Full text of "Works"
WORKS ISSUED BY
Ibafclu^t Society
CATHAY AND THE WAY THITHER
VOL. IV
SECOND SERIES
No. XLI
w
ISSUED FOR 1916
-Yvo 41
COUNCIL
OF
THE HAKLUYT SOCIETY.
ALBERT GRAY, Esq., C.B., K.C., President.
THE RIGHT HON. THE LORD BELHAVEN AND STENTON, Vice-
President.
THE RIGHT HON. THE LORD PECKOVER OF WISBECH, Vice-
president.
BOLTON GLANVILL CORNEY, Esq., I.S.O.
M. LONGWORTH DAMES, Esq.
WILLIAM FOSTER, Esq., C.I.E.
F. H. H. GUILLEMARD, M.D.
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SIR EVERARD IM THURN, K.C.M.G., C.B.
JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D.
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SIR CHARLES LUCAS, K.C.B., K.C.M.G.
ADMIRAL SIR ALBERT HASTINGS MARKHAM, K.C.B.
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ADMIRAL OF THE FLEET THE RIGHT HON. SIR EDWARD HOB ART
SEYMOUR, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.V.O., LL.D.
H. R. TEDDER, Esq.
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C.I.E.
BASIL HOME THOMSON, Esq.
J. A. J. DE VILLIERS, Esq., Hon. Secretary.
CATHAY
AND THE WAY THITHER
BEING A COLLECTION OF
MEDIEVAL NOTICES OF CHINA
TRANSLATED AND EDITED
BY
COLONEL SIR HENRY YULE, R.E., C.B., K.C.S.I.
CORK. INST. FRANCE
WITH A
PRELIMINARY ESSAY
ON THE INTERCOURSE BETWEEN CHINA AND THE WESTERN
NATIONS PREVIOUS TO THE DISCOVERY OF THE CAPE ROUTE
NEW EDITION, REVISED THROUGHOUT IN THE LIGHT
OF RECENT DISCOVERIES
BY
HENRI CORDIER, D.LITT., HON. M.R.A.S.,
HON. COR. M.R.G.S., HON. F.R.S.L.
MEMBER OF THE INST1TUT DE FRANCE
PROFESSOR AT THE ECOLE DES LANGUES ORIENTALES VIVANTES, PARIS
VOL. IV
IBN BATUTA— BENEDICT GOES— INDEX
LONDON :
PRINTED FOR THE HAKLUYT SOCIETY
MDCCCCXVI
ffiambrtoge j
PRINTED BY J. B. PEACE, M.A.,
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CATHAY AND THE WAY THITHER
vi. IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
(circa 1347)
Introductory Notice.
His birth, i ; facilities and stimulus to Mahomedan travelling
in those days ; its vast field ; commencement of his travels, 2 ;
Alexandria; Upper Egypt; Syria; the pilgrimage; Basra,
Persia, Baghdad, 3; second pilgrimage; Yemen; Aden, its
flourishing state ; the African coast, 3 ; Oman, 4 ; Hormuz, 5 ;
Central Arabia ; third pilgrimage ; crosses the Red Sea and travels
to Cairo ; Syria (second time) and Asia Minor ; crosses the Black
Sea, 6 ; Caff a ; Majar ; Uzbek Khan ; visits the city of Bolghar, 7 ;
the Land of Darkness ; Astrakhan ; journey with a Greek Princess
to Constantinople ; Ukak ; Soldaia, 7 ; Constantinople ; the
name Istambul ; Andronicus Senior, 8 ; returns to Uzbek ; visits
Khwarizm and Bokhara; Tarmashirin, Khan of Chagatai;
Khorasan ; passes the Hindu Kush ; Pashai, the Fascia of Polo ;
Sind; Sehwan; Larri Bandar, 10; travels towards Delhi ; Multan;
Mahomed Tughlak, the then Sultan of Delhi, and his character;
journey from Multan to Delhi, 10.
Reception at Delhi, and appointment as judge; eight years'
residence in India; his extravagance, 13; he falls into disfavour,
15 ; becomes an ascetic for the nonce, 16 ; the king sends for him
and nominates him ambassador to China; the Chinese embassy
which had visited Mahomed; the return presents, 17; his
colleagues, 19; they start from Delhi; mishaps near Koel;
Kanauj ; Gwalior, 20 ; feats of the Jogis ; Daulatabad ;
Cambay (note on route from Delhi to Cambay), 21; Kawe, 22;
Gandar ; isle of Perim, 23 ; Gogo ; Sindabur (apparently
Goa), 23; Hunawar, and its Mahomedan Prince, 24; female
education ; Malabar ; Calicut ; Chinese shipping described ;
ports frequented by the Chinese junks, 25; mishaps attending
the start of the embassy, and the traveller left behind, 28 ; proceeds
to Kaulam, 29 ; goes back to the Mahomedan Prince of Hunawur,
Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS
30 ; expedition against Sindabur ; Ibn Batuta returns to Calicut ;
hears of the final wreck and dispersion of his slaves, etc., who had
sailed from Calicut; returns a third time to Hunawur, and to
Sindabur; finding his friends in difficulties, escapes, and returns
to Calicut, 31 ; visits the Maldives, 31 ; is made Kazi, and marries
four wives ; his pious reforms ; quarrels and leaves for Ceylon ;
the Pagan chief Arya Chakravarti at Patlam ; he travels to Adam's
Peak, 32 ; Kurunaigalla ; the Peak ; Dondera ; Galle ; Columbo,
33 ; sails for Maabar, and again comes to grief, 34 ; is received
by the Sultan of Maabar, whose sister-in-law Ibn Batuta had
married at Delhi; that good lady's commemoration by her
husband ; the Sultan's cruelties ; his death, 34 ; Madura ; the
traveller's departure again for Kaulam, 35 ; sets off again for
Hunawur ; is robbed, and returns to Calicut, 35 ; re- visits the
Maldives ; sails thence to Bengal, 36.
His voyage to China (see text following), 36; his return to
Arabia, and journey thence by Persia, Irak, Syria (the Black
Death), Egypt, Tunis, Sardinia, Algeria, to his native country;
his professed joy in returning; his laudations of the West, 37.
Resumes his travels; Tangier, Gibraltar, and Andalusia, 38;
sets out for Central Africa, 39; Segelmessa; Taghaza; Malli;
Timbuktu, 39 ; Kaukau ; Takadda ; the Niger ; is ordered home,
and returns to Fez, 40.
The Sultan orders his travels to be written, 40; the scribe,
Ibn Juzai, 40 ; how the latter characterises the traveller. Death
of the latter, 41.
First knowledge in Europe of Ibn Batuta's book; Seetzen;
Kosegarten; Apetz; Lee, 41. Complete MSS. procured by the
French in Algeria ; Moura's Portuguese translation ; partial
translations; complete French translation of Defremery and
Sanguinetti, whence the ensuing extracts are translated, 42-3.
Interest of the book and character of Ibn Batuta as a traveller ;
different views ; confused geographical ideas, 43-4 ; and other
instances of loose observation, 44 ; exaggerations, 46 ; instances
apparently of positive fiction, 48; mistakes in language, 49;
chronological difficulties, 50 ; summing up in favour of general
veracity and genuine character, 50; personal character, 51.
Bibliography, 52.
Note A. On the Value of the Indian coins mentioned by Ibn
Batuta, 54.
Note B. On the Places visited by Ibn Batuta between Cambay
and Malabar, 63.
Note C. Remarks on sundry Passages in the Fourth Volume
of Lassen's Indische Alterthumskunde, 66.
Note D. The Medieval Ports of Malabar, 72.
TABLE OF CONTENTS IX
THE TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN CHINA, ETC.
Sails from the Maldives to Bengal, 80 ; that country character-
ised; its great cheapness, 81; Sadkawan, 82 ; the King Fakhruddin,
84; his revolt and wars with the governor of Lakhnaoti (Gaur),
84 ; the traveller visits the country of Kamru (Silhet, vide note E),
86; the Shaikh Jalaluddln; his ascetic life and longevity; his
previsions, 87 ; his treatment of Ibn Batuta ; story of the shaikh's
goat's hair mantle and his predictions, 88-9 ; the city of Habank,
90; SunurKawan (Sundrganw) , 91 ; sails for Java (Sumatra), 92;
BarahNagar (supposed coast near Negrais) ; dog-mouthed people ;
Java (Sumatra), 94; city of Sumatra, 95; the King al Zhahir;
departure for China; Mul-Java (Continent on Gulf of Siam) ;
Kakula, 96; Kamara (confusions connected with this name], 96;
elephants ; aloes-wood ; self-immolation, 97 ; traveller's account
of spices ; incense, 97 ; camphor, 98 ; Indian aloes-wood, 99 ;
the clove (his mis-statements), 101. The Calm Sea, 103; the
kingdom of Tawalisi; description of it; the Princess Urdu j a
governing at Kailukari, 104; her hospitality; her conversation
with the traveller, 106; her present, 107; her warlike character;
arrival in China, 108.
The Great River of China, 108 ; rich products of the country,
109; porcelain, and process of making, 109; Chinese poultry,
no; various characteristics of the people, no; silk, in;
customs of the merchants, in; paper money (note on the word
balisht), 112; fossil coal, 113; Chinese skill in drawing and
portraiture, 114; regulations in the ports, 115; forfeitures,
116; regulations respecting foreign traders, 116; travelling
accommodations, 116.
City of Zaitun (Chincheu), 117; damasks and satins, 118;
great amount of shipping; meets the envoys who had been in
India, 119; is lodged by the government, and visited by the
Mahomedans, 119 ; sets out on a visit to Sin Kalan (Canton), 120 ;
description of that city, 121 ; immense hospitality of the Mahomedan
settlers, 122; the Rampart of Gog and Magog, 123; aged and
singular recluse near Canton, 123; his reception of Ibn Batuta;
mysterious disappearance, 124; strange stories related of this
personage and his mesmeric influence, 125 ; his peculiar habits.
Return to Zaittin, 126; sets out for the capital; Kanjanfu, 126;
his grand reception, 127; singular encounter with a countryman
from Ceuta, 128; continues his journey, 129; Baiwam Kutlti;
Khansa (Hangchau), 129; the greatest city on earth; reception;
description of the city, 130; the Amir Kurtai, the Viceroy, 131 ;
he gives an entertainment, 133; festival on the water, and songs
that were sung ; strange exhibition of juggling; further particulars
X TABLE OF CONTENTS
of the city, 133-5 : lacker dishes, 135 ; sets out from Khansa and
enters CATHAY, 137. Its great culture and population; arrives
at Khanbaliq, 137; the Shaikh Burhan-uddm, 138; the Kan;
palace described (from imagination it would seem), 139 ; revolution
in progress in Cathay, 140; the Kan slain (a fiction), 142; great
preparations for his funeral, 142; extraordinary ceremonial, 143.
Similar rites in Negroland, 144.
The traveller advised to depart, 145 ; returns to Zaitun; sails
for Sumatra; great storm and darkness, 145; appearance of the
rukh, 146; reaches Sumatra, 147; marriage ceremonies of the
king's son, 147; departs loaded with presents, 148; arrives at
Kaulam ; customs during the Ramazan there, 148 ; Calicut ; embarks
for Arabia and reaches Zhafar, 149. (Note on the chronological
difficulties of this expedition to China, 149.)
Note E. On the Kamru of Ibn Batuta (the residence of the
Shaikh J aldl-uddin) , the Blue River, and the city o/Habank, 151.
Note F. On the Mul-Java of Ibn Batuta, 155.
Note G. On the Tawalisi of Ibn Batuta, 157.
Note H. Regarding the History of the Khans of Chagatai, 160.
VII. THE JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES FROM AGRA TO CATHAY
(1602-1607)
Introductory Notice.
Changes since the time of Ibn Batuta, 169 ; identity of Cathay
with China recognised by the Jesuits in the latter country, not
by those in India, 170 ; expedition to rediscover Cathay projected
and Goes chosen for it, 170.
Early history of Goes, 171; a lay-brother of the Jesuits;
he is sent to the court of Akbar, 172; circumstance which put
it in the head of Jerome Xavier, the head of the mission, to
explore Cathay, 1 74 ; sanction is received from Europe, and
Goes prepares for the journey, 177 ; his death after accomplishing
it at Suchau, 178. Mode in which the narrative was compiled;
miserably meagre in consequence ; perplexities about the chrono-
logy, 179; what may have led to some of the errors, 181.
Chief difficulties in tracing the traveller's route about the Hindu
Kush and Badakhshan, 181 ; passage of the former, 181 ; Badakh-
shan, its history and decay from former prosperity, 185 ; the pass
over the Bolor Tagh and Pamir, 186; Chinese Turkestan, its
characteristics, 187; history of that region in brief outline, 188.
Bibliography of Goes's journey, 194-7.
TABLE OF CONTENTS xi
THE JOURNEY
From the Work of Trigault "De Christiana Expeditione apud
Sinas." Book v, ch. xi, xii, xiii.
Chap. xi. How the Portuguese, Benedict Goes, a member of our
Society, is sent to find out about Cathay. — Preliminary explanations
as to the origin and object of the expedition, 198; Benedict's
preparations in character of a merchant, 201 ; travels to Lahore ;
his companions, 202 ; caravan to go to Kashgar, 203 ; reach
Attok, 203 ; Peshawar, 203 ; account of Kafiristan, 204 ; trouble
from robbers in the passes, 205 ; Kabul, 207 ; assistance rendered
by Goes to the mother of the King of Khotan, 207 ; two of Goe's's
companions abandon him, 208 ; sets out from Kabul ; Charfkar,
208 ; Parwan, 209 ; passes the Hindu Kush ; Aingharan, 209 ;
CalciS,, 210; Talhan (Talikhari) ; Cheman ( ?), 211 ; trouble with
insurgents, 212; the straits of Badakhshan, 214; Serpanil
(Pamir ?), 214; terrible mountain passes, 214; reaches Yarkand,
215-
Chap. xn. The remainder of the Journey to Cathay, and how
it is ascertained to be all the same as the Chinese Empire. — Yarkand,
218; delay here, 218; nature of the trade with Cathay under
pretext of embassies; pieces of jade the chief import; account
of this substance, 219. The King of Yarkand, 220 ; he is supported
by the Prince of Khotan ; re-appearance of Demetrius, one of
his original companions, and the trouble he caused, 221 ; Goes
makes a journey to Khotan; annoyance from the Mullahs, 222;
safe return of Benedict; controversies, 224; the new Caravan
chief invites Goes to accompany him to Cathay, 225 ; Demetrius
draws back again, 226; Goes prepares for the journey, and sets
out, 227; journey to Aqsd; visit to the young chief there, 229;
Caracathai; Kucha, 230; Cialis (Karashahr], 232; alarm, which
proves unfounded ; respect which Goes earned, 233 ; delays ;
meets merchants returning from Cathay, who tell him of the
Jesuits at Peking, by which he learns that Cathay is China, 235 ;
Goe's's bold and dignified conduct, 237 ; sets out without waiting
for the caravan, 237; Pijan; Turfan, 237; Kamul, 239; enters
the wall of China, 239 ; Suchau ; the Tartars on the Chinese
frontier and their forays; accident to Benedict on this last part
of the journey, 240.
Chap. xni. How our Brother Benedict died in the Chinese
territory, after the arrival of one of our members who had been sent
from Peking to his assistance. — The garrison towns of Kan chau
and Suchau, 241 ; the Mahomedans at Suchau, and restrictions
upon them, 242 ; the resort of the caravans of merchants professing
to be ambassadors; particulars about this system, 243.
Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS
Date of Goe's's arrival at Suchau, and prosperous state of his
affairs, 244; hears further accounts of the Jesuits at Peking
from Saracen traders, 244 ; writes to Matthew Ricci, but his
letter miscarries; writes again a letter, which is received after
many months, 245; the Jesuits sent a Chinese Christian pupil,
John Ferdinand, to his aid, 245; annoyance experienced by
Goes during detention at Suchau, 246; arrival of the caravan,
247 ; John Ferdinand at last arrives, but finds Benedict on his
death-bed, 247 ; his death eleven days later, 248 ; annoyance to
his servant Isaac and John Ferdinand from the Mahomedans,
who destroy Goe's's journal, 248.
Some remarks on the character of Goes, 249 ; anecdote of his
death-bed, 250.
Trouble of the two survivors, 251 ; but they outwit the
Mahomedans, and get to Peking, 252 ; relics of Benedict ; further
history of the faithful Isaac, 253.
Note I. — The Passes of the Hindu Kush, 255.
Note II. — Titles of some Books quoted in this Work by Abbreviated
References, 260.
Note III. — Corrections and Additional Illustrations, 266.
INDEX to the whole Work, 272.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Dog-mouthed Islanders (Sketched from life by the Editor) Page 94
Map of the Passes of the Hindu Kush and Country
adjoining, to illustrate the Journey of Goes.
In pocket at end of volume.
VI
IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN
BENGAL AND CHINA
VI
IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL
AND CHINA
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE
ABU-ABDULLAH MAHOMED, called Ibn Batuta1, The
Traveller (par excellence) of the Arab nation, as he was
hailed by a saint of his religion whom he visited in India,
was born at Tangier on the 24th February, 1304.
The duty of performing the Mecca pilgrimage must
have developed the travelling propensity in many a
Mahomedan, whilst in those days the power and extension
of the vast freemasonry to which he belonged would
give facilities for the indulgence of this propensity such
as have never been known under other circumstances
by any class of people2. Ibn Batuta himself tells us
how in the heart of China he fell in with a certain Al
Bushri3, a countryman of his own from Ceuta, who had
risen to great wealth and prosperity in that far country,
and how at a later date (when after a short visit to his
1 During his travels in the East he bore the name of Shams-
uddin (i, 8).
2 Ricold de Monte Croce is greatly struck with the brotherly
feeling among Mahomedans of his day, however strange to one
another in blood: "Nam etiam loquendo ad invicem, maxime
ad extraneos dicit unus alteri : 'O fili matris meae!' Ipsi etiam
nee occidunt se ad invicem nee expoliant, sed homo Sarracenus
securissime transit inter quoscumque extraneos et barbaros
Sarracenos " (Pereg. Quatuor., p. 134).
3 iv, 282. Similar references indicate the French edition
and version by Defre'mery and Sanguinetti, from which I have
translated.
c. Y. c. iv. I
2 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
native land the restless man had started to explore
Central Africa), hi passing through Segelmessa, on the
border of the Sahra, he was the guest of the same Al
Bushri's brother1. "What an enormous distance lay
between those two!" the traveller himself exclaims.
On another occasion he mentions meeting at Brussa a
certain Shaik Abd-Allah of Misr who bore the surname
of The Traveller. This worthy had indeed made the tour
of the world, as some would have it, but he had never
been in China nor in the Island of Serendib, neither in
Spain nor in Negroland. "I have beaten him," says
Ibn Batuta, "for all these have I visited2."
He entered on his wanderings at the age of twenty-
one (i4th June, 1325), and did not close them till he was
hard on fifty-one (in January, 1355) : his career thus
coinciding in time pretty exactly with that of Sir John
Mandeville (1322-56), a traveller the compass of whose
journeys would be deemed to equal or surpass the Moor's,
if we could but believe them to be as genuine3.
Ibn Batuta commenced his travels by traversing the
whole longitude of Africa (finding time to marry twice
upon the road) to Alexandria, the haven of which he
extols as surpassing all that he saw in the course of his
peregrinations, except those of Kaulam and Calicut in
India, that held by the Christians at Sudak or Soldaia in
the Crimea, and the great port of Zaytun in China.
After some stay at Cairo, which was then perhaps the
greatest city in the world out of China4, he ascended
1 iv» 377- 2 ii, 321.
3 [See Marco Polo, ii, App. L, 13. — Sir John Mandeville,
pp. 598-605.]
4 The traveller reports that the Plague or Black Death of
1348 carried off 24,000 souls in one day (!) in the united cities
of Cairo and Misr or Fostat (i, 229) ; whilst in 1381 the pestilence
was said to have carried off 30,000 a day. George Guccio, who
heard this at Cairo in 1384, relates also of the visitation of 1348
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 3
the valley of the Nile to Syene, and passed the Desert
to Aidhab on the Red Sea, with the view of crossing
the latter to Mecca. But wars raging on that sea prevented
this, so he retraced his steps and proceeded to visit
Palestine and the rest of Syria, including Aleppo and
Damascus. He then performed the pilgrimage to the
holy cities of his religion1, and afterwards visited the
shrine of Ali at Meshed. From this he went to Basra,
and then through Khuzistan and Luristan to Ispahan,
thence to Shiraz and back to Kufa and Baghdad. After
an excursion to Mosul and Diarbakr, he made the pilgrim-
age for a second time, and on this occasion continued to
dwell at Mecca for three years. When that time had
elapsed he made a voyage down the Red Sea to Yemen,
through which he travelled to Aden, the singular position
of which city he describes correctly, noticing its depen-
dence for water-supply upon cisterns preserving the
scanty rainfall2. Aden was then a place of great trade,
and the residence of wealthy merchants; ships of large
burden from Cambay, Tana, and all the ports of Malabar,
were in its harbour3. From Aden, Ibn Batuta continued
that "according to what the then Soldan wrote to King Hugo
of Cyprus, there were some days when more than 100,000 souls
died in Cairo!" (Viaggi in Terra Santa, p. 291).
1 Between Medina and Mecca he mentions an additional
instance of the phenomenon spoken of at II, p. 262 supra. Near
Bedr, he says, " in front of you is the Mount of the Drums (Jibal-
ul-Thabul) ; it is like a huge sand-hill, and the natives assert
that in that place every Thursday night they hear as it were
the sound of drums" (i, 296). [See Marco Polo, i, p. 202 n.,
207 n.}
2 These cisterns, works of a colossal magnitude, had in the
decay of Aden been buried in debris. During the last few years
some of them have been cleared out and repaired, and they
now form one of the most interesting sights of Aden. [They
are said to have been formerly 50 in number, with a capacity
of 30 million gallons. Cf. Marco Polo, ii, p. 440 n.]
3 Aden, one of those places which nature has marked for
perpetual revival, is mentioned, both by Marco Polo and by
Marino Sanudo his contemporary, as the great entrepot of that
4 IBN BATUTA S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
his voyage down the African coast, visiting Zaila, Makda-
shau (Magadoxo of the Portuguese), Mombasa, and
Quiloa in nearly nine degrees of south latitude. From
this he sailed to the coast of Oman, where, like Marco
Polo, he remarks the surprising custom of feeding cattle
part of the Indian commerce which came westward by Egypt,
but neither apparently had accurate acquaintance with the route.
The former says that " Aden is the port to which the Indian ships
bring all their merchandize. It is then placed on board other
small vessels which ascend a river about seven days, at the end
of which it is disembarked, laden on camels, and conveyed
thirty days further. It then comes to the river of Alexandria,
and is conveyed down to that city." Marino, after speaking
of the route by the Persian Gulf, and the three ports of Hormuz,
Kis, and Basra, goes on: "The fourth haven is called Ahaden,
and stands on a certain little island, joining as it were to the
main, in the land of the Saracens; the spices and other goods
from India are landed there, loaded on camels, and so carried
by a journey of nine days to a place on the river Nile called
Chus, where they are put into boats and conveyed in fifteen
days to Babylon (Cairo). But in the month of October and
thereabouts the river rises to such an extent that the spices,
etc., continue to descend the stream from Babylon, and enter a
certain long canal, and so are conveyed over the two hundred miles
between Babylon and Alexandria." (Polo, ii, c. 36; Mar. San.
Liber Fidelium Crucis, pt. i, c. i.)
Here we see that Marco apparently took the Red Sea for
a river, misled perhaps by the ambiguity of the Persian Darya.
In the MS. followed by Pauthier, Marco makes no such mistake
as is here referred to. See Pauthier's edition, p. 703. And
Marino supposes, as his map also shows, Aden to be on the west
side of the Red Sea, confounding it probably with Sudkin, which
was also a port of embarcation for India via Egypt, as I gather
from a MS. of the fourteenth century at Florence on the pilgrimage
to the tomb of St. Thomas. The Chus of Marino is Kus, the
ancient Cos or Apollinopolis Parva, between Keneh and Luxor,
described by Ibn Batuta (i, 106) as in his day a large and flourish-
ing town, with fine bazaars, mosques, and colleges, the residence
of the viceroys of the Thebaid. That traveller embarked at
Kus to descend the Nile, after his first visit to Upper Egypt.
It is nearly in the latitude of Kosseir. The Carta Catalana
calls Kosseir Chos, and notes it as the place where the Indian
spicery was landed. [At the time of Chau Ju-kua, Aden was
perhaps the most important port of Arabia for the African and
Arabian trade with India and the countries beyond. It seems
highly probable that the Ma-li-pa of the Chinese must be under-
stood as including Aden — of which they make no mention whatso-
ever, but which was one of " the great commercial centres of the
Arabs." Hirth and Rockhill, p. 25 «.] [See Ma Huan's Account
of Aden in /. R. As. Soc., 1896, p. 348 ; the Chinese Traveller does
not mention the cisterns.]
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 5
of all sorts upon small fish. After visiting the chief
cities of Oman he proceeded to Hormuz, or New Hormuz
as he calls the city on the celebrated Island. The rock-
salt found here, he observes, was used in forming orna-
mental vases and pedestals for lamps, but the most
remarkable thing that he saw at Hormuz appears to
have been a fish's head so large that men entered by
one eye and went out by the other1.
After visiting Kais or Kish he crossed the Gulf to
Bahrain, Al-Kathif, and Hajr or Al-Hasa (or Al-Ahsa,
v. supra, in, p. 65), where dates were so abundant that
there was a proverb about carrying dates to Hajr, like
ours of coals to Newcastle. Thence he crossed Central
Arabia through what is now the Wahabi country, but
without giving a single particular respecting it, and made
the Mecca pilgrimage again. He then embarked at
Jiddah, landed on the opposite coast, and made a journey
of great hardship to Syene, whence he continued along
the banks of the Nile to Cairo.
After this he revisited Syria, and made an extensive
journey through the petty Turkish sultanates into which
Asia Minor was then divided2. During this tour he tells
1 Whales (I believe of the Spermaceti genus) are still not
uncommon in the Arabian Sea. Abu Zaid mentions that in
his time about Siraf their vertebrae were used as chairs, and that
houses were to be seen on the same coast, the rafters of which
were formed of whale's ribs. (Reinaud, Relations, p. 146.)
I remember when in parts of Scotland it was not unusual to see
the gate-posts of a farm-yard formed of the same.
2 There were at least eleven of these principalities in Asia
Minor, after the fall of the [Seldjukid] kingdom of Iconium
in 1308 (Deguignes, iii, pt. ii, p. 76). [Konieh, Iconium, ancient
Lycaonia, dynasty of Benu Karaman, 1223-1472; Kastamuni,
Paphlagonia, dynasty of Kizil Ahmedlis, 1289-1459; Menteshe1,
Caria, dynasty of Benu Mentesh6, 1300-1426; Aidin, Lydia,
dynasty of Benu Sarukhan, 1313-1426; Tekkeh, Lycia, 1300-
1427; Hamid, Pisidia, 1300-81; Kermian, Phrygia, 1300-1429;
Karasi, Mysia, 1300-36; Abulustein, dynasty of Benu Dhu'lkadr,
1336-1521 ; Adanah, dynasty of Benu Ramadhan, 1378-1562, and
Kingdom of Osmanlis or Othman in Phrygia.]
6 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
us how he and his comrade engaged a certain Hajji
who could speak Arabic as servant and interpreter.
They found that he cheated them frightfully, and one
day, provoked beyond measure, they called out to him,
"Come now, Hajji, how much hast thou stolen to-day?"
The Hajji simply replied, "So much," naming the amount
of his plunder. "We could but laugh and rest content,"
says our traveller.
He then crossed the Black Sea to CAFFA, chiefly
occupied, as he tells us, by the Genoese (Janwiya), and
apparently the first Christian city in which he had found
himself, for he was in great dismay at the bell-ringing.
He went on by KRIM (or Solghat) and Azov to MA JAR,
a fine city on a great river (the Kuma), where he was
greatly struck by the consideration with which women
were treated by the Tartars; as if, in fact, creatures of
a higher rank than men. From this he proceeded to the
camp of Sultan Mahomed Uzbek, Khan of Kipchak
[1312-40], then pitched at BISHDAGH, a thermal spring,
apparently at the foot of Caucasus1. He was well
received by the Khan, and obtained from him a
guide to conduct him to the city of BOLGHAR, which
he was anxious to visit in order to witness with his own
eyes the shortness of the northern summer night2. He
1 This place, according to Defr6mery (Journ. As., July-
Sept. 1850, p. 159), still exists as Besh Tau, and was visited
by Klaproth.
Bolghar, sometimes called Bolar, is in 54° 54', nearly the
latitude of Carlisle. It stood near the left bank of the Atil or
Volga, about fifty miles above the modern Simbirsk and ninety
miles south-west of Kazan. It was sometimes the residence
of the khans of Kipchak. There was still a village called Bolgari
on the site when Pallas wrote; and there are a considerable
number of architectural remains. On these Hammer Purgstall
refers to Schmidt's ' Architektonische Umrisse der Ruinen Bolgars,
1832' (Pallas, Fr. Trans., year n, i, 217; Gesch. der Gold. Horde,
p. 8; Reinaud's Abulfeda, ii, p. 81 ; [Marco Polo, i, p. 7 n. ; ii,
p. 486 n.; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches, ii, p. 82]).
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 7
was desirous also to go north from Bolghar to the Land
of Darkness, of which he had heard still more wonderful
things; but this he gave up on account of the many
difficulties, and returned to the sultan's camp, which
he then followed to HAJ-TARKHAN (Astrakhan).
One of the wives of Mahomed Uzbek was a Greek
princess of Constantinople, whom the traveller calls the
Khdtun or Lady Beyalun (Philumena! or lolanthel At
iii, 10, it is written Beiluri), and she was now about to
pay a visit to her own people1. Ibn Batuta was allowed
to join the cortege. Their route seems to have been singu-
larly devious, leading them by UKAK2 ten days above
Sarai, near the "Hills of the Russians," described as a
fair-haired, blue-eyed, but ugly and crafty race of Chris-
tians, thence to the port of SOLDAIA (perhaps with the
intention of going by sea) and then by land the whole
way to Constantinople, where they were received in
1 These marriages appear to have been tolerably frequent
as the Greek emperors went down in the world, though the one
in question does not seem to be mentioned elsewhere. Thus
Hulaku having demanded in marriage a daughter of Michael
Palaeologus, a natural daughter of the emperor, Mary by name,
was sent in compliance with this demand : Hulaku was dead
when she arrived in Persia, but she was married to his successor,
Abaka Khan. The Mongols called her Despina Khatun (Aeo-Troiva).
An illegitimate sister of the same emperor, called Euphrosyne,
was bestowed on Nagaia Khan, founder of a small Tartar dynasty
on the Greek frontier; and another daughter of the same name
in 1265 on Tulabuka, who twenty years later became Khan
of Kipchak. Andronicus the Elder is said to have given a young
lady who passed for his natural daughter to Ghazan Khan of
Persia, and a few years later his sister Mary to Ghazan's successor,
Oljaitu, as well as another natural daughter Mary to Tuktuka
Khan of Kipchak. Also in the genealogy of the Comneni of
Trebizond we find two daughters of the Emperor Basil married
to Turkish or Tartar chiefs, and daughters of Alexis III, Alexis IV,
and John IV making similar marriages. (D'Ohsson, iii, 417,
and iv, 315, 318; Deguignes, i, 289; Hammer, Gesch. dev Ilchane;
Preface to Ibn Batuta, torn, ii, p. x ; Art. Comneni in Smith's
Diet, of Gr. and Rom. Biog.)
2 Ukaka or Ukek and Majar have already been mentioned
at in, p. 84, supra. The ruins of Majar exist and have been
described by Klaproth (Defremery in /. As., 1850, p. 154).
8 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
great state, the emperor (Andronicus the Younger) and
empress coming out to meet their daughter, and the whole
population crowding to see the show, while the bells
rang till the heavens shook with the clangour. He tells
us how, as he passed the city gate in the lady's train,
he heard the guards muttering to one another Sarakinu !
Sarakinu ! a name, sa)^ he, by which they called Mussul-
mans.
It is curious to find the name Istambul in use a century
and more before the Turkish conquest1. Thus he tells
us the part of the city CONSTANTINIA, on the eastern
side of the river (the Golden Horn), where the emperor
and his courtiers reside, is called Istambul, whilst the
other side is called Galata, and is specially assigned to
the dwellings of the Frank Christians, such as Genoese,
Venetians (Banddikah), people of Rome (Ahil-Rumah),
and of France (Ahil-Afrdnsah).
After a short stay at the Greek city, during which
he had an interview with the Emperor Andronicus the
Elder, whom he calls King George (Jirjis), and after
1 But even in the ninth century Mas'udi says that the Greeks
never called their city Constantinia but Bolin (iroXiv = Town
of the Londoner), and, when they wished to speak of it as the
capital of the empire, Stanbolin (els rr)v rroXiv) ; and he speaks
of these as very old appellations. Indeed the name applied by
the Chinese to the Roman Empire in the time of Heraclius
(Foliri) argues that the former term was then in familiar use.
In the century following Ibn Batuta, Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo
says that the Greeks called their city, not Constantinople, but
Escomboli (probably misread for Estomboli) ; and his contem-
porary Schiltberger tells us the Greeks called it Istimboli, but
the Turks Stambol.
The Orientals found other etymologies for the name. Thus
Sadik Isfahan! declares that Istanbul signifies in the Turkish
language, "You will find there what you will!" And after
the capture of the city, some of the sultans tried to change the
name to Isldmbul.
There are several other names in modern use which have
been formed in the same way; e.g. Isnicmid from els ^iKo^Seiav,
Setines from els 'Adyvas. (Jacquet in Jour. As., ix, 459, etc.;
Markham's Clavijo, p. 47; Schiltberger, p. 136; Geog. Works of
Sadik Isfahani by J. C., 1832, pp. 7, 8, and note.}
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 9
receiving a handsome present from the princess1, he
went back to Uzbek at Sarai, and thence took his way
across the desert to Khwarizm and Bokhara, whence
he went to visit the Khan 'Alauddin Tarmashirin of the
Chagatai dynasty. His travels then extended through
Khorasan and Kabul, including a passage of the Hindu
Kush. This appears to have been by ANDERAB (which he
calls Andar), and so by PANCHSHIR (see supra, II, p. 263)
to PARWAN and CHAREKAR (Charkh). It is remarkable
that between Anderab and Parwan Ibn Batuta speaks
of passing the Mountain of PASHAI, probably the Pascia
of Marco Polo, which Pauthier seems thus justified in
identifying with a part of the Kafir country of the Hindu
Kush (Lime de M. Pol, p. 123) 2. He then proceeded
to Sind, reaching the Indus, probably somewhere below
Larkhana, according to his own statement, on the i2th
September, 1333. Here he terminates the First Part of
his narrative.
Proceeding to SIWASTAN (Sehwan) he there met
with a brother theologian, 'Ala-ul-Mulk, who had been
appointed governor of the district at the mouth of the
Indus, and after having travelled with him to LAHARI,
a fine place on the shore of the ocean, he then turned
1 Part of this consisted of three hundred pieces of gold called
Albarbarah (Hyperpene), the gold of which was bad, he observes.
It was indeed very bad, for Pegolotti, if I understand him aright,
says these " per peri" contained only IT carats of gold to 6 of
silver and 7 of copper (p. 23).
2 [Marco Polo, i, pp. 164-6 «.] The name appears still more
exactly in another passage of Marco Polo, where he describes
the invasion of India by the Mongol prince whom he calls
Nogodar. ["He left his uncle who was then in Greater Armenia,
and fled with a great body of horsemen, cruel unscrupulous
fellows, first through Badashan, and then through- another
province called Pashai-Dir, and then through another called
Ariora-Keshemur. There he lost a great number of his people
and of his horses, for the roads were very narrow and perilous."
Marco Polo, i, p. 98.] Remarks on the Passes of Hindu Kush
will be found in the introduction to Goes, infra.
io IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
northward to BAKAR, UjAH1, and MULTAN, where he
found assembled a large party of foreigners all bent on
seeking their fortunes in India, and waiting at the frontier
city for invitations from the liberal sovereign of Hindustan.
This was Mahomet Tughlak, originally called Jiina
Khan, whose contradictory qualities are painted by Ibn
Batuta quite in accordance with the account of Firishta.
The latter describes him2 as the most eloquent and
accomplished prince of his time; gallant in the field
and inured to war ; admired for his compositions in prose
and verse; well versed in history, logic, mathematics,
medicine, and metaphysics; the founder of hospitals
for the sick and of refuges for widows and orphans;
profuse in his liberality, especially to men of learning.
But with all this he was wholly devoid of mercy and of
consideration for his people ; the murderer of his father3
1 Lahari is still known as Lahori or "Larry Bunder," though
it has disappeared from our recent maps. It stands on the
western or Pitti branch of the Indus delta. Bakdr is Bakhar or
Bukkur, the fort in the Indus between Sakkar and Rohri, where
the Indus was bridged for Lord Keane's army by Major George
Thomson in 1838. Ujah is Uchh [High Place] on [the south bank
of the Sutlej opposite its confluence with] the Chenab, below
Bahawalpur.
2 Briggs' Firishta, i, 411-12; see also Elphinstone, ii, 60.
3 As the story is told by Ibn Batuta after the relation of an
eyewitness, Mahomed had prepared, for the reception of his
father on his return from a campaign, a pavilion on the banks
of a stream near Delhi. This pavilion was artfully constructed
with the assistance of Ahmed son of Ayas the Inspector of
Buildings, so that when approached on a certain side by the
weighty bodies of elephants the whole would fall. After the
king had alighted and was resting in the pavilion with his favourite
son Mahmud, Mahomed proposed that the whole of the elephants
should pass in review before the building. When they came
over the fatal spot the structure came down on the heads of
Tughlak Shah and his young son. After intentional delay the
ruins were removed, and the king's body was found bending
over that of his boy as if to shield him [1324]. It was carried
to Tughlakabad, and laid in the tomb which he had built for
himself. This still stands, one of the simplest and grandest
monuments of Mahomedan antiquity, rising from the middle
of what is now a swamp, but was then a lake. It is said that
the parricide Mahomed is also buried therein. This strange
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE II
and of his brother, he was as madly capricious, as cruel,
bloodthirsty, and unjust as Nero or Caligula. Incensed
at anonymous pasquinades against his oppressions, he
on one occasion ordered the removal of the seat of
government, and of all the inhabitants of Delhi, to
Daulatabad in the Dekkan1, forty days' journey distant ;
and after the old city had been gradually reoccupied,
and he had himself re-established his court there for
some years, he repeated the same mad caprice a second
time2. "So little did he hesitate to spill the blood of
God's creatures, that when anything occurred which
excited him to proceed to that horrid extremity, one
might have supposed his object was to exterminate the
species altogether. No single week passed without his
having put to death one or more of the learned and holy
men who surrounded him, or some of the secretaries
who attended him." Or as Ibn Batuta pithily sums up
a part of the contradictions of his character, there was
no day that the gate of his palace failed to witness the
elevation of some abject to affluence, the torture and
murder of some living soul3. Mahomed formed great
schemes of conquest, and carried out some of them.
His mad projects for the invasion of Khorasan and of
China came to nothing, or to miserable disaster, but
story of the murder of Tughlak Shah is said to have been re-
enacted in our own day (1841 or 1842), when Nao Nihal Singh,
the successor of Ran jit, was killed by the fall of a gateway as
he entered Lahore.
Ahmed Bin Ayas, the engineer of the older murder, became
the Wazir of Mahomed, under the titles of Malik-Zada and
Khwaja Jahan. (Ibn Bat., iii, 213-14.)
1 A description of the prodigious scale on which the new
city, which was to be called the Capital of Islam, was projected
and commenced, is given by an eyewitness in the Masalak-al-
Absdr, translated in Not. et Extraits, xiii, 172.
2 Briggs, pp. 420-2; Ibn Bat., iii, 314. Elphinstone says
the move was made three times (ii, 67) . If so, I have overlooked
it in Briggs.
3 Briggs, pp. 411-12; Ibn Bat., iii, 216.
12 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
within the bounds of India he was more successful, and
had at one time subjected nearly the whole of the Penin-
sula. In the end, however, nearly all his conquests
were wrested from him, either by the native king or by
the revolt of his own servants. Respecting this king
and the history of his reign, Ibn Batuta's narrative
gives many curious and probably truthful details, such
subjects being more congenial to his turn of mind than
the correct observation of facts in geography or natural
history, though even as regards the former his statements
are sufficiently complicated by his contempt for chrono-
logical arrangement.
After a detention of two months at Multan, Ibn
Batuta was allowed to proceed, in company with the
distinguished foreigners, for whom invitations to the
court arrived. The route lay by ABOHAR in the desert,
where the Indian, as distinguished from the Sindian
provinces commenced, the castle of ABU BAKHR, Aju-
DAHAN, SARSATI, HANSI, MASUDABAD, and PALAM, to
DELHI1. The city, or group of cities, which then bore
1 I cannot trace Abu Bakhr. Ajudin [Ajodhan] or Pdk
Pattan (The Pure or Holy Ferry) is a town on the right bank
of the Sutlej valley, about half-way between Bahawalpur and
Firuzpur, the site of a very sacred Mahomedan shrine [the saint
Shaik-ul-Islam, Farid-ul-Hakkwa-ud-Dm, Shakar Ganj (1173-
1265)], for the sake of which Timur on his devastating march
spared the few persons found in the town [1398]. Abohar is a
town in the desert of Bhattiana, some sixty miles east of Ajudin.
[Uboh-har or "the pool of Uboh" after the wife of Jaura, the
founder of the town.] The narrative brings Ibn Batuta to Abohar
first, and then to Abu Bakhr and Ajodin, and I have not ventured
to change the order; but this seems to involve a direct retro-
gression. Sarsati [or Sarsuti] is the town now called Sirsa on
the verge of the Desert [on the north side of a dry bed of the
Ghaggar] . Hansi retains its name as the chief town of an English
Zillah. Sixty years ago [in 1798] it was the capital of that
singular adventurer George Thomas, who raised himself from
being a sailor before the mast to be the ruler of a small Indian
principality. Masudabad I do not know; it must have been in
the direction of the modern Bahadargarh. Palam still exists, a
few miles west of the Delhi of those days, to one of the gates
of which it gave its name.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 13
the latter name did not occupy the site of the modern
capital built by Shah Jahan in the seventeenth century,
but stood some ten miles further south, in a position
of which the celebrated Kutb Minar may be taken as
the chief surviving landmark.
The king was then absent at Kanauj, but on hearing
of the arrival of Ibn Batuta with the rest, he ordered
an assignment in his behalf of three villages, producing
a total rent of 5000 silver dinars, and on his return
to the capital received the traveller kindly, and gave
him a further present of 12,000 dinars, with the appoint-
ment of Kazi of Delhi, to which a salary of the same
amount was attached1.
Ibn Batuta continued for about eight years in the
service of Mahomed Shah, though it seems doubtful
how far he was occupied in his judicial duties. Indeed,
he describes Delhi, though one of the grandest cities in
the Mahomedan world, as nearly deserted during his
residence there. The traveller's good fortune seems
only to have fostered his natural extravagance; for at
an early period of his stay at the capital he had incurred
debts to the amount of 55,000 dinars of silver, which,
after long importunity, he got the Sultan to pay. Indeed,
by his own account, he seems to have hung like a perfect
horse-leech on the king's bounty.
When Mahomed Tughlak was about to proceed to
Maabar to put down an insurrection2, Ibn Batuta expected
1 Respecting the value of these dinars, see Note A at the
end of this Introduction. The three villages assigned to the
traveller lay at sixteen koss from Delhi, he says, and were called
Badli, Basahi, and B alar ah. They lay in the Sadi or Hundred
of Hindu-but (or the Hindu Idol ; so Defremery reads it, but the
original as he gives it seems rather to read Hindabat, and may
represent Indrapat, the name of one of the old cities of Delhi
still existing. Probably the villages could be identified on the
Indian Atlas). Two were added later, Jauzah and Malik-pur.
2 This must have been on the occasion of the revolt of the
Sharif Jalal-uddin Ahsan in Maabar. The French editors, in
14 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
to accompany him, and prepared an outfit for the march
on his usual free scale of expenditure1. At the last
moment, however, he was ordered, nothing loth, to remain
behind and take charge of the tomb of Sultan Kutb-uddin,
whose servant the Sultan had been, and for whose memory
he professed the greatest veneration2. He renewed his
personal extravagances, spending large sums which his
friends had left in deposit with him, and reviling those
who were mean enough to expect at least a portion to
be repaid! One who scattered his own money and
that of his friends so freely was not likely to be backward
the careful chronological table of the events of Mahomed's
reign which is embraced in their Preface to the third volume,
place this expedition in 1341-2. The sultan fell ill at Warangol
[Warangal, 86 miles north-east of Hyderabad City], and returned
speedily to Daulatabad [district of Aurangabad, Hyderabad State,
or Deogiri, Mohammed Tughlak had the idea of making it his
capital] and Delhi.
1 His account of the outfit required by a gentleman travelling
in India shows how little such things have changed there in
five hundred years, say from 1340 to 1840. (Now they are
changing !) He mentions the set of tents and saiwdns (or canvas
enclosure walls) to be purchased ; men to carry the tents on their
shoulders (this is never the practice now) ; the grass cutters
to supply the horses and cattle with grass ; the bearers (kahdron)
to carry the kitchen utensils on their shoulders, and also to
carry the traveller's palankin ; the fardshes to pitch his tents
and load his camels; the runners to carry torches before him
in the dark. Moreover he tells us he had paid all these people
nine months' wages beforehand, which shows that the "system
of advances" was in still greater vigour than even now.
The French translators do not recognize the word kahdron,
putting "goharsP" as a parenthetic query. But it is still the
ordinary name of the caste of people (Kahdrs) who bear palankins
or carry burdens on a yoke over one shoulder, and the name is
one of the few real Indian words that Ibn Batuta shows any
knowledge of. I think the only others are tatu \tatiu~\ for a pony ;
Jauthri (for Chaodri], "the Shaikh of the Hindus," as he explains
it; Sdha, as the appellation of a certain class of merchants
at Daulatabad, a name (Sahd) still borne extensively by a mercan-
tile caste ; Katri (Kshatri) as the name of a noble class of Hindus ;
Jogi; morah [morha], a stool; kishri [khichrl] (for kichari, vulgo
kedgeree, well known at Indian breakfasts) ; and some names of
fruits and pulses (iii, 415, 427; 207; 388; iv, 49, 51; ii, 75; iii,
«7-3i)-
2 This was Kutb-uddin Mubarak Shah, son of 'Alauddin,
murdered by his minister Khosru in 1320.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 15
when his hand had found its way into the public purse.
The account he gives of the establishment he provided
for the tomb placed under his charge is characteristic
of his magnificent ideas. "I established in connexion
with it one hundred and fifty readers of the Koran,
eighty students, and eight repeaters, a professor, eighty
sufis, or monks, an imam, muezzins, reciters selected for
their fine intonation, panegyrists, scribes to take note of
those who were absent, and ushers. All these people are
recognized in that country as alarbdb, or gentlemen.
I also made arrangements for the subordinate class
of attendants called alhdshiyah, or menials1, such as foot-
men, cooks, runners, water-carriers, sherbet-men, betel-
men, sword-bearers, javelin-men, umbrella-men, hand-
washers, beadles, and officers. The whole number of
people whom I appointed to these employments amounted
to four hundred and sixty persons. The Sultan had
ordered me to expend daily in food at the tomb twelve
measures of meal and an equal weight of meat. That
appeared to me too scanty an allowance; whilst, on the
other hand, the total revenue in grain allowed by the
king was considerable. So I expended daily thirty-
five measures of meal, an equal weight of butcher-meat,
and quantities in proportion of sugar, sugar-candy,
butter, and pawn. In this way I used to feed not only
the people of the establishment, but all comers. There
was great famine at the time, and this distribution of
food was a great alleviation of the sufferings of the people,
so that the fame of it spread far and wide."
Towards the end of his residence in India he fell
for a time into great disfavour, the cause of which he
relates in this way:
1 Rabb, Dominus, Possessor, pi. arbdb; Hhdshiyah, ora
vestis vel alius rei, inde domestic!, asseclae (Freytag in w).
16 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
There was at Delhi a certain learned and pious shaikh
called Shihab-uddin the son of Aljam the Khorasani,
whom Sultan Mahomed was desirous of employing
in his service, but who positively refused to enter it.
On this the king ordered another doctor of theology,
who was standing by, to pull out the shaikh's beard,
and on his declining the office, the ruffian caused the
beards of both to be plucked out ! Shaikh Shihab-uddin
retired from the city and established himself in a country
place some miles from Delhi, where he amused himself
by forming a large cave, which he fitted up with a
bath, supplied by water from the Jumna, and with
other conveniences. The Sultan several times sent to
summon him, but he always refused to come, and at
length said in plain words that he would never serve a
tyrant. He was then arrested and brought before the
tyrant himself, brutally maltreated, and finally put to
death.
Ibn Batuta's curiosity had induced him to visit the
shaikh in his cavern before this happened, and he thus
incurred the displeasure and suspicion of the Sultan.
Four slaves were ordered to keep him under constant
surveillance, a step which was generally followed before
long by the death of the suspected individual. Ibn
Batuta, in his fear, betook himself to intense devotion
and multiplied observances, among others to the repetition
of a certain verse of the Koran 33,000 times in the day !
The surveillance being apparently relaxed, he withdrew
altogether from the public eye, gave all that he possessed
to darveshes and the poor (he says nothing about his
creditors), and devoted himself to an ascetic life under
the tutelage of a certain holy shaikh in the neighbourhood
of Delhi, called Kamal-uddin Abdallah of the Cave,
with whom he abode for five months. The king, who was
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 17
then in Sind1, hearing of Ibn Batuta's reform, sent for
him to camp. He appeared before the Lord of the World
(as Mahomed was called) in his hermit's dress, and was
well received. Nevertheless, he evidently did not yet
consider his head at all safe, for he redoubled his ascetic
observances. After forty days, however, the king sum-
moned him again, and announced his intention of sending
him on an embassy to China. According to Ibn Batuta's
dates this appears to have been in the spring of 1342.
The object of the proposed embassy was to reciprocate
one which had arrived at court from the Emperor of
China. The envoys had been the bearers of a present
to Sultan Mahomed, which consisted of 100 slaves of
both sexes, 500 pieces of cammucca2, of which 100 were
of the fabric of Zaitiin and 100 of that of King-sze,
five maunds of musk, five robes broidered with pearls,
five quivers of cloth of gold, and five swords3. And
the professed object of the mission was to get leave to
rebuild an idol temple (Buddhist, doubtless) on the
borders of the mountain of KARACHIL, at a place called
SAMHAL, whither the Chinese used to go on pilgrimage,
and which had been destroyed by the Sultan's troops4.
1 This must have been on the occasion of the revolt of Shahu
the Afghan at Multan, who murdered the viceroy of the province
and tried to set himself up as king. Though Defremery's chrono-
logical table does not mention that Sultan Mahomed himself
marched to the scene of action, and Ibn Batuta only says that
"the Sultan made preparations for an expedition against him,"
as the revolt is placed in this very year 1342, it is probable that
he had advanced towards Multan (iii, pp. xxi and 362), which
according to the view of Ibn Batuta was a city of Sind.
2 See note, in, p. 155, supra.
3 ["A hundred Mamluks, fifty slave girls, five hundred
dresses of El Kamanjah, five hundred maunds of musk, five
dresses wrought with jewels, five quivers wrought with gold,
and five swords with jewels." (Lee, Ibn Batuta, p. 153.)]
4 It is interesting to find this indication that perhaps the
pilgrimages of the Chinese Buddhists to the ancient Indian
holy places were still kept up, but it may have been only the
Tibetan subjects of the Great Khan who maintained the practice.
c. Y. c. iv. 2
i8 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
Mahomed's reply was that it was not admissible by the
principles of his religion to grant such a demand, unless
in favour of persons paying the poll-tax as subjects of his
Government. If the Emperor would go through the form
of paying this he would be allowed to rebuild the temple1.
The embassy, headed by Ibn Batuta, was to convey
this reply, and a return present of much greater value
than that received. This was composed of 100 high-
bred horses caparisoned, 100 male slaves, 100 Hindu
girls accomplished in song and dance, 100 pieces of the
stuff called bairami (these were of cotton, but matchless
In our own day I have seen such at Hardwar, who had crossed
the Himalaya, from Mahachin as they said, to visit the holy
flame of Jawalamukhi in the Punjab. Karachil is doubtless
a corruption of the Sanskrit Kuverachal, a name of Mount Kailas,
where lies the city of Kuvera the Indian Plutus, and is here used
for the Himalaya. In another passage the author describes it
as a range of vast mountains, three month's journey in extent,
and distant ten days from Delhi, which was invaded by
M. Tughlak's army in a most disastrous expedition (apparently
the same which Firishta describes as a project for the invasion
of China, though Ibn Batuta does not mention that object).
He also speaks of it as the source of the river which flowed near
Amroha (in the modern district of Moradabad, probably the
Ramgunga; iii, 326; ii, 6; iii, 437). The same name is found
in the form Kaldrchal, applied to a part of the Himalaya by Rashid,
or rather perhaps by Al-Biruni, whom he appears to be copying.
This author distinguishes it from Harmakut (Hema-Kuta, the
Snow Peaks, one form of the name Himalaya), in which the Ganges
rises, and says that the eternal snows of Kalarchal are visible
from Tdkas (Taxila?) and Lahore (Elliot's Mah. Historians,
p. 30). Samhal is probably Sambhal, an ancient Hindu city of
Rohilkhand (perhaps the Sapolus of Ptolemy?), also in Zillah
Moradabad. From other passages I gather that the province
was called Sambhal at that time, and indeed so it was up to the
time of Sultan Baber, when it formed the government of his
son Humayun. I do not find that Sambhal itself has been
recognized as the site of Buddhist remains, but very important
remains of that character have been examined by Major-Gen.
Cunningham, following the traces of Hiuen Tsang, at various
places immediately to the north of Sambhal, and one of these
may have been the site of the temple in question.
1 The Jezia or " poll-tax . . . was imposed, during the early
conquests, on all infidels who submitted to the Mahomed rule,
and was the test by which they were distinguished from those
who remained in a state of hostility" (Elphinstone, ii, 457).
Its abolition was one of the beneficent acts of Akbar, but Aurang-
zib imposed it again.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 19
in quality) 1, 100 pieces of silk stuff called juz, 100 pieces
of stuff called salatuyah, 100 pieces of shirinbaf, 100 of
shanbaf, 500 of woollen stuff (probably shawls), of which
100 were black, 100 white, 100 red, 100 green, 100 blue ;
100 pieces of Greek linen, 100 cloth dresses, a great state
tent and six pavilions, four golden candlesticks and six
of silver, ornamented with blue enamel ; six silver basins,
ten dresses of honour in brocade2, ten caps, of which one
was broidered with pearls; ten quivers of brocade, one
with pearls ; ten swords, one with a scabbard wrought in
pearls ; gloves broidered with pearls ; and fifteen eunuchs.
His colleagues in this embassy were the Amir Zahir-
uddin the Zinjani, a man of eminent learning, and the
Eunuch Kafur (Camphor) the Cup-bearer, who had
charge of the presents. The Amir Mahomed of Herat
was to escort them to the place of embarcation with
1000 horse, and the Chinese ambassadors, fifteen in
number, the chief of whom was called Tursi3, joined
the party with about 100 servants.
1 Probably Dacca muslins. Beirami is a term for certain
white Indian cloths we find used by Varthema, Barbosa, and
others, and in Milburn's Oriental Commerce we have the same
article under the name Byrampaut (i, 268). The Shanbaf is
no doubt the Sinabaffi of Varthema, but more I cannot say.
["1609. A sort of cloth called Byramy resembling Holland
cloths." (F. C. Danvers and W. Foster, Letters received by
the E. I. Co., i, 29.)
Shirinbaf, Pers. Shirinbaf, "sweet wool," a fine light stuff
or cotton whereof the Moors make their cabayes or clothing.
(Danvers, /. c., i, 29.)
Shanbaf, Sinabaffs [Varthema] is identified by Badger, quoted
by Sir G. Birdwood, Report on the Old Records of the India Office,
p. 153, with sina-bafta, "China-woven" cloths.]
2 Mahomed Tughlak maintained an enormous royal establish-
ment (analogous to the Gobelins) of weavers in silk and gold
brocade, to provide stuffs for his presents, and for the ladies
of the palace (Not. et Extraits, xiii, 183).
3 ["With whom there was a great Emir," Lee, p. 155.] A
statesman called Turshi was chief minister in China with great
power, a few years after this, in 1347-8 (De Mailla, ix, 584).
It is, however, perhaps not probable that this was the same
20 1BN BATUTA S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
The king had apparently returned to Delhi before
the despatch of the party, for the latter set out from
that city on the 22nd July, 1342. Their route lay at
first down the Doab as far as Kanauj, but misfortunes
began before they had got far beyond the evening shadow
of the Kutb Minar. For whilst they were at KOL (Koel
or Aligarh, eighty miles from Delhi), having complied
with an invitation to take part in relieving the neigh-
bouring town of JALAL! from the attack of a body of
Hindus1, they lost in the fight twenty-five horsemen
and fifty-five foot-men, including Kafur the Eunuch.
During a halt which ensued, Ibn Batuta, separating
from his companions, got taken prisoner, and though
he escaped from the hands of his captors, did not get
back to his friends for eight days, during which he went
through some curious adventures. The party were so
disheartened by these inauspicious beginnings that they
wished to abandon the journey; but, in the meantime,
the Sultan had despatched his Master of the Robes,
the Eunuch Sanbul (Spikenard), to take the place of
Kafur defunct, and with orders for them to proceed.
From KANAUJ they turned southwards to the fortress
of GWALIOR, which Ibn Batuta had visited previously,
and had then taken occasion to describe with fair accuracy.
At PARWAN, a place which they passed through on
leaving Gwalior, and which was much harassed by lions
(probably tigers rather), the traveller heard that certain
malignant Jogis were in the habit of assuming the form
person, as the Indo-Chinese nations do not usually employ
statesmen of a high rank on foreign embassies.
1 That work of this kind should be going on so near the
capital shows perhaps that when Firishta says Mahomed's
conquest of the distant provinces of Dwara-Samudra, Maabar,
and Bengal, etc., had incorporated them with the empire "as
completely as the villages in the vicinity of Delhi," this may
not have amounted to very much after all (Briggs, i, 413).
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 21
of those animals by night. This gives him an opportunity
of speaking of others of the Jogi class who used to allow
themselves to be buried for months, or even for a twelve-
month together, and afterwards revived. At Mangalore
he afterwards made acquaintance with a Mussulman
who had acquired this art from the Jogis1. The route
continued through Bundelkhand and Malwa to the
city of DAULATABAD, with its celebrated fortress of
DWAIGIR (Deogiri), and thence down the Valley of the
Tapti to KINBAIAT (Cambay)2.
1 This art, or the profession of it, is not yet extinct in India.
A very curious account of one of its professors will be found
in a ' Personal Narrative of a Tour through the States of Rajwara '
(Calcutta, 1837, pp. 41-4), by my lamented friend Major-General
A. H. E. Boileau, and also in the Court and Camp of Ranjit Singh,
by Captain Osborne, an officer on Lord Auckland's staff, to which
I can only refer from memory. [See Marco Polo, ii, 365, 369 n.]
2 I will here give the places passed through by Ibn Batuta
on his route from Delhi to Cambay, with their identifications
as far as practicable.
DELHI.
Tilbat, -2.\ parasangs from This is perhaps Tilputa, a village in
the city . . . the Dadri Parganah, though this
is some 17 miles from old Delhi.
[Mzik, p. 249, criticizes Yule but
does not himself throw any new
light on the subject.]
Au .... Possibly Aduh, a Pargana town 8
miles west of Bulandshahr. [Mzik,
p. 249, says it should be Adha or
Edha.}
HIM?
Beiana, "a great place," I believe no such name is now trace-
with fine markets, and able. Biana, west of Agra, was a
of which one of the chief very important city and fortress in
officers of state had the middle ages, but is quite out
been lately governor of place here. [Mzik, p. 249, has
Bay ana, 24 English miles west of
Koil.]
K6L, a fine city in a plain Koel [or Koil], commonly now known
surrounded by mango as Aligarh, from the great fort in the
orchards. vicinity taken by Lord Lake [1803].
Jaldli still exists, 10 m. E. of Koel.
(Jala.li, the town relieved)
Burjburah . . . There is a village Birjpur N.E. of
Mainptiri, on the line between Koel
and Kanauj.
22 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
From Cambay they went to KAWE, a place on a tidal
gulf belonging to the Pagan Raja Jalansi, and thence
to KANDAHAR, a considerable city on another estuary,
and belonging to the same prince, who professed loyalty
Ab-i-Siyah
KANAUJ .
Hanaul, Wazirpur
Bajalisah
City of Maori, Marh
Alapur, ruled by an Abys-
sinian or Negro giant
who could eat a whole
sheep at once. A day's
journey from this dwelt
Katam the Pagan King
of Jambll
GALltlR ....
Parwan, Amwari
Kajarra. Here there was
a lake about a mile long
surrounded by idol tem-
ples, and with buildings
in the water occupied
by long-haired Jogis .
Chanderi, a great place
with splendid bazaars .
A Persian rendering of the name of
Kali-Nadi (Black River), which
enters the Ganges near Kanauj.
Shari-uddfn gives the same name
in a Turkish version, Kara Su
(H. de Timur Bee, iii, 121).
Well known.
Not traced. The last a very common
name.
Must have been a place of some note
as it gave a name to one of the
gates of Delhi (iii, 149, and note,
p. 461). I should suppose it must
have been near the Jumna, Etawa
perhaps, or at Bateswar Ferry.
If the last was Etawa, Maori may be
Umri near Bhind.
There is a place, Jaurasa Alapur, to
the W.N.W. of Gwalior, where Sir
Robert Napier gained a brilliant
victory over the Gwalior insurgents
in 1858, but it seems too much out
of the line. The Pagan king is
perhaps the Rajah of Dholpur on
the Chambal.
Gwalior.
The first may be Panwdri in the
Hamirpur Zillah, which would be
in the line taken, if the next
identification be correct.
Appears to be mentioned as Kajrdha
by Rashid, quoted by Elliot (p. 37),
who identifies both names with
Kajrdi, on the banks of the Ken
river in Bundelkhand, between
Chattarpiir and Panna, which has
ruins of great antiquity and in-
terest. If so, the route followed
must have been very devious,
owing perhaps to the interposition
of insurgent districts.
A well known ancient city and
fortress on the borders of Bundel-
khand and Malwa, captured by
Sir Hugh Rose in 1858. According
to the Ayin Akbari (quoted by
Rennell) it contained 14,000 stone
houses.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 23
to Delhi, and treated them hospitably. Here they took
ship, three vessels being provided for them. After two
days they stopped to water at the Isle of BAIRAM, four
miles from the main. This island had been formerly
peopled, but it remained abandoned by the natives
since its capture by the Mahomedans, though one of
the king's officers had made an attempt to re-settle
it, putting in a small garrison and mounting mangonels
for its defence. Next day they were at KUKAH, a great
city with extensive bazaars, anchoring four miles from
the shore on account of the vast recession of the tide.
This city belonged to another pagan king, Dunkul, not
too loyal to the Sultan. Three days' sail from this
brought the party abreast of the Island of SINDABUR,
but they passed on and anchored under a smaller island
near the mainland, in which there was a temple, a grove,
and a piece of water. Landing here, the traveller had
a curious adventure with a Jogi, whom he found by the
ZIHAR, the capital of Mai- Dhdr, say the French Editor. But
wa. There were in- apparently the next station should
scribed milestones all have come first in that case,
the way from Delhi to
this.
UJJAIN .... Well known ancient city, N.E. of
Dhar.
(Amjari, where he tells us Amjhera, a few miles S.W. by W.
(iii, 137) he witnessed a of Dhar?
Suttee.) _
DAULATABAD . . . Retains its name. It appears in Fra
Mauro's map as Deuletabet, and in
the C. Catalana as Diogil (Deogiri).
Nadharbar. The people Naderbar of Rennell, or Nandarbdr,
here and of the Daula- on the south bank of the Tapti.
tabad territory Marha-
tahs (iv, 48, 51).
Saghar, a great town on Saunghar on the Tapti.
a considerable river.
KINBAIAT, a very hand- Cambay [Khambayat]. We find the t
some city full of foreign expressed by several of the old
merchants, on an estu- authors, by Marino Sanudo (Cam-
ary of the sea in which beth), by Fra Mauro (Combait) ; and
the tide rose and fell in much later the Jesuits of Akbar's
a remarkable manner. time have Cambaietta.
24 IBN BATUTA S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
wall of the temple1. Next day they came to HUNAWUR
(or Onore), a city governed by a Mahomedan prince
with great power at sea; apparently a pirate, like his
successors in later times, but an enlightened ruler, for
Ibn Batuta found in his city twenty-three schools for
boys and thirteen for girls, the latter a thing which he
had seen nowhere else in his travels2.
After visiting several of the northern ports of Malabar,
then very numerous and flourishing, they arrived at
CALICUT, which the traveller describes as one of the
finest ports in the world, frequented for trade by the
people of China, the Archipelago, Ceylon, the Maldives,
Yemen, and the Persian Gulf3. Here they were honourably
received by the king, who bore the title of Samari* (the
Zamorin of the Portuguese), and made their landing in
great state. But all this was to be followed by speedy
grief, as the traveller himself observes.
1 For the identification of the places from Cambay to Hunawur
I must refer to Note B at the end of this Introduction. Assuming,
as there argued, that Sindabiir was Goa [see Hob son- Job son, s.v.],
the small island was probably Anchediva, a favourite anchorage
of the early Portuguese. " In the middle of it is a large lake of
fresh water, but the island is deserted ; it may be two miles
from the mainland; it was in former times inhabited by the
Gentoos, but the Moors of Mecca used to take this route to
Calicut, and used to stop here to take in wood and water, and
on that account it has ever since been deserted." (Voyage of
Pedro Alvares Cabral, Lisbon, 1812, p. 118.)
2 He says the Sultan of Hunawur was subject to a Pagan
monarch called Hariab, of whom he promises to speak again,
but does not do so, unless, as is probable, he was the same as
Bilal Deo (the Raja of Karnata), of whom he speaks at iv, p. 195.
3 [Ma Huan describes Calicut (Ku-li) as " a great emporium of
trade frequented by merchants from all quarters. It is three
days' sail from Cochin, by which it is bordered on the south ; on
the north it adjoins Cannanore (K'an-nu-urh) ; it has the sea
on the west; and on the east, through the mountains, at a
distance of 500 li (167 miles), is the kingdom or city of K'an-pa-
mei." (/. R. A.S., 1896, p. 345.)]
4 [The word is Malayal. Sdmutiri, Samuri, Tdmdtiri, Tdmuri,
a tadbhava (or vernacular modification) of Skt. Sdmundri, "the
Sea-King." Hobson-Jobson.]
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 25
At Calicut they abode for three months, awaiting
the season for the voyage to China, viz., the spring.
All the communication with that country, according to
Ibn Batuta (the fact itself is perhaps questionable), was
conducted in Chinese vessels, of which there were three
classes: the biggest called Junk, the middle-sized Zao,
and the third Kakam1. The greater ships had from
three to twelve sails, made of strips of bamboo woven
like mats. Each of them had a crew of 1000 men, viz.,
600 sailors and 400 soldiers, and had three tenders
attached, which were called respectively the Half, the
Third, and the Quarter, names apparently indicating their
proportionate size. The vessels for this trade were
built nowhere except at ZAITUN and SINKALAN, the
city also called SiN-UL-SiN2, and were all made with
triple sides, fastened with enormous spikes, three cubits
1 The French editors derive these three words from Chinese
terms, said to be respectively, Ch'wen, Sao or Sen, and Hoa-
hang (M. Pauthier corrects these two last to Tsao or Chdu, and
Hoa-ch'wen, " merchant- vessel," M. Polo, p. 656). I may venture
at least to suggest a doubt of this derivation. Junk is certainly
the Malay and Javanese Jong or Ajong, " a great ship " (v. Craw-
furd's Malay Diet, in vocib. and Hobson-Jobson] ; whilst Zao
may just as probably be the Dhao or Dao, which is to this day
the common term on all the shores of the Indian Ocean, I believe
from Malabar westward, for the queer old-fashioned high-sterned
craft of those coasts, the Tava of Athanasius Nikitin's voyage
from Hormuz to Cambay. "Dow," says Burton, "is used on
the Zanzibar coast for craft generally." (/. R. G. S., xxix, 239.)
[It is quite possible that this word Kakam is only a corruption
of the old Italian Cocca, a kind of ship. There has always
been great interchange of words connected with navigation.
Cf. Marco Polo, ii, 252 n.]
2 We have already seen that Sinkaldn [Ferrand, I.e. i, p. xi,
remarks that the Persian t^)^ O-"* Cin kelan = S\ir. Mahdcma,
Great China] is Canton (supra, n, p. 179 and in, p. 126), and
Ibn Batuta here also teaches us to identify it with the Sinia-ul-Sin
of Edrisi, which that geographer describes as lying at one extremity
of the Chinese empire, unequalled for its size, edifices and com-
merce, and crowded with merchants from all the parts of India
towards China. It was the residence, he says, of a Chinese Prince
of the Blood, who governed it as a vassal of the Faghfur (the
Facfur of Polo, i.e., the Sung Emperor of Southern China; see
Jaubert's Edrisi, i, 193, and Marco Polo, ii, 148 n.).
26 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
in length. Each ship had four decks, and numerous
private and public cabins for the merchant passengers,
with closets and all sorts of conveniences1. The sailors
frequently had pot-herbs, ginger, etc., growing on board
in wooden tubs. The commander of the ship was a
very great personage2, and, when he landed, the soldiers
belonging to his ship marched before him with sword
and spear and martial music.
The oars or sweeps used on these great junks were
more like masts than oars, and each was pulled by from
ten to thirty men. They stood to their work in two
ranks, facing each other, pulling by means of a strong
cable fastened to the oar (which itself was, I suppose,
too great for their grasp), and singing out to the stroke,
La, La ! La, La !
The only ports of Malabar frequented for trade by
the China vessels were KAULAM, Calicut, and Hili3;
1 This account of the great Junks may be compared with
those given by M. Polo (ii, p. 249), and F. Jordanus (p. 54).
2 Because Ibn Batuta says the skipper "was like a great
Amir," Lassen assumes that he was an Arab. For this there
seems no ground. Further on Ibn Batuta calls Kurtai the
Viceroy of King-sze, who is expressly said to be a Pagan, "a
great Amir." All that he means to say of the captain might
be most accurately expressed in the vulgar term "a very great
swell."
Whilst referring to Lassen's remarks upon Ibn Batuta towards
the end of the fourth volume of his Indian Antiquities, I am
constrained to say that the carelessness exhibited in this part of
that great work makes one stand aghast, coming from a man
of such learning and reputation. Such a statement needs support,
and I refer for it to Note C at the end of this Introduction.
3 Scarcely any change in India, since the days of our travellers,
is more remarkable than the decay of the numerous ports,
flourishing with foreign as well as domestic trade, which then
lined the shores of the country; and the same remark applies
in degree also to the other countries of Southern Asia, both
eastward and westward of India. The commencement of this
decay appears to date nearly from the arrival of the Portuguese,
for at that time most of the ports were found still in an active
and prosperous state. Somewhat similar circumstances have
had course in our own country. The decay of the Cinque Ports
can plead natural deterioration, but a more striking parallel
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 27
but those which intended to pass the Monsoon in India,
used to go into the harbour of FANDARAINA for that
purpose1. Thirteen of these ships, of different sizes,
were lying at Calicut when Ibn Batuta's party were
there.
The Zamorin prepared accommodation on board one
of the junks for the party from Delhi; but Ibn Batuta,
having ladies with him, went to the agent for the vessel,
a Mahomedan called Suleiman ul-Safadi-ul-Shami, to
obtain a private cabin for them, having, it would seem,
in his usual happy-go-lucky way, deferred this to the
last moment. The agent told him that the cabins
were all taken up by the Chinese merchants, who had
occurs on the shores of the Firth of Forth, once lined with sea-
ports which each sent out its little squadron of merchant-vessels,
the property of local owners, to the Continental trade ; ports
which now, probably, can boast only a few fishing-boats, and
" merchants " only in the French and old Scotch sense of the term.
The decay of the Malabar ports may have begun in forcible
monopoly and in devastating wars, from which the country
had previously long enjoyed a comparative exemption, but it
has been kept up no doubt by that concentration of capital
in the hands of large houses, which more and more characterizes
modern commerce, and is in our days advancing with more
rapid strides than ever, whilst this cause is being reinforced by
that concentration of the streams of produce which is induced
by the construction of Trunk Railways. Whatever be the
causes, it seems to me impossible to read these old travellers
without at least an impression that wealth, prosperity, and
probably happiness, were then far more generally diffused on
the shores of India than they are now. Is there any ground
for hope that the present state of things may be one of transition,
and that at a future day the multiplication of railways will
diminish this intense concentration, and again sow the coasts
of India with seats of healthy trade and prosperity? If so,
it will not be done by railways of wide gauge and heavy cost
like those now made in India.
In a note (D) at the end of this Introduction, I propose to
append a review of the Ports of Malabar as they were known
from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century.
1 [In the Yuen Shi, ch. 94, fol. nr° the "three barbarian
kingdoms of Ma-pa-eul (Ma'abar), Pei-nan (corr. Kiu-nam,
Coilam) and Fan-ta-la-yi-na" are mentioned. No doubt the last
kingdom refers to the Fandaraina of Ibn Batuta, and Prof. Pelliot
who gives me this information believes it is also, in the middle of
the fourteenth century, Pan-ta-li of the Tao yi chi lio.]
28 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
(apparently) "return tickets." There was one, indeed,
belonging to his own son-in-law, which Ibn Batuta
could have, but it was not fitted up; however if he
took that now, probably he would be able to make some
better arrangement on the voyage ; (it would seem from
this that shipping agency in those days was a good
deal like what it sometimes is now). So one Thursday
afternoon our traveller's baggage and slaves, male and
female, were put on board, whilst he stayed ashore to
attend the Friday service before embarking. His col-
leagues, with the presents for China, were already on
board. But the next morning early, the Eunuch Hilal,
Ibn Batuta's servant,- came to complain that the cabin
assigned to them was a wretched little hole, and would
never do. Appeal was made to the captain, but he
said it could not be helped; if, however, they liked to
go in a kakam which was there, they might pick and
choose. Our traveller consented, and had his goods
and his women-kind transferred to the kakam before
public prayer time. In the afternoon the sea rose (it
always did in the afternoon, he observes), and it was
impossible to embark. By this time the China ships
were all gone except that with the presents, another
junk which was going to stop over the monsoon at Fanda-
raina, and the kakam, on which all the Moor's property
was embarked. When he got up on Saturday morning
the junk with his colleagues, and the kakam, had weighed,
and got outside the harbour. The junk bound for
Fandaraina was wrecked inside. There was a young
girl on board, much beloved by her master, a certain
merchant. He offered ten pieces of gold to any one
who would save her. One of the sailors from Hormuz
did save her, at the imminent risk of his life, and then
refused the reward. "I did it for the love of God,"
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 29
said this good man. The junk with the presents also
was wrecked on the reefs outside, and all on board
perished. Many bodies were cast up by the waves;
among others those of the Envoy Zahir-uddin, with the
skull fractured, and of Malik Sunbul the eunuch, with
a nail through his temples. Among the rest of the
people who flocked to the shore to see what was going
on, there came down the Zamorin himself, with nothing
on but a scrap of a turban and a white cotton dhoti,
attended by a boy with an umbrella. And, to crown
all, when the kakam's people saw what had befallen
their consort, they made all sail to seaward, carrying
off with them our traveller's slaves, his girls and gear,
and leaving him there on the beach of Calicut gazing
after them, with nought remaining to him but his prayer-
carpet, ten pieces of gold, and an emancipated slave,
which last absconded forthwith!
He was told that the kakam must touch at Kaulam,
so he determined to go thither. It was a ten days'
journey, whether by land or water, so he set off by the
lagoons with a Mussulman whom he had hired to attend
on him, but who got continually drunk, and only added
to the depression of the traveller's spirits. On the
tenth day he reached Kaulam, the Columbum of our
friars, which he describes as one of the finest cities of
Malabar, with splendid bazaars, and wealthy merchants,
there termed Suli1, some of whom were Mahomedans.
1 Chulid is a name applied to the Mahomedans in Malabar.
The origin of it seems to be unknown to Wilson (Glossary, in v.).
The name is also applied to a particular class of the "Moors"
or Mahomedans in Ceylon (J.R. A.S., iii, 338) . It seems probable
that this was the word intended by the author. ["The word is
by some derived from Skt. chuda, the top-knot which every
Hindu must wear, and which is cut off on conversion to Islam. . . .
According to Sonnerat the Chulias are of Arab descent and of
Shia profession. The Madras Gloss, takes the word to be from
the kingdom of Chola and to mean a person in S. India." Hobson-
Jobson.]
30 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
There was also a Mahomedan Kazi and Shabandar
(Master Attendant), etc. Kaulam was the first port
at which the China ships touched on reaching India,
and most of the Chinese merchants frequented it. The
king was an Infidel, called Tirawari1, a man of awful
justice, of which a startling instance is cited by Ibn
Batuta. One day when the king was riding with his
son-in-law, the latter picked up a mango, which had
fallen over a garden wall. The king's eye was upon
him; he was immediately ordered to be ripped open
and divided asunder, the parts being exposed on- each
side of the way, and a half of the fatal mango beside
each!
The unfortunate ambassador could hear nothing of
his kakam, but he fell in with the Chinese envoys who
had been wrecked in another junk. They were refitted
by their countrymen at Kaulam, and got off to China,
where Ibn Batuta afterwards encountered them.
He had sore misgivings about returning to tell his
tale at Dehli, feeling strong suspicion that Sultan Mahomed
would be only too glad to have such a crow to pluck
with him. So he decided on going to his friend the Sultan
Jamal-uddin at Hunawur, and to stop with him till he
could hear some news of the missing kakam. The prince
received him, but evidently with no hearty welcome.
For the traveller tells us that he had no servant allowed
him, and spent nearly all his time in the mosque — always
a sign that things were going badly with Ibn Batuta —
where he read the whole Koran through daily, and
1 This title Tirawari may perhaps be Tirubadi, which Fra
Paolino mentions among the sounding titles assumed by the
princes of Malabar, "which were often mistaken for the proper
names of families or individuals." He translates it sua Maestd,
but literally it is probably Tiru (Tamul) "Holy," and Pati
(Sansc.) "Lord." (See V. alle Indie Orientals, Roma, 1796,
p. 103.)
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 31
by and bye twice a day. So he passed his time for three
months.
The King of Hunawiir was projecting an expedition
against the Island of Sindabiir. Ibn Batuta thought of
joining it, and on taking the Sortes Koranicce he turned
up xxii, 41, "Surely God will succour those who succour
Him"; which so pleased the king that he determined
to accompany the expedition also. Some three months
after the capture of Sindabiir the restless man started
again on his travels, going down the coast to Calicut.
Here he fell in with two of his missing slaves, who told
him that his favourite girl was dead; that the King of
Java (probably Sumatra) had appropriated the other
women, and that the rest of the party were dispersed,
some in Java, some in China, some in Bengal. So there
was an end of the kakam.
He went back to Hunawiir and Sindabiir, where
the Mussulman forces were speedily beleaguered by the
Hindu prince whom they had expelled. Things beginning
to look bad, Ibn Batuta, after some two months' stay,
made his escape and got back to Calicut. Here he took
it into his head to visit the DHIBAT-UL-MAHAL or Maldive
[Male diva] Islands, of which he had heard wonderful
stories.
One of the marvels of these islands was that they
were under a female sovereign1, Kadija, daughter of
the late Sultan Jalal-uddin Omar, who had been set up
as queen on the deposition of her brother for misconduct.
Her husband, the preacher Jamal-uddin, actually
governed, but all orders were issued in the name of the
princess, and she was prayed for by name in the Friday
Service.
1 As to the occasional prevalence of female rule in the Maldive
Islands see introduction to Marignolli, in, p. 192.
ja IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
Ibn Batuta was welcomed to the islands, and was
appointed Kazi, marrying the daughter of one of the
Wazirs and three wives besides. The lax devotion of
the people and the primitive costume of the women
affected his pious heart; he tried hard but in vain to
reform the latter, and to introduce the system that he
had witnessed at Urghanj, of driving folk to mosque
on Friday with the constable's staff.
Before long he was deep in discontent, quarrels and
intrigues, and in August 1344 he left the Maldives for
Ceylon.
As he approached the island he speaks of seeing
the Mountain of Serendib (compare Marignolli's Mons
Seyllani] rising high in air "like a column of smoke."
He landed at Batthalah (PATLAM), where he found a
Pagan chief reigning, a piratical potentate called Airi
Shakarwati, who treated him civilly and facilitated his
making the journey to Adam's Peak, whilst his skipper
obligingly promised to wait for him1.
In his journey he passes MANAR MANDALi2, and the
1 Arya Chakravarti is found in Ceylonese history as the name
of a great warrior who commanded an army sent by Kulasaikera,
who is called King of the Pandyans or people of the Madura
country, which invaded Ceylon in 1314. The same name re-
appears as if belonging to the same individual in or about 1371,
when he is stated to have erected forts at Colombo, Negombo
and Chilaw, and after reducing the northern division of Ceylon,
to have fixed the seat of government at Jaffnapatam. It is
probable of course that these were two different persons, and
indeed one authority speaks of the first Arya as being captured
and put to death in the reign of Prakrama Bahu III (1314-19).
The second must have commenced his career long before the
date in the Ceylonese annals, as Ibn Batuta shows him established
with royal authority at Patlam in 1344 (Tumour's Epitome of
the History of Ceylon, Cotta Ch. M. Press, 1836, p. 47; Pridham,
pp. 77-8; Upham's Rajavali, 264-9). Tennent supposes the
Pandyan invaders to have come from Jaffnapatam, where they
were already established, and not from the continent. Indeed
we see from Ibn Batuta that the original Pandyan territory
was now in Mussulman hands.
2 Minneri Mandel of Tennent's Map, on the coast immediately
abreast of Patlam.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 33
port of S ALA WAT1, and then crosses extensive plains
abounding in elephants. These however did no harm
to pilgrims and foreigners2, owing to the benignant
influence exercised over them by the Shaikh Abu Abdallah,
who first opened the road to the Holy Footmark. He
then reached KUNAKARS as he calls it, the residence
of the lawful King of Ceylon, who was entitled Kunar,
and possessed a white elephant. Close to this city was
the pool called the Pool of Precious Stones, out of which
some of the most valuable gems were extracted. His
description of the ascent to the summit is vivid and
minute, and probably most of the sites which he speaks
of could be identified by the aid of those who act as
guides to Mahomedan pilgrims, if such there still be.
He descends on the opposite side (towards Ratnapura),
and proceeds to visit DINWAR, a large place on the sea,
inhabited by merchants (Devi-neuera or Dondera), where
a vast idol temple then existed, GALLE (which he calls
Kali), and COLUMBO (Kalanbu), so returning by the
coast to Patlam. Columbo is described as even then
one of the finest cities of the island. It was the abode
of the "Wazir and Admiral Jalasti," who kept about
him a body of 500 Abyssinians. This personage is not
1 Chilaw of our maps.
2 See Odoric, n, p. 172.
3 Sir J. Emerson Tennent considers this to be Gampola,
called classically Ganga-sri-pura, the name which he supposes
to be aimed at in Ibn Batuta's Kunakar. With all respect for
such an authority I think that it more probably represents
Kurunaigalla or Kornegalle, which was the capital of the lawful
sovereigns of Ceylon from about 1319 till some year after 1347.
During this period the dynasty was in extreme depression, and
little is recorded except the names of the kings, Bhuwaneka
Bahu II, Pandita Prakrama Bahu IV, Wanny Bhuwaneka
Bahu III, Wijayabahu V. It must have been in the reign of
one or other of the two last that Ibn Batuta visited the capital.
The name Kunar applied to him by the traveller is perhaps
the Sanskrit Kunwar, "The Prince." (See Tumour's Epitome,
quoted above.)
c. Y. c. iv. 3
34 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
impossibly the same with the Khwaja Jahan, who so
politely robbed John Marignolli (ante, ill, p. 231). It is
not said whose Wazir and Admiral he was.
At Patlam he took ship again for Maabar, but as he
approached his destination he again came to grief, the
ship grounding some six or eight miles from the shore.
The crew abandoned the wreck, but our hero stuck
by it, and was saved by some pagan natives.
On reaching the land, he reported his arrival to the
de facto ruler of the country. This was the Sultan Ghaias-
uddin of Damghan, recently invested with the govern-
ment of Maabar, a principality originally set up by his
father-in-law, the Sherif Jalal-uddin. The latter had
been appointed by Mahomed Tughlak to the military
command of the province, but about 1338-9 had declared
himself independent, striking coin in his own name,
and proclaiming himself under the title of Ahhsan Shah
Sultan. Ibn Batuta, during his stay at Delhi, had married
one of the Sherif 's daughters, named Hhurnasab. "She
was a pious woman," says her husband, "who used to
spend the night in watching and prayer. She could
read, but had not learned to write. She bore me a
daughter, but what is become of either the one or the
other is more than I can tell!" Thus Ibn Batuta was
brother-in-law to the reigning Sultan, who, on receiving
the traveller's message, sent for him to his camp, two
days' journey distant. This brother-in-law was a ruffian,
whose cruel massacres of women and children excited
the traveller's disgust and tacit remonstrance. However,
he busied himself in engaging the Sultan in a scheme
for the invasion of the Maldives, but before it came to
anything the chief died of a pestilence. His nephew
and successor, Sultan Nasir-uddin, was ready to take
up the project, but Ibn Batuta got a fever at the capital,
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 35
MUTTRA (Madura), and hurried off to FATTAN1, a large
and fine city on the sea, with an admirable harbour,
where he found ships sailing for Yemen, and took his
passage in one of them as far as Kaulam.
Here he stayed for three months, and then went off
for the fourth time to visit his friend the Sultan of Huna-
wiir. On his way, however, off a small island between
Fakaniir and Hunawiir (probably the Pigeon Island of
modern maps), the vessel was attacked by pirates of
the wrong kind, and the unlucky adventurer was deposited
on the beach stript of everything but his drawers! On
this occasion, as he mentions elsewhere incidentally, he
lost a number of transcripts of epitaphs of celebrated
1 This Fattan of Maabar is also mentioned by Rashid, in
conjunction with Malifattan and Kail, in a passage quoted
at in, p. 68 supra (see also p. 70). I am not able to identify it.
It may have been Negapatam, but from the way in which our
traveller speaks of it, it would seem to have been the port of
the city of Madura, and therefore I should rather look for it
in the vicinity of Ramnad, as at Devi-patam or Killikarai,
which have both been ports of some consideration. A place
also called Periapatan, near Ramanancor, is mentioned by the
historians of the Jesuit missions as much frequented for commerce,
and as the chief town of the Paravas of the Fishery coast, but I
do not find it on any map (Du Jarric, i, 628). Pattan or Fattan
was probably the Mabar city of John Montecorvino and Marco
Polo (see in, p. 65), and may be that which Abulfeda (probably
by some gross mistranscription) calls Biyavddwal, "residence
of the Prince of Mabar, whither horses are imported from foreign
countries." There is indeed a place called Ninarkovil, near
Ramnad, celebrated for a great temple (/. R. A. S., iii, 165),
which may be worth mentioning, because the difference between
these two rather peculiar names (Biyardawal and Ninarqawal)
would be almost entirely a matter of diacritical points; Kail
and Malifattan (or Molephatam) are both to be sought in the
vicinity of Tuticorin (see Fr. Jordanus, p. 40). [The Rev. Dr
Caldwell, quoted by Sir Henry Yule, Marco Polo, ii, p. 372 n.,
writes: "The Cail of Marco Polo, commonly called in the neigh-
bourhood Old Kdyal, and erroneously named Koil in the Ordnance
Map of India, is situated on the Tamraparni River, about a
mile and a half from its mouth . . . Kayal stood originally on or
near the sea-beach, but it is now about a mile and a half inland,
the sand carried down by the river having silted up the ancient
harbour, and formed a waste sandy tract between the sea and
the town...."] Malifattan is no doubt the Manifattan of
Abulfeda, "a city of Maabar on the sea shore" (see Gildemeister,
P- 185)-
3—2
36 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
persons which he had made at Bokhara, along with
other matters, not improbably including the notes of
his earlier travels1. Returning to Calicut he was clothed
by the charity of the Faithful. Here also he heard
news of the Maldives; the Preacher Jamal-uddin was
dead, and the Queen had married another of the Wazirs ;
moreover one of the wives whom he had abandoned
had borne him a son2. He had some hesitation about
returning to the Islands, as he well might, considering
what he had been plotting against them, but encouraged
by a new cast of the Sortes he went and was civilly
received. His expectations however, or his caprices,
were disappointed, for he seems to have stayed but five
days and then went on to Bengal.
Ibn Batuta's account of what he saw in Bengal, and
on his subsequent voyage through the Archipelago, will
be given in extracts or in more detailed abstract, in
connexion with the full text of his travels in China .
We now therefore take up this short account of his
adventures from the time of his return from the latter
country.
After coming back from China he proceeded direct
from Malabar to the coast of Arabia, visiting again
Dhafar, Maskat, Hormuz, Shiraz, Ispahan, Tuster,
Basrah, Meshid Ali and Baghdad, and thence went to
Tadmor and Damascus, where he had left a wife and
1 See iii, 28.
2 He says this boy was now two years old. As the child
was not born when Ibn Batuta left the Maldives in August
1344, his second visit must have been (according to this datum)
at least as late as August 1346, and perhaps some months later.
He goes to China (at the earliest) during the succeeding spring,
and yet his book tells us that he is back from his China expedition
and in Arabia by May 1347. There is here involved an error
one way or the other of at least one year, and of two years if
we depend on Ibn Batuta's own details of the time occupied
by his expedition to China. See a note on this towards the end
of his narrative (infra).
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 37
child twenty years before, but both apparently were
now dead. Here also he got his first news from home,
and heard of his father's death fifteen years previously.
He then went on to Hamath and Aleppo, and on his
return to Damascus found the Black Death raging to
such an extent that two thousand four hundred died
in one day. Proceeding by Jerusalem to Egypt he
repeated the Mecca pilgrimage for the last time, and
finally turned his face away from the East. Travelling
by land to Tunis he embarked in a ship of Catalonia.
They touched at Sardinia (Jazirah Sarddniati), where
they were threatened with capture, and thence proceeded
to Tenes on the Algerine coast, whence he reached Fez,
the capital of his native country, on the 8th November
1349, after an absence of twenty-four years.
Here he professes to have rejoiced in the presence
of his own Sultan, whom he declares to surpass all the
mighty monarchs of the East ; in dignity' him of Irak,
in person him of India, in manner him of Yemen, in
courage the king of the Turks, in long-suffering the
Emperor of Constantinople, in devotion him of Turkestan,
and in knowledge him of Java!1, a list of comparisons
1 In another passage he names as the seven greatest and
most powerful sovereigns in the world : (i) His own master,
the Commander of the Faithful, viz., the King of Fez; (2) The
Sultan of Egypt and Syria ; (3) The Sultan of the two Iraks ;
(4) The Sultan Mahomed Uzbek of Kipchak; (5) The Sultan of
Turkestan and Ma-wara-n-Nahr (Chagatai) ; (6) The Sultan of
India ; (7) The Sultan of China (ii, 382) . Von Hammer quotes from
Ibn Batuta also (though I cannot find the passage) the following
as the characteristic titles of the seven great kings of the earth.
The list differs from the preceding, (i) The Takfur of Constan-
tinople; (2) The Sultan of Egypt; (3) The King (Malik?) of the
Iraks ; (4) The Khdkdn of Turkestan ; (5) The Maharaja of
India; (6) The Faghfur of China; (7) The Khan of Kipchak
(Gesch. der Gold. Horde, p. 300).
The King of Fez in question, Ibn Batuta's lord, was Faris
Abu Iman, of the house of Beni Merin of Fez, who usurped the
throne during his father's lifetime in 1348, and died miserably,
smothered in bed by some of his courtiers, November 1358.
In a rescript of his granting certain commercial privileges to the
38 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
so oddly selected as to suggest the possibility of irony.
After all that he had seen, he comes, like Friar Jordanus,
to the conclusion that there is no place like his own
WEST1. "Tis the best of all countries. You have
fruit in plenty; good meat and water are easily come
at, and in fact its blessings are so many that the poet
has hit the mark when he sings:
Of all the Four Quarters of Heaven the best
(I'll prove it past question) is surely the West!
'Tis the West is the goal of the Sun's daily race !
'Tis the West that first shows you the Moon's silver face !
" The dirhems of the West are but little ones 'tis true,
but then you get more for them!" — just as in the good
old days of another dear Land of the West, where, if
the pound was but twenty pence, the pint at least was
two quarts!
After a time he went to visit his native city of Tangier,
thence to Ceuta, and then crossed over into Spain (al
Andalus), going to see Gibraltar, which had just
then been besieged "by the Latin tyrant, Adfunus"
( Alphonso XI) 2. From the Rock he proceeded to Ronda
Pisans, Qth April, 1358, he is styled King of Fez, Mequinez,
Sallee, Morocco, Sus, Segelmessa, Teza, Telemsen, Algiers,
Bugia, Costantina, Bona, Biskra, Zab, Media, Gafsa, Baladt-ul-
Jarid, Tripoli, Tangier, Ceuta, Gibraltar and Ronda, i.e., of the
whole of Barbary from Tripoli to the Atlantic coast facing the
Canary Islands. But his claim to the eastern part of this territory
must have been titular only, as his father had just lost it
when Abu Iman seized the government. (Amari, Diplomi
Arabi del R. Arch. Fiorentino, pp. 309, 476.)
1 Fr. Jord., p. 55.
2 Thdghiah-ul-Riim. Amari remarks (op. cit., pp. ix-x) :
" The early Mahomedans used to call all the Christians of Europe
Rum, i.e., Romans, but at a later date chose to distinguish between
the Greek and German races, the subjects of the two empires, by
applying the term Farang, i.e., Franks, to the Western Christians,
and Rum to the Byzantines; whilst not well knowing what to
make of the Latin race, headless as it was, they called the Italians
and Spanish Christians sometimes Rum and sometimes Farang."
The same author says elsewhere that Thdgiah was applied to
Christian princes almost in the Greek sense of Tyrannus, i.e.,
as impugning the legality rather than the abuse of their power.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 39
and Malaga, Velez, Alhama and Granada, and thence
returned, by Gibraltar, Ceuta, and Morocco, to Fez.
But his travels were not yet over. In the beginning
of 1352 he set out for Central Africa, his first halt being
at SEGELMESSA, where the dates in their abundance
and excellence recalled but surpassed those of Basra1.
Here it was that he lodged with the brother of that
Al Bushri who had treated him so handsomely in the
heart of China.
On his way south he passed TAGHAZA, a place where
the houses and mosques were built of rock-salt, and roofed
with camel-hides2, and at length reached MALLI, the
capital of Sudan3. Here he abode eight months, after
which he went to TIMBUKTU, and sailed down the Niger
1 Segelmessa was already ruined and deserted in the time
of Leo Africanus. ["The citie of Segelmesse was destroied, and
till this day remaineth desolate." Dr. R. Brown, in Hak. Soc.
ed., iii, p. 780.] ["Sejelmasah is a town of middling size,
belonging to the territories of Tahouth. One cannot enter
Sejelmasah but by the way of the desert, which the sand renders
difficult. This town is situated near the gold mines, between
them and the land of the Blacks, and the land of Zouilah. These
mines are said to be of the most pure and excellent gold ; but it
is difficult to work them, and the way to them is dangerous and
troublesome. They say that the district of Tahouth is reckoned
as belonging to Africa." (Sir W. Ouseley, Oriental Geography
of Ebn Haukal, Lond., 1800, p. 21.)] According to Reinaud
it was in the same valley with the modern Tafilelt, if not identical
with it. I think dates from the latter place (Tafilat) are exhibited
in the windows of London fruiterers. [Sijilmasiyah, Medina
ul Amira, the capital of Tafilet; it had been subjugated by the
Omeyyads of Spain in 976. Cf. Brown's ed. of Leo Africanus,
iii, p. 806: "The ruins are in the district of Wad Ifli ; and bear
evidence to the city having been a large one."]
2 Taghazai is an oasis in the heart of the Sahra, on the caravan
route from Tafilelt to Timbuktu, near the Tropic. On the salt-
built houses of the Sahra Oases see Herodotus, iv, 185, and notes
in Rawlinson's edition. [Ibn Batuta's Tegaza (Tekkada) lies
to the S.W. of Agadez. Cf. Brown's ed. of Leo Africanus, p. noi.
Teghazza is the name of a salt mine situated at two days north
of Taodeni. Cf. Tarikh es-Soudan, p. 22 «.]
3 In passing the great Desert beyond Taghaza he gives us
another instance of the legends alluded to at n, p. 262, supra.
"This vast plain is haunted by a multitude of demons; if the
messenger is alone they sport with him and fascinate him, so
that he strays from his course and perishes" (iv, 382).
40 IBN BATUTA S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
to KAUKAU, whence he travelled to TAKADDA. The
Niger he calls the Nile, believing it to flow towards
Dongola, and so into Egypt, an opinion which was
maintained in our own day shortly before Lander's
discovery, if I remember rightly, by the Quarterly Review.
The traveller mentions the hippopotamus in the river.
He now received a command from his own sovereign
for his return to Fez, and left Takadda for TAWAT, by
the country of HAKKAR1, on the i2th September, 1353,
reaching Fez, and the termination of those at least of
his wanderings which are recorded, in the beginning
of 1354, after they had lasted for eight and twenty
years, and had extended over a length of at least 75,000
English miles2.
Soon after this the history of his travels was committed
to writing under orders from the Sultan, but not by the
traveller's own hand. It would appear, indeed, that he
had at times kept notes of what he saw, for in one passage
he speaks of having been robbed of them. But a certain
Mahomed Ibn Juzai, the Sultan's Secretary, was employed
1 Melle, south of Timbuktu, Gogo or Gago, on the Niger, south-
east of the same, Takadda, Hogar, and Tawat, are all I think to be
found in Dr. Earth's Map in the /. R. G. S. for 1860. [Ga6, G6g6
or Kagho, on the Niger, is marked in Earth's Map but the other
places are not to be found in it. — G6g6 was the capital of the
Songhai Empire. See Brown's ed. of Leo Africanus, p. 845 ;
Tarikh es-Soudan, p. 6. Ibn Batuta sailed from Kabara, the
port of Timbuktu to G6g6. The Kingdom of Melli is also
mentioned in Leo Africanus : " This region extending it selfe
almost three hundred miles along the side of a river which falleth
into Niger " (1. c., p. 823). Mansa Sleiman was Sultan at the
time of Ibn Batuta's visit, and in 1336 he occupied Timbuktu ;
in A.D. 1433 the Meli empire began to decline (1. c., p. 841).
Sultan Kankan Musa was the first king of Melli who made the
conquest of Songhai. Cf. Tarikh es-Soudan, transl. by O. Houdas,
pp. 12-13, 1 8-2 1.] It is remarkable that the Catalan Map of
1375 contains most of these Central African names, viz., Tagaza,
Melli, Tenbuch, Geugeu. The first three are also mentioned by
Cadamosto.
2 This is the result of a rough compass measurement, without
any allowance for deviations or for the extensive journeys he
probably made during his eight years' stay in India, etc.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 41
to reduce the story to writing as Ibn Batuta told it
(not however without occasionally embellishing it by
quotations and pointless anecdotes of his own), and
this work was brought to a conclusion on the i3th
December, 1355, just about the time that John Marignolli
was putting his reminiscences of Asia into a Bohemian
Chronicle. The editor, Ibn Juzai, concludes thus:
"Here ends what I have put into shape from the
memoranda of the Shaikh Abu Abdallah Mahomed Ibn
Batuta, whom may God honour! No person of intelli-
gence can fail to see that this Shaikh is the Traveller of
Our Age; and he who should call him the Traveller of
the whole Body of Islam would not go beyond the truth."
Ibn Batuta long survived his amanuensis, and died
in 1377-8, at the age of seventy-three.
The first detailed information communicated to Europe
regarding his travels was published in a German periodical,
about 1808, by Seetzen1, who had obtained an abridg-
ment of the work in the East, with other MSS. collected
for the Gotha library. In 1818 Kosegarten published
at Jena the text and translation of three fragments of
the same abridgment. A Mr. Apetz edited a fourth,
the description of Malabar, in 1819. In the same year
Burckhardt's Nubian Travels were published in London,
the appendix to which contained a note on Ibn Batuta,
of whose work the Swiss traveller had procured a much
fuller abridgment than that at Gotha. Three MSS. of
this abridgment were obtained by Cambridge University,
after Burckhardt's death, and from these Dr. Lee made
his well-known version for the Oriental Translation
Fund (London, 1829).
1 The proper title of the book is, "A Gift for the Observing,
wherein are set forth the Curiosities of Cities and the Wonders o
Travel."
42 IBN BATUTA S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
It was not, however, until the French conquest of
Algiers, and capture of Constantina, that manuscripts
of the unabridged work became accessible. Of these
there are now five in the Imperial Library of Paris,
two only being complete. One of these two, however,
has been proved to be the autograph of Ibn Juzai, the
original editor.
P. Jose" de St. Antonio Moura published at Lisbon,
in 1840, the first volume of a Portuguese translation of
the whole work, from a manuscript which he had obtained
at Fez in the end of the last century. I believe the second
volume also has been issued within the last few years1.
The part of the Travels which relates to Sudan was
translated, with notes, by Baron McGuckin de Slane,
in the Journal Asiatique for March, 1843; that relating
to the Indian Archipelago, by M. Ed. Dulaurier, in
1847; that relating to the Crimea and Kipchak, by
M. Defremery, in 1850 ; and the chapter on the Mongol
Sultans of the Iraks and Khorasan, also by Defremery,
in 1851, all in the same journal. M. Defremery also
published the Travels in Persia and Central Asia in the
Nouvelles Annales des Voyages for 1848, and the Travels
in Asia Minor in the same periodical for 1850-1. In
it also M. Cherbonneau, Professor of Arabic at Constantina,
put forth, in 1852, a slightly abridged translation of the
commencement of the work, as far as the traveller's
departure for Syria, omitting the preface2.
Finally, the whole work was most carefully edited
in the original, with a translation into French by
M. Defremery and Dr. Sanguinetti, at the expense of
the Asiatic Society of Paris, in four volumes, with an
1 [I have never seen it. — H. C.]
