Proceedings

// / /

Aberdeen University
Studies : No. 34

Proceedings

of

The Anatomical and Anthropological Society

University of Aberdeen.

COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS.

Convener : Professor JAMES W. H. TRAIL, F.R.S., Curator of the University

Library.

UNIVERSITY STUDIES.

General Editor : P. J. ANDERSON, LL.B., Librarian to the University
and Clerk of the General Council.

1900. No. i.— Roll of Alumni in Arts of the University and King's College of Aberdeen, 1596-1860.

Edited by P. J. Anderson. ,

M No. 2.— Records of Old Aberdeen, 1157-1891. A. M. Munro, F.S.A. Scot. Vol. I.
„ No. 3. — Place Names of West Aberdeenshire. James Macdonald, F.S.A. Scot.

1901. No. 4.— The Family of Burnett of Leys. George Burnett, LL.D., Lyon King of Arms.
H NO. 5.— Records of Invercauld, 1547-1828. Rev. J. G. Michie, M.A.

1902. No. 6.— Rectorial Addresses in the Universities of Aberdeen, 1835-1900. P. J. Anderson.
No. 7.— The Albcmarle Papers, 1746-48, Professor C. S. Terry, M.A.

1903. No. 8.— The House of Gordon. J. M. Bulloch, M.A. Vol. I.
„ No. 9.— Records of Elgin. William Cramond, LL.D. Vol. I.

1904. No. 10. — Avogadro and Dalton. A. N. Meldrum, D.Sc.

„ No. ix. — Records of the Sheriff Court of Aberdeenshire. David Littiejohn, LL.D. Vol. I.

„ No. 12. — Proceedings of the Anatomical and Anthropological Society, 1902-04.

1905. No. 13. — Report on Alcyonaria. Professor J. Arthur Thomson, M.A., and others.
„ No. 14. — Researches in Organic Chemistry. Prof. F. R. Japp, F.R.S., and others.

„ No. 15. — Meminisse Juvat : with Appendix of Alakeia. Alexander Shewan, M.A.
„ No. i6.—The Blackballs of that Ilk and Barra. Alexander Morison, M.D.

1906. No. 17. — Records of the Scots Colleges. Vol.1. P. J. Anderson.

„ No. 18. — Roll of the Graduates of the University of Aberdeen, 1860-1900. Colonel William

Johnston, C.B., LL.D.
„ No. 19. — Studies in the History and Development of the University of Aberdeen. P. J.

Anderson and others.
,, No. 20. — Studies in the History and Art of the Eastern Provinces of the Roman Empire.

Professor Sir W. M. Ramsay, D.C.L., and pupils.
No. 21. — Studies in Pathology. William Bulloch, M.D., and others.
, No. 22. — Proceedings of the Anatomical and Anthropological Society, 1904-06.
,, No. 23. — Subject Catalogues of the Science Library and the Law Library. P. J. Anderson.
. „ No. 24.— Records of the Sheriff Court of Aberdecnshire. David Littiejohn, LL.D. Vol. II.
'' / 1907. No. 25. — Studies on Alcyonarians and Antipatharians. Prof. Thomson, M.A., and others.

/,, No. 26. — Surgical Instruments in Greek an I Roman, Times. J. S. Milne, M.A., M.D.
.„ No. a^. — Records of the Sheriff Court of Aberdecnshire. David Littiejohn, LL.D. Vol. III.
/,, No. -28. — Flosculi Graeci Boreales. Ser. II. Professor John Harrower, M.A.
,/ No. 29. — Record of the Quatercentenary, 1906. P. J. Anderson.
„ /Jo. 30.— The House of Gordon. J. M. Bulloch, M.A. Vol. II.
1908. No. $i.~The Miscellany of the New Spalding Club. Vol. II.

„ No. 32. — Tie Religious Teachers of Greece. James Adam, Litt.D. (Giffbrd Lectures, 1904-06)
„ No. 33. — The Science and Philosophy of the Organism. Hans Driesch, Ph.D. (Gifford Lect.)
„ No. 34. — Proceedings of the A natomical and A nthropological Society, 1906-08.

Proceedings

of the

Aberdeen Un i versi ty

Anatomical and Anthropological

Society

President

Robert William Reid, M.D., F.R.C.S.

Professor of Anatomy

1906-08

Aberdeen

Printed for the Society
1908

ABERDEEN :
PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Some Native Customs and Beliefs in Central Africa ....... 2

Kecord of Anatomical Variations 18, 53, 76, 95, 112

Anthropological Notes from British New Guinea ^ . 22

A Synopsis of a Report by G. A. Turner, M.B., D.P.H., on the Natives of Portuguese

East Africa, South of Latitude 22° 34

On Two Additional Short Cists from Aberdeenshire . . • . . . . .54

Some Remains of Buddhist India .... 65

Notes on the Brain of an Imbecile 80

On Certain Physical Characters of Aberdeen Medical Students 82

Description of a Human Embryo of 13-14 Mesodermic Somites 98

On Three Bronze Dagger-Blades found in Aberdeenshire 115

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATE

1. Fig. 1. Native Weaver at Work.

Fig. 2. Yao Woman Wearing Headvvig, Necklace, Anklets, etc.
Fig. 3. Mang'anja Hut on the Lower Shire River.
Fig. 4. Yao Woman Grinding Flour.

2. Fig. 5. Yao Boy showing Small Notches on the Upper Incisor

Teeth.
Fig. 6. Yao Boy showing Notches on the Upper Central Incisor

Teeth.
Fig. 7. Anguru Boy showing the Upper Incisor Teeth Filed to a

Point.
Fig. 8. Chikunda Boy from Lower Zambesi, Single Notch cut

between the Upper Central Incisor Teeth .... To face pay?. 16

3. Figs. 1 and 2. Face and Profile Views of a Man of the Toro Tribe,

Bensbach River.

Fig. 3. A Papuo-Melanesian from Goodenough Bay.
Fig. 4. Two Types of Men from Kwaiawata.

4. Fig. 5. A Man of Go-aribari, Aird River Delta.
Fig. 6. A Binandere Man, Lower Mamba River.

Fig. 7. Naro Woman with Wavy Hair, Valley of the St. John

River.
Fig. 8. A Man of the Ikoro Section of the Sinangolo (Eastern

Papuan) „ 30

5. Fig. 1. Hut showing Mutswa Painting.
Fig. 2. Mtyopi Piano.

6. Fig. 3. Native Distillery in full working order concealed in the

Bush.
Fig. 4. Bark Canoe on Lake Suli.

7. Fig. 5. Woman Wearing Mourning Chaplet.

Fig. 6. Makua Decorations produced by Cicatrisation.

Fig. 7. Mtyopi Married Woman.

Fig. 8. Shangaan Married Women ,, 50

8. Cist at Gateside of Scotstown, Old Machar, Aberdeenshire . „ 62

vii

viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATE

9. Fig. 1. Asoka's Railing at the Mahabodhi Temple, Bodh-Gaya.
Fig. 2. The Bo-Tree, Mahabodhi Temple, Bodh-Gaya.
Fig. 3. Figure of Buddha from Excavations at Sarnath.
Fig. 4. Interior of Rock-cut Temple at Karli.

10. Fig. 5. Rear View of East Gateway of Great Stupa at Sanchi.
Fig. 6. Front View of Left-hand Pillar of East Gateway of Great

Stupa at Sanchi.
Fig. 7. Side View of Right-hand Pillar of East Gateway of Great

Stupa at Sanchi.
Fig. 8. Part of Railing of Smaller Stupa at Sanchi. . . . To face page 74

11. Model of Human Embryo, left side (enlarged 60 times).

12. Model of Human Embryo, front view (enlarged 60 times).

13. Model of Human Embryo, in sagittal section (enlarged 60 times). ,, 110

ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.

PAGE

Anthropological Notes from British New Guinea—

Fig. 1. Map showing Boundaries of British and German New Guinea .

Fig. 2. Waga at Tube-tube ; Engineer Group - 30

On Two Additional Short Cists from Aberdeenshire—

Fig. 1. Skull from Cist at Mains of Leslie (^) 56

Fig. 2. Skull from Cist at Mains of Leslie ($) 57

Fig. 3. Urn from Cist at Mains of Leslie (J) 60

Fig. 4. Flint Knife from Cist at Gateside of Scotstown (|) 62

Description of a Human Embryo of 13-14 Mesodermic Somites —

Fig. 1. Right Half of a Transverse Section of the Embryo through the region of

the Eleventh Mesodermic Somite ......... 100

Fig. 2. Notochord in region of First Pair of Mesodermic Somites, and Fig. 3 in

Caudal region ............. 101

Fig. 4. Model of Heart. x75, viewed from the front and left; Fig. 5, seen from

behind 102

Fig. 6. Transverse Section in region of Second Pair of Somites. x50. . . 103

Fig. 7. Model of Pharynx. x75 103

Fig. 8. Section through region of Hind-brain. x50 . . . . . . 105

Fig. 9. Section through region of Sixth Somite. x50 . . . . . . 106

Fig. 10. Section through region of Hind Gut. x50 . . . . . . 106

Figs. 11 and 12. Model showing Septum Transversum from above . . . 107

Fig. 13. Section through Optic Vesicle 108

Fig. 14. Section through Head of Embryo. x50 108

Fig. 15. Section through region of First Visceral Cleft. x50 . . . .108

On Three Bronze Dagger-Blades found in Aberdeenshire —

Fig. 1. Bronze Dagger-Blade (about i). A, face view ; B, edge view . . . 116

Figs. 2 and 3. Bronze Dagger-Blades ; face view (£) 117

ORDINARY MEETING.
17th NOVEMBER, 1906.

Professor R. W. REID, M.D., F.R.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

Professor Reid introduced Rev. Alexander Hetherwick, M.A.,
D.D., of Blantyre, who delivered a lecture on " Some Native Customs
and Beliefs in Central Africa ". The lecture was illustrated by a
series of lantern slides and Dr. Hetherwick was heartily thanked for
his address.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

SOME NATIVE CUSTOMS AND BELIEFS IN CENTRAL AFRICA.

By REV. ALEXANDER HETHEBWICK, M.A., D.D., Blantyre, British

Central Africa.

(Read 17th November, 1906.)

My purpose in this paper is to lay before you a few of the
characteristic customs and beliefs of the tribes of Central Africa
amongst whom I have been living for the past three and twenty
years. These tribes inhabit the country lying along the banks of the
Shire River and round the south end of Lake Nyasa, the Southern
Division of what is known geographically and politically as British
Central Africa.

The first of these tribes is that which calls itself the Mang'anja-
a branch of the large Nyanja tribe which covers the whole southern
half of our Central African Protectorate. The Mang'anja live along
the Shire Valley from near its junction with the Zambesi River to the
south end of Lake Nyasa, They are the people whom Livingstone
met on his first expedition into the Lake District, and whom he
describes in his book, The /ntiihcxi mid iff Trilitituric*. They arc
the original inhabitants of the country, and long ago formed a large
and powerful kingdom under the sway of one chief or king. But
among all Central African tribes the tendency is to break up into
petty chiefships jealous of each other, and often hostile, and the
Mang'anja were no exception to the rule.

The second tribe is the Yao as it calls itself, who inhabit the hill
country to the east of the Shire Valley and the south of Lake Nyasa.
From there they stretch away along the valleys of the Lujenda and
Rovuma Rivers to within a hundred miles of the sea coast. Originally

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OP ABERDEEN. 3

they lived to the north-east of their present habitat, but were driven
to the south by pressure of the tribes from the east and north, and
so about fifty years ago part of them came down into the Shire
Highlands and drove out the original Mang'anja inhabitants, who
fled to the Shire Valley for safety among their fellow-tribesmen
there.

The third tribe is that known as the Angoni who live on the lofty
tableland to the west of the Shire River and Lake Nyasa. They are
really a branch of the Nyanja tribe and closely allied to the Mang'anja
already alluded to, both in language and general characteristics. But
about forty years ago they were subjugated by the Angoni, a raiding
tribe of the Zulu race, who came into the country from the south, and
from whom they took the name Angoni. Along with the name they
took a few of the habits and customs of their conquerors, but they
still retain so many of their own, and these so different from their
neighbours the Mang'anja and Yao, that it is better to class them as
a distinct tribe.

The fourth of the tribes I would refer to is known to outsiders
as the Anguru. They live in the country between the east shore of
Lake Shirwa and the coast, and within what is now a Portuguese
Protectorate. But so many of .them have fled within the past five
years from Portuguese methods of government and taken refuge in
British territory, that a large part of the south-east corner of our
Protectorate is now inhabited by them. They are the least known of
the tribes I have mentioned, having only lately come into contact
with us, and consequently I shall have only rarely to allude to them
in this paper.

In order to give you the best idea of native African habits of life
and thought, I shall deal to-day chiefly with one of the tribes I have
mentioned, and only refer to the others when they present some
marked diversity of custom or belief. The tribe I have selected is
the Yao, because, in one particular feature, to be noted later, it
presents such a marked contrast to the others as to call for special
reference. And in all I have to say to-day I must be understood as

4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

dealing with the native in his primitive state, before he was brought
into contact with the new ideas and customs of Christianity or
civilisation.

Physically the Yao is the most powerful of the tribes I have
mentioned. His tall strong frame, his broad-shaped skull, his
features often with little of the negro type about them, his general air
of strength and intelligence easily mark him off from his neighbours.
The Yao tribal mark consists of a few short tattoo lines running down
the centre of his forehead, and one or two similar marks on either
temple. The Mang'anja, on the other hand, displays a broad
cicatrix — sometimes two or three — drawn from the middle of his
forehead down over his cheeks and neck to meet in the middle of his
back. His lips and chin, as well as his breast, are not unfrequently
covered with such marks. The Angoni is recognised by a hole bored
in the lobe of the ear, into which a small plug of horn or wood is
inserted, while the Anguru makes a large crescent-shaped cicatrix on
either cheek, and often also in the middle of the forehead, sometimes
cut so deep that I have known a man take the quid of tobacco from
his mouth and lay it in the hollow of the cicatrix while he was
speaking. The Yao women bore the upper lip and gradually distend
the opening till a piece of wood, ivory, or even stone, an inch and a
half or two inches in diameter, may be inserted, causing the lip to
protrude in what to us is a hideous custom, but to them is the
fashion — and fashion reigns supreme there as elsewhere. The
Mang'anja women also follow this custom, and so too the Anguru,
but the latter, in order to further enhance their charms, bore the
under lip and insert a brass nail five or six inches long which hangs
down over the chin. Sometimes the weight of the lip ornament
breaks through the flesh of the upper lip. In this case the defect is
repaired by plastering the two ends together with a piece of India-
rubber— a rough method of surgery which has the desired effect of
keeping the ornament in its place.

The primitive garment of the Yao is made of bark cloth. A roll
of bark of the mjombo tree is stripped off by beating it with a piece

SOCIETY -OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 5

of wood. It is then steeped in water for some days. When soft it
is hammered on a log of wood by means of a wooden mallet. In this
way the fibres are separated one from the other, and the bark stretched
to five or six times its original breadth. It thus forms a soft fibrous
matting which affords a considerable amount of protection to the skin
of the wearer. By steeping the bark in water into which a quantity
of black loam has been stirred, the cloth is dyed black. It is worn
kilt-fashion suspended from the waist, while a larger piece is thrown
plaid-wise over the left shoulder and under the right arm. The
Angoni, probably owing to the scarcity of wood in their country, dress
themselves in the skins of small game — goats or sheep — which they
wear tightly bound round the loins and thighs. In most villages one
used to see a loom at work on which a rough kind of cotton cloth was
woven (Plate I., Fig. 1). The cotton plant was grown in small patches
on the outskirts of the village, and by means of a small distaff and spool
was spun into a coarse thread. This was stretched on the loom frame,
and the weft was thrown by means of a hand shuttle. But the process
was slow and tedious, and only chiefs and head men could afford the
possession of a piece of such cloth. The introduction of the products
of our Manchester looms has thrown all such forms of apparel out
of fashion, and barkcloth is now worn only at funerals by the chief
mourners as a sign of grief, by mothers during and immediately after
childbirth, and by boys and girls at the ceremonies of entering the
state of puberty. In remote districts it is also worn over the ordinary
calico dress to protect it from damage or during a shower.

The chief ornaments worn by both men and women are beads of
various sizes, shapes and colours. They are worn in the form of
necklaces, waistbelts, and anklets. The women also wear them strung
on the hair or plaited into a wig (Plate I., Fig. 2). Coils of brass
wire are also worn on the legs and arms. Such articles were procured
from the coast through the Arab or coast trader, and must have been
only of recent import. Till the introduction of European coinage
they formed the main articles of barter with the natives. Among the
Yaos the head is frequently shaved either wholly or in patches, and

6 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

the hair is always kept short. The Angoni man, on the other hand,
ties his hair into little tufts which are bound round with thread, and
gradually lengthened till the head, at a distance, looks as if it were
covered with matches stuck on endwise. The Anguru not only never
cuts his hair, but tries to make it appear longer than it really is by
adding long threads to its length. The Yao files little notches on his
front teeth (Plate II., Figs. 5 and 6). The Anguru files his to a point
(Plate II., Fig. 7). The Mang'anja and Angoni leave theirs alone.
The operation is done in youth, and is performed either by means of
a file or by chipping with a small axe.

By way of arms the Yao carries a bow and arrows and a long
light spear for stabbing. The Anguru and Mang'anja are similarly
armed, only the Anguru spear is barbed and inflicts a nasty wound.
The Angoni on the other hand has learned from his Zulu conquerors
the use of the assegai and shield, and thus has made himself the terror
and scourge of all his neighbours. He also uses the knobkerry which
he can throw with great accuracy at a fleeing foe, and thus stun or
maim him. With the advent of the Arab trader the use of guns and
ammunition became common, and almost every man you met carried
an old Tower flintlock. But the possession of a gun did not always
mean the possession of a charge of powder, and so the Angoni wisely
preferred his assegai and shield, the very sight of which was enough
to drive the surrounding tribes in terror to the hills for refuge.

The Yao house is of the usual native African type — circular and
thatched with grass (Plate I., Fig. 3). The circle is drawn by
means of a string from a fixed central pin. The circle is the only
regular geometrical figure the African is acquainted with — to teach
him the value of a straight line is to make a vast step in his education.
The walls of the hut are made of poles stuck into this circle at the
distance of two feet apart. To these are fastened strips of split
bamboo running round the house, and to these again are tied bunches
of grass by means of other strips of bamboo. The string used in
tying the bamboos and poles is got from the bark of the mjombo tree
which is torn into long strips and used as ropes or string. The roof

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 7

is a flat cone made of bamboo tied with bark string and lifted bodily
on to the walls. This is then thatched with grass so carefully laid on
that the hut is wonderfully rainproof. Generally a verandah is made
round the house by projecting the roof beyond the walls, and support-
ing it on an outer circle of poles. A door two feet broad and about
three feet high is made in the wall, and is closed by means of a
framework of bamboo laid against the opening from the inside. A
crossbar kept in its place by two supports fastens the door on the
inside. In most houses there used to be a small back door on the
other side from the main door. This was used in case of a night
attack when the usual entrance would be doubtless watched by the
enemy. The walls and floor are plastered with mud and sand. A
hollow is scooped in the middle of the floor for the tire, and round
this are placed three stones for the pot to rest on. A raised platform
is made on one side of the house, and forms the sleeping place of the
family. On this is laid a mat of split reeds woven together with bark
string. A fire is kept burning during the night, and no special
covering is used during sleep unless the sleeper is the happy possessor
of a large piece of native cloth or calico. In this case he tucks one
end under his feet and draws the other over his head and so goes to
sleep.

The implements used in house building consist of an axe which
may be used also as an adze, and a knife. In addition to this the
native has his hoe fastened into a short handle by means of a prong
projecting from one side. For long the native of Central Africa has
been acquainted with the manufacture of iron, which in certain
districts he digs from shallow pits and smelts in a rude clay furnace
by means of charcoal fuel and a goatskin bellows. The blacksmith's
shop used to be seen in almost every village and, like the Scotch
smithy in the olden days, was a great centre of the social life of the
inhabitants. The Mang'anja and Anguru were noted blacksmiths
and with their stone anvils and rough hammers produced wonderful
specimens of skill. Welding iron they were incapable of, and so they
had to resort to riveting. But the iron was poor and soft at the

8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

best, so that with the advent of civilised trade the old native hoe, axe
and knife were soon superseded by the manufactured articles from
British and American forges.

With the hoe and the axe the native does all his agriculture.
He has the virgin forest before him from which to choose, for there
is no private ownership of land in native law, and the chiefs country
is open to the chiefs people. But once a man has fixed on a piece of
ground and marked it off for his own by tying the grass into tufts or
placing a stone in the fork of a tree to mark the boundary, the ground
becomes his till he vacate it or sell his rights to another. The
system of agriculture is destructive in the extreme. A piece of virgin
forest is felled and the timber burned on the spot. The ashes are
gathered into heaps and covered with a thin layer of soil. On the
fall of the early rains the seed is planted in these heaps, and in a few
days germinates. It is twice hoed before it is ready to be reaped,
and when reaped the stalks are left on the ground to be burned for
next year's manure. But every year a new piece of forest is felled
and burned, and added to the old garden. After three or four years'
cultivation the soil is exhausted and is abandoned to lie fallow for
years. In this way vast tracts of land in Central Africa are deforested,
and in consequence the rainfall is yearly decreasing. With this decrease
the level of the great lakes and rivers is slowly falling. Within the
last thirty years the level of Lake Nyasa has fallen eleven feet, and
there are watermarks on the rocks which show it once stood at a still
•higher level.

The chief food-crops are maize, kaffir corn, rice and beans.
Pumpkins, ground nuts, and cucumbers are also grown in their season,
but the staple crops are those I have mentioned. When the crop is
reaped by cutting the heads off the stalks, it is stored in large bins
made of plaited strips of bamboo and thatched over with grass. Part
is stored on a shelf in the roof of the hut where it is protected from
the moths and weevils by the smoke. This is used for seed in the
next year's sowing. As required the grain is taken from the store,
and threshed by beating with a stick, while the maize is separated

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OP ABERDEEN. 9

from the cob by means of the finger and thumb. The grain is broken
up in the mortar by means of a wooden pestle, then steeped in Avater
to soften it, and finally pounded into flour in the mortar or ground
fine between two flat stones (Plate I., Fig. 4). The flour is boiled
into a stiff pasty porridge which is eaten with the fingers. Always
with the porridge there is eaten some relish such as beans, fowl, fish
or game. The relish is indispensable to the meal, and a native will
not infrequently go hungry rather than eat his porridge without its
accompanying relish. Salt when procurable is always added to the
relish, and some of the most widespread superstitions are connected
with the adding of salt by the wife to the husband's food. The
porridge is served in one dish and the relish in another. The men
always eat by themselves and the women by themselves. By way of
grace before meat a little of the porridge is picked up with the fingers
and thrown over the shoulder or at the foot of the nearest tree as a
thank-offering to the spirits.

Hitherto I have spoken of the division of the people into tribes,
and have been referring chiefly to the Yao tribe. The distinctive
features of a tribe in Central Africa may be classed as three in number :
(1) language, (2) locality, and (3) certain customs which are peculiar to
one tribe and are unknown among others. But there is a further
division of the people which plays a far larger part in their daily life,
and dominates their social life to a far greater extent, and this is the
division into clans. I use the word " clan " as the nearest approach to
the idea which we have in our language. It denotes blood relation-
ship through descent, and is distinct from our ideas of the family or
tribe. In the members of the family there may be more than one
clan, and the members of a clan are to be found scattered through
various tribes.

