the specific name rhamnus ca-
tharticus imports, highly cathartic;
they afford a yellow dye when unripe,
as the bark of the shrub does a green
one. They are sold as French berries.
The alder buckthorn, again, has dark
purple purgative berries, which, im
an unripe state, dye wool green and
yellow, and when ripe bluish gray,
blue, and green. The bark dyes yel-
low, and, with iron, black. Of the
foreign species, the berries of the rock
buckthorn are used to dye the Maro-
quin, or Morocco leather, yellow, while
the leaves of the tea buckthorn are
used by poor people in China as a sub-
stitute for tea. The species best kown
to the pharmacopoeia of this country
is the cascara sagrada.
Bncktrheat, or Brank, a plant
with branched herbaceous stem, some-
what arrow-shaped leaves and purplish
white flowers, growing to the height
Budapest
of about 30 inches, and bearing a
small triangular grain of a brownish-
black without and white within. The
stalk is round and hollow, generally
green, but sometimes tinged with red.
Buckwheat was first taken to Eu-
rope from Asia by the Crusaders, and
hence in France is often called Sara-
cen corn. It is cultivated in China
and other Eastern countries as a bread
corn. In the United States it is very
extensively used throughout the win-
ter in cakes, which are cooked upon
a gridiron.
Budapest, the official name of the
united towns of Buda or Ofen and
Pest or Pesth, the one on the right,
the other on the left of the Danube,
forming the capital of Hungary, the
seat of the Hungarian Parliament and
supreme courts. Buda, which is the
smaller of the two, and lies on the W.
bank of the river (here flowing S.),
consists of the fortified Upper Town
on a hill, the Lower Town or Water
Town at the foot of the hill, and sev-
eral other quarters, including Old
Buda farther up the river.
Budapest contains the most impor-
tant of the three universities of Hun-
gary, attended by about 4,500 stu-
dents and having over 220 professors,
lecturers, etc. Another important ed-
ucational institution is the technical
high schools, with 60 teachers and
1,100 to 1,200 students, and a library
of GO.OOO volumes. In commerce and
industry Budapest ranks next to Vien-
na in the empire. Its chief manufac-
tures are machinery, gold, silver, cop-
per, and iron wares, chemical, textile
goods, leather, tobacco, etc. A large
trade is done in grain, wine, wool,
cattle, etc. At Budapest are the larg-
est electrical works in all Europe. En-
gineers employed there have brought
to perfection the science of applying
electricity to motors. They construct-
ed there the first successful under-
ground trolley lines. Their ideas have
been adopted in the construction of
electric roads all over the world. In
1799 the joint population of the two
towns was little more than 50,000; in
1890 it was 506,384 ; in 1910, 880,371.
Budaun, a town of India, North-
west Provinces. There is a handsome
mosque, American mission, etc. Pop.
33,680. The district of Budaun has
Buel
an area of 2,000 square miles. Pop.
906,451.
Buddha, or The Buddha, (that
is "the enlightened"), the sacrea,
name of the founder of Buddhism,
who would appear (according to the
judgment of those scholars who hat*
given most attention to this point) to
have lived in the 5th century B. c.
Buddhism, the system of faith in-
troduced or reformed by Buddha. la
its origin Buddhism was a reaction
against the caste pretensions of the
Brahmins and other Aryan invaders
of India, and was, therefore, eminent-
ly fitted to become, as it for a long
time was, the religion of the Turan-
ians. Buddhism was dominant in In-
dia for about 1,000 years after its
establishment by Asoka. Then, having
become corrupt and its vitality hav-
ing decayed, reviving Brahminism pre-
vailed over it, and all but extinguished
it on the Indian continent, though a
modification of it, Jainism, still exists
in Marwad and many other parts. It
has all along held its own, however, in
Ceylon. On losing Continental India,
its missionaries transferred their ef-
forts to China, which they converted,
and which still remains Buddhist.
The religion of Gautama flourishes
also in Tibet, Burma and Japan, and
is the great Turanian faith of the
modern as of the ancient world.
Budding, the art of multiplying
plants by causing the leaf bud of one
species or variety to grow upon the
branch of another.
Bnde Light, (from Bude, in
Cornwall, England, where Mr. Gur-
ney, the inventor of the light, lived),
an oil or gas burner supplied with a
jet of oxygen gas; the flame is very
brilliant.
Budget, the annual statement rel-
ative to the finances of a country,
made by the proper financial function-
ary, in which is presented a balance
sheet of the actual income and expend-
iture of the past year, and an esti-
mate of the income and expenditure
for the coming year, together wuh a
statement of the mode of taxation pro-
posed to meet such expenditure.
Buel, Clarence Clough, an
American editor and author, born at
Laona, Chautauqua county, N. Y.,
July 29, 1850. He was connected
Buell
with the New York " Tribune " from
1875 to 1881, when he joined the staff
of the " Century Magazine ; " and, in
1883, in conjunction with Robert Un-
derwood Johnson, he began the editing
of the celebrated " Century War Arti-
cles," which were afterward expanded
into the notable " Battles and Lead-
ers of the Civil War" (1887).
Buell, Don Carlos, an American
military officer, born near Lowell, O.,
March 23, 1818. He was graduated
at West Point in 1841, and served in
the Mexican War. When the Civil
War broke out he was adjutant-gen-
eral of the regular army, and was
made a Brigadier-General of Volun-
teers and attached to the Army of the
Potomac. In November, 1861, he suc-
ceeded Gen. W. T. Sherman in com-
mand of the Department of the Ohio.
He resigned from the volunteer serv-
ice on May 23, 1864, and on June 1,
following, also resigned his commis-
sion in the regular army. He died
near Rockport, Ky., Nov. 19, 1898.
Buenaventura, a town on the
Pacific coast of 'the Republic of Co-
lombia. It has a hot, sickly climate,
but is the port for the healthful and
rich Cauca valley. Pop. 5,000.
Buena Vista, a village of Mex-
ico, 7 miles S. of Saltillo, where Feb.
22-23, 1847, 5,000 U. S. troops, under
Taylor, defeated 20,000 Mexicans
under Santa Ana. Pop. (1910) 3,245.
Buen-Ayre, French BoNAlBE, a
West Indian island, 60 miles from the
coast of Venezuela, and 30 E. of Cura-
cao, like which it belongs to the
Dutch. It produces timber, cattle,
cochineal, and salt. Area, 95 square
miles; pop. (1914) 6,579.
Bnendia, Juan, a Peruvian gen-
eral, born in Lima in 1814. He was
gut in command of the Army of the
outh in the Chilian War in 1870,
and attacked 10,000 Chilians on the
heights of San Francisco (Nov. S),
where he was defeated with terrible
loss. He was court-martialed, but
freed from blame and afterward served
in the defense of Lima.
Buenos Aires, a city of South
America, capital of the Argentine Re-
public, on the S. W. side of the La
Plata, 150 miles from its mouth. It
was founded in 1535 by Don Pedro
de Mandoza, and is built with great
Buffalo
regularity, the streets uniformly cross-
ing each other at right angles. It con-
tains the palace of the President, the
House of Representatives, a Town
Hall, a number of hospitals and asy-
lums, a cathedral, several monasteries,
nunneries, and Catholic and Protes-
tant churches ; several theaters, a uni-
versity and a custom house. The uni-
versity, founded in 1821, is attended
by about 800 students. There are
also a medical school, normal and
other schools, besides literary and sci-
entific societies. Since 1889 the city
has undergone notable changes in the
way of local improvement. The most
important is the creation of a new sys-
tem of docks, involving the construc-
tion of five long wet docks and great
basins. The basins have ample area
for the largest ocean steamships, and
along their walls are hydraulic ele-
vators by which every hatchway of a
vessel may be worked at once. Buenos
Aires is one of the leading commercial
centers of South America, its exports
and imports together annually amount-
ing to over $60,000,000. Chief exports
are ox and horse hides, sheep and
other skins, wool, tallow, horns, etc.
There are six railways running from
the city, and over 100 miles of
tramway in the city and suburbs.
About one-fourth of the inhabitants
are whites ; the rest are Indians, ne-
groes and mixed breeds. Pop. (1915)
1,594,170. The province of Buenos
Aires has an area of about 118,000
square miles, and presents nearly
throughout level or slightly undulat-
ing plains (pampas), which afford
pasture to vast numbers of cattle and
wild horses. These constitute the chief
wealth of the inhabitants. Pop.
(1915) 2,155,118.
Buffalo, city and county-seat of
Erie co., N. Y., second city in popula-
tion and importance in New York. It
is built at the E. end of Lake Erie, at
the head of the Niagara river, 20
miles above the Falls. It is the W.
terminus of the Erie canal, and has a
navigable water front of 8 miles, with
numerous piers, breakwaters, basins
and canals, giving it one of the finest
harbors on the lakes and making it a
great commercial center. The city is
connected by several steamship lines
with the chief lake ports, and by fer-
ries with Victoria and Fort Erie, on
Bmff&lo
Buffalo
the Canadian side. The International
Bridge, costing $1,500,000, connects
Buffalo with these towns. Area, 42 ]
square miles; population (1900) 352,-
218; (1910) 423,715.
Buffalo is situated on an elevated
plain, 50 feet above the lake and 600
feet above sea level. From this plain (
the ground slopes gradually to the lake.
It is bordered on three sides by water, j
the Niagara river, Lake Erie and Buf- i
falo river. Buffalo river is navigable !
for 2 miles, and two canals pass be- ;
tween the river and the lake. The city
is noted for its wide and beautiful i
streets, and the abundance of shrub-
bery and trees decorating them. The
principal streets are Main, Niagara,
Delaware, Broadway, and Linwpod
and Elmwood avenues, 120 feet wide,
and all over 5 miles in length. Buf-
falo claims to be the cleanest and
healthiest city in the United States
and to possess a greater extent of as- ;
phalt paving than any other city of
its size in the country.
Buffalo has a public park system
consisting of several parks containing
741*2 acres and connected by boule-
vards and approaches, affording a con-
tinuous drive of 15 miles, and contain-
ing an area, with the minor parks and
places, of 27G^ additional acres. The
principal public buildings are the Fed-
eral Building, containing the Post-
office and Custom-house, a large build-
ing of freestone ; the State Arsenal ;
the Board of Trade Building; the Old
and New Armories ; Grosvenor Li-
brary ; Normal School ; two public
high schools ; Erie County and Buffalo
Savings Banks ; the Erie County Pen-
itentiary; and the City and County
Hall. Besides these, there is the Buf-
falo Library, in Lafayette Square,
containing a circulating library of
77,000 volumes, and, in the same
building, are the Buffalo Historical
Society, the Buffalo Fine Arts Society
i and School of Arts, and the Society of
| National Sciences. The State Insane
Asylum has a plot of 203 acres and j
adjoins the Buffalo Park. According |
to the United States census of 1910 j
the city had 1,753 manufacturing es-
tablishments, employing $193,041,267
I capital and 61,246 persons ; paying
$28,727,228 for wages and $136,538,-
000 for materials used ; and yielding
products of an aggregate value $218,-
804,000. In the calendar year 1916, the
imports of merchandise aggregated in
value $41,421,442 ; and the exports,
$184,618,947.
The site of Buffalo was first visited
by the French, under La Salle, in
1679. In 1687 a settlement was made
by Baron La Honton and Fort Sup-
pose was erected. It was held by the
British as Fort Erie during 1783-
1784, and was incorporated as the vil-
lage of Buffalo and soon afterward
burned by the British, in 1813. It
was rebuilt in 1815 ; but its progress
was slow until the completion of the
Erie canal in 1825. It became a city
in 1832 and since then it has been
very prosperous. A Pan-American Ex-
position was held here between May 1
and Nov. 2, 1901; President McKin-
ley was fatally wounded while attend-
ing it on Sept. 6.
Buffalo, a name often applied 10
two distinct bovine genera or sub-
genera — viz., the Asiatic buffalo with
the Cape buffalo ; and the American
buffalo, better named bison. The ge-
nus or sub-genus bubalus has the
usual bovine characteristics, and,
whatever be its exact limits in strict
zoological classification, remains, for
practical purposes, a large, clumsy ox.
The horns rise from the posterior side
corners of the skull, are usually thick-
ened out of proportion at the base,
and irregularly ridged, though smooth
toward the points ; the forehead is
short and arched ; the covering of hair
is comparatively sparse. The Asiatic
buffalo is a very powerful animal,
much more powerful than the ox, and
capable of dragging or carrying a far
heavier load. The female yields a
much greater quantity of milk than a
cow, and of excellent quality. It is
from buffalo milk that the ghee or
semi-fluid butter of India is made.
The hide is greatly valued for its
strength and durability, but the flesh
is decidedly inferior to that of the ox.
The Arnee is a very large variety of
the common buffalo ; a head has been
known to measure 13 feet 6 inches
along the horns. It occurs in the In-
dian islands and in Farther India in
a wild state, but is also domesticated
srnl u<=ed as a beast of burden. The
Cape buffalo is generally regarded as
a distinct species. The horns are very
large ; th*y spread horizontally over
Buffalo Berry
the top of the head, and are then bent
down laterally, and turned upward at
the point. The head is carried, as by
the common buffalo, with projecting
muzzle and reclining horns, but the
bases of the horns nearly meet on the
forehead, where they are from 8 to 10
inches broad. The length of a full
grown Cape buffalo is about 8 feet
from the root of the horns to the tail,
and the height is 5 Ms feet. This ani-
mal is regarded as more formidable
than any other in South Africa. The
buffalo is still found in large herds
in the marshy wooded regions of Cen-
tral and South Africa, but in Cape
Colony, where it was once plentiful,
it has now become comparatively rare.
It grazes chiefly in the evening, and
lies in woods and thickets during the
day. It will readily act on the ag-
gressive, and has never been domesti-
cated. The flesh, though coarse, is
palatable. The dwarf, wild cow of the
island of Celebes is also related to the
buffaloes. For the American buffalo,
see BISON.
Buffalo Berry, a shrub of the
oleaster family, a native, of the United
States and Canada, with lanceolate,
silvery leaves and close clusters of
bright red acid berries about the size
of currants, which are made into pre-
serves and used in various ways.
Buffalo Grass, a strong growing
Korth American grass, so called x from
forming a large part of the food of
the buffalo, and said to have excellent
fattening properties; called also gama
grass.
Buffet, anciently a little apart-
ment, separated from the rest of the
room, for the disposing of china, glass,
etc. It is now a piece of furniture for
the dining-room, called a sideboard,
for the same purpose.
Bnffington, Adelbert Rinaldo,
an American military officer; born in
Wheeling, Va., Nov. 22, 1837; was!
graduated at the United ' States Mili- j
tary Academy in 1861 ; entered the
Ordnance Department ; was promoted j
Colonel in 1889, and became Chief of j
Ordnance with the rank of Brigadier-
General, April , 1899. He had com-
mand of the National Armory in 1881-
1892 ; is the inventor of a magazine
firearm, carriages for light and heavy
guns, and parts of models of 1884
Bag
Springfield rifles ; introduced gas forg-
ing furnaces and improved methods in
the Springfield armory ; and originat-
ed the niter and manganese method in
use there for blueing iron and steel
surfaces of small arms. Retired 1901.
Bnffou, George Louis Leclerc,
Count de, one of the most celebrated
naturalists and authors of the 18th
century ; born in Montbard, Burgun-
dy, Sept 17, 1707. Buffon, in his
earlier years, was animated only by
an undefined love of learning and
fame, but his appointment, as super-
intendent of the Royal Garden (now
the Jardin des Plantes), in 1739, gave
his mind a decided turn toward that
science in which he immortalized him-
self. The most perfect part of his
work is the "History of Quadrupeds" ;
the weakest, the " History of Min-
erals," in which his imperfect ac-
quaintance with chemistry and his in-
clination to hypothesis have led him
into many errors. After a long and
painful illness, he died in Paris,
April 16, 1788, at the age of 81
years, leaving an only son, who per-
ished in the Revolution by the guillo-
tine.
Bnford, John, a cavalry leader in
the Civil War, born in Kentucky 1826.
He was graduated at West Point in
1848, saw service in the West, and in
July 1862 was made Brigadier-General
of volunteers and assigned to a cavalry
brigade in the Army of Virginia. He
took a leading part in all the cam-
paigns of the army to the battle at
Gettysburg, which he is said to have
deliberately chosen for the great con-
flict. He retired on sick leave in No-
vember of 1863, and received the rank
of Major-General on the day of his
death, Dec. 16, 1863.
Bug, a common name applied to in-
sects of the natural order Hemiptera.
Most of these insects essentially re-
semble the bed-bug, except that they
have wings. Some suck the blood of
animals, and others subsist on vege-
table juices. While a few are of
commercial importance, like the coch-
ineal and lac insects, most of them are
harmful. Not a few species are beau-
tiful, but many have the same unpleas-
ant smell which emanates from the
bed-bug. The unattractive form and
manner of life of the bed-bug are
GRECIAN GREEN MARBLE
COPYRIGHT, 1913. BT P. B. WEIGHT.
POLISHED BUILDING STONES
Bngenhagen
too well known to require description. ;
The eggs, which are white, are depos- ;
ited in the beginning of summer. They
are glued to the crevices of bedsteads
or furniture, or to the walls of rooms.
Before houses existed, the bug prob-
ably lived under the bark of trees.
Bngenhagen, Johann, a Ger-
man reformer, friend and helper of
Luther in preparing his translation of
the Bible, born in 1485. He fled from
his Catholic superiors to Wittenberg
in 1521, where he was made, in 1522,
Professor of Theology. He effected
the union of the Protestant free cities
with the Saxons and introduced into
Brunswick, Hamburg, Lubeck, Pom-
erania, Denmark, and many other j
places, the Lutheran service and
church discipline. He died in 1558.
Bnggy, in the United States, a
light, one horse, four wheeled vehicle,
with or without a hood or top.
Bugle, a treble instrument of
brass or copper, differing from the
trumpet in having a shorter and more
conical tube, with a less expanded bell.
It is played with a cupped mouth-
piece. In the original form it is the
signal horn for the infantry, as the
trumpet is for the cavalry.
Buhr Stone, a variety of quartz
containing many small, empty cells, !
which give it a peculiar roughness of
surface. They are used principally as
mill-stones. The best kinds are creamy
white, with a granular and somewhat
cellular texture, and are obtained in
France. Numerous substitutes for the
French buhr stone have been found in
the United States, the most important
being furnished by the buhr stone rock
of the bituminous coal measures of
Northwestern Pennsylvania and East-
ern Ohio.
Building; Fireproof, Iron and
Concrete Construction. Building
combines the principles of masonry,
carpentry, joining, plumbing and the
methods of operation in all allied
trades or arts, with a knowledge of
the qualities, strength and resistance
of materials, and the science of archi-
tecture. It comprehends the arrange-
ment of a design for the greatest pos-
sible degree of convenience on a
ground plan ; the preparation and
formation of foundations ; of floors ;
the arrangement and construction, of
Building
drains, sewers, and vent-shafts ; the
varieties of walling with wood, stone,
or laying of bricks ; the various meth-
ods of tying and bracing walls ; the
arrangement of gutters on roofs with
overflow water pipes in the least in-
convenient places ; the location and
formation of chimneys ; the protection
of walls from damp, of timber from
moisture and stagnant air ; of metals
from corroding causes, etc., besides the
multitude of details which attend the
completion of any structure.
In modern times, attention has long
been devoted to devising means and
providing materials for building pur-
poses that will withstand the dangers
and destruction caused by fire. The
production of incombustible materials,
rather than the rendering of wood and
other combustibles fireproof by chem-
ical treatment, has been an important
factor in the development of present-
day building methods.
During the experimental stage in
fireproof construction in the United
States from 1854 to 1870, the substi-
tution of iron for wood for all con-
structive purposes was thought an im-
portant advance until iron of all
kinds proved unreliable when exposed
to temperatures of 900 degrees Fahr.
and over. The danger from the new
style of building was greater than
from the old. In many instances,
buildings with cast-iron fronts col-
lapsed completely during a fire, and
the plan of unprotected iron construc-
tion was abandoned.
Between 1875 and 1879, however,
the advantages of protected iron con-
struction was recognized, and with the
improvement of incombustible mate-
rials for building purposes, steel skele-
ton construction is now generally
adopted for all new structures of any
magnitude throughout the United
States, and is extending to foreign
countries.
In the use of concrete, a wooden
mould of desired width, placed about
the steel girders, receives under pres-
sure the liquid stone which is left to
harden. When the wooden shields are
removed, a smooth wall is presented,
which grows harder with the passage
of time and withstands a greater pres-
sure than granite or steel itself.
The building of a modern iron-frame
skyscraper is chiefly a matter of as-
Building
Building Associations
sembling the parts or "members." Lit-
tle of the real work is done on the
site of the building as in the old days
of stone construction. The digging of
the cellar and the sinking of caissons
in order to lay a bed for the iron-
work is the principal engineering work
done on the spot. All departments
work simultaneously — excavators,
draughtsmen, rolling mills, iron-work-
ers, masons, plumbers and finishers.
How much weight each upright and
floor will have to carry is figured out,
and for the guidance of the rolling-
mill man detail sketches are made of
every beam, girder and upright to be
used, with every dimension calculated
to the sixteenth of an inch, and every
rivet hole exactly indicated as to place
and size. Every piece is numbered to
correspond with the number on the
builder's plan, the floors they are to
occupy being indicated by letters.
Thus M 114 signifies for M, the thir-
teenth floor, and 114, its position on
that floor. By this plan the stone-
work may often be seen built up on
the higher stories, while the floors be-
low show only the iron skeleton left
open for various reasons, such as the
late arrival of boilers, engines, etc.
The ideal method in the assembling
and putting together of the different
parts of the modern building is to»keep
the stone masons, housesmiths and
plumbers one floor behind the iron-
workers, the carpenters one floor be-
hind these, the plasterers one floor
behind the carpenters, and so on till
the top story is finished.
Modern buildings are erected accord-
ing to the standard regulations for
fireproof buildings suggested by the
National Board of Fire Underwriters
and incorporated in the Building
Laws.
Building and Loan Associa-
tions, combinations of individuals,
who agree to pay a fixed sum monthly,
by which a fund is accumulated which
is loaned to members, who desire to
purchase or improve real estate. Their
capital stock, which is prospective, is
usualy divided into shares of a par
value of $200 each. Each shareholder
pays upon each share he holds a
monthly subscription of $1, till such
payments, with accrued profits, brings
the value of the share to par. The
number of shares each member may
hold varies in different associations,
the general rule being not less than
two nor more than 25, the latter limi-
tation being intended to prevent specu-
lation. When money sufficient to de-
clare a loan has accumulated in the
treasury, a single share of $200 is put
up at auction and knocked down to
the member who bids the highest
premium. He has the option, at the
same premium, of taking as many
shares as he may desire, within the
limits fixed by the association. The
age of the asociation depends on the
size of these premiums ; the larger the
premium bid the more quickly the as-
sociation terminates. Premiums vary
with the age and location of the asso-
ciation, and also with the demand for
money. There are two methods of
treating these premiums, known as the
gross and instalment plans. The gross
plan treats the premium at once as
profits earned, though the amount bid
will not be paid in full for 10 or more
years. The instalment plan declares
as profits only such amount of the
premium as is actually paid in during
the year. So far as the final result is
concerned, there is no difference be-
tween the two. Building and loan
associations are formed on two plans,
called terminal and serial. The termi-
nal associations compel all members
to begin payments on the same day.
A new member joining after the be-
ginning of the association is thus
forced to pay arrearages. This is
avoided in serial associations by al-
lowing new members to join at stated
intervals, usually six months or a
year, without the payment of arrear-
ages. The advantages of building and
loan associations are : That each
share, whether borrowed upon or not,
has credited to it a pro rata amount
of all profits declared. Loans are gen-
erally advanced to within 80 per cent
of the appraised value of the property.
No large salaries are paid. All offi-
cers, appraisers, auditors, etc., are
elected in open meeting. Members
may withdraw at any time after the
first year, obtaining a fair share of
the profits. Loans are invariably se-
cured by first mortgage. Only mem-
bers may obtain loans. Mortgages
may be paid off at any time. There
are no speculative features, the asso-
ciation buys nothing, the borrowing
Bukowina
member making all contracts. On
Jan. 1, 1916, there were 6,806 build-
ing and loan associations in the United
States, reporting a total membership
of 3,334,899, total assets of $1,484,-
205,875, and an increase in a year of
230,964 in membership and $126,497,-
975 in assets.
Bukowina, ("beech land"), a
Province in the extreme E. of the
Austro-Hungarian Empire, surround-
ed by Galicia, Russia, Moldavia, and
Hungary. Area, 4,033 square miles ;
pop. (1912) 814,247, of whom 42 per
cent, were Ruthenians, 32 Moldavians,
and 13 Jews, while 70 per cent, be-
longed to the Greek Church. It is tra-
versed by offsets of the Carpathians,
culminating at 6,077 feet ; gives rise
to many rivers flowing toward the
Black Sea ; and abounds in wood,
along with considerable mineral riches.
Bukowina belonged originally to
Turkey, was occupied by the Russians
in 1769 and the Austrians in 1774,
was ceded by Turkey to Austria in
1777, was incorporated with Galicia
in 1786, but was separated from it in
1849. The province was the center of
vast military ope'rations for a long
time after the outbreak of the great
war. On Feb. 24, 1915, the Russians
were defeated in a stubborn attack
here ; on June 23, 1916, they occupied
a part of the territory.
Bulacan, a town in Luzon, Phil-
ippine Islands, about 22 miles N. W.
of Manila, with which it is connected
by railway ; pop. about 10,000. The
town is composed mainly of native
huts, although there are factories in
which silk matting is made. Sugar
making is also an industry of impor-
tance. The place has strategic advan-
tages, which caused it to become a
theater of military operations after
the Spanish-American War.
Bulawayo, the principal town and
chief commercial center of Matabele-
land, in Southern Rhodesia, South
Africa, to which point the railroad
from Cape Town was completed in
1897, a total distance of 1,360 miles.
The place had a pop. (1911) 10,859 ;
several hotels, good business blocks
and residences, and is rapidly growing
in size and importance. Bulawayo a
few years ago was the site of a native
village of rude huts, in an inclosure
Bulgaria
of wattles, whose inhabitants were
savages of the lowest type.
Bnlbnl, the Indian name of any
bird belonging to a sub-family of
thrushes.
Bulfinch, Charles, an American
architect, born in Boston 1763 ; died
1844. He built the first playhouse
erected in New England, the old Fed-
eral street theatre in Boston, and drew
plans for the Massachusetts State
house. His principal work was the
rotunda, the west approaches, and the
portico, in the Capitol at Washington.
Bulgaria, a former Turkish prin-
cipality, created by the Treaty of
Berlin (1878), declared her indepen-
dence on Oct. 5, 1908, bounded on the
N. by Rumania, on the W. by Servia
and Greece, on the E. by the Black
Sea, and on the S. by Turkey and the
^Egean Sea; area, 43,310 square
miles; pop. (1914) est. 4,752,997;
capital, Sofia. The soil is excellent and
the slopes of the mountains are richly
wooded. The inhabitants, though not
skilled in agriculture, are able to pro-
duce a considerable export in grain
products beyond what they require for
themselves. Wheat is the chief ex-
port. Fruit is raised in abundance,
and vegetables for home use ; roses,
for the production of the attar, are
raised in large quantities ; 80,000 gal-
lons of wine are made annually ; silk
worms are bred in some regions, and
tobacco is raised. There is little min-
ing, although the mountains are rich
in minerals. Domestic industries are
chiefly carpets, cloths, hosiery, and
ribbons. The roads are very bad,
and there is but a single line of rail-
road ; about 500 miles, on the route
between Vienna and Constantinople.
All traffic is carried on by the rivers,
and the export trade by the Black
Sea. The population is about 74
per cent. Bulgarians, 19 per cent.
Turks, the rest Spanish Jews, with
a sprinkling of Greeks ; 77 per
cent, are of the faith of the Or-
thodox Greeks Church ; only 2^ per
cent. Moslems. The government is
Christian ; there is a National militia ;
military service compulsory. The Bul-
garians were originally of Finnish ex-
traction, but coalesced with a Slavic
populace, whose language was the
richest of the old Slavic tongues. In
Bull
their older literature are found many
valuable works, chiefly popular song-
and translations of the Bible. They j
adopted Christianity in the 9th cen- 1
tury. From that to the 12th their
rulers were powerful over the Balkan
Peninsula. Then they were conquered
and ruled by the Turks for about 500
years. In 1876, on account of the
atrocities of the Turkish soldiers, an
insurrection broke out. Russia took
the part of Bulgaria against Turkey, i
and the war of 1877-1878 followed.
In 1879, Alexander of Battenberg, a
German Prince, was made sovereign
of part of Bulgaria, the rest being
made a separate province called East
Rumelia, to prevent Bulgaria becom-
ing a strong State. In 1885 there
was a revolution in East Rumelia,
which annexed itself to Bulgaria.
Servia intervened, and Alexander was
forced to abdicate. Against Russia's
will, Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg ac-
cepted the vacant throne in 1887.
Since 1908 the government has been
that of an independent kingdom, with
a responsible ministry and a single-
chamber National Assembly (one mem-
ber to every 20,000 of population)
elected by universal manhood suffrage
for four years. In 1903 Bulgaria noti-
fied the Great Powrrs that unless they
compelled Turkey to cease the mas-
sacre of Bulgarians in Macedonia, Bul-
faria would take the issue into her own
ands. This declaration caused a pro-
found sensation throughout Europe
and Turkey began preparations for
war, but nothing further resulted at the
time.
On Sept. 30, 1912, Bulgaria allied
with Servia, Greece, and Montenegro
began war on Turkey (the first Balk-
an war), which was ended by the
treaty of London, May 30, 1913, by
which Turkey ceded to the Allies all
its European territory west of a line
drawn from Midia on the Black Sea
to Enos on the ^Bgean, and also Crete.
On June 29, 1913, she opened war
on her former allies because of dis-
content with her share of the spoil
(the second Balkan war), was badly
defeated, and lost more than she had
gained. In October, 1915, she allied
herself with Germany, Austria, and
Turkey in the great war, and at sev-
eral places, singly and in conjunction
with her new allies, again waged war-
Bulldog
fare on her former allies. See AP-
PENDIX: World War.
Bull, an instrument, edict, ordi-
nance, or decree of the Pope, equiva-
lent to the proclamations, edicts, let-
ters patent, or ukases of secular
princes.
Boll, George Joseph, a Cana-
dian ophthalmic surgeon, born in
Hamilton, Ontario, Feb. 16, 1848. He
was graduated at McGill University
in 1869, and, after studying in Paris,
began the practice of medicine in
Montreal, devoting himself especially
to diseases of the eye. He took up
his residence in Paris in 1886, and
has won celebrity as an expert in oph-
thalmic subjects. He has written
" Ophthalmia and Optometry," and
many similar works.
Bull, John, the popular sobri-
quet or characteristic name applied to
the English nation. Its origin is ob-
scure. a It appears to have been first
used in Arbuthnot's famous satire,
the " History of John Bull," written
in ridicule of the Duke of Marlbor-
ough. This work is included hi those
of Dean Swift
Bull, Ole Bornemann, a Nor-
wegian violinist, born in Bergen, Feb.
5, 1810. He secured great triumphs
both throughout Europe and in the
United States by his wonderful play-
ing. He lost all his money in a scheme
to found a colony of his countrymen
in Pennsylvania, and had to take
again to his violin to repair his broken
fortunes. He afterward settled in
Cambridge, Mass., and had also a
summer residence in his native city,
where he died, Aug. 17, 1880.
Bull Baiting, the barbarous sport
of setting dogs on a bull, who is tied
to a stake and worried by the dogs for
the amusement of the spectators. It
was a favorite sport in England from
a very early period, till it was finally
put down by Act of Parliament in
1835.
Bulldog, a variety of the common
dog, remarkable for its short, broad
muzzle, and the projection of its
lower jaw which causes the lower
front teeth to protrude beyond the
upper. The head is massive and
broadj and the frontal sinuses large.
The lips are thick and pendulous ; the
ears pendant at the extremity; the
Duller
neck robust and short ; the body long
and stout ; and the legs short and
thick. The bulldog is a slow motioned
animal, better suited as a watchdog
than for any purpose requiring activ-
ity and intelligence. He is also said
to be capable of great affection for
bis master. His fearlessness is well
known, and in fighting, bulldogs dis-
play the most indomitable spirit. They
are apt to become vicious as they ad-
vance in years, but ordinarily a bull-
dog is not more ready than any other
dog to attack persons without some
cause.
The name was originally given to
this dog on account of its being com-
monly employed in bull-baiting in the
days when this barbarous sport was
fn vogue. The bull terrier is a dog
that partakes of the character of both
the bulldog and the terrier, and is
rather a favorite among lovers of dogs.
Buller, Sir Bedvers Henry, a
British soldier; born in Devonshire,
England, in 1839 ; entered the army in
1858 ; served in the campaigns in
China (1860), Ashanti (1873-1874),
South Africa (1878-1879), Egypt
(1882-1884), and the Sudan (1884-
1885) ; in 1890 succeeded Lord Wolse-
ley as adjutant-general of the army
and became lieutenant-general. On
the breaking out of the Boer-British
War in South Africa, in October,
1899, he was placed in command of
the British forces who went to the re-
lief of Ladysmith. On Dec. 15, fol-
lowing, in attempting to force the
passage of the Tugela river at Colen-
so, he was repulsed, with a loss of
1,097 officers and men and 11 guns.
After several repulses he succeeded in
relieving Ladysmith, March 3, 1900.
He was afterward relieved from com-
mand on the ground of failure to meet
the expectations of his military su-
periors, and much scandal was caused
by a controversy which followed re-
garding the responsibility for his
failure. He died June 2, 1908.
Bullet, the projectile used for
small-arms, either spherical or of an
elongated form. The elongated bullet
is now in general use for rifles, and
there has also been introduced some
means of dilating the bullet at the
moment of explosion, so that it is
forced into the grooves of the rifle and
exactly fits the barrel.
Bull Finck
Bullfights, the favorite or na-
tional diversion of the Spaniards, as
now practised said to be of compara-
tively modern origin, having been de-
vised by the Moors of Spain mainly
for the exhibition of horsemanship,
courage, and dexterity with the lance.
At first it was practised by gentlemen
armed only with a short spear or jave-
lin ; and on grand occasions, especially
the coronation of a king, such com-
bats are still exhibited. But generally
the combatants are professionals. The
excommunications of the Popes have
not been sufficient to induce the Span-
iards to abandon this amusement.
Charles IV. abolished it ; but it was
soon revived again. The assailants
are seldom killed in these sports. Bull-
fights are got up either for private
gain or for the benefit of some public
institution. This characteristic na-
tional- sport or diversion is exhibited
at Madrid through the summer at least
once a week for the benefit of the gen-
eral hospital. The bullfights are held
in special rings or amphitheaters, that
at Madrid being capable of seating
12,700 persons, its cost of erection
having been $400,000.
BULL FINCH.
Bull Fiuch, a well known bird,
locally known as the norskpipe, the
coal-hood, the hoop, or the tony hoop,
the alp, and the hope. Its song Is
Bull Frog
much prized. It is often domesticated.
It is found in many lands.
Bull Frog, any frog which croaks
with a deep rather than a sharp sound.
A species of frog found in Carolina
and the parts adjacent, which has a
voice not unlike that of a bull. It is
six or eight inches long, by three or
four broad, without the legs. It swal-
lows ducks and young goslings whole.
It is difficult to catch from its length
of leap, besides which it is generally
left unharmed because it is said to
purify rather than to pollute the
water in which it lives.
Bullhead, various fishes having
large heads.
Bullinger, Henri, a celebrated
Swiss reformer ; born in Bremgar-
ten in 1504 ; died in Zurich in 1575.
Bullion, uncoined gold and silver
in bars or in the mass. United States
standard bullion contains 900 parts of
pure gold or pure silver, and 100 parts
of copper alloy. The coining value of
an ounce of pure gold is $20.67183,
and the coining value of an ounce of
standard gold is $18.60465. The coin-
ing value in standard silver dollars of
an ounce of pure silver is $1.2929, and
the coining value of an ounce of stan-
dard silver is $1.1636.
Bull Run, or Bull's Run, a
stream in Virginia, dividing Fairfax
and Prince William counties, in the
N. E. part of the State, and flowing
into the Oecoquan river 14 miles from
the Potomac. On its banks were
fought two of the most memorable bat-
tles during the Civil War. After a
series of heavy skirmishes, July 16-
19. 1861, the Union army under Gen-
eral McDowell was on the 21st utter-
ly routed by the Confederates under
the command of Generals Beauregard
and J. E. Johnston. The Union loss
was about 3,000 men, while that of
the Confederates was estimated at
nearly 2,000 men. The former lost,
in addition, 27 guns, besides an im-
mense quantity of small arms, ammu-
nition, stores, provisions, and accou-
trements. On Aug. 30, 1862, another
great battle was fought here between
the Union forces commanded by Gen-
eral Pope, and the Confederates un-
der Generals Lee, Longstreet, and
** Stonewall " Jackson, when the for-
mer were again defeated with heavy
Bulthaupt
loss. The three battles of Groveton,
Bull's Run, and Chantilly, fought in
three successive days, cost the Union
cause about 20,000 men in killed,
wounded, missing, and prisoners, 30
guns, and 30,000 small arms. The
first battle of Bull Run is sometimes
known as the battle of Manassas.
Bull Terrier, a variety of dog, a
cross breed between the bull dog and
terrier.
Bulnes, Manuel, a Chilian sol-
dier and statesman, born in Concep-
cion, Dec. 25, 1799. He served in
most of the battles of the Chilean rev-
olution. In 1838 he commanded the
Chilean army of 5,000 men against
Santa Cruz, in Peru, and was finally
instrumental in driving Santa Cruz
from the country and breaking up the
Peru-Bolivian confederation. In 1841
he was elected President of Chile and
served for 10 years. He was after-
ward Senator and Councilor of State.
He died in Santiago, Oct. 18, 1866.
Bulpw, Hans Guido von, a Ger-
man pianist and composer, born in
Dresden, Jan. 8, 1830; died in Cairo,
Feb. 13, 1894.
Bulow, Karl Eduard von, a
German author, born at Burg vor
Eilenburg in Saxony in 1803 ; died in
1853.
Bulow, Margarete von, a Ger-
man novelist, born in Berlin in 1860.
She lost her life in an attempt to res-
cue a boy from drowning, in 1885.
Buloz, Francois, born near Ge-
neva, Switzerland, 1803, died at Paris
in 1877 ; founder and editor of the
" Revue des Deux Mondes," the cele-
brated French fortnightly literary
magazine.
Bulrush, or Bullrush, called
also cat's tail or reed mace. The bul-
rush of Scripture is the translation of
two distinct Hebrew words, agmon,
possibly an arundo or some similar
genus, in Isa. Iviii : 5, and gome, evi-
dently the papyrus nilotica (Ex. ii:
3, Isa. xviii: 2).
Bulthaupt, Heinrich Alfred,
a German poet and dramatist, born in
Bremen, Oct. 26, 1849. On quitting
the university he was for a while a
private tutor ; then he traveled in the
East, in Greece, and in Italy. He
was a lawyer in his native town for
Bnlwer
some years, and in 1879 became cus-
todian of the city library. Of his
dramatic compositions the list is very
long.
Bulwer. Henry Lytton Earle
(Lord Balling), an English author
and diplomatist, brother of Sir Ed-
ward Bulwer-Lytton, born Feb. 13,
1801 ; died in Naples, May 23, 1872.
Bui wer- Clayton Treaty, a
treaty negotiated at Washington, D.
C., in April, 1850, by John M. Clay-
ton, Secretary of State under Presi-
dent Taylor, and Sir Henry Bulwer,
British Minister to the United States.
The treaty provided that neither the
United States nor Great Britain
should attempt to control a proposed
canal across Nicaragua. The treaty
provided further for the neutrality
of the canal, and it guaranteed en-
couragement to all lines of inter-
oceanic communication. The terms
of the treaty were afterward much
disputed. On March 3, 1899, Con-
gress passed a bill providing for the
construction of a canal on the Nica-
ragua route, which also authorized
the President to open negotiations
with Great Britain for the abroga-
tion of the Bulwer-Clayton Treaty,
and under the last clause a conven-
tion between the two countries, abro-
gating portions of the treaty, was
signed in Washington, Feb. 5, 1900.
Bnlwer-Lytton. See LYTTON,
EDWARD GEORGE EAELE.
Bulyea, George Henry Vicars,
a Canadian official: born in Gage-
town, N. B., Feb. 17, 1859; removed
to Qu'appelle (in the former Assini-
boia District, N. W. T.); became
Commissioner of Yukon Territory,
Territorial Secretary and Minister of
Agriculture, and the first lieutenant-
governor of the new Province of Al-
berta (1905).
Bunce, Oliver Bell, author and
editor, born New York, Feb. 8, 1828.
He edited " Appleton's Journal," " Pic-
turesque America," " Picturesque Eu-
rope," "Picturesque Palestine," etc.,
and wrote " Romance of the Revolu-
tion," " Don't : A Manual of Mistakes
and Improprieties," " My House : An
Ideal ; " a novel, and plays. He died at
New York, May 15, 1890.
Buncombe, a county in North
Carolina. The term bunkunu mean-
Bnnker Hill
ing talking for talking's sake, bombas-
tic speech making, is said to have orig-
inated with a Congressional member
for this county, who declared that he
was only talking for Buncombe when
attempts were made to cut his oratory
short. '
Bundesrath, the German Federal
Council which represents the individ-
ual States of the Empire, as the
Reichstag represents the German na-
tion. It consisted (1916) of 61 mem-
bers, appointed by the Governments
of the individual States for each ses-
sion, while the Reichstag had 397
members, elected by popular ballot.
The duration of the legislative period
is five years. The Bundesrath is quite
similar to the United States Senate.
Bungalow, originally a kind of
house erected by Europeans in India ;
now very popular in the United States
for a summer residence.
Bunion, a term applied in surgery
to enlarged bursae, or synovial sacs,
situated on any part of the foot. In
the great majority of cases, bunions
are directly produced by the pressure
of badly fitting boots ; and if the boots
are constructed of patent leather, or
any material which stops the excret-
ing action of the skin, this, too, may
be regarded as an indirect cause of
their formation. Sometimes, however,
the tendency to suffer from bunions is
hereditary, and almost irremediable.
A bunion begins as a painful and ten-
der spot at some point exposed to
pressure ; the part gradually enlarges,
and there are indications of an effu-
sion into a natural bursa or a newly
formed sac. The disease sometimes
proves so troublesome that amputation
of the toe, or excision of the ends of
the bones affected, has been resorted to.
Bunker Hill, an eminence, 110
feet high, in the Charlestown district
of Boston, Mass., connected by a ridge
with another elevation, 75 feet high,
named Breed's Hill. These heights
are memorable as being the seat of a
battle, June 17, 1775, and known un-
der the name of Bunker Hill. The
city of Boston was occupied by the
British under General Gage, who had
resolved to begin offensive operations
against the rebels. This design be-
coming known in the American camp,
it was determined to seize and fortify
Bunner
the heights of Charlestown on the
night of June 16. The execution of
this perilous mission was confided to
Colonels Prescott and Pepperell at the
head of a brigade of 1,000 men ; and
at dawn of day a strong redoubt was
already completed on Breed's Hill.
About 1,500 Americans advanced suc-
cessively to the relief of Prescott, and
General Warren entered the redoubt
as a volunteer, refusing the command
which was tendered to him. At about
2.30 o'clock, two columns of the Brit-
ish advanced to a simultaneous as-
sault; they were received with a ter-
rific fire, and twice repulsed in disor-
der. When the Americans had ex-
hausted all their ammunition, Prescott
gave the order for retreat. They re-
ceived a destructive volley as they left
the redoubt, and Warren fell, shot
through the head with a bullet. The
retreat was harassed by a raking fire
from the British ships and batteries,
but there was no pursuit beyond
Charlestown Neck. The British loss
was 226 officers and men killed, and
828 wounded ; that of the Americans
145 killed or missing, and 304
wounded. Although a defeat, the
moral result of this action was great.
The Americans had seen superior num-
bers of the disciplined soldiers of Eng-
land retreat before their fire, and
given the proof that they were able
to defend their liberties. On Breed's
Hill, and near the spot where Warren
fell, stands now the Bunker Hill Mon-
ument, the corner stone of which was
laid by the Marquis de Lafayette,
June 17, 1825. This monument was
inaugurated June 17, 1843. It con-
sists of a plain granite shaft, 220 feet
high, 31 feet square at the base, and
15 at the top. The monument affords
a magnificent panoramic view of the
surrounding country.
Bnnner, Henry Cuyler, an
American poet and story writer; born
in Oswego, N. Y., Aug. 3, 1855; be-
came a journalist in 1873, and was
editor of " Puck " from shortly after
its start till his death. He died in
Nutley, N. J., May 11, 1896.
Bunsen, Christian Karl Josias,
Chevalier, a distinguished German
statesman and philosopher; born in
Korbach, in the principality of Wai-
deck, Aug. 25, 1791; died in Bonn,
Nev. 28, I860.
Bunyan
Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm Zb-
erhard, a German chemist ; born in
Gottingen, March 31, 1811. He waa
successively professor in Cassel, Mar-
burg and Heidelberg. Among his
many discoveries and inventions are
the production of magnesium in quan-
tities, magnesium light, spectrum
analysis, and the electric pile and the
burner which bear his name. He died
in Heidelberg, Aug. 16, 1899.
Bunsen Battery, a modification
of the Grove battery, plates or bars of
gas coke being used instead of plati-
num. The electromotive force is
slightly less than that of the Grove
battery.
Bunsen's Burner, a form of gas
burner especially adapted for heating,
consisting of a tube, in which, by
means of holes in the side, the gas
becomes mixed with air before con-
sumption, so that it gives a non-lumi-
nous smokeless name.
Bnnt, attacks the ears of wheat,
completely filling the grains with a
black, fetid powder. This powder is
a mass of spherical, reticulated spores,
which, when crushed, give out a most
disagreeable smell. It was formerly
called stinking rust Bread made
from flour containing this fungus has
a disagreeable flavor and a dark color.
Such flour, however, is said to be
sometimes used in the manufacture of
gingerbread, the molasses effectually
disguising the flavor. The presence of
bunt is readily detected by the micro-
scope.
Bunting, the popular name of a
number of insessorial birds, as the
common bunting, the rice bunting, the
Lapland, snow, black-headed, yellow,
cirl, and ortolan buntings. The snow
bunting is one of the few birds which
cheer the solitudes of the Polar re-
gions.
Bunting, a thin woolen stuff, of
which the colors and signals of a ship
are usually formed ; hence a vessel's
flags collectively.
Bunyan, John, author of the
" Pilgrim's Progress," was the son of
a tinker, and was born in the village
of Elstow, near Bedford, England, in
1628. After receiving a scanty edu-
cation, he for some time led a wander-
ing life. During the civil war he
served as a soldier, most probably in
"Buoy
the army of the Parliament; and his
wind now became impressed with a
deep sense of religion. This reforma-
tion in his life was powerfully assisted
by the piety of his wife, whom he mar-
ried in 1648 or 1649, and who died
some seven years later. He joined a
Nonconformist body in Bedford, and
at length in 1657 formally undertook
the office of a public teacher among
them. Acting in defiance of the se-
vere laws enacted against dissenters
from the Established Church, Bunyan
was arrested on Nov. 12, 1660, and
committed for trial to the county jail.
He was indicted at the quarter-sessions
early in 1601, and after an irregular
trial was sentenced to three months'
imprisonment, which was to be fol-
lowed by banishment if he persisted in
his determination to repeat his of-
fense. He could not be induced to
moderate his zeal, and consequently
though not banished, he lay in prison
almost continuously till 1G72, and
was again imprisoned in 1675 for six
months.
To this confinement he owes his lit-
erary fame, for, in the solitude of his
cell, his ardent imagination, brooding
over the mysteries of Christianity, the
miraculous narratives of the sacred
Scripture, and the visions of Jewish
prophets, gave birth to that admired
religious allegory, the " Pilgrim's
Progress " — a work which, like
" Bobinson Crusoe," has remained un-
rivaled amid a host of imitators. The
first edition appeared in 1678; the
second, describing the journey of
Christian's wife and children, was
published in 1684. His "Holy War
made by Shaddai upon Diabolus "
(1682), his other religious parables,
and his devotional tracts, which are
numerous, are also remarkable, and
many of them valuable. He died dur-
ing a visit to London, Aug. 31, 1688.
Buoy, any floating body employed
to point out the particular situation of
a ship's anchor, a shoal, the direction
of a navigable channel, etc. They are
made of wood, or, now, more com-
monly of wrought iron plates riveted
together and forming hollow cham-
bers. They are generally moored by
chains to the bed of the channel, etc.
They are of various shapes, and re-
ceive corresponding names ; thus, there
are the can buoy, the nun buoy; the
Bnrchard
bell, mooring, whistling, etc. buoys. A
life-buoy is one intended to keep a per-
son afloat.
Burbage, Richard, a noted Eng-
lish actor and contemporary of Shake-
speare, b. 1567, d. 1619.
Burbank, Lnther, American hor-
ticulturist, b. Lancaster. Mass., Mar.
7, 1849. The son of a farmer, he be-
came interested in plant life and
earned a world-wide reputation on the
Burbank Exposition Farms at Santa
Rosa, Cal., in new developments
through cross-breeding. He originated
the plumcot, a new fruit ; a white
blackberry ; new apples ; gold and pit-
less plums ; a new potato ; an edible
thornless cactus for desert travelers ;
new prunes, roses, violet-odored lilies,
etc., the number of fruits and flowers
which he improved being unequaled.
In 1905 the Carnegie Institution
granted him $10,000 yearly for 10
years to continue his work.
Burbot, or Burbolt, a fish of thd
cod family, shaped like au eel.
Bnrbridge, Stephen Gano, an
American military officer, born in
Scott county, Ky., Aug. 19, 1831; or-
ganized for the Union army the fa-
mous 26th Kentucky Regiment, which
he led at Shiloh; led the charge at
Arkansas Post and at Port Gibson,
being the first to enter each of these
places; retired 1865; died 1894.
Burch, Charles Summer, an
American clergyman; born in Pinck-
uey, Mich., June 30, 1854; was en-
gaged for several years in editorial
work; ordered deacon in the Protest-
ant Episcopal Church in 1895, and
ordained priest in 1905; and in 1910
was elected the first suffragan bishop
(for New York) of the Episcopal
Church in America.
Bnrchard, Samuel Dickinson,
an American Presbyterian clergyman,
born in Steuben, N. Y., Sept. 6, 1812 ;
for many years pastor in New York
city; created much political excitement
throughout the United States by an
alliterative characterization of the
Democratic Party during the Presi-
dential campaign of 1884. A com-
pany of clergymen, about 600 in num-
ber, called on James G. Blaine, the
Republican candidate, at the Fifth
Avenue Hotel, New York city, where
Burchard made an address, in which
Burckhardt
he affirmed that the antecedents of the
Democracy were " Rum, Romanism,
and Rebellion." He died in Saratoga,
N. Y., Sept 25, 189L
Bnrckliardt, Joliann Ludwig, a
Swiss traveler, born in Lausanne in
1784. He went to England in 1806,
and undertook a journey of explora-
tion to the interior of Africa for the
African Association. He started in
1809, assuming an Oriental name and
costume; spent some time in Syria,
thence visited Egypt and Nubia; spent
several months at Mecca, and visited
Medina ; and, after a short stay in
Egypt, died at Cairo while preparing
for his African journey, in 1817.
Burden, Henry, an American in-
ventor, born in Dumblane, Scotland,
April 20, 1791; was brought up on a
farm, and, at an early age, showed
his inventive genius by making a va-
riety of labor-saving machinery, in-
cluding a threshing machine. He
came to the United States in 1819;
engaged in the manufacture of agri-
cultural implements ; invented an im-
proved plow; the first cultivator made
in this country ; machines for making
horse shoes and hook headed spikes
used on railroads: a self-acting ma-
chine for rolling iron into bars ; and
a new machine for making horse shoes,
which received a rod of iron and turned
out completed shoes at the rate of 60
a minute. He died in Troy, N. Y..
Jan. 19, 1871.
Bnrdett, Sir Francis, an Eng-
lish politician, born Jan. 25, 1770. He
sat in the British Parliament for 40
years, as a Liberal of the most ultra
type; was one of the earliest advo-
cates of Parliamentary reform, and
suffered bitter persecutions at the
hands of the Tory government of those
times. He was twice imprisoned in
the Tower of London for his outspoken
Liberalism, fined $5,000, and con-
demned to three months' further im-
prisonment in the King's Bench. He
died Jan. 23, 1844.
Bnrdette, Robert Jones, an
American journalist and humorist,
born in Greensboro, Pa., July 30,
1844. He served in the Union army
during the Civil War. He was fam-
ous for humorous newspaper skits, of
rare variety, charm, and freshness.
Licensed as a Baptist clergyman in
1887 ; died Nov. 19, 1914.
Bureaucracy
Burdett-Coutts The Right
Hon. Angela Georgina, Baron-
ess, daughter of Sir Francis Bur-
dett, born April 21, 1814. In 1837.
she inherited much of the property or
her grandfather, Thomas Coutts, the
banker, on the death of his widow,
Miss Mellon, the actress once, after-
ward Duchess of St. Albans. Be-
sides spending large sums of money in
building and endowing churches and
schools, she endowed the three colon-
ial bishoprics of Cape Town, Adelaide,
and British Columbia, founded an es-
tablishment in South Australia for
the improvement of the aborigines, or-
ganized the Turkish Compassionate
Fund (1877), and established a fish-
ery school at the Irish village of Bal-
timore (1887). To the city of Lon-
don she presented, besides several
handsome fountains, the Columbia
Market, Bethnal Green (1870), for
the supply pf fish in a poor district;
she also built Columbia Square, con-
sisting of model dwellings at low rents,
for about 300 families ; and the Peo-
ple's Palace owes much to her gen-
erosity. In 1871 she accepted a peer-
age. In 1881 she was married to Wil-
liam Ashmead-Bartlett (born in
1846), who in 1882 obtained the royal
license to assume her name. She died
in London, Dec. 30, 1906.
Burdick, Francis Marion, an
American jurist and legal writer, born
in De Ruyter, N. Y., Aug. 1, 1845.
He was graduated at Hamilton Col-
lege in 1869 and at its Law School in
1872. He practiced law at Utica, N.
Y., from 1872 to 1883, and was later
Professor of Law at Hamilton College
and at Cornell. Since 1891, he has
been Professor of Law at Columbia.
He has written a number of legal text
books.
Bureau, Jacques, a Canadian
lawyer; born in Three Rivers, P. Q.,
July 9, 1SQO; was admitted to the
bar in 1882; lived in Winnipeg and
Duluth, Minn. Member of Parlia-
ment for Three Rivers and St. Maur-
ice in 1900 and 1904; became Solic-
itor-General of Canada in 1907.
Bureaucracy, government by de-
partments of State, acting with some
measure of independence of each
other, instead of government by tho
heads of those departments acting as
a cabinet on their joint responsibility.
Burger
Burger, Gottfried August, a
German poet, born in Molmerswende,
Anhalt, Dec. 31, 1747; died in Got-
tingen, June 8, 1794.
Burgess, Edward, an American
naval architect, born in West Sand-
wich, Mass., June 30, 1848. He was
educated at Harvard, where he grad-
uated in 1871, and became secretary
of the Boston Society of Natural His-
tory. He was instructor of entomol-
ogy at Harvard. from 1879 to 1883.
He then became a designer of sailing
yachts. In 1884 he designed the
" Puritan," the winner of the Amer-
ica's Cup in 1885; and a year later
the " Mayflower" the winner in 1886.
He died in Boston, Mass., July 12,
1891.
Burgess, James, a Scotch Orien-
talist, born in Kirkmahoe, Dumfries-
shire, Aug. 14, 1832. He went to In-
dia in 1855 and became director-gen-
eral of archaeological surveys there.
Burgess, John William, an
American educator ; born in Corners-
ville, Tenn., Aug. 26, 1844. He was
educated at Cumberland University,
Lebanon, Tenn., and at Amherst. He
studied law and began its practice at
Springfield in 1869. During this year
he was appointed Professor of English
Literature and Political Economy at
Knox College. Two years later, he
studied abroad at Gottingen, Leipsic,
and Berlin. On his return, he be-
came Professor of History and Polit-
ical Science at Amherst, and in 1876
Professor of History, Political Sci-
ence and International Law in Colum-
bia Univ., where in 1890 he attained
the deanship of the faculty of Political
Science. In 1906-07, he was the first
to hold the " Roosevelt Professorship
of American History and Institutions "
in the University of Berlin.
Burgh, the same as borough. In
the United States the termination bor-
ough was for generations added to the
names of places, as in England; but,
under a decision of the United States
Board on Geographic Names, the form
is now boro, as Brattleboro.
Burglary, the crime of breaking
into an inhabited house by night with
intention of committing a felony. In
the United States burglary is pun-
ished by State laws, but the common
law is generally followed. Some
E.26.
Burgoyae
States include breaking into shops, of-
fices, warehouses, factories, and meet-
ing houses as burglary. An Act of
Congress of 1825 expressly includes
breaking into boats and vessels with
intent to commit a felony. In some
States the same deed done in the day-
time is defined as burglary- in the sec-
ond degree. The night is the time,
between one hour after sunset and one
hour before sunrise, or when the feat-
ures of a man cannot be clearly dis-
cerned. In North Carolina burglary is
punishable by death, but the usual
penalty is a long term of imprison- .
ment.
Bnrgkmair, a family of German
artists in the 15th and 16 centuries,
the best known of whom is Hans, born
in Augsburg in 1472. He is supposed
to have died in 1559.
Burgos, a city of Northern Spain,
once the capital of the kingdom of
Old Castile, and now the chief town
of the Province of Burgos. It stands
on the declivity of a hill on the right
bank of the Arlanzon, and has dark
narrow streets full of ancient archi-
tecture but there are also fine prom-
enades in the modern style. The ca-
thedral, commenced in 1221, is one of
the finest examples of Gothic archi-
tecture in Spain. It contains the
tombs of the famous Cid, and of Don
Fernando, both natives of Burgos,
and celebrated throughout Spain for
their heroic achievements in the wars
with the Moors. Before the removal
of the court to Madrid, in the 16th
century, Burgos was in a very flour-
ishing condition, and contained thrice
its present population (in 1910, 31,-
489). The Province has an area of
5,480 square miles, largely hilly or
mountainous, but with good agricul-
tural land. Pop. (1914) 349,423.
Burgoyne, John, an English gen-
eral and dramatic author, born Feb.
24, 1723. After having served with
distinction in Portugal, he was sent
to America in 1775. He joined Gen-
eral Gage at Boston, with large rein-
forcements, and witnessed the battle
of Bunker Hill, of which he has left
an animated description. After pro-
ceeding to Canada as Governor, he
returned to England, but in 1777 was
dispatched to take command of that
expedition from Canada against the
Burgundy
United States, the failure of which so
largely contributed to the establisB-
ment of American freedom. Few bat-
tles, indeed, have achieved, in their
ultimate influence, results so great
as the surrender of Burgoyne with
5,791 fighting men, well provided with
artillery, at Saratoga, to the army of
General Gates. He died in London,
Aug. 4, 1792.
Burgundy, a region of Western
Europe, so named from the Burgun-
dians, a Teutonic or Germanic people
originally from the country between
the Oder and the Vistula. Burgundy
is now represented by the four De-
partments of Yonne, Cote-d'Or, Saone-
et-Loire, and Ain. It is watered by a
number of navigable rivers, and is one
of the most productive provinces in
France, especially of wines.
Burgundy Wine, the finest of all
the French wines, the produce of vines
cultivated in the Cote-d'Or, a portion
of the ancient Province of Burgundy.
Burial, the most general method
of disposing of the dead, the practice
of burning them on a funeral pile,
prevalent to a limited extent among
the Greeks and the Romans, and
nearly universal among the Hindus,
being the exception and not the rule.
The Egyptians, and, at least in some
special cases, the Jews, embalmed
their dead (Gen. I: 3, 26; John xix :
39, 40). In Europe, according to Sir
John Lubbock, interments in which the
corpse is in a sitting or contracted
posture belong to the stone age, and
those in which it has been burned and
only the ashes interred, to the bronze
age, and those in which the corpse
lies ^ extended, presumably to the age
of iron. In ancient Peru, however,
and some other parts of America this
form of interment was within the re-
cent historic period.
Buriats, a nomadic Tartar people
allied to the Kalmucks, inhabiting the
S. part of the government of Irkutsk
and Transbaikalia. Their number is
about 200,000. They live in huts
called yurts, which, in summer, are
covered with leather, in winter with
felt.
Buriti, a South American palm
growing to the height of 100 to 150
feet, preferring marshy situations,
and bearing an imposing crown of fan
Bnrleson
shaped leaves. A sweet vinous liquor
is prepared from the juice of the stem,
as also from the fruits.
Burke, Edmund, a British orator
and statesman ; born in Dublin, Ire-
land, Jan. 12, 1729. The first speech
of Burke in Parliament was on the
Grenville Stamp Act ; and it was at
his advice that the Rockingham ad-
ministration took the middle and un-
decided course of repealing the act,
and passing a law declaratory of the
right of Great Britain to tax the
American colonies. This ministry was
soon dissolved to make room for a
new cabinet under Pitt. He opposed
the ministerial measures antecedent
and consequent to the American war;
and the whole powers of his eloquence
were exerted first to prevent, and then
to heal the fatal breach between the
mother country and her colonies. In
1774 he was chosen member for Bris-
tol, and for the next eight years Fox
warmly supported him in his opposi-
tion to Lord North's administration.
In 1778 he delivered his famous
speech against the employment of the
Indians in the American war. The
last great act of his Apolitical life was
his condemnation of the French Revo-
lution. He died July 9, 1797.
Burke, John Benjamin Butler,
Irish scientist ; scholar and gold med-
alist of Trin. Coll., Dublin ; research
degree, Cambridge Univ., 1900; in
1905 demonstrated spontaneous gener-
ation by " radiobe " cultures showing
growth and sub-division. He was an-
ticipated, in 1904, by Prof. Dubois's
radium, and also barium, " eobes."
Burke, Robert O'Hara, an Irish
explorer ; one of the first white men
to cross the Australian continent from
S. to N., was born at St. Cleram,
County Gal way, in 1820 ; educated in
Belgium; served in the Austrian army
(1840), became captain, joined the
Irish constabulary (1848), and emi-
grated to Australia in 1853. While
inspector of police in Victoria he ac-
cepted the leadership of an expedition
for crossing the Australian continent.
After many hardships, Burke and
Wills reached the tidal waters of the
Flinders river. He died of starva-
tion on his return journey, June 28,
1861.
Burleson, Albert Sidney, an
American executive, born in San
Burlingame
Marcos, Tex., June 7, 1863 ; was grad-
uated at the University of Texas in
1884; admitted to the bar in 1885;
Representative in Congress in 1899-
1913 ; re-elected but resigned to become
Postmaster-General, March 5, 1913.
Burlingame, Anson, an Ameri-
can diplomatist, born in New Berlin,
N. Y., Nov. 14, 1822. He was sent
as United States Minister to China in
1861, and on his retirement from this
post, in 1867, he was requested by
the Regent, to go on a special mission
for the Government to foreign courts.
Died in St. Petersburg, Feb. 23, 1870.
Burlingame, Edward Liver-
more, an American man of letters,
born in Boston, May 30, 1848. He
was private secretary to his father,
Anson Burlingame; after 1879 was
associated with the house of Charles
Scribner's Sons; and in 1886 became
editor of " Scribner's Magazine."
Burlington, city and capital of
Chittenden county, Yt.; on Lake
Champlain and the Central Vermont
and Rutland railroads; 40 miles N.
W. of Montpelier; has exceptionally
fine scenic environments, a commodi
ous harbor protected by a breakwater
and enhancing its value a port of
entry, and flour, cotton, saw, and
planing mills, and machine shops; is
the seat of the State University and
the State Agricultural College, and
the see of a Protestant Episcopal
and a Roman Catholic; bishop. Pop.
(1910) 20,463.
Burlington, city and capital of
Des Moines county, la.; on the Mis-
sissippi river and the Chicago, Bur-
lington & Quincy and other trunk
line railroads; 206 miles W. of Chi-
cago. It is in a noted bituminous
coal region; is an important distrib-
uting point in general trade and es-
pecially in grain; has large building
and paving brick plants, a consider-
able output of steam and gas engines,
farming machinery and implements,
patent medicines, and woolen goods,
ard the machine shops of the Chi-
cago, Burlington & Quincy railroad.
Pop. (1910) 23,234.
Burma, a province of British
India; on the E. side of the Bay
of Bengal; bounded on the E. by
Siam, the Laos territory, and China,
and on the N. and N. W. chiefly by
Burnaby
Assam and other parts of India. At
one time it formed the greater por-
tion of a native empire, its greatest
length being about 1,200 miles, and
its breadth 600; its area being then
about 270,000 English sq. m. In
1826 Arracan aud Tenasserim, in 1852
Pegu and Martaban, and in 1886
the rest of the kingdom was an-
nexed by Great Britain, King Thee-
baw deposed, and British or Lower
Burma and Upper Burma united in
one province under a lieut.-gov. The
chief towns are Mandalay, cap. Upper
Burma; Rangoon, cap. Lower Burma;
and Moulmein. Rice, wheat and other
grains, cotton, tobacco, sugar cane
and tea are cultivated, the famous
ruby mines worked, and the oil
fields exploited by the American Stand-
, ard Oil Co. All outside oil is ex-
i eluded by law.t Area (1916) 230,839
i square miles ; pop. (1911) 12,115,217;
1 capital of Lower Burma, Rangoon
(pop. 293,316), of Upper Burma,
Mandalay (pop. 138,299).
Bnrmeister, Hermann, a German
scientific writer, born in Stralsund,
Jan. 15, 1807 ; distinguished himself
as a geologist and zoologist in his na-
tive country, and settled permanently
in the Argentine Republic, where he
continued his investigations. He died
in Buenos Ayres, Argentine Repub-
lic, May 2, 1892,
Bnrmeister, Richard, a Ger-
man-American musical composer ;
born in Hamburg, Germany, Dec. 7,
1860; received an academical educa-
tion in Hamburg; studied with Franz
Liszt, and in Rome, Budapest, and
Weimar ; made concert tours in Eu-
in 1883-1885 and in the winter of
1893; was at the head of the piano
department of Peabody Institute, Bal-
timore, Md., in 1885-1897; and set-
tled in New York in the latter year.
He made concert tours all over the
United States and was director of the
Scharwenka Conservatory, New
York, in 1897-1899.
Burnaby, Frederick Gustavus,
soldier, traveler, and author, born
in Bedford, England, March 3, 1842;
a son of the Rev. G. A. Burnaby. On
Jan. 17, 1885, while serving as lieu-
tenant-colonel of the Royal Horse
Guards in the Egyptian campaign, be
was killed at the battle of Abu-Klea.
Bnraand
Burnley
Bnmand, Francis Cowley, an
English author and dramatist, born
Nov. 29, 1836. He was editor of
"Punch" in 1880-1906. He wrote
the libretto for Sullivan's " Chief-
tain" (1894).
Burne-Jones, Sir Edward, an
English painter, born in Birmingham,
Aug. 28, 1833; died in London, July
17, 1898.
Bnrnet, Jacob, an American
jurist, born in Newark, N. J., Feb. 22,
1770. Admitted to the bar in 1796,
he removed to Cincinnati, then a vil-
lage with about 500 inhabitants, and
was a member of the territorial gov-
ernment from 1799 till the establish-
ment of a State Government in 1803.
In 1821 he was appointed Judge of the
Supreme Court of Ohio, and was
elected United States Senator in 1828.
Burnet was elected a member of the
French Academy of Sciences upon the
recommendation of Lafayette. He
died in Cincinnati, May 10, 1853.
Burnett, Frances Hodgson, an
Anglo-American novelist, born in Man-
chester, England, Nov. 24, 1849. Her j
family removed to Tennessee in 1865.
She early wrote stories. In 1873 Miss
Hodgson married Dr. Burnett, from
whom she obtained a divorce in 1898,
afterwards marrying Stephen Town-
send. Her most successful work was
"Little Lord Fauntleroy." "The Mak-
ing of a Marchioness" appeared 1901.
Bnrney, Charles, an English
composer and writer on music; born
in Shrewsbury, England, April 7,
1726 ; died April 12, 1814.
Bnrney, Frances (Madame
d'Arblay), an English novelist,
daughter of Charles Burney; born in
King's Lynn, Norfolk, June 13, 1752 ;
died in Bath, Jan. 6, 1840.
Bnrnham, Clara Louise, an
American story writer, born in New-
ton, Mass., May 25, 1854. She is the
daughter of George F. Root, and has
lived in Chicago since childhood. She
has written several novels, and has
also written libretti for her father's
cantatas.
Bnrnhant, Daniel Hudson, an
American architect, born in Hender-
son, N. Y., Sept 4, 1846. He studied
architecture in Chicago and designed
notable structures there, including the
Rookery, Calumet Club, the Temple,
Masonic Temple, the Great Northern
Hotel, etc. He was Director of Works
at the Chicago World's Fair. He died
June 1, 1912.
Bnrnham, Sherbnrne Wesley,
an American astronomer, born in
Thetford, Vt, in 1838. He took up
astronomy as an amateur, and, in
1876, became connected with the Chi-
cago Observatory, and later with the
Lick Observatory, receiving also an
appointment as Professor of Practical
Astronomy at the University of Chi-
cago. He has made notable discover-
ies of double stars, having catalogued
1,274 new ones.
Burning, a mode of capital pun-
ishment formerly common in civilized
countries.
In metal working, joining metals by
melting their adjacent edges, or
heating the adjacent edges and run-
ning into the intermediate space some
molten metal of the same kind. la
ceramics, the final heating of clay
ware, which changes it from the dried
or biscuited condition to the perfect
ware. The glaze or enamel is ap-
plied to the baked ware, and is vitri-
fied in the burning.
Burning Glass, a convex lens of
large size and short focus, used for
causing an intense heat by concen-
trating the sun's rays on a very small
area. The larger the circular area
of the lens and the smaller the area
of the spot on which the concentrated
rays fall, the greater is the effect pro-
duced. Concave mirrors have been
used for similar purposes, and are
also called burning glasses. Their
power was known to Archimedes, and
it is mythically stated that by their
aid he burned a fleet in the harbor of
Syracuse, 214 B. C.
Burnisher, a tool for smoothing
or pressing down surfaces to close the
pores or obliterate lines or marks.
The engraver's burnisher is made of
steel, elliptical in cross section, and
coming to a dull point like a probe.
Some burnishers are made of the ca-
nine teeth of dogs. Burnishers of
bloodstone are used for putting gold
leaf on china ware. Agate burnishers
are used by bookbinders. The gilder's
burnisher is of agate or porphyry.
Burnley, a parliamentary and
municipal borough of England, in Lan-
Burns
Burnside
cashire, about 22 miles N. of Man-
chester. It presents a modern ap-
pearance, and is, generally speaking,
well built, mostly of stone. The sta-
ple manufacture is cotton goods, and
there are large cotton mills and sev- i
eral extensive foundries and machine •
shops, with collieries and other works,
in the immediate vicinity. Pop.
(1911) 106,322.
Burns, Alexander, a Canadian
educator, born in Castlewellan, Ire-
land, Aug. 12, 1834. He went to Can-
ada in 1847, and was graduated at
Victoria College, Toronto, in 1861,
joining the Methodist Church. Frem
1868 to 1878 he was President ef
Wesleyan Ladies' College, Hamilton,
Ontario. He was tried for heresy by
the Ontario Methodist Conference in
1882, but acquitted. He died May 22,
1900.
Burns, Anthony, a fugitive
slave, born in Virginia in 1836; ar-
rested in Boston in 1854, under the
Fugitive Slave Law. An indignation
meeting, in which Theodore Parker
and Wendell Phillips participated, was
held in Faneuil Hall, while a prema-
ture and unsuccessful attempt to res-
cue Burns under the leadership of
Thomas W. Higginson resulted in j
bloodshed and the death of one of the ;
deputies. When the courts decided j
that the extradition was legal, Burns !
was escorted by a strong guard to a
revenue cutter, and a riot was barely
averted. Burns afterward regained
his liberty, studied at Oberlin College,
and became a Baptist minister in Can-
ada. He died in St. Catherine, Can-
ada, July 27, 1862.
Burns, John, an English labor
organizer and Socialist leader, born
in London in 1858. He was of hum-
ble birth and became a factory boy at
the age of 10. By working a year as
engineer on the Niger river, he earned
enough for a six months' tour of Eu-
rope. He constantly addressed audi-
ences of workmen, and in 1887 was
imprisoned for maintaining the right
of public meeting in Trafalgar Square.
In 1892 he was elected to the London
County Council, and to Parliament
from Battersea, and in 1905-06 be-
came a member of the British Cabinet
AS President of the Local Government
Board.
Burns, Robert, Scotland's na-
tional poet ; born in a clay-built cot-
tage less than 2 miles S. of the town
of Ayr, and not far from the river
Doon, Jan. 25, 1759. His father, Wil-
liam Burness (for so the name was
originally spelled), the son of a Kin-
cardineshire farmer, and a worthy and
intelligent man, at the time of the
poet's birth occupied a few acres of
land, and acted as gardener and over-
seer for a neighboring gentleman.
His mother, Agnes Brown, belonged to
Ayrshire. He died at Dumfries, Scot-
land, July 21, 1796. His fame has in-
creased as years go on, and his birth-
day is honored everywhere throughout
the civilized world, while the poems
for which he was glad to accept a few
pounds have brought vast sums to
booksellers.
Burns and Scalds, injuries pro-
duced by the application of excessive
heat to the human body. They are
generally dangerous in proportion to
the extent of surface they cover, and
a widespread scald may cause serious
consequences on account of the nervous
shock.
Bnrnside, Ambrose Everett, an
American military officer, born in Lib-
erty, Ind., May 23, 1824; served an
apprenticeship to a tailor, but re-
ceived a nomination to West Point,
where he graduated in 1847. He left
the army as First Lieutenant in 1852,
but returned as Colonel of Volunteers
in 1861, commanded a brigade at Bull
Run, and, in February, 1862, cap-
tured Roanoke Island. Having ren-
dered important services at South
Mountain and Antietam, he, in No-
vember, reluctantly superseded Gen-
eral McClellan. On December 13, he
crossed the Rappahannock, and at-
tacked General Lee near Fredericks-
burg, but was repulsed with a loss of
over 10,000 men, and was soon after
transferred to the Department of
Ohio. In November, 1863, he success-
fully held Knoxville against a superior
force and, in 1864 he led a corps, un-
der General Grant, through the battles
of the Wilderness and Cold Harbor.
Resigning in April, 1865, he was
elected Governor of Rhode Island
(1866-1868), and United States Sen-
ator in 1875 and 1881. He died in
Bristol, R. I., Sept. 13. 1881. Al-
though unsuccessful in high command
Burnt Offering
he gained universal esteem by his
frankness in avowing responsibility
for defeat.
Burnt Offering, one of the sacri-
fices divinely enjoined on the Hebrew
Church and nation. It is called, in
their language, olah, from the root
alah = to ascend, because, being
wholly consumed, all but the refuse
ashes was regarded as ascending in
the smoke to God.
Burr, Aaron, an American states-
man, and third Vice-President of the
United States, born in Newark, N. J.,
Feb. 5, 1756. While in his 20th year
he joined, in 1775, the American army,
under Washington, at Cambridge. His
ardor in behalf of the Revolutionary
cause was such that he was induced to
join Arnold as a volunteer in the ex-
pedition against Quebec, and he was
appointed aide-de-camp to Montgom-
ery. In 1776, he was received by
General Washington as one of his mili-
tary family, but was soon cast off. He
never forgave Washington this act.