2 All these bibliographical particulars are derived from the
preface of the French translators.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 43
admirable index of names and peculiar expressions
attached (1858-9). From their French the present
version of Ibn Batuta's voyage to China has been made.
The plan of the Asiatic Society appears to have precluded
a commentary; but a few explanatory notes have been
inserted by the editors among the various readings at
the end of each volume, and valuable introductions
have been prefixed to the first three. In the fourth
volume, which contains the whole of the traveller's
history from the time of his leaving Delhi on the ill-
fated embassy to China, this valuable aid is no longer
given; for what reason I know not.
There can be no question, I think, as to the interest
of this remarkable book. As to the character of the
traveller, and the reliance to be placed on him, opinions
have been somewhat various. In his own day and
country he was looked upon, it would seem, as a bit of
a Miinchausen1, but so have others who little deserved it.
His French editors, Defremery and Sanguinetti, are
disposed to maintain his truthfulness, and quote with
approbation M. Dozy of Leyden, who calls him "this
honest traveller." Dulaurier also looks on him very
favourably. Reinaud again, and Baron McGuckin de
Slane, accuse him either of natural credulity, or of an
1 See in the App. to vol. iii, at p. 466, an extract from the
Prolegomena of Ibn Khaldun. It mentions how our traveller,
having returned from his long wanderings, was admitted to the
court of his native sovereign. The wonderful stories which he
related of the wealth and boundless liberality of Mahomed
Tughlak excited incredulity. "Those who heard him relate
these stories and others of the same kind at the court, whispered
to one another that they were a parcel of lies and that the narrator
was an impostor." Ibn Khaldun having expressed this view
to the Wazir, received a caution against over-incredulity, backed
by an apophthegm, which seems to have led him on reflection
to think that he had been wrong in disbelieving the traveller.
[There does not seem any doubt that Ibn Batuta has borrowed
some of his descriptions from the writings of his predecessors;
for instance, part of what he says about Mecca is taken from
Ibn Jubair.]
44 IBN BATUTA S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
inclination to deal in marvellous stories, especially in
some of his chapters on the far East; whilst Klaproth
quite reviles him for the stupidity which induces him
to cram his readers with rigmaroles about Mahomedan
saints and spiritualists, when details of the places he
had seen would have been of extreme interest and value.
Though Klaproth was probably acquainted only with
the abridgment translated by Lee, and thus had not the
means of doing justice to the narrative, I must say there
is some foundation for his reproaches, for, especially
when dealing with the Saracenic countries, in which
Islam had been long established, his details of the religious
establishments and theologians occupy a space which
renders this part of the narrative very dull to the un-
initiated. It seems to me that the Mahomedan man
of the world, soldier, jurist, and theologian, is, at least
in regard to a large class of subjects, not always either
so trustworthy, or so perspicacious as the narrow-minded
Christian friars who were his contemporaries, whilst he
cannot be compared with the Venetian merchant, who
shines among all the travellers of the middle age like the
moon among the lesser lights of heaven. There seems
to be something in the Mahomedan mind that indisposes
it for appreciating and relating accurately what is
witnessed in nature and geography.
Of the confused state of his geographical ideas, no
instance can be stronger than that afforded by his travels
in China, where he jumbles into one great river, rising
near Peking, and entering the sea at Canton, after passing
King-sze and Zaitiin, the whole system of Chinese
hydrography, partly bound together by the Great Canal
and its branches1. These do indeed extend from north
to south, but in travelling on their waters he must,
1 See i, 79, and hereafter in his travels through China.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 45
once at least, and probably twice, have been interrupted
by portages over mountain ranges of great height. So,
also, at an earlier period in his wanderings, he asserts
that the river at Aleppo (the Ko'ik, a tributary of
Euphrates) is the same as that called AT Asi, or Orontes,
which passes by Hamath1. In another passage he con-
founds the celebrated trading-places of Siraf and Kais,
or Kish2: and in his description of the Pyramids, he
distinctly ascribes to them a conical form, i.e., with a
circular base3. Various other instances of the looseness
of his observation, or statements, will occur in that part
of his travels which we are about to set forth in full.
Sometimes, again, he seems to have forgotten the real
name of a place, and to have substituted another, as
it would seem, at random, or perhaps one having some
resemblance in sound. Thus, in describing the disastrous
campaign of the Sultan's troops in the Himalaya, he
speaks of them as, in the commencement, capturing
Warangal, a city high up in the range. Now, Warangal
was in the Dekkan, the capital of Telingana, and it seems
highly improbable that there could have been a city of
1 See i, 152, and French editors' note, p. 432. It is a remark-
able feature in the Nile, according to Ibn Batuta, that it flows
from south to north, contrary to all other rivers. This fact seems
to have impressed the imagination of the ancients also, as one
of the Nile's mysteries, and Cosmas says it flows slowly, because,
as it were, up hill, the earth according to his notion rising towards
the north.
2 See ii, 244, and French editors' note, p. 456. [Supra, i,
p. 144 n.; n, p. 107 «.]
3 See i, p. 81. He gives a curious story about the opening
of the great pyramid by the Khalif Mamun, and how he pierced
its solid base with Hannibal's chemistry, first lighting a great
fire in contact with it, then sluicing it with vinegar, and battering
it with shot from a mangonel. Another parallel is found in the
Singhalese tradition of the destruction of the great Dam at
Padivil by fire and sour milk (see Tennent's Ceylon, ii, 504).
Though Ibn Batuta passes the site of Thebes three times, and
indeed names Luxor as one of his halting places, "where is to
be seen the tomb of the pious hermit Abu'l Hajaj Alaksori," he
takes no notice of the vast remains there or elsewhere on the Nile.
46 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
the name in the Himalaya. (See iii, 326.) One suspects
something of the same kind when he identifies Kataka
(Cuttack?) with the Mahratta country (ib., p. 182), but
in this I may easily be wrong ; even if I be right, however,
the cases of this kind are few.
Of his exaggeration we have a measurable sample
hi his account of the great Kutb Minar at Delhi, which
we have still before our eyes, to compare with his descrip-
tion: "The site of this mosque [the Jama Mas j id, or
Cathedral Mosque of old Delhi] was formerly a Budkhdnah,
or idol-temple, but after the conquest of the city it was
converted into a mosque. In the northern court of
the mosque stands the minaret, which is without parallel
in all the countries of Islam. It is built of red stone,
in this differing from the material of the rest of the
mosque, which is white; moreover, the stone of the
minaret is wrought in sculpture. It is of surpassing
height; the pinnacle is of milk-white marble, and the
globes which decorate it of pure gold. The aperture of
the staircase is so wide that elephants can ascend, and a
person on whom I could rely, told me that when the minaret
was a-building, he saw an elephant ascend to the very top
with a load of stones." Also, in speaking of the incomplete
minaret, which was commenced by one of the Sultans
(I forget which) in rivalry of the Kutb Minar, he tells
us that its staircase was so great that three elephants
could mount abreast, and though only one-third of the
altitude was completed, that fraction was already as
high as the adjoining minaret (the Kutb) ! These are
gross exaggerations, though I am not provided with
the actual dimensions of either staircase to compare
with them1. This test I can offer, however, hi reference
1 The total diameter of the Kutb Minar at the base is 47 feet
3 inches, and at the top about 9 feet. The doorway is a small
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 47
to a third remarkable object in the court of the same
mosque, the celebrated Iron Lath, or column: "In the
centre of the mosque there is to be seen an enormous
pillar, made of some unknown metal. One of the learned
Hindus told me that it was entitled haft-jush, or 'the
seven metals/ from being composed of an amalgam of
so many. A portion of the shaft has been polished,
about a finger's length, and the sheen of it is quite
dazzling. Iron tools can make no impression on this
pillar. It is thirty cubits in length, and when I twisted
my turban-cloth round the shaft, it took a length of eight
cubits to compass it." The real height of the pillar above
ground is twenty-two feet, and its greatest diameter a
little more than sixteen inches1.
one, not larger at most I think than an ordinary London street-
door, though I cannot give its dimensions. The uncompleted
minaret is certainly not half the height of the Kutb; [it is 82
feet in diameter. It was begun by 'Ala-uddin, the penultimate
predecessor of Mubarik Shah. For this note, as for much other
assistance, I have to thank my friend Col. R. Maclagan, R.E. —
H. Y.] Ibn Batuta was no doubt trying to communicate from
memory the impression of vastness which these buildings had
made upon his mind, and if he had not been so specific there
would have been little fault to find.
In justice to him we may quote a much more exaggerated
contemporary notice of the Kutb in the interesting book called
Masalak-al-Absar. The author mentions on the authority of
Shaik Burhan-uddin Bursi that the minaret of Delhi was 600
cubits high! (Notices et Extraits, xiii, p. 180.)
On the other hand, the account given by Abulfeda is
apparently quite accurate. "Attached to the mosque (of Delhi)
is a tower which has no equal in the whole world. It is built
of red stone with about 360 steps. It is not square but has a
great number of angles, is very massive at the base, and very
lofty, equalling in height the Pharos of Alexandria" (Gildemeister,
p. 190). I may add that Ibn Batuta was certainly misinformed
as to the date and builder of the Kutb. He ascribes it to Sultan
Muizz-uddin (otherwise called Kaikobad), grandson of Balban
(A.D. 1286-90). But the real date is nearly a century older.
It was begun by Kutb-uddin Eibek when governing for Shahab-
uddin of Ghazni (otherwise Mahomed Bin Sam, A.D. 1193-1206), and
completed by Altamsh (1211-36). Ibn Batuta ascribes the rival
structure to Kutb-uddin Khilji (Mubarik Shah, 1316-20), and
in this also I think he is wrong, though I cannot correct him.
1 The pillar looks like iron, but I do not know if its real
composition has been determined. It was considered by James
48 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
As positive fiction we must set down the traveller's
account of the historical events which he asserts to have
taken place in China during his visit to that country,
as will be more precisely pointed out in the notes which
accompany his narrative. I shall there indicate reasons
for doubting whether he ever reached Peking at all1.
And his account of the country of Tawalisi, which he
visited on his way to China, with all allowance for our
ignorance of its exact position, seems open to the charge
of considerable misrepresentation, to say the least of it.
He never seems to have acquired more than a very
imperfect knowledge even of Persian, which was then,
still more than now, the lingua franca of Asiatic travel,
much less of any more local vernacular; nor does he
seem to have been aware that the Persian phrases which
he quotes did not belong to the vernacular of the countries
which he is describing, a mistake of which we have
seen analogous instances already in Marignolli's account
of Ceylon. Thus, in relating the circumstances of a
suttee which he witnessed on his way from Delhi to the
Prinsep to date from the third or fourth century. I should observe
that the shaft has been recently ascertained to descend at least
twenty-six feet into the earth, and probably several feet more,
as with that depth excavated the pillar did not become loose.
But there is no reason to believe that it stood higher above ground
in Ibn Batuta's time than now, and I gather from the statement
that the diameter below ground does not increase. I am indebted
for these last facts, and for the dimensions given above, to my
friend Major-General Cunningham's unpublished archaeological
reports, and I trust he will excuse this slight use of them, as
no other measurements were accessible to me that could be
depended upon.
1 When the traveller (iv, 244) tells us that the people of
Cathay or Northern China used elephants as common beasts
of burden in exactly the same way that they were used by the
people of Mul-Jawa on the shores of the Gulf of Siam [see note, n,
pp. 163, 164] he somewhat strengthens the suspicion that he never
was in Northern China, where I believe the elephant has never
been other than a foreign importation for use in war or court
pomps. [M. Ferrand, Textes, ii, p. 433, has come to the conclusion
that Ibn Batuta never went to Indo-China and China and that
the narrative of his travels in these countries is a mere invention.]
- INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 49
coast, after eight years' residence in Hindustan, he makes
the victim address her conductors in Persian, quoting
the words in that language as actually used by her,
these being no doubt the interpretation which was given
him by a bystander1. There are many like instances
in the course of the work, as, when he tells us that an
ingot of gold was called, in China, barkdlah ; that watch-
men were there called baswdndn, and so forth, all the
terms used being Persian. Generally, perhaps, his
explanations of foreign terms are inaccurate; he has
got hold of some idea connected with the word, but not
the real one. Thus, in explaining the name of Hdj-
Tarkhdn (Astrakhan) he tells us that the word T'arkhdn,
among the Turks, signified a place exempt from all
taxes, whereas it was the title of certain privileged
persons, who, among other peculiar rights, enjoyed
exemption from taxes2. Again, he tells us that the
palace of the Khans at Sarai was called Altun-Thdsh,
or "Golden Head"; but it is Bash, not Thdsh, that
signifies head in Turkish, and the meaning of the name
he gives is Golden Stone3.
1 The story is related on his first entrance into Hindustan
apropos of another suttee which then occurred. But he states
the circumstance to have happened at a later date when he was
at the town of Amjeri, and I suppose this to have been the town
of Amjhera near Dhar, which he probably passed through on
his way from Dhar to Daulatabad in 1342 (iii, 137).
2 Tarkhan is supposed to be the title intended by the Turxan-
thus of the Byzantine Embassy of Valentine (see note near end
of Ibn Batuta's narrative, infra).
3 See remark by Tr., ii, 448. Ibn Batuta tells us that it
was the custom in India for a creditor of a courtier who would
not pay his debts to watch at the palace gate for his debtor,
and there assail him with cries of " Daruhai Us-Sultdn ! O enemy
of the Sultan! thou shalt not enter till thou hast paid." But
it is probable that the exclamation really was that still so well
known in India made by any individual who considers himself
injured, " Duhai Maharaj ! Duhai Company Bahadur ! " Justice !
Justice !
c. Y. c. iv. 4
5o IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
There are some remarkable chronological difficulties
in his narrative, but for most of these I must refer to
the French editors, to whom I am so largely indebted.
Others, more particularly relating to the Chinese expedi-
tion, will be noticed in detail further on.
After all that has been said, however, there can be
no doubt of the genuine nature and general veracity
of Ibn Batuta's travels, as the many instances in which
his notices throw light upon passages in other documents
of this collection, and on Marco Polo's travels (see particu-
larly M. Pauthier's [and Yule's] notes), might suffice to
show. Indeed, apart from cursory inaccuracies and
occasional loose statements, the two passages already
alluded to are the only two with regard to which I should
be disposed positively to impugn his veracity. The
very passages which have been cited with regard to the
great edifices at Delhi are only exaggerated when he
rashly ventures on positive statements of dimension ;
in other respects they are the brief and happy sketches
of an eye-witness.. His accounts of the Maldive islands,
and of the Negro countries of Sudan (of which latter
his detail is one of the earliest that has come down to
us) are full of interesting particulars, and appear to be
accurate and unstrained. The majority of the names
even, which he attaches to the dozen great clusters of
the Maldives, can still be identified1, and much, I believe,
1 The names attributed by Ibn Batuta to twelve of the
Maldive clusters are (i) Palipur, (2) Kannalus, (3) Mahal, the
Royal Residence, (4) Taladib, (5) Karaidu, (6) Taim, (7) Taladu-
mati, (8) Haladumati, (9) Baraidu, (10) Kandakal, (n) Muluk,
(12) Suwaid, which last he correctly describes as being the most
remote. The names corresponding to these as given in a map
accompanying an article in the /. R. Geog. Soc. are, (i) Padypolo,
(2) Colomandus? (3) Male, the Sultan's Residence, (4) Tillada,
(5) Cardiva, (6) ? (7) Tilladumatis, (8) Milladumadue,
(9) Palisdus, (10) ? (n) Molucque, (12) Suadiva. M. Defre-
mery had already made the comparison with those given in
Pyrard's voyage of 1619.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 51
of his Central African narrative is an anticipation of
knowledge but recently regained. The passage in which
he describes at length his adventures near Koel in India,
when accidentally separated for many days from his
company, is an excellent example of fresh and lively
narrative. His full and curious statements and anecdotes
regarding the showy virtues and very solid vices of
Sultan Mahomed Tughlak are in entire agreement with
what is told by the historians of India, and add many
new details. The French editors have shown, in a learned
and elaborate tabular statement, how well our traveller's
account of the chief events of that monarch's reign
(though told with no attention to chronological succession)
agrees with those of Khondemir and Firishta. The
whole of the second part of his narrative indeed seems
to me superior in vivacity and interest to the first;
which, I suppose, may be attributed partly to more
vivid recollection, and partly perhaps to the preservation
of his later notes.
Ibn Batuta has drawn his own character in an accumu-
lation of slight touches through the long history of his
wanderings, but to do justice to the result in a few lines
would require the hand of Chaucer, and something
perhaps of his freedom of speech. Not wanting in acute-
ness nor in humane feeling, full of vital energy and enjoy-
ment of life; infinite in curiosity; daring, restless,
impulsive, sensual, inconsiderate, and extravagant ; super-
stitious in his regard for the saints of his religion, and
plying devout observances, especially when in difficulties ;
doubtless an agreeable companion, for we always find
him welcomed at first, but clinging, like one of the Ceylon
leeches which he describes, when he found a full-blooded
subject, and hence too apt to disgust his patrons and to
turn to intrigues against them. Such are the impressions
4—2
52 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
which one reader, at least, has gathered from the surface
of his narrative, as rendered by MM. Defremery and
Sanguinetti1.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
— See Henri Cordier, Bibliotheca Sinica, col. 2045-2047.
— De Mohammede Ebn Batuta Arabe Tingitano eiusque itineri-
bus. Commentatio academica, . . . A. D. VII. Martii CIDIDCCCXVIII.
Avctor Joannes Gothofredvs Lvdovicvs Kosegarten; lenae
[1818], 4to, pp. 51.
Text and Translation of an abridgment of Ibn Batuta of
which Seetzen had already given an analysis.
— Descriptio Terrae Malabar. Ex arabico Ebn Batutae
Itinerario edita, interpretatione et annotationibus instructa, per
Henricum Apetz. Jenae, in ofi&cina Groeckeriana, M.DCCCXIX,
4to, pp. 24.
Other fragment of the same abridgment.
— The Travels of Ibn Batuta; translated from the abridged
Arabic manuscript copies, preserved in the Public Library of
Cambridge. With Notes, illustrative of the History, Geography,
Botany, Antiquities, etc., occurring throughout the work. By
the Rev. Samuel Lee, B.D.. . .London: Printed for the Oriental
Translation Committee. .. 1829, 4to, pp. xix-243-
Dedication to Lieut.-Col. Fitzclarence, pp. v-viii. — Preface,
pp. ix-xviii. — Additions and Corrections, p. xix. — The Travels
of Ibn Batuta, pp. 1-243.
This translation is made from three Arabic MSS. bequeathed
by Burckhardt to the Library of the Cambridge University.
— Viagens extensas e dilatadas do Celebre Arabe Abu-
Abdallah, mais conhecido pelo nome de Ben-Batuta. Traduzidas
por Jose de Santo Antonio Moura, Ex-Geral da extincta Congre-
gagao da Terceira Ordem de S. Francisco, Lente Jubilado,
1 In preparing this paper I have to regret not being able
to look over Lee's abridgement, though I have had before me a
few notes of a former reading of it. [Seen in the present edition.]
If I can trust my recollection, there are some circumstances
in Lee which do not appear at all in the French translation
of the complete work. This is curious. I may add that in the
part translated by M. Dulaurier I have on one or two occasions
ventured to follow his version where it seemed to give a better
sense, though disclaiming any idea of judging between the two
as to accuracy. [Yule added this note since : " I now have a
copy of Lee's Ibn Batuta, and I find that the circumstances
here alluded to as resting in my memory of that version arose
only out of a difference of translation and reading. Compare
the story of the man taught by the Jogis in Lee, p. 159, with
the same in Defremery, iv, p. 35."]
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 53
e Interprete Regio da Lingua Arabica, Official da Secretaria de
Estado dos Negocios Estrangeiros, e Socio da Academia Real
das Sciencias de Lisboa. Tomo I. Lisboa. Na Typografia da
Academia. 1840, small 4to, pp. vii-533 without the errata, 2 ff. n.
numbered.
Translated from a MS. purchased at Fez in 1797-8, by Father
Moura.
— Description de 1'Archipel d'Asie, par Ibn-Bathoutha,
traduite de 1'arabe par M. fid. Dulaurier. (Journal Asiatique,
FeVrier, 1847, pp. 93-134; Mars, 1847, pp. 218-59.)
— Voyages d'Ibn Batoutah, texte arabe, accompagne" d'une
traduction par C. Defremery et le Dr. B. R. Sanguinetti. Paris.
Imprime' par autorisation de I'Empereur a rimprimerie Impe'riale,
MDCCCLIII— LVIII. 4 vol. 8vo, pp. xlvi— 443, xiv— 465, xxvi— 476,
479; and index alphab6tique, 8vo, MDCCCLIX, pp. 91 on 2 col.
— Die Reise des Arabers Ibn Batuta durch Indien und China.
(14. Jahrhundert.) Von Dr. Hans von Mzik. Mit 2 Karten.
Hamburg, Gutenberg- Verlag, 1911, 8vo, pp. 490. (Bibliothek
denkwilrdiger Reisen, t. v.)
54 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
NOTE A. (SEE PAGE 13.)
ON THE VALUE OF THE INDIAN COINS MENTIONED
BY IBN BATUTA.
THOUGH I have not been able to obtain complete light on
this perplexed question, I will venture a few remarks which may
facilitate its solution by those who have more knowledge and
better aids available, and I am the more encouraged to do so
because the venerable and sagacious Elphinstone, in his remarks
on the subject, has certainly been led astray by a passage in the
abridgment of our traveller translated by Lee. He observes
(H. of India, ii, 208) : " In Ibn Batuta's time a western dinar
was to an eastern as four to one, and an eastern dinar seems to
have been one-tenth of a tankha, which, even supposing the
tankha of that day to be equal to a rupee of Akber, would be
only 2%d. (Ibn Batuta, p. 149)."
But the fact deducible from what Ibn Batuta really says is,
that what he calls the silver dinar of India is the tangah of other
authors, corresponding more or less to the coin which has been
called rupee (Rupiyd) since the days of Sher Shah (1540-5),
and that this silver coin was equal to one-fourth of the gold
dinar of the West (Maghrib, i.e. Western Barbary) ; whilst it
was one-tenth of the gold coin of India, to which alone he gives
the name of Tangah. Thus he says : " The lak is a sum of 100,000
[Indian silver] dinars, an amount equal to 10,000 Indian gold
dinars" (iii, 106), with which we may compare the statement in
the contemporary Masalak-al-Absar that the Red Lak was equal
to 100,000 gold Tangah, and the White Lak equal to 100,000
silver Tangah (Not. et Ext., xiii, 211-12). We may also refer
to his anecdote about Sultan Mahomed's sending 40,000 dinars
to Shaikh Burhan-uddin of Sagharj at Samarkand, which appears
also in the Masalak-al-Absar as a present of 40,000 Tangahs.
But the identity of Ibn Batuta's Indian silver dinar and the
silver Tangah will be seen to be beyond question when this note
has been read through.
The late Mr. Erskine, in his H. of India under Baber and
Humayun (i, 544), says that the Tangah under the Khiljis (the
immediate predecessors of the Tughlaks on the throne of Delhi)
was a tola in weight (i.e. the weight of the present rupee), and
probably equal in value to Akbar's rupee, or about two shillings.
And this we should naturally suppose to be about the value of
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 55
the Tangah or silver dinar of Mahomed Tughlak, but there are
statements which curiously diverge from this in contrary direc-
tions.
On the one hand, Firishta has the following passage:
" Nizamood-deen Ahmed Bukhshy, surprised at the vast sums
stated by historians as having been lavished by this prince
(M. Tughlak), took the trouble to ascertain from authentic
records that these Tankas were of the silver currency of the day,
in which was amalgamated a great deal of alloy, so that each
Tanka only exchanged for sixteen copper pice," making, says
Briggs, the tanka worth only about fourpence instead of two
shillings (Briggs' Firishta, i, 410).
I doubt however if this statement, or at least the accuracy
of the Bakshi's researches, can be relied on, for the distinct
and concurring testimonies of Ibn Batuta and the Masalak-al-
Absdr not only lend no countenance to this depreciation, but seem
on the other hand greatly to enhance the value of the Tangah
beyond what we may call its normal value of two shillings.
Thus Ibn Batuta tells us repeatedly that the gold Tangah
(of 10 silver dinars or Tangahs) was equal to 2^ gold dinars of
Maghrib (see i, 293; ii, 65, 66; iii, 107, 426; iv, 212). The
Masdlak-al-Absdr says it was equal to three mithcals (ordinary
dinars?). The former says again that the silver dinar of India
was equivalent to eight dirhems, and that "this dirhem was
absolutely equivalent to the dirhem of silver" (iv, 210).
The Masdlak-al-Absdr also tells us, on the authority of a
certain Shaikh Mubarak who had been in India at the court of
M. Tughlak, that the silver Tangah was equal to eight dirhems
called hashtkdni, and that these were of the same weight as the
dirhem of Egypt and Syria (o. c. xiii, 211); though in another
passage the same work gives the value as six dirhems only (p. 194).
[Ma Huan in his account of Bengal has : " The currency of the
country is a silver coin called Tang-ka, which is two Chinese
mace in weight, is one inch and two-tenths in diameter, and is
engraved on either side; all large business transactions are
carried on with this coin, but for small purchases they use a
sea-shell called by foreigners kao-li" [cowry]. — /. R. A. S., 1895,
p. 530. Mr. John Beames, I.e., p. 899, remarks that "the
Tang-ka is the ordinary silver coin now more generally known
as the rupee. The Bengalis, however, still use the term tanka
or tdkd for rupee."]
The only estimate I can find of a Barbary dinar is Amari's
report from actual weight and assay of the value of the dinar
called Mumini of the African dynasty Almohadi, current at the
end of the twelfth century. This amounts to fr. 16-36 or
I2S. 11-42^. (Diplomi Arabi del R. Archiv. Fiorent. p. 398). We
have seen that ten silver dinars of India were equal to two and
56 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
a half gold dinars of Barbary, or, in other words, that four of
the former were equal to one of the latter. Taking the valuation
just given we should have the Indian silver dinar or Tangah
worth 35. 2-855^.. . .(A).
Then as regards the dirhem. The dinar of the Arabs was a
perpetuation of the golden solidus of Constantine, which appears
to have borne the name of denarius in the eastern provinces,
and it preserved for many hundred years the weight and intrinsic
value of the Roman coin, though in the fourteenth century
the dinar of Egypt and Syria had certainly fallen below this.
The dirhem more vaguely represented the drachma, or rather
the Roman (silver) denarius, to which the former name was
applied in the Greek provinces (see Castiglione, Monete Cufiche,
Ixi seqq.).
The dinar was divided originally into 20 dirhems, though at
certain times and places it came to be divided into only 12, 13,
or 10. In Egypt, in Ibn Batuta's time, according to his own
statement, it was divided into 25 dirhems. His contemporary,
Pegolotti, also says that 23 to 25 diremi went to the Bizant or
dinar. In Syria in the following century we find Uzzano to state
that the dinar was worth thirty dirhems ; and perhaps this may
have been the case in Egypt at an earlier date. For Frescobaldi
(1384) tells us that the daremo was of the value of a Venice grosso
(of which there went twenty-four to the sequin), and also that
the bizant was worth a ducato di zeccha (or sequin) and a quarter ;
hence there should have been thirty grossi or dirhems to the
bizant (Amari in Journ. Asiat., Jan. 1846, p. 241, and in Diplomi
Arabi u.s. ; Ibn Bat., i, 50; Delia Decima. iii, 58, iv, 113;
Viag. in Terra Santa di L. Frescobaldi e d' altri, Firenze, 1862,
p. 43). The estimates of the dinar also are various. Quatremere
assumes the dinar in Irak at the beginning cf the fourteenth
century to be 15 francs, or us. io^d. ; Defremery makes 100,000
dirhems of Egypt equal to 75,000 francs, which, at Ibn Batuta's
rate of 25 to the dinar, would make the latter equal to 145. iod.,
or at 20 dirhems (which is probably the number assumed)
us. io%d. Pegolotti says the bizant of Egypt (or dinar) was
worth i£ florin, but makes other statements from which we
must deduce that it was i^1, valuations which would respectively
make the dinar equal to los. ii'66rf., and us. 3-82^. Frescobaldi
and his companion Sigoli both say that it was worth a sequin
(or a florin) and a quarter, i.e., us. 8-35^., or us. g-o6d. Uzzano
says its value varied (in exchange apparently) from i florin
1 For he tells us (p. 77) that i oz. Florence weight was equal to
6 bizants and i6| carats, the bizant being divided into 24 carats;
and in another place (p. 202) that 96 gold florins of Florence were
equal to one Florence pound. The resulting equation will give the
bizant almost exactly equal to i^ florin.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 57
to i£, or even i^; giving respectively values of gs. 4-85^.,
105. 6-gd., and 125. 6d. But he also tells us that its excess in
weight over the florin was only i£ carat (or g5T), which would
make its intrinsic value only gs. net. MacGuckin de Slane says
in a note on Ibn Batuta that the dinar of his time might be
valued at 12 or 13 francs, i.e., from gs. 6d. to 105. $%d. ; and Amari
that the dinar of Egypt at the beginning of the fourteenth century
was equal to the latter sum (Quat., Rashideddin, p. xix; Ibn
Bat., i, 95; Delia Decima, iii, 58, 77; iv, no seq. ; Viaggi in
Terra Santa, pp. 43, 177; Journ. Asiat., March, 1843, p. 188;
Diplomi Arabi, p. Ixiv). On the whole I do not well see how
the dinar of Egypt and Syria in our author's time can be assumed
at a lower value than los. 6d.
Taking the dinar of Egypt and Syria at 105. 6d., and
25 dirhems to the dinar (according to our author's own computa-
tion) we have the dirhem worth 5-04^., and the Indian dinar
or Tangah, being worth eight dirhems, will be 35. 4-32^.. . .(B).
Or, if neglecting the whole question as to the value of the
dinar and number of dirhems therein, we take Frescobaldi's
assertion that the dirhem was worth a Venetian groat as an
accurate statement of its value, we shall have the dirhem equal
to Jj of a sequin cr 05. 4-68^., and the Tanga worth 35. 1*44^.
...(c).
But even this last and lowest of these results is perplexingly
high, unless we consider how very different the relation between
silver and gold in India in the first half of the fourteenth century
is likely to have been from what it is now in Europe ; observing
also that all the values we have been assigning have been deduced
from the value of gold coins estimated at the modern English
mint price, which is to the value of silver as fifteen and a fraction
to one.
The prevalent relation between gold and silver in Europe,
for several centuries before the discovery of America took effect
on the matter, seems to have been about twelve to one; and it
is almost certain that in India at this time the ratio must have
been considerably lower. Till recently I believe silver has
always borne a higher relative value in India than in Europe,
but besides this the vast quantities of gold that had been brought
into circulation in the Delhi Empire since the beginning of the
century, by the successive invasions of the Deccan and plunder
of the accumulated treasures of its temples and cities, must
have tended still more to depreciate gold, and it is very con-
ceivable that the relative value at Delhi in 1320—50 should
have been ten to one, or even less1.
1 For some account of the enormous plunder in gold, etc., brought
from the south by Malik Kafur in 1310-11 see Briggs' Firishta, i,
pp. 373-4. See also supra, in, p. 68, for a sample of the spoil in gold
58 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
On the hypothesis of its being ten to one we should have
to reduce the estimates of the dinar (A), (B), (c), by one third
in order to get the real results in modern value. They would
then become respectively 2s. i'gd., 25. 2-gd., and 2s. o'g6d.>
and the Tangah or silver dinar thus becomes substantially
identified with the modern rupee.
The fact that the gold Tangah was coined to be worth ten
silver ones may slightly favour the reality of the supposed ratio
between gold and silver, as there seems to have been often a
propensity to make the chief gold and chief silver coin of the
same weight. I think that the modern gold mohur struck at
the Company's Indian Mints is or was of the same weight as
the rupee. See also (supra, n, p. 197) the statement in Wassaf
that the balish of gold was just ten times the balish of silver.
I do not know whether the existence of coins of Mahomed
Tughlak in our Museums gives the means of confirming or up-
setting the preceding calculations.
In making them the twenty-franc piece has been taken at
the value of 155. io-$d. English, and therefore the franc in gold
at os. g~6gd. (Encycl. Brit., article Money}. The Florentine gold
florin has been taken at fr. 11-8792, or 95. 4-8516^. English,
and the Venetian sequin at fr. 11-82, or 95. 4-284^. (Cibrario,
Pol. Economia del Media Evo, iii, 228, 248).
***
Shortly after this note had been printed I saw from the
Athenceum (February 3rd, 1866) that Mr. Edward Thomas,
the eminent Indian numismatologist, had been treating of the
Bengal coinage of this period before the Royal Asiatic Society,
and on my application to him for certain information, he was
kind enough to send me a copy of a pamphlet containing his
paper ("The Initial Coinage of Bengal") as well as of some
appropriated by one of the minor Mahomedan buccaneering chiefs
in the Peninsula. The treasures accumulated by Kalesa-Dewar, the
Rajah of Maabar, in the end of the thirteenth century, are stated
in the Persian History of Wassaf at 12,000 crores of gold, a crore
being = 10,000,000 ! (see Von Hammer's work quoted supra, in, pp. 68-9).
Note also that there was according to Firishta at this time none but
gold coinage in the Carnatic, and this indeed continued to be the
prevalent currency there till the present century (Elphinstone, ii, 48).
We may observe too that even when the emperor assigns to Ibn Batuta
a large present estimated in silver dinars, it is paid in gold Tangahs
(iii, 426). I may add a reference to what Polo tells us of the frontier
provinces between Burma and China, that in one the value of gold
was only eight times that of silver, in another only six times, and in
a third (that of the Zardandan or Gold-Teeth — supra, in, p. 131) only
five times that of silver; "by this exchange," quoth he, "merchants
make great profit" (pt. i, ch. 46, 47, 48). Difficult of access as those
provinces were, such an exchange must in some degree have affected
neighbouring countries.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 59
former papers of his on the coinage of the Patan Sovereigns
of Hindustan.
It appears to me that these papers fairly confirm from numis-
matic history the conclusions arrived at in Note A from the
passages in Ibn Batuta and the Masalak-al-Absar.
The chief points, as far as that note is concerned, to be gathered
from Mr. Thomas's researches are these :
(1) That the capital coins of Delhi, from the time of Altamsh
(A.D. 1211-36) to the accession of Mahomed Tughlak (A.D. 1325),
were a gold and silver piece of equal weight, approximating tc
a standard of 175 grains Troy1 (properly 100 Ratis).
(2) That Mahomed Tughlak in the first year of his reign
remodelled the currency, issuing gold pieces under the official
name of dinar, weighing two hundred grains, and silver pieces
under the name of 'adali, weighing one hundred and forty grains.
(3) That the coinage of silver at least was gradually and
increasingly debased till A.D. 1330, when Mahomed developed
his notable scheme of a forced currency consisting entirely of
copper tokens (alluded to at in, p. 150, supra). This threw every-
thing into confusion, and it was not till six years later that any
sustained issues of ordinary coin recommenced2.
(4) From this time the old standard (175 grains) of Mahomed's
predecessors was readopted for gold, and was preserved to the
1 These coins appear to have been officially termed respectively
Sikkah and Fizzat ; bu t both seem eventually to have had the popular
name of Tankah.
The word Sikkah just mentioned involves a curious history.
Originally it appears to mean a die ; then it applies to the coin
struck, as here. In this application (in the form of Sicca Rupees)
it still has a ghostly existence at the India Office. Going off in another
direction at an early date, the word gave a name to the Zecca, or Cecca,
or Mint, of the Italian Republics; thence to the Zecchino or Cecchino
which issued therefrom. And in this shape the word travelled back
to the East, where the term Chickeen or Chick survived to our own
day as a comprehensive Anglo-Indian expression for the sum of Four
Rupees.
We see how much the commerce and marine of Italy must have
owed to Saracen example in the fact that so many of the cardinal
institutions of these departments of affairs drew names from Arabic
originals ; e.g. — The Mint (Zecca, as above), the Arsenal (Darsena), the
Custom-House (Dovana, Dogana), the Factory (Fondaco, see in, p. 229,
supra), the Warehouse (Magazzino from Makhzan), the Admiral (from
Amir), the Broker (Sensale from Simsdr), the Caulker (Calafato from
Kildfat), to say nothing of the Cantaro and the Rotolo. It has been
doubted whether Darsena is of Arabic origin. I see, however, that
Mas'udI uses Ddr Sind'at (House of Craftsman's work) in speaking of
the Greek Arsenal at Rhodes (Prairies d'Or, ii, 423 ; iii, 67). And at in,
p. 144, supra, a note speaks hesitatingly about the derivation of dogana
from Diwdn. But in Amari's Diplomi Arabi the word Diwdn frequently
occurs as the equivalent of Dogana (op. cit., pp. 76, 88, 90, 91).
2 It is said (July 1866) that the Italian Government is about to
issue copper tokens to represent the different silver coins current
in the kingdom (Absit omen !).
60 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
time of Sher Shah. It does not appear that the old standard
was resumed for silver. For though Mr. Thomas alludes to one
example of a coin of A.H. 734 (A.D. 1334, and therefore previous
to the resumption of a systematic coinage) as containing 168
grains of pure silver, his examples show in the reign of Mahomed's
successor Firuz Shah the gold coin of 175 grain standard running
parallel with continued issues of the silver (or professedly silver)
coin of 140 grains.
(5) During this time in Bengal the local coinage of silver
retained an approximation at least to the old standard of 175
grains, though from about 1336 this seems to descend to a standard
of 1 66. But one gold coin of Bengal of this period is quoted
in the papers. It is a piece cf inferior execution weighing
158 grs.
(6) The old standard silver tankah of 175 grains represented
64 of a coin or value called kani, or gani.
In applying these facts to the interpretation of Ibn Batuta
I conceive that the coin which he calls Tangah was the 175 grain
gold piece, and not the new dfnar of 200 grains; and that what
he calls dinar was the old 175 grain silver piece, and not the
new 'adali of 140 grains, i.e. it was the coin of which the modern
rupee is the legitimate representative and nearly the exact
equivalent1.
1 I considered that the passages referred to in Note A showed
sufficiently the sense in which Ibn Batuta uses the terms tangah and
dlndr, and also that the tangah was equal to ten dinars. But as there
seems some doubt about this I will here quote all the passages in which
the terms are used so as to be of any value.
(I) Tangah always means with Ibn Batuta a gold coin. Some-
times he calls it a gold dinar.
1. Locality, Delhi. "The weight of the tangah in dinars of
Maghrib is two dinars and a half" (i, 293).
2. Locality, Sind. "The lak is 100,000 dinars, and this is equal
to 10,000 dinars in gold of India, and the dinar of India is equal to
2j dinars of gold of Maghrib" (iii, 106).
3. Locality, Delhi. "1000 tangahs=25oo dinars of Maghrib"
(iii, 187).
4. Locality, Delhi. "2000 tangahs of gold" (iii, 264).
5. Locality, Delhi. Ibn Batuta receives 6233 tangahs as the
equivalent of 67,000—6700 dinars (iii, 426).
6. Locality, Delhi. The tangah = 2^ dinars of Maghrib (Ibid.).
7. Locality, Bengal. The dinar of gold =2 J dinars of Maghrib
(iv, 212).
(II) Dinar, though sometimes applied by Ibn Batuta to an Indian
gold coin, as we have just seen, is the only name he uses for the standard
Indian silver coin. Sometimes the term used is Dinar Dirdham, which
Defr6mery in some instances renders "Dinars of Silver," and in others
"Dinars in Dirhems." Sometimes the term used is Dindnir fizzat
(see ii, 373).
8. Locality, Shiraz. 10,000 dinars of silver changed into gold
of Maghrib would be 2500 dinars of gold (ii, 65).
9. Locality, Delhi. 100 dinars of silver = 25 dinars of gold, presum-
ably of Maghrib (ii, 76).
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 6l
This, as regards the silver coin, seems tolerably clear from a
comparison of Ibn Batuta's statement (as rendered by Defremery)
that " a silver dinar (in Bengal) was worth eight dirhems, and
their dirhem was exactly equivalent to the dirhem of silver,"
with the statement of the Masdlak-al-Absdr that "the silver
tangah of India was equivalent to eight of the dirhems called
Hashtkdni (eight-kdni], these hashtkani dirhems being of the same
weight with the dirhems of Egypt and Syria1." For it was the
175 grain piece that represented 64 kanis (and was therefore
equivalent to 8 hashtkanis) and not the 140 grain piece2.
Mr. Thomas has also considered the question, to which I
was necessarily led, as to the relative values of gold and silver
at that day in India. His conclusions are in the same direction
to which my remarks (at p. 62) point in the words, "it is very
conceivable that the relative value at Delhi should have been
ten to one, or even less," but they go much further, for he esti-
mates it at eight to one.
It seems probable that ten to one or thereabouts was the
normal relation in the civilised kingdoms of Asia during the
thirteenth century, but it is reasonable to suppose that the
10. Locality, Upper India. 100 dinars — 25 dinars in gold of
Maghrib (ii, 374).
11. Locality, Upper India. "1000 dinars, the change of which
in gold of Maghrib is equal to 250 dinars" (ii, 401).
12. Locality, Sind. Passage about the lak, quoted under No. 2.
13. From Delhi. Mah. Tughlak sends Burhan-uddin of Sagharj
a present of 40,000 dinars (iii, 255). Masdlak-al-Absdr says 40,000
tangahs.
14. Loc., Delhi. Mahom. Tughlak sends the Khalif's son on
arrival 400,000 dinars (iii, 262); and assigns Ibn Batuta a salary ot
12,000 dinars (iii, 398). These are evidently silver coins.
15. Locality, Bengal. Passage about the dinar being worth
8 dirhems, quoted in text (iv, 210).
No. 2 asserts in reference to Sind that the gold dinar was equal
to 10 silver dinars.
Nos. 9, 10, ii, show that the silver dinar of Delhi was worth one-
fourth of the gold dinar of Maghrib.
Nos. i, 2, 3, 6, 7, show that the tangah of India was a gold coin
equal to -z\ gold dinars of Maghrib, and that Ibn Batuta asserts this
equally in reference to Sind, Delhi, and Bengal. And, from the combina-
tion of these last two deductions, again the gold tangah = ten silver
dinars.
1 Mr. Thomas warns me that the passage from Ibn Batuta about
the dirhem of silver is very obscure ; and indeed he has interpreted
it in his pamphlet on the Bengal coinage in quite a different sense.
But the passage from the Masdlak-al-Absdr appears to be free from
obscurity, and to have substantially the same meaning as the version
of Defremery ; which is surely an argument of some weight in favour
of the latter.
2 Yet the existence of the latter piece perhaps explains the alterna-
tive statement (alluded to at p. 55) that the silver dinar of India
was equivalent to 6 dirhems only. The 140 grain piece would in fact
be equivalent to 6-4.
62 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
enormous plunder of gold in the Dekkan during the reign of
Mahomed Tughlak himself and his immediate predecessors
must for a time at least have diminished the relative value of
gold considerably1.
1 Some illustration of the popular view of this influx of gold is
given at p. 57. Another anecdote bearing on the subject is quoted
at ii, p. 144 (supra). And the Masdlak-al-Absdr says that Mahomed
Bin Yusuf Thakafi found in the province of Sind 40 bahar of gold,
each bahar equal to 333 mann, i.e., in all some 333,000 pounds of
gold.
Mr. Thomas seems to be of opinion that 8 to i was about the normal
relation of gold to silver in Asia during the time of Mahomed Tughlak
and the preceding age, and he quotes in support of this the statement
of Marco Polo, which I have referred to in a different view at p. 57,
that gold in Caraian (part of Yun-nan) bore that relation to silver. But
this was a remote province immediately adjoining still more secluded
regions producing gold in which the exchange went down to 6 and
5 to i. I understand Polo as mentioning the exchange of even 8 to i
as something remarkable.
The relation between the two metals has followed no constant
progression. American silver raised the value of gold in the sixteenth
and succeeding centuries, whilst recent gold discoveries are now
lowering it again. Minor influences of like kind no doubt acted before.
Such authorities as I have been able to refer to say that in the time of
the early Roman Empire the relation was 12^ to i ; under the Lower
Empire, about the time of Justinian, a little more than 14 to i ; in
the early Mahomedan times it varied from 13 J to 15 to i. In the
"dark ages" of Europe it sunk in some countries as low as 10 to I ;
in the time of Charles the Bald in France (843-77) it was 12 to i.
In Florence in 1356 it was 12 to i ; in England about the same time
12 to i ; and this seems to have been the prevailing relation till the
American discoveries took effect. But it seems improbable that 8 to
i could have been maintained for many years as the relation in India
and other kingdoms of Asia whilst the relation in Europe was so
different. The former relation was maintained I believe in Japan
to our own day, but then there was a wall of iron round the kingdom .
Supposing, as I do, that Ibn Batuta's tangah and dinar were the
old standard gold and silver coins of 175 grs. each, then the fact that
the tangah was worth 10 dinars is in my view an indication of what
had been at least the relative value of the two metals. And the state-
ment of the Tdrikh-i-Wassaf (see pp. 116, 442) that the gold balish
was worth ten times the silver balish comes in to confirm this.
It has occurred to me as just possible that the changes made by
Mahomed Tughlak in the coinage may have had reference to the
depreciation of gold owing to the "Great Dekkan Prize-money"
of that age. Thus, previous to his time, we have the gold and silver
coins of equal weight and bearing (according to the view which has
been explained) a nominal ratio of 10 to i. Mahomed on coming
to the throne finds that in consequence of the great influx of gold
the relative value of that metal has fallen greatly, say to something
like 7 to i, which as a local result where great treasure in gold had
suddenly poured in, is, I suppose, conceivable. He issues a coinage
which shall apply to this new ratio, and yet preserve the relation
of the pieces as 10 to i. This accounts for his 200 gr. gold and 140 gr.
silver pieces. Some years later, after the disastrous result of his copper
tokens, the value of gold has risen, and he reverts to the old gold
standard of 175 grs.r leaving (as far as I can gather) the silver piece
at its reduced weight. At the exchange of ten silver pieces for one of
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 63
NOTE B. (SEE PAGE 24.)
ON THE PLACES VISITED BY IBN BATUTA BETWEEN
CAMBAY AND MALABAR.
I dissent entirely from Di. Lee and others as to the identifi-
cation of the places named by our traveller between Cambay
and Hunawiir.
Kawd or Kawa is by Lee taken for G6g6. But I have no doubt
it is the place still bearing the same name, CAUVEY in Arrow-
smith's great map, Gongway or Conwa of Ritter (vi, 645-6),
on the left bank of the Mahi's estuary over against Cambay.
It is, or was in Forbes' time (Oriental Memoirs, quoted by Ritter),
the seat of a great company of naked Sanyasis.
Kandahar is evidently the corruption of some Indian name
into a form familiar to Mahomedan ears. It occurs also as the
name of a maritime city near the Gulf of Cambay in the early
wars of the Mahomedans of Sind, and in the Ayin Akbari
(Reinaud in /. As., s. iv, torn, v, 186). Starting from the point
just identified, we should look for rt on the east side of the Gulf
of Cambay, and there accordingly, in Arrowsmith's map, on a
secondary estuary, that of the Dhandar or river of Baroda
between the Mahi and the Nerbudda, we find GUNDAR. We
shall also find it in old Linschoten's map (Gandar}, and the place
is described by Edward Barbosa under the name of Guindarim
or Guandari, as a good enough city and sea-port, carrying on
a brisk trade with Malabar, etc. De Barros also mentions it as
Gendar, a port between Cambay and Baroch (see Barbosa and
De Barros in Ramusio, i; and also the Lisbon Barbosa, p. 277).
The title, Jdlansi, given by Ibn Batuta to the King of Gandar,
probably represents the surname of the Rajput tribe of ] holds,
which acquired large fragments of the great Hindu kingdom of
Anhilwara on its fall in the beginning of the century, and whose
name is still preserved in that of the district of Gujarat called
gold this now represents a relative value of 8 to i. Bengal, meanwhile,
has not shared in the plunder of the south, and there the old relations
remain, nominally at least, unaffected. This is a mere speculation,
and probably an airy one. Indeed, I find that Mr. Thomas is disposed
to think that the object of Mahomed Tughlak's innovations was to
ensure a double system of exchange rates, reviving the ancient local
weight of 80 Ratis (140 grs.), and respecting the Hindu ideal of division
by 4, with which was to be associated the Mahomedan preference
for decimals.
Thus the 64 gani silver piece of 175 gr. was reduced to a 50 gani
piece of 140 gr., 10 of which went to the current 175 gr. gold Tangah,
while the new 200 gr. gold Dinar was intended to exchange against
sixteen 50 gani pieces.
64 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
Jhdldwdr (see Forbes' Rds-Mdld, i, 285-6, and 292 seq.}. The
form heard by Ibn Batuta may have been Jhdldbansi or -vansi.
The tribe of Khwaja Bohrah who paid their respects to the envoys
here must have been the race or sect calling themselves Ismailiah,
but well known as traders and pedlars, under the name of Bohrahs,
all over the Bombay presidency. The headquarters of the sect
is at Burhanpur in the east of Khandesh, but they are chiefly
found in Surat and the towns of Gujarat (see Ritter, vi, 567).
Bairam I take to be the small island of PERIM [Peram], near
the mouth of the Gulf of Cambay. It is, perhaps, the Bawvrjs of
the Periplus. This island was the site of a fortress belonging to
Mukheraji Gohil, Raja of G6g6 and Perim, which was destroyed
by the Mahomedans apparently in this very reign of M. Tughlak,
and never afterwards restored (Forbes, op. cit.}. This quite agrees
with the statements of Ibn Batuta1.
Kukah is then the still tolerably flourishing port of G6c6
on the western side of the gulf, which has already been indicated
as the Caga of Friar Jordanus (supra, in, p. 78). Lee identified
Kukah with Goa, whilst Gildemeister, more strangely though
not without misgiving, and even Defremery, identify the Kawe
of our author with that city. The traveller's repeated allusions
to the tides point distinctly to the Gulf of Cambay as the position
of all the places hitherto named; the remarkable rise and fall
of the tide there have been celebrated since the date of the
Periplus.
The Pagan king Dunkul or Dung61, of Kukah, was doubtless
one of the "Gohils, Lords of Gogo and Perum, and of the sea-
washed province which derived from them its name of Gohilwdr"
(Forbes, p. 158), and possibly the last syllable represents this
very name Gohil, though I cannot explain the prefix.
Sinddbur or Sandabur is a greater difficulty, though named
by a variety of geographers, Europeans as well as Arabs. Some
needless difficulty has been created by Abulfeda's confounding
it more or less with Sinddn, which was quite a different place.
For the latter lay certainly to the north of Bombay, somewhere
near the Gulf of Cambay. Indeed, Rawlinson (quoted in Madras
Journal, xiv, 198) says it has been corrupted into the St. John
of modern maps, on the coast of Gujarat. I presume this must
be the St. John's Point of Rennell between Daman and Mahim,
which would suit the conditions of Sindan well.
The data which Abulfeda himself quotes from travellers
show that Sandabur was three days south of Tana, and reached
(as Ibn Batuta also tells us) immediately before Hunawiir.
1 I find that memory misled me here as to Lee's interpretations.
He appears (by writing Goa for Kaw& or Kdwa) to identify the latter
name with the modern Goa, not with G6go, and he attempts no identifi-
cation of Kuka.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 65
Sandabur is mentioned by Mas'udi, thus: "Crocodiles abound
in the ajwdn or bays formed by the Indian Sea, such as the
Bay of SANDABURA in the Indian kingdom of Bdghrah." I cannot
discover what Bdghrah represents. (Prairies d'Or, i, 207.)
Rashid also names it as the first city reached on the Malabar
Coast. The Chintabor of the Catalan map, and the Cintabor
of the Portulano Mediceo agree with this fairly.
I do not know any European book since the Portuguese
discoveries which speaks of Sandabur, but the name appears
in Linschoten's map in the end of the sixteenth century as
Cintapor on the coast of the Konkan below Dabul. Possibly
this was introduced from an older map without personal know-
ledge. It disagrees with nearly all the other data.
Ibn Batuta himself speaks of it as the Island of Sandabur,
containing thirty-six villages, as being one of the ports from
which ships traded to Aden, and as being about one day's voyage
from Hunawiir. The last particular shows that it could not
be far from GOA, as Gildemeister has recognized, and I am satisfied
that it was substantially identical with the port of Goa. This
notion is supported (i) by its being called by Ibn Batuta, not
merely an island, but an island surrounded by an estuary in which
the water was salt at the flood tide but fresh at the ebb, a descrip-
tion applying only to a Delta island like Goa ; (2) by his mention
of its thirty-six villages, for De Barros says that the island of Goa
was called by a native name \Tlsvddi] signifying " Thirty Villages " ;
and (3) by the way in which Sandabur is named in the Turkish
book of navigation called the Mohith, translated by V. Hammer
in the Bengal Journal. Here there is a section headed "24th
Voyage; from Kuwai Sindabur to Aden." But the original
characters given in a note read Koah (i.e. Goa) Sindabur, which
seems to indicate that Sindabur is to be looked for either in
Goa Island, or on one of the other Delta islands of its estuary.
The sailing directions commence : " If you start from Goa
Sindabur at the end of the season take care not to fall on Cape
Fal," etc. If we could identify this Rds-ul-Fdl we might make
sure of Sandabur. [Yule gives other proofs of the identity of
Sindabur with Goa in Hobson-JobsonJ]
The name, whether properly Sundapur or Chandapur (which
last the Catalan and Medicean maps suggest), I cannot trace.
D'Anville identifies Sandabur with Sunda, which is the name of
a district immediately south of Goa territory. But Sunda city
lies inland, and he probably meant as the port Sedasheogarh,
where we are now trying to reestablish a harbour. (D'Anville,
Antiq. de I'Inde, pp. 109-111 ; Elliot, Ind. to Hist, of Mah. India,
p. 43; Jaubert's Edrisi, i, 179; Gildemeister (who also refers to
the following), pp. 46, 184, 188; Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, v. p. 464.)
The only objection to these identifications appears to be the
c. Y. c. iv. <>
66 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
statement of our author that he was only three days in sailing
from Kukah to Sandabur, which seems rather short allowance
to give the vessels of those days to pass through the six degrees
of latitude between G6g6 and Goa. After all however it is only
an average of five knots.
a. P. 888. "Ma'dber, which
name (with Marco Polo) indi-
same is said before at p. 156.
NOTE C. (SEE PAGE 26.)
REMARKS ON SUNDRY PASSAGES IN THE FOURTH
VOLUME OF LASSEN'S INDISCHE ALTERTHUMS-
KUNDE.
The errors noticed here are those that I find obvious in those
pages of the volume that I have had occasion to consult. None
of them are noticed in the copious Errata at pp. 982 and (App.) 85.
REMARKS.
a. The most cursory reading
of Marco Polo shows that, what-
cates the southernmost part ever Maabar properly means, it
of the Malabar coast." The cannot mean this with that
author, including as it does
with him the tomb of St. Thomas
near Madras. But see supra, n,
p. 141 and in, p. 68. If Maabar
ever was understood to include a
small part of the S.W. coast,
as perhaps the expressions of
Rashid and Jordanus (p. 41)
imply, this would seem to be
merely because the name ex-
pressed a country, i.e., a super-
ficies, and not a coast, i.e., a
line. The name of Portugal
would be most erroneously de-
fined as "indicating the south
coast of the Spanish peninsula,"
though Portugal does include a
part of that coast.
I find that the Arabs gave
a name analogous to that of
Ma'bar (or the Passage) to the
Barbary coast from Tunis west-
ward, which was called Bar-ul-
Adwah, Terra Transitus, because
thence they used to pass into
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE
67
b. P. 889. "From Kdlikodu
or Kalikut, the capital of the
Zamorin, he (Ibn Batuta)
visited the Maldives On this
voyage he met the ships on
their voyage from Zaitun. . . .
On their decks were wooden
huts for the crew, which con-
sisted of five and twenty men."
c. "The captains were
Amirs, i.e., Arabs."
d. "This kind of ship was
only built in Zaitun."
e." From the Malabar coast
Ibn Batuta sailed to Ceylon."
/. "The next land that he
mentions is Bengal. Our
traveller visited this country
(about 1346) and found that
between it and the southern-
most part of the Dekkan a
most active traffic had sprung
up, and also with China."
g. Pp. 889-890. " From
this (Bengal) he directed his
travels to Java, as the name of
that island is here given ac-
cording to the more modern
pronunciation ; the island of
REMARKS
Spain (Amari in Journ. Asiat.,
Jan. 1846, p. 228). And it is
some corroboration of the idea
that the name Ma'bar was given
to the coast near Ramnad as
the place of passage to Ceylon,
that a town just opposite on
the Ceylonese coast was called
Mantotte, because it was the
Mahatotta, the " Great Ferry " or
point of arrival or departure of
the Malabars resorting to the
island (Tennent, i, 564).
b. Nothing is said by Ibn
Batuta of meeting these ships
on his voyage to the Maldives.
He describes them at Calicut,
where they were in port. He
speaks of the crew as consisting
of one thousand men.
c. See supra, p. 26.
d. These ships are distinctly
stated to have been built in
Zaitun, and in Sin-kaldn.
e. On the contrary, he sailed
from the Maldives.
/. I can find no ground for
this statement in the narrative,
except that Ibn Batuta got a
passage somehow from the Mal-
dives to Bengal, and afterwards
in a junk which was going
from Bengal to Java (Sumatra).
At the latter place the sultan
provided a vessel to carry him
on to China.
g. From this we should gather
(i) that Ibn Batuta calls Java
by that name, and (2) calls
Sumatra Jaonah, whilst (3) Lee
introduces a name, Mul-Java,
unknown to the correct narra-
5—2
68 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
Sumatra he calls Jdonah,
which, we should rather have
expected to be Jdvonah, as it
is known to be called by Marco
Polo Java Minor." (In a
note) : " The port where Ibn
Batuta landed is called in the
correct reading Sumathrah . . .
in Lee's translation the name
is given incorrectly as Mul-
Jdva."
h. P. 890. "Passing hence
(from Sumatra) our traveller
visited some of the Moluccas ;
this is rendered certain by the
fact that the author of these
travels gives a pretty accurate
description of the spice plants."
i. Ib. "On his further
travels Ibn Batuta after seven
days arrived at the kingdom
of Tualiceh. . . .
j. Ib.... "By which name
only Tonkin can be meant.
The inhabitants of this king-
dom, on account of their
vicinity, had many relations,
both hostile and peaceful, with
the Chinese."
k. Ib. " In the Middle King-
dom, next to Zaitun the most
important place of trade
was the Port of Sin-ossin or
Sin-kalan; this name must
indicate Canton, which city
stands on the river Tshing-
Kuang, the form of which is
REMARKS
tive, as that of the port of
Sumatra.
The fact is that Defremery
(whom Lassen cites) and Lee
are in perfect accordance here.
Sumatra Island is called Java;
some other country, which both
those translators take for Java
Proper, is called Mul-Java, and
Jaonah is found absolutely no-
where except in Lassen's page.
h. There is not one word in
the narrative about any such
visit, or anything that can be
so interpreted. As for the ac-
curacy of his description of the
spice plants, look at it !
i. The time in the narrative
amounts to seventy-one days from
Mul-Java, the last point of
departure, to Tawalisi. There
is nothing about seven days,
any more than there is about
the visit to the Spice Islands.
j. It is easy to settle difficult
questions with a "can only,"
but there is nothing to make
it .clear that Tonkin is meant,
and strong reasons arise against
that view. And absolutely no-
thing is said in the narrative
about vicinity to the Chinese.
It is only said that the king
had frequent naval wars with
the Chinese, a fact which rather
argues an insular position.
k. Sinkilan is indeed Canton,
but it is by sounder reasons
than this that it is proved to
be so. One does not see why
foreigners should call Canton by
the name of its river, if Tshing-
Kuang be the name [the name
is Chu Kiang, the "Pearl River"],
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE
69
tolerably echoed in the second
reading of the name."
REMARKS
neither is there any great resem-
blance in the words. But we
have seen that Sin-kaldn is
merely the Persian translation
of Mahd-chin, and has nothing
to do with Chinese words.
Moreover Sfn-kalan is not an
alternative reading (Lesart) of
Sin-ossin (Sin-ul-Sin) , but an
alternative name.
It may be said that these errors are of trifling moment, and
belong to a mere appendage of the subject of the book. But
noblesse oblige; a work of such reputation as the Indian Archaeo-
logia is referred to with almost as much confidence as the original
authorities, and instances of negligence so thickly sown are a
sort of breach of trust. Those already quoted are, all but one,
within two pages. Going further we find others as remarkable :
/. P. 896. The name of one /. The real name in Cosmas
of the pepper ports on the (as found in Montfaucon) is how-
ever not Pandapattana but Pudo-
patana (Hovboirarava), which is
much more likely to be "New-
city," from the Tamul Pudu,
"New," as in Pudu-cheri, com-
monly called Pondicherry. The
port existed by the same name
for a thousand years after Cos-
mas ; see List of Malabar Ports,
infra.
m. The name at p. 283 of the
Bonn edition is not Tengast,
but Taugast (Tavyaor). I have
no longer access to the book,
and I cannot say whether it is
so differently written at p. 288.
This change again (if it is such)
favours an identification. The
identification may probably be
right, but would stand better
on a sound bottom.
In the Corpus Byzant. Histor.
the word is written Tavydr,
though the Latin version of the
same has Taugast.
n. In the appended tract n. (i) Sultan Mahomed's name
on the Chinese and Arab know- was not Togrul but Tughlak.
coast of Malabar is quoted
from Cosmas Indico-pleustes
(with a reference to Mont-
faucon, p. 337) as Panda-
pattana, a form which is made
the basis of an etymology (as
from the Pandiya kings).
m. P. 911. Lassen quotes
the name applied to the
Chinese by Theophylactus
Simocatta (see the Essay in
volume i) as Tengast, citing
the Bonn edition, p. 288.
7o IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
ledge of India, we have at
p. 31 a statement that Ibn
Batuta acquired the high
favour of the then reigning
Emperor of India, Muham-
med Toghrul, of the Afghan
dynasty of Lodi.
o. P. 84. " I will not omit
to remark that Wilhelm von
Rubruck, Jean du Plan Car pin,
and Benedictus Polonus estab-
lish the fact that also, during
the wide sway of the Mongol
Emperor Jingis Khan and his
successors, a commercial inter-
change existed between several
of their provinces and India.
The first of these pious envoys
of the Roman court visited
the Emperor Mangu Khan,
who in 1248 was recognized
as Supreme Khan of the whole
empire ; the second visited
Kublai Khan, who from 1259
to 1296 wielded with vigorous
hand the sceptre of his fore-
fathers; the third belonged
to that branch of the (Fran-
ciscan) order which is termed
Fratres Minores or Mindern
Briider; he was the comrade
of the second, and joined him
in Poland on a journey to
Rome undertaken in 1245.
He reached in his company
the court of the founder of
the Mongul empire at Karako-
rum."
p. Turning back ; at p. 402.
In speaking of the practice of
writing on the palm-leaves
with a style, Lassen notes :
" The leaves of the Zwergpalme
REMARKS
Neither (2) was he in any sense
of Afghan lineage; nor (3) did
he belong to the dynasty of Lodi,
which came a century after his
time, with the Deluge between
in the shape of Timur's invasion.
o. There are six errors in these
few lines, (i) The mission of
Rubruquis followed and did not
precede, as is distinctly implied
here, that of John of Piano
Carpini. The former took place
in 1253. (2) Rubruquis was not
sent by the Roman Court, but
by St. Lewis. (3) Piano Carpini
and Bennet the Pole did not
visit Kublai Khan, but Kuyuk
Khan, and their travels took
place in 1245-7, n°t after 1259
as is here implied. (4) All the
three monks (and all other Fran-
ciscans) were Fratres Minores,
and not Bennet only as is here
implied. (5) Bennet did not join
Piano Carpini on a journey to
Rome, but was picked up at
Breslau as an interpreter by the
latter when on his way from
the Pope at Lyons to the Khan
at Karakorum. (6) In whatever
manner the three travellers may
"establish the fact" in question,
it is not by saying anything on
the subject in their narratives.
As far as I can discover not
one of the three contains a
single word directly or indirectly
as to commercial intercourse
between the Mongol provinces
and India.
p. Phoenix Fructifera is, I
presume, the same as Phoenix
Dactylifera, the date tree. If it
be called dwarf-palm in Germany
(which I doubt) it is very
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 71
REMARKS
(i.e. dwarf-palm) or Phoenix badly named; but in any case
Fructifera are especially used it would puzzle any Dwarf out
for that purpose." of Lilliput to write upon its
leaves. The leaf most commonly
used for the purpose is that of
the Palmyra (Borassus Flabelli-
formis), and, in Ceylon and the
peninsula adjoining, that of the
Talipat (Corypha Umbraculifera) ,
a gigantic palm.
q. P. 511. In his description of the Chandi Sewu or
"Thousand Temples" at Brambanan in Java, he adopts without
question Mr. Crawfurd's view (formed fifty years ago when little
was known about Buddhism), that these essentially Buddhist
edifices have been each crowned with a lingam. Even if the
temples were not Buddhist, who ever saw a lingam on the top
of a temple? But in fact the objects in question are no more
lingams than the cupolas over St. Paul's facade are dagobas.
Indeed in the latter case the resemblance is much more striking.
r. P. 546. Here, in dealing with the Malay history as derived
partly from the native chronicles cited by Marsden, and partly
from the early Portuguese writers, Lassen meets with the name
of a chief given by the latter as Xaquem Davxa. This hero he
supposes to be the son of a certain Iskandar or Sikandar Shah
mentioned in the Malay legends, and devises for his odd name
a Sanscrit original "Cakanadhara, d. h. Besitzer Kraftiger
Besitzungen " ; accordingly he enters this possessor of strong
possessions as an ascertained sovereign in the dynastic list under
the name of Cakanadhara. Yet this Xaquem Davxa (Xaquemdar
Xa) is only a corrupt Portuguese transcript of the name of
Sikandar Shah himself (see Crawfurd's Diet. Ind. Islands, p. 242).
King Cakanadhara is therefore as purely imaginary as the Pandyan
city ascribed to Cosmas or the Island of Jaonah for which Ibn
Batuta is wrongly made responsible.
72 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
NOTE D. (SEE PAGE 27.)
THE MEDIEVAL PORTS OF MALABAR.
It seems worth while to introduce here a review of the Ports
of Malabar as they are described to have existed from the
thirteenth to the sixteenth century. Many of these have now
altogether disappeared, not only from commercial lists but from
our maps, so that their very sites are sometimes difficult to
identify. Nor are the books (such as F. Buchanan's Journey1
and others) which might serve to elucidate many points, accessible
where this is written. But still this attempt to illustrate a
prominent subject in the Indian geography of those centuries
will I trust have some interest.
We shall take the Goa River as our starting point, though
Malabar strictly speaking was held to commence at Cape Delly.
Had we taken the whole western coast from Gujarat downwards,
the list would have been enlarged by at least a half.
The authorities recurring most frequently will be indicated
thus : B stands for Barbosa (beginning of the sixteenth century)
in Ramusio; BL for the Lisbon edition of Barbosa; DEB for
De Barros (to whom I have access only in an Italian version of
the two first Decades, Venice, 1561, and in Ramusio's extracts) ;
IB for Ibn Batuta; s for the anonymous Sommario del Regni
in Ramusio.
Sandabiir, Chintabor, etc., see Note B, supra.
Bathecala, a flourishing city on a river, a mile from the sea
(Varthema) ; BEITKUL, in the now again well-known bay of
Sedasheogarh [Sedasiva-ghur, Buchanan, iii, p. 178]. I do not
find it mentioned by any other of the early travellers, but in the
seventeenth century it was the seat of a British factory under
the name of Karwar, the name (Karwar Head) still applied to
the southern point of the bay. [Karwar, in North Kanara
District.]
Anjediva (Varth.) ; ANCHEDIVA, an island 5 miles south-west
of Karwar Head, which was a favourite anchorage of the early
Portuguese, the island affording shelter and good water^ [It
forms part of the Portuguese Possessions in Western India ; see
Buchanan, iii, p. 178.]
Cintacola (B), Cintacora (BL), Centacola (Varthema), Ancola?
(DEB) ; ANKOLAH ? a fortress on a rock over the river Aliga,
belonging to the Sabaio of Goa (B), the residence of many Moorish
1 [The title of the work is: A Journey from Madras through the
countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar. ... by Francis Buchanan,
M.D., London, 1807, 3 vol. 4to. I have made use of it. H. C.]
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 73
merchants (Varth.). ["Ancola is a ruinous fort, with a small
market near it." Buchanan, iii, p. 176.]
Mergeo River (B), Mergeu (BL and DEB), Mirgeo (s). A
great export of rice; the river north of KUMTA, on the estuary
of which is still a place called MIRJAN, the Meerjee or Meerzah
of Rennell. Of late years I believe the trade has revived at
Kumta, chiefly in the export of Dharwar cotton. ["This traffic
has been much affected by the railway through Portuguese
territory." Gaz. India.]
Honor (B), Onor (DEB and Cesar Federici), Hinawar (IB),
Hannaur (Abulfeda), Manor and Hunawur of Abdurrazzak,
probably Nandor of the Catalan Map, HUNAWUR or ONORE
(properly Hunur'?}. A fine place with pleasant gardens and a
Mahomedan population (Abul. and IB) ; a great export of rice
and much frequented by shipping (B), but long a nest of pirates.
["Honawera, or Onore, as we call it, was totally demolished by
Tippoo after he had recovered it by the treaty of Mangalore. It
was formerly a place of great commerce." Buchanan, iii, p. 137.]
Battecala (B), Baticala (BL and DEB), Batigala of Fr. Jordanus,
BATKUL. A great place with many merchants, where ships of
Hormuz and Aden came to load sugar and rice, but destroyed
by the rise of Goa. (An English Factory in the seventeenth
century). [Bhatkal, North Kanara District — "Batuculla means
the round town; stands on the north bank of a small river, the
Sancada-holay ." Buchanan, iii, p. 120.]
Mayandur, on a small river (B), Bendor (DEB); perhaps the
port of BEDNUR, which itself lies inland.
Bracalor (BL), Brazzalor (B, and A. Corsali), Bracelor (DEB),
Bacelor (s), Abusaror (IB), Basarur (Abulf.) ; BARCELOR. A small
city on a gulf, abounding in coco-trees (IB). (A Dutch Factory
in the seventeenth century.)
Bacanor (BL, DEB, s), Bracanor (B), Fakanur, a large place
on an estuary, with much sugar cane, under a pagan prince
called Basadewa (IB), Fagmir (Rashid), Jai-fakmir (Firishta),
probably the Maganur of Abdurrazzak, and the Pacamuria of
N. Conti ; BACCANOR. There was a great export of rice in ships
of Hormuz, Aden, Sohar and Malabar from both Barcelor and
Baccanor (B). [Barkur, South Kanara District.]
Carcara and Carnate (DEB), Carnati (P. Vincenzo).
Mangalor (B, DEB, s, Abdurrazzak), Manjarur (IB and Abul.),
Manganor of the Catalan Map, MANGALORE. Probably Manga-
ruth, one of the pepper-ports of Cosmas, but the Mandagara of
Ptolemy and the Periplus must have been much further north.
(It is curious that Ptolemy has also a Manganor, but it is an
inland city.) On a great estuary called Al-Dunb, the greatest
on the coast; hither came most of the merchants from Yemen
and Fars; pepper and ginger abundant; under a king called
74 IBN BATUTA S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
Ramadewa (IB). A great place on a great river; here the pepper
begins ; the river bordered with coco groves ; a great population
of Moors and Gentiles ; many handsome mosques and temples (B) .
Fifty or sixty ships used to load rice here (Varthema). Fallen
off sixty years later, when C. Federici calls it a little place of
small trade, but still exporting a little rice. [South Kanara
District; to-day coffee is the chief article of export. See
Buchanan, iii, p. 22.]
Maiceram (s), Mangeiron (DEB), Mangesairam (Linschoten),
MANJESHWARAM. Nancaseram of Rennell? [Manjeswara, of
Buchanan, iii, p. 20.]
Cumbala (B, DEB), Cumbola (BL), Cambulla (s), Coloal of
Rennell? KUMBLAH. Exported rice, especially to the Maldives.
[Cumly? of Buchanan, iii, p. 15, "situated on a high peninsula
in a salt water lake, which is separated from the sea by a spit of
sand."]
Cangerecora, on a river of the same name (DEB), CHANDRAGIRI ?
["Chandra-giri is a large square fort, situated high above the
river on its southern bank. It was built by Sivuppa Nayaka,
the first prince of the house of Ikeri that established his authority
in this part of Canara." Buchanan, iii, p. 15.]
Cote Coulam (s), Cota Coulam (DEB), Cote Colam (BL).
Nilexoram (s), Xilichilam (DEB), Ligniceron (P. Vincenzo),
probably Barbosa's "port on the Miraporam River," which he
describes as the next place to Cote Coulam, " a seaport of Moors
and Gentiles, and a great place of navigation." Though the
name has been excluded by the defects and caprices of our modern
maps, this is the NILESHWERAM, NELISURAM, or NELLISEER of
Rennell and others, which has been identified by Rennell with
the Nelcynda of the Ancients. [Is it represented to-day by
the village of Nileshwar, south of Kasaragod, South Kanara
District?] There can be little doubt that the river on which it
stands was that on which was situated the kingdom of Ely of
Marco Polo, Hili of Rashid and Ibn Batuta, Elly of the Carta
Catalana (which marks it as a Christian city), and Helly or
Hellim of Conti, who is, as far as I know, the last author who
mentions a city or country of this name. We have perhaps
another trace of Eli or Hili in the Elima of the Ravenna
Geographer, which he puts in juxtaposition with Nilcinna.
(Berlin ed., 1860, p. 42.) The name has continued to attach
itself to a remarkable isolated or partially isolated mountain
and promontory on the coast, first in the forms of Cavo de Eli
(Fra Mauro), Monte d'lli (Fra Paolino), Monte de Lin (DEB),
Monte di Li (P. Vincenzo), and then in the corruption Mount
Delly, or, as Rennell has it, Dilla. The name was also, perhaps,
preserved in the RAMDILLY of Rennell, a fort on the same river
as Nileshwaram, but lower in its course, which, before debouching
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 75
near the north side of the mountain, runs parallel to the coast
for ten or twelve miles. There is also a fort of Deela mentioned
by P. Vincenzo and Rennell, immediately north of Nileshwaram.
But all these features and names have disappeared from our
recent maps, thanks, probably, to the Atlas of India, in which,
if I am not mistaken, Mount Delly even has no place. However
correct may be the trigonometrical skeleton of those sheets
of that publication which represent the coast in question, I think
no one can use them for topographical studies of this kind without
sore misgivings as to the filling in of details. The mountain
is mentioned by Abulfeda as "a great hill projecting into the sea,
visible to voyagers a long way off, and known to them as Ras
Haili," but he does not speak of the city or country. Barbosa
says "Monte D'Ely stands in the low country close by the shore,
a very lofty and round mountain, which serves as a beacon
and point of departure for all the ships of Moors and Gentiles
that navigate the Indian sea. Many springs run down from it,
which serve to water shipping. It has also much wood, including
a great deal of wild cinnamon" (BL). Marco Polo [see Yule-
Cordier's ed., ii, pp. 385, 386*2.] calls Ely an independent kingdom,
300 miles west of Comari (C. Comorin) ; it had no harbour but
such as its river afforded ; the king was rich, but had not many
people ; the natives practised piracy on such ships as were driven
in by stress of weather; the ships of Manzi (S. China) traded
thither, but expedited their lading on account of the insufficiency
of the ports Ibn Batuta speaks of Hili as a large city on a
great estuary, frequented by large ships, and as one of the three
(four) ports of Malabar which the Chinese junks visited. Pauthier
observes in his Marco Polo, "Ely est nomee par Ptolemee 'AAojj."
But the Aloe of Ptolemy is an inland city, which must make the
identification very questionable. If Nileshweram be Nelcynda,
then probably we have a trace of Ely in the E,L\bacare of the
Periplus. But the passage seems defective (see Hudson, i, 33).
Mount Delly is mentioned by several authors as in their
time the solitary habitat of the true cardamom. Can there be
a connexion between the name Hili, Ely, and the terms Elachi,
Ela, and Hil (the form in Gujarat and the Deccan according
to Linschoten) by which the cardamom is known in India?
["The correct name is Mount d'Eli (the Monte d'Ely of the
Portuguese), from the ancient Malabar State of Ely or Heli,
belonging to the Kolattiri Rajas, one of whose seats is near the
northern slopes of the hill." 885 feet in height. Gaz. India.]
Maranel, a very old place, peopled with Moors, Gentoos, and
Jews, speaking the country language, who have dwelt there for a
very long time (BL), Marabia (DEB, P. Vincenzo). The Heribalca
of (s) appears to be the same place, but the name looks corrupt.
It is probable that the balca (for Balea) belongs to the next
76 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
name, and then the Heri may be a trace of the lost Hili. [See
Marco Polo, n, p. 387.]
Balaerpatam, where the King of Cananor resided and had
a fortress (BL), Bolepatam (DEB), Patanam (s, but, if the con-
jecture under the last head be correct, Bafeapatanam), BALEA-
PATNA of Rennell. Fra Paolino will have it to be the Balipatna
of Ptolemy, and the Palaepatma of the Periplus. It would
seem, however, that the ancient port must be sought much
further north. (An English Factory in the seventeenth century.)
[Valya-pattanam of Buchanan, ii, p. 555 ?]
CANANOR (B, DEB, s). Export trade to Cambay, Hormuz,
Coulon, Dabul, Ceylon, Maldives, etc. Many merchants and
infinity of shipping (B) . A great and fine city, of great trade ;
every year two hundred ships of different countries took cargoes
here (Varthema). Probably the Jurfattan of Ibn Batuta three
parasangs from Manjarur (and therefore the Jarabattan of
Edrisi, though misplaced by him, and perhaps the Harrypatan,
for Jaripatan, of Firishta in Briggs, iv, 532), the residence of the
King called Kowil, one of the most powerful in Malabar, who
possessed many ships trading to Aden, Hormuz, etc. The
identification is confirmed by the fact that the Rajas of Cananor
were really called Kola-tiri and their kingdom Kola-nada (Fra
Paolino, pp. 90-1). In the time of C. Federici it had become
"a little city," but one from which were exported the whole
supply of cardamoms, with a good deal of pepper, ginger, areca,
betel, coco-nuts, molasses, etc. [Canura, see Buchanan, ii, p. 553.]
Tarmapatam (B, s), Tramapatam (DEB), Tremopatam (BL),
Tromapatam (Varth.), DHARMAPATAM; Darmaftun (for Darma-
fattan) of Rowlandson's Tohfut-ul-Mujahideen (p. 52). A great
city of Moors who are very rich merchants and have many great
ships; many handsome mosques (BL). Probably the Darapattan
of Firishta (u.s.) and the Dehfattan of IB, which he represents
as a great town with gardens, etc., on an estuary, under the same
king as Jurfattan.
Terivagante (B), Firamuingate (BL), Tirigath (P. Vincenzo) ;
TELLICHERRI ? (Eng. Factory in seventeenth century) across the
river from the last place (B), as were also Manjaim and Chamobai.
[" Tellichery, Mahe, and Durmapatam (Dharma-pattam) , form a
circle under the "management of Mr. Strachy." Buchanan, ii,
P- 5I7-]
Manjaim and Chamobai (BL), Mazeire and Chemobai (B),
Maim and Chomba (DEB), Mulariam and Camboa (s), Maino
and Somba (P. Vincenzo), both places of the Moors, and of
much navigation and trade (B), viz., MAKE and CHOMBE.
Pudripatam (B), Pedirpatam (BL), Pudipatanam (s), Puri-
patanam (DEB), the Peudifetania and Buffetania of Conti, the
Budfattan of IB, and probably the Pudopatana of Cosmas (see
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 77
preceding note). In Ibn Batata's time it was under the same
prince as Jurfattan (which we have identified with Cananor),
was a considerable city on a great estuary, and one of the finest
ports on the coast. The inhabitants were then chiefly Brahmins,
and there were no Mahomedans. In Barbosa's time again it
is still a place of much sea trade, but is become "a place of Moors."
The name is not found in modern maps, but it must have been
near the WADDAKARRE of Keith Johnston's.
Tircori (B), Tericori (s) ; TIKODI; Corri of Rennell?
Panderani (B), Colam Pandarani (s), Pandarane (DEB and
Varthema), Pandanare (BL), Fandaraina (Edrisi and IB), Fenderena
(Fra Mauro), Fundreeah of Rowlandson (u.s., p. 51), Fundarene
of Emmanuel King of Portugal (in a letter quoted in Humboldt's
Exam. Critique, v. 101), Fantalaina of the Chinese under the
Mongals (Pauthier's Polo, p. 532) Bandinana (for Bandirana) of
Abdulrazzak, Banderana of Balthazar Spinger (Iter Indicum,
1507, in Voyage Litteraire de deux Benedictins, 1724, p. 364),
Flandrina of Odoric (supra, u, p. 133). A great and fine place with
gardens, etc., and many Mahomedans, where such Chinese junks
as stayed over the monsoon in Malabar were wont to lie (IB).
A place entirely of Moors, and having many ships (B). But then
in decay, for Varthema calls it "a poor enough place, and having
no port." Opposite, at about three leagues distance, was an
uninhabited island. This must have been the Sacrifice Rock
of the maps. The place itself is not mentioned, to my knowledge,
after Barbosa's time.
Coulete (DEB), Coulandi (P. Vincenzo), Coilandy (Rennell) ;
KOILANDI. [Coilandy of Buchanan, ii, p. 515.]
Capucar (B), Capocar (s), Capocate (DEB), Capucate (BL and
P. Vincenzo), Capogatto, where there was a fine palace in the
old style (Varthema). It has disappeared from our maps.
CALICUT (B, s, DEB), Cholochut of Fra Mauro, Kalikut, one
of the great ports frequented by the Chinese junks, and the seat
of the Samuri King (IB). From Spinger, quoted above, we learn
that the Venetian merchants up to 1507 continued to frequent
Calicut for the purchase of spices to be carried by the Red
Sea, though the competition of Portuguese and Germans by the
Cape was beginning to tell heavily against them. ["The proper
name of the place is Colicodu," or the cock-crowing. Buchanan,
ii, p. 474.]
Chiliate (BL), Chalia or Calia (s), Chale (DEB and Linschoten),
Ciali (P. Vincenzo), Shaliyat (Abulfeda and IB). Ibn Batuta
stopped here some time and speaks of the stuffs made there which
bore the name of the place. This stuff was probably shall, the
name still given in India to a soft twilled cotton, generally of
a dark red colour. The Portuguese had a fort at Shalia.
Beypur, [for some years] the terminus of the Madras Railway
78 IBN BATUTA'S TRAVELS IN BENGAL AND CHINA
[on the west coast] , is not mentioned by any of the old travellers
that I know of, till Hamilton (about 1700). Tippu Sultan tried
to make a great port of it. (See Fra Paolino, p. 87.)
Paremporam (s), Purpurangari (B), Propriamguari (BL),
Parangale (DEB), Berengari (P. Vincenzo) ; PEREPEN ANGARRY
of some maps, Perpenagarde of Rennell.
Paravanor (B), Parananor (BL) ; Parone of Renneil?
Ytanor (B), Banor (BL), Tanor (s and DEB), TANORE or Tannur.
These two places had great trade and were the residence of great
merchants (B). This was an ancient city with many Christian
inhabitants, and the seat of an independent Raja, but in the end
of last century had become a poor village.
Paname (B), Panane (s and DEB), PON AN i. Many rich mer-
chants owning many ships; the place paid the King of Calicut
a large revenue from its customs (B). (French and English
Factories, seventeenth century.)
Beliamcor (s), Baleancor (DEB), BALLIANGOT of Rennell, and
probably the Meliancota or Maliancora of Conti, "quod nomen
magnam urbem apud eos designat, viii milliaribus patens."
Chatua (BL and DEB), Catua (B), Chetua (s), Chitwa (Rennell),
Cettuva (F. Paolino) ; CHAITWA.
PALUR mentioned here by P. Vincenzo and F. Paolino. I do
not know if this is Pariir, mentioned by Claudius Buchanan as
the site of the oldest church in Malabar; but it is probably
the Paliuria of Conti.
Aykotta, at the mouth of the river of Cranganor, was pointed
out by tradition of the native Christians as the place where
St. Thomas first set foot in India.
CRANGANOR (BL, s, DEB), Crangalor (B), said to be properly
Kodangulor ; Carangollor of P. Alvarez, where dwelt Christians,
Moors, Jews and Cafirs, the Shikali of Abulfeda, Cyngilin of
Odoric, etc. (v. supra, n, p. 133) ; according to some accounts one
of the oldest royal cities in Malabar, one of the greatest centres
of trade and the first place of settlement successively of Jews,
Christians, and Mahomedans on this coast. It would seem to
have been already in decay as a port in the time of Barbosa,
who only says that the King of Cochin drew some duties from
it. Sixty years later Federici speaks of it as a small Portuguese
fort, a place of little importance. In 1806 Cl. Buchanan says :
"There was formerly a town and fort at Cranganore. . .but both
are now in ruins." It continued, however, to be the seat of a
R. C. Archbishop.
COCHIN (B, s, DEB), Cochim (BL), Gutschin of Spinger, Cocchi
of G. Balbi; properly Kachhi. ["The tradition is that Cochin
was originally a small town on the banks of a small river
(Kocchi, 'little')." Gaz. India.] It was not a place of any trade
previous to the fourteenth century. In the year 1341 an extra-
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 79
ordinary land-flood produced great alterations in the coast at
Cochin, and opened a capacious estuary, but the place seems
to have continued of no great consideration till the arrival of
the Portuguese, though now it is the chief port of Malabar.
It is the Cocym of Conti, the first author, as far as I know, who
mentions it. The circumstances just stated render it in the
highest degree improbable that Cochin should have been the
Cottiara of the Ancients, as has often been alleged.
Porca (B, DEB), Porqua (BL) ; PARRAKAD. Formerly the
seat of a small principality. Barbosa says the people were
fishermen and pirates. Fra Paolino in the last century speaks
of it as a very populous city full of merchants, Mahomedan,
Christian, and Hindu. (Dutch Factory in seventeenth century.)
Calecoulam (B and DEB), Caicolam (s), KAYAN KULAM.
A considerable export of pepper ; the residence of many Christians
of St. Thomas (B). A very populous town sending produce to
Parrakad for shipment (F. Paolino). (Dutch Factory in seven-
teenth century.)
Coilam (BL), Coulan (B), Colam (s), Colom (G. d'Empoli),
Colon (Varthema and Spinger), Kaulam (Abulfeda and IB),
Coilon or Collun (M. Polo), Coloen (Conti); Kaulam -Male of the
merchant Suleiman (A.D. 851), (see n, p. 129 supra) ; the Colum-
bus, Columbum, Colombo, Colonbi of Jordanus and Marignolli,
Pegolotti, Carta Catalana, Fra Mauro, etc. ; the modern QUILON.
Polo speaks of the Christians, the brazil-wood and ginger,
both called Coiluny after the place (compare the gengiovo Colombino
and verzino Colombino of Pegolotti and Uzzano), the pepper,
and the traffic of ships from China and Arabia. Abulfeda defines
its position as at the extreme end of the pepper country towards
the east ("at the extremity of the pepper-forest towards the
south," says Odoric), whence ships sailed direct to Aden; on a
gulf of the sea, in a sandy plain adorned with many gardens;
the brazil tree grew there, and the Mahomedans had a fine
mosque and square. Ibn Batuta also notices the fine mosque,
and says the city was one of the finest in Malabar, with splendid
markets, rich merchants, etc. It continued to be an important
place to the beginning of the sixteenth century, when Varthema
speaks of it as a fine port, and Barbosa as a "very great city,"
with a very good haven, with many great merchants, Moors,
and Gentoos, whose ships traded to all the eastern ports as far
as Bengal, Pegu, and the Archipelago. But after this its decay
must have been rapid, and in the following century it had sunk
into entire insignificance. Throughout the middle ages it appears
to have been one of the chief seats of the St. Thomas Christians.
There were several ports between Quilon and Cape Comorin,
but my information about them is too defective to carry the
list further.
THE TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN CHINA,
PRECEDED BY EXTRACTS RELATING TO BENGAL AND
HIS VOYAGE THROUGH THE ARCHIPELAGO.
HAVING sailed at last (from the Maldives) we were
at sea for forty-three days, and then we arrived in Bengal.
This is a country of great extent, and one in which rice
is extremely abundant. Indeed I have seen no region
of the earth in which provisions are so plentiful, but the
climate is muggy, and people from Khorasan call it
Duzakhast bur ni'amat1, which is as much as to say,
A Hell full of good things !
He then proceeds to give a number of details as to the
cheapness of various commodities, from which we select a
few:
Mahomed al Masmiidi the Moor, a worthy man who
died in my house at Delhi, had once resided in Bengal.
He told me that when he was there with his family,
consisting of himself, his wife and a servant, he used
to buy a twelvemonth's supply of food for the three
of them for eight dirhems. For he bought rice in the
husk at the rate of eight dirhems for eighty rothl, Delhi
weight; and when he had husked it he still had fifty
rothl of rice or ten kantars2.
1 Should be (Pers.) Duzakh ast pur-i ni'amat ! "It is a Hell
full of wealth." This is much the way in which Sultan Baber
speaks of India, concluding with the summary that "the chief
excellence of Hindustan is that it is a large country, and has
abundance of gold and silver" (p. 333), and such I fear have been
the sentiments of many others from further west.
2 In a passage omitted he explains that an Indian dinar was
equal to eight dirhems of silver (see Note A preceding), and that
TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA, ETC. 8l
I have seen a milch cow sold in Bengal for three
silver dinars (the cattle of that country are buffaloes).
As for fat fowls, I have seen eight sold for a dirhem,
whilst small pigeons were to be had at fifteen for a dirhem.
... A piece of fine cotton cloth of excellent quality,
thirty cubits in length, has been sold in my presence
for two dinars (of silver) . A beautiful girl of marriageable
age I have also seen sold for a dinar of gold, worth two
and a half gold dinars of Barbary. For about the
same money I myself bought a young slave girl called
Ashura, who was endowed with the most exquisite
a rothl of Delhi was equal to twenty rothl of Barbary. The
editors in a note on a previous passage say that a rothl and a
half of Barbary was equal to a kilogramme, which (taken exactly)
would make the Delhi rothl of that day equal to 28-78 Ibs. avoir-
dupois. In another place (ii, 74) he applies the more appropriate
term mann (or maund, as in Anglo-India) to the Delhi weight,
and says it was equal to twenty-five rothl of Egypt. The former
calculation is corroborated with an exactness which must be
partly fortuitous by a deduction from a statement in the Masdlak-
al-Absdr. According to this work the current weights of Delhi
were the sir, and the mann of forty sirs, precisely the terms and
rates now current in Hindustan, but with different values. For
the sir it is said was equal to seventy mithkdls. According to
Amari the mithkal is 4-665 grammes, a datum which gives the sir
= "7-2 lb., and the mann = 28-80 Ibs. The modern "Indian
maund" is a little over 82 Ibs., and all the local maunds in the
Bengal Presidency at this day approximate to that. We have
seen (Note A, p. 58 supra] that the dinar probably represents the
rupee. The quantity of unhusked rice purchased for the rupee
in Ibn Batuta's time would therefore be about 2,300 IDS.,
equal to 28 modern maunds, about nine times as much for the
money as I can remember ever to have heard of in our own
time.
Mr. Thomas in one of his pamphlets referred to above (Coins
of the Patan Sultans, etc., p. 137) gives the maund of that day as
consisting of forty sirs of twenty-four tolas each. Taking these
tolas even at the present rate of 180 grains (and they were probably
less, see Initial Coinage of Bengal, p. 10) this would give the maund
of that day as equivalent to 24-680 Ibs., instead of 28-8 as deduced
from the data quoted here.
With regard to Bengal cheapness I may add that Hamilton,
writing at the end of the seventeenth century, says that an
acquaintance of his bought at Sundiva (an island near Chittagong)
580 Ibs. of rice for a rupee, eight geese for the same money, and
sixty good tame poultry for the same. (New Account of the East
Indies, ed. 1744, ii, 23.)
c. Y. c. iv. 6
82 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
beauty. And one of my comrades bought a pretty
little slave, called Lulu (Pearl), for two golden dinars1.
The first city of Bengal which we entered was called
SADKAWAN, a big place on the shore of the Great Sea2.
The river GANGES, to which the Hindus go on pilgrimage,
and the river JUNS unite in that neighbourhood before
1 [Marco Polo writes : " The people have oxen as tall as
elephants, but not so big. They live on flesh and milk and rice.
They grow cotton, in which the}' drive a great trade, and also
spices such as spikenard, galingale, ginger, sugar, and many other
sorts. And the people of India also come in search of the eunuchs
that I mentioned, and of slaves, male and female, of which there
are great numbers, taken from other provinces with which those
of the country are at war; and these eunuchs and slaves are
sold to the Indian and other merchants who carry them thence
for sale about the world." (Marco Polo, ii, p. 115 and note.)]
2 Both Chatganw (or Chittagong) and Satganw (on the
Hugh, some twenty-five to twenty-eight miles above Calcutta)
were important havens when the Portuguese arrived in India,
and the name here might, from the pen of an Arab, represent
either of them. But Chittagong only of the two is near the shore
of the ocean, and we know moreover that it was in this part of
Bengal that Fakhruddin set up his authority. Hence Ibn
Batuta must have landed at Chittagong. [The District of Chitta-
gong " was probably first conquered by the Muhammedans during
the period of Afghan supremacy in Bengal, between the thirteenth
and sixteenth centuries. The Portuguese historian, Faria de Souza,
states that in 1538, the Viceroy of Goa despatched an envoy to
the Afghan King of Bengal, who landed at Chittagong, and
proceeded thence to the capital at Gaur." (Gazetteer of India.)]
[Yule (Hob son- Job son, s.v. Chittagong) identifies Sadkawan or
Sudkawan with Chittagong, but this is doubtful ; we read in the
Ayeen Akbery (translated by F. Gladwin, ii, 1800, Soobah of
Bengal, p. ii): "Satgong. There are two emporiums, a mile
distant from each other; one called Satgong, and the other
Hoogly, with its dependencies ; both of which are in the possession
of the Europeans. Satgong is famous for pomegranates."
Sa.tga.on, to-day a ruined town in Hooghly District, "was the
mercantile capital of Bengal from the days of Hindu rule until
the foundation of Hooghly by the Portuguese. In 1632, when
Hooghly was declared a royal port, all the public offices were
withdrawn from Satgaon, which rapidly fell into ruins." (Imp.
Gaz. India.) The pilgrim Yi tsing arrived in Eastern India at
Tan-mouo-li-ti (Tamralipti) which Chavannes, p. 71, identifies,
like J. Fergusson (/. R. As. Soc., N.S., vi, 1873, pp. 243 seq.),
with Satgaon. "The Gung, says the Ayeen Akbery, ii, p. 5, after
having divided into a thousand channels, joins the sea at Sata-
gong." See G. Ferrand, Textes relat. d I'Ext. Orient, ii, p. 434 n.
Herr v. Mzik is in favour of Chittagong.]
3 Jun is the name which our traveller applies to the Jumna.
But it is difficult to suppose that even Ibn Batuta's loose geography
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 83
falling into the sea. The people of Bengal maintain
a number of vessels on the river, with which they engage
in war against the inhabitants of LAKHNAOTi1. The King
could conceive of the Jumna, whose banks he had frequented for
eight years, as joining the Ganges near the sea. That now main
branch of the Brahmaputra which flows into the Ganges near
Jafargunge is called the Janai, and I have heard it called by natives
Jumna, though this I supposed to be an accidental blunder.
Whatever confusion existed in our traveller's mind, I suppose
that it was the junction of the Ganges and Brahmaputra of which
he had heard.
1 Lakhnaoti is the same as Gaur, long the capital of the
Mahomedan governors and sultans in Bengal, the remains of
which are scattered over an extensive site near Maldah. Firishta
distinguishes the three provinces into which Bengal was divided
at this time as Lakhnaoti, Sunarganw, and Chatganw (Briggs, i,
423). It would seem that by Bengal Ibn Batuta means only the
two latter. The last, as appears from a quotation by Mr. Thomas
(Initial Coinage, p. 65), should be Satganw, a much more probable
division. This has been loosely indicated in the Sketch Map to
Ibn Batuta's Bengal Travels. [Lakhnaoti is a corruption of
Lakshmanawati, which seems to have been the ancient name of
this city. "The ascertained conquest of Gaur begins with its
conquest in 1204 A.D. by the Mohammedans, who retained it as
the chief seat of their power in Bengal for more than three cen-
turies .... When the Afghan kings of Bengal established their
independence, they transferred the seat of government to Panduah,
a Hindu outpost of Gaur, also in Maldah district .... Panduah
was soon afterwards deserted, and the royal residence re-trans-
ferred to Gaur, which continued, under the name of Janatabad,
to be the capital of Bengal so long as its Muhammedan kings
retained their independence." (Hunter, Gazetteer of India.)
Gaur was sacked by Sher Shah and his Afghans in 1537.]
["In 1199 Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji was appointed to lead
the first Musalman invasion into Bengal. The Muhammedan con-
quest of Behar dates from 1200, and the new power speedily
spread southwards into the Delta. From about this date until
1336, Bengal was ruled by governors appointed by the Muhamme-
dan Emperors in the North. From 1336 to 1539, its Musulman
governors asserted a precarious independence, and arrogated
the position of sovereigns on their own account." (Gazetteer of
India.)} [Gaur, or, more commonly, Gour, the name of a
medieval city in Bengal, of which the scattered remains cover a
large area in the district of Maldah, commencing not far south of
the modern civil station of that name. The name Gaur is a form
of the ancient Gauda (meaning the country "of sugar"), a term
which was applied to a large part of modern Bengal, and specifi-
cally to that part in which these remains lie .... The most eminent
[King] of the [last dynasty, that of the Senas, or of the Vaidyas,
eleventh century], by name Lakshmanasena, who flourished at the
end of the century. . .is said by tradition to have founded the
royal city in Gauda which in later days reverted to a form of this
6—2
84 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
of Bengal was the Sultan Fakhruddin, surnamed Fakhrah,
a prince of distinction who was fond of foreigners,
especially of Fakirs and Sufis.
The traveller then recapitulates the hands through which
the sceptre of Bengal had passed from the time of the Sultan
Nasiruddin [1323-6] (the Bakarra Khan of Elphinstone's
History), son of Balaban King of Delhi. After it had been
held successively by two sons of Nasiruddin, the latter of
these was attacked and killed by Mahomed Tughlak1.
Mahomed then named as governor of Bengal a brother-
in-law of his own, who was murdered by the troops.
Upon this Ali Shah, who was then at Lakhnaoti, seized
the kingdom of Bengal. When Fakhruddin saw that
the royal authority had thus passed from the family
of the Sultan Nasiruddin, whose descendant he was,
he raised a revolt in Sadkawan and Bengal, and declared
himself independent. The hostility between him and
Ali Shah was very bitter. When the winter came,
bringing rain and mud, Fakhruddin would make an
attack upon the Lakhnaoti country by the river, on which
he could muster great strength. But when the dry
season returned, Ali Shah would come down upon Bengal
by land, his force that way being predominant2.
ancient name (Gaur), but which the founder called after his own
name Lakshmanavati, or as it sounded in the popular speech
Lakhnaoti.. . .The first specific notice of the city of Gaur, from
actual knowledge, is contained in the Persian history called
Tabaqdt-i-Ndsiri. The author, Minhaj -i-Saraj , visited Lakhnaoti
in 1243. H. Yule in Encycl. Britannica.]
1 The second of these princes, Ghaiassuddin Bahadur Burah,
is entirely omitted by Firishta, but the fact of his reign has been
established by a coin and other evidence, in corroboration of Ibn
Batuta (Defr. and Sang. Preface to vol. iii, p. xxv). Some
notes of mine from Stewart's History of Bengal appear to show
that the reign of Bahadur Shah is related in that work.
2 These events are thus related by Stewart from Firishta and
other Persian authorities :
Mahomed Tughlak soon after his succession appointed Kadir
Khan to the government of Lakhnaoti, and confirmed Bairam
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 85
When I entered Sadkawan I did not visit the Sultan,
nor did I hold any personal communication with him,
because he was in revolt against the Emperor of India,
and I feared the consequences if I acted otherwise.
Khan in that of Sunarganw. These two chiefs governed their
respective territories for some fourteen years with much equity.
In 1338 Bairam Khan died at Sunarganw at the time when Sultan
Mahomed was busy with the transfer of his capital to Daulatabad.
Fakhruddin, the armour bearer of Bairam Khan, took the oppor-
tunity not only to assume the government, but to declare himself
independent under the title of Sultan Sikandar. The Emperor
ordered his expulsion by Kadir Khan, who marched against the
rebel from Lakhnaoti, defeated him, and took possession of Sunar-
ganw. There was a large sum in the treasury there, which Kadir
Khan was preparing to forward to Delhi. Fakhruddin made
known to the troops of Kadir Khan, that if they would kill their
master and join him, he would distribute the treasure among them.
They consented; Kadir Khan was slain, and Fakhruddin again
took possession of Sunarganw, where he fixed his capital, pro-
claiming himself sovereign of Bengal, coining and issuing edicts
in his own name. This was in 1340. He then sent an army to
seize Lakhnaoti, but it was resisted and defeated by Ali Mubarak,
one of the officers of the deceased governor, who, on this success,
applied to the emperor for the government, but assumed it
without waiting a reply, under the name of Alauddin, marched
against Fakhruddin, took him prisoner, and put him to death,
after a reign of only two years and five months, in 1342-3. A year
and five months later, Ali Mubarak was assassinated by his foster-
brother, Iliyas, who took possession of the kingdom under the
title of Shamsuddin, and established his capital at Pandua (now
a station on the railway between Calcutta and Burdwan, where
there are some curious remains of the Mahomedan dynasty).
See Stewart's History of Bengal, pp. 80-4.
We see from Ibn Batuta, that the date assigned to the death
of Fakhruddin by the historians is much too early. For the
traveller's visit to Bengal appears to have occurred in the cold
weather of 1346-7, so that Fakhruddin was reigning at least
four years later than Stewart's authorities represent. The Ali
Shah of Ibn Batuta is no doubt the Ali Mubarak of Stewart.
The light thrown by Mr. Thomas on the history of the early
sovereigns of Bengal from his numismatic and other researches
corrects in various points the authorities (loose in this matter)
followed by Stewart. Following the former, we have as the
first Sultan mentioned by Ibn Batuta*
1. NASiR-UD-ofN MAHMUD, called also Baghrd Khan, the son
of the Emperor Balban. From A.H. 681 (A.D. 1282). It is not
known how or when his reign terminated.
2. RuKN-UD-DfN KAi-KAUs — Supposed doubtfully to be a
son of the preceding, being known only from coins dating A.H.