This system of clanship is dominated among the Yaos by two
features, (1) descent through the mother, and (2) marriage outside
the clan. Descent through the mother means that the children take
the clan of the mother and not of the father, while marriage outside

the clan means that a man must not take a wife from his own clan

2

10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

but from another. To illustrate it from our own clan names, I should
put it in this way. A Mackenzie must not marry a Mackenzie, but
a woman of another clan, say a Macleod, and the children of the
marriage would be not Mackenzies but Macleods. Under a system
of polygamy a man may marry several wives who among the Yaos
must be themselves of different clans, and so the children of a
Mackenzie would be none of them Mackenzies but Macleods, Mac-
phersons, Mackintoshes, according to the number and clans of his
wives.

Now all the relationships are counted through the clan and not
through the family as among ourselves, and the law of kinship among
the natives may be roughly laid down as follows : All members of
the same clan who are of the same generation are either brothers or
cousins, those of the older generation are either fathers or mothers or
uncles, while those of an older genaration still are either grandfathers
or grandmothers. Hence a man's brother means any fellow-clansman
of the same generation as himself, his father means any clansman
of the older generation, while grandfather denotes any male clans-
man of any older generation still. Thus a man may have many
grandfathers, still more fathers and mothers, while his brothers are
legion.

Among the Yaos, descent being through the mother, it follows
that all property is inherited by the younger brother born of the same
mother, because he is the nearest relation of the same clan. Failing
him it is the sister's son who succeeds. Thus a man's heirs are never
his own family but either his younger brothers, or nephews by his
sister. With the property the heir takes the name of his predecessor
and also his wives. And not only so but he takes also all the
relationships of his predecessor and leaves his own original ones
behind him. Thus those who before were his mother or mothers are
now his sisters, while his original brothers now become his children
or even grandchildren.

This system holds with slight modifications among the Mang'anja
and Anguru, but among the Angoni — due probably to the influence of

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. i i

their Zulu conquerors — descent is counted through the father, and it
is the oldest son who is the heir.

Into the origin of the clan system it is not possible for me to
enter to-day. It is enough to say it is traced by some to the belief
in the descent of the clan from certain animals which gave their
names to the various clans. Thus the antelope clan ascribe their
origin to the antelope, and in consequence they abstain from eating
the flesh of the antelope. But many of the names of the clans
among the Yaos are not names of animals at all, nor does any system
of taboo from special meats or other articles of food seem to be due
to such a belief. If such a system existed, the Yao has lost it now,
and can himself give no account of the origin of his clan system of
relationship. Among the Mang'anja and Angoni there are several
names of animals among those of the clans, and the flesh of the
animal is abstained from by those who bear its name.

Marriage is consummated among the Yaos in three ways: (1) by
inheritance of the wives of uncle or grand uncle ; (2) by purchase of a
slave woman who is afterwards promoted to the status of a wife, and
(3) by betrothal. The betrothal is always arranged by a third party
who thus becomes the " surety " for the good behaviour of the couple,
and to whom any complaint of ill-treatment or infidelity is made.
Separations are common and must be made through the " surety,"
and any property given by one of the parties to the other is given
back. Among the Angoni the husband pays a sum to the father-in-
law previous to the marriage as a sort of compensation to him for the
loss of his daughter, but this custom has been derived from the Zulu
conquerors and is not original to any Central African tribe.

At childbirth the mother retires to the bush with some woman
friend, and in two or three hours may be seen returning to the village
with the new-born baby strapped on her back. She retires to her hut
and remains for some days in complete seclusion save for the presence
of her women friends who have the case in hand. She remains there
till the remains of the umbilical cord drops off, and during this time
no man body dare approach the hut. The baby is weaned only when

1'J PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

the next child is born — even if then. It grows up without discipline
or training of any kind. " The child is not my slave," is all the excuse
the mother gives for any act of disobedience on the child's part.

Towards the age of puberty the boys are made to pass through
the ceremony of initiation, and at this time the rite of circumcision is
administered. The Yao alone of all the tribes I have mentioned ob-
serves this rite : he has in all probability obtained it from the Moham-
medan Coast people who are the nearest neighbours of the Yao on
that side of his country. It is now, however, universal where no trace
of its Mohammedan origin is to be found. By a similar ceremony all
girls are initiated into the rites and customs of womanhood and wife-
hood, and then they are eligible for marriage. They are generally,
however, betrothed long before this, sometimes even before birth, on
the understanding that the expected child is of the opposite sex to the
contracting party.

The common diseases prevalent among the natives are those
which have their origin in malaria, and the native is certainly as sus-
ceptible to malaria and its effects as the European — if not more so.
Dysentery is a fatal disease common among them, due to their eating
flesh and fish in a very high condition, and especially to the first rains
of the rainy season washing all filth and effluvia from the villages into
the streams and pools where the drinking water is drawn. Pneu-
monia is also prevalent, and very fatal in the cold season. Measles
and small-pox are periodical epidemics, but by dint of vaccination the
Government and mission doctors have largely succeeded in stamping
out the disease in recent years. The " jigger " has wrought sad havoc
of late, and many are the limbs that have been maimed by this new
pest. The sleeping sickness has not yet made its appearance in the
Protectorate, but it is reported to have broken out on the northern
frontier, and as it seems to follow the great trade routes across Africa,
we may prepare ourselves for a visitation from this most dread of all
African maladies.

Of medical knowledge the native possesses but little. Where dis-
ease and death are ascribed to the influence of witchcraft, it is hardly

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 13

to be expected that medical research would advance very far. Still
the native doctor does possess a few herbal remedies which are cer-
tainly efficacious, but the most trusted of his nostrums are prescribed
in the form of charms or amulets. These I shall have to allude to pre-
sently, as they deal with the most abstruse and mysterious of all forms
of native belief — the presence of spirit possession in material objects.

Let me first refer, however, briefly to the native belief in witch-
craft, a part of the native creed which influences most powerfully his
daily and social life. So strong is the native horror of this crime of
witchcraft that it is very difficult to get him to discuss it at all, and it
is only through actual charges that have been brought against indi-
viduals in the native law courts that one has been able to get any
insight into this subject.

To put it briefly, the native " witch " is a member of a secret cult
which feeds on human flesh, and thereby obtains its occult powers,
and the deaths of their victims are said to be brought about for the
purpose of obtaining the human flesh on which the " witches " feast
at their midnight orgies. The powers thus obtained enable them to
produce disease, misfortune and death. They are worked through the
means of charms or " medicines" which are administered by secreting
them about the hut or village or garden of the individual whom they
wish to injure. The result is that some mysterious illness befals this
individual and unless his "doctor" can provide some more powerful
charms, the case must end fatally. The result is as follows :—

As soon as a death occurs, the relatives and friends gather round
the corpse, and watch it night and clay, while the young men and
women dance and sing to the accompaniment of drums and the firing
of guns — all this to keep the " witches " from their supposed victim.
The corpse is first washed and prepared for burial by bending the
knees to the chin, and wrapping it up in a sleeping mat. When the
near relatives have assembled, generally the morning following the
death, the corpse is slung on a pole and carried to the grave. A grave
is dug, and a recess scooped out at the bottom on one side of the pit.
In this the corpse is laid on its side, with the face to the east, and, in

14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

the case of chiefs or headmen, much of the personal property of the
deceased is torn or broken up and laid alongside. The mouth of the
recess is then closed by a mat supported by a few poles, so that the
earth may not fall on the corpse, and the grave is filled in. If a chief,
the grave is then hung round with offerings to the dead, and a pot is
sunk in the ground to receive the sacrifice of native beer which from
time to time the survivors will make to the spirit of their dead relative
or friend. The mourners then return home, and have their heads
shaved as a sign of mourning. The chief next calls a meeting to con-
sult with his headmen, and the relatives of the deceased as a rule
make complaint of witchcraft as the cause of death, and demand an ap-
peal to the divining " lots ". Two or three are selected to approach
the divining oracle, and he, after consulting the lots, names one or
more individuals as the cause of the death of their relative. The ac-
cused is then confronted with the charge, and the trial takes place.
Originally among the Yaos the result of the appeal to the lots was suf-
ficient proof of guilt, and the accused was forthwith put to death by
burning upon a tire of thorns, but of late, owing doubtless to their
contact with the Mang'anja, an appeal is allowed to the poisoned or-
deal. This is prepared from the bark of the mwabve tree, and is ad-
ministered in the presence of the accusers. If the victim dies of the
poison, he is deemed guilty, and his body is forthwith mutilated and
cast out unburied to the bush, while his relatives have to pay com-
pensation to the relatives of the original deceased for the crime of their
friend. If the accused vomits the poison he is deemed innocent, and
the accusers have to pay him compensation for the charge they brought.
They will then appeal again to the lots, the diviner, of course, finding
some good excuse for the failure of his first appeal, and another will be
accused, and so the case will go on till either some one dies of the
poison or the relatives desist from further proceedings. Among the
Angoni the poison is administered to the whole village, whose inhabit-
ants thus hope to clear themselves of any complicity in the crime.
Only last year I knew of eleven who thus died of the poison in the
hope of establishing their good name.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OP ABERDEEN. 15

When we speak of native charms and " medicine " —for charm
and medicine are synonyms in the native tongue — we enter on a new
region of native thought. The charm consists of small pieces of wood
worn on a string tied round the affected part, or the ashes of plants or
bones of animals or hair tied up in small packages and worn about the
person. What the power of these charms consist in I have never got
any native to give me any theory of his own. They are " just medi-
cine," and that is enough for him. Taking into consideration analo-
gous beliefs of the natives of other parts of Africa, I think I am justified
in holding that these charms are simply degraded forms of the com-
mon fetich of native belief. A fetich is some material object which is
possessed of miraculous powers because of its being the abode of some
spirit which gives it vitality and power. Now these Yao charms and
medicines would appear to be just the fetich of the West African with-
out the faith in the inherent spirit. The Yao clings to his faith in the
miraculous powers of the contents of these horns and amulets, but is
utterly unable to assign any reason why such material objects should
produce such results.

On this subject the Mang'anja and Anguru hold beliefs similar to
the Yaos, but among the Angoni we find a firm belief that material
objects may be taken possession of by the spirits of the dead. Thus
an ox or goat or fowl or even a doll or basket or piece of cloth may
become the abode of the spirit of some departed chief or relative, and
this object is consequently cherished and made the medium of com-
munication with the spirit inhabiting it. It thus becomes a fetich or
charm and would appear to be the original type of which the Yao
charm or medicine is the degraded materialism.

As we enter further into his beliefs in the region of spirit, we
find that the Yao stands entirely alone among his neighbours in the
nature of his faith in the unseen world. Briefly put, his creed is as
follows :—

Every human being has a spirit or soul. This spirit inhabits the
body but may leave it during sleep and visit other individuals or
scenes, and thus produce the phenomena of dreams. At death the

16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

spirit leaves the body and goes into the spirit world. It then makes
its abode near the house where he lived, or about the village council
yard, or more generally at the grave where the body is buried. This
spirit of the departed becomes the " god " of the surviving relatives,
and is worshipped by offerings of cloth or food. When the Yao
speaks of " God," he therefore means the spirit of some departed
chief or relative, or he at times seerns to mean the aggregate of all
the spirits in the spirit world rather than any individual spirit. This
is the Yao •' Mulungu " — God. It is spirit ; it is not personal.
Beyond this the Yao does not go. The Supreme Being in his
universe is this Mulungu— this spirit world — and this alone.

In this faith the Yao is alone among his neighbours, for the
Mang'anja and Angoni hold that, in addition to the world of departed
spirits or souls, there is a Being Supreme over all — the Creator. He
is Mpambe, the "Lightning," Leza, the "Nurse," Chiuta, the
" Great Bow ". He is worshipped by offerings as the spirits of the
dead are. The Yao has no such faith. He is a pure animist — a
spirit worshipper. He has forgotten his faith in a Supreme Being
and contents himself with the spirit worship alone. To the spirit of
the departed chief or ancestor he makes his offering in the time of
his trouble ; when he goes on a journey or ventures on any exploit
which may lead him into danger he asks the protection of the spirit
world. For his worship he may erect a shrine over the grave, or at
the hut where the dead used to live, or he may hang his offerings on
the village tree — a relict this of an older faith in the possession of the
tree by the spirit of the dead, a faith now forgotten — or if on a
journey he may lay his offering of flour in a tiny heap by the wayside.
On these occasions he is his own priest, but on great occasions when
some village offering is made, it is the village chief who is the priest,
or the nearest relative of the dead, or the two friends who bore his
body to the grave and laid it there. Those who befriended him on
earth are those who are supposed to have the greater influence with
his soul in the world of the departed, and all offerings to the dead are
made through their hands,

PROC. ABERD. UNIV. ANAT. AND ANTHROP. Soc., 1906-1908— PLATE I.

Fig. 1. — Native Weaver at Work.

Fig. 2. — Yao Woman Wearing Headwig, Necklace,
Anklets, etc.

Fig. 3.— Mang'anja Hut on the Lower Shire River.

Fig. 4. — Yao Woman Grinding Flour.

PROC. ABERD. UNIV. ANAT. AND ANTHROP. Soc., 1906-1908— PLATE II.

Fig. 5. — Yao Boy showing Small Notches
on the Upper Incisor Teeth.

Fig. 6. — Yao Boy showing Notches on the
. Upper Central Incisor Teeth.

Fig. 7. — Anguru Boy showing the Upper
Incisor Teeth Filed to a Point.

Fig. 8. — Chikunda Boy from Lower Zambesi.
Single Notch cut between the Upper
Central Incisor Teeth.

SOCIETY OP THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 17

These are but a few glimpses at a subject of which only a small
part has been dealt with. Beneath the surface of native life there
lies a world of thought and feeling and speculation that has only been
partially explored. Professor Henry Drummond used to say he
would give all he possessed to " get inside a native for half an hour "
just to see the world through the native's eyes. For three and twenty
years I have been trying to get at the heart of the native mind, and
I feel as if I were as far away from it as ever.

But the whole subject is full of intense and living interest, and if
the lot of any of the members of this Society should in their after career
be cast among such people, they will find no subject more worthy of
their study than the habits of native life and the working of the
native mind. The students nowadays are to be congratulated on
having the opportunities which this Society affords of becoming
acquainted with such questions as are discussed here. They will
learn what to look for and what to observe in any future investigations
they may make. At every step they will find something new, and
each fresh discovery adds to the sum of our knowledge and under-
standing of that most entrancing of all subjects of study — our
common humanity.

18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

ORDINARY MEETING.
15TH DECEMBER, 1906.

Professor R. W. REID, M.D., F.R.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

Anatomical variations found in the course of practical work in
the Anatomy Department of the University were described by Messrs.
A. M. Brown, N. J. Calder, A. M, Geddes, R. Richards and D. H. W.
Williamson.

Mr. Alexander Low, M.B., described the contents of a short cist
recovered on the farm of Mains of Leslie, parish of Premnay, and
presented to the Anatomical Museum by C. E. N. Leith-Hay, Esq.,
of Rannes and Leith Hall (see p. 54).

EECOED OF ANATOMICAL VAEIATIONS.

Date of observation, November, 1906.
Sex, Female.

Abnormal muscular slip in forearm.

From the middle of the flexor longus pollicis on its ulnar side
there arises a fleshy slip. This slip becomes tendinous about two
inches above the anterior annular ligament and joins the tendon of
the deep flexor of the index finger beneath that ligament.

(Signature of observer) A. M. BROWN.

Date of observation, November, 1906.
Sex, Male.

Absence of depressors of liyoid bone.

The sterno-hyoid muscles on both sides are absent. They are
represented by a few fibres that run upwards from the back of the

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 19

manubrium stevni to become lost in the deep fascia below the hyoid
bone. The absence of these muscles is in no way compensated for
by the development of the other muscles. The omo-hyoid and sterno-
thyroid muscles are poorly developed.

(Signature of observer) N. J. CALDER.

Date of observation, November, 1906.
Sex, Male.

Presence of a pyramidal lobe in the thyroid body.

The pyramid arises from the junction of the right lateral lobe
with the isthmus and is conical in shape. A few muscular bands con-
nect this pyramid with the hyoid bone and together form the muscle,
named by Sommerring, levator glandulae thyroideae. The muscle is
attached above to the body of the hyoid bone and below to the pointed
extremity of the pyramid ; it is enclosed in fascia and has rather a
tendinous appearance.

(Signature of observer) N. J. CALDER.

Date of observation, November, 1906.
Sex, Male.

Groove on liver.

The liver has a distinct groove, running from its upper to its an-
terior surface, parallel with the mid line of the body. Its greatest
depth is 1 cm. and its length is 6 cm. There is no corresponding
mark on the diaphragm.

(Signature of observer) ALEX. M. GEDDES.

Date of observation, November, 1906.
Sex, Male.

High division of great sciatic nerve.

The pyriformis is composed of two parts which unite and are in-
serted by one tendon. The great sciatic nerve is also divided into
two, one part coming between the two heads of the pyriformis and

'20

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

passing superior to the lower half of that muscle, the other being in-
ferior. On the left side there is no abnormality.

(Signature of observer) ROBERT RICHARDS.

Date of observation, November, 1906.
Sex, Male.

Measurement of frontal sinuses.

Maximum depth (antero-post)
Minimum depth (antero-post)
Maximum width
Approximate height -

Right sinus.
14 mm.
11 mm.
30-2 mm.
29 mm.

Left sinus.
13 mm.
10 mm.
30-2 mm.
28 mm.

The superciliary ridges are well developed and the ethmoidal cells
are large. The frontal sinuses lead by a large opening into the middle
meatus.

(Signature of observer) D. H. W. WILLIAMSON.

SOCIETY OP THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 21

ORDINARY MEETING.
18TH FEBRUARY, 1907.

Professor R. W. REID, M.D., F.R.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

The President introduced Dr. C. G. Seligmann, who gave an ad-
dress on " Anthropological Notes from British New Guinea," with
lantern illustrations and exhibition of specimens from the Anthropo-
logical Museum of the University.

On the motion of Professor J. Arthur Thomson a hearty vote of
thanks was accorded to Dr. Seligmann.

22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

ANTHBOPOLOGICAL NOTES FEOM BEITISH NEW GUINEA.

By CHARLES G. SELIGMANN, M.B., M.E.C.P., F.Z.S.

(Bead 13th February, 1906.)

r

The following paper is compiled from notes taken during the
Daniels Expedition to British New Guinea in 1904. Owing to limits
of time and space it has seemed best to confine my remarks to two of
the etlmographically least known portions of the country visited by the
expedition, and so I have selected the extreme Western and Eastern
parts of the Possession as the subject of this communication.

One of the main objects of the recent expedition was to study
the physical characteristics of the natives of the country west of the
Fly delta, as it was important to determine whether the common be-
lief, that in British New Guinea near the Dutch boundary there were
natives resembling Australians, was true or not. In order to deter-
mine this the natives from two localities, both west of the delta of the
Fly, were examined. Those seen at Bugi consisted of the remains of
a number of tribes from the neighbourhood of Bugi and from Strachan
Island who had escaped death at the hands of Tugere raiders over the
Dutch border, farther west on the Netherlands boundary the Toro
tribe were seen three days' journey up the Bensbach River and a
number of these people were carefully measured and photographed.
The natives seen at Bugi physically resembled the Toro in many
respects, but were slightly shorter and on the whole less long headed.
Culturally too they seemed closely related to the Toro, though as they
were extremely timid it was not easy to make sure of this in the short
time at our disposal.

The members of the expedition had the advantage of accompany-

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 23

ing a Government party during a partial ascent of the Bensbach River
forming the Anglo-Dutch boundary, and to the officers of this party
thanks are due for much courtesy and consideration. Three whale-
boats were towed by the steam launch Ruby.

West of Bugi the country is a vast flat swampy plain presenting
for the most part a uniform edge of mangrove swamp to the sea,
broken only by the mouths of sluggish rivers and creeks whose banks
are as a rule covered with mangrove in the lower reaches. Here and

146 1*8 150 192

Fig. 1. — Map showing boundaries of British and German New Guinea.

there, however, a sandy foreshore occurs, as is the case at Wallarter
Point, the eastern extremity of Jerai Bay, where behind a sand beach
there rises to a height of about four feet a plain of loosely compacted
sand and grit from the edge of which we obtained recent semi-fossil
shells of land and marine genera, Heli,r, Area and Ceritkium. Some
forty miles west of Wallarter Point the mouth of the Bensbach River
appears as a break in the green-grey mangrove line, which hitherto
had stretched as far as the eye could see, marking the junction of

24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

grey sea and greyer mud. For the first nine ni'Ies the banks are
fringed with mangrove and present the appearance of a typical
rhizophora swamp and above this Nipa palms become common and the
mangroves disappear. A little beyond this the banks are raised at
intervals as much as two to three feet above the river and bear a
fairly open jungle con taining many eucalyptustrees, some of which
resemble the larger Australian ti. On one such raised area our
first camp was made. Farther up lengths of this kind of jungle
alternate with open, grassy swamps which, without any definite
margin, seem to fuse with the reeds and sedges of the river bed.

Above this a few coconut trees appear at some distance from the
river bank, and soon native gardens with a few patches of forest trees
occur on the higher banks. Throughout the distance ascended, the
river, which presents a very winding course, varies considerably in
width, some reaches being very noticeably broader than others. About
half a mile up stream from its mouth Lieutenant Meyjesof the Dutch
Navy (bund that the river was 150 yards broad, and had narrowed to
between 50 and 60 yards where the mangrove belt began to give
place to other vegetation. After the first day's travel there was
enough drifting weed to obstruct the screw and necessitate frequent
stoppages to free it.

We met natives belonging to the Toro tribe on the third day of
our ascent of the river, soon after scattered clumps of coconuts had
become frequent on the higher ground at a little distance from the
river. Camp was pitched on the right bank of the river, on a small
knoll on which grew an isolated clump of bamboo.

The natives were living at a place which appeared to be called
Tivi, some three miles from our camp in a north-easterly direction
and thus on the opposite side of the river. This was stated to be a
recent, perhaps temporary, settlement made among the marshes on
account of the fear inspired by Tugere raiders from over the Dutch
border. The track to the village ]>assed through extremely rich taro
gardens, the ground being drained by many cuttings about a foot deep
and eighteen inches to two feet across, Tibi itself seemed a poor

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 2~>

village with few things except the bare necessities of life. The houses
stood upon the ground and were not more than five feet high and nine
feet long. Their rounded roofs were made of ti tree bark ; all the
houses were open in front, many were also open at their opposite end,
so that they were in fact mere roofed sheds. In the better built houses
the bark roof was continued over what must Vie regarded as the back
of the house to within a foot or eighteen inches of the ground.

The Toro, for this appeared to be the tribal name for these
Bensbach River natives, are spare and moderately tall, with thin legs
and often thin bony faces, projecting zygomata and marked supraorbital
ridges. Facially they seem to vary more than other western tribes,
some of them closely resembling examples of the less intelligent
European types. The hair of all was frizzly and the nostrils were
generally bored, in some cases in two places. In many these holes
have become very small, so that the plugs that some men wore were
evidently not considered important articles of toilette. Their noses
are generally long and coarse with moderately broad bridges and often
coarse fleshy tips which are never hooked. Generally speaking the
Toro appear long faced.1 In some of the older men the front teeth
had gone, in others the fangs were exposed by receding gums, but in
every case their teeth were white and no sign of betel chewing was
seen, nor were any lime gourds noted. One of their favourite
attitudes was to stand on one leg, the sole of the other applied just
above the knee of the leg which supports the weight of the body ; in
fact they assumed the attitude figured by Grogan for the Dinkas of
the Nile swamps.