Burr's military talents secured for him
the post of Lieutenant-Colonel in
1777, which he retained until 1779.
Upon Burr's retirement from military
life he resumed the study of law, and
commenced its practice in Albany in
1782, but soon removed to New York.
In 1789 he was made attorney-general
of New York. From 1791 to 1797 he
was a member of the United States
Senate. In 1800 he was a candidate
for the Presidency, and received the
same number of votes as Thomas Jef-
ferson (79), and the choice was thus
left to the decision of Congress, which,
on the 36th ballot, elected Jefferson as
President and Burr as Vice-President.
In 1804 was fought the famous duel
between- Alexander Hamilton and
Burr, in which the former was killed.
In 1807 he was apprehended, taken to
Richmond, Va., and tried on a charge
of a treasonable design upon the south-
west, but was acquitted. He resumed
the practice of law, but lived in com-
parative obscurity until his death on
Staten Island, Sept. 14, 1836. In his
later life he was for a time husband
of the noted Madame Jumel.
Burr, Edward, an American mili-
tary officer: born in Booneville, Mo.,
May 19, 1859; was a student in
Washington University in 1874-1878,
and at the United States Military
BurriU
Academy in 1878-1882, and was grad-
uated at the latter and assigned to the
corps of engineers with the rank of 2d
lieutenant in the latter year. He was
promoted 1st lieutenant in 1883, and
captain in 1894 ; and as lieutenant-
colonel of volunteers commanded the
battalion of engineers in the campaign
against Santiago de Cuba in June-
July, 1898. He was a member of the
American Society of Civil Engineers.
Burr, Enoch. Fitch, an American
mathematical and religious writer,
born in Green's Farms, Fairfield co.,
Conn., Oct. 21, 1818. He was grad-
uated from Yale in 1839, and became
pastor of the Congregational Church
iu Lyme, Conn., "in 1850. After 1868
he was a lecturer at. Amherst Col-
lege. He died in 1907.
Burr, George Lincoln, an Amer-
ican historian, born in Oramel, N. Y.,
Jan. 30, 1857. He was graduated at
Cornell in 1881 and entered its facul-
ty in 18S8, being Professor of Ancient
and Mediaevaj History there. He was
Expert in History to the Venezuelan
Boundary Commission (1896-1897).
Burr, "William Hubert, an
American educator ; born in Water-
loo, Conn., July 14, 1851 ; was grad-
uated at Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti-
tute in 1872; was employed by the
Wrought Iron Bridge Co., of New
| York city and later on the water sup-
i ply and sewerage system of Newark,
N. J. ; was Assistant Professor, and
i later Professor of Rational and Tech-
nical Mechanics at Rensselaer Poly-
technic Institute in 1876- 1884; be-
came assistant engineer of the Phoenix
Bridge Co., in 1884, and subsequently
I its general manager ; was Professor of
Engineering in the Lawrence Scier
| tific School of Harvard University
1 1892-1893; consulting engineer to the
New York city department of public
1 works in 1893-1895, of parks and of
1 docks in 1895-1897; and later
bridges.
Burrill, Thomas Jonathan, ar
I American naturalist ; born in Pitts-
field, Mass., April 25, 1839; was grad-
: uated at the Illinois State .Normal
i University in 1865; became Professor
of Botany and Horticulture there in
1868, and its vice-president in 1882;
was dean of the Department of Na-
tural Sciences in 1877-1894, and act-
ing president in 1891-1894.
Burritt
Bushel
Burritt, Elihu, an American au-
thor, called the " Learned Black-
smith," born in New Britain, Conn.,
Dec. 8, 1811. He was a blacksmith,
linguist, lecturer, reformer and a noted
advocate of peace. He died in New
Britain, March 7, 1879.
Burritt College, a co-educational
institution, in Spencer, Tenn. ; organ-
ized in 1848, under the auspices of the
Christian Church.
Burroughs, George, an American
clergjman, born in 1650; was exe-
cuted for witchcraft, at Salem, Mass.,
Aug. 19, 1692. He was graduated at
Harvard in 1670, and preached in
Salem in 1680. He was accused of
bewitching Mary Wolcott and others
by wicked arts and condemned on the
evidence of the afflicted persons. At
his execution he repeated without mis-
take the Lord's Prayer, which a witch
was said to be unable to do. Cotton
Mather witnessed his execution.
Btirrpughs, George Stockton,
an American educator ; born in Water-
loo, N. Y., Jan. 6, 1855 ; was grad-
uated at Princeton University in 1873,
and at its Theological Seminary in
1877 ; removed to New England in
1880 ; and served in the ministry of
the Presbyterian Church in Fairfield
and New Britain, Conn. ; and at Am-
herst College ; was Professor of Bibli-
cal Literature in 1886-1892 ; president
of Wabash College, Crawfordsville,
Ind., in 1892-1899; and became Pro-
fessor of Old Testament Language and
Literature in Oberlin Theological
Seminary in 1899. He died in 1901.
Burroughs, John, an American
essayist and descriptive writer ; born
in Roxbury, N. Y., April 3, 1837. He
taught school for about eight years,
was for a time a journalist and then
became a clerk in the Treasury De-
partment and subsequently a national
bank examiner. He settled on a farm
in New York State and has since de-
voted himself to fruit culture, nature
study and literature. Many of his
papers were written in his bark cov-
ered study to which he has given the
name " Riverby," on the banks of the
Hudson.
Burro-wing Owl. In the West
Indies these birds dig burrows for
themselves, in which they form their
nests and deposit their eggs, while in
the western part of the United States
they occupy the holes of the prairie
dogs jointly with the dogs.
Burrows, William, an American
naval officer, born near Philadelphia,
Pa., Oct. 6, 1785. He commanded
the " Enterprise " in its successful
action with the British " Boxer " off
the coast of Maine. Both com-
manders were killed in the fight,
Sept. 5, 1813, and were buried side
by side at Portland.
Burt, Thomas, an English labor
leader, born in Northumberland, Nov.
12, 1837. Since 1874 he has had a
seat in Parliament as a Liberal.
Burton, Marion LeTtoy, an
American educator; born in Brook-
lyn, la., Aug. 30, 1874; was ordained
to the Congregational ministry in
1905; pastor of the Church of the
Pilgrims, Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1908-
1909; became president of Smith
College (Mass.) in 1910.
Burton, Sir Richard Francis,
an English traveler, linguist, and
author ; born in Barham House, Her-
fordshire, March 19, 1821; died in
Trieste, Oct. 20, 1890.
Burn, or Boeroe, an island of the
Malay Archipelago, in the Residency
of Amboyna, from which it lies about
40 miles to the W. Area, with the
small island of Amblau, 3,360 square
miles ; population variously estimated
at from 10,000 to 50,000.
Burying Beetles. They receive
their name from a practice they have
of burying the carcasses of moles, mice
or other small quadrupeds to afford
nutriment to their larvae.
Busaco, a ridsre (1,826 feet) on
the N. side of the river Mondego, in
the Portuguese Province of Beira, 16
miles N. N. E. of Coimbra. Here
Wellington, with 40,000 British and
Portuguese troops, renulsed the attack
of Massena with 65,000 French, Sept.
27, 1810.
Bnsh Antelope, also called BUSH
BUCK, and BUSH GOAT, names
common to a number of species of AN-
TELOPE, natives chiefly of the Southern
and Western parts of Africa.
Bushel, a measure of capacity used
for corn ; or what is called dry meas-
ure. It contains 32 quarts, 8 gallons,
or 4 pecks.
Buskire
Butler
Bushire, or Abushehr, ("father)
of cities," also variously written Bush^
ahr; in Persian, Bendershehr), a prin-
cipal port of Persia, on a sandy penin- j
sula on the E. shore of the Persian
Gulf, in the Province of Fars. Pop. j
27,000, chiefly Persians, Arabs, and |
Armenians.
Bushmen, a nomadic race of
Africa. They are a thin, wiry people,
poor and debased near the coast, but
greatly improved further inland. They
recognize no king or chief, build no
houses, have no cattle or goats, do not •
till the soil, and wear skins for cloth-
ing. Their language has a rough, ,
clicking sound, and they resemble the j
Hottentots.
Bushnell, Horace, an American
clergyman and noted writer on reli-
gion, morality and other topics; born
near Litchfield, Conn., in 1802; died
in Hartford, Conn., Feb. 17, 1876.
Bushrangers, in Australia, orig-
inally convicts from the English penal
stations who took to the bush and
became robbers. The thickly wooded
mountainous districts afforded them
protection, and they soon established
a reign of terror. They became so
strong that the government had to
adopt the most stringent measures to
suppress them.
Bnsiris, a town of ancient Egypt,
in the Delta, the chief place where the
rites of Isis were celebrated. The name
is also given as that of a mythical
Egyptian King.
Bussu Palm, a palm growing in
the tidal swamps of the Amazon. The
stem is only 10 to 15 feet high; but
the immense, undivided, coarsely ser-
rate leaves are often 35 feet in length
by 4 or 5 in width. The leaves make
excellent and durable thatch. The
spathe is made into bags, caps, and
coarse cloth.
Bust, in sculpture, the representa-
tion of that portion of the human fig-
ure which comprises the head and the
upper part of the body.
Bustamante, Anastasio, a Mexi-
can statesman and revolutionist, born
in Jiquilpan, Michoacan, July 27,
1780. In 1837 he was elected Presi-
dent of Mexico. In 1842 he was
obliged to retire from the Presidency,
and was succeeded by Santa Ana. He
served in the Mexican army in the war
with the United States, retiring from
military service in 1848. He died in
San Miguel de Allende, Feb. 6, 1853.
Bustamante, Carlos Maria, a
Mexican statesman and historical
writer, born in Mexico City in 1774.
He studied law and in 1801 began its
practice. In 1805 he became editor
of the " Diario de Mejico." He held a
command under Morelos in 1812, and
was captured at Vera Cruz. He was
released, and became a member of
Congress and held other public offices.
He published a history of the Mexican
Revolution, and histories of the times
of Iturbide and of Santa Ana. He
died in Mexico City, Sept. 21, 1848.
Bustard, the name of a genus of
European birds.
Butler, borough and capital of
Butler county, Pa.; on the Cone-
quenessing creek and the Pennsyl-
vania and other railroads; 26 miles
N. of Pittsburg; is in a natural gas,
oil, coal, and iron region; and manu-
factures woolen and silk goods, plate
glass, oil-well machinery, and steel
cars. Pop. (1910) 20,728.
Butler, Benjamin Franklin, an
American lawyer and soldier, born in
Deerfield, N. H., Nov. 5, 1818 ; studied
law, and was admitted to the bar in
1841, and became distinguished as a
criminal lawyer and politician. He
was a member of the State Legislature
in 1853, of the State Senate in 185&-
1860. Butler had risen to the rank
of Brigadier-General of militia ; and,
at the outbreak of the Civil War, he
marched with the 8th Massachusetts
Regiment, and, after a check at Big
Bethel, was appointed to the command
of Baltimore and of Eastern Virginia,
with his headquarters at Fort Mon-
roe. In February, 1862, he com-
manded the military forces sent from
Boston to Ship Island, near the mouth
of the Mississippi ; and, after New Or-
leans had surrendered to the naval
forces under Farragut, he held mili-
tary possession of the city. Relieved
of his command, he acted under Gen.
Grant in his operations against Peters-
burg and Richmond in 1865. Return-
ing to Massachusetts at the end of the
war, he took an active part in politics
as an extreme radical, advocated the
impeachment of President Johnson,
and in 1866-1875 was a member of
Butler
Butter
Congress. In 1877 and 1879 he waa
defeated as a candidate for Governor
of Massachusetts, but in 1882 was
elected by a large majority. In 1884
he ran for the Presidency as the can-
didate of the Greenback and Anti-
Monopolist Parties, but carried no
State. He died in Washington, D. C.,
Jan. 11, 1893.
Butler, Benjamin Franklin, an
'American lawyer, born in Kinderhook
Landing, N. Y., Dec. 17, 1795. From
1821 to 1825 he was district-attorney
of Albany county. He was elected to
the Assembly in 1828, and from 1834
to 1838 was United States Attorney-
General. He was also acting Secre-
tary of War during part of Jackson's
administration. He died in Paris,
France, Nov. 8, 1858.
Butler, John, a royalist leader
in the American Revolution, born in
Connecticut; died in Niagara in 1794.
Butler, Nicholas Murray, edu-
cator, b. Elizabeth, N. J., April 2,
1862. He graduated at Columbia
Univ., 1882, studied in Berlin and
Paris ; from 1885 was assistant, tutor,
professor, and dean in the faculty of
philosophy, and in 1902 became Pres.
of Columbia Univ. In 1917 he became
actively identified with various war
relief measures.
Butler, Matthew Calbraith,
soldier and statesman, b. near Green-
ville, S. C., Mar. 8, 1836. He became
a lawyer 1857; served as a Con-
federate in the Civil War; rose to
Maj.-Gen.; lost his right leg in battle;
was U. S. Senator 1877-95; Maj.-Gen.
of Volunteers in the Spanish War
and Commissioner on Cuban Evacua-
tion. He died April 4, 1909.
Butler, William, an American
army officer, born in Prince William
county, Va., in 1759. He served in
the Revolution in Pulaski's corps ; af-
terward, under Pickens, Lee, and
Greene; won fame as commander of
the Mounted Rangers ; and, after the
war, became (1796) Major-General of
militia. He died in Columbia, S. C.,
Nov. 15, 1821.
Butler, William Orlando, an
American army officer and politician,
born in Kentucky in 1793. He served
in the War of 1812 and in the Mexi-
can War, and became a Major-Gen-
eral in 1846. He was the unsuccess-
ful Democratic candidate for Vice-
President in 1848. He died in Car-
rollton, Ky., Aug. 6, 1880.
Butler, Zebulon, an American
military officer, born in Lyme, Conn.,
in 1731. He served in the Revolu-
tionary War and commanded the gar-
rison at Wyoming Valley at the time
of the massacre of July 3, 1778. He
died in Wilkesbarre, Pa., July 28,
1795.
Butler University, a co-educa-
tional (non-sectarian) institution, in
Irviugton, Ind. ; organized in 1855.
Butt, Isaac, an Irish patriot; the
first to make political use of the
phrase " Home Rule." He died May
5, 1879.
Butte, a French word used in the
United States for an abrupt, and usu-
ally isolated, eminence, sometimes ap-
pearing in the form of a lofty turret.
They occur in picturesque grandeur
along the banks of the Columbia river
in Oregon, and in the neighborhood
of Butte, Mont.
Bntte, a city and county-seat of
Silverbow co., Mont., is the largest
mining town in the world, employing
! over 10,000 persons in this industry
alone, which is principally confined to
copper mining, although there are val-
i uable gold and silver mines. The Ana-
conda copper mines are located here.
Pop. (1900) 30,470; (1910) 39,165.
Butter, a fatty substance obtained
from milk. Although occasionally
I made from the milk of goats, buffa-
loes, etc., it is commonly made from
cow's milk. It was used by the an-
cients as a fuel or as an ointment or
hair dressing, but is now used almost
; wholly as a food.
The great butter making countries
of the world are the United States,
Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Northern
| France, Germany, England and Ire-
I land, and, in recent years, Australia
I must be added to the list. England
I imports large quantities from Canada,
; the United States, and Denmark, as
I well as from Australia. The United
States is an exporting country. The
Southern countries make much less
butter and consume less than the
Northern countries. In the South,
j oils, such as olive oil, take, to a con-
i siderable extent, the place of butter,
Buttercup
and, among the poorer classes, butter
is an almost unknown article of diet.
The term butter has been occasion-
ally applied to other substances. Cer-
tain vegetable oils which are solid at
ordinary temperatures, such as palm
oil, cocoanut oil, nutmeg oil, etc., are
frequently called vegetable butter, and
the name mineral butter has some-
times been applied to substances
which are wholly different in nature.
In 1914 there were 4,356 butter-mak-
ing plants in the United States, hav-
ing a capital of $59,625,000 and a
production valued at $243,379,000.
Buttercup, the popular name of
two or three species of the ranuncu-
lus. They are common plants with
brilliant yellow flowers.
Butterfield, Daniel, an American
soldier, born in Utica, N. Y., Oct. 18,
1831. At the outbreak of the Civil
War he was Colonel of the 12th New
York Militia. He served in the Pen-
hisular campaign. At Fredericksburg
he commanded the 5th Corps, and at
Chancellorsville and Gettysburg was
chief of staff. He served as chief of
staff to Hooker at Lookout Mountain,
and Ringgold, and Pea Vine Creek.
He was brevetted Major-General in
the regular army, but resigned in
1869, and became chief of the United
States sub-treasury in New York ; died
in Cold Spring, N. Y., July 17, 1901.
Butterfly, the popular name of a
group of lepidopterous insects.
Butterfly Weed, or PLETTBISY
ROOT, a plant common in the United
States, of which the root has medici-
nal repute, the infusion being used as
a diaphoretic and expectorant.
Butterine, a substance prepared
in imitation of butter, from animal or
vegetable fats.
Buttermilk, the residue of cream
after the butter has been removed by
churning. It forms a wholesome and
agreeable as well as a nourishing
drink in hot weather. It possesses
the slightly acid taste from the acidity
developed in ripening the cream.
Butternut, the fruit of white wal-
nut, an American tree, so called from
the oil it contains. The tree bears a
resemblance in its general appearance
to the black walnut, but the wood is
not so dark in color. The same name
if1 given to the nut of South America,
Buzzard
also known as suwarrow, or suwarra
nut.
Butter Tree, a name of several
trees yielding oily or fatty substances
somewhat resembling butter.
Button, a small circular disk or
knob of mother of pearl, horn, metal,
or other material. Its chief use is to
unite portions of a dress together. The
ancient method of fastening dresses
was by means of pins, brooches,
buckles and tie-strings.
Buttresses, in architecture es-
pecially Gothic, projections on the out-
side of the walls of an edifice, extend-
ing from the bottom to the top, or
nearly, and intended to give additional
support to the walls and prevent them
from spreading under the weight of
the roof.
Butyric Acid, an acid obtained
froni butter; it also occurs in perspi-
ration, cod liver oil, etc.
Buyukdereh, a town on the Eu-
ropean shore of the Bosphorus, a few
miles from Constantinople. It is fa-
mous for its scenery, and is a favorite
residence of the Christian ambassa-
dors.
Buzzard, the English name of the
buteo, a genus of birds, and especially
of three species. The turkey buzzard
is more a carrion vulture than a rap-
torial bird. They are natives of our
Southern States, where they are very
useful as scavengers, and are so much
' appreciated in this regard that in most
of the States they are protected by
law. In consequence they grow quite
tame, and in some places may be con-
sidered almost a domesticated fowl.
They are about the size of a common
turkey, and the species gets its name
from a distant resemblance between
the two. They are of a dirty black
color, and are from 25 to 36 inches
long, having an immense span of wing
(proportionate), being remarkable for
their powerful and graceful flight. Its
nest is a mere hollow in the ground
with a rampart of loose, dead branch-
es around it. These birds may be seen
by hundreds in one locality, hovering
over and lighting upon the carcass of
a dead animal. They are rarely found
N. of Pennsylvania. After the terri-
ble disaster in Galveston, Tex., in
1900, there was an entire disappear-
ance from that city of these useful
ZEBRA
\ /BUTTERFLY
MONARCH
BUTTERFLY
BUTTERFLY
COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY F. E. WRIGHT
BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS
Buzzard's Bay
Byzantine Empire
birds. The brown buzzard, called also
the glead, glede, glade, kite or put-
tock, feeds on small mammalia, birds, ,
lizards, worms and insects. It makes j
its nest in trees and ledges of rock. !
Buzzard's Bay a bay indenting
the S. E. coast of Massachusetts ;
partly formed by the Elizabeth Isl-
ands. Its shores afford many summer
resorts. Upon the bay New Bedford
is situated.
Byers, Samuel Hawkins Mar-
shall, an American historical and de- !
scriptive writer, born in 1838. Dur- j
ing the Civil War he served in the
Union army. He was taken prisoner ;
and while in prison in Columbia, S.
C., wrote the famous song " Sher-
man's March to the Sea." He was
consul at Zurich, Switzerland, from
1869 to 1884, and Consul-General to
Italy in 1885.
By-Law, a private law, the local
or subordinate law of a city, town,
private corporation or other organiza-
tion.
Byng, John, British admiral, born
1704, entered the navy in 1727, and
served under his father, Admiral
George Byng. He was sent to relieve
Minorca, blockaded by a French fleet,
but failed, it was thought, through
hesitation in engaging the enemy. The
public odium of the failure was such
that the ministry allowed Byng, who
was condemned by a court-martial, to
be shot at Portsmouth, March 14, 1757.
Bynner, Edwin Lassetter, an
American novelist, born in Brooklyn,
N. Y., in 1842; was librarian of the
Boston Law Library. He died in Bos-
ton, Mass., in 1893.
Byron, George Gordon Noel,
Lord Byron, a great English poet,
was born in Holies street, London,
an. 22, 1788. He was the grandson
of Admiral John Byron, only son,
Captain John Byron, of the Guards,
so notorious for his gallantries and
reckless dissipation that he was known
as ' Mad Jack Byron.' The injudic-
ious indulgence of a fond mother in no
way restrained the inclinations of a
naturally wayward disposition, and
Byron spent an unregulated youth un-
til his eleventh year, when the death of
his grand-uncle gave him the title and
estates of the family. While a student
in Cambridge, he essayed a collection
of poems, " Hours of Idleness," which
at best, a clever school-boy's produc-
tion, was treated seriously by Brough-
am, who criticized it over severely in
the Edinburgh " Review." The ire
this roused in Byron led to a manifes-
tation of his real powers as a poet,
and his reply to this criticism, " Eng-
lish Bards " and " Scotch Reviewers,"
recalling with its wit and sarcasm the
days of Pope, at once made him a man
of mark. After travel abroad, his
famous poems appeared in due suc-
cession, and he lived the life of a man
about town in London, until his mar-
riage in 1815 with Miss Millbanke.
The truth is not yet known about this
unhappy marriage, but within a year
they parted, and a judicial separation
was arranged. Be the cause, what it
may, Byron was blamed by the public,
and fell from the position of popular
idol to that of the most despised man
in England, which ho left in 1816,
never to return. The next few years
^were spent in dissipation and literary
work, until 1823, when he joined the
Greeks in their effort to throw off the
yoke of Turkey. The reforms he ac-
complished in a short time in the
poorly equipped and wretchedly dis-
ciplined army of the Greeks, proved
him to possess skill as an organizer,
but his physical condition did not fit
him for the rigors of a soldier's life,
and he died April 9, 1824, after a short
illness brought on by exposure.
Byzantine Empire, also known as
the Eastern Roman Empire, compre-
hended at first in Asia the country on
this side of the Euphrates, the coasts
of the Black Sea, and Asia Minor; in
Africa, Egypt ; and in Europe, all the
countries from the Hellespont to the
Adriatic and the Danube. This sur-
vived the Western Empire 1,000 years,
! and was even increased by the addition
of Italy and the coasts of the Mediter-
ranean. It commenced in 395, when
; Theodosius divided the Roman empire
between his two sons Arcadius and
Honorius, and ended with Constan-
tine XI., who reigned from 1448 to
1453.
c, the third letter of the
English alphabet and in oth-
ers derived from the Latin.
" In English," says Ben
Jonson, " it might well have
been spared, for it has no peculiar
sound of its own." It has the simple
power of k before a, o, u, and most of
the consonants; and the power of s
before e, i, y.
Caaba, or Kaaba, the Mohamme-
dan temple at Mecca, especially a
small oratory within, adored by Mo-
hammedans as containing the black
stone said to have been given by an
angel to Abraham on the occasion of
building the original caaba. The caa-
ba is at the center of the mosque of
Mecca, a building called by the Mo-
hammedans El-Haram, i. e., " The
Inviolable."
Caaing Whale, one of the Cetacea
in the dolphin family, belonging to a
genus common in all seas, and oftener
stranded than any other whale. The
total length varies from 16 to 24 feet,
the maximum girth about 10 feet. The
caaing whale is very gregarious, and
vast shoals of 50 to 100 sometimes im-
petuously follow their leader ashore
wfcen alarmed and surrounded in a
bay or fiord. Exciting scenes of this
sort have been frequently witnessed
on the Faroe Islands and elsewhere.
It is recorded that 1,110 were killed in
the winter of 1809-1810 at Hvalfiord,
in Iceland. In temper the animals are
mild compared' with some of their al-
lies. They feed chiefly on cuttle-
fishes. Many names are given to these
common cetaceans — e. g., pilot-whale,
black-fish, social whale, grindhval, etc.
The common name is derived from the
Scotch word caa, meaning " to drive."
Cab, a covered public carriage hav-
ing two or four wheels, and drawn by
I one horse. In a hansom cab the driv-
I er's seat is behind, not in front. Also
the covered part at the rear end of a
locomotive which protects the engi-
neer and fireman, and shields the lev-
ers, etc.
Cabal, in English history applied
to the ministry under Charles II.,
which consisted of five men famous
for their intrigues — Clifford, Ashley,
Buckingham, Arlington, and I>uder-
dale, whose initial letters form this
word. The use of this word to sig-
nify a body of intriguers was not,
however, derived from this circum-
stance, as some have supposed, for the
word cabale, derived frora cabala, was
used in that sense in French before
this time.
Cabala, or Cabbala, (that is, re-
ception), a word used by the Jews to
denote the traditions of their ances-
tors regarding the interpretation of
the Scriptures.
CabaSas, a town in the Province
of Pinar del Rio, Cuba; 35 miles S.
W. of Havana; is in a rich sugar-
cane section; pop. (1907) 11,552.
Cabanel, Alexandra, a French
artist, born 1823; died 1889. He was
famous for his portraits, one of
which, Miss Catherine Wolfe, in the
Metropolitan Museum, New York, is
a fair specimen of his work. He also
painted imaginative subjects.
Cabbage, a plant in general culti-
vation for culinary purposes, and for
feeding cattle. In the Northern parts
of the United States, cabbages are
sown about September, kept under
glass or frames during winter, and
planted out in spring.
Cabbage Flea, the name some*
times given to a small leaping beetle,
the larvae of which destroy seedling
Cabbage Moth
cabbages, as those of an allied species
do young turnips.
Cabbage Moth, a species of moth
the caterpillar of which feeds on cab-
bage and turnip leaves, and is some-
times very destructive.
Cabbage Rose, a species of rose
of many varieties, supposed to have
been cultivated from ancient times,
and eminently fitted for the manufac-
ture of rose water and attar from its
fragrance. It has a large, rounded,
and compact flower.
Cabbage Tree, the English name
for the palm genus Areca, and special-
ly for the cabbage palm of the West
Indies. It is so called because the
bud at the top of its stem is like a
cabbage, and the inner leaves which
form this bud are eaten like the vege-
table now mentioned, though the re-
moval of its bud for the sake of these
leaves is the destruction of the mag-
nificent tree.
Cabeiri, sacred priests or deified
heroes, venerated by the ancients as
the authors of religion and the foun-
ders of the human race.
Cabell, "William Lewis, an
American lawyer ; born in Danville,
Va., Jan. 1, 1827; was graduated at
the United States Military Academy
in 1850. During the Civil War he
served in the Confederate army ; rose
to the rank of Brigadier-General ; was
captured in Kansas in 1864, and held
a prisoner of war till April 28, 1865.
After the war he practised law in
Fort Smith, Ark., and after 1872 in
Dallas, Tex., of which he was mayor
four times ; died Feb. 22, 1911.
Cabell, James Lawrence, an
American sanitarian, born in Nelson
county, Va.., Aug. 26, 1813. He was
graduated at the University of Vir-
ginia in 1833, where he later filled the
chair of anatomy. During the Civil
War he had charge of military hospi-
tals for the Confederate Government.
He devised measures to check the yel-
low fever epidemic at Memphis and
was president of the National Board
of Health from 1879 till his death, in
Overton, Va., Aug. 13, 1889.
Cabei, Etienne, a French com-
munist, born in Dijon, Jan. 2, 1788,
and educated for the bar, but turned
his attention to literature and politics.
Cabet sent a French colony to the Red
Cabinet
river in Texas, but the colonists who
went out in 1848 found Texas any-
thing but a Utopia. Their ill fortune
did not deter Cabet from embarking
at the head of a second band of colo-
nists. On his arrival he learned that
the Mormons had just been expelled
from Nauvoo, 111., and that their city
was left deserted. The Icarians es-
tablished themselves there in 1850.
Cabet's efforts, however, were not suc-
cessful. He was finally obliged to
leave Nauvoo and retire to St. Louis,
where he died Nov. 9, 1856.
Cabeza, de Vaca, Alvar Nunez,
a Spanish explorer, born about 1507.
He was second in command in the
ill-fated expedition of Panfilo de Nar-
vaez to Florida in 1528. After the
loss of their commander, Cabesa de
Vaca, with a few survivors, landed
W. of the mouth of the Mississippi,
and after eight years of wandering
and captivity among the Indians, he
reached a Spanish colony on the Pa-
cific with three companions. He re-
turned to Spain, and in 1540 was
appointed Governor of La Plata. He
died about 1564.
Cabinet, a deliberative committee
of the executive authority, consisting
of the principal members of the Gov-
ernment. The cabinet of the Presi-
dent of the United States is composed
of the heads of the several adminis-
trative departments of the Govern-
ment. They are : 1. The Secretary of
State, 2. The Secretary of the Treas-
ury. 3. The Secretary of War. 4.
The Secretary of the Navy. 5. The
Secretary of the Interior. 6. The
Postmaster-General. 7. The Attorney-
General. 8. The Secretary of Agri-
culture. 9. The Secretary of Com-
merce. 10. The Secretary of Labor.
They are appointed to office by the
President, but must be confirmed by
the Senate, and they generally hold
office until their successors are ap-
pointed and confirmed. Contrary to
foreign systems, the United States
cabinet ministers do not have seats in
Congress ; there is no premier, al-
though the Secretary of State virtu-
ally holds that position as leading
cabinet officer. The salary of the
members of the cabinet is $12,000 an-
nually. In 1917 an enlargement of the
cabinet was proposed to better handle
war measures.
Cable
Cable is either a large rope or a
chain of iron links. Rope cables are
made of the best hemp or of wire,
twisted into a mass of great compact-
ness and strength. The circumference
of hemp rope varies from about 3
inches to 26. A certain number of
yarns are laid up left-handed to form
a strand; three strands laid up right-
handed make a hawser, and three
hawsers laid up left-handed make a
cable. The strength of a hemp cable
of 18 inches circumference is about 60
tons, and for other dimensions the
strength is taken to vary according to
the cube of the diameter. Wire rope
has within recent years largely taken
the place of hemp for tow-line and
hawsers on board ship.
Cable, George Washington, an
American novelist; born in New Or-
leans, La., Oct. 12, 1844; received a
common school education ; entered the
volunteer service of the Confederate
army in 1863 and served till the close
of the war ; when he obtained employ-
ment in a mercantile house ; and was
on the editorial staff of the New Or-
leans " Picayune " in 1865-1879. His
sketches of Creole life in " Scribner's
Monthly " proved so successful that
in 1879 he turned his entire attention
to literature. He has contributed
numerous sketches to newspapers and
magazines ; and published various
books.
Cabot, George, an American
statesman ; born in Salem, Mass., Dec.
3, 1751 ; educated at Harvard College.
In 1791 he became United States Sen-
ator for Massachusetts, and proved a
steadfast friend of the Washington
administration. He died in Boston,
April 18, 1823.
Cabot, John, (It. GIOVANNI CAB-
OTO), a Venetian pilot, the discoverer
of the mainland of North America,
settled as a merchant, probably as
early as 1472, in Bristol, England,
where he is supposed to have died
about 1498. Under letters-patent
from Henry VII., dated March 5,
1496, he set sail from Bristol in 1497,
with two ships, accompanied by Lewis,
Sebastian, and Sancto, his sons, and
on June 24th sighted Cape Breton
Island and Nova Scotia. Letters-
patent were granted Feb. 3, 1498, for
a second expedition, but whether any
voyages were made under these is
Cacerea
doubtful. However, they form the
last authentic record of his career.
The same uncertainty exists as to
the birthplace of his second son, SE-
BASTIAN, who, it now appears most
probable, was born in Bristol in 1474.
Sebastian's name is associated with
that of his father in the charter of
1496, and in 1499 he appears to have
sailed with two ships in search of a
Northwest Passage, and followed the
American coast from 60° to 30° N.
lat. ; but it has been considered doubt-
ful whether this voyage also should
not be assigned to his father. In 1519
Cabot returned to Spain from Eng-
land, and was appointed pilot-major
of the kingdom by Charles V., for
whom, in 1526, he commanded an ex-
pedition which examined the coast of
Brazil and La Plata, where he en-
deavored to plant colonies. The at-
tempt ending in failure, he was im-
prisoned for a year in 1530, and ban-
ished for two years to Oran, in Af-
rica. He seems to have died in Lon-
don in 1557.
Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, the dis-
coverer (or second discoverer) of Bra-
zil, a Portuguese, born about 1460.
In 1500 he received command of a
fleet bound for the East Indies, and
sailed from Lisbon, but having taken
a course too far to the West he was
carried by the South American cur-
rent to the coast of Brazil, of which
he took possession in the name of
Portugal. He died about 1526.
Cacao, or Cocoa, the chocolate
tree, and also the powder and beverage
made with it obtained from the fruit
of this tree. The tree is 16 to 18 feet
high, a native of trop'cal America,
and much cultivated in the tropics of
both hemispheres, especially in the
West India Islands, Central and
South America. Its fruit is contained
in pointed, oval, ribbed pods 6 to 10
inches long, each inclosing 50 to 100
seeds in a white, sweetish pulp. The
term^ cocoa is a corruption of cacao,
but is more commonly used in com-
merce : cocoa nuts, however, are ob-
tained from an entirely different tree.
Caceres, Andres Avelino, a Pe-
ruvian military officer and statesman;
born in Ayacucho, Nov. 11, 1838.
The imprisonment of Calderon, the
President, made him acting President
of Peru. Afterward, by a general
Cachalot
Cade
election, he was inaugurated Presi- i
dent (1886). On the death of Presi- i
dent Bermudez in 1894, General Ca-
ceres was proclaimed dictator, and,
May 10th, was elected President. In ;
1895 he was overthrown in a revolu-
tion by ex-Dictator Pierola. He died
Nov. 19, 1911.
CACAO PLANT.
Cachalot, the sperm of sperma- !
ceti whale. The male is from 46 to
60, or even 70 feet long ; the female ;
from 30 to 35. They are gregarious, !
and go in what the fishermen call '
schools, sometimes with as many as
500 or 600 individuals. The cachalot
inhabits the northern seas, but strag- j
gles through a great part of the \
ocean.
Cachao. See HANOI.
Cacliar, a district of Assam, India ;
area, 3,750 square miles. The inhab-
itants (313,900) are mainly engaged in
rice and tea cultivation.
Cache, a hole in the ground for
hiding and preserving provisions
which it is inconvenient to carry;
used by settlers in the Western States
and Arctic explorers.
Cachet, Lettre de, a name given
especially to letters proceeding from
and signed by the kings of France,
and countersigned by a secretary of
state.
Cache-long, a beautiful mineral,
regarded as a variety of semi-opal.
It is sometimes called pearl opal, or
mother-of-pearl opal. It is generally
of a milk-white color, rarely with a
yellowish or reddish tinge.
Cactaceae (named from the cac-
tus), Indian figs. About 800 are
known. The fruit of some species is
refreshing and agreeable, that of oth-
ers insipid.
Cactus, an old and extensive ge-
nus of Linnseus. The plant, though
now seen all over India, undoubtedly
came at first from a foreign and a
distant country. It grows very ex-
tensively in the western and south-
western part of the United States and
all over tropical America, usually on
arid lands. Once rooted in a place,
it spreads so widely abroad that it is
difficult to get it out again, and it
is believed to impoverish the land
of which it takes possession.
Caddoan Indians, a family of
North American Indians, comprising
the Arikari tribe in North Dakota;
the four Pawnee villages. Grand, Tap-
age, Republican, and Skidi, in the
Indian Territory ; and the Caddo, Ki-
chai, Wichita, and other tribes, for-
merly in Louisiana, Texas, and Ar-
kansas.
Cade, Jack, the leader of a popu-
lar insurrection in the reign of Henry
VI. of England. He collected 20,000
followers, chiefly Kentish men, who,
in June, 1450, flocked to his standard,
that they might claim redress for the
grievances so widely felt. Cade de-
feated a detachment of the royal for-
ces at Seven Oaks, and obtained pos-
session of London, the King having
retired to Kenilworth ; but having put
Lord Say cruelly to death, and laid
aside the appearance of moderation
Cadence
•which he had at first assumed, the
citizens rose, gave his followers bat-
tle, dispersed them, and put Cade to
death, 1450.
Cadence, a close, the device which
in music answers the use of stops in
language.
Cadenza, a flourish of indefinite
form introduced upon a bass note im-
mediately preceding a close.
Cadet, a younger or youngest son;
a junior male member of a noble fam-
ily. Also the name or title given to a
young man in training for the rank
of an officer in the army or navy, or
in a military school. In the United
States cadets are trained for military
life at West Point, N. Y., and for
naval life at Annapolis, Md.
Cadi, or Kadi, in Arabic, a judge
or jurist. Among the Turks cadi sig-
nifies an inferior judge, in distinction
from the mollah, or superior judge.
They belong to the higher priesthood,
as the Turks derive their law from
their prophet.
Cadiz, Spain, an important sea-
port city, capital of a province, which
forms a part of Andalusia. It reached
its highest prosperity after the dis-
covery of America, when it became the
depot of all the commerce with the New
World; declined greatly as a com-
mercial city after the emancipation
of the Spanish colonies in South
America; but again revived, owing
partly to the extension of the Span-
ish railway system, and partly to the
establishment of lines of steamers.
Cadiz is one of the most ancient
towns in Europe, having been built by
the Phoenicians, under the name of
Gaddir ("fortress"), about 1100 B.
C. It afterwards passed into the
bands of the Carthaginians, from
•whom it was captured by the Ro-
mans, who named it Gades, and under
them it soon became a city of vast
wealth and importance. Occupied af-
terward by the Goths and Moors, it
was taken by the Spaniards in 1262.
In 1898 it was the rendezvous of
the vessels of the Spanish navy
which, for a time during the war be-
tween the United States and Spain,
were expected to make a demonstra-
tion against some of the principal
American cities on the Atlantic sea-
board. Pop. (1910) 67,174.
Ceesar
Cadorna, Luigi, an Italian mili-
tary officer, born in Pallawza, Sept.
4, 1850, of a family distinguished in
the military history of Italy ; was
graduated at the Turin Military Acade-
my in 1868 and afterward at the
School of War ; was for several years
attached to the General Staff ; was
appointed its Chief when Italy entered
the great war ; and so distinguished
himself in the operations against
Austria that he was called the Joffre
of the Italian army. See APPENDIX:
World War.
Caduceus, Mercury's rod ; a winged
rod entwisted by two serpents borne
by Mercury as an ensign of quality
and office.
Cadwalader, George, an Ameri-
can lawyer and soldier ; born in Phila-
delphia, in 1804. He practiced law
till 1846 ; was made brigadier-general
of volunteers ; and won distinction at
Chapultepec. He resumed his law
practice till 1861 ; became major-gen-
eral of State volunteers ; was placed
in command at Baltimore; accom-
panied Patterson's expedition to Win-
chester (1861) ; and, as one of a mili-
tary board, directed the United States
army operations. He died in Phila-
delphia, Pa., Feb. 3, 1879.
Cadwalader, John, an American
soldier, born in Philadelphia, Jan. 10,
1742. At the outbreak of the Revolu-
tion he was placed in command of a
battalion and soon became brigadier-
general. He fought at Trenton,
Brandywine, Germantown, and Mon-
mouth. He died in Shrewsbury, Pa.,
Feb. 10, 1786.
Caen, a town of France, in Nor-
mandy, chief place in the department
of Calvados, 125 miles N. W. of Paris,
and about 9 miles from the mouth of
the Orne. Two remarkable churches
are St. Etienne or Church of the Ab-
baye-aux-Hommes, built by _ William
the Conqueror, who was buried in it,
and La Ste. Trinite or Church of the
Abbaye-aux-Dames, founded by the
Conqueror's wife. Pop. (1911) 46,-
934.
Caerleon, a town of England on
the Usk, 18 miles S. of Monmouth.
Many fine Roman remains have been,
and are still, found here.
Caesar, Cains Julius, son of a
family of the Julian gens, claiming
Caesar
Cagliari
descent from lulus, son of JEneas.
The origin of the name is uncertain.
Caesar, Cains Julius, son of a
Roman praetor of the same name, was
born July 12, 100 B. c., according to
Mommsen in 102 B. c. One of the
greatest, if not the greatest of mili-
tary commanders, he was likewise
peerless in his time as politician and
statesman. He overcame all his ene-
mies in the field, and was the dictator,
and virtually the first emperor of
Rome. During the year 46 B. C. he
conferred a benefit on Rome and on
the world by the reformation of the
calendar, which had been greatly
abused by the pontifical college for
political purposes. After quelling an
insurrection which broke out in Spain,
where Pompey's sons, Cneius and Sex-
tus, had collected an army, he received
the title of "Father of his Country,"
and also of imperator, was made dic-
tator and prsefectus morum for life,
and consul for 10 years; his person
was declared sacred, and even divine ;
he obtained a body-guard of knights
and senators ; his statue was placed
in the temples ; his portrait was struck
on coins ; the month Quintilis was
called Julius in his honor, and on all
public occasions he was permitted to
wear the triumphal robe. He pro-
posed to make a digest of the whole
Roman law for public use, to found
libraries for the same purpose, to
drain the Pontine Marshes, to enlarge
the harbor of Ostia, to dig a canal
through the Isthmus of Corinth, and
to quell the inroads of the barbarians
on the E. frontiers; but in the midst
of these vast designs he was cut off
by assassination on the Ides (15th)
of March, 44 B. O.
Csesarea, the ancient name of
many cities, such as: (1) Caesarea
Philippi in Palestine, N. of the Sea
of Galilee, rebuilt by Philip, tetrarch
of Galilee, son of Herod the Great.
(2) Csesarea, on the shores of the
Mediterranean, about 55 miles N. W.
from Jerusalem, enlarged and beauti-
fied by Herod the Great, and named
in honor of Caesar Augustus ; the place
where St. Paul was imprisoned two
years (Acts xxiii-xxv). (3) The
capital of Cappadocia, in Asia Minor.
Caesarian Operation, the most
serious operation in midwifery, and
•nly resorted to to save life.
E. 27.
Csesarion, son of Julius Caesar and
Cleopatra, put to death by order of
Augustus.
Caesars, The Era of, also known
as the Spanish Era, a period of time
reckoned from Jan. 1, 38 B. C., being
the year following the conquest of
Spain by Augustus. It was much
used in Africa, Spain, and the S. of
France ; but by a synod held in 1180
its use was abolished in all the church-
es dependent on Barcelona. Pedro
IV. of Arragon abolished the use of
it in his dominions in 1350. John of
Castile did the same in 1383. It was
used in Portugal till 1415, if not till
1422. The months and days of this
era are identical with the Julian cal-
endar, and to turn the time into that
of our era, subtract 38 from the year ;
but if before the Christian era, sub-
tract 39.
Caesium, an element discovered by
Bunsen in I860. The pure metal is
rare ; it is similar to potassium, and
has such an affinity for oxygen, it will
burst into flame when exposed to the
air.
Caffeine, Theine, or Gnaranine,
an alkaloid found in tea, coffee and
other plants used as beverages. About
1 per cent, is found in coffee, and
from 2 to 4 per cent, in tea. It has
no nutritive value. In small doses as
in a cUp of tea or coffee it helps the
circulation. In large doses, or after
prolonged drinking of tea or coffee,
it paralyses the heart's action. It is
used in medicine for various nervous
ailments. It is the element that makes
tea and coffee drinking so injurious for
some persons.
Cagayan, an island of the Philip-
pines ; the largest of six small islets,
known as the Cagayan-Sulu group.
It is 5 miles wide and 8 miles long.
Pop. (1903) 2,000. There are moun-
tains attaining a height of 1,100 feet.
The chief products are tobacco and
sugar. There are pearl and shell fish-
eries. Cagayan was sold by Spain to ,
the United States, with Sibutu, in
1900, upon payment of $100,000, hav-
ing been inadvertently excluded from
the terms of the treaty of peace.
Cagliari, Paul, also known under
the name of Paul Veronese, a painter
of Verona, born 1528; died 1588.
See VEBONESE, PAUL.
Oagliostro
Cagliostro, Alessandro, Count
of, (real name GIUSEPPE BALSAMO),
a celebrated charlatan ; born in Pa-
lermo, Italy, June 8, 1743. The dis-
covery of the philosopher's stone, the
preparation of a precious elixir vita?,
etc.,' were the pretenses by means of
•which he extracted considerable sums
from credulous people. Died in 1795.
Caguas, a town in the department
of Guayama, Porto Rico; on the
mai'i road between Ponce and San
Juan; 18 miles S. E. of the latter;
is in a section containing hot springs
and valuable quarries of marble and
limestone. Pop. (1910) 10,354.
Caiaphas, a Jew, was the high-
priest at the time when the crucifix-
ion took place. He was deposed A. D.
35, and Jonathan, the son of Annas,
appointed in his stead.
Caicos, a group of islands belong-
ing geographically to the Bahamas,
but annexed in 1874 to Jamaica. The
North, West, East, Grand, and other
Caicos, have, together with Turk's
Islands, an area of 223 square miles.
Pop. (1911) 5,615. Salt and sponges
are their chief products.
Caillie, Rene or Anguste, a
French traveler; born in Poitou,
France, Sept. 19, 1799. Having gone
to Senegal, he learned about 1826 that
the Geographical Society of Paris had
offered a premium of 10,000 francs to
the first traveler who should reach
Timbuctoo. He started from Kakon-
dy in Sierra Leone, April 18, 1827,
and after some delay caused by ill-
ness, reached the mysterious city,
•April 20, 1828. Caillie died near
Paris, May 7, 1839.
Cain, the first-born of the human
race, and the first murderer. He be-
came an outcast, traveling to the E.
of Eden, where he built a city and had
a son, named Enoch. The Jewish tra-
dition is, that he was slain by Enoch.
Caine, Thomas Henry Hall, an
English novelist and dramatist; born
in Runcorn, Cheshire, Eng., May 14,
1853. His novels, which are striking
In their pictures of human motives
and passions, are read throughout the
world.
Cairn, a round or conical heap of
stones erected as a sepulchral monu-
ment. They are found on the hills
of England, Wales, and Scotland, and
Cajabamha
some have assigned to them a peculiar
character, as receptacles for the bodies
of criminals burnt in the wicker im«
ages of the Druids, etc.
Cairngorm Stone, a mineral ; a
variety of quartz of a smoky yellow
to smoky brown, and often transpar-
ent, but varying to brownish-black,
then nearly opaque in thick crystals.
Cairo, (Arab. Musr el Kaherah
"the victorious capital"), the capital
of modern Egypt, situated in a sandy
plain between the right bank of the
Nile and the ridge of Mokattam, near
the point of the delta of the Nile.
The remarkable edifices of Cairo
comprise many of the finest remains
of Arabian architecture, all dating
from the time of the ancient sultana
of Egypt. Among these, besides
mosques, chapels, and Coptic churches,
are several of the ancient gates, an
aqueduct for conveying water from the
Nile to the citadel, the works of the
citadel, and the palace and well of
Joseph. At Old Cairo are the seven
towers, still called the " Granary of
Joseph," and serving their ancient
purpose. In the island of Rhoda is
the celebrated Nilometer. On the S.,
outside the walls, are the tombs of the
Mamelukes, and on the N. E. the obe-
lisk of Heliopolis. There are also a
magnetic observatory, and the College
of El Ahzar, the principal university
of the Mohammedan world. Pop.
(1914) 726,075.
Cairo, city, port of delivery, and
capital of Alexander county, 111. ; at
junction of the Mississippi and Ohio
rivers; on the Illinois Central and
other railroads ; 150 miles S. E. of St.
Louis. It is the trade center of a
large farming section ; has passenger
and freight steamer connections with
all important river ports ; and has a
$3,000,000 steel railroad bridge across
the Ohio. Pop. (1910) 14,548.
Caisson, a military term, denoting
a wooden chest to hold ammunition ;
formerly applied to the ammunition-
wagon itself. In engineering a cais-
son is a wooden case or frame sunk
in the beds of rivers, etc., during the
laying of the foundations of a bridge.
Cajabamba, former name of Rio-
bamba, the capital of the province
of Chimborazo, in Ecuador, 102
miles S. of Quito, on the arid plateau
Cajamarca
of Topi, at an elevation of 9,480 feet.
Pop. 16,000. The original town of j
RIOBAMBA, founded in 1533, was in
1797 overwhelmed by an earthquake in
which 30,000 lives were lost. Pop.
(1910) 18,000.
Cajamarca, a department in the
N. W. of Peru, between the W. chain
of the Andes and the Amazon. A
railway connects it with the Pacific,
and there is a large farming and cat-
tle-raising industry. Area, 12,538
square miles; pop. (1896) 442,412.
Capital, Cajamarca ; pop. 12,000.
Calabar, a maritime district of
West Africa on the Bight of Biafra,
intersected by two rivers, called re-
spectively Old and New Calabar, un-
der British protection. Duke Town
and Creek Town, the chief towns on
Old Calabar river, are stations of
British missionaries.
Calabash, a tree about 30 feet
high, found in some places wild, in
others cultivated, in the West Indies
and other tropical parts of America.
The fruit of the tree is inclosed in a
shell used by the natives of the Carib-
bee Islands for drinking cups, pots,
musical instruments, and other do-
mestic utensils.
Calabash Nutmeg, a tree of the
order Anonaceae, introduced into Ja-
maica probably from Western Africa.
The fruit resembles small calabashes ;
hence the name. It is called also
American nutmeg, or Jamaica nutmeg.
Calabria, a compartmento of Italy
(the " toe " of the boot "), between
the Ionian and Tyrrhenian seas; di-
vided into the provinces of Cosenza.
Reggio, and Catanzaro: area 5,819
square miles; pop. 1,471,780. On
Dec. 28, 1908, Calabria and Sicily
were visited by an earthquake and
tidal wave, causing an appalling loss.
Caladinm, a genus of endogenous
plants, the typical one of the family
caladieae. They are cultivated in
greenhouses here, and flourish in
warmer parts of tae world. The
leaves of the caladium are boiled and
eaten in the West Indies.
Calais, a fortified seaport town of
(France, in the department of Pas-de-
Calais, on the Strait of, and 25 miles
S. E. of Dover, and distant 184 miles
by rail from Paris. The Old Town
lor Calais proper has a citadel, and
Calamus
was formerly surrounded by fortifica«
tions; but the modern suburb of Sfc
Pierre les Calais having been amaN
gamated with Calais proper, both are
now surrounded with forts and other
works, to which morasses lend addi-
tional strength. In 1347 Calais was
taken by Edward III. of England,
after a siege of 11 months. In 1558
it was retaken by the Duke of Guise,
being the last relic of the French do-
minions of the Plantagenets, which
at one time comprehended the half of
France. Pop. (1911) 72,322.
Calamianes, an island group of
the Philippine Archipelago. Their
surface is mountainous, and richly
wooded, producing rice, wool, cacao,
and the bird's nests used for food.
Busuanga, Calamian and Linacapan
are the largest of the islands. Area
about 340 square miles; pop. over
20,000.
CAL4.DIUK.
Calamus, the reed pen which the
ancients used in writing, made of the
stem of a reed growing in marshy
places, of which the best were ob-
tained from Egypt. The stem was
first softened, then dried, and cut and
split with a knife, as quill pens are
made. To this day the Orientals gen«
erally write with a reed.
Calamus
Calcium Light
Calamus, the traditional name of
the sweet flag, which is no doubt the
" calamus aromaticus " of Roman au-
thors, and probably the sweet calamus
and sweet cane of Scripture.
Galas, Jean, a French victim of
fanaticism ; born in 1698. He was a
Protestant, and was engaged as a
merchant in Toulouse, when his eld-
est son committed suicide ; and as he
was known to be attached to the Ro-
man Catholic faith, a cry arose that
he had on that account been murdered
by his father. Jean Calas and his
whole family were arrested, and a
prosecution instituted against him, in
support of which numerous witnesses
came forward. The parliament of
Toulouse condemned him, by eight
voices against five, to be tortured and
then broken on the wheel, which sen-
tence was carried out in 1762, his
property being also confiscated. Vol-
taire became acquainted with his fam-
ily, and procured a revision of the
trial, when _ Galas was declared inno-
cent, and his widow pensioned.
Calatafimi, a town of Sicily near
its W. end, with a ruined Saracenic
castle. Near it is the scene of Gari-
baldi's first victory over the Neapoli-
tans in 1860.
Calatrava la Viega, a ruined
city of Spain, on the Guadiana, 12
miles N. E. of Ciudad Real. Its de-
fence against the Moors, undertaken
by Raymond, abbot of Fitero, and Die-
go Velasquez in 1158, after it had
been abandoned by the Templars, is
famous on account of its having orig-
inated the Order of the Knights of
Calatrava, which was instituted at
Calatrava in 1158, by King Sancho
III. of Castile, and was at several
periods associated with the Cistercian
monks. Their almost uniform success
against the Moors gave rise to rash-
ness, and in 1197 they were defeated
and nearly exterminated, the survivors
transferring the seat to the castle of
Salvatierra.
Calaveras Grove, Cal., one of the
famous groves of big trees, and the
nearest to San Francisco, measures
1,100 yards by 70 yards, and con-
tains about 100 trees. It is State
property.
Calcareous, a term applied to sub-
stances partaking of the nature of
lime, or containing quantities of lime.
Thus we speak of calcareous waters,
calcareous rocks, calcareous soils. Cal-
careous spar (crystallized carbonate of
lime) is found crystallized in more
than 700 different forms, all having
for their primitive form an obtuse
rhomboid. The rarest and most beau-
tiful crystals are found in Derbyshire,
England.
Calceolaria, a well known and
beautiful genus of plants. The spe-
cies, which are numerous, come from
South America, chiefly from the west-
ern slope or side of the Andes. The
greater number have yellow flowers,
others are purple, while in a few the
two colors are intermingled. Various
calceolarias are cultivated in the
United States.
Calciferols Epoch, one of the
subordinate divisions of the Lower Si-
lurian System of North America. The
division is characterized by the pres-
ence of calcareous sandstones and
limestones.
Calcination, the operation of ex-
pelling from a substance by heat, eith-
er water or volatile water combined
with it. Thus, the process of burning
lime, to expel the carbonic acid, is
one of calculation.
Calcite, Calcareous Spar, or
Calc-spar, the name usually given
by mineralogists to carbonate of lime,
rhombohedral in its crystallization.
It differs from aragonite only in crys-
tallization. Calcite is one of the com-
monest minerals.
Calcium, a dyad metallic element.
Calcium is a yellowish white, ductile,
malleable metal, which oxidizes in
damp air; it decomposes water, and
dissolves easily in dilute acids.
Calcium Carbide, a chemical
compound of calcium and carbon. It
is a hard, bluish-black, clear crystal-
line body, and is impervious to light,
and insoluble in all known solvents.
It is used generally for the produc-
tion of acetylene and the reduction of
iron. See ACETYLENE.
Calcinm Light, a brilliant light
produced by directing the flame of an
oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe against a
block of compressed quicklime. It
has been used on the stage for many
years, and by the aid of colored glasses
very charming effects are produced.
C ale-sinter
Caledonia
More recently it has been employed in
lanterns for projecting photographic
and biographic pictures on a screen.
Calc-sinter, a carbonate of lime,
the substance which forms the stalac-
tites and stalagmites that beautify
many caves.
Calculating Machine, a piece _of
mechanism for assisting the human in-
tellect hi the performance of arithme-
tical operations. Among modern cal-
culating machines are the slide-rule
and bank and cash registers.
Calculus, the medical term for
what is popularly known as stone.
Calculi vary in size from a pin's head
to a pigeon's egg, and even larger, and
weigh from a few grains to several
ounces. They derive their special
name and character as well from the
organs of the body in which they are
found as from the constituents of
which they are composed.
Calculus, The Infinitesimal, or
Transcendental Analysis, a branch
of mathematical science.
Calcutta, (literally, the ghaut or
landing place of Kali, from a famous
shrine of this goddess), capital of
British India, and of the presidency
and province of Bengal ; situated on
the left bank of the Hooghly, a branch
of the Ganges, about 80 miles from
the Bay of Bengal. The Hooghly is
navigable up to the city for vessels
of 4,000 tons or drawing 26 feet. The
port of Calcutta extends for about 10
miles along the river, and is under the
management of a body of commission-
ers. Opposite the city it is crossed
by a great pontoon bridge, which
gives communication with Howrah
for vehicles and foot-passengers, and
can be opened at one point to let
vessels pass up or down. Beside the
accommodation for shipping furnished
by the river, there are also several
docks. The trade is very large, Cal-
cutta being the commercial center of
India. There is a very extensive in-
land trade by the Ganges and its con-
nections, as also by railways (the
chief of which start from Howrah),
while almost the whole foreign trade
of this part of India is monopolized
by Calcutta. In 1773 Calcutta be-
came the seat of British government
for the whole of India. Since then
the history of Calcutta has been an
almost unbroken record of progress
and prosperity. Pop. in 1911, with
suburbs, 1,222,313; excluding How-
rah, 1,043,307.
Caldecott, Randolph, an Eng-
lish artist ; born in Chester, England,
March 22, 1846. He will chiefly be
remembered by the admirable " Calde-
cott's Picture-books," which began in
1878, with " John Gilpin " and " The
House that Jack Built." After vain
attempts to restore his health by trips
abroad he died in St. Augustine, Fla.,
Feb. 12, 1886.
Calderon, Francisco Garcia, a
Peruvian jurist and statesman; born
in Arequipa in 1834. He became a
member of Congress in 1867 ; 'accept-
ed the treasury portfolio in 1868, and,
after the Chilean occupation in 1883,
became the head of the provisional
government. Being captured by the
enemy, he was retained as a prisoner
at Valparaiso, and, although his elec-
tion as President was confirmed, he
was unable to take the office. After
his release he figured prominently in
public affairs. He died Sept. 21, 1905.
Caldwell, Charles Henry Bro-
medge, an American naval officer;
born in Hingham, Mass., June 11,
1828. In the Civil War he command-
ed the " Itasca," taking part in the
bombardment of Forts Jackson and
St. Philip and the Chalmette batter-
ies, and in the capture of New Or-
leans. He was promoted commodore
in 1874. He died in Boston, Mass.,
Nov. 30, 1877.
Caldwell, James, an American
patriot; born in Charlotte county,
Va., in 1734. During the growing
antagonism between the Colonies and
Great Britain, he warmly took the
side of the former, and when hostili-
ties began, became chaplain to the
New Jersey brigade. He was shot by
a sentinel, at the Point, New York,
Nov. 24, 1781, and buried at Eliza-
bethtown, N. J., where a costly mar-
ble monument covers the remains of
the " soldier-parson."
Caledonia and Caledonians, the
names by which the N. portions of
Scotland and its inhabitants first be-
came known to the Romans.
Caledonia, New, a French island
in the Pacific Ocean ; lying some 700
miles E. of Australia. Its length N.
Calendar
W. to S. E. is 250 miles, the breadth
being about 35 miles. It is surround-
ed by coral reefs, at a distance of
from 5 to 18 miles.
New Caledonia was taken possession
of by the French on Sept. 24, 1853,
and a small colony was formed there. !
During the time of the second empire :
it was employed as a place of banish-
ment for criminals, a purpose which
it still serves. In 1872, by a decree of ,
the National Assembly at Versailles,
New Caledonia was fixed on as the
place to which the condemned Com-
munists should be transported. The
number of the condemned amounted
to more than 3,000. In 1911 the total
population was 50,608, of whom 13,-
138 were free, 5,671 of convict origin,
and 28,075 black. Capital, Noumea;
pop. 10,000.
Calendar, a systematic division of
time into years, months, weeks, and
days, or a register of these or similar
divisions. The present calendar was
adopted in the IGth century, the Ju-
lian, or old Roman calendar having^
become^ «;ross]y erroneous.
Luigi Lilio Ghiraldi, frequently
called Aloysius Lilius, a physician of
Verona, projected a plan for amend-
ing the calendar, which, after his
death, was presented by his brother to
Pope Gregory XIII. To carry it into
execution, the Pope assembled a num-
ber of prelates and learned men. In
1577 the proposed change was adopted
by all the Catholic princes ; and in
1582 Gregory issued a brief abolish-
ing the Julian calendar in all Catho-
lic countries, and introducing in its
stead the one now in use, under the
name of the Gregorian or reformed
calendar, or the " new style," as the
other wa<! now called £he " old style."
The amendment ordered was this :
Ten days were to be dropped after the
4th of October, 1582, and the 15th
was reckoned immediately after the
4th. Every 100th year, which by the
old style was to have been a leap
year, was now to be a common year,
the fourth excepted; that is, 1600
was to remain a leap year, but 1700, i
1800, 1900 to be of the common length j
and 2000 a leap year again. In this ]
calendar the length of the solar year i
was taken to be 365 days, 5 hours, 49
minutes, and 12 seconds, the difference
between which and subsequent obser-
Calhoun
vations is immaterial. In Spain, Por-
tugal, and the greater part of Italy,
the amendment was introduced ac-
cording to the Pope's instructions. In
France the 10 days were dropped in
December, the 10th being called the
20th. In Catholic Switzerland, Ger-
many, and the Netherlands, the change
was introduced in the following year;
in Poland in 1586, in Hungary in
1587. Protestant Germany, Holland,
and Denmark accepted it in 1700, and
Switzerland in 1701. In England the
Gregorian calendar was adopted in
1752. The 1st of January was then
adopted as the beginning of the legal
year, and it was customary for some
time to give two dates for the period
intervening between January 1 and
March 25, that of the old and that
of the new year, as January 175 2/3.
Russia alone retains the old style,
which differs 12 days from the new.
Calends, the first day of the
month among the Romans.
Calgary, a city in the Province
of Alberta, Canada; at junction of
the Bow and Elbow rivers and on
the Canadian Pacific railway; 642
miles E. of Vancouver, 840 miles W.
of Winnipeg, and near the foothill*
of the Rocky Mountains. It is the
See of an Anglican and a Roman
Catholic bishop; contains Western
Canada College, Provincial Normal
School, St. Hilda's Ladies' College,
Convent of the Sacred Heart, Gen-
eral and Holy Cross hospitals, and a
sanitarium for consumptives; is in an
unusually rich wheat-growing and
mixed-farming region; has large live-
stock interests; and has an annual
wholesale trade exceeding $25,000,-
000. Pop. (1911) 43,704.
Callioun, John C aid well, an
American statesman; born in Abbe-
ville district, S. C., March 18, 1782;
graduated with distinction at Yale
College in 1804, and was admitted to
the South Carolina bar in 1807. After
serving for two sessions in the Legis-
lature of his native State, he was
elected to Congress in 1811. From
that time until his death he was sel-
dom absent from Washington, being
nearly the whole time in the public
service, either in Congress or in the
Cabinet. When he first entered Con-
gress, the difficulties with England
were fast approaching actual hostill-
Calico Printing
California
ties, and he immediately took part
with that section of the dominant par-
ty, whose object it was to drive the still
reluctant administration into a decla-
ration of war. They succeeded, and,
as a member of the Committee on For-
eign Relations, he reported a bill for
declaring war, which was passed in
June, 1812. When Monroe formed
his administration in 1817, Calhoun
became Secretary of War, a post
which he filled with great ability for
seven years.
In 1824, he was chosen Vice-Presi-
dent of the United States under John
Q. Adams, and again, in 1828, under
General Jackson. With the latter he
did not long continue on amicable po-
litical relations, but entered into
fierce opposition, when the President,
and a majority of Congress, deter-
mined to enforce submission to the
law of 1828, imposing a heavy protec-
tive tariff. It was at this period that
he broached his famous " Nullification
Doctrine," which is substantially, that
the United States is not a union of
the people, but a league or compact
between sovereign States, any of
which has a right to judge when the
compact is broken, and to pronounce
any law to be null and void which
violates its conditions. In short, Cal-
houn was the first great advocate of
the doctrine of Secession. From this
time forward, for the last 17 years of
his public service, he hardly aspired to
be considered a national statesman
acting for the whole country ; he was
content, even proud, to be viewed only
as a Southern statesman. Hence his
advocacy of the extreme doctrine of
State-Rights; his censure of the Mis-
souri Compromise, passed 13 _ years
before, when he was himself in the
Cabinet; his support of all measures
tending to the extension of slave-hold-
ing territory; and, finally, his pro-
posal to amend the Constitution by
abolishing the single office of the pres-
idency, and creating two presidents,
one for the North, and the other for
the South, to be in office at the same
time. The place in which he advo-
cated these doctrines was the floor of
the United States Senate, where he
continued for the rest of his life, ex-
cept for a short time at the close of
Mr. Tyler's administration, when he
accepted the office of Secretary of
State. He died in Washington, March
31, 1850.
Calico Printing, the art of pro-
ducing on calico or cotton cloth varie-
gated patterns by the process of print-
ing, the object as a rule being to have
the colors composing the designs as
fast as possible to washing and other
influences.
Calient, a seaport of India, in the
presidency of Madras, on the Malabar
coast, which was ceded to the British
in 1792. It was the first port in In-
dia visited by Europeans. It manu-
factures cotton cloth, to which it has
given the name calico. Pop. (1911)
78,417.
California, a State in the Pacific
Division of the North American Union,
bounded by Oregon, Nerada, Arizona,
Lower California, and the Pacific
Ocean; land area, 155,652 square
miles ; admitted to the Union Sept. 9,
1850 ; number of counties, 58 ; pop.
(1900) 1,486,053; (1916) 2,938,654;
capital, Sacramento.
The surface of the State is very
mountainous, being traversed by two
ranges extending in a N. W. and S. E.
direction. The Coast Range, consist-
ing of a number of broken ridges, has
an average width at the base of 65
miles, and varies from 1,000 to 8,000
feet in height. The highest peak is
Mt Ripley, 7,500 feet The Sierra
Nevada Mountains join the Coast
Range and extend along the E. border
of the State for about 450 miles, with
nearly 100 peaks exceeding 10,000
feet in height, the highest being Mt.
Whitney, 14,898 feet, Mt Tyndall,
14,386 feet, and Mt. Shasta, 14,350
feet. Between these ranges is a basin,
at some early time the bed of a lake,
about 450 miles in length, the N. sec-
tion known as the Sacramento Val-
ley, and the S. section as the San
Joaquin Valley. This valley contains
Tulare Lake, and is drained by the
Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers.
The coast line is irregular, with nu-
merous capes and bays, affording
many good harbors. San Francisco
Bay is the largest and best harbor on
the Pacific coast
California was for many years the
first State in the Union in the pro-
duction of gold, but it has now
dropped to second place. As early as
1841 gold was obtained by washing
California
California
near the San Fernando Mission. In
1848 the discovery at Coloma of large
gold deposits started the up-building
of California. At first mining was
carried on by washing the river gravel,
and in 1851 sluices were built through
which the water was passed. These
sluices were filled with blocks of wood
or stones, which collected the gold as
it sank. Digging was carried on also,
and in 1852 an hydraulic system was
introduced, by which great streams of
water were turned against the gravel
banks. This process was successful,
but by it the banks were rapidly swept
away and the detritus threatened to
choke the rivers, so that its use was
soon prohibited by law. Gold is found
in the metallic state, often associated
with silver and other metals, on the
slopes of the Sierras. It is also found
in streams and alluvial deposits in
coarse grains, and quartz deposits
where it is extracted by amalgama-
tion. A very rich quality of silver
occurs in small quantities, and mag-
netic iron and cinnabar abound in the
Sierras. Pyrites of iron and copper
are found in gold-bearing quartz, and
a rich variety of argentiferous galena
occurs in San Bernardino county.
Other valuable mineral products are :
tin, plumbago, cobalt, granites, mar-
bles, sandstones, hydraulic limestones
and bituminous coal. Diamonds, onyx
and other precious stones abound, and
bitumen and petroleum are found in
many places. In 1898-1899 there was
a great boom in the mineral oil pro-
ductions in the Los Angeles district,
where there were 750 wells working
and many new ones under construc-
tion. The output in 1915 was 86,591,-
535 barrels, valued at $36,558,439. In
the same year the production of all
minerals had a value of $97,172,541,
gold leading with $22,442,296. Agri-
culture in 1916 yielded a total of
$148,559,000, and all live stock repre-
sented a value of $182,395,000. Bank
exchanges at the clearing-houses at
San Francisco and Los Angeles in
1916 aggregated $4,405,508,000. Com-
mercial interests are concentrated at
San Francisco and Los Angeles,
•where, in the calendar year 1916 the
imports of merchandise were valued
at $122,591,063; exports, $131,197,-
872.
The soil varies with the surface
conditions of the State. In the ele-
vated portions it is rich, mellow, and
easily worked, and timber land
abounds. In the lower portions the
soil varies from a rich loam to a heavy
clay or adobe. What was formerly
considered desert land can now, under
irrigation, be turned into valuable
agricultural districts. Agriculture
and commerce flourish, and the State
is the center of great financial inter-
ests.
The manufacturing industry has
had a remarkable development and in
1914 had 10,057 industrial plants, em-
ploying $736,106,000 capital and 139,-
481 wage earners, paying $105,613,-
000 for wages and $447,474,000 for
materials used in processes, and yield-
ing products valued at $712,801,000.
The principal universities and col-
leges are, University of California
(opened 1869, non-sectarian) ; Le-
land Stanford Junior University
(1891, non-sectarian) ; St. Ignatius
College (1855, Roman Catholic) ;
Santa Clara College (1851, Roman
Catholic), and the University of
Southern California (1880, Methodist
Episcopal).
The strongest religious denomina-
tions in the State are the Roman
Catholic, Methodist Episcopal, Pres-
byterian, Congregational, Baptist,
Protestant Episcopal, Lutheran, and
Disciples of Christ. The 1910 census
reported for all denominations 2,897
organizations, with membership of
611,464, church officers 2.521, church
property valued at $28,065,261, Sun-
day Schools 2,689, officers and teachers
25,447, and scholars 243,672.
The total length of railroads within
the State, June 30, 1915, was 8,451
miles, exclusive of terminal and
switching mileage.
In 1915 the assessed valuation of all
property subject to the general prop-
erty tax was $3,232,981.478; the
amount of the levy was $1,260,863;
the revenue was $24,639,357 and ex-
penditure $34,119,473 ; aggregate
State debt $136,528,824; debts of
counties $12,443,514; debts of cities
and minor civil divisions $116.500,-
277; total State debt less sinking
fund assets, $25,666,382.
Under the National Banking Act of
1913 California is in Federal Reserve
District No. 12.
California
The Governor is elected for a term ol
four years and receives a salary oi
$10,000 per annum. Legislative ses-
sions are held biennially, and are not
limited in duration. The legislature
in 1916 had 39 members in the
Senate, elected for 4 years, and 80
in the House, elected for 2 years ;
salary of each $1,000 per term with
mileage. Representatives in Congress,
11 ; State Government Republican.
In 1869 the completion of the Cen-
tral Pacific R. R. advanced the pros-
perity of the State. From 1870 to
1890 the agitation against Chinese
immigration led to the Exclusion Act.
In 1906 a disastrous earthquake
caused great destruction in San Fran-
cisco and other coastal towns. The
same year the Anti-Japanese agitation
led to international representations,
and raised the question of State rights
as affecting Federal interests.
California, Gulf of, or Sea of
Cortes, an arm of the Pacific Ocean,
separating Lower California from the
Mexican mainland. It is 700 miles in
length and varies in width from 40 to
100 miles.
California, Lower, a territory of
Mexico, comprising a peninsula jut-
ting into the Pacific Ocean, and sep-
arated from the mainland throughout
its length by the Gulf of California.
It is nearly 800 miles in length, and
in different places 30 to 120 miles
wide; area 58,328 square miles. Jt is
mountainous and arid, but possesses
valuable agricultural and mineral re-
sources. The chief towns are Loret-
to and La Paz, the capital. Pop.
(1910) 52,272, of whom perhaps a
half are Indians.
California, University of, a
non-sectarian coeducational seat of
learning in Berkeley, CaL The un-
dergraduate department is located at
Berkeley, 9 miles from San Francisco ;
the astronomical department and Lick
Observatory at Hamilton, Santa Clara
county, and the professional schools
at San Francisco. At Menlo Park th<>
great Flood Mansion and grounds, do-
nated in 1898, comprise a commercial
college endowment. The university
receives a handsome sum from the
National Government for its agricul-
tural experiment station; the State
Calixtines
adds a large appropriation ; and the
whole is spent on four stations and
several sub-stations, where many im-
portant horticultural experiments are
made. The university in 1899 ac-
cepted plans for a new set of build-
ings to cost about $7,500,000. The
principal benefactor of the university,
since 1896, has been Mrs. Phoebe A.
Hearst, widow of Senator Hearst.
Her gifts have reached millions of
dollars. As a result of these and
other resources of endowment, the in-
stitution has become one of the rich-
est of American universities.
Caligula, Cains Caesar Augus-
tus Germanicns, a Roman emperor,
son of Germanicus and Agrippina;
born A. D. 12, in the camp at Antium.
He succeeded Tiberius, A. D. 37, and
made himself very popular by his
mildness ; but at the end of eight
months he was seized with a disorder,
caused by his irregular mode of living,
which appears to have deranged his in-
tellect. After his recovery he sud-
denly showed himself the most cruel
and unnatural of tyrants. He was
assassinated by a band of conspirators
A. D. 41.
Caliper Compasses, compasses
made with arched legs to measure the
diameters of cylinders or globular bod-
ies, or with straight legs and retracted
points to measure the interior diam-
eter or bore of anything.
Caliph, Calif, or Khalif, the title
borne by the successor of Mohammed
in temporal and religious authority.
Calisaya Bark, a variety of Pe-
ruvian or cinchona bark, namely, that
of Cinchona calisaya or flava.
Calisthenics, or Callisthenics,
a name for exercises for promoting
gracefulness and strength, and com-
prises the more gentle forms of gym-
nastics, especially for girls.
Calixtines, a Christian sect in
Bohemia, the more moderate of the
two great sections into which the Hus-
sites were divided in 1420. Unlike
the Taborjtes — the other section —
they did not seek to subvert the gov-
ernment of the Church of Rome, but
demanded the restoration of the cup
to the people in the celebration of the
Supper; the preaching of the Gospel
in primitive simplicity and purity;
the separation of the priests from
Calixtna
secular, and their entire devotion to
spiritual, concerns ; and, the preven-
tion or punishment, by lawful author-
ity, of " mortal " sins. The council
of Basel, in 1433, to end the disas-
trous Bohemian war, invited envoys
from the Hussites. Procopius Rasa
and others appeared, but the effort
failed. Afterward the council sent
^Eneas Sylvius into Bohemia. He,
by conceding the use of the cup to the
Calixtines, reconciled them to the
Church of Rome.
Cnlixtus, the name of several
Popes.
Calixtns (properly CALLISEN),
Georg, a German theologian of the
Lutheran Church; born in Schleswig
in 1586. He wrote against the celi-
bacy of the clergy, and proposed a re-
union of Catholics and Protestants
upon the basis of the Apostles' creed.
He died in 1G56.