691-5 (A.D. 1292-6).
* Several Governors of Bengal before this had assumed royal
titles and declared independence.
86 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
Quitting Sadkawan I went to the mountains of KAMRU,
which are at the distance of a month's journey. They
form an extensive range, bordering on China and also
on the country of TIBET, where the musk-antelopes
are found. The inhabitants of those regions resemble
the Turks [i.e. the Tartars] and are capital people to
work, so that as a slave one of them is as good as two
or three of another race1.
3. SHAMS-UD-niN FiRUZ, son of Nasiruddfn, reigning at
Lakhnaoti, probably from A.H. 702 (A.D. 1302) up to 722-3
(1322-3).
4. SHAHAB-UD-DfN BucHRAH SHAH, son of the preceding,
expelled after a brief reign in A.H. 724 (1324), by
5. GniAS-UD-DfN BAHADUR SHAH, surnamed according to
Ibn Batuta Burah, " meaning in the language of India Black " ( ? ),
another son of Shamsuddin. It is a difficulty about this
prince that coins of his are found of A.H. 710-12 (possibly,
Mr. Thomas thinks, from "originally imperfect die-rendering" for
720-2), and certainly of the latter dates. On the application
of Shahabuddin, Tughlak Shah intervened, and carried Bahadur
Burah captive to Delhi. Mahomed Tughlak on his accession
restored him to power, but some years later was displeased with
him, and marched an army against him. The Bengal prince was
beaten, killed and skinned, circa 733 (A.D. 1332).
It was on this occasion apparently that Mahomed left Kadr
Khan in charge of Lakhnaoti, and Tatar Khan, surnamed Bdhram
Khan, an adopted son of his father Tughlak Shah, in charge of
Sunarganw. On the death of Bahram Khan (737 or 739),
6. FAKHRUDDfN MUBARAK his silah-dar ("armour bearer")
took possession of the government and proclaimed independence.
He retained his hold on Sunarganw and its dependencies, as his
coins show, till 751 (A.D. 1350). Meanwhile
7. ALI SHAH, erroneously styled by Stewart's authors (as at
p. 85) All Mubarak, on the death of Kadr Khan (circa 742)
assumed sovereignty in Western Bengal under the title of A la-ud-
din. After 746 (the last date of his coinage) he was assassinated
by Hajji Iliyas.
8. iKHTYYAR-UD-DfN, Ghazi Shah, whose coins show him
reigning at Sunarganw 751-3 (A.D. 1350-1), appears to have
been a son of Fakhruddm. At the latter date he is displaced by
Hajji Iliyas under the name of
9. SHAMS-UD-ofN ILIYAS SHAH. This chief had coined
money at Firuzabad (at or near Pandua) as early as 740 ; about
746-7 (1345-6) he had killed and succeeded 'Ala-uddin in Lakh-
naoti, and now he conquered Sunarganw, so that he appears to
have ruled all Bengal. His reign extends to the end of 759 (1358).
We are not concerned to follow these sovereigns further.
1 A discussion as to the direction of this excursion to Kdmru
will be found in Note E at the end of this paper.
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 87
My object in going to the hill country of Kamni
was to see a holy personage who lives there, the Shaikh
Jalaluddin of Tabriz1. This was one of the most eminent
of saints, and one of the most singular of men, who had
achieved most worthy deeds, and wrought miracles of
great note. He was (when I saw him) a very old man,
and told me that he had seen the Khalif Mosta'sim Billah
the Abasside at Baghdad, and was in that city at the
time of his murder2. At a later date I heard from the
shaikh's disciples of his death at the age of one hundred
and fifty years. I was also told that he had fasted
for some forty years, breaking his fast only at intervals
of ten days, and this only with the milk of a cow that
he kept. He used also to remain on his legs all night.
The shaikh was a tall thin man, with little hair on his
face. The inhabitants of those mountains embraced
Islam at his hands, and this was his motive for living
among them.
Some of his disciples told me that the day before
his death he called them together, and after exhorting
them to live in the fear of God, went on to say : "I am
assured that, God willing, I shall leave you to-morrow,
and as regards you (my disciples) God Himself, the One
and Only, will be my successor." Next day, just as he
was finishing the noontide prayer, God took his soul
during the last prostration. At one side of the cave
in which he dwelt they found a grave ready dug, and
beside it a winding sheet with spices. They washed his
body, wound it in the sheet, prayed over him, and buried
him there.
When I was on my way to visit the shaikh, four of
1 Further on he is styled Shirdzi, instead of Tabvizi (iii, 287).
2 The Khalif Mosta'sim Billah was put to death by Hiilaku,
after the capture of Baghdad in 1258, therefore eighty-eight years
previous to this visit. [See Marco Polo, i, p. 67 «.]
88 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
his disciples met me at a distance of two days' journey
from his place of abode. They told me that the shaikh
had said to the fakirs who were with him : "The Traveller
from the West is coming; go and meet him," and that
they had come to meet me in consequence of this com-
mand. Now he knew nothing whatever about me, but
the thing had been revealed to him.
I set out with these people to go and see the shaikh,
and arrived at the hermitage outside his cave. There
was no cultivation near the hermitage, but the people
of the country, both Musulman and heathen, used to
pay him visits, bringing presents with them, and on these
the fakirs and the travellers [who came to see the shaikh]
were supported. As for the shaikh himself he had
only his cow, with whose milk he broke his fast every
ten days, as I have told you. When I went in, he got
up, embraced me, and made inquiries about my country
and my travels. I told him about these, and then he
said: "Thou art indeed the Traveller of the Arabs!"
His disciples who were present here added: "And. of the
Persians also, Master!" — "Of the Persians also," replied
he; "treat him then with consideration." So they led
me to the hermitage and entertained me for three days.
The day that I entered the shaikh's presence he was
wearing an ample mantle of goat's hair which greatly
took my fancy, so that I could not help saying to myself
"I wish to God that he would give it me!" When I
went to take my leave of him he got up, went into a
corner of his cave, took off this mantle and made me
put it on, as well as a high cap which he took from his
head, and then himself put on a coat all covered with
patches. The fakirs told me that the shaikh was not in
the habit of wearing the dress in question, and that he
only put it on at the time of my arrival, saying to them :
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 89
"The man of the West will ask for this dress; a Pagan
king will take it from him, and give it to our Brother
Burhan-uddin of Sagharj to whom it belongs, and for
whom it was made!" When the fakirs told me this,
my answer was: "I've got the shaikh's blessing now he
has put his mantle on me, and I'll take care not to wear
it in visiting any king whatever, be he idolater or be
he Islamite." So I quitted the shaikh, and a good while
afterwards it came to pass that when I was travelling
in China I got to the city of Khansa1. The crowd about
us was so great that my companions got separated
from me. Now it so happened that I had on this very
dress of which we are speaking, and that in a certain
street of the city the wazir was passing with a great
following, and his eye lighted on me. He called me to
him, took my hand, asked questions about my journey,
and did not let me go till we had reached the residence
of the sultan2. I then wanted to quit him; however
he would not let me go, but took me in and introduced
me to the prince, who began to ask me questions about
the various Musulman sovereigns. Whilst I was
answering his questions, his eyes were fixed with admira-
tion on my mantle. "Take it off," said the wazir;
and there was no possibility of disobeying. So the
sultan took the dress, and ordered them to give me ten
robes of honour, a horse saddled and bridled, and a sum
of money. I was vexed about it ; but then came to my
mind the shaikh's saying that a Pagan king would take
this dress from me, and I was greatly astonished at its
1 Quinsai, Cansay, etc., of our European travellers, see n,
p. 192, in, pp. 149, 229, etc.
2 The viceroy, as appears more clearly below. But some of
the viceroys under the Mongols seem to have borne the title of
Wang or King [for instance, Hien Yang Wang, prince of Hien
Yang, title given to the Seyyid Edjell], so that Ibn Batuta may
not be altogether wrong in calling him Sultan.
90 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
being thus fulfilled. The year following I came to the
residence of the King of China at Khanbaliq, and betook
myself to the Hermitage of the Shaikh Burhan-uddin
of Sagharj. I found him engaged in reading, and lo!
he had on that very dress! So I began to feel the stuff
with my hand. "Why dost thou handle it? Didst
ever see it before?" "Yes," quoth I, "'tis the mantle
the Sultan of Khansa took from me." "This mantle,"
replied the shaikh, "was made for me by my brother
Jalaluddin, and he wrote to me that it would reach me
by the hands of such an one." So he showed me Jalal-
uddin's letter, which I read, marvelling at the shaikh's
prophetic powers. On my telling Burhan-uddin the first
part of the story, he observed: "My brother Jalaluddin
is above all these prodigies now; he had, indeed, super-
natural resources at his disposal, but now he hath past
to the mercies of God." "They tell me," he added,
"that he used every day to say his morning prayers
at Mecca, and that every year he used to accomplish
the pilgrimage. For he always disappeared on the two
days of Arafat and the feast of the Sacrifices, and no
one knew whither1."
When I had taken leave of the Shaikh Jalaluddin
I proceeded towards the city of HABANK, which is one
of the greatest and finest that is anywhere to be found.
It is traversed by a river which comes down from the
mountains of Kamru, and which is called the Blue River.
By it you can descend to Bengal, and to the Lakhnaoti
country. Along the banks of this river there are villages,
gardens, and water-wheels to right and left, just as one
sees on the banks of the Nile in Egypt. The people
1 Lady Duff Gordon made acquaintance in Egypt with a very
holy shaikh, who, though dwelling on the Nile, was believed by
the people to perform his devotions daily at Mecca (quoted in
the Times, Sept. 15, 1865).
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 9 1
of these villages are idolaters, but under the rule of the
Musulmans. The latter take from them the half of their
crops, and other exactions besides. We travelled upon
this river for fifteen days, always passing between villages
and garden lands ; it was as if we had been going through
a market. You pass boats innumerable, and every boat
is furnished with a drum. When two boats meet, the
drum on board each is beaten, whilst the boatmen
exchange salutations. The Sultan Fakhruddin before-
mentioned gave orders that on this river no passage
money should be taken from fakirs, and that such of
them as had no provision for their journey should be
supplied. So when a fakir arrives at a town he gets
half a dinar. At the end of fifteen days' voyage, as I
have said, we arrived at the city of SUNUR KAwAN1. . . .
1 Sunarganw (Suvarna-gramma, or Golden Town) has already
been mentioned as one of the medieval capitals of Bengal. Coins
struck there in 1353 and 1357 are described by Reinaud in Jour.
Asiat., iii, 272. It lay a few miles S.E. of Dacca, but I believe
its exact site is not recoverable in that region of vast shifting
rivers. It appears in Frau Mauro's map as Sonargauam, and must
have continued at least till the end of the sixteenth century, for
it is named as a district town in the Ayin Akbari, and retains its
place in Blaeu's great Atlas (Amst. 1662, vol. x) as Sornaquam.
I formerly thought this Sornagam must be the CERNOVE of
Conti. But the report of a paper on Bengal Coins by Mr. Edward
Thomas (Athen., Feb. 3, 1866) informs us that Lakhnaoti (Gaur)
was renovated some time in the fourteenth century by the name
of SHAHR-I-NAU (New City). Here we have Cernove, and still
more distinctly the SCIERNO of Fra Mauro. Shahr-i-nau, I find,
is also mentioned by Abdul -razzak (India in the fifteenth cent.,
p. 6). [On Cernove and Shahr-i-nau, see Yule, s.v. Gaur in
Encyclop. Britan. and supra, i, p. 124 n.~\
Sunarganw must dispute with Chittagong the claim to be that
"city of Bengala" which has so much troubled those interested
in Asiatic medieval geography, and respecting which Mr. Badger
has an able disquisition in his preface to Varthema. That there
ever was a town properly so-called, I decline to believe, any more
than that there was a city of the Peninsula properly called Ma' bar
(v. supra, m, p. 67), or that Canton was properly called Mahachin
(n, p. 1 80) ; but these examples sufficiently show the practice which
applied the name of a country to its chief port. The name becomes
a blunder only when found side by side with the proper name as
belonging to a distinct place. [Ma Huan at the beginning of the
fifteenth century visiting Bengala (Pang-ko-la) anchors at Cheh-
Q2 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
On our arrival there we found a junk which was just
going to sail for the country of JAVA, distant forty days'
voyage.
ti-gan (Chittagong) and lands at Sona-urh-kong (Sunarganw).
(J.R.A.S. 1895, p. 529.) Mr. John Beames, I.e., p. 898, remarks
that Cheh-ti-gan corresponds precisely to Chittagong (Chatganw) .
At that place a traveller proceeding to the interior would transfer
himself from a sea-going vessel to a country boat to go up the
Meghna, just as the Chinese pilgrims describe. The distance,
1 66 miles to Sonargaon, is also very nearly correct. Sonargaon,
however, is not " Suvarna-gramma, or Golden Town," but
Suvarnakara-grama, or Goldsmith's Village. The site is not
unknown, as Mr. Phillips supposes. It is on the Meghna, about
twelve miles east of Dacca. A very interesting account of the
ruins and remains at this place by Dr. Wise will be found in the
Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal, vol. xliii, p. 82. — Phillips,
J.R.A.S., 1896, gives the following description from the Chinese
work Yuen-chien-lei-han : " Sona-urh-kiang, Sonargaon, is a
walled city, where much trade is carried on ; beyond which [no
direction given] there is the city of Pan-tu-wa, in which the king
of the country [Bengal] resides."] Bengala appears as a city in
the curious and half obliterated Portulano Mediceo of the Lauren-
tian Library (A.D. 1351), and also in the Carta Catalana of 1375.
By Fra Mauro Bengalla is shown in addition to Sonargauam and
Satganam (probably Chittagong). Its position in many later
maps, including Blaeu's, has been detailed by Mr. Badger. But
I may mention a curious passage in the travels of V. le Blanc,
who says he came "au Royaume de Bengale, dont la principalle
ville est aussi appellee Bengale par les Portugais, et par les autres
nations; mais ceux du pais 1'appellent Batacouta." He adds
that ships ascend the Ganges to it, a distance of twenty miles by
water, etc. Sir T. Herbert also speaks of " Bengala, anciently called
Baracura," etc. (Fr. transl., p. 490). But on these authorities I
must remark that Le Blanc is almost worthless, the greater part
of his book being a mere concoction, with much pure fiction,
whilst Herbert is here to be suspected of borrowing from Le Blanc ;
and there is reason to believe, I am sorry to say, that the bulk
of Sir Thomas's travels eastward of Persia is factitious and hashed
up from other books. One of the latest atlases containing the
city of Bengala is that of Coronelli (Venice 1691) ; and he adds
the judicious comment, " creduta favolosa." [Geo. Phillips in his
Introductory Notice to Ma Huan's account of Bengala writes
(J.R.A.S., 1895, P- S2^): "I cannot conclude these introductory
remarks to my paper without paying a tribute to the late learned
geographer, Sir Henry Yule, in the wonderful exactness with which
he has elucidated the travels of Ibn Batuta in Bengal in a sketch
map given in his work Cathay, and the way thither. Nothing
clearer could be given to show the Chinese traveller's route to
the kingdom of Bengala : thereon is seen marked Chittagong,
where the Chinese envoy landed, and the river up which he
travelled until he reached Sona-urh-kong, called Sonarcawan by
the Arab traveller; the position of Bengala as lying to the west-
ward of Chittagong, and not to the eastward as placed by seme
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 93
On this junk he took his passage, and after fifteen days
they touched at BARAH NAGAR, where the men had mouths
like dogs, whilst the women were extremely beautiful. He
describes them as in a very uncivilised state, almost without
an apology for clothing, but cultivating bananas, betel-nut,
and pawn. Some Mahomedans from Bengal and Java
were settled among them. The king of these people came
down to see the foreigners, attended by some twenty others,
all mounted on elephants. The chief wore a dress of goatskin
with the hair on, and coloured silk handkerchiefs round his
head, carrying a spear1.
early geographers, is here clearly defined, and fully agrees with
the position given to it by our Chinese traveller."]
["Sonargaon — Ancient Muhammedan capital of Eastern
Bengal ... in the Narayanganj sub-division of Dacca District, . . .
near the banks of the Meghna, 15 miles east of Dacca city.
Sonargaon was the residence of the Muhammedan governors of
Eastern Bengal from 1351 to 1608, when the capital of the whole
province was transferred to Dacca. The only remaining traces of
its former grandeur are some ruins in and near the insignificant
village of Panam, about six miles east of Narayanganj .... While
Sonargaon was the seat of government, it was a place of consider-
able importance and was famous for its cloths and muslins; it
was the eastern terminus of the grand trunk road made by
Sher Shah." (Imp. Gaz. India.)]
1 Lee takes Barah Nagar for the Nicobar Islands, Dulaurier
for the Andamans. With the people of the latter there does not
seem to have been intercourse at any time, but the Nicobars
might be fairly identified with the place described by our traveller,
were it not for the elephants which are so prominent in the picture.
It is in the highest degree improbable that elephants were ever
kept upon these islands. Hence, if this feature be a genuine one,
the scene must be referred to the mainland, and probably to some
part of the coast of Arakan or Pegu, where the settlements of
the wilder races, such as the Khyens of the Arakan Yoma, might
have extended down to the sea. Such a position might best be
sought in the neighbourhood of the Island Negrais (NAGARIT of
the Burmese), where the extremity of the Yoma Range does abut
upon the sea. And it is worth noting that the sea off Negrais
is called by Caesar Frederic and some other sixteenth century
travellers, "the Sea of BARA." The combination of Bar a- Nagar it
is at least worthy of consideration. The coloured handkerchiefs
on the head are quite a characteristic of the people in question;
I cannot say as much for the goat-skins. [" It is just possible that
the term Barra de Negrais, which frequently occurs in the old
writers (e.g. see Balbi, Fitch, and Bocarro) is a misinterpretation
of the old name used by Ibn Batuta." Hob son- Job son, s.v.
Negrais, Cape.}
Dulaurier, however, points out that Barah Nagar may represent
the Malay Bdrat "West," and Nagdrd "City or Country." This
94 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
In twenty-five days more they reached the island of Java,
as he calls it, but in fact that which we call SUMATRA J.
It was verdant and beautiful ; most of its trees being
coco-palms, areca-palms, clove-trees, Indian aloes, jack-
is the more worthy of notice as the crew of the junk were probably
Malays, but the interpretation would be quite consistent with the
position that I suggest. I take the dog's muzzle to be only a
strong way of describing the protruding lips and coarse features
of one common type of Indo-Chinese face. The story as regards
the beautiful women of these dog-headed men is exactly as
Jordanus had heard it (Fr. Jord., p. 44; and compare Odoric, u,
p. 1 68). This probably alludes to the fact that among some of
these races, and the Burmese may be especially instanced,
considerable elegance and refinement of feature is not unfre-
quently seen among the women ; there is one type of face almost
Italian, of which I have seen repeated instances in Burmese
female faces, never amongst the men. A like story existed amongst
the Chinese and Tartars, but in it the men were dogs and not
dog-faced merely; this story however probably had a similar
origin (see King Hethum's Narr. in Journ. As., ser. ii, torn, xii,
p. 288, and Piano Carpini, p. 657). I give an example of the
type of male face that I suppose to be alluded to ; it represents
however two heads of the Sunda peasantry in Java, as I have no
Burmese heads available. [See supra, n, p. 168, and Cordier's
Odoric, pp. 206-17.] [Marco Polo tells us (ii, p. 309) that the
men of the "island of Angamanain have heads like dogs, and
teeth and eyes likewise; in fact, in the face the}' are all just like
mastiff dogs." See long note, Marco Polo, ii, pp. 309-12.]
1 The terms Jawa, Jawi, appear to have been applied by the
Arabs to the islands and productions of the Archipelago generally
(Crawf. Diet. Ind. Islands, p. 165), but certainly also at times to
Sumatra specifically, as by Abulfeda and Marco Polo (Java
Minor). There is evidence, however, that even in old times of
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 95
trees1, Mangoes, Jamun2, sweet orange trees, and camphor-
canes.
The port which they entered was called SARHA, four
miles from the city of SUMATRA or Sumutra, the capital of
the king called Al-Malik Al-Zahir, a zealous disciple of Islam,
who showed the traveller much hospitality and attention.
Ibn Batuta remained at the Court of Sumatra, where
he appears to have found officials and brethren of the law
from all parts of the Mahomedan world, for fifteen days,
and then asked leave to proceed on his voyage to China,
Hindu influence in the islands Sumatra bore the name of Java or
rather Yava (see Friedrich in the Batavian Transactions, vol.
xxvi, p. 77, and preced. and Marco Polo, ii, p. 294 n.). Javaku
is a term applied to the Malays generally, in the Singhalese
Chronicles. See Tumour's Epitome, p. 45.
1 Shaki and Barki. For details on which see Fr. Jord., p. 13,
and supra, in, p. 237. [See Cordier's Odoric, pp. 518-19 and
Hobson-Jobson.] ["Of these fruits are those termed the Shaki
and Barki, the trees of which are high, and their leaves are like
the Jawz (or Indian Nut) : the fruit grows out from the bottom
of the tree, and that which grows nearest to the earth is called
the Barki ; it is extremely sweet and well flavoured in taste ; what
grows above is the Shaki. Its fruit resembles that of the great
gourd, its rind the skin of an ox (leather?). When it grows yellow
in the autumn, they gather and divide it : and in the inside of each
is from one to two hundred seeds. Its seed resembles that of a
cucumber, and has a stone something like a large bean. When
the stone is roasted, it tastes like a dried bean. These, i.e. the
Shaki and Barki, are the best fruits found in Hindustan." (Lee,
Ibn Batuta, p. 105.)]
2 The French editors render this Jambu, but the Jamun
which is meant here is quite another thing. On two former
occasions (ii, 191 ; iii, 128) our traveller describes the fruit as
being like an olive ; which would be as like the Jambu or Rose-
apple as a hawk is like a handsaw. The Jamun, which is common
in Upper India and many other parts of the east, is really very
much like an olive in size, colour and form, whilst the Jambu
is at least as large as a duck's egg, in the different varieties
exhibiting various shades of brilliant pink and crimson softening
into white.
Erskine, in a note to Baber, notices the same confusion by a
former commentator, and the source of it appears to be that the
Jamun is called by botanists Eugenia Jambolana, the Rose-apple
Eugenia Jambu, from which one must conclude them to be akin,
though neither fruits nor trees have any superficial likeness
(Baber's Memoirs, p. 325). [See Jamboo and Jamoon in Hobson-
Jobson.} ["They also have the Jummun, which is a high tree:
the fruit resembles that of the olive, and is black ; as does likewise
its stone." (Lee, Ibn Batuta, p. 105.)]
96 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
as the right season had arrived. The king ordered a junk
to be got ready, supplied the traveller with all needful stores,
arid sent one of his own people to accompany him and look
after his comfort1.
After sailing', he says, for one and twenty days along the
coasts of the country belonging to Al-Malik Al-Zahir, they
arrived at MuL-jAWA2, a region inhabited by Pagans, which
had an extent of some two months' journey, and produced
excellent aromatics, especially the aloes-wood of KAKULAS
and KAMARA, places which were both in that country.
1 Respecting Al-Malik Al-Zahir, son of Malik-al-Salah, first
Mahomedan King of Sumatra, see Dulaurier. The port of Sarha
is identified by this scholar with Jambu A ir, a village of the Batta
coast between Pasei and Diamond Point. In that case the city
of Sumutra or Samudra, which has given a name to the great Island,
cannot have been so far west as Samarlanga (see supra, n, p. 149;
Journ. Indian Archip., ii, 610; Journ. As., ser. iv, torn, ix, p. 124;
Id., torn, xi, p. 94).
2 See in Note F, at the end of the narrative, the editor's
reasons for supposing Mnl-Jawa to be a continental coiintry on
the Gulf of Siam.
3 Kakula is mentioned by Edrisi also, as a city towards China,
standing upon a river which flowed into the Indian Ocean. Its
people, according to that geographer, raised much silk, whence
the name of Kakali was given to a kind of silk stuff (Jaubert's
a Z 3 -
Edrisi, i, 185). [We shall remark that cardamome = <«JL515
qaqolla.~] [Van der Lith places Qaqola at Sumatra, north of the
Battak Country, Merveilles de I'Inde, pp. 237-41 n. He says,
p. 241, that camphor is one of the products of Qaqola, and of
Sumatra, it is not a product of Cambodia nor of Java, therefore
one must admit that Ibn Batuta saw aloes wood at Qaqola
imported from Khmer. The notes of Van der Lith are generally
poor for a geographer. Pelliot thinks that the Ko kou lo of Kia
Tan is probably identical with the Qaqola of Ibn Batuta, and
that it is situated on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula and
not on the east coast as suggested by Hirth and Rockhill. T'oung
pao, July, 1912, p. 455.]
The position of Kumara or Komar, the place from which the
Kumari aloes came, has been inextricably confused by the Arabian
geographers, for whilst some applications of the name point dis-
tinctly to the region of Cape Comorin, other authorities as well
as Ibn Batuta place it in the vicinity of the Archipelago, and
others again appear to confound it with Kamru or Assam.
Mr Lane considers Sindbad's Komari to have been on one or other
shore of the Gulf of Siam, and this quite agrees with the view
taken by the editor of the position of Mul-Jawa. Abulfeda also
places Komar to the west of Sanf or Champa, with a short day's
voyage between the countries. If his Sanf, as is probable, includes
Cambodia, this also would indicate the northern part of the Malay
Peninsula.
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 97
The port which they entered was that of Kakula, a fine
city with a wall of hewn stone wide enough to admit the passage
of three elephants abreast. There were war junks in the
harbour equipped for piratical cruising, and also to enforce
the tolls which were exacted from foreign vessels. The
traveller saw elephants coming into the town loaded with
aloes-wood, for the article was so common as to be popularly
used for fuel. Elephants were also employed for all kinds
of purposes, whether for personal use or for the carriage of
goods; everybody kept them, and everybody rode upon
them.
The traveller was presented to the Pagan king, in whose
presence he witnessed an extraordinary act of self-immola-
tion1, and was entertained at the royal expense for three
days, after which he proceeded on his voyage.
But in connexion with Mul-Jawa, where there was a
market for the productions of the Archipelago, he takes
occasion to state " what he knew of these from actual observa-
tion, and after verifying that which he had heard," and these
statements it is well to quote at length, as throwing light
on some of our author's qualifications as a traveller.
On Incense.
The incense tree is small, and at most does not exceed
a man's height. Its branches resemble those of a thistle
or artichoke ; its leaves are small and narrow ; sometimes
they drop and leave the tree bare. The incense is a
resinous substance found in the branches of the tree.
There is more of this in the Musulman countries than in
those of the Infidels2.
1 See Fr. Jordanus, p. 33 note.
2 It is Benzoin of which he speaks here under the name of
Luban, i.e. Olibanum or incense. The resin is derived from the
Styrax Benzoin by wounding the bark. After ten or twelve
years produce the tree is cut down, and a very inferior article is
obtained by scraping the bark. It is imported in large white
masses, resembling white marble in fracture. The plant which,
as he says, is of moderate size, is cultivated chiefly in the Batta
country of Sumatra, not far from the dominions of his friend
Malik-al-Zahir ; hence probably his reference to the country of
c. Y. c. iv. 7
98 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
On Camphor.
As for the trees which furnish camphor they are canes
like those of our countries; the only difference being,
that in the former the joint or tube between the knots is
longer and thicker. The camphor is found on the inside
of each joint, so that when the cane is broken you see
within the joint a similar joint of camphor. The sur-
prising thing about it is that the camphor does not form
in these canes till after some animal has been sacrificed
at the root. Till that be dorie there is no camphor.
The best, which is called in the country Al-Harddlah,
viz., that which has reached the highest degree of congela-
tion1, and a drachm dose of which will kill a man by
freezing his breath, is taken from a cane beside which a
human victim has been sacrificed2. Young elephants
may, however, be substituted with good effect for the
human victim3.
the Musulmans (Crawf., Diet. Ind. Islands; Macculloch's Comm.
Diet.}. The word Al-Arshak or Harshaf, which Defremery
translates "thistle or artichoke," is said by Dulaurier to mean
"the plant called Cynara Scolimus."
1 ["Is exceedingly cooling," Lee, p. 202.]
2 ["This is called with them the Khardana; it is that, at the
roots of which a man has been sacrificed." (Lee, Ibn Batuta,
pp. 202-3.)]
3 Dulaurier quotes an analogous practice in Tong King [from
Marini]. [Chau Ju-kua calls benzoin Ngan-si hiang and says
it comes from San-fo-ts'i; Ngan-si was Parthia, and Hirth and
Rockhill, p. 201, consider that Ngan-si "may be held to be
identical with Persia." The Pen-ts'au kang mu calls benzoin
cho pei lo read by Hirth and Rockhill Kiu-pei-lo, which they think
is but a transcription of Sanskrit khadira or kunduru. Pelliot
reads guggula instead of khadira and comes to the conclusion
that Chau Ju-kua means, not the product of Malaysia, but some
stuff extracted from Balsamodendron africanum (T'oung pao,
July 1912, p. 480). Chau Ju-kua writes that Ngan-si hiang
"resembles the edible part of a walnut in shape and colour, but
it is not fit to burn as incense ; however, it brings out other scents,
for which reason there is a demand for it for mixing purposes"
(p. 201).] [Linschoten remarks "that benzoin from Sumatra
and Java is not so good as that from Siam and Malacca." But
this applies probably to the sweet benzoin, Kin yen hiang;
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 99
On the Indian Aloes-wood.
The Indian aloes is a tree like the oak, excepting that
it has a thin bark. Its leaves are precisely like those of
the oak, and it produces no fruit. Its trunk does not
cf. Chau Ju-kua, pp. 198-9, very likely the incense of Ibn
Batuta. Benzoin was known to the Arabs under the name of
Java incense, luban jawi, from which the Portuguese, according
to Engelmann and Dozy, Glossaire des mots espagnols et portugais
derives de I'arabe, second ed., p. 239, coined the word Benzavi,
Benzoin. See Heyd, li, pp. 580-1. Marco Polo, ii, pp. 396-
in.]
The description here given of the production of camphor has
no resemblance to the truth, and I suspect that he may have
confounded with camphor either something that he had learned
about the Tabashir [Chinese, chu hwang, chu kao] or siliceous
concretion found in bamboo-joints, called by Linschoten Saccar-
Mambu (bamboo-sugar), or Spodium, if that be not the same
thing. For this last is explained by Cesare Federici to be "a
congelation in certain canes," and in the work of Da Uzzano
(supra, in, p. 142) there is mention several times of Ispodio di
Canna. (The Spodium of Marco Polo is a different substance ; as
he describes it, a metallic slag.) [wJi/L^ Thabashir is found on
all the coast of India, according to Ali ibn Mohammed quoted by
Ibn el-Ba'ithar, but it is more abundant at Sindapur, in the
territory of Heili \^»& where black pepper is found. (Notices et
Ext., xxv, p. 399.)]
"The Malay camphor tree Dipterocarpus Camphora or Drya-
balanops Camphora of botanists, is a large forest tree, confined,
as far as is known, to a few parts of the islands of Sumatra and
Borneo, but in these abundant. The oil, both in a fluid and solid
state, is found in the body of the tree where the sap should be"
(Crawfurd's Diet, of Ind. I si.}. The description in the text is
yet more inapplicable to the Chinese camphor, obtained by
distillation from the Cinnamomum Camphora.
Far nearer the truth is the description of Kazwini the Arabian
geographer. He says the camphor is drawn both in a liquid
state and in gummy particles from the branches and stem of a
tree large enough to shade one hundred men. He had heard
that a season of thunder and earthquakes was favourable to the
production. Like Marco Polo he speaks of the camphor of Fansur
as the best; supposed to be the modern Bdrus on the west side
of Sumatra (Gildem., pp. 194, 209). [See Marco Polo, ii, pp. 302-4 ;
Hobson-Jobson; Heyd, pp. 590-5.]
The word Harddlah, which Ibn Batuta applies to a species of
camphor, does not seem to be known. I suspect he may have
made a still further embroilment, and that what he has got hold
of is the Malay Artdl, corresponding to the Hindustani Hartal,
"orpiment; native sulphuret of arsenic."
[Hirth and Rockhill, p. 194 n., derive the Chinese name of
camphor which comes from P'o-li, Perak or thereabouts, ku-pu-
p'o-lu from kapur = ku-pu and from p'o In. Pelliot (T'oung pao,
7—2
100 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
grow to any great size ; its roots are long, and extend far
from the tree ; in them resides the fragrance or aromatic
principle.
In the country of the Mahomedans all trees of aloes-
wood are considered property ; but in the infidel countries
they are generally left uncared for. Among them,
however, those which grow at Kakula are cared for, and
these give the aloes of the best quality. Such is the case
also with those of Kamara, the aloes-wood of which is of
high quality. These are sold to the people of Java
(Sumatra) in exchange for cloths. There is also a special
kind of Kamari aloes which takes an impression like wax.
As for that which is called 'Athds, they cut the roots, and
put them under ground for several months. It preserves
all its qualities, and is one of the best kinds of aloes1.
July, 1912) makes the remark that in the pilgrim Yi-tsing's list
camphor is in Chinese p'o lu kao and in Sanskrit k'ie-lo-so and
asks if the original is not karpurarasa. Chau Ju-kua writes :
"The camphor which forms crystals is called 'plum flower
camphor,' because it resembles the plum flower; an inferior
quality is called ' gold foot camphor ' ; broken bits are called
' rice camphor ' ; when these are mixed up with splinters, it is
called ' grey camphor ' ; after all the camphor has been removed
from the wood, it is called ' camphor chips.' Nowadays people
break these chips into small bits and mix them with sawdust,
which mixture they place in a vessel of porcelain, covered by
another vessel, the openings being hermetically closed ; when baked
in hot ashes, the vapour formed by the mixture condenses and
forms lumps, which are called ' collected camphor.' " (Pp. 193-4.)]
1 According to Crawfurd the tree yielding Agila, eagle-wood
or aloes-wood, has not been ascertained, but probably belongs to
the LeguminoscB. There can be no doubt, he adds, that the
perfumed wood is a result of disease in the tree, produced by the
thickening of its sap into a gum or resin. The name Aloes
('AXd?; in Cosmas, p. 336) is probably a corruption of the Arabic
name with article Al-'U'd, "The Wood" (par excellence}. It has
nothing to do with any kind of aloe properly so called. The name
Agila, which has been modified or erroneously translated into
Aquila, Eagle-wood, Adler-holz, etc., is believed to be a corruption
of Aguru, one of the Sanskrit terms for the article. Both Kakuli
and Kumari aloes are mentioned by Avicenna among the good
kinds, but not as standing highest. He names as the best the
Mandali, and the Hindi Jibali or Indian mountain aloes ; the
Samanduri ; the Kumari ; the Sanfi (from Champa] ; the Kakuli ;
and the Chinese kind termed Kazmuri. Gerarde, in his " Herball,"
AXD THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO IOI
On the Clove.
The trees that bear cloves grow to a great age and
size. They are more numerous in the country of the
infidels than in that of the Mahomedans; and they are
speaks of three kinds of lign-aloes as known in England in his
time, differing greatly in quality and price. Gutzlaff also in our
day speaks of three kinds in the markets of Cochin-China.
[Gharu wood or Ch'on hiang ("sinking-incense") is "called in
Malay and Javanese kalambak or kalambah, also gharu or kayu
gharu, gharu wood, a corruption of the Sanskrit agaru, which
in turn is the original form from which the Portuguese formed
the name of pdo d'aguila." (Hirth and Rockhill, p. 205 n.) The
pilgrims who visited the celebrated temple of Multan in the region
of the Indus brought with them as an offering some eagle-wood
called kamruny from the place it came from, Kamrun, ancient
kingdom of Kamrupa, Western Assam. See Heyd, pp. 581-5.]
[Chau Ju-kua says, p. 204, "Chon-hiang comes from different
places. That coming from Chon-la (Cambodia) is the best ;
the second quality is that of Chan-ch'ong (Tong King), and the
poorest qualities are those of San-fo-ts'i and Sho-p'o."]
[It is probable that the first Portuguese who had to do with
eagle-wood called it by its Arabic name, aghdluhy, or malayalam,
agila; whence pdo d'aguila, "aguila wood." It was translated
into Latin as lignum aquilae, and after into modern languages,
as bois d'aigle, eagle-wood, adlerhoh, etc. (A. Cabaton, les Chams,
p. 50.) M. Groeneveldt (Notes, pp. 141-2) writes: "Lignum aloes
is the wood of the Aquilaria agallocha, and is chiefly known
as sinking-incense. The Pen-ts'au Kang-mu describes it as follows :
' Sinking incense, also called honey -incense. It comes from the
heart and the knots of a tree and sinks in water, from which
peculiarity the name sinking-incense is derived .... In the
Description of Annam we find it called honey-incense, because it
smells like honey.' The same work, as well as the Nan-fang
Ts'au-mu Chuang, further informs us that this incense was obtained
in all countries south of China, by felling the old trees and leaving
them to decay, when, after some time, only the heart, the knots,
and some other hard parts remained. The product was known
under different names, according to its quality or shape, and in
addition to the names given above, we find fowl bones, horse-hoofs,
and green cinnamon; these latter names, however, are seldom
used." H.C., in Marco Polo, ii, pp. 271-2 n.]
["The fine eagle-wood of Champa is the result of disease in
a leguminous tree, Aloexylon Agallochum orcdy do, whilst an inferior
kind, though of the same aromatic properties, is derived from a
tree of an entirely different order, Aquilaria Agallocha, and is
found as far north as Silhet." Marco Polo, ii, p. 272 n.]
The term 'Athds, according to Dulaurier, is not known else-
where in this application ; the word in Arabic means sneezing ;
perhaps it indicates an effect, like the Scotch sneeshin for snuff?
(See Gildemeister, pp. 64-7; J.R.G.S., xix, 102; Gerarde,
p. 1623; Maltebrun in his Trans, of Barrow's Cochin China, ii,
351 ; Varthema's Travels with Mr. Badger's notes.)
102 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
in such profusion that they are not regarded as property.
What is imported into our country consists of the wood
(or twigs)1; what the people of our countries call the
Flower of Clove consists of those parts of the flowers
which fall, and which are like the flowers of the orange
tree. The fruit of the clove is the nutmeg, which we know
as the sweet nut. The flower which forms on it is the
mace. And this is what I have seen with my own eyes2.
1 ["That part of it which is taken into different countries is
the idan (wood)." (Lee, Ibn Batuta, p. 203.)]
2 And yet it is thick with misstatements. The legend that
cinnamon is the bark, the clove the flower, and the nutmeg the
fruit, of one and the same tree, has come down to our day in Upper
India, for I have been asked by a respectable Mahomedan at
Delhi if it were not so ; and Ibn Batuta is much more likely to have
picked up this bit of economic botany in the Delhi Bazar than in
the Moluccas as Lassen will have it. Strange to say Dulaurier
seems to accept the traveller's statement of the nutmeg being
the fruit of the clove tree (Journ. Asiat., ser. iv, torn, ix, p. 248;
Lassen, iv, 890). The notion that the clove was the flower of
the nutmeg appears also to have prevailed in Europe, for it is
contradicted in a work of the sixteenth century (Bodae, Comment.
in Theophrastum, p. 992). Mandeville says in this case simply
and correctly : " Know well that the nutmeg bears the maces,
for right as the hazel hath a husk in which the nut is inclosed
till it be ripe, so it is of the nutmeg and the maces" (p. 233).
[Clove is the fruit of Eugenia caryophyllataJ]
What our author says however about the clove imported
into the west consisting of the wood or branches is curious. A
marginal note on the MS. translated by Lee observes: "This is
perhaps what physicians call Kirfat-ul-Karanful or bark of clove."
However that may be, no doubt it was the same as the Fusti di
Gherofani of Pegolotti and Uzzano (see note supra, in, p. 168).
The term flower of clove cited in the text is also used by those
writers.
I may note here that the Diction, de Trevoux, under the words
Noix Giroflee or Noix de Madagascar, describes a nut of that island
as Nux Caryophyllacea; "La seconde ecorce de cet arbre etant
sechee ressemble en figure a la canelle, mais elle a le gout du
girofle: on 1'appelle Canelie Giroflee." I have not met with any
recent description of this, which would appear to be the Kirfat-ul-
Karanful just mentioned.
[Chau Ju-kua writes, p. 209 : " Ting hiang [cloves] come from
the countries of Ta-sh'i and from Sho-p'o. They are called
ting hiang or 'nail-incense' because they resemble in shape the
Chinese character ting ('a nail'). They have the property of
removing bad smells from the mouth, and high officials at Court
put cloves into their mouths when they have to lay matters before
the Emperor. The large ones are called ting hiang mu, and
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 103
After leaving Kakula they sailed for thirty-four days,
and then arrived at the Calm or Pacific Sea (ul Bahr-ul
Kdhil), which is of a reddish tint, and in spite of its great
extent is disturbed by neither winds nor waves. The
boats were brought into play to tow the ship, and the
great sweeps of the junk were pulled likewise1. They
were thirty-seven days in passing this sea, and it was
thought an excellent passage, for the time occupied was
usually forty or fifty days at least. They now arrived
at the country of TAWALISI, a name derived, according
to Ibn Batuta, from that of its king.
It is very extensive, and the sovereign is the equal of
the King of China. He possesses numerous junks with
which he makes war upon the Chinese until they sue for
peace, and consent to grant him certain concessions. The
people are idolaters; their countenances are good, and
they bear a strong resemblance to the Turks. They are
this is the same as ki-sho-hiang, though some say that ki-sho-hiang
is the stone of the Persian date." Hirth and Rockhill add,
p. 209 n. : " In the first part of this work, Chau has stated that
cloves were a product of Eastern Java and its dependencies, the
same region which produced sandal -wood, in other words the
Moluccas. He refers also to the trade in cloves in Ceylon and in
Malabar, whither they were brought by foreign traders. (Fan
Shang.} Our author was, therefore, better informed on this
subject than Marco Polo who, though stating in one passage
(ii, 254) that they were a product of Java, adds in another (li,
289) that they grew also on the island of Necuveran (Nicobar
Islands). Ibn Batuta, iv, 243, confounded the cinnamon and
the nutmeg-tree with cloves. De Candolle, Origine des plantes
cultures, 128, thinks that cloves, a product of the Caryophyllus
aromaticus, Linne, are indigenous to the Molucca Islands." — Ting
hiang are sometimes called fowl-tongue incense, not to be confounded
with fowl-bone incense, a kind of lignum aloes. Groeneveldt,
P- I43-]
1 Polo mentions the practice of towing the large Chinese ships
by their row-boats (iii, i). ["It is on account of the calm state
of this sea, that three other vessels are attached to each of the
Chinese junks, by which these junks, together with their own
cargoes, are carried forward by oars. Of these there are twenty
large ones, which may be compared to the masts of ships. To
each oar thirty men are appointed, and stand in two rows. By
this means they draw the junks along, being connected by strong
ropes like 'cables.'" Lee, Ibn Batuta, p. 205.]
IO4 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
usually of a copper complexion, and are very valiant and
warlike. The women ride, shoot, and throw the javelin
well, and fight in fact just like the men. We cast anchor
in one of their ports which is called KAILIJKARI. It is
also one of their greatest and finest cities, and the king's
son used to reside there. When we had entered the
harbour soldiers came down to the beach, and the skipper
landed to speak with them. He took a present with him
for the king's son; but he was told that the king had
assigned him the government of another province, and
had set over this city his daughter, called Urduja1.
The second day after our arrival in the port of Kailu-
kari, this princess invited the Ndkhodah or skipper, the
Kardni or purser2, the merchants and persons of note,
the Tindail or chief of the sailors3, the Sipahsaldr or chief
1 ["The magistrate of this place is a daughter of the King
Wahi Arduja." Lee, Ibn Batuta, p. 206.] [Cf. supra, m, p. 192.]
2 This word Kardni, says Dulaurier, which Ibn Batuta trans-
lates by Kdtib or clerk, is probably Persian, but of Mongol origin.
The word is still in universal Anglo-Indian use, at least in the
Bengal Presidency, as applied to writers in public offices, and
especially to men of half-blood, for whom it has become almost
a generic title; (vulgo Cranny}. ["Cranny." "In Bengal com-
monly used for a clerk writing English, and thence vulgarly
applied genetically to the East Indians, or half-caste class, from
among whom English copyists are chiefly recruited. The
original is Hind, kardnt, kirdnl, which Wilson derives from
Skt. karan, 'a doer.' Karana is also the name of one of the (so-
called) mixt castes of the Hindus sprung from a Sudra mother
and Vaisya father, or (according to some) from a pure Kshatriya
mother by a father of Kshatriya origin. The occupation of the
members of this mixt caste is that of writers and accountants."
(Hobson-Jobson.)]
[" Nacoda, Nacoder, etc., Pers. nd-khudd (navis dominus),
'a skipper' ; the master of a native vessel. (Perhaps the original
sense is rather the owner of the ship, going with it as his own
supercargo)." (Hobson-Jobson.)]
3 "Tindail or chief of the Rajdl," which Defremery renders
"foot-soldiers," but I have ventured to follow Dulaurier in ren-
dering it chief of the "sailors," both because this seems to be
demanded by the context, and because the word Tindail is still
in use in India, with usual (though not universal) application
to a petty officer of native seamen.
[" Tindal. Malayal. tandal, Telug. tandelu, also in Mahr. and
other vernaculars tdndel, iandail. The head or commander of a
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO IO5
of the archers, to partake of a banquet which Urduja had
provided for them according to her hospitable custom.
The skipper asked me to accompany them, but I declined,
for these people are infidels and it is unlawful to partake
of their food. So when the guests arrived at the Princess's
she said to them : " Is there anyone of your party missing ? "
The captain replied: "There is but one man absent, the
Bakshi1 (or Divine), who does not eat of your dishes."
Urduja rejoined: "Let him be sent for." So a party of
her guards came for me, and with them some of the
captain's people, who said to me: "Do as the Princess
desires."
So I went, and found her seated on her great chair or
throne, whilst some of her women were in front of her with
papers which they were laying before her. Round about
body of men ; but in ordinary specific application a native petty
officer of lascars, whether on board ship (boatswain) or in the
ordnance department, and sometimes the head of a gang of
labourers on public works." (Hobson-Jobson.)]
[" Sipahsaldr. A General-in-chief ; Pers. sipah-salar, 'army
leader.'" (Hobson-Jobson.}}
1 Defremery translates Bakshi "le Juge," taking Kazi as the
explanation given by Ibn Batuta [or lawyer, learned man]. But
the alternative reading Fakiah (Theologian) appears to be more
probable. The word Bakshi is the Turkish and Persian corruption
of Bhikshu, the proper Sanskrit term for a Buddhist monk;
many of which class came to Persia with Hulakii and his earlier
successors, whence the word came to be applied generally as
meaning a literatus, a scribe, a secretary, and even according to
Baber a surgeon. According to Burnes in modern Bokhara it
indicates a bard. Under the Mahomedan sovereigns of India
it came to mean an officer who had charge of registering all that
concerned the troops, the assignation of quarters, etc. And
hence probably has arisen by a gradual transfer its present mean-
ing in the native army of India, viz., Paymaster (Quatremere's
Rashiduddin, pp. 184-98; see also supra, ir, p. 250). Quatre-
mere points out the occurrence of the term in the Byzantine
historian Pachymeres under the form MTTO^LS. Ibn Batuta may
have resumed the religious costume which he wore before his
appointment to the embassy — indeed he appears to have worn
the mantle given him by the hermit Jalaludclfn, — and his sancti-
monious excuse for not dining with the princess made the
application of the term natural. [On Bakhfhy, a Buddhist priest,
see Cordier's Odoric, p. 462, and Cathay, supra, n, p. 250.]
106 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
were elderly ladies, or duennas, who acted as her coun-
sellors, seated below the throne on chairs of sandalwood.
The men also were in front of the Princess. The throne
was covered with silk, and canopied with silk curtains,
being itself made of sandalwood and plated with gold.
In the audience hall there were buffets of carved wood, on
which were set forth many vessels of gold of all sizes,
vases, pitchers, and flagons. The skipper told me that
these vessels were filled with a drink compounded with
sugar and spice, which these people use after dinner;
he said it had an aromatic odour and delicious flavour;
that it produced hilarity, sweetened the breath, promoted
digestion, etc., etc.
As soon as I had saluted the princess she said to me in
the Turkish tongue Husn misen yakhshi misen (Khush
misan ? Yakhshi misan ?) which is as much as to say,
Are you well? How do you do1? and made me sit down
beside her. This princess could write the Arabic char-
acter well. She said to one of her servants Dawdt wa
batak katur, that is to say, "Bring inkstand and paper."
He brought these, and then the princess wrote Bismillah
Arrahmdn Arrahim (In the name of God the merciful and
compassionate!) saying to me "What's this?" I replied
" Tanzari ndm" (Tangri nam), wrhich is as much as to say
"the name of God" ; whereupon she rejoined " Khushn,"
or " It is well." She then asked from what country I had
come, and I told her that I came from India. The
princess asked again, "From the Pepper country?"
I said "Yes." She proceeded to put many questions to
me about India and its vicissitudes, and these I answered.
She then went on, "I must positively go to war with
1 Ibn Batuta had picked up these words on a former occasion
when addressed to him by Alauddin Tarmashlrin, Khan of
Chagatai ; but he then says they mean "Are you well ? Yon are
an excellent man !" (iii, 33).
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO IO7
that country and get possession of it, for its great wealth
and great forces attract me." Quoth I, "You had better
do so." Then the princess made me a present consisting
of dresses, two elephant-loads of rice, two she buffaloes,
ten sheep, four rothls of cordial syrup1, and four Marta-
bans, or stout jars2, filled with ginger, pepper, citron and
mango, all prepared with salt as for a sea voyage.
The skipper told me that Urdu j a had in her army free
women, slave girls, and female captives, who fought just
like men ; that she was in the habit of making incursions
into the territories of her enemies, taking part in battle,
and engaging in combat with warriors of repute. He
also told me that on one occasion an obstinate battle
took place between this princess and one of her enemies ;
a great number of her soldiers had been slain, and her whole
force was on the point of running away, when Urdu j a
rushed to the front, and forcing her way through the ranks
of the combatants till she got at the king himself with
whom she was at war, she dealt him a mortal wound, so
that he died, and his troops fled. The princess returned
1 Jaldb.
2 The word Martaban is unfamiliar to Dulaurier, who quotes
from Father Azar a Maronite, that it means "a casket or vase for
keeping medicines and comfits, etc." But the word is obviously
used for the great vessels of glazed pottery, called Pegu or
Martaban jars from the places where they were purchased, and
which retained a wide renown up to the present century. "They
make in this place" (Martaban), says Barbosa, "quantities of
great porcelain jars, very big, strong, and handsome ; there are
some of them that will hold two hogsheads of water a piece.
They are coated with a black glaze, are in great esteem among
the Moors, bearing a high price among them, and they export
them from this place with a great deal of benzoin" (Livro de
Duarte Barbosa, p. 367). Linschoten speaks to the same effect,
adding that they were used on the Portuguese Indiamen for
storing oil and water. So also du Jarric : " Vasa figlina quae vulgo
Martabania dicuntur per Indiana nota sunt....Per orientem
omnem, quin et Lusitaniam horum est usus " (Linsch., c. xvii ; Jar.,
iii, pt. ii, p. 389). ["The martaban is a small deep jar with an
elongated body, which is used by Hindus and Muhammadans to
keep pickles and acid articles." (Hallifax, Mono, of Punjab
Pottery, p. 9.)]
108 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
with his head carried on a spear, and the king's family
paid a vast sum to redeem it. And when the princess
rejoined her father he gave her this city of Kailiikari,
which her brother had previously governed. I heard
likewise from the same skipper that various sons of
kings had sought Urduja's hand, but she always answered,
"I will marry no one but him who shall fight and conquer
me ! " so they all avoided the trial, for fear of the shame
of being beaten by her1.
We quitted the country of Tawalisi, and after a
voyage of seventeen days2, during which the wind was
always favourable, we arrived in CHINA.
This is a vast country ; and it abounds in all sorts of
good things, fruit, corn, gold and silver ; no other country
in the world can rival China in that respect. It is traversed
by the river which is called Ab-i-Haiyah, signifying the
Water of Life. It is also called the river SARU3, just like
the Indian river. Its source is among the mountains near
the city of KHANBALIQ, which are known by the name
of Kuh-i-Buznah or Monkey Mountains. This river runs
through the heart of China, for a distance of six months'
journey, reaching at last Sin-ul-Sin4. It is bordered
throughout with villages, cultivated plains, orchards, and
markets, just like the Nile in Egypt ; but this country is
still more flourishing, and there are on the banks a great
number of hydraulic wheels. You find in China a great
deal of sugar as good as that of Egypt, better in fact;
1 On Tawalisi, see Note G at the end of the Narrative.
2 ["Seven," Lee, Ibn Batuta, p. 207.]
3 ["River of Sibar," Lee, p. 207.]
4 See remarks on Ibn Batuta's notion of the great River of
China in the introductory notices. Saru is no doubt, as explained
by Defremery, intended for the Mongol word Saru or Sari yellow,
a translation of the Chinese Hwang-Ho, whilst the Indian River
is that of which he has spoken in previous passages of his book
(c. ii and iii, 437) as the Sarur or Saru, viz., the Sarju, Sarya, or
Gogra.
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO
you find also grapes and plums. I used to think that the
plum called Othmani, which you get at Damascus, was
peerless; but I found how wrong I was when I became
acquainted with the plum of China. In this country
there is also an excellent water-melon which is like that
of Khwarezm and Ispahan. In short all our fruits have
their match in China, or rather they are excelled. There
is also great store of wheat, and I never anywhere saw
it finer or better. One may say just the same of the peas
and beans.
Porcelain is made in China nowhere except in the
cities of ZAITUN and SIN-KALAN. It is made by means
of a certain earth got from the mountains of those
provinces, which takes fire like charcoal as we shall
relate hereafter. The potters add a certain stone which
is found in that country; they burn it for three days,
and then pour water on it, so that the whole falls to
powder, and this they cause to ferment. That which has
been in fermentation for a whole month, neither more nor
less, gives the best porcelain; that which has not fer-
mented for more than ten days gives one of inferior
quality1. Porcelain in China is of about the same value
as earthenware with us, or even less. 'Tis exported to
India and elsewhere, passing from country to country till
it reaches us in Morocco. Tis certainly the finest of all
pottery- ware2.
1 [" The best of it, for five and thirty days ; that which is
inferior, for fifteen, ten, or fewer." Lee, p. 208.]
2 Marco Polo also mentions the porcelain manufacture in
connexion with his account of Zaitiin, as being found at Timinguy
(according to Pauthier's edition Tyunguy), a city in the neigh-
bourhood. This Pauthier supposes to be Tek-hua, a town about
sixty miles north of T'swan-chau or Zaitun, where, according to
the Imperial geography, vases of white china were anciently
manufactured, which enjoyed a great reputation. (Marc Pol,
p. 532 ; Marco Polo, ii, p. 242 n.)
The china-ware of Fu-kien and Canton is now of a very
ordinary description, the manufacture of real porcelain being
110 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
The cocks and hens of China are very big, bigger in
fact than our geese1. The hen's egg also there is bigger
than our goose eggs ; whilst their goose on the other hand
is a very small one. I one day bought a hen which I
wanted to boil, but one pot would not hold it, and I was
obliged to take two ! As for the cocks in China they are
as big as ostriches! Sometimes one sheds his feathers
and then the great red object is a sight to see ! The first
time in my life that I saw a China cock was in the city of
Kaulam. I had at first taken it for an ostrich, and I was
looking at it with great wonder, when the owner said to
me: "Pooh! there are cocks in China much bigger than
that ! " and when I got there I found he had said no more
than the truth.
The Chinese are infidels and idolaters, and they burn
their dead after the manner of Hindus2. Their king is
a Tartar of the family of Tankiz Khan3. In each of their
cities a special quarter is assigned to the Mahomedans,
where these latter dwell by themselves, and have their
mosques for prayer, and for Friday and other services.
They are treated with consideration and respect. The
flesh of swine and dogs is eaten by the Chinese pagans,
and it is sold publicly in their markets. They are gener-
ally well-to-do opulent people, but they are not sufficiently
particular either in dress or diet. You will see one of
their great merchants, the owner of uncountable treasure,
confined to King-te chen in the province of Kiang-si. I have no
account of the manufacture, such as enables me to trace the
basis of anything here related by Ibn Batuta, but it looks like
crude gossip; as if he had heard of the porcelain clay of China,
and of the Coal of China, and had, like one of Dickens's illustrious
characters, "combined the information." See Marco Polo, ii,
p. 243 n.
1 See Odoric, n, p. 186.
2 This has already been noticed at in, p. 99, supra. Though no
longer the practice, we see by Marco Polo and other authors that
it was formerly very general in some parts of China.
3 So Ibn Batuta always calls Chinghiz; I know not why.
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO III
going about in a dirty cotton frock1. The Chinese taste
is entirely for the accumulation of gold and silver plate.
They all carry a stick with an iron ferule, on which they
lean in walking, and this they call their third leg.
Silk is very plentiful in China, for the worms which
produce it attach themselves to certain fruits on which
they feed, and require little attention. This is how they
come to have silk in such abundance that it is used for
clothing even by poor monks and beggars. Indeed, but
for the demand among merchants, silk would there have
no value at all. Among the Chinese one cotton dress is
worth two or three of silk.
They have a custom among them for every merchant
to cast into ingots all the gold and silver that he possesses,
each of these ingots weighing a hundredweight, more or
less, and these he places over the gate of his house. The
man who has accumulated five such ingots puts a ring on
his finger; he who has ten puts two rings; he who has
fifteen is called Sati2, which amounts to the same thing as
Kdrami in Egypt. An ingot is in China called Barkdlah3> 4.
1 "The great sin of the Chinese costume is the paucity of
white linen and consequently of washing" (Davis's Chinese).
2 ["He who possesses fifteen such, is named El Sashi; and
the piece itself they call a Rakala." (Lee, p. 209.)]
3 Pers. Pargalah, frustum, segmentum (Meninski). Sati,
again, is probably the Indian word Set, or Cheti as it is called by
some old travellers. The Kdrami merchants were a sort of guild
or corporation in Egypt, who appear to have been chiefly occupied
in the spice trade. Quatremere gives many quotations mentioning
them, but without throwing much light on the subject (see
Not.-et Extraits, xii, 639, and xiv, 214). It is a common story in
India, of rich Hindu bankers and the like, that they build gold
bricks into the walls of their houses.
The Masdlak-al-Absar relates that in some of the Indian
islands there are men who, when they have succeeded in filling
one pot with gold, put a flag on their house-top, and another
flag for each succeeding potful. Sometimes, it is said, as many
as ten of these flags are seen on one roof. And in Russia,
according to Ibn Fozlan, when a man possessed 10,000 dirhems,
his wife wore one gold chain, two gold chains for 20,000 dirhems,
and so on. (Not. et Extraits, xiii, p. 219 ; Ibn Fozlan by Fraehn, p. 5.)
4 ["Are termed a shat." Lee, p. 209.]
112 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
The people of China do not use either gold or silver
coin in their commercial dealings. The whole amount of
those metals that reaches the country is cast into ingots
as I have just said. Their buying and selling is carried
on by means of pieces of _paper about as big as the palm
of the hand, carrying the mark or seal of the Emperor.
Twenty-five of these bills are called balisht1, which is as
much as to say with us "a dinar2." When anyone finds
1 [" In historical works, such as the Jahdn Kushdi, the Jami-
itt-Tawdrikh, and others, a bdlish is thus described: 'A bdlish
is 500 mitkhdl [of silver], made into a long brick with a depression
in the middle.' " Tarikh-i-Rashidi, p. 256. These ingots are
called Yuen Pao or Sycee.]
2 I do not understand the text to mean that a balisht is precisely
worth a dinar, but that it is the unit in which sums are reckoned
by the Chinese as the dinar is with the Mahomedans. Paper
money has been spoken of at in, p. 149, and at n, p. 196 some
speculations were ventured on the origin of the term Balisht or
Balish. I have since been led to believe that it must be a corrup-
tion of the Latin follis.
The common meaning of that word is a bellows ; but it was
used also by late classical writers for a leather money-bag, and
afterwards (in some sense) for money itself, "just as to this day
the Italians apply the term purse to a certain sum of money
among the Turks" (Facciolati, Lipsiae, 1839). Further, the term
follis was also applied to a certain " pulvillus, sedentibus subjectus,
qui non tomento aut plum a inferciebatur, sed vento inflabatur,"
or, in short, to an air-cushion.
Now we have seen (u, p. 196) that Balish was also applied to a
kind of cushion, as well as to a sum of money, such as in later
days the Turks called a purse. This double analogy would be
curious enough as a coincidence, even if we could find no clearer
trace of connexion between the terms ; but there seems ground
for tracing such a connexion.
Follis was applied to money in two ways under the Byzantine
Emperors.
In its commoner application (0oX>.ir, $oAX»;, etc.) it was a
copper coin, of which 288 went to the gold solidus ; and in this
sense probably had no connexion with the original Latin word.
But follis was also used as a term for a certain quantity of gold,
according to one authority the weight of 250 denarii, and was
especially applied to a sort of tax imposed on the magnates by
Constantine, which varied from two to eight pounds of gold,
according to rank and income (see Ducange, De Inferioris Aevi
Numismatibus, in Didot's ed. of the Diet., vii, pp. 194-5).
If the denarii mentioned here were gold denarii or solidi, then
we have the Byzantine FOLLIS = 250 mithkdls, just as the BALISH
of the Turks and Tartars in later days was = 500 mithkdls. The
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 113
that notes of this kind in his possession are worn or torn
he takes them to a certain public office analogous to the
Mint of our country, and there he gets new notes for his
old ones. He incurs no expense whatever in doing this,
for the people who have the making of these notes are
paid by the emperor1. The direction of the said public
office is entrusted to one of the first amirs in China. If a
person goes to the market to buy anything with a piece
of silver, or even a piece of gold, they won't take it ; nor
will they pay any attention to him whatever until he has
changed his money for bdlisht; and then he can buy
whatever he likes.
All the inhabitants of China and Cathay in place of
charcoal make use of a kind of earth which has the
consistence and colour of clay in our country2. It is
transported on elephants, and cut into pieces of the
ordinary size of lumps of charcoal with us, and these they
burn. This earth burns just like charcoal, and gives
even a more powerful heat. When it is reduced to
cinders they knead these up into lumps with water, and
when dry they serve to cook with a second time. And
so they go on till the stuff is entirely consumed. It is
with this earth that the Chinese make their porcelain
probability that the latter word is as directly the representative
of the former as Dinar and Dirhem are of the (gold) Denarius and
Drachma seems very strong, and probably would not derive any
additional support from the cushions with which both words
have been connected.
Follis, again, in the sense of a copper coin, appears to be the
same word as the Arab, fals, spoken of at n, p. 196, found also
formerly in Spain as the name of a small coin foluz. And follis
also in this sense, through the forms Follaris and Folleralis which
are given in Ducange, is the origin of the folleri of Pegolotti
(supra, in, p. 159).
1 See a different account at in, p. 98 supra, and in M. Polo,
ii, pp. 426-30.
2 ["With respect to the earth they lay up, it is mere tempered
clay, like the dry clay with us." (Lee, p. 209.)]
c. Y. c. iv. 8
114 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
vases, combining a certain stone with it, as I have already
related1.
The people of China of all mankind have the greatest
skill and taste in the arts. This is a fact generally
admitted ; it has been remarked in books by many authors,
and has been much dwelt upon2. As regards painting,
indeed, no nation, whether of Christians or others, can
come up to the Chinese ; their talent for this art is some-
thing quite extraordinary. I may mention among
astonishing illustrations of this talent of theirs, what I
have witnessed myself, viz., that whenever I have
happened to visit one of their cities, and to return to it
after awhile, I have always found my own likeness and
those of my companions painted on the walls, or exhibited
in the bazaars. On one occasion that I visited the
Emperor's own city, in going to the imperial palace with
my comrades I passed through the bazaar of the painters ;
we were all dressed after the fashion of Irak. In the
evening on leaving the palace I passed again through the
same bazaar, and there I saw my own portrait and the
portraits of my companions painted on sheets of paper
and exposed on the walls. We all stopped to examine
the likenesses, and everybody found that of his neighbour
to be excellent !
I was told that the Emperor had ordered the painters
to take our likenesses, and that they had come to the
palace for the purpose whilst we were there. They studied
us and painted us without our knowing anything of the
1 The coal of China is noticed by Marco Polo (i, p. 442), and
by Rashid (supra, in, p. 118). According to Pauthier, its use was
known before the Christian era.
2 Already in the tenth century, it was remarked by an Arab
author: "The Chinese may be counted among those of God's
creatures to whom He hath granted, in the highest degree, skill
of hand in drawing and the arts of manufacture" (Reinaud,
Relation, etc., i, 77).
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 115
matter. In fact it is an established custom among the
Chinese to take the portrait of any stranger that visits
their country. Indeed the thing is carried so far that, if by
chance a foreigner commits any action that obliges him to
fly from China, they send his portrait into the outlying
provinces to assist the search for him, and wherever the
original of the portrait is discovered they apprehend him1.
Whenever a Chinese junk is about to undertake a
voyage, it is the custom for the admiral of the port and
his secretaries to go on board, and to take note of the
number of soldiers, servants, and sailors who are embarked.
The ship is not allowed to sail till this form has been
complied with. And when the junk returns to China the
same officials again visit her, and compare the persons
found on board with the numbers entered in their register.
If anyone is missing the captain is responsible, and must
furnish evidence of the death or desertion of the missing
individual, or otherwise account for him. If he cannot,
he is arrested and punished.
The captain is then obliged to give a detailed report
of all the items of the junk's cargo, be their value great
or small. Everybody then goes ashore, and the custom-
house officers commence an inspection of what everybody
has. If they find anything that has been kept back from
their knowledge, the junk and all its cargo is forfeited2.
1 A travelling Jew, whom Wood met on his Oxus journey,
told him that before strangers are permitted to enter Yarkand,
" each individual is strictly examined ; their personal appearance
is noted down in writing, and if any are suspected, an artist is
at hand to take their portraits " (p. 281). This is one of the many
cases in which the Chinese have anticipated the devices of modern
European civilisation. Just as this was written, I read in the
Times of the arrest at New York of the murderer Muller by the
police provided with his photograph despatched from England.
I here omit a not very relevant interpolation by Ibn Juzai,
the Moorish editor.
- This is no doubt the practice referred to by Odoric, supra,
ii, p. 132.
8—2
Il6 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
This is a kind of oppression that I have seen in no country,
infidel or Musulman, except in China. There was, indeed,
something analogous to it in India; for there, if a man
was found with anything smuggled he was condemned
to pay eleven times the amount of the duty. The Sultan
Mahomed abolished this tyrannical rule when he did
away with the duties upon merchandise.
When a Musulman trader arrives in a Chinese city, he
is allowed to choose whether he will take up his quarters
with one of the merchants of his own faith settled in the
country, or will go to an inn1. If he prefers to lodge
with a merchant, they count all his money and confide it
to the merchant of his choice ; the latter then takes charge
of all expenditure on account of the stranger's wants, but
acts with perfect integrity. When the guest wishes to
depart his money is again counted, and the host is obliged
to make good any deficiencies.
If, however, the foreign trader prefers to go to an inn,
his money is made over in deposit to the landlord, who
then buys on his account whatever he may require, and
if he wishes it procures a slave girl for him. He then
establishes him in an apartment opening on the court of
the inn, and undertakes the provision of necessaries for
both man and woman. I may observe here by the way
that young slave girls are very cheap in China; and,
indeed, all the Chinese will sell their sons as slaves equally
with their daughters, nor is it considered any disgrace to
do so. Only, those who are so purchased cannot be forced
against their will to go abroad with the purchaser;
neither, however, are they hindered if they choose to do
so. And if the foreign trader wishes to marry in China
he can very easily do so. But as for spending his money
1 The word is Fanduk. See note on Fondacum, supra, mv
p. 229.
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 117
in profligate courses that he cannot be allowed to do!
For the Chinese say: "We will not have it said in the
Musulman countries that their people are stript of their
property in China, and that ours is a country full of riotous
living and harlotry."
China is the safest as well as the pleasantest of all the
regions on the earth for a traveller. You may travel the
whole nine months' journey to which the empire extends
without the slightest cause for fear, even if you have
treasure in your charge. For at every halting place there
is a hostelry superintended by an officer who is posted
there with a detachment of horse and foot. Every
evening after sunset, or rather at nightfall, this officer
visits the inn accompanied by his clerk; he takes down
the name of every stranger who is going to pass the night
there, seals the list, and then closes the inn door upon
them. In the morning he comes again with his clerk,
calls everybody by name, and marks them off one by one.
He then despatches along with the travellers a person
whose duty it is to escort them to the next station, and
to bring back from the officer in charge there a written
acknowledgment of the arrival of all; otherwise this
person is held answerable. This is the practice at all the
stations in China from Sin-ul-Sin to Khanbaliq. In the
inns the traveller finds all needful supplies, especially
fowls and geese. But mutton is rare.
To return, however, to the particulars of my voyage,
I must tell you that the first Chinese city that I reached
after crossing the sea was ZAITUN x. Although Zaitun
1 Were there doubt as to the identity of Zaitun, Abulfeda's
notice would settle it. For he tells us expressly that Zaitun is
otherwise called Shanju (Chin-cheu, the name by which Ts'wan-
chau was known to the early Portuguese traders, and by which
it still appears in many maps).
[New arguments in favour of Zaitun = Ts'wan-chau and not
Chang-chau have been brought forward by P. Greg. Arnaiz and
Il8 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
signifies olives in Arabic, there are no olives here any
more than elsewhere in India and China ; only that is the
name of the place. It is a great city, superb indeed, and
in it they make damasks of velvet as well as those of satin,
which are called from the name of the city Zaituniah1 ;
they are superior to the stuffs of Khansa and Khanbaliq.
The harbour of Zaitiin is one of the greatest in the world,
— I am wrong : it is the greatest ! I have seen there about
one hundred first-class junks together ; as for small ones
Max Van Berchem in a valuable paper on the Arab inscriptions of
Ts'wan chau printed in the T'oung pao, Dec., 1911. Chang-chau,
of a more recent origin than Ts'wan-chau, has no mosque. Arnaiz
and Van Berchem give a full description of the mosque of Ts'wan-
chau which was built in the year 400 of the Hegira (1009—10 A.D.)
and repaired in 710 (1310-11) according to one of its inscrip-
tions, the most ancient of China, since the inscription of the
mosque of Canton is dated 751 (Sept., 1350). Arnaiz has fully
answered the objections of Geo. Phillips. See Marco Polo, ii,
pp. 234 seq., and Odoric, u, p. 183.
[M. Gabriel Ferrand, an Arabic friend of mine, says that the
word should be spelt Zitun and not Zaitiin. The Arabs transcribe
the Chinese tze by zi, i.e. Man tze = Manzi. Zaitiin like the
Chinese Tze t'ung means an olive, and naturally commended
itself better to an Arabian ear than Zitun.]
1 The words translated after Defremery as velvet and satin are
kimkhwa and atalas. There may be some doubt whether the
former w^ord should be rendered velvet, as it is the original of the
European cammocca and the Indian kinkhwdb, of which the
former seems to have been a damasked silk, and the latter is a
silk damasked in gold (see in, p. 155 supra}. The word Atalas
seems to correspond closely to the Italian raso, as it signifies both
a close-shaven face and a satin texture. It has been domesticated
in Germany as the word for satin (Atlass), and is used also in old
English travels. I have a strong suspicion that the iermZaituniah in
the text is the origin of our word satin. The possible derivation from
seta is obvious. But among the textures of the fifteenth century
named in the book of G. Uzzano (supra, in, p. 142) we find repeated
mention of Zetani, Zettani vellutati, Zettani broccati tra oro, etc.,
which looks very like the transition from Zaituni to satin, whilst
the ordinary word for silk is by the same author always spelt
seta. The analogous derivation of so many other names of textures
from the places whence they were imported may be quoted in
support of this, e.g., Muslin (Mosul), Damask (Damascus), Cambric
(Cambray), Arras Diaper (d'Ypres), Calico (Calicut) ; whilst we
know that Genoese merchants traded at Zaitiin (supra, in, p. 73).
I see that F. Johnson's Diet, distinguishes in Persian between
" Kamkhd, Damask silk of one colour," and " Kimkhd, Damask
silk of different colours."
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO IIQ
they were past counting. The harbour is formed by a
great estuary which runs inland from the sea until it
joins the Great River.
In this, as in every other city of China, every inhabitant
has a garden, a field, and his house in the middle of it,
exactly as we have it in the city of Segelmessa. It is for
this reason that the cities of the Chinese are so extensive.
The Mahomedans have a city by themselves.
The day after my arrival at Zaitiin1 I saw there the
nobleman who had been in India as ambassador with the '
presents for the Sultan, who had set out (from Dehli) in
company with me, and whose junk had been wrecked.
He saluted me, and gave information about me to the
chief of the council, who in consequence assigned me
quarters in a fine house. I then had visits from the Kazi
of the Mahomedans, Tajuddin of Ardebil, a virtuous and
generous person ; from the Shaikh of Islam, Kamaluddin
Abdallah of Ispahan, a very pious man; and from the
chief merchants of the place. Among these I will mention
only Sharif-uddin of Tabriz, one of the merchants to whom
I ran in debt from my first arrival in India, and the one of
my creditors who acted most like a gentleman ; he knew
the whole Koran by heart, and was a great reader2. As
these merchants are settled there in a land of unbelievers,
of course they are greatly delighted when they see a
Musulman come to visit them, and when they can say :
"Ah, here comes one from the lands of Islam ! " and they
give him alms of all that they have, according to the law,
1 ["On the day of my arrival." Lee, p. 212.]
2 It is of very great interest to note that all the Mahomedans
named by Ibn Batuta are Persian ; he has omitted to mention
Ahmad ibn Muhammad, from Jerusalem?, surnamed the pilgrim
Ruku (al din?) of Shiraz who built in 1310 the new portico of the
mosque. It is the more interesting that the Mahomedans men-
tioned by Ibn Batuta in other towns of China came from Soghdiana,
Mesopotamia, Egypt and Morocco, but not from Persia proper.
[See T'oung pao, I.e., p. 716.]
120 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
so that the traveller becomes quite rich like one of them-
selves. Among the eminent shaikhs at Zaitiin was
Burhan-uddin of Kazerun, who had a hermitage outside
of the town. It was to him that the merchants used to
pay their offerings for the Shaikh Abu Ishak of Kazenin1.
When the chief of the council had learned all particulars
about me, he wrote to the Kan, i.e. the Emperor, to
inform him that I had arrived from the King of India.
And I begged the chief that whilst we were awaiting the
answer he would send some one to conduct me to Sin-ul-
Sin, which these people call Sin-Kalan, which is also under
the Kan, as I was desirous to visit that part of the country.
He consented, and sent one of his people to accompany
me. I travelled on the river in a vessel which was
much like the war galleys in our country, excepting that
the sailors rowed standing and all together amidships,
whilst the passengers kept forward and aft. For shade
they spread an awning made of a plant of the country
resembling flax, but not flax ; it was, however, finer than
hemp2.
1 Kazerun, once a considerable place, now in decay, lies in a
valley on the road from Bushire to Shiraz. The Shaikh Abu
Ishak of Kazerun was a sort of patron saint of the mariners in
the India and China trade, who made vows of offerings to his
shrine when in trouble at sea, and agents were employed at the
different ports to board the vessels as they entered, and claim
the amounts vowed, which generally came to large sums. Appli-
cants to the shrine for charity also used to receive circular notes
payable by parties who had vowed. When the recipient of such
a note met anyone owing an offering to the shrine he received
the amount on presenting his bill endorsed with a discharge.
(Ibn Batuta, ii, 90-1.)
2 Perhaps grass-cloth.
["By the beginning of the seventh century the foreign
colony at Canton, mostly composed of Persians and Arabs,
must have been a numerous one, for Islam seems to have been
brought there between 618 and 626. There is even some evidence
for believing that the Moslim had also settlements at that time in
Ts'wan-chau and Yang-chau ; Ts'wan-chau, however, became of
importance in their China trade only in the ninth century. By
the middle of the eighth century the Mohamedans at Canton —
which they called Khanfu, — had become so numerous that in
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 121
We travelled on the river for twenty-seven days1.
Every day a little before noon we used to moor at some
village, where we bought what was needful, and performed
our midday prayers.
In the evening we stopped at another village, and so
on until we arrived at Sin-Kalan2, which is the city of
Sin-ul-Sin. Porcelain is made there, just as at Zaitun,
and it is there also that the river called Ab-i-Haiydh (or
water-of-life) discharges itself into the sea, at a place
which they call the confluence of the seas. Sin-ul-Sin is
one of the greatest of cities, and one of those that has the
finest of bazaars. One of the largest of these is the porce-
lain bazaar, and from it china-ware is exported to the
other cities of China, to India, and to Yemen.
In the middle of the city you see a superb temple with
nine gates ; inside of each there is a portico with terraces
where the inmates of the building seat themselves.
Between the second and third gates there is a place with
rooms for occupation by the blind, the infirm or the
crippled. These receive food and clothing from pious
foundations attached to the temple. Between the other
gates there are similar establishments; there is to be
758, when, for some reason which has not come down to us, Arab
and Persian pirates sacked and burnt the city and made off to
sea with their loot, some 5000 resident foreign traders were killed
by them." (Hirth and Rockhill, pp. 14-15.)]
1 It is very possible that there may be continuous inland
navigation from Zaitun to Canton, parallel to the coast, but I
cannot ascertain more than that there is such from Fu-chau,
and I presume from Ts'wan-chau or Zaitun to Chang-chau.
If this does not extend further, his journey "by the river" must
have been up the Min river ; then, after crossing the mountains
into Kiang si, re-embarking and following the Kan-Kiang up to
the Mei ling Pass, and so across that to the Pe-Kiang, leading to
Canton ; the latter part of the route being that followed by
Macartney and Amherst on their return journeys, as well as by
the authors of many other published narratives.
On Sin-Kalan or Sin-ul-Sin and its identity with Canton, see
supra, pp. n, 179; in, 126, 249; and supra, 25.
2 [Sin-Kilan. Lee, p. 213.]
122 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA.
seen (for instance) a hospital for the sick, a kitchen for
dressing their food, quarters for the physicians, and others
for the servants. I was assured that old folks who had
not strength to work for a livelihood were maintained and
clothed there ; and that a like provision was made for
destitute widows and orphans. This temple was built by
a King of China, who bequeathed this city and the villages
and gardens attached, as a pious endowment for this
establishment. His portrait is to be seen in the temple,
and the Chinese go and worship it1.
In one of the quarters of this great city is the city of
the Mahomedans, where they have their cathedral mosque,
convent, and bazaar ; they have also a judge and a Shaikh,
for in each of the cities of China you find always a Shaikh
of Islam, who decides finally every matter concerning
Mahomedans, as well as a Kazi to administer justice.
I took up my quarters with Auhad-uddfn of Sin jar, one
of the worthiest, as he is one of the richest, of men. My
1 Canton has undergone many changes, and no temple now
appears to correspond precisely with that described. It was
however perhaps that called Kwang hiao sze (Temple of Glory
and Filial Duty), near what is now the N.W. corner of the city.
It was built about A.D. 250, and has often been restored. It
possesses about 3500 acres of land for the support of its inmates.
There is a retreat for poor aged infirm and blind people called
Yangtsequen, which stands outside the walls east of the city,
but neither this nor the other charitable institutions appear to
be of old date, nor do there seem to be any such now attached to
the temples (see Chinese Repository, vol. ii, pp. 145 seq.}. [The
Kwang hiao sze has nothing to do with the Mahomedans ; it
contains three colossal effigies of Buddha.
"The city of Canton with its environs has five important
mosques. . . .The 'Mosque of Holy Remembrance' is the largest
and most ancient of all the five mosques in Canton .... The mosque
was destroyed by fire in 1343 A.D. and was rebuilt in 1349-51
A.D. by a certain Emir Mahmoud . . . . In this mosqire of the
Holy Remembrance the most important Records are on two
monuments dated respectively 1351 A.D. and 1698 A.D. The
tablet dated 1351 A.D. has a bilingual inscription in Arabic and
Chinese and records the rebuilding of the premises." (Marshall
Broomhall, Islam in China, pp. 109 seq.} This mosque is called
the Kwang t'a or Kwang t'ap and is probably the one referred to
by Ibn Batuta.]
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 123
stay with him lasted fourteen days, during which presents
from the kazi and the other Mahomedans flowed in
upon me incessantly. Every day they used to have a
fresh entertainment, to which they went in pretty little
boats of some ten cubits in length, with people on board
to sing.
Beyond this city of Sin-ul-Sin there are no other
cities, whether of infidels or Musulmans. Between it
and the Rampart, or Great Wall of Gog and Magog,
there is a space of sixty days' journey as I was told.
This territory is occupied by wandering tribes of heathen,
who eat such people as they can catch, and for this reason
no one enters their country or attempts to travel there.
I saw nobody in this city who had been to the Great Wall,
or who knew anybody who had been there1.
During my stay at Sin-Kalan I heard that there was at
that city a very aged shaikh, indeed that he had passed
his two hundredth year2; that he had neither ate nor
1 This is an instance of Ibn Batuta's loose notions of geography.
He inquires for the Wall of China from his co-religionists at the
wrong extremity of the empire, as if (on a smaller scale) a foreigner
should ask the French Consul at Cork for particulars of the Wall
of Antoninus. Had he inquired at Khanbaliq (if he really was
there) he might have received more information.
The Rampart of Gog and Magog (Ydjuj and Majuj] was
believed tc have been erected by Alexander the Great to shut
up the fierce nations of the north and bar their irruptions into
civilized southern lands. It is generally referred to Derbend on
the Caspian, but naturally came to be confounded with the Wall
of China. Edrisi (ii, 416) gives an account of the mission sent
by the Khalif Wathek Billah to explore the Rampart of Gog and
Magog. See the Reduction of the Catalan Map, N.E. corner.
[Cf. Marco Polo, i, p. 57 n.~\
2 Supernatural longevity is a common attribute of Mahomedan
saints. Ibn Batuta himself introduces us to several others
whose age exceeded one hundred and fifty years, besides a certain
Atha AwaUa in the Hindu Rush who claimed three hundred and
fifty years, but regarding whom the traveller had his doubts.
Shah Madar, one of the most eminent Indian saints, is said to
have been born at Aleppo in 1050-1, and to have died at Makan-
pur near Ferozabad, Agra, where he was buried, in 1433, having
had 1442 sons, spiritual it may be presumed! (Garcin de Tassy,
Particularity de la Rel. Mus. dans I'Inde, p. 55). And John
124 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
drank nor had anything to say to women, although his
vigour was intact ; and that he dwelt in a cave outside
the town, where he gave himself up to devotion. So I
went to his grotto, and there I saw him at the door.
He was very thin; of a deep red or copper-tint, much
marked with the traces of an ascetic life, and had no beard.
After I had saluted him he took my hand, blew on it, and
said to the interpreter: "This man belongs to one
extremity of the world, as we belong to the other."
Then he said to me: "Thou hast witnessed a miracle.
Dost thou call to mind the day of thy visit to the island
where there was a temple, and the man seated among the
idols who gave thee ten pieces of gold?" "Yes, in
sooth," answered I. He rejoined, "I was that man1."
I kissed his hand; the shaikh seemed a while lost in
thought, then entered his cave, and did not come back
to us. One would have said that he regretted the words
that he had spoken. We were rash enough to enter the
grotto in order to surprise him, but we did not find him.
We saw one of his comrades, however, who had in his
hand some paper bank-notes, and who said to us : " Take
this for your entertainment, and begone." We answered :
"But we wish to wait for the shaikh." He answered:
"If you were to wait ten years you would not see him.
For 'tis his way never to let himself be seen by a person
who has learned one of his secrets." He added: "Think
not that he is absent; tie is here present with you!"
Greatly astonished at all this I departed. On telling
my story to the kazi, the Shaikh of Islam and (my host)
Schiltberger tells us of a saint at Hore in Horassan (Herat in
Khorasan) whom he saw there in the days of Timur, whose name
was Phiradam Schyech, and who was three hundred and* fifty
years old (Reisen, p. 101).
1 This refers to a mysterious incident that occurred to Ibn
Batuta at a small island on the western coast of India just before
he got to Hunawtir (see supra, p. 24).
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 125
Auhad-uddin of Sinjar, they observed: "This is his way
with strangers who visit him; nobody ever knows what
religion he professes. But the man whom you took for
one of his comrades was the shaikh himself." They then,
informed me that this personage had quitted the country
for about fifty years and had returned only a year
previously. The king1, the generals, and other chiefs
went to see him, and made him presents in proportion to
their rank; whilst every day the fakirs and poor monks
went to see him, and received from him gifts in proportion
to the deserts of each, although his cave contained abso-
lutely nothing. They told me also that this personage
sometimes related histories of past times ; he would speak,
for example, of the prophet (upon whom be peace!), and
would say with reference to him : " If I had but been
with him, I would have helped him." He would speak
also with veneration of the two Khalifs, 'Omar son of
Alkattab and 'AH son of Abu Talib, and would praise
them highly. But, on the other hand, he would curse
Yazid the son of Mu'awiyah, and would denounce
Mu'awiyah himself2. Many other things were told me
about this shaikh by the persons named above.
Auhad-uddin of Sinjar told me the following story
about him: "I went once (said he) to see the shaikh in
his cave. He took hold of my hand, and all at once I
imagined myself to be in a great palace where this shaikh
was seated on a throne. Methought he had a crown on
his head ; on each side of him were beautiful handmaidens ;
and there were canals about into which fruit was constantly
dropping. I imagined that I took up an apple to eat it,
1 I.e. the viceroy.
2 Omar and Ali, the second and fourth successors of Mahomed.
Yazid Bin Mu'awiyah, the second Khalif of the Ommiades, who
caused the death of Ali on the plain of Kerbela, is always men-
tioned with a curse by the Shias (D'Herbelot).
126 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
and straightway as I did so I found myself again in the
grotto with the shaikh before me, laughing and ridiculing
me. I had a bad illness which lasted several months;
and I never would go again to see that strange being1."
The people of the country believe the shaikh to be a
Musulman, but nobody ever saw him say his prayers.
As regards abstinence from food, again, he may be said
to fast perpetually. The kazi told me : "One day I spoke
to him about prayer, and his answer was : ' Thinkest thou
that thou knowest, thou! what I do? In truth, I trow
my prayer is another matter from thine ! ' ' Everything
about this man was singular2.
The day after my visit to the shaikh I set out on my
return to the city of Zaitiin, and some days after my
arrival there an order was received from the Kan that I
was to proceed to the capital, with arrangements for
my honourable treatment and for defraying my expenses.
He left me free to go by land or by water as I chose;
so I preferred going by the river.
They fitted up a very nice boat for me, such as is used
for the transport of generals ; the Amir sent some of his
suite to accompany me, and furnished provisions in
abundance ; quantities also were sent by the kazi and the
Mahomedan merchants. We travelled as the guests of
the sultan, dining at one village, and supping at another ;
and after a passage of ten days we arrived at KANJANFU.
This is a large and beautiful city surrounded by gardens,
in an immense plain. One would say it was the plain of
Damascus3 !
1 A capital case of mesmeric influence in the Middle Ages.
2 The holy man in Egypt, described by Lady Duff Gordon
(supra, p. 90), "never prays, never washes, he does not keep
Ramadan, and yet he is a saint."
3 This I have little doubt is Kien ch'ang fu in Kiang si, to
which a water communication conducts all the way from Fu-chau,
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 127
On my arrival the kazi, the shaikh of Islam, and the
merchants came out to receive me, with flags and a band
of musicians, with drums, trumpets, and horns. They
brought horses for us, which we mounted, whilst they all
went on foot before us except the kazi and the shaikh,
who rode with us. The governor of the city also came
out with his retinue to meet us, for a guest of the emperor's
is highly honoured among those people. And so we
entered Kanjanfu1. This city has four walls. Between
the first and the second wall live the slaves of the sultan,
those who guard the city by day as well as those who
guard it by night. These last are called baswdndn.
Between the second and third wall are the cavalry, and
the amir who commands in the city. Inside the third
wall are the Mahomedans, so it was here that we dis-
mounted at the house of their shaikh, Zahir-uddin ul
Kurlani. The Chinese lived inside the fourth wall,
which incloses the biggest of the four towns. The
distance between one gate and the next in this immense
city of Kanjanfu is three miles and a quarter. Every
inhabitant, as we have described before, has his garden
and fields about his house2.
One day when I was in the house of Zahir-uddin ul
Kurlani there arrived a great boat, which was stated to
be that of one of the most highly respected doctors of the
law among the Musulmans of those parts. They asked
leave to introduce this personage to me, and accordingly
and probably from Zaitun, excepting for a space of 190 li (some
fifty or sixty miles) in the passage of the mountains between
T'sung nang hien in Fu-kien, and Yan chan hien in Kiang si (Klap.,
Mdm. Pel. d I'Asie, vol. iii). Kien ch'ang fu is described by
Martini as a handsome and celebrated city, with a lake inside the
walls and another outside. It was noted in his time for the
excellence of its rice-wine.
1 [Fanjanfur. Lee, p. 215.]
2 This must at all times have been a great exaggeration.
123 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
he was announced as "Our Master Kiwamuddin the
Ceutan1." I was surprised at the name; and when he
had entered, and after exchanging the usual salutations
we had begun to converse together, it struck me that I
knew the man. So I began to look at him earnestly, and
he said, "You look as if you knew me." "From what
country are you," I asked. "From Ceuta." "And I am
from Tangier!" So he recommenced his salutations,
moved to tears at the meeting, till I caught the infection
myself. I then asked him: "Have you ever been in
India?" "Yes," he said; "I have been at Delhi, the
capital." When he said that I recollected about him,
and said, "Surely you are Al-Bushri?" "Yes, I am."
He had come to Delhi with his maternal uncle, Abii'l
Kasim, of Murcia, being then quite young and beardless,
but an accomplished student, knowing the Muwattah by
heart2. I had told the Sultan of India about him, and
he had given him 3000 dinars, and desired to keep him at
Delhi. He refused to stay, however, for he was bent on
going to China, and in that country he had acquired
much reputation and a great deal of wealth. He told me
that he had some fifty male slaves, and as many female :
and indeed he gave me two of each, with many other
presents. Some years later I met this man's brother in
Negroland. What an enormous distance lay between
those two3!
1 "Ul-Sabti."
2 The Muwattah (the name signifies, according to Defremery,
"Appropriated," but D'Herbelot translates it "Footstool")
was a book on the traditions, held in great respect by the Mahome-
dans, who called it Mubarak, or Blessed. It was composed by
the Imam Malik Bin Ans, one of the four chiefs of Orthodox
sects. (D'Herbelot.)
3 This meeting in the heart of China of the two Moors from
the adjoining towns of Tangier and Ceuta has a parallel in that
famous, but I fear mythical story of the capture of the Grand
Vizier on the Black Sea by Marshal Keith, then in the Russian
service. The venerable Turk's look of recognition drew from the
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO I2Q
I stayed fifteen days at Kanjanfu, and then continued
my journey. China is a beautiful country, but it afforded
me no pleasure. On the contrary, my spirit was sorely
troubled within me whilst I was there, to see how Paganism
had the upper hand. I never could leave my quarters
without witnessing many things of a sinful kind; and
that distressed me so much that I generally kept within
doors, and only went out when it was absolutely necessary.
And during my whole stay in China I always felt in meeting
Musulmans just as if I had fallen in with my own kith
and kin. The jurist Al-Bushri carried his kindness
towards me so far that he escorted me on my journey for
four days until my arrival at BAIWAM KuxLU1. This
was a small city inhabited by Chinese traders and soldiers.
There were but four houses of Musulmans there, and the
owners were all disciples of the jurist above mentioned.
We took up our quarters with one of them, and stayed
three days. I then bade adieu to the doctor, and pro-
ceeded on my journey.
As usual, I travelled on the river, dining at one village,
supping at another, till after a voyage of seventeen days
we arrived at the city of KHANSA2. (The name of this
city is nearly the same as that of Khansa, the poetess3,
Marshal the same question that Al-Bushri addressed to Ibn
Batuta, and the answer came forth in broad Fifeshire dialect —
" Eh man ! aye, I mind you weel, for my father was the bellman
of Kirkaldy ! "
1 [Bairam Katlu. Lee, p. 216.] The name looks Turkish
rather than Chinese and may be connected with that of Baiam,
the great general and minister of Kublai. It is possible, however,
that the Baiwam may represent Poyang, the old name of Yao-
chau, on the Poyang Lake, which I suppose had its name from
this city (Martini in Thevenot, p. 109). The position would be
very appropriate.
2 Cansay of Odoric, etc., King-sze or Hang-chau fu ; see
n, p. 192, in, pp. 115, 229, etc., supra.
3 All I can tell of this lady is from the following extract :
" Al-Chansa, the most celebrated Arabic poetess, shines exclusively
in elegiac poetry. Her laments over her two murdered brothers,
C. Y. C. IV. Q
130 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
but I don't know whether the name be actually Arabic,
or has only an accidental resemblance to it.) This city
is the greatest I have ever seen on the surface of the
earth. It is three days' journey in length, so that a
traveller passing through the city has to make his marches
and his halts ! According to what we have said before of
the arrangement followed in the cities of China, every one
in Khansa is provided with his house and garden1. The
city is divided into six towns, as I shall explain presently.
When we arrived, there came out to meet us the Kazi
of Khansa, by name Afkharuddin, the Shaikh of Islam,
and the descendants of 'Othman Bin Affan the Egyptian,
who are the most prominent Mahomedans at Khansa.
They carried a white flag, with drums, trumpets, and
horns. The commandant of the city also came out to
meet me with his escort. And so we entered the city.
It is subdivided into six towns, each of which has a
separate enclosure, whilst one great wall surrounds the
whole. In the first city was posted the garrison of the
city, with its commandant. I was told by the Kazi and
others .that there were 12,000 soldiers on the rolls. We
passed the night at the commandant's house. The next
day we entered the second city by a gate called the Jews'
Gate. This town was inhabited by Jews, by Christians,
and by those Turks who worship the sun ; they are very
numerous. The Amir of this town is a Chinese, and we
passed the second night in his house. The third day we
made our entrance into the third city, and this is occupied
by the Mahomedans. It is a fine town, with the bazaars
Muawiya and Sachr, are the most pathetic, tender, and passionate,
yet no translation could convey the fulness of their beauty.
To be appreciated the}' must be read in the majestic, soft, sonorous
words of the original." (Saturday Review, June 17, 1865, p. 740.)
1 This agrees but ill with Odoric's " non est spansa terra qua
non habilatur bene.". There are several very questionable state-
ments in Ibn Batuta's account of the great city.
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 131
arranged as in Musulman countries, and with mosques
and muezzins. We heard these last calling the Faithful
to prayer as we entered the city. Here we were lodged
in the house of the children of 'Othman Bin Affan, the
Egyptian. This 'Othman was a merchant of great
eminence, who took a liking to this town, and established
himself in it ; indeed it is named after him Al'Othmdniyah.
He bequeathed to his posterity in this city the dignity
and consideration which he had himself enjoyed; his
sons follow their father in their beneficence to religious
mendicants, and in affording relief to the poor. They
have a convent called also Al'Othmaniyah, which is a
handsome edifice, endowed with many pious bequests,
and is occupied by a fraternity of Sufis. It.was the same
Othman who built the Jama' Mas] id (cathedral mosque)
in this city, and he has bequeathed to it (as well as to the
convent) considerable sums to form a foundation for
pious uses.
The Musulmans in this city are very numerous. We
remained with them fifteen days, and every day and
every night I was present at some new entertainment.
The splendour of their banquets never flagged, and every
day they took me about the city on horseback for my
diversion. One day that they were riding with me we
went into the fourth city, where the seat of the govern-
ment is, and also the palace of the great Amir Kurtai.
When we had passed the gate of the town my companions
left me, and I was received by the Wazir, who conducted
me to the palace of the great Amir Kurtai. I have
already related how this latter took from me the pelisse
which had been given me by the Friend of God, Jalal-uddin
of Shiraz. This fourth town is intended solely for the
dwellings of the emperor's officers and slaves; it is the
finest of all the six towns, and is traversed by three streams
9—2
132 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
of water. One of these is a canal from the great river,
and by it the supplies of food and of stones for burning
are brought in small boats ; there are also pleasure boats
to be had upon it. The citadel is in the middle of the
town ; it is of immense extent, and in the centre of it is
the palace of the government. The citadel surrounds
this on all sides, and is provided with covered sheds,
where artisans are seen employed in making magnificent
dresses, arms, and engines of war. The Amir Kurtai told
me that there were 1600 master-workmen, each of whom
had under his direction three or four apprentices. All
are the Kan's slaves; they are chained, and live outside
the fortress. They are allowed to frequent the bazaars of
the town, but not to go beyond the gate. The Amir
musters them daily, and if any one is missing their chief
is responsible. It is customary to remove their fetters
after ten years' service, and they have then the option
of either continuing to serve without fetters or of going
where they will, provided they do not pass beyond the
frontier of the Kan's territory. At the age of fifty they
are excused all further work, and are maintained at the
cost of the State. But indeed in any case every one, or
nearly every one, in China, who has reached that age,
may obtain his maintenance at the public expense1. He
who has reached the age of sixty is regarded by the Chinese
as a child, and is no longer subject to the penalties of the
law. Old men are treated with great respect in that
country, and are always addressed as Aihd or "Father2."
The Amir Kurtai is the greatest lord in China3. He
1 See above, in, p. 92, and M. Polo, i. 39.
2 See above, n, p. 201.
3 [Emir Karti. Lee, p. 218.] I cannot identify this Prince in
the translated Chinese histories. Kurtai is however a genuine
Tartar name, and is found as the name of one of the Mongol
generals in the preceding century (D'Ohsson, ii, 260). [Amir
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 133
offered us hospitality in his palace, and gave an entertain-
ment such as those people call Thuwai1, at which the
dignitaries of the city were present. He had got Mahome-
dan cooks to kill the cattle and cook the dishes for us,
and this lord, great as he was, carved the meats and helped
us with his own hands ! We were his guests for three
days, and one day he sent his son to escort us in a trip on
the canal. We got into a boat like a fire-ship2, whilst
the young lord got into another, taking singers and
musicians with him. The singers sang songs in Chinese,
Arabic, and Persian. The lord's son was a great admirer
of the Persian songs, and there was one of these sung by
them which he caused to be repeated several times, so
that I got it by heart from their singing. This song had
a pretty cadence in it, and thus it went :
Td dil ba mihnat dddim,
Dar bahri-i fikr uftddim,
Chun dar namdz istddim,
Kawi bamihrdb anderim3.
Kurtai. Schefer, Relat. des Musulmans avec les Chinois, p. 23, calls
him Qir Thay. Cf. Huart, /. As.. May-June, 1913, p. 701, says
it should be Karatai, name of several Turkish families.]
1 Thoi or Tuwi is a word believed to be of Turki origin, used
frequently by Rashid and other medieval Persian writers for a
feast or fete (see Quatremere's Rashideddin, pp. 139-40, 164, 216,
414; see also a previous passage of Ibn Batuta, iii, 40).
2 Harrdqah. " Navis incendiaria aut missilibus pyriis instructa"
(Freytag) . I do not understand what is meant by the comparison.
It cannot refer to the blaze of light, because this was in the day-
time. But perhaps Ibn Batuta applies the word only in the
sense of some kind of state barge, for he uses the same title for
the boat in which he saw the Il-Khan Abu Said with his Wazir
taking an airing on the Tigris at Baghdad (ii, 116).
3 The "pretty cadence" is precisely that of:
We won't go home till morning,
We won't go home till morning,
We won't go home till morning,
Till daylight doth appear !
It may be somewhat freely rendered :
My heart given up to emotions,
Was o'erwhelmed in waves like the ocean's;
But betaking me to my devotions,
My troubles were gone from me !
134 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
Crowds of people in boats were gathered on the canal.
The sails were of all bright colours, the people carried
parasols of silk, and the boats themselves were gorgeously
painted. They skirmished with one another, and pelted
each other with oranges and lemons. In the evening we
went back to pass the night at the Amir's palace, where
the musicians came again and sang very fine songs.
That same night a juggler, who was one of the Kan's
slaves, made his appearance, and the Amir said to him :
"Come and show us some of your marvels." Upon this
he took a wooden ball, with several holes in it through
which long thongs were passed, and (laying hold of one
of these) slung it into the air. It went so high that we
lost sight of it altogether. (It was the hottest season of
the year, and we were outside in the middle of the palace
court.) There now remained only a little of the end of
a thong in the conjuror's hand, and he desired one of the
boys who assisted him to lay hold of it and mount. He
did so, climbing by the thong, and we lost sight of him
also ! The conjuror then called to him three times, but
getting no answer he snatched up a knife, as if in a great
rage, laid hold of the thong, and disappeared also ! By
and by he threw down one of the boy's hands, then a
foot, then the other hand and the other foot, then the
trunk, and last of all the head! Then he came down
himself, all puffing and panting, and with his clothes all
bloody, kissed the ground before the Amir, and said
something to him in Chinese. The Amir gave some order
in reply, and our friend then took the lad's limbs, laid
them together in their places, and gave a kick, when,
presto ! there was the boy, who got up and stood before
us1 ! All this astonished me beyond measure, and I had
1 In a modern Indian version of this trick, which I lately
heard described by an eye-witness, the boy was covered with a
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 135
an attack of palpitation like that which overcame me once
before in the presence of the Sultan of India, when he
showed me something of the same kind. They gave me
a cordial, however, which cured the attack1. The Kazi
Afkharuddin was next to me, and quoth he: "\Yallah!
'tis my opinion there has been neither going up nor coming
down, neither marring nor mending ; 'tis all hocus pocus ! "
The next day we entered the gate of the fifth city,
which is the biggest of all the six, and is inhabited by the
Chinese. It has splendid bazaars and capital artificers,
and it is there that they make the textures called
khansdwiyah. Among the fine things made here also are
the plates and dishes called Dast. They are composed
of cane, the fibres of which are platted together in a won-
derful manner, and then covered with a brilliant coat of
red lacker. Ten of these plates go to a set, one fitting
inside the other, and so fine are they that when you see
basket and desired to descend into the earth. On his refusal, the
conjuror rushed at the basket and pierced it violently in all
directions with a spear, whilst blood flowed from under it, and
the boy's dying groans were heard. On removing the basket
there was of course nothing to be seen, and presently the boy made
his appearance running from the gate of the compound in which
the performance took place. The vanishing upwards certainly
renders Ibn Batuta's story much more wonderful. A like feature
is found in some extraordinary Indian conjurors' tricks described
by the Emperor Jihanghir in his memoirs.
1 On the occasion referred to (iv, 39), Ibn Batuta, when
visiting Mahomed Tughlak, finds two Jogis in the king's apart-
ments, one of whom whilst sitting cross-legged rises in the air.