With the exception of nose, hair and arm ornaments, most of the
men went naked. A few, however, wore a pubic shell. These
pubic shells were said not to have been traded, but to have been
fetched by the Toro themselves from the coast between the Bensbach
and Morehead Rivers. As a rule the shells were not ground or in
any way worked, though in one Melo shell the curve had been so

1 Measurements bear out the impression of variability already referred to; the
cephalic index of 21 men varied from 69 to 86 with an average of 74

4

2(> PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

ground away as to expose the columella. Even this scant covering
was as often as not worn at the side of the hip or at the back. Many
of the men had tinea and the only baby seen had yaws. The women,
of whom we saw very few, wear two kinds of covering, one that is
practically a perinfeal bandage, as on the Fly, the other a true
petticoat.

Their weapons are bows, arrows and clubs. The latter were
few and extremely rough and were certainly imported. Their bows
are made of bamboo and with these they make fairly good practice
as the following details show. A target about three feet long by two
feet broad was put up at a convenient height at a distance of about
forty yards. Sixteen men had each one shot at this and though no
hits were recorded, many of the arrows went very near the target. It
appeared that the time the arrow took to traverse the forty paces was
between one and one and a fifth seconds. Each of four of the best
shots then fired four arrows with the result that all but one of these
hit the target once. The same men shooting at eighty yards, scored
no hits, but there was no general falling off in the shooting, their
arrows being pretty thick all round the target. Their bows were
strung with strips of rattan, and their release is that known as
" secondary ".

During our stay we saw a fair number of canoes. These consist
of a hollowed tree trunk, are pointed at each end and have no
outrigger ; they pole along with bamboos. As far as could be
determined paddles were unknown ; we saw none, nor could we hear
of any, but in spite of this the pace was good even when in deep
water, their unsplit bamboo poles being used as paddles by men
standing in the bows and stern respectively.

At Tivi we saw a number of tobacco pipes of the same type as
those common throughout the Possession ; but in spite of this tobacco
did not prove good trade. A twist of their own tobacco was light
coloured and seemed extremely mild.

The only musical instruments met with were the drum and
whistle. The latter consisted of an excavated nut-like fruit, and a

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 27

note was produced by directing the breath into a small opening in
the way that a note may be produced with a key. The tympana of
their drums consist of kangaroo skin and the drums themselves were
larger than those I had elsewhere seen west of the Fly River. It
should, however, be noted that far larger mammal skin covered
drums are said to be used some distance up the Bamu River.

The Toro are a totemistic folk with descent of the totems in the
male line. Perhaps the majority of the totems are birds. A number
of palm-wood bullroarers were collected, but we could learn nothing
about their use. Since, however, the Morehead River natives, whom
the Toro closely resemble, use the bullroarer in their initiation
ceremonies, it is probable that the Toro do the same.

Figures 1 and '2, Plate III., show full face and profile views of a
Toro man, 1,748 mm. (about H8 inches) tall, with a cephalic index of 72,
and facial and nasal indices of 91 and 81 respectively. Many of the
Toro wear beards, and in all the hair was frizzly. The same applies
to the natives seen at Bugi, so that the physical evidence at present
available fails to connect the natives of the western extremity of
British New Guinea with those of Queensland, or indeed any part of
Australia.

Throughout the whole of the south-eastern extremity geographical
conditions differ entirely from those found at the western extremity
of the Possession. The south-eastern district corresponds very
closely to the eastern and south-eastern division of British New
Guinea, being bounded on the west by a line which roughly follows
the 150th parallel of longitude and extending eastwards to include
the numerous islands and archipelagos which extend in that direction
for more than four degrees of longitude. As a whole this district is
hilly and often mountainous, and throughout its extent there are to
be found numerous raised beaches and even islands which are rather
recently raised atolls. Such are Gawa and Kwaiawata in the Marshall
Bennet group, perfect atolls elevated to a height of about 400 feet,
and presenting to the sea a steep terraced cliff covered with forest
which represents the seaward face of the old atoll. The inhabitants of

28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

these islands live in the central depression formed by the bed of the
old central lagoon which lies some sixty feet lower than the edge of
the old reef, and therefore out of sight and sound of the sea.

On the physical side the natives of the south-eastern district,
though probably essentially of one stock, differ within tolerably broad
limits owing, as I believe, to local infusions of foreign blood.

If a line be drawn obliquely from the north-west to the south-
eastern corner of this district it will divide it roughly into two equal
areas, the southern half comprises by far the greater part of the land
area, and is inhabited by a short broad-nosed people with moderately
dark skin and frizzly or sometimes wavy hair and a mouth which is
sometimes " snouty ". In the northern half of the area, that is to say
in the Trobriands, the Marshall Bennet group and Murua the natives
are sometimes somewhat lighter coloured and often have curly or
wavy hair ; many of the men are of taller stature and less prog-
nathous ; their skulls are rounder and their noses often longer, the
bridge being often high and narrow. But these characters are shown
only by a portion of these islanders, and even in these the degree in
which they occur is not constant, in fact if skin colour be ignored it is
possible in the Trobriands to meet with individuals making a complete
series from the typical Papuo-Melanesian of the district to a tall good-
looking man, at least as Polynesian in appearance as many Micro-
nesians. Broadly speaking the Papuo-Melanesians ' of South-Eastern
British New Guinea are dolichocephalic with a tendency to mesati-
cephaly which becomes especially obvious in measurements on the
living, though, as far as our present knowledge goes, a varying number
of brachycephals occur everywhere, though the proportion of these
may be locally very small. The inhabitants of the D'Entrecasteaux
group, composed of the three big islands of Goodenough, Fergusson
and Normanby, appear to be the most dolichocephalic of the Papuo-
Melanesians. Of 118 skulls of both sexes, collected by Loria from the

1 I apply this name to the rather short predominantly frizzly-haired, cafc-an-lait
coloured race of South-Eastern British New Guinea and the neighbouring archipelagos.
Lancet, 1906, p. 422.

SOCIKTY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 29

villages fringing the straits between Fergusson and Goodenough, 93
(78'8 per cent.) are dolichocephalic, 'I'l (18'6 per cent.) are inesati-
cephalic, and only 3 (2-6 per cent.) are brachycephalic. These figures
agree fairly well with the measurements of 34 skulls with an average
index of 73, collected by the Daniels Expedition from a cave at
Awaiama in Chads Bay. The natives of the D'Entrecasteaux group,
and especially the men of Fergusson Island, were the shortest we
met in New Guinea, the average of eleven Fergusson Island men
was about 1,530 mm. (about 60^ inches) and two of these men were
under 1,470 mm., i.e., considerably under 58 inches.

The coast and bush folk of Goodenough and Bartle Bay present
as a rule very much the same appearance as the men of Normanby or
Goodenough Island, and Fig. 3, Plate III., shows a fairly typical Pa-
puo-Melanesian, a native of Goodenough Bay. Passing eastwards, the
cephalic index begins to rise and brachycephalic individuals become
less rare, although dolichocephaly is the typical condition until Tube-
tube in the Engineer group is passed. In the Louisiades, lying farther
west, of nine men examined only one was dolichocephalic, while three
were brachycephalic, and the average of this small group was 79.
The tendency towards brachycephaly becomes even more marked in
the northern half of the area under consideration, that is to say, in that
part of the area in which there is reason to believe there has been an
infusion of Polynesian blood. The Marshall Bennet group, although
inhabited by a short people (average 1,577 mm., i.e., about OiJ inches),
is an interesting example of this. The measurements of fifteen men
from Gawa and Kwaiawata give an average cephalic index of 80,
showing that these islanders are predominantly brachycephals or high
mesaticephals. The same conclusion is supported by the measurements
made by Mr. W. I. Pocock on 35 skulls collected upon Kwaiawata
with an average cephalic index of 77. In this group the extremes of
the inhabitants formed two types of men which could be distinguished
at sight, one leptorhine or mesorhine and leptoprosopic, the other
platyrhine and generally europrosopic ; the two types which also differ
in stature are shown in Plate III., Fig. 4. Much the same condition of

30 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

things prevails upon the Trobriands and upon Murua, whereas on the
Marshall Bennets the hair of the natives is often wavy, but it is note-
worthy that both the men of the Trobriands group and of Murua
are taller than the Marshall Bennet islanders.

Sociologically the Papuo-Melanesian is characterised by the pos-
session of a well-developed system of totemism, with descent in the
female line of property and totems — in fact by being still in the age of
mother-right. Cannibalism, except where it has been stopped by
Government influence, is rife ; at Milne Bay the bodies are cut up in

Fig. 2. — Waga at Tubetube, Engineer Group.

stone circles specially built for this purpose. The marriage laws, at
any rate in some parts of the area, approach closely to the Australian
type, there being a dual grouping of the clans, each moiety in certain
respects resembling an Australian phratry.

On the technological side the most notable feature of the whole
area is the elaborate way in which wood is carved, the predominant
note being a conventional reproduction of totem animals, especially
totem birds and snakes, the forms of which have often degenerated
into the scroll and zigzag patterns so typical of the district. This is

PROC. ABERD. UNIV. ANAT. AND ANTHROP. Soc., 1906-1908— PLATE III.

F'g- l- Fig. 2.

Figs. 1 and 2.— Face and Profile Views of a Man of the Toro Tribe, Bensbach River.

Fig. 3. — A Papuo-Melanesian from Goodenough Bay.

Fig. 4. — Two Types of Men from Kwaiawata.

PROC. ABERD. UNIV. ANAT. AND ANTHROP. Soc., 1906-1908— PLATE IV.

P'g- 5. — A Man o£ Go-aribari, Aird River Delta.

Fig. 6. — A Binandere Man, Lower Mamba River.

Fig. 7.— Naro Woman with Wavy Hair, Valley
of the St. John River.

Fig. 8.— A Man of the Ik-"-o Section of the Sinangolo
(Eastern Papuan).

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 31

the only part of British New Guinea in which large built-up canoes
occur, and certain islands in this area build and export large built-up
sea-going craft called waga which may have a length of thirty feet or
more, and a depth of almost six feet (Fig. 2). The bow and arrow
and stone-headed club are everywhere absent, their place being taken
by slings and the very characteristic hard wood sword, the blade of
which is usually elaborately carved.

In conclusion it remains only to express my indebtedness to the
editors of the Lniu-rl and the Geographical Janriuil for permission to
reproduce figures which have already appeared in these journals.

32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

ORDINARY MEETING.
24TH MAY, 1907.

A meeting of the Society was held in the new Anthropological
Museum at Marischal College. There was a large attendance of
members.

Professor Reid gave a concise and interesting demonstration of
the various sections, paying special attention to the local specimens.

Thereafter F. W. Moir, M.B., Medical Officer of the Ashanti
Gold Fields Corporation and of the Colonial Office, gave a short
description of specimens from the West Coast of Africa and which he
had presented to the Anthropological Museum.

On the motion of Mr. H. E. Smith, Professor Reid and Dr. Moir
were accorded very hearty votes of thanks.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 33

ORDINARY MEETING.
IOTH JUNE, 1907.

Professor R. W. REID, M.D., F.R.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

Professor Reid intimated the receipt of copies of papers upon
Anthropological subjects by Dr. Deniker, of Paris, and presented by
the author to the Society.

Thereafter a paper was read by the Secretary consisting of a
synopsis of "A report on the alleged prevalence of pulmonary tuber-
culosis, and on some of the principal diseases existing in the kraals of
the natives in Portuguese East African Territory, south of latitude
•2'2°, with a description of the native's mode of life, and his principal
habits and customs likely to affect his health,' by G. A. Turner, M.B.,
D.P.H., Medical Officer to the Witwatersrand Native Labour Associa-
tion, Limited, Johannesburg. The report was sent by Dr. Turner to
the Society by the permission of the Chairman of the Witwatersrand
Native Labour Association, Limited. The paper was illustrated by
numerous lantern slides.

On the motion of Dr. Low, a hearty vote of thanks was accorded
to Dr. Turner for his interesting report.

34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

A SYNOPSIS OF A EEPOBT BY G. A. TUENEE, M.B., D.P.H., ON
THE NATIVES OF POETUGUESE EAST AFEICA, SOUTH OF
LATITUDE 22°.

By A. G. STEWART, M.A., Secretary of the Society.
(Eead 15th June, 1907.)

The natives of Portuguese East Africa belong mainly to four
races : the Myambaams, the Mtyopis, the Shangaans and Lourenpo
Marques boys. The Myambaams are a very mixed people. Of the
Mtyopis some are pure, but the majority have Shangaan or other
blood in their veins. The Shangaans are almost pure Zulus. In very
early times an off- branch of the Zulu army marched north and settled,
some in British Central Africa and Uganda, others farther south in
Gazaland. From this latter group the Shangaans are descended.
They marched south and settled in Portuguese East Africa, driving
the former inhabitants before them. The natives are generally good-
natured, lazy but honest, and form a law-abiding and well-behaved
community. In common with most native races, they are exceedingly
superstitious. No sickness is put down to natural causes ; witchcraft
is always supposed to be at the bottom of the trouble. Judged from
a European standpoint, they are absolutely devoid of morals, but they
have a code of their own, to which they strictly adhere. Physically
they vary somewhat. The Louren9o Marques boys and Shangaans
are superior to the others. Apart from tribal differences in physique,
natives from the coast are superior to those dwelling inland, perhaps
depending on the fact that the former have a certain amount of Arab
blood, derived from the old East Coast traders.

Clothing and Diet. — Many of the natives now work in the mines

SOCIETY OP THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 35

in Johannesburg and there acquire a large stock of European clothing,
but this they soon discard on their return home, though they may
retain a small waistcoat and an umbrella. The native garments are :—
the Mtyeka, or loin cloth, which is the universal garment of the
East Coast ; blankets, which are now mostly imported, although some
are made from the bark of a tree called Mshala ; jackets made of
skins, and worn when travelling. The Shangaans and Louren90
Marques boys feed mainly on mealies and Kaffir corn, while the
Myambaams and Mtyopis depend more on ground nuts and mandioca
(the tapioca of commerce). Beans, fruits of various kinds, and
honey are also used. They eat flesh of all kinds, including snakes
(except the Shangaans), with the exception of the crow, which is
considered unclean, the owl, which it is unlucky to interfere with, and
the hawk, the reason for abstinence in this case being unknown.
They eat fish, both fresh and dried, when they can get it. Some, but
not many, are mud eaters, since the natives, noticing the fertilising
effect of the alluvial soil on the vegetation, believe that by swallowing
it they will be able to increase their own powers of reproduction.
The Myambaams and Mtyopis drink wine and spirits, while the Shan-
gaans are more dependent on beers. The two former races are in-
veterate drunkards, so much so that they refer to the various seasons
of the year according to the drink which can be obtained at the time.

The Myambaams and the Mtyopis use tobacco- in the form of
cigars, while the Shangaans prefer it as snuff. They also smoke
dacha which is the bhang of India, the hashish of the Arabs, and the
Cannabis Indica of the British Pharmacopoeia. The dacha pipe may
be seen hanging in the centre of the kraal, and is the common pro-
perty of the inhabitants. It is usually produced when two or three
men meet. Each one takes two or three inhalations, the result being
a violent fit of coughing, sometimes so severe that the smoker spits
blood. It is considered the correct thing, while coughing, to sing the
praises of their chief.

Habitations — The dwellings vary somewhat according to the tribe.
The Myambaam kraals are circular clearances in the bush. The huts

36 PROCEEDINGS Of THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

in each kraal are placed in a semicircle, and in the centre is a large
tree, which serves as a shade for the inhabitants. The kraals are
small, consisting often of only three or four huts, probably occupied
by a man and his wives. Usually a number of kraals are clustered
together, communicating with one another by narrow and tortuous
Kaffir paths. In some cases the whole kraal is surrounded by a rough
fence. The huts are well built with walls about five feet high, and
have a large door fitted with a wooden lock and key of native manu-
facture. At the entrance of the kraal may often be noticed a small
bunch of grass containing a handful of mealies hanging from a tree.
This is supposed to prevent the evil spirits from attacking the inhabi-
tants of the kraal, as it is expected that the witch will take the
mealies and be satisfied without interfering with the good men of the
kraal.

Besides the dwelling houses there are usually also a corn store, a
goat pen, and sometimes a pigeon cot. A fire for cooking smoulders
under the big tree, the trunk of which is usually ornamented with
skulls of buck, monkeys, and other animals. There is usually a dacha
pipe hanging from the tree, and at the base a bow and collection of
arrows.

A Mtyopi kraal is generally larger, sometimes containing as
many as seventy huts of the same variety as described among the
Myambaams, and as a rule the kraal and a considerable area of sur-
rounding ground is fenced by a strong hedge, in which there are stiles
or rough gates. This hedge is for the purpose of confining the pigs.
Sometimes there is also a stockade — a remnant of the old fighting
days. The Shangaan kraals are small, consisting of only a few huts
(Plate V., Fig. 1). They are not so well built, because the Shan-
gaans being a warlike people look on their huts as more or less tem-
porary abodes, liable to be destroyed in war at any time.

The huts are cone-shaped, and the walls low and are really modi-
fications of the Zulu type of hut. There is generally a cattle kraal in
the neighbourhood.

w Utvnxilx. — These consist of the stamp block, which has

SOCIETY OP THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 37

a handle five feet in height, and is worked by two women ; water
utensils, which, if clay is obtainable, are made of earthenware, being
moulded to all sizes and burnt in the fire, but in the absence of clay
are made from the bark of a tree, the bark being stripped and curved
while wet, and held in position by pegs ; gourds, which are made from
pumpkins ; cooking-pots made of clay ; spoons of all sizes, made of
wood ; drinking-cups, carved out of wood, and often highly orna-
mented (these, however, are being superseded by imported enamel
mugs) ; wooden bowls of various sizes and shapes, which take the
place of plates, and are sometimes made with two or even three com-
partments to prevent the different kinds of food from mixing. Their
tools are partly of native manufacture, such as the forge, and partly
European. The carving and what we may call poker-work are done
with great rapidity and exactness, but apparently the natives have no
idea of going off a beaten track, as directly I asked a man I was
watching to make some lettering on a bowl which I had bought, he
" lost his head ". Unfortunately I h.id asked the chief carver's assistant
to do this, and the question immediately arose as to whether by doing
so I was not giving the assistant knowledge which his chief did not
possess. The propriety of my having done so was keenly discussed
and evidently aroused a certain amount of jealousy. They make
wooden pillows carved out of Umkuhla wood. It sometimes happens
that a particularly ingenious man will cut out of one piece of wood a
walking stick, on the staff of which is a pillow for himself and one for
his wife, and at the extremity a drinking cup. A good example of this
is the case of a native who cut out an artificial limb for himself, and
returned to the mines to become a policeman in one of the compounds.
They make baskets of very fine work, sometimes so closely woven that
they are watertight, and varying in size from that of a cigarette case
to that of one into which a man could easily get. They have also conical
baskets which the women carry on their heads, and small hand-bags
beautifully decorated with beads, for carrying food, etc.

Their agricultural instruments are the usual Kaffir hoe and a
small axe for cutting wood.

38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

Weapons. — In the Inhambane and Mtyopi districts nearly all
adults have large bows and arrows, while the children have smaller
specimens. The bow is made of wood, the string of hide, and the
shaft of the arrow of bamboo or light wood tipped with feathers. The
head of the arrow is made of steel and is usually three or four inches
long and sharp pointed. The Mtyopis, even nowadays, sometimes
poison their arrows. They also use a pick like a battle-axe, assegais,
knob-kerries, and the usual variety of sticks. They possess a certain
number of trade-guns, which are dangerous at least to their owners.
The barrels are used for the manufacture of spirit, which probably
does not improve them (Plate VI., Fig. 3).

Boats. — They have two kinds of boats. The first is the ordinary
dug-out canoe — Uukumbe — which appears to be common in tropical
South Africa. It is hollowed out from the trunk of a tree, holds ten
people, draws very little water (not more than five or six inches), and
is punted by means of a pole worked at the stern. The second is the
Amatwabele, made from the bark of a tree. The bark is peeled off
the tree for about five feet, the ends are curled up and pegged by a
piece of stick driven through them. The centre of the canoe is
supported by four sticks driven through the sides, and these serve as
seats. Canoes so formed are exceedingly primitive looking, but do
not easily upset and can be paddled at a considerable rate (Plate VI.,
Fig. 4). '

Ornaments. — Wire bangles are very common, especially among
the women, who sometimes wear several pounds' weight on each
ankle or wrist. Occasionally they are made of ivory, but more
usually of solid brass, which must be very heavy and uncomfortable.
However in a free fight the lady decorated with several pounds of
brass on her wrists has a distinct advantage. Sometimes one
notices on the men's heads the dried gall-bladder of a goat or sheep.
It is worn as a sign that on his return from a journey his brothers
killed a sheep or goat for him, and is evidence that he is considered
a man worthy of distinction. They have necklaces made of every
variety of article strung together, the scalps and bills of small birds

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 39

being favoured ornaments. Crocodiles' teeth are commonly worn
round the neck, and lions' claws are great favourites, but as the
supply of these is limited, it is usual for artificial claws to be worn.
Strings of beads are often worn round the waists of both men and
women. The Isococo is a heavy black ring worn by the older men
as a mark of distinction. It is made of a mixture of beeswax and
other materials. Red clay is greatly appreciated by the native
women. They stamp it into a very fine powder, mix it with oil, and
use it as a cosmetic on their faces. In common with those of many
other tribes, the East Coast women paint their bodies with it when
advanced in pregnancy and' while suckling a child. Red clay is also
used to dress the hair, which they twist into tags.

The Chase. — The natives stalk their game till they are very close
at hand. They drive large game into soft swampy parts, where they
sink in the mire and can be safely despatched with their assegais.
Sometimes when the grass is dry they light fires in such a way that
the game is driven towards hunters posted with assegais, and bows
and arrows, etc., and a wholesale destruction occurs. Besides the
regular methods of hunting, there are innumerable kinds of traps for
catching game. Most of these depend on the ordinary noose or
running snare principle.

For fishing they have nets of a triangular shape. Two sides of
the triangle are made of sticks of bamboo or some light wood about
six feet long ; the base of the triangle is formed of stout string ;
across the triangle a baggy piece of close meshed netting is fastened,
forming a scoop net. When using these nets they usually fish in
parties in fairly shallow water. They form themselves into a wide
circle, each one dragging his net behind him, holding it by the bamboo
sides, and in this manner advance to a central point to which they
drive the fish, so as to be able to scoop them up. At other times the
nets are dragged behind canoes up stream. They also make use of
cone-shaped traps placed at the banks, into which fish go for food,
but the narrow open mouth prevents them from getting out ; and
again, wherever there are tidal waters, one sees traps so formed that

40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

the fish will enter them at high tide but will be left high and dry
when it ebbs. Occasionally one sees natives fishing with a rod and
line, but this method does not appeal to them very much.