Calkins, Gary Nathan, an Amer-
ican scientist ; born in Valparaiso,
Ind., Jan. 18, 1869. He was grad-
uated at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology in 1890 ; had charge of
scientific expeditions to Alaska in
1896 and 1897; and in 1900 was in-
structor in Zoology at Columbia Uni-
versity.
Call ah an, James Morton, an
American publicist ; born in Bedford,
Ind., Nov. 4, 1864. He was grad-
uated at the University of Indiana in
1894, and became lecturer on Ameri-
can Diplomatic History at Johns Hop-
kins in 1898.
Callao, the port of Lima, Peru,
lies 7 miles S. W. of Lima by rail, on
a small bay. The town possesses a
floating dock, and fine harbor works,
embracing an area of 520 acres, with
extensive pier and dock accommoda-
tion ; and the spacious roadstead, shel-
tered by the island of San Lorenzo,
is one of the safest in the world. The
present Callao dates only from 1746,
when the original city, a short dis-
tance to the S., was destroyed by an
earthquake and an invasion of the
sea. Callao was bombarded in 1880
during the war between Chile and
Peru. By the completion of a direct
cable between this port and Mollendo,
telegraphic communication has been
established with the United States.
Pop. (1905) 34,346.
Calorie
Callender, John, an American
historian; born in Boston, Mass.,
1706; collected many papers relating
to the Baptists in America ; and pub-
lished "A Centennial Discourse on the
Civil and Religious Affairs of the Col-
ony of Rhode Island," which was the
only history of that State for more
than a century. He died in Newport.
R. I., Jan. 26, 174a
Calliope, one of the Muses. She
presided over eloquence and heroic po-
etry, and is said to have been the
mother of Orpheus.
Calliope, an asteroid, the 22nd
found. It was discovered by Hind,
on Nov. 16, 1852. Also a series of
steam whistles, pitched to produce
musical notes ; operated by a keyboard!
Callisthenes, a Greek philosopher,
born in 365 B. c. He was a grandson
of Aristotle, and accompanied Alex-
ander the Great in his expedition to
Asia. He was accused of conspiracy,
and put to death B. c. 328.
Calmar, a fortified seaport town
of Sweden, on the W. side of a narrow
strait of the Baltic, separating the is-
land of (Eland from the continent, 90
miles N. E. by E. of Carlskrona. The
town, built of wood, stands on the
small island of Quarnholm. Here, in
1397, was concluded the famous treaty
which united the kingdoms of Sweden,
Denmark, and Norway. Here also,
in 1520, Gustavus Vasa disembarked
to deliver his country from the domi-
nation of foreigners and of a san-
guinary tyrant. Pop. (1915) 15,917.
Calms, Regions of, tracts in the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, on the
confines of the trade-winds, where
calms of long duration prevail.
Calomel, mercury sub-chloride. It
is insoluble in water, and blacked
by ammonia. It is used in liver com-
plaints, and in any of the complaints
for w hich mercury internally adminis- '
tered is indicated. Care should be ex-
ercised in its use, as it is likely to in-
duce salivation.
Calorescence, the transmutation
of heat rays into light rays.
Caloric, the name given to a sup-
posed subtle imponderable fluid to
which the sensation and phenomena of
heat were formerly attributed.
Calorimeter
Calorimeter, an instrument for
measuring the quantity of heat which
a body parts with or absorbs when its
temperature sinks or rises.
Calptropis, a genus of asclepiads,
consisting of three species, which
form shrubs or small trees, and are
natives of the tropics of Asia and Af-
rica.
Calotype, a process by which
paper saturated with iodide of silver
is exposed to the action of light, the
image being developed and fixed by
hyposulphite of soda.
Calovins. Abraham, (originally
KALAU), the chief representative of
controversial Lutheran orthodoxy in
the 17th century; born in Mohrungen
in East Prussia, April 16, 1612. He
waged war incessantly on Arminian,
Socinian, Reformed and Catholic doc-
trines. He was six times* married, the
last time in his 72d year. He died
Feb. 25, 1686.
Caloyers, Greek monks, belonging
to the order of St. Basil, who lead a
very austere life.
Caltrop, a four-pronged piece of
iron, each prong about 4 inches in
length, formerly thrown down in war-
fare to check the approach of the en-
emy.
Calninba, or Colombo, used in
medicine, a menispermaceous climber
of Eastern Africa, which has been in-
troduced into India. Sliced and dried,
it has a greenish-yellow tint, bitter
taste, and a faint aromatic odor. It
is a useful mild tonic and stomachic.
AMERICAN CALUMBA ROOT is obtained
from Frasera Walteri, a gentianaceous
biennial, and has properties like those
of gentian.
Calumet, a pipe used by the
North American Indians. The bowl
is of stone, and the stem is orna-
mented with feathers, etc. The cal-
umet is the emblem of peace. To re-
fuse it is to make a proclamation of
enmity, and to accept is a sign of
friendship.
Calvados, a French department,
part of the old province of Norman-
dy, bounded on the N. by the English
Channel, and E., W. and S. by the
departments Eure, La Manche, and
Orne. Area, 2,197 square miles;
Calvim
Sop. (1911) 396,318; chief town,
aen, pop. (1911) 46,934.
Calvary, the English designation
of the spot upon which the crucifixion
of Jesus Christ is recorded as having
taken place. It lay beyond the city,
and by Captain Conder is identified
with the old House of Stoning, or
place of public execution, according
to the law of Moses, on the top of
the remarkable knoll outside the Da-
mascus gate, on the N. si^e of Jeru-
salem. It is now generally believed to
have been the knoll on the north-east
of the city, formerly known as the
Grotto of Jeremiah near the Damascus
Gate.
Calve, Emma, a French opera
singer; born in 1866. She made her
debut at Brussels in Gounod's
" Faust." She has made successful
tours of the United States in leading
roles.
Calverley, Charles, an American
sculptor ; born in Albany, N. Y., Nov.
1, 1833. He won note with groups
and figures and portrait busts of
Greeley, Cooper, Howe, etc. He was
elected to the National Academy of
Design in 1875. He died Feb. 26, 1914.
Calvi, a seaport on the island of
Corsica, on a peninsula in the Bay of
Calvi. It was founded in the 13th
century. It was so strongly fortified
as to withstand several sieges, but in
1794, after a siege of 51 days, was
taken by the English from the Corsi-
cans. The following year it was re-
taken. Pop. about 2,500.
Calvin, John, (so called from
Calvinus, the Latinized form of his
family name, CAXJVIN, or CHAUVIN),
the second great reformer of the 16th
century; born in Noyon, Picardy,
July 10, 1509. Calvin died May 27,
1564, in the 55th year of his age. He
was of a weak constitution, and suf-
fered from frequent sickness. In
Strasburg he had married a widow,
Idelette de Burie, in 1539 ; a son, the
fruit of their union, died early. In
1549 he lost his wife, after which he
never married again. He was tem-
perate and austere, gloomy and in-
flexible. His disinterestedness was
rare. He had a yearly stipend of 150
frances, 15 measures of corn, and 2
casks of wine; and never received a
larger one.
Calvin
The chief doctrines of Calvin's sys-
tem are : Predestination, particular
redemption, total depravity, irresisti-
ble grace, and the certain perseverance
of the saints, denominated the five
points. The followers of Calvin in
Germany are called the Reformed.
In France most Protestants are Cal-
vinists. Calvinism is the professed
belief of the greatest part of the Pres-
byterians ; the Particular Baptists in
England and India, and the Associated
Baptists in America ; the Independ-
ents of every class in England and
Scotland, and the Congregationalists
of New England.
Calvin, Samuel, a Scotch-Ameri-
can scientist; born in Wigtonshire,
Scotland, Feb. 2, 1840. He came to
the United States when a youth and
served in the Civil War. He studied
geology as a life pursuit, and after
1874 was Professor of Geology at the
University of Iowa, and State Geolo-
gist of Iowa after 1892. Died in 1911.
Calvinistic Methodists, a sec-
tion of the Methodists, distinguished
by their Calvinistic sentiments from
the ordinary Wesleyans, who are Ar-
minian. Wesley and Whitfield, the
colleagues in the great evangelistic
movement which did so much spirit-
ually and morally to regenerate Eng-
land in the 18th century, differed
with regard to the doctrines of grace,
Wesley being Arminian, and Whit-
field Calvinistic ; the latter revival
preacher may be looked on as the
father and founder of Calvinistic
Methodism. In distinctive form it
dates from 1725, but did not complete-
ly sever its connection with the Eng-
lish Church till 1810. In government
it is now Presbyterian.
Calvo Doctrine. 'See DRAQO.
Calx, properly lime or chalk, but
the term is more generally applied to
the residuum of a metal or mineral
which has been subjected to violent
heat, and which is, or may be, re-
duced to a fine powder.
Calycanttns, a genus of hardy
American shrubs, of which one spe-
cies, Florida allspice, has yellow flow-
ers, and is sweet-scented.
Calydonian Boar. According to
a Greek myth, CEneus, King of Caly-
don. the ancient capital of JEtolia,
omitted a sacrifice to Artemis, where-
Cambaceres
upon the goddess, when he was absent,
sent a frightful boar to lay waste his
fields. No one dared to face the
monster, until Meleager, son of
CEneus, with a band of heroes, pur-
sued and slew him. The Curetes laid
claim to the head and hide, but were
driven off by Meleager. Later ac-
counts make Meleager summon to the
hunt heroes from all parts of Greece,
among them the maiden Atalanta, who
gave the monster the first wound.
Calyx, in botany, the name given
to the exterior covering of a flower.
Cain, Diogo, a Portuguese ex-
plorer of the 15th century, who in
1484 discovered the mouth of tho
Kongo.
Caniagney, a province and its
capital city in Cuba; both formerly
known as PUEBTO PEINCIPE. The
province extends across the island
between the provinces of Santa Clara
and Oriente ; has an area of 10.076
square miles; pop. (1914) 154,867;
chief products, cattle, sugar cane, wax,
honey, timber, and hemp. The city
is in the heart of one of the wildest
parts of the island, in the center of
the province, and manufactures and
exports cigars, sugar, tobacco, wax,
and honey; pop. (1914) 79,166.
Camayeu, or Camaien, a term
used in painting where there is only
one color, and where the lights and
shadows are of gold, wrought on a
golden or azure ground.
Cambaceres, Jean Jacques de,
a French Senator ; born in Montpel-
lier, Oct. 18, 1753. During the raign
of terror which followed the condem-
nation of Louis XVI. Cambaceres en-
deavored to check the arbitrary
measures of the Assembly. He was a
member of the Council of Five Hun-
dred, and in 1796 drew up a " Plan of
a Civil Code," which became the basis
of the " Napoleonic Code." On the
abdication of Napoleon, in 1814, Cam-
baceres withdrew into private life, but
on the return of the emperor from
Elba, he was promoted to the office of
Minister of Justice. After the over-
throw of Napoleon, he was banished
from France on the ground of his hay-
ing voted for the death of Louis
XVI. ; but in 1818 was reinstated in
all his civil and political rights ; be
died, in Paris, March 8, 1824.
Cambert
Cambert, Robert, a French musi-
cian; born in Paris about 1628. He
founded the Royal Academy of Music,
now the Paris Grand Opera. He died
in London about 1677.
Cambodia, or Camboja, a State
in Indo-China under a French pro-
tectorate, on the lower course of the
Mekong, 220 miles from N. E. to
S. W., and 150 miles broad, compris-
ing an area of 45,000 square miles ;
and pop. (1911) 1,634,252. France,
on Aug. 11, 1863, concluded a treaty
with the King of Cambodia, Noro-
dom, whom, from being a viceroy, the
French had helped to elevate to the
throne, placing Cambodia under a
French protectorate. This treaty was
superseded by that of June 17, 1884.
Capital Pnom-Penh (pop. 62,255).
Cambon, Jules Martin, a French
diplomatist ; born in Paris, April 5,
1845. He studied for the law and
fought in the Franco-Prussian War ;
was Ambassador to the United States
in 1897, retiring in 1903, and repre-
sented Spain in drawing up the Span-
ish-American protocol in 1898.
Cambrai, a town in N. France,
about 23 miles from the Belgian fron-
tier and 100 miles from Paris ; on the
Scheldt river. Former strong forti-
fications have been mostly dismantled.
The town contains many beautiful
churches. Here the famous " Ladies'
Peace " of 1529 was concluded. Cam-
brai was in one of the early fighting
zones of the great war. See AP-
PENDIX: World War.
Cambric, originally the name of a
fine kind of linen which was manufac-
tured principally at Cambrai in
French Flanders, but is now applied
to a cotton fabric, which is manufac-
tured in imitation of the true cambric.
Cambridge, a city, and one of the
county seats of Middlesex county,
Mass., on the Charles river and the
Fitcbburg railroad ; opposite to and
connected with Boston by four
bridges. It was founded in 1630-
1631, under the name of " Newe-
Towne," or Newtown." In 1636 the
General Court appropriated $2,000 to
locate a school in Old Cambridge,
which later became Harvard College.
The first printing office in the United
States was located in Cambridge.
Cambridge has now extensive printing
Camden
establishments. For historical and
literary associations, Cambridge is one
of the most famous cities in the
United States. The venerable Wash-
ington elm, under which Washington
took command of the American Army,
July 3, 1775, still stands. " Craigie
House," built by Col. John Vassall in
1759, was Washington's headquarters
in 1775-1776, and afterward became
the home of the poet Henry W. Long-
fellow. On Elm avenue is " Elm-
wood," the birthplace and home of
James R. Lowell. Pop. (1915) 108,822.
Cambridge, city and capital of
Guernsey county, O.; on Wills creek
and several railroads; 26 miles E. of
Zanesville; is in a coal, natural gas,
and petroleum region; is a trade
center of parts of three counties; and
manufactures iron, steel, glass, pot-
tery, tin, plate, and iron roofing.
Pop. (1«10) 17,327.
Cambridge University, a cele-
brated seat of learning and education,
dating from English public schools es-
tablished in Cambridge in the 7th cen-
tury. The first college was founded
under royal charter in 1237.
Cambyses, (1) a Persian of noble
blood, to whom King Astyages gave
his daughter Mandane in marriage.
(2) The son of Cyrus the Great, be-
came, after the death of his father,
King of the Persians and Medes, B. c.
529. In the fifth year of his reign he
invaded Egypt, conquering the whole
kingdom within six months. He died
in 521 B. c.
Camden, city, port of entry, and
county seat of Camden county, N. J. ;
on the Delaware river, opposite Phila-
delphia, with which it is connected by
several ferries. It is noted for its
immense market gardens and manu-
factures. Pop. (1910) 94,538.
Camden, county-seat of Kershaw
county, S. C.; 32 miles N. E. of Co-
lumbia. It has extensive cotton and
grain interests and is a health resort
for sufferers from throat and lung
troubles. Camden was the site of
three noted battles. On Aug. 16,
1780, the American forces under Gen-
eral Gates, 3,600 strong, were de-
feated by Lord Cornwallis. This end-
ed Gates's military career. On April
25, 1781, Greene, who succeeded
Gates, was attacked and worsted by
Caxnden
Lord Rawdon at Hobkirk's Hill, near
Camden. On Feb. 24, 1865, Camden
was taken by General Sherman after
a lively skirmish. Two thousand
bales of cotton and a quantity of
tobacco were burned. Pop. (1900)
2,441.
Camden, Charles Pratt, Mar-
quis, an English statesman ; born in
1714. After having studied law, he
was called to the bar in 3738. Af-
ter nearly 20 years devoted to close
study he was appointed attorney-gen-
eral, and later lord chief justice. He
distinguished himself by his exertions
in behalf of the American colonies,
and in 1766 rose to the highest legal
dignity, that of lord hieh chancellor.
He died in London. April 18, 1794.
Camel, a genus of ruminant quad-
rupeds, characterized by the absence
of horns ; a fissure in the upper lip ; a
long and arched neck; one or two
humps or protuberances on the back ;
and a broad elastic foot ending in
two small hoofs. The native country
of the camel is said to extend from
Morocco to China, within a zone of
CAMEL.
900 or .1,000 miles in breadth. The
comnon camel, having two humps, is
found in the N. part of this region,
and exclusively from the ancient Bac-
tria, now Turkestan, to China. The
dromedary, or single-humped camel is
found throughout the entire length of
this zone. To people residing in the
vicinity of the great deserts the camel
is an invaluable mode of conveyance.
It will travel three days under a load
and five days under a rider without
Cameo
drinking. The camel's power of en-
during thirst is partly due to the
structure of its stomach, to which are
attached pouches capable of straining
off and storing water for future use.
It can live on little food, and of the
coarsest kind. In this it is helped by
the fact that its humps are mere ac-
cumulations of fat and form a store
upon which the system can draw
when the outside supply is defective.
Camels which carry heavy burdens
will do about 25 miles a day; those
which are used for speed alone, from
60 to 90 miles a day. The camel is
rather passive than docile, but it i»
very vindictive when injured. It lives
from 40 to 50 years. The South
American members of the family
Camelidse contain the llama and al-
paca; they have no humps.
Camelopard, a name given to the
giraffe, originally from the notion that
it was a hybrid between a camel and
leopard.
Cainelopardalis, one of the N.
circumpolar constellations added by
Hevelius in 1690. It is a large irreg-
ularly shaped constellation, something
like the animal, with its head close to
the Pole. It contains no stars bright-
er than the fourth magnitude.
Camelot, a name applied in the
mediaeval romances to the " City of
Legions " which grew out of the per-
manent quarters of the Second Augus-
ta Legion at Caerleon-upon-Usk, but
was built earlier by the mythical Be-
linus.
Camel's Hump, one of the peaks
of the Green Mountains, in Vermont,
17 miles W. of Montpelier.
Camel's Thorn, a name of several
plants. They are half-shrubby plants
growing in the deserts of the East,
and derive their name from the fact
that they afford a food relished by
camels.
Cameo, a term applied to gems of
different colors sculptured in relief.
The art of engraving on gems boasts
of high antiquity, having been prac-
tised and was revived in Italy in the
15th century. The cameos of the an-
cients were confined to the agate,
onyx, and sard, but are occasionally
found executed on opal, beryl, or em-
erald.
Camera Lucida
Camoens
Camera Lucida, an instrument
invented by Wollaston in 1804; de-
signed to produce on a plane surface
a representation of a landscape or
other object, which will enable one to
delineate it with accuracy.
Camera Obscura, an optical in-
strument used to view or sketch ob-
jects at a short distance. It consists
of a box, formed of two parts sliding
in each other, like a telescope, so as
to adjust the focus to bodies more or
less distant. A tube with a lens is
fixed hi one side of it, and is turned
to the object to be represented. The
rays entering fall on a mirror sloped
at an angle of 45°, which reflect them
upward. It is convenient that they
may be made to pass through a hori-
zontal plate of glass, on which tracing
paper may be placed so as to enable
one to draw the figure.
Camera, Photographic, a camera
obscura so constructed that sensitized
plates or films may be placed at the
back and receive the image.
Camerarius, Rudolph Jakob, a
German botanist, born in iWurtem-
burg, Feb. 12, 1665. To him is as-
cribed the discovery of the sexual re-
lation in plants. He died in Tubin-
gen, Sept 11, 1721.
Camerlengo, ("a chamberlain"),
one of the highest officers of the Vati-
can court, and who acts as Pope when
there is a vacancy on the papal throne.
Cameron, Arnold Guypt, an
[American educator : born in Princeton,
N. J., March 4, 1864; was graduated
at Princeton College in 1847, and at
department of Greek at Princeton
professor of French and German in
Miami University; in 1891-1897, as-
sistant professor of French in the
Sheffield Scientific School of Tale Uni-
versity; and in 1897 accepted the
chair of French at the John C. Green
School of Science, Princeton.
Cameron, James Donald, ^ an
American capitalist and politician ;
born in Middletown, Pa., May 14,
1833 ; oldest son of Simon Cameron ;
was graduated at Princeton College
in 1852. In 1876 President Grant an-
pointed him Secretary of War, and in
1877 he succeeded his father as Unit-
ed States Senator from Pennsylvania,
retiring from the Senate in 1897.
Cameron, Simon, an American,
statesman ; born in Maytown, Lancas-
ter co., Pa., March 8, 1799 ; began,
when 9 years of age, to learn the trade
of a printer. In 1820 he was editor
of a paper in Doylestown, Pa., and in
1822 he held a similar post in Harris-
burg. He then interested himself in
banking and the building of railroads.
From 1845 to 1849 he was United
States Senator from Pennsylvania. He
became a member of the Republican
party on its formation, and in 1856
he was again elected United States
Senator. In 1861 he was appointed
Secretary of War by President Lin-
coln. In January, 1862, he resigned
from the Cabinet, and was appointed
minister to Russia. In November of
the same year he resigned, and lived
in retirement till 1866, when he was
again elected to the United States Sen-
ate. In 1877 he retired from the Sen-
ate in favor of his son, James Don-
ald Cameron. He died in Maytown,
Pa., June 26, 1889.
Camisards, the title given to the
Protestant insurgents in the Ceveanes,
after the revocation of the Edict of
Nantes, from having worn their shirts
over their dress by way of disguise,
on the occasion of some nocturnal at-
tacks.
Camoens, Luis de, a Portuguese
poet; born in Lisbon, probably in
1524 or 1525. Disappointed in love,
he became a soldier, and served in the
fleet which the Portuguese sent against
Morocco, losine his right eye in a
naval engagement before Ceuta. An
affray into which he was drawn wis
the cause of his embarking in 1553
for India. He landed at Goa, but,
being unfavorably impressed with the
life led by the ruling Portuguese there,
wrote a satire which caused his ban-
ishment to Macao (1556). Here he
wrote the earlier cantos of his great
poem, the " Lusiad." Returning to
Goa in 1561, he was shipwrecked and
lost all his property except his pre-
cious manuscript. After much misfor-
tune Camoens in 1570 arrived once
more in his native land, poor and
without influence, as he had left it.
The " Lusiad " was printed nt Lisbon
(1572), and celebrating the plories of
the Portuguese conquests in India, ac-
quired a wide popularity. The king
Camomile
accepted the dedication of the poem,
but the only reward Camoens obtained
was a pittance insufficient to save him
from poverty. His other works con-
sist of sonnets, songs, etc. He died
June 18, 1579.
Camomile, or Chamomile. The
species are annual and perennial herbs,
all palaearctic, long known for the
medicinal virtues of an infusion of its
flowers as a bitter stomachic and
tonic.
Camorra, a well-organized secret
society, once spread throughout all
parts of the kingdom of Naples.
Camp, the space occupied by an
army halted with tents pitched.
Campagna di Roma, the coast
region of Middle Italy, in which Rome
is situated, from 30 to 40 miles wide
and 100 long, and forming the undu-
lating mostly uncultivated plain which
extends from near Civita Vecchia or
Viterbo to Terracina, and includes the
Pontine Marshes. The soil is very
fertile in the lower parts, though its
cultivation is much neglected, owing
to the malaria which makes residence
there during midsummer dangerous.
In ancient times the Campagna was
well cultivated and populated. Noth-
ing of its former prosperity being vis-
ible but the ruins of great temples,
circuses, and monuments, and long
rows of crumbling aqueducts over-
grown with ivy and other creeping
plants.
Campania, anciently a province on
the W. coast of Italy, having Capua
as its capital, lying between Latium,
Samnium, and Lucania. It was one
of the most productive plains in the
world, yielding in extraordinary abun-
dance corn, wine, and oil ; and by
both Greek and Roman writers is
celebrated for its soft and genial cli-
mate, its landscapes, and its harbors.
Caiiipani-Alimenis, Matteo, an
Italian mechanician. In optics, his
greatest achievement was the manu-
facture of the object-glasses, through
which Cassini discovered two satellites
of Saturn. He invented the illum-
inated dial for clocks.
_ Campanile, a tower for the recep-
tion of bells, principally used for
church purposes, but now sometimes
lor domestic edifices. The most re-
Campbell
markable of the campaniles is that
at Pisa, commonly called the " Lean-
ing Tower." It is cylindrical in form,
and surrounded by eight stories of
columns, placed over one another,
each having its entablature. The
height is about 150 feet to the plat-
form, whence a plumb-line lowered
falls on the leaning side nearly 13
feet outside the base of the building.
The campanile of St. Mark, dom-
inating all the surrounding buildings
of St. Mark's Square, Venice, was
the most conspicuous landmark of the
city for over 1,000 years. The tower
was 325 feet high and 42 feet square
at the base. On the morning of July
14, 1902, it fell with a great crash
into the square. The church of St.
Mark and the palace of the Doges
were not hurt, but the campanile in
falling carried away the Sansovino
Loggetta and the library of the Royal
Palace.
Campbell, Alexander, founder of
the sect known as the "Disciples of
Christ " ; born near Ballymena, in
County Antrim, Ireland, Sept. 12,
1788. He emigrated to the United
States in 1807. Though at first a
Presbyterian, in 1812 he formed a
connection with the Baptists, and for
some time he labored as an itinerant
preacher. In 1826 he published a
translation of the New Testament, in
which the words " baptism " and
" baptist " gave place to " immersion "
and " immerser." By his discussions
on public platforms, and his serial
publications, as well as his assiduity
in preaching tours and training young
men for the ministry, Campbell grad-
ually formed a large party of follow-
ers, who began about 1827 to form
themselves into a sect under the des-
ignation of " The DISCIPLES OP
CHRIST." In 1841 Campbell founded
Bethany College in West Virginia,
where he died March 4, 1866.
_ Campbell, Allan, an American
civil engineer; born in Albany, N. Y.,
in 1815. He laid out the route of the
New York and Harlem railroad ; built
a railroad from Callao to Lima, Peru ;
was appointed engineer of the harbor
defenses of New York in the early
part of the Civil War; was chief en-
gineer in the construction of the
Union Pacific railroad; and became
Campbell
commissioner of public works in New-
York (1876). He died in New York
city, March 18, 1894.
Campbell, Hartley, an American
dramatist ; born in Allegheny City,
Pa., Aug. 12, 1843. He died in Mid-
dletown, N. Y., July 30, 1888.
Campbell, Charles, an American
historian ; born in Petersburg, Va.,
May 1, 1807. He died in Staunton,
Va., July 11, 1876.
Campbell, Sir Colin, Lord
Clyde, a British military officer ; born
in Glasgow, Oct. 20, 1792. He took
part in the expedition to the United
States (1814), and then passed nearly
30 years in garrison duty at various
places. On the outbreak of the Cri-
mean War, in 1854, he was appointed
to the command of the Highland Bri-
gade ; the victory of the Alma was
mainly his ; and his, too, the splendid
repulse of the Russians by the " thin
red line" in the battle of Balaklava.
When, on July 11, 1857, the news
reached England of the sepoy mutiny,
Lord Palmerston offered him the com-
mand of the forces in India. He ef-
fected the final relief of Lucknow, and
on Dec. 20, 1858 announced to the
Viceroy that the rebellion was ended.
He died Aug. 14, 1863.
Campbell, Douglas Hougliton,
an American educator ; born in De-
troit, Mich., Dec. 16, 1859 ; was grad-
uated at the University of Michigan
in 1882 ; then studied in Europe. Re-
turning he was Professor of Botany
in the University of Indiana till 1891,
when he was called to the similar
chair in Stanford University in Palo
Alto, Cal.
Campbell, Helen Stuart, an
American sociological writer; born in
Lockport, N. Y., July 4, 1839. She
has given close attention to the study
of social problems. From 1881 till
1884 she was literary editor of " Our
Continent," Philadelphia.
Campbell, Henry Donald, an
American scientist ; born in Lexing-
troit, Mich., Dec. 16, 1859; was grad-
uated at Washington and Lee Uni-
versity in 1882; later studied at Ber-
lin and Heidelberg, and in 1887 be-
came Professor of Geology and Biol-
ogy at Washington and Lee Univer-
sity.
E. 28.
Campero
Campbell, John, -a British his-
torian; born in Edinburgh, March 8,
1708. From 1755 to the close of his
life, he was agent of the British gov-
ernment for the province of Georgia.
He died Dec. 28, 1775.
Campbell, John Pendleton, an
American scientist ; born in Cumber-
land, Md., Nov. 20, 1863. He be-
came Professor of Biology at the
University of Georgia in 1888.
Campbell, Reginald John, an
English clergyman; born in London,
Eng., in 1867; entered the Congrega-
tional ministry in 1895; became pas-
tor of the City Temple, London, in
1903; published "The New Theol-
ogy " (1907), which attracted much
attention on both continents.
Campbell, Thomas, a Scotch
poet; born in Glasgow, July 27, 1777.
He died in Boulogne, June 15, 1844,
and was interred at Poets' Corner,
in Westminster Abbey.
Campbell, William W., an Amer-
ican lawyer and historian ; born in
Cherry Valley, N. Y., hi 1806. Set-
tled in New York city, he was a judge
of the State Supreme Court. He died
in Cherry Valley, Sept. 7, 1881.
Campbell, William Wilfred, a
Canadian poet; born in Western On-
tario, Canada, in 1861.
Campbellites, the followers of Rev.
John McLeod Campbell, of Dumbart-
onshire, who was deposed from the
Church of Scotland, May 24, 1831, for
teaching the universality of the Atone-
ment.
Campbell's Station, a town in
Knox county, Tenn., noted for the
battle fought (Nov. 16, 1863) between
a Federal army under Burnside and a
Confederate one under Longstreet, in
which the Confederates were repulsed
at nightfall, after sharp fighting.
Campeachy, a State, its capital,
and a bay of Mexico, on the Gulf ;
pop. State (1910) 86,661, town about
18,000.
Campero, Narciso, a Bolivian
statesman and soldier; born in Tojo
(now in Argentina), in 1815. He
studied and traveled in Europe, and
on his return entered the Bolivian
army, and rose to the rank of Briga-
dier-General. After the overthrow of
Diaz (1880), he was chosen President
Ijumpiiausen
of Bolivia. Internally, his administra-
tion was quiet He died in 1896.
Camphausen, Wilhelm, a Ger-
man painter ; born in Dussoldorf , Feb.
8, 1818. He was specially famous for
battle-pieces. He died in Dusseldorf,
June 16, 1885.
Camphene, the commercial term
for purified oil of turpentine, obtained
by distilling the oil over quicklime to
free it from resin.
Camphor, a powerful diffusible
stimulant and antispasmodic. It en-
ters into union with opium, as a sed-
aditive, under the name of paregoric.
Campi, a family of Italian artists
who founded what is known in paint-
ing as the school of Cremona.
Campion, Edmund, an English
Jesuit ; born in London, Jan. 25, 1540.
He was educated at Oxford, and dis-
tinguished himself greatly. Though
at first a Roman Catholic, he adopted
the Reformed faith, and took deacon's
orders in the Church of England ; but
he afterward recanted, became a Jes-
uit, and attacked Protestantism. He
was found guilty of conspiring to raise
sedition, and was executed at Tyburn,
Dec. 1, 1581.
Camp Meetings, gatherings of de-
vout persons, held usually in thinly-
populated districts, and continued for
several days at a time, with the view
of securing prolonged and uninterrupt-
ed religious exercises.
Campo-Formio, a town in Italy,
66 miles N. E. of Venice, famous for
the treaty of peace between Austria
and France, which was signed in its
neighborhood on Oct. 17, 1797.
Campos, Arsenio Martinez, a
Spanish military officer ; born in Cu-
ba in 1834. Appointed a lieutenant
in the army in 1858 ; became chief of
the battalion in the Morocco cam-
paign of 1859; was on duty in Cuba
with the rank of colonel in 1864-
1870 ; took part in suppressing the
Carlist insurrection and was promoted
brigadier-general in 1870; opposed the
republic after the abdication of King
Amadeus, and was imprisoned as a
conspirator. Under a plea for per-
mission to be allowed to serve as a
private, he was released and given
command of a division. With General
Jovellar, he called Alphonso XII. to
Canaanites
the throne; was made commander-in-
chief of the Catalonia district, and
crushed Don Carlos at Pena de la
Plata in 1876. In 1877 he was ap-
pointed commander-in-chief in Cuba,
and brought the revolution there to a
close. In April, 1895, he was appoint-
ed governor-general and commander-
in-chief in Cuba, and in January,
1896, he was recalled to Spain. On
his arrival in Madrid he repeated his
belief that the trouble in Cuba could
only be ended by granting reforms.
He died Sept. 23, 1900.
Campo Santo (lit "Holy
Field ")t the name given to a bury ing-
ground in Italy.
Campus Martins (the "Field of
Mars"), an extensive plain or mead-
ow without the walls of Rome, where
the levies of troops were made by the
tribunes, where the ballot for the con-
scription was drawn, and where all
military exercises were performed. It
was also a gymnasium for youths. It
was here that the great assemblies of
the people took place to elect their
public officers.
Campus Sceleratus, a name given
to a spot within the walls of Rome,
and close by the Porta Collina, where
those of the vestal virgins who had
transgressed their vows were entombed
alive.
Cam Wood, a wood used for
making knife-handles and ornamental
knobs to furniture. It is called also
Barwood and Ringwood.
Cana, a town of Palestine celebra-
ed in Scripture as the scene of our
Lord's first miracle, when he turned
water into wine.
Canaan, the country W. of the
Jordan, called also Chanaan, and the
Land of Canaan, after one of the sons
of Ham. The Greeks applied the term
Cana to the entire region between
the Jordan and the Mediterranean up
to Sidpn, afterward termed by them
Phenicia, a name which by degrees
came to be confined to Phenicia proper.
Canaanites, The, a word used in
two senses: (1) For the tribe of the
"Canaanites" only. (2) Applied as
a general name to the non-Israelite in-
habitants of the land. Instances of
this are: Genesis xii : 6; Numbers
rxi: 3. Judges i: 10; and Gene-
Canada
sis xiii : 12. See also Genesis xxiv : 3,
37; comp. xxviii : 2, 6; E?odus, xiii:
11 ; comp. 5. Like the Phoenicians,
the Canaanites were probably given
to commerce.
MAP SHOWING TBIBAL POSSESSIONS.
Canada, Dominion of, a Federal
Union of Provinces and Territories,
comprising all the British possessions
in North America, excepting New-
foundland ; bounded by the Arctic, Pa-
cific, and Atlantic oceans, and the
United States; land area, 3,603,910
square miles ; number of Provinces,
and Territories, 11 ; population
(1901) 5,371,315; (1911) 7,206,643;
capital, Ottawa.
Extending over so large a territory,
Canada presents a great variety of
surface. Along the Atlantic coast is
a range of hills extending inland from
15 to 20 miles. About 60 miles in-
land, the Cobequid mountains, some
reaching an altitude of 1,100 feet, ex-
tend in a line parallel to the coast
from the Bay of Fundy, through Nova
Scotia to the Strait of Canso. Nova
Scotia is a long fertile plain. A third
mountain range crosses New Bruns-
wick from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to
the State of Maine. An extensive
plateau intervenes between these
mountains and the Cobequids. The
Canada
central part of the Dominion consists
of a vast undulating plain, extending
W. to the foothills of the Rocky
Mountains. This section consists of
three prairie plateaus. The E., 800
feet high, known as the Red River
Valley and Lake Winnipeg region,
contains about 7,000 square miles of
valuable wheat land. The middle pla-
teau has an area of 105,000 squaro
miles, altitude, 1,600 feet, and includes
the Qu'Appelle and Assiniboia River
valleys. The third plateau extends
450 miles E. from the Rocky Moun-
tains, and has an average altitude of
3,000 feet. The Rocky Mountains are
the most prominent physical features
of the Dominion, and stretch from
Alaska to California, some of the
peaks attaining a height of 16,000
feet. Among the highest are Mt
Hooker, 16,760 feet; Mt Brown, 16,-
000 feet, and Mt. Murchison, 15,700
feet The Canadian Pacific railroad
crosses the Rockies through the Kick-
ing Horse Pass, just S. of Mt Mur-
chison, at an altitude of 5,300 feet
Between these mountains and the Pa-
cific coast are the Selkirk Mountains,
the Gold Range, a central plateau, and
the Cascade or Coast Range. The Cas-
cade or Coast Range is a continuation
of the Sierra Nevada of California,
reaches an altitude of 7,000 feet, and
contains many extinct volcanoes. The
Selkirk range has a glacier region of
greater extent than that of Switzer-
land. The coasts of the Dominion have
numerous indentations, the largest of
which are the Gulf of St Lawrence,
the Gulf of Georgia, the Bay of Fun-
dy, and the Bay of Chaleurs. In the
N. are many large bays or inland seas,
of which Baffin Bay, on the N. E.,
and Hudson Bay, near the center of
the Dominion, are the largest The
lakes of Canada are the most exten-
sive in the world; besides the Great
Lakes, there are many large lakes in
the Northwest Territories and Mani-
toba.
Canada is very rich in its mineral
deposits. The most important min-
erals found are gold, silver, iron, cop-
per, nickel, lead, and coal ; besides
manganese, cobalt, asbestos, pyrites,
phosphates, building stones, marbles,
petroleum, and salt Gold is princi-
pally mined in British Columbia, the
Canada
Canada
newly organized Yukon Territory, and
Nova Scotia. The Nova Scotia gold
district extends over an area of 6,000
square miles, and the metal is ex-
tracted from the quartz in a very
fine and pure state. Gold is also found
in rich deposits in the Northwest Ter-
ritories. Extraordinary silver deposits
are found in several islands on the N.
shore of Lake Superior and in argen-
tiferous galena in Quebec, Nova Sco-
tia, and British Columbia. Copper
abounds in British Columbia, Nova
Scotia, Ontario, Quebec, New Bruns-
wick, and the Northwest Territories.
The copper found on the N. shore of
Lake Superior, and in Ontario, is of
excellent quality. Iron is found in
great quantities at Hull, Ontario, in
a bed 90 feet thick. This ore is mag-
netic, yielding 70 per cent pure iron.
Magnetite is also found in Nova Sco-
tia and New Brunswick. Silver-bear-
ing lead, tin, zinc, and bismuth are
found in many places. Coal exists in
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, British
Columbia, and the Northwest Terri-
tories. The Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick fields are of great extent,
and the value of this output in Brit-
ish Columbia alone is second only to
that of its gold. Anthracite is found
in Queen Charlotte and Vancouver
Islands.
The value of all mineral productions
in the calendar year 1912 was $133,-
127,489, the principal ones being gold,
$12,559,443 ; silver, $19,425,656 ; cop-
per, $12,709,311; lead, $1,597,554;
nickel $13,452,463 ; pig iron, $14,550,-
999. The coal output was valued at
$36,349,299, and the cement at $9,-
083,216.
The greater part of Nova Scotia,
Quebec, New Brunswick, Ontario, and
Vancouver Island, beside the country
lying between Lake Superior and the
Rocky Mountains, is admirably
adapted to agriculture. And this in-
dustry is rapidly developing. The
total farm values of the principal
grain crops in 1916 were : Wheat,
$289,374,000 ; oats, $187,759,000 ;
barley, $34,010,000; rye, $3,205,800;
peas, $4,816,000; beans, $2,228,000;
buckwheat, $6,375,000; mixed grains,
$9,076,000; flax seed, $14,581,300;
and corn for husking, $6,747,000.
Live stock (1912) included 2,336,800
horses, 2,890,100 dairy cows, 4,093,600
other cattle, 2,360,600 sheep, and
2,656,400 swine.
Canada has no National system of
education, but under the British North
America Act, 1867, the right to legis-
late on matters respecting education
was placed in the hands of the govern-
ment of the separate provinces. In
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, British
Columbia, and Prince Edward Island,
the schools are strictly undenomina-
tional. In Manitoba all public schools
are non-sectarian. In Quebec and On-
tario the schools are non-sectarian,
but the Protestants and Roman Cath-
olics are allowed separate schools.
According to the Dominion census
of 1911 the Roman Catholic was the
strongest denomination, numerically.
In the census year 1911 the manu-
facturing industry employed a capital
of $1,247,583,609 and 515,203 wage-
earners ; paid $241,008,416 for salaries
and wages ; and yielded products
valued at $1,165,975,639.
Commercial reports for the fiscal
year 1914-15 showed : Total exports,
$490,808,877 ; total imports, $629,444,-
894 ; imports for home consumption,
$587,364,363. The trade with the
United States was: Exports, $211,-
758,000; imports, $296,633,000.
Steam railways in 1914 had a total
of 30,795 miles in operation, with a
capital liability of $371,863,156, of
which $178,834,529 represented direct
Federal Government aid. There were
59 electric railways with 1,561 mile-
age. Post-offices numbered 13,811 ;
mileage of telegraph lines, 46,333;
mileage of telephone wire, 1,343,090.
In 1915 there were 22 incorporated
banks, with about 3,160 branches;
capital, $114,759.807; clearing-house
transactions (1914) $7,909,212,098;
and numerous post-office and ordinary
savings banks.
The Constitution of Canada is after
the model of the mother-country. The
Parliament consists of the King, an
upper house styled the Senate, and a
House of Commons. The King is rep-
resented by a governor-general, who
exercises his authority with the aid
and advice of a council of ministers,
styled the King's Privy Council for
Canada. The authority of the gov-
ernor-general is largely nominal, the
government really being carried on by
the Prime Minister and Council, who
Canada
are directly responsible to Parliament.
The cabinet must be supported by a
majority of the House of Commons, or
go out of office. The Senate, under
the provisions of an Act of 1915, con-
sists of 96 members, chosen by the
governor-general, and hold the ap-
pointment for life. Among other qual-
ifications, a senator must have real
property to the value of $4,000, and
must be a resident in the province for
which he is appointed. The Speaker
of the Senate is nominated by the gov-
ernor-general. The House of Commons
consists of 221 members. The dura-
tion of a House of Commons is not to
exceed five years. In July, 1885, an
Electoral Franchise Act was passed,
providing for a uniform franchise for
the whole Dominion in elections for
the House of Commons. The House
of Commons elects its own Speaker.
Any bill passed by the Houses of Par-
liament, even though assented to by
the governor-general in the King's
name, may afterward be disallowed by
the Imperial Privy Council.
Each one of the different provinces
also has an executive and a legis-
lature of its own, presided over by a
lieutenant-governor, and constituted
much as before the Union. The lieu-
tenant-governor are appointed by the
governor-general. In this distribution
of legislative power between the gen-
eral and the provincial parliaments,
certain classes of subjects of a local
nature are assigned exclusively to the
legislatures of the provinces, while
subjects of more general concern are
assumed by the Parliament. The debts
of the several provinces, at the Union,
were assumed (with certain limita-
tions) by the Federal Government;
and, on the other hand, certain duties
and revenues, and certain public works
and properties belonging to the several
provinces before the Union, were taken
possession of to form a consolidated
revenue-fund for defraying the inter-
est of these debts, and for other ex-
penditures of the Federal Government.
On Sept. 1, 1905, Alberta and Sas-
katchewan, formed from the provi-
sional districts of Alberta, Athabaska,
Assiniboia and Saskatchewan, were
made provinces. The Yukon Terri-
tory, of which the Klondike is a small
section, was constituted in 1898.
Canada
The population, census of 1911,
by provinces was : Ontario, 2,523,274 ;
Quebec, 2,003,232; Manitoba, 455,-
614 ; Saskatchewan, 492,432 ; Alberta,
374,663; British Columbia, 392,480;
New Brunswick, 351,889; Nova Sco-
tia, 492,338; Prince Edward Island,
93,728 ; Yukon, 8,512 ; Northwest Ter-
ritories, 18,481. The largest cities
were: Montreal, 470,480; Toronto,
376,538; Winnipeg, 136,035; Van-
couver, 100,401; Ottawa, 87,062;
Hamilton, 81,969; Quebec, 78,710;
Halifax, 46,619 ; London, 46,300.
In 1534 Jacques Cartier, a French
navigator, entering the St. Law-
rence on the festival of the saint of
that title, took nominal possession of
North America in the name of his
king, Francis I. In 1608 Quebec was
founded by De Champlain ; in 1623
he built Fort St. Louis, from which
stronghold France ruled for 150 years
a vast region extending E. to Acadia
(now Nova Scotia), W. to Lake Su-
perior, and ultimately down the Mis-
sissippi as far as Florida and Louis-
iana. The Recollet and Jesuit mis-
sionaries traversed the country, and
underwent incredible hardships in
their zeal fqr the conversion of the
Indians. These fearless priests were
the pioneers of civilization in the far
West, and to La Salle is due the dis-
covery of the Mississippi valley. In
1670 Charles II. granted the Hudson
Bay Company the perpetual exclusive
right of trading in the territory wa-
tered by all the streams flowing into
Hudson Bay. Garrisoned forts were
raised at suitable points, and bitter
enmity between the French and English
traders led to bloody struggles. The
wars on the American continent fol-
lowed the course of the wars in Eu-
rope, until the long struggle between
France and England for the suprem-
acy in America came to a close on the
" Plains of Abraham " in 1759, when
General Wolfe defeated Montcalm.
Peace was concluded between Great
Britain and France, 1763, when Can-
ada was formally ceded to England,
and Louisiana to Spain. In the same
year a small portion of the recently
acquired territory was by royal procla-
mation organized under English laws.
In 1774 the new province was ex-
tended by parliamentary enactment,
and that under French taws, down the
Canai
Ohio to its confluence with the Mis-
sissippi, and up the latter stream to
its source. Finally, Canada receded
to its present limits in 1783. In 1791
Canada was divided under separate
legislatures into two sections, the E.
retaining French institutions, and the
W. receiving those of England; and
these sections were reunited for legis-
lative purposes in 1841. In 1867 Up-
per and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia,
and New Brunswick were united as
the Dominion of Canada, and in 1870
the Hudson Bay Company's territory
was divided into Manitoba and the
Northwest Territories and united to
the Dominion. British Columbia en-
tered the Union in 1871, and Prince
Edward Island in 1873. The division
of the Northwest was attended by the
rebellions of half-breeds under Louis
Riel in 1870 and 1885. Fenian raids
in 1866 and 1870-71 also disturbed the
peace of the Dominion. In 1893 a
court of arbitration on the Bering Sea
Seal Fisheries met in Ottawa. In
1896 Quebec's boundaries were ex-
tended to Hudson Bay. In 1897 pref-
erence was given British goods. In 1903
the Alaskan Boundary dispute was de-
cided in favor of the United States.
On the outbreak of the great war in
Europe, Canada responded promptly
and efficiently to the call of the
mother country, and maintained a
hearty support with men, money, mu-
nitions, and other aid. Relationa with
the United States speedily became
more cordial than ever. Before the
United States was forced into the
war its government had advanced
large sums of money to lighten
Canada's great burden, and vast
quantities of war supplies were
shipped therefrom through Canada for
use by the Entente Allies. For details
see APPENDIX: United States in the
World War; World War.
Canada, a Spanish term used to
indicate a small canon, or valley with
steep rocky walls.
Canada Balsam, a pale balsam,
obtained by incision from a Canadian
tree, the American silver-fir, some-
times called the Balm of Gilead fir.
Canada Goose, an American wild
goose 30 to 35 inches long, brownish
above, lighter below, head, neck, bill,
and feet black, a white patch on the
cheek ; breeds in the N. of the conti-
nent and migrates S. when the frost
becomes severe.
Canada Hemp, a perennial herb,
of the dogbane family native of
North America. It has a strong fiber,
used by the Indians for twine, nets,
woven fabrics, etc.
Canada Rice, a floating grass
growing in lakes and sluggish streams
in Canada and the Northern United
States, yielding a grain that forms
part of the food of the Indians, and is
eaten by the whites also.
Canadian Pacific Railway, a
line of railway which traverses British
North America from the St. Law-
rence to the Pacific, and opened
for general traffic in June, 1886. Com-
mencing at Montreal, the line goes to
Ottawa, thence round the N. of the
Great Lakes to Port Arthur at the
head of Lake Superior, and thence to
Winnipeg, Manitoba, thence to Stephen
in the Rocky mountains, then across
British Columbia to Vancouver on the
Pacific. The length of the line from
Montreal to Vancouver is 2,909 miles.
Canadian River, a river that rises
in the N. E. part of New Mexico, and
runs generally E. through Texas and
Indian Territory to the Arkansas. Its
length is about 900 miles.
Canaigre, a species of dock, grow-
ing abundantly in New Mexico and
Texas. The rootstock furnishes a ma-
terial used in tanning.
Canaille, a French word, denoting
the most degraded element of the pop-
ulace, and applied to an individual as
a term of contempt
Canal, an artificial water-course or
channel, especially used for the passage
of boats. The Egyptians very early
made a canal connecting the Nile and
the Red Sea. Most of the ancient na-
tions had canals. The great canal of
China was constructed partly in the
7th and partly in the 9th century
A. D. ; it is 825 miles long. The first
known English canal was cut by the
Romans at Caerdike. The Caledonian
canal projected in 1803 was opened
n 1822. The Erie canal, so important
:o New York city, was begun in 1817.
and completed in 1825. The Welland
canal parallel to Niagara river and
cataract, and the United States and
ianadiau Sault Ste. Marie canals
Canalejas
overcoming St. Mary's Falls, were
opened in 1833, and 1876, and con-
nect for navigation the Great Lakes
and the St. Lawrence River basins.
The Languedoc, or Canal du Midi,
connecting the Atlantic with the Medi-
terranean, was completed in 18H1. The
Suez canal, connecting the Mediter-
ranean and the Red Sea, was opened
in 1869. It is 99 miles long; 26
feet deep ; 327 feet wide for 77 miles ;
and 196 feet for the remainder. Its
success suggested the cutting of the
Panama Canal (see article), across
the isthmus, to join the Pacific and
Atlantic Oceans. This great undertak-
ing, begun by the renowned engineer
of the Suez canal, M. de Lesseps, was,
after a prosecution to a stage near
completion, abandoned in 1892, as a
result of a terrific scandal. The great
Manchester ship canal, extending from
Eastham to Manchester, England, was
opened Jan. 1, 1894. The Corinth ship
canal, across the Isthmus of Corinth,
was opened by King George of Greece,
Aug. 6, 1893. On June 20, 1895, the
great Baltic and North Sea canal was
opened by the German Emperor in the
presence of a navy representing all na-
tions. Work began on the great Chi-
cago drainage canal Sept 3, 1892, and
by Jan. 1, 1900, it was completed. The
main channel is 29 miles long, of
which about nine miles was cut
through solid rock. In rock the mini-
mum depth is 22 feet. See PANAMA
CANAI.
Canalejas y Mendez, Jos6, a
Spanish statesman; became a leader
of the Liberal party; editor of " El
Heraldo " of Madrid; president of
the Academy of Jurisprudence; chief
of the Departments of Justice, Fi-
nance, Public Instruction, and Pub-
lic Works: and Feb. 9, 1910, Prime
Minister; was conspicuous in the
controversy between Spain and the
Vatican. He was assassinated NOT.
12, 1912.
Canard, a false report; a silly
rumor.
Canary Bird, a singing bird, a
kind of finch from the Canary Islands.
They were introduced into Europe 300
or 400 years ago.
Canary Flower, an annual climb-
ing plant of the Indian cress family, a
Cancer
native of New Granada, cultivated in
Europe for its showy yellow flowers.
Canary Islands, a group of islands
belonging to Spain in the Atlantic
Ocean, off the N. W. coast of Africa,
forming a Spanish province. The group
consists of seven large and several
small islets, with a joint area of about
2,807 square miles, and a pop. (1913)
of 469,768. The principal islands are
Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Gran Ca-
naria, Teneriffe, Gomera, Palma, and
Hierro or Ferro. The distance from
Fuerteventura to the African coast is
about 62 V& geographical miles. The
coasts are steep and rocky, and the
surface is diversified with high moun-
tains, narrow gorges, and deep valleys.
All the islands are volcanic, and every-
where show plain marks of their
origin. There are no rivers, and on
several of the islands water is scarce.
Canberra, site of the permanent
capital of the Australian Common-
wealth, in the State of New South
Wales, selected in 1910, area 900
square miles, being built to order after
plans by Walter B. Griffin, of Chicago.
Canby, Edward Richard Sprigg,
an American army omcer; born \n
Kentucky, in 1817. He graduated at
West Point in 1839; served in the
Mexican War, commanded the United
States troops in New York city dur-
ing the draft riots of 1863 ; succeeded
General Banks in the command of the
army in Louisiana, 1864; became
Brigadier-General, 1866. He was
treacherously shot by an Indian while
negotiating for the removal of the Mo-
docs from Northern California, April
11, 1873.
Cancan, a dance, something of the
nature of a quadrille, but accompanied
by violent leaps and indecorous contor-
tions of the body.
Cancer, in astronomy, tbe fourth
sign in the zodiac. The sun enters
this sign about June 21. He is at hia
greatest N. declination on entering,
and the point which he reaches is
called the summer solstice, because ha
appears for the moment to stop hi bis
progress N., and turn S. again.
Cancer, (derived from the Latin
cancer, a crab), or Carcinoma, in
medicine and surgery a name which is
given to a group of malignant diseases,
Cancer Root
Candler
in consequence of their supposed re-
eemblance to a crab. In the treatment
of cancer it is necessary to get the dis-
ease at an early stage of its growth, so
that it may be thoroughly removed.
If it is detected and removed at this
period of its existence it is curable,
but if the neighboring glands have be-
come involved in the disease the relief
is only temporary.
Cancer Root, or Beech Drops,
a parasitic herb of the order Oroban-
chese, a native of North America,
growing on the exposed roots of beech-
trees. The whole plant is powerfully
astringent, and the root is especially
bitter and nauseous.
Cancrnm Oris, (literally "sore in
the mouth"), known also as Noma,
Water-cancer, and Water-canker, a
peculiar form of mortification, arising
apparently from defective nutrition.
The disease seldom occurs except be-
tween the 2d and llth years, and is
usually preceded by measles, remit-
tent or intermittent fever, or some
other serious disease.
Candace, a name apparently com-
mon to the warrior queens of Ethiopia
in the later period of the kingdom of
Meroe. The most distinguished of
them invaded Egypt 22 B. c., was de-
feated by the Romans and obliged to
sue for peace, which she obtained,
with a remission of the tribute imposed
on her by Petronius. One of her suc-
cessors is mentioned in Acts vii : 27 ;
her high treasurer was baptized by
Philip the Deacon on the road to Gaza.
Candelabrum, a lamp-stand. It6
tripedal form among the ancients is
believed to have been derived from the
shape of its predecessors — braziers or
basins for holding fuel, mounted on
tripods.
Candia, or Crete, (called in the
most ancient times Idsea, from Mount
Ida, afterward Greta, whence the
Turkish name Kirid), one of the most
important islands of the Turkish em-
pire; situated in the Mediterranean,
81 miles from the S. extremity of the
Morea, and 230 from the African
coast. Length 160 miles ; breadth 7 to,
35 ; area 3,330 sq. m. ; pop. 310,400. In
1868 a formidable insurrection, fo-
mented by Greece, was with difficulty
suppressed by the Turks. In conse-
quence of this revolt the Turks grant-
ed to the Cretans a degree of auton-
omy, but Turkish bad faith produced
another revolt nine years later. At
that time a new constitution of a par-
liamentary character was inaugurated,
but many of its provisions were an-
nulled in 1889. In 1896 there was
again a rising against the Turks, in
which the Greeks took part. The Greek
troops landed on the island were with-
drawn at the instance of the Great
Powers, who undertook to secure an
autonomous government under Turk-
ish suzerainty and to cause the Turk-
ish troops to be withdrawn. On Sept
6, 1898, the Mohammedans of Candia
rose against the Christians, and the
fighting resulted in the death of many
of the latter, including some British
sailors. The leading powers at once
demanded the complete withdrawal of
the Turkish troops who had abetted
the rebels, and ultimately on Oct. 11,
the Sultan complied with their de-
mand, the troops being soon after
withdrawn. Prince George of Greece
was high commissioner of the Powers
in 1898-1906.
Candidate, a term taken from the
Latin candidatus, a candidate, liter-
ally a person dressed in white, be-
cause, among the Romans, a man
who solicited an office, such as the
prsetorship or consulship, appeared in
a bright white garment.
Candleberry, a shrub, natural or-
der Myricacese, growing from 4 to 18
feet high, and common in North-
America, where candles are made
from its drupes or berries which are
about the size of peppercorns, and
covered with a greenish-white wax.
Candle Fish, a small fish peculiar
to the Pacific coast of the United
States. It is so oily that when dried
and a wick is drawn through it, it will
burn like a candle.
Candlemas, the feast of the puri-
fication of the Virgin, Feb. 2d; so-
called from being formerly celebrated
with processions and shows of candles.
It was instituted in the 6th century.
Candler, Warren A., an Ameri-
can clergyman : born in Carroll coun-
ty, Ga., Aug. 23, 1857. He was grad-
uated at Emory College in 1875, was
ordained to the Methodist ministry!
Candlish
and in 1888 was elected a bishop. He
has been President of Emory College
since 1888.
Candlish, Robert Smith, a
Scotch clergyman, born in Edinburgh,
March 23, 1806; was educated at
Glasgow University. After the death
of Chalmers, Candlish was the ruling
spirit in the Free Church. He died
Oct 19, 1873.
Candy, or Kandy, a city of Cey
Ion, near the center of the island, 72
miles N. E. of Colombo. Pop. (1911)
29,451.
Canea, the capital and chief com-
mercial town of Crete, situated on the
N. W. coast. It occupies the site of
the ancient Cydonia. Pop. 24,399.
Canebrake, a colossal reed, which
reaches a height of 30 or 40 feet, and
forms dense swamp-jungles in marshy
places along the banks of the Red
river, the Arkansas, the Mississippi,
and their tributaries.
Canes Venatici, (Latin " the
Hunting-dogs," Asterion and Chara),
one of the northern constellations
added by Hevelius in 1690, between
Bootes and Ursa Major.
Canfield, James Hulme, an
American educator ; born in Delaware,
O., March 18, 1847; in 1877-1891 he
was Professor of History in the Uni-
versity of Kansas, and in 1891-1895
was Chancellor. He then became
President of the Ohio State Univer-
sity and in 1899 librarian of Colum-
bia University. Died in 1909.
Cang, Cangue, or Kea, the wood-
en collar, weighing from 50 to 60
pounds, and fitting closely round the
neck, imposed upon criminals in
China.
Canicula, the dog-star or Sirius;
hence Canincular days, the dog-days.
Canidae, a family of mammals, con-
taining the dogs, wolves, foxes, and
jackals.
Canis Major, a constellation of
the Southern hemisphere, remarkable
as containing Sirius, the brightest
star. — CANIS MINOR is a constellation
in the Northern hemisphere, immedi-
ately above Canis Major, the chief star
in which is Procyon.
Canker, (1) in medicine, a collec-
tion of small sloughing ulcers in the
Cannon
mouth. (2) In horticulture, a disease
to which fruit-trees are liable. (3)
In farriery, a disease in horses' feet
•causing a discharge of fetid matter
from the cleft in the middle of the
frog.
Canker-worm, a worm or larva de-
structive to trees or plants.
Cannel Coal, a variety of bitum-
inous coal, containing earthy matters,
which render it specifically heavier
than water. It varies much in ap-
pearance. It is very dense and com-
pact, and not easily frangible, break-
ing with an uneven fracture, and does
not soil the fingers. When burning,
it splits and crackles, without melting,
and leaves 3 or 4 per cent, of ash.
Cannes, a seaport of France, oh
the shore of the Mediterranean, in the
Department of Alpes-Maritimes ; fam-
ous as the place where Napoleon
landed when he returned from Elba,
March 1, 1815. Pop. 19,500.
Cannibalism, the act or practice
of eating human flesh by mankind.
When America was discovered, canni-
balism was found to prevail to a very
great extent. It is stated, on excellent
authority, to exist in Hayti, and un-
doubtedly prevails among certain
South American tribes. In many parts
of Africa, cannibalism is systematic-
ally practised.
Canning, George, an English or-
ator and statesman ; born in London,
April 11, 1770 ; educated at Eton and
at Oxford. He was first brought into
Parliament by Pitt in 1793, and in
1796 became Under-Secretary of
State. In 1797 he projected, with
some friends, the " Anti-Jacobin," of
which Gifford was appointed editor,
and to which Canning contributed the
" Knife-grinder " and other poems and
articles. In 1798 he supported Wil-
berforce's motion for the abolition of
the slave-trade. In 1807 he was ap-
pointed Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs. As British Minister of For-
eign Affairs he earnestly advocated
the principles embodied in the Mon-
roe Doctrine. April 12, 1827, his ap-
pointment to be Prime-Minister was
announced. He died in Chiswick,
Aug. 8, 1827.
Cannon, George Q., born in Liv-
erpool, England, Jan. 11, 1827; re-
moved to the Salt Lake, where he be-
Cannon
Canteen
came a Mormon leader. He was a
member of the Legislative Council of
Utah in 1805-1866 and 1869-1872,
and was a delegate to Congress from
1865 to 1881. At a Constitutional
Convention at Salt Lake City in 1872
he was chosen to present the consti-
tution and memorial to Congress for
the admission of the Territory into
the Union as a State. He died in
Monterey, Cal., April 12, 1901. His
son, Frank J. Cannon, was elected
one of the first United States Senators
from Utah, 1896-9.
Cannon, Joseph Gnrney, an
American legislator ; born in Guilf ord,
N. C., May 7, 1836; was admitted
to the bar in Illinois in 1858; was
State Attorney in 1861-68 ; member
of Congress in 1873-91, 1893-1903,
1903-13, and 1915-17 ; Speaker of the
House of four Congresses, 1903-11 ;
and was a stalwart Republican, famil-
iarly known as " Uncle Joe Cannon."
Cano, Juan Sebastian del, _ a
Spanish navigator, born in Guetaria,
Guipuzcoa, about 1460. He was one
of the first to circumnavigate the globe
(1522). He died on the Pacific, Aug.
4, 1526.
Canoe, a boat made of a hollow
trunk of a tree, or of the bark shaped
and strengthened. They were original-
ly used by the North American In-
dians.
Canon, in its original sense, a cane
or reed used as a measure or rule.
Specifically, a law or rule in general.
In ecclesiastical history a canon is a
book containing the rules of a religi-
ous order used in monastic institu-
tions. A list or catalogue of the can-
onized saints of the Roman Catholic
Church. A dignitary of the Church ;
one who possesses a prebend, or rev-
enue allotted for the performances of
divine services in a cathedral or col-
legiate church.
Canon, the Spanish word for tube,
funnel, cannon ; applied by the Span-
ish Americans, and hence in North
America generally, to long and narrow
river gorges or deep ravines with pre-
cipitous and perpendicular sides.
Canonical Hours, certain stated
times of the day appropriated by ec-
clesiastical law to the offices of prayer
and devotion in the Roman Catholic
Church-
Canonization, a ceremony in the
Roman Church, by which deceased
persons are declared saints.
Canon-law, the body of ecclesias-
tical law as laid down by the canons.
The oldest canons are called Apostolic
canons. The canons of the Councils
of Nice (A. n. 325), Constantinople
(A. D. 381), Ephesus (A. D. 431),
and Chalcedon (A. D. 451), obtained
civil sanction by decree of Justinian.
Afterward papal decrees of various
dates were added to the Roman Cath-
olic canon law.
Canon of Scripture, the term
canon, as applied to the Scriptural
writings, has been narrowed in its
application to those inspired writings
recognized by Christian believers.
Canossa, a ruined castle near Reg-
gio, Italy, interesting for its historical
associations. The Emperor Henry
IV., excommunicated by Gregory VII.,
humbly waited for three days in its
courtyard bareheaded, barefooted and
fasting, until the Pope reversed his
decision. Hence the term " going to
Canossa," meaning to yield to papal
wishes or demands.
Canova, Antonio, an Italian
sculptor, born in 1757 ; died 1822. He
was largely self-taught, and at 15
years of age produced two statues.
He excelled in whatever style he
chose, and his versatility is shown in
the delicate beauty of his famous
" Cupid and Psyche " and the rugged
(strength of his colossal " Hercules
throwing Lichas into the Sea."
Canso, Cape, the E. extremity of
Nova Scotia, at the entrance of Ched-
abucto Bay. Canso Strait or Gut,.
17% miles long and 2% in average
breadth, separates Nova Scotia from
the island of Caps Breton.
Cantacnzenns, a Greek princely
family, which gave two emperors to
Constantinople, and a branch of which
has been distinguished in the service
of Russia. In 1903, a scion married
a granddaughter of General Ulysses
S. Grant.
Canteen, in military language, a
regimental establishment managed by
a committee of officers, in barracks or
forts, for the sale of liquors, tobacco,
groceries, etc. The word is also ap-
plied to a flat can or metallic bottle
used by soldiers for carrying drinking
UNITED STATES CANTONMENT!
1 — Main thoroughfare at an important camp.
3 — General view of a Southern training camp.
Photos by Brown Bros.
OR ARMY TRAINING
2 — Daily rifle practice is the most necessary
routine in the training of recruits.
Canterbury
water. The sale of liquors in the
United States army establishments
known as canteens was recently pro-
hibited by law.
Canterbury, a city and parliamen-
tary and municipal borough of Eng-
land in Kent, 55 miles S. E. of Lon-
don. In the 8th, 9th, 10th, and llth
centuries the city was dreadfully rav-
aged by the Danes, but at the Con-
quest its buildings exceeded in extent
those of London. The ecclesiastical
importance of the place was consum-
mated by the murder of Thomas a
Becket in the cathedral. Henry VIII.
dissolved the priory in 1539, and or-
dered the bones of Becket to be
burned ; and the troopers of Oliver
Cromwell made a stable of the cathe-
dral. The cathedral, one of the finest
ecclesiastical structures in England,
has been built in different ages, the
oldest part dating from about 1174.
The great tower, 235 feet in height,
is a splendid specimen of the Pointed
style. Pop. (1911) 24,826.
Cantharis, or Spanish Fly. Ex-
ternally used as a rubefacient in the
form of a liniment, also as a vesicant
in the form of the common blister.
Canticle, certain detached psalms
and hymns used in the service of the
Angl'can Church. The word is also
applied to that book of the Old Testa-
ment also known as the "Song of
Solomon."
Canton, called also YANG-CHING,
city of rams, a large commercial city
and port in the south of China, and
capital of the province of Kwang-
tung, on the N. or left side of the Shu-
kiang, or Pearl river, in a rich alluvial
plain, 70 miles N. of Macao and 90 N.
W. of Hong-kong. The city is sur-
rounded by walls 25 to 40 feet high,
20 feet thick, with an esplanade in-
side, 6 miles in circumference; and it
is divided by a partition wall run-
ning E. and W. into two unequal
parts. There are 12 outer gates, four
gates in partition wall, and two water
gates, shut and guarded by night. The
entire circuit, including suburbs, is
nearly 10 miles. At the S. W. corner
of the suburbs S. of the river, are the
Hongs or European quarter, divided
from the river by a quay, 100 yards
wide. The streets, more than 600,
are in general less than 8 feet wide,
Cantonment
and very crooked. The chief exports
are tea, silk, and cassia ; chief im-
ports, cotton, woolen and metal goods.
Pop. est (1916) 900,000.
Canton, city and capital of Stark
county, O. ; on Nimishillen creek and
jthe Baltimore & Ohio and other rail-
roads ; 59 miles S. E. of Cleveland ;
manufactures steel bridges, steel cars,
watches, safes, locks, surgical chairs,
steel roofing, and farming implements ;
has a large trade in coal, wheat,
corn, and oats. Pop. (1910) 50,217.
Cantonment, an indefinite area of
land, usually in the suburbs of a town
or village, set apart for the training
or quartering of a military force.
After the United States entered the
World War, forty-nine cantonments
and camps were established in twenty-
three States, the principal ones being
named after deceased army officers.
These reservations comprised sixteen
National Army training camps, six-
teen National Guard camps, fourteen
Navy camps, two Marine Corps camps,
and one embarkation camp. The fol-
lowing gives the names (in Italic*)
and location of the principal canton-
ments and camps :
National Army Training Camps. —
Devens, Ayer, Mass. ; Upton, Yap-
leank, L. I. ; Dix, Wrightstown, N. J. ;
Meade, Annapolis Junction, Md. ; Lee,
Petersburg, Va. ; Jackson, Columbia,
S. C. ; Gordon, Atlanta, Ga. ; Sher-
man, Chillicothe, O. ; Taylor, Louis-
ville, Ky. ; Custer, Battle Creek,
Mich.; Grant, Rockford. 111.; Pike,
Little Rock, Ark. ; Dodge, Des
Moines, la. ; Funst on, Fort Riley,
Ark. ; Travis, Fort Sam Houston,
Tex. ; and Lewis, American Lake,
Wash.
National Guard Camps. — Greene,
Charlotte, N. C. ; Wadsworth, Spar-
tanburg, S. C. ; Hancock, Augusta,
Ga. ; McClellan, Anniston, Ala. ; 8e-
vier, Greenville, S. C. ; Wheeler,
Macon, Ga. ; McArthur, Waco, Tex. ;
Logan, Houston. Tex. ; Cody, Dem-
ing, N. M. ; Doniphan, Fort Sill,
Okla. ; Bowie, Fort Worth, Tex.;
Sheridan, Montgomery, Ala. ; Shelby,
Hattiesburg, Miss. ; Beauregard,
Alexandria, La. ; Kearny, Linda
Vista, Cal. ; and Fre'mont, Palo Alto,
Cal.
Embarkation Camp. — Merritt, Du-
mont, N. J.
Cap
Cap, in ships, a strong piece of
timber placed over the head or upper
end of a mast, having in it a round
hole to receive the top or top-gallant
masts.
Cape Breton, an island of the
Dominion of Canada, separated from
Nova Scotia, to which province it be-
longs, by the narrow Gut or Strait of
Canso ; area 3,120 square miles. Tim-
ber, fish, and coal are exported. The
island belonged to France from 1632
to 1763, and_ Louisburg, its capital,
was long an important military post.
It was separate from Nova Scotia be-
tween 1784 and 1820. Chief town,
Sydney. Pop. of Cape Breton, 83,240.
Cape Coast Castle, a settlement
of Great Britain in the Gold Coast
Colony, in Upper Guinea, 315 miles
W. of Lagos. The place lies in a
chasm, and is defended by the great
castle near the water's edge, and by
three small forts on the hills behind.
Ceded by the Dutch to the English
in 1665, Cape Coast Castle, from 1672,
was possessed by several British Afri-
can companies tilll843, when it was
taken over by government. Pop. 11,-
364.
Cape Cod, a peninsula on the S.
side of Massachusetts Bay; 65 miles
long and from 1 to 20 broad. A ship
canal was completed here in 1916,
connecting Buzzards Bay and Barn-
stable Bay, at a cost of $12,000,000.
Cape Colony, former name of a
British colony at the S. extremity of
Africa; since 1910 a province in the
Union of South Africa, renamed CAPE
OF GOOD HOPE COLONY; area, 276,-
995 square miles; pop. (1911) 2,564,-
965 ; chief town, Cape Town, pop.
(1911) 67,159.
The province is better adapted for
pasturage than for agriculture. All
kinds of vegetables and pot herbs, and
all the fruits of temperate climates
thrive excellently, and fruits, dried
and preserved, are exported. The vine
is cultivated, and some excellent wines
are made.
Sheep-rearing is the most important
industry, and wool is the chief export
(although surpassed in value by dia-
monds). Cattle-breeding is carried
on to some extent, especially along the
coasts and in the E. and N. districts.
There are no manufactures of any im-
portance.
Capella
The European inhabitants consist
in part of English, Scottish, and Irish
settlers and their descendants, but the
majority are of Dutch origin, while
there are also a considerable number
of German origin. The colored people
are chiefly Hottentots, Kaffirs, Be-
chuanas, Basutos, Griquas, Malays,
and a mixed race, the offspring of
black women and white fathers. The
province is now divided into 119 mag-
isterial districts, 86 fiscal divisions,
123 municipalities, and 79 village
management boards. Each division
has a council, which looks after roads,
boundaries, and beacons, elected tri-
ennially by land owners, and each
municipality is governed by a mayor
or chairman and councillors. There
are also 120 school districts and edu-
cation is compulsory for youth of
European extraction.
The Dutch, who had early fixed
upon the Cape as a watering-place for
their ships, first colonized it under
Van Riebeek, in 1652. It was cap-
tured by the British in 1795, restored
at the peace of Amiens (1802), and
again taken in 1806. From this time
it has remained in the possession of
Great Britain, to which it was for-
mally -assigned in 1815, along with
Dutch Guiana. Subsequently the area
of the colony was gradually enlarged
by the annexation of surrounding dis-
tricts. See SOUTH AFBICA, UNION OF.
Cape Fear River, a river of
North Carolina ; navigable for steam-
boats for 120 miles from its mouth.
Cape Finistere, the westernmost
point of Spain, in the province of Co-
runna, extending S. W. into the At-
lantic.
Cape Hatteras, a dangerous cape
on the coast of North Carolina off
which many wrecks have occurred.
Cape Haiti, a town on the N. coast
of Haiti. It has an excellent harbor
and a pop. of about 30,000.
Cape Horn, or The Horn, the ex-
tremity of an island of the same name,
forming the extreme S. point of South
America. It is a dark, precipitous
headland, 500 to 600 feet high, run-
ning far into the sea. Navigation
round it is dangerous on account of
frequent tempests.
Capella, the name of a star situa-
ted in the constellation Auriga, and is
of remarkable brilliancy.
Cape Matapan
Cape Verde Islands
Cape Matapan, a promontory of
Greece, forming the S. extremity of
the Peloponnesus.
Capen, Elmer Hewitt, an Amer-
ican educator, born in Stoughton,
Mass., April 5, 1838; graduated at
Tufts College, and became a lawyer
and later a Universalist clergyman.
From 1875 he was president of Tufts
College. He died Mar. 22, 1905.
Capen, Nahnm, an American his-
torical writer ; born at Canton, Mass.,
180-1 ; was postmaster of Boston,
Mass. ; introduced street letter-box
collections. He died Jan. 4, 1886.
Cape Nome, a cape and center of
a remarkably rich gold mining region,
on the S. face of the peninsular pro-
jection of Alaska, which separates
Kotzebue Sound on the N. from Ber-
ing Sea on the S., and terminates on
the W. in Cape Prince of Wales.
In a direct line of navigation, it lies
about 2,500 miles N. W. of Seattle,'
and 175 miles S. E. of Siberia. The
nearest settlement of consequence to '
it prior to 1899 was St. Michael, 100
miles to the S. E., but that year vari-
ous mining camps built them-
selves up in closer range and reduced
the distance some 60 miles. The Nome
district as settled centers about the
lower course of the Snake river, which
discharges into the sea at a position
13 miles W. of Cape Nome proper.
The first discovery of gold was made
hi September, 1898, but it was not un-
til July, 1899, that the beach gold was
discovered. In the middle of October
following Nome City had 5,000 inhabi-
tants. The yield of gold has been very
great, and the district is being exten-
sively exploited. Pop. (1910) 2,600.
Cape Nnn, a headland on the W.
coast of Morocco, extending into the
sea at the S. W. extremity of the At-
las range.
Cape of Good Hope, a promon-
tory near the S. extremity of Africa,
at the termination ot a small penin-
sula extending S. from Table moun-
tain, which overlooks Cape Town.
Bartholomew Diaz, who discovered the
Cape in 1487, called it Cape of
Storms; but John II. of Portugal
changed this to its present designation.
It was first doubled by Vasco de Gama
in 1407. Here is one of the principal
astronomical institutions of the world.
Cape Ortegal, a rugged promon-
tory forming the N. extremity of
Spain, extending into the Bay of Bis-
cay.
Caper, the unopened flower-bud of
a low trailing shrub which grows in
the countries bordering the Mediter-
ranean. Pickled in vinegar and salt
they are much used as a condiment.
Capercailzie, a species of grouse,
of large size, formerly indigenous in
the highlands of Scotland, but which
became extinct, and had to be re intro-
duced from the Scandinavian Penin-
sula.