His comrade then pulls out a shoe and raps on the ground with it.
The shoe immediately mounts in the air to the neck of the
elevated Jogi, and begins tapping him on the nape of the neck ;
as it taps he gradually subsides to the ground. The traveller,
unused to such operations of "levitation" and spirit-rapping,
faints away in the king's presence.
Ricold de Monte Croce ascribes such practices to the EoxitcB
(Bakshis or Lamas). One of them was said to fly. The fact
was, says Ricold, that he did not fly, but he used to skim the
ground without touching it, and when he seemed to be sitting
down he was sitting upon nothing! (p. 117).
A Brahman at Madras some forty or fifty years ago exhibited
himself sitting in the air. In his case, I think, mechanical aids
were discovered, but I cannot refer to the particulars.
136 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
them you would take the whole set for but one plate.
A cover then goes over the whole. There are also great
dishes or trays made with the same cane-work. Some
of the excellent properties of such dishes are these : they
don't break when they tumble, and you can put hot things
into them without spoiling or in the least affecting their
colour. These plates and dishes are exported from
China to India, Khorasan, and other countries1.
We passed a night in the fifth town as the guests of
the commandant, and the next day we proceeded to enter
the sixth by a gate called that of the kishtiwdndn, or
boatmen. This town is inhabited only by seamen,
fishermen, caulkers, carpenters (these last they call
dudkdrdn], by the sipahis, i.e. the archers, and by the
piyddahs, i.e. the foot-soldiers2. All of them are the
emperor's slaves ; no other class live with them, and their
numbers are very great. The town of which we speak
is situated on the banks of the Great River, and we stayed
the night there, enjoying the hospitality of the command-
ant. The Amir Kurtai had caused a boat to be fitted up
for us, and equipped with everything needful in the way
of provisions and otherwise. He also sent some of his
1 Lackered ware is still made in Burma quite in the way that
the traveller describes, and so it is doubtless in China. Indeed
the cane dishes are mentioned by the Archbishop of Soltania
(supra, m, p. 99).
2 Here as usual with Ibn Batuta one would suppose that these
words were the vernacular Chinese instead of being Persian. If
we could depend upon him thoroughly in such matters, the use
of these words would indicate that Persian was the language of
the Mahomedan communities in China. Dudkdrdn is for
Durudgardn, carpenters. The explanations "archers" and "foot-
soldiers" (ul-rajdl) are Ibn Batuta's own, and the use of the latter
word is perhaps unfavourable to the translation at p. 104. [To
Ch. Schefer, Relat. des Musulmans avec Us Chinois, p. 24, it seems
that they were Persian artisans sent from Iraq, Khorasan and
Transoxiana by the Mongols and who had not yet been liberated.
" Ibn Batuta les designe sous les noms persans de Kechtiouanan
(pilotes) et Doroudgueran (menuisiers) . Les archers ou gens de
trait etaient appeles Sipahibh et les gens de pied, Piadeh (pie-tons) ."]
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 137
people to accompany us, in order that we might be
received everywhere as the emperor's guests, and so we
quitted this city, the province under which is the last of
those of China, and proceeded to enter CATHAY1.
Cathay is the best cultivated land in the world; in
the whole country you will not find a bit of ground lying
fallow. The reason is, that if a piece of ground be left
uncultivated, they still oblige the people on it, or if there
be none the people nearest to it, to pay the land-tax.
Gardens, villages, and cultivated fields line the two banks
of the river in uninterrupted succession from the city of
Khansa to the city of KHANBALIQ, a space of sixty-four
days' journey.
In those tracts you find no Musulmans, unless as mere
passengers, for the localities are not adapted for them to
fix themselves in, and you find no regular cities, but only
villages, and plains covered with corn, fruit trees, and
sugar cane. I do not know in the whole world a region
to be compared to this, except that space of four days'
march between Anbar and 'Anah. Every evening we
landed at a different village, and were hospitably received2.
And thus at last we arrived at Khanbaliq, also called
KHANIKU3. It is the capital of the Kan or great Emperor,
1 Khitha. Here Ibn Batuta makes China (Sin) correspond to
Man«i, or the Sung empire, first reduced under the Mongols by
Kublai. In other passages he appears to use Sin for the whole
empire, as (in iii, 17) where he speaks of Almaliq as situated at
the extremity of Ma-wara-n-Nahr, near the place where China (Sin)
begins.
2 Anbdr, on the Euphrates abreast of Baghdad; 'Anah, about
1 20 miles higher up. The alleged absence of cities on the banks
of the canal is so contrary to fact, that one's doubts arise whether
Ibn Batuta could have travelled beyond Hang-chau.
3 Of this name Khdniku I can make nothing. Khdnku
indeed appears in Abulfeda several times as the alternative
name of Khansa, but is in that case an evident mistake (one dot
too many), for the Khdnfu of Abu Said in Reinaud's Relations,
the Ganpu of Marco, the Kanphu of the Chinese, which was the
seaport of Khansa or Hang-chau, and stood upon the estuary of
Ij8 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
who rules over China and Cathay. We moored, according
to the custom of these people, ten miles short of Khanbaliq,
and they sent a report of our arrival to the admirals,
who gave us permission to enter the port, and this we
did. At last we landed at the city, which is one of the
greatest in the world, and differs from all the other cities
of China in having no gardens inside the walls ; they are
all outside, as in other countries. The city or quarter
in which the emperor resides stands in the middle like a
citadel, as we shall tell hereafter. I took up my quarters
with the shaikh Burhan-uddin of Sagharj, the individual
to whom the Sultan of India sent 40,000 dinars, with an
invitation to go to his dominions. He took the money
indeed, and paid his debts with it, but declined to go to
the King of Delhi, and directed his course towards China.
The Kan put him at the head of all the Musulmans in
his empire, with the title of Sadr-ul-Jihdn, or Chief of
the World1.
The word Kan (Qdri) among the Chinese is a generic
term for anyone governing the empire; in fact, for the
kings of their country, just as the lords of the Liir country
the Che Kiang, about twelve leagues from the great city (Klapr.
Mem. ii, 200). [Khaniku, Haniku, is the adjective taken as a
substantive Xan + qu, "this of the Emperor, the imperial"
(= Xan-baliq). Cl. Huart, Jour. Asiat., May-June, 1913, p. 701.]
1 As Ibn Batuta relates elsewhere (iii, 255) this celebrated
preacher gave as his reason for refusing to visit India: "I will
not go to the court of a king who makes philosophers stand in his
presence." Curiously enough the story is also told in the Masalak-
al-Absdr, of which extracts have been translated by Quatremere.
According to that work, Burhan-uddin of Sagharj was Shaikh of
Samarkand, and Sultan Mahomed of Delhi, hearing much of his
fame, sent him 40,000 tankahs (we here see corroboration that the
Indian dinar of Ibn Batuta is the tankah of other authors) with
an invitation to his court. The messenger on his arrival at
Samarkand found the Shaikh had set out for China, so he gave
the money to a young slave-girl of his, desiring her to let her
master know that his presence was greatly desired by the King
of Delhi (Notices et Extraits, xiii, 196). [Schefer, 'i.e., p. 24,
translates Sadri Djihan, "Supreme Judge of the World."]
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 139
are called Atdbek. The proper name of this sultan is
Pdshdi, and there is not among the infidels on the whole
face of the earth so great an empire as his1.
The palace of the monarch is situated in the middle
of the city appropriated to his residence. It is almost
entirely constructed of carved wood, and is admirably
laid out. It has seven gates. At the first gate sits the
Kotwdl2, who is the chief of the porters, whilst elevated
platforms right and left of the gate are occupied by the
pages called Pardaddriyah (curtain-keepers), who are the
warders of the palace gates. These were 500 in number,
and I was told that they used to be 1000. At the second
gate are stationed the Sipdhis, or archers, to the number
of 500; and at the third gate are the Nizahdars, or
spearmen, also 500 in number. At the fourth gate are
the Teghddriyah (sabre-men), men with sabre and shield.
At the fifth gate are the offices of the ministerial depart-
ments, and these are furnished with numerous platforms3.
On the principal one of these sits the wazir, mounted on
an enormous sofa, and this is called the Masnad. Before
1 Atdbek was the title borne by various powerful Amirs at
the court of the Seljukidae, which they retained after becoming
independent in different provinces of Irak, Azerbaijan, etc. The
title is said to mean "The Prince's Father." It was also held at
the Court of Delhi under the translated form Khan Baba (Elph.
Hist, of India, ii, 216) . Ibn Batuta had visited one of the Atabeks,
Afrasiab, in Luristan, on his way from Baghdad to Ispahan. By
Pdshdi, I suspect he only means the Persian Padshah. The real
name of the emperor at this time was Togon Timur, surnamed
Ukhagatu, called by the Chinese Shun Ti.
2 ["Les emplois des fonctionnaires etaient designes par des
mots persans. Le gouverneur est designe par le mot Koutoual ; les
huissiers etaient appeles Perdehdarieh, les archers, Sipahieh,
les gens armes de lances, Nizdhdarieh, et les porte-glaives Tigh-
darieh." (Schefer, I.e., p. 24.)]
3 The word is Saqifah, which is defined in the dictionary
Locus discubitorius ad instar latioris scamni constructus ante cedes,
and translated in the French Estrade. I suppose it here to
represent an open elevated shed or pavilion, such as appears to
be much affected in the courts of Chinese and Indo-Chinese
palaces.
140 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
the wazir is a great writing-table of gold. Opposite is
the platform of the private secretary; to the right of it
is that of the secretaries for despatches, and to the right
of the wazir is that of the clerks of the finances.
These four platforms have four others facing them.
One is called the office of control; the second is that of
the office of Mustakhraj, or "Produce of Extortion," the
chief of which is one of the principal grandees. They
call Mustakhraj the balances due by collectors and other
officials, and by the amirs from the claims upon their
fiefs. The third is the office of appeals for redress, where
one of the great officers of state sits, assisted by secretaries
and counsel learned in the law. Anyone who has been
the victim of injustice addresses himself to them for aid
and protection. The fourth is the office of the posts,
and there the head of the news department has his seat1.
At the sixth gate of the palace is stationed the king's
body guard, with its chief commandant. The eunuchs
are at the seventh gate. They have three platforms, the
first of which is for the Abyssinians, the second for the
Hindus, the third for the Chinese. Each of these three
classes has a chief, who is a Chinese.
When we arrived at the capital Khanbaliq, we found
that the Kan was absent, for he had gone forth to fight
Firuz, the son of his uncle, who had raised a revolt against
him in the territory of KARAKORUM and BISHBALIQ, in
Cathay2. To reach those places from the capital there
1 In the whole of this description, with its Persian techni-
calities, it is pretty clear that Ibn Batuta is drawing either on his
imagination, or (more probably) on his recollections of the Court
of Delhi, and hence we have the strongest ground for suspecting
that he never entered the palace of Peking, if indeed he ever saw
that city at all. In iii, 295, he has told us of an office at the Court
of Delhi which bore the name of Mustakhraj, the business of which
was to extort unpaid balances by bastinado and other tortures.
2 Karakorum, the chief place successively of the Khans of
Kerait, and of the Mongol Khans till Kublai established his
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 14!
is a distance to be passed of three months' march from the
capital through a cultivated country. I was informed
by the Sadr-ul-Jihan, Burhan-uddin of Sagharj, that when
the Kan assembled his troops, and called the array of his
forces together, there were with him one hundred divisions
of horse, each composed of 10,000 men, the chief of whom
was called Amir Tumdn or lord of ten thousand1. Besides
these the immediate followers of the sultan and his house-
hold furnished 50,000 more cavalry. The infantry
consisted of 500,000 men. When the emperor had
marched, most of the amirs revolted, and agreed to depose
residence in China. [See long note Marco Polo, i, p. 227.]
Bishbdliq (i.e. " Pentapolis ") lay between Karakorum and Almaliq ;
and had in ancient times been the chief seat of the Uighur nation.
It is now, according to Klaproth, represented by Urumtsi.
[Klaproth in his dissertation on the Determination de I' emplacement
de Bishbalik (Mem. relatifs a I'Asie, ii, pp. 355-63) identified
Bishbaliq with Pei t'ing of the T'ang period and Urumtsi, and
his theory has been accepted since by all the Orientalists. M. Cha-
vannes (Tou-kiue occidentaux, p. n, note) shows from the Si-yu
shut tao ki that Pei t'ing is but Kin-man. Kin-man which was
according to the Kiu T'ang shu during the After Han the Posterior
Royal Court (of the kingdom) of Kiu shi included five towns and
its usual name was Wu ch'eng che ti which from a slab found there
was 20 li N. of Pan hwei tien (or Tsi mu sa), viz., 90 li S.W. of
Guchen ; on the site of the ancient sub-prefecture of Kin-man is
the place called Hu pao tze. Pei t'ing or Kin-man is not on the
road from Turfan to Urumtsi by the Daban shan Pass, but on
a more eastern road which runs from Turfan up to (near) Guchen.
Bishbaliq (Five towns) = Pei t'ing = Kin-man = Hu pao tze,
about 20 li N. of actual Pao hwei tien; thus it is not Urumtsi. —
" Grum Grzimailo (Opisanie puteshestv'ya v Zapadnij Kitai, i,
221-2) was the first (in 1896) to express the opinion that the town
(of Bishbaliq) was more to the east (than Urumtsi) and situated on
or near the site of the present Guchen ; in the second vol. of the same
work (1899, pp. 42-3) this opinion was more strongly supported
by a reference to the work Meng-ku-yu-mu-ki translated in 1895
by Popov. . . . ; in 1908 Dolbezev found that in the region indicated
by the Chinese (near the village Hu pao tze, about 10 kilom. N_
of the town of Tsi-mu-sa) were indeed ruins (called to-day P'o
chong tze) of a rather important town (4 kilom. pour tour). . .it
was during the seventh century that the Chinese names Kin-man
and Pei t'ing appeared .... During the thirteenth century Bishbaliq
was then near Kara Khodja (Turfan), capital of a uighiir prince
with the title of Idiqut and a vassal of the Gurkhan of the Kara
Khitai." Encycl. de I' I slam, W. Barthold, s.v. Bishbalik.']
1 Tuman. See supra, in, p. 199.
142 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
him, for he had violated the laws of the Yasdk, that is to
say, of the code established by their ancestor Tankiz
Khan, who ravaged the lands of Islam1. They deserted
io the camp of the emperor's cousin who was in rebellion,
and wrote to the Kan to abdicate and be content to
retain the city of Khansa for his apanage. The Kan
refused, engaged them in battle, and was defeated and
slain2.
This news was received a few days after our arrival
at the capital. The city upon this was decked out, and
the people went about beating drums and blowing
trumpets and horns, and gave themselves over to games
and amusements for a whole month. The Kan's body
was then brought in with those of about a hundred more
of his cousins, kinsfolk, and favourites who had fallen.
After digging for the Kan a great Ndwus or crypt3, they
spread it with splendid carpets, and laid therein the Kan
with his arms. They put in also the whole of the gold
and silver plate belonging to the palace, with four of the
Kan's young slave girls, and six of his chief pages holding
in their hands vessels full of drink. They then built up the
1 The Yasa or ordinances which Chinghiz laid down for the
guidance of his successors may be seen more or less in Petis de la
Croix, D'Ohsson, Deguignes, in V. Hammer's Golden Horde, and
in Univers Pittoresque (Tartarie, p. 313). The word is said to
mean any kind of ordinance or regulation. Baber tells us in his
Autobiography: "My forefathers and family had always sacredly
observed the Rules of Chinghiz. In their parties, in their courts,
their festivals, and their entertainments, in their sitting down,
and in their rising up, they never acted contrary to the Institutions
of Chinghiz" (p. 202).
2 The Emperor Togon Timur or Shun Ti, who was on the throne
at the time of Ibn Batuta's visit (1347), had succeeded in 1333,
and continued to reign till his expulsion by the Chinese and the
fall of his dynasty in 1368. Nor can I find in Deguignes or De
Mailla the least indication of any circumstance occurring about
this time that could have been made the foundation of such a
story.
3 Defremery says from the Gr. vaos. Meninski gives Ndwus
(or Ndus). " Coemeterium, vel delubrum magorum."
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 143
door of the crypt and piled earth on the top of it till it
was like a high hill. After this they brought four horses
and made them run races round the emperor's sepulchre
until they could not stir a foot; they next set up close
to it a great mast, to which they suspended those horses
after driving a wooden stake right through their bodies
irom tail to mouth. The Kan's kinsfolk also, mentioned
above, were placed in subterranean cells, each with his
arms and the plate belonging to his house. Adjoining
the tombs of the principal men among them to the number
of ten they set up empaled horses, three to each, and
beside the remaining tombs they impaled one horse
a-piece1.
1 This appears to be a very correct account of Tartar funeral
ceremonies, though Ibn Batuta certainly did not witness those of
a defunct emperor. As far back as the days of Herodotus we are
told that the Scythians used to bury with their king one of his
concubines, his cup-bearer, a cook, groom, lacquey, messenger,
several horses, etc., and a year later further ceremonial took
place, when fifty selected from his attendants were strangled,
and fifty of his finest horses also slain. The bowels were. taken
out and replaced with chaff. A number of posts were then erected
in sets of two pairs each, and on every pair the half felly of a wheel
was set arch-wise; "then strong stakes are run lengthwise
through the bodies of the horses from tail to neck, and they are
mounted on the fellies so that the felly in front supports the
shoulders of the horse while that behind sustains the belly and
quarters, the legs dangling in mid air; each horse is furnished
with a bit and bridle," etc. The fifty strangled slaves were then
set astride on the horses, and so on.
When one Valentine was sent on a mission to the Turkish
chiefs by the Emperor Tiberius II about 580, it is related that he
witnessed a ceremonial at the tomb of a deceased chief when
Hun prisoners and horses were sacrificed.
Hue and Gabet assert that like practices are maintained
among Tartar tribes to the present day, large amounts of gold
and silver, and many slaves of both sexes, being buried with the
royal body, the slaves being killed by being made to swallow
mercury till choked, which is believed to preserve their colour !
But the most exact corroboration of Ibn Batuta's account is
to be found in the (almost) contemporary narrative of Ricold of
Monte Croce. After speaking of the general practice of burying
food and raiment with the dead, he goes on : " Magni etiam barbnes
omnibus hiis addunt equum bonum. Nam armiger ejus ascendit
equum, cum ipsi parant se ad sepeliendum mortuum, et fatigat
equum currendo et revolvendo usque ad lassitudinem, et postea
lavit equo caput cum vino puro et forti, et equus cadit, et ipse
144 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
It was a great day! Every soul was there, man and
woman, Musulman and infidel. All were dressed in
mourning, that is, the Pagans wore short white dresses,
and the Musulmans long white dresses. The Kan's
ladies and favourites remained in tents near the tomb
for forty days ; some remained longer ; some a full year.
A bazaar had been established in the neighbourhood,
where all necessary provisions, etc., were for sale. I know
no other nation in our time that keeps up such practices.
The pagans of India and China burn their dead; other
nations bury them, but none of them thus bury the living
with the dead. However honest people in Sudan have
told me that the pagans of that country, when their king
dies, dig a great pit, into which they put with him several
of his favourites and servants together with thirty persons
of both sexes, selected from the families of the great men
of the state. They take care first to break the arms and
legs of these victims, and they also put vessels full of drink
into the pit.
An eminent person of the tribe of Masufah, living
among the Negroes in the country of Kiiber1, who was
much held in honour by their king, told me that when
the king died they wished to put a son of his own into
the tomb with some other children belonging to the
country. "But I said to them," continued this eminent
exenterat eum, et evacuat omnia de ventre equi, et implet
herba viridi, et postea infigit palum magnum per posteriora,
et facit palum exire usque ad os, et ita dimittit equum impalatum,
et suspendit eum et mandat ei, quod sit paratus, quandocumque
vult dominus surgere, et tune cooperiunt mortuum in sepultura.
Cum vero moritur imperator, adduntur praedictis omnes lapides
preciosi et etiam magni thesauri. Et consueverunt etiam
sepelire cum domino mortuo usque viginti servos vivos, ut essent
parati servire domino, cum voluerit surgere." Such proceedings
took place at the burial of Hulaku.
(Rawlinson's Herodotus, bk. iv, c. 71-2, and notes; Deguignes,
ii, 395-6; Peregrin. Quatuor, p. 117; see also M. Polo, ii, 54;
Rubruquis, p. 337; and Piano Carpini, p. 629.)
1 I suppose the Gober of Dr. Earth's map, near Sakatu.
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 145
person, "how can you do this, seeing the boy is neither
of your religion nor of your country? And so I was
allowed to ransom him with a large sum of money."
When the Kan was dead, as I have related, and
Firuz, the son of his uncle, had usurped the supreme
power, the latter chose for his capital the city of KARA-
KORUM, because it was nearer to the territories of his
cousins, the kings of Turkestan and Ma-wara-n-Nahr1.
Then several of the amirs who had taken no part in the
slaughter of the late Kan revolted against the new prince ;
they began to cut off the communications, and there
was great disorder.
Revolt having thus broken out, and civil war having
been kindled, the Shaikh Burhan-uddin and others advised
me to return to (Southern) China before the disturbances
should have arisen to a greater pitch. They went with
me to the lieutenant of the Emperor Firuz, who sent
three of his followers to escort me, and wrote orders
that I should be everywhere received as a guest. So we
descended the river to Khansa, Kanjanfu and Zaitun.
When we reached the latter place, I found junks on the
point of sailing for India, and among these was one belong-
ing to Malik-ul-Zahir, Sultan of Java (Sumatra), which
had a Mahomedan crew. The agent of the ship recognised
me, and was pleased to see me again. We had a fair
wind for ten days, but as we got near the land of Tawalisi
it changed, the sky became black, and heavy rain fell.
For ten days we never saw the sun, and then we entered
on an unknown sea. The sailors were in great alarm,
and wanted to return to China, but this was not possible.
In this way we passed forty-two days, without knowing
in what waters we were.
1 Here two Mongol dynasties reigning in Central Asia seem
to be spoken of (see in, p. 132, supra, and note at the end of this,
p. 1 60).
c. Y. c. iv. 10
146 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
On the forty-third morning after daybreak we descried
a mountain in the sea, some twenty miles off, and the wind
was carrying us straight for it. The sailors were surprised
and said : " We are far from the mainland, and in this sea
no mountain is known. If the wind drives us on this
one we are done for." Then every one betook himself to
humiliation and repentance, and renewal of good resolu-
tions. We addressed ourselves to God in prayer, and
sought the mediation of the prophet (upon whom be
peace!).
The merchants vowed to bestow alms in abundance,
and I wrote their vows all down in a list with my own
hand. The wind lulled a little, and when the sun rose
we saw the mountain aloft in the air, and the clear sky
between it and the sea1. We were in astonishment at
this, and I observed that the sailors were weeping and
bidding each other adieu, so I called out: "What is the
matter? " They replied : " What we took for a mountain
is the Rukh ! If it sees us it will send us to destruction."
It was then some ten miles from the junk. But God
Almighty was gracious unto us, and sent us a fair wind,
1 Such an appearance is a well known effect of mirage, or
abnormal refraction. As to the Rukh see Mr. Major's Introduction
to India in the i?jth century, p. xxxvi seq., and a learned discourse
in Ludolf's Comment, on his own Historia Ethiopica, pp. 163—4;
also a cut from a Persian drawing in Lane's Arabian Nights, ii, 90.
The most appropriate reference here however is perhaps to
Pigafetta, who was told (possibly by descendants of Ibn Batuta's
Malay crew) that in the sea of China sotto Giava maggiore there
was a very great tree called Campangunghi, in which dwelt the
birds called garuda, which were so big that they could fly away
with a buffalo, or even with an elephant. No ship could approach
the place within several leagues, on account of the vortices, etc.
(Primo Viaggio intorno del Mondo, p. 174). Garuda is a term
from the Hindu mythology for the great bird that carries Vishnu ;
its use among the Malays is a relic of their ancient religion, and
perhaps indicates the origin of the stories of the Rukh. To an
island of the Indian Sea also Kazwini attributes a bird of such
enormous size, that, if dead, the half of its beak would serve for
a ship (Gildemeister, p. 220). [See long note in Marco Polo, ii,
pp. 415 seq.}
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 147
which turned us from the direction in which the Rukh
was ; so we did not see him (well enough) to take cogniz-
ance of his real shape.
Two months from that day we arrived at Java (Island
of Sumatra), and landed at (the city of) Sumatra. We
found the Sultan Malik-ul-Zahir had just returned from
one of his campaigns, and had brought in with him many
captives, out of whom he sent me two girls and two boys.
He put me up as usual, and I was present at the marriage
of his son to the daughter of his brother.
I witnessed the ceremony. I remarked that they had
set up in the middle of the palace yard a great seat of
state, covered with silk stuffs. The bride arrived,
coming from the inner apartments of the palace on foot,
and with her face exposed, so that the whole company
could see her, gentle and simple alike. However it is not
their usual custom to appear in public unveiled in this
way; it is only done in the marriage ceremony1. The
bride proceeded to the seat of state, the minstrels male
and female going before her, playing and singing. Then
came the bridegroom on a caparisoned elephant, which
carried on its back a sort of throne, surmounted by a
canopy like an umbrella. The bridegroom wore a crown
on his head ; right and left of him were about a hundred
young men, of royal and noble blood, clothed in white,
mounted on caparisoned horses, and wearing on their
1 I suspect this apologetic assertion is not founded on fact.
The Mahomedan proselytizers among the Malays and Indo-
Chinese races have never been able to introduce the habitual use
of the veil, and the custom of female seclusion. At Amarapura,
in 1855, the Mahomedan soldiers of our Indian escort were greatly
shocked at the absence of these proprieties among the Burmese
professors of their faith ; and at the court of the Sultan of Java,
in 1860, I had the honour of shaking hands with more than half
a dozen comely and veilless ladies, the wives and daughters of
His Majesty. I was told that at times they even honoured a
ball at the Dutch Residency with their presence.
148 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
heads caps adorned with gold and gems. They were of
the same age as the bridegroom, and all beardless.
From the time when the bridegroom entered, pieces
of gold and silver were scattered among the people. The
sultan was seated aloft where he could see all that passed.
His son got down from the elephant, went to kiss his
father's foot, and then mounted on the seat of state
beside his bride. They then brought pawn and betel-
nut; the bridegroom took them in his hand and put
them into the bride's mouth, and she did the same by
him'. Next he put a pawn-leaf first into his own mouth
and then into hers, and she did in like manner1. They
then put a veil over the bride, and removed the seat of
state into the interior of the palace, whilst the young
couple were still upon it ; the company took refreshments
and separated. Next day the sultan called the people
together, and named his son as his successor on the
throne. They took an oath of obedience to him, and the
future sovereign distributed numerous presents in money
and dresses.
I spent two months in this island of Java, and then
embarked again on a junk. The sultan presented me
with a quantity of aloes-wood, camphor, cloves, and
sandal- wood, and then gave me leave to depart. So I
sailed, and after forty days I arrived at Kaulam. Here
I put myself under the protection of Al-Kazwini, the
judge of the Mahomedans. It was the month of Ramazan,
and I was present at the festival of breaking the fast in
the chief mosque of the city. The custom of the people
there is to assemble on the eve of the feast at the mosque,
and to continue reciting the praises of God till morning,
1 This is a genuine Malay custom, marking the highest degree
of intimacy between the sexes. Dulaurier quotes several examples
in illustration from Malay poems.
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 149
and indeed till the moment when the prayer appropriate
to the feast begins. Then this prayer is offered, the
preacher pronounces a discourse, and the congregation
disperses.
From Kaulam I went to Calicut, where I remained
some days. I intended at first to return to Delhi, but on
second thoughts I had fears as to the consequences of
such a step. So I embarked again, and after a passage
of 28 days, I arrived at ZHAFAR1. This was in the month
of Moharram, of the year 48 (April or May, 1347) 2. I
1 Zhafdr or Dhafdr, one of the now decayed ports of Arabia,
on the coast of Hadhramaut. It is spoken of by Marco Polo as
a beautiful, large, and noble city (ii, p. 444), but probably from
report only. Ibn Batuta seems chiefly struck by the flies and
stench in the bazaar (ii, 196).
2 At p. 36 I have pointed out generally that this date is
inconsistent with previous statements. Let me sum up the
intervals assigned to the different sections of his expedition to
China :
Those previous statements would make the time of his second
visit to the Maldive Islands fall at least as late as August, 1346.
He is 43 days on the voyage thence to Chittagong, and 40 days
on that from Sonarganw to Sumatra. It is not stated how long
was the intervening time spent in Bengal, but he waited at
Sumatra a fortnight, "till the right season for the voyage to
China had arrived," and this must have been the termination of
the N.E. monsoon, about March, 1347; or the commencement of
the S.W. monsoon, a little later. The voyage to China occupies
times as follows: To Mul-Jawa 21 days, stay there 3; to the
Calm Sea 34, on that sea to Tawalisi 37, stay there say 3 ; to
Zaitun 1 7, total 115 days, and time of arrival about July or August.
The interval occupied by his journey in China may be thus
estimated : stay at Zaitun probably not less than 10 days, voyage
to Canton 27, stay there 14, back say 27, stay again at Zaitun
say 4 : journey to Kanjanfu 10, stay there 15 ; to Baiwam Kotlu
4, to Khansa 17, stay at Khansa at least 20; to Khanbaliq 64,
stay there not specified, but probably not less than 60 days :
voyage back to Zaitun say the same as before, omitting stoppages,
i.e. 95 days. This makes the whole time over which his travels
in China extended 367 days, and would bring the season of his
sailing for India again to July or August. His voyage as far as
Sumatra then occupies 112 days, he passes about 60 days there,
is 40 days in sailing to Kaulam, stops a while, say 15 days, at
Kaulam and Calicut, and reaches Zhafar in a voyage of 28, in all
255 days, which brings us to March or April, agreeing with the
time assigned in the text for his arrival at Dhafdr, but April in
1349, not April in 1347. The former date is, however, quite
inconsistent with that assigned for his arrival in his native
150 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
took up my quarters with the city preacher, 'Isa Ibn
Thatha.
country (November, 1349); nor would perhaps even April, 1348,
allow the traveller of those days to accomplish all that Ibn
Batuta did in the interval, especially as he gives several consistent
intermediate dates between his arrival at Dhafar and his reaching
Fez.
Without going into tedious details, I think it probable that
his visit to Bengal must, in spite of the data to the contrary, be
put one year back, viz., to the cold weather of 1345-6, and that
the time occupied in his Chinese travels, including the voyage
thither and back, must be cut down by a whole year also. This
may be considered in connexion with the doubts expressed as
to his having really visited Peking.
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 151
NOTE E. (SEE PAGE 86.)
ON THE KAMRU OF IBN BATUTA (THE RESIDENCE OF
THE SHAIKH JALAL-UDDfN), THE BLUE RIVER,
AND THE CITY OF HABANK.
It has, I believe, been generally assumed that the country of
Kamru visited by Ibn Batuta was Assam, and that the Blue River
by which he returned to the Ganges Delta was the Brahmaputra.
And I gather that M. Defremery (iv, 215) takes this view.
It appeared to me however when I took up the subject that there
was some reason to believe that the district visited was SILHET,
and that the river in question was one branch or other of the great
Silhet River, the Barak or the Surma. This was first suggested
by the statement in the text that Shaikh Jalal-uddin had converted
a large number of the inhabitants to the Mahomedan faith ; for
it is a fact that in Silhet, though so remote from the centres of
Mahomedan influence, there is an unusually large proportion of
the peasantry who profess that religion. It seemed however
probable that if Silhet were the site of Jalal-uddin's missionary
exertions, some trace of his memory would be preserved there.
And of this I speedily found indications in two English works,
whilst at the same time I forwarded through a valued friend,
who had a correspondent at Silhet, some brief queries for answer
on the spot.
In the interesting narrative of Robert Lindsay, who was one
of the first English residents or collectors of Silhet (Lives of the
Lindsays, iii, 168), we find that on his first arrival there he was
told " that it was customary for the new resident to pay his respects
to the shrine of the tutelar saint SHAW JULOLL. Pilgrims of the
Islam faith flock to the shrine from every part of India, and I
afterwards found that the fanatics attending the tomb were not a
little dangerous," etc. An article on Silhet, by Captain Fisher,
in the J.A.S. Bengal for 1840 (ix, Pt. n, pp. 808-43), also speaks
of Shah Jalal's shrine, and of his being traditionally regarded as
the conqueror of the country for the Mahomedans. ["The town
of Sylhet existed in the time of Akhbar, and as this is known to
date from the Mosque built over the tomb of Sha Gelaal, its
patron saint, who conquered it from a native Raja, we may
assume that the current tradition, which assigns its erection to
the middle of the thirteenth century, is correct." P. 840.]
152 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
Kamrub, Kamrun, or Kamru, corrupted from the Sanscrit
Kdmarupa or Kamrup, was vaguely known to the Arab geo-
graphers as the name of a mountainous country between India
and China, noted for its production of a valuable aloes-wood (see
Gildemeister, pp. 70, 191 ; and Reinaud, Rel. des Voyages, etc.,
p. 41). Though the seat of the ancient Hindu Government of
Kamrup was probably in Assam, a central district of which still
preserves the name, we are informed by Captain Fisher (with no
view to such a question as the present) that "it is known that
Kamrup extended to the southward as far as the confluence of
the Megna with the Brahmaputra" (i.e. to the vicinity of Dacca;
o.c., p. 829). He adds that there are still in Silhet some Musulman
families who are the descendants of Rajas once under the dynasty
of Kamrup, and who were forced to conform to Mahomedanism
on the change of masters. Of these, a principal one is the Raja
of Baniachong (a place between the Barak and Surma, about
forty miles S.W. of Silhet). The first invasion of Kamrup by
the Mahomedans took place in 1205-6 under Mahomed Bakhtiyar
Khilji, Governor of Bengal; a second in 1253-7 under another
Governor called Toghral Beg Malik Yuzbek (see Stewart's History
of Bengal, pp. 45 seqq.}. Both these invasions ended in disaster;
but, as far as can be understood, both appear to have been directed
through the Silhet territory, and then across the passes of the
Kasia or Jaintia Hills into Assam. In the accounts of both
invasions mention is made of a great river called Bangamali, on
which stood a chief city which was captured by Bakhtiyar Khilji.
This name is not now applied to any river in that quarter ; but it
seems highly probable that it may be connected with the Habank
(Habanga) of Ibn Batuta, and that this was situated at or near
Silhet, perhaps at the place now called BANGA, at the bifurcation
of the Surma and Barak, twenty or thirty miles above Silhet.
The Bangamati is described in the account of the Khilji's cam-
paign as "three times as big as the Ganges." But this might
easily be accounted for if (as is very possible) the rivers of Silhet
then chanced to occupy a more concentrated channel than at
present, or if (as Captain Fisher suggests) the annual inundation
had not quite subsided. This inundation, when at its height,
as I have seen it from the Kasia Hills, appears like a vast estuary,
covering the whole plain, eighty miles in width, between the
Kasia and the Tipura Hills.
So far I had written when the answer arrived from my friend's
correspondent, the Rev. W. Pryse of the Silhet mission. My
questions had related to Jalal-uddin and Habank, and whether any
traces of a city existed at Banga. Mr. Pryse states that the name
of Jalalludin Tabrizi was known to the learned Mahomedans at
Silhet only as that of a Pir or Saint in Hindustan, but not locally
either in Silhet or Cachar. He then proceeds :
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 153
"SHAH JELALL, according to tradition, came to Silhet about
the middle of the fourteenth century (A.D.) accompanied by a
hundred and eighty Arab Pirs [Holy Men] from Yemen. There
is a Persian MS. called ' Suhayli- Yemen ' still partly in existence
at Shah Jelall's Musjid here, which I have seen, but unfortunately
the date and a large portion of the MS. are not legible, from the
effect of the climate. Shah Jelall's tomb once was, but is not
now, a place of pilgrimage.
"HABAXG is the name of a small Tillah1 in the Pergunnah of
Dinarpore south of Hubbigunge in this Zillah, running along the
eastern or left bank of the Barak or Koosiara River. In tradition
it is noted for its Pirs, under the name of 'Habangia Tillah,'
or, as pronounced in the neighbourhood, 'Hapaniya Tillah'. . . .
"Chor Goola Tillah, to the south-east of Latoo, some ten or
twelve miles S.E. of Banga Bazar (which still exists just at the
separation of Soorma and Koosiara Rivers, on the western confines
•of Cachar), was formerly noted for its Pirs. An old fellow still
resides there in the midst of the jungles on the bank of the
beautiful Svind Bheel (lake). The illiterate Moslems around
have a tradition that the Pirs there make the tigers their playmates
and protectors, and that boats ready-manned start up from the
lake ready for their use whenever they wish.
"Banga Bazar is a modern village. The hillocks and jungles
to the eastward are the resort of the Pirs.
*********
" I think it probable that all the eastern portion of the Zillah
of Silhet was uninhabited when Mullik Yuzbek first entered the
valley in 1253. Hence we find that the Hindus preponderate in
the population of the western half, and the Moslems in that of
the eastern half."
A later note from the same gentleman adds: "I have found
four celebrated spots in this Zillah at which report says Shah
Jelall settled some of the Pirs who accompanied him, viz., Silhet,
Latoo, Hapaniya Tillah in Toroff, and HABANG Tillah on the
south-eastern bank of the Chingra Khal river, about six miles
north-west from Silhet, and about four miles north from the village
of Akhalia. At present nothing is to be found in any of these
places excepting Silhet, where there is a mosque kept in repair
by government. I believe the Habang Tillah on the Chingra
Khal must be the one Col. Y. spoke of."
These interesting notes appear to me to render it certain that
Silhet was the field of our traveller's tour. That Shaikh Jalal-ud-
din's name has got shortened by familiar use is of no importance
1 Tila is the word commonly applied in Eastern Bengal to low and
often isolated hills starting up from the plain. At the town of Silhet
there are several such, on which the houses of the European officials
are built.
154 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
against this view — Shah is a title often applied to eminent Mahome-
dan saints — whilst we learn that tradition still regards him as a
saint and a leader of saints ; that the date assigned to him corre-
sponds fairly with that derivable from Ibn Batuta, for the death
of Jalal-nddfn must have occurred close upon the middle of the
fourteenth century, shortly after Ibn Batuta's visit, i.e. in 1347 or
1348 (see supra, pp. 87, 90) ; and that the name of Habank still
survives, and has a legendary fame. If no remains of Ibn
Batuta's great city exist, that is small wonder. Neither climate
nor materials in Bengal are favourable to the preservation of such
remains, and I know of no medieval remains in Bengal Proper
except at Gaur and Pandua.
The name of Al-Azrak, which our author applies to the river
which he descends from Habank, is the same as that (Bahr-al-
Azrak) which we translate as the Blue Nile of Abyssinia. Ibn
Batuta applies the same name to the River Karun in Khuzistan
(ii, 23). A Persian title of like significance (Nil-Ab) is applied
by Musulman writers to the Indus, and also it would appear to
the Jelum (see Jour. A. S., ix, 201 ; Sadik Isfahani, p. 51 ; Dow's
Firishta, i. 25), and the name here may therefore have been
given arbitrarily. According to Wilkinson, however, Azrak
signifies black rather than blue (Rawlinson's Herod., ii, 25) ; and
it is possible that the name of the River Surma, suggesting the
black colly rium so called, may have originated the title used by
Ibn Batuta.
I doubt if water-wheels are at present used for irrigation, as
described by the traveller, in any part of Bengal Proper, though
common in the Upper Provinces.
I should strongly dissent from Mr. Pryse's idea that Eastern
Silhet was uninhabited in the I3th century. But I think it is
highly probable that the inhabitants were not Hindus, but of
Indo-Chinese race, like those occupying the adjoining hills and
part of Cachar. This is implied in Ibn Batuta's account of the
people, though in strictness he speaks only of the hill people.
These, however, in the adjoining mountains, have not been
converted to Mahomedanism. They retain their original
character, and have the Mongolian type of features in the highest
development. As regards their powers of work, of which the
traveller speaks so highly, I may observe that, when I was in
that region, porters of the Kasia nation used often to carry down
from the coal mines of Cherra Punji to the plains, a distance of
eleven miles, loads of two maunds or 165 Ibs. of coal. Their
strength and bulk of leg were such as I have never seen elsewhere.
On the map at the end of this book I have inserted a sketch
from such imperfect materials as are available, to make Ibn
Batuta's travels in Bengal more intelligible. No decent map of
Silhet yet exists, but my friend Colonel Thuillier informs me that
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 155
the survey is finished, so a correct representation of that remark-
able country may be expected before long. [Maps of the Silhet
District, etc., have since been published by the Government of
India.]
NOTE F. (SEE PAGE 96.)
ON THE MUL-JAVA OF IBN BATUTA.
This Mul-Java is made by all the commentators, professed or
incidental (see Lee, Dulaurier, Defremery, Gildemeister, Walck-
enaer, Reinaud, Lassen), to be the Island of Java1, and by help
of Sanscrit the appellation is made with more or less of coercion
to signify "Primitive or Original Java." Setting aside the
questionable application of Sanscrit etymologies to explain
names which were probably conferred by Arab sailors, surely it
is not hard to see that if by Mul-Java, where elephants were kept
by every petty shopkeeper, and eagle-wood was used to serve the
kitchen fires, the traveller did mean JAVA, then he lied so egregi-
ously that it is not worth considering what he meant. There are
no elephants in Java, except such few as are imported to swell
the state of the native princes — at present, perhaps, considerably
fewer than we could muster in England — and there is no eagle-
wood.
These circumstances taken alone would lead us to seek for the
country in question on some part of the Continent bordering the
Gulf of Siam, probably in or near Cambodia. There elephants
are still almost as common as Ibn Batuta represents them, and
the country is also, and has been for ages, the great source of
supply of aloes or eagle-wood. When formerly suggesting this
view (in a note on Jordanus, p. 33), I applied to a learned Arabic
scholar to know if there were no term like mul in that language
which might bear some such sense as Terra-firma. The answer
was unfavourable. But I have since lighted on a solution.
In vol. xxix of the Jour, of the R.G.S., p. 30, Capt. Burton mentions
that the Arabs having in latter times confined the name of
Zanjibar to the island and city now so called, they generally
distinguish the mainland as Bar-el-MoLi, or "Continent," in
opposition to Kisiwa "Island." And below he adds : "The word
Moli, commonly used in the corrupt Arabic of Zanjibar, will
1 [Lee remarks, Ibn Batuta, p. 201, about Mul-Java: "This is, no
doubt, the Java of our maps." Dulaurier, Journ. Asiat., i, 1847,
makes it "la Java du Commencement," "Java principale"; Kern,
"la primitive Djavua." V. der Lith, Merveilles de I'Inde, p. 238, writes
that Moul seems to be derived from the Sanscrit moula which means
beginning, origin, root, and that there is no reason to seek for this
Java outside of Sumatra.]
156 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
vainly be sought in the Dictionaries." Mul-Java then is Java
of the Main.
It is true that in the only other place where I have been able
to find this name used, a passage quoted by D'Ohsson from the
Mongol History in the Persian language, called Tarikh-i-Wassaf,
it is stated that in 1292 Kiiblai Khan conquered "the Island of
Mul-Java," which is described as lying in the direction of India,
and as having a length of 200 farsangs, and a breadth of 100.
It is added that the sovereign of this country, Sri Rama by name,
died on his way to pay homage to Kublai, but his son arrived,
and was well received, obtaining the confirmation of his govern-
ment on condition of rendering a tribute of gold and pearls
(D'Ohsson, ii, 465) 1. As regards the use of the word island here,
it is to be remembered that the Arabs used the word Jazirah also
for a peninsula, as we have already had occasion to observe.
Thus Abulfeda calls the Spanish Peninsula Jazirat-ul-Andalus,
and Ibn Jubair applies the plural Jazair to what we by a kind
of analogy call the Two Sicilies (Reinaud's Abulfeda, ii, 234;
Jour. Asiat., Jan., 1846, p. 224; see also Gildemeister, p. 59).
Let it be remembered also that the terms Jaiva, Jawi, with the
Arabs were applied not merely to the specific islands of Java and
Sumatra, but "to the whole Archipelago, its language, and
inhabitants" (Crawfurd's Diet, of I. Islands, p. 165). To what
region then would the full appellation Jazirah Mul Jdwa, or
"Peninsula of Java of the Main," apply so aptly as to what we
call the Malay Peninsula, which, I may observe, Crawfurd in all
his works on the Archipelago treats as essentially part of that
region ? And turning to the fragments of hazy history preserved
by the Malays, we find as one of the early kings over the Malay
or Javanese settlers in the peninsula, SRI RAMA Vikrama. The
reign of this king indeed, according to Lassen's interpretation of
the chronology, is placed 1301-14, some years too late for the
date in Wassaf, but the Malay dates are very uncertain (see Lassen,
iv, 542; and Crawfurd, o.c. 243). I have little doubt, then, that
the Peninsula was the Mul-Java of the two authors, though
possibly the extension of the name towards Siam and Cambodia
may not have been very exactly limited, for we know from
Barros that the king of Siam claimed sovereignty over the
Peninsula even to Singapore, and it may still have been in the
former quarter that Ibn Batuta landed. Even if this be not
admissible, I may remark that we know little now of the eastern
coast of the Peninsula or regarding the degree of civilisation to
which it may have attained in former days. The elephant,
however, abounds in its northern forests, and is still commonly
domesticated. The aloes-wood also is found there, though lower
1 [See The Expedition of the Mongols against Java in 1293 A.D., by
W. P. Groeneveldt. China Review, iv, pp. 246-54.]
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 157
in repute than that of Cambodia (see Crawfurd in vv. Elephant
and Agila).
[Van der Lith places Qaqola in Sumatra, north of the Battak
country (Merveilles de I'Inde, pp. 237-41). He says, p. 241,
that camphor is one of the products of Qaqola and of Sumatra;
it is not a product of Cambodia or Java; therefore one must
admit that Ibn Batuta saw aloes-wood at Qaqola imported from
the Khmer kingdom.]
["From the circumstance of his [Ibn Batuta] not mentioning
Fansiir we may deduce that his Kdkula is not Angkola (W.
Sumatra), as Van der Lith has wildly conjectured. Had Ibn
Batuta been on the coast conterminous to the inland district of
Angkola, he could scarcely have omitted to speak of Barus,
which lies close by. Nor is it likely that Mul-Jawah, the country
where the port of Kdkula was situated, is Java, as has been no
less wildly fancied. All indications concur in pointing to places
on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula, with names ringing
like distant echoes of the Ptolemaic Koli (if not exactly Takola
or Kokkonagara) and Perimula (= [Peri-] Mulct- Java!). The
triple coincidence in the events of (i) stone walls surrounding
the city, (2) abundance of elephants, which are employed also in
warfare, and (3) scarcity of horses in the country, occurring in
almost the same words in the accounts of (i) Kakula by Ibn Batuta
and (ii) Ko-lo by Ma Twan-lin, seems to point to the unmistakable
identity of the two places, and therefore, confirm the location of
Kdkula on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula at either Kelantan
or Ligor." (Gerini, Researches on Ptolemy's Geog., p. 444 n.)]
At p. 96 I have quoted from Abulfeda a slight indication of
the position of Kumara, which Ibn Batuta represents to have
been a city belonging to Mul-Java, as at the northern end of
the Malay Peninsula. It may however have been on the other
side of the Gulf of Siam, and in that case it is possible that the
name may be connected with Khmer, the ancient native name
of the kingdom of Cambodia (see Pallegoix, Des. du Royaume
Thai on Siam, i. 29, and Mouhot's Travels, i, 278).
NOTE G. (SEE PAGE 108.)
OX THE TAWALISI OF IBN BATUTA.
This Tawdlisi is a great difficulty. The French translators
say: "The Isle of Celebes, or rather perhaps Tunkin "; Dulaurier,
"The coast of Camboja, Cochin-China, or Tunkin"; Lassen, "By
this name no place can be meant but Tonkin " ; whilst Walckenaer
identifies it with Tawal, a small island adjoining Bachian, one of
158 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
the Moluccas. This last suggestion seems to have been based on
the name only, and all have been made in connexion with the
assumption that the Mul-Jawa of our author is Java, which we
have seen that it cannot be.
It seems to me impossible that Tawalisi should be Cambodia,
Cochin-China, or long-King, for two conclusive reasons: (i) that
the voyage from Mul-Jawa to Tawalisi occupies seventy -one
days, and is considered by our traveller's shipmates an unusually
good passage ; (2) that the last thirty-seven days of this time are
spent on the passage of the Bahr-al-Kdhil, disturbed by neither
winds nor waves, a character which in this case we should have
to attach to the China Sea, ihe very metropolis of Typhoons.
But I do not find it easy to get beyond a negative. Indeed,
considering that Killa-Karai is the real name of a port in South
India, and that Urdujd is a name which our author in a former
part of his travels has assigned to one of the Queens of Mahomed
Uzbek Khan on the Volga, and has explained to mean in Turkish
"Born in the Camp," whilst the Lady of Tawalisi herself is made
to speak not only to the traveller but to her own servants a
mixture of Turkish and Persian, a faint suspicion rises that
Tawalisi is really to be looked for in that part of the atlas which
contains the Marine Surveys of the late Captain Gulliver.
Putting aside this suspicion, no suggestion seems on the whole
more probable than that Tawalisi was the kingdom of Soolo or
Siiluk, N.E. of Borneo. "Owing to some cause or other," says
Crawfurd, "there has sprung up in Soolo a civilisation and power
far exceeding those of the surrounding islanders. A superior
fertility of the soil, and better means of maintaining a numerous
and concentrated population, has probably been the main cause
of this superiority; but whatever be the cause, it has enabled
this people not only to maintain a paramount authority over the
whole Archipelago (i.e. the so-called Soolo Archipelago), but to
extend it to Palawan and to the northern coasts of Borneo and
islands adjacent to it." Adopting this view, we should have the
Bahr-al-Kdhil in the sea between Java, Borneo and Celebes,
where hurricanes are unknown, and stormy weather is rare.
And, the time mentioned by Ibn Batuta, if we suppose it occupied
in the voyage from the upper part of the Gulf of Siam through
the Java Sea and Straits of Macassar to Soolo, a distance of some
2200 nautical miles, over a great part of which the ship had to be
towed, would seem much less improbable than if the course were
to Cochin-China or Tong-King. The naval power of Tawalisi is one
of the most prominent features in the narrative, and the Soolo
people have been noted throughout the seas of the Archipelago
for the daring exploits of their piratical fleets from our earliest
acquaintance with those regions. It would seem also from Ibn
Batuta's expression, "the load of two elephants in rice," that
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 159
elephants were used in Tawalisi. Now the elephant is alleged
by Dalrymple to exist in Soolo, and though Crawfurd doubts the
fact, there seems no sufficient reason for his doubts. It is known,
moreover, to exist in the adjoining part of Borneo, which may
have belonged to Soolo then as it does now, and though not used
now it was found in a domesticated state at Brunei by Magellan's
party in 1521. These are the only portions of the Archipelago
east of Sumatra in which the elephant is known.
However, I by no means put forth this hypothesis with any
great confidence. The statement that the Sovereign was the
equal of the King of China would certainly be preposterous ; but
so it would in almost any conceivable identification of Tawalisi,
unless we take it for Japan. To this there are objections still
more serious.
I suspect this kingdom of Soolo, or Suluk, as the Malays call
it, may be also the Lohac of Marco Polo which has so much troubled
commentators (iii, 7). This was an extensive region, lying 500
miles south-east of Sondur and Condur (Pulo Condore), inhabited
by pagans, with a language of their own, under a king tributary
to no one, being in a very inaccessible position, producing much
brazil-wood and great abundance of geld, having elephants in its
forests, and supplying all the east with porcelains or cowry-shells
for currency. The position answers to that of Soolo with fail-
accuracy; cowries are said to be found in quantities there only
of all the Indian islands ; the elephant, as we have seen, is reported
to exist there, and certainly does exist in the adjoining territory
of Borneo, belonging to Soolo; its "much gold" is spoken of by
Barbosa. Pauthier, indeed, in his new edition of Polo from
ancient French MSS. reads Soucat instead of Lohac, and identifies
it with Sukadana, on the S.W. of Borneo. But neither elephants
nor cowries appear to be found in that part of Borneo ; and as the
native name of Soolo is Sug, that may have been the name
indicated, if Soucat be the right reading. Let me add, however,
that Soolo is said to have been at one time subject to Sukadana,
and this circumstance might perhaps help to reconcile Pauthier's
suggestion with the facts.
Confining ourselves to the indications afforded by the names
as given by Ibn Batuta, besides the Tawal of Walckenaer we have
(as noticed at p. 90) a place marked as Talysian, on the east coast
of Borneo, and one of the chief Soolo islands called Tawi-tawi.
As regards Kailukari, the Atlas of Mercator and Hondius shows
on the west coast of Celebes a place called Curi-curi, which may
perhaps be the same that we now find as Kaili, a district carrying
on a good deal of trade with Singapore, Java, etc. There is also
a place called Kalakah, on the north-eastern coast of Borneo.
The port of Tawalisi is called Kailuka in Lee's version, but no
importance can be attached to this. (See Crawfurd's Diet. Ind.
l6o TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
Islands, Articles, Soolo, Elephant, Kaili, Cowry ; ditto Malay Diet.
p. 72; Pauthier's Polo, p. 563.) [Marco Polo, ii, pp. 277-80.]
We should not omit to call attention to a certain resemblance
between the Tawdlisi of our author and the Thalamasin of Odoric.
[G. J. Dozy, quoted by Van der Lith, p. 245 n., is of opinion that
the Tawalisi of Ibn Batuta must be looked for in the Philippine
Islands.]
NOTE H. (SEE PAGE 145.)
REGARDING THE HISTORY OF THE KHANS OF
CHAGATAI.
In this passage Ibn Batuta appears to speak of Turkestan
and Ma-wara-n-Nahr as separate kingdoms. Whether he SO'
intends or not it is the case that the CHAGATAI or Middle Empire
of the Mongols was by this time divided ; and as I know no book
that contains a coherent sketch of the course of events in that
empire, I will here put together what I have gathered from such
scattered sources as are accessible1.
The tract assigned by Chinghiz, in the distribution of his
provinces, to his son Chagatai, embraced Ma-wara-n-Nahr [or
Transoxiana] and part of Khwarizm, the Uighur country, Kashgar,
Badakhshan, Balkh, and the province of Ghazni to the banks of the
Sindh2; or in modern geography, the kingdoms of Independent
Tartary with the exception of Khiva or the greater part of it_
the country under the Uzbeks of Kunduz, Afghanistan, and the
western and northern portions of Chinese Turkestan, including
Dzungaria. Bishbaliq, north- of the T'ien Shan, was at first the
headquarters of the Khans, but it was afterwards transferred to
Almaliq3.
1 [The following work gives the history then wanted : The Tarikh-
i-Rashidi of Mirza Muhammad Haidar, Dughldt. A History of the
Moghuls of Central A sia. An English version, edited, with Commentary,.
Notes, and Map, by N. Elias. The translation by E. Denison Ross.
London, Sampson Low, 1895, 8vo. pp. xxiii + 535.]
2 Defremery's Extracts from Khondemir in Journal Asiatique, ser..
iv, torn, xix, pp. 58 seqq. [Chagatai's "central kingdom, Mavara-un-
Nahr, or Transoxiana, was situated chiefly between the rivers Sir and
Amu (the Jihun or Oxus), but included, in its extension towards the
north-east, the hill ranges and steppes lying beyond the right bank
of the Sir, east of the Kipchak plains, and west of lakes Issigh-Kul
and Ala-Nor. Towards the east, the Chagatai domain took in the
greater part of the region now known as Chinese (or Eastern) Turkestan,
Farghana (or Khokand) and Badakhshan; while towards the south
it embraced Kunduz, Balkh, and, at the outset, Khorasan — a country
which, at that time, spread eastward to beyond Herat and Ghazni,.
and southward to Mekran." (Tarikh-i-Rashidi, Int. p. 30.!
3 As early as the time of Chagatai himself, however, his summer
camp was in the vicinity of Almaliq. And when Hulaku was on the
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO
161
In the space of about one hundred and twenty years no less
than thirty descendants or kinsmen of Chagatai are counted to
have occupied his throne, and indeed revolutions, depositions,
murders, and usurpations seem to have succeeded each other
with a frequency unusual even in Asiatic governments1.
march from Karakonim to destroy the Assassins (A.D. 1254) the Princess
Regent Organah, widow of Kara Hulaku grandson and successor of
Chagatai, came out from Almaliq to receive him with due honour.
Hence it would appear that Almaliq was one at least of the capitals
from a very early date. In the following century, about 1330-4, we
find Ibn Batuta observing that it was the proper capital of the kings
of this dynasty, and that one of the charges brought against the Khan
Tarmashirin, which led to his supersession, was that he always remained
in Ma-wara-n-Nahr, and for four years running had not visited Almaliq
and the eastern dominions of his family. In the time of the immediate
successors of Tarmashirin also, when Almaliq was visited by the Arch-
bishop Nicolas [of Khanbaliq] (about 1335-6), and by Marignolli (1341),
it appears to have been the residence of the sovereigns of Chagatai
(Quatremere's Rashid., p. 146; Ibn Bat., iii, 41 ; supra, in, pp. 13, 213).
["Another famous town was Almaligh, which is known at the
present day. The tomb of Tughluk Timur Khan is there, together
with [other] traces of the city's prosperity. The dome of the Khan's
tomb is remarkable, being lofty and decorated; while on the plaster,
inscriptions are written .... As far as I can recollect the date inscribed
on that dome was seven hundred and sixty and odd." (Tarikh-i-
Rashidi, p. 364.) Tughluk Timur died about 764 A.H. =1363 A.D.]
It was during the government of the above-mentioned Organah
that Rubruquis passed through the country, and probably what he
states of the region being called Organum originated in some misappre-
hension of this (see Rubr., p. 281).
1 See for example at in, p. 35, supra, where some obscure points in
the chronology of those kings have already been discussed. [Here is a
list of the princes of Ma-wara-n-Nahr from Mr. Stanley Lane Poole's
Muhammadan Dynasties (p. 242) and reproduced in the Introduction
of the Tarikh-i-Rashidi, p. 49 :
1. Chaghatai
2. Kara Hulaku
3. Isu Mangu .
Kara Hulaku (restored)
4. Organah Khatun .
5- Algu
6. Mubarak Shah
7. Barak Khan.
8. Nikpai
9. Tuka Timur
10. Dava Khan .
11. Kunjuk Khan
12. Taliku
13. Kabak Khan
14. Isan Bugha .
Kabak Khari (restored)
15. Ilchikadi
16. Dava Timur
17. Tarmashirin
Sanj ar ?
1 8. Jinkishai
19. Buzun
C. Y. C. IV.
A.H.
A.D.
gan to reign 624 =
1227
• 639 =
1242
• 645 =
1247
. 650 =
1252
. 650 =
1252
. • 659 =
I26l
. 664 =
1266
. 664 =
1266
. 668 =
1270
670 =
1272
.c. 672 =
c. 1274
706 =
1306
. 708 =
I308
• 7°9 =
1309
• . 709 =
1309
.c. 718 =
I3l8
. 721 =
1321
. 721 =
1321
722 =
1322
• 730-4 ?
= 1330-4?
• 734 =
1334
•c. 735 =
c. 1335
II
l62 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
At an early date however in the history of the dynasty, the
claims of Kaidu to the Supreme Kaanship, of which Kiiblai had
effective possession, seem to have led to a partition of the Chagatai
territory. For Kaidu, who was of the lineage of Okkodai1, not
of Chagatai, whilst claiming in the higher character of Supreme
Khakan to exercise superiority over the appanage of Chagatai and
to nominate its proper khans, held also under his own immediate
sway a large tract, the greater part of which belonged apparently
to the former appanage as originally constituted. It is not very
clear what were the limits between Kaidu's territory and that of
the Chagatai Khans, and indeed the two must have been some-
what interlocked, for Kaidu and Borak Khan of Chagatai at one
time exercised a sort of joint sovereignty in the cities of Bokhara
and Samarkand. But it may be gathered that Kaidu's dominions
included Kashgar and Yarkand, and all the cities bordering the
south side of the T'ien Shan as far east as Karakhoja, as well as
the valley of the Talas river, and all the country north of the
T'ien Shan from Lake Balkash eastward to the Chagan Nur, and
in the further north between the Upper Yenisei and the Irtish2.
Khotan appears to have belonged to the Great Kaan, but Borak
Kaan got possession of it in the beginning of his reign, and I do
not know if it was recovered by Kublai3, or if it passed into the
hands of Kaidu.
During a great part of Kaidu's struggles he found a staunch
ally in Dua the son of Borak, whom he had set upon the throne
of Chagatai in 1272*. After Kaidu's death in 1301, his son and
successor Shabar joined with Dua in making submission to Timur
the successor of Kublai ; but before long, the two former princes
having quarrelled, Dua seized the territory of Shabar, and thus
A.H. A.D.
20. Isun Timur . . . Began to reign c. 739 = c. 1339
All (of Oktai stock) . . . .c. 741= c. 1340
21. Muhammad ..... .c. 743= c. 1342
22. Kazan 744= *343
Danishmanja (of Oktai stock) . . 747 = 1346
23. Buyan Kuh ...... 749= 1348
— 760 — 1358
Anarchy and rival chiefs until the supremacy of Timur in 771 A.H. =
1370 A.D.]
1 He was son of Kashin, son of Okkodai.
2 See D'Ohsson, ii, 361, 450-2, 516; iii, 427; Notices et Extraits,
xiv, 224; Polo in Pauthier's ed. and notes, pp. 137, 163, 241, 253,
716 et seqq., also the version of a Chinese sketch of Asia under the
Mongols on the Map at the end of that work. Khondemir appears to
have written the History of Kaidu, which would I presume throw
exacter light upon the limits of his dominions. But this does not seem
to have been translated (see Defremery, op. cit. p. 267, and Marco
Polo, ii, pp. 457 seq.).
3 Defremery, op. cit. p. 250. Marco says of Khotan, " Us sont au
grand Kaan" (Pauthier, 143).
4 So D'Ohsson. Khondemir puts Dua's accession in 1291, but notices
that other accounts gave a different statement (Defremery, p. 265).
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 163
substantially reunited the whole of the original appanage of
Chagatai, as it had been before the schism of Kaidu1.
This state of things does not appear- however to have endured
long ; for within a few years a new schism took place, of which the
history is very obscure.
The people of Eastern Turkestan and the other regions in
that direction which had been subject to Kaidu, probably preferred
to be under a separate rule from that of Transoxiana; for we
are told by Abulghazi2 that the people of Kashgar and Yarkand,
the inhabitants of the Alatagh and the "Uighurs, "finding none
of the posterity of Chagatai (qu. Okkodai?) among them to fill
the vacant throne," called to be their Khan Imil Khwaja the
son of Dua Khan3. This prince was succeeded in 1347 by his
son Tughlak Timur. Thus was established a new Eastern branch
of the Chagatai dynasty.
The kingdom so formed was that which is known to the Persian
historians of Timur and his successors as Moghulistan (not to be
confounded with the true Mongolia to the eastward), or the Ulus
of Jatah (or in French spelling Djeteh, the Gete country of Petis
de la Croix). Their winter capital was perhaps originally at
Kashgar or Yarkand, and afterwards at Aqsu, and their summer
quarters north of the T'ien Shan4. In the history of Timur who
took the royal residence in 1389 it is called AYMUL GujA5. This
is perhaps the Imil, on the banks of the river so called flowing
into Lake Ala-Kul, which was the original capital of the K'itan
refugees who founded the empire of Kara K'itai (supra, in, p. 21),
and which John de Piano Carpini on his journey to the court of
Kuyuk Khan names as Omyl. It is perhaps represented at the
present day, as D'Avezac suggests, by the Chinese frontier town
of Chuguchak or Tarbagatai6. It is difficult however to under-
1 D'Ohsson, ii, 518 seq.
2 Cited in the Universal History (Fr. Trans.), torn, xvii, 619 seqq.
Deguignes, i, 289.
3 As the history is given by Abul Ghazi, this Imil Khwaja is identical
with that son of Dua who succeeded to the throne of Chagatai under the
name of Isanbuga Khan in 1309; and the story as told would seem to
imply that he gave up reigning in Transoxiana to reign in Eastern
Turkestan. If this be true, the establishment of this schism must have
occurred some time before 1321, as Gabak or Kapak, the successor of
Isanbuga on the throne of Chagatai, died in that year, the date of his
accession not being recorded. According to Khondemir, however,
Isanbuga reigned over Chagatai till his death, and Imil Khwaja would
seem to be a brother (see Defremery, pp. 270 and 280).
4 See Russians in Central Asia, p. 69.
5 In H. de Timur Bee by Petis de la Croix, vol. ii; also in the Univ.
Hist, as above, p. 622 seqq.
6 D'Avezac, Not. sur les anciens Voyages en Tartarie, etc., in Rec.
de Voyages, iv, 516. The capital of Kara K'itai when at the height
of its power was Bala Sagun. I cannot ascertain the proper position
of this ; but it was, I believe, different from Imil, and lay between
Bishbaliq and Karakonim. [JBalasaghoun. Dr. Bretschneider (Med.
164 TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA,
stand such a disposition of the frontier between the two branches
of the Chagatai empire as should have permitted the capital of
that one which ruled over Kashgar and Uighuria to be in the site
Res.) has a chapter on Kara K'itai (i, 208 seq.), and in a long note on
Bala Sagun, which he calls Belasagun, he says (p. 226) that "according
to the Tarikh Djihan Kushai (D'Ohsson, i, 433) the city of Belasagun
had been founded by Buku Khan, sovereign of the Uighurs, in a well-
watered plain of Turkestan and rich pastures. The Arabian geographers
first mention Belasagun, in the ninth or tenth century, as a city beyond
the Sihun or Yaxartes, depending on Isfidjab (Sairam, according to
Lerch), and situated east of Taras. They state that the people of
Turkestan considered Belasagun to represent 'the navel of the earth'
on account of its being situated in the middle between east and west,
and likewise between north and south. (Sprenger's Postr. d. Or.,
Mavarannahar.)" Dr. Bretschneider adds (p. 227) : "It is not improb-
able that ancient Belasagun was situated at the same place where,
according to the T'ang history, the khan of one branch of the Western
T'u kiie (Turks) had his residence in the seventh century. It is stated
in the T'ang shu that Ibi Shabolo Shehtt Khan, who reigned in the first
half of the seventh century, placed Ms ordo on the northern border of
the river Sui ye. This river and a city of the same name are frequently
mentioned in the T'ang Annals of the seventh and eighth centuries,
in connection with the warlike expeditions of the Chinese in Central
Asia. Sui ye was situated on the way from the river Hi to the city
of Ta-lo-sz' (Talas). In 679 the Chinese had built on the Sui ye river a
fortress ; but in 748 they were constrained to destroy it. (Comp.
Visdelou in Suppl. Bibl. Orient., pp. 110-114; Gaubil's Hist, de la
Dyn. des Thang in Mem. cone, les Chinois, xv, pp. 403 seq.)" The
Djihan Kushai (Tarikh-i-Rashidi, p. 361) mentions among the towns in
Moghulistan "Bala Sakun, which in the Suvar-i-Akdlim is reckoned
among the cities of Khitai, and called 'Khan Baligh'; while in Moghu-
listan and Kara K'itai they have written the same 'Bala Sakun.'"
N. Elias in a long note on Bala Sakun (I.e., p. 361) says:" There is
every reason to believe that the Bala-Sakun spoken of in this passage
was situated on or near the head waters of the Karagaty branch of the
River Chu in Moghulistan, and that it was, up to the first quarter of
the twelfth century, the capital of the Ilak Khans, or the so-called
Afrasiabi Turks; while later it became, for a time the chief town
of Kara-K'itai." Chavannes, Tou-kiue occidentaux, p. 86 n., gives
Bala9aghoun =Tokmak. In Prof. V. Grigoriev's paper on The Khara-
khanides in Md-uiard-n-Nahr there is a translation of the Chronicle of the
Astrologer Munedjim-Bashi (b. c. 1630) which begins as follows: "Of
the Khans of Turkestan. These Khans claimed to be descended from
Afrasiab. Twenty of them reigned in all. The capital of their dominions
was at first the city of Balasagun, but afterwards Bukhara and Samar-
kand. They began to rule over Mavara-n-Nahr in the year 383 (993 A. D.),
and their dynasty came to an end in 609 (1212). Their main posses-
sions were: I. Bala Sagun, which was their capital, situated at the
beginning of the 7th climate in 102° of longitude and 48° of latitude,
not far from Kashgar, and considered from of old the boundary city
of Turkestan; 2. Kashgar, the capital of Turan. . . ; 3. Khotan...;
4. Karakorum; 5. Taraz. . . ; 6. Farab; all three important cities."
Prof. Grigoriev, in his note, besides mentioning the position of Bala
Sagun as given by Al-Biruni, quotes from Hadji Khalfa, in his Jihdn
Numd the longitude as 101° and the latitude as 47!°. Eugene Schuyler,
Geog. Mag., Dec. i, 1874, p. 389. — See supra, i, p. 60 n.]
Omyl. In a note to Carpini, Rockhill writes, p. i6n. : "The original
town of Imil, on the river which still bears that name, and which flows into
the Ala-Kul, passing south of the town of Chuguchak, was built by the
Kara Khitai somewhere aboutii25. Imil was Kuyuk's appanage (ulus)."]
AND THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO 165
just indicated, whilst that of the other branch ruling over Ma-wara-
n-Xahr was situated at Almaliq. If the site assigned to Aymul
be correct, probably it was not the headquarters .of the eastern
branch till the western branch of Chagatai in its rapid decay had
lost its hold on the valley of the Hi.
Kazan Khan, slain in 1346 or 1348, was the last effective Khan
of the main branch of Chagatai. After his time the titular Khans
were mere puppets in the hands of the great Amirs, who set them
up one year and probably murdered them the next. And so
things continued until one of those Amirs, the famous TIMUR,
became predominant. Even he in the height of his conquests
continued to maintain titular successors to the throne of Chagatai,
and to put their names at the head of State papers. Sultan
Mahomed Khan, the last of these, died on one of Timur's cam-
paigns in Anatolia, in I4O31.
In 1360, and again in 1361-2, whilst Ma-wara-n-Nahr was in
the state of anarchy to which we have alluded, Tughlak Timur
invaded and subdued the country, leaving on the second occasion
his son Elias Khwaja as his representative at Samarkand. Thus
the whole empire would seem again to have been united; but
it was only for a brief space. For in 1363—4, about the time of
the death of Tughlak Timur, the amirs Husain and Timur revolted
and expelled Elias. He escaped to his paternal dominions, but
some time afterwards his life was taken by Kamaruddin Dughlak,
of a powerful family which about this time became hereditary
rulers of Kashgar. He seized the khanate, and put to death all
the other children of Tughlak Timur on whom he could lay hands.
At a date which is uncertain, but probably about 1383, Khizr
Khwaja, a son of Tughlak Timur, whose life had been rescued in
infancy by the exertions of Khudaidad, son of Kamaruddin's
brother Bulaji, the Amir of Kashgar, was through the same good
offices seated on the throne of Moghulistan (or Eastern Chagatai) ,
and he was its sovereign when Timur made his crushing campaign
against the people of that country in 1389, taking the capital, and
driving the Khan out of his dominions. Peace, however, was made
eventually, and Timur married a daughter of Khizr Khwaja2.
The latter at his death was succeeded by his son Mahomed
Khan, and he by his grandson Wais or Awis Khan3. This prince,
who throughout his reign was engaged in constant and unsuccessful
wars with the Kalmaks, his eastern neighbours, at his death left
1 Univ. Hist., u.s. ; Defremery, pp. 281-2. Deguignes says it was
not till after Timur's death that khans ceased to be nominated.
2 Defremery, p. 283 ; Univ. Hist., u.s. ; Notices et Extraits, xiv,
p. 474 seqq.
3 The extract from Haft Iklim in the Not. et Ext. just quoted men-
tions a Shir Mahomed between Mahomed and Awis. Awis Khan is
noticed apparently as the reigning chief, and at war with a Shir Mahomed
Oglan, in the narrative of Shah Rukh's embassy to China (Not. et
Ext., xiv, Pt. i, p. 388).
l66 TRAVELS OF IBM BATUTA IN BENGAL, CHINA, ETC.
two sons, Isanbuga and Yunus, each of whom was backed by a
party in claiming the succession. Those who favoured Yiinus
took him to Mirza Ulugh Beg, the grandson of Timur (the cele-
brated astronomer prince), then governing at Samarkand, to
seek his support; but he refused this, and sent Yiinus off into
Western Persia, where he remained in exile for eighteen years.
When Mirza Abu Said of the house of Timur (1451-68) had
established himself at Samarkand, Isanbuga Khan invaded
Farghana. Abu Said in retaliation sent for the exiled Yiinus,
conferred on him the Khanate of Moghulistan, and dispatched
him with an army into that country, where he succeeded in
establishing himself1. During his reign a numerous army of
Kalmaks entered his territory. Yiinus, in attempting to resist
them, was completely defeated, with the loss of most of his amirs,
and fled with the remains of his army to the Jaxartes. Here he
seems to have established what remained of his authority at
Tashkand, and at the same place his son and successor Mahmud,
called by the Mongols Janikah, was crowned2. It would appear
that Yiinus left behind another son, Ahmed, in Moghulistan,
where he maintained himself for a time. Eventually both these
brothers fell into the hands of Mahomed Khan Shaibani, otherwise
called Shaibek, the founder of the Uzbek power in Transoxiana,
and Mahomed was in the end put to death by that chief3. I can
trace no information regarding later Chagatai Khans; indeed I
presume that the Kalmaks about this time took possession of
the country north of the T'ien Shan, and that the line of Khans
survived no longer as such. A son [Said] of Ahmed however
succeeded in founding a dynasty in Kashgar [1513], which main-
tained itself on the throne there for more than a century and a half4.
1 Defremery, pp. 284-5. According to a quotation of Quatremere's
from Haidar Mahomet, Yiinus Khan did not mount the throne till
A.H. 873 =1468, the last year of Abu Said (Journ. des Savans for 1839,
p. 24).
2 ["Sultan Yunus Khan was seized with paralysis, was bedridden
for nearly two years, and died, suffering, at the age of seventy-four.
No other Chaghatai Khakan ever reached such an advanced age ;
most of them, indeed, died before they reached the age of forty. The
Khan was born in 818 and died in 892. He was buried near the tomb
Puranvar Shaikh, Khawand-i-Tahur [Master of Purification], in Tash-
kand ; and a large mausoleum was built over the spot, which stands to
this day and is very renowned." (Tarikh-i-Rashidi, pp. 114-15.)]
3 [Mahmud Khan was put to death by Shahi Beg Khan on the
banks of the river of Khojand (914 A.H. =1508-9). His brother Sultan
Ahmad Khan, son of Yiinus, died in the winter of 909 (1503-4) of
paralysis in Moghulistan. See the Tarikh-i-Rashidi for the end of the
dynasty.]
4 See Introduction to the Journey of Goes, infra. Deguignes says
he had not been able to obtain any distinct information as to the rise
of the power of the Kalmaks ; nor can I find it in any later book within
reach. [Ismael, the last of the Chaghatai princes of Kashgar, was
dethroned in 1678 by the Kalmaks, who established as governor of the
country Hidayat-allah, better known as Hazrat Afak.]
VII
THE JOURNEY OF
BENEDICT GOES FROM AGRA
TO CATHAY
VII
THE JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES FROM
AGRA TO CATHAY
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE
THE traveller whom we are now about to follow over
one of the most daring journeys in the whole history of
discovery, belongs to a very different period from those
who have preceded him in this collection. Since the
curtain fell on Ibn Batuta's wanderings two hundred and
fifty years have passed away. After long suspension of
intercourse with Eastern Asia, the rapid series of dis-
coveries and re-discoveries that followed the successful
voyage of Da Gama have brought India, the Archipelago,
China, and Japan into immediate communication with
Europe by sea ; the Jesuits have entered on the arena of
the forgotten missions of the Franciscans, and have
rapidly spread their organisation over the east, and to
the very heart of each great eastern empire, to the courts
of Agra, Peking, and Miako. Cathay has not been
altogether forgotten in Europe, as many bold English
enterprises by sea, and some by land, during the sixteenth
century, testify; but to those actually engaged in the
labours of commerce and religion in the Indies it remains
probably but as a name connected with the fables of
Italian poets, or with the tales deemed nearly as fabulous
of old romancing travellers. The intelligence of the
accomplished men, indeed, who formed the Jesuit forlorn
170 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
in Northern China, soon led them to identify the great
empire in which they were labouring with that Cathay
of which their countryman Marco had told such wonders ;
but this conviction had not spread to their brethren in
India, and when the leaders of the Mission at the Court of
Akbar heard from Musulman travellers of a great and
rich empire called KHITAI, to be reached by a long and
devious course through the heart of Inner Asia, the idea
seized their imaginations that here was an ample and yet
untouched field awaiting the labours of the Society, if
the way could but be found open; and this way they
determined to explore.
The person selected for this venturesome exploration
was BENEDICT Gofis1. Before he started on his journey
1 The information regarding Goes, in addition to what is
gathered from the narrative of his journey, is furnished by P. du
Jarric, whose work I have seen only in the Latin translation
entitled " R. P. larrici Tholosani, Societal. Jesu, Thesaurus Rervm
Indicarvm, etc., a Matthia Martinez a Gallico in Latinwn sermonem
translatnm\ Coloniae Agrippinae, 1615." In the two copies
that I have seen of this book (possibly therefore in all copies)
there has been strange confusion made in binding the sheets.
It consists of four volumes, numbered i, ii, iii, pt. i ; iii. pt. 2 ;
and in each of three volumes out of these four are introduced
numerous sheets belonging to the other two. The information
regarding Goes is in vol. ii, pp. 530 seqq.; and in vol. iii, pt. I,
pp. 201 seqq.
[Peter du Jarric, S.J., was born at Toulouse in 1566 and he
died at Saintes on the 2nd March, 1617, or 28th Feb., 1618.]
[Prof. Pelliot draws my attention to a passage in Padre Ant.
Govea's Histoire oricntale, Brussels, 1609, p. 18, in which it is
related that a layman Diego d'Almeida, after the departure of
Goes, informed the Archbishop of Goa, that Tibet was not to be
confounded with Cathay; he, Diego d'Almeida, had resided two
years in Tibet which is only separated from great Mogor by very
high mountains, and is inaccessible save at certain times of the
year on account of snow ; the difficulty of going to Tibet, not being
the distance, but the road practicable only during the good season,
i.e. when the heat had melted the snow.]
[The Portuguese writer Jose de Torres in a somewhat romantic
paper published in 1 854 and entitled Bento de Goes (Ponta Delgada) ,
calls our traveller Luiz Gon^alves, whose name would have been
changed into Bento de Goes when he entered the Society of
Jesus. This name Luiz Gon9alves seems not only to be ignored
by the chief authorities mentioning the traveller but is also
unknown in the Archives of the S. J., where, in the list of the
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE
doubts had been suggested whether this Cathay were not
indeed the very China in which Ricci and his companions
were already labouring with some promise of success;
but these doubts were overruled, or at least the leader of
the Agra Mission was not convinced by them, and he
prevailed on his superiors still to sanction the exploration
that had been proposed.
The gallant soldier of the Society, one not unworthy
to bear the Name on which others of that Company's
deeds and modes of action have brought such obloquy,
carried through his arduous task; ascertained that the
mysterious empire he had sought through rare hardships
and perils was China indeed; and died just within its
borders. "Seeking Cathay he found heaven," as one of
his brethren has pronounced his epitaph. And thus it is
that we have thought his journey a fitting close to this
collection; for with its termination CATHAY may be
considered finally to disappear from view, leaving CHINA
only in the mouths and minds of men. Not but that
Cathay will be found for some time longer to retain its
place as a distinct region in some maps and geographical
works of pretension, but from that time its appearance
could only condemn the ignorance of the authors.
Benedict Goes was born at Villa Franca do Campo, in
the island of St. Michael (Azores), about 1561 1. I find no
particulars of his rank in life or early history, nor any
missionaries of the Goa province in the year 1588, when Goes
joined the Society, the following entry exists under the date
3ist December: Benito de Goes, Portugues, de la Isla de Sant
Miguel, de la Villa Franca, obispado de Angra, de 26 anos, de
nueve meses de la Compa. There is apparently no basis for Jose de
Torres' story. These particulars I draw from a very interesting
paper by the Rev. C. Wessels, S.J., pp. 10-11, mentioned in the
Bibliography, infra.]
1 [Sommervogel says 1562, which is probable, and Father M. C.
Baratta 1552. On the nth April 1907 the third centenary of the
death of Goes was celebrated and a monument was erected at
Villa Franca.]
172 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
statement of the circumstances under which he originally
went to India, but in his twenty-sixth year we first meet
him as a soldier on board the Portuguese fleet on the coast
of Travancore, a high-spirited and pleasure-loving young
man. The dignity and culture of his character, as it
shows in later life, seems to imply that he had been
educated for a higher position than that of a common
soldier; and it is probable that, like many a wild youth
since, he had enlisted for the Indies in consequence of
some youthful escapade. Happening, we are told, to
enter a church near CoLECHEA1, and kneeling before an
image of the Madonna and Child, he began to reflect
seriously on his past life, and was seized with such remorse
that he almost despaired of salvation. This spiritual
crisis ended in his making full confession of his sins to a
Jesuit priest, and eventually in his entering the Order
as a lay coadjutor2. This position he held for the rest
of his career, always modestly refusing to take orders,
though often pressed to do so by his superiors in the
Society.
In the end of 1594 a detachment of missionaries was
sent to the Court of Akbar, at the request of the great
king himself, whose oscillating convictions appear often to
have been strongly in favour of Christianity3. The head
1 Kolechi, a small port of Travancore, which Fra Paolino will
have to be the Colchi of the Periplus. 'it has dropped out of our
modern maps.
2 [In 1588.]
3 The inquiries of Akbar about Christianity dated from the
visit of Antony Capral, whom he received as envoy from Goa in
1578. Hearing then of a Christian priest of eminent virtue in
Bengal, he sent for him to Futtehpur Sikri (which du Jarric calls
Patefula), and made him argue with the Mullahs. Moved by
what this anonymous father said, the king wrote to Goa, begging
that two members of the Jesuit Society might be sent to him with
Christian books. This of course caused great delight and excite-
ment, and the Provincial sent off Rudolf Aquaviva, a man of
illustrious family (afterwards murdered by the natives of Salsette
near Goa [on the iyth July, 1583; born in 1557]), and Antony of
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 173
of the mission was Jerome Xavier1 of Navarre, a relation
of the great Francis, and his comrades were Goes and the
priest Emanuel Pinheiro2, also a Portuguese. They
proceeded first to CAMBAY, where they were well received
by Sultan Murad, Akbar's second son, and provided
with carriage and money for their journey to LAHORE,
where the Padshah then held his court. Travelling with
a Kafila by AHMEDABAD and PATTAN, and then across the
great Indian Desert, they reached Lahore on the 5th
May, 1595, and were made most welcome by Akbar, who
at the same time gladdened their hearts by his display
of reverence to images of the Saviour and the Virgin
Mary, the gift of a former missionary at his court.
Goes appears to have acquired the esteem of the king
Monserrate [died at Salsette in 1600]. They were most honourably
received by Akbar, and great hopes of his conversion were raised.
The celebrated Abul Fazl and .other eminent men of the Court
also showed great interest in the subject; but nothing material
resulted. Some years afterwards, in 1590, Akbar's thoughts
again turned to Christianity, and at this time, according to the
statement of the Jesuits (I know not how far well founded), he
ordered a general destruction of mosques and minarets, and
forbade circumcision before the fifteenth year. He again applied
for instructors, and in 1591 three brethren were sent to Lahore,
but after a while, seeing no hope of good, they returned to Goa.
Hence on this third occasion the mission was despatched without
any great alacrity or sanguine expectations. It is probable that
Akbar had arrived at no decided convictions in religion, excepting
as to the rejection of Mahomedanism. He seems to have pro-
jected a new eclectic kind of Theism, in which adoration was to
be addressed to the sun, as an emblem of the Creator. At the
same time he never seems to have lost a certain hankering after
Christianity, or ceased to display an affectionate reverence for
the Christian emblems which he had received from his Jesuit
teachers.
1 [Jerome Ezpelata took the name of his relation, the great
Xavier; entered the noviciate of the Jesuits at Alcala, on the
yth May, 1568. He went to India, was rector at Bassein and
Cochin, superior of the convent of Goa ; preached at Lahore,
where he was nearly stoned to death ; he returned finally to Goa
in 1617, when he was appointed Archbishop of Angamale ; he
died on the iyth of June in the same year. — Sommervogel.]
2 [Emanuel Pinheiro, born at Puente Delgada (island of
S. Miguel) in 1556; embarked for India in 1592, and died at
Goa, about 1618. — Sommervogel.]
1/4 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
in an especial degree, and with Xavier accompanied him
on his summer journey to Kashmir. One Christmas
too, we are told, Goes constructed a model of the manger
and stable of Bethlehem, after the fashion still kept up
in Southern Europe, whilst some of the pupils of the
mission acted a Pastoral Eclogue in the Persian tongue
on the subject of the Nativity, things that greatly pleased
both Musulmans and Hindus, but especially the latter.
Whilst the Court was still at Lahore (which Akbar
quitted for Agra in 1598) the circumstance occurred which
turned the attention of Jerome Xavier to the long-lost
Cathay (as he fancied it), and excited his imagination in
the manner already alluded to. This circumstance is
thus related by du Jarric :
"One day as Xavier was at the palace and engaged
with the king, there presented himself a Mahomedan
merchant of some sixty years of age. After he had made
his salutations to the king, in answer to a question whence
he was come, he said that he was lately arrived from the
kingdom of XETAIA. This Xavier supposed to be the same
as the Cathay spoken of by Marco Polo the Venetian in
his Travels, and by Hayton the Armenian in his History,
and which later writers have determined to be in Tartary,
or not far from it. And when the king inquired for further
particulars about that empire, and as to the length of
the merchant's residence there, he replied that he had been
thirteen years at the metropolis of the country, which he
called Kambalu .... This he said was the residence of the
kings, who were most powerful sovereigns. For, indeed,
their empire included one thousand five hundred cities;
some of them immensely populous. He had often seen
the king, and it was his practice never to give any reply,
favourable or unfavourable, to a request, but through the
eunuchs who stood by him, unless, indeed, he was
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 175
addressed in writing. King Akbar asking how he had
got admission into the empire, he replied that it was under
the character of an ambassador from the King of Caygar
(KASHGAR). On arriving at the frontier he was detained
by the local governor, who after inspecting the seals of
the letters which he carried, sent off a despatch to the
king by swift horse-post. The answer giving permission
for the party to proceed came back within a month. In
going on to the capital they changed horses at every
stage, as is practised in Europe, and thus got speedily
over the ground, although the distance is very great ; for '
they accomplished one hundred Italian miles every day.
On the whole journey they met with no affront or unfair
treatment, for the local judges administered justice to
all, and thieves were punished with great severity. When
asked about the aspect of the natives, he said that they
were the whitest people he had ever seen, whiter even
than the Rumis, or Europeans. Most of the men cherished
a long beard.... The greater number were Isauites, i.e.
Christians (for thus Christians are called after Jesus, just
as if you were to say Jesuits !). When asked if they were
all Isauites, he said, by no means, for there are many
Mussauites (i.e. Jews, for Moses in the tongue of those
people is called Mussau), and there are also some Mahome-
dans. But is the king a Mahomedan? asked Akbar.
Not yet, said the merchant, but it is hoped that he will
soon be so. The colloquy was then interrupted, the
sovereign graciously naming another day for the reception
of the merchant, in order to ask further questions about
this empire. But Xavier getting impatient, out of
eagerness to learn more, went to see the merchant in
order to get more precise information about the religion
of the inhabitants. The merchant repeated his statement
that they were, for the most part, Christians, and that he
176 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
had been on terms of great intimacy with several of them.
They had temples, some of them of vast size, in which
were images both painted and sculptured, and among
others figures of the crucified Saviour, which were held
by them in great reverence. A priest was set over every
temple, who was treated with great respect by the people,
and received presents from them .... He also mentioned
the continence of those priests, and the schools in which
they brought up young people for holy orders .... The
fathers moreover wore black frocks, and caps like
Xavier's, only a little bigger. In saluting any one by
the way they did not uncover, but joined hands across
the breast, interlacing the fingers. . . .The king often went
to the temples, and must, therefore, be a Christian,"
etc., etc.
Xavier lost no time in communicating this intelligence
to the Provincial of his Order; and after arriving with
the king at Agra sent the results of further inquiry made
there from persons who had been to Cathay. Some
people alleged that there was a way to Cathay by BENGAL
and the kingdom of GARAGHAT1, at the extremity of the
Mogul territories. But merchants, who were sure to
know the shortest routes, were in the habit of going from
1 Ghoraghat ("the horse-ferry ") is a town and zemindari in
the Bogra district of Bengal, and is mentioned as such in the
Ayin Akbari. But the kingdom alluded to must be that of Kuch
Bihar, which in the time of Akbar retained independence, and
extended from the Brahmaputra westward to Tirhut, from the
Himalaya south to Ghoraghat. In 1661 it was conquered by Mir
Jumla (see Hamilton's Gazetteer, in vv. Ghoraghat and Cooch
Bahar). Kuch Bihar still exists, with a modified independence,
and very much restricted limits. It is remarkable that there
should have been any talk of a route to China this way in the
reign of Akbar. It probably lay through Lhasa. We have seen
(ante, in, p. 131) that Rashiduddin recognised an overland route by
Bengal and the borders of Tibet. And some years after Akbar's
time, the two Jesuits, Grueber and Dorville, found their way from
China via Lhasa and Katmandu to Patna (Kircher, China Illus-
trata, pp. 64 seqq.).
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 177
Lahore to Kashmir, and thence by the kingdom of REBAT1,
the king of which was in alliance with the Mogul, they
went straight to Kashgar, from which it was said there
was a direct and easy route to the first mercantile city
of Cathay, a place which the merchants asserted to be
inhabited by Christians. Xavier was now quite satisfied
that the country in question was indeed the Cathay of
Polo, and the Christian king the representative of the
famous Prester John. He sounded the king on the subject
of an exploratory mission, and found him disposed to
assist it cordially. All this was duly communicated to
the Provincial, and through him it would appear to the
higher powers in Europe.
In 1601 the encouragement of those higher powers
had been received in India, and the Provincial turned his
attention to the selection of a fit man for the expedition.
Now it happened that Xavier and Goes had accompanied
King Akbar some time previously on his expedition into
the Dekkan. After the conquest of Kandesh, Akbar on
some pretext sent an embassy to Goa, partly it was sup-
posed in order to spy out the land with a view to extending
his conquests in that quarter. And with this embassy he
sent Goes in charge of some children of Portuguese
parentage who had been found in Burhanpur and other
captured fortresses.
In Goes the Provincial discerned the very man that
he wanted; his judgment, courage, and skill in Persian
marking him out as especially qualified for such an
1 I do not know what the name Rebat is intended for (proper
names in du Jarric being often sadly mangled) ; perhaps for Tibet.
The kingdom intended must be either Ladakh or Balti, which
were known in those days as Great and Little Tibet. [Father
Oranus has Tebat. There is no doubt that Tibet is meant. In a
letter of the 26th July, 1598, quoted in R., p. 528 n., Father
Jerome Xavier writes : Mihi quoque dum in Caximire agebam,
nunciatum est esse in regno Rebat multos cristianos et ecclesias
cum sacerdotibus et episcopis. Cf. Hay, p. 797.]
c. Y. c. iv. 12
178 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
enterprise. Goes readily accepted the duty, and in the
following year (1602) arrived at Agra to make arrange-
ments for his journey. Akbar praised his zeal, and
contributed the value of four hundred pieces of gold to
the expenses of the journey, besides giving the passports
mentioned in the narrative.
After successfully accomplishing his journey, as has
been already mentioned, Goes was detained for some
seventeen months at the frontier city of Suchau, and there
died a few days after the arrival of the native Christian
whom Ricci and his comrades at Peking had sent to his
aid and comfort1. The narrative of his journey was put
together, apparently by Ricci himself, from some frag-
ment of Benedict's note-book, along with the oral
statements of his faithful comrade Isaac the Armenian,
1 Matthew Ricci was born at Macerata, in the March of Ancona,
6th Oct., 1552. He entered the Jesuit Society in 1571. Being
sent to India, he reached Goa in 1578, but speedily left it for
Macao on being chosen by Father Valignani, the founder of the
Jesuit Mission in China, as one of his aids. Not till 1583, however,
were they able tc establish themselves in the Canton territory.
Ricci's great object for a long time was to get to Peking, and he
did reach it in 1595, but was obliged, by an accidental excitement
among the Chinese, to withdraw to Nanking. In 1600 he was
enabled to go again, carrying presents, which had come from
Europe for the Emperor. He was admitted ; and having acquired
the Emperor's favour, he devoted himself to the mission at the
capital. Some striking conversions were made; and Ricci's
science and literary works in Chinese gained him much esteem
among the most eminent persons at Peking. He died nth May,
1610, leaving Longobardi to succeed him. The chief literary
men of the city attended his funeral. His name appears in the
Chinese annals as Li Ma-ten. The principles of Ricci as a mis-
sionary appear to have been to stretch conciliation as far as
possible ; and to seek the respect of the educated Chinese by the
display of superior scientific attainments. As regards the former
point, he is accused of having led the way in those dubious
concessions which kindled the disputes that ended in the down-
fall of the missions. He was the first European to compose
books in Chinese. His works of this kind were fifteen in nvimber,
and one of them is said to have been included in a collection
of the best Chinese writers ordered by the Emperor K'ien-lung
(see Remusat's article in Biog. Universelle [H. Cordier, Bib.
Sinica, col. 1090-1092 and Imprimerie Sino-europeenne. — See
Bibliography, infra]).
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 179
and was published after the death of Ricci, with other
matter that he had compiled concerning China and the
mission history, in the work of Trigautius (Trigault)
entitled De Christiana Expeditione apud Sinas. From
this our translation has been made, but some additional
particulars given by du Jarric from the Indian reports,
and from the letters which Goes was occasionally during
his journey able to Bend back to his superiors at Agra or
Goa, have been brought forward in the notes. Altogether
it is a miserably meagre record of a journey so interesting
and important; and had Benedict's diary, which he is
stated to have kept in great detail, been spared, it would
probably have been to this day by far the most valuable
geographical record in any European language on the
subject of the countries through which he travelled, still
so imperfectly known.
There are some perplexities about the chronology of
the journey as given in Trigault, which doubtless arise
out of the manner in which the narrative was thus com-
piled. It is in some respects inconsistent with itself as
well as with the statements in du Jarric.
Thus, according to du Jarric, Goes left Agra 315!
October, 1602, whilst Trigault makes it 6th January,
1603. This is not of importance however, as they agree
substantially regarding the time of his final start from
Lahore.
But again. The narrative in Trigault professes to
give, sometimes in precise, sometimes in round numbers,
the intervals occupied by the various portions of the
journey and its tedious halts. But if these be added to-
gether, even without allowance for two or three omissions,
we find that the sum carries us a whole year beyond the
time deducible from du Jarric, and in fact would throw
Benedict's death a year later than the date which Trigault
12 — 2
l8o JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
himself (or rather Ricci) fixes1. This is shown in detail
below, but here I may explain that the chief inconsistency
is found in the time alleged to have been spent between
Lahore and Yarkand. According to Ricci's details this
period extends from February 1603 to November 1604,
whereas both du Jarric's data and Ricci's own absolute
statement make the traveller reach Yarkand in November
1603, which unquestionably is the correct date. And as
Ricci's details allege a positive halt of eight months at
Kabul, it is evident that there must have been some
singular kind of misunderstanding either of Benedict's
notes, or of Isaac's language, or of both. Isaac, it will
be seen, could speak nothing more intelligible than Persian,
1 The following absolute dates are given by Trigault : Goes
left Agra 6th January, 1603 ; left Lahore in Lent (which in 1603
began on i8th February); reached Yarkand November, 1603;
left Yarkand November, 1604; reached Suchau in the latter part
of 1605; his letters did not reach Peking till November, 1606;
John Ferdinand started nth December, and reached Suchau in
the end of March, 1607 ; eleven days later Benedict died.
The following absolute dates are given by du Jarric : Goes left
Agra 3ist October, 1602; reached Lahore 8th December; left
Lahore in middle of February, 1603 ; wrote from Yarkand in
February and August, 1604 ; set out from Yarkand i4th November
1604; left Chalis lyth October, 1605; died nth April, 1607.
The following are the details of time occupied in the journey,
as given by Trigault (and full of error) : Left Lahore in Lent [say
first day of Lent, or i8th February], 1603; took to Attok thirty
days, halted there fifteen, and across the Indus five; Peshawar
two months, halt there twenty days; go on a time not specified,
halt twenty days ; to Ghideli twenty-five days ; to Kabul twenty
days. [This would bring him to Kabul on the 2nd of September,
1603, at the earliest.} Halts at Kabul eight months [and therefore
leaves it about ist May, 1604]. To Charekar not specified; to
Parwan ten days, halt there five; to Aingharan twenty; to
Kalcha fifteen ; to Jalalabad ten ; to Talikhan fifteen, halt there
one month [which brings us at least to the I5th August, 1604].
To Cheman, and halt there, not specified ; Defiles of Badakhshan
eight days, halt ten ; Charchunar one day, halt five days ; to
Serpanil ten days; to Sarchil twenty, halt two; to Chechalith
two ; to Tanghetar six, at least ; to Yaconic fifteen days ; to
Yarkand five days [which brings him to Yarkand therefore on jth
November, 1604, at the earliest, or just a year later than the true
date}. It is not worth while to carry the matter further, and
indeed the essential error is contained in that section of the
which we have given here.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE l8l
and John Ferdinand, the Chinese convert who came to
seek the party at Suchau, could not communicate with
him at all until he had himself acquired a little Persian.
This language the missionaries at Peking probably knew
nothing of, and it is not therefore wonderful if misunder-
standing occurred.
What the nature of this misunderstanding must have
been, in some instances at least, can I think be deduced
from one case in which the misstatement of the time is
obvious. The journey from Attok to Peshawar is said
to have occupied two months. Now, as the distance is
about thirty miles, this is absurd. It is, therefore, not
improbable that it may have been entered in Goes'
notes as "n mensil" (Pers. manzil, a stage or march), and
that this was understood by the Italians as "n menses."
[The autograph Italian manuscript of Matteo Ricci's
Commentaries still exists in the Ricci family at Macerata,
and it has been edited by Father Tacchi Venturi, S.J.
(see infra, Bibliography) for the centennial anniversary of
the celebrated missionary, the commemoration of which
took place in his native city in 1910. I have carefully
compared this text with Trigault's version and made
some corrections. In spite of the defects of the Latin
translations, the errors in the proper names are less
numerous than I anticipated. — H.C.]
The chief obscurities attending the route of Goes,
concern that section of his journey which lies between
Kabul and Yarkand. In the first part of this section,
embracing the passage of the Hindu Rush, the country
is to a certain degree known, but there are several places
named prominently by Goes which cannot be identified
with any certainty. This is also the case in the second
portion of this section of the journey, embracing the
ascent through Badakhshan to the Plateau of 'Pamir, and
l82 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
the descent to Yarkand, where moreover we are in a
country still most imperfectly known; for, since Marco
Polo, Goes is the only European traveller across it of
whose journey any narrative has seen the light1.
1 The following note from a recent work, called The Russians
in Central Asia, consisting of various papers translated from the
Russian by Messrs. Michell, shows that valuable matter, in illus-
tration of these regions, does exist (I believe in the military
archives at St. Petersburg) : " In a paper on the Pamir and the
upper course of the Oxus, read last year before the Russian
Geographical Society by M. Veniukof, he says: 'The chaos of
our geographical knowledge relating to the Pamir table-lands
and the Bolor was so great that the celebrated geographer Zim-
mermann, working under the superintendence of Ritter, was able
to produce only a very confused and utterly incomprehensible
map of this region. The connecting link was wanting ; it was
necessary that some one should carry out the plan conceived by
the Russian Government in the beginning of this century, by
visiting and describing the country. Fortunately, such an
additional source of information has been found, — nay, even two,
— which mutually corroborate and amplify each other, although
they have nothing further in common between them. I here
allude to the "Travels through Upper Asia, from Kashgar,
Tashbalyk, Bolor, Badakhshan, Vakhan, Kokan, Turkestan, to
the Kirghiz Steppe, and back to Cashmere, through Samarkand
and Yarkand," and to the Chinese Itinerary, translated by
Klaproth in 1821, leading from Kashgar to Yarkand, Northern
India, Dairim, Yabtuar, Badakhshan, Bolor, Vakhan, and
Kokan, as far as the Karatau mountains. The enumeration
alone of these places must, I should imagine, excite the irresistible
curiosity of all who have made the geography of Asia their study.
These fresh sources of information are truly of the highest impor-
tance. As regards the Travels, it is to be inferred from the preface,
and from certain observations in the narrative, that the author
was a German, an agent of the East India Company, despatched
in the beginning of this or the end of the last century, to purchase
horses for the British army. The original account forms a
magnificent manuscript work in the German language, accom-
panied by forty sketches of the country traversed. The text,
also, has been translated into French in a separate manuscript,
and the maps worked into one itinerary in an admirable style.
The Christian name of the traveller, George Ludwig von ,
appears over the preface, but the surname has been erased.
Klaproth's Itinerary is so far valuable as the physical details are
extremely circumstantial; almost every mountain is laid down,
and care taken to indicate whether it is wooded or snow-capped ;
while equal care is taken to show whether the inhabitants are
nomads or a stationary people. Ruins, bridges, and villages are
also intelligibly designated ; so that, although the same scale is
not preserved throughout, its value, lucidity, and minuteness,
are not therebv deteriorated.'"
I may add to the preceding notice that Professor H. H. Wilson,
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 183
It is not quite clear which of the passes was followed
by Goes in crossing the Hindu Rush. Some account of
these will be given in a supplementary note at the end
of the narrative1. Here I will content myself with
observing that as the traveller is mentioned to have
visited Parwan as well as Charekar, it may seem most
probable that he crossed by the Pass of Parwan, which
Wood attempted unsuccessfully in 1837. Indeed, if
Parwan is correctly placed in the only map I have seen
which shows it (J. Walker's), it would be out of the way
of a party going by any other Pass2. From Parwan till
he reaches Talikhan on the borders of Badakhshan, none
of the names given can be positively determined ; Calcia
and Jalalabad, the most prominent of them, are named
in his remarks on Izzet Lilian's Travels (see J. R. A. S., vii, 294),
mentions a Russian officer, Yefremoff, who was last century
captured by the Kirghiz, but made his escape, and travelled by
Kokand and Kashgar, across Tibet to Calcutta, and so home to
St. Petersburg, where he arrived in 1782, and published his travels.