Musical Instruments. — The Mtyopis are the most musical of the
East Coast natives. Each group of kraals appears to have its own
trained band, which assembles at convenient times for practice. The
most noticeable instrument is the Mtyopi piano, which consists of a
number of wooden keys, suspended by means of leather thongs over
gourds of various sizes. Across the mouths of these gourds a thin
membrane of gut is stretched, which vibrates when the key is struck.
The performer sits with his legs under the piano and beats the notes
with two sticks, on the ends of which are lumps of native india-
rubber (Plate V., Fig. 2). There are several sizes of pianos, some of
which give the higher notes, and others, the big brass instruments,
which are only used when a large band has assembled. If properly
played they are undoubtedly musical, but one appreciates them far
more when they are at some considerable distance. They have
drums which vary in size from that of a fifteen gallon barrel to that
of a quart pot. They are usually cut out of one piece of wood, and
the drum surface is made of raw hide stretched over the mouth. They
are beaten either with the flat of the hands or with sticks. Their
rattles are two cases containing beads or pebbles, and are used by
the bandmaster when he is beating time for a large band. There is
also one made of a gourd, more commonly used as a child's plaything.
Thirdly, there is one made of grass, containing numbers of seeds.
Lastly, there are rattles worn on the legs when dancing. The boys
occasionally use pipes of reed when they dance, each performer
blowing a pipe incessantly. A band seen performing by Dr. Turner
consisted of twenty pianos arranged in three rows, the operators
sitting on the ground. Behind them were six big brass pianos which
were raised on stands, the operators standing to manipulate them.
In front of the small pianos were a number of drums, and presiding
over the whole was a conductor, armed with a metal rattle with
which he beat time, in what appeared to be quite a professional manner.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OP ABERDEEN. 41

Danciwj. — Here again the Mtyopi is more advanced than the
Myambaam or the Shangaan. The natives of the district, having
been informed that there is to be a dance at a certain kraal, assemble
and in some instances travel twenty or thirty miles on foot to attend.
When approaching the scene of the festivities, they blow a horn to
announce their approach, and a small band of three or four drums is
sent out to play them into the village. When it is thought that most
of the people have arrived, a somewhat more elaborate band plays
round the village, in much the same way that is done at a circus, to
warn the people that the dance is about to begin. In the dance seen,
the large band of pianos with drums, etc., had already been placed in
position, and in front of the instruments the dancers arranged them-
selves in rows, as if for a war-dance. Altogether there were about six
hundred dancers, consisting of adults and children. The adults were
in the front row, and they wore ostrich feather headgear, and had
ox-tails ornamenting their knees, and were armed with shields and
battleaxes. In the space between the band and the dancers were a
few women, and a man dressed up as a woman, who acted as a
buffoon. When the band commenced to play, the performers sang,
dancing at the same time. They appeared to act a complete scene,
dancing with tremendous energy, and evidently prepared to go on for
an indefinite period. At one time, one could see they were pretending
to kill imaginary foes ; at other times retreating or defending them-
selves ; finally they stood to the salute. Occasionally a dancer rolled
in the sand from exhaustion. While the men were dancing in this
way, the few women referred to before danced in their own manner,
though they appeared to be taking some part in the scene which was
being acted. After this dance had gone on some time, another was
started in which unmarried girls and married women took a leading
part. The former borrowed the men's ostrich head-dresses. The
girls and women took it in turns to dance, while the men looked on
and sang. Following the two big dances, a number of small ones
were commenced, as side shows, in which women were the only
performers. They were accompanied either by a couple of Kaffir

42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

pianos, played very rapidly, or else by two or three men beating drums.
This was kept on continuously, and with endless zeal, as long as boys
could be got to beat the drums or play the pianos for them. Among
the Shangaans the dances consisted chiefly of a warlike display.
The men armed with kerries, battleaxes, etc., formed themselves into
circles, and at intervals one of their number rushed into the centre
and chanted some song, at the same time taking most violent exercise
in the way of killing imaginary foes.

Marriage Regulations. — Polygamy, as among all other Bantu
races, is universal among the East Coast natives — the number of
wives a man has depending entirely on the amount of wealth he has
with which to buy them. To the women's share falls all the hard
work of the kraal, so the more wives a man can afford to buy, the
greater the ease in which he lives. Marriage among the natives is
frequently arranged by the father of a girl, in some cases even while
she is still in infancy. Usually she is not altogether disregarded in
the matter of the choice of her future husband, and if forced to
marry some man against her will, she sometimes takes the law into
her own hands by running away from a husband she does not like.

A man almost invariably pays for his wife. In the Inharnbane
district about fifteen pounds is the average price, while among the
Shangaans as much as forty pounds is paid. A daughter is thus of
considerable value to her father, and consequently it is her duty to get
married. It sometimes happens that a man, through his friends, enters
into negotiations for marriage with a girl whom he has never seen.
He may even go so far as to leave money with his father or brothers
to buy a wife for him, just before he leaves for work in Johannesburg,
in which case the girl is bought and taken to the kraal of her hus-
band's father to await the return of her rightful owner. The money
a man receives for a daughter he uses to buy his son a wife. After
the price to be paid has been settled, a day is arranged for the hus-
band to go and fetch her, though in some cases she is simply sent to
his kraal. Besides the price of his wife, in some districts the future
husband has to pay an extra pound to buy a sheep in order to cele-

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OP ABERDEEN. 43

brate the occasion with a feast. In other places, the wife's father
supplies this, and there is, of course, an excuse for a good deal of
drinking. The fact that a man has bought one daughter in a family
entitles him to take her next sister, more or less as his first wife's ser-
vant, as it is considered that since he has bought one daughter, he is
the man with the first claim to her sister, provided he is eventually
able to pay for her, and she is taken on credit.

In the event of a man dying, his wives are passed on to his eldest
son, if he be an adult, and failing him to his brother. The eldest son's
own mother has a hut put aside for her in her son's kraal ; it is only his
stepmothers whom he takes for wives. This levirate marriage system
among natives is an important question, because, with the rite of cir-
cumcision, it is one of the principal arguments used to prove the
Jewish descent of the Bantu races. But the custom is so widely
spread throughout the world that, as with circumcision, one has only
to look at the list of tribes which adopt it to see that it is no more
proof that the Bantus are descended from the Jews than that they
came from Australian stock.

Their Dead. — When any one dies it is not considered by the
natives as a matter to be talked about, and the burial is carried out
quietly by one or two of the relatives, and the grave concealed as far
as possible. The grave is a circular hole about four feet deep. The
corpse is tied in the position of the anthropoid ape, with the elbows
on the knees and the neck bent, and is placed in such a position that
it looks towards its former kraal. If a man dies of a disease from
which he has been continually gasping for breath — i.e., consumption—
the man performing the burial rite has to open the thorax in the
middle line and remove both the lungs and heart. The thorax is kept
open by a couple of sticks. On top of these sticks is placed a piece of
cloth which supports the viscera so that they do not slip back into the
thorax when they are laid on it. This performance is carried out to
prevent the person who is burying the deceased from contracting the
disease. A rather fuller kind of pont-mortem is carried out by the
Wankonde of British Central Africa, to ascertain the cause of death

44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

in the case of every person not dying in warfare. One of the village
elders makes an incision from the end of the sternum to the umbilicus,
and carefully examines the mesentery, and according to the distribu-
tion of the blood-vessels, he confirms or denies the supposition that
death has been due to witchcraft.

On the death of a person, although the actual burial ceremony is
kept as secret as possible, the mourning rites which are carried out
are extensive, varying somewhat with the importance of the deceased.
The mourning has to be observed at the place or kraal where the death
actually occurred. It sometimes happens that if a man dies a long
way from home, the news may not reach his people for some time, and
even in that case the women of his kraal have to walk to the place of
his death, carrying with them corn to make beer with. Every evening
they commence wailing from sunset until midnight, and this is kept up
for various periods, sometimes only a few days, sometimes a whole
month. While wailing, some of the beer is poured on the ground,
while the rest is drunk. In different parts of the country various
signs of mourning are worn, such as bark bandages of different shapes
among the Myambaams and Mtyopis. The elliptical chaplet of green
bark is one of the commonest forms (Plate VII., Fig. 5). The men
seem to prefer to mark their mourning simply by narrow strings
of green bark tied closely round their necks. At other times grass
neatly plaited and fitting closely round the ankles and wrists is used
as a sign. Among the Shangaans white cloth is tied round the
mourners' heads.

Xative Markings. — These may be divided into cicatrisation and
tattoo marks and into incisions. The native of the East Coast, south
of latitude 22°, who most generally uses cicatrisation to distinguish
himself, is the Mtyopi. Taking first the males of this tribe, they may
be divided into three classes : the old generation of men who used to
cicatrise their faces, making a series of lumps on the forehead and
cheeks, in the same manner as the women will be seen to do on their
abdomens (Plate VII., Figs. 6 and 7) ; then we have a younger gen-
eration who in place of these swellings disfigure themselves with

SOCIETY OP THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 45

linear marks on the face and chest ; and, lastly, the present generation
who have clean faces, because the other boys on the mines laughed at
these disfigurements. In the first class the cicatrisation took the form
of a series of lumps about the size of two peas on the forehead and
down the cheeks. In the second form it is interesting to note that
certain of these scars have a definite significance. A mark drawn
from the external auditory meatus transversely across the cheek under
the eye as far as the nose is known as the Sinsanga, and indicates
that the man has killed another in a fight. If there is more than one
mark, it shows that he has killed more than one. A line down the
side of the cheek is known as the Bin Nanga. It is sometimes said
this is put on after the boy has been circumcised, but this is probably
not correct. Thirdly, there is an arrow-shaped mark on the right
side of the forehead known as Lembombo. It is characteristic of the
Mtyopis, but its significance is not known.

The most noticeable feature amongst the Mtyopi women is the
extraordinary manner in which they mark their abdomens (Plate VII.,
Fig. 7). By means of cicatrisation they raise a series of lumps,
varying in size from a walnut to a pea. These are arranged sym-
metrically in lines, the largest being in the centre. They extend from
between the breasts, over the whole surface of the abdomen, over the
pubes, and over the front and internal surface of the legs, reaching to
within five inches of the knee-joint, and there are also slighter mark-
ings arranged in curves on both buttocks. These markings are known
as Tindorba. They are commenced when the girls are about six years
of age, and are carried out with a great deal of ceremonial, the girls
dancing to music, in order that they may for the time being forget the
pain they are suffering. The ceremony takes part in a lonely part of
the bush, and no males are admitted. This proceeding is not alto-
gether devoid of danger, sepsis and even syphilis sometimes occurring.
Besides the Tindorba, the Mtyopi women have the Sinsanga, but the
meaning is different from what it was in the case of the male, and
indicates that she has aborted a male child. Shangaan and Myam-
baam women have lighter markings than the above. Cicatrisation

46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

consists in making a number of slits in the skin with a sharp knife and
rubbing into the wounds the juice of an irritant plant which prevents
it from healing, and causes it to assume the appearance of a raised
scar.

As regards the second form of native marking — the incision — the
most noticeable feature among the East Coast natives is the slit in the
lobe of the ear seen among the Shangaan males. This mark is com-
mon to all races who are off-shoots of the Zulu race, e.<j., the Angonis
of British Central Africa. Formerly it was a distinctive mark, and
Gungunyna, if he found a native other than a Shangaan with these
slits, used to complete the operation by removing 'the offender's head.
Now, however, one finds numbers of Myambaams and Mtyopis with
slits in their ears ; so it has lost its value as a means of distinction.

Teeth. — Though the East Coast native does not file his teet h to
the same extent as some tribes, he practises the custom to some
degree. Many of the Mtyopis file their teeth into the shape of pegs.
It is suggested that this is a mark of ancient cannibalism, as they
would be better able to tear human flesh with their teeth filed. This
custom is less frequent among the Myambaams, and still rarer among
the Shangaans. Another plan is to file out the middle half of the
two upper central incisors, and to knock out the two lower central
incisors with an iron rod. The Masai extract the two lower central
incisors with a knife. This custom is supposed to date back to the
time when tetanus was a great scourge among the Masai, as it was
possible by this process to easily feed a mau suffering from lockjaw.

Albinism. — This condition is frequently met with among the Bantu
races. The albino is a truly repulsive object, as besides the unnatural
dull white colour of the skin there is often a considerable amount of
eczema. The wool of the head is of a dull yellow colour. The cause
of this condition is not known, and apparently heredity is not very
largely responsible for it.

Native Medicine Men and their Drugs. — As with most other South
African natives we find two kinds of native doctors : the man who
deals in witchcraft and the man who deals with drugs only. Probably

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OP ABERDEEN. 47

the witch-doctor is the man who is usually first consulted, and the
following is briefly his mode of operation.

After seeing the sick person he throws bones, or else he rattles a
little basket somewhat after the nature of a small tambourine, and
then appears to have a fit. He next states that the patient has been
bewitched, and after a time he names the village in which the person
who has bewitched the patient is living. Next he usually discovers that
it is a woman who is the cause of the trouble, and finally he mentions
the name of the culprit. The people of the kraal in which the
patient is living go to the village, and make inquiries about any
person having the name mentioned by the doctor, and if it so happens
that there is no person having that name in the kraal, the natives
make inquiries until they find some one living there who has got a name
closely resembling the one mentioned by the doctor. This person,
when found, is proclaimed to be a witch, and after due inquiries vari-
ous penalties are inflicted. Such belief have the people in the power
of the doctor that it frequently occurs that when an unfortunate
woman or child has been accused of bewitching a child, she says that
though she lias no recollection of doing so while awake, she may have
done so in her sleep, and in this way plays more or less into the
hands of the doctor. Sometimes she is only fined, but frequently she
is turned out of the village, and in the old days was sometimes killed.
At the present time the doctor is generally very careful not to accuse
a man of having bewitched a person. The male native, as a result of
his contact with a European population at Johannesburg, is beginning
to know rather too much to be duped by any trickery which the
Kaffir doctor may try to impose on him. Consequently he is liable to
illustrate to the medical man with a knobkerrie or an assegai that a
mistake has been made in the diagnosis in his special case. This
naturally leads to unseemly proceedings, and a loss of that professional
dignity so necessary to every general practitioner.

At the same time this witchcraft is undoubtedly a source of great
trouble among the natives. On? Portuguese commandant said that
he frequently had husbands bringing their wives to his commando,

48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

and asking his opinion concerning them, as it had been alleged by
some native doctor that they were witches. The commandant found
it best to give his opinion at once, to the effect that though he saw no
signs of witchcraft about the women, yet there was something about
the husbands which led him to think that it was highly probable that
they themselves were supernatural. By doing this, he transferred
the charge to the husbands, who, being quite convinced that they
were not afflicted, gave the matter up, and no further trouble occurred.
Supposing it is decided that there is no question of witchcraft
about the person's sickness, or supposing that having thrown the
bones, the Kaffir doctor is unable to decide whether there is a witch
in the case at all, he falls back on the use of drugs, and a second form of
medical man is called in. He also throws the bones to decide which
form of drug will be most suitable for the treatment of the patient.
He possesses a number of stock medicines, many of which are undoubt-
edly very useful, while others are not. The chief medicines employed
are : the leaves of a tree used in the treatment of malarial fever (the
identity of this plant is very carefully concealed by the Kaffir doc-
tors) ; a plant used to bring back the milk in women — Hlafunamaas ;
the juice of the Cashew (supposed to be antisyphilitic, and the plant
was probably introduced into the country from South America by the
Portuguese) ; a plant used for bladder trouble — Umramgala Umgubo ;
the root of Umkunga used as an abortifacient (the practice of
abortion being very common, the native possessing several medicines
which produce this effect, and also resorting to mechanical methods).
Isolation Camps for the Sick. — These are huts or shelters which
are built in the bush for the sick whom the native doctor has decided
should not be permitted to live in the common kraal. Patients are
sent to these places for one of two reasons : firstly, in cases in which
the native doctor thinks a person is suffering from an infectious disease
and is therefore a source of danger to the general community ; and,
secondly, in cases in which a doctor thinks that the native is so ill that
his life would be endangered if a witch were to look upon him. In
the latter case, he is removed for his own safety, so that he will not

SOCIETY OP THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 49

be seen by any chance travellers coming through the kraal, one of
whom might be a witch. Under the first heading, we find men with
dropsy, lepers, advanced cases of pulmonary disease and small-pox.
As regards this last complaint, should only one or two cases occur at
a kraal they are isolated. Should the disease suddenly assume an
epidemic form, it is considered that the isolation of a number of cases
is impossible, and accordingly the patients are allowed to remain in
their own huts. When the medical men decide that the patient will
not recover, he is looked upon as being dead in the same way as was
done in the old days in England, when a leper, before being turned
out of the community, had the burial service read over him, and his
property confiscated. Accordingly, all the man's possessions — his
hut, his wives, etc. — pass to his next of kin, probably his brother.
There is this exception, however, that the patient's children still
remain his property, and they, if old enough, are responsible for his
food.

Circumcision. — There is one native rite where the medical man
takes a leading part, namely, that of circumcision. This rite was
originally practised by all the Bantu races, but it has been discon-
tinued by some, including all the Zulu races, as it prevented them at
times putting all their men into the field in time of war. Thus on the
East Coast it is practised by the Myambaams and Mtyopi, but not by
the Shangaans. The winter is the time usually selected for the opera-
tion. When it has been decided to carry out the ceremony, a number
of camps, known as Soka camps, are chosen, and placed in charge of
a native doctor, generally a man of some importance, selected from
the chief's kraals, though the local doctor may act as his assistant.

The ceremony forms a kind of brotherhood among the boys be-
longing to each camp, and for this reason when a chief's son is to be
operated on it is customary to get as many boys as possible in his
camp, so that he may have a large following. The ages of the boys
operated on vary considerably. Sometimes the operation is performed
during childhood ; at other times it does not take place until the man

is grey-headed, This diversity in age is accounted for by the fact that

7

50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

the rite is only solemnised at considerable intervals, and it is quite
possible that a boy who is not always in the district may miss one or
more opportunities.

The camp is situated in an out-of-the-way part, and covers a large
area including temporary dwellings for the boys to sleep in, a hut for
the doctor to live in, and kraals for goats, etc. When the operation
is about to commence, the doctor places a clay pot of water on a large
fire burning in the centre of the kraal, and into this puts two powders,
one black, the other white. Then he leads the way to a small clearing
about twelve yards in diameter, only a few paces from the main camp,
but hidden from it by bushes. On one side of this is a thick hedge,
in the centre of which is a small hole, just big enough to let a man
pass through on his hands and knees. The doctor takes up his posi-
tion in the centre of this place, where a small hole has been made in
the sand. He lays out his instruments, consisting of a collection of
razors, and takes a pinch of black powder, some of which he puts into
the hole, and with the rest makes a smudge on each side of his face.
In the meantime a drum beats vigorously, and a couple of Kaffir
pianos play noisily, while the assistants dance and sing round the
doctor. The patient to be operated upon is then driven through the
gap in the hedge described above, and is at once tripped up by two
assistants placed in readiness, and carried to where the doctor kneels.
The doctor now seizes the prepuce, and having carefully pulled it for-
ward so as to avoid injuring the glans, leisurely saws it off, and drops
it into the hole in the sand. The mucous membrane is slit in the middle
line with the razor, separated from the glans very thoroughly, and
trimmed off close round to the framum. After the operation the
patient is given a decoction to drink, being urged to imbibe copiously.
The medical man now washes his hands several times carefully in hot
water and takes from an earthenware bowl a moist linen bag filled
with astringent herbs, and squeezes it over the bleeding surfaces.
This is a very painful proceeding, and a hand has to be placed over the
patient's mouth to prevent him yelling. The hot lotion is followed
by cold water, and then the part carefully dressed with leaves. The

PROC. ABERD. UNIV. ANAT. AND ANTHROP. Soc., 1906-1908— PLATE V.

Fig. 1.— Hut showing Mutswa Painting.

Fig. 2.— Mtyopi Piano.

PROC. ABERD. UNIV. ANAT. AND ANTHROP. Soc., 1906-1908 — PLATE VI.

Fig. 3. — Native Distillery in i full working order concealed in the Bush.

Fig. 4.— Bark Canoe on Lake Suli.

PROC. ABERD. UNIV. ANAT. AND AOTHROP. Soc., 1906-1908— PLATE VII.

Fig. 5. — Woman Wearing Mourning Chaplet.

Fig. 6. — Makua Decorations produced by Cicatrisation.

Fig. 7.— Mtyopi Married Woman.

Fig. 8. — Shangaa^ Married Women.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 5l

dressing produced is very neat and is not changed for three days.
Various other ceremonies, too numerous to be described, take place
in the circumcision camp.

From a medical point of view the most noticeable thing is the
cleanliness with which the medical man operates, and consequently
the excellent results obtained. Occasionally septic poisoning sets in
with disastrous results, but this is not common.

52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

ORDINARY MEETING.
GTH JULY, 1907.

Professor R. W. KEID, M.D., F.E.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

The minutes of last meeting were read and approved.

Anatomical variations found in the course of practical work
in the department were described by Messrs. J. Fettes and S.
G. Trail.

Professor Reid intimated the presentation to the Anatomical
Museum of a short cist and its contents by Wm. Bean Moir, Esq., of
Scotstown. Mr. Alex. Low, M.B., showed photographs of the cist
and described the contents.

After the treasurer's report had been read and accepted, the
following were elected office-bearers for the coming year :—

President —
PBOFESSOE E. W. KEID, M.D., F.E.C.S. (Eng.).

Vice-Presidents —

ALEX. Low, M.A., M.B., C.M. ; E. W. A. SALMOND, M.B., Ch.B. ;
A. G. STEWABT, M.A.

Secretary — N. J. CALDER, M.A.

Recording Secretary — J. D. FlDDES, M.A.

Treasurer — E. EICHABDS, M.A.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 53

RECORD OF ANATOMICAL VARIATIONS.

Date of observation, June, 1907.
Sex, Female.

Accessory head of biceps flexor cubiti.

This slip arises from the humerus at the lowest point of the
insertion of the coraco-brachialis muscle and between the coraco-
brachialis and brachialis anticus muscles. It is chiefly inserted into
the bicipital semilunar fascia and is supplied by filaments from the
musculo-cutaneous nerve.

The superior profunda artery comes off the posterior circumflex
artery.

(Signature of observer) JAMES FETTES.

Date of observation, July, 1907.
Sex, Male.

Abnormal origin of left common carotid artery.

The left common carotid artery arises from the innominate
artery about half an inch from the commencement of that trunk. The
trachea lies between the abnormal left common carotid and the left
subclavian artery, just above the level of the arch of the aorta, and
higher up is crossed by the left common carotid artery.

(Signature of observer) S. G. TRAIL.

54 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

ON TWO ADDITIONAL SHOET CISTS FEOM ABEEDEENSHIKE.
By Professor E. W. EEID, M.D., F.E.C.S., and ALEX. Low, M.A., M.B., C.M.

(Presented Cth July, 1907.)

In previous communications1 the contents of a series of short
cists preserved in the Anatomical Museum of the University have
been described. Recently the contents of two additional cists, and in
one case the cist itself, have been added to the Museum, and we now
describe these.

LESLIE SHORT CIST.