Cape River, or Rio de Segovia,
a river of Nicaragua, which after a
generally N. E. course of nearly 300
miles enters the Caribbean Sea, after
forming part of the boundary between
Honduras and Nicaragua.
Capernaum, a city of Galilee hi
Palestine, about 70 miles N. by E. of
Jerusalem, situated on the N. W.
shore of the Sea of Tiberias. It was
here that Jesus Christ began his pub-
lic ministry ; and in its neighborhood
he delivered the Sermon on the Mount.
Capers, Ellison, an American cler-
gyman ; born in Charleston, S. C.,
Oct 14, 1837. He entered the Prot-
estant Episcopal ministry in 1867,
and was chosen bishop of South Caro-
lina in 1893. He died April 22, 1908.
Caperton, 'William Banks, an
American naval officer; born in
Spring Hill, Tenn., June 30, 1855;
was graduated at the U. S. Naval
Academy in 1875 ; became captain in
1908, and rear-admiral in 1913 ; com-
manded the Atlantic Reserve Fleet in
1913-14; was sent to Haiti to sup-
press disorders in 1914-15 ; and in
1917 was given command of the Pa-
cific fleet.
Cape St. Vincent, the S. W. point
of Portugal.
Cape Town, capital of the Cape of
Good Hope Colony, South Africa ; be-
came the seat of the Parliament of the
I new Union of South Africa in 1910.
| Pop. (1911) 67,159.
Cape Verde, the most westerly
headland of Africa, jutting out into
the Atlantic Ocean, between the rivers
; Gambia and Senegal.
Cape Verde Islands, a group in
, the North Atlantic Ocean, belonging
j to Portugal, about 370 miles W. of
Cape Wrath
Cape Verde, which, as well as the is-
lands, derives its name from the green-
ish tinge given to the adjoining sea by
the abundance of sea-weed. The group
consists of 14 islands, besides islets
and rocks, having a united area of
about 1,480 square miles. They are
in general, mountainous, rocky, and
very ill supplied with water; all are
evidently of volcanic origin. The cli-
mate is exceedingly unhealthy, and
droughts are of frequent occurrence.
The pop. (1913) 147,794 is a mixed
race of Portuguese and negroes. These
islands were discovered in 1450. Dur-
ing the early part of the war between
the United States and Spain (189S),
the islands were made the rendezvous
of the Spanish fleet under Cervera.
Cape Wrath, a pyramidal promon-
tory of unrivaled wildness and gran-
deur, the N. W. extremity of Scotland
and running out into the Atlantic.
Capillaries. The tubes which con-
yey the blood from the left side of the
heart to the various parts of the body
are called arteries, while those which
return it to the right side of the heart
are known as veins. The name capil-
laries is given to the minute vessels
which form the connection between
the terminal branches of the arteries
and the commencement of the trunks
of the veins.
Capita, an expression of frequent
occurrence in laws regulating the dis-
tribution of the estates of persons dy-
ing intestate. When all the persons
entitled to shares in the distribution
are of the same degree of kindred to
the deceased person, and claim di-
rectly from him in their own right,
and not through an intermediate rela-
tion, they take per capita, that is,
in equal shares, or share and share
alike.
Capital, the surplus of individual
or national wealth which remains af-
ter current necessities have been met.
It consists of what are popularly
called savings. It is available for the
employment of new labor, and if this
be done judiciously it will produce a
further surplus ; or, in other words,
the capital will increase. In every
well ordered community it tends to do
BO indefinitely. Capital and labor mu-
tually require each other, and are not
natural foes, but natural friends.
Capitol
Capital Punishment, the pun-
ishment of crime by death. In the
United States the method is usually
by hanging, but in recent years a
number of States have adopted elec-
trocution. The punishment for mur-
der in the first and second degrees
varies in the different States and in-
cludes hanging, electrocution, shooting
(by choice), life imprisonment, limit-
ed imprisonment, death or life impris-
onment at the discretion of the sen-
tencing judge. An insane person and
a pregnant woman are immune from
capital punishment while the condi-
tion lasts.
Capitation-grant, a grant of so
much per head ; specifically applied to
grants from government or governing
bodies to schools according to the
number of scholars in attendance, or
to the number of those passing a cer-
tain test examination, and to volun-
teer companies on account of such
members as reach the stage of "effi-
cients."
Capitation-tax, a tax or impost
upon each head or person. Generally
called a poll-tax in the United States.
Capito, or Kopfel, Wolfgang
Fabricns, an Alsatian reformer ; born
in Haguenau in 1478, entered the
Benedictine order, and became Profes-
sor of Theology at Basel, He approved
of Luther's action, but nevertheless in
1519 entered the service of Albert of
Mainz ; and it was not till some years
later that he finally declared for the
Reformation. He died in Strasburg
in November, 1541.
Capitol. A Roman height on
which was erected a famous temple of
Jupiter. The word is also applied to
the building in which the Congress of
the United States holds its sessions.
The S. E. corner-stone of the Capi-
tol was laid Sept 18, 1793, "by
Brother George Washington, assisted
by the Worshipful Masters and Free
Masons of the surrounding cities, the
military, and a large number of peo-
ple." The N. wing was ready for oc-
cupancy in 1800, the S. wing in 1808;
but both were partially destroyed by
the British in 1814. The foundation
of the main building was laid in 181
(March 24), the restoration of the
wings having been commenced thre«
years earlier; and the whole was com-
Capitoline Game!
Capron
pleted in 1827. July 4, 1851, the cor-
ner-stone of the S. extension was laid
by President Fillmore, and this was
finished in 1857. The N. extension
was occupied by the Senate in 1859.
The present dome, commenced in 1855,
was completed eight years later, and
Dec. 12, 1863, the American flag float-
ed from its summit. The cost of the
entire building was $13,000,000 : main
building, $3,000,000; dome, $1,000,-
000; extensions, $8,000,000; miscel-
laneous items, $1,000,000. The length
of the entire building is 751 feet 4
inches; its greatest breadth, 324 feet,
and it covers a little over 3% acres.
The distance from the ground to the
top of the dome is 307^ feet; the
diameter of the dome, 135^ feet The
buildings in which state legislatures
meet are also called capitols, but in
New England usually " State Houses."
Capitoline Games, annual public
sports, instituted at Rome 387 B. C.,
in honor of Jupiter Capitolinus, and
to commemorate the preservation of
the city from the Gauls.
Capiz, a province of Panay (Vi-
sayas), Philippine Islands; on the N.
coast; area, 1,661 square miles; pop.
(1903) 230,721; capital, Capiz; pop.
18,525.
Capo d'Istrias, loannes An-
tonios, Count, was born in Corfu,
Feb. 11, 1770; president of the Greek
republic from 1828 to 1831. He de-
voted himself to political life, and in
1809 entered the diplomatic service of
Russia. Here his policy tended to the
separation of Greece from Turkey. In
1828 he entered on a seven years'
presidency of Greece ; but imbued as
he was with Russian ideas, he aroused
discontent by his autocratic measures ;
and on Oct. 9, 1831, he was assassin-
ated in a church at Nauplia.
Capote, Domingo Mendez, a
Cuban statesman ; born in Cardenas
in 1863; spent his youth there; was
graduated at the University of Ha-
vana, and became one of the best
known lawyers in Cuba. Subsequent-
ly he was a professor in the Univer-
sity of Havana for many years. In
December, 1895, 'he joined the insur-
gents under Gen. Maximo Gomez ; be-
came a Brigadier-General ; and was
appointed civil governor of Matanzas
and of Las Villas. In November, 1897,
he was elected Vice-President of the
Cuban Republic. When the Cuban
Constitutional Convention appointed a
commission of five members to confer
with President McKinley and Secre-
tary Root concerning the future rela-
tions of the United Stales and Cuba,
he became its leader. The conference
was held in Washington, D. C., in
April, IDOL
Cappadocia, in antiquity, one of
the most important provinces in Asia
Minor, the greater part of which is in-
cluded in the modern province of Ka-
raman. It was conquered by Cyrus,
and was ruled by independent kings
from the time of Alexander the Great
until 17 A. D., when it became a Ro-
man province.
Capri, an island in the beautiful
Gulf of Naples, remarkable for sev-
eral remarkable caverns or grottoes in
its steep rocky coast.
Capricornna " the Goat," one of
the 12 signs of the Zojdiac, between
Sagittarius and Aquarius ; also the
corresponding zodiacal constellation,
one of Ptolemy's original 48.
Caprimnlgidae, the goat-suckers, a
family of birds, nearly allied to the
swallow tribe.
Caprivi, Georg Leo, Graf Ton
sometimes called CAPBIVI DE CAPRARA
DE MONTECUCUTJ, a German soldier
and statesman; born in Berlin, Feb.
24, 1831; entered the army in 1849;
and in 1883 he became commander of
his old army corps. Hence he was
removed, on the fall of Bismarck, in
1890, to become Imperial Chancellor
and Prussian Prime Minister. His
principal measures were the army
bills of 1892 and 1893, and the com-
mercial treaty with Russia in 1894, in
which year he resigned. He died at
Skyren, Feb. 6, 1899.
Capron, Allen Kissam, an Amer-
ican military officer (son of Allyn
Capron) ; born in Brooklyn, N. Y.,
June 24, 1871. He enlisted as a pri-
vate (1890), and rose to a sec-
ond lieutenancy (1893), joining the
" Rough Riders " on the outbreak of
the war with Spain. He was made a
captain for bravery, and was killed at
Las Guasimas, Cuba, June 24, 1898.
Capron, Allyn, an American mili-
tary officer; born in Tampa, Fla.,
Aug. 27, 1846. He was a son of Capt.
Capsicum
Erastus A. Capron, killed in the Mex-
ican war, and was graduated at West
Point in 1867. He rose to the rank of
captain (1888), and in the war with
Spain led an advance at the battle of
Santiago. He further distinguished
himself at El Caney. He contracted
typhoid in Cuba and died at Fort
Myer, Va., Sept. 18, 1898.
Capsicum, a genus of plants bear-
ing membranous pods containing sev-
eral seeds, noted for their hot, pungent
qualities.
Capstan, a strong, massive appara-
tus of wood or iron made to revolve,
and thus raise a heavy weight by
winding a rope round it. It is espe-
cially used on shipboard for weighing
the anchor.
Carabobo
amphitheatre, said to have been capa-
ble of containing 100,000 spectators,
and of some of its tombs, attest its
former splendor and magnificence. It
was destroyed by the Saracens, A. D.
840.
Capuchin Monkey, a name given
to various species of South American
monkeys of the genus Cebus. The hair
of their heads is so arranged that it
has the appearance of a capuchin's
cowl, hence the name.
Capuchins, a branch of the Fran-
ciscan order of monks, founded by
Matthew de Baschi, an Italian. So
called from their peculiar capuche or
cowl — a pointed hood attached to the
ordinary Franciscan coat, and said to
have been worn by St. Francis himself.
HALL IN BATHS OF CARACALLA.
Captain, one who is at the head or
has authority over others, especially :
(1) The military officer who com-
mands a company, whether of infan-
try, cavalry, or artillery. (2) An of-
ficer in the navy commanding a ship
of war. (3) The master of a mer-
chant vessel.
Capua (ancient Capoa or Capua),
a strongly fortified city of Southern
Italy, on the left bank of the Voltur-
no, in a fine plain 18 miles N. of Na-
ples. The city has a citadel, the work
of Vauban, and is reckoned one of the
keys of the kingdom. The ancient Ca-
pua was situated about 21/& miles from
the modern city. The remains of its
Capulets and Montagues, the
English spelling of the names of the
Cappelletti and Montecchi, two noble
families of Northern Italy, according
to tradition of Verona, chiefly mem-
orable from their connection with the
legend on which Shakespeare has
founded his tragedy of " Romeo and
Juliet."
Carabobo, a State of Venezuela,
between the Caribbean Sea and the
State of Zamora ; area, 2,974 square
miles; population, 198,021, mostly in-
habiting the fertile depression of Lake
Valencia, where large crops of coffee,
sugar, and excellent cacao are grown.
Capital, Valencia.
Caracal
Caravel
Caracal, a species of lynx, of a
reddish-brown color, with black ears,
tipped with long black hair. It is a
native of Africa, India, Persia, and
Turkey.
Carac alia, Marcus Anrelins An-
toninus, eldest son of the Emperor
Severus, was born in Lyons, A. D. 188.
On the death of his father he succeed-
ed to the throne with his brother, An-
toninus Geta, whom he speedily mur-
dered. To effect his own security up-
wards of 20,000 other victims were
butchered. He was himself assassin-
ated by Macrinus, the pretorian pre-
fect, near Eaessa, in 217. Among the
buildings of Caracalla in Rome, the
baths — Thermae Caracallae — near Por-
ta Capena, were most celebrated, and
their ruins are still magnificent.
Caracas, the capital of the Repub-
lic of Venezuela and of the Federal
District, 6 miles (24 by rail) S. of La
Guaira, its port. Built on the S. slope
of the Avila (8,635 feet), it is 3,025
feet above the tide-level. The streets,
built at right angles, are broad and
well paved. There are a handsome
promenade and numerous public parks
and gardens; excellent water and gas
plants; street railways; and the ter-
mini of several steam railways. Pop-
ulation 72,429.
Caracci, Ludovico, Agostino,
and Annibale, born about the mid-
dle of the 16th century, were three of
the first painters of Italy, kinsmen,
fellow-students, and co-laborers, na-
tives of Bologna, and founders of the
Bolognese School.
Caraccioli, Francesco, an Ital-
ian admiral, born in Naples about
1748. When Ruffo took Naples in
1799 Caraccioli was arrested, and,
contrary to the terms of capitulation,
was condemned to death, and hanged
at the yard-arm of a Neapolitan fri-
gate, Lord Nelson consenting to his
execution, June 29, 1799.
Caractacns, a king of the Britons,
for nine years (43-50 A. D.) warred
gallantly against the Roman invaders,
but at length was completely over-
thrown by Ostorius in a battle near
the border of South Wales. His wife
and daughters fell into the hands of
the victors, and his brothers surren-
dered. Caractacus himself fled to
Cartismandua, queen of the Brigan-
tes, who delivered him up. He was
carried to Rome, 51 A. D., and exhib-
ited in a triumphal procession by the
Emperor Claudius, who was greatly
impressed by his dauntless bearing and
language. According to tradition he
died in Rome about A. D. 54.
Caramel, the name of a certain
preparation of candy.
Carat, a weight of 3^ grains; the
tweny-fourth part of an ounce. It is
used by jewelers to express the fine-
ness of gold, the whole mass being
supposed to be divided into 24 parts,
and said to be so many carats fine,
according to the number of twenty-
fourth parts of pure gold contained in
it. Twenty-four carat means all
gold, 18 carat three-quarters gold.
_ Caransins, a Roman general, a na-
tive of Batavia. He was sent by the
Emperor Maximilian to defend the At-
lantic coasts against the Franks and
Saxons ; but foreseeing impending dis-
grace, he landed in Britain and had
himself proclaimed emperor by his le-
gions (287 A. D.). In this province
he was able to maintain himself six
years, when he was assassinated at
York by one of his officers named Al-
lectus (293 A. D.).
Caravaggio, Michel Angelo
Amerighi, or Merighi da, a cele-
brated painter, born in Caravaggio in
1569. He died near Rome in 1609.
Caravan, a Persian word used to
denote large companies which travel
together in Asia and Africa for the
sake of security from robbers, having
in view, principally, trade or pilgrim-
ages. Camels are used as a means of
conveyance on account of their re-
markable powers of endurance.
Caravansary, or Caravansera, a
large public building, or inn, for the
reception and lodgment of caravans in
the desert. Though serving instead
of inns, there is this essential differ-
ence between them, that the traveler
finds nothing in the caravansary for
the use either of himself or his cattle,
but must carry all his provisions and
necessaries with him. Caravansaries
are also numerous in cities, where
they serve not only as inns, but as
shops, warehouses, and even ex-
changes.
Caravel, the name of different
kinds of vessels, particularly a small
Caraway
ship used by the Spaniards and Portu-
guese in the 15th and 16th centuries
for long voyages. It was in com-
mand of three caravels that Columbus
crossed the Atlantic and discovered
America.
Caraway, a plant valued and culti-
vated for the sake of the well-known
aromatic " caraway seeds " which it
bears ; these being, however, in strict-
ness not seeds, but the pericarps, into
which the fruit in this order splits
when ripening. Caraways are chiefly
used entire as a spice by bakers and
confectioners.
Carbide, a compound formed by
the union of carbon with an element,
as iron or hydrogen.
Carbine, a fire-arm used by cav-
alry and artillery, shorter in the bar-
rel than the ordinary musket or rifle.
It was used by light cavalry as early
as the 16th century.
Carbineers, or Carabineers, for-
merly light horsemen, used chiefly to ;
watch and harass the enemy, defend j
narrow passes, and act as skirmish-
ers.
Carbolic Acid, obtained by the dry
distillation of salicylic acid. It is
also formed by the dry distillation of
coal, in the coal-tar oil. It is used as
a disinfectant, and to preserve meat,
etc. Taken internally it soon proves
fatal, and its use should therefore b«
carefully guarded.
Carbon, the name of the element
which exists, more or less pure, in
charcoal, coke, coal and such bodies.
Carbonari, the name given to a
secret political association in Italy, its
professed aim being the reorganiza-
tion and reform of the government of
that country.
Carbondale, a city in Lackawan-
na county, Pa.; on the Lacka wanna
river and the Delaware & Hudson
and other railroads; 16 miles N. E.
of Scranton; is noted for its^ great
deposits of anthracite coal, its ex-
tensive mining interests, and its man-
ufactures of silk goods, chemicals,
and machinery. Pop. (1910) 17,040.
Carboniferous, a term applied to
the extensive and thick series of strata
with which seams of paleozoic coal are
more or less immediately associated. It
is applied as well to that great sys-
Cardamine
tern of formations which yield our
main supply of coal, or to some di-
visions of that system, such as the
Carboniferous limestone and the Car-
boniferous slates. It is also applied
to the fossils found in any stratum
belonging to the system.
Carborundum, an artificial abra-
sive, composed of carbon and clay
fused together at a high temperature.
Carboy, a large and somewhat
globular bottle of green glass pro-
tected by an outside covering of wick-
erwork or other material, for carry-
ing vitriol or other corrosive liquid.
Carbuncle, a beautiful gem of a
deep-red color with a mixture of scar-
let, found in the East Indies. When
held up to the sun it loses its deep
tinge, and becomes exactly the color
of a burning coal. The carbuncle of
the ancients is supposed to have been
a garnet.
Carbuncle, in surgery, an inflam-
mation of the true skin and tissue be-
neath it akin to that occurring in
boils. It is more extensive than the
latter, and instead of one has several
cores. It is associated with a bad
state of general health, from which
condition its danger arises, for it may
threaten life by exhaustion or blood
poisoning.
Carbnretted Hydrogen, the name
given to two compounds of carbon and
hydrogen, one known as light car-
buretted hydrogen, and the other aa
olefiant gas.
Carcajou, a species of badger
found in North America.
Carcanet, a necklace or collar of
jewels.
Carcass, in military language, an
iron case, with several apertures,
filled with combustible materials,
which is discharged from a mortar,
howitzer, or gun, and intended to set
fire to buildings, ships, and wooden de-
fenses.
Card, an instrument for combing,
opening, and breaking wool, flax, etc.,
and freeing it from the coarser parts
and from extraneous matter. It is
made by inserting bent teeth of wire
in a thick piece of oblong board to
which a handle is attached.
Cardamine, a pretty meadow
plant, with large pale lilac flowers.
Cardamoms
Cardinal Virtue*
Cardamoms, the aromatic capsules
of different species of plants of the
natural order gingers employed in
medicine as well as an ingredient in
§auces and curries.
Cardboard, pasteboard paper
stiffened by several layers being joined
together.
Cardenas, a seaport of Cuba, on
the N. coast, 75 miles E. of Havana,
with which it is connected by rail. It
has a good harbor, and exports sugar.
Pop. (1907) 24,280, mostly whites.
During the blockade of the Cuban
coast in the war between the United
States and Spain a severe engagement :
took place here on May 11, 1898.
Cardia, the heart ; also the upper j
orifice of the stomach, called, on ac- <
count of its vicinity to the heart, by
the same Greek name.
Cardiff, ("the city on the Taff"),
a municipal and parliamentary bor- ;
ough and seaport, the county town of
Glamorganshire, Wales, situated at
the mouth of the Taff on the estuary
of the Severn. It is a rapidly increas-
ing town, and the principal outlet for
the mineral produce and manufactures
of South Wales. Iron shipbuilding is
carried on, and there are iron and
other works on a large scale. Pop.
(1911) 182.259.
Cardiff Giant, the name given to
a rude statue 10% feet high, dug up,
in 1869, at Cardiff, N. Y., and exhibit-
ed for months as a petrifaction. The
persons who thus deluded the public
at last confessed that the " Giant "
had been cut from a block of gypsum
quarried at Fort Dodge, la., sculp-
tured at Chicago, conveyed to Cardiff,
and there buried and " accidentally
discovered."
Cardigan, James Thomas Brn-
denell, seventh Earl of, born in
Hampshire, Oct 16, 1797; sat in the
House of Commons from 1818 to 1837,
when he succeeded his father. He en-
tered the army in 1824, am rapidly
bought himself into the command of
the 15th Hussars, which he resigned
in 1833, on the acquittal of an officer
whom he had illegally put under ar-
rest. He commanded a cavalry bri-
gade under Lord Lucan in the Crimea,
and led the famous charge of the Six
Hundred at Balaklava He was in-
spector-general of cavalry. 1855-1860,
and died in Deene Park, March 28,
1868.
Cardigan Bay, a semicircular
bend at St. George's Channel, on the
W. coast of Wales, 54 miles wide from
N. to S., and 35 miles deep, with a
sweep of coast of 130 miles.
Cardinal, one of the body of coun-
sellors of the Pope who, next to him,
hold the highest dignity in the church.
According to the present law the
appointment of cardinals rests with
the Pope, who generally consults the
existing cardinals, and often receives
proposals from secular governments.
The cardinals in Conclave elect the
new Pope, have constant access to
him, and form his chief council. They
have a vote at general councils, and
since the 13th century, precedence
over all other members. They have
had since Urban VIII. the title of
" Eminence." The body of cardinals
is called the Sacred College. Their
insignia are the red cardinal's hat,
which is given them by the Pope, and
not worn, but suspended in the church
of their title, and finally buried with
them; the red biretta, the sapphire
ring, the mitre of white silk, etc. If
a cardinal holds an episcopal see, he
must reside there ; otherwise he must
not leave Rome without permission.
At the head of the college of cardinals
stands the dean, who is usually Bishop
of Ostia and senior of the cardinal
bishops. It is he who consecrates the
newly-elected Pope, if not already a
bishop. In the United States the first
cardinal was McCloskey, of New York,
(1875) ; the second, Gibbons, of Bal-
timore (1886) ; the third, Farley, of
New York (1911) ; the fourth, O'Con-
nell, of Boston (1911).
Cardinal Bird, a North American
bird of the finch family, with a fine
red plumage, and a crest on the head.
Its song resembles that of the night-
ingales, hence one of its common
names.
Cardinal Points, the N., S., E.,
and W. points of the horizon; the
four intersections of the horizon with
the meridian and the prime vertical
circle.
Cardinal Virtues, or Principal
Virtues, in morals, a name applied
to justice, prudence, temperance, and
fortitude.
Carding
Carib
Carding, the process wool, cotton,
flax, etc., undergo previous to spinning
to lay the libers all in one direction,
and remove all foreign substances.
Carditis, inflammation of the heart
substance.
Cardoon, a perennial plant belong-
ing to the same genus as the artichoke,
and somewhat resembling it. It is a
native of Canada.
Cards, oblong pieces of pasteboard,
inscribed with certain figures and
points, and used in various games of
skill and hazard. The origin of this in-
vention is obscure. An immense va-
riety of games are played with cards,
some involving chance only, some
combining chance and skill, the best of
them furnishing very agreeable and
intellectual amusement.
Carducci, Giosne, an Italian poet
and philologist, born in Valdicastello,
Tuscany, July 27, 1836. He was
Prof, of Literature at Bologna Univ.
from 1860. He died Feb. 15, 1907.
Carew, Thomas, an English poet;
born in 1598. He stood high in favor
with Charles I., and was an intimate
friend of the greatest poets and schol-
ars of his time. He died in 1639.
Carey, Henry Charles, an Amer-
ican economist, born in Philadelphia,
Dec. 15, 1793 ; trained in his father's
publishing house, he accumulated a
competence from the business and re-
tired to devote himself to study. The
"Essay on the Rate of Wages"
(1836) and "The Principles of Po-
litical Economy" (1837-1840) won
him an authoritative international po-
sition. He died in Philadelphia, Oct.
13, 1879.
Carey, Mathew, an American pub-
lisher and prose writer, born in Ire-
land, Jan. 28, 1760. The best known
of his political writings was his "Olive
Branch " (1814). It was an effort to
promote harmony among political par-
ties during the War of 1812. It
passed through ten editions. In 1819
he published his " Irish Vindications,"
and in 1822, "Essays on Political
Economy." He died in Philadelphia,
Pa., Sept. 16, 1839.
Carey, William, an English Ori-
ental scholar and missionary, born in
Northamptonshire, Aug. 17, 1761. He
w&s early apprenticed to a shoemaker,
but having a natural turn for lan-
guages, and zeal for the spread of the
Gospel, he acquired Latin, Greek, and
Hebrew, and likewise studied theology.
In 1786 he became pastor of a Bap-
tist congregation at Moulton, and in
1787 was appointed to a similar sit-
uation in Leicester. In 1793 he sailed
for the East Indies as a Baptist mis-
sionary, and in 1800, in conjunction
with Marshman, Ward, and others,
he founded the missionary college at
Serampore. Here he had a printing
press, and issued various translations
of the Scriptures. His first work was
a " Bengali Grammar," and later, un-
der his direction the whole Bible was
translated into 6, and the New Testa-
ment into 21 Hindustani dialects. He
was long professor of Sanskrit, Mah-
ratta, and Bengali, in Calcutta. He
died in Serampore, India, June 9,
1834.
Carhart, Henry Smith, an
American scientist, born in Coeymans,
N. Y., March 27, 1844. He was gradu
ated at Wesleyan University in 1869
and since then has taught physics and
chemistry. Since 1886 he has been
Professor of Physics at the University
of Michigan.
Caria, a country of Asia Minor,
whose boundaries have been dissimilar
in different ages. Its chief town was
Halicarnassus.
Cariacon, the Virginia deer. It is
somewhat smaller than the common
stag.
Cariama, a bird, a native of Bra-
zil and Paraguay. The head is crested.
Carib, the name given by the early
European navigators to the inhabi-
tants or aborigines found on the small-
er of the West India Islands, and also
inhabiting some part of the adjacent
American continent. The Spaniards,
finding them always a bold and de-
termined enemy, finally expelled all
but a mere remnant from their native
possessions. Those who escaped the
Spanish sword sought refuge in that
part of Southern America near the
mouth of the Orinoco, except a few
whom the English removed and landed
on the island of Ruatan, in the Bay of
Honduras. The Ca.rib have always
been distinguished from the rest of the
American peoples by their athletic
stature, firmness, courage, and resolu-
tion.
Caribbean Sea
Carlisle
Caribbean Sea, the grandest inlet
of the Western hemisphere, separated
from the Gulf of Mexico by Yucatan,
and from the Atlantic Ocean by the
great arch of the Antilles.
Caribbees, or Lesser Antilles,
usually divided into the Windward
and Leeward Islands, a section of the
.West India Islands.
Cariboo, or Caribou, an animal,
the American Woodland Reindeer, the
Attehk of the Cree, and Tantseeah of
the Copper Indians. It is employed by
the Laplanders to draw their sledges.
Carica, a genus of plants which
contains about ten species, all natives
of tropical America.
Caricature, a representation of the
qualities and peculiarities of an ob-
ject, but in such a way that beauties
are concealed and peculiarities or de-
fects exaggerated, so as to make the
person or thing ridiculous, while a
general likeness is retained.
Caries, a disease of bone analogous
to ulceration in soft tissues. The bone
breaks down into unhealthy matter,
which works its way to the surface
and bursts. Caries of the teeth is
decay of the dentine or body of the
tooth.
Carillon, a species of chime, played
by hand or clockwork on a number
of bells, forming a complete series or
•Bcale of tones or semi-tones, like those
of the organ or harpsichord.
Carintbia, a W. duchy or province
of Austria, on the borders of Italy;
area, 3,989 square miles. It is ex-
tremely mounjtainous, generally sterile,
and one of the most thinly populated
provinces of Austria. The iron, lead,
and calamine mines are the main
sources of its wealth, though there are
several manufactories of woolens, cot-
tons, silk stuffs, etc., most of which
are in Klagenfurt, the capital. Pop.
(1912) 402,813.
Carisbrooke, a village near the
center of the Isle of Wight, and over-
looked by the ruins of its ancient cas-
tle, where Charles I. was imprisoned
13 months previous to his trial and
execution.
Carlen, Emilia Flygare, a Swed-
ish novelist, born at Stromstad, Aug.
8, 1807. She died in Stockholm, Feb.
6. 1892.
Carlen, Rosa, a Swedish novelist,
born in 1836; died in 1883.
Carleton, Henry Guy, an Ameri-
can journalist and dramatist, born in
Fort Union, New Mexico, June 21,
1855. He pursued journalism in New
Orleans and New York, and wrote sev-
eral plays. He died Dec. 10, 1910.
Carleton, Will, an American
poet, born in Hudson, Mich., Oct. 21,
1840 ; was best known by his ballads
of home life, many of them having
great popularity. He died Dec. 18,
1912.
Carleton College, a co-educational
institution in Northfield, Minn. ; or-
ganized in 1866 under the auspices of
the Congregational Church.
Carli, Giovanni Rinaldo, an
Italian economist and archaeologist,
born in Capo d'Istria, April 11, 1720 ;
died Feb. 22, 1795.
Carlisle, Richard, an English
Radical, born in Ashburton, Devon-
shire, Dec. 8, 1790 ; died Feb. 10, 1843.
Carlisle, an ancient city of Eng-
land ; th« capital of Cumberlandshire ;
at the confluence of the Caldew and
Eden rivers. Pop. (1911) 46,420.
Carlisle, borough and county-seat
of Cumberland county, Pa. ; on the
Cumberland Valley, and the Gettys-
burg and Harrisburg railroads; 18
miles W. of Harrisburg. It is the
site of Dickinson College, Metzger
Female College, and the United States
Indian Training School. It was the
headquarters of Washington during
the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794, and
was bombarded by the Confederates in
1863. Pop. (1910) 10,303.
Carlisle, John Griffin, an Amer-
ican statesman, born in Kenton coun-
ty, Ky., Sept. 5, 1835; received a
common-school education, studied law,
and was admitted to the bar (1858).
He served several terms in the lower
house of the State Legislature. Dur-
ing the Civil War he actively opposed
secession, and in 1866 and 1869 was
a member of the State Senate. He
was lieutenant-governor of Kentucky
(1871-1875), was elected to Congress
(1876), and five times reflected. His
ability soon made him one of the
Democratic leaders. In the 48th,
49th, and 50th Congresses he was
chosen Speaker. In 1890 he was
elected United States Senator, but re-
signed in March, 1893, to accept the
Carlists
Carlstadt
portfolio of Secretary of the Treasury.
At the close of his term he settled in
New York City to practice law. He
died July 31, 1910.
Carlists, a Spanish political fac-
tion which advocates the claims of
Carlos of Bourbon and his descend-
ants to the Spanish throne. In 1833
they revolted and held the advantage
until 1836, when Espartero inflicted
on them a terrific defeat at Luchana.
In August, 1839, their commander,
Maroto, treacherously made peace,
and the remaining Carlists soon fled
to France. In 1873 the grandson of
the first pretender raised another re-
volt, but after several sharp conflicts
was defeated, and in 1876 with his
chief supporters fled into France.
Carll, John Franklin, an Ameri-
can geologist, born in Long Island, N.
Y., May 7, 1828. He became identified
with coal oil development early in
life, and has perfected many oil pump-
ing devices. After 1874 he was con-
nected with the Pennsylvania Geolog-
ical Survey. He died in 1904.
Carlos, Don, Duke of Madrid,
nephew of Don Carlos of Montemolin,
born March 30, 1848. On the death
of his uncle (1861) he became head
of the Carlist party. In 1872 he is-
sued a manifesto to the Carlist party
at Madrid and appeared in the Basque
provinces, but was badly defeated at
Oroquieta and fled back to France.
In 1873 he reappeared in the N. prov-
inces of Spain ; captured the strong-
hold Estella, and had soon overrun
Navarre, Catalonia, Aragon, and Va-
lencia, with the exception of the great
cities. By February, 1876, the rebels
were hemmed in along the N. coast,
and the majority surrendered at Pam-
plona. He himself fled over the French
border, and has since lived in exile
and comparative poverty. During the
Spanish-American War he came into
notice again, and on April 13, 1898,
from his retreat in Switzerland, is-
sued a manifesto to his supporters:
but he accomplished nothing and
again went into retirement. He died
July 8, 1909.
Carlos I., King of Portugal; born
in 1863, formerly known as Duke of
Braganza, son of Louis I. He mar-
ried, in 1886, Marie Amelie de Bour-
bon, daughter of the Count of Paris.
On Feb. 1, 1908, b9th the King and
Crown Prince Luiz were assassi-
nated in Lisbon. He was succeeded
by his second son, Manuel II., who
was dethroned in 1910.
Carlotta, Ex-empress of Mexico,
born in Brussels, June 7, 1840, the
daughter of Leopold I. of Belgium.
She was married to Maximilian, Arch-
duke of Austria (1857). She accom-
panied her husband to Mexico in 1864,
but in 18G6 returned to Europe to so-
licit aid from the French Emperor
and from the Pope. Her failure and
the news of her husband's overthrow
unbalanced her mind. She still lives
near Brussels.
Carlovingians, the second dynasty
of the French or Franklin kings,
which supplanted the Merovingians,
deriving the name from Charles Mar-
tel or his grandson Charlemagne (that
is, Karl or Charles the Great).
Carlsbad, a town in Bohemia, on
the Tepl, near its influx to the Eger,
116 miles W. by N. of Prague. It is
widely celebrated for its hot mineral
springs, and is frequented in summer
by visitors from all parts of Europe.
Pop., summer, 25,OCK>-30,000.
Carlskrona, the capital of the
Swedish province, built on five rocky
islets in the Baltic, 240 miles S. S. W.
of Stockholm. It has a magnificent
harbor, with a sufficient depth of
water to float the largest vessels. The
only practicable entrance is strongly
defended. Pop. (1915) 28,127.
Carlsruhe, or Karlsruhe, the
capital of the grand-duchy of Baden,
founded in 1715, and built in the form
of a fan, with 32 streets radiating
from the palace. Before the palace
stands a bronze statue of the city's
founder, the Margrave Charles Wil-
liam ; and in the market-place is a
stone pyramid inclosing his remains.
Pop. (1910) 134,313.
Carlstadt, a fortified town of
Croatia, Austro-Hungary, on the Kul-
pa, 32 miles S. W. of Agram by raiL
It is the seat of a Greek bishopric,
and has a large transit trade. Carl-
stadt, in Bavaria, on the Maine, is 15
miles N. N. W. of Wurzburg.
Carlstadt, Andreas Rudolf Bo-
denstein, a German reformer, born in
Carlstadt in 1480. He \vas appointed
professor of theology at Wittenberg
Carlyle
in 1513. About 1517 he became one of
Luther's warmest supporters. He was
excommunicated by the bull against
Luther, and was the first to appeal
from the Pope to a general council.
In 1524 he declared himself publicly
the opponent of Luther, and com-
menced the controversy respecting the
sacrament, denying the bodily pres-
ence of Christ in the sacramental ele-
ments. This controversy ended in
the separation of the Calvinists and
Lutherans. After many misfortunes
he settled as vicar and professor of
theology at Basel, where he died, Dec.
25, 1541.
Carlyle, Jane 'Welsh, wife of
Thomas Carlyle; born in Haddington,
Scotland, July 14, 1801. She claimed
descent from William Wallace and
John Knox and was from youth re-
markable for beauty, wit and intellect.
Her " Letters," edited by her husband,
were published in 1883, the work being
fiven to the world by J. A. Froude.
he died in London, April 21, 1866.
Carlyle, Thomas, author, born in
Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, Scotland,
Dec. 4, 1795. lie was the eldest son
of James Carlyle, a mason, afterward
a farmer, and was intended for the
Church, with which object he was
carefully educated. His first literary
productions were short biographies and
other articles for the " Edinburgh En-
cyclopaedia." His career as an author
may be said to have begun with the
issue in monthly portions of his " Life
of Schiller " in the London Magazine,
in 1823, this work being enlarged and
published separately in 1825. The
largest and most laborious work of
his life was " The History of Fried-
rich II. of Prussia, called Frederick
the Great," the last two volumes of
which appeared in 1865, and after
this time little came from his pen.
While still in Scotland the sad news
reached him that his wife had died
suddenly in London. Toward the end
of his life he was offered a government
pension and a baronetcy, but declined
both. Carlyle died in Chelsea, Feb.
5, 1881.
Carman, Elbert S., an American
editor, born in Hempstead, N. Y., in
1836. He became owner and editor
of the " Rural New Yorker " in 1876,
in connection with which publication
Carminative
he established a farm at River Edge,
N. J., where he gave much of his time
to testing new plants, vines and seeds.
He died in New York City, Feb. 28,
1900.
Carman, Ezra Ayers, an Ameri-
can military officer ; born in Metuchen,
N. J., Feb. 27, 1834. He served
through the Civil War in the Army of
the Potomac and the Army of the
Cumberland ; became a Brigadier-Gen-
tral, U. S. V. He died Dec. 25, 1909.
Carmagnole a dance accompanied
by singing. Many of the wildest ex-
cesses of the French revolution of
1792 were associated with this dance.
It was afterward applied to the bom-
bastic reports of the French successes
in battle. The name was also given
to a sort of jacket worn as a symbol
of patriotism.
Carmel, a range of hills in Pales-
tine. It has a length of about 16
miles, and its highest point is 1,850
feet above the sea.
Carmelite, an order of mendicant
friars. They claim to be in direct
succession from Elijah, but their real
founder was Berthold, a Calabrian,
who, with a few companions, migrated
to Mount Carmel about the middle of
the 12th century, and built a humble
cottage with a chapel, where he and
his associates led a laborious and soli-
tary life. The order is divided into
two branches, viz., the Carmelites of
the ancient observance, called mod-
erate or mitigated, and those of the
strict observance, who are known as
the barefooted Carmelites.
Carmen Sylva, the pen-name of
Elizabeth, Queen of Rumania, born
Dec. 29, 1843 ; the daughter of Prince
Hermann of Wied Neuwied, and
Maria of Nassau ; married King (then
Prince) Charles of Rumania in 1869.
Her only child, a daughter, died in
1874, and out of this great sorrow of
her life arose her literary activity.
In the war of 1877-1878 she endeared
herself to her people by her devotion
to the wounded soldiers, and afterward
diligently fostered the national wom-
en's industries. She died March 2, 1916.
Carminative, a substance which
acts as a stimulant to the stomach,
causing expulsion of flatulence, also
allaying pain and spasm of the in-
testines. Most of the ordinary condi-
Carmine
ments, as pepper, mustard, ginger,
cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, oil of pep-
permint, etc., are carminative.
Carmine, the fine red coloring mat-
ter or principle of cochineal. It is
used in dyeing.
Carnac, a village of Brittany,
Prance, remarkable for the so-caned
Druidical monuments in this vicinity.
These consist of 11 rows of unhewn
stones, which differ greatly both in
size and height, the largest being 22
feet above ground, while some are
quite small. These avenues originally
extended for several miles, but many
of the stones have been cleared away
for agricultural improvements. They
are evidently of very ancient date, but
their origin is unknown.
Carnatic, a region on the E. or
Coromandel coast of India, now in-
cluded in the province of Madras. The
Carnatic is no longer an administra-
tive division, but is memorable as the
theater of the struggle betwen France
and England for supremacy in India.
Carnation, in the fine arts, flesh
color; the parts of a picture which
are naked or without drapery, exhibit-
ing the natural color of the flesh.
Carnation, the popular name of
the clove-pink. Carnations are much
prized for the beautiful colors of their
sweet-scented double flowers.
Caraead.es, a Greek philosopher,
born in Gyrene, in Africa, about 213
B. c. He studied logic at Athens un-
der Diogenes, but became a partisan
of the Academy, and an enemy of the
Stoics. In 155 B. c., along with Dio-
genes and Critolaus, he was sent as
ambassador to Rome, but his philoso-
phy made him enemies and caused his
return. He died at Athens, 129 B. c.
Carnegie, Andrew, an American
manufacturer and philanthropist, born
in Dunfermline, Scotland, Nov. 25, 1835.
The elder Carnegie was a master
weaver of Dunfermline, Scotland. But
the newly invented steam machinery
drove him and his four hand looms out
of business, and in 1848 he and his
wife with their two boys decided to
follow some relatives across the ocean
to America. Here Andrew began work
in a steam cotton factory, tending
bobbins. In less than a year he had
been taken from the factory by one
who had noticed the boy, and, in the
Carnegie
new works, he learned how to run the
engine and was promoted to this work,
his salary of 20 cents a day not being
increased, until be did clerical work
for his employer as well — for he had
some knowledge of arithmetic and
wrote a good hand. He next became a
messenger boy in the Ohio Telegraph
Company, shortly after which his
father died, and at the age of 14 he
became the sole support of his mother
and younger brother. But the weight
on his shoulders was merely a spur to
his ambition. He had not been in the
office a month when he began to learn
telegraphy, and a little friendly in-
struction soon had him spending all
his spare minutes at the key. Char-
acteristically, he was not content with
the general custom of receiving by the
tape, but doggedly mastered the click-
ing tongue of the instrument, until
the supposed insecurity of taking mes-
sages by sound was found not to ap-
ply to him. He became an operator
presently at a salary which seemed
to him princely, though he augmented
even this $25 a month by copying tele-
graphic news for the daily papers.
When the Pennsylvania railroad
needed an operator he was chosen to
fill the vacancy. A little later Colonel
Scott selected him for his secretary;
and before long, when Colonel Scott
advanced to the vice-presidency of the
road, the young man found himself
superintendent of the Pennsylvania's
Western Division.
One day as the young superinten-
dent was examining the line from a
rear car, a tall, thin man stepped up
to him, introduced himself as T. T.
Woodruff, an inventor, and asked if
he might show him an idea he had for
a car to accommodate passengers at
night. Out came a model from a green
baize bag.
" He had not spoken a minute be-
fore, like a flash, the whole range of
the discovery burst upon me. ' Yes,'
I said, ' this is something which this
continent must have.'
' Upon my return I laid it before
Mr. Scott, declaring that it was one
of the inventions of the age. He re-
marked : ' You are enthusiastic, young
man, but you may tell the inventor to
come and let me see it.' I did so, and
arrangements were made to build two
trial cars, and run them on the Penn-
Carnegie Institution
Carnegie Institution
$ylvania railroad. I was offered an
interest in the venture, which, of
course, I gladly accepted.
" The notice came that my share of
the first payment was $217.50 — as
far beyond my means as if it had been
millions. I was earning $50 per
month, however, and had prospects, or
at least I always felt that I had. I
decided to call on the local banker,
and boldly ask him to advance the
sum upon my interest in the affair.
He put his hand on my shoulder and
Baid : ' Why, of course, Andie, you are
all right. Go ahead ! Here is the
money.' . . . The cars paid the
subsequent payments from their earn-
ings. I paid my first note from my
savings, so much per month, and thus
did I get my foot upon fortune's lad-
der. It is easy to climb after that.
And thus came sleeping-cars into the
world."
But the man had not yet struck his
true vocation. That came presently,
when his attention was drawn to the
wooden bridges universally used at
that time. The Pennsylvania road
was experimenting with a cast-iron
bridge. Andrew Carnegie went out
and formed a company to build iron
bridges. He had to raise $1,250, but
he had behind him the confidence of a
Pittsburg banker, and this proved
easy.
From this time on the name of An-
drew Carnegie is inseparably associat-
ed with that astonishing development
of American iron and steel, which is
among the modern wonders of the
world. The Keystone Company built
the first great bridge over the Ohio
river ; and the Union Iron Mills ap-
peared in a few years as the natural
outgrowth of this ramifying industry.
Then, in 1868, Carnegie went to Eng-
land. The Bessemer process of mak-
ing steel rails had lately been perfect-
ed. The English railways were re-
placing their iron rails with steel ones
as rapidly as possible. The English
manufacturers were beginning to whis-
per to each other that they had a
firm grip of a gigantic revolutionizing
idea. The young Scotchman went
back to Pittsburg, and before the Eng-
lishmen were well aware of his ex-
istence he laid the foundation of the
steel works which have now finally
beaten them at their own game.
The iron-master was now fairly
launched on his life work. He bought
up the Homestead works, his most
formidable rival, and by 1888 he con-
trolled seven huge plants, all within
five miles of Pittsburg, which he pro-
ceeded to forge and amalgamate into
a steel-armored giant, called the Car-
negie Steel Company.
Next to his fame as the "Steel King,"
Carnegie is undoubtedly most wide-
ly known through his remarkable list
of public benefactions in the shape of
libraries, museums, and other worthy
public objects, the total amount of
which was estimated in 1910 at over
$150,000,000. His most noteworthy
gifts were $30,000,000 for public li-
braries in the United States; $16,-
000,000 for the Carnegie Institute in
Pittsburg, Pa.; $15,000,000 for col-
lege professors' pensions; $10,000,000
for the Carnegie Institute in Wash,
ington, D. C.; $10,000,000 for li-
braries in foreign countries; $10,000,-
000 for Scotch universities; $5,000,-
000 for a Hero Fund in the United
States, $1,250,000 for one in Scot-
land, and $1,000,000 for one in
France; $5,000,000 for Carnegie Steel
Company's employes; $5,000,000 for
Dunfermline (Scotland) endowment;
$7,500,000 for Carnegie Technical In-
stitute at Pittsburg; $1,750,000 for
Temple of Peace at The Hague;
$1,500,000 for the Allied Engineers*
Societies in New York; $750,000 for
a building for the Bureau of Ameri-
can Republics in Washington, D. C.;
$18,000,000 to colleges in the United
States. In 1911 the Carnegie Corpo-
ration of New York was incorporated
to take over all of his benefactions,
and received from him $125,000,000
for its work.
Carnegie Institution, an educa-
tional body incorporated Jan. 4, 1902,
in Washington, D. C., by John Hay,
Secretary of State; Edwin D. White,
Justice of the Supreme Court; Daniel
C. Oilman, ex-president of Johns Hop-
kins University; Charles D. Walcott,
superintendent of the United States
Geological Survey; Dr. John S. Bill-
ings, Director of the New York Pub-
lic Library; and Carroll D. Wright,
United States Commissioner of Labor.
The aims of the university, as ex-
pressed by the founder, are: (1) To
increase the efficiency of the universi-
Carnif ex Ferry
ties and other institutions of learn-
ing throughput the country by utiliz-
ing and adding to their existing facili-
ties, and by aiding teachers in the
various institutions for the experi-
mental and other work in these insti-
tutions as far as may be advisable.
(2) To discover the exceptional man
in every department of study, when-
ever and wherever found to enable
him by financial aid to make the work
for which he seems especially designed
his life work. (3) To promote origi-
nal research, paying great attention
thereto as being one of the chief pur-
poses of this institution. (4) To in-
crease the facilities for higher educa-
tion. (5) To enable such students as
may find Washington the best point
for their special studies to avail them-
selves of such advantages as may be
open to them in the museums, librar-
ies, laboratories, observatory, meteoro-
logical, piscicultural, and forestry
schools and kindred institutions of the
several departments of the govern-
ment. (6) To insure the prompt pub-
lication and distribution of the results
of scientific investigation, a field con-
sidered to be highly important.
The board of trustees elected by the
corporators of the institution was as
follows: The President of the United
States (ex-officio), the President of
the United States Senate, the Speak-
er of the House of Representatives,
the Secretary of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, the President of the Nation-
al Academy of Sciences, and Grover
Cleveland (New Jersey), John S. Bill-
ings (New York), William N. Frew
(Pennsylvania), Lyman J. Gage (Illi-
nois), Daniel C. Gilman (Maryland),
John Hay (District of Columbia),
Abram S. Hewitt (New Jersey), Hen-
ry L. Higginson (Massachusetts),
Henry Hitchcock (Missouri), Charles
L. Hutchinson (Illinois), William
Lindsay (Kentucky), Seth Low (New
York), Wayne MacVeagh (Pennsyl-
vania), D. O. Mills (California), S.
Weir Mitchell (Pennsylvania), W.
W. Morrow (California), Elihu Root
(New York), John C. Spoon er (Wis-
consin), Andrew D. White (New
York), Edward D. White (Louis-
iana), Charles D. Walcott (District
of Columbia), and Carroll D. Wright
(District of Columbia).
The trustees assembled in Washing-
Caraot
ton on Jan. 29, 1902, received from
Mr. Carnegie the deed of gift of $10,-
000,000, and elected Daniel C. Gilman,
LL. D., president of the Institution.
Carnifex Ferry, a place on the
Gauley river, in Nicholas Co., Va. A
sharp battle occurred here Sept. 10,
1861, between Federal troops under
General Rosecrans and Confederates
under General Floyd. After nightfall
Floyd retreated across the river.
Carnival, the festival celebrated in
Roman Catholic countries, and espe-
cially in Rome and Naples, with great
mirth and freedom during the week
before the beginning of Lent. In the
United States carnivals are annually
celebrated in New Orleans, in St.
Louis and in Memphis. That at New
Orleans is especially spectacular, the
festivities being prolonged three days
and attracting thousands of visitors.
Carnivora. All animals which
prey upon other animals are carniv-
orous, but the term Carnivora, as the
designation of a group, is now restrict-
ed to that order of mammals to which
the cat, dog, bear, and seal belong.
Carnivorous Plants, plants which
derive nourishment directly from the
bodies of insects or other small crea-
tures entrapped by them in various
ways. In all these the apparatus for
catching insects consists of a modified
leaf or portion of a leaf, and in some
the modifications are so curious and
the adaptations so perfect that the
plant seems almost endowed with in-
telligence.
Carnochan, John Murray, an
American surgeon, famous for his bold
and skillful operations ; born in Sa-
vannah, Ga., July 4, 1817; studied
at Edinburgh and at various European
universities; and began his practice
in New York city in 1847. In 1851
he became professor of surgery at the
New York Medical College, and sur-
geon-in-chief to the State Immigrant
Hospital. He died in New York, Oct.
28, 1887.
Carnot, Lazare Hippolyte a
French Democrat, born in St. Omer,
April 6, 1801. After the February
Revolution (1848) he was appointed
Minister of Public Instruction, but
soon resigned. He was elected a sen-
ator for life hi 1875, and died March
16, 1888.
Carnot
Caroline Island*
Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Mar-
guerite, a French statesman, general,
and strategist; born in Burgundy,
May 13, 1753. In 1791 he was ap-
pointed deputy to the constituent as-
sembly. In the following March he
was sent to the Army of the North,
where he took command and success-
fully repulsed the enemy. On his re-
turn he was made member of the Com-
mittee of Public Safety, and directed
and organized the French armies with
great ability and success. In 1797
Carnot was appointed Minister of
War by Napoton (1800). But he
remained in principle an inflexible
Republican, voted against the consul-
ship for life, and protected against
Napoleon's assumption of the imperial
dignity. For seven years after this
Carnot remained in retirement, pub-
lishing several valuable military
works. In 1814 Napoleon gave him
the chief command at Antwerp, and
in 1815 the post of Minister of the
Interior. After the Emperor's sec-
ond fall he retired from France. He
died in Magdeburg, Prussia, Aug. 3,
1823.
Carnot, Marie Francois Sadi,
President of the French Republic;
born in Limoges, Aug. 11, 1837 ; a
grandson of the famous war minister
of the Revolution. During the siege
of Paris in 1871 he was made prefect
of the Seine-Inferieure and showed
great ability as commissary-general.
In politics he was an earnest Repub-
lican. Elected to the National As-
sembly in 1871 by the Cote d'Or, he
soon rose to prominence. In 1876 he
was chosen secretary of the Chamber
of Deputies ; in 1878 Secretary of
Public Works. He was Minister of
Public Works in 1881-1882 and 1886.
In December, 1887, on the resignation
of M. Grevy he was chosen President.
His policy was one of peace with for-
eign nations, careful development of
the army and navy, and economy in
all departments. While attending an
exposition at Lyons, June 24, 1894,
he was stabbed by a fanatical Italian
Anarchist, from the effect of which
he died the next day.
Caro, Miguel Antonio, a Colom-
bian prose-writer and poet; born in
Bogota, Colombia, Nov. 10. 1843. He
became an editor and contributor to
periodicals. He died Aug. 5, 1909.
Carob, a tree, native of the Levant.
It is an evergreen, and produces long
horn-like pods filled with a mealy, suc-
culent pulp of sweetish taste, used for
food for horses, and sometimes even
for human beings, and called St.
John's bread.
Carol, a song of praise sung at
Christmastide. It originally meant a
song accompanied with dancing, in
which sense it is frequently 'used by
the old poets.
Caroline, Queen of England;
daughter of the Duke of Brunswick-
Wolfenbuttel ; born May 17, 1768. In
1795 she was married to the Prince of
Wales, afterward George IV. The
marriage was not to his liking, and
after the birth of the Princess Char-
lotte he separated from her. Many
reports were circulated against her
honor, and a ministerial committee
was formed to inquiie into her con-
duct. But the people in general sym-
pathized with her, regarding her as an
ill-treated wife. When the Prince of
Wales ascended the throne in 1820
he offered her an income of £50,000 on
condition that she would never return
to England. She refused, and in
June of the same year entered Lon-
don amid public demonstrations of
welcome. The government now insti-
tuted proceedings against her for adul-
tery, but the public feeling and the
splendid defense of Brougham obliged
the ministry to give up the divorce
bill after it had passed the lords.
Though banished from the court, the
queen then assumed a style suitable
to her rank. She died Aug. 7, 1821.
Caroline Islands, a group in the
Western Pacific, lying between the
Marshall and Pelew islands, with an
area of about 390 square miles, and a
population (1911) of 58,000; but the
Pelew group Is now generally in-
cluded in the Caroline Archipelago
(area, 560 square miles; population
36,000), which thus stretches across
32° of Ion. and 9° of lat There are
some 500 small atolls in the archi-
pelago, but three-fourths of both' area
and population are included In the
five volcanic islands of Babeltnouap,
Yap, Rouk, Ponape (Ascension), and
Kusari (Strong Island) ; these are all
fertile and well watered, and many
of the low-lying lagoons, though less
so, are well wooded and to some ex-
Carolns
tent inhabited. The climate is moist,
but not unhealthy, and is tempered
by cooling breezes. The people belong
to the brown Polynesian stock. The
islands were discovered in 1527 by the
Portuguese, and called Sequeira; in
1686 they were annexed and rechrist-
ened in honor of Charles II. by the
Spaniards, who, however, shortly
changed the name to New Philippines.
After the failure of several missionary
attempts in the 18th century, Spain
took little active interest in the group
until August, 1885, when the German
flag was hoisted on Yap. The sharp
dispute which followed was submitted
to the Pope as arbitrator, who decided
in favor of Spain, but reserved to
Germany special trade privileges. In
1887 disturbances broke out at Po-
nape, in which the governor, who had
arrested one of the American Protes-
tant missionaries, was killed by the
natives; but the rising was shortly
put down. In February, 1899, Ger-
many purchased from Spain the Caro-
line and Pelew islands, and all of the
Ladrones excepting Guam, which had
been ceded to the United States in the
treaty of peace.
Carolinium, an element possess-
ing radio-active powers of great inten-
sity. With another named Berzelium,
it was discovered in 1904, by Prof. C.
Baskerville of North Carolina.
Carotid, the great arteries of the
neck.
Carp, a fresh-water fish. It is a
native of Asia, but has been extensive-
ly introduced into the United States.
Carpathian Mountains, (Ger-
man, Karpathen), a range of moun-
tains in Southern Europe, chiefly in
Austria, nearly 800 miles in length.
The Carpathians form the water-part-
ing between the basins of the Baltic
and Black Seas, and a mountain bul-
wark from Pressburg on the Danube
to Orsova on the Rumanian frontier,
a sweep of nearly 800 miles. Early in
the great war this entire region be-
came a section of strategic impor-
tance, and on Aug. 30, 1916, the Ru-
manians seized the five principal
passes, forcing the Austro-Hungarians
to retire. See APPENDIX : World War.
Carpeauz, Jean Baptirte, a
French sculptor, born in Valenciennes,
May 14, 1827 ; died Oct. 11, 1875.
Carpenter
Carpel, the leaf forming the pistiL
Several carpels may enter into the
composition of one pistil.
Carpentaria, Gulf of, a large
gulf on the N. coast of Australia.
Carpenter, Charles Carroll, an
American naval officer, born in Green-
field, Mass., Feb. 27, 1834. He was
promoted rear-admiral Nov. 11, 1894;
was commander-in-chief of the United
States Asiatic squadron from Aug. 27,
1894, till Nov. 9, 1895; and was re-
tired on reaching the age-limit, Feb.
28, 1896. During the summer of 1895
he rendered invaluable service in
China in protecting American mission-
aries and in cooperating with United
States Minister Charles Denby and the
British and Chinese authorities to
preserve peace, particularly after the
Kucheng massacre. He died April 1,
JEOIWli
Carpenter, Esther Bernon, an
American prose writer, born in Wake-
field, R. I., 1848; died in 1893.
Carpenter, Francis Bicknell,
an American painter, born in Homer,
N. Y., Aug. 6, 1830. In 1852 he be-
came an associate of the National
Academy. Among his works are a
portrait of President Lincoln, in the
capitol at Albany, N. Y., and the
"Emancipation Proclamation" (1864),
in the capitol at Washington. He
died in New York city, May 23, 1900.
Carpenter, Gilbert Saltonstall,
an American military officer, born in
Medina, O., April 17, 1836; was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1861, and imme-
diately afterward entered the Union
army. He served through the Civil
War, in which he received the brevet
of captain for gallantry in the battle
at Stone river. Subsequently he ren-
dered service in various Indian cam-
paigns ; was commissioned a brig-
adier-general of volunteers in the war
with Spain in 1898; and became col-
onel of the 18th United States In-
fantry, June 20, 1899. His volunteer
appointment was for his gallantry at
El Caney, Cuba. Died Aug. 12, 1904.
Carpenter, Louis G., an Ameri-
can engineer; born in Orion, Mich.,
March 28, 1861. In 1888 he became
Professor of Engineering at the Colo-
rado Agricultural College, where he
organized the first course in irriga-
tion engineering given in any Amer-
Carpenter
ican college. He founded the Amer-
ican Society of Irrigation Engineers
to 1891.
Carpenter, Louis H., an Ameri-
can military officer, born in Glass-
boro, N. J., Feb. 11, 1829. He served
in the Army of the Potomac through
numerous engagements, was an aide-
de-camp to General Sheridan, was
commissioned colonel of volunteers
in 1865, subsequently served in var-
ious Indian campaigns, became col-
onel of the Fifth United States Cav-
alry in 1897, and brigadier-general of
volunteers in 1898, and brigadier-gen-
eral, U. S. A., Oct. 18, 1899, for ser-
vices in the Spanish-American war,
and particularly as commander of the
Department of Porto Principe, Cuba.
He died Jan. 21, 1916.
Carpenter, Mary, an English
philanthropist, born in Exeter, April
3, 1807. Trained as a teacher, and
afterwards a governess, she took an
active part in the movement for the
reformation of neglected children, and
besides advocating their cause in her
writings, she founded a ragged school
and several reformatories for girls.
She founded in 1835 a "working and
visiting society," of which she was sec-
retary for more than 20 years. She
promoted the Industrial Schools Act
of 1857, and some of her proposals
were adopted in the amended Acts of
1861 and 1866. In the prosecution
of her philanthropic labors she vis-
ited India four times, and in 1870 in-
stituted the National Indian Associa-
tion, whose journal she edited. She
attended a congress on women's work
at Darmstadt as a guest of the Prin-
cess Alice, and visited the United
States in 1873. She died June 14,
1877. She was the author of a num-
ber of popular books.
Carpenter, Matthew Hale, an
American legislator, born in More-
town, Vt., Dec. 22, 1824. He studied
at West Point, and was admitted to
the bar in 1845. He removed in 1848
to Wisconsin and was sent to the
United States Senate from that State
in 1869 and in 1879. He died in
Washington, D. C., Feb. 24, 1881.
Carpenter, Stephen Cutter, an
American journalist, born in England.
He came to the United States in 1803,
and settled in Oharleston, S. C., where
Carr
he founded and published with John
Bristed the "Monthly Register Maga-
zine and Review of the United States."
His works included: "Memoirs of
Jefferson, Containing a Concise His-
tory of the United States from the
Acknowledgment of Their Indepen-
dence, with a View of the Rise and
Progress of French Influence and
French Principles in that Country."
He died about 1820.
Carpenter, William Benjamin,
an American physiologist, born in Ex-
eter, Oct. 29, 1813; died Nov. 13,
1885.
Carpenter, William Henry, an
American philologist, born in Utica,
New York, July 15, 1853. He re-
ceived a university education in the
United States and Europe. Became
professor of Germanic Philology in
Columbia University. He has pub-
lished numerous works in the line of
his specialty.
Carpentry, the art of combining
pieces of timber to support a weight
or sustain pressure.
Carpet, a thick fabric, generally
composed wholly or principally of
wool, for covering floors. They were
originally introduced from the East,
where they were fabricated in pieces,
like the modern rugs.
Carpet-bagger, a political ad-
venturer, who goes about the country
pandering to the prejudices of the ig-
norant with the view of getting into
place or power, so called because re-
garded as having no more property
than might fill a carpet-bag. Orig-
inally applied to needy adventurers
of the Northern States, who tried in
this way to gain the votes of the
negroes of the Southern States after
the close of the Civil War.
Carr, Engene Asa, an American
army officer, born in Concord, N. Y.,
March 20, 1830; graduated at the
United States Military Academy in
1850. He was in active service
throughout the Civil War, command-
ing the 4th Division of the Army of
the Southwest, and subsequently act-
ing as commander of the same army.
In December, 1863, he was assigned to
the Army of Arkansas. At the close
of the war he was promoted to Brig-
adier-General, U. S. A., and brevetted
Major-General of volunteers. In 1868-
Carr
Carrillo
1869 he was engaged against the Sioux
and Cheyenne Indians, and afterward
took part in other expeditions against
hostile Indians. He fought in 13 en-
gagements with Indians, was four
times wounded in action, and received
a Congressional Medal of Honor and
the thanks of the Legislatures of Ne-
braska, Colorado, and New Mexico.
He died Dec. 2, 1910.
Carr, Joseph Bradford, an
American military officer, born in Al-
bany, N. Y., Aug. 16, 1828. He joined
the militia in 1849. Was later ap-
pointed colonel of the 28th New
York Volunteers, and led them at
the battle of Big Bethel and in
McClellan's Peninsular campaign. He
took part in the battles of Chancellors-
ville and Gettysburg, and for his brav-
ery throughout the war he was bre-
vetted a Major-General of volunteers.
After the war he became prominent in
Republican politics in New York State
and was elected Secretary of State in
1879, 1881, and 1883. In 1885 he
was defeated for lieutenant-governor.
He died Feb. 24, 1895.
Carr, Laden, an American arch-
aeologist, born in Missouri in 1829 ;
died Jan. 27, 1915.
Carr, Sir Robert, a British com-
missioner in New England. In 1664
he was appointed commissioner by
Charles II., with Nicolls, Cartwright, i
and Maverick. On Aug. 27, Carr and
Nicolls captured New Amsterdam and
named it New York. They took Fort
Orange Sept. 24, and named it Albany.
He died June 1, 1667.
Carranza, Venustiano, a Mex-
ican military officer, born in Cuatro
Cienegas, Coahuila, about 1858; re-
ceived a liberal education ; studied
law ; and acquired large wealth in
the wheat, cattle, and rubber indus-
tries. After serving several years in
the Mexican Senate and as governor
of Coahuila, he became an active op-
ponent of President Diaz; later af-
filiated with the Madero party ; took
the field against Victoriana Huerta ;
became chief of the Constitutionalist
party, and Provisional President, Aug.
14, 1914. See APPENDIX: Mexican
Campaign.
Carrara, a town of Central Italy,
in the province of Massa-Carrara. It
is celebrated for the famous Carrara
marble, a white saccharine limestone,
which derives its value from its tex-
ture and purity. The quarries have
been wrought from the age of Augus-
tus, and seem to be now as inexhaus-
tible as ever. Pop. (1911) 49,492.
Carreno, Teresa, a Venezuelan
pianist, born in Caracas, Dec. 22,
1853. After successful tours in Eng-
land, the United States and Germany,
she was appointed, in 1893, court
pianist to the King of Saxony.
Carriage, a general name for any
vehicle intended for the conveyance of
passengers either on roads or rail-
ways. Mounted on wheels.
Carrier, a person, corporation, or
vehicle regularly employed in carrying
goods, messages, or other articles.
Carrier, Jean Baptiste, an infa-
mous character of the first French
revolution, born in 1746. Though an
obscure attorney at the beginning of
the revolution, he was chosen, in 1792,
member of the National Convention.
In October, 1793, he was sent to Nan-
tes to suppress the civil war, and to
finally put down the Vendeans. The
prisons were full ; there was dearth of
provisions, and Carrier determined to
lessen the "useless mouths" by sum-
mary measures. He first caused
priests to be conveyed to a boat with
a perforated bottom, under pretense of
transporting them, but instead they
were drowned by night. Carrier also
caused multitudes of prisoners to be
shot without any pretense of trial.
Some months before the fall of Robes-
§5erre, Carrier was recalled. On the
th Thermidor (July 27), 1794, he
was apprehended and brought before
the revolutionary tribunal, which con-
demned him to the guillotine.
Carriere, Eugene, a French genre
painter, born in 1849; was awarded
several medals, and the Legion of
Honor. 1889. Died March 27, 1906.
Carriere, Moriz, a German phi-
losopher, born in Griedel, Hesse,
March 5, 1817; died in Munich, Jan.
19, 1895.
Carrier Pigeon, a variety of the
common domestic pigeon used for the
purpose of carrying messages.
Carrillo, Branlio, a statesman of
Costa Rica, born in Cartago in 1800.
He was twice president of the repub-
lic (1835-1837 and 1838-1842), and
greatly promoted its material prosper-
•Carrington
ity. Carrillo's government was over-
turned by Morazan in 1842. He was
assassinated in Salvador in 1845.
Carrington, Edward, an Ameri-
can military officer, born in Virginia,
Feb. 11, 1749; was lieutenant-colonel
of General Harrison's artillery re-i-
inent, quartermaster-general under
General Greene, a delegate to the Con-
tinental Congress, and foreman of the
jury in Aaron Burr's trial for trea-
son. He died Oct 28, 1810.
Carrington, Henry Beebe, an
American military officer, born in
Wallingford, Conn., March 2, 1824.
He began the practice of law in Co-
lumbus, O., in 1848, and took an ac-
tive part in the anti-slavery movement.
In the convention which met in 1854
to organize the Republican Party,
Carrington was on the committee ap-
pointed to correspond with the dif-
ferent States and make the movement
National. In 1861 he was appointed
colonel of the 18th United States in-
fantry, served through the war, and
afterward was in service on the plains
till 1869; Professor of Military Sci-
ence and Tactics in Wabash College,
Ind., after 1870. He died Oct. 26, 1912.
Carrington, Paul, an American
statesman, born in Charlotte county,
Va., Feb. 24, 1733; was graduated at
William and Mary College. He was
a member of various conventions dur-
ing the Revolution, and became a mem-
ber of the Court of Appeals, and in
the Virginia convention voted for the
adoption of the Federal Constitution.
He died June 22, 1818.
Carrington, Richard Christo-
pher, an English astronomer, born in
Chelsea, May 26, 1826. Died in Sur-
rey, Nov. 26, 1876.
Carrion Crow, a name given to
a small species of vulture called the
Black Vulture.
Carroll, Charles, the last surviv-
ing signer of the Declaration of Amer-
ican Independence, born in Annapolis,
Md.. Sept. 20, 1737. He studied at
Paris, became a member of the Inner
Temple at London, returned to his
native country in 1764, was elected to
Congress in 1775, and, along with the
other members, signed the Declaration
on Aug. 2 of the following year. In
1804, he withdrew to private life at
Carrollton, his patrimonial estate. He
Carty
survived by six years all the other
signers of the Declaration, and died in
Baltimore, Nov. 14, 1832.
Carroll, Henry King, an Amer-
ican religious editor, born in Dennis-
ville, N. J., Nov. 15, 1848. He super-
vised the compilation of religious sta-
tistics for the Eleventh Census, and in
1898 was chosen by President MeKin-
ley to prepare a report on the internal
conditions of Porto Rico.
Carroll, John, cousin of Charles
Carroll, and first Roman Catholic
bishop in the United States; born in
Upper Marlboro, Md., Jan. 8, 1735.
In 1775 he engaged in the duties of
a parish priest, and in 1786 he was
appointed vicar-general, and settled at
Baltimore. In 1790 he was conse-
crated, in England, Catholic bishop
of the United States, and returned
with the title of Bishop of Baltimore.
A few years before his death he was
created archbishop. He died in
Georgetown, D. C., Dec. 3, 1815.
Carrot, a biennial umbelliferous
plant, cultivated for the table and as a
food for cattle.
Carson, Christopher, commonly'
called Kit, an American trapper and
scout, born in Kentucky, Dec. 4, 1809.
He served under General Fremont in
his Rocky Mountain expeditions, and
fought in the Mexican and Civil
Wars, attaining the rank of brevet
Brigadier-General. He died at Fort
Lynn, Col., May 23, 1868.
Carson, Hampton Lawrence, an
American publicist, born in Philadek
phia, Pa., Feb. 21, 1852. He was
graduated at the University of Penn
sylvania (1871), and is now a Lec>
turer on Law at that University.
Carson City, the capital of tha
State of Nevada. The city is the seat
of a United States mint. Pop. (1910)
2,466.
Carty, John J., an American elec>
trician, born in Cambridge, Mass.,
April 14, 1861 ; entered the telephone
business in 1879 ; laid the longest un •
derground telephone cable in the
world, connecting Boston with New
York and Washington ; became chief
engineer of the American Telephony
and Telegraph Company in 1907 ; and
in 1915 perfected a transcontinental
line between Washington and Hawaii*
nearly 5,000 miles. .
Cartagena
Cartagena, capital of the State of
Bolivar, Republic of Colombia. The
streets are narrow, with high houses,
but the place is well built, and possess-
es a university, a handsome cathedral,
and several churches. Pop. about 20,-
000.
Cartagena, or Carthagena, a
fortified town and seaport of Spain,
with a harbor which is one of the lar-
gest and safest in the Mediterranean.
Pop. (1910) 102,542.
Cart ago, (1) a river and almost
landlocked bay or lagoon, communi-
cating with the Caribbean Sea, near
the N. extremity of the Mosquito
Coast. (2) A town of Costa Rica,
12 miles E. of the present capital, San
Jose, on a plain to the S. of the con-
stantly smoking volcano of Irazu
;( 11,500 feet). Founded in 1522, the
place had 23,000 inhabitants in 1823,
and was capital of the State till 1841,
when it was all but destroyed by an
earthquake. (3) A town of Cauca,
in_ Colombia, founded in 1540, on the
Rio Viejo, three miles above its junc-
tion with the Cauca, and producing
cocoa, tobacco, and coffee.
Carte-blanche, a blank sheet of
paper to be filled up with such con-
ditions as the person to whom it is
given may think proper; hence abso-
lute freedom of action.
Carte-de-visite, a small likeness
affixed to a card, so called from photo-
graphs of very small size having been
originally used as visiting cards.
Cartel, an agreement for the deliv-
ery of prisoners or deserters ; also, a
written challenge to a duel. Cartel-
ship, a ship commissioned in time of
war to exchange prisoners.
Carter, Franklin, an American
educator, born in Waterbury, Conn.,
Sept. 30, 1837; was president of Wil-
liams College in 1881-1901.
Carter, Samuel Powhatan, an
American naval and military officer,
born in Elizabethtown, Tenn., Aug.
6, 1819. He fought in the Mexican
War in coast attack, and in 1856 took
part in the capture of the Barrier
forts, Canton, China. All through the
Civil War he was of great service to
the government, and for his gallantry
was brevetted Major-General of volun-
teers. In 1882 he was promoted to
Rear-Admiral on the retired list. He
Carthage
died in Washington, D. C., May 26,
1891.
Carter, Sir Frederic Bowker
Terrington, a Canadian jurist, born
in St. John's, Newfoundland, Feb. 12,
1819. He served in the Newfoundland
Assembly from 1855 to 1878, and two
years later became Chief Justice of
Newfoundland. He was knighted in
1878. He died in St John's, Feb.
28, 1900.
Carter, Thomas Henry, nil
American politician, born in Scioto
county, Ohio, Oct. 30, 1854.He re-
moved to Montana in 1882, was Mon-
tana's first representative in Congress
(1891), became United States Senator
from that State in 1892, and was
chairman of the National Republican
Committee in 1892-96. D. in 1911.
Carteret, Sir George, one of the
proprietors of New Jersey, born on
the island of Jersey in 1599. He early
manifested an interest in coloniza-
tion, and became, with Sir John Ber-
keley, one of the proprietors of New
Jersey. He died Jan. 14, 1679.
Carteret, Philip, an English nav-
igator. As commander of the "Swal-
low," he joined an exploring expe-
dition to the Southern seas, discover-
ing Pitcairn, Osnaburg, Queen Char-
lotte, Sandwich and Solomon Islands,
besides correcting several errors of
former surveys. He retired from the
navy in 1794, with the honorary rank
of Rear-Admiral, and died in South-
ampton, July 21, 1796.
Carthage, the most famous city of
Africa in antiquity, capital of a rich
and powerful commercial republic, sit-
uated in the territory now belonging to
Tunis. The policy of Rome in en-
couraging the African enemies of
Cartnage occasioned the third Punic
war, in which Rome was the aggres-
sor. This war, begun B. C. 150, ended
B. C. 1*6, in the total destruction of
Carthage. After the destruction of
Carthage her territory became the
Roman province of Africa. Twenty-
four years after her fall an unsuccess-
ful attempt was made to rebuild Carth-
age by Caius Gracchus. This was
finally accomplished by Augustus, and
Roman Carthage became one of the
most important cities of the empire.
It was ta^en and destroyed by th«
Arabs in 638.
Carthage
Carthage, city and capital of
Jasper county, Mo.; near Spring river
and on the Missouri Pacific and other
railroads; 150 miles S. of Kansas
City; is the center of an extensive
lead region; and has zinc mines,
stone and lime works, flour mills,
canneries, woolen mills, and machine
and furniture plants. It was the
scene of a Civil War battle, July 5.
1861. Pop. (1910) 9,483.
Cartier, Sir George Etienne, a
Canadian statesman, born in St. An-
toine, Quebec, Sept. 6, 1814. He was
active in bringing about the estab-
lishment of the Dominion of Canada
in 1867. He died May 20, 1873.
Cartier, Jacques, a French navi-
gator, born in St. Malo, Dec. 31, 1494.
He commanded an expedition to North
America in 1534, entered the Straits
of Belle Isle, and took possession of
the mainland of Canada in the name
of Francis I. He subsequently went
to found a settlement in Canada, and
built a fort near the site of Quebec.
He died about 1554.