Meyendorff, also, in his Voyage d'Orenbourg a Bokhara, speaks of
the travels of Raphael Danibeg, a noble Georgian, which were
translated from his native language into Russian, and printed in
1815. This gentleman travelled from Kashmir to Yarkand,
Aqsu, Kulja, and Semipalatinsk. The same work contains a
route from Semipalatinsk to Kashmir, by a Tajik of Bokhara.
[Of course, new information has been brought to light by recent
travellers, and one may refer on the subject to the third edition of
Marco Polo.]
1 See Note I at the end.
2 The first notice which du Jarric gives of Goes, after men-
tioning his departure from Lahore, is that "after going 102 coss,
each equal to an Italian mile, he wrote to Pinheiro from the
province of Gazaria that he was struggling with severe cold on
the passage over mountains covered with snow." The 102 coss
must have been estimated from Kabul, not from Lahore, as the
passage would literally imply, and the snow mountains of Gazaria
must have been the Hindu Kush occupied by the Hazara tribes ;
(they are called Kezareh by Meyendorff, Voyage a Bokara, p. 140),
At present the Hazaras, according to Wood (p. 199), do not
extend further east than the Valley of Ghorbund ; but Leech's
Report on the Passes shows that they are found on the passes
immediately above Parwan, and that they formerly extended to
the mountains adjoining the Khawak Pass, the most easterly of
all. I hope to add a sketch map such as will make Goes' route,
and the doubts attending it, more intelligible.
184 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
so far as I know by no other traveller or geographer.
Some remarks regarding them will however be found
in the notes on the narrative.
From Talikhan also to the high land of Pamir we have
a similar difficulty in identifying names except that
descriptive one Tangi-i-Badakhshan ("the Straits of
Badakhshan") which sufficiently indicates the character of
the country. But I think there can be little doubt that
the route of Goes was substantially the same as that
followed by Captain John Wood of the Indian Navy on
his famous journey to the source of the Oxus. Badakh-
shan and the adjoining districts of Tokharestan, inhabited
by a race of Tajik lineage and Persian speech, would seem
in the middle ages not merely to have enjoyed that fame
for mineral productions (especially rubies and lapis lazuli)
of which a shadow still remains, but at least in their
lower valleys to have been vastly more populous and
productive than they are now. The "Oriental Geo-
graphy" of the tenth century translated by Ouseley, and
Edrisi in the twelfth century, both speak of these as fruitful
and well-peopled regions flourishing with trade and wealth.
Marco Polo in the thirteenth century speaks of Talikhan
and the adjoining districts in similar terms. Not long
before his time the chief fortress of Talikhan held Chinghiz
and his Tartar host at bay for six months [I22I]1. The
1 D'Ohsson,i, 273. There was another Talikhan in Khorasan,
between Balkh and Merv (see tables of Nasiruddin in Hudson,
iii, 107). And the authors of the Modern Universal History
appear to have taken this for the city besieged by Chinghiz
(French Trans., iii, 356). But the narrative shows that it was
Talikhan in Tokharestan, on the border of Badakhshan [province
of Kataghan or Kunduz. See Marco Polo, i, p. 154 nJ}. Edrisi
describes both cities, but curiously his French translator, M. Jaubert,
takes both for the same (i, 468, 476). [There were in fact three
places so called ; that in Badakhshan, that in Khorasan, and a
third in Daylam, the hill-country adjoining Kazbin. This last is
the duplicate of Nasiruddin's Tables and not that in Khorasan.
(See Quatremere's Rashid, pp. 214, 278.)]
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 185
savage conqueror left not a living soul in the garrison,
nor one stone upon another. And the present town of
Talikhan, the representative of the place defended by
this strong and valiant garrison, is a paltry village of
some four hundred clay hovels1. Faizabad, the chief
city of Badakhshan, once famous over the east, was,
when Wood passed through the country, to be traced only
by the withered trees that had once adorned its gardens,
and the present capital of the country (Jerm) was but a
cluster of hamlets, containing altogether some fifteen
hundred souls2. Enduring decay probably commenced
with the wars of Chinghiz, for many an instance in eastern
history shows the permanent effect of such devastations.
And here wave after wave of war passed over a little
country, isolated on three sides by wild mountains and
barbarous tribes, destroying the apparatus of culture
which represented the accumulated labour of generations,
and with it the support of civilisation and the springs of
recovery. Century after century only saw progress in
decay. Even to our own time the process of depopulation
and deterioration has continued. In 1759 two of the
Khwajas of Kashgar [Burhan-uddin (Boronitu) and
K'odzishan (Huo-tsichan), descendant from Hazrat Afak],
escaping from the dominant Chinese, took refuge in
Badakhshan, and were treacherously slain by Sultan
Shah who then ruled that country3. The holy men
are said in their dying moments to have invoked curses
on Badakhshan and prayed that it might be three
times depopulated. And, in fact, since then it has been
at least three times ravaged ; first, a few years after the
outrage by Ahmed Shah Durani of Kabul, when the
*1 Wood, p. 241. 2 Ditto, p. 254.
3 Russians in Central Asia, p. 186 seqq.; Wood, p. 250;
Ritter, vol. vii; Burnes, iii, 192.
l86 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
treacherous Sultan Shah was put to death ; in the begin-
ning of this century by Kokan Beg of Kunduz ; and again
in 1829 by his successor Murad Beg, who swept away the
bulk of the remaining inhabitants, and set them down to
die in the marshy plains of Kunduz.
In the time of Goes the country was probably in a
middle state, not fallen so low as now, but far below what
it had been in days before the Tartar invasion. Akbar
had at this time withdrawn all attempt at holding
territory north of the Indian Caucasus, and the Uzbeks,
who in the end of the fifteenth century had expelled the
house of Timur and settled in Bokhara, seem to have
been in partial occupation.
Of routes over the Bolor Tagh and high table-land of
Pamir between Badakhshan and Kashgar, the only
notices accessible are those of the Chinese pilgrims of the
early centuries1, the brief but pregnant sketches of Marco
Polo, so singularly corroborated even to minutiae in our
own day by Captain Wood, and these fragmentary
memoranda of Benedict Goes. It seems impossible
absolutely to determine the route followed by Marco,
but from his mentioning a twelve days' march along the
lofty plain it seems probable that he followed, as certainly
the ancient Chinese pilgrims did, a course running north
from the head of the Oxus valley over the plateau to the
latitude of Tashbaliq before descending into Eastern
Turkestan. Goes and his caravan, on the other hand,
following what is probably the usual route of later days,
would seem to have crossed athwart the Pamir, in the
direction of the sources of the Yarkand river, and passing
two or more of the ridges that buttress the Bolor on the
1 Of these, extracts are given in Ritter, vii, 493 seqq. I have
no access at present to Hiuen Tsang. [See our itinerary in Marco
Polo, i, pp. 175, 182. H. C.]
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 187
east, to have descended on Yanghi-Hissar, a city inter-
mediate between Kashgar and Yarkand. A modern
caravan route, laid down by Macartney in the map
attached to Elphinstone's "Caubul," seems evidently to
represent the same line as that taken by our traveller's
party, and both representations appear to suggest the
view of its general course which has just been indicated.
The country in which Goes found himself after the
passage of these mountains has been equally shut up
from European1 access since the days of the great Mongol
empires, but has become better known from Chinese
sources, having been for long intervals and from a very
early date under the influence of the Chinese. This
region, perhaps best designated as Eastern Turkestan,
but named in maps of the last century (I know not why)
as "Little Bokhara," forms a great depressed valley of
some four hundred miles in width from north to south,
supposed by Humboldt from botanical inductions not to
exceed twelve hundred feet in the absolute elevation of
its lower portions. It is shut in on three sides by mountain
ranges of great height, viz. : on the north by the T'ien
Shan or Celestial Mountains of the Chinese, separating it
from the plains of the Hi, on the south by the Kwen-Lun
propping the great plateau of Tibet, and on the west by
the transverse chain of the Bolor dividing it from Western
Turkestan. The greater part of the surface of this
depression is desert, of clayey soil and stony surface
towards the foot of the mountain ranges, and of sand in
the interior, which eastward accumulates into ranges of
shifting sand hills. Though the air is of exceeding
dryness and rain is rare, the amount of water which flows
1 [What was exact in 1866 is not so now, as will be seen by
the recent voyages quoted in the following pages of this new
edition of Cathay.]
iSS JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
down from the snowy mountains on three sides of this
valley must be considerable. The rivers carrying this
drain into the central- channel of the Ergol or Tarim,
which is absorbed by Lake Lop on the eastern verge of
the tract, and has no further outlet, except in the legends
of the Chinese which connect it by subterranean issues
with the Hwang Ho. The lateral rivers afford irrigation,
and patches of more or less fertile soil border the bases of
the three ranges, in which cities have risen, and settled
states have existed from time immemorial. Similar
oases perhaps once existed nearer the centre of the plain,
where Marco Polo places the city of Lop, and across which
a direct road once led from the Chinese frontier to Khotan1.
From Khotan, as from the western cities of Kashgar and
Yarkand, the only communication with China now
followed seems to lie through the towns that are dotted
along the base of the T'ien Shan2.
Chinese scholars date the influence of the empire in
the more westerly of these states from the second cen-
tury B.C. In the first century after our era they were
thoroughly subjected, and the Chinese power extended
even beyond the Bolor to the shores of the Caspian3.
The Chinese authority was subject to considerable
fluctuations, but under the T'ang in the seventh century
we find the country east of the mountains again under
Chinese governors (whose seats are indicated as Bishbaliq,
Khotan, Karashahr, and Kashgar)4, till the decay of
1 This road is said to have been abandoned on account of the
Kalmak banditti who haunted it. It seems to have been followed,
as an exceptional case, by Shah Rukh's ambassadors on their return
from China (see Not. et Extraits, xiv, pt. i, p. 425; also p. 476).
2 Chiefly derived from Russians in Central Asia.
3 [The Chinese Power never extended to the shores of the
Caspian. The Chinese general Pan Ch'ao, who during the first
century of our era carried his arms to the west, never went so far.
See supra, i, p. 40.]
4 Pauthier, Chine Ancienne, p. 296.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 189
that dynasty in the latter part of the ninth century, and
those divisions of the empire which followed, and endured
till the conquest of all its sub-divisions by Chinghiz and
his successors. These latter held supremacy, actual or
nominal, over Eastern Turkestan as part of the early
conquests of their house. They fell in China, and their
Chinese successors of the Ming dynasty had little power
beyond the frontiers of China proper, or at most beyond
the territory of Kamil1. The western states remained sub-
ject more or less nominally to the Khans of the eastern
branch of Chagatai, whose history has been briefly traced
in a previous page of this book. The government of
Kashgar [office of Ulusbegi] had always since the days of
Chinghiz been conferred on a chief officer of the Khan's
court. Tughlak Timur, on his accession, bestowed it on
the Amir Tulik, who was succeeded by Bulaji, both being
brothers of Kamaruddin, who slew Elias the son of Tughlak
Timur and usurped the Khanate. Bulaji was succeeded
by his son Khudaidad, of whom we have already heard
(supra, p. 165). This prince ruled for many years
prosperously and beneficently, holding quasi-regal power
over Kashgar, Khotan, Aqsu, Bai and Kucha2, devoting
1 The circumstance cited in a note at in, p. 132, supra, shows
that, in 1419, the Chinese power did not extend to Turfan and
Karakhoja. In 1605, as we shall see presently, it did not even
include Kamil.
2 "Mai and Rush," but I suppose the names in the text are
those intended. For Kucha or Kuchia, see a note on Goes'
journey further on. Bai is a town at the foot of the T'ien Shan,
between Aqsu and Kucha, 137 miles N.E. of the former, famous
now for its sheep-farming and felt manufacture. It is identified
by Hugh Murray with the Pein of Polo ; an identification followed
by Pauthier, who however quotes Murray's remark, that it had
"defied conjecture" (hitherto), without noticing that Murray had
himself made the identification.
The mention of Bai here as a province coupled with Kashgar,
Khotan, and Aqsu, adds strongly to the probability that it is
really the Pein of Marco. There is a difficulty in the fact that the
chief circumstance he notes about Pein is the production of jasper,
i.e. jade, in its river; and I can find no notice of this mineral being
IQO JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
much of his revenue to pious objects, especially the
redemption of Musulman captives carried off by the
Mongols in their raids on Ma-wara-n-Nahr. His rule
lasted under the reign of four successive Khans of Eastern
Chagatai. In his old age he made the pilgrimage and
died at Medina1. His son Mahomed Shah inherited his
honours, but the territories of Kashgar and Khotan had
been annexed by Timur, and remained for some time
subject to the descendants of that conqueror, who were
in the habit of confiding those provinces to one of their
own chief officers. Whilst it was administered by theser
Said Ali, the son of Mahomed, made repeated attempts to
recover his grandfather's dominions, and at length
succeeded. It is needless to follow the history of this
dynasty in further detail. During their time the country
seems sometimes to have been divided into different states,
of which Kashgar and Khotan were the chief, and some-
times to have been united under the prince of Kashgar.
The last prince of the dynasty, Abubakr Khan, was also-
one of the most powerful. He reigned for forty-eight
found in the northern affluents of the Tarim, though Timkowski
does mention wrought jade as a staple of Aqsu. Hence Ritter
seeks Pein on the road from Yarkand to the Karakorum Pass,
where Izzet Ullah mentions a quarry of jade, near which there
is a station called Terek-lak-Paj>w. The last word, however, I
believe merely means "Lower," and the position scarcely car*
answer Polo's description. It is possible that the province or
district of Bai may have extended south of the Tarim Kul so as
to embrace a part of the jaspiferous rivers of Khotan (Murray's
Polo, ii, 32 ; Pauthier's, p. 145 ; Timkowski, i, 391 ; Ritter, vii,.
382; JRuss. in Cent. Asia, p. 160). Khatiyan and Bahi are
mentioned in juxtaposition also by the early Arab traveller, Ibn
Mohalhil, and probably indicate these same two provinces (see
notes to Preliminary Essay). [Bai has nothing to do with Pein,.
which is on the road from Khotan to Niya. Cf. Marco Polo, i,
p. 192 «. ; ii, 595 n. Bai is on the road from Kucha to Aulie-ata ;
it was the Chinese A-si-you. Cf. Chavannes, Tou-kiue occidentaux,.
p. 8.]
1 According to Notices et Extraits (quoted below), Khudaidad
ruled for ninety years. He is mentioned by Shah Rukh's envoys
to China, as coming to meet them near the Mongol frontier (Not.
et Extraits, xiv, pt. i, p. 388).
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE
years, and made considerable conquests beyond the
mountain ranges. He it was also who transferred the
seat of government to Yarkand. But about 1515, Abu
Said, son of Ahmed, son of Yunus Khan of Eastern
Chagatai, being a refugee in Farghana, organized an
expedition against Kashgar and Yarkand, which he suc-
ceeded in capturing, adding afterwards to his conquests
parts of Badakhshan, of Tibet, and of Kashmir1. When
Goes travelled through the country, the king, Mahomed
Khan, whom he found upon the throne of Kashgar (of
which Yarkand was now the capital), appears to have been
a descendant of this Abu Said2. His power, we gather
from Goes, extended at least over the territory of Aqsu,
and probably in some degree over the whole country at
the base of the T'ien Shan to the Chinese frontier, including
Kamil ; for what Goes calls the kingdom of Cialis or Chalis,
embracing Karashahr and Kamil with the intermediate
towns of Turf an and Pijan, was ruled by a son of the
prince who reigned at Yarkand. Khotan appears under
a separate sovereign, sister's son to the king at Yarkand,
and perhaps subsidiary to him.
The rulers of Eastern Turkestan had always been
Mahomedan from the time of Tughlak Timur, who was,
we are told, the first Mahomedan sovereign of Kashgar
of the lineage of Chinghiz. Buddhism, indeed, was found
still prevalent in the cities of Turfan and Kamil at the
time of the embassy of Shah Rukh in 1419, and probably
did not become extinct much before the end of the century.
But in the western states Islam seems to have been
universal from an earlier date and maintained with
1 See Notices et Extraits, as quoted at p. 193, infra.
- He was probably the Mahomed Sultan, sixth son of Abdul
Rashid Khan, who is mentioned in Quatremere's extracts (see
p. 193) as governing the city of Kashgar during the reign of his
brother Abdulkerim, towards the end of the sixteenth century.
JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
fanatical zeal1. Saintly teachers and workers of miracles,
claiming descent from Mahomed, and known as Khwajas
or Hojahs, acquired great influence, and the sectaries
attached to the chief of these divided the people into
rival factions, whose mutual hostility eventually led to
the subjugation of the whole country. For late in the
seventeenth century, Hojah Appak, the leader of one of
those parties called the White Mountain, having been
expelled from Kashgar by Ismail Khan the chief of that
state, who was a zealous supporter of the opposite party
or Black Mountain, sought the aid of Galdan Khan,
sovereign of the Eleuths or Kalmuks of Dzungaria.
Taking the occasion so afforded, that chief in 1678 invaded
the states south of the T'ien Shan, carried off the Khan
of Kashgar and his family, and established the Hojahs
[Hidayat Allah Hazrat Afak] of the White Mountain
over the country in authority subordinate to his own
[1678]. Great discords for many years succeeded, some-
times one faction and sometimes another being upper-
most, but some supremacy always continuing to be
exercised by the Khans of Dzungaria. In 1757 the
latter country was conquered by the Chinese, who in the
following year, making a tool of the White party which
was then in opposition, succeeded in bringing the state of
Turkestan also under their rule. So they have continued
until the present day, the details of administration
resting chiefly with the native authorities, but with
Chinese officials in supervision, and Chinese garrisons in
the chief towns and on the frontiers, the whole being
1 According to the Mecca pilgrim, whose statements are given
in the Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. iv (I borrow from Ritter, vii,
353), there are now many Buddhist priests and temples at the
capital of Khotan. But the presumption is that these have been
re-established since the revival of Chinese domination in the last
century. Islam seems to have been extensively prevalent in
those regions for centuries previous to the Mongols' rule, though
probably the rise of the latter gave a lift to other religions.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 193
under the general government of the Hi province
established at Kulja on the river so called, not far from
the ancient Almaliq. Rebellions, however, have been
very frequent and serious during the last sixty years, and
a great one is now in progress of which we know little
as yet1.
I am not in a position to say much as to the biblio-
graphy of Goes' journey. It is translated or related, I
believe, in Purchas, but I have no access to a copy of the
Pilgrims. An abstract of it is given in the China Illustrata
of the garrulous old Jesuit Athanasius Kircher (pp. 62-4,
Amsterdam, 1667), and a somewhat abridged version,
1 Chiefly from the Russ. in Cent. Asia. The history of these
regions, from the fall of the Mongol dynasty in China to the events
which led to the revival of the Chinese power in the eighteenth
century, seems only obscurely known. The chief existing record
of the history, up to the middle of the sixteenth century, is stated
to be the work called Tarikh-i-Rashidi, written by Mirza Mahomed
Haidar Kurkan, Wazir of Abdul Rashid Khan of Kashgar, who
came to the throne, according to Cjuatremere, A.H. 950 = A.D.
1543 (Valikhanoff says 1554), and reigned for thirty-three years.
According to Capt. Valikhanoff, the second part of this history
describes the personal adventures of the author, communicating
much information respecting the mountain ranges and countries
adjoining Kashgar, and should contain very interesting matter.
The work seems to have been little meddled with in Europe.
There is a long extract, however, by Quatremere, in vol. xiv of
the Notices et Extraits, pp. 474—89, from the Persian geography
called Haft IkUm (Seven Climates), but which is derived from the
Tarikh-i-Rashidi, and partly it would seem from a somewhat later
source, as Abdul Rashid's son, Abdul Kerim, is spoken of as then
reigning. This extract has furnished most of the particulars in
the preceding paragraphs of the text. Valikhanoff also speaks
of a manuscript history of the Hojahs, down to the capture of
Yarkand by the Chinese in 1758, called Tiazkarai Hojaghian,
which he obtained at Kashgar. From this apparently he derives
the particulars which he gives regarding those persons and their
factions. (R. in Cent. Asia, pp. 69, 167 seqq. ; Notices et Extraits,
u.s.) [The Tarikh-i-Rashidi has been edited by N. Elias and
translated into English by E. Denison Ross, Lond., 1895, 8vo,
and is frequently quoted in this new edition of Cathay. After the
annexation by the Chinese, the country called Sin Kiang was
divided into T'ien shan Pe Lu and T'ien shan Nan Lu ; at the head
of the Chinese administration was placed since 1762 a military
governor, Tsiang Kiun, who resided in the Chinese Kulja, Hwei
Yuan, built in 1764; he had a number of subordinate adminis-
trators and the native chiefs begs (Po-k'o, Pah-k'eh).]
c. Y. c. iv. 13
IQ4 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
with notes, in Astley's Voyages, which I have formerly
read, but have not now by me. Ritter first in recent
times took some pains to trace the route of Goes systemati-
cally, by the light of modern knowledge regarding these
regions, such as it is. It will be seen by the notes that I
have on various occasions ventured to differ from him.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
— Ex India Cataium Lustraturus mittitur e Nostra Societate
Benedictus Goesius Lusitanus. (De Christ. Exp. apud Sinas,
Aug. Vind., 1615, Liber v, Cap. n, pp. 544 et seq.)
— Reliquum itineris Cataium usque quod Sinarum Regnum
esse compertum est. (Ibid., Cap. 12, pp. 551 et seq.)
— Fratris Nostri Benedict! mors intra Sinense regnum, post-
quam ad eum excipiendum e Nostris unus Pechino missus aduen-
isset. (Ibid., Cap. 13, pp. 561 et seq.)
An abstract has been made by A. Kirch er :
"Le chemin qu'a tenu le Pere Benoit Goes de la Compagnie
de Jesus: pour aller en Cathaie ou la Chine." (Chine illustree,
pp. 85-88.)
" — Troisiesme Partie de 1'Histoire des Choses plvs memorables
advenves tant ez Indes Orientales, qu'autres pa'is de la descou-
uerte des Portugais . . . par le P. Pierre Dv larric Tolosain ... a
Bovrdeavs. . .CIODCXIIII. 4to.
Livre v :
Benoist de Goes de la Compagnie de lesvs, est enuoye pour
faire la descouuerte du Catay : & ce qui lui advint en vne partie
du chemin, pp. 145-155.
Benoist de Goes apres beaucoup de trauaux & dangers, trouua
finalement le Catay n'estre autre pai's que la Chine, ou il finit
son voyage, & le cours de ceste vie, pp. 155-162.
Much of the information has been drawn from F. Guerreiro's
Relations.
— The Report of a Mahometan Merchant which had beene in
Cambalu : and the troublesome trauell of Benedictvs Goes, a
Portugall lesuite, from Lahor to China by land, thorow the
Tartars Countreyes (Purchas, iii, Lib. ii, c. 4, pp. 310 et seq.).
— Vite // Di alcvni religiosi, // fratelli Coadivtori // della
Compagnia // di Giesv, // scritte // da diversi avtori, // e nel volgare
// italiano. // Tradotte da vn Religiose della medesima // Com-
pagnia. // In Torino, M.DC. LXIIII. // Per Gio: Giacomo Rustis,
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 195
// con licenza de' Superior!, 8vo, 7 ff. n. numb., front., [Cesare
Laurentio Fece], tit., etc.,+pp. 364.
Benedetto Goez, pp. 262-9. Born in 1552 in the island of
St. Michael. By Father Marius Clement Baratta. According to
Sommervogel, this work contains seventeen notices translated
from Claros Varones of E. Nieremberg.
— A Long and Dangerous Journey from Lahor, a City of the
Great Mogul, to China over Land, by Benedict Goez. (Travels
of Avril, Lond., 1693, PP- 163-170.)
— Berigt van een // Mahometaans Koopman, // aangaande //
Cambalu. // Mitsgaders de moeijelijke Reys van // Benedictus
Goes, // Gedaan van Lahor over Land door // Tartaryen na China,
// In 't Jaar 1598. en vervolgens. // Nu aldereerst uyt het Portugys
vertaald, met nodige // Konst-Printen en een Register verrijkt.
// [engrav.] // Te Leyden, // By Pieter Vander Aa, Boekverkoper,
1706. // Met Privilegie, fol., pp. 17.
(Map; 2 engrav. in text.)
— The Travels of Benedict Goez, a Portugueze Jesuit, from
Lahor in the Mogol's Empire, to China, in 1602.
In Astley's Collection of Voyages, iv, pp. 642-9.
— Father Pennequin wrote an elegy on Goes ; the sixteenth
of Book iii of his Primum S.J. saeculum, Atrebati, 1611, 4to.
— The Travels of Benedict Goez, a Portugueze Jesuit, from
Lahor in the Mogul's Empire to China, in 1602. (Pinkerton's
Coll. of Voyages, vii, 1811, pp. 577-587 — From Astley.)
— Jose de Torres wrote an historical novel having as a basis
Goes' adventures, with the title Bento de Goes, printed at Ponta
Delgada, in 1854.
— Menologe de la Compagnie de Jesus par le P. Elesban de
Guilhermy .... Assistance de Portugal ... Poitiers, 1867, 2 parts,
4to.
I-XI Avril, pp. 341-4 [Goes].
— Ferdinand Freiherrn von Richthofen. China . . . Erster Band,
Einleitender Theil. Berlin, Dietrich Reimer, 1877.
Reise von Benedict Goes, pp. 666-8.
— Benoit de Goes, Missionnaire voyageur dans 1'Asie centrale
1603-1607. Par le R. P. J. Brucker de la Compagnie de Jesus.
Extrait des Etudes religieuses, Lyon, Imprimerie Pitrat ain6,
1879, 8vo, pp. 42.
— Bento de Goes (1607-1907), por Augusto Ribeiro. (Bo/.
Soc. Geog. Lisboa, Abril, 1907, pp. 137-148.)
— Bento de Goes, Explorador da Asia o seu Itinerario, por
Ernesto de Vasconcellos. (Bol. Soc. Geog. Lisboa, Abril, 1907,
pp. 148-151, carte.)
Centenary of Goes.
These two articles were printed in a pamphlet 8vo, pp. 23, with
the title : Sociedade de Geographia de Lisboa. — No Centenario de
13—2
196 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
Ben to de Goes (1607-1907) Homenagem da Sociedade de Geo-
graphia de Lisboa n de Abril de 1907... .Lisboa, Typographia
Universal, 1907.
— Bento de Goes, Explorador da Asia. O seu itinerario. Por
Ernesto de Vasconcellos. (Revista Portugueza, 1907, 20 Abril,
pp. 1-5.) Historia da sua viagem ao Cataio. Trad, de Joao
Farmhouse. (Ibid., pp. 6-16; 20 Maio, pp. 49-50.)
— Elogio Historico de Bento de Goes — Proferido no dia 1 1 de
Abril de 1907, tricentenario da sua morte, por occasiao do solemne
Te Deum na matriz de S. Miguel Archanjo de Villa Franca do
Campo, pelo Padre Manuel Ernesto Ferreira. Typ. A. Moderna,
Rua do Castello, no. i, Ponta Delgada, 1907.
— Opere storiche del P. Matteo Ricci S.I. edite a cura del
Comitato per le Onoranze nazionali con prolegomeni note e
tavole dal P. Pietro Tacchi Venturi S.I. Volume primo I Com-
mentarj della Cina. Macerata, Filippo Giorgetti, 1911, large 8vo,
pp. LXVIII + 650 + 3ff . n.n., port., engrav., maps, facsim., etc.
See the three Chapters devoted to Goes in Book V :
Capitolo XII. Del Viaggio del fratello Benedetto di Gois
della nostra Compagnia che fece per terra dall' India verso Levante,
mandate da' suoi Superiori per scoprire il Gran Cataio, sino alia
citta regia del regno di Cascar. [Gennaio — novembre, 1603.]
Pp. 526-537.
Capitolo XIII. II resto del viaggio del fratello Benedetto di
Gois della nostra Compagnia di Cascar sino al Cataio, che ritrov6
esser 1' istesso che la Cina. [Decembre 1603 — novembre 1605.]
Pp. 538-548.
Capitolo XIV. Delia morte del fratello Benedetto di Gois, e
come fu liberato dalle mani de' Saraceni Isac Armenio dal fratello
Giovanni Fernandes, che era stato a Socceo di Pacchino. [Ultimi
di decembre 1605 — 28 ottobre 1606.] Pp. 549-558.
In our notes we mention this text as R., or Ricci.
— Atti del VII Congresso geografico italiano, Palermo, 30
aprile — 6 maggio 1910. La identificazione della Cina con il
Cataio dovuta al P. Matteo Ricci (n. Macerata 1552 — m. Pechino
1610) Geografo e Apostolo della Cina. Memoria del Prof. Ettore
Ricci. Palermo, Virzl, 1911, 8vo, pp. 14.
Itinerary of Goes, pp. 8-10.
— Joseph Brucker. Pour le Centenaire du P. M. Ricci.
Publications du P. Tacchi Venturi, du marquis Ricci Riccardi,
de M. Laufer, etc. (Etudes. . .par des Peres de la Compagnie de
Jesus, 20 avril, 1912, pp. 215-229.)
— Bento de Goes S.J. Een Ontdekkingsreiziger in Centraal-
Azie (1603-1607) door C. Wessels, 8vo, pp. 46, i plate monument
of Goes.
Overgedrukt uit De Studien Tijdschrift voor Godsdienst
Wetenschap en Letteren. Afl. no. i & 2, Jaargang 43, Dee] LXXV.
INTRODUCTORY NOTICE 197
Uitgegeven te Nijmegen door L. C. G. Malmberg, 1911, pp. 72-96,
229-248.
— Bergeron's Voyages, 1735 (Chap, xxvn of the Traite de la
Navigation) .
— Histoire generate des Voyages, vii, 1749, p. 410.
— Laharpe, Abrege des Voyages, vi, Livre v, Chap, iv, pp. 420-
438.
— Biographie universelle, Article by Eyries.
— C. Ritter, Asien, i, i sect., § 22, p. 218; 2 sect., § 29, p. 362;
v, Book iii, i sect., § 5, no. 2, pp. 391, 503-6.
THE JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES TO
CATHAY;
FROM CHAPTERS XI, XII, AND XIII OF THE WORK ENTITLED
"DE CHRISTIANA EXPEDITIONE APUD SINAS, SUSCEPTA
AB SOCIETATE JESU, EX P. MATTH^EI RICH COMMEN-
TARIIS, ETC., AUCTORE P. NICOLAO TRIGAUTIO."
AUGUST. VIND., 1615.
CHAPTER XI OF BOOK V
How the Portuguese, Benedict Goes, a member of our Society, is
sent to find out about Cathay.
LETTERS from those members of the Society who were
living at the court of the Mogul brought to Western
India1 some news regarding that famous empire which the
Mahomedans called CATHAY, the name of which was once
familiar to Europe through the story of Marcus Paulus
the Venetian, but had in the lapse of ages so fallen out of
remembrance that people scarcely believed in the exist-
ence of such a country. The substance of what the
Fathers wrote from time to time was, that the empire of
Cathay lay towards the east, somewhat further north
than the kingdom of the Mogul; and that they had
reason to believe that many professors of the Christian
faith were to be found in it, with churches, priests, and
1 Literally, "From the letters of the members dwelling at
the court of Mogor, it was heard in India." With the missionaries
of this age, and the Portuguese, India meant Goa and the Western
Coast (just as with the Dutch now India means Java and Sumatra) ;
Hindustan Proper and the dominions of the Mogul were called
Mogor.
JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES TO CATHAY
sacraments1. On this Father Nicolas Pimenta2 the
Portuguese, who was Visitor of the Society in the East
Indies, became greatly taken up with the desire of
establishing a field of labour for our Society among that
people; all the more because it might well be supposed
that Christians separated from their head by such vast
distances must have fallen into sundry errors. Hence he
thought it well to communicate on the matter both with
the Pope and with His most Catholic Majesty3. And by
the King's command, accordingly, despatches were sent
to the Viceroy, then Arias Saldanha, desiring him to
support the expedition proposed by the Visitor with both
money and countenance ; an order which he carried out,
and more, as might indeed have been expected from the
favourable disposition that he entertained both towards
the propagation of the faith, and towards our Order in
particular. The Visitor proceeded to select for the
exploration one of our Brethren called Benedict Goes4,
a Portuguese by nation, and an eminently pious and
sensible man, who from his long residence in the Mogul's
territories, had an accurate knowledge of the Persian
tongue, and a thorough acquaintance with Mahomedan
customs, two qualifications which appeared to be indis-
pensable for any one attempting this journey.
1 [Ricci, p. 526 : " Per via de' padri della Compagnia, che
stanno nelle terre del Gran Mogore, si hebbe nova nell' India che
quel celebre regno, che si noma il Gran Cataio, cui fama tanti anni
sono arriv6 in Europa per via di Marco Polo venetiano e di altri e
poi se ne era persa la notizia, stava al levante piu al settentrione
dello stato del Mogore, e che molti Saraceni volevano la andare a
far le loro faccende, dando per nova che quivi erano molti chris-
tiani con chiese e sacerdoti et altri riti de' nostri."]
2 [Nicolas Pimenta, born at Santarem, on the 6th December,
1546, died at Goa on the 6th March, 1614, or, according to the
Catalogus brevis Provinciae Goanae, quoted in Ricci, p. 526 «., on
the 6th March, 1613.]
3 Philip III.
4 [Written Gois by Ricci.]
200 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
Our brethren had heard indeed, by extracts of Father
Matthew's letters from the capital of China, that Cathay
was but another name for the Chinese empire1, (a fact
which has been established by various arguments in a
previous part of this book). But as quite an opposite
view was taken in the letters of the Fathers at the Mogul's
court, the Visitor first wavered and then inclined to the
opinions of the latter; for whilst he found it distinctly
stated in regard to Cathay that a considerable number of
Mahomedans were to be met with there, it had come to
be considered, an established fact that the follies of that
sect had never found their way to China. Moreover,
whilst it was denied that there ever had been a vestige
of Christianity in China, the positive assertions of the
Mahomedan eye-witnesses were held to put beyond
question its existence in the country called Cathay. It
was suggested that the name of an empire conterminous
with China might have been extended also to the latter ;
and it was decided that the investigation should be carried
out, so as both to remove all shadow of doubt, and to
ascertain whether a shorter line of communication with
China could not be established.
As regards the Christians who were held so positively
to exist in Cathay (i.e. as we shall see by and by in China),
either the Mahomedan informants simply lied, as they
have a way of doing, or they were misled by some super-
ficial indications. For as they themselves never pay
respect to images of any kind, when they saw in the
Chinese temples a number of images not altogether
unlike our representations of the Mother of God and some
of the Saints, they may possibly have thought that the
1 [Ricci knew that China and Cathay were but one country;
it is proved by his unpublished letter of the I3th October, 1596,
mentioned in R., p. 528 ».]
TO CATHAY 2OI
religion of the country was all one with Christianity.
They would also see both lamps and wax lights placed
upon the altars; they would see those heathen priests
robed in the sacred vestments which our books of ritual
call Pluvials1', processions of suppliants just like ours;
chaunting in a style almost exactly resembling the
Gregorian chaunts in our churches ; and other parallels of
the same nature, which have been introduced among them
by the devil, clumsily imitating holy things and grasping
at the honours due to God. All these circumstances
might easily lead a parcel of traders, especially if
Mahomedans, to regard the people as professors of
Christianity2.
So our Benedict began to prepare for his journey, and
assumed both the dress and the name of an Armenian
Christian merchant, calling himself Abdula, which signifies
Servant of the Lord, with the addition of Isdi or the
Christian3. And he got from the Mogul king, Akbar by
1 [R., p. 528: "I sacerdoti con cappe e vestimenti far
procession!."]
2 So easily that the alternative supposition might have been
spared. The like confusion has often occurred, and the Jesuits
themselves have here shown why. According to Deguignes, the
Chinese describe the sovereign and people of the (Eastern) Roman
Empire as worshippers of Fo, or Buddha, and as putting his image
on their coins. Da Gama, in his report of the various eastern
kingdoms of which he heard at Calicut, describes the Buddhist
countries of Pegu, etc., as Christian. Clavijo sets down the king
and people of India as Christians of the Greek faith, and heard
that the Emperor of Cathay was a Christian also. The Tartars,
whom Josaphat Barbaro met at Tana, assured him that the inhabi-
tants of Cathay were Christians, because "they had images in
their temples as we have." Anthony Jenkinson's party were told
at Bokhara, in 1559, that the religion of the people of Cathay was
that of the Christians, or very nearly so (see also supra, in, p. 54, a
note from Quatremere) . When Dr. Richardson and Capt. Macleod,
in their explorations of the states east of Burma, fell in with
Chinese traders, these generally claimed them as of their own
religion.
3 Du Jarric says the name bestowed on him by Xavier was
"Brando. Abedula, i.e. Servant of the Lord." I do not know
what the first word is meant for.
202 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
name, who was friendly to the brethren and above all to
Benedict himself, sundry rescripts addressed to various
Princes known to be either friends or tributaries of his.
So he was to pass for an Armenian, for in that character
he would be allowed to travel freely, whilst if known as a
Spaniard he was certain to be stopped1. He also carried
with him a variety of wares, both that he might maintain
himself by selling them, and to keep up his character as a
merchant. There was a large supply of these wares both
from (western) India, and from the Mogul dominions,
provided at the expense of the Viceroy of India, aided by
contributions also from Akbar himself. Father Jerome
Xavier, who had for many years been at the head of the
Mogul mission, appointed two men acquainted with those
countries to be the comrades of his journey. One, for
Benedict's comfort, was a priest, by name Leo Grimanus,
the other a merchant called Demetrius2. There were also
four servants, Mahomedans by birth and former profession,
but converted to Christianity. All of these servants how-
ever he discharged as useless when he got to LAHORE (the
second capital of the Mogul), and took in lieu of them a
single Armenian, Isaac by name, wrho had a wife and
family at Lahore. This Isaac proved the most faithful of
all his comrades, and stuck to him throughout the whole
journey, a regular fidus Achates. So our brother took
leave of his superior, and set out, as appears from the
1 "He adopted the common Armenian costume, viz. a long
frock and turban, with a scymitar, bow, and quiver, this being a
dress usually worn by merchants, but yet such as marked him
for a Christian" (Du Jarric). He allowed his hair and beard to
grow long, as was the practice of merchants. He was often,
however, on the journey, as his letters mentioned, taken for a
Saida (Syad), or descendant of Mahomed (/&.).
2 The former is probably the same person who is mentioned
by Du Jarric as "the subdeacon Leo Grymonius, a clever and
experienced man," a Greek by nation, who was sent by Akbar on
a mission to Goa about 1590 (ii, 529).
TO CATHAY 203
letter of instructions, on the sixth of January in the
third year of this century (1603) l.
Every year a company of merchants is formed in
that capital to proceed to the capital of another territory
with a king of its own, called CASCAR2. These all take
the road together, either for the sake of mutual comfort
or for protection against robbers. They numbered in
the present case about five hundred persons, with a great
number of mules, camels, and carts3. So he set out
from Lahore in this way during Lent of the year just
mentioned4, and after a month's travelling they came to
a town called ATHEC5, still within the province of Lahore.
After (a halt of) about a fortnight they crossed a river of
a bowshot in width, boats being provided at the passage
for the accommodation of the merchants6. On the
opposite bank of the river they halted for five days,
having received warning that a large body of robbers was
threatening the road, and then after two months they
arrived at another city called PASSAUR? : and there they
1 The instructions were probably sent after him to Lahore,
for we have seen that according to another and probably more
correct statement he set out on the 3ist October, and reached
Lahore 8th December, 1602. As instructed, he did not put up
at the church at Lahore, then occupied by the Jesuits Emanuel
Pinheiro and Francis Corsi, but at the house of John Galisci, a
Venetian (Du Jarric).
2 Kashgar.
3 [R., p. 530: "Quattrocento o cinquecento persone con
cavalli, cameli e cariaggi."]
4 Easter in 1603 was 3oth March, N.s.
6 Attock, on the Indus. [Attock Town (Atak) is a fort above
the Indus "built by Akbar in 1581, to protect his empire against
the inroads of his brother, Hakim Mirza, governor of Kabul;
and he named it Atak-Banaras in contrast to Katak-Banaras,
the fort which lay in the south-east corner of his empire." The
District of Attock is in the Rawalpindi Division of Punjab.
(Imp. Gazetteer of India.)~\
6 [R., p. 530: "cavalli, cameli e mercantie."]
7 Peshawar. For two months read two marches, see p. 180,
supra. These halts of twenty days, thirty days, alt look suspicious.
Some mistaken interpretation is probably at the bottom of the
204 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
halted twenty days for needful repose. Further on,
whilst on their way to another small town, they fell in
with a certain pilgrim1 and devotee, from whom they
learned that at a distance of thirty days' journey there
was a city called CAPPERSTAM, into which no Mahomedan
was allowed to enter, and if one did get in he was punished
with death2. There was no hindrance offered to the
entrance of heathen merchants into the cities of those
people, only they were not allowed to enter the temples.
He related also that the inhabitants of that country
never visited their temples except in black dresses; and
that their country was extremely productive, abounding
especially in grapes. He offered our brother Benedict a
cup of the produce, and he found it to be wine like our
own; and as such a thing is quite unusual among the
Mahomedans of those regions, a suspicion arose that
perhaps the country was inhabited by Christians3. In
difficulty. [Peshawar, since 1901 capital of the North- West
Frontier Province, "is situated on a ridge overlooking the sur-
rounding plain and the city, which lies near the left bank of the
Bara Stream, 13 £ miles south-east of the junction of the Swat and
Kabul rivers, and 10^ miles from Jamrud fort near the entrance
of the Khyber Pass." In the time of Fa Hian it was the capital
of the Ghandara Province. "In 1552 Humayun found the
fortress in ruins, but had it repaired and entrusted it to a governor,
who successfully defended it against the Afghans under Khan
Kaju. The -town appears to have been refounded by Balgram,
a contemporary of Akbar, and was much enlarged by General
Avitabile, its governor under the Sikhs." (Imp. Gaz. of India.}}
1 [R., p. 530: "un eremitano de idoli pellegrino."]
2 [Under "the reign of the late Amir, when Afghan troops
overran the country, and brought about its complete subjection.
With the exception of the Ramgulis, who held out for a consider-
able period, the Kafirs, who were ill-armed, made but a feeble
resistance, and have accepted the Muhamedan religion with little
demur." (Imp. Gaz. of India.}']
3 [R., p. 530: "Caferstam."] The " city called Capperstam "
represents KAFIRISTAN [in Afghanistan], the hill-country occupied
by the fair race called by the Mahomedans Kafirs, or infidels, of
whom we still know extremely little. Some of them, at least,
are called Siyaposh, or black-clothed (like the Scythian Melanch-
Iceni of Herodotus, iv, 107), from their wearing black goat-skins.
The abundance of grapes and wine among them is noticed by
TO CATHAY 2O5
the place where they met with that wanderer they halted
for twenty days more, and as the road was reported to
be infested with brigands they got an escort of four
hundred soldiers from the lord of the place. From this
they travelled in twenty-five days to a place called
Elphinstone (ii, 375) and Wood. Sultan Baber also says: "So
prevalent is the use of wine among them, that every Kafir has a
Khig, or leathern bottle of wine, about his neck ; they drink wine
instead of water" (p. 144). Timur, before entering Afghanistan
on his march towards India, sent an expedition against the
Siyaposh; and himself led one against another section of the
Kafirs, the members of which, according to his historian, went
quite naked. To reach these he crossed the snowy mountain
Kataur. This is the name of one of the Kafir tribes in Elphinstone,
and Shah Kataur is a title still affected by the Chief of Chitral,
according to Burnes. Chinghiz also after his campaign in the
region of the Hindu Kush, is stated to have wintered in the
mountains of Buya Kataur. Thence he attempted to reach
Mongolia by Tibet (probably by the passes of Karakorum), but
failed, and had to go round by Bamian. Akbar and Nadir Shah
also undertook expeditions against the Kafirs, both unsuccessfully.
(H. de Timur Bee, iii, 14—21; D'Ohsson, i, 319; Elphinstone's
Caubul, ii, 376, 381 ; Ritter, vii, 207.)
Kafiristan has lately been visited by two native missionaries,
employed under the agents of the Church Missionary Society at
Peshawar, and some account of their experiences has been pub-
lished, but it does not amount to much. The chastity and honesty
of the people are lauded. Those of the same village entertain a
strong feeling of kindred, so that neither fighting nor marrying
among themselves is admissible. But the different tribes or
villages are often at war with each other, and then to kill men or
women of an alien tribe is the road to honour. They have no
temples, priests, or books. They believe that there is one God, but
keep three idols whom they regard as intercessors with him. One
of these, called Palishanu, is roughly carved in wood, with silver
eyes ; he is resorted to in excess or defect of rain, or in epidemic
sickness. Goats are sacrificed, and the blood sprinkled on the
idol. Women must not approach it. The other two idols are
common stones. Goats' flesh is the chief food of the people, and
occasionally partridges and deer; but fowls, eggs, and fish are
not used [though the rivers teem with fish]. They have no horses,
donkeys, or camels, only a few oxen and buffaloes, and a few
dogs. "They drink wine in large quantities, and very nasty it
is, if what was brought down to Peshawar may be taken as a
specimen ; " but none were seen drunk. Their drinking-vessels
were of curiously wrought pottery, and occasionally of silver.
They live to a great age, and continue hale till the day of death.
"The men are somewhat dark, but the women are said to be as
fair as Europeans, and very beautiful, with red cheeks." The
men hardly ever wash either their clothes or their persons. In
talking they shout with all their might. They bury their dead
206 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
GniDELt1. In the whole of this journey the baggage and
packs were carried along the foot of the hills, whilst the
merchants, arms in hand, kept a look out for the robbers
from the hill-top2. For these latter are in the habit of
rolling stones down upon travellers, unless these are
beforehand with them on the heights, and meeting
violence by violence drive them away. At this place the
merchants pay a toll, and here the robbers made
with coffins, in caves among the hills. (From Christian Work,
September, 1865, p. 421.) ["The dead are disposed of in a
peculiar manner. They are not buried, or burnt, but are deposited
in large boxes, placed on the hill-side or in some more or less
secluded spot." (Imp. Gaz. of India.}}
Leech, in his Report on the Passes of Hindu Kush, mentions
that smiths are regarded by the Kafirs as natural bondsmen, and
are occasionally brought for sale to the Musulman people of the
valleys; also, that the oath of peace of the Kafirs consists in
licking a piece of salt. This last was also the oath of the Kasias
on the eastern frontier of Bengal, in whose country I spent some
time many years ago.
1 George Forster was, on the 3ist July, at Gandamak; on
the ist of August he rested at Djeguid-Ali (I am using a French
version, and do not know how Forster spells it) ; next day he
got to Kabul. I suspect that this Djeguid-Ali is the Ghidell of
Goes, and that both represent the nomen infelix of Jugdulluk
(Jour, from Bengal to Petersburg, French version by Langles, ii,
52). The preceding town, where Goes' party got an escort, was
probably Jalalabad. The exaggerated interpretation of the
times occupied in the march must be kept in mind, whatever be
the cause of the error. According to the text, Goes was forty-
five days + x in getting from Peshawar to Kabul. Forster's
account makes him only seven days ; Wood, with Burnes, was
nineteen days, but with halts included. [On Major-General
Walker's Map of Turkestan, 1878, Sheet No. 4, between Peshawar
and Jalalabad we find Girdi and Girdikas; it may be Ghideli.]
[In one itinerary from Peshawar to Kabul taken from Muham-
mad Abdul Kerim Moonshy's Tarikhi Ahmed, translated from the
Persian by the late Ch. Schefer (Recueil d' Itindraires et de Voy.
dans I'Asie centrale. Paris, Ernest Leroux, 1878, pp. 361-6),
we read that on the tenth day the traveller reaches Guendoumek
(Gandamak), on the eleventh Djegdeleh, and on the fifteenth
Kabul. "Djegdeleh, localite bien peuplee et qui constitue le
domaine de la tribu afghane de Suleyman-Kheyl." I have little
doubt that this Djegdeleh is the Ghidell of Goes.]
[Jalalabad, in Afghanistan, 79 miles from Peshawar and 101
from Kabul, was founded in 1570 by the Emperor Akbar.]
2 The neglect of this same practice of "crowning the heights"
caused grievous disaster in those very passes, in the first attempt
to relieve the "Illustrious Garrison" of Jalalabad in 1841.
TO CATHAY 2O7
an onslaught. Many of the company were wounded, and
life and property were saved with difficulty. Our
Benedict fled with the rest into the jungle, but coming
back at night they succeeded in getting away from the
robbers. After twenty days more they reached CABUL1,
a city greatly frequented for trade, and still within the
territories subject to the Mogul. Here our friends halted
altogether for eight months. For some of the merchants
laid aside the intention of going any further, and the rest
were afraid to go on in so small a body.
At this same city the company of merchants2 was
joined by the sister of that very King of Cascar, through
whose territory it was needful to pass on the way to
Cathay. The king's name is Maffamet Can3; his sister
was the mother of another king, entitled the Lord of
CoTAN4, and she herself was called Age Hanem5. Age
is a title with which the Saracens decorate those who go
on pilgrimage to the impostor's carcase at Mecca6. In
1 [Kabul, capital of Afghanistan. " Kabul first became a
capital when Babar made himself master of it in 1504, and here
he reigned for twenty years before his invasion of Hindustan. It
passed on the death of Babar to his younger son, Kamran, who,
after several attacks on his brother Humayun, was defeated and
blinded by him (1553). Humayun left it to his infant son,
Mirza Hakim, on whose death, in 1585, it passed to the latter's
elder brother, Akbar. From this time up to its capture by
Nadir Shah (1738), it was held by the Mughal Emperors of India.
From Nadir Shah it passed to Ahmad Shah Durrani, whose son,
Timur, made it the capital of his kingdom. It continued to be the
capital during the Sadozai dynasty, and is so still under the now
reigning Baraksais." (Imp. Gaz. of India.)}
[R., p. 531 : "con archi e freccie."]
2 [R., p. 531: " [s'jincontro il fratel Benedetto con una
sorella del re di Cascar."]
3 [R., p. 531 : "Mafamet Cam."] 4 [R.,p. 531: "Cotam."]
5 Hajji-Khanum, "The Pilgrim Princess." Du Jarric calls
her Ahehaxam, i.e., in the Turkish tongue, "Beauty coming down
from Mecca " ( ?). The king's name is, of course, Mahomed Khan ;
his sister's son, the Lord of Khotan, south-east of Kashgar and
Yarkand.
6 [It is hardly necessary to recall that the Prophet was buried
at Medina, not at Mecca.]
208 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
fact she was now on her return from that immense journey
to Mecca, which she had performed for the sake of her
blasphemous creed; and having run short of money she
came to seek assistance from the merchants, and promised
that she would honestly repay their advances with ample
interest on reaching her territory. This seemed to our
brother an opportunity not to be lost of obtaining the
favour of the king of another kingdom, for now the
efficacy of the Mogul's orders was coming to an end. So
he made her an advance of about six hundred pieces of
gold from the sale of his goods, and refused to allow
interest to be stipulated in the bond. She would not,
however, let herself be outdone in liberality, for she
afterwards paid him in pieces of that kind of marble1
which is so highly esteemed among the Chinese, and which
is the most profitable of all investments that one can
take to Cathay.
From this place the Priest Leo Grimanus went back
[to Lahore], being unable to stand the fatigues of the
journey; and his comrade Demetrius stopped behind in
the town on account of some business. So our brother
set out, attended by no one but the Armenian, in the
caravan with the other merchants. For some others had
now joined them, and it was thought that they could
proceed with safety.
The first town that they came to was CIARAKAR, a
place where there is great abundance of iron2. And here
1 [R., p. 532: "pietra di iaspe, molto fina, che e la migliore
mercantia che di Cascar portano alia Cina."]
2 Chdrikar [on the Ghorband] at the head of the Koh-Daman
valley, north of Kabul, famous in our own day for the gallant
defence made there by Eldred Pottinger, and Haughton, during
the Kabul outbreak (1841). It is mentioned by Ibn Batuta as
Charkh. Leech, in his Report on the Passes, calls it Charka.
[Charfkar, in Afghanistan, at the mouth of the Ghorband Valley,
about forty miles north of Kabul. " Iron ore is brought to Charikar
in great quantities from the Ghorband mines, and is worked up
TO CATHAY 20Q
Benedict was subjected to a great deal of annoyance.
For in those outskirts of the Mogul's dominions no atten-
tion was paid to the king's firman, which had hitherto
given him immunity from exactions of every kind. Ten
days later they got to a little town called PARUAN1, and
this was the last in the Mogul's territories. After five
days' "repose they proceeded to cross over very lofty
mountains by a journey of twenty days, to the district
called AiNGHARAN2, and after fifteen days more they
for the Kabul market." (Imp. Gaz. of India.) It is the residence
of the governor of Kohistan, a sub-province of Kabul.]
It is to be recollected that the names in the text are all spelt
by Ricci after the Italian fashion.
[R., p. 532: "dove stettero venti giorni."]
1 [R., p. 532 : "Parvam, terra piccola e ultima dello stato del
Mogore."] Parwan, in a nook of the Hindu Kush, has, from its
position near the terminus of several of the chief passes, often been
famous in Asiatic history. It is evidently the Karwan of Jaubert's
Edrisi (a mistranscription for Farwari) — " The town of Farwan is
of no great size, but a nice enough place with agreeable environs,
thronged bazaars, and rich inhabitants. The houses are of clay
and brick. It is situated on the banks of the river Banjhir
(Panjshir). This town is one of the principal markets of India"
(i, p. 477) . At Parwan the army of Chinghiz was checked for the
moment in 1221, being defeated by the Sultan Jalal-uddin of
Khwarizm. And in an action near Parwan in 1840 took place
the ominous misconduct of a regiment of Bengal cavalry, which
caused the day to be lost, with the lives of several valuable
officers, though Dost Mahomed Khan surrendered immediately
afterwards.
2 Here the great number of days occupied in the various
portions of the journey is perplexing in the detail as well as
erroneous in the total (as we have seen it to be). Goes and his
party are made to take seventy-five days from Kabul to Talhan
(the identity of which can scarcely be doubtful), a journey which
could scarcely have occupied more than sixteen to twenty at
most.
Wood, in his unsuccessful attempt to cross one of the Passes
of Parwan (perhaps that followed by Goes), on the second day
reached the village I-ANGHERAN, and Ahingaran [R., p. 532 :
"Aingaram"] is also mentioned in Leech's Report as a village on
one of the passes from Parwan at twenty-six miles from the
entrance of the pass. But this place is on the south side of the
mountains, whilst the Aingharan of Goes is on the north. Either
it has been confounded with Andarab, or, as is very possible, the
name, which I suppose is Ahan-ghardn, "The Iron-Mines,"
recurs. Indeed just before receiving the proof of this sheet I
have observed the recurrence of the name in another locality,
suggesting a different view of Goes' route over the mountains,
c. Y. c. iv. 14
2IO JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
reached CALCIA. There is a people here with yellow1
hair and beard like the people of the Low Countries,
who occupy sundry hamlets about the country. After
ten days more they came to a certain place called
for which I refer to the note on the Passes at the end. Calcid
(Kalsha, Kalacha, Kilasiya?) is a great difficulty, as it was
evidently a place of some importance, but no place of the name
can be traced. Khulum however appears to have been in the
possession of a family called Khallach or Killich, and it is possible
that that town may" be meant (see Elphinstone's Caubul, ii, 196;
also Burnes, iii). I must not, however, omit to mention that on
the north side of the Oxus in this longitude, occupying part of
the hill-country east of Bokhara, there is a poor but independent
people of Persian race called Ghalchas. Meyendorff calls them
very swarthy, but Valikhanoff says expressly: "The Tajiks have
dark complexions and hair, whilst fair people are found among
the Ghalcha." This might explain the yellow-haired people men-
tioned by Goes, and his use of the expression Calciensium Populos.
[" The population of Sarlkol, apart from the nomadic Kirghiz
herdsmen who visit its grazing grounds, consists of hill Tajiks,
who by physical appearance and language alike are unmistakably
proved to belong to the so-called Galcha stock." Stein, i, p. 25.
"The hillmen of Sarlkol at the present day form the extreme
outpost of Iranian nationality towards the east." Ibid. p. 26.
"Finally, it may be pointed out in passing that an ethnic
link between the Iranian Sarikolis and the present population
of those oases is, perhaps, to be found in the small and little
known hill-tribe of the Pakhpos, who partly as herdsmen, partly
as cultivators, dwell in the narrow valleys near the headwaters of
the Tiznaf and Yarkand Rivers. Dr. Bellew, to whom we owe
what scanty information has so far been recorded about this
curious people, describes them as of 'pronounced Caucasian
features' and very fair." Stein, p. 26.]
But I cannot well see how his Calcia should be beyond the
Oxus, nor find any evidence of Ghalchas south of that river.
Gaoloshan in the Chinese tables, which is nearer Calcia than any
other name, is placed i° 36' west of Badakhshan and o° 26' north
of it. This indication also points to the north of the Oxus, about
twenty miles due north of Hazrat Imam (see Meyendorff, p. 132;
Russ. in Cent. Asia, p. 65; Amyot, Mdmoires, torn, i, p. 399).
If Calcia, however, be Khulum, Jalalabad must then be sought
between Khulum and Talikhan, about Kunduz or Aliabad, if not
identical with one of these. [I should rather seek for Calcia at
Khanabad between Kunduz and Talikhan.]
1 [R., p. 532: "barba e capelli rossi."]
[Stein speaking of a friendly Sarikoli says : " With his tall
figure, fair hair, and blue eyes, he looked the very embodiment
of that Homo Alpinus type which prevails in Sarikol. I thought
of old Benedict Goez, the lay Jesuit, who when passing in 1603
from the Upper Oxus to ' Sarcil ' or Sarikol, noted in the looks of
the scanty inhabitants a resemblance to Flemings." Ruins of
Desert Cathay, i, p. 89.]
TO CATHAY 211
GIALALABATH. Here are brahmans who exact a toll
under a grant made to them by the King of Bruarata1.
In fifteen days more they came to TALHAN, where they
halted for a month, deterred by the civil wars that were
going on2 ; for the roads were said to be unsafe on account
of the rebellion of the people of Calcia.3.
From this they went on to CHEMAN*, a place under
Abdulahan King of Samarkan, Burgavia5, Bacharata,
1 Bruarata is almost certainly a misreading for Bacharata, the
term used further on for Bokhara. [R., p. 533: "Bucaratc."]
2 [R., p. 533 : " in tumulto per la ribellione delli popoli di
Calcia."]
3 Talhan is the first terra firma in the narrative since quitting
Parwan. It is doubtless Talikhan, about fifty miles east of
Kunduz, and has been spoken of in the Introductory Notice
(p. 184). It is mentioned by Marco Polo under the name of
Taican (i, p. 153). [In the travels of Sidi Ali, son of Husa'in
(Journ. Asiat., October, 1826, p. 203), "Talikan, in the country
of Badakhschan " is mentioned. It is still existing in the province
of Kataghan or Kunduz, but it bears the former name (Thdikdri)
in the old Arab geographies.]
[Goes has now arrived at a point, Talikhan, of Marco Polo's
route, and there seems little doubt that he is now marching in the
footsteps of the Venetian traveller until he reaches the Pass of
Chichchiklik, viz. the River Vardoj, the Pass of Ishkashm, the
Panja, to Wakhan; Little Pamir at Bozai-Gumbaz joins with
the Pamir-i-Wakhan at the Wakhijrui Pass, first explored by
Colonel Lockhart's Mission. Hence the route lies by the old fort
of Kurgan-i-Ujadbai at the junction of the two branches of the
Tagh-dum-bash Pamir (Supreme Head of the Mountains), the
Tagh-dum Pamir and Tash-Kurghan.]
4 I cannot say what place this is. Hazrat Imam on the Oxus
appears too much out of the way. But Wood mentions, at the
junction of the Kokcha with the Oxus, due north of Talikhan, a
mountain which he calls I-Khanam (Koh-i-Khanam ? "Hill of
Khanam"): "Immediately below I-Khanam, on its east side,
the ground is raised into low swelling ridges. Here, we were
informed, stood an ancient city called Barbarrah, and there is a
considerable extent of mud-walls standing which the Tajiks
think are vestiges of the old city, but which are evidently of a
comparatively modern era." It is possible that this was Khanam,
and the Cheman of Goes. [R., p. 533 : "Chescan."] [Both on the
Russian Map of Asiatic Russia in eight sheets (Sheet 5, 1883), and
the Map of Turkestan of Major-General Walker, 1878 (Sheet
No. 4, scale i in. = 32 miles), beyond Talikhan situated between
Kunduz and Kishm, we find Teskan or Teshkan, probably our
Chescan, on the road to Faizabad.]
5 Burgavia is probably a misprint for Burgania (as Astley in
his version has indeed printed it), and intended for Farghdnah.
14—2
212 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
and other adjoining kingdoms1. It is a small town, and
the governor sent to the merchants to advise them to
come within the walls, as outside they would not be very
safe from the Calcia insurgents The merchants, however,
replied that they were willing to pay toll, and would
proceed on their journey by night. The governor of the
town then absolutely forbad their proceeding, saying
that the rebels of Calcia as yet had no horses, but they
would get them if they plundered the caravan, and would
thus be able to do much more damage to the country,
and be much more troublesome to the town; it would
be a much safer arrangement if they would join his men
in beating off the Calcia people. They had barely
reached the town walls when a report arose that the
Calcia people were coming ! On hearing this the bragging
governor and his men took to their heels2. The merchants
on the spur of the moment formed a kind of entrenchment
of their packs, and collected a great heap of stones inside
in case their arrows should run short. When the Calcia
people found this out, they sent a deputation to the
merchants to tell them to fear nothing, for they would
themselves escort and protect the caravan. The mer-
chants, however, were not disposed to put trust in these
insurgents, and after holding counsel together flight was
determined on. Somebody or other made this design
known to the rebels, upon which immediately they made
a rush forward, knocked over the packs, and took whatever
The prince is then Abdnlla Khan, King of Samarkand, Bokhara
and Farghawa. The reigning sovereign at this time, according
to Deguignes (i, 291-2) was Abdul Mumin of the Uzbek house of
Shaibek, which had reigned for a century in Ma-wara-n-Nahr.
1 [R., p. 533 : "Re di Samarhan, Burgagne, Bucarate et altri
regni vicini."]
2 [R., p. 533 : " Arrive la compagnia presso ai muri, e venendo
nova che quei di Calcia venivano con grande furia, il governatore
abandon6 la villa e con tutta la gente se ne fugitte in cavalli e
cameli."]
TO CATHAY 213
they liked. These robbers then called the merchants out
of the jungle (into which they had fled) and gave them
leave to retire with the rest of their property within the
empty city walls. Our Benedict lost nothing but one of
his horses, and even that he afterwards got back in
exchange for some cotton cloths1. They remained in
the town in a great state of fear lest the rebels should
make a general attack and massacre the whole of them.
But just then a certain leading chief, by name Olobet
Ebadascan, of the Buchara country, sent his brother to
the rebels, and he by threats induced them to let the mer-
chants go free2. Throughout the whole journey, however,
robbers were constantly making snatches at the tail
of the caravan. And once it befel our friend Benedict
that he had dropped behind the party and was attacked
by four brigands who had been lying perdus. The way
he got off from them was this : he snatched off his Persian
cap3 and flung it at the thieves, and whilst they were
making a football of it our brother had time to spur his
horse and get a bowshot clear of them, and so safely
joined the rest of the company.
1 [R., p. 534: "il quale poi riscosse con due pezze di tela."]
2 There are some doubtful points in reading this. In Trigault
the sentence runs: " Misit dux quidam e maximis, nomine Olobet
Ebadascan, Bucharatis regione fratrem suum, qui minus Calcienses
rebelles adegit ut negotiatores liber os abire permitterent ," where
Olobet Ebadascan ('Ala-Beg Ibadat Khan?) is treated as one
name. Perhaps however the original ran, "Olobet e Badascan"
— "a chief by name 'Ala-Beg (or Wali-Beg) of Badakshan, a
country under Bokhara." In the latter clause I have supposed
minus to be a misprint for minis; otherwise it must be "induced
the less rebellious of the Calcha people," which would be awkward.
[R., p. 534: "Stando i mercanti dentro delle mura con grande
paura di essere ammazzati da quei ribelli, un grande capitano per
nome Olobeth, mand6 di Badascian, terra del Bucarate, suo fratello
Oscialbeth a minacciare ai ribelli di Calcia se facessero nessun
male a quella compagnia di mercanti ; e per questo furno lasciati
andare al loro cammino, ma con molte roberie in tutto esso."]
8 [R., p. 534 : "il turbante que portava nella testa a guisa degli
armenij di tela della India."]
214 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
After eight days of the worst possible road, they
reached the TENGHI BADASCIAN1. Tengi signifies a
difficult road; and it is indeed fearfully narrow, giving
passage to only one at a time, and running at a great
height above the bed of a river2. The townspeople here,
aided by a band of soldiers, made an attack upon the
merchants, and our brother lost three horses. These,
however, also he was enabled to ransom with some small
presents. They halted here ten days, and then in one
day's march reached CIARCIUNAR, where they were
detained five days in the open country by rain, and suffered
not only from the inclemency of the weather, but also
from another onslaught of robbers3.
From this in ten days they reached SERPANIL; but
this was a place utterly desolate and without a symptom
of human occupation ; and then they came to the ascent
of the steep mountain called SACRITHMA*. None but
the stoutest of the horses could face this mountain ; the
rest had to pass by a roundabout but easier road. Here
two of our brother's mules went lame, and the weary
servants wanted to let them go, but after all they were
got to follow the others. And so, after a journey of
twenty days, they reached the province of SARCILS,
where they found a number of hamlets near together.
They halted there two days to rest the horses6, and then
in two days more reached the foot of the mountain called
CIECIALITH. It was covered deep with snow, and during
the ascent many were frozen to death, and our brother
1 [R., p. 534: "Tenghi Badascian."]
2 [R., p. 535: "sotto di esso correre un grande fiume sino a
arrivare alia stessa citta di Badascian."]
3 [R., p. 535: "di Calcia."]
4 [R., p. 535: "con mani e con piedi."]
5 [R., p. 536: "Sarc61."]
6 [R., p. 536: "che venivano assai stanchi."]
TO CATHAY 215
himself barely escaped, for they were altogether six days
in the snow here. At last they reached TANGHETAR, a
place belonging to the Kingdom of Cascar. Here Isaac
the Armenian fell off the bank of a great river into the
water, and lay as it were dead for some eight hours till
Benedict's exertions at last brought him to.
In fifteen days more they reached the town of
lAKONiCH1, and the roads were so bad that six of our
brother's horses died of fatigue. After five days more our
Benedict going on by himself in advance of the caravan
reached the capital, which is called HiARCHAN2, and sent
1 [R., p. 536: "Jacorich."]
[lakonich or Yakonich "manifestly contains the misspelt
name of the large village Yaka-arik, south-west of Yarkand,
passed on the route from Chichiklik." (Stein, Ancient Khotan,
i, p. 40 n.} On the map of Great Tartary by Philipp Johann
von Strahlenberg (1723) we find: Choteen, Kargalagga, Sarikol,
Tamgeran, Jakonig, lerken or Hiarchan.]
2 Goes travelled like Hiuen Tsang from India to the Upper
Oxus by way of Kabul and Badakhshan, then to Tash Kurghan
(i.e. Sarc61, Sarikol), Chichiklik, Tangheter (Tangitar), Yakonich
(Yaka-aryk), Hiarchan (Yarkand). Cf. Stein, Ancient Khotan,
p. 40.
"Taking into account the topographical indications furnished
by the pilgrim's [Hiuen Tsang] own route and the distance and
bearing recorded, I had previously arrived at the conclusion that
the site of the hospice would have to be looked for on the Chichik-
lik Maidan, the plateau -like head of a high valley, where the main
route from Tash-kurghan, the Sarikol capital, to Kashgar crosses the
second great mountain range stretching south from the Muztagh-
ata massif. But it was only on my recent journey that I was
able to examine this route and to verify the conjectured location.
I found that the curious level plain about 2| miles long and about
ii miles across, at the head of the Shindl Valley, situated at an
elevation of over 14,000 feet and bordered all round by snowy
ridges, corresponds most closely to Hsiian-tsang's description.
The accounts of my caravan men and my personal observations
amply sufficed to convince me of the losses which this desolate
upland of Chichiklik, exposed to the winds and snows, claims
annually in animals and sometimes in men Most of it was still
under snow when I passed here in June, 1906." (M. Aurel Stein,
Buddhist Local Worship in Central Asia, pp. 840—1. Stein
quotes the passage of Cathay, p. 562.)
[" While all the other Pamirs are situated within the drainage
area of the Oxus, the waters of the Taghdumbash Pamir discharge
themselves eastwards into the great Turkestan Basin. The river
of which they are the main feeders, and which takes its best-
known name from Tash-kurghan, the chief place it passes, breaks
2l6 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
back horses to help on his party with necessaries for his
comrades. And so they also arrived not long after safe
at the capital, with bag and baggage, in November of
the same year 1603 x.
through the great meridional range flanking the Pamirs on the
east, and ultimately joins the Yarkand river or Zarafshan. The
collection of valleys which the river of Tash-kurghan drains,
together with some minor alpine tracts adjoining them towards
the Upper Yarkand River, constitutes the well-defined mountain
district now known as Sarikol." Stein, i, pp. 22-23.]
1 The places named in the preceding paragraphs continue to
present some difficulty, but in a somewhat less degree than those
lately encountered.
The Tangi-i-Badakhshan, " Straits or Defiles of Badakhshan," —
this precise expression is used in the Akbar-Namah as quoted by
Quatremere. (Not. et Ext., xiv, Pt. i, 222.) — I should look for them
along the Oxus in Darwaz and Shagnan, where the paths appear,
from what Wood heard, to be much more difficult and formid-
able than that which he followed, crossing from the Kokcha at
Faizabad to the Upper Oxus in Wakhan, where again the latter
river runs in a comparatively open valley. The title is well
illustrated by Marco Polo's expressions: "En cest regne (de
Balacian) a niaint estroit pas moult mauvois et si fort que il n'ont
doute de nullui" (Pauthier's Ed., p. 121). [" After our experiences
across the Baroghil and Wakhjir the snow-beds encountered on
the Chichiklik Maidan, relatively firm under a grey heavy sky,
did not impress me so much as they might otherwise have done.
Yet I could not help realizing the trials presented at other times
by this bleak plateau close on 15,000 feet above sea, as I recalled
here the account left by Benedict Goe'z." Stein, Ruins of Desert
Cathay, i, p. 99. From the Chichiklik Maidan he "entered the
deep-cut defile eastwards, appropriately known as 'Tangi-tar,'
i.e. 'the narrow gorge,' through which the winter route passes
eastwards." Ibid. — This is exactly the route followed by Goes.]
Ciarciunar is, I suppose, unquestionably the Persian CHAR CHINAR,
"The four plane-trees." This (Charchinar) is actually the name
of an island in the Lake of Kashmir, formerly conspicuous for its
four great plane-trees (see Forster's Journey) . Ser.panil, desolate
and without human habitation, I take to be probably SIR-I-PAMIR,
"The head or top of Pamir," the celebrated plateau from which
the Oxus, Jaxartes, Rivers of Yarkand and Kashgar, and the
Gilgit branch of the Indus derive their headwaters. The
anomalous name Sacrithma may represent a station which appears
in Macartney's map on the mountains near the head of the Oxus
as SARIKBAEE. Wilford makes some wild work with this name
Sacrithma, quoting Goes, in his essay on the "Isles of the West"
in vol. viii of the As. Researches. The ridge to which Goes applies
the name must be that which separates the Sirikul from the head-
waters of the Yarkand River. Sarcil may then be, as Ritter
surmised, the district of SARIKOL near the said headwaters (see
Russ. in Cent. Asia, p. 157; Ritter, vii, 489, 505; iii, 635). Cieci-
alith (i.e. Chechalith) is then without doubt that spur of the Bolor
TO CATHAY 217
running out towards Yarkand, which appears on some recent
maps of Asia as the CHICHECK TAGH, and in Klaproth's map cited
by Ritter as Tchetchetlagh, immediately noith of Sarikul. The
passage of this great spur is shown very distinctly in a route laid
down in Macartney's map (in Elphinstone's Caubul), only the
author supposed it to be the main chain of the Kara Korum.
Macartney terms the Col of which Goes gives so formidable an
account, the Pass of Chiltung, and a station at the northern side
of it CHUKAKLEE, which is probably the Chechalith of our traveller.
Tanghetdr I had supposed to be a mistranscription for Yang-
hesar, i.e. Ingachar or YANGI-HISAR, an important town forty-seven
miles S.E. of Kashgar on the road from that city to Yarkand, an
error all the more probable as we have Tusce for Yusce a little
further on. Tungeetar, however, appears in Macartney's map,
and immediately beyond he represents the road as bifurcating
towards Kashgar and Yarkand. It must in any case be near
Yengi-Hisar if not identical with it. lakonich I cannot trace.
[See supra.]
[Stein, Ancient Khotan, i, p. 42, remarks that Goes "appears to
have spent not less than twenty-eight days in the journey from
the hamlets of 'Sarcil' (Sarikol, i.e. Tash-kurghan) to 'Hiarchan'
(Yarkand) — a distance of some 188 miles, now reckoned at ten
days' march."]
[" Though Yarkand is in all probability a place of considerable
antiquity, it is difficult to trace back its name or even its existence
as a town of importance previous to the Mongol conquest in the
thirteenth century. . . . Yarkand undoubtedly owes its old-estab-
lished prosperity and its flourishing trade to its position at the
point where the great routes from Khotan, Ladak, and the Oxus
are joined by those leading to Kashgar and the north-eastern
part of the Tarim Basin. The abundance of local produce
favours the growth of a large town population, and this, with its
quasi-cosmopolitan colonies drawn from all parts of the Oxus
Valley, from Ladak, Baltistan, Afghanistan, and the border
regions of China, reflects the true causes of Yarkand's importance."
Stein, Ancient Khotan, i, pp. 87-8.]
Ritter is led by the slight resemblance of names to identify
the Charchunar of Goes with Karchu, near the upper waters of
the Yarkand, and this mistake, as it seems to me, deranges all
his interpretation of the route of Goes between Talikhan and
Sarikol.
Goes in a letter from Yarkand to Agra spoke of the great
difficulties and fatigues encountered in crossing this desert of
Pamech (PAMIR), in which he had lost five horses by the cold.
So severe was it, he said, that animals could scarcely breathe the
air, and often died in consequence. As an antidote to this
(which, of course, was the effect of attenuated atmosphere rather
than of cold) the men used to eat gailic, leeks, and dried apples,
and the horses' gums were rubbed with garlic. This desert took
forty days to cross if the snow was extensive (Du Jairic). Forty-
days is the time assigned by Polo also to the passage of this
lofty region (ii, 27).
CHAPTER XII OF BOOK V
The remainder of the Journey to Cathay, and how it is ascertained
to be all the same as the Chinese empire.
HIARCHAN, the capital of the kingdom of Cascar1, is
a mart of much note, both for the great concourse of
merchants, and for the variety of wares. At this capital
the caravan of Kabul merchants reaches its terminus;
and a new one is formed for the journey to Cathay2.
The command of this caravan is sold by the king, who
invests the chiefs with a kind of royal authority over the
merchants for the whole journey3. A twelvemonth
passed away however before the new company was formed,
for the way is long and perilous, and the caravan is not
formed every year, but only when a large number' arrange
to join it, and when it is known that they will be allowed
to enter Cathay.
There is no article of traffic more valuable, or more
generally adopted as an investment for this journey, than
1 [R., p. 538: "La citta di Hiarcan molto grande." It is
the kingdom called So kiu by the Chinese.]
2 ["Though the political centre has shifted from Yarkand
since the re-establishment of Chinese rule, the above description
still holds good ; and we may well conclude that the flourishing
condition of the city which Marco Polo's account also indicates,
was maintained from early times independent of political pre-
dominance." Stein, pp. 88—9.]
3 Du Jarric, from the letters which Goes wrote from Yarkand
in February and August, 1604, mentions that the chief whom he
eventually accompanied paid the king two hundred bags of musk
for the nomination. Four others were associated with him as
envoys ; and one hundred and seventy- two merchants, who pur-
chased this privilege from the chief at a high price, insomuch that
he cleared a large amount by the transaction.
JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES TO CATHAY
lumps of a certain transparent kind of marble which we,
from poverty of language, usually call jasper. They carry
these to the Emperor of Cathay, attracted by the high
prices which he deems it obligatory on his dignity to give ;
and such pieces as the Emperor does not fancy they are
free to dispose of to private individuals. The profit on
these transactions is so great that it is thought amply to
compensate for all the fatigue and expense of the journey.
Out of this marble they fashion a variety of articles,
such as vases, and brooches for mantles and girdles,
which when artistically sculptured in flowers and foliage
certainly have an effect of no small magnificence. These
marbles (with which the empire is now overflowing) are
called by the Chinese lusce1. There are two kinds of it ;
the first and more valuable is got out of the river of Cotan,
not far from the capital, almost in the same way in which
divers fish for gems2, and this is usually extracted in
pieces about as big as large flints. The other and inferior
kind is excavated from the mountains ; the larger masses
are split into slabs some two ells broad and these are
1 The word as printed in Trigautius is Tusce, but this is cer-
tainly a mistake for lusce, i.e. Yu shd or " Yu stone," the Chinese
name of the oriental jade, the Yashm of Western Asiatics (see
n, p. 221, supra).
The description in the text of the double source of supply of
jade is perfectly in accordance with the Chinese authorities, one
kind being fished up in boulder form by divers, from the rivers
on each side of the chief city of Khotan, which are called respec-
tively Yurung-Kash and Kara-Kash (White Jade and Black Jade),
and the other kind quarried in large masses from the mountain
called Mirjai, which is stated by a Chinese writer to be two
hundred and thirty li (about seventy miles) from Yarkand.
From the mention of a jade quarry by Mir Izzet Ullah, about
half-way from the Kara Korum Pass to Yarkand, it is probable
that the Mirjai mountain is to be sought thereabouts (see Ritter,
vii, 380—9). Ritter will have the Cansanghi Cascio of our text
to be a mistake for Karangui-Tagh, the name which he finds
applied to the range in which the rivers of Khotan spring, probably
a part of the Kuen-Lun. But the words are Persian, Kan sang-
i-Kdsh, "The mine of Kash (or Jade) Stone," Kash being the
Turki word for that mineral.
2 [R., p. 539: "perle e margarite."]
22O JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
then reduced to a size adapted for carriage. That
mountain is some twenty days' journey from this capital
(i.e., Yarkand) and is called CANSANGHI CASCio1, i.e. the
Stone Mountain, being very probably the mountain
which is so termed in some of the geographical descriptions
of this empire2. The extraction of these blocks is a work
involving immense labour, owing to the hardness of the
substance as well as to the remote and lonely position of
the place. They say that the stone is sometimes softened
by the application of a blazing fire on the surface. The
right of quarrying here is also sold by the king at a high
price to some merchant, without whose license no other
speculators can dig there during the term of the lease.
When a party of workmen goes thither they take a year's
provisions along with them, for they do not usually
revisit the populated districts at a shorter interval.
Our brother Benedict went to pay his respects to the
king, whose name was Mahomed Khan3. The present
1 [R., p. 539: "Can Sanguicascio."]
2 [R., p. 539: "e pare uno che si suol pingere in certi map-
pamondi novi nel regno di Cascar col titulo di mons lapideus."]
3 [R., p. 539 : " Fu a visitare il re di Cascar per nome Mahamet-
hdn."] In orig. Mahameihin, for Mahamethan. A letter which
Goes wrote to Xavier from Yarkand, 2d February, 1604, mentioned
that the excitement created in the city by the announcement of
the arrival of an Armenian Rumi who did not follow the Law of
Islam, was so great that he thought it desirable to pay his respects
to the king, and he was well received. The vizir having been
attracted by a cross and a book of the Gospels (apparently a
breviary) which he saw among the baggage, Benedict was desired
to produce these at a second audience. The king received the
book with much reverence, and directed Goes (to his great joy)
to read a passage and explain its meaning. He turned up at a
venture the anthem for Ascension Day, Viri Galilcei, quid statis
aspicientes in Ccelum ? and then, in deep emotion at an opportunity
so unlocked for, proceeded to declare the glorious Ascension of
the Saviour before those Mahomedans ; adding also some remarks
on the descent of the Spirit at Pentecost, and on the Advent of Christ
to judgment. Opening the book a second time he read the 5oth
(our 5ist) Psalm, and took occasion from it to speak of repent-
ance. The bearded doctors of the law regarded one another with
astonishment, and the king also expressed his surprise. The latter
then requested to see the cross ; and asked " To what quarter did
TO CATHAY 221
that he carried with him secured him a good reception,
for it consisted of a pocket watch1, looking glasses, and
other European curiosities, with which the king was so
charmed and delighted that he adopted the giver at once
into his friendship and patronage. Our friend did not
at first disclose his desire to go to Cathay, but spoke only
of the kingdom of Cialis, to the eastward of Cascar, and
begged a royal passport for the journey thither. His
request was strongly backed by the son of that pilgrim
queen to whom he had lent six hundred pieces of gold [in
Kabul]2. And he also came to be on intimate terms
with divers gentlemen of the court.
Six months had passed away when behold Demetrius,
one of the original comrades of his journey, who had
stayed behind at Kabul, arrived at Hiarchan. Benedict
and Isaac the Armenian were greatly delighted at his
arrival; but their joy was of short continuance, for very
soon after this Demetrius caused our friend a great deal
of trouble. At that time, with the king's leave, one of
the merchants was elected mock emperor, whilst all the
the Christians turn in prayer?" To all, said Benedict, for God
is everywhere. Did they use any washings and ceremonial ablu-
tions ? None corporeal, said he, like those of the Mahomedans,
to wash away the stains of sin, for these were of no profit to the
soul; but spiritual washings, by which souls are cleansed from
sin's foulness : an answer which seemed to give satisfaction.
On another occasion (for he was often called to the palace)
the king showed him papers inscribed in a certain round and
vermiculate character, and asked what they were. Goes when he
had read them (in what language is not stated) found them to
treat of the Trinity, and took occasion therefrom to speak of the
Divine greatness and Omnipotence, etc. So much did they all
admire what he said, that in turn they began to ask, "And are
these the men whom we have called Kafirs? Of a truth they
acknowledge God as well as we." And the king said, " Surely it is
a Mullah that is speaking ! " (Du Jarric).
1 [R., p. 539: "un horiulo di ferro per portare al collo."]
2 This Prince of Khotan had come to Yarkand to meet his
mother, and showed Benedict much courtesy and gratitude for
the aid rendered her at Kabul. He also was greatly taken with
the readings from the Scripture (ib.).
222 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
rest, according to a custom of theirs, paid homage to him
and offered him presents. Demetrius, to save his pocket,
held back ; and as the emperor had the power of putting
rebels against his authority in irons, or even of flogging
them, Demetrius had great difficulty in escaping both
penalties. Our Benedict, however, by his good manage-
ment, arranged the whole matter, for his intercession and
a small present got pardon for Demetrius. A greater
peril also befel the party, when thieves broke into the
house, and laid hold of the Armenian whom they tied up,
putting a dagger to his throat to prevent his giving the
alarm. The noise however roused Benedict and Demetrius,
and the robbers made off.
On another occasion Benedict had gone away to get
his loan repaid by the mother of the Prince of QuoxAN1.
1 [R., p. 540: "Cotan."] Khotan, which may be considered
the most central and inaccessible state of all Asia, was a seat of
very ancient civilisation, and was already in friendly relations
with China in 140 B.C. In the fourth century of our era Buddhism
was in high development here. Though much of the surface
appears to be rugged mountain, it is interspersed with levels
which are both fruitful and populous. At this time, like the
other states of Eastern Turkestan, it was under a Mahomedan
chief of Turkish or Mongol descent. Khotan is the subject of a
short chapter in Marco Polo. In modern times its only European
visitor has been Adolphus Schlagintweit, who never returned to
tell his tale. [Khotan, also Kustana [Hiuen Tsang], Hwan-na,
K'iu Ian is the old kingdom of Yu t'ien ; in the seventh century
the king Fu-tu Hiung went to the court of the Chinese Emperor
to pay him homage. His government was turned into the govern-
ment of P'i sha, Fu-tu Hiung receiving the title of governor.
Khotan was one of the Four Garrisons of the Chinese in Eastern
Turkestan, the others being Su lei (Kashgar), Yen k'i (Karashahr)
and K'iu-tze (Ku cha), in the seventh and eighth centuries. The
Buddhist Government of Khotan was destroyed by Boghra
Khan (about 980—90) ; it was temporarily restored by the
Buddhist Kutchluk Khan, chief of the Nai'mans, who came from
the banks of the Hi, destroyed the Mahomedan dynasty of Boghra
Khan (1209), but was in his turn subjugated by Chinghiz Khan.
The remains of the ancient capital of Khotan were accidentally
discovered, some forty-five years ago, at Yotkan, a village of the
Borazan Tract, about eight miles to the west of the present Khotan.
The sacred sites of Buddhist Khotan which Hiuen Tsang and Fa
Hian describe, can be shown to be occupied now, almost without
exception, by Mohamedan shrines forming the object of popular
TO CATHAY 223
Her capital was ten days' journey distant, and what with
going and coming, a month had passed and he was still
absent. So the Saracens took occasion by this to spread
false reports of Benedict being dead, alleging him to
have been put to death by priests of theirs for refusing
to invoke the name of their false prophet. And now
those initiated priests of theirs whom they call Cashishes1,
pilgrimages. Dr. Sven Hedin followed the route Kashgar, Yangi-
Hissar, Yarkand to Khotan, in 1895; he made a stay of nine
days at Ilchi, the modern capital, the population of which is
estimated at 5500 inhabitants (5000 Musulmans, 500 Chinese).
The Shut king (sixth century) says that the kingdom of Yu t'ien
has Si for its capital, that its soil produces a great quantity of
jade and that it is situated 380 li eastward of Pi Shan.
Marco Polo, i, pp. 188-91 n. ; Grenard, ii, pp. 191-2. — Stein,
Sven Hedin, Chavannes, Tou-kiue, pp. 125-9; Wei Ho, p. 564.]
1 In orig. Cascisces. [R., p. 540 : "cazissi."] Kashish or Kasis,
from a Syrian root signifying " Senuit," is the proper Arabic
term for a Christian presbyter. It is the term (Kashishd) applied
by the Syrian Christians of Malabar to their own presbyters
(Buchanan, Christ. Resear., pp. 97 seqq.) ; it will be found attached
to the Syriac names of priests on the ancient monument of
Si-ngan fu (see Pauthier's work on it, pp. 42 seqq.} ; and it is also
applied by the Arabs to Catholic priests. Mount Athos, according
to D'Herbelot, is called by the Turks Kashish Daghi, from its
swarms of clergy. "By neither Christians nor Mahomedans,"
says my friend Mr. Badger, " is the word adopted to designate any
minister of Islam." We have, however, many instances of its
misapplication to Musulman divines by European travellers.
And as I find the word given in Vieyra's Portuguese Dictionary
(ed. Paris, 1862) in the form "Caciz — A Moorish Priest," it
seems probable that this misapplication originated in the Peninsula.
In like manner in India Fakir has come to be applied to the
Hindu Jogis and other devotees, though properly a Mahomedan
denomination. In fact, our own application of priest (i.e.
presbyter) to ministers of pagan worship is in some degree parallel.
Only as regards Kashish it is notable that it seems to have been
regarded by European Christians as the specific and technical
term for a Mahomedan divine, whereas it was in its proper oriental
application the specific and technical term for a Christian presbyter.
It was in general use by the Catholic missionaries as the term
for a Mullah ; see Du Jarric's Jesuit history passim (Cacizii) ;
P. Vincenzo the Carmelite (Casis o con altro nome Schierifi, p. 55),
etc. In Mendez Pinto also we have "hum Caciz seu Moulana
que elles tinhdo por santo" (cap. v).
Gonzalez de Clavijo again speaks of "Moorish hermits called
Caxixes," and in another passage of "a great Caxix whom they
look upon as a saint" (Markham's Trans., pp. 79, 114).
In the description of Khansa in the Mongol History of Wassaf
(in Persian) it is said : " The city includes seven hundred temples
224 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
were endeavouring to lay violent hands upon his property,
as that of one who was dead intestate and without an
heir. This matter caused great distress to Demetrius and
Isaac, both in their daily sorrow at the supposed death of
their comrade, and in the danger of their own position.
So their joy was twofold when after a while he turned up
in safety. He returned with his debt paid in ample
measure with pieces of that valuable stone of which we
have spoken ; and to mark his gratitude to God he made
a large distribution of alms to the poor, a custom which
he kept up throughout his whole journey.
One day when he had sat down with a company of
Saracens at a dinner to which one of them had invited
him, some fanatic burst in, sword in hand, and pointing
his weapon at Benedict's breast desired him instantly to
invoke the name of Mahomet. Our friend replied that
no such name was wont to be invoked in the law which he
professed, and that he must absolutely refuse to do so.
The bystanders then came to his aid, and the madman
was ejected. The same threats of death however, unless
he would address prayer to Mahomet, are said to have
been directed to him repeatedly, yet God ever delivered
him until the end of his journey. On another day it
happened that the King of Cascar sent for him, when the
priests and theologians1 of the accursed faith were present
at the court, (they call their theologians Mullas). Being
then asked what faith he would profess, whether that of
Moses, or of David, or of Mahomet, and in what direction
he would turn his face in prayer? our friend replied that
resembling fortresses, each of which is occupied by a number of
priests without faith and monks without religion (kashishan be
kesh wa Rahabin be din)" (see Quatremere's Rashid., p. Ixxxvii).
Here the Persian author seems to apply to Pagans the terms both
for "presbyter" and "monk" appropriated to Christians.
1 [R., p. 541: "mullasi e cazissi."]
TO CATHAY 225
the faith he professed was that of JESUS, whom they called
Isai, and that it mattered not to what quarter he turned
in prayer, for God was everywhere. This last answer of
his created a great discussion among them, for in prayer
they make a point of turning to the west. At last they
came to the conclusion that our law also might have
some good in it1.
Meantime a certain native named Agiasi2 was nomin-
ated3 chief of the future caravan of merchants. And
having heard that our brother was a man of courage, as
well as a merchant of large dealings, he invited him to a
grand entertainment at his house, at which there was a
great concert of music4 after the manner of those people,
as well as a dinner. After dinner the chief requested our
brother to accompany the caravan all the way to Cathay.
He indeed desired nothing better, but experience had
taught him how to deal with Saracens, so he was glad
that the proposal should come from the other side, and
thus that he should seem to be granting rather than
accepting a favour. So the king himself was prevailed on
by the chief to make the request, and did accordingly ask
Benedict to accompany the Caruanbasa5 as they call the
chief of the company. Benedict agreed to do so on
1 At Yarkand there were one hundred and sixty mosques;
and every Friday an official went about the bazaar reminding the
people of the duties of the day. After this twelve men issued
from the chief mosque armed with whips of hide, which they laid
about those whom they found in the streets, absenting themselves
from public prayer (Du Jarric). The same custom is mentioned
by Ibn Batuta as existing at Khwarizm in his time, and he tried
to introduce similar Blue Laws when judge in the Maldives.
It still prevails in Bokhara (Burnes, ii, 243; Vambery, p. 185).
The pious Mahomed Tughlak enforced like regulations at Delhi
when the whim took him, sometimes with death as his manner was.
2 Hajji 'Aziz? [R., p. 541: " Agi Afis."]
3 [R., p. 541: "comprd."]
4 [R., p. 541: "con molti canti, balli e stromenti."]
5 [R., p. 541: " Carvdn Basel, che vuol dire ' capitanio della
compagnia di mercanti.' "]
c. Y. c. iv. 15
226 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
condition that the king would grant him circular letters1
for the whole course of the journey. His former comrades,
belonging to the Kabul caravan, took offence at this, for,
as has been said, it was always necessary on those
occasions to travel in large numbers. So they counselled
him against putting any trust in the natives, for these
intended the thing only as a trap by which they might
succeed in devouring his fortune, and his very life. Our
friend however represented that he was acting in accord-
ance with the King's expressed wishes, and had given his
promise to the chief of the caravan, from which as an
honest man he could not go back. In truth the fears
which those merchants professed to entertain were not
unfounded, for many of the natives of the country
declared that those three Armenians (for so they called
them, as being all of one faith2) would be murdered as
soon as they set foot outside the city walls. And so
Demetrius took fright, and a second time drew back from
prosecuting the journey further, trying also to persuade
our brother to go back. Benedict would not listen to
him, saying that he had never yet let himself be deterred
by fear of death from the duty of obedience, much less
would he do so now in a business from which so much
glory to God might be expected. It would be most
unworthy conduct, he said, to frustrate the hopes of so
many for fear of death ; and to throw away all the expense
that had been incurred by the Archbishop of Goa3 and
the Viceroy4. He hoped still to carry through the under-
1 [R., p. 541 : " una molto buona patente."]
2 [R., p. 542 : " (che pensavano esser i tre nostri per 1' abito e
nome con che si chiamavano)."]
3 [Alessio di Gesd de Menezes.]
4 [Arias Saldanha. R., p. 542: "e di essa se ne era data
nuova al papa et al re di Spagna, e non pareva bene, inanzi
all' arrivare al Cataio, ritornarsene nel mezzo del cammino
senza nessuna conchiusione."]
TO CATHAY 227
taking by the help of Him who had thus far brought him
prosperously, but in any case he would rather risk his life
in the cause than draw back from his purpose1.
So he girded up his loins for the journey, and bought
ten horses for himself and his comrade and their goods,
having already one more at his house. Meanwhile the
chief of the caravan2 went off to his home, which was
some five days from the capital, to get ready for the
journey, and after his arrival sent back a message to our
friend to start as soon as possible, and to hasten the other
merchants by his example. He was glad enough to do so,
and set out accordingly, in the middle3 of November, 1604,
proceeding first to a place called IOLCI, where duties used
to be paid and the king's passports to be inspected. After
this, in twenty-five days, passing successively HANCIALIX,
ALCEGHET, HAGABATETH, EGRIAR, MESETELECH, THALEC,
HORMA, THOANTAC, MINGIEDA, CAPETAL COL ZILAN, SARC
GUEBEDAL, CANBASCI, ACONSERSEC and CiACOR4, they
1 [R., p. 542 : " II Demetrio, non gli bastando 1' animo di patire
tanti travagli e far tante spese, se ne ritorn6 a Lahor, lasciando
parte della sua faccenda al fratello Benedetto."]
2 [R., p. 542 : " Carvdn Basel."']
3 [R., p. 542 : " 14 de novembre dell' anno 1604."]
4 I cannot identify one of these places in any routes or maps
of Central Asia except Canbasci, which appears in K. Johnston's
map of Asia as Kumbashi, and is mentioned in the Russian Reports
as one of the most important settlements of the Aqsu district
(Russians in Central Asia, p. 160). Of the other names Hancialix
translated from Ricci's spelling would be probably Khan-Chalish ;
Sarc Guebedal is probably the same name as Saregabedal which
occurs further on; Aconsersec is possibly the Saksak of Berghaus's
map; Ciacor is probably Shaky ar, which indeed is the name of
a town some 4° east of Aqsu, but which also appears to be common
to many other places in the country, if it is not indeed a local form
of the Persian Shahr (city). This is suggested by the fact that
Karashahr appears in one of the routes in the book just quoted
as Karashagiar (R. in C.A., p. 527). The journey here is said
to occupy twenty-five days, but the stages mentioned are sixteen.
The latter is the number of stages according to the Chinese route
in the Russ. in Central Asia, pp. 531—3, though none of the
names correspond. It is also the number of stages assigned by
the Tajik itinerary from Semipalatinsk to Kashmir which is
'5—2
228 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
reached Acsu1. The difficulties of the road were great,
given in the appendix to Meyendorf's Bokhara. The Georgian
Raphael Danibeg was thirteen days from Yarkand to Aqsu.
(Meyendorf, pp. 314 seq. and 122 seqq.}
[It must be acknowledged that these identifications or rather
non-identifications are unsatisfactory ; we shall be more successful
if we do not seek exclusively the route followed by Goes in the
itineraries of to-day. Prof. Paul Pelliot, who has travelled along the
same road, writes to me : " When leaving Yarkand, Goes followed
what was then the usual caravan road to Aqsu ; it differs in parts
from the present-day road. We have an almost exactly situated
spot in Horma; it is the Hu-eul-man of Chinese texts of the
xvmth century. A battle was won there in 1756 by part of
the army of Chao Hwei, in his fight in Turkestan against Huo-
tsi-chan (K'o Dzi-chan). From chap. 18 of the Si yu t'u che,
Hu-la-ma was situated 130 li south-west of Pa-eul-ch'u-k'o ; this
name, Barchuq, was borne at the time by Maralbashi. From
Horma, Goes followed a road more easterly than the present one ;
this is proved by the stage To antac = Tewan-tagh, the ' low hill ' ;
it is to this day the name of a hilly spur to the east of the
road Maralbashi — Aqsu. Then comes Mingieda = Mingdjigda
the name of one Elaeagnus and Capetalcol, Capetal-col, which
seems to be Kaptar-kol, the lac of pigeons. The stage Cildn,
Zilan, in Chinese Ts'i Ian (jujube) is still marked on native maps.
Save Guebedal must be Sarygh-abdal, but I do not remember
finding this name in this part of the country ; it may be a duplicate
name of the Saregabedal of the itinerary from Aqsu to Kucha.
Cambasci has been already identified by Yule with Qum-bashi,
on the Qum-aryq ; I think this name a very old one and I believe
I can find it under the Han and the T'ang dynasties ; it is the
Huen-ba-sheng mentioned in the biography of Ye-liu Hi-leang.
(Cf. Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches, i, p. 162.)"]
1 Aqsu, a city of Chinese Tartary, lying to the south of the
glacier pass over the Mus-Tagh (and according to the tables in
R. in C. A ., p. 521) in long. 78° 58', lat. 41° 9'. According to that
authority it contains twelve thousand houses, though Timkowski
states the number more probably at six thousand. It stands at
the confluence of the Rivers Aqsu (white-water) and Kokshal ;
it is the central point of the Chinese trade, and from it diverge all
the great routes towards China, the Hi country, and the cities
both of Eastern and Western Turkestan. The tract immediately
surrounding it is one of some fertility, producing a variety of
fruits including grapes and melons, besides cereals and cotton.
There is a manufacture of jade articles, and of embroidered deer-
skin saddlery. Aqsu appears in the Chinese annals, according
to Deguignes, as early as the second century B.C. under the Han
dynasty, as having a Chinese Governor. Deguignes and D'Anville
think it to be the Auxacia of Ptolemy. It was at one time the
residence of the Kings of Kashgar and Yarkand. From Aqsu
the high pass, called by the Chinese the "Pass of Glaciers," leads
over that lofty part of the T'ien Shan called the Muz-art, or Icy
Mountains to Kulja, the seat of the Chinese General Government
of Dzungaria and Turkestan. (Russ. in C. A., pp. 112, 119, 159;
TO CATHAY 229
either from the quantities of stones, or from the water-
less1 tracts of sand which they had to pass.
Acsu is a town2 of the kingdom of Cascar, and the
chief there was a nephew of the king's, and only twelve
years of age. He sent twice for our brother. The latter
carried him presents of sweetmeats and the like, such as
would be acceptable to a child, and was most kindly
received. A grand dance happening to be performed
before them, the young prince asked Benedict how the
people of his country used to dance? and so Benedict,
not to be churlish with a prince about so small a matter,
got up and danced himself to show the way of it. He
also visited the prince's mother and showed her the royal
rescript3, which she looked on with great respect. To
her he presented some little things such as women like, a
looking glass, India muslin, and so forth. He was also
sent for by the boy's governor who conducted the adminis-
tration4.
In this journey one of the pack horses belonging to
our merchant fell into a very rapid river. In fact having
broken the rope with which its feet (I know not why)
were tied, it made off and crossed to the other side of
the river. Benedict feeling the loss a serious one invoked
Timkowski, i, 391; Deguignes, i, 26; n, xxxix; Ritter, vii, 431,
449-)
[R., p. 543: " Hancialix, Alcegher, Habagateth, Egriar, Mese-
lelec, Tallec, Horma, Toantac, Mingieda, Capetalcol, Cilan, Sare
Guebedal-, Cambasci, Aconterzec, Ciacor, Acsu."]
[We find on Carey's Map : Menut, Ala Aighir, Shamal, Maral-
bashi (Barchuk), Charwagh, Tumchuk, Chadir Kul, Yaka Kuduk,
Jaidi-urtang, Chilan, Well, Shor Kuduk, Sai-Arik, Ai kul, Chuktal,
Asuk, Aksu.]
1 [R., p. 543: " puoca acqua."]
2 [R., p. 543: " citta piccola."]
3 [R., p. 543: "la patente de Hiacan e passar franco senza
pagar gabella."]
4 [R., pp. 543-4: "Fu anco invitato dal maestro di quel
putto, che in suo luogo governava lo stato, e lo tratt6 con grande
amorevolezza."]
230 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
the name of Jesus; and the horse of its own accord
swam back to join the others, and our friend, delivered
from the anticipated misfortune, returned thanks for
'the benefit vouchsafed. On this part of the journey
they crossed the desert which is called CARACATHAI, or
the Black Land of the Cathayans, because 'tis said that
the people so called long sojourned there1.
At this town (Acsu) they had to wait fifteen days for
the arrival of the rest of the merchants. At last they
started, and travelled to OITOGRACH GAZO, CASCIANI,
DELLAI, SAREGABEDAL, and UGAN, whence they got to
CuciA2, another small town at which they halted a
1 Kara-K'itai has already been spoken of and the origin of
the name indicated in connection with an extract from Rubruquis
(supra, in, pp. 19—21), and its people are mentioned by Piano
Carpini under the translated name of Nigri K'itai (pp. 750-1) . The
extent of the territory to which the name applied probably varied
considerably, but its nucleus or axis rather seems to have been
the range of the T'ien Shan. Here it is applied to the desert
south of that chain. The name has come down to modern times,
for we find it applied in 1811 (Khara-Kitaf) to a portion of the
inhabitants of the Hi country (Klaproth, Mag. Asiatique, i, 209).
2 None of these places except the last can be traced either in
the Chinese routes given in the Russians in Central Asia, or in
the route set down by Mir Izzet Ullah, Moorcroft's explorer.
Kucha itself is a place of some importance, containing according
to Timkowski's information about one thousand houses, and
considered by the Chinese to be the key of this part of Turkestan.