This cist was recovered in a cultivated field on the farm of Mains
of Leslie, parish of Premnay, on the 13th November, 1906. The
covering stone of the cist was struck by the plough, and the cist was
opened by Mr. Peter Thomson, the tenant of the farm, and Mr. John
Morrison, Bridge of Leslie. Later the cist was examined by Mr. J.
Graham Callander, F.S.A. Scot., Insch, who furnished the following
note regarding it :—

" The cist was found to be full of soil which had found its way
into the chamber at the junction of two of the corner stones. On
being emptied of this soil the remains of a skeleton were discovered
lying on its right side in a crouching position, the head being near the
south-west corner of the cist ; behind the skull was a ' drinking
cup ' urn in fragments. The cist was composed of four thin slabs
of local Coreen stone ; it was carefully made, being nearly rectangular

1 See the Proceedings of the Society for 1902-04 and 1904-06.

2 Mr. Graham Callander publishes a detailed account of the finding of the cist in
the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, vol. xli., p. 116.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 55

with the longer axis nearly due east and west. The inside measurements
of the cist were : length along the south side, 3 feet 5 inches, and
along the north side 3 feet 5J inches ; breadth at west end 2 feet 4|
inches, and at east end 2 feet 3J inches ; depth at east end 1 foot
(j inches and at west end 1 foot 8 inches. The mouth of the cist was
covered with a large slab of irregular shape, 4 feet 5 inches in its
greatest length ; 3 feet broad at the west end and 2 feet 1 inch near
the other end. The north-east corner of the cist was covered with a
smaller slab. The large slab was about 6 inches thick. The top of
the slabs at the east end of the cist being slightly sunk, this part had
been heightened by some small thin stones having been built in with
clay as mortar. The corners and the vacancies under the cover stone
were packed with yellow clay. The bottom of the cist was composed
of the gravelly subsoil of the district, above which was a very thin
sprinkling of charcoal which was covered with a layer of yellow clay,
three quarters of an inch thick, on which the remains reposed."

THE SKELETON. — The bones, with the exception of the skull, are
mostly much broken, but the remains indicate the skeleton of an adult
male.

Skull. — The skull is fairly well preserved, but has crumbled away
in the right parietal region so that there is here a hole measuring
about two inches by one inch. The zygomatic arches are broken, as
are also the left angle and ramus of the lower jaw. The sutures are
open with the exception of the lower ends of coronal sutures which
have commenced to synostose. The sutures are delicate and elaborate
and in the lambdoidal suture there are several small wormian bones—
in the right half there are three ossicles, each measuring about 10 mm.
by 7 mm., and in the left half of the suture there are two ossicles.
The infraorbital suture on the left side is continued across the orbital
margin to the infraorbital foramen. At the pterion the frontal is well
separated from the squamosal. The enamel of the crowns of the
teeth has been worn oft', and the dentine exposed : this might be taken
to mean old age ; but the wearing down of the teeth has probably been
due to the hard and gritty nature of the food. The supraorbital

56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

margins are fairly thick and the muscular impressions distinct. The
cranium has a cubic capacity of 1,460 c.c. of mustard seed.

Nornni ct'i-tiniliii. — The external angular processes just appear in
this view and so probably would the zygomata. The superciliary ridges
are obscured by the frontal eminences. The outline is somewhat
pentagonal with the breadth relatively very great, the length-breadth
index being hyperbrachy cephalic. The parietal foramina are not sym-
metrical the left being in the sagittal suture and in a plane anterior to
the right which is in its usual site 1 cm. to the right of the middle line.

Fij>. 1. — Skull from Cist at Mains of Leslie (),).

Idteralis (Fig. 1.). — There is distinct subnasal prognathism.
The nasal bones are short and the nasion shallow. The glabella is
slightly developed, while the superciliary ridges are distinct. The
frontal eminences are prominent, smooth and rounded. There is post-
piirietal flattening with scarcely any projection of the occipital pole.

\ormit occipitnlii. — The outline forms a low wide pentagon with
the upper lateral angles rounded off. The parietal eminences are high
up and the sides of the skull tend inwards. The post-parietals form a
large part of this view,

SOCIETY OP THE UNIVERSITY OP ABERDEEN.

57

Norma frontalis (Fig. 2). — The face is relatively broad, and there
is a certain amount of subnasal prognathism. The orbits are rect-
angular with their long axis passing down and out. The orbital index
is microseme, and the nasal aperture is platyrJiine. The nasal bones
are very narrow, short and stout.

Noi-mn Ixiftilarlx. — The cranium bulges all round beyond the base
and in front the alveolar process projects forwards like a beak. The
mastoid processes are small and delicate and made up of cancellous
tissue. The palate is broad and short and the alveolar processes con-

Fig. 2.— Skull from Cist at Mains of Leslie (.'.).

verge slightly behind the second molar teeth. To the inner side of the
left alveolar process at a point corresponding to the interval between
the first and second molar teeth there is an opening leading into the
antrum of Highmore. The opening is oval in shape with a smooth
even slightly everted margin, and measures 7 mm. by 6 mm. The
second molar tooth is in xitu and healthy, while the first molar tooth
is lost, but the sockets for its fangs appear normal. The teeth are
much worn. The wisdom teeth have been present in the upper jaw
but have fallen out /><>xf->uoi-tem. In the lower jaw the second molar

58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

teeth are peculiar, in that in addition to the two normal fangs each has
a small accessory fang on the lingual aspect.

MEASUEEMENTS IN MM. OF SKULL FROM LESLIE SHOET CIST.

Sex

Male.

Inter- malar breadth

_

Cubic capacity

1460

Inter-dachryonic breadth -

20

Glabello-occipital length -

177

Nasio-mental length

108

Ophyro-occipital length -

177

Complete facial index

81-8

Nasio-inional length

168

Nasio-alveolar length

64

Basi-bregmatic height

136

Upper facial index -

48-4

Length-height index

76-8

Nasal height -

48

Minimum frontal diameter

100

Nasal width

26

Stephanie diameter -

126

Nasal index -

54-1

Maximum breadth -

154

Orbital width -

40

Cephalic index

87

Orbital height -

30

Breadth-height index

88-3

Orbital index -

75

Horizontal circumference

522

Palato-alveolar length

48

Frontal longitudinal arc -

130

Palato-alveolar breadth -

64

Parietal longitudinal arc -

132

Palatal index -

133-3

Occipital longitudinal arc -

124

Dental length -

—

Nasio-inional longitudinal arc -

333

Dental index -

—

Total longitudinal arc

386

Symphysial height

29

Base line

127

•j

Coronoid height -

— •

Proportion of vault to base

3

.!_

Condyloid height -

62

Sagittal circumference

513

V

•

Gonio-symphysial length

70 ap.

Vertical transverse arc

332

B

Bicondyloid width

114 ap.

Biauricular diameter

124

B
£<

Bigonial width

86 ap.

Transverse circumference

456

a
v

Breadth of ascending ramus -

33

Foramen magnum length

29

1

Condylo-symphysial length -

102

Basi- nasal length

98

X

1

Condylo-coronoid width

—

Basi-alveolar length

96

3)

Mandibular index

—

Gnathic index

97-9

Coronoid index -

—

Inter-zygomatie breadth -

132 ap

The other bones of the skeleton are much broken. There are
several vetebne nearly complete ; they are rather small bones. The
acromial ends of the clavicles are delicate flat bones with well devel-
oped conoid tubercles. The left humerus is complete and measures
307 cm. in length : its tuberosities and deltoid impression are well
developed. Pieces of radius and ulna indicate slender bones.

Of the lower extremity bones the left femur is practically complete,
and measures 42*2 cm. in length. The upper third of its shaft is flat-
tened ; the jtlatymeric index is 67 '5 and the pttasteric index is 116.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 59

The head of the right tibia and the lower two-thirds of the left are
preserved ; the '/tlnliinoiiic index is 60'6. The left os calcis is complete,
and measures 68 mm. in length. The left astragalus measures 47 mm.
in length, and its neck measures 22 mm. ; the index of its neck is 46 '8
and the angle of the neck 34°.

The pelvic bones are somewhat broken, but sufficiently intact to
permit of their being fitted together so as to give approximately the
diameters of the pelvic inlet : transverse diameter 118, conjugate 117
and oblique 117. These diameters give a pelvic index of 99' 1.

The height of the individual, as calculated from the femur, accord-
ing to Pearson's formula, would have been 5 feet 4 inches.

The bones thus indicate an individual of low stature with a hyper-
brachycephalic skull, having a low breadth-height index, and showing
parieto-occipital flattening, and with narrow orbits and a broad nose.
These are characters common to the series of skeletal remains re-
covered from short cists and now preserved in the Anatomical
Museum here.

UKN. — Lying in the cist near the skull were recovered frag-
ments of an urn. These pieces have been fitted together so that
the size, shape and ornamentation of the urn can readily be seen
(Fig. 3).

The urn is an example of the low-brimmed type of " drinking
cup " or beaker urn with a distinct neck. It measures 6f inches in
height, and its external diameters are 5^ inches at the brim, 5 inches
at the neck, 5^ inches at the bulge, and 3 inches at the base. The
thickness of the wall is -?- of an inch, and of the base I of an inch. The
paste is fairly fine and of a chocolate brown colour. On the outer
surface of the urn there are four bands of ornamentation passing hori-
zontally round the vessel and separated by unornamented areas. The
ornamentation has evidently been produced by a notched die im-
pressed on the soft clay.

The cist contained :—

1. The skeleton of an adult brachycephalic male about 5 feet
4 inches in height.

60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

2. An urn of the beaker type.

3. Pieces of charcoal.

C. E. N. Leith-Hay, Esq., of Itannes and Leith Hall, has pre-
sented the contents of the cist for preservation in the Anatomical
Museum.

Fig. 3. — Urn from Cist at Mains of Leslie (!.).

SCOTSTOWN SHORT CIST.

This cist was recovered on the farm of Gateside of Scotstown,
Old Machar, on the 13th April, 1907, by the Messrs. Hanton. Notes
and also photographs of the cist were taken during the process of
unearthing. The site of the cist is in a gravelly knoll in the corner of
a field which had been under cultivation for many years. There is no
external mark indicating the position of the cist over the cover stone
of which there is a depth of from 6 to 9 inches of soil. The cover of
cist is a large heavy oblong block of foliated gneiss measuring 5 feet
at the greatest length, 3 feet at the greatest breadth, and from 1 2 to

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY Of ABERDEEN. 61

15 inches in thickness. The cover stone is remarkable for its great
size and weight (Plate VIII.).

On removal of the cover stone the position of the contents of the
cist was carefully noted, it being necessary to remove a layer of fine
surface soil which covered the floor to a depth of about 3 inches. The
longer axis of the cist lies north-east and south-west. At the south-
west end of the cist are very much crumbled pieces of skull bones
and teeth, indicating the position of the head ; towards the east corner
lie the remains of bones of the feet and some pieces of leg bones,
while some indications of vertebra? lie near the north-west wall.
Although the bones are much crumbled and decayed, there is
sufficient evidence to show that the skeleton lay doubled up on its
right side with the skull to the south-west end of the cist, and facing
south-east. From behind the skull near the north-west wall of the
cist was recovered a flint knife. The contents of the cist were now
carefully removed, all soil being passed through a fine riddle, but
beyond numerous small pieces of charcoal nothing further was
recovered.

The floor of the cist is composed of a thin layer of yellow clay,
covering the gravelly subsoil, and dotted over this layer of clay are
flat water-worn stones of a fairly uniform size of about 3 inches by 2
inches. The inside measurements of the cist are 4 feet 4 inches in
length, 27 inches at the greatest breadth, 23 inches at the south-west
end and 24 inches at the north-east end, so that it is somewhat
narrowed at either end. The depth averages 18 inches. The south-
west end of the cist consists of a slab of gneiss averaging about 6
inches in thickness ; the south-east side consists of two slabs set on
edge, one larger one of granite measuring 27 inches in length and a
smaller one of gneiss, this latter is not of sufficient height to reach
the top of the cist, but is filled in over the top by a flat stone about
3 inches in thickness ; the north-west side is also made up of two
slabs, one larger one of granite measuring 36 inches in length, and
a smaller one of gneiss. On the top of this rests also a flat stone
about 3 inches in thickness to bring it up to the height of the

62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

others ; the north-east end of the cist is formed by a smallish slab
of granite set on edge with a flat stone over its top, so that at
the north-east end of the cist three somewhat irregular flat stones
rest on the top of the slabs to bring these to a uniform height ;
these rest on a bedding of clay. Outside the cist, as it were, pack-
ing the backs of slabs forming the walls of the cist, are a number
of irregularly shaped stones, measuring up to about one foot in
diameter.

Contents of the Ci*t. — The cist contains the remains of the bones
of an adult human skeleton. They are very much broken and show no
indication of having been subjected to the action of fire. There are
small pieces of skull bones very much decayed, and the enamel of the
crowns of six teeth, the dentine having crumbled quite away. The
tubercles of the crowns of these teeth are very beautifully preserved,

"•^T^ ••• x Tvr f ^>

Fig. 4.— Flint Knife from Cist at
Gateside of Scotstown (]).

and not at all worn. There are also pieces of the lower ends of both
femora and pieces of the shafts of the tibiae.

A very fine specimen of a flint knife was recovered from the floor
of the cist. It measures 55 mm. in length and its diameters at its
middle are 14 mm. by 6 mm. The knife has been fashioned from a
flake of flint, so that one side is flat ; the other convex and this convex
side has been carefully chipped to an edge. The knife is tapered at
each end (Fig. 4). Both cutting edges have been carefully worked
but show no trace of polishing.

Scattered over the floor of the cist are numerous small pieces of
charcoal. Pieces of charcoal were also found in the soil round about
the cist.

The cist contained :—

1. The remains of an adult skeleton.

PROC. ABERD. UNIV. ANAT. AND ANTHROP. Soc., 1906-1908 — PLATE VIII.

Cist at Gateside of Scotstown, Old Machar, Aberdeenshire.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 63

2. A flint knife.

3. Pieces of charcoal.

The proprietor, W. B. Moir, Esq., of Scotstown, has presented
the cist with its contents for preservation in the Anatomical Museum,
and it has been carefully re-erected in the vestibule of the Anatomy
Department.

64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

ORDINARY MEETING.
30ra OCTOBER, 1907.

Professor R. W. REID, M.D., F.R.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

The minutes of last meeting were held as read and approved.

The President introduced Mr. James Troup, M.A., formerly
H.B.M.'s Consul -General at Yokohama, Japan, who gave an address
on " Some Remains of Buddhist India ". The lecture was illustrated
by many lantern slides made from photographs taken by the lecturer
himself.

At the close of the lecture several questions were asked and
replied to by Mr. Troup.

Mr. R. Richards, M.A., proposed a very hearty vote of thanks to
Mr. Troup for his address.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 65

SOME KEMAINS OF BUDDHIST INDIA.

By JAMES TROUP, M.A., Formerly H.B.M.'s Consul-General at Yokohama,

Japan.

(Substance of an Address delivered 30th October, 1907.)

Before taking you to see, in photographic illustration, a few of
the architectural and other remains of Buddhism in India, which I
had an opportunity of seeing during a visit extending over six months
which I paid to India in the season 1905-6, it may be well that I give
you the very shortest sketch of the career of the founder of Buddhism.

The date of the death of Buddha has now been brought down to
the end of the fifth century, B.C. As he was said to have been in
his eightieth year when he died, this would place his birth soon after
500 B.C. He was the son of the chief of the State of the Sakya clan,
an aristocratic republic, whose capital city was Kapilavastu, in what is
now the frontier country of Audh (Oudh) and Nepal. His father
was Suddhodana Raja, his mother the Lady Maya. In his youth he
excelled in athletic sports, such as the use of the bow. He married ;
had a son. But, his thoughts turning to serious views of human
life, he, notwithstanding his social position, and the dissuasions of
his father, quitted the palace and adopted the life of a wandering
ascetic. He visited Uruvilva, in the neighbourhood of Gaya, in
Bihar, where he remained six years ; and there perfected his religious
system, — " attained enlightenment," or Bodhi, as it is called. Subse-
quently he went to Banares, the religious centre of India, to establish
the Kingdom of Righteousness, as he termed it. In the Deer Park
there, the Modern Sarnath, he expounded his system and established
his religious community. An account of his life as a religious teacher,

66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

moving about from place to place in the districts of India to which
allusion has been made, has been given in English by Professor Rhys
Davids and others.

In spite of opposition and internal dissension, the Buddhist
system spread after his death ; and not long after that event a council
was held, with the assistance of the King of Magadha (Bihar), to
settle authoritatively the words of the Master, and a second council,
a hundred years later, to deal with questions of heresy which had
arisen. By the middle of the third century, B.C., the system had secured
for itself an assured position in India, independent of and, in fact,
antagonistic to the Brahmanic system. Then was the golden age of
Buddhism in India, under Asoka, the grandson of Chandragupta, the
contemporary of Alexander the Great and founder of the Moriya, or
Peacock, Dynasty. Asoka had inherited from his grandfather the
throne of Magadha — and more ; he was the emperor of an India as
extensive as the modern British India, with his capital at Pataliputra,
the modern Patna.

I was unable to visit the region where Buddha was born, and
where he died ; but I had an opportunity of passing two days at
Bodh-Gaya and seeing much of what remains of the monuments
which piety erected on the spot where he "attained enlightenment".
The modern Temple of Maha-bodhi is a restoration, but a restoration
on the undoubted lines of the original later temple erected on this
spot, and following its original style of decoration. In front of the
building is what is known as the Torana Gateway, which was found
by General Cunningham lying in pieces near where it had stood, and
was pieced together by him and re-erected. The Torana Gateway
will be alluded to farther on, in speaking of the Great Stiipa at Sanchi.

There is no regular worship carried on in this temple ; pious
pilgrims who visit it from Burma, Ceylon, — on more rare occasions
from Japan, Tibet and other Buddhist countries — use their own forms
of devotion, in their own languages, before the figures of Buddha
erected within.

But this is not the first temple which was erected on this spot,

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 67

Originally, and not long after — perhaps within — the lifetime of
Buddha, Prasenadjit, King of Kosala, had a wall or wooden fence
erected around the spot, enclosing the stone seat — known then, or
later, as the Vajrasan — on which the Buddha sat in contemplation,
and the famed Bodhi-Tree which overshadowed it. A century and a
half later Asoka erected a shrine around the Tree and Stone, and
surrounded the whole with the famous sculptured sbone railing, part
of which has survived to the present day. We know the form of this
shrine of Asoka ; for representations of it have been preserved in the
sculptures of Barahat and Sanchi. Of the latter I hope to show you
a view later on. The later temple, first erected, probably, in the
second century, A.IX, was much larger. It underwent many vicissitudes
in the course of centuries, its latest restoration having been effected
by faithful Burmese and the care of the Archaeological Department
of the British Indian Government.

On the erection of the larger temple the old stone railing of
Asoka was removed from its place around the site of Asoka's shrine,
—which was included within the limits of the newer temple, — and
was erected around the latter. This stone railing has itself seen
vicissitudes ; most of it was removed to serve as building material or
otherwise, but portions of it have been recovered and replaced around
the restored temple. Here is a view of one of the principal portions
which remain (Plate IX., Fig. 1). Note the forms of the railing —
evidently reproductions in stone of forms originally executed in
wood, — the rosettes and medallions, and a figure of a Yakshini, or
female Yaksha, a species of ogre, on the nearest upright. This railing
and some remains of pillars are, it is understood, those of the most
ancient specimens of Indian art.

When the larger temple was built the topmost stone of the
Buddha seat, the Vajrasan, was removed outside the temple, and
erected on a new platform at the west end. The Bodhi-Tree also—
a pipal or Ficus Religiosa — was planted outside, by the Vajrasan.
Here is a representation of it (Plate IX., Fig. 2). The figures
underneath it are those of a Ceylonese monk and his acolyte, who

68 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

kindly posed for my purpose. They were the only Buddhist ecclesias-
tics about the place.

You will sometimes see, in popular magazines, this Bo-Tree referred to as the
identical tree under which the Buddha sat, some centuries before the Christian era.
This is pure imagination. We know that the Bo-Tree was several times cut down. On
one occasion a hostile Eaja cut it down, dug up the roots, and burnt it with fire. In
1880, General Cunningham, digging near the site of the original Vajrasan, " found two
large pieces of an old pipal tree," which, for reasons assigned, he conjectured may have
been part of this pipal. He, further, was of opinion that fifteen or even twenty trees
may have intervened in succession between the original tree and the present one. The
tree which immediately preceded this latter had completely decayed and fallen, by the
year 1876 ; but, he says, new scions of the parent tree were already in existence to take
its place. An authority on the subject says the pipal is a comparatively fast-growing
tree ; but, under favourable circumstances, may last for several hundred years. The
Bo-Tree at Anuriidhapura, in Ceylon, which was brought as a sapling from the Old
Pipal at Bodh-Gaya, in the third century, B.C., is said (Emerson Tennant's Ceylon) to
be the oldest, or nearly the oldest, tree in the world historically known.

Sarnath, we have seen, was the place, known as the Deer Park,
where Buddha preached. It was part of the Banares of those days.
Now it consists of heaps of mere ruins. One large stupa you pass as
you near the spot. Of the two which stood near the monasteries one
has fallen ; the other is standing. It is built of brick faced with
stone. The spot is visited by pilgrims from Ceylon, Burma and other
Buddhist countries. When I was at Banares the Tashi Lama of
Tibet arrived there and went out to visit Sarnath. The ruins of the
monasteries begin from perhaps a hundred yards from this stupa. It
is evident that, during centuries, monastic buildings had decayed and
fallen into ruin, and others had been built on the top of those ruins.
I noticed that, where recent excavations had been going on, a piece
of Buddhistic railing had been exposed. A Lion Pillar, beautifully
polished, had recently been dug up. It had, as such pillars usually
have, three lions on the top, which had supported, no doubt, the
emblem of the Wheel on their shoulders ; and, around the base of the
capital, the figures of a horse, an elephant, a bull and a lion, with a
Wheel between each figure.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OP ABERDEEN. 69

Near the ruins the Archaeological Department has instituted a
museum for the preservation of articles discovered. I got the figure
of a Buddha in the attitude of teaching (Plate IX., Fig. 3). We
know that lie is teaching from the attitude, and from the represen-
tation of the Wheel, under the seat. Note the figures in adoration
on each side of the Wheel.

The Wheel is well known to bear the symbolical meaning of the
" Law " —the law, that is, as understood by the Buddhist — Dharma—
the moral principle by which the universe and the beings in it
persist, — Righteousness. Professor Rhys Davids has pointed out an
explanation of this symbol which is natural and simple. In the early
days in India it was the custom for a prince, on succeeding to the
throne, to drive out in his chariot towards each of the four Cardinal
Points a certain distance, symbolical of driving unopposed in every
direction throughout his dominions. From this the term Chakravartti
Raja, or King who causes his chariot-wheel to revolve, came to be
applied to the Universal Monarch, or Emperor. The Buddha was the
Spiritual Prince exercising universal sway in the world of religious faith.

The first occasion on which he is represented as causing his chariot-wheel to revolve
is when, at Banares, he commenced the teaching of his system. This is expressed in a
Pali Sutra thus : — " The royal chariot-wheel of the Truth set rolling onwards by the
Blessed One. . . . The Supreme Wheel of the Empire of the Truth . . . that
Wheel which not by any Brahma or Milra [the Wicked One] nor by any one in the
Universe can ever be turned back." The use of the Wheel is not limited to the
Buddhists. In India the Jains also have it ; and with the Brahmans it represented the
" undisputed reign of the Sacred Law," as they understood this expression. Without
doubt the Wheel symbol was Brahmanic before it was Buddhist. The Wheel has also
other uses among the Buddhists themselves, — witness what are commonly, but not very
correctly, known as the "Praying Wheels" of Tibet, and the wheels, occasionally seen
by the wayside, or near Buddhist temples in Japan, which the faithful turn in lieu of
repeating the formulas written on them. Nay ! the symbol is farther travelled still ; in
Miss Harrison's Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion there is a reference to
the use of wheels in Egyptian sanctuaries, a use which may be compared with that of the
Buddhist Wheels last referred to ; and from Egypt the use of such wheels would appear
to have passed to Orphic sanctuaries of the Greeks. It would be of interest to determine
if there was a connection between the Brahmanic-Buddhist Wheel and the Egypto-Greek.