Cartilage, a texture or substance
possessed of elasticity, flexibility, and
considerable cohesive power. Tem-
porary cartilage is present in place of
bone in very early life, afrd as develop-
ment goes on ossifies. Permanent car-
tilage, on the contrary, retains its
character to the last, never ossifying.
Cartilaginous Fishes, a general
designation for those fishes whose
skeleton consists of cartilage instead
of bone, and which comprise the sharks
and skates or rays.
Cartoon, in painting, a drawing
intended to be used as a model for a
large picture in fresco. In modern
times the term is also applied to a pic-
torial sketch relating to some notable
character or events of the day.
Cartoons have become a leading fea-
ture of American journalism and of
political campaigns, and some " car-
toonists " receive large salaries.
Cartouch, a tablet intended to re-
ceive an inscription which resembles
a scroll of paper rolled up at the ends.
It is also applied to the modillion that
supports the corona of a cornice used
in. interior decoration.
In military language it is a canvas
or leather cartridge-box ; a case for
holding musket-balls and powder; a
- E.«0.
Carver
wooden bomb; a ticket of leave, or
dismissal, given to a soldier.
Cartridge, a case of paper, parch-
ment, metal, or flannel suited to the
bore of firearms, and holding the exact
charge, including, in the case of small
arms, both powder and bullet.
Cartwright, Edmund, an English
inventor, born in Marnham, April 24,
1743. In 1785 he brought his inven-
tion, the first power-loom, into action.
He died in Hastings, Oct. 30, 1823.
Cartwright, Peter, an American
clergyman, born in Virginia, Sept. 1,
1785; ordained in Kentucky in 1806,
and in 1823 removed to Illinois, where
he labored for nearly a century. He
also sat in the State Legislature there,
and in 1846 was defeated by Abraham
Lincoln in an election for Congress-
man. He died near Pleasant Plains,
111., Sept. 25, 1872.
Cartwright, Sir Richard John,
a Canadian statesman, born in King-
ston, Ont., Dec. 4, 1835. He was
Minister of Finance from 1873 until
1878 ; an able speaker and authority
on finance ; in 1897 was a member of
a commercial commission to the Unit-
ed States. He died Sept. 24, 1912.
Carupano, a growing port of the
Venezuelan State of Bermudez, on the
N. coast of the peninsula of Paria,
with a lighthouse and good roadstead.
Pop. 12,389.
Cams, Marcus Aurelius, a Ro-
man emperor, born in 222, succeeded
to the throne in 282 A. D., after the as-
sassination of Probus. He was a good
and able ruler and conquered the Sar-
matians, wrested Mesopotamia, Seleu-
cia, and Ctesiphon from the Persians,
and was about to make an invasion be-
yond the Tigris when he was killed in
283.
Carver, John, a "Pilgrim
Father," the first governor of the Ply-
mouth colony, born in England about
1575. He joined the Leyden colony of
English exiles about 1608, and assisted
in securing a charter from the Virginia
Company and in selecting and equip-
ping the "Mayflower." He was elected
governor after the "Mayflower"
reached Provincetown, and established
by a treaty with the Indians peaceful
relations. He was re-elected in March,
1621, but died a few days afterward.
Cary
His chair and sword are still preserved
as Pilgrim relics.
Cary, Alice, an American poetess,
born near Cincinnati, O., April 20,
1820. In 1852 she, with her sister,
Phoebe, removed to New York City.
where they lived during the rest of
their lives. She died in New York
City, Feb. 21, 1871.
Cary, Annie Louise, an Ameri-
can singer; born in Wayne, Me., Oct.
22, 1842; studied in Milan, made her
operatic d6but in Copenhagen in 1868,
and returned in 1870 to the United
States, where she remained until 1882,
when she married Charles M. Ray-
mond, and retired from the stage while
her voice was still unimpaired.
Cary, Edward, an American jour-
nalist ; born in Albany, N. Y., June
5, 1840. He has long been connected
with the "New York Times."
Cary, George Lovell, an Amer-
ican theologian ; born in Medway,
Mass., May 10, 1830. He was grad-
uated at Harvard College in 1852 ; and
from 1862 was Professor of New Tes-
tament Literature in Meadville The-
ological Seminary, of which he also
became president. He died in 1910.
Cary, Phoebe, an American poetess
and prose-writer, sister of Alice ; born
in Cincinnati, O., Sept. 4, 1824. She
died in Newport, R. I., July 31, 1871.
Cary, Samuel Fenton, an Ameri-
can politician ; born in Cincinnati, O.,
Feb. 18, 1814; represented Ohio in
Congress in 1867-1869 ; was the only
Republican representative to vote
against the impeachment of President
Johnson ; and was an unsuccessful can-
didate for vice-president in 1876, on
the "Greenback" ticket, headed by
Peter Cooper. He died in 1900.
Caryatides, or Caryates, a term
used to signify the figures which are
sometimes introduced to support a
cornice instead of columns.
Caryocar, large trees, natives of
the hottest parts of South America,
much esteemed for their timber. The
separated portions of the fruit consti-
tute the Souari or Suwarrow nuts of
commerce, the kernels of which are de-
licious.
Caryophyllus, the Clove-tree, a
native of the Moluccas. The cloves of
commerce are the unexpanded flower-
Case
buds dried. They form a well-known
spice.
Carysf ort Reef, a coral reef near
the S. extremity of Florida.
Casablanca, Louis, a French
naval officer, born in Bastia about
1755, and in 1798 was captain of the
gship "L'Orient" in the expedition
to Egypt. He was mortally wounded
at the battle of the Nile, Aug. 1, 1798;
the ship caught fire ; his 10-year-old
son would not leave him, and both
were floating on the wreck of the
ship's mast when the final explosion
took place.
Casanare, a river of the Republic
of Colombia, which flows through a re-
gion called by the same name, and
after an easterly course of 180 miles
empties into the Meta.
Casareep, or Cassiripe, a sauce
or condiment made from the juice of
the Bitter Cassava or Manioc root,
which also furnishes tapioca.
Casas Grandes, an old Indian
town of Mexico, in the State of Chi-
huahua, 125 miles S. W. of El Paso.
Casati, Gaetano, an Italian ex-
plorer, born in Monza, in 1838. He
explored Bahr-el-Ghazel, and, after
long captivity among African tribes-
men, was rescued by Stanley. He died
in Rome, Italy, March 7, 1902.
Casca, Publius Servilius, a Ro-
man conspirator, assisting in the as-
sassination of Julius Caesar, 44 B. C.
Cascade Range, a chain of mount-
ains in the States of Oregon and
Washington. It takes its name from
the cascades formed by the Columbia
river breaking through the mountains.
Casco Bay, a bay on the S. W.
coast of Maine ; is about 20 miles wide
and so deep as to constitute one of the
best harbors of the world.
Case, in grammar, a modification
or inflection of a noun, pronoun, or
adjective, by which a different shade
of meaning is communicated to the
word.
Case, Augustus Ludlow, an
American naval officer, born in New-
burg, N. Y., Feb. 3, 1813; entered the
navy as a midshipman in 1828, served
in the Mexican war. He was a light-
house inspector in 1867; chief of bu-
reau of ordnance, 1869 ; and command-
er of the European squadron in 1873.
Case-hardening
Ee was retired in 1875, and died in
Washington, D. C., Feb. 17, 1893:
Case-hardening, the process of
converting the surface of malleable-
iron goods into steel, thereby making
them harder, less liable to rust, and
capable of taking on a better polish.
Casein, or Caseine, an albuminoid
substance found in milk, soluble in
alkali.
Casey, Silas, an American officer,
born in East Greenwich, R. I., July
12, 1807 ; was graduated at the United
States Military Academy in 1826;
served in the Mexican and Civil Wars.
Was given charge of organizing the
volunteers near Washington ; brevetted
Major-General U. S. A., 1865; and
retired in 1868. He died in Brooklyn,
N. Y., Jan. 22, 1882.
Casey, Thomas Lincoln, an
American military engineer, born in
Madison Barracks, Sackett's Harbor,
N. Y., May 10, 1831; the oldest son
of Gen. Silas Casey. He graduated
from West Point in 1852, and entered
the Engineer Corps of the army. Was
placed in charge of the construction
of various National buildings; was
president of the Board of Engineers
for fortifications at New York. He
died in Washington, D. C., March 25,
1896.
Casgrain, Abbe Henry Ray-
mond, a Canadian historical writer ;
born in Riviere Quelle, Quebec, Dec.
16, 1831 ; ordained a priest Oct. 5,
1856 ; was professor at St. Anne's
College till 1859, and vicar at Quebec
Cathedral in 1860-73.
Cashel, a town in Tipperary
county, Ireland, about 49 miles N. E.
of Cork ; containing the most interest-
ing ruins in Ireland. These consist of
a cathedral, founded in 1169 ; a stone-
roofed chapel, built in 1127 ; Hore
Abbey, founded in 1260 ; the palace of
the Munster Kings ; and a round tower
56 feet in circumference. Pop. (1911)
2,813.
Casignran Bay, a considerable in-
let on the E. coast of Luzon, Philip-
pine Islands, reached through Casig-
uran Sound.
Casimir-Perier,Jean Paul Pierre,
a President of the French Republic,
born in Paris, Nov. 8, 1847; was
chosen successor of President Carnot
on the first ballot (June, 1894). He
Cassel
resigned the office of President, Jan.
16, 1895, and was succeeded by Felix
Faure. He died March 11, 1907.
Caspian Gates, a name given to
the Russian fortress Dariel, situated in
a narrow defile of the Caucasus, on the
Terek, 80 miles N. of Tiflis.
Caspian Sea, a great salt lake of
Western Asia, wholly enclosed, hav-
ing no outlet whatever to the ocean,
and surrounded by Tartary, Persia,
the Caucasian countries, and the Rus-
sian governments of Orenburg and
Astrakhan. Its greatest length from,
N. to S. is 760 miles ; average breadth,
200 ; area, about 120,000 square miles.
Cass, Lewis, an American states-
man, diplomatist, and soldier, born in
Exeter, N. H., Oct. 9, 1782 ; served in
the War of 1812; was governor of
Michigan Territory (1813-1831) ; Sec-
retary of War (1831-1836) ; minister
to France (1836-1842) ; United States
Senator (1845-1848) ; Presidential
candidate (1848) ; United States Sen-
ator (1849-1857) ; Secretary of State
(1857-1860). He died in Detroit,
Mich., June 17, 1866.
Cassation, Court of, a French
institution which gives the national
jurisdiction coherency and uniformity
without endangering the independence
of the courts.
Cassatt, Alexander Johnston,
railroad president ; b. Pittsburg, Dec.
8, 1839. He was educated at Heidel-
berg Univ. and the Rensselaer Poly-
technic Institute ; became a railroad
rodman in 1861, and rose through suc-
cessive positions to president of the
Pennsylvania Railroad Co. in 1899.
He died Dec. 28, 1906.
Cassatt, Mary, an American figure-
painter, born in Pittsburg, Pa. ; stud-
ied art in Europe ; and lived some
time in Spain and France. As an
etcher she ranks among the best. Her
studio is at Paris.
Cassava, a South American shrub,
about 8 feet in height, with broad,
shining, and somewhat hand-shaped
leaves, and beautiful white and rose-
colored flowers. From Cassava the
tapioca of commerce is prepared.
Cassel, or Kassel, formerly the
residence of the Elector of Hesse-Cas-
sel, is now the chief town in the prov-
ince of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia, on the
Fulda, 91 miles N. N. E. of Frank-
Cassia
fort-on-the-Main. There are many
fine walks and public gardens in the
vicnity ; among the latter are the
gardens of Wilhelmshohe, in which is
situated the ex-elector's summer pal-
ace, the residence of the late Emper-
or Napoleon III., after his being taken
prisoner at Sedan, from Sept. 5, 1870,
to March 19, 1871. Pop. (1910),
153,196.
Cassia, a genus of plants. Be-
tween 200 and 300 species are known.
They are trees, shrubs, or herbs. They
are found in India, Africa and the
warmer parts of this country. Sev-
eral furnish Senna.
Cassianus, Joannes Eremita, or
Joannes Massiliensis, an early
monk and theologian, born about 360.
He died about 448, and was afterward
canonized.
Cassicus, an American genus of
insessorial birds, the Cassicans. The
crested oriole, a South American bird,
constructs a pouch-shaped nest of the
length of 30 inches.
Cassini, Count, a Russian diplo-
matist, born in St. Petersburg. He
was the first Russian ambassador to
the United States.
Cassiquiari, or Cassiquiare, a
large river of South America, in Ven-
ezuela, which branches off from the
Orinoco and joins the Rio Negro, a
tributary of the Amazon.
Cassius, full name, Cains Cassius
Longimis, one of the assassins of
Julius Csesar ; killed himself 42 B. C.
Cassock, a close garment resem-
bling a long frock coat, worn by
clergymen under the surplice or gown.
In the Church of Rome they vary in
color with the dignity of the wearer ;
those of priests being black, bishops
pu»ple, cardinals scarlet, and Popes
white.
Cassowary, a family of birds. The
shortness of their wings totally unfits
them for flying, and it would seem
impossible for nature to have furnished
muscular power sufficient to move
wings large enough to sustain their
great weight in the air. The wings
of the ostrich are of some assistance
to it in running, but those of the cas-
sowary are too short even to be of
service in this way. Its whole plum-
age IB so poorly supplied with feathers
Castilla
as to resemble, at a little distance, a
coat of coarse or hanging hair. The
cassowaries have three toes, all pro-
vided with nails.
Cast, in the fine arts, an impres-
sion taken by means of wax or plaster
of Paris from a statue, bust, bas-relief
or any other model, animate or inani-
mate.
Castanet, a small, slightly concave,
spoon-shaped instrument of ivory or
hard wood, of which a pair are fas-
tened to the thumb and beaten to-
gether with the middle finger.
Caste, an hereditary class of society
in India, the members of which are
theoretically equal in rank, and, as a
rule, follow the same profession or
occupation. Through the long ages
during which Indian caste has existed,
the original four castes have split into
an immense multitude. Different
castes refuse to eat together or inter-
marry.
Castellon, Francisco, a Nicara-
guan revolutionist, born about 1815.
He was the leader in a revolt at Leon
in 1853, which was unsuccessful, and
fled to Honduras, whence he returned
in June of the next year. It was by
his invitation that the filibustering ex-
pedition under William Walker went
from the United States in 1854. He
died Sept. 2, 1855.
Castile, Spain an ancient kingdom
comprising Old Castile and v New Cas-
tile, the former extending from the
Bay of Biscay southward to New Cas-
tile, divided into 8 provinces ; area
25,405 square miles; pop. (1910) 2,-
150,518. New Castile occupied the
centre of the peninsula, and is now di-
vided into 5 provinces ; area, 28.010
square miles; pop. (1910) 1,851,286.
The Kingdom of Castile was united
to that of Leon in 1230.
Castilla, Ramon, a Peruvian
statesman ; born in Tarapaca, Aug.
30, 1796. Early in life he served in
the Spanish army, but in 1821 he
joined the insurrectionists in Peru and
distinguished himself in the successful
struggle of that country for independ-
ence. In 1845 he was elected Presi-
dent of Peru. On the expiration of
his term he retired to private life;
but as the new President proved tyran-
nical, Castilla led a revolt against him,
drove him into exile, and in 1855 was
Castillon
Castle Garden
himself re-elected President. He
served till 1862. He died in Tarapaca,
May 30, 1867.
Castillon, a town in the French
department of Gironde, on the right
bank of the Dordogne, 33 miles E. of
Bordeaux by rail. Beneath its walls,
on June 13, 1453, the English met
with a signal defeat, their leader, Earl
Talbot of Shrewsbury, and his son,
being slain. Part of the battle is de-
scribed in the fourth act of Shake-
speare's " King Henry VI.," Part I.
Casting, the running of melted
metal into a mold prepared for the
them in being designed for military
purposes only, and not as places of
permanent residence.
Castlebar, the capital town of
County Mayo, Ireland. It is on the
Castlebar river, 10 miles N. E. of
Westport. In 1641 occurred here the
massacre of the English Parliamentary
army in the Irish rebellion ; in 1789
Castlebar was held for a fortnight by
the French general, Humbert; and in
1846-1847 it suffered greatly from
famine.
Castle Garden, the former immi-
grant depot in New York, at the point
'""*»
A FEUDAL CASTLE AT BOUEN, FBANCE.
purpose, so as to produce an article
of a certain shape.
Cast-iron, the name given to the
iron obtained from the blast-furnace
by running the fused metal into molds
prepared for the purpose.
Castle, a building constructed for
the purpose of repelling attack. The
castella left by the Romans were con-
structed on the general model of their
stationary encampments, and though
they may have suggested the castles
of the Middle Ages, they differed from
of Manhattan Island, in Battery Park.
In the early days of the city the place
was a small, fortified island a few feet
from the main-land ; later it became a
public hall for assemblies and con-
certs. Here Jenny Lind made her
American debut. Many years ago the'
island was incorporated with the gen-
eral area of the Battery by filling the
intervening space with earth and rock ;
new buildings were erected, and the
place was devoted to the purpose of
landing steerage immigrants. In 1890
it ceased to be used as an immigrant
Castletowu
depot, and was turned over to the
Park Commissioners of the city of
New York, and is now an aquarium.
Castletown, a seaport and former
capital of the Isle of Man, on Castle-
town Bay, 11 miles S. W. of Douglas.
Castle Kushen, now a prison, occupies
the site of a Danish fortress of the
10th century, which was almost wholly
demolished by Robert Bruce in 1313.
The grounds of Rushen Abbey (llth
century), near the station, are now
market gardens. Near by is the small
building where the House of Keys as-
sembled for about 170 years.
Castor and Pollux, two demi-
gods known by the ancients under the
joint name of Dioscuri, that is, sons
of Zeus or Jupiter. Mythology makes
Jupiter reward their affection by
translating the two brothers into con-
stellations, under the name of Gemini
— stars which never appear together,
but when one rises the other sets, and
so on alternately.
Castor Oil, a fixed oil obtained
from the seeds of the castor oil plant.
Given in doses or one or two teaspoon-
fuls, with a little peppermint water, it
forms a gentle laxative for habits eas-
ily acted on by medicine ; while a dose
of a tablespoonful, or a little more,
will almost always succeed.
Castro, Inez de, a lady of noble
birth, secretly married to Pedro, son
of Alphonso IV., King of Portugal,
after the death of his wife Constantia
(1345). The old King Alphonso,
fearful that this marriage would in-
jure the interests of his grandson
Ferdinand, resolved to put Inez to
death. Three noblemen, Diego Lopez
Pacheco, Pedro Coelho, and Alvarez
Gonsalvez, were his counsellors, and
carried it out themselves by stabbing
Inez within the convent where she
lived. Two years after King Alphon-
so died, and Pedro, inducing the King
of Castile to give up to him two of
the murderers, who had taken refuge
there (the third, Diego Lopez, man-
aged to escape), put them to death
with cruel tortures. The king then
made public declaration of the mar-
riage that had taken place between
him and the deceased Inez ; and had
her corpse disinterred and placed on
a throne, adorned with the diadem and
royal robes, to receive the homage of
Cat
the nobility. The body was then buried
with honors. The story of Inez is one
of the finest episodes in Camoens's
" Lusiad."
Castro, Cipriano, President of
Venezuela, b. 1858 near Capacho, of
peasant parents. 3e .became a coffee
grower and politician, and in 1890
took Caracas with a few troops and
was elected President. He em-
broiled his country with almost every
civilized Power; was especially ar-
rogant towards the United States;
and in 1908-1909 fled the country
and was deposed.
Castro, Jose Maria, a Costa
Rican statesman, born in San Jose,
Sept. 1, 1818; educated at the Uni-
versity of Leon, Nicaragua, and held
positions under the government of
Costa Rica. In 1846 he was Vice-
President ; in 1847 elected President.
After Costa Rica withdrew from the
Central American States, he resigned
the presidency, but held diplomatic po-
sitions. From 1866 to the rise of the
Jimenez government (1868), he was
again President. He died in 1893.
Casuistry, that branch of ethical
science which professes to deal with
cases of conscience. It lays down
rules or canons directing us how to
act in all matters of moral doubt.
Caswell, Richard, an American
lawyer, born in Maryland, Aug. 3,
1729; removed to North Carolina in
1746 ; was president of the Provincial
Congress which framed the State Con-
stitution (1776), and first governor
of the State, three times re-elected;
was also a delegate to the convention
which framed the Federal Constitu-
tion in 1787. He died in Fayette-
ville, N. C., Nov. 20, 1789.
Cat. The cat is originally from
the European forests. In its wild
state it differs from the domestic ani-
mal in having a shorter tail, a Hatter
and larger head, and stronger limbs.
At what period cats became inmates
of human habitations, it is scarcely
possible to determine, but there is
good reason to believe that they were
at first domesticated in Egypt The
varieties of this animal in a domestic
state are very numerous. Of all the
varieties the Persian, the Angora, and
the new, tall and gray Malta variety
are the most remarkable.
Catacombs
Catamarca
Catacombs, caverns, grottoes, sub-
terraneous caves, destined for the se-
pulture of the dead. The name of
catacombs, according to Gregory, was
at first applied to designate exclusively
the cave in which the bodies of St.
Peter and St. Paul were buried, and
A CATACOMB GRAVE.
it was only at a later period that it
came to be given to all the subterran-
eous passages which were used as pub-
lic burying-places. It is now regarded
as certain that in times of persecution
the early Christians frequently took
refuge in the catacombs ; but it is not
less certain that the catacombs served
also as places of burial to the early
Christians, and that in spite of the
contrary opinion which prevailed for
two centuries, the catacombs were not
for the most part abandoned quarries,
but were excavated by the Christians
themselves.
The catacombs of Paris, situated on
the left bank of the Seine river, are
almost equally celebrated. By the
light of wax tapers, a person may de-
scend about 70 feet to a world of si-
lence, over which the Parisian police
keeps watch as strictly as over the
world of noise and confusion above.
He will then enter a gallery where
only two can go abreast. A black
streak on the stones of the walls points
out the way, which, from the great
number of by-passages, it would be dif-
ficult for the visitor to retrace with-
out this aid or without guides.
Catafalque, a temporary and or-
namental structure, placed over the
coffin of a distinguished person or over
a grave.
Catalan, a blast furnace for re-
ducing ores, extensively used in the N.
of Spain, particularly in the province
of Catalonia.
Catalan!, Angelica, an Italian
singer, born in Sinigaglia, near An-
cona, in October, 1779 ; in her seventh
year she displayed such wonderful vo-
cal powers that strangers flocked from
all quarters to hear her. She made
her debut at Venice in 1797 and ex-
perienced a succession of triumphs in
every country in Europe for upwards
of 30 years. The Italian Opera in
Paris was twice under her • direction ;
but her husband's interference and ex-
travagance brought her into much
trouble. She died in Paris, June 13,
1849.
Catalepsy, a form of mental disor-
der, akin to hysteria, which is charac-
terized by the person affected falling
down suddenly in a state of real or
apparent unconsciousness, and, save
for some occasional muscular twitch-
ings of the face and body, remaining
rigid and statue-like for a period of
time which varies from one minute to
some hours or even days, and then all
at once recovering consciousness as if
aroused from sleep.
Catalonia, an old province of
Spain, bounded N. by France, E. and
S. E. by the Mediterranean, S. by Va-
lencia, and W. by Arragpn. The
country is mountainous, but intersect-
ed with fertile valleys, while the
mountains themselves are covered with
valuable woods and fruit-trees. Wheat,
wine, oil, flax, hemp, vegetables, and
almost every kind of fruit are abund-
ant. There *>re mines of lead, iron,
alum, etc. Catalonia stands preemi-
nent for the industry of its inhabi-
tants, who speak the Catalan dialect.
It comprises the modern provinces of
Tarragona, Gerona, Serida, and Bar-
celona ; area, 12,427 square miles ;
pop. (1913) 2,084,792.
Cat alp a, (from the native Indian
name in Carolina, where it was dis-
covered by Catesby in 1726), a genus
comprising four or five species of trees,
natives of North America, the West
Indies, Japan, and China.
Catamaran, a kind of boat used
by the Hindoos of Madras, Ceylon, and
the parts adjacent. It is formed of
three logs of timber, secured together
by means of three spreaders and cross
lashings through small holes.
Catamarca, a W. province of the
Argentine Republic, sinking S. E.
from the Andes to the Salt Marshes,
which separate it from Cordoba. Area,
36,800 square miles; pop. (1915)
Catamount
112,955. Catamarca, the capital, lies
82 miles N..E. of Rioja.
Catamount, the North American
tiger.
Catanduanes, a small island in
the Philippine archipelago, E. of Lu-
zon, about 90 miles long and 50 miles
wide. It is mountainous and said to
have rich gold deposits. Pop. (1903)
39,288, all civilized.
Catania, a city on the E. coast of
Sicily, in the province of Catania, at
the foot of Mount Etna. It has been
repeatedly visited by tremendous
earthquakes, one of the worst of which
was in 1093, when 18,000 people were
destroyed. Pop. (1915) 217,389.
Catapult, a machine of the an-
cients for projecting missiles, chiefly
Arrows. They may be described as a
kind of gigantic cross-bows.
Cataract, in medicine, an opacity
of the crystalline lens of the eye, or of
its capsule, or both. In cataract the
lens becomes opaque, loses its trans-
parency, and is no longer capable of
transmitting the light. The causes of
cataract are numerous. The treat-
ment of cataract is by a surgical oper-
ation on the eye, and different opera-
tions have been tried and recommend-
ed. They all consist in removing the
diseased lens from its situation oppo-
site the transparent cornea.
Cataract, in geography, a water-
fall, called in America briefly " falls."
Many cataracts are remarkable for
their sublimity, the grandest be'ng the
Falls of Niagara, on the Niagara
river, between Lakes Erie and On-
tario. The river, more than a mile
above the falls, is divided by Grand
and Navy islands, and has a gradual
descent of 57 feet from this place.
The banks preserve the level of the
country, and in some parts rise 100
feet from the water. At the falls the
river is % of a mile broad, and the
precipice which breaks its course
curves irregularly so as to form nearly
a semicircle on the Canadian side, but
is straighter on the American side. An
island, called Goat island, divides the
cataract into two principal portions —
the American fall on the E. and the
Horseshoe on the W., or Canada side.
The American fall descends almost
perpendicularly from a height of 162
feet, and is about 1,000 feet in width.
Cataract
The Horseshoe fall is 4 feet less in
height, but is wider and surpasses the
other much in grandeur. The water
rushes over the precipice with such
force that it forms a curled sheet,
which strikes the river below 50 feet
from the base of the precipice, and vis-
itors can pass behind the falling sheet
of water.
The Montmorency river, which joins
the St. Lawrence a few miles below
Quebec, forms a magnificent cataract,
250 feet in height. The Missouri, in
the upper part of its course, descends
357 feet in 16*£ miles. There are four
cataracts, one of 87, one of 19, one of
47, and one of 26 feet in height. The
Yosemite river, in California, forms a
series of magnificent falls, with a total
descent of 2,600 feet. The first of
them is a plungfe of 1,500 feet, and is
followed, after a series of beautiful
cascades, by a final plunge of about
400 feet. Fully 200 miles from the
mouth of the Hamilton river in Lab-
rador there is a magnificent series of
cataracts known as the Grand Falls,
the largest cataract having a height of
over 300 feet. In the republic of Co-
lombia, South America, a magnificent
cataract, called that of Tequendama,
is formed by the Bogota river. The
river precipitates itself through a nar-
row chasm, about 36 feet broad, to
the depth of over 600 feet. On the
Potaro river in British Guiana, is a
grand fall known as the Kaieteur Fall,
740 feet high, and about 370 broad, a
second fall of 88 feet occurring imme-
diately below the principal one.
The most remarkable waterfall of
Africa is a cataract on the Zambesi
ailed Victoria Falls. The stream,
about 1,860 yards broad, flowing over
a bed of basaltic rock, is suddenly pre-
ipitated into a tremendous fissure to
the depth of about 370 feet. The
Breadth of this fissure or crack is only
from 80 to 90 yards, and the pent-up
waters are then hurried through a
prolongation of the chasm to the left
with furious violence. The so-called
!ataracts of the Nile are not, properly
speaking, cataracts. A more correct
designation for them would be " rap-
"ds." The Stanley Falls on the Kon-
jo comprise seven cataracts. On the
Tugela river, in Natal, there are the
Tugela Falls. On the Umgeni river,
"n the same country, are the falls of
Catarrh.
the Great Umgeni (304 feet) and the
Kar Kloof Falls (350). There seem
to be no waterfalls of more note in
Asia than those of the Cavery river
of India.
One of the grandest falls in Europe
is that of the Ruikanfoss ( " smoking
fall"), on the Maan river, in Nor-
way. The height of the cataract is 805
feet. In Sweden, on the Gotha river,
a few miles below its outlet from
Lake Wener, are the celebrated falls
of Trollhatta, which have a height of
over 100 feet. The cascade of Gavar-
nie, in the Pyrenees, is reputed the
loftiest in Europe, being over 1,300
feet in height. Its volume of water,
however, is so small that it is con-
verted into spray before reaching the
bottom of the fall. Another water
fall in the Pyrenees is that of Secu-
lejo, in the neighborhood of Bagneres-
de-Luchon. It ascends from the Lac
d'Espingo, into the Lac -de Seculejo,
or d'Oo, a singularly romantic moun-
tain reservoir, from a height of 820
feet, and is the most copious of the
Pyrenean waterfalls. The Swiss Alps
likewise contain some falls of great
sublimity.
Catarrh, a running or discharge
which takes place from the various
outlets of the body.
Cat Bird, a species of American
thrush, which during the summer is
found throughout the Middle and New
England States, frequenting thickets
and shrubberies. Its note is striking-
ly similar to the plaint of a kitten in
distress. The plumage is a deep slate-
color above and lighter below, and it
is about 9 inches in length. During
the winter it inhabits the extreme S.
of the United States. The cat bird
frequently attacks the common black
snake, which, in the absence of the
bird, rifles its nest.
Catechism, any compendious sys-
tem of teaching drawn up in the form
of question and answer. The first
Christian catechisms are said to have
been composed in the 8th or 9th cen-
tury. Luther published a short cate*
chism in 1520, and his larger and
smaller ones in 1529. The Geneva
Catechism was sent forth in 1536. The
Church of England Catechism was first
published in 1549 or 1551, but in a
shorter form than now. The cate-
chism of the " orthodox " Greek
Catharine
Church was published in 1542. In
1566 the Council of Trent produced a
catechism ; the Rakovian Catechism,
wjiich is Socinian, was put forth in
1574, and the shorter and larger cate-
chisms of the Westminster Assembly
of Divines appeared, the former in
1647, and the latter in 1648. Cate-
chisms of other sects have been pub-
lished.
Catechu, a gum, is soluble in
water ; on exposure to the air the so-
lution turns red. Catechu has been
used to prevent the formation of boiler
incrustations.
Catechumen, he who learns the
elements of any science ; one who is
undergoing a course of religious in-
struction with a view to his admission
into the Church.
Caterpillar, the larvae of butter-
flies, moths, and hawk-moths.
Cat-fish,, the sea-wolf, a native of
the West Indian seas, so called from
its round head and large, glaring eyes ;
also a fresh-water fish of different spe-
cies, the common cat-fish, called also
horned pout, and bull-head.
Cat-gut, the name given to the
material of which the strings of many
musical instruments are formed. It is
made from the intestines of the sheep,
and sometimes from those of the horse,
but never from those of the cat.
Cathari, a name akin to " Puri-
tans," applied at different times to
various sects of Christians. It be-
came a common appellation of several
sects which first appeared in the llth
century in Lqmbardy and other coun-
tries, and which were violently perse-
cuted for their tenets and usages.
They had many other local names.
The Cathari proper held a community
of goods, abstained from war, mar-
riage, and the killing of animals, and
rejected water baptism.
Catharine I., Empress of Russia.
The early history of this remarkable
woman is uncertain. According to
some accounts she was the daughter
of a Swedish officer named Rabe, who
died shortly after she was born ; ac-
cording to others her father was a
Catholic peasant in Lithuania, by
name Samuel. It is said that she was
born in 1686, named Martha, and
placed by her parents in the service
of a Lutheran clergyman. She re-
Catharine
moved to Marienburg, and entered the
service of a clergyman named Gluek,
who caused her to be instructed in the
Lutheran religion. Here she was mar-
ried to a Swedish dragoon. But a few
days after he was obliged to repair to
the field, and the Russians, within a
short period, took Marienburg in 1702.
Martha fell into the hands of General
Tcheremetieff, who relinquished her to
Prince Menzikoff. While in his pos-
session she was seen by Peter the
Great, who made her his mistress. She
became a proselyte to the Greek
Church, and assumed the name of
Catharine Alexiewna. In 1712 the em-
peror publicly acknowledged Catharine
as his wife. Upon the death of Peter
she was proclaimed empress and auto-
crat of all the Russias. Catharine died
suddenly on May 17, 1727, in the 42d
year of her age.
Catharine II., Empress of Russia ;
born in Stettin, May 2, 1729, where
her father, Christian Augustus, Prince
of Anhalt-Zerbst, and Prussian field-
marshal, was governor. The empress
Elizabeth of Russia, daughter of Peter
the Great, and Catharine I., selected
her for wife of Peter, her nephew
and heir, and the marriage took
place, September 1, 1745. It was
not a happy one. Among the friends
of her husband Count Soltikoff was
distinguished for talent and the graces
of his person. He attracted the atten-
tion of Catharine, and an intimate con-
nection between them was the conse-
quence. When Soltikoff grew indiffer-
ent a young Pole, Stanislaus Augustus
Poniatowski, celebrated both for his
good and ill fortune, gained the affec-
tions of the grand princess. Their in-
timacy was known to the empress, but
did not appear to displease her ; and it
was at her recommendation that Au-
gustus III. appointed Poniatowski his
ambassador at the court of St. Peters-
burg. This connection created alarm
at Paris. In January, 1762, Elizabeth
died, and Peter III. ascended the
throne. The emperor now became still
more alienated from his wife. Peter
lived in the greatest dissipation, and
on such intimate terms with a lady of
the court, named Elizabeth Woronzoff,
that it was generally thought that he
would repudiate Catharine and marry
his mistress. Peter was imprisoned
and murdered by the Orloffs, and Cath-
Catharine
arine became empress. A fit of apo-
plexy ended her life on Nov. 17, 1796.
Apart from her debauchery she was
an enlightened and progressive ruler,
and deserves to be remembered grate-
fully by Americans for having refused
to sell her subjects to George III. to
fight in the Revolution.
Catharine de' Medici, wife of
Henry II., King of France ; born in
Florence in 1519, the only daughter of
Lorenzo de' Medici, Duke of Urbino,
and the niece of Pope Clement VII.
Francis I. consented that his son
Henry should marry her only because
he did not believe she ever would
ascend the throne, and because he was
in great want of money, with which
Lorenzo could furnish him. The mar-
riage was celebrated at Marseilles in
1533. The massacre of St. Bartholo-
mew was her work. She had two
daughters, Elizabeth, married to Philip
II. of Spain -in 1559, and Margaret of
Valois, married to Henry of Navarre,
afterward Henry IV. She died in
1589.
Catharine of Arragon, Queen of
England, the youngest daughter of
Ferdinand of Arragon and Isabella of
Castile; born in 1483 or 1485. In
1501 she was married to Arthur,
Prince of Wales. Her husband dying
about five months after, the king
caused her to be contracted to his re-
maining son, Henry, and a dispensa-
tion was procured from the Pope for
that purpose. In his 15th year the
prince made a public protest against
the marriage; but yielding to the rep-
resentations of his council, he con-
sented to ratify the contract, and on
his accession to the throne in 1509
was crowned with her. The want of
male issue proved a source of disquie-
tude to him, and scruples, real or pre-
tended, at length arose in his mind
concerning the legality of their union,
which were enforced by a growing pas-
sion for Anne Boleyn, one of the
queen's maids of honor. He made ap-
plication to Rome for a divorce from
Catharine. An encouraging answer
was returned, and a dispensation
promised. Overawed, however, by the
power of the Emperor Charles V.,
Catharine's nephew, the conduct of the
pontiff became embarrassed and hesi-
tating. Catharine could not be in-
duced to consent to an act which
Catharine
would render her daughter illegiti-
mate. Being cited before the papal
legates, Cardinals Wolsey and Cam-
peggio, she declared that she would
not submit her cause to their judg-
ment, but appealed to the court of
Rome. The subterfuges of the Pope
induced the king to decide the affair
for himself ; and the resentment ex-
pressed on this occasion by the court
of Rome provoked him to throw off his
submission to it, and declare himself
head of the English Church — an act
of royal caprice more important than
most in history. In 1532 he married
r
Cathedral
married Charles II., but her hus-
band's infidelities and neglect, and her
childlessness were a source of mortifi-
cation to her. In 1693 she returned to
Portugal, where, in 1704, she was
made regent, and in the conduct of
affairs during the war with Spain
showed marked ability. She died in
1705.
Cathartic, having the property or
power of cleasing the bowels by pro-
moting the evacuations of excrements,
etc., purgative.
Cathedral. The principal church
of a diocese, and the Cathedral city is
CATHEDRAL OF ST. JOHN THE
Anne Boleyn ; upon which Catharine
retired to Ampthill. Cranmer, now
raised to the primacy, pronounced the
sentence of divorce. She died in
January, 1536. Shortly before her
death she wrote a letter to the king,
recommending their daughter (after-
ward Queen Mary) to his protection,
praying for the salvation of his soul,
and assuring him of hei' forgiveness
and unabated affection.
Catharine of Braganza, wife of
Charles II., King of England, and
daughter of John IV., King of Portu-
gal, was born in 1638. In 1662 she
DIVIDE, NTW TOBY CITY.
the seat of the bishop of the diocese,
and his throne is placed in the Cathe-
dral church, which is the parish
church of the whole diocese. The dis-
tinction between Cathedral and colle-
giate churches consists principally in
the see of the bishop being at the for-
mer. The governing body of a Cathe-
dral is called the dean and chapter.
St. Peter's, at Rome, is unequaled hi
magnitude and splendor by any other
Christian fane in the world. St.
Peter's was begun in 1503, and was
consecrated in 1626. Milan Cathedral
was commenced in 1387, but is still
Cathedral Peak
Catorce
unfinished. The Duomo, Florence, was
begun in 1298, and was finished in
1444. The Cathedral at Cologne was
begun in the middle of the 13th cen-
tury, and only partly finished in 1509,
after which work was not resumed on
it till 1830. In 1863 the interior was
thrown open to the public. In 1880
it was finished. The Cathedral at
Strasburg was completed in 1601, and
is one of the grandest Gothic struc-
tures in Europe. Notre Dame, Paris,
was begun about 1163. St. Paul's,
London (the present edifice, the first
having been destroyed in the great fire
of 1666), was begun in 1675, and was
finished in 1710. It is built in the
form of a Latin cross. The Cathedral
of Mexico was begun in 1573, and was
finished in 1667. The Cathedral of
St. John the Divine (P. B.), in New
York, will, when completed, be the
most splendid structure of the kind on
this continent.
Cathedral Peak, a peak of the
Sierra Nevada Range, situated in
Mariposa county, Cal. Height, 11,000
feet
Catherine Harbor, a Russian
port in the far N. on the Murman
poast of the Kola peninsula. It was
formally opened in 1900, the city hav-
ing been built by imperial command.
Catheter, a term applied in sur-
gery to a tube, usually of silver or in-
dia-rubber, which is introduced into
the bladder through the urethra, for
the purpose of drawing off the urine
when it cannot be discharged in the
natural way.
Catholic Benevolent Union, an
organization of Roman Catholics in
the United States, founded in 1881 as
a fraternal and protective order.
Catholic Church, the universal
Church, the whole body of true be-
lievers in Christ ; but the term is often
used as equivalent to the Roman or
Papal Church.
Catholic Epistles, the epistles in
the New Testament addressed not to
individual men or to individual
churches, but to the general body of
Christians. They are James, I and II
Peter, I John and Jude.
Catholic Knights of America,
an organization of Roman Catholics
in the United States, founded in 1887
as a fraternal and protective order.
Catholic University of Amer-
ica, an institution in Washington, D.
C., founded in 1889, under the auspi-
ces of the Roman Catholic Church, for
postgraduate study exclusively.
Catiline (Lucius Sergins Cati-
lina), a Roman conspirator; born
about 108 B. c. Disappointed in his
ambition he plotted a massacre of his
political antagonists, and the destruc-
tion of the Roman Republic. Cicero
exposed ^the conspiracy, and executed
the leading conspirators, except Cati-
line, who fell in battle, January 5, 62
B. C., together with his whole army.
Cat Island, or Gnanahani, an
island of the Bahama group for cen-
turies supposed to be identical with
the San Salvador of Columbus, a sur-
mise now disproved. Length, 36
miles; breadth, 3 to 7 miles; popula-
tion, 2,378.
Catlin, George, an American au-
thor and painter, born in Wilkes-
barre, Pa., June 26, 1796. From 1832
till 1839 he traveled and lived among
the Indians of America, of whom he
painted hundreds of portraits. He died
in Jersey City, N. J., Dec. 23, 1872.
Cato, Marcus Porcins, a great
Roman statesman, called (to distin-
guish him from the censor, his great
grandfather) Cato of Utica, the place
of his death; born 95 B. c. He op-
posed Caesar, and upon the triumph
of the latter, he killed himself at
Utica, Africa, 46 B. C.
Cato, Marcus Porcins, the Cen-
sor, surnamed Priscus; born in Tus-
culum, 234 B. C. He served his first
campaign, at the age of 17, under
Fabius Maximus, when he beseiged
Capua. Five years after he fought
under the same commander at the
siege of Tarentum. After the capture
of this city he became acquainted with
the Pythagorean Nearchus, who ini-
tiated him into the suLlime doctrines
of his philosophy, with which, in prac-
tice, he was already conversant. After
tie war was ended Cato returned to
his farm. Cato was poor and un-
known ; but his eloquence and the in-
tegrity and strength of his character,
soon drew the public attention to him,
and he was chosen to the highest of-
fices. He died in 149 B. c.
Catorce, a mining town of San
Luis Potosi, Mexico, which received its
ABERDEEN ANGU3
DUTCH 9ELTEO
COPYRIGHT, 191U, BY F. E. WRIG.lT
STANDARD CATTLE
Catskill Mountains
Caucus
name, signifying 14, from a gang of
robbers, formerly a constant menace
to its inhabitants. When the French
invaded Mexico, a mint was started
here, and worked until 1867. The
amount coined was about $52,000,000.
The population is variable, ranging
from 8,000 to 15,000, according to the
state of mining.
Catskill Mountains, a chain of
the Appalachian system, beginning in
Greene county, N. Y., on the W. side
of the Hudson river. The scenery of
these mountains is remarkably pic-
turesque and beautiful, while from the
higher points may be seen extensive
and interesting views, taking in a rad-
ius from the Green Mountains of Ver-
mont to the West Point Highlands.
Cattegat, or Kattegat, the bay
or arm of the sea between the E. coast
of Jutland and the W. coast of
Sweden, to the N. of the Danish is-
lands. It is connected with the Baltic
Sea by the Great and Little Belt, and
by the Sound, and the Skager Rack
connects it with the North Sea. The
length of the Cattegat is about 150
miles, and its greatest breath 85
miles. What has been pronounced the
greatest naval battle in history was
fought here on May 31 and June 1,
1916, between the German High Sea
Fleet, that for a long time had been
inactive at Kiel, and the British
Grand Fleet, which included the Brit-
ish Battle Cruiser Squadron. The lat-
ter was first engaged, and when its
support rushed into sight the German
ships that were left returned hurriedly
to Kiel. The British losses were
three battle cruisers, two armored
cruisers and eight destroyers. The
German losses were reported as three
battleships, five light cruisers, six tor-
pedo boat destroyers, and one subma-
rine.
Cattel, James McKeen, an
American psychologist, born in Easton,
Pa., May 25, 1860, graduated at La-
fayette College and studied at Leipsic,
Paris, Geneva, and Gottingen, and be-
came Professor of Experimental Psy-
chology in Columbia University, 1891.
Catubig, a small town in the island
of Samar, Philippine Islands. The
place is garrisoned by United States
troops, who, in June, 1900, withstood
an attack by 600 insurgents. Pop.
(1903) 9,563.
Catullus, Valerius (whose •pras-
nomen is stated by some to be Caius,
by other Quintus), a famous Roman
poet ; born 86 B. c. The common opin-
ion is that he died 57 B. c., in the 30th
year of his age, but this is no doubt
erroneous, as there are allusions in his
own works which prove him to have
been alive in the consulship of Vatin-
ius as late as 47 B. c.
Catnlns, Quintus Lutatius. a
Roman general, historian, and poet,
born about 152 B. c., died 8. B. c.
Cauca, a river of Colombia, in
South America, which, after a N.
course of 600 miles, falls into the Mag-
dalena. Its valley is one of the richest
and most populous districts of the con-
tinent, and it gives name to the second
largest Colombian State ; area, 20,-
403 square miles; population (1912)
211,756. It possesses the most pro-
ductive platinum mine in America.
Capital, Popayan ; pop. 18,724.
Caucasia, a province of the Rus-
sian Empire, between the Black and
Caspian Seas, and extending from the
frontier of Persia on the S. to the
Kuma-Manych depression on the N.
The Caucasus Mountains divide the
territory into Cis-caucasia and Trans-
caucasia. The total area of Caucasia,
the two parts being nearly equal, is
181,173 square miles, and the popula-
tion, in 1914, Trans-caucasia being the
most thickly settled, 12,921,800.
Caucasian Race, the white man,
one of the three more remarkable va-
rieties of the species Man, the two
others being the Yellow, or Mongolian,
and the Black, or Ethiopian. The
Caucasian Race occupies all Europe
and Western Asia as far as the Gan-
ges, likewise Northern Africa and the
greater part of America.
Caucasus, a chain of mountains be-
tween Europe and Asia, extending
from S. E. to N. W., and occupying
the isthmus between the Black and
Caspian seas. The length is computed
at 700 miles, the breadth is various;
from Mosdok to Tiflis it may be esti-
mated at 184 miles.
Caucus, in the political nomencla-
ture of the United States, a gathering
preliminary to a public meeting of
Candex
citizens for election or for other pur-
poses, generally political.
Candex, in botany, the stem of a
tree, more especially the scaly trunk
of palms and tree-ferns.
Caudine Forks, a pass of South-
ern Italy, in the form of two lofty
fork-shaped defiles, in the Apennines
(now called the valley of Arpaia),
Into which a Roman army was enticed
by the Samnites, 321 B. c., and being
hemmed in was forced to surrender.
Caul, a popular name for a mem-
brane investing the viscera, such as the
peritoneum or part of it, or the peri-
cardium ; also a portion of the amnion
or membrane enveloping the fetus,
sometimes encompassing the head of a
child when born.
Cauliflower, an esculent vegetable
for which a very rich, light, warm soil
is required. The Cauliflower is light,
easily digested, and nutritious.
Caulking, of a ship, driving a
quantity of oakum into the seams of
the planks in the ships' decks or sides
in order to prevent the entrance of
water. After the oakum is driven
very hard into these seams 'it is cov-
ered with hot melted pitch to keep the
water from rotting it.
Canra, a river of Venezuela, rises
among the sierras of the frontier, and
flows N. N. W. to the Orinoco. On
both sides stretches the territory of
Caura (22,485 square miles-), with im-
mense forests of tonka beans.
Cans, Canlx, or Canls, Salomon
de, a French engineer, born in Dieppe
in 1576. At Frankfort, in 1615, ap-
peared his "Causes of Kinetic En-
ergy." which contains a description of
a machine for forcing water to a high
level by steam, being the forerunner of
the modern steam engine. He died in
Paris, June 6, 1626.
Canse, that which produces an
effect. In law, suit or action.
Caustic, a name given to substances
which have the property of burning,
corroding, or disintegrating animal
matter; or of combining with the
principles of organized substances and
destroying their texture.
Cantin, a river in Chile: flows W.
through a province named after it,
nnd empties into the Pacific Ocean.
Its length is about 200 miles. The
Cavaignao
province of Cautin has an area of
3,127 square miles ; pop. 78,221 ; capi-
tal, Temuco; pop. 7,078.
Cautionary Towns, four towns
in Holland (the Uriel, Flushing, Ram-
mekins, and Walcheren), so named be-
cause they were given to Queen Eliza-
beth in 1585 as security for their re-
paying her for assistance in their
struggle with Spain. They were re-
stored to Holland by James I.
Cavaignac, Jacqnes Marie En-
gene Godefroy, a French politician,
son of Louis Eugene Cavaignac, born
Way 22, 1853. In August, 1898, he
added to the excitement over the Drey-
fus prosecution by forcing Lieutenant-
Colonel Henry to confess to a forgery
of certain letters bearing on the case,
that officer committing suicide shortly
after. C. died Sept. 25, 1905.
Cavaignac, Louis Eugene, a
French general who became famous in
connection with the events of 1848;
born in Paris, Oct. 15, 1802. Cavaig-
nac was in Africa when the revolution
of February, 1848, took place. He
was offered the portfolio of the minis-
ter of war, and accepted it. The meas-
ures which he adopted to guard against
the crisis which was evidently ap-
? reaching were prompt and decisive,
n a few days an army of nearly 30,-
000 men was assembled in and around
Paris. On June 23 the terrible Com-
munist insurrection burst forth, and
for three days Paris presented the
most dreadful scene of tumult and
bloodshed which had been witnessed
there since the massacre of St. Bar-
tholomew. About 15,000 persons per-
ished, and property was destroyed to
the value of upward of $1,000,000. By
the energy of General Cavaignac, aided
by the loyalty of the army and the na-
tional guard, the insurrection was sup-
pressed on June 26. On that day the
National Assembly delegated the en-
tire executive power to Cavaignac as
dictator, who resigned it again into
its hands on the 29th, and received it
anew on the same day. He was de-
feated in the elections for the presi-
dencv hi the month of December fol-
lowing, and Louis Napoleon was pre-
ferred to the office. On Dec. 20 he re-
signed his dictatorship. The last years
of his life were spent at his country-
seat, where he expired suddenly of
heart disease on Oct. 28, 1857.
Cavaille-Coll
Cavendish
Cavaille-Coll, Aristide, a French
organ builder, born in Montpelier, Feb.
2, 1811. He invented the pressure
method ror sounding tones of different
depths and heights. He died in Paris,
Oct. 13, 1899.
Cavalier, a horse-soldier; an armed
horseman ; a knight ; the name given
to the supporters of King Charles L,
during the Great Civil War in Eng-
land.
Cavalier, Jean, a leader of the
Camisards, or Protestants of Cevennes,
•when forced into rebellion against
Louis XIV., by the persecutions of the
Catholics, born in Cevennes, 1679. He
defeated the best generals that came
against him, and compelled Marshal de
Villars to make a treaty with him. He
died in 1740.
Cavalotti, Felice, an Italian
statesman, born in Milan, Nov. 6,
1842. He fought under Garibaldi and
gained celebrity ; was a political jour-
nalist. He fought 32 duels, in the last
of which he was killed in Rome,
March 6, 1898.
Cavalry, one of the three great
classes of troops. The use of cavalry
is probably nearly as ancient as war
itself ; but some nations used chariots
in war before they became accustomed
to fight on horseback. The Egyptians
are said to have had cavalry before the
time of Moses. The Israelites often
had to encounter cavalry, but had none
themselves till the time of Solomon.
Cavalry are usually armed with
straight swords or sabers, pistols, and
carbines. In the United States army
a cavalry regiment consists of six
squadrons of two troops or companies,
containing 63 men each.
Cave, or Cavern, an opening pro-
duced by nature in the solid crust of
the earth. Caves are principally met
with in limestone rocks, in gypsum,
sometimes in sandstone, and in vol-
canic rocks (basalt, lava, tufa, etc.).
The most celebrated caverns in the
United States are Madison's Cave, in
Rockingham Co., Va. ; Weyer's Cave,
in the same county; Luray Cave, in
Page Co., Va. ; and the Mammoth
Cave, in Edmondson Co., Ky., which
incloses an extent of about 40 miles of
subterraneous windings. One of its
chambers, called the Temple, is said to
cover" a space of nearly 5 acres, and to
be surmounted by a dome of solid rock
120 feet in height. The Cumberland
mountains, in Tennessee, contain some
curious caverns, in one of which, at a
depth of 400 feet, a stream was found
with a current sufficiently powerful to
turn a mill. Another cave in the same
State is named Big Bone Cave, from
the bones of the mastodon which have
there been discovered. In the Rac-
coon mountains, near the N. W. ex-
tremity of Georgia, is a cave called
Nickojack Cave, which has been ex-
plored to the distance of 3 miles. A
stream of considerable size runs
through it, which is interrupted by a
fall. Caves are sometimes found
which exhale poisonous vapors. The
most remarkable known is the Grotto
del Cane, a small cave near Naples.
In Iceland there are many caves,
formed by the lava from its volcanoes.
In the volcanic country near Rome
there are many natural cavities of
great extent and coolness, which are
sometimes resorted to as a refuge from
the heat. In South America is the
cavern of Guacharo, which is said to
extend for leagues.
Caveat. In the United States this
name is given to a notice lodged in
the patent-office by a person who
wishes to patent an invention, but de-
sires to be protected till he has per-
fected it. It stands good for a year.
Cave Dwellers, prehistoric men
dwelling in caves, and cave-dwelling
animals of corresponding periods ; also
cave-dwelling men of more recent his-
toric times. In America, caves with
human remains have been investigated
in a number of States. There are re-
mains that have been deposited within
the period of authentic history. There
are still cave-dwelling Indians in
Northern Mexico.
Cavendish, Frederick Charles,
Lord, second son of the Duke of De-
vonshire, an English statesman ; born
in Eastbourne, Nov. 30, 1836. He sat
in Parliament from 1865 till 1882,
when he succeeded Mr. Forster as
chief secretary for Ireland. On May
6, he and Mr. Burke were stabbed to
death in the Phoenix Park. Eight
months later, twenty "Irish Invinci-
bles" were tried for the murder, and,
Carey and two others having turned
Queen's evidence, five of the rest were
hanged, three sentenced to penal servi-
Cavendish
tude for life, and the remaining nine
to various terms of imprisonment.
Carey disappeared ; but in July news
came from the Cape that he had been
shot dead by an Irishman .named
O'Donnell. O'Donnell was taken back
to London and hanged.
Cavendish, or Candish, Thomas,
an English circumnavigator in the
reign of Elizabeth ; born about 1555.
Having collected three small vessels for
the purpose of making a predatory
voyage to the Spanish colonies, he
sailed from Plymouth in 1586, took
and destroyed many vessels, ravaged
the coasts of Chile, Peru, and New
Spain, and returned by the Cape of
Good Hope, having circumnavigated
the globe in 2 years and 49 days, the
shortest period in which it had then
been effected. In 1591 he set sail on
a similar expedition, during which he
died, in 1592.
Cave Temple, a cave used as a
temple, but the name is especially ap-
plied to temples excavated in the solid
rock.
Caviare, a prepared article of food
consisting of the salted roes of several
kinds of large fish, chiefly of the com-
mon sturgeon. It is prepared chiefly
in Russia, where it is greatly esteemed
as food. It is used also in America.
Cavite, a small seaport of Luzon,
Philippine Islands; about 11 miles S.
IW. of Manila and fronting directly on
the bay; pop. (1903) 4,494. The town
dates almost from the first occupa-
tion of the Spaniards and was elab-
orately fortified with docks and arse-
nals in the 18th century. On May 1,
1898, Admiral Dewey won his great
victory off Cavit6. The Americans
immediately occupied the arsenal, and
upon the arrival of American troops
Cavite was fortified and made a naval
and military base. The province of
the same name has an area of 2,188
sauare miles,- DQD. (1903) 134,779.
"" Cavonr, Count Camillo Benso
di, an Italian statesman, born in
Turin, Aug. 10, 1810. He became a
member of the Sardinian Chamber of
Deputies in 1849. In 1852 he became
premier, and took an active part in
cementing an alliance with Great Brit-
ain and France, and making common
cause with these powers against Rus-
sia during the Crimean War. This
Caxias
caused a war with Austria, in which
Sardinia was aided by France (1859).
In 1860 Garibaldi's expedition to
Sicily took place; but toward this
Count Cavour was forced to maintain
an apparent coldness. He lived to see
the meeting of the first Italian Parlia-
ment, which decreed Victor Emman-
uel king of Italy. He died June 6,
1861.
Cavy, a genus of South American
rodents. It includes the guinea pig.
All have a short tail, or none at all,
and bear a slight resemblance to a pig.
Cawnpnr, a town, India, North-
west Provinces, on the right bank of
the Ganges, which is here about a mile
wide, 130 miles N. W. from Allahabad,
628 miles N. W. of Calcutta, and 206
miles S. E. of Delhi. Pop. (1911) 178,-
557. In 1857 the native regiments sta-
tioned here mutinied and marched off,
placing themselves under the command
of the notorious Nana Sahib. General
Wheeler, the commander of the Euro-
pean forces, defended his position for
some days, but was induced to surren-
der to the rebels on condition of his
party being allowed to quit the place
uninjured. This was agreed to ; but
after the European troops, with the
women and children, had been em-
barked in boats on the Ganges, they
were treacherously fired on by the
rebels ; many were killed, and the re-
mainder conveyed' back to the city,
where the men were massacred and the
women and children placed in confine-
ment. The approach of General Hav-
elock to Cawnpur roused the brutal in-
stincts of the Nana, and he ordered
his hapless prisoners to be slaughtered,
and their bodies to be thrown into a
well. The following day he was
obliged to retreat to Bithoor.
Caxamarca, or Cajamarca, a de-
partment and town of Peru ; area of
the department 12.538 square miles;
pop. (1906, est.) 333,310. The town
is situated about 70 miles from the
Pacific Ocean, 280 N. of Lima. Pop.
10,000. It was the scene of the im-
prisonment and murder of Atahualpa,
the last of the Incas.
Caxias, (1), a town of Brazil, in
the State of Maranhao, on the navi-
gable Itapicuru, 190 miles from its
mouth, with an active trade in cotton.
Pop. 10,000. (2) an Italian agricul-
Cazton
tural colony in the Brazilian State of
Rio Grande do Sul, founded in 1875.
Pop. 13,680.
Cazton, William, an English
printer and scholar, born in the Weald
of Kent, about 1422. His " Recuyell
(collection) of the Histories of Troy,"
translated by him from the French,
appears to have been printed in 1474,
most probably at Bruges in Belgium.
It was the first book in English repro-
duced by typography. He set up a
printing-office in Westminster, 1477 ;
and on Nov. 18 of that year issued
" The Dictes and Sayings of the Phil-
osophers," folio, a work ever memor-
able as the first book printed in Eng-
land. He printed in all 71 separate
works. He died in 1491.
Cayenne, a fortified seaport, capi-
tal of French Guiana, on an island at
the mouth of a river of the same name.
Cayenne is chiefly known as a great
French penal settlement. The climate
is extremely unwholesome for Euro-
peans, large numbers of the convicts
having been carried off by various ma-
lignant fevers. The name of the capi-
tal is sometimes used for the whole
of French Guiana. Pop. 13,527.
Cayenne Pepper, or Capsicum,
the name given to the powder formed
of the dried and ground fruits, and
more especially the seeds, of various
species of Capsicum.
Cayes, or Aux Cayes, a seaport
of Haiti, on the S. W. coast, 95 miles
W. S. W. of Port-au-Prince. Pop.
12,000.
Cayley, Arthur, an English math-
ematician, born in Richmond, Surrey
Co., England, Aug. 16, 1821. In 1882
he gave a course of mathematical lec-
tures at Johns Hopkins University.
He died Jan. 26, 1895.
Cayman Islands, three islands sit-
uated about 140 miles N. W. of Ja-
maica, of which they are dependencies.
Grand Cayman, the largest and the
only one inhabited, is 20 miles long
and from 7 to 10 broad, and has two
towns or villages. Pop. about 5,560.
The other two islands are Little Cay-
man and Cayman Brae.
Cayuga Indians, a tribe of In-
dians dwelling in New York State, one
of those forming the six Nations.
They lived around Cayuga Lake,
where less than 200 of them remain.
E. 31.
Cecil
Cayuga Lake, a lake of Central
New York, noted for the picturesque
scenery of its surroundings.
Cayuse, or Willetpoo, a tribe of
North American Indians who formerly
inhabited the region between the Des
Chutes river and the Blue Mountains,
Oregon, and also parts of Washington,
S. of the Yakima river.
Cazauran, Angnstns R., a
Franco-American author and play-
wright, born in Bordeaux, France, Oct.
31, 1820. In 1848 he became impli-
cated in an Irish rebellion, fled to the
United States, and obtained employ-
ment as a reporter. During the Cri-
mean War he acted as war correspon-
dent to a London daily. When Lin-
coln was shot he was at the theater as
dramatic critic, and wrote the first ac-
count of the assassination. He died
in New York, Jan. 27, 1889.
Ceara, a State of Brazil, on the N.
coast, with an area of 40,247 miles,
pop. (1900) 849,127. The interior
presents a succession of wooded hills
and wide plateaus. The capital,
Ceara, had formerly only an open
roadstead, but extensive harbor im-
provements, with breakwater and via-
duct, have been provided. It is the
terminus of a railway to Baturite and
has a large trade. Pop., 33,000.
Cebn, one of the Philippine Islands,
between Luzon and Mindanao, 135
miles long, with an extreme width of
30 miles. Sugar cultivation and the
manufacture of abaca are the chief in-
dustries. Pop. (1903) 592,242. The
town of Cebu, on the E. coast, the
oldest Spanish settlement in the Phil-
ippines, is a place of considerable
trade. It is about 60 miles from Ma-
nila and has a population of 31,079.
Cebus, a genus of American
monkeys, characterized by a round
head and short muzzle, long thumbs,
and a long, prehensile tail, entirely
covered with hair.
Cecil, Robert, Earl of Salisbury,
an English statesman, second son of
William Cecil, born about 1563. He
went to France as assistant to the
English ambassador. On the death of
Sir Francis Walsingham he succeeded
him as principal secretary. Having
secretly supported the interests of
James I. previous to his accession to
the crown he was continued in office
Cecropia Moth
Celebes
under the new sovereira and raised to
the peerage. In 1008 he was made
Lord High-Treasurer, an office which
he held till his death, in 1612.
Cecropia Moth, the largest moth
of the United States. It belongs to the
silk worm family, and its caterpillar
spins a large cocoon from which a
coarse silk may be prepared.
Cedar, a tree which forms large
forests on the mountains of Syria and
Asia Minor. It is an evergreen, grows
to a great size, and is remarkable for
its durability. Of the famous cedars
of Lebanon comparatively few now re-
main, and the tree does not grow in
any other part of Palestine. Cedar
timber was formerly much prized, but
in modern times is not regarded as of
much value, perhaps from the trees
not being of sufficient age. The name
is also applied to many trees which
have no relation to the true cedar, as
the Bermuda cedar, used for making
pencils, the red or Virginian cedar, the
Honduras cedar, and the red cedar of
Australia.
Cedar Bird, a name given to the
American wax-wing, from its fondness
for the berries of the red cedar.
Cedar Creek, scene of a memorable
battle between Union and Confederate
armies in the American Civil War, at
Alacken, Shenandoah Co., Va. On
Oct. 19, 1864, at daylight, during Gen.
Sheridan's absence, his army was sur-
prised by the Confederates under
Early, who turned the left flank and
took the camps of the 8th and 19th
corps, with 20 guns and some prison-
ers. Gen. Wright, in command of the
Federals, retreated and reformed their
line. Gen. Sheridan arriving 10 A. M.,
after a famous "ride," celebrated in
T. B. Read's poem, repelled an assault,
routing the Confederates, retaking
what had been lost, capturing 30 guns
and 2,000 prisoners. The cavalry pur-
sued next day, and in the night Early
retreated.
Cedar Lake, a lake of Canada, in
the Saskatchewan district, a sort of
expansion of the Saskatchewan river,
receiving the waters of this large
stream to pour them over the Grand
Rapids into Lake Winnipeg. Between
Grand Rapids and Cedar lake is an-
other expansion, known as Cross lake.
Cedar lake is nearly 30 miles long, and
where widest 25 broad ; area about 312
square miles.
Cedar Mountain, an elevation in
Culpepper Co., Va., where, in the
American Civil War, on Aug. 9, 1862,
Gen. Banks was defeated by a superior
Confederate force under General Jack-
son, and retired for reenforcement*
from General Pope, with a loss of
1,400 killed and wounded, 400 prison-
ers, and many missing. The Confed-
erates, who held the field two days and
then fell back to meet Lee at Gordons-
ville, lost 1,314.
Cedar Rapids, a city in Lynii
county, la.; on the Cedar river, here
spanned by a handsome bridge, and
on the Burlington, Cedar Rapids &
Northern and other railroads; 89
miles S. W. of Dubuque; has an ex-
tensive trade in corn, oats, hay,
dairy products, poultry, horses, cat-
tle, and swine; manufactures cereal
foods, farming implements, wind-
mills, cutlery, and furniture; and
contains the shops of the Burlington,
Cedar Rapids & Northern railroad,
large pork-packing plants, Coe Col-
lege (Presb.), and College of the
Sacred Heart (R. C.). Pop. (1910)
32,811.
Celandine, a name given to two
plants, the greater celandine and the
lesser celandine.
Celaya, a town in the Mexican
State of Guanajuato, on the Rio Laja,
about 150 miles N. W. of the City of
Mexico. The burning of its bull-ring,
on Easter Sunday, 1888, caused con-
siderable loss of life. Population,
(1912) 23,062.
Celebes, one of the larger islands
of the Indian Archipelago, between
Borneo on the W. and the Moluccas on
the E. It consists mainly of four
large peninsulas separated by three
deep gulfs; total area, 72,070 square
miles. No part of it is more than 70
miles from the sea. Celebes is moun-
tainous and has several active vol-
canoes. It has also broad grassy
plains and extensive forests. Gold is
found in all the valleys of the N.
peninsula. Copper occurs at various
points, and tin also. Diamonds and
other precious stones are found. The
island is entirely desitute of feline or
canine animals, insectivora, the ele-
phant, rhinoceros, and tapir, etc. The
Celery
inhabitants may be classed into two
groups: the Mohammedan semi-civil-
ized tribes, and the pagans, who are
more or less savages. The capital is
Macassar, in the S. W. of the island.
Pop. (1912, official est.) 2,677,691.
Celery, the common English name
of a species of parsley. The blanched
leaf-stalk of the cultivated varieties is
used extensively for salads, etc.
Celeste, Madame, a French dancer,
born in Paris, Aug. 6, 1814, early
showed remarkable talent. She made
her d6but in 1827 at New York, and
during her residence in the United
States married a Mr. Elliott. She re-
tired from the stage in 1874, and died
at Paris, Feb. 12, 1882.
Celestial Empire, The, a popular
name for the Chinese Empire, taken
from the Chinese words " Tien Chao "
(Heavenly Dynasty). Hence 'the
name "Celestials," applied to natives
of China.
Celestial Sphere, the background
of sky on which we see all celestial ob-
jects projected. It is supposed to be
»f indefinite radius with the observer
at the center.
Celestine V., (Pope Pietro di Mon-
rone), a Benedictine monk, who
founded the order of the Celestines,
which was suppressed by Pope Pius
VI., 1776-78. He was elected Pope in
1294, after an interregnum of six
years. A few months after, he re-
signed his office and was succeeded by
Boniface VIII., who confined him in
the castle of Fumone, where he died.
Celestine was canonized in the year
1313 by Clement V.
Celibacy, the state of being celi-
bate or unmarried ; specially applied to
the voluntary life of abstinence from
marriage followed by many religious
devotees and by some orders of clergy,
as those of the Roman Catholic
Church.
Cell, a term of various applications :
'(1) the compartments of a honey-
comb, (2) one of the small structures
composing the substance of plants,
generally indistinguishable by the
naked eye, and each at least, for a
time, being a whole complete in itself.
(3) A term often applied to any small
cavity bat properly restricted to a
microscopical anatomical element with
a nucleus cell-wall and cell-contents
Celt
when typically formed. (4) The space
between the two ribs of a vault, or the
space inclosed within the walls of an.
ancient temple. (5) A structure in a
wrought-iron beam or girder; a tube
consisting of four wrought-iron plates
riveted to angle-iron at the corners.
(6) In electricity, a single jar, con-
taining a couple of plates, generally
copper and zinc, united to their oppo-
site or to each other usually by a wire.
Cellini, Benvenuto, Italian
sculptor, born in Florence, 1500; died
there 1571. His chief works are : the
" Perseus " at Florence ; the colossal
" Mars " at Fontainebleau ; and a
" Christus " in the Escurial Palace.
Cellular Tissue, a kind of tissue
made of a number of separate cells of
minute bags adherent together. It is
found filling interstices between the
various organs in man and the verte-
brated animals.
Celluloid, an ivory-like compound,
which can be molded, turned, or other-
wise manufactured for various pur-
poses t for which, before its introduc-
tion, ivory and bone were emnloyed.
Cellulose, a substance of general
occurrence, and constituting the basis
of vegetable tissues. Corn pith cellu-
lose is an American preparation used
as a packing in warships to protect
them from sinking when pierced by
shot or shell. This packing is placed
like a belt three feet in thickness, in-
side the steel hull along the water line.
Celsius, the name of a Swedish
family, several members of which at-
tained celebrity in science and liter-
ature. The best known is Anders Cel-
sius, born in 1701, died in 1744. After
being appointed Professor of Astron-
omy at the University of Upsal he
traveled in Germany, England, France,
and Italy, and in 1736 he took part in
the expedition of Maupertuis and
others for the purpose of measuring a
degree of the meridian in Lapland. He
is best known as the constructor of the
Centigrade thermometer.
Celt, the longitudinal and grooved
instrument of mixed metal often found
in Scotland, also a stone instrument of
a wedgelike form found in barrows and
other repositories of Celtic antiquar-
ian remains. Though the primary ap-
plication of the word celt was to the
metallic implement, yet the stone celt
Celtiberl
is believed by archaeologists and geolo-
gists to be the older of the two.
Celtiberi, a people of ancient
Spain supposed to have arisen from a
union of the aborigines, the Iberians,
and their Celtic invaders. Various
limits have been assigned to their
country, which included probably all
the N. of Spain as far S. as the
sources of the Guadalquivir. After
72 B. c. they do not appear in history.
Celts, the earliest Aryan settlers in
Europe according to common theory.
They appear to have been driven west-
ward by succeeding waves of Teutons,
Slavonians, and others. Herodotus
mentions them as mixing with the
Iberians who dwelt round tne river
Ebro in Spain. At the beginning of
the historic period they were the pre-
dominant race in Great Britain, Ire-
land, France, and elsewhere. The
Romans called them generally Galli.
They appear to have reached the zenith
of their power in the 2d and 3d cen-
turies B. c. Some tribes of them set-
tled in a part of Asia Minor to which
the name of Galatia was given. They
finally went down before the power of
Rome. At an early date the Celts di-
vided into two great branches, speak-
ing dialects widely differing from each
other, but belonging to the same stock.
One of these branches is the Gadhelic
or Gaelic, represented by the High-
landers of Scotland, the Celtic, Irish,
and the Manx; the other is the Cym-
ric, represented by the Welsh, the in-
habitants of Cornwall, and those of
Brittany. The sun seems to have been
the principal object of worship among
the Celts, and groves of oak and the
remarkable circles of stone commonly
called "Druidical Circles," their tem-
ples of worship.
Cements, substances capable of
uniting bodies closely. They are va-
riously composed according to the na-
ture of the surfaces to unite, and their
exposure to heat or moisture. Build-
ing cement is a strong mortar con-
sisting of hydraulic limes which con-
tain silica, and set quickly.
Cenci, Beatrice, called the beau-
tiful parricide, the daughter of Fran-
cesco Cenci, a noble Roman, who, after
his second marriage, behaved toward
the children of his first marriage in the
most shocking manner, procured the
Censor
assassination of two of his sons, on
their return from Spain, and abused
his youngest daughter Beatrice. She
planned and executed the murder of
her father and was beheaded in 1599.
She is the alleged subject of a painting
by Guido, and is the heroine of one of
Shelley's most powerful plays. Recent
researches have deprived the story of
its romantic elements, and have shown
Beatrice to be a very commonplace
criminal. Her stepmother and brother,
who were equally guilty with her, were
also executed.
Cenis, a mountain belonging to the
Graian Alps, between Savoy and Pied-
mont, 11,755 feet high. It is famous
for the winding road constructed by
Napoleon I., which leads over it from
France to Italy, and for an immense
railway tunnel, which, after nearly
fourteen years' labor, was finished in
1871. The Mount Cenis Pass is 6,765
feet above the level of the sea, where-
as the elevation of the entrance to the
tunnel on the side of Savoy is only
3,801 feet, and that on the side of
Piedmont 4,246 feet. The total length
of the tunnel is nearly 8 miles. The
total cost amounted to about $12,000,-
000.
Cenotaph, an empty monument,
that is, one raised to a person buried
elsewhere.
Censer, a vase or pan in which in-
cense is burned, or a bottle with a per-
forated cap, used for sprinkling odors.
Censers were much used in the
Hebrew service, but their form is not
accurately ascertained. Josephus tells
us that King Solomon made 20,000
gold censers for the temple of Jeru-
salem to offer perfumes in, and 50,000
others to carry fire in. The censer
used in the Roman Catholic Church
at mass, vespers, and other offices, is
suspended by chains, which are held in
the hand, and is tossed in the air, so as
to throw the smoke of the incense in
all directions.
Censor, the title of two Roman
magistrates originally appointed for
the purpose of taking the census. But
their powers were much increased
when they had the inspection of pub-
lic morals, and authority to remove
citizens from their tribes, depriving
them of all their privileges except lib-
erty. The Censors had also the power
of making contracts for public build-
Census
ings, and the supply of victims for sac-
rifices. There is in some countries a
censor whose duty it is to inspect and
examine books, plays, etc., before they
are published, to insure that they shall
contain nothing to offend against pub-
lic morality or decency. In Russia
the office is one of unlimited authority
over all publications. An official ap-
pointed in time of war, at military
headquarters, to supervise and endorse
all press dispatches.
In China there is a Board of Cen-
sors whose members are theoretically
superior to the central administration,
and have a right to present any remon-
strance to the sovereign. It is under-
stood that experience with the present
empress dowager has made them
cautious.
Census, a periodical enumeration
of the people of any State or country,
with such information on other sub-
jects as may be desired. The United
States census of 1910 was authorized
June 29, 1909, by Congress, which
limited the inquiries to population,
agriculture, manufactures, mines and
mining, and directed that it should be
taken as of April 15, and that all re-
ports be completed within three years
from July 1, 1909. This census had
at its head E. Dana Durand, Director
of the Permanent Census Bureau, who
was assisted by 330 district super-
visors, 1,600 special agents, 70,000
enumerators, and 3,500 clerks for
combining and tabulating the enumer-
ators' returns. The total cost, in-
cluding publications, was estimated at
$13,000,000. The compilation and
tabulation were done by means of
cards, one for each of the approxi-
mately 90,000,000 persons enumerated,
which were punched in spaces to show
inquiry answers by machines resem-
bling typewriters or adding machines,
and run through automatic electrical
tabulating machines to record the
facts. The Bureau of the Census is-
sued elaborate reports (1917) on
Manufactures in 1914.
Cent, or Centime, the name of e,
small coin in various countries, so
called as being equal to a 100th part
of some other coin. In the United
States and in Canada the cent is the
100th part of a dollar. In France the
centime is the 100th part of a franc.
Centipede
Similar coins are the centavo of Chili,
and the centesimo of Italy, Peru, etc.