The Chinese route says "a very large town, composed of one
hundred thousand (!) houses, occupied by Musulmans; six
hundred Chinese soldiers." [From Kucha which he left on the
i gth January, 1887, Dalgleish on his way to Aqsu passed Karaul,
where passports are checked and examined, Toghrak Dung
(2oth January), Shilder Dawan Pass, Kizil (2ist January),
crossed a large stream which passes through a ravine in the moun-
tains towards Shahyar, Sairam (22nd), a large straggling village
with extensive cultivation, Bai (22nd January), small town with
extensive cultivation, and a large bazaar, at five marches E.N.E.
of Aqsu. On the map accompanying the paper we note the
following names : Aqsu, Jam, Kara-yulgun, Tugrakdan, Yaka-
arik, Kush-tam, Bai, Sairam, Kizil, Rabat Lodansa, Shilder
Dawan, Toghrak Dunk, Karawal, Kucha, none of which have any
resemblance with Benedict's names. Nor are we more successful
with the Chinese itinerary given by Chavannes (Tou Kiue occi-
dentaux, pp. 8-9) from the T'ang Shu : Kucha, Che kiue pass,
Pe-ma-ho (White Horse River) near the village of Khodjo tulas,
60 li west of Kucha, plain of Kiu-p'i-lo (sandy desert of Hosol),
TO CATHAY 23!
whole month to rest their cattle, for these were nearly
done up, what with the difficulties of the road, the weight
bitter wells, town of Kiu-p'i-lo (Sairam), A-si-yen (Bai), Pohwan or
Pu hwan (Wei Jung, Kumo chou, near the river Se hoen, the king-
dom of Pa lu ka of Hiuen Tsang), Siao she, river Hu lu, Ta she
(Yu chu, Wen su chau, Aqsu).
Po hwan or rather Pa-lu-ka is identified by Watters, China
Review, xix, p. 115, with Yurgun or Khara-Yurgun, while
Chavannes takes it for Yaka arik; the river of Po hwan (Yaka
arik) on Carey's map is the Muzart Su. The route is pretty clear
but does not give any clue to our traveller's names ; Chavannes,
on the suggestion of F. Grenard, has altered his opinion and now
believes (Wei Ho, p. 37) that Ku-mo, Pa lu ka, Po hwan = Aqsu.]
[Here again, Prof. Paul Pelliot comes to the rescue: "From
Aqsu, Goes did not go to Kucha by the present road of Bai
and Sairam. The plain of Bai is in truth closed on the south by
an important mountain range, though it has been omitted from
our maps ; this range is called Chol-tagh, the ' barren moun-
tains ' ; practically it cannot be crossed by caravans. The
Muzart Dana crosses it through a narrow gorge; the ming-o'i
(caves, grottoes) of Qyzyl is situated at the northern entrance of
this gorge, and the no less interesting ming-o'i of Qum tura is to
be found at the southern entrance. Up to the first half of the
xixth century, caravans going from Aqsu to Kucha took
the route south of Chol-tagh as well as to-day's route via Bai and
Sairam. It is this southern road, almost forsaken to-day, which
was followed by Goes. The names of Oi-togrhaq and of Sarygh-
Abdal, known to this day along this road, are sufficient proof
of it. A last proof is to be found in the word Ugan. It
was transcribed Wei-kan by the Chinese geographers of the
xvuith century who gave this name to the Muzart Daria
after it had flowed out of the Chol-tagh. The native form of
the word is Ogan, and this name is still given to a canal joining the
Muzart Daria to Qum tura. To sum up the question, Goes from
Horma to Aqsu followed a more easterly road, and from Aqsu to
Kucha a more southern one than the present."]
[Kucha or Ku char = K'iu tze, at the foot of the T'ien shan,
watered by two large rivers, is celebrated for its ruins excavated
by various archaeological missions, Japanese, German, Russian
and French (Pelliot), and visited by Sir M. Aurel Stein. The
first diplomatic relations of Kucha with China date from the
year 65 A.D., when its king paid a visit to the court of the Han
Emperor ; when Pan yong, son of the celebrated Chinese general
Pan Ch'ao subjugated Yen k'i (Karashahr) in 127, seventeen
kingdoms, including K'iu tze (Kucha), Su le (Kashgar), Yu t'ien
(Khotan), So kiu (Yarkand), submitted to the Conqueror. In
384 Pe chen was made king of Kucha by Lu kwang; in 658
Kucha, in lieu of Turfan, became the seat of the Protectorate of
Ngansi which included Karashahr, Kashgar and Khotan ; Kucha
and these three places were the "Four Garrisons" of the Chinese
in the eighth century : Chavannes, Tou Kiue (Turcs) occidentaux.
Stein, Ancient Khotan and Ruins of Desert Cathay. .]
[R., p. 544: "Oitograc, a Gas6, a Casciani, a Dellal, a Sarega-
bedal, a Ugan et arrivorno a Cucia."]
232 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
of the. marble which they carried, and the scarcity of
barley1. At this place our traveller was asked by the
priests why he did not fast during their appointed time
of fasting. This was asked in order that he might offer
a bribe for exemption, or that they might extract a fine
from him. And they were not far from laying violent
hands on him, to force him into their place of worship2.
Departing hence, after twenty-five days' journey they
came to the city of CIALIS, a small place indeed, but
strongly fortified. This territory was governed by an
illegitimate son of the King of Cascar, who, when he heard
that our brother and his party professed a different faith,
began to utter threats, saying that it was too audacious a
proceeding that a man professing another creed should
intrude into that country, and that he would be quite
justified in taking both his life and his property. But
when he had read the royal letters which Benedict carried
he was pacified, and after the latter had made him a
present he became quite friendly. One night when this
prince had been long engaged with the priests and doctors
of his faith in one of their theological discussions, it
suddenly came into his head to send for Benedict, so he
despatched a horse for him and desired him to come to
the palace. The strange hour at which this message
came, and the harsh reception which they had at first
experienced from the Prince, left little doubt with Bene-
dict's party that he was sent for to be put to death. So
having torn himself from his Armenian comrade, not
without tears, and earnestly begging him to do his utter-
most, if he at least should escape the present danger, to
carry the news of his fellow traveller's fate to the members
1 [R., p. 544: "con mancamento di mangiare."]
2 [R., p. 544: "Et hebbe grande travaglio per uscire de loro
mani e non fargli forza per andare alia loro meschita."]
TO CATHAY 233
of the Society, Benedict went off fully prepared to meet
his death. On getting to the palace he was desired to
engage in a discussion with the Doctors of the Mahomedan
Law ; and inspired by Him who has said, It shall be given
you in that hour what ye shall say1, he maintained the
truth of the Christian religion by such apt reasoning that
the others were quite silenced and defeated. The Prince
constantly fixed his attention on our brother, expressing
approval of everything that he said, and finally pro-
nounced his conclusion that Christians were really
Misermans2, or True Believers, adding that his own
ancestors had been professors of their faith3. After the
discussion was over, Benedict was entertained at a sump-
tuous supper and desired to spend the night at the palace.
And it was late next day before he was allowed to leave,
so that Isaac quite despaired of his return. Indeed
Benedict found him weeping grievously, for the long
delay had fully convinced him of his master's death.
In this city4 they halted three whole months, for the
chief of the merchants did not wish to set out until a
1 [This sentence is added to the text which runs (R., p. 545) :
"e seppe il fratello provare con tan to belli argomenti la verita
della fede Christiana che non seppero respondergli."]
2 [R., p. 545: " misermani."]
3 This is a curious trace of the ancient Christianity of several
of the Mongolian and Turkish tribes.
4 Ritter in one place suggests that Cialis of Goes may be
Karashahr, but in another he will have it to be Yulduz, a place
lying among the mountains of the T'ien Shan, celebrated for its
beauty, its springs, meadows, and fine breezes, which was the
encamping ground of Timur after his campaign of extermination
against the Jats. Ritter had also previously identified Yulduz
with the Cailac of Rubruquis.
The notion that Yulduz was Cialis seems to have been origin-
ated by Petis de la Croix in his translation of Sharifuddin's
Life of Timur. D'Anville also has identified Cialis with the Cailac
of Rubruquis ; both identifications seem to me to be wrong.
Yulduz lies in the mountains, a long way to the left of the great
route along the foot of the T'ien Shan, which the caravan followed.
Shah Rukh's ambassadors indeed pass Yulduz, on their way to
Turf an and Kamul. But it is clear that from Tashkand they took
234 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
large party should have collected, for the larger it was, the
more profitable for him : and for this reason he would not
consent on any account that individuals of the company
should go on before. Our brother, however, weary of
a route north of the T'ien Shan, and were passing from the north
to the south of the mountains when they touched at Yulduz.
The real position of Cialis must be either identical with Kara-
shahr, as D'Anville thought, or close to it. The chief places
noted in nearly all the routes and maps of this line of country are
Aqsu, Kucha, Karashahr, Turfan, Pijan, and Kamul. All these
are mentioned by Goes except Karashahr, and where Karashahr
should come, he gives us Cialis. D'Anville, indeed, observes
that Scialik would mean, in Persian, the same as Karashahr, or
Black Town ( ?). But the name seems to be not Siyalis, or Siyalik,
but Chalis, or rather Chdlish. This (Jalish) is mentioned by
Sharifuddin as a place which Timur passed on his way to Yulduz ;
and by Haidar Razi, the historian of Turkestan, Jalish is spoken
of as a city near Turfan, both places being under a prince called
Mansur Khan, who is mentioned about A.H. 938 (A.D. 1531), as
marching by Jalish to attack Aqsu. Ramusio's friend, Hajji
Mahomed, also mentions Chialis exactly where Karashahr
should come, as may be seen by comparing his route with Izzet
Ullah's :
Izzet Ullah. Hajji Mahomed.
Kamul to Turfan . 13 days. Kamul to Turfan . 13 days.
Turfan to KARASHAHR 9 ,, Turfan to CHIALIS 10 ,,
KARASHAHR to Kucha 10 ,, CHIALIS to Kucha . 10 ,,
and this seems to put the identity of Cialis with Karashahr past
question.
[Dalgleish gives :
Kamul to Turfan . 15 days (including days of de-
parture and arrival,
and one day's rest at
Jigda).
Turfan to Karashahr 28 ,, (including days of de-
parture and arrival
and trip to Urumtsi
Karashahr to Kucha . 15 ,, 18 days, and a day's
rest at Tokhlasun,
including two days'
rest at Kurla.)]
Karashahr, anciently called by the Chinese Yen-k'i, stands
on the K'aidu river*, which irrigates the country round, and makes
it yield plenty of fruit and corn. The Chinese route, elsewhere
quoted, speaks of it as a large town inhabited by Chinese, with
Kalmuks round them, and having a Chinese garrison of 500
men.
[The road from Kurla to Karashahr City, when leaving
Sharshuk "runs N.E. the first six miles through desert to Dhungzil
Langar. A little beyond are the ruins of the old city of Karashahr.
* [The K'aidu Gol falls into Lake Bagratch ; it is the lower part of
the Yulduz River.]
TO CATHAY 235
the delay and of the great expense which it involved,
was eager to get away; and by means of new presents
he at last persuaded the Prince to arrange measures for
his departure. But this was so completely against the
wish of the chief of the caravan and his party, that it
put an end to the friendly terms on which Benedict had
hitherto stood with them.
He was just preparing for his departure from the
town of Cialis when the merchants of the preceding
caravan arrived on their return from Cathay. They had
made their way to the capital of Cathay as usual by
pretending to be an embassy ; and as they had been quar-
tered in Peking at the same hostelry with the members
At 7 \ miles the road passes Kalka Mazar, a little to the left. From
Dhungzil road runs N. by E. to Karashahr, and the extensive
level plain watered by the Karashahr river becomes a prairie,
and is the home of a large body of Kalmaks. Before entering
the city crossed the Karashahr river, now frozen" (Dalgleish,
1 7th Dec. 1885, p. 28, distance from Kurla to Karashahr,
27^ miles.] Chavannes, Tou kiue, p. 7, makes the remark that
the present Karashahr is on the left bank of the K'aidu gol,
while the history of the T'ang and Hiuen Tsang places the capital
of Yen-k'i to the west of this river. The capital of Yen-k'i
(Karashahr) is called A-ki-mi by Hiuen Tsang; it is the Wou yi
(Wou k'i) of Fa hian (Watters, Yuan Chwang, i, p. 46 ; Chavannes,
Wei-lio, pp. 564-5 n.}. In 719, it took the place of Tokmak
captured by the Tu kiue, in the Four Garrisons (Kucha, Kashgar,
Khotan, Tokmak).]
As regards the Cailac of Rubruquis, it seems rather to be sought
where D'Avezac has placed it in the- vicinity of Lake Balkash,
or at any rate, to the north of the T'ien Shan. It is mentioned
by D'Ohsson as a town of the Karliq Turks, who lay in this
direction, and is coupled with Imil and Bishbaliq, both cities
north of the mountains. Sadik Isfahani also names Kaliq with
Almaliq, Bishbaliq, etc. It is probably the Haulak or Khaulak
of Edrisi, in a route given in his work (ii, 215), which brings it
within eight days' journey of Akhsi, a city on the Jaxartes near
Kokhand. It is perhaps the Kainak which Valikhanoff mentions
as a place famous in the ancient Genoese trade, and still existing
in Dzungaria, but he does not indicate where that is (Ritter, vii,
437. 439. 441"2; H- de Timur Bee, ii, 53-56; D'Anville, in Acad.
Inscript., xxxii, 589; /. R. As. Soc., vii, 308; Not. et Extraits,
xiv; Ramusio, Esposizione, in n, ff. 14-16; D'Ohsson, i, iii, 166;
ii, 516; Sadik Isfahani, p. 10; Russ. in Cent. Asia, pp. 62, 527).
[Rockhill places Cailac a little west of the modern Kopal.
(Rubruck, p. 139.)]
236 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOFS
of our Society, they were able to give our brother most
authentic information about Father Matthew and his
companions, and in this way he learned to his astonish-
ment that CHINA was the Cathay that he was in search of.
These were the same Saracens of whom it has been
related in a preceding book, that they had dwelt for nearly
three months under the same roof with our brethren.
They were able to tell therefore how our brethren had made
presents to the Emperor of sundry clocks, a clavichord,
pictures, and other such matters from Europe. They
related also how our brethren were treated with respect
by all the dignitaries at the capital, and (mixing falsehood
with truth) how they were often admitted to converse
with the Emperor. They also described accurately
enough the countenances of the members of the Society
whom they had seen, but they could not tell their names,
it being a Chinese custom to change the names of foreigners.
They also produced the strangest corroboration of their
story in a piece of paper on which something in the
Portuguese language had been written by one of our
brethren, and which the travellers had rescued from the
sweepings of the rooms and preserved, in order that they
might show it as a memorial to their friends at home, and
tell them how the people that used this kind of writing
had found their way to China. Our travellers were
greatly refreshed with all this intelligence, and now they
could no longer doubt that Cathay was but another name
for the Chinese Empire, and that the capital which the
Mahomedans called Cambalu was Peking, which indeed
Benedict before leaving India had known, from the letters
of our members in China, to be the view taken by
them.
As he was departing, the prince granted him letters
for his protection, and when a question arose under what
TO CATHAY 237
name he wished to be described and whether he would
have himself designated as a Christian? Certainly, said
he, "for having travelled thus far bearing the name of
Jesus, I would surely bear it unto the end1." It so
chanced that this was heard by one of the Mahomedan
priests, a venerable old man, who snatching off his cap
flung it on the ground and exclaimed : " In verity and truth
this man is staunch to his religion, for lo here in presence
of thee a prince of another faith, and of all the rest of us,
he has no hesitation in confessing his Jesus ! 'tis very
different with our people, for they are said to change
their religion with their residence." And so turning to
our traveller, he treated him with extraordinary courtesy.
Thus even in the dark virtue is lustrous, and even from
hostility and ill-will it extorts respect !
He set off at last with his comrade and a few others,
and in twenty days came to PuciAN2, a town of the same
kingdom, where they were received by the chief of the
place with the greatest kindness, and supplied with the
necessary provisions from his house. Hence they went
on to a fortified town called TURPHANS, and there they
1 [R., p. 547: "Rispose il fratello Benedetto che si, e che
scrivesse Abdulld Isai, cioe Abdulld della legge di Giesu, perche
come christiano, era passato per tutto quello cammino e come
tale lo voleva finire."]
2 [R., p. 547, " Puccian."]
3 [R., p. 547: "Turfan, citta eon muri e forte, dove stettero
un mese."]
["Turfan, like Hami, is near the southern slopes of the T'ien
Shan, and is one of the largest towns of E. Turkestan. Climate
very hot in summer and cold in winter. Water is produced
from wells chiefly, and irrigation is carried on by means of under-
ground canals." (Dalgleish, p. 53.)] It is the old kingdom of
Kao ch'ang whose king had his capital at Kiao ho = Yar khoto.
It was the seat of the Protectorate of Ngansi before it was trans-
ferred to Kucha (658), when the name of "Four Garrisons"
appears probably for the first time. After the Tibetan invasion
(760) the Chinese had but "Two Garrisons," one at Pei t'ing near
Guchen and the other at Kucha, but these also disappeared in
787-]
238 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
halted a month1. Next they proceeded2 to ARAMUTHS,
1 Pijan (Pucian of the text) and Turfan appear in some way
to have been transposed, for both Izzet Ullah and the Chinese
routes agree with the maps in making Pijan lie considerably to
the east of Turfan. [Pichan is situated between Turfan and
Hami.] According to the tables of the Chinese survey, the former
lies in lat. 42° 52', long. 90° 28'; the latter in lat. 43° 4', long.
89° 18' (Russ. in Cent. Asia, p. 521). ["Pichan or Pachan is a
large straggling village with several miles of cultivation. The
bazaar is inside a mud fort. Population, Turks, with a number of
Tunganis and Chinese." (Dalgleish, p. 53.)]
When Shah Rukh's ambassadors passed this way in 1419,
most of the people of Turfan were still idolaters; there was a
huge temple in the town, with a figure of Sakya Muni on the
platform.
2 [R., p. 547 : "Partirno da Turfan a 4 di settembre dell' anno
1605."]
[From Turfan which he left on the gth December, 1886, Dal-
gleish on his way to Kucha, passed over a rough and stony road
to Dah-din (loth December), the valley becomes fertile, Tokhtasun
(nth December) a small town within mud wall fort; visited
Urumtsi ; left Tokhtasun (29th December) for Su Bashi (3oth
December), then Eghar Bulak in ravine (30 December). Uzma
Dhung, Kumish (ist January, 1887), Kara Kizil (2 January),
Ushak Tal (3rd January), Tavilgo (4th January), Karashahr
(5th January), river 200 yards wide, Kalka Mazar, Dhung Zil
Langar, Shorshuk (6th January), Kurla (gth January), Shangkho
(lo-iith January), Charchi (i2th January), small village end of
the Kurla district, Ishma, small village (i3th January), Chadar
(i4th), Yenghi Hissar large village (i5th), Bugor, old stage in
plain (i6th), Yenghi abad (i7th) very small village, Awat, Yaka
arik, fair sized village (i8th), Ush Kara Langar, Kucha (igth
January, 1912).]
3 Aramuth, according to Petis de la Croix, is Kara Khoja (see
supra, in, pp. 1 32-3) , but I suspect he is speaking without authority,
as he often does. Thus, when speaking of the forerunners of
Timur's invasion of India, who, after crossing the Indus, reach
Uchh before advancing against Multan, he notes " Outchah,
ville a 1'orient de 1'Indus au nord de Multan," he is simply putting
forth his own erroneous deductions from the text as a piece of
independent knowledge. And when Pauthier quotes from the
same author (Polo, p. 197), a professed extract from the Yasa
of Chinghiz as corroborating, with extraordinary minuteness,
certain statements of Marco, I suspect it will prove that Petis
de la Croix had merely borrowed the said statements from Polo
himself (H. de Timur Bee, ii, 46). Shah Rukh's people reach
Kara-Khoja in three days from Turfan ; in fourteen days more,
Ala-Sufi; and in two days more, Kamul. [However Petis de la
Croix is probably right in this instance : after leaving Turfan,
Goes, like the ambassadors of Shah Rukh, passes Kara Khodja;
see i, p. 272.]
[The itinerary of Dalgleish from Hami to Turfan is the following :
Hami (22nd November, 1886), good road, Sim Kargha (23rd),
Tograchi (24th), Jigda village, Taranchi, Urda lik (27th Nov.).
TO CATHAY 239
and thence to CAMUL1, another fortified town. Here
they stopped another month to refresh themselves and
their beasts, being glad to do so at a town which was
still within the limits of the kingdom of Cialis, where they
had been treated with so much civility.
From Camul they came in nine days to the celebrated
northern wall of China, reaching it at the place called
CniAicuoN2, and there they had to wait twenty-five days
. for an answer from the Viceroy of the province. When
they were at last admitted within the wall, they reached,
after one more day's travelling, the city of SuciEU3.
Here they heard much about Peking and other names
with which they were acquainted, and here Benedict
parted with his last lingering doubt as to the identity
in all but name of Cathay and China.
The country between Cialis and the Chinese frontier
Sarik Kumish (28th), Shilder Kumish (29th), village of Chiktem
(ist December), Korgha Utra (2nd), Pichan (3rd), Lemyin (5th),
Suigim (5th), Suigim (6th Dec.), Turfan (i2th stage).]
1 Kamil, Kamul, Komul, Qornul, Hami of the Chinese, and
formerly called by them I-wu, an ancient city of the Uighur
country, has already been spoken of (supra, in, p. 265). It is the
point of departure for crossing the desert into China, and near it
the road from China branches, one line going north of the T'ien
Shan, by Barkul, the Urumtsi district, and Kurkarausu to Hi;
the other south of the mountains, by which Goes came. Kamul
is the seat of the [Chinese Agent in this region, who bears the title
of Pan She Ta Tchen and is of lesser rank than the K'u lun Pan
She Ta Tchen, who resides at K'urun (Urga)]. The climate of
Kamul appears to be very mild, for oranges are grown there
(R. in C. Asia, p. 129). [Kamul is the Turkish name of the
province called by the Mongols Khamil, by the Chinese Hami;
the latter name is found for the first time in the Yuen Shi, but
it is first mentioned in Chinese History in the first century of our
era under the name of I-wu-lu or I-wu (Bretschneider, Med.
Res., ii, p. 20) ; after the death of Chinghiz, it belonged to his
son Chagatai. From the Great Wall, at the pass of Kia yu, to
Hami there is a distance of 1470 li. Cf. Marco Polo, i, 211 «.]
z Kia-yu Kwan, or the "Jade Gate," of the Great Wall, the
Jaiguouden of Mir Izzet Ullah's- route. Kwan, in Chinese, is a
fort guarding a defile (Ritter, ii, 213; D'Ohsson, ii, 625; /. R.
As. Soc., vii, 283, seqq.). This place is probably the Karaul of
Shah Rukh's people.
3 [R., p. 548, -Socceo."]
240 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
has an evil fame on account of its liability to Tartar raids,
and therefore this part of the road is traversed by mer-
chants with great fear. In the day' time they reconnoitre
from the neighbouring hills, and if they consider the road
safe they prosecute their journey by night and in silence.
Our travellers found on the way the bodies of sundry
Mahomedans who had been miserably murdered1. Yet
the Tartars rarely slay the natives, for they call them their
slaves and shepherds, from whose flocks and herds they
help themselves. These Tartars make use neither of
wheat nor of rice, nor of any kind of pulse, for they say
such things are food for beasts and not for men ; they eat
nothing but flesh, and make no objection to that of horses,
mules, or camels. Yet they are said to be very long lived,
and indeed not unfrequently survive to more than a
hundred. The Mahomedan races who live on the Chinese
frontier in this direction have no warlike spirit, and might
be easily subdued by the Chinese, if that nation were at
all addicted to making conquests.
In this journey it happened one night that Benedict
was thrown from his horse and lay there half dead,
whilst his companions who were all in advance went on in
ignorance of what had happened. In fact it was not till
the party arrived at the halting place that Benedict was
missed. His comrade Isaac went back to seek him, but
the search in the dark was to no purpose, until at last
he heard a voice calling on the name of Jesus. Following
the sound he found Benedict, who had given up all hope
of being able to follow his companions, so that his first
words were: "What angel has brought thee hither to
rescue me from such a plight ? " By help of the Armenian
he was enabled to reach the halting place and there to
recover from his fall.
1 [R., p. 548: "per voler andare per li soli."]
TO CATHAY 24!
CHAPTER XIII OF BOOK V
How our Brother Benedict died in the Chinese territory, after
the arrival of one of our members who had been sent from
Peking to his assistance.
TOWARDS the northern extremity of the western
frontier of China the celebrated wall comes to an end, and
there is a space of about two hundred miles through which
the Tartars, prevented by the wall from penetrating the
northern frontier, used to attempt incursions into China,
and indeed they do so still, but with less chance of success.
For two very strongly fortified cities, garrisoned with
select troops, have been established on purpose to repel
their attacks. These cities are under a special Viceroy
and other officials deriving their orders direct from the
capital. In one of these two cities of the province of
ScENSi1, which is called CANCEU, is the residence of the
Viceroy and other chief officers; the other city called
SociEU2, has a governor of its own, and is divided into
1 [Su chau and Kan chau are now in the Kan Su Province,
but in the days of Goes, Kan Su was a part of the Shen si Pro-
vince.]
2 Su chau, the Succuir [and Sukchur] of Marco Polo [i, pp.
217-219] the Sukchu of [Rashid ud-din and of] Shah Rukh's
embassy, and the Sowchick of Anthony Jenkinson's reports.
[Su-chau had been devastated and its inhabitants massacred by
Chinghiz Khan in 1226.] The Persian envoys describe it (1419)
as a great city of a perfectly square form, with a strong fort.
The bazaars were fifty cubits in width, kept clean and watered.
There were four gates on each side, and behind (over?) each gate
was a pavilion of two stories with a roof en dos d'dne after the
Chinese fashion. The streets were paved with vitrified brick,
and there were many great temples. See also Hajji Mahomed
in Notes to Prelim. Essay.
Canceu is the still existing Kan chau, the Canpichu of Polo
[i, pp. 219-23], the Camexu of Pegolotti, the Kamchu or K am jit
c. Y. c. iv. 16
242 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
two parts. In one of these dwell the Chinese, whom the
Mahomedans here call Cathayans1, in the other the
Mahomedans who have come for purposes of trade from
the kingdom of Cascar and other western regions. There
are many of these who have entangled themselves with
wives and children, so that they are almost regarded as
natives, and will never go back. They are much in the
position of the Portuguese who are settled at AMACAOZ
in the province of Canton, but with this difference, that
the Portuguese live under their own laws and have
magistrates of their own, whereas these Mahomedans are
under the government of the Chinese. Indeed they are
shut up every night within the walls of their own quarter
of the city, and in other matters are treated just like the
natives, and are subject in every thing to the Chinese
magistrates. The law is that one who has sojourned there
for nine years shall not be allowed to return to his country.
To this city are wont to come those western merchants,
who, under old arrangements between seven or eight
kingdoms in that quarter and the Empire of China, have
leave of admission every sixth year for two-and-seventy
persons, who under pretence of being ambassadors go
and offer tribute to the Emperor. This tribute consists
of that translucent marble of which we spoke before, of
of Rashid and the Ambassadors (see supra, in, p. 128). The latter
say it was nine posts from Sukchu, and was the seat of the Dankshi
or chief governor of the frontier. They describe here a great
temple, and one of those gigantic recumbent figures, representing
Gautama in a state of Nirwana, which are still to be seen in
Ceylon, Burma, and Siam. This one was fifty paces long, with
figures of other divinities and Bakshis round about, executed
with great vivacity. There was also a singular pagoda of timber,
fifteen stories high, which turned upon a pivot. Here the envoys
had to deposit their baggage, and received thereafter all supplies
from the Chinese government.
1 [R., p. 549: "nell' una stanno gli Catai, che da qui avanti
chiamaremo col suo primo nome di Cinesi."]
2 [R., p. 549: " citta di Maccao."]
TO CATHAY 243
small diamonds, ultramarine, and other such matters;
and the so-called ambassadors go to the capital and return
from it at the public expense. The tribute is merely
nominal, for no one pays more for the marble than the
Emperor does, considering it to be beneath his dignity
to accept gifts from foreigners without return. And
indeed their entertainment from the Emperor is on so
handsome a scale, that, taking an average of the whole,
there can be no doubt that every man pockets a piece of
gold1 daily over and above all his necessary expenses2.
This is the reason why this embassy is such an object of
competition, and why the nomination to it is purchased
with great presents from the chief of the caravan, with
whom it lies. When the time comes the soi-disant
ambassadors forge public letters in the names of the
kings whom they profess to represent, in which the
Emperor of China is addressed in obsequious terms. The
Chinese receive embassies of a similar character from
various other kingdoms, such as Cochin-China, Siam,
Leuchieu, Corea, and from some of the petty Tartar
kings, the whole causing incredible charges on the public
treasury. The Chinese themselves are quite aware of
the imposture, but they allow their Emperor to be
befooled in this manner, as if to persuade him that the
1 [R., p. 550: "ducato."]
2 Martini and Alvarez Semedo speak in similar terms of the
embassies, or pretended embassies, that came periodically to
Peking from Central Asia. The latter says that their present
to the Emperor always consisted of 1000 arrobas, or 1333 Italian
pounds, of jade, 300 being of the very finest quality; 340 horses;
300 very small diamonds; about 100 pounds of fine ultramarine;
600 knives ; 600 files. This was the old prescriptive detail
which none might change. The cost price of the whole might
be some 7000 crowns, but the Emperor's return present was worth
50,000 (p. 27 ; see also narrative from Busbeck in Notes to Essay
at beginning of the first volume).
These sham embassies, disguising trading expeditions, were
of old standing in China, going back at least to the days of the
Sung Emperors. (Remusat, in Mem. de I'Acad., viii, 77-8.)
16— 2
244 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
whole world is tributary to the Chinese empire, the fact
being that China pays tribute to those kingdoms.
Our Benedict arrived at Socieu in the end of the year
1605, and it shows how Divine Providence watched over
him, that he came to the end of this enormous journey
with ample means, and prosperous in every way. He
had with him thirteen animals, five hired servants, two
boys, whom he had bought as slaves, and that surpassing
piece of jade1; the total value of his property being
reckoned at two thousand five hundred pieces of gold2.
Moreover both he and his companion Isaac were in perfect
health and strength.
At this city of Socieu he fell in with another party of
Saracens just returned from the capital, and these con-
firmed all that he had already been told about our fathers
at Peking, adding a good deal more of an incredible and
extravagant nature; for example, that they had from
the Emperor a daily allowance of silver, not counted to
them, but measured out in bulk! So he now wrote to
Father Matthew3 to inform him of his arrival. His
letter was intrusted to certain Chinamen, but as he did
not know the Chinese names of our fathers, nor the part
of the city in which they lived, and as the letter was
. addressed in European characters, the bearers were
unable to discover our people.
At Easter however he wrote a second time, and this
letter was taken by some Mahomedan who had made his
escape from the city, for Mahomedans also are debarred
from going out or coming in, without the permission of
the authorities. In this letter he explained the origin and
1 [R., p. 550: "e doi putti cattivi, che aveva comprati, e con
la piu fina pietra di iaspe che vi era."]
z [R., p. 550: " ducati d' oro."]
3 [R., p. 551 : "ai padri di Pacchino."]
TO CATHAY 245
object of his journey, and begged the fathers to devise
some way of rescuing him from the prison in which he
found himself at Socieu, and of restoring him to the
delight of holding intercourse with his brethren, in place
of being perpetually in the company of Saracens. He
mentioned also his wish to return to India by the sea
route1, as usually followed by the Portuguese.
The fathers had long ere this been informed by the
Superior's letters from India of Benedict's having started
on this expedition, and every year they had been looking
out for him, and asking diligently for news of him whenever
one of those companies of merchants on their pretended
embassy arrived at court. But till now they had never
been able to learn any news of him, whether from not
knowing the name under which he was travelling, or
because the ambassadors of the preceding seasons really
had never heard of him.
The arrival of his letter therefore gave great pleasure
to the fathers at Peking. It was received late in the
year, in the middle of November2, and they lost no time
in arranging to send a member of the Society to get him
away some how or other and bring him to the capital.
However on re-consideration they gave up that scheme,
for the bringing another foreigner into the business seemed
likely to do harm rather than good. So they sent one of
the pupils who had lately been selected to join the Society
but had not yet entered on his noviciate. His name was
John Ferdinand, he was a young man of singular prudence
and virtue, and one whom it seemed safe to entrust with
a business of this nature. One of the converts acquainted
with that part of the country was sent in company with
1 [R., p. 551 : "per via di Quantone."]
2 [The letter was received, according to Ricci, writing to
Acquaviva, not in the middle of November, but "nel principle
del mese di novembre dell' anno 1606." See R., p. 551 ».]
246 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
him. His instructions were to use all possible means to
get away Benedict and his party to the capital, but if
he should find it absolutely impossible either to get leave
from the officials or to evade their vigilance, he was to
stop with our brother, and send back word to the members
of the Society. In that case it was hoped that by help
of friends at Court, means would be found to get him on
from the frontier.
A journey of this nature might seem unseasonable
enough at a time of the year when winter is at the height
of severity in those regions; and the town at which
Benedict had been detained was nearly four months'1
journey from Peking. But Father Matthew thought no
further delay should be risked, lest the great interval
that had elapsed should lead Benedict to doubt whether
we really had members stationed at Peking. And he
judged well, for if the journey had been delayed but a
few days longer the messengers would not have found
Benedict among the living. They carried him a letter
from Father Matthew, giving counsel as to the safest
manner of making the journey, and two other members
of the Society also wrote to him, giving full details about
our affairs in that capital, a subject on which he was
most eager for information.
Our Benedict in the meantime, during his detention
at that city, endured more annoyance from the Mahome-
dans than had befallen him during the whole course of his
journey. Also, on account of the high price of food in
the place, he was obliged to dispose of his large piece of
jade for little more than half its value2. He got for it
1 [R., p. 552: "tre o quatro mesi."]
2 [R., p. 552: "£ in quella terra il vitto molto caro, et egli,
se bene aveva molta mercantia, non aveva nessun danaro ; per
questo fu forzato a vendere tutta la pietra iaspe, che aveva, per
la metade di quello che valeva."]
TO CATHAY 247
twelve hundred pieces of gold1, a large part of which went
to repay money which he had borrowed, whilst with the
rest he maintained his party for a whole year. Meanwhile
the caravan of merchants with their chief arrived. Bene-
dict was obliged to exercise hospitality, and in course of
time was reduced to such straits that he had to borrow
money to maintain his party; this all the more because
owing to his nomination as one of the seventy-two
ambassadors he was obliged (again) to purchase some
fragments of jade. He hid a hundred pounds of this in
the earth to preserve it from any tricks of the Mahomedans,
for without a supply of this article he would have been
absolutely incapacitated from taking part in the journey
to Peking.
John Ferdinand2 left Peking on the eleventh of Decem-
ber in that year; and his journey also was attended with
a new misfortune, for at SINGHANS, the capital of the
province of SCIENSI, his servant ran away, robbing him
of half his supplies4 for the journey. Two months more
of a fatiguing journey however brought him to Socieu,
in the end of March i6o75.
He found our Benedict laid low with a disease unto
death. The very night before it had been intimated to
him, whether by dream or vision, that on the following
day one of the Society would arrive from Peking; and
upon this he had desired his comrade the Armenian to
go to the bazaar and buy certain articles for distribution
among the poor, whilst at the same time he earnestly
1 [R., p. 552 : "ducati."]
2 [John Fernandez, Christian name of the Chinaman Chong
Ma-li, a lay brother, born in 1581; joined the Jesuits in 1610;
he left for Su chau on the i2th December 1606.]
3 [The great city of Si-ngan.]
4 [R., p. 553: "dinari."]
5 [R., p. 553: "!' ultimo giorno di marzo dell' anno seguente
1607."]
248 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
prayed God not to suffer the hopes raised by his dream
to be disappointed. Whilst Isaac was still in the bazaar
some one told him of the arrival of John Ferdinand from
Peking, and pointed him out. The latter followed the
Armenian home, and as he entered saluted our brother
Benedict in the Portuguese tongue. From this he at
once understood what the arrival was, and taking the
letters he raised them aloft with tears of joy in his eyes,
and burst into the hymn of Nunc dimittis servum tuum,
Domine. For now it seemed to him that indeed his
commission was accomplished, and his pilgrimage at an
end. He then read the letters, and all that night kept
them near his heart. The words that were spoken, the
questions that were asked may be more easily conjectured
than detailed.
John Ferdinand did his best to nurse him, hoping
that with recovered strength he might yet be able to
undertake the journey to Peking. But strength there
was none ; as indeed physician there was none, nor proper
medicines ; nor was there anything to do him good in his
illness, unless it were some European dishes which John
Ferdinand cooked for him. And thus, eleven days1 after
the latter's arrival, Benedict breathed his last; not
without some suspicion of his having been poisoned by
the Mahomedans.
These latter had fellows always on the watch, in
order to pounce upon whatever the dead man might
leave. This they did in the most brutal manner; but
no part of the loss which they caused was so much to be
deplored as the destruction of the journal of his travels,
which he had kept with great minuteness. This was a
thing the Mahomedans fell on with open jaws! For the
1 [In his letter of the 22nd August 1608, Ricci says ten days
instead of eleven. See R., p. 553 «.]
TO CATHAY 249
book also contained1 acknowledgments of debt which
might have been used to compel many of them to repay
the sums which they had shamelessly extracted from
him. They wished to bury the body after their Mahome-
dan ritual, but Ferdinand succeeded in shutting out their
importunate priests, and buried him in a decent locality2
where it would be practicable to find the body again.
And these two, the Armenian and John Ferdinand,
having no service-books, devoutly recited the rosary as
they followed his bier3.
It seems right to add a few words in commemoration
of a character so worthy. Benedict Goes, a native of
Portugal, a man of high spirit and acute intellect, on his
first entrance into the society was sent as a volunteer to
join the mission in the Mogul Empire. For many years
he gave most active aid to that mission, instructing
Mahomedans, Hindus, and converts as far as his own
acquirements went, and gaining the love of all as he did
so. Yet he was not a priest; but he was held in high
esteem for his great good sense and other valuable qualities
natural and acquired. Hence also he was admitted to
1 [R., p. 554: "in lingua persiana."]
2 [R., p. 554: "comprando una cassa di legno assai buona,
lo sotterr6 in un luogo netto."]
3 ["Here at Su-chou," writes Stein, Ruins of Desert Cathay, ii,
p. 292, "where he might well think himself near to his goal, and
where, nevertheless, he came to be detained for sixteen weary
months, the devoted Jesuit traveller succumbed in 1607 to disease
and privations. I had thought of him and his plucky perseverance
at all the points — Lahore, Peshawar, the Pamirs, Sarikol, Yarkand,
and Khotan — where I had touched the line of his wanderings.
And grateful I felt now to Fate which had allowed me to reach
the site of his tragic end. There is nothing to suggest even
approximately the spot where his wearied limbs were laid to rest
by the young Chinese convert whom the Jesuit fathers had des-
patched from Peking to his relief, and who arrived just a few
days before all earthly trouble was ended. But I hope that when
the Catholic Mission at Su-chou shall have built its permanent
chapel, means may be found to recall to those who worship in it
the memory of Benedict Goe'z."]
250 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
the intimate friendship of the Mogul Sovereign, and when
this prince was despatching an embassy to Goa, along
with his own envoy he sent Benedict also in the same
character.
This king indeed entertained a project for the conquest
of (Portuguese) India, and it may be ascribed to Benedict's
prudence that war with so powerful a monarch was averted.
A short time before his death he wrote to warn our
members at Peking never to put faith in Mahomedans,
and also in deprecation of any future attempts to travel
by the route which he had followed, as being both danger-
ous and useless.
A circumstance is well known in our Society which
manifests the holy character of the man. Remarking
how many years had past without the opportunity of
confession and absolution, "I am dying," he said,
"without this consolation, and yet how great is God's
goodness! For He does not allow my conscience to be
disturbed with anything of moment in the review of my
past life1!"
A truly abominable custom prevailed among those
merchants, that the property of anyone dying on the way
should be divided among the rest of the company. On
this account they laid hold of Isaac the companion of
Benedict, and tied him up, threatening him with death
unless he would call upon the name of Mahomed. Fer-
dinand, however, sent a memorial to the Viceroy at
Canceu claiming Isaac's liberation. The Viceroy passed
his orders on the petition, desiring the Governor of Socieu
to decide according to right and justice, and to restore
the youth's uncle to him with the property of the deceased2.
1 [This passage does not appear in Ricci.]
2 [R., p. 555: "Per questo si risolse il fratello Giovanni di
andare a Canceo, che sta tre giorni di cammino di Succeo, a dar
libello al vicere, chiedendoli che gli facesse ritornare Isac; chd
TO CATHAY 25!
At first the governor was favourable to Ferdinand, but
when some forty1 of the Saracens joined together to bribe
him, he then threatened to flog Ferdinand, and kept him
three days in prison. The latter did not, however, a
bit the more desist from his undertaking, but when he
ran short of money to prosecute his suit, he sold all the
clothes that he could do without to raise a small sum.
He was detained for five months about this business, and
yet had no means of communicating with the Armenian,
from his ignorance of Persian; the other being equally
unable to speak either Portuguese or Latin. When they
were called before the Court, Ferdinand recited the Lord's
Prayer, whilst Isaac repeated the name of Benedict Goes
with a few words of Portuguese ; and as nobody under-
stood a word of what either of them said, the judge gave
it as his opinion that they were talking in the Canton
dialect, and understood each other perfectly! Latterly,
however, Ferdinand learned in about two months to
talk Persian, and so was able to converse with the
Armenian.
Sometimes the Mahomedans raised objections from
the extreme discrepancy of their physiognomies, which
they said evidently betrayed one to be a Saracen and the
other a Chinaman. But Ferdinand answered that his
mother had been Chinese, and that he took the character
of his features after her. Nothing, however, moved the
judge so much as what occurred one day when Ferdinand
declared before the Court that Isaac was heartily opposed
to the Mahomedan religion, and that in any case if he
really did belong to that faith he would never touch pork ;
per poter far meglio questo si fece egli figliuolo di un fratello del
fratello Benedetto e di Isac armenio, dando il suo cognome di
Cium a. ambedue, e il nome al modo della Cina, e venuto della
provincia di Quantone."]
1 [R., p. 555 : " trenta o quaranta."]
252 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
and taking a piece of pork out of his sleeve he offered it
to Isaac, and both of them began to eat it, to the intense
disgust of the Mahomedans and to the amusement of the
other spectators. Indeed when the Saracens saw this
they gave up the case as hopeless, and went out of Court,
spitting at Isaac as they went, and saying that he had been
deluded by that Chinese impostor. For it was true that
on the whole journey neither Isaac nor Benedict had ever
eaten pork, in order not to give offence to the Mahomedans ;
or if they ever did so, at least it was in private. These
circumstances moved the judge to decide in Ferdinand's
favour, and to order all that Benedict had left to be
restored to him1. Nothing was found, however, except
the pieces of jade which had been buried2. From the
proceeds of these debts were paid, and means furnished
for the journey to Peking. But still there was not enough
to cover the great expense of all those months of detention,
so they had to borrow twenty pieces of gold on the security
of some bits of jade which still remained. At last they
both got to the brethren at Peking, to whom the whole
affair had caused a good deal of anxiety3. They had now
cause for both grief and joy; Benedict's loss was to be
mourned, and the Armenian to be congratulated on his
escape. Him they received as if he had been one of our
1 [R., p. 556: "Con questo il giudice diede sententia che gli
ritornassero i Saraceni il suo zio e quanto era restate del fratello
Benedetto, e gli avrebbe tomato anco il putto cattivo ; ma gli
messero i Saraceni tanta paura se diceva voler ire col fratello
che, avanti il giudice, disser voler restar con i Mori, e cosl il
giudice non lo volse forzare a ire."]
2 [R., p. 556 : " Non si ritrovo altra cosa delle robe e denari che
le quattro cento libre di iaspe molto cattivo, del quale vendettero
piu della meta e pagorno i debiti del fratello Benedetto, e 1' altro
volevano portare a Pacchino."]
3 [R., p. 556: "Tutto questo tempo, che fu di otto mesi, sino
alia arrivata del fratello Giovanni Ferdinando e Isac armenio,
che fu a 28 di ottobre, stettero i padri di Pacchino con molta
soiled tudine e paura."]
TO CATHAY 253
own body, for Benedict had spoken in strong terms of
the faithful help which he had rendered throughout
the journey.
Ferdinand brought to Peking a cross elegantly painted
on gilt paper, the only one that Benedict had ventured
to carry among those Mahomedans, and also the three
rescripts of the three kings, viz. of Cascar, Quoten and
Cialis, all which are now preserved as memorials in our
house at Peking. There also are preserved the letters
patent of Father Jerome Xavier, with other letters of
his which had arrived during the journey, and letters
likewise from Alexius Menezes, archbishop of Goa, and
from the said Jerome, to the members of the society at
Peking, in which they expressed themselves as feeling
satisfied that Cathay could not be a long way from
Peking, and that probably the two kingdoms had a
common frontier.
Isaac the Armenian stopped a month at Peking, and
during that time he communicated to Father Matthew
from his own recollection, assisted by some papers of
Benedict's, all that we have related in these three chapters.
He was then despatched to MACAO by the road which our
people are in the habit of using, and was there most
kindly received by the Society and its friends. Having
then sailed on his way back to India, the ship was taken
by pirates1 in the Straits of SINCAPURA, and the Armenian
was plundered of all his trifling possessions and reduced
to a wretched state of bondage. He was ransomed,
however, by the Portuguese of Malacca, and went on to
(Western) India. Hearing there of his wife's death, he
proceeded no further towards the Mogul's territories,
but settled at a certain town of the East Indies called
1 [R., p. 557: "corsari olandesi."]
254 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
CIAUL, where he still survives at the date when this is
written1.
1 Du Jarric's statement about Isaac is somewhat different.
According to that writer he was taken by a Dutch ship on his way
to Malacca. The captain was so struck by his history that he
caused it all to be written down, and sent him to Malacca. Thence
the fathers of the Society sent him on to Cochin and Goa, where
he fell in with Father Pinheiro (who had been stationed at Lahore
when Goes started on his journey). The Provincial of India gave
Isaac one hundred pardaos, and he went with Pinheiro to Cambay
(p. 226).
Chawul (Ciaul) is a port of the Konkan about thirty-five
miles south of Bombay, which was an important place of trade
in the sixteenth century.
[The end of the narrative in Ricci's text is as follows: "Et,
essendosi Isac imbarcato per passare all' India e da 11 ritornare al
Mogore, dove stava sua moglie e figliuoli, fu presa la barca
da' corsari olandesi nello stretto di Sincapure e, riscattato da
quei di Malacca, arriv6 pure al fine all' India, doppo si gravi
travagli."]
TO CATHAY 255
NOTE I. (SEE PAGE 182.) x
THE PASSES OF THE HINDU RUSH.
Wood, in his Journey to the Oxus2, names only four such passes.
Three of these are reached from Kabul thiough the valley of
Koh-Daman north of that city, and diverge from each other near
Charekar; viz., the Pass of PANJSHIR or KHAWAK, the Pass of
PARWAN, and the Pass of GHORBAND ; but each of these in fact
represents a group of several routes over the mountains. The
fourth that he mentions is the Pass of HAJJIYAKS, lying much
further west, passing by Bamian, and usually, in modern times
at least, approached from Kabul by the road running west from
that city by Rustam KhaiJ, south of the offshoots of the Indian
Caucasus called the Pugman Range and Kohistan of Kabul.
If we turn to Sultan Baber we find the number of Passes raised
to seven. Those which he names are three leading out of the
Panjshir Valley, viz. (i) KHAWAK, (2) TUL, (3) BAZARAK ; then
(4) the Pass of PARWAN; and three described as in Ghorband.
viz. (5) YANGI YULI or the "New Road," (6) KIPCHAK, and
(7) SHIBRTU4.
As Ritter understands this list it does not include the Hajjiyak
at all. But we know that the Shibrtu route, which Baber says
was the only one passable in winter, lies some twenty-five or thirty
miles west of Bamian, and I have little doubt that the Kipchak
of Baber is the Hajjiyak, which, leading by what was in old times
the great and flourishing city of Bamian, must always have been
a main line across the mountain barrier; and it is scarcely
conceivable that Baber should have omitted it in his list. That
both Kipchak and Shibrtu are mentioned by the king among the
passes reached from Ghorband, is, I suppose, to be accounted for
by the fact that a transverse route does pass along the whole
length of the Ghorband Valley to the foot of the Hajjiyak Pass,
whilst there is also a lateral communication from Bamian to
Shibrtu.
The account in the Ay in Akbari is remarkable, as it seems
partly copied from Baber and partly modified. This also mentions
seven passes, viz. (i) Hawak (read Khawak), (2) Tool (Tul),
1 See also the map facing page 529.
2 Journey to the source of the River Oxus, 1841, p. 186.
3 Called also Hajikak and Hajigak.
4 Leyden and Erskine's Baber, p. 133 seq.
256 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
(3) Bajaruck (Bazarak), (4) not named, but probably Parwan ;
(5) "by the Hill of Kipchak, and this also is somewhat easy to
pass. The sixth (6) is by the Hill of Sheertoo (read Shibrtu),
but in the summer when the waters are out you must go by the
route of Bahmian and Talakan (Talikhari). The seventh (7) is
by the way of Abdereh. In winter travellers make use of this
road, it being the only one passable in the depth of that season."
This last route is, I presume, to be looked for in the Koh-i-Baba,
still further west than Shibrtu, but I believe no existing map will
help us to it.
The most complete notice of the Passes from the Pan j shir
and Ghorband Valleys is to be found in a Report by Major R. Leech
of the Bombay Engineers, published at Calcutta by the Indian
Government1. By help of this we make out the following list
of the whole number, commencing with the most westerly :
PASSES FROM PANJSHIR.
1. Pass of ANJUMAN. This is a pass starting from Paryan
near the head of the Panjshir Valley and crossing into Badakhshan
direct. It probably descends the Kokcha Valley by the lapis-
lazuli mines. Paryan is perhaps the Per j an of Sharif uddin
(in P. de la Croix) which Timur passed in his expedition against
the Kafirs. Leech's Reports mention traditions of Timur 's
doings in the Passes into Kafiristan that ascend from Paryan.
2. KHAWAK Pass, at the very head of the Panjshir Valley,
crossing to the Valley of Anderab, which it descends to the town
of that name. [Taken by Alexander to enter Bactriana.]
3. TtJL. This is a loop line to the Khawak Pass. It quits
the latter about twenty miles short of the summit and rejoins
it at Sirab about twelve or fourteen miles2 beyond the summit
in the descent to Anderab.
4. ZARYA ascends from Safed Chir on the Panjshir R. some
six miles below Tul, and joins the last pass just before reaching
Sirab.
5. From UMRAZ (or Murz of Wood's survey), fifteen miles
further down the Panjshir, and about thirty -one miles from the
entrance of the valley, three bad passes, called Shwa, Urza, and
Yatimak, lead across the mountains joining the Bazarak Pass
(No. 6) on the other side of the ridge. The two last of the three
are seldom free from snow.
1 I have only MS. extracts of this report, for which I am indebted
to Dr. F. Hall, of the India Office Library.
2 These distances in the Panjshir Passes I take from Wood's survey
as embodied in a map by Mr. J. Walker. The distances here as given in
Leech's report are inconsistent, and in fact impossibly small. In the
Ghorband Passes I have to take Leech's distances.
TO CATHAY 257
6. BAZARAK. This quits the Panjshir at the village of that
name, twenty-eight and a half miles from the mouth of the valley,
and descends upon KHINJAN on the Anderab River.
7. SHATPAL. This starts from Gulbahar at the entrance to
Panjshir Valley, and joins the Bazarak Road on the other side
at Kishnabad or Kishtabad, twenty-one miles from Khinjan.
PAR WAN PASSES.
8. Pass of PAR WAN, from the town of that name, once a place
of consequence (see p. 209), descends upon Bajga belonging to
Anderab, apparently to the west of Khinjan. Baber says this
pass is a very difficult one, and that between Parwan and the great
col there are seven minor passes called the Haft Bacha (Seven
young ones).
9. Pass of SALULANG (Sir-i-lung of Wood). This starts from
Tutan Dara, six miles north-west of Charekar and descends, like
the last, somewhere not far from Khinjan.
PASSES FROM GHORBAND.
10. KUSHAN. This is the pass which leads close under the
great peak specially known as Hindu Kush. It starts from a point
in the Ghorband valley about ten miles from Tutan Dara. Kushan
lies some miles up the pass. It descends upon Khinjan like the
two last, which it probably receives before reaching that place.
11. GWALIAN. This leaves the valley some twenty miles
from Tutan Dara. It descends upon Gozan on the Anderab
river.
12. GWAZYAR. This pass leaves the valley near the ruins of
the old town of Ghorband, some twenty-four and a half miles
from Tutan Dara. It leads to Kilagai, a small town on the road
from Khinjan to Baghlan and Kunduz.
13. CHAR DARYA. This pass leaves the valley at about
twenty-nine miles from Tutan Dara, and descends upon GHORI,
a considerable town. It is passable for Kafilas of every descrip-
tion.
From this the road goes on along the valley of Ghorband,
throwing off one or two minor passes, and eventually joins the
Hajiyak road at the ruins of Zohak near Bamian.
14. The Pass of HAJJIYAK or Bamian.
15. SHIBRTU.
1 6. ABDEREH, for which my only authority is the Ayin
Akbari as already quoted. These two last are beyond the limits
to which the name Hindu Kush is applied.
Of these Passes Hajjiyak was that crossed on his celebrated
journey by Burnes, the first European traveller who saw and
described the great rock idols of Bamian ; it was also that crossed
c. Y. c. iv. 17
258 JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES
by Wood on his journey northward to the Oxus. It was probably
by this pass that Chinghiz crossed, for the siege of Bamian was
one of the events of his campaign in these regions ; and by it
Hiuen Tsang travelled to India.
The Pass of Chardarya was crossed by Aurungzib. The Pass
of Salulang was attempted by Capt. Wood1, but unsuccessfully,
owing to the lateness of the season. Timur on his expedition
into India crossed the Hindu Kush by the Pass of Tul, and returned
by that of Shibrtu. The Khawak Pass was crossed by Wood
and Lord on their return from the Oxus. By this pass or one of
its branches Ibn Batuta had crossed five hundred years before2;
and we have already seen reason to believe that one of the passes
into the Panjshir Valley was crossed by Friar Odoric on his
return to Europe3. Hiuen Tsang also returned by Panjshir and
Anderab on his way to China.
I have already observed that the mention by Goes of Parwan
1 Wood himself calls it the Pass of Parwan, but it is evident from
comparison with Leech's report that it was the Pass called in the
latter Salulang.
2 See p. 9 ante. Ibn Batuta after passing KUNDUZ and BAGHLAN
(see map) arrived at Andar (ANDARAB), where he says a city formerly
existed which had altogether disappeared. Starting for the Hindu Kush
(the name which he uses) they met with hot springs, in which he washed,
and lost the skin of his face in consequence. These were no doubt the
hot springs of SIRAB, near where the Passes of Tul and Khawak diverge
in the Upper Valley of Anderab, and which are mentioned by Wood as
having temperatures of 108° and 124° Fahr. (Journey, p. 413). The
Moor next mentions halting in a place called Banjhir (PANJSHIR) where
there had been formerly a fine city on a considerable river descending
from the mountains of Badakshan. All the country had been ruined
by Chinghiz and had never recovered. He then arrived at the mountain
of PASHAI (supra, p. 9). The Pashais are mentioned repeatedly by
Leech as one of the most numerous tribes in the Panjshir valley and
adjoining passes. These, I gather, are now Mahomedans, but as the
name is mentioned also by Elphinstone as that of one of the Kafir tribes,
no doubt part of them in the mountains have retained their heathenism
and independence. He then reaches Parwan and Charkh (CHAREKAR,
which Leech also calls Charka). It will be seen that these data leave
nothing ambiguous in the traveller's route- excepting the short alter-
native of the Khawak and Tul routes over the actual ridge of the Hindu
Kush (see Ibn Bat., iii, 82-8).
Ednsi speaks of the people of the towns of Banjhir and Hariana
on the Banjhir (Panjshir River) as employed in mining silver, and those
of the latter as notorious "for the violence and wickedness of their
character." The position of this town of Panjshir does not seem to
be known now (though Mahomedan coins exist struck in the ninth
century), but the valley has retained its character to this day. "This
fair scene," says Wood, "is chiefly peopled by robbers, whose lawless
lives and never-ending feuds render it an unfit abode for honest men."
Hariana is perhaps PARYAN, at which there are silver mines marked in
Wood's survey. Edrisi also speaks of Andarab as a town surrounded
by gardens, orchards, and vineyards, where they stored the silver from
Panjshir and Hariana (i, 476 seq.).
8 Supra, II, p. 10.
TO CATHAY 259
as occurring just before the entrance of their Kafila to the moun-
tains involves strong probability that he crossed by the pass
taking its name from that town. One of the minor difficulties
of the narrative, however, is the application of the name Aing-
haran to the district which he reached after crossing the mountains.
Now I find from Wood's survey, as embodied in J. Walker's map;
that the name Dara-i-Aingharan is applied to two of the valleys
in the vicinity of Bamian. It is a possible explanation, therefore,
that the Kafila might from Parwan have struck up the Ghorband
valley and crossed the Hajjiyak Pass. This circuitous route
would also be more consistent with the great length of time
assigned to the journey, and with the identification of Khulum
as the Calcia of our "traveller. None of these grounds, however,
are stable enough to build upon with much confidence1.
1 In the preparation of this note I have had greatly to regret the
want of access to the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, which
contains a variety of valuable papers bearing on the subject.
[Since Sir Henry Yule wrote this note, the Hindu Kush has been
explored and the following list of passes from the Imperial Gazetteer of
India may prove useful for comparison: "The Hindu Kush is crossed
by the following passes, going from east to west — the Karambar or
Ishkaman, the Darkot, the Baroghil (at the eastern end of the range,
elevation about 12,000 feet), the Yur, the Vost, the Nuksan, the
Kharteza, the Dora, and in the extreme West of the main range the
Bamian or Irak Pass, a great trade route into India from Central Asia.
These passes lead from Chitral into Wakhan and Badakhshan. Of the
Kanristan passes little is known. The Khawak Pass (13,200 feet) is
the most important of the routes between Badakhshan and Kanristan.
From Deh-i-Parian in the Panjshir valley a pass leads by Anjiiman to
Badakhshan. The other principal passes are — the Thai, the Khawak,
the Bazarak, the Shatpal, the Parwan, the Saralang, the Kaoshan, the
Gwalian, the Gwazgar, the Chardar, the Gholalay, the Faringal, and
the Ghorband. Most of the passes are not difficult. Some are practic-
able for kdfilas or caravans of laden carts. On some, snow lies for but
three months in the year. Others are covered by perpetual snow.
These are impracticable for laden animals, but foot-passengers slide
over and down them on leathern aprons."]
17—2
NOTE II.
TITLES OF SOME BOOKS QUOTED IN THIS WORK
BY ABBREVIATED REFERENCES.
ABULPHARAGIUS. — Historia Compend. Dynastiarum, etc., ab
Ed. Pocockio. Oxon., 1663.
ACAD. means Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.
ASSEMANI. — Bibliotheca Orientalis. When no volume is
specified the reference is to vol. iii, part ii, containing the account
of the Nestorian Church.
ASTLEY. — A new general collection of Voyages and Travels, etc.
Printed for Thomas Astley. London, 4 vols., 1745-47.
BABER. — Memoirs of the Emperor; by Leyden and Erskine.
1826.
BALDELLI BONI. — II Milione di M. Polo. Firenze, 1827, 4to.
BARBOSA (Lisbon ed.). — Livro de Duarte Barbosa in Collecfao
de Noticias, etc., publicada pela Acad. Real das Sciencias, Tomo n.
Lisboa, 1812.
BEAZLEY, C. R. — The Dawn of Modern Geography, ii, Lond.,
1901 ; iii, 1906, 8vo.
. — Piano Carpini and Rubruquis, see i, p. 157.
BENJAMIN OF TUDELA, see Early Travels in Palestine.
BONAPARTE, Prince Roland. — Documents de V epoque mongole
des xiii« et xive siecles. Paris, 1895, f°l-
BRETSCHNEIDER, E. — Knowledge possessed by the Ancient
Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian Colonies. Lond., 1871, ppt.
8vo.
. — Archaeological and Historical Researches on Peking.
Shanghai, 1876, 8vo.
. — Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources.
London, 1888, 2 vols. 8vo.
BROWNE'S Vulgar Errors. Bonn's Edition.
CHABOT, J. B. — Histoire de Mar Jabalaha III. Paris, 1895,
8vo.
CHAU JU-KUA, see HIRTH, and i, p. 233.
CHAVANNES, Ed. — Les Memoires historiques de Se-ma Ts'ien.
Paris, i, 1895, et seq.
. — Trois gendraux chinois de la dynastie des Han orientaux.
Ext. du T'oung pao. Leyde, 1906, ppt. 8vo.
. — Documents chinois decouverts par Aurel Stein. Oxford,
1913, 4to.
BOOKS QUOTED 261
CHAVANNES, Ed. — Un texte manicheen retrouve en Chine, in /.
Asiat., Nov.-Dec. 1911 ; Janv.-Avril, 1913 [with Pelliot].
. — Mission archeologique dans la Chine septentrionale .
i, Paris, 1913-5, 2 parts 8vo.
. — Documents sur les Tou-Kiue (Turcs) occidentaux. St.
Petersb., 1903, 8vo, and T'oung pao, 1905.
. — Les Pays d'Occident d'apres le Wei Ho, in T'oung pao,
1905; d'apres le Heou Han Chou, in T'oung pao, 1907.
CHINE (ANCIENNE), Description Historique, etc., etc., par M.
G. Pauthier. Paris, 1837 (L'Univers Pittoresque) .
- (MODERNS), par Pauthier et Bazin. Ditto, ditto, 1853.
CIVEZZA, Marcellino da. — Storia universale delle missioni
francescane. i-vi, Roma-Prato, 1857-1881, 6 vols. 8vo. See n,
p. 88.
COEDES, George. — Textes d'auteurs grecs et latins relatifs a
I' ExtrSme-Orient depuis le ive siecle av. J. C. jusqu'au xive siecle.
Paris, 1910, 8vo.
CONTI, Nicold, see i, p. 266.
CORDIER, Henri. — Bibliotheca Sinica. — Diet, bibliog. des ouvrages
relatifs a I'Empire Chinois. Paris, 1904—1908, 4 vols. 8vo.
. — Les Voyages en Asie au xive siecle du bienheureux frere
Odoric de Pordenone. Paris, 1891, large 8vo.
. — L' Extreme-Orient dans I' Atlas Catalan de Charles V.
Paris, 1895, 4to.
. — See YULE'S Marco Polo.
COSMAS, see MCCRINDLE, J. W.
CRAWFURD. — Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands and
adjacent countries. London, 1856.
. — Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay Language.
London, 1852.
CUINET, Vital. — La Turquie d'Asie. Paris, 1890-4, 4 vols.
8vo.
D'AVEZAC. — Notice sur les Anciens Voyages de Tartarie en
general, et sur celui de Jean du Plan de Carpin en particulier. (In
vol. iv of Recueil de Voyages et de Memoires, publie par la Soc. de
Gdographie. Paris, 1839.)
DAVIS. — The Chinese, new ed. in 3 vols., and a supplem. volume.
C. Knight, 1844.
DEGUIGNES. — Histoire generate des Huns. Paris, 1756-8,
4 vols. 4to.
DELLA DECIMA, see in, p. 137.
DEVERIA, G. — Origine de I'Islamisme en Chine, in Centenaire
de I'Ecole des Langues orientates, 1895.
— . — Musulmans et Manicheens chinois, in Jour. Asiat., 1895,
n, pp. 445-484-
D'OnssoN. — Hist, des Mongols, par le Baron C. La Haye et
Amsterdam, 1834 and 1852, 4 vols. 8vo.
262 BOOKS QUOTED
EARLY TRAVELS IN PALESTINE, edited by Thomas Wright.
Bohn's Antiq. Library, 1848, 8vo.
EDRISI. — La Geographic de, traduite, etc., par P. Amedee
Jaubert. Paris, 1836-1840.
ELIAS, E. — The Tarikh-i-Rashidi of Mirza Muhammad Haidar.
Transl. by E. Denison Ross. London, 1895, 8vo.
ELLIOT, Sir H. M. — Biographical Index to the Historians of
Muhamedan India, vol. i. Calcutta, 1849.
FERRAND, Gabriel. — Relations de Voyages et Textes gdogra-
phiques arabes, per sans et turks relatifs a I' Extreme-Orient du vne
au xvm« si&cles. Paris, 1913-4, 2 vols. 8vo.
GAMS, B. — Series Episcoporum Ecclesiae catholicae. Ratis-
bonae, 1873, 4to. — Suppt. 1886, 4to.
GANDAR, Dom. — Le Canal Imperial, Varietes sinologiques
No. 4. — Shanghai, 1894, 8vo.
GILDEMEISTER. — Scriptorum Arabum de Rebus Indicis Loci et
Opuscula Inedita. Bonn, 1838.
GOEJE, M. J. de, Ibn-Khurdddhbah, see i, p. 137.
GROOT, J. J. M. de. — Sectarianism and Religious Persecution in
China. Amst., 1903-1904, 2 vols. 8vo.
HAVRET, Henri. — La Stele chretienne de Si-nganfou. Varietes
sinologiques Nos. 7, 12, 20. Shanghai, 1895, 1897, 1902, 3 pts.
8vo.
HEYD, W. — Histoire du Commerce du Levant au Moyen-Age.
Leipzig, 1885-6, 2 vols. 8vo.
F. HIRTH. — China and the Roman Orient. Shanghai, 1885,
8vo.
. — Chau Ju-kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab
Trade in the twelfth and thirteenth Centuries entitled Chu-fan-chi.
Transl. from the Chinese by F. HIRTH and W. W. ROCKHILL.
St. Petersburg, 1912, 8vo.
Hob son- Job son. — See YULE.
HUNTER, W. — Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909, 26 vols. 8vo.
IBN-KHURDADHBAH, see i, p. 137.
IBN MUHALHIL, see i, p. 139.
JARRIC, Du. See iv, p. 170.
JOHNSON, Francis. — Diet. Persian, Arabic, and English. 1852.
JOUR. ASIAT. — Journal Asiatique.
J.A.S.B. — Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
J.R.A.S. — Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.
J.R.G.S. — Journal of the Royal Geographical Society.
KLAPROTH. — Mdmoires relatifs a I'Asie. Paris, 1824-25.
. — Tableaux Historiques de I'Asie, etc. Paris, 1826.
KUNSTMANN, Prof. Friedrich, see n, p. 88.
LA PRIMAUDAIE, F. Elie de. — Etudes sur le Commerce au Moyen
Age. Paris, 1848, 8vo.
LASSEN. — Indische Alterthumskunde. 1847-1862.
BOOKS QUOTED 263
LE STRANGE, G. — The Ldnds of the Caliphate. Cambridge,
1905, 8vo. ^
L6vi, Sylvain. — Les missions de Wang Hiuen-ts'e dans I'lnde.
(Journ. Asiatique, 1900.)
LINSCHOTEN. — Hist, de la Navigation de Jean Hugues de
Linschot, Hollandois. 3ieme ed. Amsterdam, 1638. Sometimes
the Latin edition, Hagae Com., 1599, fol.
LUDOLF. — Historia Mthiopica, Francof. a. M., 1681. Com-
mentarius, etc., 1691, and Suppt., 1693.
MCCRINDLE, J. W. — The Christian Topography of Cosmas, an
Egyptian Monk. Lond., Hakluyt Soc., 1897, 8vo.
MA HUAN, see Geo. PHILLIPS in J.R.A.S., 1895-6.
MAJOR, R. H. — India in the Fifteenth Century, see i, p. 266.
MANDEVILLE'S Travels, see Early Travels in Palestine.
MAR JABALAHA, see CHABOT.
MARQUART, J. — Ibn Muhalhil, see i, p. 139. — Eransahr nach
der Geographie des Ps. Moses Xorenac'i. I, 1901, pp. 206, 41.0.
MARTINI. — Martinii Atlas Sinensis. In Blaeu's Atlas, vol. x,
and in Thevenot's Collection.
MASPERO, Georges. — Le Royaume de Champa. — Leide, 1914,
8vo.
MAS'UDI. — Ma9oudi, Les Prairies d'Or, par C. Barbier de
Meynard et Pavet de Courteille. Paris, 1861 seqq. See i, p. 137.
MOOR'S Notices of the Indian Archipelago. Singapore, 1837.
MOSHEIM. — Historia Tartarorum Ecclesiastica. Helmstadi,
1741, 4to. The book is not by Mosheim, as the preface informs
you ; but written under his instructions by H. C. Paulsen.
OLLONE, Com' d'. — Recherche s sur les Musulmans chinois.
Paris, 1911, 8vo.
PALLADIUS. — Elucidations of Marco Polo's Travels in North-
China drawn from Chinese Sources, in Journ. North China Branch
R. A. S., x, 1876, pp. 1-54.
PAOLINO, Fra — di S. Bartolomeo, etc. — Viaggio alle Indie
Orientali. Roma, 1796.
PAUTHIER. — L 'Inscription Syro-Chinoise de Si-ngan-fou, etc.
Paris, 1858, 8vo.
. — De I' Authenticite de I' Inscription Nestorienne de Si-ngan-
fou, etc. Paris, 1857, 8vo.
— . — Histoire des Relations Politiques de la Chine avec les
Puissances Occidentals. Paris, 1859, 8vo.
. — See POLO and CHINE.
PELLIOT, Paul. Deux Itindraires de Chine en Inde a la fin du
vme sibcle. Hanoi, 1904, 8vo.
. — Le Fou Nan, in Bui. Ecole Extreme -Orient, Avril-Juin
1903.
. — Chretiens d'Asie centrale et d' Extreme-Orient, in T'oung
pao, Dec. 1914, pp. 623-644.
264 BOOKS QUOTED
PEREGRINATORES MEDII JEvi QUATUOR (Burchardus de Monte
Sion, Ricoldus de Monte Crucis, [Pseudo] Odoricus de Foro Julii,
Wilbrandus de Oldenborg). Recensuit J. C. M. Laurent, Lipsiae,
1864, 4to.
PIGAFETTA. — IlPrimo Viaggio intornodel Mondo. Milan, 1800.
PLANO CARPINI. — In torn, iv of the Recueil de Voyages', etc.
(see D'Avezac). See Rockhill, Beazley and Pulle, i, pp. 156-7.
POLO, MARCO. When quoted simply, the reference is to the
fourth edition of that by Hugh Murray, or to Yule-Cordier's
edition.
PAUTHIER'S. — Le Livre de Marco Polo, par M. G. Pauthier.
Paris, 1865, large 8vo.
- BURCK'S. Leipzig, 1845.
See BALDELLI.
PULL£, G. — Plan del Carpine, see i, p. 157.
QUATREMERE'S Rashid, see Rashid.
QUETIF and ECHARD. — Scriptores Ordinis Prcedicatorum.
Paris, 1719, 2 vols. fol.
RADLOFF, W. — Arbeiten der Orchon-Expedition. — Atlas der
Alterthiimer der Mongolei. St. Petersburg, 1892, fol.
RASHID. — Histoire des Mongols de la Perse, par Raschid-el-din,
traduite, etc., par M. Quatreme"re. Paris, 1836, fol.
REINAUD. — Relations des Voyages faits par les Arabes dans
I'lnde et a la Chine, etc. Paris, 1845.
. — Relations politiques et commerciales de I' Empire Romain
avec I'Asie Orientale, etc. Paris, 1863, 8vo.
RELATIONS, etc., see REINAUD.
REMUSAT, Abel. — Melanges Asiatiques, Paris, 1825; and
Nouveaux Melanges Asiatiques. Paris, 1829.
RITTER . — Erdkunde .
RITTER'S LECTURES. — Gesch. der Erdkunde und der Entdeck-
ungen...herausgegeben von H. A. Daniel. Berlin, 1861.
ROCKHILL, W. W. — Rubruck and Pian de Carpine, see i, p. 156.
. — Chau Ju-kua, see HIRTH.
RUBRUQUIS. In torn, iv of the Recueil de Voyages, etc. (see
D'AVEZAC). See ROCKHILL, i, pp. 156-7 and BEAZLEY.
SAINT -MARTIN. — MSmoires Historiques et Geographiques sur
I'Armenie, etc. Paris, 1818-19, 2 vols. 8vo.
SAINT-MARTIN on LEBEAU. — Hist, du Bas Empire (with notes
and corrections by Saint -Martin). Paris, 1828.
SCHEFER, Ch. — Relations des Peuples musulmans avec les
Chinois, in Centenaire de I'Ecole des Langues Orientales, Paris, 1895,
4to.
SCHILTBERGER. — Reisen des Johannes — aus Munchen. Von K.
F. Neumann. Munchen, 1859.
SCHMIDT, I. J. — Geschichte der Ost-Mongolen, etc., verfasst von
Ssanang Ssetzen Chungtaidschi. St. Petersburg, 1829.
BOOKS QUOTED 265
SEMEDO, P. Alvaro. — Relazione della Cina. Roma, 1643.
SSANANG SSETZEN. See SCHMIDT.
STEIN, Sir Aurel. — Ancient Khotan. Oxford, 1907, 2 vols.
4to.
. — Ruins of Desert Cathay. Lond., 1912, 2 vols. 8vo.
. — See CHAVANNES.
TIMKOWSKI. — Travels of the Russian Mission through Mongolia
to China, etc. London, 1827, 2 vols. 8vo.
TURNOUR. — Epitome of the History of Ceylon, etc., and the first
twenty chapters of the Mahawanso. Ceylon, Cotta Ch. Mis. Press.
VAN DER LITH and Marcel DEVIC. — Livre des Merveilles de
I'lnde, par le capitaine BOZORG. Leide, 1883-1886, 4to.
VINCENZO MARIA. — Viaggio all' Indie Orientali del P. F. di
S. Caterina da Siena, etc. Roma, 1672.
WADDING. — Annales Minorum, etc. (History of the Franciscan
Order), see u, p. 85.
WANG HIUEN-TS'E, see Sylvain LEVI.
YULE, Sir Henry. — The Book of Ser Marco Polo.... Third ed.
revised by Henri CORDIER. Lond., 1903, 2 vols. 8vo.
. — Hobson-Jobson. A Glossary of Colloquial Indian Words
and Phrases. New ed. by William CROOKE. Lond., 1903, 8vo.
NOTE III.
CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS.
VOLUME I.
Pp. xxii, 201; in, p. i86n. Read Periegetes instead of
Periergetes.
Pp. xxiii, 262. Letter of Sempad (1243); the letter was written
between 1248, date of his departure, and 1250.
P. 8, note i, line 3. Read Haw Han Shu instead of Haw Han
Shu.
P. 9, note 2, line 5. Read Chavannes instead of Chevannes.
P. 29. On Theophylactus, see Chavannes, Tou-Kiue, pp. 249
seq. On Tabyac = uighiir tapqac, see V. Thomsen, Insc. de
I'Orkhon, 1896, p. 139.
P. 41. Read TSIN instead o/Ts'iN.
P. 60, line 6. Read Samanids instead of Sassanids. Read
Lun tsang instead of Lunt sang ; A mcuvarman instead of
Anfuvarman. •
P. 70, note. T'ai Tsung died during the fifth moon 549.
P. 101, note i, line i. Read /. R. Geog. Soc., vol. xxviii
instead of vol. xxvii.
P. no, note 2. Read Izdbuzid instead of Idbuzid.
P. 193. On Kattigara, see Dr. A. Hermann in the Berlin
Geog. Soc. Zeitschrift, N. 10, 1913, and the Geographical Journal,
May 1914, p. 579. He places Kattigara on the northern borders
of Annam, just where Richthofen and Hirth, on the authority
of the Chinese annals, have placed the southern limit of the
Chinese Empire at the time.
P. 205, note 3. Titeupuli. Prof. Chavannes, Tou-Kiuer
p. 227 n., shows that Ti-t' eou-pu-li has never existed.
P. 378, note 4. Read CHENG TING FU instead O/CH'ENG TING FU.
VOLUME II.
P. ix. Add Dr. Nob. Luigi Tinti Canonico Decano Prof, di
Teologia e Pastorale nel Seminario vescovile di Portugruaro,
Delegate del Vescovo di Concordia — Vita e Missioni nell' Indo-
Cina del Beato Odorico da Pordenone dei Frati Minori (1285-1331).
Con illustrazioni.) — Roma, Desclee, Lefebvre & Ci, 1901, 8vo,
pp. 178 + if. n. ch. ind. ill.
Gives (p. 161) a sketch of the sarcophagus as it stood before
the xvmth cent., surmounted with a bust of Odorico, showing the
project of restoration.
CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS 267
P. 71. See Notice sur le grand et le petit Pou lu [Baltistan
and Gilghit] from the T'ang Shu in Chavannes' Tou-Kiue,
pp. 149-154-
P. 199. Prof. PELLIOT has devoted an article to the Turkish
name of wine in Odoric of Pordenone (T'oung pao, July, 1914,
pp. 448-453). He thinks with Yule that bigni must be bagni,
but Turkish, not Persian. "Ce qu'on boit au Tcho kiang, c'est
surtout du vin de sorgho, et les crus en sont celebres dans toute
la Chine. Precisement, c'est un produit un peu analogue, c'est-
a-dire un produit de la fermentation de cereales, qui etait designe
en Perse sous le nom de bagni. II me parait done probable...
que bdgni designe les bieres, vins de sorgho, vins de millet, bref
toutes les boissons fermentees autres que le produit de la vigne
et a 1'exclusion des alcools distilles. Pour de telles boissons,
simples ou composees, c'est d'Asie centrale que le nom de bdgni
aurait gagne le monde iranien."
P. 203. In the Bui. de 1'f.cole d 'Extreme-Orient, xiv, No. 8,
1914, Prof. H. MASPERO in the narrative of an archaeological
Mission through the Che Kiang Province has given an interesting
description of the Hia T'ien-chu sze or Ling-yin sze, situated on
the western side of the Si Hu.
P. 223. Bogtak. According to Prof. Pelliot, the word is
found already in the list of Wei words contained in the Nan Ts'i
Shu (vith century).
P. 224. "Un grand prefet ou un autre ofncier qui va au
palais du prince, entre et sort a droite du poteau dresse entre les
deux battants des portes. II evite de mettre le pied sur le seuil."
Li Ki, Chap, i, K'iu li, Partie I, Art. n, 27, p. 17; transl. by
Couvreur.
P. 241. Tartar Lamb. — Dr. B. LAUFER has made a new study
of the question in his paper, The Story of the Pinna and the Syrian
Lamb (Journ. of American Folk-Lore, April-June, 1915), and he
has come to the following conclusion (p. 126): "The traditions
of the Chinese have enabled us to study the development of the
story in its various stages, from the beginning of the Christian
era down to the thirteenth century, and to recognize its origin,
growth and significance. We have seen that it takes its birth
from the pinna, and that the Aristotelian doctrine of the fusion
of vegetal and animal characteristics, applied to the life-habits
of the pinna, is the very germ, the protoplasm, so to speak, which
has called into existence the West-Asiatic notion of a vegetal
lamb. This vegetal lamb therefore was evolved from a marine
mollusk, never from a plant, and least of all from the cotton-
plant. For this reason Yule was misguided in seeking for 'the
plant about which these fables have gathered,' and in regarding
it as a certain genus of ferns. Animal figures shaped by the
Chinese from the rhizome of a fern greatly stirred the imagination
268 CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS
of scholars in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and were
believed to have yielded the basis for the so-called Syrian lamb.
It is the uncontested and great merit of H. Lee to have utterly
destroyed these scientific fables, which, as usual, are more colossal
and more baffling than the fables themselves, whose mystery
they try to solve."
P. 245. Prof. PELLIOT suggests that Tozan was Tung-sheng
chau. See Journ. N. C. B. R. As. Soc., 1915, p. 28. Elsewhere
(T'oung pao, Dec. 1914, p. 634) he says that it is pretty sure
that Tozan is the Kosang of Rabban Cauma, that Kosang is an
alteration of Tosang = Tung sheng = Tokto.
P. 247. In T'oung pao, July, 1914, pp. 405-41 8, Dr. B. LAUFER
raised the question : Was Odoric of Pordenone ever in Tibet ? He
says : " Tibet has left no profound or lasting impression upon
his mind, because he rubbed elbows but superficially with its
north-eastern borderland." He comes to the conclusion : " Odoric
of Pordenone has never traversed Tibet proper, has never been
at Lhasa, — a feat with which he has been unduly credited for
so long and to which he himself lays no claim. The honor of
being the first Europeans to have reached Lhasa is justly due
to the two Jesuit Fathers Grueber and Dorville, who spent two
months there in 1661."
P. 248. With regard to bread and wine in Tibet, Dr. LAUFER
has, I.e., p. 412 : "Such a statement cannot possibly be advanced
by any one who has had but the slightest contact with the Tibetan
borderlands and the most superficial acquaintance with Tibetan
people. First of all, there is nothing like bread in Tibet, where
even the preparation of dough is unknown. Parched barley-
flour mixed with tea or milk into a porridge forms the staple
food, and the alcoholic beverage called c'an, obtained from
fermented barley, is neither wine nor beer, but a liquor sui generis.
Even granted that Odoric simply committed a mistake in the
choice of his words, and merely intended to say that food and
drink abound in Tibet, his statement nevertheless remains very
strange. The majority of Tibetans eke out a wretched living
as poor shepherds or farmers, and earn enough to be kept from
starvation ; but emphasis on the food-supplies being as abundant
as anywhere in the world is thoroughly out of place for a poor
country like Tibet."
P. 248. Respecting the tents of black felt, Dr. LAUFER says :
" Certainly the Tibetans understand the art of making felt ; but
the tents inhabited by the pastoral tribes of Tibet, throughout
the country, are covered with a black cloth woven from yak-hair.
In this respect, and in its quadrangular structure, the Tibetan
tent represents a dwelling-type of its own, which is plainly dis-
tinguished from the Mongol circular felt tent. It is impossible
to assume that in the days of Odoric there may have been Tibetan
CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS 269
nomads living in felt tents, and thus come to the Friar's rescue.
...It is obvious beyond any doubt that Odoric's observation
refers, not to Tibetan, but to Mongol tents. "
P. 250: Dr. LAUFER writes, I.e., p. 411: "The word bakshi
is not, as stated by YULE (also Marco Polo, i, p. 314), connected
with Skr. bhikshu. The Tibetans are acquainted with both
words, translating the latter by the term dge-slon, and writing
the former pag-si (Jaschke's spelling pa-si is incorrect). The
Tibetan dictionary Li-sii gur k'an, fol. 230, explains this word
by btsun-pa ('respectable, reverend'), and states that it is derived
from the language of the Turks (Hor). The word seems to be,
indeed, of Turkish origin (VAMBERY, Primitive Cultur, p. 248,
RADLOFF, Wdrterbuch der Tiirk-dialecte, iv, col. 1445)."
P. 251. With regard to the word Abassi, Dr. LAUFER says;
I.e., p. 41 1 : " Odoric plainly states that the word is of the Tibetan
language, and it has to be sought, therefore, in Tibetan only.
...The Sa-skya hierarchs, who practically ruled Tibet in the age
of the Mongols, bore the Tibetan title a P'ags-pa (eminent, excel-
lent) and were spoken of as the a P'ags-pa b La-ma. This word,
variously articulated p'ags-pa, p'ag-pa, p'as-pa, p'a'-pa, is the
source of Odoric's Abassi." "This term," adds Dr. Laufer, "is
neither a common title nor a title at all, but merely a personal
name."
P. 251. With regard to the hair, Dr. LAUFER remarks, p. 413,
that boar's tusks are generally employed by Tibetan women for
making the parting of their hair; if Odoric had really crossed
Tibet to Lhasa and beyond, he could not have failed to notice
that quite different styles of hair-dressing prevail in other parts
of the country.
P. 254. Prof. E. H. PARKER in a notice of this volume in
the Geographical Journal, August, 1914, says : " As to the Tibetans
drinking out of their ancestors' skulls, it may be pointed out
that they do it even now ; not to refer to other and remoter
authorities, it is only necessary to quote the graphic account of
Tibetan family life this very year, as given in the North China
Herald for March 14, where the practice is plainly mentioned."
I have not found the passage referred to in the number of the
N. C. Herald for March 14.
VOLUME III.
P. 48. Land of the Goths. In a somewhat acerb anonymous
article in The Athenaeum of Dec. 25, 1915, a critic, whom I could
easily name, remarks that the MS. from which are drawn the
Documents relating to the Mission of the Minor Friars to China in
the thirteenth and fourteenth Centuries, edited by the Rev. A. C.
Moule in the J.R.A.S., July, 1914, reads "per terrain Cothay";
270 CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS
I cannot but regret that these documents had not appeared
before I had myself printed the letters, the proofs of which I lent
to Mr. Moule, because I might have added this note (J.R.A.S.,
I.e., p. 550) evidently used by the A thenaeum reviewer : " Wadding
transcribed this word Gothorum, and, in the second letter, Kathan.
It probably stands (as M. Pelliot suggests) for Marco Polo's
Toctai, the Chinese T'o-t'o, descended from Chingis' eldest son,
Chu-ch'ih, Khan of Kipchak, whose capital was at Sarai, on the
Volga, north of the Caspian Sea."
P. 52. / have been thinking .. .The text of the J.R.A.Soc.,
July 1914, p. 552, reads: "Cogitauj uos non sine causa mirarj
quod tot annis in provincia tarn longinqua consistens nunquam
meas litteras recepistis."
P. 52. The Lord Kathan Khan. The text of the J.R.A.S.,
July, 1914, p. 552, reads: "domini Cothay Canis." See note
supra, p. 269.
P. 58. The Rev. A. C. Moule, J.R.A.S., July 1914, p. 557,
remarks that Quinquagesima fell on isth February in 1306.
P. 73. "Zayton which is about three weeks' journey distant
from Cambaliech." The J.R.A.S., July 1914, p. 566, has:
"Zayton que distat a Cambaliech itinere mensium fere trium."
P. 119, note i. Instead of "See supra, p. 214," read "See
supra, n, p. 214."
P. 120. Instead of "See p. 265," read "See n, p. 231."
P. 127. In a paper on Karajang inserted in the Journ. R.A.
Soc., Oct. 1915, p. 781, Dr. LAUFER believes that YULE was
correct in his conception, and that in accordance with his sug-
gestion, Jang indeed represents the phonetically exact transcrip-
tion of a Tibetan proper name. This is the Tibetan a Jan or
a Jans, pronounced Jang or Djang. It will be remembered
that YULE (Marco Polo, n, p. 72) analysed the word into Kara-
jang, in which the first element was the Mongol or Turki Kara
(black) . Jang has not been explained ; but probably it may have
been a Tibetan term adopted by the Mongols, and the colours
may have applied to their clothing. Jan is a Tibetan tribal
and geographical term. Jan or Jang is the Tibetan designation
of the Mo-so and the territory inhabited by them, the capital
of which is Li-kiang fu.
P. 144. My friend, Prof. M. PROU, remarks that Chiaveria
is not key-money. The Clavarii were the collectors of taxes ;
they had charge of the keys of the municipal safe. Du Cange
has : " Clavaria, Munus Clavarii ; Locus ubi Clavarius reponebat
omnia ad Clavariam spectantia ; Clavarius, Ital. Chiavaio et
Chiaivolo, Cui claves fisci communis commissae sunt; Clavariae
Jus, Vectigal, quod pro mercibus in regesta inscribendis pensita-
batur." E. Levy, Petit Diet, provencal-franfais, p. 179, col. i,
gives: "Clavaria, s. f., tresorerie; edifice ou se trouve la
CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS 271
tresorerie ; circonscription d'un tresorier, d'un receveur des
revenus ecclesiastiques."
P. 144, note 6. The same friend suggests that Lelda might
be read leida; we have in Proven9al leuda, leida, leda, lesda,
lesna. Cf. E. Levy, Diet, provenpal-franfais, 1909, p. 224, col. i,
p. 225, col. 2 : leudier, leidiev, lesdier, percepteur de la leude.
P. 182, note. The Athenaeum critic remarks that Fu ting is
found in chap. 132 of the Yuen Shi, Hiang shan in chap. 135,
and Gemboga in chap. 123.
P. 1 86. The An ts'a'i (Asii, Asiani) changed their name into
A-lan-na (Alans) under the Posterior Han; during the second
Wei, they called themselves The su [Su t'o] and Wen-na-sha.
Cf. Remusat, Nouv. Mel. As., i. p. 239.
P. 187. The massacre of Alans took place at Chen ch'ao,
a little north of the Kiang, not at Ch'ang chau (1275). Cf.
Pelliot, T'oung pao, Dec. 1914, PP- 641-2.
P. 194, nots. Instead of Ta yi chi lio, read Tao yi chi lio.
P. 237. Mangoes. A'nbd, Mango. "C'est un arbre de
1'Inde que Ton ne trouve que dans ITnde et la Chine. II a une
tige epaisse, des branches et des feuilles pareilles a celles du
noyer. Le fruit ressemble au mokl espagnol. Les Indiens le
recueillent quand il est forme et le confisent dans de 1'eau, du
sel et du vinaigre. II a un gout pareil a celui de 1'olive. On en
use a titre de condiment et il excite 1'appetit. L'usage prolonge
de ce fruit assainit 1'odeur des transpirations et detruit la fetidite
des emanations intestinales." (Ibn el-Betthar, in Not. et Ext., xxv,
1881, p. 471.)
VOLUME IV.
P. 20. Kanauj, in Farrukhabad District, United Provinces.
P. 190, note. Instead of A-si-you, read A-si-yen. Cf. p. 231.
Prof. Chavannes has since altered his opinion.
P. 193. Fifth line from foot of page, suppress T'ien shan.
P. 222, note. Read K'iu £an instead of K'iu /an.
P. 228, note. Read Toan tac, instead of To antac.
P. 235. The Cailac of Rubruquis is the Kaydlik of ancient
writers, the Kiydk of the Jahdn Kushdi. "It was situated,
according to the most trustworthy critics, to the south-west of
the Imil River, and near the modern Kopal." (N. Elias, Tarikh-
i-Rashidi, p. 288.)
P. 239. Kia-yii Kwan, or the "Jade Gate." I should have
referred to my note in Marco Polo, i, p. 193, in which I said :
" According to the Chinese characters, the name of Kia-yii Kwan
does not mean ' Jade Gate, ' and as Mr. Rockhill writes to me, it
can only mean something like 'barrier of the pleasant Valley.' "
INDEX
Names of Persons in CAPITAL letters. Subject Names in thick letters.
Titles of books in italics.
AARON, in, 209
Aas (The Alans), in, 185, 186; see
Alans
Abadan, I, 86, 309
ABAGARUS, King, in, 226
ABAKA, Khan of Persia, i, 119,
120; in, 108; iv, 7
Abano, in, 195; see PETER of
Abano
ABARANER, Thomas de, n, 104
Abari, I, 307
Abarim, I, 307
Abasa, I, 202
Abasci, Abascy, in, 223
Abassi (Lama), n, 250; iv, 269
Abassi de Khalifs, n, 250
Abasty, in, 222, 223
Abaz Country, in, 185
ABBA GREGORY, i, 222; n, 157
ABBAN, in, 252
Abbeys of the Idolaters (Bud-
dhist), in, 94
in Scotland and England,
ill, 170
ABBOTT, Col. James, i, 243; 11,
107; ill, 82
Abbreviations used in reference to
MSS. and editions of Odoric,
n, 95 ; in reference to books
quoted, iv, 260 seq.
ABD- ALLAH of Misr, Shaikh, iv, 2,
33
ABDALLATIF, 11, 141
Abdeni, I, 309
Abdereh, iv, 256, 257
ABDIAS, Bishop, in, 252
ABDULAHAN, iv, 211
ABDULA IsAf, travelling name of
Goes, iv, 201, 237
ABDUL KERIM, iv, 191, 193
ABDULLA KHAN, iv, 212
ABDULMALIQ, Khalif, i, 49
ABDUL MEDJID, i, 318
ABDUL MUMIN, rv, 212
ABDUL RASHID KHAN, iv, 191,
193
ABDUR RAZZAK, i, 87, 179, 271,
291, 313; n, 133; in, 249
ABEL, i, 151; in, 244
Abeskun, n, 105
Ab-i-Haiyah, river, iv, 108, 121
Ab-i-Siyah (Kali Nadi), iv, 22
Abohar, iv, 12
Abragana, i, 195
ABRAHAM, cast into the Fire,
Legend of, 11, 121; land of,
ill, 225 ; buried in Ebron, in,
245. 265
ABRAHAM (Ngao-lo-han), n, 210
ABRAM, in, 239
Abserai, HI, 84
ABU ABDALLAH, Mahomed, King
of Granada, in, 230
Abubakhr, Castle, iv, 12
ABUBAKR (Bayan Fanchan), in,
122
ABUBAKR, Khan of Kashgar, iv,
190
ABUBEKR, in, 69
ABU DULAF, see IBN MUHALHIL
ABU ISHAK of Kazerun, Shaikh,
IV, 120
ABU JAFAR al Mansiir, i, 91, 92
Abukir, I, 306
ABU'L ABBAS, i, 92
ABULFARAJ, Mahomed, i, 113
ABUL FAZL, i, 74; iv, 173
ABULFEDA, Notices of China, i,
145. 255-8
Abulustein, rv, 5
ABU SAID, Arab, i, 104
ABU SAID Bahadur Khan of
Persia, i, 121; n, 104; HI, 89,
90, 96, 108, 109, 160; iv, 133,
137, 166
ABU SAID, son of Yunus Khan of
Eastern Chagatai, iv, 191
ABU ZAID of Siraf, i, 112, 125,
131, 132-5, 138, 197, 241;
rv, 5
Abyssinia, i, 218, 219, 220, 222;
ii, 132, 157; in, 224; iv, 154;
Transfer of Prester John stories
to, in, 26-27 ; many Kings
subject to Emperor of, ill, 43;
Power of the King to divert
the Nile, in, 222 ; see Ethiopia
Acbatana, i, 43 ; see Ecbatana
INDEX
273
Acesines, i, 24
ACHIKI, in, 128
Achin, i, 152; ii, 146, 174
Achmetha, 11, 102
Aconsersec, iv, 227
Aconterzec, iv, 229
ACQUAVIVA, iv, 245
Acre, in, 49
Ac-Sarai, in, 84
Acsu, see Aqsu
Actam, n, 105
Ada Sanctorum, n, 9, 12, 16, 21,
22, 24, 27, 28, 53, 80, 100, 117,
118, 125, 126, 271
Aczum, i, 217
ADALBERT, St., in, 264
'Adali, coin so called, iv, 60 seq.
ADAM, n, 171; in, 194, 197, 201,
226-8, 232-6, 238, 240, 242,
243, 245, 250, 254, 260; Foot,
in, 242; Peak, ii, 171, 172;
in, 219, 232, 233; iv, 32
ADAM (King Tsing), i, 108, m-
113
ADAM, William, Archbishop, in,
37
Adanah, iv, 5
Aden, i, 87, 88, 217; n, 133; in,
68; iv, 3, 4, 65; Water
Cisterns at, iv, 3
Adiabene, n, 109; in, 22, 23
Adil, ii, 242, see Volga
ADORNO, Hieronimo, i, 124
Adua, i, 217
Aduh, iv, 21
Adule, i, 25, 217-9, 227, 229,
230
Aegae, n, 190
AELIAN, i, 243; ii, 231
Aethiopos, i, 195
Afghanistan, i, 37, 154; iv, 160,
204, 205, 207, 217
Afghans, n, 263 ; iv, 204
AFKHARUDDfN, IV, 130, 135
AFRAIJIAB, AFRASIAB, i, 9, 10, 60,
100; iv, 164
AFRASIAB, Atabek, iv, 139
Afrasiabi Turks, iv, 164
Agaos, i, 218
AGATHEMERUS, n, 160
Agau, in Abyssinia, i, 218, 219
AGE HANEM, iv, 207
AGGABODHI III, i, 71
AGGABODHI VI Silamegha, i, 72
Aggia, in, 163
AGIASI, iv, 225
Agila, iv, 100; see Aloes Wood
Agisymba, i, 187, 188
Agitarcan,Agitarchan( Astrakhan),
i, 308; in, 84, 147
c. Y. c. iv.