70 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

To return to the figure (Plate IX., Fig. 3), — above it, at the
corners of the slab, are what I take to be Devas bringing garlands.
Two winged animals appear, one on either side, beneath. Around the
head of the figure there is a nimbus or halo ; but the ornamentation
around the outer portion of this is unusual. In the Buddhistic sculp-
tures found in the North- West of India the representation of the nimbus,
or halo, is extremely common. That it comes from the later Greek
sculptors is undoubted. Subsequent to the time of Alexander the Great
it was customary to represent the heads of the Olympian Deities as
surrounded by a nimbus or halo. The sculptors of the Greek school
in India gave this ornamentation to the figures of Buddha, who had,
by that time, practically become a God. The pictorial and glyptic
representations of Buddha travelled northwards and eastwards with
Buddhism. In earlier days I have often wondered at the figures of
Buddha in Japan, with the nimbus or halo around the head, and how
this resemblance to figures of the Saviour and the Christian saints
had come about. There can be no doubt whence the resemblance has
come ; both classes of figures are, in this respect, ultimately derived
from the later representations of the Olympian Deities.

In view of some things which we thus see in the ornamentation
of these remains, and shall see in the Sanchi sculptures, it may be
noted here that Greek and Greek-taught artists and artisans were
to be found in India after the days of Alexander, and that intercourse
with the West was maintained. Megasthenes was the Ambassador
of Sciences Nikator at the Court of Pataliputra, and a daughter of this
Macedonian King of Syria was married to the Emperor of India. In
the subsequent reign also a Greek Ambassador was received at this
Court. In the North- West of India kingdoms dominated by Greeks
existed for centuries after that. The special field of what has been
called the Greco-Buddhist remains is in the North- West of India,
which we do not touch.

Before leaving the Sarnath sculptures and ruins, I ought to
mention that General Cunningham assigns them to, say, between 150
and 600 A.D. ; but Fergusson brings down the decorations of the

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 71

Stupa as having been discontinued so late as the tenth or eleventh
century.

The great Stupa at Sanchi is composed of earth and stone, and dates
probably from the time of Asoka. The railing followed soon after,
if not in his time ; and the South Gateway, according to Griinwedel,
about 150 B.C. The other gateways came later. There were originally
three stupas in this locality, two of which remain, as restored, and the
ruins of a third. As late as 1820 they were all three entire.

Fig. 6, Plate X., represents the front of the left-hand pillar of the
Eastern Gateway ; and a slight idea may be gained of the structure of
the stupa from the portion of it which is shown behind this pillar.
The upper central panel shows a representation, to which I have
already alluded, of the Asoka Shrine erected at Bodh-Gaya. The
Sacred Tree is represented as emerging from the centre of this shrine,
and underneath it is the Vajrasan, like a relic casket, on which is
inscribed the symbol of the Trisula and Disc. Above the tree are
DSvas bringing garlands. On the panel immediately below is a
representation of one of the legends of Kasyapa of Uruvilva. This
Brahman was well affected towards the teaching of Buddha, but had
not yet become a convert. The river being in flood, the Buddha gave
an exhibition of the wondrous powers which he had attained, by
suddenly disappearing from where he stood and appearing on the
other bank. Kasyapa followed him in a boat, as shown in the
sculpture. It is notable that never in these older sculptures is the
person of the Buddha represented ; it is left to be implied. The
spirited representation of the water-fowl, the crocodile's head
emerging from the water, the lotuses, the ancient form of boat and
the divers foliage of the half-submerged trees represented are worthy
of note.

Fig. 5, Plate X., shows the rear of the Eastern Gateway. On the
first crossbeam, remark, on the one side, the figures of a man and a
woman riding on goats ; on the other, on a goat and elephant ; also,
elephants bringing flowers to a stupa. On the second crossbeam, on the

72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

one side, a man and woman on dromedaries, on the other, on horses ;
along the crossbeam are animals adoring the Sacred Tree, among which
are well-depicted Indian buffaloes, and uncouth animals, no doubt
meant for foreign ; the five-hooded snake also appears. The volutes at
the extreme ends of the crossbeams are probably derived from snake
forms. This is more obvious in the case of the gateway of the ruined
stupa. On the third crossbeam are figures on horned lions, one
holding a cluster of grapes, indicating their foreign character. Can
there have been here in the mind of the sculptor a reminiscence of
the Legend of Dionysos, the lions taking the place of the tigers of the
Greek sculptors ?

On the top, on one side, is shown the symbol of the Trisiila and
Disc ; no doubt the same emblem was shown, when the gateway was
complete, in the corresponding place on the other side. The figure
riding on one of the elephant supporters under the lower cross-
beam carries a standard having the same emblem on the end of the
pole.

The Trisula existed as a symbol before it became, along with
the Disc, an emblem of authority in Buddhism. It is, in the Hindu
system, the Trident of Siva, the Destroyer. But what is it, — this
Trident ? It is nothing else but the forked lightning of Heaven.
The development is not a difficult one to follow, and is sufficiently
established. But it seems an open question whether, as Griinwedel
puts it, "the thunderbolt as an attribute of the Gods was introduced
by Greek influence, or whether the gleaming sheaf of lightning-flashes
of the Babylonian- Assyrian Gods should be considered as the model ".
Whichever way this may be, we identify it with the Thunderbolt
of Jupiter and the Trident of Neptune. It is always represented in
these sculptures along with the Disc. But the Disc itself, — originally,
according to the legend, formed from the Sun, — was a thunderbolt ;
and the Trisula and Disc became thus a duplicated emblem, having a
similar meaning. In these sculptures the Disc is conventionalised
into the Lotus, pre-eminently the flower of Buddhism.

The consideration of the Trisula is bound up with that of another

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 73

symbol, the Vajra, or double Thunderbolt. This is represented on the
front of the Eastern Gateway at Sanchi, and is there held in the right
hand by personages whom Griinwedel takes to be Deities of the
Indian Pantheon. The God Sakra, in Buddhistic sculptures found in
the North-West of India, is constantly represented as holding this
symbol in his hand ; and it was used we know by the Princes of
India as a symbol of authority. It came to be adopted by the Bud-
dhist priesthood ; and, in Tibet, in the hands of the Lamas it is the
symbol of their authority. There it is known as the Dorje. With
Buddhism it travelled still farther North, and is not unfrequently seen
in Japan. This symbol must have been known in India, within the
Buddhist system, in the days of Asoka ; for on the original Vajrasan,
—the Diamond or Thunderbolt seat, — which was within the Asoka
Shrine at Bodh-Gaya, the Vajra was represented on the ornamenta-
tion, within the Lotus circle.

Fig. 7, Plate X., shows the inner side of the right-hand pillar of
the Eastern Gateway, and, in the distance, the gateway of the ruined
stupa. The top panel, shown here only partially, represents the
adoration of the Tree. Immediately below is depicted the legend of
the Dream of the Lady Maya, — the White Elephant, emblem of
Wisdom, entering her womb. The large panel below represents
a royal procession, — probably that of King Asoka himself leaving
the gate of a city, and proceeding to worship at the Sacred
Tree. The musicians in front of the royal chariot, and the ladies
looking down on the procession from the balconies, are worthy of
note.

We have seen the Tree constantly appearing in these sculptures.
We now know that this Tree is not a mere tree, but the symbol of
the Sage who sat under the tree. There is a Tree-worship, — a
dread or veneration of the Tree, or Spirit which resides in the tree.
And that this veneration for trees had nothing to do with the
assignation to each of the Buddhas of the past a particular tree,
as the Pipal is assigned to Gotama Buddha, it would be somewhat

hard to say. But the veneration of the Buddhist Tree is far re-

10

74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

moved from the point of view of the early man, who saw a Dryad
in every tree.1

We have seen at the Mahabodhi Temple, and more extensively
in these Gateways at Sanchi, specimens of what is known as the
Torana Gateway. Now, this form of gateway is not peculiar to
India. In Japan, and elsewhere, there is a form of gateway which
irresistibly reminds us of the Indian one. Conjectures have been
made as to how the Indian Torana may be connected with the
Japanese Torii, the gateway seen in Japan before Shinto shrines.
There is a theory that the Toriina gateway belongs to a form of
primitive architecture common to Mongolian races, among which are
to be included a race which existed in India before, and alongside of, the
Aryans. Fergusson called them (provisionally) Dasyus ; and suggested
that the Buddhist rail and stupa are developments from the form of
the tomb of a Dasyu chief. Mr. Samuel Tuke, in an interesting
paper read before the Japan Society a few years ago, has put together
some interesting information on the subject of such gateways and
railings, congeners of which are to be seen in Siam, Camboja, China
and Korea.

Fig. 8, Plate X., represents part of the railing of the smaller stupa. -

The rock-cut Temple of Karli lies about eighty-five miles by rail

from Bombay, on the way to Poona. Fig. 4, Plate IX., represents the

interior of the temple. The stupa at the far end was the object of

adoration. The wooden ribs of the roof are believed to be the original

1 In one of my old note-books I find an entry which I had made referring to a
painting of a Tree, at Horyiiji, the oldest Buddhist monastery in Japan. This Tree is in
the centre of the picture ; and surrounding it are figures of the Shi-Tenno, as they are
called, — the Four Celestial Kings, Guardians of the Four Quarters of the Universe, — the
Chatur Mahfu-aja ; and on the Tree are seven clusters, which looked as if they might be
garlands. I did not know then what the Tree was ; but, no doubt, it is the same Tree
as that of which we are now speaking, and represents the Buddha.

2 The figure of a centaur, holding in his hand a garland and having on his back what
seems to be a kingly form, is worthy of notice. On the other upright are two figures,
apparently duplicates, standing on the lotus, and holding a lotus bud in the hand. Can
they represent Avalokitesvara as Padmapani, the Lotus-bearer ?

PROC. ABERD. UNIV. ANAT. AXD ANTHROP. Soc., 1906-1908— PLATE IX.

i 1 Fig. 1. — Asoka's Railing at the Mahabodhi Temple,
Bodh-Gaya.

Fig. 2.— The Bo-Tree, Mahabodhi Temple,
Bodh-Gaya.

Fig. 3.— Figure of Buddha from Excavations
at Sarnath.

Fig. 4. — Interior of Rock-cut Temple at
Karti.

PROC. ABERD. UMV. ANAT. AND ANTHROP. Soc., 1906-1908— PLATE X.

WiWlMM

Fig. 5.— Rear view of East Gateway of Great Stupa
at Sanchi.

Fig. 6. — Front view of Left-hand Pillar of East
Gateway of Great Stupa at Sanchi.

Fig. 7. — Side view of Right-hand Pillar of East
Gateway of Great Stupa at Sanchi.

Fig. 8.— Part of Railing of Smaller Stupa
at Sanchi.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OP ABERDEEN. 75

material. The stone work is the rock of the mountain in which this
temple is hewn out. It dates from about the second century, A.D.
The worship in such a temple included the circumambulation of the
stupa ; the Path of circumambulation was called the Pradakshina, as
in this ceremony the stupa was kept on the right hand of the wor-
shipper, who passed round it by means of the aisles behind the pillars.
Stupas had originally, and still have, generally, one " umbrella "
over the top, the symbol of honour, as rendered to the Prince. In
some instances, however, the number of umbrellas over the stupa is
increased to three, and to five ; and, when these are represented in
stone, they are, as the material would tend to bring about, combined
together. They are often further increased in number, until we
have a stupa of many tiers. Constructed in wood again, as it was
when it travelled to China, Japan and elsewhere, the stupa has taken
the form of what we know as the " Chinese Pagoda "-1

1 The exigencies of reproduction have necessitated the limitation of the number of
illustrations to eight out of the forty-five shown at the meeting. Among the books
which may be consulted by those interested in the subjects treated of may be named : —
Fergusson's Tree and Serpent Worship, Cunningham's Mahdbodhi, Griinwedel's (enlarged
by Burgess) Buddhist Art in India, Goblet d'Alviella's La Migration des Symboles and
Ce qice I'Inde doit a la Grece, W. Simpson's Buddhist Praying Wlieel and Ehys
Davids' Buddhist India.

76 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

ORDINARY MEETING.
HTH DECEMBER, 1907.

Professor R. W. REID, M.D., F.R.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

•

The minutes of last meeting were read and approved.

Anatomical variations were described and discussed by Messrs. C.
dyne, W. C. Milne, R. R. M. Porter, J. Ritchie, W. G. Thomson and
W. M. Tough.

Mr. N. J. Calder, M.A., gave a description of an imbecile's brain
which was presented to the Anatomical Museum by W. Sim Garden,
M.B., Menston, Leeds. Thereafter Professor Reid compared this
brain with that of a congenital idiot who had not been possessed of
any reasoning power or of any of the finer intellectual faculties.
This brain is described and figured in the Proceedings of the Society
for 1900-2.

EECOED OF ANATOMICAL VABIATIONS.

Date of observation, November, 1907.
Sex, Male.

Lateral branch from the internal mammary artery (right).

This branch, which is of a large size, is given off an inch from the
origin of the internal mammary artery. The pleura is behind it and
it is close up to the first rib. It passes downwards and outwards
across the first and second and part of the third intercostal spaces
about an inch to the outside of the costal cartilages. It anastomoses
with the intercostal arteries in the spaces over which it passes. Ac-

SOCIETY OP THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 77

companying the artery are two veins, one on each side, which remain
separate throughout.

(Signature of observer) CHARLES CLYNE.

Date of observation, December, 1907.
Sex, Male.

Abnormal course of median nerve (left).

The nerve runs as usual along the outer side of the brachial artery
but instead of crossing in front of the artery at the middle of its
course, it crosses behind the artery just where it divides into radial
and ulnar. From this point the course of the nerve is quite normal.

(Signature of observer) WM. C. MILNE.

Date of observation, December, 1907.
Sex, Male.

Abnormal arrangement of branches of brachial artery (left).
The anastomotica magna instead of arising from the brachial two
inches above the elbow-joint arises at least four inches and at the same
place from which the inferior profunda also takes origin. The anasto-
motica gives off muscular branches to the biceps and brachialis anticus
and divides just above the external condyle into two branches, the
outer of which anastomoses with the radial recurrent and the inner
supplies the front of elbow-joint.

(Signature of observer) WM. C. MILNE.

Date of observation, November, 1907.
Sex, Male.

Axillary arch (right).

On opening the axillary cavity a muscular axillary arch is seen
crossing superficial to the sheath containing the brachial artery and
the branches of the brachial pleuxus. This slip consists of fine fibres,
and has a muscular origin from the anterior surface of the tendon of
the latissimus dorsi muscle, and is inserted by a few tendinous fibres
into the aponeurosis covering the upper- part of the coraco-brachialis.

78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

The slip is 2£ inches long and f of an inch broad at its origin and
tapers to its insertion. It is flattened against the sheath of the vessels
and nerves, which lie external to it. Its upper border is about an
inch below the posterior circumflex and subscapular arteries. Its
inferior border is the same distance above the floor of the axilla. This
arch occurs in about seven subjects in 100, and is often inserted into
the pectoralis major or the fascia over the biceps.

(Signature of observer) K. R M. PORTER.

Date of observation, December, 1907.
Sex, Female.

Liver with Riedel's lobe.

The right lobe of this liver is enlarged in its vertical extent,
measuring 8 inches in this direction. On the anterior surface of this
lobe there is a deep transverse groove about f of an inch above the
level of fundus of gall bladder.

(Signature of observer) J. RITCHIE.

Date of observation, November, 1907.
Sex, Male.

Abnormal arrangement of arteries of arm and forearm (left).

The ulnar artery originates about two inches below the commence-
ment of the brachial artery. It is in close relation with the brachial
artery, being separated from it only by the ulnar nerve. At the elbow
it crosses the brachial artery and becomes closely attached to the flexor
carpi radialis which had to be slightly cut to expose the artery. For
the rest of its course it is superficial to the flexor group of muscles
after emerging from the fibres of the flexor carpi radialis, passing
downwards and inwards to come into close relation with the ulnar
nerve at the pisiform bone. At its origin it is quite a quarter of an
inch in diameter and its upper part gives muscular branches to the
biceps and to the flexor carpi radialis. Its lower part gives off no
branches.

In this forearm, too, the brachial artery at about an inch below

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 79

the elbow-joint divides into radial artery and a larger continuation,
which in turn gives off anterior and posterior interosseous and con-
tinues as an artery in close relation with the median nerve.

(Signature of observer) W. G. THOMSON.

Date of observation, November, 1907.
Sex, Male.

Unusual connection between the flexor longus digitorum and flexor longus

hallucis (left).

In this case the flexor longus digitorum, in addition to receiving
a tendinous slip from the flexor longus hallucis, sends a strong tendin-
ous slip to join the tendon of the flexor longus hallucis.

(Signature of observer) W. MILNE TOUGH.

80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

NOTES ON THE BEAIN OF AN IMBECILE.
By N. J. CALDER, M.A., Secretary.

To the naked eye, this brain presents an appearance very similar
to that of an ordinary adult brain. It is small, but the convolutions
are well marked and the fissures are in their usual positions. The
parietal lobe perhaps shows slight divergence where the sulci are
extremely numerous, and -the convolutions very closely packed
together. The opercula are well developed.

The weight of the brain is only 32-8 ounces. The individual
was about fifty years of age, and the brain of a person of this age
weighs usually about 49'5 ounces. The significance of the weight of
the brain depends upon the proportion it bears to the dimensions of
the body. In this relation, it is interesting to compare the weights of
the various organs of this individual with those of a boy, seven years
of age, who was about the same height.

Imbecile. Healthy Boy. Average Adult.

Height - - 39 inches 37 inches

Brain - - 32~8 ounces 40'23 ounces 49-5 ounces.

Heart - - - 4-5 2-7 11

Liver - - 29'4

Spleen - 7

Kidneys - - 4-55

Eight Lung - - 1O5

Left Lung - - 9'8

19-13 „ 55

1-85 „ 7

4-05 „ 10

— 22

— 20

From these figures it will be seen that he has a small brain
compared with his other organs. The weight of the brain of the boy
is larger, whereas the weights of the other organs are smaller.

For this brain the Society is deeply indebted to W. Sim Garden,
M.B., Menston, Leeds, who presented it to the Anatomical Museum.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 81

ORDINARY MEETING.
18TH JANUARY, 1908.

Professor R. W. REID, M.D., F.R.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

The minutes of last meeting were read and approved.

The President introduced W. R. Macdonell, Esq., LL.D., Uni-
versity Lecturer on Statistical Methods, who gave an address " On
Certain Physical Characters of Aberdeen Medical Students ".

The material on which the paper was based was placed at the
lecturer's disposal by Professor Reid, and consisted of measurements
and observations taken in the Anthropometrical Laboratory during
the last twelve years.

On the motion of the Secretary, a hearty vote of thanks was
accorded to Dr. Macdonell for his address.

11

82 ^PROCEEDINGS OP THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

ON CEETAIN PHYSICAL CHAEACTEES OF ABEEDEEN
MEDICAL STUDENTS.

By W. E. MACDONELL, LL.D., University Lecturer on Statistical Methods.
(Bead 18th January, 1908.)

I. — MATERIAL AND METHODS OF OBSERVATION AND MEASUREMENT.

1. The material on which the following paper is based was very
kindly placed at my disposal by Professor Reid, and consists of
measurements and observations taken in his Anthropometrical
Laboratory during the last twelve years. It has been his custom to
measure all the students who attend the Anatomy Class at the be-
ginning of their course, and he has also measured many of them towards
the end of their course, that is, after an interval of about four years. As
these measurements have been made by the Professor himself or his
trained assistants, their accuracy can be accepted with confidence.

2. The characters recorded are forty-one in number, but to treat
them all mathematically would have required a very long time and
delayed the appearance of this paper indefinitely. I have, therefore,
made a selection of characters that are important in themselves, or
have been dealt with in other groups of the population by previous
investigators, so that they offer material for interesting comparisons.
Those that I have chosen are :—

(1) Head Circumference, the largest horizontal circumference

measured with the steel tape over the glabella.

(2) Head Length, from the glabella to the most distant point in

the median plane.

(3) Head Breadth, the greatest transversal diameter.

(4) Head Height, from the auricular point (the depression just in

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 83

front of tragus of pinna) to a plane touching the highest part
of the middle line of the head in the horizontal position.
Characters (2) (3) and (4) were measured with Flower's callipers.
No special allowance was made for the hair in taking the cranial
circumference, but in taking the other three measurements the points
of the callipers were passed between the hairs.

(5) Height Standing, less heels of boots.

(6) Height Sitting.

(5) and (6) were measured with a stadiometer made by Ashton
and Mander, London.

(7) Span of arms from opposite finger-tips (behind the chest), as

measured with a special instrument made by the same firm.

(8) Colour of Hair, five classes : Black, Dark, Brown, Fair, Red.

No special standard test colours were used.

(9) Colour of Eyes, three classes : Dark, Medium, Light, as tested

by Gallon's standard colours for eyes, made by Groves, London.

(10) Size of Right Pupil, measured by pupillometer on the ophthal-

moscope.

(11) Colour Sense, as ascertained by Jeaffreson's colour circle and

Holmgren's wools for refinements.

(12) Keenness of Hearing.

(11) and (12) call for no elaborate discussion.

II. — DIVISION OF STUDENTS INTO Two GROUPS.

3. I have divided the total collection of students into two groups :
the first group contains 493 individuals whose parents were both
Scottish, the second group contains 93 men who have only one parent
Scottish or one or both parents English, Welsh or Irish, and I shall
call these the Scottish and the non-Scottish groups respectively. I
have excluded foreigners and women students, of whom there were 45.

3a. It is worth noting that about 75 per cent, of the Scottish
group belong to the four adjoining counties of Kincardine, Aberdeen,
Banff and Moray, in the sense that at least one parent of each member
of the group was born in one or other of these counties, but, as we

84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

should expect, the great majority of the group belong to Aberdeenshire
and Banffshire. The birthplaces of both parents of 467 students are
recorded, and the result is shown in the following table :—

TABLE I.
BIRTHPLACES OP PAEENTS OF SCOTTISH STUDENTS.

Fathers.

Aberdeenshire.

Banffshire.

Best of Scotland.

Total.

f Aberdeenshire

188

19

30

237

X

0

1=1 *\

Banffshire

25

40

7

72

o

i

,Best of Scotland

43

12

103

158

256

71

140

467

Thus we see that, of 256 Aberdeenshire fathers, 188 married
natives of their own county, 25 married natives of Banffshire and
43 married natives of the other Scottish counties. Obviously there
is a large preponderance of intra-county unions in Aberdeen and
Banff, as we should have expected.

III. — THE Two GROUPS COMPARED.

4. Aye. — The average age of the Scottish group at the beginning
of their course is 19 fs years ; of the non-Scottish group 19i7^ years.

5. Head Measurements. — The means are as follows :—

TABLE II.
MEANS OF HEAD MEASUEEMENTS OF ABEEDEEN STUDENTS, IN MM.1

Length.

Breadth.

Height.

Circumference.

100 B/L.

Scottish
Non-Scottish

194-8 ± -174
194-2 ± -421

153-4 ± -143
153-1 ± -383

132-3 ± -217
133-2 ± -475

562-6 ± -430
562-2 ±1-009

78-8 ± -085
78-9 ± -227

'The figures with the symbol ± prefixed represent the "probable errors " of the
various characters.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABEKDEEN.

85

It will be observed that there is practically no difference between
the groups.

6. Eye and Body Measurement* are seen in the next table :—

TABLE III.

MEANS OF EYE AND BODY MEASUEEMENTS OF ABEEDEEN STUDENTS.
(Pupil in mm., heights and span in inches.)

Pupil.

Height Standing.

Height Sitting.