Centaur, a mythical creature, half
man, half horse, said to have sprung
from the union of Ixion and a Cloud ;
the most celebrated was Chiron. They
inhabited Thessaly, and were also
called Hippocentaurs. The myth prob-
ably arose from some herdsman on
horseback, who, being seen by indi-
viduals unacquainted with the uses of
the horse, was supposed to form, to-
gether with his steed, one integral
body. It is also the name of a con-
stellation in the Southern Hemisphere.
Centennial Exhibition, an inter-
national exposition held in Philadel-
phia from May 10 to Nov. 10, 1876,
to celebrate the 100th anniversary of
the Declaration of Independence. The
various contributions of money amount-
ed to $6,800,000. The total attend-
ance was 9,910,966, of which 8,004,-
274 were paid. The largest attendance
was on Pennsylvania Day (Sept. 28,),
when 274,919 persons were on the
grounds.
Centennial State, Colorado; it
was admitted to the Union in 1876,
the 100th year of American indepen-
dence.
Center-Board, a contrivance used
in yachts or shallow keelless vessels to
counteract the tendency to drift to lee-
ward, caused by the absence of a keel.
It is lowered through a prepared slit,
in the bottom of the craft.
Center of Population, the center
of gravity of the population of a coun-
try, each individual being assumed to
have the same weight. The center of
population in the United States has
clung to the parellel of 39° lat. and
86° long, for many years. In 1910 it
was at Bloomington, Ind.
Centigrade Thermometer, a
thermometer scaled to represent the
interval between the freezing and the
boiling point of water, divided into
100 equal parts, the freezing-point
being taken as zero.
Centipede, a worm having a long
slender, depressed body, protected by
coriaceous plates, 21 pairs of legs, dis-
tinct eyes, 4 on each side, and antennae
with 17 joints. The name is, how-
ever, popularly extended to species of
nearly allied genera. Centipedes run
Central America
Central America
nimbly, feed on insects, and pursue
them into their lurking-places.
GIANT CENTIPEDE.
Central America, the narrow tor-
tuous strip of land which unites the
continents of North and South Amer-
ica, extending from about lat. 7° to
18° N. The limits assigned to it in-
clude the six republics of Panama,
Guatemala, Honduras, San Salva-
dor, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, with
British Honduras. It thus has Mex-
ico on the N. W., Colombia or New
Granada on the S. E., and the Pacific
Ocean and Caribbean Sea on either
side. Its entire length is about 800
miles, with a breadth varying from be-
tween 20 and 30 miles to 350 miles.
The area was estimated (1916) 212,-
968 square miles ; the pop. at 5,284,864.
Guatemala is remarkable for con-
taining, with exception of the island
of Java, the greatest number of active
volcanoes known to exist within simi-
lar limits. The highest in Central
America, is Agua, which is said to
attain an elevation of 15,000
feet This volcano has obtained
its name from its emitting tor-
rents of water and stone instead of
fire. The mountains of Central Amer-
ica do not generally attain an eleva-
tion equal to those of the two adjoin-
ing continents, with exception of the
volcanoes. The coast lands are gen-
erally narrow, and in some places the
mountains and high lands come close
down to the water's edge. The rivers
of this territory are small, and have
short courses, the longest not exceed-
ing from 200 to 300 miles, while many
of them are not more than 50. The
principal lake is that of Nicaragua,
which is upward of 100 miles in
length, and about 50 miles in breadth.
The other considerable lakes are those
of Managua or Leon, Golfo Dolce,
Golfete, Peten, Atitlan, Amatitlan,
Guija, and Cojutepeque.
The climate is exceedingly various,
owing to the inequality of the surface.
The low grounds on the coast of the
Caribbean Sea are exposed to violent
tropical heats, and are generally un-
healthy; but on the table-lands any
temperature, according to altitude,
may be obtained all the year round,
with a salubrious climate. The dry
season lasts from about October to
May ; the rest of the year is called the
wet season, although the rain falls
during the night only, the days being
fair and cloudless, and the air pure
and refreshing. The vegetable produc-
tions are as various as the climate.
Various creepers and parasitic plants,
and among them beautiful orchids,
adorn the forests. The zoology of
Central America differs little from
that of other parts of tropical Amer-
ica. Serpents are numerous, some of
them dangerous. Alligators infest
some of the streams and lakes, and
often attack domestic animals. The
rivers, lakes, and seas abound with
fish. Of the geology little is known
with accuracy. Gold, silver, iron,
lead, and mercury are found; but
none are worked to any great extent.
Jasper and marble are worked in
Honduras ; and sulphur is collected
near the volcano of Quezaltenango.
There are also many salt springs ; and
salt is procured in large quantities on
the shores of the Pacific.
The population consists of three
classes — whites; mestizoes, or the off-
spring of whites and Indians ; and
pure-blooded Indians or aboriginal na-
tives. The proportions of this popula-
tion have been estimated at one-
twelfth whites, four-twelfths mixed
races, and seven-twelfths Indians. The
Roman Catholic religion is professed
by all. The chief occupation of the
people is agriculture. The chief ex-
port is coffee; others include cocoa,
fruits, hides, indigo, sugar.
The Spaniards in 1524 laid the
foundations of the city of Guatemala.
After the subjugation of the Quiches,
the remaining tribes were subdued
with comparative facility, and the do-
minion of the conquerors was perma-
(Central Falls
Century
nently established. The government of
this country, as constituted by Spain,
was subject to the Mexican ; but the
dependence was far from being close.
It was denominated the kingdom of
Guatemala, and governed by a cap-
tain-general. Its inhabitants re-
mained true to Spain till 1821 when
they declared their independence ; and
although for a time a large part of the
country was joined to Mexico under
the rule of Iturbide, yet on his down-
fall they recurred to their original
purpose of forming a separate repub-
lic. A constituent congress was con-
voked, which on July 1, 1823, pub-
lished a decree declaring the five States
already mentioned a republic under the
title of the United States of Central
America. Civil dissensions were not
long in making themselves felt, how-
ever, and in 1839 the union between
the States was formally dissolved.
Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and
San Salvador again formed a union in
1842, but this lasted only till 1845.
Since that time several atempts (one
in 1898) have been made to unite the
States, but without permanent suc-
cess.
Central America contains antiqui-
ties of a very interesting nature, which
indicate that the aboriginal inhabi-
tants of Jbhe country had even attained
a very Respectable proficiency in the
knowledge of the arts of life. Ruins
of large cities exist in various places,
with remains of temples, altars, and
ornamental stones, statues of deities,
and other works of sculpture.
Central Falls, a town in Provi-
dence county, R. I.; on the Black- j
stone river and the New York, New|
Haven & Hartford railroad; 5 miles
N. of Providence; is in a farming
section; has a laige trade in dairy
products; and manufactures cotton,
woolen, and hair goods, leather, and
trachinery, having fine power from
the river. Pop. (1910) 22,754.
Central India, the official term for
a group of feudatory States in India.
The total area is about 77,281 square
miles; pop. (1901) 8,628,781.
Centralization, a term in a
specific sense applied to a system of
government where the tendency is to
administer by the central government
matters which had been previously, or
might very well be, under the man-
; agement of local authorities.
Central Park, the most noted park
in New York City, and contains 840
acres. It was laid out under the di-
rection and management of Hon. An-
drew H. Green, who for thirteen years
had absolute control of the work, and
who is known as " The Father of New
York." It contains among other ob-
jects of interest, the Mall, the Croton
Reservoirs, Cleopatra's Needle, the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Mu-
seum of Natural History, and several
lakes.
Central Powers, a designation as-
sumed by Germany and her allies in
the world war.
Central Provinces, an extensive
British territory in India. They be-
came a separate administration in
1861, and are under the authority of a
chief commissioner. Their total area
is 130,997 square miles, of which 99,-
823 square miles are British territory,
and 31,174 the territory of native pro-
tected states. Pop. (1911) 16,035,043,
including 2,177,406 in native States.
Berar, leased to the Government, is
attached for administration.
Central University, a co-educa-
tional institution in Pella, la., organ-
ized in 1853, under the auspices of
the Baptist Church.
Central University, an educa-
tional institution in Richmond, Ky.,
organized in 1873, under the auspices
of the Presbyterian Church.
Central Wesleyan College, a co-
educational institution in Warrenton,
Mo., organized in 1864, under the
auspices of the Methodist Episcopal
Church,
Centre College, an educational in-
stitution in Danville, Ky., organized
in 1819, under the auspices of the
Presbyterian Church.
Centnmviri, judges of ancient
Rome, three from each tribe, who de-
termined ordinary causes. The extent
of their jurisdiction is uncertain.
Centnrion, a Roman military of-
ficer commanding a company of in-
fantry, consisting of 100 men.
Century, an aggregate number of
100 of things; a period of 100
years. This is the uniformly accepted
sense of the word now. Modern chro-
Century-plant
nology among Christian nations cen-
ters at the birth of Christ, and the cen-
turies are numbered according to their
order either before or after that era.
The word is also applied to a division
of the Roman tribes for the election
of magistrates, the passing of laws,
etc., on which the voting was by cen-
turies ; to a sub-division in the Roman
army.
Century-plant, a popular name
of the American aloe.
Ceplialonia, an island of Greece,
W. of the Morea, at the entrance or.
the Gulf of Patras, about 31 miles in
length, and from 5 to 12 in breadth;
area, 348 square miles ; pop. 80,543.
Earthquakes are not infrequent. One
of the most destructive was that of
the year 1867.
Cephalopoda, a class of mollusks,
the highest in organization of that di-
vision of the animal kingdom. To this
class belong the
Nautili, Squids,
Cuttle-fish, etc.
The Cephalopo-
da receive their
name from hav-
ing organs of
prehension and
and locomotion
attached .to the
head, an ar-
rangement to-
ward which a
g r a d u al ap-
proach may be
traced in the
highest gastero-
pod mollusks.
Cephas, a
surname given
by Christ to Si-
mon. In the
Greek it is Pet-
ros ("a rock"),
in Latin, Pe-
trus, and in English Peter.
Cephens, a king or Ethiopia and
husband of Cassiopeia ; his name was
given to a constellation of stars in
the N. hemisphere surrounded by Cas-
siopeia, Ursa Major, Draco, and
Cygnus.
Ceram, an island in the Moluccas,
W. of New Guinea ; area, 6,621
square miles, pop., estimated at 67,-
000. It is about 200 miles long with
A CEPIIALOPOD.
Cerebro- spinal
an average width of 35 miles. Its in-
terior is? traversed by mountain ranges
from 6,000 to 8.000 feet high. The
vegetation is luxuriant. The inhabi-
tants of the coast are of Malay origin,
the interior being peopled by Alfoo-
ries. It is under the Dutch.
Ceramic Art, that department of
plastic art which comprises all objects
made of baked clay, and including all
the varieties of earthenware and
porcelain which can be regarded as
works of art.
Cerastes, a genus of African vipers
remarkable for their fatal venom, and
for two little horns formed by the
scales above the eyes. Hence they
have received the name of horned vi-
pers. The tail is very distinct from
the body.
Cerate, the name of an external
medicament, more or less liquid, hav-
ing for its basis wax and oil. Simple
cerate consists of 8 ounces of lard and
4 of white wax melted together and
stirred till cold.
Cerberus, the three-headed dog
which guards the entrance of the king-
dom of Hades and Persephone. Or-
pheus, when he descended into the in-
fernal regions in search of Eurydice,
lulled him to sleep with his lyre ; and
Hercules dragged him from the gate of
Hades, when he went after Alceste.
Cercis, a handsome Asiatic tree.
It has received the name of the Judas-
tree, from the tradition that it was
upon a specimen of it, near Jerusa-
lem, that the traitor Judas hanged
himself.
Cerdic, a king of the West Saxons,
who invaded England about the end of
the 5th century, and established the
kingdom of Wessex about 516. He died
in 534.
Cere, the naked skin that covers
the base of the bill in some birds, and
whicn is supposed to exercise a tactile
sense.
Cereals, a term derived from Ceres,
the goddess of corn, and confined to
wheat, barley, rye, oats, and other
grasses, cultivated for the sake of their
seed as food.
Cerebration, exertion or action of
the brain, conscious or unconscious.
Cerebro-spinal, pertaining to the
brain and spinal cord together, looked
on as forming one nerve mass.
Ceres
Ceres, an asteroid, the first found.
It was discovered by Piazzi on Jan. 1,
1801. Having observed it at Palermo,
in Sicily, he called it Ceres, after the
old tutelary divinity of that island.
Cerens, the Torch-thistle. The
Suwarrow or Saguaro of the Mexi-
cans, is the largest and most striking
of the genus. It rises to the height
of 50 or 60 feet, and looks more like a
candelabra than a tree of the normal
type. The genus are generally useful
as cardiac agents and anti-pyretics.
Cerigo (ancient Cythera), a Greek
island in the Mediterranean, S. of the
Morea, from which it is separated by
a narrow strait; area about 100
square miles.
Cerinthns, a heretic who lived at
the close of the apostolic age, but of
whom we have nothing better than un-
certain and confuted accounts.
Cerium (named by the discoverers
after Ceres), a metal found with two
other metals, lanthanum and didymi-
um, in cerite.
Ceroxylon, a genus of South
American palms; the wax palm.
Cerro Blanco, the highest moun-
tain in New Mexico ; summit 14,269
feet.
Cerro de Pasco, the capital of the
Peruvian department of Junin, stands
at an elevation of 14,276 feet, 138
miles N. E. of Lima. Near it are
some of the richest silver mines on the
continent. The climate is cheerless
and inclement. Pop. about 14,000.
Cerro Gordo, a mountain-pass in
Mexico, through which passes the Na-
tional road from Vera Cruz to Jalapa
and Mexico. It is celebrated as the
scene of a victory by General Scott
with 9,000 United States troops over
an army of 13,000 Mexicans under
Santa Ana, April 17-18, 1847. This
victory enabled Scott to take the town
of Jalapa the following day.
Cerro Gordo de Potosi, a moun-
tain in the Andes of Bolivia; S. W. of
Potosi ; 16,150 feet in height ; remark-
able for its deposits of silver.
Cerro Largo, a department in the
N. E. of Uruguay, well watered, with
large savannahs and forests. A^ea,
5,763 square miles ; pop. 54,005,
chiefly engaged in cattle-raising. Cap-
ital, Cerro Largo or Melo ; pop. 5,000.
Cervidae
Cerros, or Cedros Island, an is-
land belonging to Mexico, in the Pa-
cific Ocean, off the W. coast of Lower
California.
Certaldo, a town of Central Italy,
19 miles S. W. of Florence. It is
noteworthy as the residence of Boccac-
cio, who was born and died here. His
house is still standing, much as it was
in the poet's time.
Certiorari, in law, a writ issuing
out of a superior court to call up the
records of an inferior court or remove
a cause there depending, that it may
be tried in the superior court.
Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de,
author of "Don Quixote," and one of
the greatest writers of modern times;
born in Alcala de Henares, Oct. 9,
1547. He died April 23, 1616 (on the
same day as Shakespeare), in Madrid,
where he had resided during the last
years of his life. He was buried with-
out any ceremony, and no tombstone
marks the spot where he rests.
Cervera y Topete, Pascnal, a
Spanish naval officer; born in the
province of Jerez, in 1833. Graduated
at the Naval Academy of San Fernan-
do ; entered on active service in 1851 ;
and was made first lieutenant in 1859 ;
captain in 1868 ; and admiral subse-
quently. He was a prominent factor
in the 10-years' war in Cuba, when he
succeeded in blockading the ports ; was
sent to London, as a representative of
Spain, to take part with other nations
in a conference bearing on naval ques-
tions of international importance ; and
commanded the fleet sent against the
American squadron operating in Cu-
ban waters after the declaration of
war in 1898. He took refuge in the
inner harbor of Santiago de Cuba, and
when, on July 3, he attempted to es-
cape, under imperative orders from his
superiors, his entire fleet was destroyed
by the squadron under the official com-
mand of Rear-Admiral Sampson and
the actual command ( in the temporary
absence of that officer) of Rear- Ad-
miral Schley. Admiral Cervera and his
surviving officers were sent to Anna-
polis, Md., as prisoners of war, and
soon afterward were returned to
Spain. He died April 3, 1909.
Cervidae, a family of mammals.
The males of all the species and also
the female of the reindeer have ant-
Cervns
lers, which are deciduous, this last
character completely distinguishing
them from the Oxen. The antlers also
are solid. The species are widely dis-
tributed and well known. None are
found in Africa S. of the Sahara or in
Australia.
Cervns, the genus of animals to
which the stag belongs, forming the
type of the deer family.
Cesnola, Luiga Palma di, an
American archasologist, born in Pied-
mont, Italy, June 29, 1832. He served
in the Italian war with Austria and
came to the United States in I860,
serving in the Civil War. He was
United States Consul at Cyprus, where
he made extensive archaeological dis-
coveries. Until his death, Nov. 21,
1904, he was director of the Metropol-
itan Museum of Art in New York city.
Cespedes y Borges, Carlos Man-
uel de, a noted Cuban patriot, born
in Bayamo, April 18, 1819. Impli-
cated in Prim's conspiracy while in
Spain, he was banished from there
and returned to Cuba. As leader of
the revolt of 1868 he was chosen by
the insurgents President of the newly
proclaimed republic. He was killed
in a skirmish with Spaniards, March
22, 1872.
Cestoid Worms, the Cestoda, or
intestinal worms, consisting of tape
worms and other creatures which re-
semble them in structure and habits.
The number of different kinds is great.
Their natural history is important in
reference to the health of human be-
ings and of the most valuable of do-
mesticated animals.
Cetacea, aquatic mammals which
depart in many important anatomical
points from the other members of the
class, their structure being so modified
as to render them unfit for terrestrial
life. The whales, the porpoise, nar-
whal, etc., represent the leading divis-
ions of the group. The body is fish-
like in form, the head passing grad-
ually into the trunk, which tapers pos-
teriorly and ends in a bil. bate caudal
fin which is placed horizontally, not as
in the fishes, vertically. The posterior
limbs are wanting, and the anterior
are converted into broad paddles, with-
in which are present representatives of
all the bones usually found in the fore
limb of mammals. The fish-like aspect
Centa
is further increased by the presence of
a dorsal fin, as in the dolphin and fin-
ner whale.
The arrangement of the respiratory
and circulatory systems, which enable
the Cetacea to remain for some time
under water, are interesting. The nos-
trils open directly upward on the top
of the head, and are closed by valvu-
lar folds of integument which are un-
der the control of the animal. When the
animal comes to the surface to breathe
it expels the air violently, and the
vapor it contains becomes condensed
into a cloud. The blood-vessels, es-
pecially those of the thorax and spinal
canal, break up into extensive plexuses
or networks, in which a large amount
of oxygenated blood is delayed, and
thus the animal is enabled to remain
under water.
Cetewayo, a Kaffir chief, son of
Panda, King of the Zulus. The Natal
government secured the recognition of
Cetewayo as king in 1873. A dispute
which had arisen regarding lands on
the frontier was settled in favor of the
Zulus ; but on the refusal of Cetewayo
to comply with the conditions war was
declared against him by the British,
and the king made prisoner in 1879.
He died Feb. 8, 1884.
Cettinje, the capital of the king-
dom of Montenegro; situated in a
lofty mountain valley, 19 miles E. of
Cattaro, with which it is connected by
a steep road. Turkish invaders sacked
and burnt the town in 1683, 1714, and
1785, but it was each time rebuilt.
Montenegro took part in the World
War on the side of the Entente Allies.
Late in 1915 it was overrun by the
Germans and Austrians ; on Dec. 6,
the Germans captured Ipek ; on Jan.
13, 1916, the Austrians captured Cet-
tinje ; and subsequently the govern-
ment removed to Lyons, on invitation
of the French Government. Pop.
about 5,500.
Centa, a fortified port belonging to
Spain, on the coast of Morocco, oppo-
site Gibraltar. The mixed population
number (1913) 23,907. It has resisted
several sieges by the Moors, and is
still the most important of the four
African Presidios. An attempt to
strengthen the fortifications was aban-
doned (1899) upon representations
from the British government to the
Cevennes
cabinet at Madrid. Many Cuban
patriots were prisoners there before
Spain gave up its hold on Cuba.
Cevennes, the chief mountain
range in the S. of France. With its
continuations and offsets, it forms the
watershed between the river-systems
of the Rhone and the Loire and Ga-
ronne.
Ceylon, (native Singhala, ancient
Taprobane), an island belonging to
Great Britain in the Indian Ocean,
about 60 miles S. E. of the S. ex-
tremity of Hindustan, from wh'ch it
is separated by the Gulf of Manaar
and Palk's Strait. Length, about 270
miles N. to S. ; average breadth, 100
mi)e« ; area, 25,332 square miles.
Where the jungle has been cleared
away and the land drained and culti-
vated, the country is perfectly healthy ;
where low wooded tracts, and flat
marshy lands abound, covered with a
rank, luxuriant vegetation, the cli-
mate is eminently insalubrious.
Most of the animals found on the
opposite continent are native to this
island, excepting the royal tiger, which
does not exist here. Elephants are
numerous and are esteemed for their
superior strength and docility. Bears,
buffaloes, leopards, jackals, monkeys,
and wild bogs are numerous. Croco-
diles, serpents, and reptiles of all sorts
abound. Of the snake tribe, consisting
of about 26 different species, six only
are venomous. Among the insects are
the leaf and stick insects, the ant-lion,
jthe white ant, etc.
In the luxuriance of its vegetable
productions, Ceylon rivals the islands
of the Indian Archipelago, and in some
respects bears a strong resemblance to
them; its most valuable products are
tea, rice, coffee, cinnamon, and the
cocoanut. Tea is being widely culti-
vated. Tobacco is raised principally
in the N. district, and is of excellent
quality. Indigo grows wild, but is not
sought after.
Ceylon is one of the British crown
colonies, its government being conduct-
ed by a governor and two councils,
executive and legislative, of both of
which the governor is president The
first is composed of six members, the
other of 17 members. The powers of
the councils are limited, being wholly
subservient to the governor, who can
carry into effect any law without
Chadwick
their concurrence. All laws must be
approved by the Secretary of State foe
the Colojiies before they can take ef-
fect. Any individual properly quali-
fied may be appointed to the most re-
sponsible situation, without reference
to service, nation or religion, and na-
tive Singhalese have occupied some of
the highest posts. Of the population
(1911) 3,592,883, 2,474,000 were said
to be Buddhists, and about 940,000
were of the Hindu religion. On the
W. and S. W. coast numbers of the
Singhalese profess the Roman Catho-
lic religion. There are a number of
Episcopal clergy in the island, subor-
dinate to the Bishop of Colombo;
various other Protestant bodies have
places of worship, but the Protestants
are less than half the number of the
Roman Catholics.
The Singhalese have a colloquial
language peculiar to themselves, but
their classic and sacred writings are
either in Pali or Sanskrit. The Mala-
bars use the Tamil. English is be-
coming more and more common.
The principal towns of the island
are Colombo, Trincomalee, Kandy,
Galle, Gaffna, and Kornegalle.
Chacornac, Jean, a French as-
tronomer, born in Lyons, June 21,
1823. He is principally known for his
discoveries of asteroids, six in number,
and most of his work was done at the
Paris Observatory under Leverrier.
He died in Paris, Sept. 26, 1873.
Cliadbourne, Paul Ansel, an
American educator and writer, born in
North Berwick, Me., Oct. 21, 1823. He
was president of the Massachusetts
Agricultural College at Amherst; of
the University of Wisconsin ; of Will-
iams College. He died in New York.
Feb. 23, 1883.
Cliaddock College, a co-educa-
tional institution in Quincy, 111. ; or-
ganized in 1857, under the auspices of
the Methodist Episcopal Church.
Chadwick, French Ensor, an
American naval officer, born in Mor-
gantown, W. ya., Feb. 29, 1844. Dur-
ing the war with Spain he commanded
the armored cruiser "New York ;" pro-
moted to rear-admiral in 1903 ; retired
in 1906.
Chadwick, John White, an
American writer and Unitarian clergy-
man, born in Marblehead, Mass., Oct.
Chaeronea
19, 1840. He died in Brooklyn, New
York, Dec. 11, 1904.
Chaeronea, a city of Boeotia, in
ancient Greece, near the Cephissus, on
the borders of Phocis. Philip II.,
King of Macedon, defeated tue united
Boeotian and Athenian forces near this
place, B. c. 338; and here, also, Sylla
defeated the generals of Mithridates
' VI. B. c. 86. Plutarch was born here,
A. D. 46.
Chafer, a term loosely applied to
certain insects of the beetle order, es-
pecially such as themselves or their
larvae are injurious to plants.
Chaffee, Adna Romanza, an
American military officer, born in Or-
well, O., April 14, 1842. He received
a public school education ; entered the
regular army as a private, July 22,
1861 ; became a captain, Oct. 12, 1867 ;
and colonel of the 8th U. S. Cavalry,
May 8, 1899. On May 4, 1898, he was
commissioned Brigadier-General of
volunteers for the war with Spain ; on
July 8, following, was promoted to
Major-General ; and on April 13, 1899,
was honorably discharged under this
commission. On the last mentioned
date he was re-appointed a Brigadier-
General of volunteers, and on July 19,
1900, the President, having selected
him to command the American military
forces in China, commissioned him a
Major-General of volunteers. He
reached Taku, China, on July 28, and
led the American contingent of the al-
lied force which entered Peking on
Aug. 15, and rescued the foreign lega-
tioners. General Chaffee made a bril-
liant record in the Apache Indian
campaigns ; commanded the troops
which captured El Caney, in Cuba;
and afterward was chief-of-staff to
both Generals Brooke and Wood, when
governor-general of Cuba. In 1901-2
he commanded the division of the
Philippines ; in 1904-6 was Chief of
Staff, U. S. A. and lieutenant-general ;
in the latter year was retired at his
own request after over 40 years'
service. He died Nov. 1, 1914.
Cliagos Islands, a group of islands
in the Indian Ocean belonging to
Great Britain; a S. extension of the
Maldive Islands.
Chagres, a town of the United
States of Colombia, on the N. coast
of the Isthmus of Panama, at the
Chalcedony
mouth of the Chagres river. The river
of the same name rises about 10 miles
N. E. of Panama, makes an immense
bend round to the N. E., and enters
the Caribbean Sea. Though toward
its mouth it varies in depth from 16
to 30 feet, it is yet, by reason at once
of its rapidity and its falls, but little
available for navigation. The route
of the projected Panama canal is by
the valley of the Chagres for part of
its course, and the canal would cross
the river repeatedly. The " Chagres
fever " is named after the river.
Cliaille-Long, Charles, an Amer-
ican explorer, born of French parent-
age, in Baltimore, Md., 1843. After
serving in the Confederate army he
went to Egypt, where he was appoint-
ed lieutenant-colonel by the Khedive
(1870). Gordon made him chief-of-
staff and sent him on a mission to
King Mtesa of Uganda.
Chain, in surveying, is a measure
consisting of 100 links, each 7.92 inch-
es in length, and having a total length
of 4 rods, o" 66 feet.
Chain Armor, coats and other
pieces of mail, formed of hammered
iron links, constituting a flexible gar-
ment which fitted to the person.
Chains, series of links interlocked
with the adjacent ones, in such a man-
ner as to form continuous and flexible
lines.
Chain Shot, two balls connected
either by a bar or chain, formerly
used for cutting and destroying the
rigging of an enemy's ship.
Chair of St. Peter, at Rome, a
wooden chair overlaid with ivory work
and gold.
Chaise, a two-wheeled carriage for
two persons, with a top, and usually
drawn by one horse.
Chalcedon, a Greek city of ancient
Bithynia, opposite Byzantium (Con-
stantinople), at the entrance of the
Black Sea, about 2 miles S. of the
modern Scutari. It was finally de-
stroyed by the Turks, by whom it was
taken, about 1075.
Chalcedony, a cryptocrystalline
variety of quartz, having the luster
nearly of wax, and either transparent
or translu,cent. Color, white, grayish,
pale brown to dark brown or black;
tendon-color common : sometimes deli'
Chalcis
cate blue. Also of other shades, and
then having other names.
Chalcis, a Greek town, anciently
the chief town of Eubcea, separated
by the narrow strait of Euripus from
the Boeotian coast, on the mainland of
Greece,' with which it was connected
by a bridge. Chalcis early became one
of the greatest of the Ionic cities, car-
rying on an extensive commerce. It
was subsequently a place of impor-
tance under the Romans.
Chaldaea, in ancient geography the
regions of Babylonia, or more gener-
ally Babylonia. The early history of
Chaldsea is obscure. The Chaldaeans
were conquered by the Assyrians, with
Babylon, and waged frequent wars
with the latter power. When the As-
syrian power began to wane, the Chal-
daeans, being a more warlike and pow-
erful people than the Babylonians, be-
came supreme ; Chaldaea and Baby-
lonia, by their conquests under Nebu-
chadnezzar, became one kingdom, and
the names Chaldaea and Babylonia be-
came synonymous terms.
CLaldee Language, a name often
given to the Aramean language, one
of the principal varieties of the an-
cient Semitic. Chaldee literature is
usually arranged in two divisions : the
Biblical Chaldee, or those portions of
the Old Testament which are written
in Chaldee, namely, Daniel from ii :
4 to yii: 28; Ezra iv: 8 to vi : 18;
and vii : 12-26 ; and Jeremiah x : 11 ;
and the Chaldee of the Targums and
other later Jewish writings.
Chalet, the French-Swiss name for
the wooden hut of the Swiss herdsmen
on the mountains ; but also extended
to Swiss dwelling-houses generally,
and to picturesque villas built in imi-
tation of them.
Chalenr Bay, or Bay of Chal-
eurs, an inlet of the Gulf of St. Law-
rence, between Quebec and New
Brunswick.
Chalice, a term generally applied
to a communion cup for the wine in
the Eucharist, often of artistic and
highly ornamental character.
Chalk, a well-known earthy lime-
stone, of an opaque white color, soft,
and admitting no polish. It is an im-
pure carbonate of lime, and is used as
an absorbent and anti-acid, and for
making narks for various purposes.
Chamber
Challenge, to jurors, is an objec-
tion either to the whole panel or ar-
ray, or to the jurors individually, and
it is either peremptory, or for cause
assigned.
Challenger Expedition, a cir-
cumnavigating scientific exploration of
the open sea sent out by the British
government in 1872-1876. In 1872
the "Challenger," a corvette of 2,306
tons, was completely fitted out and
furnished with every scientific appli-
ance for examining the sea from sur-
face to bottom. The ship was given
in charge to a naval surveying
staff, under Captain Nares, and to
a scientific staff, with Professor
Wyville Thomson at their head, for
the purpose of sounding the depths,
mapping the basins, and determin-
ing the physical and biological con-
ditions of the Atlantic, the South-
ern and the Pacific Oceans. Be-
tween the Admiralty Isles and Japan
the " Challenger " made her deepest
sounding, on March 23, 1875, 4,575
fathoms, then the deepest sounding on
record except two.
Chalons-sur-Marne, a town of N.
E. France, 107 miles E. of Paris and
on the main railway line to Nancy ;
normal pop. about 25,000. The prin-
cipal industry is brewing. Chalons
is a center of much historic interest.
The plains nearby were the scene of
the defeat of Atilla, the Hun, in the
5th century. Marshal MacMahon
formed the great army here which
surrendered at Sedan in 1870. The
town was conspicuous in the opera-
tions in the World War, especially in
1915-16. The entire country between
Chalons-sur-Marne and Verdun is full
of interest. The town of Valmy,
where the French defeated the Allies
in 1792, is 33 miles distant, and its
Ridge was the scene of desperate fight-
ing in the great war. Beyond Sainte
Menehould is the famous forest of
Argonne. Verdun is 174 miles
from Paris. See APPENDIX: World
War.
Chamber, a word used in many
countries to designate a branch of gov-
ernment whose members assemble in a
common apartment, or applied to bod-
ies of various kinds meeting for va-
rious purposes. The imperial cham-
ber of the old German Empire was a
Chamberlain
Chambersbnrg
court established at Wetzlar, near the
Rhine, by Maximilian I. in 1495, to
adjust the disputes between the dif-
ferent independent members of the
German Empire.
Chamberlain, an officer charged
with the direction and management of
the private apartments of a monarch
or nobleman.
Chamberlain, Joseph, an Eng-
lish statesman, born in London in
July, 1&}6. In 1808 he was appoint-
ed a member of the Birmingham town-
council, was mayor of Birmingham
from 1873 to 1876, and chairman of
the Birmingham school-board from
1874 to 1876. After unsuccessfully
contesting Sneffield against Mr. Roe-
buck in 1874, he was returned for Bir-
mingham without opposition in June,
1876. He soon made his mark in Par-
liament, and on the return of the Lib-
erals to power in 1880 he was appoint-
ed President of the Board of Trade,
with a seat in the cabinet. Meanwhile
his influence was increasing rapidly
outside the House ; he came to be re-
garded as the leader of the extreme
Radical party. During the last hours
of Mr. Gladstone's government he was
understood to be opposed to the re-
newal of the Irish Crimes Act ; and
during the general election of 1886 he
was most severe in his strictures on
the moderate Liberals, and produced
an " unauthorized " programme which
included the readjustment of taxation,
free schools, and the creation of allot-
ments by compulsory purchase. He
was returned by the western division
of Birmingham. On Feb. 1, 1886, he
beame president of the Local Govern-
ment Board, but resigned on March
26, because of his strong objections to
Mr. Gladstone's Home Rule measures
for Ireland. He became leader of the
Liberal-Unionists when the Duke of
Devonshire went to the Upper House.
Lord Salisbury sent him to Washing-
ton as commissioner on the Canadian
fishery dispute, and in 1895 he was
made Colonial minister in the Union-
ist Cabinet. As such he had to face
the troubles in South Africa, and to
cherish closer fellow-feeling with the
Colonies. He carried the Australian
Federation measure in Parliament
(1900), and later had to face opposi-
tion from within the Liberal party,
la 1888 he was married to Mary,
daughter of William C. Endicott, Sec-
retary of War in President Cleve-
land's first administration. After the
Boer war he visited South Africa and
made himself personally acquainted
with the situation there. His strong
advocacy of " fair trade," or a modi-
fied protective tariff caused great dis-
turbance in the ministry and its sup-
porters, and in September, 1903, Mr.
Chamberlain resigned from the Cabi-
net. He died July 2, 1914.
Chamberlain, Joshua Law-
rence, an American army officer and
educator. He was born in Bangor,
Me., Sept. 8, 1828 ; graduated at Bow-
doin College in 1852, and entered the
volunteer service of the Union in 1862,
became a Major-General in 1865, and
received the colors of Lee's army on
its surrender. After the war he re-
turned to the professorship at Bow-
doin College which he had previously
held. In 1867-1871 was governor of
Maine, and in 1871-1883 was presi-
dent of Bowdoin. He died Feb. 24,
1914.
Chambers, Charles Julius, an
American journalist, born in Belle-
fontaine, O., Nov! 21, 1850. In 1870
he traveled through the West Indies,
Europe, the United States, and Cana-
da, as special correspondent of the
"New York Herald." In 1876 he
published an account of his few weeks
of experience in an insane institution,
entitled, "A Mad World," which ex-
cited great interest.
Chambers, Robert, a Scotch prose-
writer and publisher, born in Peebles,
July 10, 1802. He and his brother
began in poverty as small booksellers;
issued penny leaflets of useful infor*
mation for the people which became
very popular, and at last took regular
periodical form in " Chambers' Jour-
nal," and the great publishing-housa
which bears the name of both devel*
oped gradually. The " Chambers' Ent
cyclopaedia " was the outgrowth of the
" Journal." He died in St. Andrews,
March 17, 1871.
Chambers, William, a Scotch
prose-writer and editor, brother and
partner of Robert, born in Peebles,
April 16, 1800. He died in Edinburgh,
May 20, 1883.
Chambersbnrg, a borough and
county-seat of Franklin county, Pa.
Chambers of Commerce
Chameleon
on the Conecocheague and Falling
Creeks and the Cumberland Valley
and Western and the Philadelphia and
Reading railroads, 52 miles W. S. W.
of Harrisburg. In Early's raid in the
Civil War General McCausland en-
tered Chambersburg with Confederate
cavalry, July 30, 1864, and demanded
a tribute of $200,000 gold; this not
being paid the place was set on fire
and two-thirds of it burned, causing a
loss of $1,000,000.
Chambers of Commerce, bodies
of merchants and traders associated
for the purpose of promoting the in-
terests of their own members, of the
city to which the society belongs, and
of the community. Of the means by
which these objects are sought to be
accomplished the following may be
mentioned as the most prominent :
(1) by representing and urging on
the Legislature the views of their
members in mercantile affairs; (2) by
aiding in the preparation of legislative
measures having reference to trade ;
(3) by collecting statistics bearing
upon the staple trade of the city; (4)
in some places by acting as a sort of
court of arbitration in mercantile
questions ; (5) by attaining by com?
bination advantages in trade which
might be beyond the reach of individ-
ual enterprise.
The first institution of the kind in
the United States, the New York
Chamber of Commerce, was organized
in 1768 and incorporated by royal
charter from King George III. in
1770. There are similar bodies in
every city and town of consequence in
the United States.
Chambly, Fort, a fort at the out-
let of Lake Champlain at the time of
the Revolutionary War. It was cap-
tured by the Colonists in 1775, and
the colors of the 7th Regiment of
British regulars was sent to the Con-
tinental Congress as trophies of the
victory.
Chambord, Henri Charles Fer-
dinand Marie Diendonne, Comte
de, Duke of Bordeaux, the last repre-
sentative of the elder branch of the
French Bourbon dynasty, called by his
partisans Henry V. of France; born
in Paris, Sept. 29, 1820, seven months
after the assassination of his father.
Charles X., after the revolutionary
outbreak of 1830, abdicated in his
favor, but the young count was com-
pelled to leave the country. He lived
successively in Scotland, Austria,
Italy, and England, keeping a species
of court, and occasionally issuing man-
ifestos. In 1846 he married the Prin-
cess Maria-Theresa, eldest daughter of
the Duke of Modena, and in 1851 in-
herited the domain of Frohsdorf, near
Vienna, where he subsequently resid-
ed. He died in Austria, Aug. 24, 1883.
Chambre Ardente, the name
given in France to a court of law,
instituted by Francis I. It was
hung with black and lighted with
torches, for the purpose of trying and
burning heretics; and also to the ex-
traordinary commissions established
for the examination of poisoners, and
under the regent duke of Orleans for
the punishment of public officers
charged with offenses against the reve-
nues, as also of those who were guilty
of fraud in the matter of Law's bank.
Chambre des Comptes, a great
court established in France, prior to
the Revolution, for the registration of
edicts, ordinances, etc.
Chambrnn, Marquis Pierre de,
a French politician ; born in Paris,
June 11, 1865, grandson of Marquis
de Lafayette of Revolutionary fame ;
studied law ; since 1898 represented
the Department of Lozere in the
Chamber of Deputies ; gave special
attention to foreign affairs, notably to
the cultivation of an interest and pro-
gram for a close intercourse between
the parliaments and congresses of
various countries. In 1917 he was a
member of the French War Mission to
the United States under the famous
Marshal Joffre.
Chameleon, a genus of reptiles be-
longing to the Saurian or lizard-like
order, a native of parts of Asia and
Africa. The very remarkable power
which these animals possess of chang-
ing their color, at a very early period
called the attention of observers to
their habits. Its skin is composed of
a sort of small, scaly grains, and un-
der ordinary circumstances is of a
greenish gray color. The eyes are
capable of moving independently of
each other, taking different directions
at the same moment. Several species
of chameleon are known, and are na-
tives of Africa, Madagascar, Southern
Chameleon
Asia, and the Molucca Islands. They
pass their lives altogether upon trees,
feeding upon small insects, for which
their construction shows them to be
perfectly adapted.
Chameleon, a Southern constella-
tion containing nine stars, lies within
the Antarctic Polar Circle.
Chamois, a well-known species of
the antelope found only in high, moun-
tainous regions, where they feed in
small flocks or families, on the highest
CHAMOIS.
cliffs affording vegetation. The cham-
ois are exceedingly shy, and have very
acute senses, so that it is only by
great patience and^ skill that the hunt-
er can come sufficiently near to shoot
them.
Chamois Leather, a leather made
from the skin of the Chamois, but the
skins of sheep, goats, deer, calves, and
the split hides of other animals, are
used for making this kind of leather.
Chamomile or Camomile, a well-
known plant. It is perennial, and has
slender, trailing, hairy, and branched
stems. The flower is white, with a
yellow center. Both leaves and flow-
ers are bitter and aromatic. The fra-
grance is due to the presence of an es-
sential oil, called oil of chamomile,
of a light blue color when first ex-
tracted. It is cultivated in gardens
in the United States, and also found
wild
Chamemni, or Chamonix, a cele-
brated valley in France, department
Champion
Haute-Savoie, in the Pennine Alps,
over 3,000 feet above sea-level. It is
about 12 miles long, by 1 to 6 miles
broad, its E. side formed by Mount
Blanc and other lofty mountains of
the same range, and it is traversed by
the Arve. The village of Chamouni
is much frequented by tourists.
Champaign, a city in Champaign
county, 111.; on the Illinois Central
and other railroads; 33 miles W. of
Danville; has manufactures of wind-
mills, furnaces, boilers, brick and tile,
piano, and iron and steel tools; and
is the seat of the University of
Illinois. Pop. (1910) 12,421.
Champ de Mars, a large, rectan-
gular public place in Paris, on the left
bank of the Seine, about 3,300 feet
long and 1,600 feet wide. At the out-
break of the French Revolution the
square was constructed by the united
efforts of all classes of Paris, and on
July 14, 1790, the first anniversary of
the taking of the Bastille, was held a
grand pageant and festival at which
universal pledges of " Liberty, Equal-
ity, and Fraternity " were exchanged.
This spot was the scene of a bloody
massacre July 17, 1791. It is now
used chiefly as a parade-ground. In
its center is the Eiffel Tower.
Champerty, the purchase of an in-
terest in a thing in dispute, with the
object of maintaining and taking part
in the litigation, or assisting another
to carry on a suit under an agreement
to receive part of the sum or thing to
be recovered.
Champion, one who combats or
fights; specifically, in the Middle
Ages, a person who took up the cause
and fought in the place of another.
Single combat was one of the ways
frequently adopted to decide the right
of a cause; and women, children, or
aged persons were allowed to appear
by a representative. At one time the
champions were looked upon as dis-
reputable, being ready, for hire, to
take up any quarrel. At a later per-
iod, however, during the ages of chiv-
alry, the champion was a knight, who
entered the lists on behalf of an in-
jured lady, a child, or one incapable
of self-defense. The word is also ap-
plied to one who earns, or claims, the
preeminence in feats of physical prow-
ess, or skill,
Champion Hills
Champion Hills, a place in Hinds
county, Miss., near Vicksburg, where,
on May 16, 1863, the Union army
defeated the Confederates.
Cham plain, Lake, a picturesque
body of water between the Green
and Adirondack mountains, on the |
border of the States of Vermont and
New York; length about 125 miles, ;
maximum depth 280 feet. The
waters find an outlet at the N. end '
by the Richelieu or Sorel river, which I
empties into the St. Lawrence. Since
the construction of the canal, which
connects it with the Hudson river;
the lake has become an important
medium of commerce between Can-
ada and the United States. In July,
1909, the 300th anniversary of the
discovery of the lake was celebrated by j
the United States, England, France,
Canada. New York and Vermont.
Champlain, Samuel de, a French
navigator, born at Brouage, Saint-
onge, about 1570. In 1599 he sailed
to the West Indies, Mexico, and Pan-
ama. On his return (1601) he pre-
pared a record of this cruise, with
charts, etc. In March, 1603, he sailed
for North America, and explored, by
boat, the St. Lawrence river up to
the Falls of St. Louis, and down to
Gaspe. In May, 1604, he sailed with
De Monts along the shores of Nova
Scotia, wintered on the island of St.
Croix, and founded a colony at Port
Royal. From 1604 to 1606 he made
careful surveys and charts of the coast
as far as Cape Cod. He revisited
France in 1607, but sailed again in
1608, and founded Quebec. In 1609
he accompanied an Algonquin and
Huron expedition against the Iroquois,
and discovered Lake Champlain. From
September, 1609, to March, 1610, he
was engaged in bringing over French
mechanics for his colony. He became
lieutenant-governor of New France
(Oct. 8, 1612) ; fortified Quebec
(1620) ; but was compelled (1629) to
surrender to an English fleet, and was
taken to England. Released in 1632,
he sailed again for New France. He
died in Quebec, Dec. 25, 1635.
Champlin, John Denis on, an
American author, born in Stonington,
Conn., Jan. 29, 1834. He wrote many
useful and instructive books for the
young. He died Jan. 8, 1915.
E. 32.
Chancellorsville
Champney, Elizabeth (Will-
iams), an American novelist, born hi
Springfield, O., in 1850. Many of her
books are illustrated by her husband,
J. W. Champney.
Champney, James Wells, an
American artist, born in Boston,
Mass., July 16, 1843. He studied in
Europe under Edouard Frere. and in
1882 became a member of the Nation-
al Academy. He died in New York
in 1903.
Champs-Elysees, (Fr. " Elysian
Fields"), a place of public resort in
Paris, which consists of an avenue
and the gardens surrounding it.
Chanca, Dr. (believed to have been
Diego Alvarez Chanca), a Spanish
physician, born in Seville, who be-
came a companion of Columbus on his
second voyage in 1493.
Chancel, the end of a church, in
which the altar is placed. It was for-
merly divided from the body of the
church by a screen and is raised above
the level.
Chancellor, in ancient times a
petty officer stationed at the fence of
bars or lattice-work in a law-court, to
introduce such functionaries as were
entitled to pass inside. The Lord
Chancellor of England was originally
the king's chief secretary, to whom
petitions were referred. He is now
the highest judicial functionary in the
kingdom. Several of the United States
have chancellors, high judicial officers
who preside over courts of chancery.
The Chancellor of the German Em-
pire is an officer, the extent of whose
power and influence has never been
exactly defined. In modern Germany
since the unification of the German
Empire the office has been made illus-
trious by its association with the
name of Bismarck, the first to hold
that position under the new regime.
In general terms it may be stated that
the German Chancellor is an executive
of very great powers, being at once
the adviser and prime minister of the
Emperor.
Chancellorsville, Battle of, one
of the great battles of the American
Civil War, fought at Chancellorsville,
Va., May 2 and 3, 1863. Gen. Jo-
seph Hooker commanded the Federal
force, and Gen. Robert E. Lee the
Confederate force. Although Hook-
Chancery
Chantry
er's army was superior in numbers,
being about 130,000 against 60,000 of
the Confederates, the advantage at the
end of the battle lay with the latter.
During a flank movement the llth
corps of the Federal army, under Gen.
O. O. Howard, was surprised and
thrown into a panic near nightfall of
the first day. The flank movement
extended so far that the bullets of the
Confederates were turned upon their
own troops, and by their fire " Stone-
wall " Jackson was mortally wound-
ed. The Federal loss was 18,000, the
Confederate loss 13,000.
Chancery, in law, a court having
special defined power. In the United
States it is a court having equity
jurisdiction. American courts of equi-
ty are, hi some instances, distinct
from those of law ; in others, the same
tribunals exercise the jurisdiction both
of courts of law and equity, though
their forms of proceeding are different
in their two capacities.
Chandler, Seth C., an American
astronomer, born in Boston, Mass.,
Sept. 16, 1845 ; well known for his in-
vestigations and observations of the
phenomena of variable stars, the com-
putation of comet orbits, and, in con-
nection with J. Ritchie, Jr., of Bos-
ton, for devising a system of code-
telegrams for announcing astronomical
discoveries. He died Dec. 31, 1913.
Chandler, William Eaton, an
American politician, born in Concord,
N. H., Dec. 28, 1835. He was grad-
uated at Harvard Law School in 1855,
entered the New Hampshire Legisla-
ture in 1862, became Judge Advocate
General of the Navy Department in
1865, and Secretary of the Navy in
1882, serving three years. In 1887-
1901 he was a United States Senator
from New Hampshire.
Chang-Chow-Foo, or Chang-
Chan, a city of China, about 36 miles
S. W. of Amoy, which is its port. It
lies in a valley in the province of Fu-
Chien, and is surrounded by hills and
intersected by a river. It is the center
of the Fu-Chien silk industry.
Changeling, a child left or taken
in the place of another.
Chang-Sha, a city of China, capi-
tal of the Province of Hu-Nan, on the
Hang-Kiang, a tributary of the Yang-
tse-Kiang.
Chanler, William Astor, an
American explorer, born in Newport,
R. I., June 11, 1867. He studied at
Harvard, but left the university to
make explorations in Africa. He was
elected to the New York Legislature,
and to Congress. He served in the
war with Spain.
Channel Islands, a group of is-
lands in the English Channel, off the
W. coast of department La Manche, in
France. They belong to Great Brit-
ain, and consist of Jersey, Guernsey,
Alderney, and Sark, with some de-
pendent islets. They are almost ex-
empt from taxation, and their inhab-
itants enjoy besides all the privileges
of British subjects. Area 112 square
miles, pop., 88,289.
Channing, William Ellery, an
American preacher and writer ; born
in Newport, R. I., April 7, 1780;
studied at Harvard College. His early
views are said to have been evangeli-
cal, but he soon became a decided Uni-
tarian, and by his zeal was termed
the " Apostle of Unitarianism." His
first appointment as a preacher was
in 1803, when he obtained the charge
of a congregation in Federal street,
Boston. He died in Burlington, Vt,
Oct. 2, 1842.
Channing, William Ellery, an
American poet ; nephew of William E.
Channine. the elder; born in Boston,
Mass., June 10, 1818; died in 1901.
Channing, William Henry, an
American Unitarian clergyman and
biographer; nephew of W. E. Chan-
ning, the elder ; born in Boston, May
25, 1810. Settling in England, he
succeeded James Martineau as pastor
at Liverpool. His daughter married
Sir Edwin Arnold. He died in Lon-
don, Dec. 23, 1884.
Chantibnn, or Chantahon, an
important commercial port of Siam,
near the mouth of the Chantibun river,
in the Gulf of Siam, occupied by the
French as security for the fulfillment
of the treaty of 1893. Pop., 30,000.
Chantry, a church or chapel en-
dowed for the maintenance of one or
more priests, for the purpose of sing-
ing daily masses for the souls of the
endowers, and such others as they
may appoint. Also the endowment for
the performance of masses for the soul
of the donor, or others.
Chanzy
Clianzy, Antoine Eugene Al-
fred, a French General, born in Nou-
art (Ardennes), March 18, 1823; en-
tered the artillery as a private, re-
ceived a commission in the Zouaves.
He was elected to the National Assem-
bly, and narrowly escaped being shot
by the Communists in 1871. In 1873-
1879 he was Governor-General of AJ-
geria. Chosen a life Senator in 1875,
he was pot forward for the presidency
in 1879. He was ambassador at St.
Petersburg in 1879-1881, and after-
ward commanded the 6th Army Corps
at Chalons, where he died suddenly,
Jan. 4, 1883.
Chao-Chau, a city of China, on
the Han-Kiang, in the Province of
Kwang-tung, 195 miles N. E. of Hong-
Kong.
Chapala, a lake in Mexico, on the
high plateau of Jalisco, surrounded by
steep, bare mountains.
Chapel, a place of worship, for-
merly distinguished from a church by
the worship to be performed; churches
being for general use, and chapels for
private use. In Roman Catholic
churches, portions of the main build-
ing, dedicated to particular saints, in
honor of whom a service is there per-
formed, are called chapels. The word
is also applied to an association of
union workmen in a printing-office for
the purpose of promoting and enforc-
ing order among themselves.
Chapelle, Placide Louis, an
American clergyman, born in Mende,
France. Aug. 28, 1842. He came to
the United States in 1859, and was
ordained a Roman Catholic priest.
For five years he was a missionary,
and from 1870 to 1891 held pastorates
in Baltimore and Washington. He
was made coadjutor archbishop of
Santa Fe in 1891, archbishop in 1894,
and archbishop of New Orleans in
1897; in 1898 he became Apostolic
Delegate to Cuba, Porto Rico, and the
Philippines. He died Aug. 9, 1905.
Chapin, Edwin Hubbell, Amer-
ican Universalist divine (1814-80),
was the author of valuable moral and
ethical works for young people.
Chapin, John R., an American
illustrator, born in Providence, R. I.,
in 1823. He received a common school
education and studied law, but took
up art. He was a pioneer in periodi-
Charcot
cal illustration in the United States.
In 1863 he made the designs for the
new series of bills for the National
currency. He died Nov. 12, 190-L
Chaplain, literally a person who
is appointed to a chapel, as a clergy-
man not having a parish or similar
charge. Chaplains in the United
States ansy rank as captains of in-
fantry ; in the navy they have the
rank of lieutenant, commander and
captain, according to length of service.
Clia-Poo, or Cha-Pn, a seaport
town of China, in the Province of
Cheh-Chiang (or Che-Kiang), on the
N. side of Hang-Chau Bay, 35 miles
from Ning-Po.
Chapter, one of the chief divi-
sions of a book. As the rules and
statutes of ecclesiastical establish-
ments were arranged in chapters, so
also the assembly of the members of a
religious order, and of canons, was
called a chapter.
Chapter-House, the building at-
tached to a cathedral or religious
house in which the chapter meets for
the transaction of business.
Chapultepec, a rocky elevation
about 3 miles S. W. of the City of
Mexico. During the war with the
United States, Gen. Pillow stormed
the castle on this hill, Sept 13, 1847.
The Emperor Maximilian made Cha-
pultepec his principal palace, and it
is now occupied by the President, por-
tions used by a school and observa-
tory being still reserved for them.
Charade, a species of enigma, or
riddle, the subject of which is a name
or word that is proposed for solution
from an enigmatical description of its
several syllables taken separately as so
many individual words, and then from
a similar description of the whole
name or word.
Charcot, Jean Martin, a French
physician, born in Paris, Nov. 29,
1825. His specialty was nervous and
mental diseases, and he performed
many curious and successful experi-
ments in hypnotism and mental sug-
gestion. He died Aug. 16, 1893.
His son, JEAN MABTIN, became an
eminent scientist: led an expedition
to discover the South Pole in 1908;
and while he failed he reached lat.
70° S., and mapped 120 miles of
hitherto unknown coast.
Chares
Charles
Chares, a Rhodian sculptor, born
in Lindus, Rhodes; lived about 290-
280 B. c. He was a pupil of Lysippus
and the sculptor of the Colossus of
Rhodes, one of the " seven wonders of
the world."
Charge d'affaires, a representa-
tive of a country at a less important
foreign court, inferior to an ambassa-
dor, or a minister, to whom is intrust-
ed all matters of diplomacy.
Charge of the Light Brigade,
The, or " Death charge of the 600 at
Balaclava," Oct. 25, 1854, a remark-
able military movement made by the
13th Light Dragoons, the 17th Lan-
cers, the llth Hussars, commanded by
Lord Cardigan, the 8th Hussars, and
the 4th Light Dragoons. The Rus-
sians were advancing in great strength
to cut off the Turkish force from the
British. Lord Raglan sent an order
to Lord Lucan to advance, and Lord
Lucan, not understanding what was
intended, applied to Captain Nolan,
who brought the message, and Nolan
replied : " There, my lord, is your
enemy." Lucan then gave orders to
Lord Cardigan to attack, and the 600
men rode forward into the jaws of
death. In 20 minutes 12 officers were
killed and 11 wounded; 147 men were
killed and 110 wounded, and 325 hors-
es were slain.
Charing-Cross, the titular center
of London, so named from a cross
which stood until 1647 at the village
of Charing in memory of Eleanor, wife
of Edward I. It is now a triangular
piece of roadway at Trafalgar Square.
Chariot, in ancient times a kind of
carriage used either for pleasure or in
war.
Charivari, an imitative word, hav-
ing its origin in slang, describing a
mock serenade of discordant music
with such accompaniments as tin ket-
tles, shouting, whistling, groaning,
hissing, and screaming, and the like.
Charlemagne, Charles the Great,
King of the Franks, and subsequently
Emperor of the West, was born in
742, probably at Aix-la-Chapelle. His
father was Pepin the Short, King of
the Franks. On the decease of his
father, in 768, he was crowned king,
and divided the kingdom of the Franks
with his younger brother Carloman, at
whose d«ath in 771 Charlemagne made
himself master of the whole empire.
He attracted by his liberality the most
distinguished scholars to his court at
Aix-la-Chapelle where he died and was
buried in 814.
Charleroi, a fortified and impor-
tant manufacturing town of Belgium,
in the province of Hainault, on the
navigable river Sambre, 33 miles S. of
Brussels. The town is the center of
the large coal-basin of Charleroi. It
was one of the first places in Belgium
to suffer from the German invasion,
and sturdily but ineffectually met the
attack of Aug. 21-3, 1914. See AP-
PENDIX: World War.
Charles VII., King of France;
born in Paris, Feb. 22, 1403, and
though only the fifth son of Charles
VI. and Isabella of Bavaria, became,
by the successive deaths of his elder
brothers, heir-presumptive to the
crown. That he should ever succeed
to it was then extremely problemati-
cal, as Henry V. of England was pur-
suing his career of conquest, and short-
ly afterward, by the treaty of Troyes,
secured to himself the hand of Charles'
sister Catharine, and the succession to
the French throne after her father's
death. On the King of England's
death in 1422 his son Henry VI. was
proclaimed King of France at Paris,
The war with the national party, rep-
resented by the Orleanist faction, with
the dauphin at their head, was main-
tained for several years by the Eng-
lish, under the command of the Duke
of Bedford. So successfully did the
latter conduct operations that Charles
was nearly ready to abandon the
struggle when his fortunes were re-
trieved by one of the most singular in-
cidents recorded in history. This was
the arrival in his camp of the Maid
of Orleans2 who by the enthusiasm
which she inspired turned the tide of
success against the English. Through
the intervention of the Earl of Suf-
folk a marriage was concluded be-
tween the young King Henry VI. and
Margaret of Anjou, niece of Charles
VII. s queen. In the treaty entered
into on this occasion the territory of
Maine was secretly surrendered to
France, and subsequently, on hostili-
ties being resumed between the two
countries, the troops of Charles con-
quered the whole of Guienne, and final-
ly expelled the English from all their
Charles
Charles
possessions in France except Calais.
The last years of Charles' reign were
embittered by domestic broils, in which
his son and successor Louis XI. took
a prominent part against his father.
He died at the castle of Mehun, near
Bourges, on July 22, 1401. His share
in the treacherous murder of the Duke j
of Burgundy, and base abandonment \
to her fate of Joan of Arc, are stains j
on his memory which can never be
effaced.
Charles IX., King of France, born
in 1550, ascended the throne at the
age of 10 years, after the death of his
brother Francis II. During his reign
occurred the Massacre of St. Bartholo-
mew's Day. Charles died, childless, in I
1574. He was succeeded by his broth- '
er Henry III.
Charles X., Comtc d'Artpis,
King of France ; born in Versailles
in 1757 ; grandson of Louis XV., the
youngest son of the dauphin, and
brother of Louis XVI. After the
downfall of Napoleon he entered
France with the title of lieutenant-
general of the kingdom, and issued a
judicious proclamation, promising the
reign of law and an entire oblivion
of the past. In 1824 he succeeded his
brother, Louis XVIII., under the title
of Charles X., and gained a momen-
tary popularity by the abolition of the
censorship of the press. He was ig-
nominiously driven from the throne in
1830. After formally abdicating in
favor of his grandson, the Duke de
Bordeaux, he revisited England, re-
sumed his residence for a short time
at Holyrood, and finally settled at Go-
ritz in Styria, where he died of chol-
era in 1836.
Charles V., Emperor of Germany
and King of Spain (in the latter ca-
pacity he is called Charles I.) ; the
eldest son of Philip, Archduke of Aus-
tria, and of Joanna, the daughter of
Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain ; born
in Ghent, Feb. 24, 1500. Philip was
the son of the Emperor Maximilian
and Mary, daughter of Charles the
Bo'd, last Duke of Burgundy. Charles
birth gave him claim to the fairest
countries of Europe. In 1519 Charles,
on the death of Maximilian, was elect*
ed emperor.
The progress of the Reformation in
Germany demanded the care of the
new emperor, who held a Diet at
Worms. Luther, who appeared at this
Diet with a safe conduct from Charles,
defended his cause with energy and
boldness. The emperor kept silent;
but after Luther's departure a severe
edict appeared against him in the
name of Charles, who thought it his
interest to declare himself the defend-
er of the Roman Church.
After the defeat and capture of
Francis I. of France the power of
Charles became a source of uneasiness
to most other princes of Europe. Pope
Clement VII. placed himself at the
head of a league of the principal
States of Italy against the emperor,
but their in-directed efforts were pro-
ductive of new misfortunes. Rome
was taken by storm by the troops of
the Constable of Bourbon, sacked, and
the Pope himself made prisoner.
Charles V. publicly disavowed the
proceedings of the Constable, went
into mourning with his court, and car-
ried his hypocrisy so far as to order
prayers for the deliverance of the
Pope. On restoring the holy father to
liberty he demanded a ransom of 400,-
000 crowns of gold, but was satisfied
with a quarter of that sum. He also
released, for 2,000,000, the French
princes who had been given to him as
hostages. Henry VIII. of England
now allied himself with the French
monarch against Charles, who accused
Francis of haying broken his word.
The war terminated in 1529 by the
treaty of Cambray, of which the con-
ditions were favorable to the emperor.
Charles soon after left Spain, and was
crowned in Bologna as King of Lom-
bardy and Roman Emperor. In 1530
he seemed desirous, at the Diet of
Augsburg, to reconcile the Reformers
to the Roman Church ; but not suc-
ceeding, he issued a decree against the
Protestants, which they met by the
Schmalkaldic League. He also pub-
lished, in 1532, a law of criminal pro-
ceedure. Having compelled Solyman to
retreat, he undertook, in 1535, an ex-
pedition against Tunis, reinstated the
dey, and released 20.000 Christian
slaves.
The disturbances caused in Ger-
many by the Reformation induced the
emperor to accede to the peace of
Crespy with France in 1545. The pol-
icy of Charles was to reconcile the
two parties, and with this view he al-
Charles
Charles
ternately threatened and courted the
Protestants. After some show of ne-
gotiation the Protestant princes raised
the standard of war. The emperor
declared in 1546 the heads of the
league under the ban of the empire,
excited divisions among the confed-
erates, collected an army in haste, and
obtained several advantages over his
enemies. John Frederick, the Elector
of Saxony, was taken prisoner in the
battle of Muhlberg in 1547. Charles
received him sternly, and gave him
over to a court-martial consisting of
Italians and Spaniards, under the
presidency of Alva, which condemned
him to death. The elector saved his
life only by renouncing his electorate
and his hereditary estates, but he re-
mained a prisoner. Meanwhile the
emperor appeared somewhat more mod-
erately inclined toward the vanquished
party. On coming to Wittenberg he
expressed surprise that the exercise of
the Lutheran worship had been dis-
continued. The Landgrave of Hesse-
Cassel, one of the heads of the Prot-
estants, was compelled to sue for
mercy. Notwithstanding his promise
Charles deprived him of his freedom.
After having dissolved the League of
Schmalkalden the emperor again occu-
pied himself with the plan of uniting
all religious parties, and for this pur-
pose issued the " Interim," which was
as fruitless as the measures proposed
by him at the Diet of Augsburg. The
fortunes of war changed, and the
Protestants dictated the conditions of
the treaty of Passau in 1552.
Charles saw all his plans frustrated
and the number of his enemies increas-
ing. He abdicated the imperial throne,
and selected for his residence the mon-
astery of St. Justus, near Plasencia
in Estremadura, and here he ex-
changed sovereignty, dominion, and
pomp for the quiet and solitude of a
cloister. His death took place Sept.
21, 1558.
Charles I., King of England and
Scotland ; born in Scotland in 1600 ;
was the third son of James VI. and
Anne of Denmark. Soon after the
birth of his son James succeeded to
the crown of England, and on the
death of Prince Henry in 1612, Rob-
ert, the second son, having died in in-
fancy, Charles became heir-apparent,
but was not created Prince of Wales
till 1616. His youth appears to have
passed respectably, little being record-
ed of him previous to his journey into
Spain in company with Buckingham,
in order to pay his court in person to
the Spanish Infanta. Through the
arrogance of Buckingham this match
was prevented, and the prince was
soon after contracted to Henrietta
Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of
France. In 1625 he succeeded to the
throne on the death of his father.
Charles began to employ his threat-
ened mode of raising funds by loans,
benevolences, and similar unpopular
proceedings ; which were wholly op-
posed to the rising notions of civil
liberty throughout the nation, and to
the constitutional doctrine which ren-
dered the Commons the guardian and
dispenser of the public treasure. Civil
war followed, and Charles was defeat-
ed and captured. He was tried before
a special tribunal on the charge that
he had appeared in arms against the
Parliamentary forces, and sentence of
death was pronounced against him,
and only three days were allowed him
to prepare for his fate. The interpo-
sition of foreign powers was vain.
After passing the three days in re-
ligious exercises, and in tender inter-
views with his friends and family, he
was led to the scaffold. His execution
took place before the Banqueting
House, Whitehall, on Jan. 30, 1649,
where the ill-fated king submitted to
the fatal stroke, in the 49th year of
his age.
Charles II., King of England, Ire-
land, and Scotland ; son of Charles I.
and Henrietta Maria of France ; born
in London, May 29, 1630. He was a
refugee at The Hague on the death of
his father, on which he immediately
assumed the royal title. He first in-
tended to proceed to Ireland, but was
prevented by the progress of Crom-
well. He therefore listened to an in-
vitation from the Scots, who had pro-
claimed him their king on Feb. 5,
1649, and arrived in the Cromarty
Firth, June 16, 1650. In 1651 he
was crowned at Scone ; but the ap-
proach of Cromwell with his conquer-
ing army soon rendered his abode in
Scotland unsafe. Hoping to be joined
by the English royalists, he took the
spirited resolution of passing Crom-
well and entering England, Carlisle
Charles
Charles
readily throwing open its gates to re-
ceive him. He was immediately pur-
sued by that active commander, who
gained the battle of Worcester, and
Charles, after a variety of imminent
hazards, being on one occasion shel-
tered for 24 hours in the branches of
the famous Boscobel oak, reached
Shoreham, in Sussex, and effected a
passage to France.
It is the province of history to state
the circumstances that produced the
Restoration, which General Monk so
conducted that Charles, without a
struggle, succeeded at once to all those
dangerous prerogatives which it had
cost the nation so much blood and
treasure, first to abridge and then to
abolish. This unrestrictive return
was not more injurious to the nation
than fatal to the family of the Stu-
arts, which, had a more rational pol-
icy prevailed, might have occupied the
throne at the present time. On May 29,
1660, Charles entered his capital amid
universal and almost frantic acclama-
tions ; and the different civil and re-
ligious parties vred with each other in
loyalty and submission. In 1662 he
married the Infanta of Portugal, a
prudent and virtuous princess, but in
no way calculated to acquire the af-
fection of a man like Charles. The
indolence of his temper and the ex-
penses of his licentious way of life
soon involved him in pecuniary diffi-
culties ; and the unpopular sale of
Dunkirk to the French was one of his
most early expedients to relieve him-
self. After a troubled reign he died
from the consequences of an apoplectic
fit, in February, 1685, in the 55th
year of his age.
Charles XII., King of Sweden;
born in Stockholm, June 27, 1682;
was instructed in the languages, his-
tory, geography, and mathematics. On
the death of his father in 1697 when
he was but 15 years old, he was de-
clared of age by the estates. Fred-
erick IV. of Denmark, Augustus II. of
Poland, and the Czar Peter I. of Rus-
sia concluded an alliance which re-
sulted in the Northern War. The
Danish troops first invaded the terri-
tory of the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp.
Charles proposed in the Council of
State the most energetic measures
against Denmark. After making some
arrangements respecting the internal
administration he embarked at Carls-
crona in May, 1700. Thirty ships of
the line and a great number of small
transports, strengthened by an English
and Dutch squadron, appeared before
Copenhagen. Arrangements were being
made for the disembarkation when
Charles, full of impatience, plunged
from his boat into the water, and was
the first who reached land. The Danes
retired before the superior power of
the enemy. Copenhagen was on the
point of being besieged when the
peace negotiated at Travendal was
signed (Aug. 8, 1700), by which the
Duke of Holstein was confirmed in all
the rights of which it had been at-
tempted to deprive him. Thus ended
the first enterprise of Charles XII.,
in which he exhibited as much intelli-
gence and courage as disinterested-
ness.
After thus checking Denmark thft
attacks of Augustus and Peter were
to be repelled. The former was be-
sieging Riga, the latter menaced Nar-
va and the country situated about the
Gulf of Finland. Without returning
to his capital, which he never revisit-
ed, Charles caused 20,000 men to be
transported to Livonia, and went to
meet the Russians, whom he found
80,000 strong in a fortified camp un-
der the walls of Narva. On Nov. 30,
1700, between 8,000 and 10,000 Swedes
placed themselves in order of battle,
under the fire of the Russians, and
the engagement began. In less than
a quarter of an hour the Russian
camp was taken by storm. Thirty
thousand Russians perished on the
field or threw themselves into the
Narva ; the rest were taken prisoners
or dispersed. After this victory Charles
crossed the Dwina, attacked the in-
trenchments of the Saxons, and gained
a decisive victory. Charles might now
have concluded a peace which would
have made him the arbiter of the
North ; but instead of so doing he pur-
sued Augustus to Poland. Augustus
attempted in vain to enter into nego-
tiations with Charles, who refused to
negotiate with him.
The war continued ; the Swedes
gained a brilliant victory at Clissau ;
in 1703 all Poland was in the posses-
sion of the conquerors; the cardinal
primate declared the throne vacant;
and by the influence of Charles the
Charles
new choice fell on Stanislaus Leczin-
sky. Augustus hoped to be secure in
Saxony, as Peter had meanwhile oc-
cupied Ingria, and founded St. Peters-
burg, at the mouth of the Neva. Bat
the victor of Narva despised an enemy
on whom he hoped, sooner or later,
to take an easy revenge, and invaded
Saxony. At Altranstadt he dictated
the conditions of peace in 1706. The
Livonian Patkul, who was the prime
mover of the alliance against Sweden,
was delivered up to him on his de-
mand, and was broken on the wheel.
The King of Sweden, however, before
he left Germany, required the em-
peror to grant to the Lutherans in Si-
lesia perfect freedom of conscience ;
and the requisition was complied with.
In September, 1707, the Swedes left
Saxony. They were 43,000 strong,
well clothed, well disciplined, and en-
riched by the contributions imposed
on the conquered. Six thousand men
remained for the protection of the
King of Poland; with the rest of the
army Charles took the shortest route
to Moscow. But having reached the
region of Smolensk he altered his plan,
at the suggestion of the Cossack bet-
man Mazeppa, and proceeded to the
Ukraine, in the hope that the Cossacks
would join him. But Peter laid waste
their country, and the proscribed Ma-
zeppa could not procure the promised
aid. General Lewenhaupt, who was
to bring reinforcements and provisions
from Livonia, arrived with only a few
troops. Pultawa, abundantly fur-
nished with stores, was about to be
invested when Peter appeared with
70,000 men. Charles, in reconnoiter-
ing, was dangerously wounded in the
thigh ; consequently, in the battle of
July 8, 1709, he was obliged to issue
his commands from a litter, without
being able to encourage his soldters by
his presence. They were obliged to
yield to superior force, and the enemy
obtained a complete victory. Charles
saw the flower of his army fall into
the power of those Russians so easily
vanquished at Narva. He himself, to-
gether with Mazeppa, fled with a small
guard, and was obliged to go several
miles on foot. He finally found ref-
nge and an honorable reception at
Bender, in the Turkish territory.
After his romantic return from Tur-
key to Sweden Charles continued to
Charles
fight. He was besieging Frederikshall,
when, on Nov. 30, 1718, as he was in
the trenches, leaning against the para-
pet and examining the workmen, he
was struck on the head by a cannon
ball. He was found dead in the same
position, his hand on his sword, in his
pocket the portrait of Gustavus Adol-
phus and a prayer book. A century
afterwards, Nov. 30, 1818, Charles
XIV. caused a monument to be erect-
ed on the spot where he fell.
Charles XIII., King of Sweden;
born Oct. 7, 1748; second son of King
Adolphus Frederick, and Louisa Ul-
rica, sister of Frederick the Great of
Prussia. His education was directed
chiefly to the learning of naval tactics,
for which purpose he engaged in sev-
eral cruises in the Cattegat. The
death of Adolphus Frederick recalled
him to Sweden, where he took an im-
portant part in the revolution of 1772.
His brother Gustavus III. appointed
him governor-general of Stockholm,
and Duke of Sundermannland. In
1774 he married Hedwig Elizabeth
Charlotte, princess 6f Holstein-Got-
torp. In the war with Russia in 1788
he received the command of the fleet,
defeated the Russians in the Gulf of
Finland, and, in the most dangerous
season of the year, brought back his
fleet in safety to the harbor of Carls-
crona, after which he was appointed
governor-general of Finland. After
the murder of Gustavus III. in 1792,
he was placed at the head of the re-
gency, and happily for Sweden, pre-
served the country at peace with all
other nations. In 1796 he resigned
the government to Gustavus Adolphus
IV., who had become of age, and re-
tired as a private man to his castle
of Rosersberg. A revolution hurled
Gustavus Adolphus IV., in 1809, from
the throne, and placed Charles at the
head of the State, as administrator of
the realm, and some months after-
ward, June 20, 1809, as King of Swe-
den, at a very critical period. He had
already adopted Prince Christian of
Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg as
his successor, and after his death,
Marshal Bernadotte, who was elected
by the Estates, in August, 1810, to
take the place of the prince. On him
he bestowed his entire confidence. May
27, 1811, he founded the Order of
Charles XIII., which is conferred
Charles
Charles Eniannel
solely on Freemasons of high degree.
June 21, 1816, he acceded to the holy
alliance. His prudent conduct in the
war between France and Russia in
1812 procured Sweden an indemnifica-
tion for Finland by the acquisition of
Norway, Nov. 4, 1814. He died Feb.
5, 1818.
Charles, Archduke of Austria;
third son of the Emperor Leopold II. ;
born in Florence, Sept. 5, 1771. In
his 20th year he distinguished himself
in the battles of Jemappes and Neer-
winden, in both of which the French
republican armies were beaten, and
was appointed governor-general of
Belgium in 1793. In the campaign the
following year victory favored the
French under Pichegru, and the Neth-
erlands were lost. He was appointed
in 1796 field-marshal of the empire
and commander-in-chief of the Aus-
trian army on the Rhine, and after
notable victories in the winter of 1797
he captured Kehl, the only position
the French occupied in Germany.
Meanwhile Bonaparte had finished his
conquest of Italy, and was rapidly
pushing his way into the heart of Aus-
tria. Charles was sent against him ;
but it was too late. He was com-
pelled to conclude the treaty of Leo-
ben (1797), which was followed by
the peace of Campo Formio. After
the fruitless congress at Rastadt he
again put himself at the head of the
Rhine army. In the protracted strug-
gle in the heart of Germany Napo-
leon's genius was on every occasion
triumphant, once only, at Aspern, did
Charles snatch a victory from him
(May 21, 22, 1809), but the bloody
battle of Wagram (July 5, 6) laid
Austria at the feet of the French em-
peror. The military career of Charles
closes here. His literary work is com-
prised in " Principles of Strategy "
(1814). He died April 30, 1847.