AGNOLO DI LOTTI of Antella, in,
143
Agnus scythicus, n, 242, 243
Agra, n, 230, 234; in, 262; iv,
21, 169, 174, 176, 178-180, 217
Agreboce, in, 161
Agrican (Astrakhan), in, 198
AGUDA, i, 148
Ahan-gharan, iv, 209
AHASUERUS, ii, 102
AHEHAXAM, iv, 207
Ahingaran, iv, 209
AHMAD KHAN, AHMED, Son of
Yunus, iv, 166, 191
Ahmedabad, in, 78; iv, 173
AHMED bin Ayas, iv, 10, ii
AHMED, Hagi, i, 290
AHMED, Khan of Persia, i, 120
AHMED SHAH, i, 282, 283
AHMED SHAH DURANI, iv, 185, 207
AHSAN SHAH, iv, 34
Ahwaz, n, 109, no
Aias, Aiazzo, i, 307; ii, 115; in,
139, 159. 160. 161, 164
Aidhab, i, 306; iv, 3
Aidin, iv, 5
Ai Kul, iv, 229
Ai lao, i, 161
Aingaram, Aingharan, iv, 180, 209,
259
Ain Sindi, i, 241
AIRI SHAKARWATI, iv, 32
AITKEN, P. H., n, 43
Ajazzo, see Aias
Ajudahan, iv, 12
Ajudin, iv, 12
Akadra, i, 196
AKBAR, AKHBAR, i, no, 197;
iv, 18, 23, 151, 170, 172-8,
201-5, 2O7
Akbar Namah, iv, 216
AKBO, i, 71
Akche (Turkish coin), in, 161
AKCURA OGHLI, i, 140
Akhalia, iv, 153
Akhsi, iv, 235
Akhsua, i, 315
AKHTAKI, in, 127
Akhtuba, in, 82
A-ki-mi, iv, 235
Akjar, i, 316
Akkerkuf, in, 262
Akoli, in, 125
Akserai, in, 84
Aksu, see Aqsu
Ak-tagh, i, 209
Ala Aighir, iv, 229
Alabandinum, i, 228
ALA-BEG I BAD AT KHAN, iv, 213
Aladagh, i, 289
18
274
INDEX
ALA-EDDIN, ALA-UDDIN, of Delhi,
ii, 115, 143, 197; in, 69, 70
Alafa, in, 72
ALAGAKKONARA, i, 76
Al-Ahsa, in, 65 ; iv, 5
ALAHUSH, in, 15
Alai, plateau, i, 192
Ala Kul, Lake, I, 288, 289; iv,
163, 164
Alamut, i, 153 ; n, 258
ALAN ASH UN, i, 69, 70
Alanean Mountains, in, 184
Alanethi, in, 185
Alani-Scythae, in, 184
A-lan-na, in, 186; iv, 271
Ala Nor, iv, 160
Alans, i, 119, 167, 212; n, 199,
225; in, 15, 179-187, 210, 215,
248; iv, 271
Alapur, iv, 22
Aia-tagh, i, 288, 289; iv, 163
Ala Tau, i, 288
ALA-UDDIN, of Delhi, see ALA-
EDDIN
ALA-UDDfN of Almaliq, in, 125
ALA-UDDfN (Ali Mubarak), iv, 85
ALA-UDDIN FANCHAN, in, 126
ALA-UDDIN MUSAUD, i, 78
ALA-UDDiN TARMASHfRfN, IV, 9,
1 06
ALA-UL-MULK, iv, 9
Alawei, I, 74
Al-Azrak (Blue River), iv, 154
Al-Baidha, in, 84
Albani, in, 186
Albarbarah, pieces of gold, iv, 9
Al-Bayadi, i, 306
ALBEHDYLL, D', in, 220
ALBERICUS TRIUM FONTIUM, i, 149
AL-BIRUNI, i, 22, 33, 74. 127,
149, 151, 241, 242, 254, 256;
ii, 139, 180; iv, 164
ALBIZZI of Pisa, Bartholomew, n,
7.9
ALBOIN, ii, 4
ALBUQUERQUE, in, 8, 224
AL-BUSHRI, a Ceutan in China,
iv, i, 2, 39, 128, 129
Alcala, iv, 173
Alcarone, n, 100, 101
Alcegher, iv, 229
Alceghet, iv, 227
AL-CHANSA, iv, 129
Al-Dabah, i, 306
Aldabra, ii, 166
Alcana, i, 43
A-LE-KO-NAR, i, 76
Alep, Aleppo, i, 188; ii, 223;
in, 199, 226; iv, 3, 37, 45
ALEXANDER THE GREAT, i, 14, 31,
189, 193, 220, 304; n, 102, 114;
in, 7, 218, 219, 229; iv, 123,
256
ALEXANDER de Caffa, Bishop, in,
14
ALEXANDER III, Pope, in, 17
Alexandria, i, 187, 216, 224, 254,
264, 306; ii, 100, 122, 231; in,
167, 223, 224; iv, 2, 4
ALEXIS I, Emperor, i, 47, 57
ALEXIS II, ii, 99
ALEXIS III, iv, 7
ALEXIS IV, iv, 7
Al-Faliq, in, 24
ALGU, iv, 161
ALHACEN, i, 33
Alhama, iv, 39
Al-Hirah, i, 84
ALI, Khalif, i, 84, 246; iv, 3
ALI, of Okkodai Stock, in, 33-35 ;
iv, 162
ALI MIRZA, Shaikh, n, 164
ALI MUBARAK, iv, 85, 86
ALI SHAH of Lakhnaoti, iv, 84-6
ALI SHAH JABALAN, in, 108
Aliabad, iv, 210
Al-i-Afrasyab, i, 148
Allbag, i, 254
ALI BEG the Baluch, in, 127
A LIE KU NA EUL, I, 76
Aliga, river, iv, 72
Aligarh, iv, 20, 21
Alimali, in, 87
Alimatu, ill, 87
ALISOLDA, in, 32, 34
Al-Jir, i, 85
Ai-Katif, in, 65; iv, 5
AL-KAZWINI, iv, 148
Al-Kharlokh, i, 249
Al-Khawarnak, I, 83
Al-Kufah, i, 84
Alia, in, 145
Alia Apostolica, in, 243
Allania, i, 305
ALLEN'S Indian Mail, ii, 144,
145
Alligators, ii, 182
Al-Maid, i, 136
AL-MALIK AL-ZAHIR, iv, 95, 96
Almaliq, Almalik, Almaligh, I, 154,
163, 171, 289; in, 13, 24, 31,
33. 35. 85, 87, 88, 89, 125, 148,
156, I9O, 212, 213, 2l6, 225;
iv, 137, 141, 160, 161, 165, 193,
235
Almaty, I, 288
ALMEIDA, Diego d', iv, 170
Almonds, HI, 165
AL-NISWY, i, 33, 256
Aloes, i, 227, 243, 253; in, 7,
INDEX
275
195, 245; iv, 96, 97, 99-101,
156
ALOPANO, ALOPENO (Olopen), i,
109
A'los, i, 272
ATOthmaniyah, iv, 131
ALPHONSO XI, iv, 38
Al-Rami, n, 146
Al-RamnI (Sumatra), i, 127; see
Lambri
Altai, i, 64, 205, 208, 209, 308
ALTAMSH, i, 131
Al-Ubullah, i, 84
A-LU-CHI, II, 248
Alum Mines of Phocaea Nova,
in, 44
Alu Wihara, in, 233
ALVAREZ, i, 218
Al-Wakin, i, 135
Alzarone, n. 100, 101
Am, in, 236
Amacao (Macao), iv, 242
Amarah, n, no
Amarapura, n, 152, 219; iv, 147
AMARI, i, 241
Amarkantak, in, 221
AMAT DI S. FILIPPO, i, 290; 11, 61,
62, 90, 92; in, 4
Amazons, i, 265
Amba. in, 236
Ambalam, in, 237
Ambassadors threatened with
death for refusing to kotow, I, 90
Ambastes, River, i, 195
Amburan (Mango), in, 236
Amburanus, HI, 236-7
Ameri, n, 146
Amethyst, i, 226
AMHERST, Lord, i, 134; iv, 121
Amir, n, 122; iv, 26, 67
Amiari, iv, 23
Amjhera, iv, 23
AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS, i, 15, 16,
21, 127, 203; in, 23, 248
Amol, i, 315
Amouieh, i, 287
Amoy, 11, 1 68
Amritsar, n, 143
Amroha, iv, 18
AMRU, in, 23
Amulets rendering invulnerable,
«, 157
Amur, in, 24
Amwari, iv, 22
An, i, 4
Anabad, in, 160
A ndcharanirnaya, n, 140
'Anah, in India, I, 243
'Anah, on the Euphrates, iv, 137
Analecta Franciscana, I, 156
ANANDA, in, 127
ANAN-JESUS II, Patriarch, i, 108
Anatolia, iv, 165
Anbar, on the Euphrates, iv, 137
Ancestors' skulls, i, 254; iv, 269
Anchediva, iv, 24, 72
Ancona, in, 166
ANCUVARMAN, i, 60
Andagan, Andegan, i, 286, 287
Andaman Islands, i, 127; n, 168;
iv, 93
Andar, iv, 9, 258
Andarab, Anderab, iv, 9, 209,
256-8
Andijan, i, 191, 286
Andijara, i, 315
ANDRADE, F. d', i, 180
ANDREW the Frank, in, 179, 180
ANDREW, Friar, in, 19
ANDREW of Florence, in, 5
ANDREW of Perugia, Bishop of
Zaitun, i, 169, 170; n, 22, 183;
in, 10, n, 28, 71, 96, 100
ANDRONICUS the Elder, i, 120;
iv, 7, 8
ANDRONICUS the Younger, iv, 8
Androstachyn, I, 227
ANDRUTIUS of Assisi, Bishop, in,
i°, 75
Angamale, iv, 173
ANGKA WIJAYA, HI, 193
Angkola, iv, 157
Anhilawara, i, 310
An-hsi (Parthia), I, 23, 41, 43
Anjara, i, 315
Anjediva, iv, 72; see Anchediva
Anjuman, iv, 256, 259
Ankjy, i, 273
Ankolah, iv, 72
Ankuah, Chief City of Sila, I, 131
Annales des Voyages, Nouv., i, 12,
212
Annales des Voyages, i, 220
Annales ecclesiastiques , I, 166
Annales Minorum, II, 22; see
WADDING
Annali di Geog. e di Stat., n, 105
Annam, i, 4, 135; n, 256
Annesley Bay, I, 217
Anniba, I, 194, 203
Annibi, I, 195
ANNIUS PLOCAMUS, i, 199
Anniva, i, 203 ; see Anniba
Ansee, I, 306
Anser cygnoides, n, 181
An si (Parthia), I, 23, 41, 43; see
Asi
Ansi chow, i, 117
ANSUINO da Forli, n, 142
Ant, i, 43
18— 2
276
INDEX
Anta, i, 43
Antarctic, n, 160
ANTHONY of Padua, St., n, 12, 32,
119, 165, 166
Anthumusia, i, 216
Antiaris toxicaria, n. 158
Antioch, i, 43, 44, 55, 158, 220,
234; in, 18
Antiocheia, I, 216
Antiphonarium, in, 49
Antipodes, i, 27; in, 260, 261
Antivari, in, 37
ANTONINA, in, 230
ANTONIO FERNANDEZ, i, 237
ANTONY of Monserrate, iv, 172, 173
ANTONY of Parma, in, 5
An ts'ai, in, 186
Antu (Antioch), i, 43, 234
ANTUN, i, 51, 193
Antwerp, 11, 154
Anurajapura, i, 71, 227; in, 233,
242
ANVILLE, d', i, 24, 194; 11, 227;
iv, 228, 233, 234
Aornos, I, 243; in, 219
Aorsi, in, 1 86
A-PAO-KI, i, 147
Apes, ii, 202, 203; in, 260
Apocalypse, i, 304
Apocrypha, 11, 102
APO Kagan, i, 206
Apollinopolis Parva, iv, 4
Apollonia, I, 221
APOLLONIUS, 11, 190, 240
Apologos, i, 84
A-PO-LO-PA, i, 92
Apostolorum, ad modum, in, 243
Apple of Paradise, in, 236
A P'U CH'A FO, i, 92
Apulia, in, 166, 169
Aqkala, in, 162
Aqsu, i, 40, 58, 62, 194, 251, 293,
311; in, 55; iv, 163, 183, 189,
190, 191, 227, 228, 229, 230,
231, 234
AQUAVIVA, Rudolf, iv, 172
Aquileia, 11, 4, 6, 14
'Arabah, i, 276
Arabia, i, 83, 92, 102, 104, 126,
197, iQ9. 20°. 22°. 221; in, 22;
iv, 36, 149
Arabic terms in Italian, iv, 59
Arabs, i, 48, 59, 61, 83, 89, 90, 97,
100, 151
ARABSHAH, i, 272; 11, 116
Arafat, III, 228
Arakan, in, 174
Arakka, I, 276
Aral, i, 210, 211, 247, 288, 304,
315; in, 180, 184
Aramuth, iv, 238
Ararat, 11, 30, 34, 102; in, 40, 41,
163, 197, 234, 246
Arasht, i, 247
Arauraci, in, 161
Arawaks, 11, 147
Araxes, I, 31; in, 84, 163, 164,
198
Arba, in, 245
Arbela, i, 119; HI, 22, 23
Arbil (Arbela), in, 23
Arbo, i, 308
Arbor Secco, 11, 102, 103
Archbishops, of Socotra, in, 7 ;
of the Nestorians, in, 22, 23;
appointed by the Pope to
Cambalec, in, 9 seq. ; of Sol-
tania, ill, 36, 37, 89 ; of Armagh,
in, 204
ArchcBological Journal, i, 167
Archipelago, i, 224, 253 ; n, 26,
31; in, 180
Archivio Storico Italiano, I, 124;
n, 83
Archivio Veneto, n, 82
Arctic Sea, i, 300; n, 160
ARDASHIR, ARDESHIR, i, 94
Aren Palm, n, 157
Arequipa, Desert, n, 262
ARES, i, 217
ARFAXAT, in, 248
Argell, i, 225
Argellion (Coco Nut), i, 225
ARGHUN Khan of Persia, i, 120,
166, 167, 208; ii, 104; in, 4,
108, 119
Argis, Sea of, i, 304, 308
Argives, in, 265
Argons, in, 120, 121
ARGUTINSKY, i, 164
Argyre, ii, 151
Aria, I, 190
ARIAS SALDANHA, Viceroy of Por-
tuguese India, iv, 199
ARIOSTO, in, 197
ARISTOTLE, i, 14, 198, 199; in,
205, 213, 266
ARJASP, King of Tartary, I, 10
Arjish, i, 308
Arkaun (Asiatic Christians), in,
120
Armabyl, I, 136
Armagh, in, 204, 205, 206
Armalec, in, 31, 87, 88, 148,
156, 190, 212, 213, 216; see
Almaliq
Armalech, in, 33, 89 ; see Almaliq
Armalek, in, 85; see Almaliq
Armenia, I, 92, 94, 95, 101, 161,
163, 216, 307, 308; ii, ii, 97,
INDEX
277
loo, 118; in, 16, 22, 23, 160,
246
Armenia, Kingdom of Lesser, in,
139
Armenian families of Chinese
origin, i, 94
Armenians, i, 20, 93, 94; n, 258;
iv, 226
Armuza, n, 112
ARNAIZ, G., i, 88; iv, 117
Arno, in, 178
ARNOBIUS, Adversus Gentes, I, 102,
104
ARNOLD of Cologne, in, 5, 14, 46
Aromatic Cape (Guardafui), I, 212
ARPOG, i, 94
Arramaniya, I, 243
Ar-Ran, in, 23
ARRIAN, i, 145, 146, 189; 11, 133
ARROWSMITH, I, 310; in, 23
Arsinoe, I, 221
ARSLAN, Alan Prince, in, 187
Artag, i, 152
Artocarpus integrifolia, n, 139;
ni, 237
Artois, in, 199
Arts, Chinese skill in the, iv, 114
Arue Haris (the Rhinoceros), i, 222
Arys, in, 147
Arzan-al-Rum (Erzrum), 11, too
Arzerone, in, 162
Arzinga, in, 161
Arziron, II, 100
Arz-ul-Hind, n, in
Ascension Feast at Venice, n, 178
ASCIAR, Lord of Kail, in, 68
Asfarah, i, 272
Asfiria, I, 143
Asfrole, the word, ill, 166
Asham, n, 105
Ashkal, i, 246
Ashparah, i, 272 ; see Asparah
A-SHU, ni, 133
Ashurada, H, 105
Asi, People called, I, 23 ; 111, 185,
248 ; see An si
Asia, i, 221 ; in, 246
Asia, Central ; see Central Asia
Asia Minor, n, 263; in, 186; iv, 5
Asia, Upper, iv, 182
Asiatic Researches, n, 173
A-si-yen, iv, 231, 271
A-si-you, iv, 190, 231, 271
Askhra, i, 143
Asmira, Asmiraea, Asmiraeus, i,
195, 203
Asmiraean Mountains, I, 194
ASOKA, i, 10
Aspacara, i, 195
Asparah, i, 272, 287, 288
Asper, in, 158, 159, 161
Asphaltites, Lake, n, 115
Aspidium Baromez, 11, 242
Aspithra, i, 143, 195, 196
ASQUINI, Life of Odoric, n, 6, 8,
15, 16, 20, 24, 85
As-Sadir, i, 83
Assam, i, 79, 243, 253, 254 ; iv, 96,
101, 151, 152
ASSAMBEI, Lord, i, 178
Assassins, i, 153; 11, 257, 258; iv,
161
ASSEMANI, I, 26, IOI, IO3, 104,
108, 109, i2i, 127, 308; ii, 107,
109, 118, 129, 132, 133, 136,
177; III, 17, 23
As-SlRKI, I, 2
Assisi, in, 81, 205
Assuan, i, 306
Assyria, i, 189, 198; in, 22, 225,
226, 265
ASTLEY'S Voyages, i, 179, 276,
280, 281, 282, 283, 286, 298;
II, 23, 85, 184, 199, 205, 212,
238, 245; iv, 194
Astrabad, i, 190
Astracan, Astrakhan, i, 308 ; 111,
82, 84, 146, 147, 198; iv, 7,
49; see Gittarchan
Astrologers at the Great Khan's
Court, n, 239
Astronomy in India and China, i, 2
Asu (the Alans), in, 15, 185, 186,
248 ; see Alans
Asuk, iv, 229
A-sze, in, 248 ; see Alans
Atabek, title, iv, 139
Atak, iv, 203
Atak Banaras, iv, 203
Atalas, iv, 118
Ata Sufi, i, 272 ; iv, 238
Atcheh, Atjeh, i, 152; 11, 146
Atria, Father, 11, 200, 201 ; iv, 132
ATHANASIUS, St., i, 212, 221; n,
34, 100 ; in, 226
Athas (Alves), iv, 100, 101
Athec (Attok), iv, 203
Athen&um, The, iv, 269
Athil, Atil, Attila, i, 212, 245,
307 ; 11, 242 ; iv, 6
Athos, Mount, iv, 223
Athur (Nineveh), in, 23
Atlass (Satin), iv, 118
Atropatenian Ecbatana, in, 232
Attock, Attok, i, 74, 242; iv, 180,
181, 203
Au, iv, 21
AUGUSTINE, St., in, 44, 197, 243,
245, 249, 254, 260
AUGUSTUS, i, 18 ; in, 263
278
INDEX
AuHAD-UDDfN of Sinjar, iv, 122,
125
Aujan, ii, 105
Aulie-Ata, i, 60; rv, 190
AURANGZIB, iv, 18, 258
Aurantia, 11, 115
Aureus, I, 229
Aurungabad, I, 242
AUSTIN, Map of Balti, I, 310
Auxacia, i, 194; rv, 228
Auxacian Mountains, I, 194, 195
Auxacius, I, 203
Auxerre, n, 199
AuxumS, i, 213
Auxumites, I, 213
Ava, i, 151, 177, 183, 243, 266,
302; n, 106, 236; in, 221
AVALOKITECVARA, III, 269
Avars, I, 208
Avelines, in, 97
Avellino, in, 97
AVEZAC, d', i, 152, 156; 11, 9,
28, 87; in, 37; iv, 163, 235
AVIENUS, Rufus Festus, I, 183,
201 ; in, 219
Avignon, 11, 12, 27; in, 81, 188,
190, 199, 200, 206, 207, 210, 216
AVITABILE, Gen. iv, 204
Awat, iv, 238
Awis KHAN, A'WYS KHAN, i, 272 ;
iv, 165
Awliya-Ata, i, 60; iv, 190
Axam, ii, 105
Axoum, Axum, I, 184, 216-220,
222, 223
Axoumites, Axumites, I, 216, 218
Ay dip, i, 306; see Aidhab
Ayin Akbari, i, 151; rv, 22, 176;
on Passes of Hindu Kush, iv,
255. 257
Aykotta, iv, 78
A'yl, i, 272
AYMONIER, E., n, 164, 167
Aymul Guja, iv, 163, 165
Ayodhya, I, 124
AYUBITE, Sultans, i, 49
AYUR BALIBATRA, in, 10
AzAR, ii, 115
Azerbaidjan, i, 119; in, 22; iv,
139
Azes, in, 15; see Asu
Azetrechan, in, 147
Azimabad, n, 249
Azov, i, 179, 305; in, 81, 84,
150, 169, 225; iv, 6; see Tana
Babel, Tower of, ii, no; in, 209,
263
BABELON, Monnaies grecques, i,
229
BABER, BABAR, Sultan, i, 210;
ii, 139, 234, 262, 263; in, 237;
iv, 18, 142, 205, 207, 255, 257
Babillonia, i, 306
Babirussa, i, 224
Babul, in, 263
Babylon, i, 34, 84, 216; ii, 106,
no; in, 199, 241, 262, 263,
269; iv, 4
Babylonia, in, 252
Babylonian Record, I, n
Bacanor, Baccanor, iv, 73
Baccadeo, in, 165
Baccam, ii, 148
BACCHUS, in, 219
Bacharata, iv, 211
Bachian, iv, 157
BACHU NOIAN, i, 163
BACKER, Louis de, ii, 72, 81, 82;
in, 36
BACON, Roger, n, 23; in, 225,
240
Bactra, i, 190, 192, 286
Bactria, i, 4, 16, 17, 183; in, 252
Bactriana, i, 36, 65, 183, 192,
194; iv, 256
Bactrians, i, 104, 215, 220
Bacu, Bacuc, Bacuk, Sea of, n,
105, 2ii ; in, 84, 224
Badakhshan, i, 36, 72, 191, 248,
286, 287, 303, 311, 313-5, 318;
n, 188, 263; in, 21 ; iv, 160,
180-6, 191, 210, 211, 213, 215,
256, 258, 259
Bad-baft, i, 197
BADGER, Rev. G. P., i, 33, 124,
178, 255; ii, 117, 166, 196, 223;
in, 243 ; iv, 223
Badhaghis, I, 205
Badja, i, 129, 244
Badli, iv, 13
Ba'fu, i, 276
Baga, i, 244
Bagbel, in, 263
Bagdag, in, 263
BAGHAR, i, 2
Bagharghar, I, 247
BAGHBAR ibn Kamad, i, 2
Baghbugh, Baghbtir, Baghbour
(Emperor of China), I, 33, 141,
142, 143, 256; see Facfur
Baghdad, I, 34, 42, 119-121, 153,
170, 262, 304, 308; n, 10, 30,
102, no, 112, 178; in, 23, 24,
108, 119, 125, 156, 199, 262,
263; iv, 3, 36, 87, 133, 137,
139
Baghlan, i, 315; rv, 257, 258
Baghrac, I, 246
Baghraj, i, 246
INDEX
279
Bagh Shura, I, 140, 141
Baglana, i, 242
Bagnak, i, 244, 245
Bagni, n, 199 ; iv, 267
Bagratch, Lake, iv, 234
Bagratidae, i, 246
Bahawalpur, iv, 10
Bahi, i, 251 ; iv, 190
Bahmanabad, I, 255
Bahmian, iv, 256
Bahrain, Bahrein, i, 85; in, 68;
iv, 5
Bahr-al-Azrak, iv, 154
Bahr-al-Kahil, iv, 103, 158
BAHRAM, i, 115
BAHRAM GUR, i, 83
Bahri, i, 230
Bahr Kolzum, i, 221
BAKU I, ii, 170
BAKU II, ii, 170
BAKU III, ii, 170; iv, 32
BAKU IV, n, 170
BAKU V, i, 76, 77 ; see BHUWANEKA
BAKU VI, i, 76, 77
Bai, i, 251 ; iv, 189, 190, 230, 231
BAIAN, BAIAM, in, 119; iv, 129
Baiburt, i, 307
Baikal, in, 246
BAIKOV, F. I., i, 181
Bainiel, i, 119
Bairam, in, 86; iv, 23, 64
Bairami, iv, 19
Bairam Katlu, iv, 129, 149
BAIRAM KHAN, iv, 85
BAISANGAR, i, 278, 280
Baiwam Kothi, iv, 129, 149
Baja, i, 244
Bajah, cap. of the Faghfur, i, 143,
256
Bajalisah, iv, 22
Bajarma, in, 23
Bajaruck, iv, 256
BAJAZET, i, 174
Bajga, iv, 257
Bajnak (Pechinegs), i, 244, 246;
see Baja, Badja
Bakanur, i, 309
Bakar, iv, 10
BAKER, Gen. W. E., in, 221
Bakhar, iv, 10
Bakhshy, Bakshi, ii, 250, 251 ;
iv, 105, 135, 242, 268
BAKHTIYAR KHILJI, i, 78, 79; iv,
152
Bak Sings, i, 8
Baku (the Caspian), ii, 105; in,
84, 224, 225 ; see Bacu, Bacuc
BAKUI, Arabian geographer, i, 34 ;
ii, 104, 133, 139
BALAAM, i, 224
Balagacaghun, Balasaghun, Bala
Sagun, i, 60; in, 21 ; iv, 163,
164
Balacian, iv, 216
Balaclava, Balaklava, i, 305 ; in,
H
Balad-ul-Falfal, i, 226
Balaerpatan, iv, 76
Balara, iv, 13
Balarghui, in, 122
Balasaghun, see
BALBAN, Emperor, in, 132
BALBI, Gasparo, i, 81 ; ii, 114, 140,
145, 174; in, 252
Balchimkin, i, 305
Baldach, i, 304, 308; see Bagh-
dad
BALDAEUS, in, 219, 220
Baldassia, I, 303 ; see Badakhshan
BALDELLI BONI, i, 82, 122, 165,
301; ii, 177, 192, 214, 219;
in, 138, 195
BALGRAM, iv, 204
BALHARA, i, 241, 243
Balian, i, 315
Balis, Balish, ii, 196-8, 210-211;
in, 149, 154; iv, 112
Balkash, Balkhash, Lake, i, 288,
289; iv, 162, 235
Balkh, i, 98, 108, no, 123, 182,
190, 191, 205, 271, 286, 287,
315; in, 22, 24; iv, 160, 184
Ballabhipura, i, 241
Ballabhiraa or raja, I, 241
Ballad-ul-Jibal, ii, 257
Ballar6, Piazza,, i, 241
Balledirucco, in, 170
Balliangot, iv, 78
Balmannac, Balmerino, Balmery-
nac, in, 170
Baltachinta, i, 305
Balti, i, 71, 310, 314; iv, 177
Baltic, in, 246
Baltistan, iv, 217, 267
Baluristan, I, 314
BALUZE, ii, 85 ; 111, 38
BALZANI, Count Ugo, n, 89
Bamblunah (Cairo), in, 263
Bamboo, n, 160, 161
Bamian, i, 98, 277; ii, 153, 263;
iv, 205, 255, 257-9
Bamir, i, 313
Bamyin (Badaghis), I, 205
Banat Na's, i, 245
Bandan, i, 176; ii, 155
Bandar Kanching, n, 147
BANDI, in, 68
BANDINI, i, 123, 231
BANDURI, i, 46, 47, 245
Banga, iv, 152
280
INDEX
Banga Bazar, iv, 153
Ban gala, i, 302
Bangamati, iv, 152
Bangan, i, 285
Baniachong, rv, 152
Banjarmasin, Banjermasin, 11, 156,
161
Banjhir, iv, 209, 258; see Panch-
shir
BANSHOA, i, 132, 133
Bantam, n, 155
Baptisms, in Tartary, n, 262 ; in
Cathay, in, 46, 55, 74 ; in
India, in, 57 ; of a Brahmin at
Columbum, in, 257 ; of people
at Kamul, conditions regulating,
in, 266
Bara, in, 145
Barah Nagar, iv, 93
Barak, iv, 151-3
BARAK KHAN, iv, 161
BARAKS AIS, iv, 207
Baramasi, in, 40
Bara Stream, iv, 204
BARATTA, M. C., iv, 171
BARBARO, Josafat, i, 151, 178, 179,
269; ii, 98, 104, 107, 108, 211 ;
in, 185 ; iv, 201
Barbarrah, iv, 211
Barbary, I, 212, 213, 214, 217, 218
Barberyn, in, 231
BARRIER DE MEYNARD, i, 84, 135,
137. 248
BARBOSA, i, 86; n, 133, 174; in,
253: rv. 159
Barcelor, i, 309 ; iv, 73
Barchium, i, 306
Barchuk, Barchuq, rv, 228, 229
Barda'a, in, 23
BARDI, in, 140, 143
Bar-el-Moli, iv, 155
Bargelidoa, i, 310
Barkalah, rv, in
BAR KALIQ, i, 119
Barki, rv, 95
Barkul, Lake, i, 35, 39, 58; in,
213; rv, 239
Barkur, rv, 73
Barley, iv, 232
Barmiciacche, Barmunacche, in,
170
Barnacle geese, 11, 241-4
Baroch, i, 87, 227, 309; iv, 63
Baroghil, i, 61 ; rv, 216, 259
Baromez, 11, 242
BARONIUS, in, 17, 18
Barrel of Horn, n, 187, 188
BARROS, 11, 146, 160; rv, 156
BARROW, n, 197, 201, 212
BARTA of Edessa, i, 95
BARTH, A., n, 83, 142
BARTH, Dr., iv, 144
BARTHOLD, i, 60, 140
BARTHOLOMEW, Apostle, i, 101
BARTHOLOMEW, Bishop of Khan-
baliq, in, 14
BARTHOLOMEW, Bishop of Maraga,
in, 76
BARTHOLOMEW of Pisa (Albizzi),
ii, 258; in, 31
BARTHOLOMEW the Florentine, I,
178
BARTHOLOMEW of Santo Con-
cordio, in, 58
BARTHOLOMEW of Tivoli, I, 306
BARTOLI, D., i, 237
Barus in Sumatra, iv, 157
Barygaza, I, 183, 227, 230
Basahl, iv, 13
Bascon, Sea of (Caspian), ii, 105
Bashiar, I, 143
Bashkird, i, 307
Bashkirs, i, 308
Basil, n, 116
BASIL, Emperor, iv, 7
Basra, Basrah, Bassorah, i, 84,
85, 137, 309; ii, in, 112; in,
22, 23, 180, 228; iv, 3, 4, 36, 39
Bassano, ii, 267
Bassein, i, 177; iv, 173
BASSET, Rene, ii, 114
BASTARD, Count de, ii, 70
BASTIAN, Dr., i, in; ii, 147
Baswanan, iv, 127
Batae, i, 195
Batak, Battaks, n, 149, 168, 173;
rv, 157
Batang, ii, 156
Bat-da-lik, i, 54
Batharekah, Bathric, Bathrik,
Bathirak, i, 54
Bathenians, ii, 257
Batkul, iv, 73
Bats, n, 116
Batta Country, rv, 97
Battecala, Bathecala, iv, 72, 73
Batthalah, iv, 32
BATU, i, 152, 154, 156, 158, 163,
208, 209, 289; ill, 82, 119, 248
Batiima, I, 128
Baudas, i, 262; in, 156; see
Baghdad
BAUDRAND, i, 182
Baurawa, i, 242
Bautes, Bautis River, I, 194, 203
Bawal, Bawul, in, 68, 70
Bawurah, i, 242
BAY AM, Baian, in, 119; iv, 129
BAYAN FANCHAN, in, 122, 126
Bayazid, in, 162—4
INDEX
28l
Bazarak, iv, 255-7, 259
Bazarra, in, 145
Bdellium, in, 224
Beacon Towers in China, n, 233
BEAL, S., 11, 157
BEAMES, John, i, 80
Beasts and Monsters, Strange, n,
229-30; in, 254
Beatification of Odoric, n, 15 seq.,
35 seq.
BEATRICE of Bavaria, 11, 14
Beauty of Women, of China, n,
179; of Thafan, i, 242
BEAZLEY, C. R., I, 12, 157, 214,
232; n, 40, 225; in, 202
BEDE, in, 197
Bednur, iv, 73
Bedr, iv, 3
Beersheba, 11, 130, 179
Begia, I, 306
BEHAIM, Martin, n, 154
Behar, I, 68
Beirami, iv, 19
Beitkul, iv, 72
Bejah, i, 230, 306
BEL, in, 263
Belal, in, 66
Bela-Sagun, see Balagacaghun
Beler, in, 84
Belgian, Desert of, i, 259, 262
Belgium, in, 206
Beliamcor, iv, 78
BELKIS, Arab Legend of Queen,
in, 264, 265
BELL of Antermony, John, 11,
199
BELLARMINE, in, 243
BELLEW, Dr., iv, 210
Bells, for petitioners at the Em-
peror's or Governor's gate, i,
131 ; in Churches at Zaitiin,
in, 229 ; an abomination to the
Mahomedans, in, 230 ; iv, 6
Belsa, ii, 1 88
BELTIS, in, 265
BELUS, in, 263, 264
BENAKETI, in, 131
Benbij, I, 307
Bencoolen, iv, 151
Bendor, iv, 73
BENEDICT X, Pope, in, 209
BENEDICT XI, Pope, in, 209
BENEDICT XII, Pope, HI, 13, 28,
33, 34, 85, 187, 188
BENEDICT XIV, Pope, 11, 17
BENEDICT the Pole, Friar, i, 156;
in, 49; iv, 70
Bengal, i, 78-80, 124, 177, 184,
230, 303, 310; iv, 36, 67, 80,
149, 150, 153, 154, 176
Bengala, i, 79, 124, 303, 309;
n, 180; in, 132
Bengalla, i, 177
Beni Suef, i, 306
BENJAMIN of Tudela, i, 45, 46,
47, 144; ii, 102, 133, 251, 258
Bentam, ii, 156
Bentotte, in, 231
BENTWORTH, R., in, 205
Benzab, I, 307
Benzoin, iv, 97-99
Berberah, i, 217
BERCHEM, Max van, iv, 118
Berchimam, i, 308
Berenice, i, 221, 306
BERGERON, ii, 250
BERGHAUS, n, 213; iv, 227
BERMAL, in, 69
BERNARD, i, 122; ii, 214; see
BERNARDINO della CHIESA
BERNARD of Gardiola, in, 76
BERNARDIGGI, Conrad, n, 13
BERNARDINO della CHIESA, i, 122 ;
n, 214
BERNARDUS, Bishop of Khan
Baliq, ill, 14
BERNIER, i, 292
Bersi, in, 62
Berthas, I, 245
Beruwala, in, 231
Berwick, North, in, 170
Besadae, i, 185
Besh Tau, iv, 6
Besidae, I, 183, 184
Besidiae (Bisignano), ill, 200
Beth-Garma, i, 189; in, 22, 23
Beth-Seleucia, in, 22, 23
Bethlehem, i, 44, 45, 162 ; in,
269; iv, 174
BETOUAL, i, 9
Betoumah, i, 128; ii, 156
Beu, ii, 248
BEYALUN, iv, 7
Beypur, iv, 77
Bezoar, i, 246, 251 ; ii, 162
Bhaghalpur, n, 163
Bhamo, i, 177
Bharoch, i, 230
Bharuch, in, 76
Bharukachha, in, 76
Bhatkal, iv, 73
Bhattiana, iv, 12
Bhikshu, ii, 250; iv, 105, 269
Bhind, iv, 22
Bhotiya, i, 184
BHUWANEKA BAKU I, n, 170; see
BAKU
BAKU II, ii, 170
- BAKU V, i, 76, 77
Biana, iv, 21
282
INDEX
BIANCHI, G., abbate, n, 14
Bishop of Udine, n, 16
BIANCO, Andrea, Map, 11, 130;
in, 85, 197
Bibliography of Cosmas, i, 231 ; of
Odoric, ii, 59-96; of Marignolli,
in, 208; of Ibn Batuta, iv, 52-
3 ; of Goes, iv, 194-7
Bibliotheca Sinica; see CORDIER,
Henri
Bibliothdque de 1'f.cole des Charles,
n, 83
BICASSINI, Nicolas, in, 209
Bidr, i, 310
Biduini, n, 207
Bielaya, i, 308
Bielo Osero, in, 247
Bigni, ii, 199 ; iv, 267
Bijalar, in, 131, 132
Bijder, i, 310
Bikan, i, 285
BIK KHWAJA THUSI, in, 126
Bilal, i, 82
BILAL DEO, iv, 24
Bilaur, i, 314
Bilugtu, i, 272
Bimlifatan, Bimlipatam, in, 132
Bindanajo, in, 144
Binh Thudu, ii, 163, 164, 167
Bintang, n, 155, 156
Biographie universelle, n, 87
Biolanda, in, 171
BIOT, Ed., Diet., n, 205, 208, 212,
213, 215
Bir, i, 307
Bira, I, 307
BIRCH, S., i, 10
Bird with two Heads, Origin of
Story, n, 173
Birs Nimrud, ii, no; in, 262, 263
Biru, ii, 156
Birypur, iv, 21
Bisades, i, 183, 184
Bishbaliq, i, 163, 195; in, 133;
iv, 140, 141, 160, 163, 188, 235
Bishdagh, iv, 6
Bishop, Sovereign, in China (G.
Lama), in, 93
Bishops appointed by the Pope
to Cathay, in, 9-10; venerated
in the East, in, 215
Bishop of the Saracens, n, 117;
in, 86
Bisignano, in, 177, 200, 205, 206,
209
BITCHOURIN, ii, 252
BlTHYNI, I, 151
Bivalse, in, 171
Biyardawal, iv, 35
Black Clothes of N. Chinese, i, 30, 31
Black Death, in, 254 ; iv, 37
Black Irtysh, I, 59
BLACK JOHN, in, 26
Black Mountain, iv, 192
Black Sea, i, 300, 305 ; ii, 242 ;
in, 81, 180, 190; iv, 6
Black and White City Walls in
Tibet, ii, 248
BLAEU, i, 291, 308
BLAGDEN, C. O., i, 129; n,
H7
BLASISH, Ferd., ii, 90
Blemmyes, I, 230
BLOCHET, E., i, 45; in, 112
Blow Tube for Arrows, ii, 158
Blue Nile, iv, 154
Blue River, iv, 90, 151
Bocca, n, 222
BOCCACCIO, i, 173
Bocca Tigris, I, 173
B6 chanh quan, ii, 163
BOCHANOS, i, 206
Bochara, see Bokhara
Bod, ii, 247, 250
BOGHRA KHAN, i, 59, 60, 246;
IV, 222
BOGLE, n, 251, 253
Bogra District, iv, 176
Bogtak, n, 223 ; iv, 267
BOHA-ADDIN KANDARI, in, 126
Bohemia, in, 177, 199, 201, 209,
24?
BOHN, i, 144; ii, 34
Bohrahs, iv, 64
Bokhara, i, 23, 60, 71, 90, 101,
I38, 139, 163, 181, 293, 296,
297; in, 121 ; iv, 9, 162, 164,
183, 186, 187, 201, 210, 211,
212, 213, 225, 228
Bokhara, Little, iv, 187
Bokju, i, 286
Bolar, in, 84
BOLDENSEL, II, 34
BOLESLUZKY, Matthias, in, 201
Bolgar, Bolghar, i, 307; in, 84;
iv, 6
Bolgari, rv, 6
Bolin, iv, 8
BOLLAERT, II, 262
Bologna, ii, 184; in, 200, 255
Bolor, i, 90, 98, 100, 150, 311,
313, 314, 316, 317; iv, 182,
187, 188, 216
Bolor Tagh, i, 35; iv, 186
Bombain, Cape, n, 114
Bombay, I, 220, 227, 254; ii, 114;
m, 78; iv, 254, 256
Bombycina, i, 198
BONAPARTE, Prince Roland, I, 166,
167
INDEX
283
BONET, Jean, Diet, annamite, u,
234
BONET, Nicholas, in, 188, 189
BONIN, in, 53
BONSAET, in, 160; see ABU SAID
Book of the Estate of the Great
Khan, ill, 89
BORAK KHAN, iv, 162
Borametz or Lamb- Plant, n, 241 ;
see Agnus scythicus
Borassus flabelliformis, iv, 71
Borassus Gomuti, n, 157
Borazan Tract, IV, 222
Borchara, i, 297; see Bokhara
Borgar, i, 307
Borneo, i, 244; n, 10, 147, 156,
157, 161, 162, 168, 174; iv, 158,
159
Boro Bodor, n, 153
BORONITU, iv, 185
Borysthenes, in, 158
BOSELLI, ii, 62
Bos grunniens, I, 223
Bostam, i, 190
Bostra, i, 43
Botenigo, n, 151
Botm, i, 315
Botterigo, n, 151
BOUILLEVAUX, ii, 167
BOUSSAY, BOUSSAYE, in, 89, 90,
96 ; see ABU SAID
BOUVET, ii, 209
BOVENSCHEN, A., II, 9!
BOWRING, J., I, 277
Boxitae, iv, 135
Bozai Gumbaz, iv, 211
Bracalor, iv, 73
Brachmans, Bragmans, I, 214; ii,
240; in, 245
BRADDELL, i, 124
BRADSHAW, Henry, ii, 39
BRAHMA, in, 198, 222
Brahmaputra, i, 310; in, 198,
222; rv, 151, 152, 176
Brahmini Bulls, ii, 138
Bramador, ii, 262
Brambanan, rv, 71
Bramma, i, 195
Branchicha, i, 305
BRANDA ABEDULA, iv, 201
Branki, i, 305
Bransko, i, 305
BRANT, ii, 99, 100, 102
Bras, Island, n, 146
Brass, i, 227
Brazil, Brazil Wood, n, 137, 148,
174; in, 62, 195, 252, 253
Bread in Tibet, i, 248; iv, 268
Brenta, n, 267
Breslau, i, 152
BRETSCHNEIDER, E., i, 98, 148,
164; ii, 216, 219; iv, 164;
Arabs, i, 33, 48, 60, 62, 64, 87,
89, 91, 92, 131, 164, 248 ; n, 172,
234, 243, 248, 258; in, 13;
Botan. Sin., ii, 200; Tang, i,
89 ; Notes and Queries, i, 89, 95 ;
Peking, ii, 217, 220
BRIBTSUN, i, 60
Bricks dug for at Babylon, in, 261
Bridal Ceremonies, Malay, iv, 147
Bridge, Natural, i, 315, 318
Bridges of Cansay, i, 195 ; in, 229
BRIGGS, Firishta, i, 78 ; ii, 135,
143
Brisom, i, 307
Broach, in, 76
Brocades, n, 106
BROCARD, in, 38
BROSSET, i, 164
Broussonetia papyrifera, i, 298
BROWN, Sir T., Vulgar Errors, ii,
184, 208, 241
Bruarata, iv, 211
BRUCKER, J., i, 313
Brunei, iv, 159
BRUNET, Manuel, ii, 59
Brussa, iv, 2
Brussels, ii, 186
BRUT the Trojan, i, 151
BRYENNIUS CAESAR, i, 57
BUCAI, in, 119
BUCHANAN, F., iv, 72
BUCHANAN, Hamilton, in, 222
Buchara, iv, 213; see Bokhara
BUCHON, i, 299, 300
Buda, i, 122
BUDDHA, i, 66, 67, 68, 76, 164,
278; in, 233, 235; iv, 201
BUDDHA, Images of, in, 94, 232-
3 ; Colossal, i, 164, 277, 294 ;
ii, 184
BUDDHA'S Fort, in, 242
BUDDHAGOSA, I, 67
Buddh-Gaya, in, 242
Buddhism, introduced into China,
i, 66 ; resemblance of rites to
those of Catholicism, iv, 200-1 ;
confounded with Christianity,
iv, 201 ; in Turkestan, iv, 191 ;
at Khotan, iv, 191
Buddhist Monks, their sanctity,
i, 295; in, 57, 94. 233, 234,
242, 243, 260
Monastery at Cansay and
strange exhibition there, I, 202 ;
ill, 260
Pilgrims from China to India,
and their narratives, i, 74 seq. ;
iv, 17
284
INDEX
Buffalo, I, 223
Buffetania, HI, 40
Bugor, iv, 238
Bukhara, iv, 164 ; see Bokhara
BUKU KHAN, iv, 164
BULAJI, iv, 165, 189
Bulandshahr, iv, 21
Bulgarians, i, 221, 245, 246
Bulletin £cole franf. Ext. Orient,
i, 5. 8. 66, 74, 75, 152, 157,
167, 168, 173
Bulletin Soc. Anth., n, 256
Bulletin Geog. hist, et desc., i, 300
Bulletin Soc. Geog., I, 127; 11, 154
Bulletin Soc. Geog. commercial, n,
204
Bull Stag, i, 223
Bu MIN, i, 58
BUNBURY, i, 189; in, 186
Bundelkhand, iv, 21, 22
Buntus, n, 98
BUNYAN, John, ii, 263
BUONO da Forli, n, 142
Bura, i, 143
BURCHARD, Friar, I, 307; 11, 22;
in, 7, 27, 38
BURCK, Polo, I, 14!
Burdwan, m, 40
Burgania, iv, 211
Burgaria, I, 305
Burgavia, iv, 211
Burhanpur, iv, 64, 177
BURHAN-UDDfN, IV, 138, 141, 145,
185
BURHAN-UDDIN of Kazerun, iv,
1 20
BuRHAN-UDDfN of Sagharj, iv, 89,
90
Burjburah, iv, 21
BURLEY, Walter, in, 205
Burma, Burmah, i, 53, in, 177,
243, 273, 277, 280; n, 143, 219,
255; in, 80, 244, 256; iv, 136,
201, 242
Burmese, 11, 162 ; m, 222
BURNELL, ii, 134, 135
BURNES, I, 17, 250, 310, 313;
ii, 153, 234, 262-4; m> 23. 221 ;
iv, 205, 206, 257
BURTON, n, 149, 155
BusAfo, HI, 160; see ABU SAfo
BUSBECK, Auger Gislen, de, i, 181,
274, 296, 298; ii, 100; IIT, 48,
49; iv, 243
BUSCAREL, I, 167, 2O8
Busching's Mag., I, 255
Bush, i, 306
BUSHELL, S. W., i, 71 ; ii, 227
Bushire, iv, 120
Bussi, i, 306
BUTAN KHAN, m, 33, 34, 35
Butifilis, i, 309
Buya Kataur, iv, 205
BUY AN KULI, in, 34; iv, 162
Buyar, Lake, HI, 20
BUZAN OGLU, in, 34
BUZUN, in, 34; iv, 161
Byland, HI, 171
Byram, i, 272
Byrampaut, iv, 19
Byssus, i, 202 ; n, 243
Byzantine History, Passage of, in
Annals of China, i, 48
Byzantium, i, 44, 45, 56, 59, 147,
188, 189, 190, 204, 205, 207,
208, 211, 212, 216
Cabal, in, 131
CABATON, A., Chams, n, 167
CABOT, i, 181
Cabul, n, 234; iv, 207, 218, 226
Cachanfu, i, 292
Cachar, iv, 152, 153, 154
Cacianfu, I, 292
Caciz, the word, rv, 223
CADAMOSTO, A., i, 219; in, 259
Cade, i, 308
Cadegi Indi, I, 185
Cadeli, n, 240, 242
Cadi (Kazi), used by Odoric, n,
117
Cadini, in, 86
Cadungalor, n, 135
Gael, ii, 129; see Cail
CAESAR, i, 199
Caferstam, iv, 204
Caffa, i, 293, 305; n, 105; in,
143, 155, 158, 159, 169, 190,
211, 224, 230; iv, 6
Cafiso, Measure so-called, in, 159
Caga (Gogo), in, 78; iv, 64
Cahyapos, n, 147
Cail, ii, 129; in, 65, 68; rv, 35
Cailac, i, 287-9; iv, 233, 235,
271
CAIN, i, 151; in, 194, 242, 244,
245
Caindu, i, 249
Cairo, I, 306; in, 224, 229, 263;
iv, 2, 4, 5 ; see Babylon
CAKTISIMHA, i, 73
Cala Ataperistan, n, 106
Calabria, in, 169, 200
Calacresti, in, 163
Calah, in, 23
Calajan, i, 301
Calamina, n, 34
Calamit, i, 305
Calamy, ii, 34
Calao, ii, 173
INDEX
Calcha, people, iv, 213
Calcia, iv, 183, 210-212, 259
Calcutta, ii, 145, 249 ; in, 243 ;
iv, 183, 256
Calder Abbey, in, 171
Calderea, in, 171
CALDWELL, Dr., n, 130
Calecoulam, iv, 79
Calicut, I, 78, 87 ; 11,133; 111,218,
249 ; iv, 2, 24, 26, 27, 36, 67, 77,
140, 201
CALIXTUS, Pope, in, 252
Callirrhoe, i, 308
Pseudo-Callisthenes, I, 183
CALLISTUS NICEPHORUS, i, 29
Calm Sea, iv, 103, 158
Camalls, in, 241
Camar, i, 300
Camara, 11, 108
Cambalec, Cambalech, Camba-
liech, Cambalu, Cambaluc
(Khan baliq, Pe King), i, 172,
174, 175, 181, 265, 266, 269,
301; ii, 10, ii, 118, 200, 202,
215, 216, 228, 235, 245, 270;
in, 3, 5, 7, 9, ii, 13, 14, 22,
34, 46, 48, 51, 58, 71, 73, 75,
90, 97, 100, 101, 130, 149, 153,
181, 187-9, 191, 210, 213-6;
iv, 236, 270
Cambaleschia (Cambalec), i, 175,
266
Cambasci, iv, 227, 228, 229
Cambay, i, 86, 309; in, 78, 229;
iv, 3, 2i, 22-24, J73. 254
Cambodia, i, 66, 77, 128; ii, 32,
!56. 157> l6l> l64; ni» 221;
iv, 96, 101, 155-8
Camechu, in, 148 ; see Kan Chau
Cameleopard, I, 223
Camels, in, 241
Camexu, HI, 148, 156; iv, 241;
see Kan chau
Caminietz, i, 305
Cammucca, Camocas, Camocato,
in, 99, 155; iv, 17
Campa, n, 163
Campangunghi, iv, 146
CAMPBELL, A. G., n, 147
Camphor, i, 244, 253, 267; ii,
148, 153; in, 195; iv, 95, 96,
98-100
Campichu, i, 277; HI, 148
Campicion, Canpicion, i, 291 ; in,
128
Campion, i, 291, 293, 294, 296
Campsay, Camsay, Cansa, Carisai,
Cansay, i, 171, 172; ii, 192, 201,
202; in, 90, 97, 126, 148, 149,
229, 248, 260
Can-sanghi Cascio, iv, 219, 220
Camul, i, 249, 293; iv, 239
Camuzoni, in, 164
Canada, i, 305
Canal, of China, the great, ii, 213;
in, 115; iv, 136
Cananor, iv, 24, 76
Canara, n, 140
Canbasci, iv, 227 ; see Cambasci
Canbetum, i, 309
Canceo, Canceu, iv, 241, 250; see
Kan chau
Candia, in, 158
CANDIDO, Giovanni, ii, 90
CANDIDUS, Guido, Bishop of Udine,
v ii, 16
CANDRAGUPTA, i, 6, 73; see
CHANDRAGUPTA
Canes, very long, n, 160
Cangerecora, iv, 74
Can Grande, ii, 218
Cangue, i, 279
Canine Philosophers, HI, 249
Canis Magnus, n, 217
Cannamela, i, 307
Cannanore, iv, 24, 76
Cannibal Islands, ii, 14
Cannibalism, n, 149, 168, 253
Cannibals, n, 148
Cannibal Scythians, i, 196, 197
Canope, i, 245
Canpichu, iv, 241 ; see Kan chau
Cansio, i, 302
Cantar, HI, 157
Canton, i, 39, 51, 86, 88, 89, 92,
112, 135, 143, 173, 180, 256,
258; ii, 10, 133, 179, 180, 181,
187, 213, 231; in, 72, 115,
126, 128-130, 221, 249; iv, 25,
68, 109, 118, 120-3, J49. 242,
245, 251 ; Mosque, iv, 122
Cap of the great Khan, Precious,
ii, 271
Capelang, i, 177
Cape Notion, i, 195
Capetalcol, iv, 228, 229
Capetalcol Zilan, iv, 227
Cape Tribe, n, 147
Cappadocia, i, 221
Capperstam, iv, 204
CAPRAL, Antony, iv, 172
Capreri, I, 308
Capucar, iv, 77
Caracatai, i, 287, 288
Cara Catay, in, 19
Caracathai, iv, 230
Caracorum, in, 19 ; see Kara
Korum
Caraian, in, 127, 131; iv, 62
Carajan, i, 302; n, 182
286
INDEX
Caramela, i, 307
Caramoram, Caramuran, n, 213;
in, 126
Caramoran, n, 212
Carazan, i, 301
£arcan, i, 246
Carcara, iv, 73
Carcha, in, 22
Cardamoms, n, 153; IV, 96
CARDOSO, in, 30
CAREY, iv, 229, 231
Caria, i, 228
CARLETTI, Francesco, i, 161, 192
Carligh, i, 249
Carmania, i, 199
Carnate, iv, 73
Carniola, n, 14
Carocam, i, 309
Caromoran, in, 224
CARPINI, Piano, John of, i, 156,
163, 164, 208, 209, 288; n, 9,
34, 40, 87, 98, 223, 224, 225,
252, 261 ; in, 18, 20, 49, 53,
185, 210, 216; iv, 70, 163, 164,
230
Carthage, in, 247, 255
Caruabansa, iv, 225
CARUS, emperor, i, 54
Carvan basci, iv, 225, 227
Carwar, iv, 72; see Karwar
Casa Jacomi, in, 161
Casar Bochir, i, 306
Casbin, i, 293
Cascar, i, 238, 293; iv, 203, 207,
208, 215, 218, 220, 221, 224,
229, 232, 242, 253 ; see Kashgar
Cascat, i, 263
Caschar, I, 162
Casciani, iv, 230, 231
Cascito, in, 158
Casena, in, 160
Cashgar, in, 22
Cashishes, priest, iv, 223
Cashmere, iv, 182
Caspian Sea, i, 20, 41, 54, 100,
105, 150, 153, 183, 187, 196,
210, 213, 216, 288, 290, 293,
300, 304, 307, 308 ; n, 10, 105,
242; in, 22, 23, 82, 84, 180,
198, 225, 243, 246; iv, 188
Caspian Gates, i, 189, 190
Caspian Mountains, 11, 240, 242
Caspis, Mountains, i, 304
Caspius, ii, 243
Cassai, in, 148, 149; see Cansay
Cassan (Kashan), n, 34, 106
Cassan, n, 160-2
Cassay, in, 90, 97, 148 ; see
Cansay
CASSINI, Maffeo, n, 15
CASSIUS, Avidius, i, 52
Cast Iron, Chinese, I, 17
Castorin, I, 227
Castra, I, 152
Castrovillari, in, 200
Cataea of ARRIAN, i, 145
Catalan Map of 1375, i, 81, 299,
302, 308; n, 129, 180, 208,
209, 212, 258; HI, 78, 84, 85,
147, 194, 221, 223, 230, 250;
iv, 4, 23
Catalogue Amsterdam, Sect, colo-
niale, n, 161
Cataracts, the, i, 216
Cataria, in, 164
Cathan, city of Pygmies, 11, 207,
208
CATHANI, And., in, 43, 44
Cathay, Catay, Cathaia, i, i, 34,
146, 156, 162, 182, 258, 260,
261, 263, 266, 269; ii, 34, 165,
177, 216, 231; iv, 174, 176,
235, 236
Cattigara, i, 143, 188, 191, 193,
194, 195 ; see Kattigara
Caubul, iv, 187, 217
Caucasus, i, 152; ii, 199, 242;
HI, 184, 185, 248; iv, 6; see
Caspian Mountains
Caugigu, in, 130
Caulking vessels, n, 212
CAUMA, Rabban, i, 116, 119, 121,
166; iv, 268
CAUTLEY, ii, 166
Cauvey, iv, 63
CAVE, Script. Eccles., n, 9 ; in, 206
Caveri, in, 66
Caviar, in, 158
Caxix, iv, 223
Cayda, see Kaidu
Caygar (Kashgar), iv, 175
Caynam (Hainan), i, 301, 303
Cecini, Cesani, Cesenae, Cesini, ii,
218, 219
Celai, ii, 144; in, 69
Celebes, ii, 147, 156; iv, 157, 159
Cembalo, in, 14
Cembaro, i, 305
Cenan, i, 293
Censcalan, ii, 179; see Canton
and Sin Kilan
Central Asia, I, 63, 215, 300, 303,
313, 318; ii, 263
Ceos, i, 198
Cernoue, Cernove, i, 124, 177;
iv, 91
CESANA, Michael de, n, 12
Cesana, ii, 12, 16
Cetey, I, 174
Cethym, in, 246
INDEX
287
Ceuce, i, 238, 239
Ceuta, iv, i, 38, 39, 128
Ceylon, I, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 75-
78, 86, 126, 127, 144, 176, 184,
199, 213, 214, 215, 226, 228,
253. 277; ii, 10, 26, 31, 34,
106, 130, 134, 140, 141, 168,
169-172, 184; in, 62, 65, 68,
167, 192, 194, 196-9, 216,
219, 231-4, 242, 244, 245, 257,
259; iv, 32, 33, 242
Chabalech, I, 301
Chabassi, ill, 237
CHABECH, King, i, 301
Chaberis, I, 228
Chabol, i, 300
CHABOT, J. B., i, 116, 121, 166,
167
Chacatays, I, 33
Chadar, iv, 238
Chadir Kul, iv, 229
Chagan, i, 167
Chagan Nur, n, 227; in, 132;
iv, 162
Chagan Talas, i, 117
CHAGATAf, i, 33, 149, 153; in,
3°. 3L 33-5. 85, 87, 132, 188,
190; iv, 160-6, 189-191, 239
CHAGGI MEMET, i, 290, 294 ; see
HAJJI MAHOMED
Chaghan Jang, in, 131
Cha-i-Khitai, i, 292
Chaimul, i, 254
Chaitwa, iv, 78
Chakebaruhe, in, 237
Chakheraller, i, 318
Chakka, in, 237
CHALCONDYLAS, Laonicus, i, 34,
250; in, 49
Chaldaea, i, 308; 11, 34, 109, no;
in, 269
Chaldiran, i, 216
Chale, Chalia, n, 133
Chalis, i, 293; iv, 180, 191, 234;
see Cialis
Chalish, iv, 234 ; see Cialis
Chalukyas, I, 243
Cham (Khan), i, 149, 262, 263
CHAM, in, 247
Chambalec, in, 34; see Cambalec
Chambalech, i, 301 ; see Cambalec
Chambers' Asiatic Miscellany, I,
179
Chamobai, iv, 76
Champa, i, 8, 128, 129, 135, 138,
143, 193, 253, 254; ii, 10, 25,
31, 32, 34, 152, 156, 163, 165;
in, 131; iv, 96, 101
Champavati, i, 254
Chan (Khan), i, 235
Ghana (Thana), ii, 34; in, 207,
224
Chanbalech, i, 301 ; see Cambalec
Chan Ch'eng, i, 78
Chandana, I, 227
Chandar, i, 177
Chanderi, iv 22
Chandra-giri, iv, 74
CHANDRAGUPTA, i, 6, 68, 70, 73
CHANDRAPIDA, i, 70
Chandu, ii, 227 ; see Shang tu
Chanf, i, 128; see Champa
CHANGA, in, 255
Ch'ang an, i, 23, 31; see Ch'ang
ngan and Si ngan fu
Chang Chau, i, 122, 123; ii, 183;
iv, 117, 118, 121, 271
CH'ANG CH'UN, in, 55
Chang Ho, n, 213
CHANG K'IEN, i, 4, 37-9, 41, 51,
65, 160
Ch'ang ngan, i, 23, 30, 31, 43,
61, 97, 105, 114, 116, 133,
237
CHANG SHE, ii, 194
CHANG Sheu-tsie, ii, 243
CHANG Shih-ch'eng, in, 12
CHANG TSUEN, i, 68
Chang ye, I, 38
Chank shells, i, 228
CHAN si, in, 35
Chanwul, I, 254
Chao, i, 114
Chao (Paper Money of China), I,
283; in, 150
CHAO HWEI, iv, 228
CHAO Ju-kwa, CHAU Ju-kwa, i, 43,
85, 86, 136, 225, 233; ii, 168,
172; iv, 4, 98-102
CHAO T'o, I, 39
Character of Ibn Batuta, rv, 51
Characters, Chinese, I, 161, 259
Charax Spasinu, I, 43
Charcha, in, 23
Charchan, i, 58
Charchi, iv, 238
Char Chinar, rv, 216
Charchunar, iv, 180, 217
Chardar, iv, 259
Char Darya, iv, 257, 258
CHARDIN, ii, 102, 104, 107, 109
Charekar, iv, 9, 180, 183, 208,
255. 257, 258
Chargah, i, 244
Charikar, iv, 208 ; see Charekar
Charka, iv, 208, 258
Charkh, iv, 9, 208, 258
CHARLEMAGNE, n, 4
CHARLES IV, Emperor, n, 199;
in, 204, 239, 255, 259
288
INDEX
CHARLES V, Emperor, I, 181, 274,
304
CHARLES II, n, 189
CHARLES V, King of France, i, 299
CHARLES VI, King of France, in,
37
Charters of Malabar Christians,
in, 254
CHARTON, Ed., I, 232; n, 71
Charwagh, iv, 229
Chasars, in, 169
Chasemgarah, in, 22
Chastac, I, 263
Chata, i, 162, 263; see Cathay
Chatao, i, 182; see Cathay
Chatganw, iv, 82, 83, 92
Chatha, I, 263; see Cathay
CHATICEN TUNGII, in, 181
Chatta Irmak, in, 161
Chattarpur, iv, 22
Chatua, iv, 78
Chatyr, in, 256
Chau, State of, i, 35
Chau, Dynasty, i, 96, 114
Chau chi, I, 105
CHAU Kung, i, 8
Chau Kwo, n, 216
Chaul, i, 227, 254
CHAVANNES, Ed., i, 37, 38, 41,
42, 44, 45, 50, 53, 55, 59, 64,
66, 75, 91, 106, 205, 206, 208,
209, 2ii, 248, 276; II, 139, 157,
243; iv, 141, 164, 190, 230, 231,
235, 266, 267, 271
Chawul, iv, 254
CHAY LING, i, 38
Chayre, I, 306
CHAYSCAN, i, 264
Chazene, in, 23
Cheapness, in China, 11, 181 ; in
Bengal, iv, 80 seq.
Chechalich, i, 318
Chechalith, Chechalit, I, 318; iv,
180, 216, 217
Chechi, i, 309
Chechuklik, I, 318
Cheghanian, i, 316
Cheh-Kiang, n, 177; see Che-
Kiang
Che-Kiang, I, 39, 136; II, 177,
187, 188, 189, 192, 193; in,
128; iv, 138
CHEIKHO, Father, i, 108
Che kiue Pass, iv, 230
Chelim, n, 205
Che lin fu, n, 205
CHE LU-KU (YE LIU), i, 148; in, 21
Cheman, rv, 180, 211
Chemenfu, 11, 227; in, 116
CHEN, i, 4
CH'EN, i, 30
Chenab, iv, 10
Chen Ching, i, 4
CHENG Ho, i, 76, 77, 80
CHENG T'IEN, i, 148
Cheng ting fu, i, 278 ; rv, 266
CH'ENG Tsu, i, 76, 79, 87, 179;
n, 134; see YONG LO
Ch'eng Tu, i, 65, 116, 139, 140;
in, 126, 128
Cheng tung, n, 231; in, 128
CH'ENG WANG, i, 8, 10
Cheng - yuen Sin - ting - Shih - kiao-
muh-luh, i, 112
Chen Kiang, n, 213; see Chin
Kiang
CHENNAPA, i, 81
Chennapapatam, Chennapatta-
nam, Chennappapattanam, i,
81
Chennapatam, i, 81
CH'EN SUNG, i, 66
CHENTOLOPITI, i, 70
CHEN TSUNG, i, 56
CH'EN Yu-liang, in, 12
Chena, Cheriah, i, 34
Cheribon, in, 193, 267
Cherra Punji, iv, 254
Chersonese, i, 193
CHERUMAN PERUMAL, 11, 134
CHESAUD, Aime, i, 182
Chescan, iv, 211
Chesi, i, 308
Chesimo, I, 309
Chesmi, i, 177
Chestnuts, 11, 246
Chetey, i, 174
Cheul, i, 227, 254
CHEVALIER, Ulysse, n, 92
CHE-YIH, n, 203
Chhesse, I, 195
Chiai Catai, i, 292
Chiaicuon, iv, 239
Chialis, i, 293 ; iv, 234 ; see
Chalish
CHIANSAM, in, 182
Chiao fu, i, 114
Chiaveria, in, 144; iv, 270
Chi chau, n, 188
Chichchiklik, Chichiklik, iv, 211,
215, 216
Chicheck Tagh, iv, 217
Chichintalas, I, 117
Chidebeo, n, 232-4
Chiem-thanh, 11, 167
Chienciun, I, 239
Ch'ien Han Shu, i, 23, 149 ; see
Ts'ien Han Chu
Chi fu, i, 276
Chigin, i, 117
INDEX
289
Chih-li, Chi-li, i, 114; u, 152;
III, 12
Chi kin, I, 117
Chiktem, iv, 239
Chilan, i, 290
Chilan, iv, 229
Chilaw, iv, 33
Children sold, n, 148
Chi len fu (Nanking), n, 35, 204
Chilerapha, n, 35
Chileso, ii, 35
Chiliate, iv, 77
Chilosola, in, 170
Chiltung, Pass, iv, 217
CHILUKHIPALO, i, 70
Chimay, Lake, in, 221
Chimia, Simia, Limia, I, 296
Chimolo, i, 254
Chin, i, i, 5, 151, 179, 281; in, 68
CH'IN, i, 5
China, i, i, 2, 6, 7, 15; iv, 2
Chinapatam, i, 81
Chinar, n, 103
China Review, i, g, 48, 78, 142 ;
ii, 232
Chinas, I, 2, 6
Chinasthana, i, 28
Chin Chau, Chin ceo, i, 169, 173,
257; n, 183; see Ts'iuen Chau
and Zaitiin
CHIN CIN, i, 241
Cn'fN E, n, 206
Chine ancienne; see PAUTHIER
Chine moderne; see PAUTHIER
Chinese Junk, iv, 115
Chinese Recorder, i, 118; ii, 213
CHING, Dynasty, i, 3
CHINGHIZ Khan, i, 33, 60, 115,
148, 149, 150, 155, 157, 170,
276; n, 100, 192, 197, 216,
221, 227, 228, 236, 246; III, 17,
20, 21, 25, 55, 82, 87, no,
in, 113, 114, 132, 147, 180,
184, 186, 248; iv, no, 142, 160,
184, 185, 189, 191, 205, 209,
222, 238, 239, 241, 258
Chingleput, i, 81
Chingra Khal, river, iv, 153
Chini, i, 269
Chini-Bachagan, in, 249
Chinista, i, 176
Chinistan, I, 28, 93
Chinkalan, i, 172; u, 179; HI,
115, 126, 128; see Canton and
. Sin Kalan
Chin Kiang, i, 118; ii, 212, 213;
ni, 15
Chin la, n, 164
Chinsang, ii, 231-2; in, 119-121
Chin seang, ii, 232
c. Y.C. IV.
Chin Shu, i, 54
Chintabor, I, 309; iv, 65, 72
Chios, ii, 153
Chipangu, in, 129
Chipre, i, 262
Chirchistallo, in, 171
Chiricchestede, in, 171
Chis, i, 309
Chi shun Chin-kiang chit I, 118
Chitral, I, 314; iv, 205, 259
Chittagong, i, 177; ii, 147; iv,
81, 82, 92, 149
Chittim, in, 246
Chiugin, i, 239
Chiva, i, 305
Chivil, i, 254
Chliatae, I, 210
Choban Keupri, ill, 163
Cho chau, in, 117
Chocosse, in, 62
Choerelaphus, I, 224
Ch'o keng lu, ii, 172, 217, 219, 220
Chola Kingdom, i, 72
Choliatae, i, 210, 211
Cholma, river, i, 307
Chol-tagh, iv, 231
Chombe, iv, 76
Chong Kouo, i, 75
CHONG Ma-li, iv, 247
Chonka, ii, 186
Chon-la, iv, 101
Chorasmia, n, 224
Choreb, Mount, I, 221
Chor Goola Tillah, iv, 153
Chos, i, 306
CHOSROES, i, 29; ii, 115
Chossa, i, 306
Chotan, i, 250, 251
Choteen, iv, 215
Chou Shu, i, 149
Chowries, I, 243
Christian, taken for a national
title, i, 163
Christianity, Nestor ian, see Nes-
torian and I, 101 seq. ; in
Socotra, i, 123, 226; in, 7; in
Ceylon, i, 220, 226 ; traces of in
Indo-Chinese countries, I, 123;
ascribed to Chinese, I, 270; rv,
175, 200; often confounded
with Buddhism, i, 49; in, 54;
rv, 201
Christians in China, i, 89, 104;
rv, 130; also see whole section
on Nestorian Christianity in
China, i, 101 seq., and 235-241 ;
among Tartars; see above sec-
tion, also i, 163, 177; and
PRESTER JOHN, Nestorian; of
St. Thomas, ii, 117, 130, 132,
19
290
INDEX
135, 142; in, 63, 217, 251, 253,
257
CHRISTOPHER, St., n, 142, 184
Chronology, of Khans of Chagatai,
in, 33 seq. ; iv, 161 ; of Mari-
gnolli's Journey, in, 216 ; of Ibn
Batuta's Voyage to China, iv,
35, 149 ; of Journey of Goes,
iv, 1 80
Chryse, I, 183; n, 151
Chu, I, 161
Chu, River, I, 60, 288, 289; in,
21 ; rv, 164
Chubdan, i, 233
Chu Chau, n, 188
Chuche, i, 293
Chii Chu, in, 117
Chu Ch'uan, I, 161
Ch'ue keng lu; see Ch'o keng lu
Chu Fan chi; see CHAO Ju-kwa
Chuguchak, iv, 163, 164
Ch'ui Ian, n, 168
Chukaklee, iv, 217
Chu Kiang, iv, 68
Chukiupo, i, 191
Chuktal, iv, 229
Chul, i, 286; in, 213
Chulia, iv, 29
Chulien, i, 72
CH'U-LO Kagan, in, 55
CHULOTA, i, 68
Chii-mi-t'o, i, 192
Chunar, i, 177
Chundur-fulat, I, 128
CHU NGAN, in, 15
Ch'ung K'ing, HI, 113, 127, 128
Chung Shu, n, 231
Chung tu, i, 148, 150; n, 216;
in, 114
Ch'un tsew Period, n, 216
Chu pu, i, 87
Churche, i, 281; in, 125, 128,
129, 148
Churches, Catholic, in Cathay, i,
169 ; in Cambalec, in, 46, 50,
55 ; in Tenduc, in, 47 ; at
Zaitiin, in, 72, 73, 229 ; at
Almaliq, HI, 212; in Malabar,
in, 218
Churmansk, I, 307
Chus, rv, 4
Chusan Archipelago, n, 184; HI,
269
Chutal, i, 250
Chutalan, i, 250
Chutanan, i, 250
CHU YING, i, 66
CHUYSCAN, i, 264, 174
CHU Yun-ming, i, 78
Ciacor, iv, 227, 229
Ciake Baruhe, HI, 237
Cialis, iv, 191, 221, 232, 233, 234,
235. 239, 253; see Chalis,
Chalish
Cianba, 11, 163
Ciandu, n, 227
Cianganor, in, 132
Ciarakar (Charekar), iv, 208
Ciarcunar, iv, 214, 216
Ciaul (Chawul), iv, 254
CIBRARIO, L., n, 196
CICERO, n, 252
CICOGNA, E. A., II. 57, 66
Ciecialith, iv, 214, 216
Cikil, i, 245
CILADITYA, i, 68, 69, 70
Cilan, iv, 228, 229
Cilicia, I, 161, 163, 221; n, ni
Cimesquinte (Samarkand), in, 39
Cin, i, 2
Clna, i, 6
Cinandjket, i, 140
Cinastan, I, 215
CInasthana, i, 28
Cincalam, Cincolam, i, 301 ; n,
1 80; see Sin Kilan
Cini, i, 151
Cinnamomum, i, 185
Cinnamon, i, 264; in, 62
CINQUINUS, Franc., H, 103
Cintabor, rv, 65
Cintacola, i, 180
Cipangu, I, 180
Circassians, I, 210, 223
CISTERCIANS, HI, 171
Cisterns at Aden, iv, 3
Cities of China, vast number of,
n, 178, 231 ; in, 228; gradation
of their rank and appropriate
titles, HI, 118
Citracan (Astrakhan^, HI, 147
Cittadino Italiano, II, 90
Ciutat Sioene, i, 306
CIVEZZA, Marc, da, n, 50, 80, 81,
82, 87, 88, 92; n, 267, 272; in,
5. ii
Cividale, n, 3, 4; n, 14
CLARA, St., in, 231
CLAUDIAN, i, 21
CLAUDIUS, i, 198
CLAUSER, Conrad, I, 250
CLAVI.TO, Ruy G. de, i, 33, 173,
174, 177, 178, 211, 264, 283,
293: «. 99, 103, 105, 233;
in, 39, 85; rv, 201, 223
Clemenfu, n, 227; HI, 116
CLEMENT V, Pope, in, 28, 75,
100, 168; HI, ii
CLEMENT VI, Pope, in, 189
INDEX
291
CLIFFORD, Hugh, n, 91
Climate of India, in, 59
Clove Country, i, 226, 228
Cloves, i, 227, 264; in, 168; iv,
101, 102
Clove Wood, in, 168
Clubbing System, Chinese, II, 194
Clysma, I, 27, 221
Coal, in, 118; iv, 114
Coale, i, 306
Cobalek, in, 85
Cocco Nagara, i, 196
Coccora Nagara, i, 196
Cochin, i, 237, 267; n, 129, 134,
135; in, 218; iv, 24, 78, 79,
173, 184
Cochin-China, i, 4, 8, 18, 77, 128,
214, 244; n, 163; in, 167, 255;
iv, 157, 158, 243
Cocintana, i, 309
Cocintaya, i, 309
Cocks and hens in China, n, 186;
iv, no
Coconut tree, i, 225; in, 62, 236;
palm fibre, texture from, in,
227, 241
Coda, i, 76
Codangalur, n, 135; in, 254
CODINUS, i, 47
COEDES, G., Textes, i, 186
Coilam, iv, 79; see Quilon
Coilandy, iv, 77
Coilum, n, 137; see Quilon
Coins, Indian, iv, 54-62
Coinuch, in, 84
Coir Cham, Coir Khan, in, 18, 22
Colchi, iv, 172
Coldingham, HI, 170
Colechea, iv, 172
COLERIDGE, n, 227
Colidara, in, 159
Colom, n, 130, 218; see Quilon
Colombino, n, 137
Colombo, ii, 137; see Quilon
Colomni, n, 137
Colon, n, 129; see Quilon
Columbo, i, 309; n, 130, 170;
in, 216, 217, 231, 244; iv, 33;
see Quilon
Columbum, n, 129, 130, 133, 137,
146, 191, 218, 220; in, 29, 31,
191, 216, 217, 218, 230, 249,
257, 258, 259, 268; iv, 29, 79
COLUMBUS, Christ., i, 179; in, 106
Columbus, in, 77, 217
Columns, set up by Marignolli at
Columbum, in, 218; of Alex-
ander, in, 218, 219; of Bacchus,
in, 219
Comedae, Comedi, I, 190, 192
Comerchio, in, 144
Comerum, n, 108
Commercial Intercourse of Europe
with China and India in I4th
Century, i, 170
Community of Wives, 11, 147
COMNEN, John, i, 245
Comorin, Cape, i, 213; n, 129,
141; in, 197, 198, 219
Comoro, Great, i, 138
Compostella, n, 178
Comuch, in, 84
Comum, n, 34, 35
CONCHAM, in, 18
Condor, i, 152
Condro, in, 164
Condur, I, 128; iv, 159
CONFUCIUS, i, 31; 11, 224
Congo, in, 221
Conjurors, iv, 134
CONRAD II, 11, 4
CONRADUS, III, 14
CONSTANS, I, 54
CONSTANTINE DuCaS, I, 247
CONSTANTINE the Great, i, 229
CONSTANTINE, son of Heraclius,
i, 54
CONSTANTINE IV, Pogonatus, i,
48
CONSTANTINE Porphyrogenitus, i,
212, 244, 245
Constantinia, iv, 8
Constantinople, i, 44, 47, 115, 120,
274, 293; 11, 10, 31, 100; in,
48, 81, 155, 164, 165, 190, 211,
256; iv, 7
CONSTANTIUS, I, 221
CONTI, Nicol6, i, 87, 124, 151,
174-8, 266, 268, 303; II, 24,
151, 162, 166, 182; in, 8, 27,
40
COOLEY, W. D., i, 272; ii, 86
Coppolanda, in, 171
COQUEBERT-MONTBRET, III, 39
CORA, John of, Archbishop of
Soltania, i, 169; ill, 36, 37
89; see JOHN of Cora
Corassam, i, 293, 295
Corbara, ii, 12, 16
CORBARIUS, in, 205
Corea, i, 118, 131, 135-7, M^,
i?7. 257. 3°3: ". 237; ill, 113,
125, 128; iv, 243
Corleone, i, 241
Cormorants, ii, 188, 189
Cormos, H, 242
Cornaa, ii, 34, 35
Coromandel, ii, 141, 142, 165;
in, 5, 65, 191, 252
CORREA, Caspar, ii, 134
19 — 2
292
INDEX
Corrections and Additional Notes,
iv, 266 seq.
CORSALIS, Andrew, i, 180; n,
154
CORSI, Francis, iv, 203
CORTES, F., i, 170
Cory, Cape, I, 191
Corypha umbraculifera, iv, 71
Cos, i, 14, 98, 199; iv, 4
Cosenza, in, 200
COSMAS, Friar, appointed arch-
bishop of Cambalec, in, 13, 14
COSMAS Indicopleustes, I, 12, 24,
25, 26, 27, 28, 86, 104, 107,
176, 212, 213, 219-226, 231,
253; ii, 14, 133; m, 76, 197,
259, 261
Cosmi, i, 159
Cosmin, i, 177
Cosmos, i, 209
Costrama, I, 307
Costuma, in, 145
Cotan, rv, 207, 219, 222; see
Khotan
Cote Coulam, iv, 74
Cotroba, in, 22
Cotrone, in, 169
Cotta, in, 231, 233
Cotte Civitas, in, 244
Cottiara, iv, 79
Cottiaris, R., I, 195
Cotton, i, 202; in, 166
COTTONIAN Collection, HI, 36
Coulang, in, 219
Coulete, iv, 77
Council of Lyons, i, 154
COUPLET, Ph., i, 123
COURT, Gen., i, 310
Court Ceremonial at Cambalec, n,
238
Couvade, in, 131
Cowries, i, 243
COYA JAAN, in, 231
Cracow, i, 152
Craft, vast amount of, on Chinese
waters, 11, 211
Cranganor, i, 82, 237; 11, 10, 134,
135; m, 249, 254; iv, 78
CRASSUS, i, 18
Craven, in, 171
Cravenna, in, 171
CRAWFURD, i, 128, 185; n, 149,
I51. !53. 155~7> !62, 221; iv,
156, 158, 159
Crecy, HI, 199
Creman, I, 309
Cremation, n, 32, 166, 167
Cremi, i, 308
Crete, in, 169
Crimea, in, 14, 81, 84, 169; iv, 2
Crimson dye, quaint fable about,
i, 1 60
Crim-Tartars, i, 283
Crit, i, 152; in, 19
Croce della Giudecca, Sta., n, 100
Cronaca delle Miss, francescane, n,
87
CROOK, Wm., i, 5
Crophi, i, 151
Cross, woods of the, discussed, in,
238
Crotona, in, 169
Crucifix in the Plantain, in, 236
Crynes, n, 113
CTESIAS, i, 14, 224; n, 168, 208;
in, 263
Ctesiphon, i, 43, 120, 216
Cubebs, n, 153
Cucia (Kucha), iv, 230
Cucia, iv, 231
Cueran, 11, 168
Cumania, i, 305
Cumanian, in, 152
Cumbala, iv, 74
Cumberland, in, 171
Cummin, in, 166, 167
CUNNINGHAM, Gen. Sir A., i, 74,
191, 192, 313, 314, 316
Cupar, in, 170
Cupero, in, 170
Cups that fly through the air, n,
239
Curcuma longa, i, 292
Curi-curi, iv, 159
Currents, Southerly, from Indian
Islands, 11, 160
Curringhacherry, in, 218
CURTIUS, Quintus, i, 189
CURZON, Lord, i, 145, 190, 314,
317; n, 108
CURZON, Rob., n, 99, 100
Cus, 11, 109
Cuthe, Aides-de-camp of Great
Khan, n, 228
Cutrone, in, 169
CUVIER, i, 199
Cyagannor, ill, 132
Cyatyr, m, 256
Cycni, 11, 219
Cylbandj, I, 137
Cyn, in, 249
Cyncilim, 11, 134; see Cynkali
Cyngilin, n, 133 ; see Cynkali
Cynkalan, n, 179; m, 248, 249;
see Sin Kilan and Canton
Cynkali, i, 82; 11, 133, 134; in,
249; see Cranganor
Cynocephali, n, 169; iv, 94
Cynstn, i, 215
Cyollos Kagon, i, 117; m, 213
INDEX
293
Cypress Tree, n, 103
Cyprus, I, 168, 169; in, 139, 140,
144, 145, 166, 168, 199, 226,
246
Cyrenaica, I, 221
Gyrene1, i, 221
Cyrillic Alphabets, i, 245
CYRUS, i, 9; n, 108
Cytiaca, in, 212
Cytra, in, 247
Czernikov, I, 305
Dabag, I, 127
Daban Shan Pass, iv, 141
Dabihat, in, 192
Dabil, i, 255
DABRY, Pisciculture en Chine, II,
191
Dabul, in, 194
Dacca, i, 243; iv, 152
Dacca muslins, i, 197
Dagoba, i, 248
Dah-din, iv, 238
DAHLMANN, Father J., in, 253
Daibal, I, 255
Daibul, i, 86, 227, 309
Daich (laik), I, 212
Daidu (Peking), in, 114, 115, 116,
125, 128
Daifu, in, 1 20
Dailam, in, 22, 23 ; iv, 184
Dailui (Talifu), in, 127, 131
DAIMING Khan, i, 291
DAIMIR Can, i, 291
Dairim, iv, 182
Daitu (Peking), I, 93; II, 227
Dajis (Ta Jen), i, 273
Dak-choki, u, 234
Dakli, in, 131
Dala, i, 243
Dalai Lama, n, 250; in, 269
Daldili, n, 115
DALGLEISH, iv, 230, 234, 235, 238
Dalmatians, i, 221
DALRYMPLE, iv, 159
DALTON, n, 157, 162, 168
Damascus, I, 43, 307 ; in, 22, 23,
199, 226, 241, 244, 245; iv, 3,
36, 37, 109, 126
Damashk (Damascus), in, 23
Dambadenia, 11, 170
Damghan, I, 189, 190, 293
Damietta, i, 306
Damiyat, I, 306
Damna, i, 195
Damnae, I, 195
Damonela, I, 309
DAMPIER, W., n, 151
DAN, ii, 130, 179
Dangchi, Dangdji, I, 273
DANIBEG, i, 71; iv, 183, 228
DANIEL, Patriarch, n, 17
DANIEL, Prophet, i, 27; n, no
Daniele in Friuli, S., II, 15, 16
DANISHMANJA, in, 34 ; iv, 162
Dankshi, iv, 242
DANTE, in, 198
Danube, I, 245
DAPPER, n, 147
Dara-i-Aingharan, iv, 259
Darail, I, 313
Darasun, darassun, I, 209, 276;
11, 199
Darband, in, 90
Darband Nias, in, 131
Dard, i, 314
Dardas, in, 156
Daric, i, 229
DARIUS, i, 10 ; n, 102, 115
Darjiling, i, 184
Darkness, Land of, iv, 7
Darkot, i, 61 ; iv, 259
Dark Sea, i, 247
Darmut, I, 306
Daron, i, 94
Darwaz, i, 313; iv, 216
DARWIN, 11, 242
Dasfetidae, Lake of, n, 115
DASHIMAN, in, 121, 126
Dast, iv, 135
Dates, i, 251 ; iv, 39
DATHOPATISSA II, i, 70
Daulatabad, i, 310; iv, 14, 21,
23. 85
Daumghan, in, 76
DAVA KHAN, iv, 161
DAvA TIMUR, iv, 1 6 1
DAVID, Armand, 11, 181, 182
DAVID, Metropolitan of China, I,
103
DAVID, King, 11, 152; in, 213,
243; iv, 224
DAVID, King of the Tartars, in, 17
DAVIS, Sir J. F., i, 132, 135;
ii, 177, 179, 184, 187, 188, 192,
194, 199, 213, 215, 220
Daxata, i, 195
DAY, Dr., n, 134; in, 218, 219
Daya, n, 146
Dayaks, n, 168
Daybul (Dabil), I, 255
Daylam, iv, 184; see Dailam
Dead, disposal of, in Cathay, in,
99; in Tibet, ii, 252-4; in
India, in, 63
Dead Sea, i, 307 ; n, 105, 160
DEANE, Major H. A., i, 74
Death of Odoric, n, 275
DE' BIANCHI, n, too
Deccan, ii, 144 ; see Dekkan
294
INDEX
Decency of Hindus, in, 249
DEFREMERY, i, 245, 246; rv, i,
142, 151, 162, 165, 166
Degenerations in Geographical
knowledge, I, 21
DE GOEJE, i, 135, 136, 137; ii,
M7
DE GROOT, J. J. M., i, 112
DE GUBERNATIS, ii, 61, 81 ; in, n
DE GUIGNES, i, 3, 20, 21, 30, 32,
42, 52, 53. 56', 57. 65. 72. 86,
88, 89, 91, 92, 94-6, 104, 125,
140, 194, 205, 206, 208, 210,
247; ii, 104, 180, 183, 213,
226, 227, 257; in, 33, 34, 39;
iv, 5, 142, 163, 165, 166, 201,
212, 228, 229
Dehfattan, iv, 76
Dehi-Kherjan, Dehi-Kherkan, De-
kergan, in, 76
Deh-i-Parian, iv, 259
Dekkan, i, 242, 243; ii, 144; iv,
177
DELFIN, n, 17
Delhi, i, 78, 131; n, 115, 127,
142, 143, 226; in, 69, 131,
218, 231; iv, 12, 13, 14, 16,
18, 20, 21, 23, 46-8, 80, 81, 128,
138-140, 149, 225
Deli, n, 115
Deli-Baba, in, 162
Delights, River of, ii, 262-4
DELISLE, Leopold, i, 300, 305 ;
". 52, 73. 83
Delia Decima, in, 137 seq.
Dellai, iv, 230, 231
Delly, i, 310
Delly, Cape, iv, 72
Deluge did not reach Adam's Peak,
in, 234, 245
Demawend, i, 189; n, 102
DEMETRIUS, in, 15
DEMETRIUS, Companion of Goes,
iv, 202, 208, 221, 222, 224, 226,
227
DEMETRIUS, Friar and Martyr, n,
117, 119, 122, 124; HI, 76
DEMIRLAN, i, 297; see Tamerlane
Demons, n, 260-1
Dengadda, ii, 115
DENHA, i, 119, 120, 127
DENNYS, N. B., ii, 157, 158, 160
Deogiri (Daulatabad), i, 310; iv,
14, 21
Derbend, I, 304; iv, 123
Derbend, Pass of, i, 163
Desert of Lop, ii, 264
Deserts, Haunted, n, 264-5; IV.
39
DESGODINS, ii, 250
DESIDERI, i, 71 ; n, 249
DES MICHELS, A., ii, 165
Despina Khatun. iv, 7
Devagiri, n, 115; in, 70
DEVERIA, G., i, 99; in, 186
Devil's Advocate, n, 17
Devil crying in the night (Devil
Bird), ill, 42
Devils cast out by Franciscans, ii,
260
Devi-patam, iv, 35
Devoutness of Saracens, ill, 260
Dewagiri, ii, 115; in, 70
Dewal, i, 86
Dewar, in, 68
Dhafar, HI, 68; iv, 36, 149, 150
Dhar, iv, 23
DHARMAKARA, i, 73
DHARMAPALA, I, 73
Dharmapatam, iv, 76
Dhibat-ul-Mahal, iv, 31
Dhungzil, iv, 235, 238
Dhungzil Langar, iv, 234
Diabolic Art, ii, 222
Diacoregan, in, 76
Diadin, in, 162, 163
Diagorgan, in, 75, 76
Diamonds, n, 172
Diarbakr, Diarbekir, i, 216; ii,
223; iv, 3
DIAZ, Em., i, 106
Dibajat, i, 127; in, 192
DICKENS, i, 192
DIEDO, Nicolas, i, 270
DlEULAFOY, II, IIO
Digun, i, 243
Dilem, n, 258
Dili, n, 115, 127; see Delhi
Dilivar, ii, 115
Dim Islands, n, 160
Dinar, n, 150; iv, 56 seq., 112,
"3
Dinarpore, iv, 153
Dinawar, iv, 33
DIOCLETIAN, i, 94
DIODORUS of Tarsus, i, 26
DIODORUS, i, 189
Diogil, i, 310
DIONYSIUS, in, 219
DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES, i, 183,
201; in, 186; iv, 266
DIOSCORIDES, i, 184, 185
Dioscoris (Sumatra), I, 220
Dirhem, I, 229 ; iv, 56 seq. ; iv,
"3
Dirpe, II, 103
Dishes of plaited cane, in, 99 ;
iv, 135
DlSMAS, I, 151
Diu, i, 86
INDEX
295
Diul, i, 86, 227 ; see Daibul
Division of tongues, in, 263
Divrighi, ill, 161
Divrik, in, 161
DlZABUL, DlZABULUS, I, 59, 2O5,
2O6, 207, 2OQ, 2IO, 211
Dizful, ii, no; in, 23
Djagorgan, in, 76
Djankou, i, 130
Djawaga, i, 127
Djegdeleh, iv, 206
Djeguid-Ali, iv, 206
Djehaz, n, 113
Djeteh, iv, 163
Djihan River, in, 160
Djordjanieh, in, 82
Dnieper, I, 245, 305
Dniester, I, 245, 305
Doab, iv, 20
Doana (Dogana), in, 144
Dobaha, i, 306
DOBNER, Gelasius, editor of Mari-
gnolli, in, 199-201, 204, 207, 209,
2IO, 212, 213, 2l6, 217, 219,
224, 225, 229, 230, 241, 247-9,
256, 259
Dofar, in, 68; see Dhafar
Dog-faced people, 11, 168, 187;
iv, 94
DoKUZ-Khatun, n, 246
DOLBEZER, IV, 14!
Dolphin, i, 225
Doltalay, n, 115
Domasch, i, 307
DOMINICHELLI, T., II, 36, 38, 49,
50, 55, 61, 64, 65, 73, 74, 82,
262
DOMINICUS, III, 14
Don, i, 158, 305; ii, 10.5; in, 81,
184
Doncola, I, 306
Dondardane, in, 170
Dondin, n, 25, 30, 31, 32, 34,
i?3. i?4
Donfermellino, ill, 170
Dong-hoi, n, 163
Dongola, iv, 40
Donkola, i, 306
Dora, iv, 259
DOREZ, Leon, in, 180
Dorpat, ii, 102
DORVILLE, ii, 249; iv, 176, 268
DOST MAHOMED KHAN, iv, 209
DOZY, G. J., iv, 160
DOZY, R., ii, no; in, 199
Dragoian, ii, 174
Dragomen, Hints on, HI, 151
Dragon Lake, n, 174; HI, 221,
222
Dragons, Fiery, in, 231
Drangiane, I, 99
Dravida, I, 242
Dream, Coleridge's verses made in
a, curious coincidence, ii, 227
Dress of people of Cathay, ii, 29
Drinking habits of the ancient
Turks, i, 209
Dristra, I, 245
Drosache, i, 195
Dru gu, i, 62
Drum at Emperor's Gate, i, 131
Drums, Hill of (Sounding Sand),
iv, 3
DRUZES, i, 101 ; ii, 188
DUA Khan, in, 132; iv, 162, 163
DUA TIMUR, in, 30, 35
DUBOIS, Abbe, n, 138, 145
DUCANGE, i, 46, 47, 229; ii, no,
in, 153, 204, 219; m, 47, 51
Dudkaran, rv, 136
Dudriaga, in, 161
Duecalydonian, i, 187
Du HALDE, i, 159, 298; n, 165,
187, 188, 192, 205, 210, 227, 256
Du JARRIC, i, 134, 220; rv, 170,
172, 174, 177, 179, 180, 183,
201-3, 207, 217, 218, 221, 223,
225, 254
DULAURIER, I, 50, 82, 244, 253;
rv, 148, 155, 157
Dumb trade, i, 193, 200, 202,
218-9; Hi, 258
Dumi, i, 243
Dun chuan, i, 140
Dundalk, in, 206
Dundrennan, in, 170
Dunfermline, in, 170
DUNKUL, iv, 23
DUNS SCOTUS, ii, 23
Diir, in, 23
DURAND, E. M., ii, 167
Durga, in, 65
Durian, n, 150
Durmapatnam, in, 40
Durudgaran, iv, 136
Duson, i, 276
DUTREUIL de RHINS, I, 4, 311
Duvriaga, in, 161
Duwan, I, 317, 318
Dvarasamudra, Dwarasamudra,
i, 82 ; ii, 115, 143 ; ill, 66
Dwarfs, ii, 229-230
Dyaks, ii, 158, 162
Dzungaria, i, 154, 163 ; iv, 160,
192, 228, 235
Earth, Length and Breadth of
Inhabited, i, pp. 215 seq.
Earth as fuel, iv, 113, 114
Eastern Atlantic, I, 255
296
INDEX
Eastern Bengal, I, 243
Eastern Turkestan, I, 248, 304
Eastern Turks, i, 247
Eastern Volga, I, 304
East India Gazetteer, n, 135 ; see
HAMILTON, W.
Eating the aged, n, 173-5
Ebib, i, 219
EBLIS, in, 228
Ebony, i, 253
EBRAHIM Sultan, Mirza, I, 286
Ebron, HI, 245 ; see Hebron
Ecbatana, i, 189; 11, 102, 153;
in, 1 6
ECCARD, ii, 9; in, 14, 17
Echmiazin, i, 308 ; in, 163
Ectag (Altai), i, 209
Eden, HI, 199, 209, 221
Edessa, 11, 141 ; HI, 199, 253
Edict, Chinese, regarding Christian
Churches, i, 104 seq.
Edil (Volga) River, i, 307 ; 11, 105
EDKINS, J., i, 55
EDRISI, i, 22, 31, 71, 86, 87, 99,
114, 127, 129, 130, 131, 135,
141, 143, 144, 152, 214, 230,
242, 243, 247-9, 253, 254, 256,
306, 309, 313, 314, 316, 318;
II, 98, 112, 133, 139, 141, 146,
147; in, 23, 24, 27, 180, 192,
247, 263; rv, 184, 209, 235,
258
EDWARD I, King of England, I,
167
EDWARD II, in, 10, 166
EDWARD III, in, 140, 206
Eghar Bulak, iv, 238
Egriar, iv, 227, 229
Egypt, i, 102, 202, 216, 217, 220,
224, 306; HI, 197, 218, 222-4,
229, 241, 245, 263, 269; iv,
37
Egyptians, I, 219, 221
Eier Tau, Lake, in, 194
Eigg Island, H, 262
EITEL, E. J., i, 9
Ektag, i, 209
Elaeagnus, iv, 228
Elam, in, 248
Elamites, I, 220; in, 22
El Arish, i, 306
El Berki, i, 130
Elborz-Kuh, n, 103
Elburz, i, 189
Elburz Mountains, n, 103, 258
El Cheki, i, 130
ELCHIGADAY, HI, 30, 39; see
ILCHIGADAI
ELEAZAR, in, 267
Elephants, I, 230, 231, 243; 11, 34,
164, 171, 236; in, 194; iv, 33,
48, 97, 156, 159
Elephants, Cave of, n, 114
Elettaria Cardamomum, n, 154
Eleuths, iv, 192
ELIAS, Patriarch, i, 127
ELIAS, Metrop. of Damascus, in, 24
ELIAS, the Hungarian, in, 211
ELIAS, Ney, i, 60; in, 20; iv, 160,
164, 193, 271; see Tarikh-i-
Rashidi
ELIAS, Legends, HI, 192, 194, 266,
267
ELIAS, son of TUGHLAK TIMUR, iv,
189
Eliim, i, 306
Elim, i, 221
El I'nba, i, 130
Elis, i, 202
Elisabetpol, in, 23
ELLIOT, H. M., i, 309; n, 134,
180; HI, 112
Elly, i, 309
ELPHINSTONE, n, 139, 140, 264;
iv, 187, 205, 217, 258
EL WARDI, i, 87, 247
Ely, Kingdom, iv, 74
EMANUEL, King, in, 224
Emba, i, 212
Embassies, from Roman Empire to
China, i, 51 seq. ; from Byzan-
tium to Turkish khagans, i, 205 ;
from Shah Rukh to Peking,
i, 179, 271 seq.; from Great
Khan to the Pope, in 1338,
in, 179; and in return, 188;
from Emperor of China to
Delhi in 1342, iv, 17 ; and return
embassy, iv, 18 ; to China, com-
mercial expeditions in guise of,
iv, 218-9, 242-5
Emeralds, i, 230
Emese, i, 258
Emodon, i, 203
Emodus, i, 200
EMPOLI, GIOVANNI d', i, 124; see
GIOVANNI da Empoli
Encyclop&dia Britarnica, I, 158,
197 ; H, 90
Encyclopedie de I'lslam, i, 83
Engaddi, H, 115
English Cyclopaedia, H, 17, 154,
166, 242
ENMELINE, I, 262
ENOCH, the founder of Monkery,
in, 245
EPHTHALANUS, i, 205
Ephthalites or White Huns, i, 58,
59, 205, 207, 229; see Heptha-
lites
INDEX
297
EPIPHANIUS, i, 212
Epiphi, I, 219
Epirus, i, 102
Equius of Rubruquis, I, 272, 287,
288
ERATOSTHENES, I, n
Erdil, n, 21 1 ; see Volga
Ergol, iv, 188
Eri, i, 293, 300; see Herat
Erkeun, in, 121; see Arkaun
Erman, 11, 242
Ermenie, i, 262
Erminia, in, 159
Ermon, Mt., i, 307
ERNEST of Saxony, Duke, in,
223-4
ERSKINE, n, 139, 234, 264
Erythraean Sea, i, n, 13, 183,
202, 212, 216, 254
Erzingan, Erzinghian, Erzinjan,
ill, 161, 162, 168
Erzinghian, in, 161
Erzrum, Erzerum, II, 10, 30, 34,
99, 100, 101 ; in, 161, 162, 163,
164
ESCANDEL, Matthew, i, 122
Eski Baghdad, in, 23
Esneh, i, 306
ESPINHA, J. d', i, 313
Essfahan, i, 286
Essiongeber, i, 306
ESTHER, 11, 102
Estierenda, in, 171
Etawa, iv, 22
Ethaguri, i, 195
Ethil, n, 242 ; see Volga
Ethiopia, i, 187, 212, 217, 218,
220, 223, 224, 227, 230, 231;
in, 6, 7,222, 223, 247, 252; see
Abyssinia
Ethiopians, i, 101, 195, 222, 230
Etna, in, 267
EUGENE III, in, 16
EUGENE IV, i, 121, 178, 268
Eupatoria, i, 305
Euphirattes, Lake below Paradise,
ill, 220
Euphrates, i, 84, 86, 87, 188, 189,
304, 307; n, loi, in, 171; in,
161, 162, 197, 198, 222, 226,
261, 262; iv, 45, 137
EUPHROSYNE, IV, 7
Europe, HI, 242, 247
Europe, invaded by Tartars, i, 152
EUSEBIUS, i, 221
Euxine, 11, 98
EVA, in, 197
EVE, 11, 171; in, 227, 228, 232,
236, 244
Evi, i, 300
Evil Spirits in Deserts, n, 265
Evilach, in, 224
Excursions et Recon., n, 164
Expenses of Mercantile venture
to Cathay, in, 153
Exterior China, i, 143
EZECHIEL, i, 20, 304; ii, 103,
208; in, 239
EZPELATA, Jerome, iv, 173
FABRI, Padre Stefano, I, 238
FABRIS, Luigi, n, 88
Facfur, Faghfur, I, 33, 94, 141,
256; ii, 210; see Baghbugh
Fachatim, i, 307, 308
FADL ALLAH RASHID ED-DIN, see
RASHID ED-DIN
FA HIAN, i, 42, 67, 74, 75; ii, 132,
184, 263; in, 231, 233, 259;
IV, 204, 222, 235
Fahri, i, 253
Faizabad.i, 315, 317, 318; iv, 185,
211, 216
Fakanur, iv, 35
FAKHAR-UL-DIN, i, 273
Fakhrah, rv, 84
FAKHRUDDIN, iv, 84, 85, 86
Fakirs, iv, 223
Faknur, i, 309
FALCON of Toul, N., i, 168
FALCONER, ii, 166
FALMERAYER, ii, 99
Fals, n, 196
Fan, in, 217
Fana, ii, 151; see Java
Fanchan, in, 121, 127
Fan ch'eng, I, 168
FAN Ch'eng-ta, I, 75
Fandaraina, ii, 133, 134; iv, 27,
Fanduk, iv, 116; see Fondacum
FAN SHAN, i, 66
FAN SIUN, i, 66
Fansur, n, 159; iv, 157
Fansuri Camphor, IV, 98
Fap si, i, 108
Farab, ill, 147; iv, 164
Farang, iv, 38
Farghan, I, 315
Farghanah, I, 18-20, 36-8, 90,
98, 191, 192, 249; iv, 160, 166,
191, 211, 212
FARiD-ul-Hakkwa-ud-Din, iv, 12
Faringal, iv, 259
FARIS ABU IMAN, iv, 37
Farrah, I, 99
Farrukhabad, iv, 271
Pars, i, 99; ii, 129; in, 23, 68,
85
Farsetti, ii, 57, 266
298
INDEX
Farwan, iv, 209
Fa-shi, i, 1 08
Fatan Malifatan, in, 68
Fatsu, I, 314
Fattan, i, 81 ; iv, 35
FATTEH An SHAH'S large family,
n, 164
Faughan, i, 315
FAULCON of Toul, Nicholas, I, 168
FAULDS, Henry, in, 123
Feasts at Court of Great Khan,
n, 237
FEDERICI, CAESAR, in, 262; iv, 99
Fedo, in, 145
Feet, Little, 11, 236
Fei lai fong, n, 204
Fei lai Hill, n, 203, 204
Felt, i, 248; iv, 268
Felt Idols, n, 261
Female, dress in Baghdad, 11,
no; schools, iv, 24
Female rule, in, 194
Femenat, i, 309
Fenchui-matheu, n, 214
Fenchui-Nanwang, n, 214
Fenghua, n, 189
Feng-hwang Hill, II, 193
FERDUSI, i, 9, 151
FERGUSON, Donald, I, 199
FERIDUN, i, 9
FERINGEES, i, 9
FERRAND, Gab., i, 2, n, 88, 127,
128, 129, 139, 141, 244, 245-
255, 257; ii, 139, 147
Ferrara, n, 195, 214
FERRIER, Caravan Journeys, i, 190
FERUSSAC, Bon de, in, 202
Fez, iv, 37, 39, 40, 150
Fezzan, I, 220
Fiera, in, 146
Figs (misqali), 11, 107
Fiji, n, 162
Fijians, n, 224
FILIPPO the Carmelite, in, 197
Fin, i, 210
Finger prints, in, 123
FINLAY, Greece, 11, 99
Finno-Ugrians, i, 245
Finns, i, 245
FIRDUSI, i, 9, 151
Fire, Tartar Ceremony of passing
persons and goods through, i,
208
Fire Ship, iv, 133
FlRISHTA, I, 78, 79; II, 135; IV,
IO
FlRISHTAjAN, III, 26
FiR6z, FIRUZ, son of YEZDEJIRD
III, i, 96, 97, 99, 100, 205
FIRUZ, Rebellious Nephew of
Great Khan (fictitious), iv, 140,
.145
Firuz-Koh, I, 293
FISCHER, Tartars, 11, 207
Fish in Champa, n, 164, 165
FISHER, Capt., iv, 151, 152
Fisheries Exhibition, Cat. Chinese
Collection, 11, 189
Fishing, n, 190, 191; by cor-
morants, ii, 188-9
FISQUET, H., ii, 87
Fista, i, 300
Fistuchi, in, 167
FITZ-GEOFFRY, Raymund, n, 118
FITZ-RALPH, Richard, in, 206
Fiume di Piaceri, ii, 263
Fiume Rosso, n, 31
Five Dynasties, I, 114
Fizzat, iv, 59
FLAMEL, N., ii, 69
Flandrina, n, 133, 134; see
Fandaraina
Flaviopolis, in, 139
Flemings, iv, 210
FLEURIAIS, ii, 216
Florence, i, 123; in, 178, 200,
227, 237, 241, 255, 256
Florin, Florentine, in, 140; iv,
58
FLORUS, i, 1 8
Flying Leeches, n, 172
Fo, i, 278; iv, 201
Foda, in, 145
FODIM, in, 182
Foe Koue Ki, n, 264; in, 231
Foglia Nuova, in, 43
Fo lin, i, 97 ; see Fulin
Fo ling (Radix China), I, 292
Follero, in, 159
Follis, iv, 112, 113
Fondaco, in, 144, 145, 229, 230;
iv, 116; see Fondacum
Fondacum, ill, 229; see Fanduk
and Fondaco
Fontana, in, 171
FONTANINI, Archbishop, ii, 15
Fonte Dennisinni, i, 241
Fonteghi, i, 270
Foot-posts in Cathay, n, 232
Footprint on Adam's Peak, ill,
227, 232
Formosa, ii, 168
Fornace, in, 171
FORSTER, G., iv, 206
FORSTER, J. R., ii, 86
Fortunate Islands, I, 188, 191
Fortunatus, in, 243
FORTUNE, R., ii, 180, 181, 185,
188, 189, 191
Forum Julii, II, 4
INDEX
299
Foschia, n, 90
FOUCHER, A., i, 74
Fountain of Paradise, in, 220,
234 ; of Jonah, in, 225
Four Garrisons, I, 61, 62; iv, 222,
231, 235. 237
FOURNIER, James, in, 188, 209
Four Rivers, HI, 220-2
Fou TING, HI, 182
Foveo, HI, 145
Fowl-rabbit, n, 186
Fox, in, 206
Fozo, i, 301
FR^HN, i, 34
FRANCIS, St., n, 13; in, 231
FRANCIS, Franciscan, i, 180
FRANCIS of Alessandria, Friar, in,
32, 212
FRANCIS I, of France, i, 304
FRANCIS of Perugia, n, 104
FRANCIS of Pisa, n, 119, 123
FRANCIS XAVIKR, St., i, 220
Franciscan Monks, martyred at
Tana in India, n, 117 seq. ; at
Almaliq, nf, 32, 212; at the
Court of Cambalec, 11, 225, 239 ;
in, 215; in Cathay, i, 169; HI,
100; expel devils, n, 260; most
acceptable missionaries to Ca-
thayans, in, 215
- Houses at Tabriz, n, 102 ;
at Soltania, n, 105 ; at Zaitiin,
i, 169; n, 131, 183; in, 229; at
Yang chau, i, 169; n, 210; at
Cambalec, i, 169 ; in, 215 ; in
Kipchak, in, 82, 83 ; in Cathay,
I, 169
FRANCUS of Perugia, in, 37
Frankland, in, 180, 210
Franks, I, 221, 293
FRANZI, C., n, 82
FREDERICK II, Emperor, I, 152 ;
n, 257; HI, 210
FREMANT, B., n, 88
French spoken at Aleppo, in, 226 ;
and in Cyprus, in, 226
FRESCOBALDI, 11, 122; in, 138,
224, 236
FREYTAG, i, 20; n, 197, 221
Friccia, the word, in, 250
FRIEDMANN, Dr. E., Pegolotti, i,
172
FRIEDRICH, i, 128
Friuli, II, 3-6, 8, 14
Fruit, forbidden, discussed, HI,
238
trees, bearing men and
women, 11, 138
FRUMENTIUS, i, 217
Fu chau, i, 175, 257, 301 ; n, 10,
183, 185, 186; m, 126, 128,
150; iv, 121, 126
Fujita, i, 8 1
Fuju, n, 186
Fu Kien, i, 39, 122, 136; 11, 10,
177, 183, 186, 187; in, 12, 128;
iv, 109
Fu lang (Europe), ill, 214
Fulat, i, 129
Fu-li-la River, I, 85
Fu-lin, i, 42, 44-6, 48, 49, 54-7,
97, 235; m, 12
Fu Nan, i, 8, 66, 193
Fundacum, in, 230; see Fonda-
cum
Funeral Ceremonies, iv, 143
Fung chau, i, 3
Fu Ping Hien, i, 106
Furness, in, 171
Fiis, i, 98
Fusco, in, 158
Fushi Taifu, in, 21
FUTIM JOENS, in, 181
Fu ting, in, 182; iv, 271
Fu Tso-lin, i, 313
FUTTEH ALI SHAH, n, 164
Futtehpur Sikri, iv, 172
Fu-tu Hiung, iv, 222
Fuzo, 11, 185
Gabak, iv, 163
Gabala, in, 15, 22
Gaban, in, 160
Gabar Castle, n, 106
Gabella, in, 144
GABELLI, 11, 6, 8, 16, 20, 21, 84
GABET, i, 200; n, 239, 245, 248,
250; iv, 143
GABRIEL, Angel, in, 228
GABRIEL, Priest, i, 108
Gadeira, i, 212
Gades, i, 212, 216, 221
Gadue, in, 160
Gaeta, in, 169
Gag, in, 213
GAILLARD, Nankin, 11, 205, 206
Gaitros, River, I, 14
GAI-YA-SZU-TING, i, 79, 80
GALAFRON, King of Cathay, i, 173
Galanga, Galangal, i, 137; in, 168
Galata, HI, 81
Galatians, I, 102
Galbanum, in, 167
GALDAN KHAN, iv, 192
Galilee, HI, 199, 226
GALISCI, John, iv, 203
Galiur, iv, 22
Galle, i, 77, 226, 253; iv, 33
Callus ferrugineus, n, 186
Callus lanatus, 11, 186
300
INDEX
GALTON, in, 124
Galu, in, 193
GAMA, da, i, 179; n, 134; HI,
230; iv, 169, 201
Gamalec for Cambalec, in, 149
Gamora, Sea of, I, 307
Gampola, iv, 33
GAMS, Series Episcop., in, 13, 14,
28
('.an. Juki. I, 69
Gandamak, iv, 206
GANDAR, D., Canal imperial, n,
213; in, 115; iv, 63
Gandavati, i, 69
Gandhara, i, 69, 74, 242; iv, 204
Gandon, in, 160
Ganfu, i, 89
Ganges, I, 69, 142, 176, 177, 183,
194, 195. 203, 303; ii, 163; in,
198, 221, 222, 225; IV, 22, 15!,
152
Ganpu, iv, 137
Gantur District, in, 70
Gao, iv, 40
Gaoloshan, iv, 210
Gaou, i, 226
Garaghat, iv, 176
Garamaeans, I, 189
Garamaei, in, 23
Garamantes, i, 188, 220
GARCIA da Horta, i, 184, 185, 225
GARDEZI, Abu Said 'Abd al-Haiy
Ibn Duhak, I, 140
Garenaei, I, 195
Garine, n, 100
Garo, i, 184
Garuda, iv, 146
Gascony, i, 120
Gaso, rv, 231
Gates of China, i, 256
Gatzaria, i, 305
GAUBIL, i, 82, in, 112; 11, 153,
217, 226, 228; in, 186, 214
Gaudia (gaou), i, 226
Gauls, i, 216
Gaur, i, 124, 177; iv, 83, 84,
154
Gauta, i, 293
GAUTAMA, rv, 242
GAUTHIOT, R., i, 215
Gauze, i, 143, 197
Gaza, i, 43, 143
GAZAN Khan, 11, 103, 105; see
GHAZAN KHAN
Gazaria (Crimea), i, 305 ; in, 48,
52, 58, 81, 84, 169, 183
Geben, in, 160
Geech, i, 245
Geese, 11, 181, 186; iv, no
Gem Fishery in Ceylon. 11. 171
GEMBOGA EVENZI, in, 181, 182;
iv, 271
GEMELLI-CARRERI, n, 205
Genoa, i, 120, 171; n, 105; in,
154-6, 210
Genoese Merchants; in Cathay,
in, 73; in Indian Sea, in, 257
Geographical Notions of Mari-
gnolli, in, 247, 261 ; of Ibn
Batuta, iv, 44
GEORGE, i, 211
GEORGE, King (of Prester John's
Family), in, 15, 47, 48, 50
GEORGE, Mar, i, 119
GEORGE, Saint, Church of, in
Malabar, in, 218
Georgia, i, 94; ill, 177
Georgians, i, 246
Geraldon Abbey, in, 171
GERARD, in, 10, 28, 72
GERARD of Prato, in, 5
GERARDE, Herball, n, 153, 154
GERBILLON, n, 227, 245
Gerfalcon, 11, 229
GERINI, G. E., n, ^56, 157, 169;
iv, 157
German Engineer in Cathay, I,
167 ; Traveller in Central Asia,
anonymous, I, 311, 318; iv,
182
Germany, in, 247, 252, 255
Gerondon, HI, 171
Gete, iv, 163
Geu-gen, I, 208 ; see Juan Juan
Geukoun, in, 160
Ghaggar, iv, 12
GHAIASSUDDIN NAKKASH, i, 179,
271
GHAIASSUDDIN of Damghan, iv,
34
GHAIASUDDIN, in, 109
Ghalchas, iv, 210
Ghalwa, i, 306
Ghanah, I, 243
Ghand, I, 313
Ghandara, iv, 204 ; see Gandhara
Gharu wood, iv, 101
Ghazan Khan, i, 103, 105 ; in,
52, 108, 114, 156, 161, 162;
iv, 7
Ghazar, I, 129, 143
Ghazni, i, 74; iv, 160
Gheez, I, 222
Ghelzo, in, 170
Gherofani, HI, 168
Ghes, i, 145
GHIAS-UD-DIN BAHADUR BURAH,
iv, 84, 86
Ghideli, iv, 180, 206
Ghilan, i, 290; see Gilan
INDEX
301
Ghirinsula, in, 125
GHIYAS-UDDIN of Bengal, i, 80
GHIYAS-UD-DIN-TUGHLAK, n, 115,
127
GHODLEE BEABAN, n, 263
Gholalay, iv, 259
Ghoraghat, iv, 176
Ghorband, iv, 208, 255, 256, 257,
259
Ghorbund Valley, iv, 183
Ghori, iv, 257
Ghorraib, I, 137
Ghotaians, I, 163
Ghubaliq, I, 60
Ghuz, i, 149, 152, 245, 247
Giacha Barca, in, 237
Gialalabath, iv, 211
Giants, n, 230; in, 259
Giava maggiore, iv, 146
GIBB, E. J. W., in, 112
GIBBON, i, 29, 32, 46, 47, 49, 84
Gibraltar, iv, 38, 39
Gierondona, in, 171
Giervalse, in, 171
GIGLIOLI, E. H., ii, 181
Gihon, in, 197, 222
Gilan, i, 290, 315; in, 23
GlLDEMEISTER, I, 86, 242, 243,
253: "» 133. 141; iv, 152
Gilead, i, 307
GILES, H. A., i, 5
Gilgit, i, 61, 314; iv, 216, 267
GILISH, in, 69
GILISHDIUR, Raja, in, 69
GlLOTT, GlLLOTT, III, 33, 212
Gilt-Teeth, in, 127, 131
Ginger, i, 264; n, 137, 181; in,
62
Gintarchan, in, 146; see Gittar-
chan
GIORGI, 11, 249, 250-3
GIOVANNI da Empoli, i, 124, 267;
ii, 130
GIOVANNI Ferdinand, iv, 250
GIOVANNINO of Pisa, ii, 131
Gipte, Desert of, I, 306
Giraffe, i, 223
GIRARDENGO, Nicolas, in, 179
Girdi, iv, 206
Girgenti, I, 241
GIROLAMO, Pope (NICOLAS IV),
in, 215, 216
Gittarchan, in, 82, 146, 147, 152 ;
see Astrakhan
Giu Gimmoncota, in, 65
Giudea, i, 240, 241
GIUNTI, T., i, 290, 295; ii, 28
Glenluce, in, 170
GNAUCK, Max, n, 91
Goa, i, 309; ii, 130, 134, 142,
212; in, 222, 253; iv, 24,
64-6, 72, 173, 177, 179, 198,
199, 202, 226, 250, 253, 254
Gober, iv, 144
Gobi, n, 263; in, 213
Gobidar, in, 160
GOD upon earth, James Fournier
claims to be, in, 188
GODFREY of Viterbo, in, 226,
239-240
GODINHO de EREDIA, ii, 162
GOES, Benedict, I, 49, 181, 182,
242, 250, 251, 272, 273, 275,
276, 289, 291, 293, 310, 311,
318; ii, 221; in, ii ; Map to
illustrate, i, 310-318; Intro-
ductory Notices regarding, iv,
169-194; Bibliography, iv, 194
-7 ; Journey from Agra to
Cathay, iv, 198-254; iv, 258;
see Table of Contents
GOG, i, 151, 255, 304; iv, 123
Goga, i, 309
Gogha, in, 78
Gogo, i, 309; in, 78; iv, 40, 63,
64, 66
Gojenang, i, 74
Gold, i, 316; ii, 146, 148, 150;
iv, 9, in
Golden Gate of Byzantium, i, 47 ;
Chersonese, i, 193
Golden Land, I, 183
Golden Mountain, i, 209
Golden-Teeth, in, 127, 131; see
Zardandan
GOLDSMID, Sir F. J., i, 99
GOLIAH, i, 151
GOLIUS, i, 114
GoLLAs, i, 229
GOLOBEV, I, 311
Gomiti, ii, 229, 230
Gomul, in, 265
Gondar, i, 218
GONDOPHARES, III, 252
Goose with two heads, ii, 173
Gorahkpiir, i, 68
Gordico, Monte, ii, 102
Gordyene, i, 93
Goritz, ii, 14
GORRES, in, 5
Gosjii, in, 131
Gosse, ii, 161
GOSSELIN, i, 24
Gota, ii, 249, 250
Goths, i, 221 ; in, 184; of Gazaria,
in, 48; Land of the, in, 48;
iv, 269
GOTTWALDT, I, 83
GOVEA, Ant., iv, 170
Gozan, iv, 257
302
INDEX
Go/art, i, 119
GRABERG de HEMSO, n, 105; in,
220
Graduate, in, 50
GRAHAM, Cyril, i, 101 ; n, 188
Grains of Paradise, II, 153, 154
Granada, in, 230; iv, 39
Grand Canal; see Great Canal
Grand Cham, n, 14, 19
Granum Paradisi, 11, 153
Grapes, n, 107; iv, 109
GRAY, J. H., China, n, 178, 182
Great Caan, Estate, in, 89 seq.