Span.

Scottish

6-9 ± -045

67-6 ± -071

35-5 ± -042

68-7 ± -086

Non-Scottish

6-5 ± -097

67-9 ± -173

35-6 ± -105

691 ± '185

Here again there is practically no difference between the groups.
7. I will now give tables showing the distribution of Eye and
Hair Colour.

TABLE IV.

DISTEIBUTION OF EYE COLOUE IN ABEEDEEN STUDENTS.
(Percentage of total in each group.)

Light.

Medium.

Dark.

Scottish

26-4

49'4

24-2

Non-Scottish

23-9

50-0

26-1

The groups are again remarkably alike.

TABLE V.

DISTRIBUTION OF HAIE COLOUE IN ABEEDEEN STUDENTS.
(Percentage of total in each group.)

Bed.

Fair.

Medium.

Dark.

Black.

Scottish

4-8

26-4

47-2

20:6

1

Non-Scottish

2-2

36-95

36-95

23-9

•o

86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

Here we observe a slight difference — the non-Scottish have a
preponderance of " Fair " and a falling off' in " Medium ".

8. Only two characters remain to be considered, Colour Sense
and Keenness of Hearing. As regards colour sense, thirteen cases of
abnormality have been recorded amongst the Scottish students, and only
one amongst the non-Scottish. In neither group is any abnormality
recorded in keenness of hearing.

9. I will now show the variability of the two groups as measured
by the " standard deviation ".

TABLE VI.

STANDAED DEVIATION OF HEAD MEASUEEMENTS OF ABERDEEN

STUDENTS IN MM.

Head Length.

Head Breadth.

Head Height.

Circumference.

100 B/L.

Scottish
Non- Scottish

5-73 ± -123
6-01 ± '298

4-69 ± -101
5-47 ± -271

7-08 ± -153
6-75 ± -336

14-08 ± '304:
14-43 ± -714

2-79 ± -060

3-24 ± -160

.

TABLE VII.

STANDAED DEVIATION OF EYE AND BODY MEASUEEMENTS OF
ABEEDEEN STUDENTS.

(Eye in mm., heights and span in inches.)

Pupil.

Height Standing.

Height Sitting.

Span.

Scottish

1-44 ± -032

2-34 ± -050

1-38 ± -030

2-80 ± -061

Non-Scottish

1-33 ± -068

2-48 ± -123

1-48 ± -074

2-64 ± -131

Here we are dealing with much smaller quantities than in the
case of the Means, and the differences are therefore relatively much
larger. We have therefore to consider the question, do these differ-
ences indicate a marked divergence between the two groups as regards
their variability ? Before answering this question, I would remind

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABEEDEEN. 87

you that the number of individuals in the first group is about 500, in
the second group only about 100 ; the results for the first group are
therefore likely to be nearer the true magnitudes for the total popula-
tion from which it is drawn than the results for the second group.
The one set of results has more weight, so to speak, than the other ;
how to allow for that, and how to make an accurate comparison
between the two sets is the province of the theory of "probable
errors," a somewhat advanced part of the Theory of Probabilities,
with which I will not trouble you. But I may say that on applying
this theory to the figures of Tables VI. and VII. I find that the
differences therein shown are not significant, that is, they do not
show any very appreciable divergence between the two groups as
regards Variability.

10. I now come to the subject of cam-elation. I have not at-
tempted to calculate all the possible coefficients of correlation, but
have confined myself to one in each group ; that, however, is an
important one, the coefficient of correlation between head length and
head breadth. It is as follows : —

Scottish • - -3059 + -0275

Non-Scottish - -2446 + -0658

Here again I find that the difference between the two groups is
insignificant.

11. The general conclusion which I think the foregoing facts
establish is that, as regards the characters which I have selected, the
two groups are practically identical.

IV. — THE Two GROUPS COMPARED WITH OTHER CLASSES OF

THE POPULATION.

12. I now come to the next part of my paper, in which I propose
to compare Aberdeen students with similar classes of the community,
and also with classes very different indeed,

88 PROCEEDINGS OF IHE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

TABLE VIII.

COMPARISON BETWEEN ABEEDEEN STUDENTS AND OTHER CLASSES

(MALES).
Means of Characters.

Groups.

Head Length.

Head Breadth.

Cephalic Index.

Stature.

All Aberdeen Students

194-7

153-3

78-8

67-64

Aberdeenshire, Rural1

193-9

153-4

[79-1]

67-72

Cambridge Graduates'2

194-0

154-2

79-6

—

Cambridge Students3

193-5

153-9

79-6

68-86

1

Scottish Criminals l -

196-3

153-1

78-0

64-84

English Criminals * -

191-7

150-4

78-5

65-54

Scottish Insane1

195-5

151-5

77-6

65-86

Here you will notice the marked similarity between the four
higher classes as regards head measurements, and the taller stature of
Cambridge men. But when we look to the criminal and insane
classes, we find striking differences between them and the others.
The most marked difference is in stature, and it is very striking, the
criminals and insane being two to four inches shorter than the students
and the rural population of Aberdeenshire. In head breadth, too,
the English criminals and Scottish insane are considerably below the
other classes; so are the English criminals in head length, but the
curious fact is brought out that both in head length and head
breadth the Scottish criminals are very much the same as the other
classes ; indeed they and the Scottish insane have the longest heads of
all. The most distinguishing character between the higher and the
lower type is stature.

1 Biometrika, vol. v., pp. 344, 346-47, Tocher.

2 Ibid., vol. v., p. 124, Pearson.

3 Ibid., vol. i., pp. 188, 190, Macdonell, and The Chances of Death, etc., vol. i.,
p. 351, Pearson.

*Ibid., vol. i., pp. 181, 190, Macdonell,

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN.

89

13. I will now exhibit two tables showing the comparative distri-
bution of Eye and Hair Colour.

TABLE IX.
COMPARATIVE DISTRIBUTION OP EYE COLOUR.

(Percentages of total of each group.)

Groups.

Light.

Medium.

Dark.

Scottish Students (Abei-deen)

26-38

49-40

24-22

Non-Scottish Students ( ,, )

23-91

50-00

26-09

Scottish Schoolboys1 -

44-97

32-72

22-31

British Schoolboys2

38-40

40-30

21-30

General Scottish Insane
(Males) 3 -

44-94

32-63

22-43

Aberdeen students are unlike the other groups, while Scottish and
British schoolboys closely approximate to each other.

TABLE X.

COMPARATIVE DISTRIBUTION OF HAIR COLOUR.
(Percentages of total of each group.)

Groups.

Red.

Fair.

Medium.

Dark.

Black.

Scottish Students (Aberdeen)-

4-79

26-38

47-24

20-63

•96

Non-Scottish Students (Aberdeen) -

2-17

36-96

36-96

23-91

•00

Scottish Schoolboys l

5-49

24-95

43-28

25-01

1-25

British Schoolboys 2

3-70

35-00

32-80

28-50

—

General Scottish Insane (Males) 3 -

1-56

6-49

59-55

32-40

—

1 From an important paper by Mr. J. F. Tocher, on " A Pigmentation Survey of
School Children in Scotland," to be published in an early number of Biometrika.

2 Biometrika, vol. iii., p. 461, Pearson, where interesting returns for other races
will be found.

3 }.bid., vol. v., Supplement, p. 96, Tocher.

12

90

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

The distribution of hair colour amongst Scottish students is
about the same as that amongst Scottish schoolboys, and non-Scottish
students and British schoolboys are also similar, the medium type
prevailing amongst the two former groups, the fair and medium in
equal proportions amongst the latter two, while the percentage of
dark is fairly uniform in all, riz., about "four. The great preponder-
ance of the medium and dark types amongst male Scottish insane is
very striking.

14. I have next to make a comparison of Variabilities.

TABLE XI.

COMPAKISON BETWEEN ABEEDEEN STUDENTS AND OTHER CLASSES.

Standard Deviations.

Classes.

Head Length,
mm.

Head Breadth,
mm.

Head Height,
mm.

Stature,
ins.

Scottish Students

5-73

4-69

7-08

2-34

Non-Scottish Students " -

6-01

5-47

6-75

2-48

Cambridge Students1

6-16

5-06

—

2-54

English Criminals 2 -

6-05

5-01

—

2-54

Scottish Insane (Males) 3 -

6-55

5-39

5-58

2-84

Here we find a general similarity in all the characters except in
Auricular Height, for which the insane are the least variable.

15. We have now to see how our correlation coefficients compare
with those of other classes.

1 Biometrika, vol. i., p. 188, Macdonell.

2 Ibid., p. 181, Macdonell.

3 Ibid., vol. v., p. 303, Tocher.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY Of ABERDEEN.

91

TABLE XII.

CO-EFFICIENTS OF CORRELATION BETWEEN HEAD LENGTH AND

HEAD BREADTH.

Scottish Students (Aberdeen)
Non-Scottish Students (Aberdeen)
Cambridge Students -

•3059 ± -027
•2446 ± -066
•3448 + -019

This Memoir.
This Memoir.
Biometnka, vol. i., p. 188.

English Criminals (Males) -
Scottish Insane (Males)

•4016 ± -010

•4848 ± -008

Biometrika, vol. i., p. 181.
Ibid., vol. v., p. 314.

Correlation is distinctly greater in the abnormal classes than in
the other two.

I may insert here the coefficient of correlation between Span
and Stature of our Scottish students ; it is '8442 ± -009, a very high
value, confirming the common belief as to the relation of span to
height. Dealing with much larger groups than mine, Professor
Pearson found this coefficient of correlation to run from 783 to
•828.1

TABLE XIII.

CORRELATION BETWEEN HAIR AND EYE COLOUR.
Mean Square Contingency Coefficient.

Scottish Students
Scottish Children
British Schoolboys -
Aberdeenshire Adults
Scottish Insane (Males) -

•2876
•3802
•4203
•3673|
•3039 j

This Memoir.

Biometrika, vol. v., p. 339, Tocher.

Ibid., vol. iii., p. 461, Pearson.

Ibid., vol. v., p. 339, Tocher.

You will observe that in no case is the correlation very high — a

1 Biometrika, vol. ii., p. 370.

92 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

result that runs counter to the commonly accepted view. The low
value in Scottish students suggests that here we may be dealing with
a considerable Gaelic element, characterised by dark hair and light
eyes.1

V. — COMPARISON OF HONOURS AND PASS MKN.

16. The next part of my inquiries is interesting, but will not
detain us long. Professor Reid has kindly placed at my disposal the
following figures, which enable me to answer the question : Is there
any difference between honours and pass men as regards their chief
cranial characters ?

TABLE XIV.

ABERDEEN HONOURS AND PASS MEN, SCOTTISH AND NON-SCOTTISH.

Means of Characters.

Class.

Number.

Head Length.

Head Breadth.

Cephalic Index.

1st and 2nd Class Honours Men

26

195-3

152-5

78-1

3rd Class Honours Men -

71

194-1

153-3

78-4

Pass Men

489

194-7

153-4

78-9

Note. — 1st and 2nd class men represent those who have graduated with 1st and
2nd class honours respectively ; 3rd class includes those who have passed with
distinction in one or more professional examinations.

. There are very few in the first and second classes, but I think
we are justified in concluding that there is practically no difference
between the pass and the honours men. Professor Pearson's figures
show that this is true also of Cambridge graduates ; 2 in their case,
indeed, the similarity between the different grades was even more
striking.

1 See Professor Pearson's remarks in Biometrika, vol. iii., p. 461.
• Biometrika, vol. v., p. 124.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVEKSlTY OF ABERDEEN.

93

VI. — GROWTH IN HEAD AND BODY CHARACTERS.

17. I now come to the last part of my inquiry. As I mentioned
before, Professor Reid has measured some of his men more than once,
and I have compared the first and last measurements, the interval
between them being almost exactly four years, with the view of ascer-
taining the amount of growth in that period. The result is shown in
Table XV.

TABLE XV.
ABERDEEN STUDENTS— AVEEAGE GBOWTH IN FOUE YEAES.

Character.

Scottish.

Non-Scottish.

Age at first measurement, years

19&

19*

„ second „ „

23^

23jJj

Number

220

36

Percentages.

Absolute
mm.

Percentages.

Absolute
mm.

Head Circumference

1-21

6'8

1-31

7-3

,, Length

1-17

2-3

1-34

2-6

,, Breadth

1-51

2-3

1-39

2-1

„ Height -

3-51

4-6

3-09

4-1

Span

•85

14-9

•66

11-7

Height Standing -

•96

16-6

•70

12-2

„ Sitting

1-27

11-fi

1-42

12-9

The average growth, you will observe, is very nearly the same in
both groups, and is so very small, except as regards Auricular Height,
that it suggests a doubt whether it is worth while going to the trouble
of taking second measurements. Some individuals have, of course,
grown more than others, and a few have actually gone back in their
measurements, owing, probably, to inevitable slight discrepancies be-
tween different measurers.

VII. — SUMMARY.

18. I may sum up the main conclusions of the inquiry :—
(1) The two groups which I have called Scottish and non-Scottish
are practically identical in the characters selected.

94 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

(2) They closely resemble Cambridge students and graduates in

Head Length and Breadth, but are slightly lower in Stature ;
they are also practically identical with the rural population
of Aberdeenshire in these three characters.

(3) The average growth between the nineteenth and twenty-third

years of life amongst Aberdeen students is about 1^ per cent,
in all characters except Auricular Height, in which it is about
3 per cent.

(4) There is practically no difference between Honours and Pass

men in Head Length and Breadth.

(5) The Aberdeenshire head is not larger than that of other

classes of the community.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 95

ORDINARY MEETING.
22ND FEBRUARY, 1908.

Professor R. W. REID, M.D., F.R.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

Anatomical variations found in the course of practical work in
the Anatomy Department of the University were described by Miss
M. K. Moir and Messrs. N. J. Calder, H. T. Finlayson, W. P. Hogg
and W. G. Thomson.

Thereafter Mr. Alex. Low, M.B., described the process of
reconstruction, by Born's wax plate method, of a human embryo of
13-14 mesodermic somites. The anatomy of the embryo was
briefly referred to and the completed wax models of the embryo were
demonstrated.

EECOED OF ANATOMICAL VABIATIONS.
Date of observation, February, 1908.

D

Sex, Male.

Abnormal arrangement of the arteries on the dorsum of the foot,
The anterior tibial artery, in this dissection, divides under the
anterior annular ligament into two terminal branches. The branch
that is the real continuation of the artery follows the normal course of
the dorsalis pedis artery, but is small and gives off no tarsal or
metatarsal branches. The other terminal branch is large, curves
outwards and eventually ends at the posterior part of the second
intermetatarsal space by receiving a posterior perforating branch from
the deep plantar arch and giving off an interosseous artery for the

96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

second interosseous space. It also gives off from its convexity a
tarsal and a metatarsal branch. From the latter are given off two
interosseous branches for the two outer interosseous spaces.

(Signature of observer) NORMAN J. CALDER.

Date of observation, February, 1908.

Sex, Female.

Absence of the posterior tibial artery (right).

In this dissection the popliteal artery is continued on in the leg
as a very large peroneal artery. A small branch, which may represent
the posterior tibial artery, arises at the level where the peroneal artery
is usually given off and runs downwards and inwards to terminate in
the deep aspect of the flexor longus digitorum muscle. The large
peroneal artery takes the usual course of an ordinary peroneal artery
to a point about half an inch above the ankle-joint. At this point it
gives off the anterior peroneal artery and then continues on to the sole
of the foot, dividing into internal -and external plantar arteries.

(Signature of observer) HAROLD T. FINLAYSON.

Date of observation, February, 1908.
Sex, Female.

High radial artery (left).

In this dissection the radial artery arises from the brachial artery
opposite the insertion of the coraco-brachialis muscle, and in its course
downwards lies on the biceps and brachialis anticus muscles. It
crosses the median nerve from without inwards. On passing below
the bicipital fascia it is joined by an anastomosis from the ulnar
artery.

(Signature of observer) W. P. HOGG.

Date of observation, January, 1908.
Sex, Female.

High division of the great sciatic nerve.

At the level of the lower border of the pyriformis muscle the
great sciatic nerve has already divided into two ; the upper division

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 97

pierces the pyriformis muscle while the lower issues below the
muscle.

(Signature of observer) MARGARET K. MOIR.

Date of observation, February, 1908.
Sex, Female.

Abnormality in arterial supply of orbit.

In the right orbit the arterial blood supply consists of a small
branch from the internal carotid coming off in the usual situation of
the ophthalmic artery and entering the orbit by the optic foramen in
much the ordinary fashion ; the peculiarity being that it is very
small. This artery on coursing forwards towards the nasal side of
the orbital cavity is joined by an unusually large branch from the
middle meningeal artery entering by the sphenoidal fissure. The
point of junction is beneath the superior rectus muscle.

On the left side no indication of an ophthalmic artery is found in
the usual position. Certainly no branch from the middle meningeal
exists as on .the opposite side. The apparent absence of the ophthalmic
artery may be due to various causes, but the injection of the other
eye is good and the fact that even in the right eye the artery is very
small tends to confirm the suspicion that no ophthalmic artery, or at
least a very tiny branch is present.

Another peculiarity is that on the left side the infra-orbital artery
enters the infra-orbital canal by an aperture somewhat further
forwards than usual. The spheno-maxillary fissure is very small, and
there is a certain degree of compression of the bones in this region.
(Signature of observer) W. G. THOMSON.

13

98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

DESCRIPTION OF A HUMAN EMBRYO OF 13-14 MESODERMIC

SOMITES.

By ALEXANDER Low, M.A., M.B., C.M.
(Presented 22nd February, 1908.)

The human embryo Pfannenstiel III. was placed at the disposal
of Professor Keibel, for publication in his NormenJtafel ztir Entwickel-
uvgsgesfMchte do* Mewclien, by Professor Pfannenstiel of Griefswald.
In the Normentafel the embryo is No. 6 (Fig. Vr. and Vv.). Professor
Keibel kindly afforded me the opportunity of studying this embryo in
the Anatomical Institute in Freiburg, and at his suggestion I under-
took to reconstruct models of the embryo according to Bora's method.
The work of modelling was begun in the Anatomical Institute in
Freiburg, and completed in the Anatomy Department, Aberdeen
University.

The embryo Pfannenstiel III. was obtained at an operation, and
as measured through the amnion had a length of 2-6 mm. The embryo
was fixed in formalin — Muller's fluid, stained in paracarmine, and
sectioned at a thickness of 10/x. Histologically the embryo is in an
excellent state of preservation. A model of the whole embryo has
been reconstructed at an enlargement of 100. A separate model of
the nervous and alimentary systems has also been made, and three
models of pharynx, heart with its blood-vessels, and septum trans-
versum at an enlargement of 150.

EXTERNAL FORM. (Plates XI. and XII.)

The embryo is somewhat similar to the embryo von Bulle of
Kollmann (7), which shows fourteen mesodermic somites and measured
2'5 mm. in length, but is not so far developed ; indeed, its outer form

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY Of ABERDEEN. 99

more nearly approaches that of the embryo of eight paired somites and
a length of 211 mm. described and modelled by Professor Eternod (4).
Like the Eternod embryo, it is spirally twisted in its long axis, and
shows the same three back curvatures — a convex neck bend, a con-
cave dorsal, and a convex rump. The dorsal flexure is slight, while
the neck bend makes a right angle with the body, approaching in this
respect the form of the embryo of twenty-three somites and a length
of 215 mm. described by Professor Peter Thompson (9). The medul-
lary plate is still open at its head and caudal ends. The front of the
head is directed down and slightly to the right over the bulging heart
region, and thus is formed a well-developed stomodaium. Three
visceral clefts are visible — the first and second being deep, the third a
shallow groove. The first and second visceral clefts lie dorsal to the
rounded swelling caused by the commencing mandibular arch. The
first cleft occupies a position more to the cranial end of the embryo.
The second cleft is separated by a convex ridge from the first, and its
caudal end extends to the convexity of the body wall caused by the
heart. The third visceral cleft is caudal and somewhat more dorsal,
and separated by a considerable interval from the other two clefts.
Its ventral end leads into a depression of the body wall behind the
pericardial region. The ear pit is represented by an oval depressed
area of thickened epithelium just cranial to the dorsal end of the third
visceral cleft. There is a large elongated umbilical opening through
which the embryonic and extra-embryonic ccelom are in communica-
tion. The yolk sac is constricted at its communication with the primi-
tive intestine to form a distinct neck. The body stalk arises from the
ventral aspect of the embryo and passes to the right, lying first in front
and then to the right of the caudal end of the embryo, the tail being
directed to the left. The body stalk is separated from the neck of the
yolk sac by a narrow interval. The caudal end of the embryo is swollen
out, and terminates in a blunt point ; a trace of the primitive streak is
prolonged from the medullary groove to the cloacal membrane. Along
the line of attachment of the amnion to the lateral body wall on each
side there is a ridge caused by the underlying umbilical vein ; this ridge

100 PROCEEDINGS Of THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

bounds the umbilical orifice laterally. The amnion extends on to the
dorsal aspect of the body stalk, leaving its lateral and ventral aspects
uncovered — a disposition similar to that in the embryo described by
Professor Thompson.

MESODERMIC SOMITES AND NOTOCHORD.

There are thirteen pairs of well-formed mesodermic somites, and
in addition to these there is an anterior pair incompletely formed.

a n

Fig. 1. — Right half of a transverse section of the
embryo through the region of the eleventh meso-
dermic somite.

EC., ectoderm ; XI. AI. S., mesodermic somite; £/., segmental
tubule ; Co;,, ccelom ; d.Ao., dorsal aorta ; Sp.c., medul-
lary canal; Kn., entoderm; Ch., notochord.

This most anterior and rudimentary pair of somites is situated just at
the level of the neck bend. The last pair of somites are well formed,
and situated at the level of the commencement of the rump bend. As
the ganglia are not developed, it is not possible to differentiate the
regions to which the somites belong. Each somite has a uniformly
thick wall three or four cells deep, enclosing a distinct cavity (myococl).
Towards the cavity many of the cells are undergoing mitotic division.
The more cranial-placed somites are triangular on cross-section, while
the more posterior ones are quadrangular (Fig. 1). The notochord

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 101

extends from a point behind the bucco-pharyngeal membrane, to end in
the caudal region just short of the hindgut and between the cloaca and
medullary plate, and not extending into the tail. The chorda lies in
close relation with entoderm forming the roof of the intestine, and only
toward its caudal termination is it quite separated off, and here lies in
the mesoderm midway between the gut and the medullary plate. At
its cranial commencement the chorda is at first not separated off, but
appears more as a heaping up of entoderm cells in the roof of the
pharynx ; soon, however, it becomes more differentiated, as represented
in Fig. 2. At the level of the first pair of mesodermic somites the
chorda appears more as an evagination of the entoderm of the root of
the gut, and this condition obtains almost to its caudal end, where it
gets quite separated off from entoderm (Fig. 3). The cells of the chorda

,-;% WO*'

&; ^i»^"

Fig. 2. — Notochord in region of first pair of mesodermic somites,
and Fig. 3 in caudal region.

En., entoderm of gut; Ch., notochord ; Sf.c., spinal cord ; Ao., dorsal aorta.

are large, oval and clear, and contain small, distinctly staining nuclei ;
in some of the cells mitosis is seen. There is no trace of a cuticular
membrane.

VASCULAR SYSTEM.

Cardinal Veiny. — The anterior cardinal veins, containing blood-
cells, are present in the region of the first to the fifth mesodermic
somites. A connection with the heart cannot be established from a
careful examination of the sections. No trace of posterior cardinal
veins is to be seen.