Charles Edward Stuart, called
THE PRETENDER, grandson of James
II., King of England, son of James
Edward and Clementina, daughter of
Prince Sobieski ; born in Rome in
1720. The last scion of the royal
house of Stuart, xrom the very cradle
he was inspired with an impulse that
induced him, at the early age of 22,
to attempt the recovery of the throne
of his ancestors. Supported by the
court of Rome, he went to Paris in
1742, and succeeding in gaining over
to his views Louis XV., and an army
was on the point of sailing from
Dunkirk for England when the Eng-
lish Admiral Norris dispersed the
whole French fleet before it had
gained the open sea. He now resolved
to trust to his own exertions. With
borrowed money, and seven trusty of-
ficers, he landed, July 28, 1745, at
Lochnanuadh, Scotland, and found
many adherents, who went over to his
party. With this he marched for-
ward, conquered the British troops
and caused himself to be proclaimed
Regent of England, Scotland and Ire-
land. His force was now 7,000
strong. With this he advanced, and
laid siege to Carlisle, Nov. 15, which,
after three days, surrendered, and
supplied him with arms.
He now caused his father to be
proclaimed King, and himself Regent
of England; removed his headquar-
ters to Manchester, and soon found
himself within 100 miles of London,
where many of his friends awaited
his arrival. He was compelled to re-
tire in the beginning of 1746. As a
final attempt he risked the battle of
Culloden, against the Duke of Cum-
berland, April 16, 1746, in which his
army was defeated and dispersed.
Five months later, on Sept. 20, 1746,
after much wandering and hardship,
he sailed from Scotland, and arrived
in France destitute of everything. By
the interest of Madame de Pompadour
Charles now received an annual pen-
sion of 200.000 livres for life ; he had
also 12,000 doubloons yearly from
Spain.
He died Jan. 31, 1788, in the 68th
year of his life. His body was car-
ried to Frascati, and entombed in a
style worthy of a king. A scepter,
crown, and sword, and the escutch-
eons of England and Scotland adorned
his coffin ; and his only brother then
living, the Cardinal of York, per-
formed the funeral services for "dead
King Charles." The Cardinal of York
received a pension from Great Britain
after 1799, and died in Frascati, July
13, 1807.
Charles Emanuel I., Duke of
Savoy, surnamed THE GREAT; born at
castle of Rivpli in 1562. He proved
his courage in the battles of Mon-
brun, Vigo, Asti, Chatillon, Ostage,
Charles I.
Charlton
at the siege of Berne, and on the
walls of Suza. He died of apoplexy in
Savillon, in 1630.
Charles Martel, son of Pepin
Heristal (mayor of the palace under
the last kings of the Merovingian
dynasty). His father had governed un-
der the weak Kings of France with so
much justice that he was enabled to
make his office hereditary in his fam-
ily. Charles rendered his reign fa-
mous by the victory in October, 732,
over the Saracens. He died in 741.
Charles I., CHAKLES FRANCIS JO-
SEPH, Emperor of Austria and King
Of Hungary; born Aug. 17, 1887;
grand-nephew of Emperor Francis
Joseph (died Nov. 21, 1916) ; mar-
ried Zita, Princess of Bourbon and
Parma, Oct. 21, 1911, succeeded to the
crowns on the death of Francis Jo-
seph ; heir apparent, Archduke Fran-
cis Joseph Otto, born Nov. 20, 1912.
Although bound by the league with
Germany the young Emperor mani-
fested strong desires for peace, and
early made himself exceedingly popu-
lar by his democratic conduct.
Charleston, a city, port of entry,
and county-seat of Charleston Co.,
S. C. ; the first city in population and
importance in the State, situated at
the confluence of the Ashley and Coop-
er rivers, 7 miles from the ocean.
Charleston has one of the safest and
most commodious harbors in the
United States. It is defended by Forts
Sumter and Moultrie. Area,, 5%
square miles. Pop. (1910) 58,833.
Charleston was founded in 1670, re-
ceiving from France about 1685 a
large influx of Protestant refugees.
It was taken by the British in 1780,
but evacuated in 1782. It was here
that the first open movement was
mado in favor of secession. In 1860
and 1861 the harbor was the scene of
several conflicts, and Fort Sumter
was reduced to ruins. In August,
1863, the city was bombarded, and in
February, 1865, after 565 days of
continuous military operations, dur-
ing which period 2,550 shells reached
the city, it was occupied by Federal
troops. On Aug. 31 and Sept. 1,
1886, the city was partially destroyed
by an earthquake. Earth tremblings
continued for some months thereafter,
but with indomitable energy the city
was soon restored to its former beauty
and prosperity.
Charleston, city and capital of
Kanawha county and of the State of
West Virginia; at junction of the
Great Kanawha and Elk rivers and
on the Chesapeake & Ohio and other
railroads; 130 miles S. W. of Wheel-
ing. It is an important commercial
center, with steamer connections with
all Ohio and Mississippi river ports;
is in a bituminous coal, salt, iron,
petroleum, and natural < gas section;
has shipyards and railroad repair
shops; and manufactures fire-brick,
wire nails, engines, boilers, and woolen
goods. Pop. (1910) 22,996.
Charlestown, a former city and
seaport of Massachusetts, since 1873
part of the municipality of Boston,
with which it is connected by bridges
across Charles river. Bunker Hill
is in its limits, and there is, on the
site, a commemorative monument 220
feet high, the cornerstone of which
was laid by Lafayette in 1821.
Charlestown, a village ar.d county-
seat of Jefferson Co., W. Va., noted
as being the place of the capture,
trial, and execution (Dec. 2, 1859),
of John Brown. Pop. (1910) 22,996.
Charlotte, a city and county-seat
of Mecklenburg Co., N. C.; the center
of the Southern cotton mill industry,
having 100 mills within a radius of
200 miles. The Mecklenburg Decla-
ration of Independence was adopted
here in 1775. Pop. (1910) 34.014.
Charlottenlmrg, a town of Prus-
sia, about 3 miles from Berlin, with a
royal palace and park, also a num-
ber of industrial and manufacturing
establishments. Pop. (1910) 305,978.
Charlottesville, a city and county-
seat of Albermarle Co., Va. It is the
seat of the University of Virginia and
of Monticello, the home of Thomas
Jefferson. Pop. (1910) 6,765.
Charlottetown, a city and capital
of Prince Edward Island, Canada, on
Hillsborough bay, and the Prince Ed-
ward Island railway. Pop. (1911)
11,198.
Charlton, John, an English ar-
tist, born in Bamborough, Northum-
berland, June 28, 1849. Died in 1893.
Charlton, John, a Canadian
statesman, born near Caledonia, N.
Y., Feb. 3, 1829. He removed to
Charm
Chase
Canada in 1849, and entered business
and political life. He was elected as
a Liberal to the Canadian House of
Commons in 1872, and held his seat
until his death. He was best known
in moral legislation. He died in 1910.
Charm, anything believed to pos-
sess some occult or supernatural pow-
er, such as an amulet, spell, etc.
Charnel-house, a chamber or
building under or near churches where
the bones of the dead are deposited.
Charon, the ferryman who conduc-
ted the souls of the departed in a boat
across the Stygian lake to the infernal
regions.
Charpoy, in the East Indies, a
small, portable bed, consisting of a
wooden frame resting on four legs,
with bands across to support the bed-
ding.
Charqni, jerked beef, the Chilian
name of which the English term is a
corruption.
Chart, a representation of a portion
of the earth's surface projected on a
plane. The term is commonly re-
stricted to those intended for navi-
gator's use, on which merely outlines
of coasts, islands, etc., are represented.
A globular chart is a chart construct-
ed on a globular projection. A Mer-
cator's chart is a chart on the pro-
jection of Mercator. A plane chart
is a representation of some part of
the superficies of the earth, in which
the spherical form is disregarded, the
meridians drawn parallel, the parallels
of latitude at equal distances, and the
degrees of latitude and longitude
equal. A selengraphical chart is a
chart representing the surface of _the
moon ; and a topographical chart is a
chart of a particular place, or of a
small part of the earth.
Charter, a written instrument, ex-
ecuted with usual forms, given as evi-
dence of a grant, contract, or other
important transacation between man
and man.
Charter-house a celebrated
school and charitable foundation in
London, England.
Charter Oak, a tree which for-
merly stood in Hartford, Conn., in
the hollow trunk of which the colonial
charter is said to have been hidden.
The story is that when •Governor An-
dros _went to Hartford in 1687 to de-
mand the surrender of the charter,
the debate in the Assembly over his
demand was prolonged until darkness
set in, when the lights were suddenly
extinguished, and a patriot, Captain
Wadsworth, escaped with the docu-
ment and hid it in the oak. The ven-
erable tree was preserved with great
care until 1856, when it was blown
down in a storm.
Charter Party, an agreement in
writing concerning the hire of a ves-
sel and the freight, containing the
name and burden of the vessel, the
names of the owner, master, and
freighter, and every other particular
as to rate of freight, duration of voy-
age, time of loading and unloading, etc.
Chartist, a name given to a politi-
cal party in England whose views
were embodied in a document called
the "People's Charter." The chief
points were, universal suffrage, vote
by ballot, annual parliaments, pay-
ment of members, equal electoral di-
visions, and the abolition of property
qualification for members.
Ciiartres, Robert Philippe
Louis Eugene Ferdinand D' Or-
leans (Dnc de) grandson of Louis
Philippe, King of the French, was
born in Paris, Nov. 9, 1840. When
only two years old he lost his father,
and six years later the Revolution
drove him, along with his family, into
exile. He joined the Union army in
the first campaign of the American
Civil War in 1862. Died in 1910.
Chartreuse, La Grande, a fa-
mous monastery of France, in the de-
partment of Isere, 14 miles N. of
Grenoble, among lofty mountains, at
an elevation of 3,281 feet above sea-
level. The access to it is very diffi-
cult. It was built in 1084, but hav-
ing been several times pillaged and
burnt down, the present building was
erected after 1676.
Charybdis, an eddy or whirlpool
in the Straits of Messina, celebrated
in ancient times, and regarded as the
more dangerous to navigators because
in endeavoring to escape it they ran
the risk of being wrecked upon Scy-
lla, a rock opposite to it.
Chase, Ann, an American patriot;
born in Ireland in 1809 ; came to the
United States in 1818 ; settled in New
Chase
Orleans in 1832 ; removed to Tampico,
Mex., in the following year, where
she met and married Franklin Chase,
United States consul, in 1836. Dur-
ing the War with Mexico, in the ab-
sence of her husband, she remained
at the consulate to protect the Amer-
ican records. On one occasion a mob
attempted to pull down the American
flag that floated over the consulate,
but she protected it with drawn re-
volver, and declared that the flag
should not be touched except over her
dead body. Later through her efforts
the city of Tampico was taken. She
died in Brooklyn, N. Y.. Dec. 24, 1874.
Chase, Salmon Portland, an
American jurist ; born in Cornish, N.
H., Jan. 13, 1808; educated at Wind-
sor, Vt., in his uncle's family at Co-
lumbus, O., and in Dartmouth Col-
lege; taught school in Washington,
while studying law with William
Wirt; opened law practice in Cincin-
nati. In 1846 he argued the Fugitive
Slave Law with William H. Seward, in
a celebrated case, and his support of
the anti-slavery cause soon made him
a leader of the Free Soil and Re-
publican parties. In 1849 he was
elected to the United States Senate;
in 1855 Governor of Ohio; in 1860
was a prominent candidate for the Re-
publican presidential nomination ; ap-
pointed Secretary of the Treasury by
President Lincoln, in 1861, and in
1864 became Chief -Justice, in which
office he presided at the impeachment
trial of President Johnson. He died
in New York city, May 7, 1873.
Chase, Samuel, one of the signers
of the American Declaration of In-
dependence; born in Somerset Co.,
Md., April 17, 1741. He was admitted
to the bar at the age of 20. Having
become a member of the colonial legis-
lature, he distinguished himself by his
bold opposition to the royal governor.
He took the lead in denouncing and
resisting the famous Stamp Act. His
revolutionary spirit placed him at the
head of the active adversaries of the
British government in his State. The
Maryland Convention of June 22,
1774, appointed him to attend the
meeting of the General Congress at
Philadelphia in September of that
year. He was also present at the
session of December following, and in
the subsequent Congresses during the
Chasseni
most critical periods of the Revolu-
tionary War. That of 1776 deputed
him on a mission to Canada along
with Dr. Franklin, Charles Carroll,
of Carrollton, and the Rev. John Car-
roll, afterward Roman Catholic arch-
bishop of Baltimore. He signed the
Declaration of Independence with
promptitude. In June, 1783, the
legislature of Maryland sent him to
London as a commissioner to recover
stock of the Bank of England, and
large sums of money which belonged
the State. In 1791 he accepted the
appointment of chief-justice of the
General Court of Maryland. Five
years afterward President Washing-
ton made him an associate judge of
the Supreme Court of the United
States. He was impeached by the
National House of Representatives.
The trial of the judge before the Sen-
ate is memorable on account of the
excitement which it produced, the
ability with which he was defended,
and the nature of his acquittal. He
continued to exercise his judicial func-
tions with the highest reputation till
1811. He died June 19 of that year.
Chase, William Henry, an Amer-
ican military officer ; born in Massa-
chusetts in 1798; was graduated at
the United States Military Academy.
At the outbreak of the Civil War he
entered the Confederate army, and
was prominent in the seizure of the
Pensacola navy yard. He died in
Pensacola, Fla., Feb. 8, 1870.
Chase, William Merritt, an
American artist, born in Franklin;
Ind., Nov. 1, 1849. He studied paint-
ing at the National Academy and sub-
sequently in Europe with Piloty, and
made a specialty of portraits and
figure pieces. He died Oct. 25, 1916.
Chasing, the art of working decor-
ative forms in low-relief in gold, sil-
ver, or other metals.
Chassaignac, Charles Louis, an
American physician ; born in New
Orleans, Jan. 5, 1862; was graduated
at the Medical Department of the
University of Louisiana; and was
president and Professor of Genito-
Urinary Diseases at the New Orleans
Polyclinic in 1902.
Chasseur, a male attendant upon
persons of distinction, attired in a
military dress, and wearing a sword.
It is also the name given by the
Chastelluj
Chattanooga
French to bodies of light infantry
which act as skirmishers and sharp-
shooters.
Chastellux, Francois Jean,
Chevalier de, a French historian ;
born in Paris in 1734 ; entered the
army in 1749 ; distinguished himself
as colonel in the Seven Years' War,
and later served in the American
Revolution as major-general under
Rochambeau, and gained the friend-
ship of Washington. He died in
Paris, Oct. 28, 1788.
Chasuble, the upper garment worn
by a Roman Catholic priest during
the celebration of mass.
Chatard, Francis: Silas Mare an,
an American clergyman; born in Bal-
timore, in 1834. He became rector
of the American College in Rome,
and in 1878 Bishop of Vincennes, Ind.
Chateaubriand, Francois Au-
gnste, Vicpmte de, a French au-
thor and politician; born in St. Malo,
Brittany, Sept. 4, 1768; died in Paris,
July 4, 1848.
Chatham, a town and port of
entry in Northumberland county.
New Brunswick; on the Miramichi
river and the Intercolonial railroad;
82 miles N. W. of Moncton; is the
center of a fertile section, with largo
grain and livestock interests; and
has machine shops and pulp and
lumber mills. Pop. (1911) 4,666.
Chatham, city, port of entry, and
capital of Kent county, Ontario, Can-
ada ; on the Thames river and the
Canadian Pacific railroad ; 67 miles
S. W. of London ; has a large ship-
ping trade in lumber and farm prod-
ucts ; and is principally engaged in
manufacturing. Pop. (1911) 10,770.
Chatham, a town, naval arsenal,
and seaport of England, county Kent,
on the Medway, about 34^ miles by
rail from London. The royal dock-
yard was founded by Queen Elizabeth
previous to the sailing of the Armada.
It has been greatly enlarged in re-
cent years, and has now capacious
docks, in which the heaviest warships
can be equipped and sent directly to
sea. The town is defended by a strong
line of fortifications which also serve
as a flank defense for the metropolis.
Pop. (1911) 42,250.
Chatham, William Pitt, Earl
of, one of the most illustrious states-
men of Great Britain ; son of Robert
Pitt, of Boconnoc, in Cornwall ; born
Nov. 15, 1708; educated at Eton and
Oxford. On quitting the university
he became a cornet in the Blues, and
in 1735 represented the borough of
Old Sarum in the House of Com-
mons, where he attracted universal
notice. Pitt uniformly supported the
cause of the people. Foreseeing the
separation of the American colonies
from the mother country if the arbi-
trary measures then adopted should
be continued ; he advocated, especially
in 1766, a conciliatory policy and the
repeal of the Stamp Act. In the same
year he was invited to assist in form-
ing a new ministry, in which he took
the office of privy-seal. In 1768 he
resigned, as he found himself inade-
quately seconded by his colleagues. In
the House of Lords he continued to
recommend the abandonment of the
coercive measures employed against
America, particularly in 1774 ; but his
warning was rejected, and in 3776 the
colonies declared themselves indepen-
dent. On April 7, 1778, though la-
boring under a severe illness, he re-
paired to the House, to attack the
unjust and impolitic proceedings of
the ministers toward the colonies. At
the close of his speech he fainted and
was conveyed out of the House, and
afterward removed to his country-
seat at Hayes, in Kent, where he died
May 11. The Parliament annexed an
annuity of £4,000 to the earldom of
Chatham ; his debts were paid, and
he was honored with a public funeral,
and a magnificent monument in West-
minster Abbey. Another was erected
in 1782 in Guildhall.
Chatham Islands, a small group
in the Pacific, lying 360 miles E. of
New Zealand, to which they politically
belong. Pop. (1911) 453.
Chattanooga, city and county-seat
of Hamilton Co., Tenn. It is sit-
uated on high grounds at the foot of
Lookout Mountain, and in the midst
of picturesque scenery. It is the site
of a National Soldiers' Cemetery, with
over 13,000 graves, and the Chatta-
nooga and Chickamauga National
Military Park. Chattanooga was set-
tled in 1836, and was originally called
Ross's landing. It was incorporated
in 1851, and in 1863 was occupied and
nearly destroyed by Union forces. It
Chattels
Check
was the scene of three of the greatest
battles of the Civil War: Chicka-
mauga, Missionary Ridge, and Look-
out Mountain. Pop. (1899), 29,100;
(1900), 32,490; (1910) 44,604.
Chattels, property movable and
immovable, not being freehold. The
word chattels is originally the same
word with cattle, all property being
reckoned in early periods by the num-
ber of heads of cattle possessed, or
their equivalent.
Chattel-ton, Thomas, an English
youth whose genius, eccentricity, and
melancholy fate have gained him much
celebrity ; born in Bristol in 1752, of
poor parents: He died of self-ad-
ministered poison in 1770, when not
yet 18 years old.
Chaucer, Geoffrey, " the father
of English poetry ; " born in London
probably about 1340. He was the son
of a vintner named John Chaucer.
His most celebrated work, "The Can-
terbury Tales," was written at differ-
ent periods between 1373 and 1400. He
died in London, Oct. 25, 1400, and
was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Chauny, a town of N. France, 19
miles S. by W. of St. Quentin by rail
and 60 miles from Paris ; normal pop.
about 12,000. The town is on the
Oise river, which is here navigable,
and before the World War contained
mirror-polishing and chemical works,
sugar factories, metal foundries, and
breweries. Its commercial importance
was derived from the St. Gobain glass
works. Chauny was the scene of
much fighting in the Hundred Years'
War, and was in the sphere of great
operations in the World War in 1917.
Chautauqna, a beautiful lake in
New York, 18 miles long and 1/3
broad, 726 feet above Lake Erie,
from which it is 8 miles distant. On
its banks is the village of Chautau-
qua, the center of a religious and
educational movement of large and
growing interest. This originated In
1874, when the village was selected
as a summer place of meeting for all
interested in Sunday-schools and mis-
sions. Since then the Chautauqua
Literary and Scientific Circle has
taken origin here, consisting of a
regular and systematic course of read-
ing, extending over four years and
entitling the student to a diploma.
Cliauveau - Lagarcle, Claude
Francois, a French advocate; born
in Chartres, in 175G. He studied law
in his native town and began to prac-
tice in Paris shortly before the out-
break of the Revolution. He became
celebrated for his eloquent defense of
those on trial in the Reign of Terror.
He was the advocate of Marie An-
toinette at her trial and also of Char-
lotte Corday. He died in 1841.
Chauvenet, William, an Ameri-
can astronomer and mathematician ;
born in Milford, Pa., May 24, 1819.
He was graduated at Yale and became
professor of mathematics and astron-
omy at the United States Naval
Academy in 1845, and professor of
astronomy at Washington University,
St. Louis, in 1859. In 1862 he be-
came chancellor of the last institu-
tion. He died in St. Paul, Minn., Dec.
13, 1870.
Chauvinism, a French word do-
rived from Nicolas Chauvin, a sol-
dier of the French Republic and of
the First Empire. His name be-
came a synonym for a passionate ad-
mirer of Napoleon, and the word
Chauvinism was formed to signify the
almost idolatrous respect entertained
by many for the First Emperor; and
now used for exaggerated devotion.
Chazars, a people of the Finnic
stock known in the 7th century on
the shores of the Caspian ; in the 9th
century their kingdom occupied the
S. E. of Russia from the Caspian
and the Volga to the Dnieper. Their
capital was long at Astrakhan, called
by them Balandshar. They were sin-
gularly tolerant of all religions, Jew-
ish, Christian, and Moslem ; and a
large part of the nation formally
adopted the Jewish faith from Jews
who fled from the persecutions of the
Emperor Leo. The power of the Cha-
zars was ultimately broken in the
12th century by the Byzantine em-
perors and the Russians.
Check, or Cheque, a draft or bill
on a bank, payable on presentation.
A check may be drawn payable to the
bearer, or to the order of some one
named ; the first form is transferable
without endorsement and payable to
any one who presents it; the second
must be endorsed, that is the person
in whose favor it is drawn must write
his name on the back of it.
Cheese
Cheese, the curd or caseine oi
knilk, with variable quantities of but-
ter and common salt, pressed into
molds and ripened by keeping.
Cheetah, the East Indian name for
two species of feline animals, the
leopard and the hunting leopard, the
latter being much used in India for
hunting game.
Chee-foo (properly the name of
the European colony of the Chinese
town of Yen-Tai), a treaty port on
the N. side of the peninsula of Shan-
tung, at the entrance to the Gulf of
Pechili, in which it is the only port
that remains open throughout the
winter. The foreign quarter is in
some sense a colony of Shanghai, and,
having the best climate of all the
treaty ports, it is much resorted to by
convalescents. The Chinese town,
built on the sandy shore, with exceed-
ingly dirty streets, has fortifications,
a signal-station, and pop. (1910 est.)
54,000. The port was the scene
of a naval demonstration in 1900,
when British and American warships
th-eatened to bombard the forts if
their hostile attitude was not aban-
doned. Tfiere were 150 missionaries
in the city, whose rescue from peril
was thus effected.
Cheh-Chiang, or Cheh-Kiang, a
maritime province of China proper,
of very great commercial importance,
containing three treaty ports, Ning-
Fo, Wan-Cbau (Wen-Chow), and
Hang-Chau ( Hang-Chow) , all of which
are to be connected with Shanghai
by a projected railway. Cheh-Chiang
is famed for its native system of edu-
cation. It contains the great relig-
ious and literary center of China,
Hang-Chow, where thousands of can-
didates yearly resort for the public
examinations. Hang-Chow is also the
capital of the province, which is ruled
by a viceroy. Marco Polo visited the
province in the 14th century, when it
contained beautiful temples, now in
ruins. The Italians in 1900 laid
claim to part of Cheh-Chiang as a
sphere of influence, but failed in their
demands. Area 36,670 square miles ;
pop. (1910 est.) 17,000,000.
Cheironectes, the Frog-fish, a
genus, comprising some of those fishes
popularly known under the name of
anglers. They are most grotesquely
and hideously shaped, having the pec-
Chemistry
toral fins supported like short feet
on peduncles, by means of which they
can creep over mud or sand when
left dry by the receding tide.
Cheirotherimn, a name given to
a great unknown animal that formed
the larger footsteps upon the slabs of
the Trias, or upper New Red Sand-
stone, and which bears a resemblance
to the human hand.
Chel-ab-kn-kil, or Ab-kn-kil-
chel, an Indian priest who lived in,
Yucatan and flourished in the 15th
century. His name is mentioned in
almost every Yucatanie legend, and
fragments of history composed by him
are found in documents of Yucatan,
and Central American missions.
Chelmsf ord, Frederic Augustus
Thesiger, Lord, born May 21, 1827,
an English soldier; served in the Cri-
mea and through the Indian mutiny,
and in 1877 was appointed command-
er of the forces and lieutenant-gov-
ernor of Cape Colony. He restored
Kaffraria to tranquillity, and was
given the chief command in the Zulu
war of 1879. On his return to Eng-
land he was made G. C. B. He
died April 9, 1905.
Chelsea, a city in Suffolk county,
Mass., practically a suburb of Bos-
ton; on Chelsea harbor, the Mystic
river, and the Boston & Maine rail-
road; 3 miles from the State house
in Boston; is the seat of a United
States Naval Hospital, Marine Hos-
pital, and Soldiers' Home; and is
chiefly engaged in manufacturing.
Pop. (1910) 32,452.
Chelsea, a borough of London, Eng-
land, on the Thames, opposite Bat-
tersea, and chiefly distinguished for
containing a royal military hospital,
originally commenced by James I. as
a theological college, but converted by
Charles II. for the reception of sick,
maimed, and superannuated soldiers.
Chelyuskin, Cape, (formerly
Northeast Cape, and sometimes called
Cape Severe), the extreme N. point of
Asia, on a peninsula of the same
name, which forms the W. arm of the
B. half of the Taimyr peninsula. It
is named after a Russian officer who
led an expedition thus far in 1742,
and here succumbed, with his wife,
to the fatigues of the journey.
Chemistry, the science treating
of the relations and combinations of
Chemnitz
atoms, or, that branch of natural
science which considers the combina-
tion of two or more substances to
form a third body with properties un-
like either of the components; and
the separation from a compound sub-
stance of the more simple bodies pres-
ent in it, each possessing distinct
properties. Considering that the steps
of the combination and decomposition
of substances can never be correctly
understood without an ultimate knowl-
edge of the properties of substances,
it follows that the science of chem-
istry must take into notice likewise
the description of all the simplest as
well as of the most complex bodies.
Chemistry ranks as one of the arts
as well as one of the sciences, and
the division of Practical Chemistry
comprehends the rules and processes
•which must be followed and the me-
chanical means for the prosecution of
the art.
Chemnitz, a town of Saxony, at
the base of the Erzgebirge, and at the
confluence of the Chemnitz river, with
three other streams, 51 miles S. S. E.
of Leipsic. It is the principal manu-
facturing town of the kingdom, its
industry consisting in weaving cot-
tons, woolens, and silks, and in print-
ing calicoes, chiefly for German con-
sumption. It supplies the world with
cheap hosiery, and makes mixed fab-
rics of wool, cotton, and jute for the
markets of Europe and the United
States. It has several extensive ma-
chine-factories, producing locomotives
and other steam-engines, with ma-
chinery for flax and wool spinning,
weaving, and mining industry.
Created a free imperial city as early
as 1125, Chemnitz, suffered much
during the Thirty Years' War. Pop.
(19iO) 287,807.
Chemnitz, Martin, a German
Protestant theologian ; born in the
mark of Brandenburg in 1522. Died
at Brunswick in 1586.
Chemulpo, Chosen, seaport town
(since 1883 a treaty-port), on the W.
coast, 25 miles by rail W. S. W. of
Seoul, the capital. It was a landing-
g)int for the Japanese occupation of
orea, during the Russo-Japanese
war of 1904, and witnessed the first
fight, in the sinking of the Russian
warships, the Variag and Korietz.
The imports attain a value of $3,-
Cherhourg
500,000 in some years; the exports
$1,COO,000. Pop. 41,000; the bulk of
the 3,000 foreigners are Japanese.
Cheney, Charles Edward, an
American clergyman ; born in Can-
andaigua, N. Y., Feb. 12, 1836. He
was ordained a clergyman of the
Protestant Episcopal Church in 1858.
Becoming rector of Christ Church,
Chicago, he incurred censure for het-
erodoxy and was tried on that charge
and deposed from the priesthood. He
at once became a leader in the Re-
formed Episcopal movement, and was
consecrated bishop of the new denomi-
nation in 1873, a post he has since
held.
Cheney, Ednah Dow (Little-
hale), an American writer ; born in
Boston in 1824. She became presi-
dent of the New England Woman's
Club and the Massachusetts Suffrage
Association. She died in 1904.
Cheney, John Vance, an Ameri-
can writer, born in Groveland, N. Y.,
Dec. 29, 1848.
Cheney, Theseus Apoleon, an
American historian ; born in Leon, N.
Y., March 16, 1830. He died in
Starkey, N. Y., Aug. 1878.
Chenile, a round fabric or trim-
ming made by uniting with two or
more sets of warps, a fine filling or
weft. The fabric is then twisted, as-
suming a cylindrical shape with weft
projecting radially from the central
line of warps.
Cheops, the name given by Herodo-
tus to the Egyptian despot whom the
Egyptians themselves called Khufu.
He belonged to the rulers who had
for their capital Memphis ; lived about
2800-2700 B. C., and built the largest
of the pyramids. According to He-
rodotus he employed 100,000 men on
this work constantly for 20 years.
Cherbourg, a strongly fortified
arsenal and seaport of France, in the
department of La. Manche (The Chan-
nel), 196 miles W. N. W. of Paris.
It is the works by which it- has been
converted into a great naval fortress
that give it its special importance.
These altogether have cost $40,000,-
000, and were chiefly carried out
under Napoleon I., Louis Philippe,
and Napoleon III. A United States
consul is resident at Cherbourg. Pon»
(1911) 43,731.
Cherbuliez
Cherbuliez, Victor, a French ro-
mancist ; born in Geneva, of a noted
family of litterateurs, July 19, 1829.
He died in Paris, July 1, 1899.
Cherokee Indians, a tribe of the
Appalachian family of North _ Amer-
ican aborigines, which occupied for
centuries the country E. and S. of
the Alleghanies. After the coloniza-
tion of North America by the whites,
a series of wars broke out at periods
ranging from 1759 to 1793 ; when, by
a treaty entered into with the United
States, they ceded their territory in
the Southeastern States, in consid-
eration of a certain cash payment,
and an annual subsidy being continued
to them. In 1805 they made further
concessions of their lands, and, in
1812, fought bravely on the American
side. In 1817-1819 new treaties were
made, which resulted in the Cherokees
being forced to a reservation of ter-
ritory afforded them W. of the Missis-
sippi. A remnant of the tribe re-
mained, hqwever,Jn the original reser-
vation in 'North Carolina. In Okla-
homa they occupy at present an area
of 7,861 square miles in the N. E. The
Cherokee:? have a chief, an assistant,
and a legislature, all chosen by vote.
They live in dwellings, not in wig-
wams. They have an asylum for or-
phans, seminaries, and 100 private
schools. Their capital is Tahlequah.
In the original North Carolina reser-
vation the Cherokees number 1,351.
They occupy an area of 98,211 acres.
Cherry, a fruit-tree of the prune or
plum tribe, very ornamental and there-
fore much cultivated in shrubberies.
The American wild cherry is a fine
large tree, the timber of which is much
used by cabinet-makers and others.
The fruit is somewhat astringent.
Cherubini, Luigi Zenobio Sal-
vatore, founder of the French Con-
servatory and instructor of hundreds
of eminent musicians ; born in Flor-
ence, Sept. 1, 1760. In the interval
from 1780 to 1788, he composed eleven
Italian operas, including "Ifigenia in
Aulide," the most successful of the
series. He died in Paris, March 15,
1842.
Chesapeake Bay, in Maryland
and Virginia, and dividing the former
State into two parts, is the largest
inlet on the Atlantic coast of the
E. 33.
Chess
United States, being 200 miles long,
and from 4 to 40 broad. Its entrance,
12 miles wide, has on the N. Cape
Charles, and on the S. Cape Henry,
both promontories being in Virginia.
Chess, the most purely intellec-
tual of all games of skill, the origin
of which has been much disputed, but
probably arose Sp India 5,000 years
ago, and thence spread through Persia
and Arabia, to Europe and America.
The game has undergone many modi-
fications during its diffusion through-
out the world, but retains marked
traces of its Oriental origin. The
game 'is played by two persons on a
board which consists of 64 squares,
arranged in 8 rows of 8 squares each,
alternately black and white. Each
CHESS.
player has two sets of pieces of op-
posite colors of 16 men each, and of
various powers, according to their
rank. These sets of men are arrayed
opposite each other, and attack, de-
fend, and capture like hostile armies.
The superior officers occupying the
first row on each side are called pieces,
the inferior men, all alike, standing
on the row immediately in front of the
pieces, are called pawns.
The chessmen being placed, the play-
ers begin the engagement by moving
alternately ; each aiming to gain a nu-
merical superiority by capturing his
opponent's men, as well as such ad-
vantages of position as may conduce to
victory.
Chest
Chest, in man and the higher
vertebrates, the cavity formed by the
breast-bone in front and the ribs and
backbone at the sides and behind,
shut off from the abdomen below by
the diaphragm. It contains the heart,
lungs, etc., and the gullet passes
through it.
Chester, as an independent word,
the name given to a circular forti-
fication in some parts of Scotland ;
as a suffix, it forms part of the names
of many towns among English-speak-
ing people, as Manchester, and indi-
cates that such places were once the
sites of Roman encampments.
Chester, a city and port of entry
in Delaware county, Pa. ; on the
Delaware river and several railroads ;
15 miles S. of Philadelphia. It is the
oldest city in the State, having been
settled by Swedes in 1643 under the
name of Upland. It is noted as the
site of the famous Roach ship-build-
ing yards, where many vessels of the
navy were constructed, as the seat
of the Crozer Theological Seminary
(Bapt.) and the Pennsylvania Mili-
tary Academy, and for its diversified
manufactures. The Federal census
of 1910 credited the city with having
128 factory-system plants, employing
$23,928,262 capital, and yielding prod-
ucts valued at $19,373,314. Pop.
(1910) 38,537.
Chester, one of the cathedral cities
of England ; 16 miles S. E. of Liver-
pool ; has St. John's Church, founded
in 698. Pop. (1911) 39.028.
Chesterfield, Philip Dormer
Stanhope, fourth Earl of, an English
statesman and litterateur ; born in
London, Sept. 22, 1694. He entered
public life in 1715, and took an active
part in the petty intrigues and party
squabbles which made up the parlia-
mentary and court history of the reign
of George II. The only writings of
this accomplished person that are at
all remembered are his " Letters " to
his son, remarkable for their ease of
style and their knowledge of society,
but notoriously reprehensible for the
principles of conduct which they in-
culcate. He died March 24. 1773.
Chesterton, Gilbert Keith, an
English journalist and author ; born
at Campden Hill, Kensington, in
1874 ; essayed poetry in boyhood ; be-
came an artist, more for recreation
than profit ; engaged in book-reviewing
Chevy Chase
for several London magazines ; then
launched into authorship. In 1917 he
was considered the most conspicuous
figure in British journalism, a master
of paradox, epigram, and anti-climax,
always entertaining, brilliant, and
belligerent.
Chetah, the hunting leopard of
India, a native of Arabia and Asia
Minor. It has its specific name (ju-
tata, crested or maned) from a short
mane-like crest at the back of the head.
When used for hunting it is hooded
and placed in a car. When a herd of
deer is seen, its keeper places its head
in the proper direction and removes
its hood. It slips from the car, and,
approaching its prey in a stealthy man-
ner, springs on it with several bounds.
It is about the size of a large grey-
hound, has a cat-like head, but a body
more like a dog's. A slightly different
species inhabits Africa.
Chevalier, Michel, a French
economist ; born in Limoges, Jan. 13,,
1806. He became a councillor of state
(1838), professor of political economy
in the College de France (1840),
member of the chamber of deputies
(1846), and a member of the Insti-
tute (1851). He died in Montpellier,
Nov. 28, 1879.
Cheviot, (from the name of a bor-
der mountain range in Scotland — the
Cheviot hills), (1) a variety of moun-
tain sheep, named from the Cheviot
hills, where they abound ; (2) a kind
of coarse woolen cloth used principal-
ly for men's clothing.
Chevrenl, Michel Eugene, a
French chemist ; born in 1786. He
wrote various works on chemistrv,
dyeing, etc. Died 1889, 103 years
old.
Chevy Chase, the name of a cele-
brated British Border ballad, which
is probably founded on some actual
encounter which took place between
its heroes, Percy and Douglas. There
are two versions of the ballad, the old-
est, originally called " The Hunting
of the Cheviot," being mentioned in
the " Complaynt of Scotland," written
in 1548, and the later one. believed
to date from the reign of Charles
II. (1660-1685), which forms the
subject of the critique by Addison
in Nos. 70 and 74 of the " Spec-
tator." The ballad is not historically
accurate.
CATTLE PENS
KNOCKING PENS C.'
DRESSED BEEF READY FOR GOVERNMENT INSPECTION STII
THE PACKII
KILLING DEPARTMENT
CATTLE READY FOR HEADING AND SKINNING
! HOGS
INDUSTRY
CUTTING HAMS
Cheyenne
Cheyenne, city, capital of the
State of Wyoming, is situated on a
plateau 6,075 feet above the sea and
contains Fort Russell, a United States
military post, and the main repair
shops of the Union Pacific railroad.
Pop. (1910) 11,320.
Cheyenne s, a tribe of American
Indians, originally of Algonquin or
Dakota stock, at one time settled in
Wyoming. To the number of 2,069
(1899), they were settled in Okla-
homa on a reservation of 529,682
acres. They are in a backward state
of civilization and possess a primitive
form of tribal government.
Cliiang-lisi, or Kiang-si, one of
the 18 provinces into which China
proper is divided. The area is 69,480
square miles. Pop. (according to 1910
census published by the Government
in 1911), 16,255,000. The province
contains the treaty port of Kin-Kiang
or Chin Chiang, on the Yang-tze-
Kiang, a town of 53,000 inhabitants.
Here are established famous manu-
factories of porcelain. The province
produces tea and silk, besides porce-
lain.
Chiang-Su, or Kiang-Su, an im-
portant maritime province of China
proper. It has an area of 38,600
square miles (about that of Pennsyl-
vania), and a pop. estimated in 1910
at 15,380,000, according to the census
published by the Government in 1911.
The great commercial importance of
this province is denoted by its posses-
sion of four treaty ports, Shanghai,
Nanking, Su-Chow, and Chin-Kiang.
Half the foreign population of China
(14,000 in 1900) is established in this
province. The capital is Nanking.
Commercially the province is con-
trolled by the English, who have in-
vested largely in railways, mills and
government concessions.
Chiapas, a State of the Republic
of Mexico, on the Pacific slope, having
an area of 27,222 square miles and a
.)op. (1910) of 438,843. The capital,
fuxtla Gutierrez, is also the chief
town. The State is in many parts
mountainous, and is also in many
parts traversed by noble streams, in-
cluding the Rio Chiapas. It forms
part of the Central American table-
land, and has a fine climate, although
the whole region is largely clothed in
primeval forests.
Chicago
Chiaro-oscnro, that branch of
painting which has for its object the
combination and arrangement of the
light and shadow of a picture to the
best advantage.
Cnibcnas, or Muyscas, a tribe of
South American Indians who formerly
lived E. of the Magdalena river, oc-
cupying the region from its head wat-
ers to the Sierra Nevada de Merida.
They were partially civilized. They
were ruled by women as well as men
in the line of succession, and believed
in a Supreme Being. They were con-
?uered in a war with the Spaniards in
537 and their descendants constitute
a large part of the present population
of Colombia.
Chibouque, a Turkish pipe with a
long stem.
Chica, or Chicha, the name given
in Brazil to a species of Sterculia, the
seeds of which are eaten. They are
about the size of a pigeon's egg, and
have an agreeable taste. Also a red
coloring matter used by some tribes
of North American Indians to stain
the skin. The word is also used as a
name of a dance popular among the
Spaniards and the South American
settlers descended from them.
Chicago, city, port of entry, and
county-seat of Cook Co., III. ; the sec-
ond city in population in the United
States. It is built on the S. W. shore
of Lake Michigan, about 18 miles N.
of its S. extremity. It is the center
of the Western and Lake commerce
and has a large water front of 30
miles. A portion of the shore is pro-
tected by a massive wall. The city is
one of the greatest commercial centers
in the world, and is connected by
steamship and railroad lines with all
parts. The lake shore is protected by
breakwaters, forming a splendid har-
bor at the mouth of the Chicago river.
The exterior breakwater is 5,436 feet
long, and extends in a N. B. and S.
W. direction about one mile from the
shore. Piers and breakwaters, built
as continuations of the shores of Chi-
cago river, form a harbor of about 455
acres, with an average depth of 16
feet. At the mouth of the Calumet
river, in South Chicago, is another
harbor 300 feet wide between piers.
The Erie canal, terminating at Buf-
falo, provides a means of commercial
communication with the Atlantic
Chicago
ports. Area 199 square miles ; popu-
lation (1890), 1,099,850; (1900), 1,-
698,575; (1916, est.) 2,550,000.
The city was built originally on the
flat prairie, at an elevation too low
to secure proper drainage. When this
became apparent the grade of the
whole city was raised 7 feet and the
streets and buildings brought to the
new level. The Chicago river traverses
the city, and by its peculiar course
divides it into three sections, known
as the North, South and West Sides,
which are connected by many bridges.
The city owns an extensive water
works system. It was found that as
the city grew, the old water supply
became inadequate, and in order to
reach a point in tie lake where the
water would be uncontaminated by
sewage, cribs were built two to four
miles out, with a tunnel connecting
them with the shore. By 1900 there
were five of these cribs, 35 miles of
tunnel and 1,802 miles of main. On
Jan. 17, 1900, a drainage canal was
opened to carry off the city's sewage.
It consists of an open drain connect-
ing the Chicago and Des Plaines
rivers, and extending thence to the
Illinois and Mississippi rivers.
Chicago is surrounded by some of
the largest and finest parks and boule-
vards in the country. The park area
in 1916 was 4,600 acres and comprised
about 80 parks and squares, and the
boulevards had a length of about 48
miles within the city limits and large
suburban extensions. There are six
large parks, Lincoln, Humboldt, Gar-
field, Douglas, Washington, and Jack-
son, all connected by boulevards. The
Sheridan road is a superb driveway
running along the lake shore to Fort
Sheridan, 25 miles distant.
Chicago is noted for the number,
size and height of its public and busi-
ness buildings, and for their hand-
some and complete interior finishings.
Among them are : the Auditorium, ten
stories high, contains the largest thea-
ter and opera house in the world, cap-
able of seating 7,000 persons, a
great hotel with 400 guest rooms, and
also 136 offices and store rooms, cost
$2,000,000; the Art Institute, which
ranks among the first art museums in
the country ; Board of Trade Build-
ing; Chicago Stock Exchange, 13
stories high ; the Monadnock building,
Chicago
16 stories high, containing 1,600 of-
fices and costing $2,500,000 ; the Ma-
sonic Temple, 21 stories high and
costing $3,500,000 ; the Public Library,
a magnificent structure costing $2,-
000,000 and containing a library of
250,000 books ; the Woman's Temple,
12 stories high, containing 300 offices
and costing $1,500,000 ; the City Hall
and County Court and Criminal Court
buildings ; the Newberry Library, and
numbers of handsome club buildings,
stores and theaters, besides many ele-
gant and costly private residences.
According to the Federal census of
1914 there were reported 10,114 manu-
facturing establishments, employing
$1,189,976,000 capital and 386,794 per-
sons ; paying $213,351,000 for wages
and $901,658,000 for materials; and
yielding products of an aggregate value
of $1,482,814,000. The principal in-
dustries were wholesale slaughtering
and meat packing, foundry and ma-
chine shop products, men's clothing,
in factories ; iron and steel, agricul-
tural implements, railroad cars, print-
ing and publishing, masonry, and malt
liquors ; bakery products, coffee and
spices, furniture, electrical supplies,
women's clothing, soap and candles,
wholesale slaughtering (without meat
packing), linseed oil, planing mill
products and confectionery. Chicago
is the greatest live stock and grain
market in the world, as well as the
greatest railroad center.
At the close of the school year 1914-
15, the children of school census age
aggregated 954,413 ; the enrollment in
public day schools was 345,512 and
in private and parochial schools (large-
ly estimated) 114,000, and the average
daily attendance in public day schools
was 291,255. For higher education
there were 23 public high schools, one
public normal school, one endowed
normal school, 27 private secondary
schools, St. Ignatius College (R. C.,
opened 1869), and the University of
Chicago (1892). The principal pri-
vate secondary schools were Lewis In-
stitute, Chicago Institute, Seminary
of the Sacred Heart, De La Salle In-
stitute, University School, Harvard
School, Kirkland School, St. Xayier's
Academy, and Kenwood Institute.
There were 30 training schools for
nurses, mostly connected with hospit-
als. Chicago has 1,183 churches, chap-
Chicago Drainage Canal
Chicago, University
els, and missions. There are 102
hospitals and dispensaries in the city.
Among the largest of the former are
the Mercy, Cook County, Michael
Reese, United States Marine, and the
Hahnemann. The benevolent institu-
tions include the Old People's Home,
Newsboys' Home, Washington Home
for the Reformation of Inebriates,
Foundlings' Home,, Home for the
Friendless, and the Protestant, St.
Joseph's and St. Mary's Orphan
Asylums.
Under the National Banking Act of
1913, Chicago became the central re-
serve city of the Sixth Federal Re-
serve District, and the exchanges at
the clearing-house there, in the year
ended Sept. 30, 1916, aggregated $19,-
129,452,000, a gain of $3,725,285,000
in a year.
The commercial interests of the city
were greatly affected by the World
War. In the calendar year 1916 the
imports of merchandise had a value of
$29,006,276, and the exports $3,990,-
173, a decrease in the total of 1914 of
$5,700,314 in the former and $21,992,-
671 in the latter.
In 1916 the assessed valuation of all
taxable property was $1,042.340,937;
the city assets (1915) were $170,741,-
460; and the debt (1916) was $30,-
563,094.
The site of Chicago was first visited
by Joliet and Marquette, French mis-
sionaries and explorers, in 1673. In
1685 a fort was built there, com-
manded by an officer in the Canadian
service, and before the end of the 17th
century the Jesuits made it a mission
post. Indian hostilities prevented fur-
ther occupation till the United States
government established there the fron-
tier post of Fort Dearborn in 1804,
which was destroyed by Indians in the
War of 1812, but rebuilt in 1816,
when a permanent settlement began.
In 1830 the entire population was
only 70 persons, but in 1835 a town
was organized, and in 1837 it was
incorporated as a city with 4,000 in-
habitants and an area of 10 miles. On
Oct. 8 and 9, 1871, occurred the mem-
orable fire which reduced a large
part of the city to ashes, destroyed its
entire business center, and swept over
an area of more than three square
miles, causing a loss of about $190,-
000,000. Nearly 20,000 buildings were
consumed, 100,000 people were made
homeless, and 200 lives were lost. An-
other disastrous fire broke out in 1874
in the heart of the city, which con-
sumed 18 blocks and over 600 homes,
with a loss of over $4,000,000. In
May, 1886, anarchist riots at the Hay-
market resulted in the death of six
police officers, the wounding of sev-
eral others, the conviction of eight
rioters, and the execution of four. The
World's Columbian Exposition was
held in Chicago from May 1 to Oct.
30, 1893. Fully $17,500,000 were ex-
pended in the construction of the fair
•and its operation, and it was visited
by 17,000,000 people. In October,
1903, Chicago celebrated the centen-
nial of its settlement.
Chicago Drainage Canal, a
canal intended chiefly for carrying off
the sewage of Chicago, but which may
be used for commercial purposes ; be-
gun in September, 1892 ; completed in
January, 1900. The main channel is
29 miles long, extending from Chicago
to Lockport on the Illinois river, into
which stream it discharges. About 9
miles of the channel is cut through
solid rock, with a minimum depth of
22 feet and a width of 160 feet on the
botton in rock, which makes it the
largest artificial channel in the world.
The length of the waterway from the
mouth of the Chicago river to its ter-
minus S. of Joliet is about 42 miles.
The cost of the canal was estimated
at about $45,000,000.
Chicago, University of, a co-edu-
cational (non-sectarian) institution in
Chicago, 111., founded by John D.
Rockefeller, dating from Sept. 10,
1890, when the institution was incor-
porated under the laws of Illinois. A
previous institution known as the Uni-
versity of Chicago had gone out of ex-
istence, owing to financial difficulties,
in 1886. A number of Baptists de-
sired to have a college in Chicago, and
succeeded in interesting John D.
Rockefeller in the plan. He promised
$600,000 toward the establishment of
the college if $400,000 more should be
raised by June, 1890. This amount
was duly raised, and the plan was
enlarged in scope so as to include a
university instead of a mere college.
Further large gifts were made by Mr.
Rockefeller and by others, and the
doors were opened for instruction Oct.
1, 1892.
Chickadee
Chickadee, the popular name of
the black-cap titmouse.
Chickahominy, a river in Virginia,
affluent of the James and running
parallel to it for many miles from its
source N. W. of Richmond. On and
near it occurred many of the most
important events of McClellan's
Peninsular campaign in 1862. The
second battle of Cold Harbor under
Grant took place in 1864.
CLickamauga, Battle of, an en-
gagement fought Sept 19-20, 1863,
between the Union army under Rose-
crans and the Confederate under
Bragg and Longstreet. Out of about
100,000 troops engaged, some 30,000
were reported as killed, wounded and
missing — a very bloody and prac-
tically drawn battle, though claimed
as a Confederate victory, and causing
the replacement of Rosecrans by
Grant. But for the splendid stand
made by General George H. Thomas
it would have been a Union defeat.
CLickasaw, an Indian tribe, occu-
pying a reservation near the center
of Oklahoma in Grady county. The
tribe has a chief and a legislature
chosen by popular vote.
Chickaslia, city and capital of
Grady county, Okl.; near the Wich-
ita river and on the Chicago, Rock
Island & Pacific and other railroads;
39 miles S. of Oklahoma City; was
the chief town of the Chickasaw Na-
tion in the former Indian Territory;
is largely engaged in mercantile and
farming interests; and has lumber,
flour, cotton, and cotton-seed oil mills,
and brick yards. Pop. (1910) 10,320.
Chicopee, a city in Hampden
county, Mass.; on the Chicopee and
Connecticut rivers and the Boston &
Maine railroad; 4 miles N. of Spring-
field; is an important manufacturing
city, with fine water power from
Chicopee Falls; chief products, cot-
ton and brass goods. Pop. (1910).
25,401.
Chief, in heraldry, the upper part
of the field cut off by a horizontal line.
It generally occupied one-third of the
area of the shield.
Chief Justice, the title of the chief
member of the United States Supreme
Court, also of the judges holding simi-
lar rank in some of the States. In j
Canada it is the title of the leading I
Cliignecto Bay
judge of the Dominion and Provincial
Supreme Courts, and in England the
presiding judge in the Queen's Bench
Division of the High Court of Justice
is called a " Lord Chief Justice."
The following is a list of the per-
sons appointed as Chief-Justice of the
Supreme Court of the United States
from its establishment :
John Jay, of New York.
Oliver Ellsworth, of Connecticut.
John Marshall, of Virginia.
Roger Brooke Taney, of Maryland.
Salmon Portland Chase, of Ohio.
Morrison R. Waite, of Ohio.
Melville W. Fuller, of Illinois.
Edward D. White, of Louisiana.
Chigi, a princely Italian family,
whose founder was Agostino Chigi
(died 1512), of Siena, who in Rome
became banker to the popes, and was
noted for his pomp and encourage-
ment of art.
CHICORY.
Chignecto Bay, an inlet at the
head of the Bay of Fundy, in British
North America. It separates Nova
Scotia from New Brunswick, is 30
miles long and 8 broad, and has an
isthmus of only 14 miles in width be-
tween it and Northumberland Strait,
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In Oc-
tober, 1888, work was begun on the
Chignon
construction of a ship railway across
the neck of land connecting Nova
Scotia with the main land of Canada.
The promoters had spent nearly $4,-
000,000 on the work, when in 1890
a financial depression in London pre-
vented them from obtaining further
capital. In March, 1901, the under-
taking was revived.
Chignon, (1) the back of the neck,
(2) back hair; the back hair of wo-
men, a protuberance of artificial hair
on the hinder part of the head, worn
by women about 1866-1875.
Chigo, Chigre, or Jigger, a
West Indian and South American spe-
cies of apterous insect of the flea kind,
which penetrates the skin and breeds
there, unless speedily eradicated.
Chihuahua, the largest State of
Mexico ; bounded on the N. and N. E.
by New Mexico and Texas ; area, 87,-
802 square miles; pop. (1910) 405,
707. The State is better adapted for
stock-raising than for agriculture ; the
fertile districts are mainly confined
to the valleys and river courses. Cot-
ton is grown in the S. The silver
mines were for centuries among the
richest in Mexico, and mining is still
the chief industry. The capital, Chi-
huahua, 225 miles S. of El Paso, rises
like an oasis in the desert, among
roses and orange groves. The city and
State were frequently raided by the
Villa bandits in 1915-17. See AP-
PENDIX: Mexican Campaign. Pop.
(1910) 39,706.
Child, Lydia Maria, an American
prose-writer ; born in Medford, Mass.,
Feb. 11, 1802. She was an ardent
abolitionist, and published the first
book written on that subject, entitled
" Appeal for that class of Americans
called African." Dr. Channing went
over to Roxbury to thank her for it.
She died in Wayland, Mass., Oct. 20,
1880.
Children, Societies for the Pre-
vention of Cruelty to, organiza-
tions that had their origin in New
York City, and have since been adopt-
ed in most American and many
European cities.
Children's Crusade, The, a sin-
gular movement in 1212, preached in
France by Stephen, a peasant boy,
and in Germany the same year by
Nicholas, also a peasant boy. Some
90,000 children left their mothers and
Chile
schoolmasters in the spring " to rescue
the Holy Land from the infidels." Part
perished by shipwreck and the rest
were sold into slavery.
Childs, George William, an
American philanthropist and pub-
lisher ; born in Baltimore, Md., May
22, 1829. He published the Philadel-
phia " Public Ledger," 1864-1894. He
assisted in establishing a home for
printers at Colorado Springs. He died
in Philadelphia, Feb. 3, 1894.
Chile, a Republic of South Amer-
ica, bounded on the N. by Peru, E.
by Bolivia and the Argentine Repub-
lic, S. and W. by the Pacific Ocean ;
area, 289,829 square miles; pop.
(1914) 3,596,541; principal towns,
Santiago (capital), 397,941; Valpa-
raiso, 187,240; Concepcion, 69,776;
Iquique, 45,012; Talca, 39,526; and
Chilian, 39,173.
The climate of Chile is temperate.
The temperature is remarkably even
and pleasant, and always cool at
night. The S. wind blows fiercely
during many days of summer, dry
and cold ; the N. wind brings heat,
tempest and rain ; other winds are
unknown. Central Chile, between lat.
32° and 36°, is fertile. In Southern
Chile generally the land is poor, and
on account of excessive rain of hardly
any value for agriculture, which, in-
deed, is carried on in a very primitive
fashion, but the soil of the valleys,
where large herds of cattle graze, is
very fertile.
Chile was the first South American
State to construct railways. In 1915
there were 5,015 English miles of lines
open to traffic, of which the State
owned 3,236 miles. The Arica to La
Paz railway, with a length of 266
miles, of which 127 are in Chile and
139 in Bolivia, was opened Aug. 6,
1912; cost, $12,250,000. A railway
system crossing the Andes has 18
miles in Chile and 88 in the Argentine
Republic, connecting the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans from Buenos Ayres to
Valparaiso. There were 18,181 miles
of telegraph lines with 946 offices,
through which 12,596,236 messages
were sent in 1914.
The government is that of a repub-
lic, the chief magistrate being a
President, elected for five years, who
is thereafter ineligible to immediate
reelection. The President has a cab-
Chile
inet consisting of six members and a
Council of State of 11, six of whom
are named by Congress. Legislation
is conducted by a Chamber of Depu-
ties, chosen by popular vote, and who
serve three years, renewable by thirds
every three years ; and a Senate, mem-
bers of which are chosen for nine
years. For administrative purposes
Chile is divided into 23 provinces and
1 territory, and the provinces in turn
into departments, sub-delegations and
districts. Each province is governed
by an intendant, who also acts as
governor of the department in which
the capital of the province is situated.
The departments are governed by gov-
ernors, the minor divisions by sub-
delegates and inspectors. The estab-
lished religion of Chile is Roman
Catholic, but the constitution guaran-
tees freedom of worship. Education
receives much attention, but is not
compulsory.
The name of Chile is supposed to
be derived from an ancient Peruvian
word signifying "snow." The N. por-
tion, as far as the river Maule, formed
part of the dominions of the Incas of
Peru, and the S. was held by the val-
iant Araucanians. The first European
to land in Chile was the Portuguese
discoverer Magellan, at Chiloe, in
1520. After the conquest of Peru by
Pizarro, an expedition was made to
Chile from that country overland, un-
der the leadership of Diego de Alma-
gro, in 1535. This expedition pene-
trated as far as the Rio Clano, but
returned unsuccessful. Another was
sent under command of Pedro Val-
divia in 1540, which succeeded in an-
nexing the territory as far as the river
Maipu. Santiago, the capital, was
founded by Valdivia in 1542. Dur-
ing the colonial period the governors
of Chile were appointed by the King
of Spain, but were subordinate to the
viceroys of Peru. In 1810 a . revolt
against the Spanish power broke out,
in which Don Bernardo O'Higgins, son
of one of the last viceroys of Peru,
but a native of Chile, played a con-
spicuous part, and finally became the
first dictator of the new republic. The
conflict between the Spanish troops
and the Republican army continued
until 1826, when peace was definitely
settled and Chile left to govern itself.
The first constitutional president was
Gen. Blanco Encalada. The govern-
Clii-IJ
ment was unsettled till 1830. In
1833 the present constitution was
adopted. Revolutions broke out in
1851 and 1859, but since then there
has been no serious attempt to over-
turn the government by force of arms.
In 1864 Chile gave Peru very valuable
support in her war with Spain. In
1879 Chile declared war against Bo-
livia on account of an alleged viola-
tion of treaty rights, and immediately
after against Peru, with which Bolivia
was allied. For a time the Peruvian
fleet kept the Chilians in check, but
in August, 1879, the Peruvian ironclad
" Huascar" was captured by the
Chilian men-of-war " Cochrane " and'
"Blanco Encalada," both armor-
plated. After this event the success
of the Chilians was uninterrupted.
Peruvian towns were bombarded, and
their other warships captured. Final-
ly Lima was taken by storm on June
21, 1881. The Chilians occupied Lima
and Callao until Oct. 30, 1885, when
a treaty of peace was signed between
Chile and Peru. Up to 1900 no treaty
of peace had been signed by Chile and
Bolivia; a treaty of indefinite truce
having been agreed to in 1884. In
1885 Jose Manuel Balmaceda, repre-
senting the Liberal party, was elected
President. The hostile factions or-
ganized a rebellion and formed a
junta, under whose management the
forces of Balmaceda were repeatedly
defeated. He committed suicide Sept.
19, 1891. In a riot in Valparaiso
some United States marines were set
upon and wounded. Reparation was
demanded and refused, and . war be-
tween Chile and the United States
seemed imminent. Two war vessels
were sent to Chile to enforce the de-
mands of the U. S. and an apology
and compensation were given. In 1902
the boundary dispute with Argentina,
arbitrated by Great Britain, led later
to a treaty of continuous peace.
Chi-Li,' or Chin-Li, one of the 18
provinces into which China proper Is
divided. It has an area of 115,800
square miles. It is in many respects
the most important of the Chinese
provinces, containing as it does the
imperial capital. Pekin, the treaty
port of Tien-Tsin, and the only com-
pleted line of railway in the Empire.
The Great Wall runs across the whole
of the N. part of Chi-Li, while on the
coast are the forts of Taku, and the
Chilkat Inlet
China
nearest approach to a naval station
belonging to the Chinese government.
There are Christian missionaries of
many denominations throughout the
province. No census has been taken
since 1879, when the population was
returned as 17,937,000. In 1914 the
customs authorities estimated the pop-
ulation at 22,970,000. Chi-Li has
valuable coal mines at Kai-Ping, and
other mineral resources. The soil is
fertile. The provincial capital is
Tientsin, estimated pop. 800,000.
Chilkat Inlet, the W. arm of
Lynn Canal, an inlet in Alaska.
Chilkat, or Dalton, Pass, a route
in Alaska traversed by miners in
reaching the gold fields of the Klon-
dike.
Chilkoot Inlet, the Eastern arm
of Lynn Canal, an inlet in Alaska.
Chilkoot Pass, a pass over the
mountains in the Northern part of
Alaska, traversed by thousands of
gold-seekers in the Klondike gold fields
excitement in 1897-1898. By way of
the Chilkoot Pass is the most direct
route to Dawson City, the principal
starting point to the Klondike region.
Chillicothe, Ohio, capital of Ross
County, 50 miles S. of Columbus, was
the capital of Ohio (1800-10). It is
an agricultural and industrial centre.
Pop. (1910) 14,508.
Chill on, Castle, a fortress of
Switzerland, in the canton Vaud, 6
miles S. E. of Vevay. It stands on
an isolated rock at the E. end of the
Lake of Geneva. It was built in 1238,
by Amadeus IV. of Savoy, and was
long used as a State prison.
Chiloe, the insular province of
Chile ; consists of the island of that
name on the W. coast, which is
115 miles long, with a maximum
breadth of 43 miles, and is separated
from the mainland by a narrow
strait on the N., and by a gulf 30
miles wide on the E. ; and of a number
of neighboring islets, mostly unin-
habited ; total area, 6,979 square
miles; pop. (1914) 95,756, almost all
Indians living on the principal is-
land.
Chimborazo, a conical peak of the
Andes, in Ecuador, 20,517 feet above
the sea, but only about 11,000 above
the level of the adjacent Quito valley.
China, in 1917 alternately a repub-
lic, an empire, and again a republic,
is the most populous and, excluding
Siberia, the largest country in Asia.
China Proper is remarkable as the
most compact nationality in the world,
having an area estimated by the Gov-
ernment at 1,532,420 square miles,
with a population of 320,000,000. The
rest of the country includes the de-
pendencies of Manchuria, Mongolia,
Inner Tibet, and Turkestan, which
cover an area of 2,744,750 square
miles, with a population of about 29,-
000,000.
The dependencies are described un-
der their respective headings, and
this article refers to China Proper,
ancient Cathay or The Middle King-
dom, the centre of power and people.
It occupies the E. slope of the table-
lands of Central Asia, and is almost
in the form of a square. Two-thirds
of the interior are estimated to be
mountainous ; the central and northern
hills are off-shoots of the Kuen-lun
range, while in the southeast extensive
chains stretch from the Tibetan high-
lands to the eastern seaboard. Be-
tween these mountain-systems, and al-
most parallel flow the two great rivers
of China, the Hwang-ho, and the Yang-
tze. Besides these rivers and their
numerous tributaries, the most notable
are the Se-Kiang in the south, and the
Pei-ho in the north. The waterways
are the highways of China ; joined by
a vast network of canals, they form a
gigantic system of inland communi-
cation, always thronged with craft of
every description. The coast-line, an
irregular curve of about 2,500 miles,
is fringed with islands, the largest of
which, Formosa, was ceded to Japan
after the war of 1894-5. The greater
part of China lies within the temper-
ate zone, but the climate is marked
by a great range of temperature, from
tropical heat in the south, to arctic
conditions in the north, according to
seasons. The flora, forestry, and
fauna, are allied to the climatic con-
ditions. China is well supplied with
minerals, including gold, silver, cop-
Eer, and iron ; there are extensive coal-
elds, inexhaustible beds of kaolin,
or porcelain earth, and salt is abun-
dant. Covering an immense area in
the north, is the loess deposit, a
brownish-yellow earth of great fertil-
ity, wafted thither by the simoons and
winds of the ages, from the disin-
China
tegrating Himalayan plateaux. Agri-
culture is held in veneration ; rice as
the principal food of the people is
the staple crop, but other grains also
are grown. The mulberry tree is ex-
tensively cultivated for silkworms,
while the opium poppy, and the tea-
plant, furnish important crops. The
chief manufactures are silk, paper,
porcelain and cotton goods ; the inven-
tiveness of the Chinese is of ancient
date, paper-making, printing, gunpow-
der, etc., having been discovered by
them long before they were known to
Occidental nations. Besides an enor-
mous domestic trade, a considerable
and increasing import and export
trade is carried on ; tea, raw and man-
ufactured silk being exported, and cot-
ton goods, metals, metal goods, and
opium being imported. Forty-seven
treaty ports were open (1917) to for-
eign commerce. The principal cities
are, Peking, the capital, with pop. est.
in 1912 at 692,500, Canton, Tientsin,
Han-kau, Nanking, Shanghai, Ning-
po, Fu-chau, Amoy, Swatow, and 30
or 40 more, with a population from
800,000 to 1,320,000. In 1914 5,960
miles of railway were open for traffic,
and 2,273 miles more were building;
there were nearly 36,500 miles of tele-
graph lines, which were being extend-
ed throughout the country. Peking is
in direct telegraphic and railway com-
munication with Europe. China is
being gradually opened up to foreign
intercourse through missionary and
political influence, but a great part of
the country is still unknown to for-
eigners. The modern development of
the export trade, railways, telegraphs,
etc., has been due to foreign rivalry
for China's trade, and has led to a
complication of interests whence have
arisen the political catch-phrases,
"The Integrity of the Chinese Em-
pire," " The Open Door." Various
foreign " spheres of influence," and
" concessions," recognized and granted
by the Chinese Government, are the
Russian, British, and French " spheres
of influence," and the American and
German " concessions," respectively
centred — the Russian in Manchuria,
the British at Wei-hai-Wei and in the
Kau-lung Peninsula opposite their in-
sular possession, Hongkong ; the
French at Pakhoi and the southern
provinces of Kwang-si, and Yun-nan,
China
the American in Han-kau, Wu-chang,
and Canton ; and the German in 1897-
1914 at Kiaochau.
Ethnologically the Chinese belong
to the Mongolian race, with the char-
acteristic conformation of the head
and face, tawny skin, black and lank
hair (which as a sign of subjection to
their Tartar conquerors they wear in
the form of a queue or "pig-tail"),
oblique eyes, high-cheek bones, and
monosyllabic language. They are
peaceable and domesticated ; capable
of a high degree of organization and
local self-government, thrifty, sober,
industrious, literary but unimagina-
tive, and thoroughly imbued with a
practical, commercial spirit. The prin-
ciple of filial piety, and ancestral wor-
ship form the basis of Chinese society.
Vacillation, duplicity, and insincerity,
largely the result of excessive polite-
ness and the desire to please, gam-
bling, and opium smoking, are among
their vicious traits. Education is
general, and is largely fostered by the
Chinese executive system which is
based on those noteworthy competi-
tive examinations, which are intended
to sift out from the millions of edu-
cated Chinese, the best and ablest for
the public service. Many young men
of the higher classes are sent to the
United States and Europe for instruc-
tion in English and the sciences. In
1898 an " Imperial University of
China" was established by imperial
decree. Dr. William A. P. Martin,
an American missionary and educator,
was appointed first president of this
institution, and three of its professors
are from the United States.
The Confucian, the Buddhist, and
the Taoist, are the chief forms of re-
ligion ; Confucianism and Taoism are
indigenous, but Buddhism was intro-
duced from India. Confucianism, the
basis of their social and political
systems, has been professed by all
their greatest men, and is still the sole
belief of the educated classes.
For many years the Empress Dow-
ager ruled the empire as regent or
as practical empress. She died No-
vember 15, 1908, the Emperor Kuang-
Hsu haying died November 9, Pu-
Yi, a child emperor two years old, suc-
ceeded, the government being placed in
the hands of a regent. The provincial
governor or national delegate possesses
China
the power of life or death, and under
him are the superintendent of provin-
cial finances, the provincial criminal
judge, and the provincial educational
examiner ; each communicates through
the governor with his especial board
in Peking. China has (on paper) an
enormous army, each of the 18 prov-
inces being supposed to provide a mil-
itary force or corps of 8,000 to about
68,000 men, and aggregating from 540,-
000 to 660,000, known as the Ying
Ping or National Army, and called
also the Green Flags and the Five
Camps — five being the unit of sub-di-
vision. The elite of the army is the
Shen-Che-Yeng (Black Flags), the for-
eign-drilled Tientsin Army corps, about
35,000 strong, and the Pa-ki or Eight
Banners containing about 300.000
Manchu warrior-descendants. Since
the Chino- Japanese War (1894^95),
there is no effective Chinese fleet, al-
though a few swift cruisers have been
added to the Chen-Hai and the Kang-
Chi which alone remained of the Pei-
Yang squadron. The national revenue
is derived" from land and property tax-
es, customs, and excise, and in 1916
the budget for ordinary and extraor-
dinary revenue and expenditure was
$325,000,000. Prior to the Boxer
troubles (1900-1901), the external
debt amounted to about $270,000,000 ;
to this was added in 1901 the in-
demnity of $375,000,000; estimated
debt in 1914 $960,000,000.
China's authentic history begins i
with the Chow dynasty founded by !
Woo-wang, which lasted from 1100 ,
B. c. to 258 B. c. Confucius was born
under Ling-wang of this dynasty about
550 B. c. Chow-siang, the founder of
the Tsin dynasty, from which China
takes its name, overcame all rivals,
and died in 251 B. o. Che-Hoang-ti,
his great-grandson, was the first to
assume the title of "Hoang" (em-
peror) ; during his reign, in 214 B.
c., the great wall was begun as a
protection against marauding Tar-
tars.
The Mongols under Genghis Khan
and his son Ogdai conquered China in
the 13th century, and in 1259 Kublai
Khan, a nephew, ascended the throne
and founded the Mongol dynasty. In
the 13th century Marco Polo, the
Venetian traveler, visited China, and
published in Europe the earliest au-
China
thentic account of the country. In
1368 the native Ming dynasty in the
person of Hungwu gained the ascend-
ency, which it retained until replaced
in 1618 by the present Manchu dynas-
ty, in the person of Tungchi. Diplo-
matic connections with Occidental na-
tions did not commence until the Brit-
ish embassy of Lord Macartney ar-
rived at Peking in 1792, and it was
not until after the war with Great
Britain in 1840, occasioned by the de-
plorable imposition of the opium traf-
fic on China, that commercial treaties
opened the country to foreign trade.
The first treaty with the United States
was negotiated by Caleb Gushing in
1844. .War with Great Britain again
occurred in 1856 over the Chinese seiz-
ure of a Hongkong vessel, France
joining in, to secure better protection
for missionaries and trade. From 1850
to 1865 southern China was disturbed
by the Taiping Rebellion. In 1894-95
occurred the war with Japan over
Korea, which resulted in a series of
brilliant land and naval victories for
Japan, and the payment of a large in-
demnity by China. In 1898 Russia
and Germany acquired Chinese con-
cessions of land. In 1900 occurred
the Boxer troubles, when a belligerent
section of the natives exasperated by
the continued encroachments of the
" foreign devils " and " barbarians,"
murdered the German ambassador,
and besieged the foreign legations in
Peking for two months until relieved
by the allied forces of Russia, Ger-
many, Great Britain, the United
States, and Japan.
The Emperor Kuang-Hsu died Nov.
9, 1908 ; his two-year old nephew,
P'u-yi, succeeded nominally, but the
Empress Dowager was the actual ruler
till her death, Nov. 15, 1908. On
Feb. 12, 1912, the oldest of monarchies
became a republic, the young Emperor
abdicating the same day. In 1915 an
attempt was made to restore the mon-
archy, but the act of eight provinces
declaring their independence checked
the movement. On July 2, 1917, the
monarchy was restored tinder the boy
Emperor; and on Aug. 10 following
all the foreign ministers in Pekin rec-
ognized the restoration of the repub-
lic under President Feng-Kwo-Chang.
China severed diplomatic relations
with Germany, March 22, 1917, and
Chinchilla
declared war on Germany and Aus-
tria-Hungary, Aug. 14 following.
Chinchilla, a genus of South Amer-
ica herbivorous rodents very closely
allied to the rabbit, which they resem-
ble in the general shape of the body,
CHINCHHXA.
in the limbs being longer behind than
before, and by the nature of the fur,
which is more woolly than silky.
Chinchon, a town of Spain, 25
miles S. E. of Madrid, named for the
Countess of Chinchon, wife of the
Governor of Peru in 1638. Peruvian
bark was named " Chinchona," now
habitually misspelled " Cinchona."
Chinese -fire, a pyrotechnic compo-
sition, consisting of gunpowder, 16 ;
niter, 8 ; charcoal, 3 ; sulphur, 3 ; cast-
iron borings (small), 10.
Chinese Lantern, a lantern made
of thin paper, usually variously col-
ored and much used in illuminations.
Chinese Swallows' Nests, curi-
ous productions, which sell at a high
price in China, though they have no
special points of recommendation be-
yond many other gelatinous ingredients
in soups. They are formed of a secre-
tion from the mouth of the bird itself.
Chinese Tartary, an old name of
Turkestan.
Ching, a Chinese prince ; born in
Peking about 1840. He was related to
the Chinese imperial family. He was
at the head of the Tsung-li-Yamen, but
was deposed in 1900 for his efforts to
protect the legations in Peking, during
which he attacked the Boxers.
Ching-hai, or Chin-hai, a sea-
port of China, in the province of Cheh-
Chiang (Cheh-Kiang), 9 miles from
the treaty port of Ning-Po.
Chin-Kiang, or Chin-Chiang, a
city of China in the province of Kiang-
Chippeways
Su (or Chiang-Su), about 490 miles
S. of Tieu-Tsin. Chin-Kiang became
a treaty port in 1861. Pop. (1914)
86,120.
Chinon, an antique town in the
French department of Indre-et-Loire.
Crowning a lofty rock are the ruins of
its vast old castle, the " French Wind-
sor " of the Plantagenets, the death-
place of Henry II. ; and later the resi-
dence of several French sovereigns,
where, in 1429, Joan of Arc revealed
her mission to the Dauphin.
Chinooks, a tribe of Indians, now
nearly extinct, on the Columbia river,
or in Oregon.
Chinook Wind, a strong, dry west
or south wind in Wyoming and Mon-
tana, which descends from the moun-
tains, like the hot winds of Kansas,
and the Fohn winds of Switzerland.
Chintz, a cotton cloth gaily printed
with designs of flowers, etc., in five
or six different colors. It was a favor-
ite in the time of Queen Anne, long
before cotton prints became cheap. The
name has since been applied to goods
lacking the graceful and artistic char-
acter of the genuine article.
Chios, (now called by the natives
Chio, Italianized into Scio), one of the
most beautiful and fertile islands in
the -33gean sea, belonging to Greece, 7
miles off the coast of Asia Minor, at
the entrance to the Gulf of Smyrna.
It has an area of 320 square miles, and
a population (1913) of 73,830, almost
all Greeks. Earthquakes are, however,
not rare, and one in 1881 caused the
death of 3,558 persons, and the de-
struction of property to the value of
over $15,000,000.
Chipmunk, a small animal much
like a squirrel, known as the striped
squirrel.
Chippendale, Thomas, an Eng-
lish cabinet-maker ; went to London
from Worcestershire before 1750. The
style of furniture named from him was
less heavy and severe than that of his
successors, and was rather elaborate,
delicate and baroque, with classical
tendencies.
Chippeways, or Ojibways, a
tribe of North American Indians in
the United States and Canada. They
are distributed in bands round both
sides of the basin of Lake Superior,
Chiquimula
where they once owned vast tracts.
They are of the Algonquin stock, tall,
active and well formed, subsist chiefly
by hunting and fishing and number
about 18,000.
Chiqnimnla, a small town in the
E. of Guatemala, which gives name to
a province and to the Isthmus of Chi-
quimula.
Cliiquinquira, the largest town in
the department of Boyaca, Colombia,
was an Indian place of pilgrimage be-
fore the conquest, and the Spaniards
having found here a miraculous image
of the Virgin, the church where this is
preserved is now visited by some
60,000 pilgrims annually.
Cliiquitos, or Naquinoneis
("men"), an Indian tribe of Bolivia,
dwelling between the Paraguay and
the Madeira.
Cliiriqui, the westernmost admin-
istrative division of the Republic of
Panama, adjoining Costa Rica; area,
6,500 square miles ; pop. 43,000. It is
well wooded, and has rich pasturage,
especially on the Atlantic coast, where
the climate is very moist.
Chiron, a centaur, half man and
half horse, son of Philyra and Saturn,
was famous for his knowledge of mu-
sic, medicine and shooting. He taught
mankind the use of plants and medic-
inal herbs, and be instructed in all the
polite arts, the greatest heroes of his
age, Achilles, .ZEsculapius, Hercules, etc.
Chisholm, William Wallace,
Republican politician and Unionist,
born in Morgan County, Ga., 1830;
was fatally shot by a mob in 1877.
CLisleu, the ninth month of the
Jewish year, commencing with the new
moon in December or the latter part of
November. The modern Jews fast on
the sixth day of this month.
Chitral, a small mountain State in
the upper basin of the Kashkar or
Kunar, a tributary of the Kabul river,
and bordering on Kashmir and Kafiris-
tan, is 5.200 feet above sea-level.
The people are Moslems, but mostly
speak a language close akin to that
of their pagan neighbors in Kafiristan.
Chittenden, Rnssel Henry, an
American educator; born in New
Haven, Conn., Feb. 18, 1856. He be-
came Professor of Physiological Chem-
istry at Yale in 1882, and since 1896
Chlopicki
has been director of the Sheffield Scien-
tific School.
Chittenden, Thomas, an Ameri-
can colonial and State governor; born
in East Guilford, Conn., Jan. 6, 1730.
He was one of the pioneers of Ver-
mont, and acquired a fortune from bis
lands. In 1778 he became governor of
Vermont, before its formal separation
from New York was recognized. Dur-
ing the Revolutionary War the British
and the Continental Congress received"
overtures from him, his terms being
recognition of Vermont's statehood. He
retired from public life in 1796 and
died in Williston, Vt., Aug. 24, 1797.
Chittim, or Kittim, in the Old
Testament, is usually identified with
Cyprus.
Chitty, Joseph, an English law-
yer and legal writer ; born in 1776. He
achieved eminence as a barrister in
London, but his celebrity rests mainly
upon his legal works. He died in
London, Feb. 17, 1843.
Chinsi, a town of Central Italy,
102 miles N. N. W. of R9me. It is
in connection with the discovery of
Etruscan antiquities that the place
is chiefly heard of. During the 19th
century immense quantities of these
remains were found in the neighbor-
hood in the grottoes that served the
ancient Etruscans as tombs.
Chivalry, the uses and customs
pertaining to the order of knighthood.
Chivalry declined and fell with the feu-
dal system, of which it was a normal
growth. The institution of the mili-
tary orders, the Knights Templar, the
Knights of St. John and the Teutonic
Knights was an interesting develop-
ment of chivalry.
Chladni, Ernst Flprens Freid-
rich, a German physicist; born in
Wittenberg, Nov. 30. 1756. Died in
Breslau, April 4, 1827.
Chlopicki, Joseph, a Polish gen-
eral ; born in Galicia, March 24, 1772.
He served under Kosciuszko during the
first revolt of the Poles (1794), and
then engaged in Napoleon's service, un-
der whom he took part in the battles
of Eylau, Friedland, Smolensk and
Moskowa. On the outbreak of the
Polish revolution of 1830 he was elect-
ed Dictator, but soon resigned that
office, fought at Grochow and Wavre,
and after the cessation of hostilities
Chloral
Chocolate
retired into private life. He died in
Cracow, Sept. 30, 1854.
Chloral, produced by the action of
chlorine on alcohol, since the discov-
ery of its anaesthetic effects by Dr.
O. Liebrich in 1869, is extensively
employed medicinally in the form of
chloral hydrate.
Chlorine, a gas. From its wide
affinities and great activity in the free
state, chlorine is one of the most use-
ful and powerful instruments with
which the chemist deals. By it such
metals as platinum and gold are at-
tacked and made soluble in water,
while its power over organic sub-
stances is very great.
Chlorine is largely consumed in the
arts. Thus it is used in the manufac-
ture of potassic chlorate for making
lucifer matches; in the conversion of
the yellow to the red prussiate of pot-
ash, in the preparation of chloride of
sulphur for the vulcanizing process,
and above all as a bleaching and dis-
infecting agent.
Chloroform, is formed by the ac-
tion of the sun's rays on a mixture of
chlorine and marsh gas; also by the
action of caustic potash on chloral or
chloracetic acid, or by the action of
nascent hydrogen on tetrachloride of
carbon. It is prepared on a large scale
by distilling water and alcohol with
bleaching powder. Chloroform is a
colorless, mobile, heavy, ethereal liquid.
The vapor of chloroform, when in-
haled for some time, produces a tem-
porary insensibility to pain. Inhaled
in small doses it produces pleasurable
inebriation, followed by drowsiness ; in
larger doses it causes loss of voluntary
motion, suspension of mental faculties,
with slight contraction of the muscles
and rigidity of the limbs ; then if the
inhalation is continued a complete re- 1
laxation of the voluntary muscles
takes place, but if carried too far it '
causes dangerous symptoms of apnoea
or of syncope, and the patient must be
restored by artificial respiration.
Chlorosis, one of the most formid-
able diseases to which plants are liable,
and often admitting of no remedy.
Many forms of the disease exist, of
which those of clover, onions, cucum-
bers and melons are best known.
In medical practice an affection in
which the skin of the body, and es-
pecially that of the face, assumes a
peculiar greenish cast, and hence is
popularly known as green-sickness.
Choate, Joseph Hodges, an Amer-
ican diplomatist; born in Salem,
Mass., Jan. 24, 1832. He is a descen-
dant of John Choate, who came from
England in 1640. He was graduated
at Harvard College in 1852 ; admitted
to the bar in Boston in 1855 ; removed
in 1856 to New York, where he be-
came a partner in the law firm of
Evarts, Choate & Beaman. His abil-
ity as a lawyer and public speaker
gave him a reputation seldom equaled
among leaders of the New York bar.
In 1899-1905 he was Ambassador to
Great Britain. He died May 14,
1917.
Choate, Ruf us, an American law-
yer ; born in Essex, Mass., Oct. 1,
1799; was graduated at Dartmouth
College in 1819; taught there for one
year ; was admitted to the bar and
began practice in Danvers in 1823 ;
removed to Salem in 1828; was a
member of Congress in 1830-1834, re-
signing in the latter year; removed to
Boston ; was successor of Daniel Web-
ster in the United States Senate in
1841-1845; returned to Boston in the
latter year and resumed practice. He
traveled in Europe in 1850 ; was a
delegate to the Whig National Con-
vention in Baltimore in 1852. After
Webster's death Mr. Choate was ac-
knowledged the leader of the Massa-
chusetts bar. He made many political
speeches, the most brilliant, while a
United States Senator, including those
on the Oregon Boundary, the Tariff,
the Fiscal Bank Bill, the Smithsonian
Institution, and the Annexation of
Texas. He gave much attention to lit-
erary studies. He died in Halifax,
N. S., Julv 13, 1858.
Chocolate, a preparation of the
seeds of Tneobroma Cacao, made by
grinding the seeds mixed with water
to a very fine paste. It was intro-
duced from America to Europe by the
Spaniards. It is highly nutritious,
containing a large proportion of nitro-
genous flesh-forming material. On this
account it is used as portable food by
many mountaineers. In the solid
form, mixed with much sugar, cream,
and various confections, Chocolate is
largely used as a sweetmeat, and is
introduced in pastry.
Choctaw*
Chorazln
Choctaws, an Indian tribe that
now occupies a reservation in the S.
E. portion of Oklahoma; area, 10,450
square miles. The chief and legisla-
ture are chosen by popular vote.
Grain, cotton and fruit are raised bv
the tribe, which maintains schools
and orphan homes. They number
aboiit 18,456. A number of denom-
inations maintain mission schools.
The tribe's trust funds aggregate
over $549,500. There are numerous
Choctaw physicians, lawyers and
clergymen, but the tribe is not as
civilized as some others.
Choir, an organized body of singers
in church services. In ecclesiastical
architecture the choir is the part of
the building in a cathedral or colle-
giate chapel set apart for the per-
formance of the ordinary daily ser-
vice.
Choke-cherry, a species of cherry,
so called from the astringent nature of
the fruit ; it is indigenous to North
America, the true choke-cherry being
the Prunus Virginiana ; the fruit is
smfll and hangs in racemes.
Choke-damp, the name given by
miners to the fire-damp resulting from
an explosion of gas in mines.
Choking, the effect caused by a
morsel of food, liquid, or other obstruc-
tion, passing into the larnyx or up-
per opening of the windpipe, instead
of the gullett. It results generally
from a breath being suddenly drawn in
coughing or laughing, while food or
fluid is in the mouth ; and a violent fit
of coughing follows till the offending
substance is expelled from the wind-
pipe. Sometimes, however, a larger
mass is drawn into the opening of the
windpipe, completely blocking it and
arresting respiration altogether. This
condition is one of extreme danger and
the sufferer, if not at once relieved,
will certainly and quickly die of suffo-
cation.
Cholera, a Greek term now univer-
sally employed in medicine as indicat-
ing one of two or three forms of dis-
ease, characterized by vomiting and
purging, followed by great prostration
of strength, amounting in severe cases
to fatal collapse. The milder forms of
Cholera occur almost every summer
and autumn, even in temperate lati-
tudes, while the more devastating and
fatal forms of the disease are general-
ly supposed to originate only in tropi-
cal countries. The very fatal forms of
the disease are commonly called Asia-
tic, Oriental, or Epidemic Cholera.
What is called Cholera morbus is a
bilious disease, long known in most
countries, and is characterized by co-
pious vomiting and purging, with vio-
lent griping, cramps of the muscles of
the abdomen and lower extremities,
and great depression of strength. It
is the most prevalent at the end of
summer or the beginning of autumn.
Cholera infantum (infants' cholera)
is the name sometimes given to a se-
vere and dangerous diarrhoea to which
infants are liable in hot climates or
in the hot season.
Cliolos, in Peru, the name for those
who are partly of white, partly of
Indian parentage, the most numerous
class of the community.
Cholnla, a decayed town of the
Mexican State of Puebla. Cortes
found in it 40,000 houses and 400
temples, including the great Teocalli.
Now the place only contains 9,000 in-
habitants. It was a great center of
the Aztec religion.
Chonos Archipelago, a group of
islands lying off the W. coast of Pata-
gonia. Two are large, but they are all
barren and scantily inhabited.
Chopin, Frederic Francois, a
Russian pianist and musical composer,
of French extraction ; born in Warsaw,
March 1, 1809; died Oct. 17, 1894 in
Paris, where the best part of his life
was spent. His characteristic piano-
forte compositions include Nocturnes,
Polonaises, Valses, and Preludes.
Chop-sticks, the Chinese substi-
tute for a knife, fork, and spoon at
meals, consisting of two smooth sticks
of bamboo, wood, or ivory.
Chorale, or Choral, the psalm or
hymn tune of the German Protestant
churches.
Choral Music, vocal music in
parts ; music written or arranged for
a choir or chorus, and including ora-
torios, cantatas, masses, anthems, etc.
Choral Service, a service with in-
toned responses, and the use of music
throughout wherever it is authorized.
Chorazin, one of the cities in which
Christ's mighty works were done, but
Chord
named only in his denunciation (Matt
xi: 21; Luke x: 13). It was known
to St. Jerome, who describes it as on
the shore of the lake, 2 miles from
Capernaum.
Chord, in music, the simultaneous
and harmonious union of different
sounds, at first intuitively recognized
by the ear, and afterwards reduced to
a science by the invention of the laws
or rules of harmony.
Chorea, St. Vitus' dance, a dis-
order of the nervous system character-
ized by a peculiar convulsive and ir-
regular action of the voluntary mus-
cles. The name is derived from St.
Vitus, who is said to have had the
power of curing persons afflicted with
that disease.
Chorus, originally an ancient Greek
term for a troop of singers and dan-
cers, intended to heighten the pomp
and solemnity of festivals.
Chosen, new name given by Japan
to Korea on annexation of the latter
in 1910.
Chosroes I., or Khosron the
Great, King of Persia, succeeded
Cabades, A. i>. 551. He was fierce and
cruel, but possessed many good quali-
fies, and encouraged the arts and sci-
ences. He concluded a peace with
the Romans, but afterward invaded
their territories, but was defeated by
Tiberius. He died in 579.
Chonans, the name popularly given
during the Vendean civil war in
France, to the peasants of Brittany
and Lower Maine.
Chontean, Auguste, an American
pioneer ; born in New Orleans, La.,
in 1739. He was from his early youth
a fur trader, and with his brother
Pierre he founded the city of St. Louis
in 1764. He died in St. Louis, Feb.
24, 1829.
Chontean, Pierre, an American
pioneer; born in New Orleans, in
1749. With his brother Auguste he
set out in 1763, joining a government
expedition. He stopped in the heart
of an unsettled country and founded,
with his brother, the city of St. Louis.
He died in St. Louis, July 9, 1849.
Chontean, Pierre, Jr., an Ameri-
can capitalist, son of the preceding;
born in St. Louis, Jan. 19, 1789. He
worked for his father and began trad-
Christ
ing in fur early in life. After estab-
lishing posts for the sale of skins
throughout the trans-Mississippi re-
gion he purchased the fur-trading in-
terests of John Jacob Astor. He died
in St. Louis, Sept. 8, 1865.
Chrism, the name given to the oil
consecrated on Holy Thursday, in the
Roman Catholic and Greek Churches,
and used in baptism, confirmation, or-
dination, and extreme unction.
Christ, the name given as a title of
eminence to Jesus our Saviour, whom,
in the words of St. Peter (Acts x:
38), "God anointed," as king, priest,
and prophet, " with the Holy Ghost
and with power." The two names,
Jesus Christ, are not analogous to a
modern Christian name and surname;
in reality the great Being so desig-
nated had but one personal appella-
tion— Jesus ; Christ being added by
Jesus himself (John 4: 26) to desig-
nate His office, function, or mission.
Christ, Disciples of, a denomina-
tion of Christians in the United States
from which has sprung since 1900
a body known as the CHURCHES OF
CHBIST. In September, 1809, Thomas
Campbell, a Scotch minister of the
seceders' branch of the Presbyterian
Church, then living in Western Penn-
sylvania, issued a " Declaration and
Address " deploring the divided state
of the Church, and urging as the only
remedy a complete restoration of
apostolic Christianity and the rejec-
tion of all human creeds and confes-
sions of faith. The Christian Asso-
ciation of Washington, Pa., was
formed for the purpose of promoting
the principles set forth in this " dec-
laration." It was not the intention
of the Campbellites to form a dis-
tinct religious body, but to effect the
proposed reforms in the churches.
The Disciples maintained that having
accepted the Bible as their only rule
of faith and practice, and the only
divine basis for the union of all
Christians, they were led to reject in-
fant baptism and adopt believers' im-
mersion only. They observe the Lord's
Supper each-first day of the week, and
heartily and practically accept and
exalt the doctrine of the divinity of
Christ. The two denominations have
8,621 ministers, 11,143 churches, and
1,522,821 communicants, besides sev
Oh.ristadelpL.ians
Christian Church
eral universities and colleges of high
rank, and a number of religious pub-
lications.
Cliristadelphians, a religious
body who believe that God will raise
all who love Him to an endless life in
this world (but that those who do not
shall absolutely perish in death) ; that
Christ is the Son of God, inheriting
moral perfection from the Deity, our
human nature from His mother ; and
that there is no personal devil. In the
United States they had in 1906, 70 or-
ganizations with 1,412 members, scat-
tered over 25 States and Territories.
Their founder was Dr. John Thomas,
an Englishman, who came to the
United States in 1844.
Christ Church, College of, a
notable institution in Oxford, England.
Christian II., King of Denmark,
Norway, and Sweden; son of Hans
and grandson of Christian I., King
of Denmark, etc. ; born July 2, 1480.
Upon rebellion breaking out in
Sweden, Christian sent an army com-
manded by Otto Krumpen, who defeat-
ed the S"wedes in the decisive battle
of Bogesund (Ulrikehamn), Jan. 19,
1520, in which Steen Sture the ad-
ministrator was killed. Stockholm,
under the command of the widow of
Sture, stood a siege of four months,
during which period the rest of the
country was subdued, and on Nov. 4,
Christian was crowned King of
Sweden. He was one of the most
cruel n?onsters of history, and is
known as " The Nero of the North."
Sweden revolted under Gustavus Vasa,
who expelled the Danish garrisons and
became king of Sweden, and founder of
the illustrious house of Vasa. Chris-
tian was dethroned in Denmark, and
died in 1559.
Christian IX. (of Schleswig-Hol-
stein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg) ; born
in 1818, succeeded Frederick VII. as
King of Denmark, in 1863. The Kings
of Greece, of Norway, Queen of Great
Britain, Dowager Czarina of Russia,
were his children. He died Jan. 29,
1906.
Christian X., King of Denmark,
born Sept. 26, 1870, son of King Fred-
erik VIII. and Queen Louisa ; mar-
ried Princess Alexandrine of Mecklen-
burg, April 26, 1898 ; succeeded to the
throne, May 14, 1912 ; heir apparent,
B. 34.
Prince Christian Frederik, born
March 11, 1899.
Christian Church, The, consists
of those who have been baptized in
the name of Christ and who accept His
doctrines and live in harmony with
them. The Church, in its broadest
sense, consists of true believers in all
ages ; but the Christian Church was
established through the life and work
of Christ Himself, and consists only of
His followers. Its first great increase
was at Pentecost, where 3,000 souls
were converted ; shortly afterward
5,000 were added to the Church.
Stephen was the first to suffer martyr-
dom. Paul made three great mission-
ary tours, and the result was the or-
ganic unity of the Church in its firs!
period.
Christian Churches in America.-"
The colonization of North Americ%
sprang from religious motives. Th«
colonists sought freedom here because
of the oppressions at home. Periods
of American Church History: (1)
From 1607-1660, revival and progress.
(2) 1660-1720, trial, disputes with
Great Britain, religious decline. (3)
From 1720-1750, great revivals. (4)
From 1750-1783, political agitation,
freedom from British rule. (5) From
1783 to the present, extensive revivals,
separation of Church and State, abcK
lition of slavery, evangelization. The
Protestant Episcopal Church was
founded by the James River Colony
(1607) ; its first General Convention
was in 1785; it ratified the Thirty-
nine Articles in 1832. The Puritan
Pilgrims landed at Plymouth in 1620,
and began the development of Congre-
gationalism. The Cambridge Plat-
form was established in 1648. The
Reformed (Dutch) Church was estab-
lished in 1628 in New Amsterdam
(New York). The first independent
organization was in 1771. The Bap-
tists began in Providence, R. I., in
1639, through Roger Williams. The
Reformed (German) Church was or-
ganized in 1741. The Lutherans were
established first in New York in 1669 ;
the first Synod was held in 1748. The
Presbyterians were organized at the
close of the 17th century. The first
Presbytery was established in Phila-
delphia in 1706, and the first General
Assembly in 1789. The first Metho-
dist Society in the United States was
Christiancy
established in New York in 1766, and
the first Conference was held in Phil-
adelphia in 1771. The Reformed
Episcopal Church was organized in
New York in 1873, under Bishop Cum-
mins. The Roman Catholic Church
in the United States was first estab-
lished in Maryland through immigra-
tion in 1632. The Episcopal See of
Baltimore was established in 1789.
For statistics of the American
Churches see the separate articles.
Christiancy, Isaac Peckham, an
American editor and diplomatist ; born
in Johnstown (now Bleeker) , N. Y.,
March 12, 1812. He was one of the
founders of the Republican party. In
1875 be was chosen United States
Senator from Michigan, and in 1879
became Minister to Peru. He died in
Lansing, Mich., Sept. 8, 1890.
Christian Endeavor, Young
People's Society of, a society dis-
tinctly religious in all its features;
organized Feb. 2, 1881, in Williston
Church, Portland, Me., by the Rev.
Francis E. Clark, D. D. From one
small association it has expanded into
over 72,000 societies, in all parts of
the world, with an aggregate member-
ship of over 3,500,000. In addition
to the main organizations in the United
States it has been found necessary to
form branches, among which are the
Juniors, organized March 27, 1884, at
Tabor, la., by the Rev. J. W. Cowan
and Miss Belle Smith ; the Intermedi-
ate, organized by the Rev. A. Z. Con-
rad, of Worcester, Mass. ; and the
Mothers', suggested by Mrs. Amanda
B. Fellows, of Chicago, and organized
in- April, 1893, at Topeka, Kan., by
Mr. F. C. Barton. The first Chris-
tian Endeavor Society in England was
organized in 1887, and was followed
by similar ones in other countries, and
the constitution has been printed in
over 30 different languages. The
movement is not a denominational one.
Any society belonging to an evangel-
ical Church, which adopts the leading
principles asjset forth in the constitu-
tion, including the prayer-meeting
pledge, and which guarantees these
principles by the name Christian En-
deavor either alone or in connection
with a denominational name is admit-
ted to all the privileges of the organ-
ization.
Christiana
The distinctive features in the
Christian Endeavor movement are its
work among the young people, leading
them to consecrate their lives to the
active service of God; the weekly
prayer-meetings, which each member
takes a solemn pledge to attend regu-
larly (unless unavoidably detained),
and to take part in ; and the reconse-
cration meetings held once a month,
at which special efforts are made to
see if each one has been faithful to his
pledges.
Christian Era, the era or epoch
introduced by the birth of Christ. It
was calculated back about the year
532, by a monk, Dionysius Exiguus.
It is thought that he fixed the advent
too late by four years, and that con-
sequently Jesus was born, if the con-
tradiction in terms can be permitted,
in B. c. 4.
Christiania, a city and port, the
capital of Norway, at the head of the
long narrow inlet called Christiania
Fjord, about 60 miles from the open
sea. The houses are mostly of brick
and stone, generally plain buildings,
devoid of architectural pretension.
Important public buildings are the
royal palace, the house of representa-
tives or Storthing, the governor's pal-
ace, and the cathedral. The manufac-
tures of the city consist of woolen
cloth, ironware, tobacco, paper,
leather, soap, spirits, glass, etc., and
there are extensive breweries. The
exports are principally timber and
iron. The environs are exceedingly
beautiful. Pop. 227,626.
Christianity, the religion of which
Jesus Christ is not only the founder,
but also the object, since it is by Him
and in Him that man recovers his
union with God by an effective recon-
ciliation.
Christians, a religious denomina-
tion, founded in 1810 from threefold
sources, Methodist, Baptist, and Pres-
byterian, growing out of secessions
from each of those bodies. The de-
nomination was first called " The In-
dependent Baptist Church." The
members discard creeds and adhere
closely to Biblical terminology in stat-
ing their views. The first General
Convention was held in 1819. In
1854 resolutions in regard to slavery
were adopted which were offensive to
Christian Science
Christian Science
the Southern members, who withdrew,
and formed a Southern Convention.
Christian Science, a system of
religion, the practice of which consists
in the overcoming of sin and the heal-
ing of disease. The discoverer and
founder of Christian Science was the
Rev. MAEY BAKER GIOVEB EDDY (q.v.),
of Concord, N. H. It was estab-
lished by her in 1866, and has had
a remarkable development. It is based
upon the Bible and set forth in a work
by Mrs. Eddy, entitled " Science and
Health, with Key to the Scriptures,"
first published in 1875. " Science and
Health," pages 114 and 358, states that
" Christian Science, understood, coin-
cides with the Scriptures and sustains
logically and demonstratively every
point it presents." "Christian Science
explains all cause and effect as mental,
not physical. It shows the scientific
relation of man to God." Christian
Science affirms the spiritual personal-
ity of God, as opposed to all material
theories. God is held to be the divine
principle of all being, matter having no
actual existence. The spiritual uni-
verse manifests but one real mind,
God, of whom man is the idea or re-
flection. Christian Science is then at
once the science of God, of man, and
of life. God is absolute good. He has
not created nor consented to any form
of evil, sickness, or death ; His laws
provide for life only. Sin, sickness
and death are abnormal conditions of
mortal mind and have no existence
outside of carnal thought. Disease is
a belief, not a reality. When man fully
awakes to the fact that bodily ills and
mortality are the results of fear, igno-
rance and sin, he will be in a position
to deal with and master disease on a
true scientific basis. Christian Science
is thus not only a system of faith, but
a method of healing ; disease being in
its teaching not an actual fact, but a
distorted belief, while th« cure begins
with discarding a belief in the reality
of disease. In attestation of its teach-
ings, it points to cures of so-called in-
curable diseases, such as cancer, con-
sumption, locomotor ataxia, etc., with-
out the aid of material remedies, but
through strictly metaphysical methods.
Mrs. Eddy says in her book, " Retro-
spection in Introspection," page 41 :
" I claim for healing scientifically the
following advantages : 1. It does away
with all material medicines and recog-
nizes the antidote for all sickness, as
well as sin, in the immortal mind ;
and mortal mind as the source of all
the ills that befall mortals. 2. It is
more effectual than drugs, and cures
when they fail or only relieve, thus
proving the superiority of metaphysics
over physics. 3. A person healed by
Christian Science is not only healed
of his disease, but is advanced morally
and spiritually. The mortal body being
but the objective state of the mortal
mind, this mind must be renovated to
improve the body."
The services are uniform, consisting
of meetings on Sundays and on Wed-
nesday evenings. No sermons are
preached by a personal pastor, but a
sermon made up of selections from the
Bible and " Science and Health, with
a Key to the Scriptures," written by
Mrs. Eddy, is read by two readers,
called the first and second readers, gen-
erally a man and a woman. At the
Wednesday evening meetings testi-
monies of healing and remarks on
Christian Science are given by the
members of the congregation.
The absence of creed and dogma in,
the Christian Science Church, its free-
dom from materialism, mysticism, and
superstition, also the simplicity, uni-
formity, and impersonality of its form
of worship and organization, are
among the distinguishing features
which characterize this modern relig-
ious movement. Hypnotism, mesmer-
ism, spiritualism, theosophy, faith-cure
and kindred systems are classed by
Christian Science as foreign to their
form of worship. Those practising
these beliefs are denied admission to
the Christian Science Church.
The rapid growth of this religion,
of which we have given only a brief
outline, is shown by the increase in the
number of its adherents, it having
more than 1,000 churches and societies
in the United States and foreign lands,
while its followers and sympathizers in
this country are estimated to be over
a million. The First Church of Christ,
Scientist, erected at Boston, in 1894,
has the enormous membership, resident
and non-resident, of over 40,000, and
the membership of the branch churches
is about the same, many of them being
also members of the Mother Church.
All Christian Science churches, other
Chriitian University
Christinas Ship
than the Mother Church in Boston, are
branches of that church. A spacious
auditorium with a seating capacity of
5,000 and built at a cost approaching
$2,000,000, has been added to the
church at Boston, and was dedicated
in June, 1906, 30,000 persons being
present on that occasion. Magnificent
and costly church buildings have been
erected in New York City, Philadel-
phia, Chicago and many other cities,
including a beautiful granite edifice in
Concord, N. H., the gift of Mrs. Eddy,
whose home was for years in that city.
She now resides in Brookline (New-
ton), Mass., a suburb of Boston.
There are at present more than 4,000
practitioners of Christian Science
healing in the United States.
Branch churches exist in many for-
eign countries, including Great Britain
and Ireland, Canada, Mexico, the Ba-
hamas, British West Indies, Cuba,
the Hawaiian Islands, Philippine
Islands, Sandwich Islands, France,
Germany, Norway, Switzerland, Italy,
Australia, India, China, and South
Africa.
Besides the text-book of Christian
Science, Mrs. Eddy's principal works
are: "People's Idea of God" (1886) ;
" Christian Healing " (1886) ; " Unity
of Good" (1887); "Retrospection
and Introspection" (1891) ; "No and
Yes" (1891); "Christ and Christ-
mas" (1893); "Pulpit and Press"
(1895); "Church Manual" (1895);
'* Miscellaneous Writings" (1897);
"Christian Science vs. Pantheism"
(1898); "Messages to the Mothef
Church " ( 1900-1901-1902 ) .
The Christian Science Publishing
Society publishes " The Christian Sci-
ence Journal" (monthly); " Der
Herold Der Christian Science"
(monthly — German) ; "The Christian
Science Sentinel" (weekly); "The
Christian Science Monitor" (a daily
newspaper) ; and numerous pamphlets
and tracts in English, French and
German.
Christian University, a Co-edu-
cational institution in Canton, Mo.
Christie, William Henry Ma-
honey, an English astronomer ; born
in Woolwich, Oct. 1, 1845. On the
retirement of Airy as Astronomer
Royal in 1881, Christie was appointed
his successor, a position which he still
holds. He is best known for his spec-
troscopic work with the Greenwich
Equatorial, especially that relating to
the motion of stars in the line of sight.
Christina, Queen of Sweden ; born
in 1626. She was the daughter of the
great Gustavus Adolphus, and on her
father's death, in 1632, was crowned
queen, being then only six years of
age, with the five principal ministers
of state appointed by Parliament her
guardians. Having resolved to aban-
don Protestantism, she, in 1654, in an
assembly of the states at Upsala, abdi-
cated her crown, reserving to herself
an annual income of $200,000. She
forthwith left Sweden, and traveled in
male attire to Brussels, where she
made a secret profession of the Roman
Catholic faith. At Innsbruck, she
made a more formal and public avowal
of it. She next rode to Rome, where
the reception accorded to her was an
ovation. There she did homage to
Pope Alexander VII., and received the
honor of his name, in addition to her
own, being thenceforward styled Chris-
tina Alexandra. In 1656 she went
to France, where she lived principally
at Fontainebleau, Compiegne, and
Paris. During the year following, she
excited universal horror and disgust
by the cruel assassination of her mas-
ter of the horse, the Marquis Monal-
deschi. In 1660 her successor on the
Swedish throne died, and she there-
upon repaired to Sweden to claim it
for herself ; but her conversion to the
Roman Catholic Church proved a bar
to her resumption of the crown, and
she was compelled to return to Rome,
where she died in 1689.
Christison, Sir Robert, a Scotch
physician, born in Edinburgh, July 18,
1797, attained eminence as a toxicolo-
gist, professor of medical jurispru-
dence, and author. He died Jan. 27,
1882.
Christmas, the festival of the Na-
tivity of Christ, observed by the Chris-
tian Church yearly on the 25th of De-
cember, commonly accepted as the date
of the birth of Christ.
Christmas Ship, popular name
given to the United States naval aux-
iliary vessel Jason, which was sent to
Europe in November, 1914, laden
with over 6,000,000 packages of cloth-
ing, toys, and other appropriate ar-
Christophe
tides from all parts of the country,
contributed for Christmas gifts for
the children of war sufferers.
Christoplie, Henri, a King of
Haiti, was an African, slave ; born in
Grenada, West Indies, in 1767, who
received his freedom as a reward of
faithful service. On the outbreak of
the negro insurrection in St. Domingo,
1801, he became one of its leaders.
After the deposition of Toussaint,
Christophe served under his successor,
Dessalines. In 1811 Christophe ob-
tained undisputed possession of a por-
tion of the island with the title of
King of Haiti. He committed suicide
in 1820.
Christopher's, St. (commonly
called St. Kitt's), a British island in
the West Indies, one of the Leeward
Islands, 23 miles in length, and in
general about 5 in breadth ; area, 65
square miles. The interior consists of
many rugged precipices and barren
mountains. The chief town, a seaport
with open roadstead, is Basse-Terre.
The island has a legislature of its own,
with an executive subordinate to the
governor of the Leeward Islands. It
was discovered by Columbus in 1493.
Pop. (1911) 26,283.
Christy, Charles, an American
minstrel ; born in New York city, in
1828. He was an actor from boyhood,
singing on the minstrel stage. He
died in Kansas City, Mo., Feb. 13,
1897.
Chromium, an element discovered
in the native chromate of lead of Si-
beria. It was afterward found com-
bined with iron. It is the coloring
matter of the emerald and beryl, and
has received its name from the brill-
iant colors of its compounds.
Chromium (or Chrome) Steel,
steel in which the carbon is replaced
by the metal chromium. It is claimed
that this steel can sustain a greater
degree of heat than ordinary steel.
Chromo-Iithography, the art of
printing chromo-lithographs. Color
printing was not successful till it was
combined with lithography, invented
between 1796 and 1800 by Alois Sene-
felder of Prague. In the art an out-
line drawing is first traced, then va-
rious stones are taken, one for each
color, to which the drawing is trans-
ferred.
Chronology
Chromosphere. During total
eclipses it is observed that a red-colored
envelope surrounds the sun, and shoots
up to great distances from the surface.
It seems to have been first recognized
by Secchi ; and the projecting portions
of it are commonly described as " red-
colored protuberances " and " red
flames." To this red envelope the
name chromosphere was given by Sir
J. Norman Lockyer, and till 1868,
when M. Janssen and Mr. Lockyer al-
most simultaneously pointed out a
method of viewing it, it was never
seen except during eclipses.
Chronicle, an historical account of
facts or events disposed chronologically
or in the order of time. Most of the
historians of the Middle Ages were
chroniclers who set down the events
which happened within the range of
their information, according to the
succession of years.
In Scriptures, the name of two
books, consisting of an abridgement of
sacred history from its commencement
down to the return of the Jews from
the Babylonish captivity.
Chronograph, the name given to
various devices for measuring and reg-
istering very minute portions of time
with extreme precision.
Chronology, the doctrine of sci-
ence of time, or of computing dates:
the method of ascertaining the true
periods, or years, when past events
took place, and arranging them in
their proper order, according to their
dates. The following are the leading
systems of chronology existing among
the several nations of the world : Chi-
nese and Japanese Chronology: In
these calculation is made by cycles of
60 years, each year of the cycle sepa-
rately named. Hindu Chronology :
(1) Historical : No system is universal
in India or exclusive. Two of the
chief are the era of Salivahana (A. D.
77), and that of Vicramaditya (B. o.
57). (2) Astronomical: The Hin-
dus have four ages. We are now in
the Kali Yooga, beginning 3101 B. o.
Greek Chronology : In the time of
Herodotus, and subsequently in that
of Thucydides, the Greeks had no
chronology spanning wide intervals of
time. It was not till B. c. 194 that
Eratosthenes, the "father" of Greek
chronology, began to count by Olym-
Chronometer
piads, the first of which was dated
from what we now should call B. c.
776.
Roman Chronology: The method
of Roman reckoning was by the con-
sulships, which, of course, could give
no indication of time unless their or-
der was carefully preserved, and even
then was clumsy. A much simpler
and better plan was by calculating
years from the building of the city.
This Varro placed in what would now
be called B. c. 753, while Cato pre-
ferred 752.
Jewish Chronology: Up till the
15th century the Jews followed the
era of the Seleucidae. Since then they
have dated from the creation of the
world* which they fix 3760 years and
three months before the commence-
ment of the Christian era.
Mohammedan Chronology : Dates
are counted from the Hegira, that is,
the time of Mohammed's flight from
Mecca to Medina, A. D. 622.
Christian Chronology: Since the
6th century dates have begun to be
reckoned from the birth of Christ,
though the system did not become uni-
versal in Europe till many centuries
subsequently.
Chronometer, any instrument that
measures time, as a clock, watch, or
dial ; but, specifically, this term is ap-
plied to those time-keepers which are
used for determining the longitude at
sea, or for any other purpose where
an accurate measure of time is re-
quired, with great portability in the
instrument.
Chrysalis, the last stage through
which certain insects pass before be-
coming a perfect insect. It is also
known by the name, pupa.
Chrysanthemum, a genus of her-
baceous or slightly shrubby plants,
represented in the United States by
the well-known ox-eye daisy, and the
corn marigold, besides which many va-
rieties have been introduced from
other countries.
Chryseis, the daughter of Chryses,
priest of Apollo, famed for beauty and
for her skill in embroidery. She fell
to Agamemnon's lot in the course of
the Trojan War, but was afterward
restored, in order to stop a plague
among the Grecians, which Apollo had
Bent at the request of her father.
Chuquisaca
Chrysippns, a faraed Greek philos-
opher ; about 280-206 B. c. ; born prob-
ably at Soli in Cilicia. He attended
at Athens the lectures of Cleanthes,
the successor of Zeno, and after his
death became head of the Stoic school.
He wrote over 700 books.
Chrysis, the golden wasp, or ruby-
tail fly. They are magnificently col-
ored with metallic hues. They are
parasitic, depositing their eggs in the
nests of the solitary mason-bees, on
the larvae of which their larvae live.
Chrysoberyl, a gem almost as hard
as sapphire, and the finer specimens
of which are very beautiful, particu-
larly those which exhibit an opales-
cent play of light. It is of a green
color, inclining to yellow, semi-trans-
parent, or almost transparent, and has
double refraction.
Chrysolite, a green-colored ortho-
rhombic mineral of a vitreous luster,
transparent or translucent.
Chrysostom, John, St., (" golden-
mouthed "), a celebrated Greek father
of the church ; born in Antioch about
A. D. 344; died at Comana, in Pontus,
in 407.
Chub, an American fish, of the
genus carp. It is indifferent food, and
rarely attains the weight of 5 pounds.
Allied European species receive the
same name.
Chubut, or Chnpat, a colony in
Patagonia, so named from a river
which drains a large part of its area.
The entrance to the river, about 500
miles S. of tfie river Platte, is bad,
but the bar can be crossed by vessels
of from 7 to 12 feet draught. Its
principal interest lies in its Welsh
settlement, which has remained almost
wholly Welsh-speaking.
Chukiang, or Canton River, the
" Pearl River " of the Chinese, is the
lower part of the Pekiang, and has a
navigable channel of about 300 miles.
Opposite Canton it is about % mile
wide, and is crowded with shipping.
Chung-King, a Chinese port in
Szechuen, on the Yang-tze-Kiang, at
the junction of the Pei river. It was
declared open in 1890, and has ac-
quired a thriving' trade. Pop. (1910
est.) 598,000.
Chnquisaca, or Sucre, a city of
South America, the former capital of
Church.
Bolivia ; well situated on a plateau'
between the Amazon and La Plata
rivers, 9,343 feet above sea-level. Pop.
(1915) 29,686. The province of Chu-
quisaca has an area of 36,132 square
miles; pop. (1915) 333,226.
Church, Benjamin, an American
soldier ; born in Duxbury, Mass., in
1639. He commanded forces with dis-
tinction in King Philip's War and in
the famous battle of 1675 with the
Narragansetts won renown. He
killed King Philip in 1676; died in
January, 1718.
Church, Benjamin, an American
physician ; born in Massachusetts,
about 1710. He was a leader in the
" Boston tea-party." He secretly
corresponded in cipher with the Brit-
ish, and, being detected, failed to ex-
culpate himself. He sailed for the
West Indies in 1776, and was lost at
sea.
Church, Francis Pharcellus, an
American editor ; born in Rochester,
N. Y., Feb. 22, 1839 ; died in 1906.
Church, Frederick Edwin, an
American landscape-painter ; born in
Hartford, Conn., May 4, 1826. His
" View of Niagara Falls from the
Canadian Shore," is regarded by many
as the most successful representation
of the great cataract. He died in
New York city, April 7, 1900.
Church, William Conant, an
American journalist ; born in Roches-
ter, N. Y., Aug. 11, 1836.
Church Army, an English relig-
ious organization, founded in London
in 1882 having for its objects the
training of working men for ecclesi-
astical service among the laboring
classes.
Church Discipline, the practice
of the Christian Church in dealing
with such of its office-bearers and
members as have by public scandal
caused hindrance to its common spir-
itual life.
Church Government, the regula-
tion and ordering of spiritual matters,
or those pertaining to the discipline
and work of the Church.
Churchill, Randolph Henry
Spencer, Lord, third son of the sev-
enth Duke of Marlborough ; born Feb.
13, 1849 ; entered the British Parlia-
ment in 1874, and became a leader of
the Conservative party. On the defeat
Church
of Gladstone's Irish Bill in 1886
Churchill became leader of the House
of Commons and Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer, posts which he unexpectedly
resigned in December, 1886. Died in
London, Jan. 24, 1895. Lord Ran-
dolph married, in 1874, Miss Jennie,
daughter of the late Leonard Jerome,
of New York City. In 1900, Lady
Randolph married George Cornwallis
West.
Churchill, Winston, an Ameri-
can author ; born in St. Louis, Mo.,
Nov. 10, 1871. He was graduated
from the United States Naval Acad-
emy in 1894, and became an editor of
the "Army and Navy Journal." He
wrote "Richard Carvel;" "The Cri-
sis;" "The Crossing;" " Coniston."
Churchill, Winston Leonard
Spencer, an English author, army
officer, and public official ; son of the
preceding ; born Nov. 30, 1874 ; was
educated at Harrow and Sandhurst;
entered the army in 1895 ; served in
Cuba (1895), India (1897-8), Egypt
(1898), South Africa (1899), and in
France (1915-17) ; was elected to
Parliament in 1900 ; became Parlia-
mentary Secretary for the Colonies,
1905 ; was Under Secretary for the
Colonies, 1905-8; President of the
Board of Trade, 1908-10 ; Home Sec-
retary, 1910-11; First Lord of the
Admiralty, 1911-15 ; re-entered the
army on the changes in the cabinet.
Churchill River, a river of the
Northwest Territories of Canada,
which rises in La Crosse Lake and
discharges into Hudson Bay.
Church of God, a Christian sect
which originated in 1830, in a move-
ment in which John Winebrenner,
previously a minister in the German
Reformed Church, was most promi-
nent. It holds the doctrines of the
Evangelical churches, with baptism
by immersion only, subsequent to
faith ; feet-washing ; the administra-
tion of the Lord's Supper in the even-
ing; all the instrumentalities of revi-
vals ; and protests against the traffic
in intoxicating drinks. According to
the census of 1910 the sect had in the
United States in 1906, 518 organiza-
tions with 24,356 members.
Church, States of the, or Papal
States, a territory that stretched
from the Po to near Naples, and in
1869 had an area of 15,774 square
Church-warden
Cilia
miles and a pop. of 3,000,000. The
war of 1859 and the popular vote of
1860 left the Pope only the Comarca
of Rome, the legation of Velletri, and
the delegations of Civita Vecchia, j
Frosinone, and Viterbo, 4,493 square
miles in extent, with a pop. of about
700,000, the rest being united with
Italy, and in 1870 the remnant of the
Pope's temporal possessions were an-
nexed to the kingdom of Italy, of
which Rome became the capital. The
Pope is, however, still permitted to
keep up the state of a sovereign with-
in the precincts of the Vatican.
Church-warden, one of two Epis-
copalian parochial officers chosen an-
nually at the Easter vestries, one by
the minister and one by the parish-
ioners. Also the colloquial name of a
very long stemmed clay pipe for smok-
ing.
Chnrros, the resinous exudation of
the leaves and flowers of Indian hemp.
It is used by the natives of India as
an intoxicating drug.
Chnrnbnsco, Battle of, fought in
Mexico, Aug. 20, 1847. After the bat-
tle of Contreras, fought on the same
day, Santa Ana, with some 27,000 ,
men, made a stand at this hamlet, on
the river Churubusco, 6 miles S. of the ;
City of Mexico, to resist the advance
of the United States army under Gen.
Scott Of 8,000 United States troops
in the two actions there were 139
killed and 926 wounded ; the Mexicans
lost 4,000 killed and wounded, 3.000
prisoners, 37 guns, and much ammuni-
tion.
Chnsan, the principal of the group
of islands known as the Chusan Archi-
pelago ; lies about a mile off the E.
coast of China, opposite Ningpo. It
has an area of over 230 square miles,
and a population of 200,000 to 250,-
000.
Gibber, Colley, an English dram*
atist ; born in London, Nov. 6, 1671 ;
was one of the most successful stagers
of plays in the history of the theater.
In 1730, he was appointed Poet Laure-
ate. His autobiographic " Apology " is
his best work. He died Dec. 12, 1757.
Cibitu, or Sibutu, a southern
Philippine island, 14 miles long and 2
miles wide. It is flat, with a conical
mountain in the center, 500 feet high.
It was sold by Spain (with Caygay-
an) to the United States in 1900,
upon payment of $100,000, having
been overlooked in the terms of the
treaty of peace. Pop. (1903) 280.
Cicely, a popular name applied to
several umbelliferous plants. Sweet
Cicely is found hi North American
woods from Canada to Virginia.
Cicero, Marcus Tnllrns, a Ro-
man orator ; born in Arpinum, in the
year of Rome 647 (106 B. c.). He
was one of the greatest orators the
world has known, and a statesman and
patriot of singularly pure conduct and
motives. He was executed at the in-
stance of the Triumvirate — Octavian-
us, Antony and Lepidus, B. c. 43.
Cid, The, Don Rodrigo (Ruy)
Diaz, Count of Bivar; born in 1026.
The model of the heroic virtues of his
age, and the flower of Spanish chiv-
alry, styled by his enemies, the Moors
of Spain, cid (the lord), and by his
king and countrymen Campeador
(champion), he continues to live in
the poetry of his country. The Cid
died at Valencia, in the 74th year of
his age (1099). What this hero won,
and for many years defended, the
united power of Leon and Castile was
scarcely able to preserve against the
encroachments of the infidels. His
dead body was mailed and mounted on
his favorite steed and marched out
against the enemy, who fled at its ap-
proach.
Cider, a liquor made from the juice
of apples.
Cienfuegos, a port and town of
Cuba, on the S. coast, at the mouth of
lagua bay, 140 miles from Havana.
Cienfuegos is the center of the Cuban
sugar trade. Pop. (1914) 81,502.
Cigar, a small roll of manufactured
tobacco leaves carefully made up, and
intended to be smoked by lighting at
one end and drawing the smoke through
it. The cigars of Havana, Cuba, are
considered the best brands.
Cilia, the hair which grows from
the margin of the eyelids. The term
is also applied to microscopic fila-
ments, or plates which project from
animal membranes and are endowed
with quick vibratile motion. In most
of the lower animals the respiratory
function is effected by means of the
vibratile cilia.
Cillcia
Cinchonisae
Cilicia, an ancient division of Asia
Minor, now included in the Turkish
province of Adana. In early ages
Cilicia was ruled by its own kings, the
people, who were probably akin to
Syrians, and Phoenicians, being notori-
ous pirates. The country fell succes-
sively under Persian, Macedonian,
Syrian and Roman rule.
Cimarrones, a name used in the
Spanish colonies of America for fugi-
tive slaves, of whom in the 16th cen-
tury many hundreds collected on the
Isthmus of Panama, where they built
walled towns, attacked the Spanish
settlements, and became a terror ail
over the country. They finally be-
came amalgamated with the Indian
tribes.
Cimarosa, Dpmenico, an Italian
composer ; born in Aversa, Dec. 17,
1749. He became famous when 21
with a comic opera, " The Pretended
Parisian." In the ensuing 30 years
he wrote over 80 comic operas. As a
writer of comic operas Cimarosa has
never been surpassed. He died in
Venice, Jan. 11, 1801.
Cimbri, a Celtic tribe, inhabiting
Jutland, having joined with the Teu-
tons, and which entered Illyria, where
they defeated Cn. Papirius Carbo, at
the head of a consular army, B. C. 113.
Marius collected a large army and
went to oppose them. The Cimbri
and Teutones separated into two bod-
ies, the former taking the road through
Helvetia, and the latter pressing for-
ward to assail the Roman army. Their
intention was to reunite their forces
on the Lombard plains. The Teu-
tones were attacked and overwhelmed
by the Romans, and 100,000 men are
said to have perished on that occasion,
B. c. 102. The Cimbri in the mean-
time had reached the valley of the
Adige, where they defeated the Roman
army under Quintus Catulus. He
formed a junction with Marius and
allured them into an unfavorable po-
sition, in which they were defeated
and exterminated, B. c. 101.
Cimmerian Bosphorns, an an-
cient name for the Strait of Kaffa.
Cimmerii, or Cimmerians, a no-
madic race, inhabiting the Crimea and
parts of the neighboring country, hav-
ing been expelled by the Scythians,
passed along the shores of the Euxine,
invaded Asia Minor, and pillaged Sar-
dis, the capital of Lydia, B. c. 635.
In that country they were said to have
remained until about B. c. 617, when
they were defeated and driven out of
Asia Minor.
Cimon, an ancient Athenian gen-
eral and statesman, was a son of the
great Miltiades. He fought against
the Persians in the battle of Salamis
(480 B. c.), and shared with Aristides
the chief command of the fleet sent to
Asia to deliver the Greek colonies from
the Persian yoke. He died shortly
after, in 449, while besieging Citium
in Cyprus.
Cinchona, a genus of trees found
exclusively on the Andes in Peru and
CINCHONA.
adjacent countries, and recently intro-
duced into India, producing a medic-
inal bark of great value known as Pe-
ruvian bark.
Cinchona Bark, the bark of sev-
eral species of trees used in medicine,
or for the extraction of the alkaloids,
quinine, cinchonine, etc., which they
contain.
Cinchonism, a group of symptoms,
chiefly connected with the nervous sys-
tem, produced by the presence of qui-
nine in the system. There are noises
in the ears. These noises are accom-
Cincinnati
panied with more or less deafness.
Affections of sight are less common.
These symptoms usually pass away iu
a few days after discontinuing the
drug.
Cincinnati, a city and county-seat
of Hamilton Co., O. It is the second
city in the State in population and
the thirteenth in the United States,
according to the census of 1910. It is
built on the N. shore of the Ohio river,
directly opposite Covington, Ky. ; and
is connected with the Kentucky shore
by five bridges ; area 75 square miles ;
pop. (census est. 1916) 410,476.
The city owns an extensive water-
works system, costing $10,291,722.
The principal park in Cincinnati is
Eden Park, situated on a hill over-
looking the city and the Ohio river. It
contains 216 acres and two reservoirs,
so constructed as to resemble natural
lakes. Burnet Woods, in the N. part
of the city, contains 170 acres of
woodland. Hopkins, Lincoln, and
Washington are smaller parks, form-
ing magnificent pleasure grounds.
Spring Grove Cemetery is one of the
most beautiful in the West, and con-
tains about 600 acres, well wooded,
and many handsome monuments and
mausoleums.
The public buildings include the (U.
S.) Government Building, of granite,
cost $5,200.000; (U. S.) Marine Hos-
pital ; the Y. M. C. A. Building, cost,
$201,063; the County Court House,
and jail, built in Romanesque style;
the City Hospital; the City Hall,
erected at a cost of over $1,000,000;
and the Chamber of Commerce. Cin-
cinnati is also celebrated as the site
of one of the earliest astronomical ob-
servatories in the United States,
founded about the same time as that
of Harvard University and the Naval
Observatory at Washington. The ob-
servatory has since been moved to
Mount Lookout, a suburb of Cincin-
nati, and a much better site than that
first selected. The institution is best
known for the work done there by
Prof. Ormond Stone, one of its former
directors, on the measurement of
double-stars and the discovery of many
new ones. It contains an 11-inch re-
fractor and a new meridian circle. The
University of Cincinnati, opened in
1874. had in the school year 1914-15,
2,292 students, with 229 instructors,
Cincinnati
and an equipment and endowment val-
ued at over $3,000,000.
The Federal census of 1910 reported
2,124 manufacturing establishments,
employing $150,254,000 capital and
70,473 persons; paying $101,932,000
for stock used and $43,860,000 for
wages ; of products and value $194,-
516,000. The Rookwood Pottery
(q. v.) is famous for its porcelain.
There are many beautiful churches
and fine public schools. Among mu-
nicipal benevolent and penal institu-
tions are the City Infirmary, the
Work House and the House of Ref-
uge for incorrigible or homeless boys
and girls. Besides large public hospi-
tals, there are several private ones, and
many orphan asylums and homes.
Cincinnati, named in honor of the
Society of the Cincinnati, was first
settled by white men in 1780, and was
incorporated as a city in 1819. Mounds
containing various relics show that a
portion of the site of the city was an-
ciently occupied. The first steamboat
descending from Pittsburg visited the
town in 1811 ; the Miami canal was
completed in 1830; the first railway
was opened in 1845.
Cincinnati, a society or order in
the United States, established by the
officers of the Revolutionary army in
1783, "to perpetuate their friendship,
and to raise a fund for relieving the
widows and orphans of those who had
fallen during the war." The badge
of the society is a bald eagle suspended
by a dark-blue ribbon with white bor-
ders, symbolizing the union of France
and the United States. On the breast
of the eagle there is a figure of Cin-
cinnatus receiving the military ensigns
from the senators, round the whole are
the words "Omnia reliquit servare
rempublicam." Membership descends
to the eldest lineal male descendant,
and, in failure of direct male descent,
to male descendants through interven-
ing female descendants. The general
society is composed of the general of-
ficers and five delegates from each
State society, and meets triennially. In
1854 it ruled that proper descendants
of Revolutionary officers who were
entitled to original membership, but
who never could avail themselves of it,
are qualified for hereditary member-
ship, if found worthy, on due applica-
tion.
Circe
Cincinnatns, Lucius Quinctius,
a wealthy patrician in the early days
of the Roman Republic, born about
519 B. c. He succeeded Publicola in
the consulship, and then retired to
cultivate his small estate beyond the
Tiber. The messengers of the senate
found him at work on his farm when
they came to summon him to the dicta-
torship. He rescued the army from
its peril, and then returned quietly to
his farm. At the age of 80 he was
again appointed dictator to oppose the
-ambitious designs of Spurius Maelius.
Cinematograph, a device for
showing pictures of men, animals, etc.,
in motion.
Cinnabar, red sulphide of mercury;
the principal ore from which that met-
al is obtained, occurring abundantly in
California, China, etc. It is of a
cochineal-red color, and is used as a
pigment under the name of vermilion.
Cinnamic Acid, an acid which ex-
ists in the free state in the balsams of
tolu and Peru, in liquid storax, and in
gum benzoin.
Cinnamon, an aromatic substance
consisting of the bark of a tree, from
which the essential oil of Cinnamon is
distilled. The oil has aromatic car-
minative, and stimulant properties.
Cinqne Port*, (Five Ports), the
sea-port towns of Dover, Sandwich,
Hastings, Hythe, and Romney, Eng-
land ; to which three others were af-
terward added, viz., Winchelsea, Rye,
and Seaford. These towns are incor-
porated, with peculiar privileges ; are
under the government of a lord war-
den, to whom writs for the election of
members to parliament from them are
directed ; and the members so elected
are termed Barons of the Cinque
Ports.
Cintra, a town in Portugal, 15
miles W. N. W. Lisbon, finely situated
on the slope of the Sierra de Cintra.
The kings of Portugal have a palace
with fine gardens at Cintra. The town
is celebrated for the convention en-
tered into there in 1808, by which the
French, after their defeat at Vimeira,
were conveyed to France. Pop. 4,751.
Ciphers, signs used to represent
numbers, whether borrowed signs, as
letters, with which the Greeks desig-
nated their numbers, or peculiar char-
acters, as the modern or Arabic ones.
The ciphers, such as they are at pres-
ent, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, did no*
come into common European use until
the llth century.
Cipher Writing, a method of
sending important intelligence in a
manner so effectually disguised that
only those for whom the news is in-
tended can understand the meaning of
what is written. By this method one
word may be used to represent an en-
tire sentence and thus not only is the
cost of transmitting a message mate-
rially reduced, but the contents be-
come known only to the person for
whom it is intended or to the possessor
of a key. Cipher codes are employed
by the State Departments of all gov-
ernments and frequently changed. The
special code is entrusted to the per-
sonal custody of diplomatic officials
embarking on a mission, who retain
possession of it and destroy it if their
lives are endangered.
Cipriani, Giambattista, an Ital-
ian history-painter and designer ; born
in Florence in 1727, of an old Pistoja
family. He died in Hammersmith,
England, Dec. 14, 1785.
Circassia, or Tcherkessia, a
mountainous region in the S. E. of
European Russia, lying chiefly on the
N. slope of the Caucasus, partly also
on the S., and bounded on the W. by
the Black Sea, and now forming part
of the Lieutenancy of the Caucasus.
The mountains are intersected every-
where with steep ravines and clothed
with thick forests. Its climate is
temperate, its inhabitants healthy and
long-lived.
The Circassians, properly so called,
have been estimated to number from
500.000 to 600,000.
Circe, a daughter of Sol and Perse,
celebrated for her skill in magic and
poisonous herbs, who lived on an is-
land called ^Ea, on the coast of Italy.
Ulysses, on his return from the Trojan
war, visited her coast; and all his
companions, who ran headlong into
pleasure and voluptuousness, were
changed by Circe's potions into swine.
Ulysses, fortified against all enchant-
ments by an herb called moly, which
he had received from Mercury, de-
manded from Circe the restoration of
his companions to their former state.
She complied, loading the hero with
Circle
honors; and, for one whole year, he
forgot his glory in his devotion to
pleasure.
Circle, a plane figure contained by
one line, which is called the circumfer-
ence, and is such that all straight lines
drawn from a certain point (the cen-
ter) within the figure to the circum-
ference are equal to one another.
Circle, Magic, a space in which
sorcerers were wont to protect them-
selves from the fury of the evil spir-
its they had raised. This circle was
usually formed on a piece of ground
about 9 feet square, in the midst of
some dark forest, churchyard, vault,
or other lonely and dismal spot. In-
side the outer circle was another some-
what less, in the center of which the
sorcerer had his seat. The spaces be-
tween the circles, as well as between
the parallel lines which inclosed the
larger one, were fillled with all the
holy names of God, and a variety of
other characters supposed to be po-
tent against the powers of evil. With-
out the protection of this circle, the
magician, it was believed, would have
been carried off by the spirits.
Circuit Court, a court in the
United States next in rank to the
United States Supreme Court. The
country now has nine circuits, each
consisting of several States, and each
is allotted to one of the nine justices
of the Supreme Court, who must at-
tend at least one term of court in each
district of his circuit every two years.
The judges of each circuit and the jus-
tice of the Supreme Court for the cir-
cuit constitute a Circuit Court of Ap-
peals.
Circular Notes, notes or letters of
credit furnished by bankers to persons
about to travel abroad.
Circular Numbers, numbers whose
powers end on the same figures as
themselves ; as 0, 1, 5, etc.
Circulation, in anatomy and
physics, the term used to designate
the course of the blood from the heart
to the most minute blood-vessels (the
capillaries), and from these back to
the heart.
Circulation of Sap, in plants, its
ascent from the root to the leaves and
bark, and its partial descent after the
elaboration, which it undergoes in
these organs.
Circus
Circumcision, an operation con-
sisting in removing circularly the pre-
puce of infants. God commanded
Abraham to use circumcision as a sign
of his covenant ; and in obedience to
this order, the patriarch at 99 years
of age was circumcised, as also his son
Ishmael, and all the males of his
household (Gen. xvii : 10-12). God
repeated the precept to Moses, and or-
dered that all who intended to partake
of the Paschal sacrifice should receive
circumcision, and that this rite should
be performed on children on the eighth
day after their birth (Ex. xii: 44).
The Jews and all the other nations
sprung from Abraham, as the Ishmael-
ites, the Arabians, etc., have always
been very exact in observing this cere-
mony. At the present day it is an es-
sential rite of the Mohammedan reli-
gion, and though not enjoined in the
Koran, prevails wherever this religion
is found.
Circumference, or Periphery,
the curve which incloses a circle, el-
lipse, oval, or other plane figure.
Circumnavigator, one who sails
round the globe. The first European
known to have circumnavigated the
globe was Magellan or Magalhaens, a
Portuguese, who accomplished the feat
in A. D. 1519. From him the Straits
of Magellan derive their name.
Circnmpolar Stars, those that ap-
pear to move around the pole and per-
form their circles without setting.
Circumstantial Evidence, evi-
dence obtained from circumstances,
which necessarily or usually attend
facts of a particular nature, from
which arises presumption ; any evi-
dence not direct and positive.
Circnmvallation, or Line of
Circumvallation, in military affairs
a line of field-works consisting of a
rampart or parapet, with a trench
surrounding a besieged place, or the
camp of a besieging army.
Circus, among the Romans, a
nearly oblong building without a roof,
in which public chariot-races and ex-
hibitions of pugilism and wrestling,
etc., took place. The modern circus is
a place where horses and other animals
are trained to perform tricks, and
where exhibitions of acrobats and va-
rious pageantries, including a large
amount of buffoonery, are presented.
Cirrhosis
City
Cirrhosis, a chronic nonsuppura-
tive inflammation. The term was orig-
inally applied to the liver, and was
due to alcoholic indulgence.
Cirta, the capital of the ancient
Massylii in Numidia. After the defeat
of Jugurtha it passed into the hands
of the Romans, and was restored by
Constantine, who gave it his own
name.
Cisalpine Republic, a former
State in North Italy. After the bat-
tle of Lodi, in May, 1796, General
Bonaparte proceeded to organize two
States — one on the S. of the Po, the
Cispadane Republic, and one on the
N., the Transpadane. These two were
on July 9, 1797, united into one under
the title of the Cisalpine Republic,
which embraced Lombardy, Mantua,
Bergamo, Brescia, Cremona, Verona,
and Rovigo, the duchy of Modena, the
principalities of Massa and Cararra,
and the three legations of Bologna,
Ferrara, and the Romagna. The re-
public had a territory of more than
16,000 square miles, and a population
of 3,500,000. Milan was the seat of
the government or Directory. In 1802
it took the name of the Italian Re-
public, and chose Bonaparte for its
president. A deputation from the re-
public in 1805 conferred on the Em-
peror Napoleon the title of King of
Italy ; after which it formed the king-
dom of Italy till 1814.
Cisleithania, or Cisleithan
Provinces, Austria proper or Austria
W. of the river Leitha, which partly
forms the boundary between it and
Hungary.
Cisneros-Betanconrt, Salvador,
a Cuban patriot ; born in Puerto Prin-
cipe in 1832. During the Revolution
of 1868-1878, he was president of the
Cuban House of Representatives, and
during a part of the time president of
the Cuban Republic. In 1895 he was
re-elected president of the new Cuban
Republic. He died Oct. 22, 1910.
Cissoid, a curve in geometry, the
locus of the vortex of a parabola roll-
ing upon equal parabola.
Cist, a place of interment of an
early or prehistoric period, consisting
of a rectangular stone chest or inclos-
ure formed of rows of stones set up-
right, and covered by similar flat
stones.
Cistercian, a monastic order in
connection with the Roman Catholic
Church.
Cistern, a tank for holding water.
Cisterns differ from wells in; that they
do not get their water from natural
sources, such as springs, but through
channels made by the hand of man.
Citation, a summons or official no-
tice given to a person to appear in a
court as a party or witness in a cause.
Cithern, or Cittern, an old instru-
ment of the guitar kind, strung with
wire instead of gut.
Cities of Refuge. Moses, at the
command of God, set apart three cities
on the E. of Jordan, and Joshua added
three others on the W., whither any
person might flee for refuge who had
killed a human creature inadvertently.
The three on the E. of Jordan were
Bezer, Ramoth, and Golan ; the three
on the W. were Hebron. Shechem, and
Kedesh. (Deut. iv: 43; Josh, xx: 1-8.)
Cities of the Plain, Sodom and
Gomorrah, chief of those five cities
which, according to the commonly re-
ceived account, were destroyed by fire
from heaven, and their sites over-
whelmed by the waters of the Dead
Sea.
Citizen, a member of a State or
community, an inhabitant of any State
or place. " All persons born or natu-
ralized in the United States, and sub-
ject to the jurisdiction thereof, are cit-
izens of the United States and of the
State wherein they reside." — Constitu-
tion of the United States, Amend, xiv.,
Sec. 1.
Citric Acid, is a very widely dis-
tributed acid, being present in most
common fruits, such as gooseberries,
currants, lemons, citrons, cherries, and
many others.
Citron, a tree of the genus Citrus.
A small evergreen shrub introduced
into the S. parts of Europe and Asia.
City, a municipal organization char-
tered by the sovereign authority, and
endowed with certain powers of self
government. In remotely ancient
times a city was usually itself a cen-
ter of sovereign power. This feature
survives only in cities like Hamburg
and Bremen. It does not exist in
American or English cities, which are
as much under the control of the State
City Manager
as the smaller village, and which are
in effect simply corporations organized
for the better management of corpor-
ate affairs, the protection of health,
the general safety, and so forth.
City Manager, title of a newly-
created official in American cities,
individually responsible for the entire
administrative machinery of a munic-
ipality, the director of public affairs
under the form of a commission gov-
ernment. He appoints the various
department heads, subject to ratifica-
tion by the commission, and they are
accountable only to him and may be
removed by him at any time. The in-
novation is developing a unique group
of public servants, not politicians or
transplanted business men, but a new
type of specially qualified adminis-
trators. Up to June 15, 1916, forty-
two cities under commission govern-
ment had adopted the city manager
plan, and seventeen others not under
commission government had done so.
See COMMISSION GOYEBNMENT.
City Planning, a movement for
municipal betterment that has devel-
oped wide-spread interest and civic
activities in many of the large cities
of the United States, especially since
1910. It is claimed that city plan-
ning is the application of wise fore-
sight to the control of a city's destiny.
It attracts industries, commerce, and
visitors ; it produces better transpor-
tation facilities, improved hygienic
conditions, more adequate and less ex-
pensive living quarters ; and it includes
not only the aesthetic beautification
of the city, but the construction
and co-ordination of all the elements
which go to make the modern city
a practical operative mechanism. The
straightening of old crooked roads, the
elimination of unsightly buildings,
and particularly the rebuilding of mu-
nicipal and other public buildings in a
center approachable from any direc-
tion by straight, broad, attractive
boulevards, are among the first provi-
sions. Chicago, Boston, Kansas City,
Lios Angeles, and New York have
taken the lead in this movement, and
by 1917 nearly 100 cities had begun
or were planning civic betterments.
Civics, School, a feature of educa-
tional methods recently introduced
into many of the public and other
schools of the United States, especially
Civil Service
designed to impart to youth a prac-
tical conception of the science of gov-
ernment. To render the course of
study and practice as realistic as
possible, a portion of the students
is organized into a body similar to
that which governs their own city, or
in advanced instances, those under
commission government. Ordinarily
there are a mayor, councilmen or com-
missioners, heads of the usual execu-
tive departments, and representatives
of the leading public activities. These
officials are elected by the students
from ^ among their number, and are
then instructed in the various duties
and responsibilities that pertain to
their elder prototypes.
Cindad-Rodrigo, a fortress in
Spain, in Leon, on the river Aguada.
In the Peninsular War it was taken
by storm by the British under Wel-
lington, after a siege of 11 days. The
Cortes gave him the title of Duke of
Ciiidad-Rodrigo.
Civil Service, that branch of the
public service which includes the non-
military servants of the government.
In January, 1883, the United States
Congress passed a law to prevent the
abuse of the appointing power of the
officers of government. The Presi-
dent was authorized to appoint, with
the advice and consent of the Senate,
three civil _ service commissioners,
whose duty is to aid the President in
preparing suitable rules which shall
provide for open competitive examina-
tions for testing the fitness of appli-
cants for the public service, such ex-
aminations to be practical in their
character, and so far as may be relat-
ing to those matters which will fairly
test the relative capacity and fitness
of the persons examined to discharge
the duties of the service. All the
places arranged in classes are to be
filled by selections according to grade
from among those standing highest as
the result of such examinations. m The
appointments to the public service in
the departments at Washington are to
be proportioned upon the basis of pop-
ulation of the several States and Ter-
ritories and the District of Columbia.
The law provides a period of probation
before any absolute appointment is
made, and exempts all persons in the
public service from all obligation to
contribute to any political fund or to
render any political service. It for-
Civil War
bids any person in the public service
using his official authority to coerce
the political action of any other person
or body. Non-competitive examina-
tions in all proper cases are provided
for after notice given of a vacancy,
the appointing power to give notice in
writing to the civil service commission
of the persons selected for appointment
among those who have been examined.
Power is given this commission to
make regulations for, and to have con-
trol of, such examinations, subject to
the rules made by the President. The
civil service commission is required to
report annually to the President, for
transmission to Congress, its own ac-
tion, the rules and regulations, and
the exceptions thereto in .force, the
practical objects thereof, and any sug-
gestions for the more effectual accom-
plishment of the purposes of the law.
Provision is made for holding exami-
nations at convenient places twice each
year in every State and Territory of
the United States.
The statute punishes by fine and
imprisonment all in the public service
who wilfully defeat, obstruct, or de-
ceive any person in respect to his or
her right of examination, or who shall
corruptly and falsely mark, or report
upon the proper standing of any per-
son examined, or aid in so doing, or
who shall furnish to any person any
special or secret information for the
purpose of either improving or injur-
ing the prospects of any person so ex-
amined appointed, employed, or pro-
moted. It was provided that after six
months from the passing of the act,
no officer or clerk was to be appointed
until after passing examination, unless
specially exempted by the act ; and no
person in the habit of using intoxicat-
ing beverages to excess is to be ap-
pointed to or retained in any employ-
ment to which the act applies.
Civil War, American, the war in
the United States, caused by the at-
tempt of the Southern States to estab-
lish an independent government under
the name of the Confederate States of
America.
The result of the war was to estab-
lish the fact that the United States is
a nation, and that no State has the
right to secede from the Union. It
also resulted in the abolition of slav-
ery, and the 13th Amendment to the
Clairvoyance
Constitution, adopted after the war,
extinguished slavery in the United
States. During the Civil War there
were 2,778,304 men mustered into ser-
vice on the Union side and about 600,-
000 on the Confederate. The number
of casualties in the volunteer and regu-
lar armies of the United States dur-
ing the war, according to a statement
prepared by the Adjutant-General's of-
fice, was as follows : Killed in battle,
07,058; died of wounds, 43,012; died
of disease, 199,720 ; other causes, such
as accidents, murder, Confederate pris-
ons, etc., 40,154; total died, 349,944;
total deserted, 199,105. Number of
soldiers in the Confederate service who
died of wounds or disease (partial
statement), 133,821. Deserted (par-
tial statement), 104,428. Number of
United States troops captured during
the war, 212,608; Confederate troops
captured, 476,169. Number of United
States troops paroled on the field, 16,-
431 ; Confederate troops paroled on
the field, 248,599. Number of United
States troops who died while prisoners,
30,156; Confederate troops who died
while prisoners, 30,152.
Claflin, Mary Bucklin, an Amer-
ican prose-writer ; born in Hopkinton,
Mass., July, 1825. She was the wife
of Governor Claflin, of Massachusetts.
For 18 years she was a trustee of Bos-
ton University ; and of Wellesley Col-
lege from its foundation till her death,
which occurred in Whitinsville, Mass..
June 13, 1896.
Claflin University, a co-educa-
tional institution in Orangeburg, S.
C. ; organized in 1869, under the aus-
pices of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, exclusively for the colored
race.
Clairvanx, a village of France, on
the Aube, 10 miles S. E. of Barsur-
Aube ; is remarkable as the site of the
once famous Cistercian, Abbey, founded
in 1115 by St. Bernard, who presided
over it till his death in 1153, when he
was buried in the church.
Clairvoyance, defined as the power
of perceiving without the use of the
organ of vision or under conditions in
which the organ of vision with its nat-
ural powers alone would be useless. It
comprises the sight of things past,
present, or future, and various meth-
ods are observed in its performance.
Clam
Clam, the popular name of certain
bivalvular shell-fish of various genera
and species. The giant clam has the
largest shell known, and the animal is
used as food in the Pacific. The com-
mon American clam is found in gravel-
ly mud, sand, and other soft bottoms,
especially between high and low water
mark. They are largely used for bait,
and are a much-relished article of
food.
Clan, a tribe or number of families,
bearing the same surname, claiming to
be descended from the same ancestor
and united under a chieftain repre-
senting the ancestor.
Clapboard, a thin, narrow board
commonly used for covering the sides
of wooden buildings.
Clapperton, Hugh, an African
traveler ; born in Dumfriesshire, Scot-
land, in 1788. He was the first Euro»
pean who traversed the whole of Cen-
tral Africa from the Bight of Benin
to the Mediterranean. He died in Af-
rica in April, 1827.
Claque, a body of hired applause-
makers, openly employed in France
and sometimes secretly resorted to
elsewhere.
Clare, St., bora in 1193, of a noble
family of Assisi ; in 1212 retired to the
Portiuncula of St. Francis, and in the
same year founded the order of Fran-
ciscan nuns. She died Aug. 11, 1253.
THE NUNS OF THE OEDEE OF ST.
CLARA (also called the Poor Clares)
at first observed the strictest Benedic-
tine rule, but the austerity of this rule
was mitigated by St. Francis in 1224,
and further modified by Urban IV.
in 1265. A large proportion of the
nuns adopted Urban's rule.
Clarence, Duke of. See GEORGE.
DUKE OF CLARENCE.
Clarendon, Constitutions of, a
code of laws adopted in the 10th year
of Henry II. (1164), at a council of
prelates and barons held in the village
of Clarendon, in Wiltshire, in Janu-
ary of the above year. Ten of the ar-
ticles were condemned, and six allowed
by Pope Alexander III. The six arti-
oles approved of were of comparatively
slight importance, mostly confirming
the privileges of the ecclesiastical
order.
Clarendon, Edward Hyde, Earl
of, Lord High Chancellor of England ;
Clark
born in Dinton, Wiltshire, in 1608.
During the civil wars he zealously at-
tached himself to the royal cause, was
made successively chancellor of the ex-
chequer and privy councillor. After
the failure of the royalist arms he took
refuge in Jersey, and then joined
Prince Charles in Holland. He con-
tributed to the Restoration, accom-
panied Charles II. to London, and was
made Lord Chancellor. His daughter
Anne was married to the Duke of
York, afterward James II., and two
daughters, Anne and Mary, both as-
cended the English throne. He died in
Rouen in 1674.
Claret, a name given to wines of a
light-red color.
Clarification, the act or process
of making any liquor clear and bright
by freeing it from visible impurities.
It differs from purification in that a
liquid, though clear to the sight, may
still contain a large amount of im-
pure matter.
Clarinet, or Clarionet, a musical
instrument. It consists essentially of
a mouth-piece furnished with a single
beating reed, a cylindrical tube ending
in a bell, and provided with 18 open-
ings in the side, half of which are
closed by the fingers and half by the
keys.
Clark, Abraham, an American
patriot ; born in Elizabethtown, N. J.,
Feb. 15, 1726. He was a dele-
gate to the Continental Congress and
signed the Declaration of Indepen-
dence. He aided in framing the Con-
stitution of the United States. He
died in Rahway, N. J., Sept. 15, 1794.
Clark, Alexander, an American
clergyman and writer ; born in Jeffer-
son county, Ohio, in 1834. Died in
Georgia, July 6, 1879.
Clark, Alonzo Howard, an Amer-
ican scientist: born in Boston, April
13, 1850. Since 1881 he has been con-
nected with the Smithsonian Institu-
tion.
Clark, Alvan, an American astro-
nomical-instrument maker ; born in
As.hfield, Mass., March 3, 1804. He
was at one time a portrait painter.
His attention was turned to telescope
making and he achieved a world-wide
reputation. He died in Cambridge,
Mass., Aug. 9, 1887. His son, Alvan
Graham Clark, born in Fall River,
fiE
5
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