Vitdlwe Veim. — Although in the wall of the yolk sac are numer-
ous blood-vessels containing blood-cells, still the vitelline veins are
difficult to trace. Their terminal parts can be defined where they lie
in the septum transversum on the ventral aspect of the gut, and open

102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

into the sinus venosus mesial to the umbilical veins. Before they
open into the sinus venosus, a transverse piece connects the two vitel-
line veins.

Umbilical Veins. — The umbilical veins are large vessels, and lie in
the body stalk at first dorsal to the umbilical arteries ; here they com-
municate, and then run cranialwards in the body stalk to gain the
lateral body wall. From the lateral body wall the cranial end of each
vein bends abruptly, passing mesially and ventrally each to join its
own horn of the sinus venosus ; here each vein lies embedded in the

Fig. 4. Fig. 5.

Model of heart, x 75. Fig. 4, viewed from the front and left ; Fig. 5, seen from behind.

An., aortic stem; B.C., bulbus cordis ; K, ventricle; r.Au., right auricle; I. An., left auricle; s.v., sinus
v.enosus; r.U.v., right umbilical vein; l.U.v., left umbilical vein; r.V.U.', right vitelline vein; l.l'.ii.,
left vitelline vein ; D.M., dorsal mesentery ; T/i., depression in mesentery into which median thyroid
extends.

septum transversum and close to the floor of the parietal recess
(Fig. 12).

Aortce. — The aortic stem divides into a pair of aortic arch vessels,
which pass on either side of the median thyroid anlage backwards in
the first visceral arch, and each of these is continued caudally as a
dorsal aorta. There are traces also of a second pair of aortic arch
vessels. The dorsal aortte rest on the roof of the gut on either side of
the notochord, and do not unite in any part of their course, remaining
paired throughout and terminating on the sides of the cloaca. A short
distance before the termination of the dorsal aortse the umbilical ar-

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN.

103

teries are given off and pass on either side of the allantoic duct into
the body stalk, where they unite, forming a single trunk, which again
divides into two vessels.

The Heart. — The heart is in a stage very similar to that represented

Ck

Fig. 6. — Transverse section in region of second pair of somites, x 50.

Am., amnion ; .in., auricle ; K., ventricle ; Sp.c,, medullary canal ; C/i., noto-
chord ; //. .1/..S'., second somite ; d.Ao., dorsal aorta ; f.(f., fore-gut.

F.C

Fig. 7. — Model of pharynx, x 75. Seen from the left side
and slightly from the front.

.I/., mouth; Hy., hypophysis; B.Ph., bucco-pharyngeal membrane;
< /i.. riotochord ; /.-///., visceral clefts ; /K, fourth pharyngeal
pocket; Th., median thyroid ; /''.(f., fore-gut ; /,/., liver bay.

by Born's model (1) of the heart of a rabbit embryo of 0*95 mm. length
—model 1 (Ziegler). The heart as a whole is S-shaped, and shows
sinus venosus, auricle, ventricle, and just at the base of the aortic
stem a slight dilatation which may represent a bulbus cordis.

104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

The sinus venosus is crescentic in shape, with dilated ends, and
is situated in the septum transversum in close relation with the ventral
wall of the gut. Opening into its horns are the terminations of the
large umbilical veins, and mesial to these the vitelline veins. The
sinus passes into the auricle without any very distinct constriction
except on the left side, where there is a slight furrow between the two.

The auricle lies dorsal to the ventricle. Its transverse diameter
is the greater, and it is divisible into a smaller right part and a larger
left by a distinct in-pushing — the dorsal mesentery being attached
here. The left part of the auricle is separated from the ventricle by
a slight groove.

The ventricle is U-shaped, with the left limb much the larger and
passing dorsally and to the left to open into the left side of the auricle.
The cranial end of the right limb becomes constricted, and then is
succeeded by a somewhat dilated part, which may indicate the bulbus
cordis which is so largely developed in the embryo described by Pro-
fessor Thompson.

ALIMENTARY SYSTEM.

The mouth is represented as a narrow transverse fissure between
the fore brain and the body wall. In its roof is a slight funnel-shaped
out-pushing — the commencement of the pocket of ectoderm to form
the hypophysis. The mouth is separated from the pharynx by a com-
plete bucco-pharyngeal membrane. The pharynx widens out rapidly
behind this, and is flattened dorso-ventrally (Fig. 7). There are four
pairs of pharyngeal pouches, of which the third and fourth are small
and pointed. The second pocket is so situated that it lies much more
ventral than caudal to the first pocket. The first two pairs of pockets
are elongated vertically, and come in direct contact with the external
ectoderm, where it forms the bottoms of the first and second pairs of
visceral clefts (Fig. 7). The third and fourth pockets do not come in
contact with the ectoderm. In the floor of the pharynx in the region
of the second pockets is present the median thyroid anlage as a rela-
tively large, widely open, funnel-shaped cavity with its apex passing

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 105

caudally between the aortic arches (Fig. 8). The lung anlage is not
plainly indicated, but caudal to the median thyroid is a groove in the
entoderm which may indicate the lung groove. As the fore gut is
traced towards the yolk sac, its lumen becomes narrowed transversely
and elongated dorso-ventrally ; and just before it opens out into the
yolk sac, there is a liver bay with walls of thickened entoderm. There
is no actual liver bud and no trace of liver trabeculaj. The middle
third of the alimentary tract is still in communication with the yolk
sac. The hind gut is narrowed at a point opposite the attachment of
the body stalk, and then dilates to form a large cloaca. Dorsally the

a AO.

Fig. 8. — Section through region of hind-brain, x 50.

/•'/'., fore-brain; Ab., hind-brain; ffy., hypophysis; Ch.,
notochord ; I'g. , vagus ganglion ; d.Ao., dorsal aorta ;
Ph., pharynx ; T.A., aortic stem ; Th., median
thyroid.

cloaca is expanded with convex walls, while ventrally it is narrowed
so that its cavity forms a fissure. Ventrally the entoderm of this
anterior fissure-like part of cloaca is in direct contact with the
ectoderm, forming an elongated cloacal membrane. Cranial to the
cloacal membrane the cavity of the cloaca leads into the small lumen
of the allantois. The allantoic duct passes into the body stalk between
the two umbilical arteries, which eventually surround it by anastomos-
ing across it. There is a very small post-anal gut projecting caudally
between the posterior limit of the cloacal membrane and the tip of the

notochord.

II

106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

EXCRETORY SYSTEM.

The excretory system is in a very early stage of development.
Professor Felix of Zurich is to describe this in detail in a separate
paper on the development of the excretory system in early human
embryos. I may say that this embryo shows rudimentary pronephric
tubules in the region of the eighth, ninth and tenth mesodermic
somites, and segmental vesicles in connection with the eleventh,
twelfth and thirteenth segments. There is no Wolffian duct.

CK T

Ctv

Anv.

Fig. 9. — Section through region of sixth somite.
x 50.

Am., amnion; Sp.c., medullary canal; VI. M.S., sixth
somite; d.Ao., dorsal aorta; l.U.v., left um-
bilical vein ; CIK., ccelom ; M.G., mid-gut ; Y.S.,
yolk sac; r.U.v., right umbilical vein; Chr.,
chorion.

Fig. 10. — Section through region of hind
gut. x 50.

Sp.c., medullary canal; Ch. , notoohord ; Am. ,
amnion; I '.a., umbilical artery ; £/.<'., um-
bilical veins ; A II. , allantoic duct ; B. S. ,
body stalk; Car., ccelom ; d.Ao., dorsal
aorta; XI}'. M.S., fourteenth somite.

CCELOM AND SEPTUM TRANSVERSUM.

All parts of the coelom are in communication with each other.
The pericardial coelom is very large, and extends cranially on either
side of the median thyroid anlage. Ventrally the pericardial coelom
causes a bulging of the body wall, the ventricle lying in close apposition
with it ; while dorsally it is prolonged round into the parietal recesses
of His (5). Figs. 11 and 12, from a model, show the relation of the
umbilical vein and sinus venosus to the floor of the parietal recess, as
also the two horn-like extensions of the septum transversum described

SOCIETY OF tHE UNIVERSITY Of ABERDEEN.

10?

by Professor Thompson (10). On the right side there is an infolding
of the body wall which produces a ridge running from the anterior
part of the dorsal mesocardium to the septum transversum, and
slightly constricting off the pericardial coelom from the parietal
recess; this may be the "pulmonary ridge " of Mall (8). Only the
cranial end of this ridge is present on the left side.

'-3 Tr.

Y.V

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

Model showing septum transversum viewed from above. Fig. 12 shows right
half of septum removed and the right umbilical vein passing in to open
into the sinus venosus.

Sp.c., medullary canal; d.Ao., dorsal aorta; P.K., parietal recess; Am., amnion ;
S.v., sinus venosus; A'. TV., septum transversum; Y.S., yolk sac; r.u.v., right
. vitelline vein ; F.G., fore-gut ; ///., third somite.

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The medullary plate is open at its head and tail ends almost to
the same extent as in Eternod's embryo of eight mesodermic somites.
In Kollmann's embryo of fourteen somites the medullary groove is
closed behind, but open anteriorly. The brain shows very distinctly
the three parts, prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon,
separated by grooves (Plate XIII.). There is no demarcation between
the rhombencephalon and the spinal cord, but the junction seems to
be at the neck bend at the level of the first pair of mesodermic
somites. Just cranial to this point the two folds of the medullary
groove have fused. The fore-brain shows elongated, gutter-like
evaginations of its later walls which are the commencing optic vesicles.
The walls of these vesicles are many cells thick, and are in close
contact with the external ectoderm (Fig. 13). From the floor of the
fore-brain is a slight out-pushing, the anlage of the infundibulum.

108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

The mid-brain is bounded in front and behind by grooves, and its
transverse diameter is rather less than that of either fore-brain or
hind-brain. The hind-brain forms by far the largest part of the
whole brain, and passes without distinct demarcation into the spinal

Op.

Fig. 13. — Section through optic vesicle (Op.).
Fb., wall of fore-brain ; EC., external ectoderm.

part of the medullary tube. The hind-brain is of interest in that it
shows certain neuromeres very clearly ; these neuromeres form folds
involving the whole thickness of the lateral wall of the hind-brain,
and are convex externally, with corresponding concavities internally

Hb.

Mfc

Fig. 14. — Section through head of
embryo, x 50.

Fb., fore-brain; Mb., mid-brain; //.,
///. and IV., 2nd, 3rd and 4th
neuromeres of hind-brain ; Op.,
optic vesicle; Au., auditory pit;
G.a.f., ganglion acustico-facialis.

Fig. 15. — Section through region of first
visceral cleft, x 50.

Ft,, fore-brain; Hb., hind-brain; Op. , optic
vesicle; Ph., pharynx; I.V.Cl., first
visceral cleft ; Au., auditory pit ;
d.Ao., dorsal aorta; Cli., notochord ;
Ao.l., first aortic arch vessel.

(Fig. 14). The neuromeres are seven in number, as has already been
noted by Broman (3) in a human embryo of 3 mm., and more recently
by Thompson in the twenty-three somite embryo and Ingalls in an
embryo of 4'9 mm. (6). The first neuromere is the smallest, and does

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OP ABERDEEN. 109

not reach the ventral margin of the brain, while the second neuromere
is the largest and best denned. The third neuromere is also prominent,
but not so wide as the second, and its ventral end tapers oft' to a
point between the ventral ends of the second and fourth neuromeres.
The fourth neuromere is pointed dorsally and widens out below,
between its ventral end and that of the second neuromere being a
notch as described by Bremer (2) in a 4 mm. embryo. The ganglion
acustico-facialis is attached to the upper end of this neuromere, but
largely lies in the furrow between the third and fourth neuromeres.
The fifth, sixth and seventh are not so clearly marked off.

The oval auditory field of thickened ectoderm lies over the dorsal
end of the fifth neuromere, but also extends over the upper end of the
fourth. The trigeminal ganglion is not developed. The ganglion
acustico-facialis is large, and is attached to the lateral wall of the
hind-brain in connection with the anterior margin of the fourth
neuromere. The ganglion of the vagus is only being developed.

The flexures of the brain agree very closely with the flexures
described by Professor Thompson as being present in his embryo of
twenty-three somites. There is a prominent flexure in the region
between the mid-brain and hind-brain, the mid-brain and fore-brain
being bent downward. The anterior extremity of the notochord is
bent down in a corresponding manner. There is also a distinct
flexure of the hind-brain at the notch between the ventral ends of the
second and fourth neuromeres. The neck flexure is just commencing,
and forms an open angle (Plate XIII.).

In conclusion, I wish to express my thanks to Professor Wieders-
heim for kindly granting me permission to work in his laboratory ;
more especially to Professor Keibel for the loan of the embryo, and
much help and advice ; and also to Professor Pfannenstiel to whom
the embryo belongs. I also express my indebtedness to Professor
Keid in connection with my research work, and to the Carnegie
Trustees for a grant toward the cost of embryological research and the
illustration of this paper.

110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. BORN, G., "Beitrage zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Saugethierherzens," Arch. f.

mikr. Anat., Bd. xxxiii., 1889.

2. BBEMBK, J. L., "Description of a 4 mm. Human Embryo," The American 'Journal

of Anatomy, vol. v., 1906.

3. BBOMAN, J., " Beschreibung eines menschlichen Embryos von beinahe 3 mm.

Lange, mit spezieller Bemerkung iiber die bei dernselben befindlichenHirnfalten,"
Morph. Arbeiten, Bd. v., 1896.

4. ETEBNOD, A., "Sur un ceuf humain de 1'3 mm. avec embryon de 2-1 mm.," Actes de

la Societc helvetique des Sciences naturelles, Zurich, 1896.

5. His, W., Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen, Leipzig, 1885.

6. INGALLS, N. W., "Beschreibung eines menschlichen Embryos von 4~9 mm.," Archiv

f. mikr. Anat., Bd. Ixx., 1907.

7. KOLLMANN, J., " Die Korperform menschlicher normaler und pathologischer Ern-

bryonen," Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys., Supplem. Bd., 1889.

8. MALL, F. P., " On the Development of the Human Diaphragm," Johns Hopkins

Hospital Bulletin, vol. xii., 1901.

9. THOMPSON, P., "Description of a Human Embryo of Twenty-three Paired Somites,"

Journ. of Anat. and Phys., xli., 1907.

10. THOMPSON, P., " A Note on the Development of the Septum Transversum and the

Liver," Journ. of Anat. and Phys., xlii., 1908.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate XI. Model of the Embryo, left side (enlarged 60 times).

Plate XII. Model of the Embryo, front view (enlarged 60 times).

Plate XIII. The same model in sagittal section, viewed from the left.

AL, allantoic duct; Am., amnion; Ao., origin of the first aortic arch; B.S., body
stalk; Ch., chorda dorsalis; Chr., chorion ; CL, cloaca; Coe., ccelom ; D.M., dorsal
mesentery; F.B., fore-brain; F.G., fore-gut; G.a.f., ganglion acustico-facialis ; H.G.,
hind-gut; Hy., hypophysis; M., mouth; M.B., mid-brain; M.G., mid-gut; Op., optic
vesicle; Ot., otic pit; P.C., pericardial coelom ; S.T., septum transversum; S.v., sinus
venosus ; Th., median thyroid; I. U.a., left umbilical artery ; l.U.v., left umbilical vein ;
r.U.v., right umbilical vein ; Y.S., yolk sac; I. and III., first and third visceral clefts ;
I. -VII., first to seventh neuromeres.

PROC. ABERD. UNIV. ANAT. AND ANTHROP. Soc., 1906-1908— PLATE XI.

n

Model of Human Embryo, left side (enlarged 60 times).

PROC. ABERD. UNIV. ANAT. AND ANTHROP. Soc., 1906-1908— PLATE XII.

Chr...

B.S.

Model of Human Embryo, front view (enlarged 60 times).

PROC. ABERD. UNIV. ANAT. AND ANTHROP. Soc., 1906-1908 — PLATE XIII.

n. a..

Model of Human Embryo in sagittal section (enlarged 60 times).

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. Ill

ORDINARY MEETING.

24TH JUNE, 1908.

Professor R. W. REID, M.D., F.R.C.S., President,
in the Chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

Anatomical variations were described by Messrs. Baxter, Bisset,
Eraser, McGillivray, Smith and Souper.

Dr. Salmond described a dissection, made by himself, showing
the anatomy of the parts involved in excision of the rectum from
behind. This was followed by a demonstration by Dr. Robertson of a
dissection of the genito-urinary system made by him, to show in
particular the parts concerned in exposing the ureter by the extra
peritoneal operation.

The President then read a paper " On Three Bronze Dagger-
blades Found in Aberdeenshire ". He also exhibited and described
specimens from the Anthropological Museum illustrating the evolution
of bronze implements.

The Treasurer's report for the past year was then read and
adopted.

On the suggestion of Professor Reid it was resolved to make an
alteration in the constitution of the Society, to the effect that the
office-bearers of the Society shall consist of an Honorary President
(the Professor of Anatomy in the University of Aberdeen for the time
being), two Honorary Vice-Presidents (one of whom shall be the
senior assistant to the Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Aberdeen for the time being), a President, a Vice-President, a Re-
cording Secretary and a Secretary and Treasurer,

112 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

Thereafter the following were elected office-bearers for the ensuing
year : —

Honorary President. — Professor E. W. EEID, M.D., F.E.C.S.

Honorary Vice-Presidents. — ALEX. Low, M.A., M.B., C.M., and JAMES WATT,

M.A., M.B., Ch.B.

President. — NORMAN J. CALDER, M.A.

Vice-President.— EGBERT EiCHARDS, M.A.

Recording Secretary. — EGBERT M. EASTON, M.A.

Secretary and Treasurer. — JAMES FETTES.

The retiring office-bearers were thanked for their services, especi-
ally Professor Reid for the interest and help which he had extended
to the Society, acting as its President since its inception in 1899.

EECOED OF ANATOMICAL VAEIATIONS.
Date of observation, June, 1908.
Sex, Male.

Abnormal course of the musculo-citianeous nerve (right).

In this dissection the musculo-cutaneous nerve comes off as a
branch from the median nerve about the junction of the upper and
middle thirds of the arm. It does not perforate the coraco-brachialis
muscle but runs between the biceps and brachialis anticus muscles.
Thereafter its course is normal.

(Signature of observer) A. G. BAXTER.

Date of observation, June, 1908.
Sex, Male.

High origin of the flexor accessorius muscle (left).

In this case the flexor accessorius arises about three inches up
from the deep fascia of the back of the leg. It lies in front of the
tendo Achillis and beneath the internal annular ligament while the

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVEKSITY OP ABEEDEEN. 113

posterior tibial vessels and nerve lie on its posterior surface. This
variation is present in the other foot.

(Signature of observer) I. Gr. BISSET.

Date of observation, June, 1908.
Sex, Male.

Additional head to biceps flexor cubiti (left).

This head arises above and internal to the brachialis anticus, some
of its fibres being continuous with those of the coraco-brachialis. It
passes down behind the brachial artery and appears as a slip of biceps
which has been split off by the brachial artery and is inserted into the
bicipital fascia and the inner side of tendon of biceps about two and a
half inches from the insertion of the latter.

(Signature of observer) A. F. FRASER.

Date of observation, June, 1908.
Sex, Female.

High origin of radial artery (left).

The radial artery takes origin from the inner side of the brachial
artery about two inches above the bend of the elbow. After passing
obliquely outwards in front of the median nerve and brachial artery it
takes a normal course down the front of the forearm.

(Signature of observer) G. M. McGiLLiVRAY.

Date of observation, June, 1908.
Sex, Female.

Diverticulum of duodenum.

Projecting upwards and a little to the left from the posterior
surface of the second stage of the duodenum is a blind diverticulum
about the size of a small walnut. When distended it presents a
lobulated appearance and measures in its greater diameter 30 mm. and
in its lesser 20 mm. The diverticulum is in close relation to the head
of the pancreas. The bile-duct has no connection with it, merely pass-
ing downwards and in front.

(Signature of observer) A. H. SMITH,
15

114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

Date of observation, June, 1908.
Sex, Female.

Unusual arrangement of branches of axillary artery (right).

From about the middle of its course, the axillary artery gives off
a large branch fully its equal in size, and which after a course of about
one inch splits up into three divisions. The anterior division gives off
the anterior circumflex artery and about one and a half inches further
on subdivides into the superior and inferior profunda arteries. These
follow their usual courses. The internal division is the subscapular
artery which otherwise is normal. The external division is the pos-
terior circumflex artery which also follows its usual course.

(Signature of observer) H. R. SOUPER.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 115

ON THREE BRONZE DAGGER-BLADES FOUND IN
ABERDEENSHIRE.

By Professor R. W. REID, M.D., F.R.C.S.

Through the exertions of Mr. James Smith, Servitor in the An-
thropological Museum of the University, there have been recently
added to the pre-historic collection in that Museum three bronze
dagger-blades.

Specimens such as these are so rarely found in Scotland, and
therefore so very interesting and valuable, that I think that they are
worthy of being shown to the Society.

They, were exposed on the farm of New Park, New Machar,
Aberdeenshire, by Mr. David Davidson, tenant of that farm, in
January of this year, while making a bridge over a ditch leading from
the New Park Moss and between two of his arable fields.

The three blades were found lying together between the sub-soil
and a layer of moss land about two feet thick, and from over which
Mr. Davidson says a " bank of moss about ten feet in depth had been
removed some years ago ".

I visited the situation in which they were found and satisfied
myself that Mr. Davidson's statement was an accurate one and also
that there was no indication of any kind of interment in association
with their deposit-

Of the three blades : the first (Fig. 1) is in a good state of
preservation, the second (Fig. 2) is very fairly so, while the larger half
of the third (Fig. 3) has disappeared.

All blades show signs of decomposition, especially the third, and
in neither is there any indication of ornamentation.

The most perfect specimen (Fig. 1) is flat, has its edges sharp and

116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANATOMICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL

practically straight, its point rounded and its haft end thin and with a
free basal convex margin. It shows a well-marked mid rib, tapering
to the point of the blade and three rivet holes in its haft end. Its
surface presents a somewhat worm-eaten appearance, as an effect of

A. B.

Fig. 1. — Bronze dagger-blade (about J). A, face view ; B, edge view.

decomposition, and its point is rounded and blunt, probably due to
the same cause. It measures 28-5 cm. in its greatest length, 9 "2 cm.
in its greatest breadth, and 1 cm. in its greatest thickness. A very
shallow groove runs along the blade on each side of the mid rib.

SOCIETY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN.

117

The second blade (Fig. 2), in its fully formed state, has evidently
been very similar to the specimen just described, with this difference,
however, that its mid rib is broader and natter, especially at its haft

Fig. 2. Fig. 3.

Figs. 2 and 3. — Bronze dagger-blades ; face view (£).

end. Its edges are very irregular from erosion, and from its general
appearance, especially that of its mid rib, it has evidently not been
cast in the same mould. There is only one rivet hole in its haft end.

118 PROCEEDINGS of THE ANATOMICAL SOCIETY.

Its greatest length is 267 cm. Its greatest breadth is 9 cm. and its
greatest thickness is 8 mm.

The third blade (Fig. 3) is very imperfect. All which it presents
is a shortened mid rib with a portion of one side of the blade. Its
greatest length is 22-7 cm. Its greatest breadth is 4'8 cm. and its
greatest thickness is 8 mm.

These dagger-blades are good examples of objects belonging to the
later period of the Bronze Age, which are usually found in groups or
scattered and not in connection with interments.

ABERDEEN: FEINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

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