Great Canal, n, 10, 213, 215; rv,
44
Great Desert, I, 303
Greater Sea, n, 98
Great India, ill, 249
Great Kaan, i, 267; n, 152, 155,
164, 178, 186, 193, 195, 196,
217, 218, 236, 238, 242, 246,
247, 248; in, 209
Great Kauli, I, 303
GREAT MOGUL, in, 252
Great S'lamat, in, 194, 267
Great Wall, i, 38, 58, 165, 175,
252, 274; iv, 123, 239
Greboco, in, 161
Greece, in, 81
Greeks, I, 221 ; 11, 177
Greenland, n, 208
Green Mount at Peking, 11, 218-
220
Green Sea, in, 180
GREGORY of Armenia, St., i, 94
GREGORY IX, Pope, i, 154
GREGORY X, Pope, in, 4
GREGORY of Hungary, in, 188
GRENARD, i, 60, 106; iv, 231
Grenelusso, in, 170
Grideghorda, in, 170
GRIGORIEV, V., iv, 164
GRIMANUS, Leo, iv, 202, 208
GROENEVELDT, W. P., n, 146, 148,
149, 150, 152
GRUEBER, n, 249; iv, 176, 268
GRUM GRZIMAILO, iv, 141
GRUNWEDEL, i, 63
GUALTERIUS OFAMILIUS, 11, 115
Guardafui, i, 212
Guase, i, 144
Guaycurus, n, 147
GUBERNATIS, Angelo de, in, ii ;
see DE GUBERNATIS
GUCCELLI, GUECEI.LI, 11, 15
Guccio, George, iv, 2
Gu chen, ill, 55; iv, 141, 237
GUCHLUK, in, 87
GUDENUS, V. F. de, 11, 46
Gudnaphar, in, 253
GUEBEK, i, 301
Guebers, I, 112
Guendoumek, iv, 206
GUERIN, Mgr. Paul, 11, 89
Guide, i, 306
GUIDOTTO, Friar, 11, 98, 266
GUILIELMUS de Prato, in, 14
GUILLAUME de Nangis, I, 162
GUILLIELMUS de Nassio, in, 180
GUIWARGUIS, Mar, i, 119
Gujarat, I, 127, 228, 241, 242,
254. 3°9; n. IJ5; ni. 76, 78,
229
Gulbahar, iv, 257
Guldingamo, ni, 170
GULLIVER, iv, 158
Gumik, in, 84
GUMMA, A., n, 91, 174
GUNDAPHAR, III, 253
GtiNDOPHARUS, III, 252
GUPTA, i, 68
Gurdezi, i, 140
Guriev, in, 85
Gurkhan, i, 149; in, 21, 22, 25;
iv, 141
Gushtasp, i, 10
GUYARD, Stan., i, 33, 255, 256;
n, 210
Guzerat, I, 309; in, 229; see
Guj arat
GWAGNINI, i, 305
Gwalian, iv, 257, 259
Gwalior, iv, 20, 21, 22
Gwazyar, iv, 257, 259
Gyantse, 11, 251, 253
Gybeit, in, 192, 194, 267
GYLLIUS, Peter, i, 46
Gyon, i, 262, 304; in, 222
Habagateth, iv, 227, 229
Habang, Habank, in, 132; iv, 90,
I5I-4
Habanga, iv, 152
Habangiah Tilah, iv, 153
HABIL, i, 151
Habsh, ni, 223
HACKLUYT, R., 11, 78; see HAK-
LUYT
Hadhramaut, iv, 149
Hadith, I, 308
HADJI KHALFA, iv, 164
HAENEL, MSS., n, 23, 41, 48, 58
Haft Bacha, iv, 257
Haft Iklim, iv, 165, 193
Hagabateth, iv, 227, 229
Hagarenes, in, 85
HAGECIUS, in, 200, 201
HAGEN, H., 11, 58
Haidarabad, I, 255
HAIDAR MAHOMET, iv, 166
INDEX
303
HAIDAR RAZI, iv, 234
Hainan, Hainam, i, 100, 130, 301;
ii, 174; in, 129, 130
Hair, i, 251 ; iv, 269
Hair plaited, n, 251
Hair, yellow, iv, 210
Hairy Folk, in, 255
Hai si, i, 42
Haitam, in, 131
HAITHON, HAI TON, HAYTHON,
HETHUM I, King of Little
Armenia, i, 161, 163, 164, 195,
289; in, 139
HAITON II, i, 164; n, 118
HAITON, Friar, the Historian, i,
118, 162, 164, 168, 169, 178,
258; ii, 34, 98, 102, 107, 168;
in, 53, 85; iv, 174
HAITUN NovAN, in, 121
HAJAJ, i, 90
Hajigak, iv, 255
Hajiyak, iv, 255, 257, 259
HAJJI Aziz, iv, 225
HAJJI KHANUM, iv, 207
HAJJI MAHOMED, i, 30, 131, 181,
275> 277- 29°- 294. 295 ; Iv»
234. 241
Hajr, iv, 5
Haj Tarkhan (Astrakhan), in,
147; iv, 7
HAKIM MIRZA, iv, 203
Hakkar, iv, 40
HAKLUYT, n, 27, 78, 180
Halabidu, in, 66
Halacha, in, 23
Halah, in, 23
Halaha, in, 24
Halala, in, 22
Halawan, in, 22
HALL, Dr. F., iv, 256
HALL, Prof. I. H., I, 108
HALL, Robert, I, 27
HALMA, Abbe, i, 190
Haloes round Buddhist Saints, ii,
153
Halwan, in, 23, 24
Halys, ill, 161
Hamadan, in, 22, 108
Hamade, ii, 262
Hamath, i, 257; iv, 37, 45
Hami, i, 40, 58; in, 55, 148, 265;
iv, 237, 238, 239
Hamid, iv, 5
HAMILTON, Alex., i, 129; in, 252
HAMILTON, Walter, n, 135
HAMMER, v., i, 246; ii, 133;
in, 107; iv, 142
HAMY, E. T., ii, 256
HAMZA-al-Isfahanl, i, 83, 84
HAN, i, 4/5, 7. 41, 42, 51, 57,
58, 60, 95, 114, 234; in, 12;
iv, 228, 231
HANANJESUS, I, 108
Hanaul, iv, 22
Hanceu, i, 240; see Hang chau
Hancialix, iv, 227, 229
Hang chau, i, 89, 136, 142, 150,
171, 173, 175, 236, 240, 256,
258; ii, 10, 177, 180, 187-9,
192—4, 198-200, 203, 205, 213;
in, 128, 148, 229; iv, 129, 137;
see Khansa, Cansay, Quinsai,
etc.
Han Hai, I, 62
Haniku, iv, 138
Han mi mo mo ni (Emir), i, 89
HANNIBAL, iv, 45
Hanoi, i, 4, 51, 193
Hansi, iv, 12
HAN Yu, H, 182
Hanzawadi, i, 243
Hapaniya Tillah, iv, 153
Hara, in, 22
Harach, Mount, n, 102
Harah, I, 190; in, 23; see Herat
HARAPALA, n, 115
Harba, i, 308
Hardalah, iv, 98
Hardwar, iv, 18
Hariana, iv, 258
Harira, i, 145
Harkah, i, 244
Harkand, Sea of, i, 127; ii, 149
Harkat, i, 244
HARLEZ, C. de, i, 8
Harmakut, iv, 18
Harraqah, iv, 133
HARRIS, vi, 125
HARSA QILADITYA, i, 69
HARTMANN, i, 31, 83, 137, 141,
257, 258
HARUN AL RASHfn, i, 92
Haryr, i. 137
Hasam, in, 130
Hashish, ii, 257
HASSAN, n, 258
Hassan-ghar, in, 22
HASSAN JUJAK, in, 125
Hassan Kala'a, Hassan Kaleh, ii,
101 ; in, 162
HASSAN SABAH, ii, 257
Hat island, ii, 146
HATTHADATHA, i, 70
HAUGHTON, iv, 208
Hau Han Shu, I, 8, 23, 41, 50, 52,
53; ii, 243; iv, 266
Haulak, iv, 235
Haunted Deserts, ii, 264
HAU SHU, i, 140
HAU TANG, i, 140
304
INDEX
Havilah, n, in
HAVRET, H., i, 105-9
Hawak, iv, 255
Hawarawiin, in, 131
Hawaz, n, 109
Hawking, the Great Khan, u, 229
HAYAM WURUK, n, 156
HAYM, N. F., u, 92
HAYTHON, see HAITHON
Hazah, u, 109; in, 23
Hazaras, I, 250; iv, 183
Hazlakh, i, 249
HAZRAT AFAK, iv, 166, 185, 192
Hazrat Imam, I, 317; iv, 210, 211
Head Dress, n, 222, 223, 251
Heat, great, at Hormuz, n, 112
Heaven, City of, see Hang chau
HEBER, n, 172, 252
Hebron, in, 240, 244, 245
HEDIN, Sven, iv, 223
Hedyphon, in, 23
Hedypnus, in, 23
Hei yi Ta shi, I, 92
Hekatompylos, i, 23, 43, 189, 190
Hellespont, i, 188, 190
Hemodus, i, 194, 195
Henna, in, 166
Hennins, n, 223
HENRICUS, n, 16
HENRION, Baron, n, 87
HENRY II, Duke, I, 152
HENRY of Glatz, n, 24, 27, 28, 52,
80, 93, 267, 271, 277
Hens, ii, 186; iv, no
Hephthalites, I, 58, 59, 205, 207,
229; see Ephthalites
HERACLEONAS, i, 54
HERACLIUS, i, 54; iv, 8
Herat, i, 34, 103, 104, 123, 189,
190, 205, 271, 286, 287, 293,
300; n, 115; in, 22, 23, 155;
iv, 1 60
HERBELOT, d', I, 34, 54, 55, 247,
251, 296; n, 112, 133, 198;
in, 223 ; iv, 223
HERBERT, Sir T., n, 34, 106, 107
Hercules' Gates, in, 219
Herdil, n, 242 ; see Volga
Here, 11, 115; see Herat
Herenj, i, 244
Heri, I, 190, 300
Heriunitis, in, 22 ; see Herat
Herkend, Sea of, i, 127; n, 149
HERMANN, A., rv, 266
Hermaphrodite, in, 261
Hermon, I, 307
HERODOTUS, i, 22, 151, 213; 11,
33. 157. X73. 252; in, 158, 242,
249, 259; iv, 143, 204
Heroopolitan, i, 221
Herpestes ichneumon, 11, 114
HERSCHEL, Sir W. J., in, 124
Heruli, I, 221
Hesdin, in, 199
HESE, John of, in, 197, 198, 251,
253
HETHUM, see HAITON
HEWETT, n, 147
HEYD, W., 11, 90, 107, 133, 134
HEZEKIAH, i, 27
HnALA, in, 126
Hhamal, in, 241
Hharash, I, 222
Hharshan, i, 222
HHURNASAB, iv, 34
Hiacan, iv, 229
Hiang Shan, in, 182; iv,' 271
HIAO Wu Ti, i, 67
Hiarcan, Hiarchan, iv, 215, 217,
218, 221; see Yarkand
Hia T'ien-chu-sze, iv, 267
HIBELIN, Jehan de, i, 262
HIDAYAT- ALLAH, iv, 166, 185, 192
Hiddekel, in, 197
HIE-LI Qagan, i, 62
H'IEN, Ye-liu, i, 147
HIEN CHW'EN, i, 81
HIEN-PHU, i, 148
HIEN TSING, i, 148
HIEN TSUNG, i, 70; HI, 149
Hien Yang, in, 122; iv, 89
Hierapolis, i, 188, 189
Hi LEANG (YE LIU), iv, 228
Hili, i, 309; n, 115; iv, 26, 74, 75
Hilu, iv, 21
Himalaya, i, 184, 185, 224; n,
208, 248; iv, 176
Himatala, n, 188, 223
Himyarites, i, 251
Hind, i, 87, 142, 151, 230; 11, in ;
in, 23, 28
Hindeki, n, in
Hindu Kush, i, 98, 230, 250, 311,
314; ii, 263; iv, 9, 181, 183,
205, 206, 209, 255 seq.
Hindus, i, 101, 150, 151; ii, 25
Hindustan, iv, 207
HING TSUNG, i, 147
Hiong nu, Hiung nu, i, 7, 35-40,
62, 64, 65 ; see Huns
Hiontius, in, 240
Hippopotamus, i, 224
Hippuri, i, 199
Hira, I, 43, 83, 84
HIRTH, Fried., i, 18, 19, 23, 41,
42-6, 48, 52, 54, 55, 57, 109,
197, 199, 233; ii, 169, 183,
192. 194, 242; in, 13; iv, 4, 266
Hisar-shaduman, i, 287
Hispaniola, I, 272
INDEX
305
Hissar, I, 286
Hissar-shaduman, i, 286
Hi TSUNG, i, 133
HlUAN TSANG, HlUEN TSANG, I,
63, 69, 70, 74, 75, no, 191, 192,
2IO, 227, 228, 242, 254, 274,
277. 3°3. 313-6; n, 188; in,
221; IV, l86, 215, 222, 231,
235, 258
HIUAN TSUNG, Emperor, i, 63,
105, no
Hoa, i, 205
HOASENG, i, 237
Ho chau, in, 113
Hocibelch, i, 310
HODGSON, B. H., i, 73
Hog stag, i, 224
HOJAH APPAK, iv, 192
Hojahs, iv, 192, 193
Ho K'iu-ping, i, 38
HO-LI-DAN, ii, 248
Holin, in, 128; see Karakorum
Holm Cultram, in, 171
HOLM, Frits V., i, 106
Holong, i, 72
HOLUBEIM, i, 300
Holy Land, 11, 34; in, 226, 247
HOMER, n, 240
Homerite, I, 213, 218, 220, 227,
231
Ho Nan, i, 108; n, 152, 209, 231;
in, 126, 128
HONDIUS, i, 308; iv, 159
Honey, n, 157
Honey, Trees producing, 11, 156;
in, 61
Hongkong, i, 135
Hong Merchants, 11, 213
HONG Wu, i, 57; see HUNG Wu
Honor, iv, 73
Honore, i, 309
HONORIUS IV, Pope, i, 120, 166
HOPKINSON, J., in, 197
HORACE, i, 186
Horma, iv, 227-9, 231
Hormes, III, 68
HORMISDAS, ii, 112
Hormisiom, i,' 309
Hormuz, i, 85-7, 144, 171, 309;
n, 10, 106, 112, 113, 242; in,
49, 68, 69, 75, 199; iv, 4, 5,
36
Horn, worn by women of some
aboriginal Tribes in China, n,
1 88
Hornbill, II, 173
Horses, with six legs, ii, 229;
Trade in, to South India, in,
69 ; to Ceylon, i, 230 ; Great,
carried to Great Khan by
C. Y. C. IV.
Marignolli, in, 213; com-
memorated in Chinese Annals,
in, 214
HosEfN, in, 122
Ho shang, n, 251
Hosol, iv, 230
Hostelries in Cathay, ii, 232 ; iv,
116, 117
Ho Ti, i, 50, 66
Ho TU, i, 23
Houang chang yu, n, 191
HOUDAS, ii, 236
Hou-jen, I, 116
HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, II, 103
HOVEDEN, Roger, in, 17
HOWARD, Rev. G. B., n, 135, 136
HOWARD, Broadley, in, 219
HOWORTH, Sir H. H., i, 246
HOYSALAS, ii, 115
HR'IPSIME, St., in, 163
Hsing-ch'a SMng-lan, n, 150
Hsing-hsing, I, 161
Hu, n, 237, 238
Huai yu, ill, 12
HUART, Cl., n, 258; iv, 133
Hua yang, i, 161
Hua yang kuo chih, I, 161
Hubbigunge, iv, 153
HUBER, Ed., i, 75
Hue, E., i, 200; n, 87, 184, 239,
245, 248, 250, 251; iv, 143
HUDSON, i, 290; n, 160
Huen-ba-sheng, iv, 228
HUET, in, 198
Hu-eul-man, iv, 228
HUGO of Cyprus, iv, 3
Hujan, n, 105
Hujetabad, n, 107
Hu Kwang, i, 167; n, 231; in,
128, 129
HULAKU, i, 153, 272, 288, 289;
n, 102, 197, 244, 258; in, 4,
40, in; iv, 7, 87, 144, 160
Hu-la-ma, iv, 228
Hu lu, iv, 231
Human Sacrifices, ii, 139; iv, 98;
at Tartar Funerals, iv, 142-3;
in Sudan, iv, 144
HUMAYUM, i, 9; iv, 18, 204, 207
HUMBOLDT, A., I, 178, igo; II,
154; iv, 187
Humi, i, 191
Hu Nan, ill, 129
Hunawar, Hunawiir, iv, 24, 30,
31. 35. 63, 64, 65, 73, 124
Hund, i, 74
Hungarian, White, I, 245
Hungary, I, 122; in, 188, 246,
247
H'UNG KI, YE-LIU, i, 147
20
300
INDEX
HUNG Wu, i, 57, 73; ii, 216; in,
12, 127. 157
Hun ho, in, 117
Huns, i, 104, 215, 220, 244; in,
184; see Hiong nu
Huns, White, I, 36; see Heph-
thalites
HUNTER, W. W., Gaz. of India. II,
129. 134
Hunting Matches of Great Khan,
". 234
Hunza Nagar, I, 314
Huo Chou, in, 133
HUO-TSI-CHAN, IV, 185, 228
Hu pao tze, iv, 141
Hu Pe, in, 129
Hurma, I, 306
Hus, ii, 109; in, 85; see Huz
HUSAIN, iv, 165, 211
HUSAMUDDfN, III, 125
Husnabad, I, 278, 285
Husn Amarat, i, 309
Huz, ii, 106, 109; see Hus
Huzia, ii, 109
Huzitis, ii, 109
Hwang, i, 141
HWANG CHAD, i, 133
Hwang Ho (Yellow River), I, 278,
285; ii, 165, 213, 244, 245;
in, 24, 47, 115, 126, 128, 148,
221, 225; iv, 108, 188
HWANG Ti, i, 7, 8, 149; n, 216
Hwan-na, iv, 222
HWAN Ti, i, 51, 52, 66
Hwa ting, I, 136
Hwei Ho, i, 62, 88; in, 55
Hwei Hu, i, 62, 88
Hwei Hwei, i, 88; n, 198
Hwei Sheng sze, i, 88
HWEI SING, i, 75
HWEI Ti, i, 76
HWEI T'UNG, i, 147
Hwei Yuan, rv, 193
HWEN TSUNG, i, 90
HYACINTHE, Father, n. 252; see
BITCHOURIN
Hyacinth, stone, i, 226, 228
Hyperperae, iv, 9
Hyphasis, ill, 219
Hyrcania, i, 34, 190
Hyrcanian Sea, i, 187, 213
Hyrcanians, I, 2,21
laic, laik, i, 212, 245, 308; see
Jaic
lakonich, iv, 215
lam, i, 275
lamceu, lamzai (Yang chau), ii,
209, 210, 212
lana, I, 303; ii, 151
langio, n, 209
langse, ii, 210
lascot, i, 159
Iberia, i, 216
Ibex, i, 224
Ibir, i, 152
IBI SHABOLO SHEKU KHAN, iv,
164
IBN AL-FAKIH, i, 128
IBN AL-KALBI, i, 2
IBN BATUTA, i, 44, 75, 80, 82,
131, 135, 143, 151, 173, 177,
226-8, 242, 253, 254, 257, 258,
272, 277, 282, 289, 296, 299,
3O2, 304, 306-310; II, 24, 122,
127, 132, 133, 141, 146, 164,
168, 171, 172, 179, i§o, 183,
187, 192, 196, 197, 201, 223,
233; in, 34, 146, 185, 192,
194, 217, 2l8, 230-3, 237, 256,
259; iv, 1-166, 169, 208, 225,
258, 271
IBN EL WARDI, i, 87, 247
IBN HAUKAL, i, 20, 86, 245
IBN JUBAIR, in, 145; iv, 43, 156
IBN JUZAI, iv, 40, 41, 42
IBN KHALLIKAN, i, 308
IBN KHURD'ADHBAH, i, 18, 127,
135. 137. 225. 243, 247, 256;
ii. H7
IBN MUHALHIL, i, 101, 138, 242,
244, 250, 253, 254, 255; iv, 190
IBN ROSTEH, i, 137
IBN SA'ID, i, 256
IBN WAHAB of Basra, i, 133
IBRAHIM, in, 109
IBRAHIM SULTAN, Mirza, I, 273
Icarus, i, 315
Ich River, i, 212
I chau, i, 73
Ichneumon, ii, 114
Ichthyophagi, i, 195
Iconium, i, 57; in, 125; rv, 5
IDBUZID, i, 108, no; rv, 266
IDES, Ysbrand, i, 276; ii, 199
Idiqut, iv, 141
Idiqut Shahri, I, 64; ill, 55, 133
Idolatry, in India, in, 63 ; ascribed
to Catholics by Orientals, in,
264
Idols, Feeding of the, ii, 185
lerken, iv, 215
lescilbas, i, 293, 295
lest (Yezd), ii, 107, 108
leuch, i, 306
Ighurs, in, 120; see Uighiirs
IKE FANCHAN, in, 122
IKE-MESE, n, 152
I-Khanam, iv, 211
IKHTYYAR UD-DIN, iv, 86
INDEX
307
Ilak khans, i, 60, 148; iv, 164
Ilchi (Khotan), i, 311, 312; iv,
223
ILCHIGADAI, i, 65; in, 30, 35, 39;
iv, 161
Hi. i. 33. 35. 37. 38. 4°. l64. i?1.
248, 272, 288, 289; III, 21, 87;
IV, 164, 187, 193, 222, 228, 230,
239
Hi baliq, i, 163, 164
I-LIE YE-LIU, i, 148; in, 21
Iliskoye, i, 164
ILIYAS, iv, 85
Ilkhan, i, 149
Illustration, n, 166
Illyrians, I, 221
II Milione, n, 228; see MARCO
POLO
Imad-ud-daulah Abu'l Khair, in,
1 08
Imaus, i, 16, 190, 192, 194, 286
Imil, iv, 163, 164, 235
IMIL KHWAJA, iv, 163
Imil River, iv, 271
Imperium Medium, in, 85
Incense, iv, 97
Inchi, in, 230
Incineration, 11, 167; see Crema-
tion
India, i, 6, 37, 151, 215, 227, 263,
309, 310; ii, 110-2; in, 22, 23
- Inland (Lower Euphrates),
n, in
— Upper (for S. China), n, 176
Upper (for S. India), in, 59,
67
— Great, and Maxima (S.
China), in, 228, 373
— Little (Malabar), HI, 373
- Lower (Malabar), in, 230
- Tertia of Jordanus is in
Africa, i, 213; in, 27
— the term, how used by Por-
tuguese, iv, 198
- Nestorian Archbishopric of,
III, 22
Climate of, etc., in, 59, 60
Indian and China Trade in Pliny's
time, cost of, I, 200
Indian Antiquary, i, 271; 11, 130,
135, 142
Indian Caucasus, 11, 262
Indian Ocean, in, 234
Indians, i, 15; in, 241, 246
Indian Words used by Ibn Batuta,
iv, 15; coins mentioned by
Ibn Batuta, iv, 54 seq. ; weights
in time of, iv, 62, 81
Indies, i, 15; in, 247
Indies, the Three, in, 28
Indigo, in, 165
Indigo, Red, i, 251
Indo-China, i, 143
Indo-Scythians, i, 36
Indostan, in, 217
Indulgences, in, 83
Indus, i, 61, 86, 87, 101, 104,
150, 177, 227, 243, 303; ii, 207;
III, 198, 2O9, 221, 222, 225,
229, 253; iv, 9, 154, 180, 203,
216, 238
Industry of Chinese, n, 179
Ingachar, iv, 217
Ingtien, i, 175
I-ning Fang, i, no
INNOCENT IV, Pope, i, 154, 156;
in, 199, 210
INNOCENT VI, in, 203
Inshan, in, 24
Invulnerability, how procured, n,
161, 162
lo, in, 242
lolci, iv, 227
louvia, i, 215
Ipoh, ii, 158
Irak Ajami, n, 257
Irak, Iraq, i, 84, 90; iv, 136, 139
Irak, Pass, iv, 259
Iran, i, 152
IRAVI CORTTAN, n, 135; in, 254
Irawadi, I, 176, 177; in, 222
Ireland, ii, 241 ; in, 204, 206
Irkhan, i, 248
Iron of Seres and Chinese, i, 17,
254 ; presented by Turks to
an ambassador, i, 208 ; ships
without iron, ii, 114; weapons
without iron, ii, 162 ; lath at
Delhi, iv, 47 ; at Charikar, iv,
208
Iron Gates, I, 247
Iron Mines, iv, 209
Irtish River, i, 247, 289 ; iv, 162
ISAAC, in, 245
ISAAC, servant of GOES, iv, 178,
180, 202, 215, 221, 224, 240,
244, 248, 250-2, 254
ISABEL of Bavaria, ii, 223
ISA BEN THATHA, iv, 150
ISAI, iv, 201, 225
ISAIAH, i, 3, 10, n, 20; n, 122
ISAN BUGHA, iv, 161, 163, 166
Isauites, iv, 175
Isfidjab, iv, 164
ISHAK BIN AMRAM, i, 244
Ishkaman, iv, 259
Ishkashm, iv, 211
Ishma, iv, 238
ISHWAR, in, 68
ISIDORE, St., i, 22
20 — 2
308
INDEX
Islands of India and Cathay, their
great number, I, 258; n, 176;
111,64; subject to Great Khan,
n, 231
ISMAEL, II, 257; IV, 166
ISMAEL Shah, I, 216
Ismaelians, i, 153
ISMAIL KHAN, iv, 192
Isnicmid, rv, 8
Ispahan, i, 182; H, 104, 106,
257; m, 228; iv, 3, 36, 139
ISRAEL, i, 224
Israelites, i, 221, 222
Issa, in, 65
ISSE or Yi SE, i, no
Issedon Serica, i, 195
Issedones, I, 195
Issedonians, n, 252
Issik Kul, i, 36, 60, 272, 311;
iv, i 60
Issus, ii, 190
ISTAKRt, I, 84, 85
Istambul, i, 44; rv, 8
ISTAMI, I, 58
Istan-polin, i, 44
Istria, n, 4
Isu MANGU, rv, 161
ISUN TIMUR, in, 34; iv, 162
ITI, ii, 200
Itu, Mountains, I, 288
luchi, in, 230
lurmen, i, 308
lusce, iv, 219
luvernia, i, 189
Ivory, i, 253
I-wu, iv, 239; see Ha mi
I-wu-lu, iv, 239; see Ha mi
IZDBUZID, i, 108, no; iv, 266
IZZET ULLAH, i, 317; iv, 183, 190,
234. 238, 239
Jaba (Zabadj), i, 127
Jabah, i, 243
JABALAHA, Mar, i, 109, 116, 120,
121, 127, 166; n, 135; in, 253
Jabkan River, i, 289
Jaca, in, 237
Jaci, in, 127 ; see Yachi
Jack fruit, ii, 139; m, 40, 237
JACKSON, A. W. W., Persia, n, 106
JACOB, in, 245
JACOB, Syrian Bishop, I, 127
JACOBI, Hermann, i, 6
JACOBUS, Bishop of Khanbaliq,
in, 14
JACOBUS de Padua, ii, 117; see
JAMES of Padua
Jacorich, iv, 215
JACQUES de Novelles, in, 209
JACQUES de Vitry, ii, 34
JACQUET, E., ii, 72 ; in, 36, 37
jadah, I, 246
Jade, ii, 221, 246; iv, 219, 244
Jadu, i, 246
Jaghjagha, i, 216
Jah Jirm, I, 189
Jahaz, n, 113
Jaic, i, 212, 245, 308; ii, 242;
m, 85
Jaidi-urtang, iv, 229
Jaiguouden, iv, 239
Jaimur, I, 227, 254
Jainas, in, 251
Jaintia, iv, 152
Jajali, i, 254
Jajulla, i, 254
Jakonig, iv, 215
Jalalabad, I, 74; iv, 180, 183,
206, 210
Jalali, iv, 20, 21
JALALUDDIN, i, 33, 80; n, 115
JALAL UDDIN AHSAN, iv, 13
JALALUDDIN, Sherif, iv, 34
JALALUDDIN TABRIZI, iv, 87-90,
131, 151, 152-4, 209
JALANSI, Raja, iv, 22, 65
JALASTI, in, 231
Jaleym, i, 310
Jalgah, i, 272
Jalish, iv, 234; see Chalish
Jama, i, 310
JALUT, i, 151
Jam, iv, 230
Jamakud, i, 258
JAMALUDDIN, m, 69
JAMAL UDDIN, iv, 30, 31, 36
JAMBRES, i, 151
Jambu, iv, 95
Jambu Air, iv, 96
JAMES, Friar, Irish comrade of
Odoric, n, n, 15, 241
JAMES of Florence, Archbishop,
in, 28
JAMES of Padua, Friar and Martyr,
ii, 117, 119, 121, 122, 124;
ill, 76
Jami'ut Tawdrikh, the History of
Rashid, m, 107, no, 112, 131
Jamjal, in, 115
Jamkut, i, 257, 258
Jamrud, iv, 204
JAMSHID, i, 9
Jarmin, iv, 95
Jana, i, 303; ii, 151; m, 194;
see Java
Janatabad, iv, 83
Janci, in, 248; see Yang chau
Jandishapur, Jandisabur, in, 22
23
Janfu, i, 136
INDEX
309
Jangali Admi, n, 230
JANIBECH, JANIBEG, i, 301
JANIKAH, iv, 166
Jan Kila'h, i, 317
Janku, i, 136, 143; ii, 210
Jankut, i, 255
JANNES, i, 151
Japan, i, 88, 131, 136, 301; n,
163; iv, 159
JAPHET, i, 151 ; m, 247
Jar in Peking Palace, n, 220
Jarga, i, 151
JARRA, iv, 12
Jase, n, 113
Jasper, iv, 219
Jatah, iv, 163
Jats, iv, 233
Jaua, i, 302 ; see Java
JAUBERT, i, 86, 142, 143, 243,
256, 314. 315; n. 133, 147:
iv, 184, 209; see EDRISI
Java, i, 77, 124, 128, 275, 302,
303; ii, 10, 31, 34, 151, 152,
154, 156, 161, 183, 219; in,
192-5, 267; iv, 67, 68, 71, 92,
94, 145, 147, 148, 155-8, 198
Java the Less, i, 176; n, 150,
174; see Sumatra
Java Major, i, 176; n, 162; see
Java
Javan, i, 101
Jawa, Jawi, n, 151
Jawalamukhi, iv, 18
Jaxartes, i, 23, 34, 37, 61, 191,
211 ; in, 147, 221; iv, 164, 166,
216, 235
JAYANBOGHA, in, 182
Jayawardanapiira, in, 244
JAZEDBOUZID, i, 108
Jazia, or Poll-tax, iv, 18
Jazirah, an island, n, 146
Jazirah, on the Tigris, I, 199;
on the Volga, i, 308
Jazirat ul-Andalus (Andalusia), iv,
156
JEBE NOYON, i, 60
JEHAN de Saint Denys, n, 249,
266
JEHAN LE LONG, ii, 266; in, 36,
89
JEHOIADA, in, 266
Jehol, in, 116
Jelu, valley, I, 114
Jelum, iv, 154
Jenasdan (China), i, 93
JENKINSON, Anthony, i, 181 ; in,
82, 84, 85, 126; iv, 201, 241
Jenpagur, I, 93
Jen-pa-kur, i, 94
Jenpakuriani, i, 94
Jenuyeh, i, 149
JEREMIAH, in, 222
Jerm, iv, 185
JEROME, HI, 266
JEROME, Friar, in, ii
JEROME of Ascoli, Cardinal, i, 120
JEROME-XAVIER of Navarre, iv,
173-7
Jerusalem, i, 119, 252, 263; n,
106, 135, 141, 178; in, 16, 24,
199, 226, 240, 245; iv, 37
JESMAS, i, 151
Jessam, HI, 130
Jesuit Missions in China, i, 121 ;
IV, 169 seq. ; their surveys, I,
311 seq.
Jesuit Tables, i, 312
JESUJABUS of Adiabene, Patriarch,
i, 103; n, 129
Jews, i, 112, 222; ii, 133, 134,
135; m, 199; iv, 175: in
China, HI, 215; Statesmen in
Mongol Service, HI, 108
Jezia, iv, 18
Jhalawar, iv, 64
Jibal, i, 135; in, 16
Jibal Nakus (Hill of the Bell),
sounding-sand in Sinai Desert,
ii, 262
Jibal-Sindi, i, 241
Jibal-ul-Thabiil (Mount of the
Drums), iv, 3
Jibul Judi, n, 102
Jidda, Jiddah, i, 306; in, 228;
iv, 5
Jidiah, i, 79
Jigdah, iv, 234, 238
JlHANGHIR, IV, 135
Jihdn Numd, iv, 164
Jih nan, Ji nan, i, 3-6, 51, 193, 234
Jih-pen-kwe, in, 129
Jihun R., i, 247, 313-5; in, 221;
iv, 1 60 ; see Oxus
Jikil, i, 245, 246
il, i. 3*5
ilahd, i, 307
Jilan, in, 198
JINKISHAI, in, 34; iv, 161
JINKSHI, in, 33, 35
Jinseng, I, 292, 298
JIN TSUNG, i, 148 ; ii, 223
Jlrun, i, 85
Jrv, i, 9
JlWANI, HI, 20
Jo, ii, 249
JOANNES, St., in, 84
JOANNES IUCHOY, HI, 181
JOB, ii, 34; in, 226; land of Job,
n, 109
Jogis, iv, 21, 23, 135, 223
3io
INDEX
JOHANNES SCOTUS, in, 220
Johannina, in, 230
JOHN, St., not dead, belief, in, 44
JOHN'S, St., Convent at Sarai, in,
83
JOHN XXII, Pope, 11, 12, 16, 22,
104, 126, 130; m, 5, 33, 36,
37. 89, i?9, 205, 211
JOHN IV Comnene, iv, 7
JOHN III, King of Portugal, in,
253
JOHN, Metropolitan of Masin, I,
121
JOHN BAPTIST, St., m, 211
JOHN of Cora, i, 169; in, 36, 37,
89
JOHN the Cordelier, in, 6
JOHN FERDINAND, a Chinese
Christian sent to aid Goes, iv,
180, 181, 245, 247-252
JOHN of Florence, see JOHN de'
MARIGNOLU
John of Hese, in, 197, 198, 251,
253
JOHN of India, Master, a black
man, in, 32
JOHN, Patriarch of the Indies, in,
252
JOHN LE LONG of Ypres, II, 68,
73, 244, 266; m, 36, 89
JOHN of Luxemburg, in, 99
JOHN de' MARIGNOLLI, in, 9, 13,
177-269
JOHN of MONTE CORVINO, I, 52,
118, 122, 169, 170, 299; ii, 10,
ii, 22, 114, 118, 141, 200, 245,
270; III, 3-7, IO, II, 12, 14,
15, 26, 36, 37; First letter,
45—51; Second letter, 51-8; 59,
100, 179, 210, 211, 216
JOHN PALAEOLOGUS, in, 211
JOHN de PLANO CARPINI, see
CARPINI
JOHN of ST. AGATHA, m, 5
JOHN of Udine, ii, 22
JOHN of Winterthur, ii, 8 ; in,
14. 3i
JOHNSON, F., Persian Diet., I, 20,
141, 185, 253, 292; ii, 221
JOHNSON, Richard, i, 181 ; in,
85
JOHNSTON, Keith, i, 117, 299,
310; ii, 213; iv, 227
Johore, ii, 157
Jolah, ii, 147
JONAS, in, 225
JONES, Winter, i, 175, 176, 177;
m, 243
JOPPI, Dr. V., of Udine, ii, 19,
36, 38, 82, 89
JOR, an Indian King, i, 242
JORDANUS, Friar, i, 82, 170, 171,
213, 227, 303; ii, 10, ii, 22,
24, 98, 102, 103, 114, 116, 118,
125, 128-131, 141, 163, 164,
168; in, 27-31, 38, 68, 75,
76, 78, 80, 203, 217, 218, 223;
Addit. Notes to his Mira-
bilia, in, 39-44 ; First Letter,
in, 75-8 ; Second Letter, in,
78-80
Jorjan, i, 190
Jorjaniah, in, 82
Jorman, i, 307, 308
Jorvaulx, m, 171
JOSEFUS, Bishop, in, 14
JOSEPH, in, 245
JOSEPHUS, in, 184
Jo-shui, i, 235
Joujen, i, 149; see Juan Juan
JOVIAN, Emperor, i, 216; in, 23
Jovius, Paulus, n, 208
Juan Juan, i, 58, 59, 149, 205, 208
Judaea, m, 12
Jugdulluk, iv, 206
Jugglers' tricks at Kanchau, i,
296; at the Khan's Court, n,
239; at Khansa, iv, 134
Juggurnath, ii, 145
Jiiju, III, 117
JULIAN, Emperor, in, 23
JULIEN, Stanislas, i, 10, 18, 23,
65, 68, 69, 71, 72-5, 107, 295,
298, 317; in, 223
Julman, I, 307
Jumna R., in, 221; iv, 16, 82,
83
Jiin R., iv, 82
JUNA KHAN, iv, 10
Junks, ii, 131; in, 230; iv, 25,
103
Jurfattan, iv, 76, 77
Jurga, i, 281
Juri, i, 242
JURZ or JUZR, an Indian King, i,
241, 242, 243
Justice with a vengeance, iv, 30
JUSTIN II, Emperor, I, 59, 205,
207, 208; ii, 252; in, 122, 147
JUSTIN Martyr, in, 243
JUSTINIAN, Emperor, I, 24, 49,
55, 203, 204
Ju-te-a, in, 12
Juvia, i, 215
Juz, iv, 19
Kaan, Kan, Khan, Khakan, Kha-
gan, i, 149; ill, 213; see Great
Kaan and Khan
Kabadian, I, 191
INDEX
KABAK KHAN, iv, 161
Kaber, I, 228
KABIL (Cain), i, 151
Kabul, I, 98, 230, 242, 254, 281,
310, 314; n, 10, 262; iv, 9,
180, 181, 185, 203, 204, 206-9,
215, 221, 255
Kabulistan, I, 152
Kadah (Queddah), i, 127, 253
Kadhil, n, 139; in, 237
KADIJA, in, 192 ; iv, 31
KADIR KHAN, iv, 85-6
Kadranj, Kairanj, Herenj, I, 128,
244
Kafche-ku6, Kafchekuo, in, 130
Kafilas, rv, 257, 259
Kafiristan, i, 74, 314; n, 263;
iv, 204, 205, 256, 259
Kafirnihan, i, 315
Kafirs, i, 242; iv, 204-6, 221,
256, 258
KAFUR, i, 253; in, 69; iv, 19,
20
Kahars, iv, 14
KAIANE, St., in, 163
Kaibars, I, 283
KAIDU, in, 4, 15, 49, 132 ; iv,
162, 163, 234
K'aidu Gol, iv, 234, 235
K'ai fung, Khai fung, I, 114,
156; ii, 192; in, 126, 128
K'AI HWANG, i, 88
KAIKHATU, in, 150
KAI KHUSRU (Cyrus), I, 9, 10
KAIKOBAD, i, 9
Kail, in, 63, 68, 70, 131 ; rv, 35
Kailas, in, 221, 222; iv, 18
Kaili, iv, 159
Kailuka, iv, 159
Kailukari, iv, 104, 159
Kaimak, I, 246
Kaiminfu, 11, 227; HI, 116, 117,
118
Kainak, iv, 235
Kai p'ing, 11, 227; in, 113, 116,
117
Kais, i, 84, 85, 144; iv, 5, 45;
see Kish
Kajarra, Kajraha, Kajrai, iv, 22
Kakali, iv, 96
Kakam, iv, 25
Kakula, iv, 96, 97, 100, 103, 157
Kalacha, iv, 210
Kalah, I, 252, 253
Kalah-Bar, i, 127, 253
Kal'ah-i Atashparastan, n, 106
Kalakah, iv, 159
Kala-Kambing, 11, 157
Kalamita Bay, i, 305
Kalank, I, 246
KALATIN-BIN-UL-SHAKHIR, i, 138,
140
Kalcha, iv, 180
KALESA, in, 69
KALESA-DEWAR, iv, 58
Kalib, i, 251
Kali Nadi, iv, 22
KALIN BIN-SHAKHBAR, i, 138
Kaliq, iv, 235
Kalka Mazar, iv, 235, 238
Kalkan, i, 245
Kallats, Turkish Tribe, I, 210
Kalliana, Kalliani, Kalliena, Kal-
yani, i, 210, 220, 227, 230, 243,
253, 254
Kalmaks, Kalmuks, I, 246, 281 ;
iv, 165, 166, 188, 192, 234, 235
Kalsha, iv, 210
Kaluganga, in, 231
Kalyanapuri, I, 220
Kama, i, 307, 308
KAMAL-UDDfN ABDALLAH, IV, l6,
119
Kaman, i, 243
Kamara, iv, 96, 100
Kamari Aloes, iv, 100
Kamarub, I, 253
KAMARUDDIN DUGHLAK, iv, 165,
189
Kamanin, i, 253
Kamarupa, i, 253 ; iv, 252
Kambaia, in, 76
Kambalik, n, 233
Kambalu, iv, 174
Kamboja, i, 193
Kamchau, Kamchu, i, 276, 277 ;
in, 128, 148; iv, 241; see
Kan Chau
Kamkhu, in, 127
Kampot, i, 193
Kampsay, in, 269
Kamran, iv, 207
Kamru, iv, 86, 87, 90, 96, 151,
152
Kamrub, iv, 152
Kamrun, I, 243, 253; iv, 101, 152
Kamrup, i, 79, 254 ; iv, 152
Kams, III, 18
Kamul, Kamil, i, 73, 140, 273,
281, 304; in, 148, 190, 213,
216, 265; iv, 189, 191, 233,
234, 238, 239, 241
Kan, iv, 138; see Kaan
Kanauj, i, 69, 74, 90, 241, 315;
iv, 13, 20, 21, 22, 271
Kanbalu, iv, 174
KANCHANA WUNGU, in, 193
Kan Chau, I, 38, 64, 73, 118, 139,
276, 277, 278, 286, 291, 293,
302; in, 128, 148; iv, 241
312
INDEX
Kanchekue, ill, 130
Kan9ou, I, 136
Kand, in, 23
Kandabil, I, 139
Kandahar, i, 74, 98, 242; ill, 127,
131 ; iv, 22, 63
Kandar, in, 127, 131
Kandesh, iv, 177
Kanfu, n, 179, 180
Kangar, i, 272
K'ang chii, i, 23; in, 186; see
K'ang Kiu
K'ANG Hi, I, 50; II, 236, 239
Kang Kao, i, 193
K'ang Kiu, i, 23, 37, 30; in, 186
Kangli, i, 210, 287
K'ANG TAI, i, 66
KAN HSING, ii, 152
Kanjanfu, I, 292; ill, 127; iv,
126, 127, 129, 145, 149
Kanjut, I, 314
Kankar, I, 272
Kan Kiang, ginger, n, 181
Kan Kiang, iv, 121
Kanklis, I, 210
Kanphu, i, 89; iv, 137
K'an pu, i, 136
Kansan, n, 246; in, 127
Kan-sang-i-Kash, iv, 219
KAN SHIN, i, 100
Kan Su, Kan Suh, I, 35, 61, 64,
106, 278; ii, 231, 246, 247; in,
126, 128, 129, 148; iv, 241
KAN T'IEN HAU, i, 148
Kantu, i, 136, 137
Kanya Kubja, I, 74
KAN YING, i, 18, 41, 50, 51
Kao ch'ang, i, 64, 247, 248; in,
55. !53; iv, 237
Kao Ii (Corea), I, 257, 258, 303 ;
in, 113, 125, 128, 129
Kaoshan, iv, 259
KAO SIEN-CHI, i, 61, 71, 91
Kao t'ai, i, 293
Kao t'ang, n, 208
KAO Tsu, i, 147
KAO TSUNG, i, 97, no; n, 192,
194, 205
KAPAK, i, 301 ; iv, 163
Kapchak, in, 147
Kapila, i, 68
Kapisa, I, 112
Kaptar K61, iv, 228
Kara Balgasiin, I, 64; III, 55
Karachi, I, 86
Karachi!, iv, 17, 18
Karagaty, iv, 164
KARA HtJLAKtJ, iv, 161
Karajang (Yun nan), in, 126, 127,
130, 131, 187; iv, 270
Karakand, in, 163
Kara Kash, iv, 219
Kara Khanids, I, 148
Kara Khodja, I, 140, 272, 281 ;
in, 132, 133; iv, 141, 162, 189,
238
Kara Kilisse, ill, 162, 163
Kara K'itai, Kara Khitai, i, 148,
149; in, 21, 22, 87; iv, 141,
163, 164, 230
Kara Kizil, iv, 238
Kara Korum, i, 116, 156, 158, 159,
163, 288, 289, 311; n, 231,
237; in, 19, 25, 128, 186, 187;
iv, 140, 141, 145, 161, 163,
164, 205, 217
Karakorum Pass, I, 71, 317; IV,
190
Karakul, I, 318
Karambar, iv, 259
Karami, iv, in
Karamoran, Karamuran, I, 278,
286; ii, 244; in, 125
Karamuren, ii, 213; in, 148, 225;
see Hwang Ho and Caramoran
Karana Kiuje, i, 74
Karangui Tagh, iv, 219
Karani, iv, 104
Karaoul, i, 287 ; see Karaul
Karashahr, i, 7, 40, 58, 62, 64,
73; in, 225; iv, 188, 191, 222,
227, 231, 233-5, 238
Karasi, iv, 5
Kara Su, in, 161
KARATAI, iv, 133
Kara tau, i, 288; iv, 182
Karategin, I, 190-2, 315, 316
Karaul, i, 175, 274, 287; iv, 230,
239
Karawal, iv, 230
Kara-yulgun, iv, 230
Karazan, in, 127; see Karajang
Karchu, i, 317; iv, 217
Karens, in, 80, 127
Kargalagga, iv, 215
Kargu, i, 275; n, 233
Karikal, i, 309
Kari-Sairam, i, 272
Karkadan, rhinoceros, I, 243
Karkha, in, 23
Karliq, iv, 235
Karluk, i, 59, 91
KARMANAH, in, 122
Karmisin, I, 308
Karnabul, I, 143
Karnali, in, 198, 222
Karoramawar, in, 131
Kars, i, 163; ii, 100, 101
Karsi, in, 114, 117
Karsput R., n, 99
INDEX
313
Kartag, i, 152
KARTI, Emir, iv, 132
Kama, i, 185
Karun R., iv, 154
Karwan, iv, 209
Karwar, iv, 72
Kasan, n, 223
Kasbin, u, 243
Kaschan, n, 106; see Kashan
Kasghara, i, 143
Kashan, n, 10, 31, 106
Kashgar, i, 36, 40, 60-2, 71-2,
90, 99, 119, 123, 143, 191, 192,
194, 286, 287, 311, 314; in, 24,
55, 221, 225; iv, 160, 162-6,
175, 177, 182, 183, 185-193,
203, 207, 215-7, 222> 223« 228,
231. 235
Kashgaria, i, 61, 148
Kashibin, i, 243
Kashimghar, in, 22, 24
KASHIN, iv, 162
Kashish, iv, 223
Kashisha, i, 108; n, 223
Kashish Daghi, iv, 223
Kashmir, I, 24, 36, 69-71, 73,
242, 254, 292, 310, 314; iv,
174, 177, 183, 191, 216, 227
Kashmiri, n, 249
Kash Tash, 11, 221
Kasia, i, 185, 194; iv, 152, 206
Kasia Hills, I, 184, 185
Kasian Mountains, I, 194, 195
Kastamuni, iv, 5
Kasturi, I, 224
KASYAPA, n, 132
Kataghan, iv, 184, 211
Kataia, i, 146
Kataka, iv, 46
Katak-Banaras, iv, 203
Kataur, Mountains, iv, 205
Katay, in, 247
Katban, in, 131, 132
KATHAN KHAN, in, 52, 53
Kathiawar, in, 78
Katif, in, 68
Katighora, i, 143
Katmandu, iv, 176
Kattigara, i, 4, 5, 143, 188, 191,
193-5 ; IV. 266
KATULPHUS, i, 206
Kaukau, iv, 40
Kaulam, i, 80, 253, 309; n, 137;
iv, 2, 26, 29, 30, 35, 148, 149;
see Quilon, Columbum
Kaulam-Mal6, I, 220
Kauli, i, 257 ; see Korea and
Kao li
Kaungmiidhau Pagoda, I, 243
Kautiliya, i, 6
Kavera, i, 228
Kave'rlpattam, i, 228
Kavil, in, 68
Kawadian, i, 191, 315
Kawar, iv, 72
Kawe, iv, 22, 63
KAY, Dr., in, 243
Kayal, iv, 35
Kayal, Old, iv, 35
Kayaliq, Kayalik, I, 288-9; iv,
271 ; see Cailac
Kayam Koulam, Kayan Kulam,
ii, 134, 135; iv, 79
Kayans, 11, 157, 168
Kaymak, i, 246
Kays, i, 84, 85 ; see Kais and
Kish
KAZAN, in, 33-5 ; iv, 164, 165
Kazan, iv, 6
Kazbin, iv, 184
Kazenin, iv, 120
Kazi, i, 130
Keibung, n, 227
Keimak-Baigur, i, 247
KEITH, Marshal, iv, 128
Kelantan, i, 82 ; iv, 157
Kelso, in, 170
Kena, i, 144
Kenchac, Kenchak, I, 287, 288,
289
KEN CHAM, in, 19
Kenchan, 11, 246; see Kenjan
Keneh, iv, 4
Kenia, in, 197
Kenjan, Kenjang, I, 175; 11, 246;
in, 127, 128
Kenn, i, 145
Kerait, i, 116, 178; n, 246; in,
17, 19, 24, 25, 48; iv, 140,
1 86
Kerbela, 11, 132
Keriahs, n, 147
Kerit, Kerith, in, 19, 24
Kermanshah, i, 308; HI, 23
Kermian, iv, 5
KERN, H., 11, 151; iv, 155
KER PORTER, n, no
Kerulan, Kerulen, R., n, 221 ;
ill, 26
Keshikten, 11, 228
Kesho, i, 193
Kesimur, n, 253
Kessair, i, 152
KETCHPOLE, Allan, i, 129
Keumitho, i, 191
Khabur, i, 308
Khaighun, I, 143
KHAJAH GHAYATH-UL-DIN, i, 271
Khaju, i, 255, 258
KHALLACH, iv, 210
314
INDEX
Khamdan, i, 31, 140, 141, 256, 258
Khamil, iv, 239; see Kamul
Khan, i, 149; see Kaan
Khanabad, iv, 210
Khanam, iv, 211
Khanbaliq, i, 119, 149, 153, 169,
170, 258, 275, 278, 280, 285;
II, 179, 216; in, 13, 22, 24, 113,
114, 115, 125, 128, 148; iv, 90,
108, 118, 123, 137, 138, 140,
149, 161, 164; iv, 138; see
Pe King
Khan Chalish, iv, 227
Khan Chau, Kham£au, i, 141 ; see
Kan Chau
Khancou, I, 129, 130
Khancu, I, 135
Khandjou, I, 136
Khandy, Island, I, 144
Khanfu, I, 104, 112, 129, 132,
133-6, 142, 143, 256, 257, 258;
II, 179," IV, I2O, 137
KHANIKOV, i, 311
Khaniku, iv, 137, 138
Khanju, I, 256
KHANKAJU, iv, 204
Khanku, I, 142, 256, 258; iv, 137
Khansa, i, 89, 256-8; n, 179, 193,
194, 195; iv, 89, 90, 1 1 8, 129,
130, 137, 142, 145, 149, 223
Khansawiyah, iv, 135
Khan fang, i, 31 ; see Khumdan
Khanzai, n, 178, 193
Khanzi, i, 152
Khaqan, I, 149
Khara-Kitat, iv, 230
Khara-Yurgun, iv, 231
Kharezmchah, n, 197
Khari, i, 315
Khari-ab, i, 315
Kharkah, i, 244
Kharliks, Kharlikhs, I, 210, 247,
249, 250
Kharlok, I, 249, 250
Kharpont, in, 161
Kharteza, iv, 259
Khartum, i, 306
Khasgar, iv, 164; see Kashgar
Khata, i, 258, 271, 273, 281
Khat Angusht, in, 123
Khatay-Muqranus, i, 275
Khathlakh, i, 250
Khatiyan, i, 250; iv, 190
Khatun, i, 149
Khaulak, rv, 235
Khavanda, i, 191
Khawak, iv, 183, 255, 256, 258,
259
Khawand-i-Tahur, iv, 166
Khayzoran, n, 148
Khazars, i, 20, 99, 245 ; in, 169
Kherkhis, I, 210
Khia pwan to, i, 191
KHIDR, in, 194, 267
KHIENTOLO, i, 74
Khientowei, i, 69
KHILIJ£, II, 115
Khilkhis, I, 247
Khingan Mountains, i, 146
Khingsal, in, 115, 126, 128; see
Khansa
KHINIE, i, 75
Khinjan, iv, 257
Khinsa, HI, 131
Khirkhiz, I, 248
Khitai, I, 7, 146, 148, 151, 157;
II, 177; iv, 164, 170; see
K'itai
Khitan, i, 148, 288; in, 21, 24;
see K'i tan
Khitat, i, 148
Khitha, iv, 137
Khiva, in, 82; iv, 160
Khizilji Turks, I, 143, 247, 249,
316
KHIZR KHWAJA, iv, 165
KHMER, i, 8; iv, 157
Kho cho, in, 55
KHODABANDAH, i, 166; see OLJAI-
TU
Khodjo tulas, iv, 230
Khoi, in, 164
Khojand, I, 23 : iv, 166
Khokand, iv, 160; see Kokand
KHONDEMIR, iv, 162, 163
Khorasan, i, 98, 99, 102, 119, 134,
163, 244, 246-8, 251, 252, 286;
ii, 10 ; in, 22, 24, 85, 156;
rv, 9, ii, 136, 160, 184
KHOSRU I, of Armenia, I, 94; iv,
14
KHOSRU NAOSHIRWAN, i, 59, 95,
206
Khotan, I, 24, 40, 58, 62, 73, 119,
141, 146, 191, 205, 246, 250,
251, 286, 287, 311 ; ii, 207, 221 ;
rv, 162, 188-192, 207, 217, 219,
221-3, 231, 235, 249, 253
Khotcho, i, 64
Khotl, i, 192; see Khutl
Khozars, in, 169; see Khazars
Khubdan, I, 31 ; see Khumdan
KHUDAIDAD, Amir, I, 272 ; iv,
165, 189, 190
Khuium, i, 72, 73; iv, 210, 259
Khumdan, I, 31, 108, 133, 142,
143
Khutl, i, 192, 315, 316
Khutlan, i, 315; see Khutl
Khutlukh, i, 250
INDEX
315
Khuttan, i, 246; see Khotan
Khuzistan, i, 308 ; 11,109; 111,22,
23: iv, 3, 154
Khuzluj, i, 249
KHWAJA RASHID, in, 108
Khwaja Regruwan, n, 262
KHWAJA, Amir, in, 128
KHWAJA, ELIAS, iv, 165
KHWAJA JAHAN, in, 231; iv, n,
34
KHWAJA, KHIZR, iv, 165
Khwajas, iv, 185, 192
Khwalis, I, 210
Khwaresmians, II, 198
Khwarizm, i, 90, 99, 154, 256,
315; 111,21,82; iv, 9, 1 60, 209,
225
Khyber Pass, iv, 204
Ki, II, 216
Kia, i, 279
Kia cheng, II, 210
KIA K'ING, II, 213
Kian Chau, i, 136
Kiang, i, 30, 65, 150, 177; n, 209,
231
K'iang (Tibetain), i, 36, 40, 60
Kiang Chau, n, 194
Kiang Che, n, 231; in, 128
Kiang Nan, i, 142; n, 165, 205,
207, 209; in, 128
Kiang Ning, n, 205
Kiang Pe, n, 231
Kiang Si, n, 187, 209, 231; in,
128, 129; iv, no, 121, 126
Kiang Su, i, 121; in, 120
Kiao chi, i, 4-6, 8, 18, 51, 52,
193; m, 130, 255
Kiao ho, iv, 237
KIA TAN, i, 85
Kiao Ti, i, 4, 5
Kiau chi, i, 193 ; see Kiao chi
Kia yu kwan, i, 117, 274; iv, 239,
271
Kibla, i, 246
Kidifu, i, 275, 276; ii, 233, 234
Kie ku, i, 248
Kien ch'ang, iv, 126, 127
KIEN CHEN, i, 100
KlEN-FUH-TING, I, 79, 80
KlEN-HUT-DING, I, 80
Kien Kang (Nan King), i, 139-
140; 11, 205
K'IEN LUNG, in, 117; iv, 178
Kien ning (Nan King), n, 205
K'ien-to-wei, i, 69
Kien wei, I, 65
KIEN WEN, i, 76, 248
Kien Yeh, n, 205
KIEPERT, i, 184, 191, 310, 311,
317
Kie sie, 11, 228
Kiev, i, 157, 305
Kiho, i, 56, no
Kij, i, 309
Kilagai, iv, 257
Kila'h Chap, i, 317
Kilasiya, iv, 210
Kilif, i, 315
Kilimanjaro, ill, 197
Killah, i, 85
Killa-Karai, Killi-Karai, iv, 35,
158
KlLLICH, IV, 2IO
Killoss, in, 170
Kimak, i, 246, 247
Kimkhwa, in, 155; iv, 118
KIN, i, 147, 148, 150, 254; ii,
115, 177, 192, 205, 216, 220;
in, 21, 126, 149
Kinara, ii, 108
Kinbaiat, iv, 21, 23; see Cambay
Kincha, in, 186
Kinchang, in, 127
Kin chi, in, 131; see Golden
Teeth
Kin ching, i, 237
Kin cob, in, 155
King chao (Si ngan), ill, 127, 128
King d'Or, ii, 115
King-hing-ki, I, 235
King-kiao-pei, i, 105
King R., i, 113
Kings of the Earth, Great, I, 241 ;
iv, 37
King-Shan, n, 220
King sze, King se, I, 150; n,
180, 187, 192; in, 115, 128,
148, 260; iv, 17, 44, 129; see
Hang chau, Khansa, Cansay,
etc.
King te chen, iv, no
KING-TSING (Adam), i, 112, 113
KING TSUNG, i, 147
KING Ye-liu, I, 147
Kin hwa fu, ii, 188
Kin ling fu, ii, 205
Kin Ling koo kin t'oo k'aou, II, 205
Kin Ling t'oo yung, ii, 206
Kin-man, iv, 141
Kinsay, ii, 193, 200
Kin shan, i, 205 ; ii, 255
Kin Sheng Sze, i, 106
K'in yuen, i, 136
Kiong shan, i, 65
Kioto, i, 68
K'io wei, n, 200
Kipchak, I, 149, 154, 167, 210,
245, 301; ii, 223; in, 82, 89,
188, 190 ; iv, 6, 160, 255, 256, 270
KIRAKOS GANDSAKETSI, i, 164
3i6
INDEX
KIRCHER, Athan., i, 106, 182; 11,
182, 186, 242, 249; iv, 193
Kirghiz, i, 64, 210, 248, 249;
ii, 223; in, 130; iv, 183, 210
Kiria, i, 246, 251
Kirkaldy, iv, 129
Kirkstall, in, 171
Kirkstead, in, 171
Kirman, i, 85, 309
Kirmanshah, i, 308; in, 23
Kirmesin, i, 308
Kis, in, 68; iv, 4
Kish, i, 85, 144, 146, 309; in, 69;
IV> 5« 45 • see Kais
Ki-shi (Kish), i, 85
Kishm, ii, 107; iv, 211
Kishmis, II, 107
Kishna, n, 139
Kishnabad, rv, 257
Kishtabad, iv, 257
Kishtiwanan, iv, 136
Kisiwa, iv, 155
Kisliar, in, 84
Kissen, in, 148
K'i tai, i, 7, 146, 157; ii, 177;
see Khitai
K'i tan, i, 17, 147, 148, 247, 288;
ii, 177, 216; in, 21, 24; rv,
163 ; see Khitan
Kiuchen, i, 5, 51
KIUHOTO (Kobad), i, 95
K'iu Ian, rv, 222, 271 ; see K'iu
tan
Kiu mi, Kiu-mi-tho, I, 40, 191, 192
K'iu-p'i-lo, iv, 230, 231
Kiu she, i, 40, 41
Kiu shi, iv, 141
K'iu tan, rv, 222, 271
Kiu T'ang Shu, i, 48, 55 ; rv, 141
K'iu tze, i, 40; iv, 222, 231
KIWAMUDDIN the Ceutan, iv, 128
Kiyan, I, 141
Ki YE, i, 75
Kizil, rv, 230, 231
Kizil bash, i, 295
Kizil Chai, m, 164
Kizil Dagh, in, 161
Kizil Irmak, m, 161
Klysma, i, 221
KNIGHT, ii, 189, 190
KNOX, Robert, ii, 172; in, 233,
237
KOBAD, i, 95
Kochkiri, in, 161
Kodangulor, Kodungalur, ii, 134;
rv, 78
K'ODZISHAN, iv, 185, 228
Koh-Daman, Valley, n, 263 ; iv,
208, 255
Koh-i-Baba, iv, 256
Koh-i-Khanam, iv, 211
Kohistan, iv, 209, 255
Koh Tralach, i, 129
Koik, iv, 45
Koil, iv, 35
Koilam, ii, 129
KOKAN BEG, iv, 186
Kokand, i, 191 ; iv, 160, 183, 235
Kokan-Tana, i, 309
Kokcha, i, 317; iv, 211, 216, 256
Kokkonagara, iv, 157
Kokshal, iv, 228
Ko ku rye, i, 257 ; see Corea
K61 (Aligarh), iv, 20, 21
Kola, ii, 130
Kolaba, I, 254
Kolam, n, 130
Kolamba, ii, 130
Kolechi, iv, 172
Koli, in, 113, 125; iv, 157
Koli Akoli, i, 152
K'o-Li-Ki-szE, in, 15
Kolis, ill, 219
Koilam, ii, 129
Ko-lo, iv, 57
Kolo lu, i, 59 ; see Karluk
Kolzum, i, 221
Komar, iv, 96
Komedi, i, 191, 192
Komul, in, 265; iv, 239; see
Kamul
Konges, i, 36, 272; see Kungis
Kong tien, i, 31
Konieh, iv, 5 ; see Iconium
Konjeveram, I, 242
Konkan, i, 241, 254, 309; ii, 114;
rv, 254
Konkana, i, 74
Kookpo, n, 224
Koosiara R., iv, 153
Kopal, i, 288; iv, 235, 271
Kopantho, I, 191
Kophen, i, 212
Korea, i, 257 ; ii, 237 ; see Corea
Korgeun, III, 162
Korgha Utra, iv, 239
Kornegalle, m, 233; iv, 33
Koshang, i, 116, 119; iv, 268
Kosseir, I, 306; iv, 4
Kota, ill, 244
K'o teis, i, 221
Kothian, I, 243
Kotow, i, 90, 91 ; ii, 238
Kotroba, III, 23
Kotta, in, 244
Kotulo, i, 315
Kotwal, ii, 122; iv, 139
Kouchan, i, 248
Koumdan, i, 108 ; see Khumdan
K'outche, i, 99
INDEX
317
Kouyunjik, in, 225
Kowelaki, in, 130
KOW-R-KI, in, 15
Kozan, in, 160
Krim (Solghat), iv, 6
KRISHNA, i, 254; in, 70
KSATRIYA MAHANAMAN, i, 67
Kshatriyas, I, 2
Ktesiphon, i, 43, 120, 216
Kuang chow, I, 89
KUAN YIN, in, 269
Kuban, i, 212; in, 83
Kubeis, in, 267
Kiiber, iv, 144
KUBLAI KHAN, i, 65, 82, no, 134,
141, 149, 153, 167, 301; ii, 134,
152, 197, 216, 219, 227, 230,
231, 236, 237, 246, 248, 270;
ill, 4, 5, 10, 15, 45, 113, 114-7,
119, 121, 122, 125, 127, 130,
132, 133. 149, 150. 155. 1 86,
301 ; iv, 129, 137, 140, 156, 162
Kucha, i, 35, 40, 58, 61, 64, 73,
141, 248, 251 ; iv, 189, 190, 222,
228, 230-1, 234, 235, 237, 238
Kuchar, iv, 231 ; see Kucha
Kuch Bihar, iv, 176
KUCHLUK, i, 148; ill, 21
Kudra-mali, I, 199
Kuei-shui, i, 23
Kuen-lun, i, 129; iv, 219; see
Kwen lun
Kuesie, n, 228
Kufah, i, 83, 84; iv, 3
Kiikah, in, 78 ; iv, 23, 64, 66
Ku kung i lu, n, 220
Ku ku nor, i, 61
Kulam, i, 254; n, 10, 129, 130,
137; in, 68
Kulaybu, i, 251
Kuldja, Kulja, i, 164, 289; in,
87; iv, 183, 193, 228
KULESA-DEWAR, in, 69
Kuma, in, 84; iv, 6
KUMAGUSU MlNAKATA, III, 124
Kumar, i, 253, 254 ; m, 245
Kumara, iv, 96, 157
KUMARA DAs, i, 67
Kumari Aloes, iv, 96
Kumbashi, iv, 227
Kumblah, iv, 74
Kumdan, i, 108; see Khumdan
Kumedh, I, 192
Kumid, i, 191
Kumidha, i, 191
KtJMfN NIKULUN, i, 57
Kumis, i, 209
Kumish, iv, 238
Ku mo, i, 40; iv, 231; see Aqsu
Kumo-chou, iv, 231
Kumuk, in, 84
Kumuki, I, 247
Kumul i, 140; see Kamul
Kunakar, iv, 33
Kiinar, TV, 33
Kundalika, I, 254
Kundrandj, i, 128
Kundrang, i, 128
Kunduz, iv, 160, 184, 186, 210,
211, 257, 258
K'ung hua tao, n, 220
Kungis, i, 36, 272; see Konges
Kuningan, in, 193
Kunjuk Khan, iv, 161
Kunki, in, 126
Kun lun, i, 129; iv, 219; see
Kwen lun
KUNSTMANN, Prof. F., I, 176; II,
9, 57, 88, 129, 141, 204; in, 5,
192, 229, 231
Kur, ii, 105; HI, 23
KURD de SCHLOEZER, i, 139
Kurdish Armenia, I, 93
Kurdistan, i, 114, 308; n, 10,
102, 109 ; in, 85
Kurgan-i-Ujadbai, iv, 211
Kurgos, in, 87
Kuria Muria, i, 152
Kurkarausu, iv, 239
Kurla, i, 58; iv, 234, 235, 238
KURTAI, Amir, iv, 131-3, 136
Kurumbas, n, 147
K'u run, iv, 239
Kurunaigalla, iv, 33
Kus, i, 306; iv, 4
K'u SA HO, i, 97
Kush, iv, 189
Kushan, i, 247, 248; iv, 257
Kush-tam, iv, 230
Kustana, iv, 222
KUTAIBA, I, 20, 90, 100
Kutas, i, 273
Kutb Minar, iv, 46
KUTB-UDDIN MUBARAK, iv, 214
Kutchin Indians, ii, 147
KUTCHLUK KHAN, iv, 222
KUTLUGH KHWAJA, in, 132
Kuverachal, iv, 18
KUYUK KHAN, i, 149, 157, 161,
209, 289; n, 246; in, 19, 186;
iv, 163, 164
Kuz-i-Biiznah, iv, 108
Kwang binh, i, 51 ; ii, 163
Kwang chau (Canton), I, 86, 89,
256
Kwang fu, i, 89
Kwang han tien, ii, 220
Kwang Si, in, 129, 130
Kwang Tung, i, 136; n, 182; III,
12, 129
INDEX
KWAN YIN, in, 269
Kwawa, II, 156
Kwei, ii, 237
Kwei Chau, in, 128
Kwei Hwa Ch'eng, n, 245
Kwe lin fu, in, 130, 131
Kwen lun, i, 7, 129; H, 183; IV,
187, 219
Kylantin, i, 83
Kymkhaw, I, 137
Kynloss, in, 170
Ky yu, n, 191
Laccadives, I, 226
Lackered Ware, iv, 136
Ladakh, i, 71 ; n, 249; iv, 177, 217
Ladanum, III, 157, 167
Ladies at Mongol Court, Head-
dress of, n, 222
Ladoga, Lake, in, 246
Laghman, I, 74
Lagoon Maeotis, I, 183
Lahari, iv, 9, 10
Lahore, n, 115; in, 217; iv,
173, 174, 177, 180, 183, 202,
203, 208, 227, 249, 254
L'Ahsa, in, 68
Laias, 11, 115; see Aias
LAICHAI, i, 237
Lai lai, i, 82
LAJAN FANCHAN, in, 122
Lajazzo, ill, 160; see Aias
Lake into which offerings were
cast, n, 144
Lakhnaoti, I, 124; iv, 83-5
LALADITYA, i, 70
LA LOUBERE, i, 124
Lama, Grand, 11, 250; in, 93
La Magna (Germany), 11, 115
Lamb, Tartar, n, 31, 116; iv, 267
Lambri, Lamori, Lamuri, Lameri,
ii, 34, 146, 148, 149, 150, 168;
in, 131
LAMECH, in, 244
Lamghan, i, 74
LAMI, Cat., n, 6<v
Lamreh, ii, 146
Lan Chau, i, 278, 285
Land of Darkness, iv, 7
LANE, n, 163
LANE-POOLE, Stanley, iv, 161
Langabalus, Lankhabalus, Lan-
jabalus, I, 127
Langar, i, 272 ; iv, 238
Langkawi, Pulo, i, 127
LANGLES, i, 125
Langtin, in, 117
Lanha, I, 225
Lanka, i, 226
Lankin (Nan king), n, 205
Lanpo, i, 74
Lan She, I, 36, 37
Lanterns, Feast of, i, 282 ; HI, 269
Lan-wou-li, n, 146; see Lambri
Laodicea, in, 16
LAONICUS CHALCONDYLAS, see
CHALCONDYLAS
Laos, in, 221
Lapais, I, 168
LAPIED, ii, 216
Lar, i, 127
Lara, i, 74
Laran, I, 254
Laranja, n, 115
LARDNER'S Cyclop., i, 197, 202 ;
ii, 86
LA RENAUDIERE, ii, 87
LARGAIOLLI, D., n, 89
Larissa, i, 306
Larkhana, iv, 9
Laroccia, HI, 171
LA RONCIERE, C. de, in, 180
Larwi, I, 127
LASSEN, i, 3, 13, 16, 18, 25, 41,
69, 70, 73, 74, 128, 184, 185,
195, 205, 220, 224, 226, 227,
229, 241-3; n, 134, 141, 153;
iv, 66-71, 156, 157
Latin Conquest of Asia, Prophecy
of, in, 80
Latin Church of Malabar, in, 218
Latin of Marignolli and Jordanus,
in, 203
Latitudinarian notions of Chinese,
in, 74
Latoo, iv, 153
LATOUS, i, 198
Lau ch'eng, ii, 216
LAUFER, B., i, 6; in, 124; iv, 267,
268, 269, 270
Laulan, i, 39
LAURENT, J. C. M., Peregrinatores,
n, 22, 47, 104, in, 250; iv, i
Lavaldio, in, 171
LAWRENCE of Alessandria, Friai
in, 32
LAWRENCE of Ancona, Friar, in,
33. 212
Lawsonia inermis, in, 166
LAYARD, i, 114, 115; in, 22, 225,
262
Layazo, I, 307; see Aias
Lay bach, ii, 5
LAZARI, V., n, 74, 80, 81, 103
LAZARUS, ii, 115
Lazice, i, 221
Lead, Mines of, I, 253
LEANG, LIANG, Dynasty, i, 114;
n, 208
Leang Chau, I, 38, 63
INDEX
319
Leang Shu, i, 66
LEAO, LIAO, Dynasty, i, 7, 60,
147, 148; ii, 177, 216; in, 21 ;
see K'i tan
Leao Tung, i, 147; ni, 128
Leao Yang, i, 147; II, 231; III,
128
Leather- money, in, 149
Lebanon, Mount, in, 226, 240
LEBEAU, Bas Empire, i, 49, 54,
210; ii, 221
LE BLANC, Vincent, Travels, ii,
98, 166, 174
LE COMTE, ii, 205
LE COQ, von, i, 36, 63 ; in, 55,
126
LE CORBEILLER, Ed., II, 154
Ledaki, ii, 249
LEE, Henry, Vegetable Lamb, II,
242, 243 ; iv, 268
LEE'S Ibn Batuta, iv, 155, 159
LEECH, Major, i, 311; iv, 183,
206, 208, 209, 256, 258
Leeches, Plague of, in Ceylon, n,
171
Leeches (i.e. Doctors) at the
Khan's Court, n, 226
LEGGE, J., i, 8
Leicestershire, in, 171
Lelda, Leuda, in, 144; iv, 271
LE LONG, Jehan, ii, 68, 73, 244,
266; in, 36, 89
LEMON of Genoa, Master, in, 191,
196, 259
Lemons against leech bites, n, 171
Lemyin, iv, 239
Lengten, in, 117
Length of Ibn Batuta's Travels,
iv, 41
Lenzin, ii, 212, 213
LEO, Chinese Mandarin, I, 236
LEO the Isaurian, i, 55, 56
LEON II, in, 139, 160
LEON III, in, 165
LEON, T. R. P., ii, 91
LEONARDUS, Bishop, in, 14
LE QUIEN, i, 306; ii, 103, 104,
242; in, 13, 14, 33, 37
LERCH, iv, 164
LE STRANGE, Guy, i, 83-5, 102
LE THANH-TONG, ii, 163
LETRONNE, i, 220
Letters of Prester John, in, 17;
for other Letters, see Table of
Contents
Lettres edifiantes, I, 104 ; ii, 140, 249
Leuchieu, iv, 243
LEVI, Sylvain, i, 67, 69, 72, 73,
76; ii, 142
LEVY, E., iv, 270, 271
LEWIS, St., i, 158
LEWIS of Bavaria, n, 12; in, 199,
205
LEYDEN, Dr., ii, 139
Lhadan, i, 61
Lhasa, I, 61, 71; ii, 10, 248-250,
252, 253; iv, 176, 268
Li, eunuch, i, 87
Lialeyse, I, 306
Liampo, n, 205
LIANG, Dynasty, see LEANG
LIAO, see LEAO
Liber de JEtatibus, ii, 22
Library, Laurentian, i, 123; at
San Daniele, ii, 15
Libya, i, 187, 220
Li Chau, n, 152
Lichfield, in, 206
Lidebp, i, 306
Liegnitz, i, 152
Life in the Forests of the Far East,
ii, 162
Lighthouse in the Persian Gulf,
i, 86
Lign-aloes, ii, 148, 150
Ligno, Dominus regnabit a, in,
243
Ligor, iv, 157
Ligurti, in, 162
Li HUNG-CHANG, III, I2O
Li I-PIAO, I, 69
Li Kam, i, 23, 41
Li Kiang, in, 127
Li Kien, i, 41, 233
Li KWANG-LI, i, 38, 39
Li LING, i, 39, 64
Li MA-TEU, iv, 178; see RICCI, M.
Limyrice, I, 183
Lincegam, ii, 213
Lin ching, ii, 213
Lincolnshire, ill, 171
LINDSAY, Robert, iv, 151
Ling Pe, ii, 231; in, 187
LING ROTH, ii, 158
Ling-yin sze, iv, 267
Linju, ii, 213
Lin-ngan (Hang Chau), ii, 177,
192, 205
LINSCHOTEN, i, 184, 185; ii, 113,
146, 180, 181; in, 252; iv, 98,
99
Lin-tsin-chu, ii, 214
Lin Ts'ing, i, 122; ii, 213, 214
Lin Yi, i, 8 ; ii, 163 ; see Champa
Lin Yin, ii, 203, 204
LIONE, Dottor, i, 240
Lions, Black, n, 115; trained, at
Khan's Court, ii, 239
LIRUTI, G. G., II, 9, 23, 57, 79,
86
320
INDEX
Lisbon, i, 268, 313
Lisciadro, in, 167
Literary Information regarding
China previous to Mongol Era,
I, 24 ; see Table of Contents
Li TSUNG, ii, 205
Little Pamir, iv, 211
Little Sea, I, 100
LiTTRi, Diet., ii, 98, 162
Liu-kia-kiang, I, 77
Liu sha, i, 235
Livenza, ii, 5
Livre des Merveilles de I'Inde, ii,
1 66
Lo Abassi, n, 250, 251
Loahc, ii, 117
Loan King, ii, 227
Loan, river, n, 227
Lobaes, for Lamas, n, 250
Lob Nor, i, 40, 58; in, 225; iv,
1 88
Locche, in, 163
Loch' a, ii, 1 68
LOCKHART, Col., IV, 211
Log, Legend of St. Thomas and
a huge, in, 250
Lohac, rv, 159
Lo-hing-man, ii, 168
Lohoc, n, 117
LOHRASP, I, 10
Lolo, i, 74
LOMBARD, Surgeon, i, 170
Lombards, n, 4
Lomelic, the word, n, 122
London (in Pegolotti), in, 170
Longa, n, 237
Longa Solanga, i, 152
Longevity, case of, n, 215 ; rv, 123
Longitudes, of places adjoining
the Bolor Mountains, and their
discrepancies, i, 311
Lop, rv, 1 88
Lop, Lake, iv, 188; see Lob Nor
Lophaburi, i, 124
LORD, iv, 258
LORENZO DE' MEDICIS, i, 180
Loretto, n, 178
Loukin, Loukyn, I, 129, 135; see
Lukin
Loundras, I, 250
Louth Park, in, 171
Lo Yang, I, 91, 93, 108, no, 114,
133. 139
Luban, iv, 97
Lubus, n, 147
LUCALONGO, Peter of, i, 170; in,
55
LUCAN, I, 14
LUCARDIE, Ca.pt. M. J. C., ii, 146
LUCCHINO TARIGO, ii, 105
Luchac, in, 130
LUCULLUS, i, 216
LUDOLF, i, 222; ii, 157, 217, 218;
HI, 7, 27, 222-4; iv, 146
LUD. II di Teck, ii, 4
LUDDUR DEO, in, 70
Lufu, i, 276
LU-HO (LUKE), III, 15
Lui Chau, ill, 130
LUIZ GONCALVEZ, IV, 170
Lujak, in, 130
LUKE, ii, 263
Lukin, i, 129, 135, 143; in, 126,
128, 130
Lu kou, in, 117
Lu KWANG, iv, 231
Lumghan, i, 314
Lumkali, i, 135; in, 126, 128, 130
Lung hing, in, 128
Lung men, ii, 165
LUNG-SIU, Ye-liu, i, 147
Lung Wan, i, 78
LUN TSANG, i, 60; iv, 266
Lun yii, ii, 224
Luqsor, Luxor, i, 306; iv, 4, 45
Liiristan, ii, 109; iv, 3, 138, 139
LUSIGNAN, i, 262; in, 226
Lussom, R., i, 305
Lutzu, n, 189
L'Uzi, R., i, 305
Lybian Desert, I, 306
Lydians, in, 249
Lyons, I, 156
Lyons, Council of, I, 154; in, 211
Maabar, Ma'bar, Maebar, Mobar,.
i, 82; ii, 31, 34, 130, 134, 141,
143, 168; in, 5, 30, 61-3, 65-
70, 231, 249; iv, 13, 27, 34,
66, 67
Mabad, I, 244
Macao, n, 212; iv, 242, 253
MACARTNEY, Lord, n, 197; m,.
116; iv, 121, 187, 216, 217
MACARTNEY'S Map in ELPHIN-
STONE'S Caubul, i, 310, 313, 316
Maccao, iv, 242 ; see Macao
MCCRINDLE, J. W., i, 25, 27,
212-219, 221-3, 226, 228—232
Mace, i, 264
Macedonia, i, 102, 247
Macerata, iv, 178, 181
MACFARLANE, Ch., II, 87, 264
MACGOWAN, D. J., ii, 188
Machin, Mahachin, I, 9, 34, 68, 73,
78, 121, 150, 151, 177, 179,
281; ii, 177, 180; in, 68, 115,.
116, 131
Machindranath, n, 249
Machini, i, 269
INDEX
321
Machli-bander, in, 70
Machli-patam, in, 70
MACHOMET, 11, 23, 119, 123, 125;
in, 269 ; see MAHOMED
Machu, in, 127
Macini, i, 151
MACINI, EL, in, 223
Macinus, I, 266
MACLEOD, Capt., iv, 201
MACRAY, G. D., n, 43
Madagascar, i, 138, 167; n, 154
Madai, island, I, 242
MADDEN, n, 70
Madhyadesa, i, 75
Madfnata Wasit, i, 309
MADJUDJ (MAGOG), i, 255
Madonna delle Grazie, 11, 89
Madras, I, 81, 309; 11, 10, 134;
in, 6, 49, 65, 250, 253 ; iv, 135
Madras Journal, i, 81; n, 135
MAORI, i, 164
Madura, 11, 140; ill, 69, 70, 218;
iv, 35
Maeandrus, I, 184
Maebar, in, 61 ; see Maabar
MAES TITIANUS, i, 188, 191, 192
MAFFAMET CAN, iv, 207
MAFFEI, 111, 251, 252
Ma fu, i, 276
Magadha, i, 67-9, 74; n, 132
Magadoxo, i, 87; iv, 4
MAGAILLANS, n, 177, 178, 234
MAGALHAES, n, 147
Magar, in, 84
MAGELLAN, n, 162 ; iv, 159
Magellanic Cloud, in, 195
Mager, in, 84
Maghuz, i, 152
Magi, i, 112, 246
Magi, the three, n, 106; in, 192,
267
Magians, i, 112
MAGINI, i, 182, 302, 304, 305;
ii, 109
Magnus Canis, n, 217
MAGOG, i, 151, 255, 304
Mahabalipuram, i, 81
Mahaban, i, 243
Mahabharat, i, 2
Mahachin, Mahachina, Maha Cina,
see Machin
Mahachinasthana, I, 68 ; see Ma-
chin
MAHADEVA, in, 252
MAHAMET HAN, MAHAMETHAN,
MAHAMETHIN, iv, 220
MA HA Mu, in, 121
MAHANAAMA, Raja, i, 67
MAHANG, i, 9
MAHAPADMA, i, 73
Mahapadma, Lake, I, 70
MAHARA, HI, 131
Mahavamsa, i, 67
Mahe, iv, 76
MAHENK, i, 9
MAHMUD KHAN, iv, 166
MAHMUD SABAKTAGIN, i, 242
MAHOMED, MAHOMET, the Pro-
phet, i, 83, 88; n, 23, 119, 123,
125; in, no, 269; iv, 192, 202,
224, 250
MAHOMED, Sultan of Khwarizm,
i, 33
MAHOMED KHAN, son of KHIZR
KHWAJA, iv, 165
MAHOMED, Khan of Kashgar, iv,
191, 207, 220
MAHOMED KHAN SHAIBANI, iv,
166
MAHOMED BAKHTIYAR KHILJI, i,
78, 79; iv, 152
MAHOMED IBN KASSIM IN SIND,
i, 90
MAHOMED AL MASMtjoi, iv, 80
MAHOMED SHAH, son of KHUDAI-
DAD, iv, 190
MAHOMED TUGHLAK, of Delhi, i,
75, 79; n, 144; in, 150; iv, 10,
n, 14, 18, 19, 34, 51, 62, 69,
84, 135, 138, 225
MAHOMED UZBEK, i, 301 ; iv, 6,
158
Mahomedanism professed by no-
Mongol Emperor of China, n,
237
Mahomedans in China, i, 89; iv,
130, 175; their devoutness, m,
260 ; and brotherly feeling, in, r
Mahrattas, i, 242 ; 11, 140
MA HUAN, i, 76, 77, 79, 87;
11, 172; iv, 4, 24, 91, 92
Mai, iv, 189
Maiceram, iv, 74
Maidan, 11, 121
MAIDARI, i, 164
Mailamanagara, ill, 251
Mailapur, i, 309; n, 141, 142;
in, 250-2
Mailapuram, in, 250
MAILLA, de, i, 65; n, 205, 228,
237; iv, 142
Mainpuri, iv, 21
MAITREYA, i, 164
Majapahit, n, 152, 156; in, 193,
194
Majar, iv, 66
Majars, Majgars, I, 246
MAJOR, R. H., i, 124, 125, 127,
144, 176, 266; ii, 160, 166, 181;
in, 40; iv, 146
c. Y. c. IV.
21
322
INDEX
Majorca, in, 166
Makam ul Bab, i, 251
Makhna, a tuskless male elephant,
I. 231
Malabar (Minibar, Mulebar, etc.),
i, 80, 86-8, 127, 171, 185, 220,
225, 226, 228, 253; n, 10, 31,
34, 115, 130, 132-6, 140-2, 154;
in, 49, 65, 68, 167, 191, 196,
216, 217, 237, 249, 252, 254;
rv. 3. 27, 36, 63, 72-9, 223
Malabathrum, I, 184
Malacca, I, 127, 180, 215, 253;
n, 147, 149; rv, 98, 253, 259
Malaga, iv, 39
Malaiur, n, 157
MALALA, or MALELA, John, i, 213
Malantan, I, 82
Malascorti, i, 308; 11, 258
Malasia, i, 307
Malasjerda, i, 308
Malasjird, n, 258
Malatia, I, 307
Malatolto, Malatolta, III, 144
Malaur, i, 314
Malaya, i, 214
Malay Islands, I, 128
Malay Peninsula, i, 78, 128, 253;
rv, 156, 157
Malays, n, 147
MALCOLM (Persia), I, 10, 96, 100
MALCOLM, Lieut., in, 233
Maldah, iv, 83
Maldive Islands, I, 127, 214, 226;
II, 174; in, 192, 193; iv, 31,
32, 34, 36, 50, 67, 74, 80, 149,
225
Male (Malabar), i, 86, 220, 227,
228, 230
Malifatan, Malifattan (Molepha-
tam, Manifattan), in, 30, 68;
iv, 35
MALIK, BAKHSHI, i, 282, 283
Malik, n, 122
MALIK-AL-JIZR, i, 242
MALIK-AL-SALAH, n, 149
MALIK KAFUR, in, 66
MALIK SUNBUL, iv, 29
MALIK TAKI-ULLAH, in, 68
MALIK-UL-ZAHIR, iv, 145, 147
MALIK YUHANA, in, 26
MALIK YUZBEK, i, 79
MALIK ZADA, iv, n
Malipattan, in, 63
Malkat, in, 68
MALKfKARIB, I, 25!
Malli, iv, 39
Malmistra, I, 307; see Mamistra
MA-LO-FU, i, 234
Malta, in, 189
MALTE-BRUN, i, 288
MALVOISIN, n, 89
Malwa, i, 74; iv, 21, 22, 23
Mama Khatum, in, 162
MAMBRE, i, 290, 293
Mambroni Cini, I, 292
MAMIGONIANS, I, 94
Mamira, Mamiron, i, 292
Mamiran-i-Chini, I, 292
Mamistra, I, 307 ; in, 229
MAMKON, i, 94
Mamre, n, 103
Mamuvi, in, 84
Man, ii, 177
Manaar, i, 199; III, 65
Manar Mandali, iv, 32
MANASSEH, n, 133, 135
MANCASOLA, Thomas of, Catholic
Bishop of Samarcand, in, 39
Manchuria, I, 118
Mandal al-Kamarubi, I, 253
Mandal Kamruni, I, 253
MANDEVILLE, i, 171, 221 ; 11,
33-5. 9i, 98, 103, 113, 115, 123,
145, 166, 217, 244, 255; ill, 44,
99. J55> 211, 219, 236, 263;
IV, 2
Mandurafin, i, 254
Mandura-patan, i, 254
Manekir, I, 241
MANES, i, 248 ; see MANI
MANGALA, 11, 246; in, 127
Mangalapura, I, 74
Mangalore, i, 220, 228, 309; iv,
21. 73
Manganor, i, 309
Mangaruth, I, 228
Mangi, Manzi, Manci, I, 146, 150^
2, 172, 302; n, 34, 134, 176,
177, 178, 180, 186, 192, 200,
206, 231, 254-6; in, 71, 113,
130, 207, 216, 228, 248, 249;
iv, 137
Mango, fruit, ii, 150 ; in, 236, 237 ;
rv, 271
Mangona, in, 145
Mangouste, ii, 116
MANGU KHAN, i, 149, 153, 160,
161, 163, 210, 240, 248, 288;
m, 19, 54, 113, 156, 187
MANI, i, 62, 248
MANIACH, i, 206-8, 210, 211
MANIAGO, n, 21
MANICHAEANS, i, 64, 248
Manichaeism, i, 62, 63
Manjaim, iv, 76
Manjarur, iv, 73
Manjeshwaram, iv, 74
Manjin, n, 177
i, i, 73, 112
INDEX
MANJUGHOSA-BlSSOCHTMA, I, 73
Mank, I, 315, 316
Mann, iv, 81 ; see Maund
MANNING, Thomas, n, 249, 253
Mansura, i, 255
MANSUR KHAN, iv, 234
MANTEGNA, n, 142
Mantra, n, 147
Man tsu, Man tze, I, 146; II, 177
Mantua, i, 304
MANU, i, 2
Manuscripts of Odoric, ir, 28 seq.,
39 seq. ; of Marignolli, in, 207 ;
of Ibn Batuta, iv, 41
Manviti, in, 84
Manzi, see Mangi
Manzil-Sindi, i, 241
Maps in this work, Notes on the,
I, 299 seq.
Maori, iv, 22
Maoris, in, 221
Mao-Shan, 11, 168
Mapaeul, I, 82, 83
Maparh, i, 82
MAR-ABA, i, 26
Maragha, i, 119, 121, 308; in,
75- ?6
Maralbashi, iv, 228, 229
Marallo, I, 228
Maramati, in, 156, 169
Marand, ill, 164
Maranel, Marabia, iv, 74
Marasch, i, 163
Marawa, Marawar, I, 228; n, 140,
141; in, 67, 69; see Maabar
MARCEL, Gabriel, 11, 83
March, the, in, 169
MARCHESINO of Bassano, 11, 12,
27, 80, 266, 270
Marching in India in 1340, iv, 14
MARCIANUS OF HERACLEA, i, 12,
13, 195; in, 27
MARCO DA LISBONA, ii, 12, 84
MARCOS, Rabban, i, 119, 120
MARCUS AURELIUS, i, 6, 21, 51,
52, 66, 193
Mar di Bachu, 11, 211; see Bacu
Mardin, I, 119, 216
Mare Majus, 11, 98
Mare Maurum, 11, 98
Mare Ponticum, in, 81
Marga, i, 304, 308
Margarita, 11, 141
Margiana Antiochia, i, 190
MAR HANAM ISHU'A, i, 108
MA-RH YE-LI-YA, i, 118
MARIGNOLLI, John de', I, 80-2,
117, 119, 123, 170, 171, 213;
ii, 23, 24, 27, 107, no, 129,
130, 132, 133, 136, 142, 171,
179, 180, 183, 192, 203, 225;
in, 6, n, 28, 31, 33, 35, 177-269;
iv, 34, 161
MARINO SANUDO, in, 53, 180
Marinus of Tyre, I, n, 19, 187,
188, 190, 192, 194
MAR JABALAHA ; see JABALAHA
MARKAUNT, Thomas, ii, 39
MARKHAM, C. R., i, 33, 174, 266,
293; n, 99, 249, 251, 262
Mark Sterling, Value of, in, 140
Marmalong Bridge, in, 252
Marmora, Sea of, in, 246
Marmorea, i, 308
Maroga, in, 75 ; see Maragha
MARQUART, J., i, 138-140, 206,
244-7, 251, 252, 255; n, 142
Marrah, i, 283
Marriage Customs in Chaldaea,
n, in; at Tana, n, 116
Marriage Customs of Tartar Chiefs
with Greek Princesses, iv, 7
MARS, i, 248
MAR SARGIS, SARGHIS, i, 108, 118,
199
MARSDEN, i, 165; n, 98, 103, 115,
149, 214, 218
MARSHALL, Henry, in, 233
Martaban, I, 124, 177, 243
Martaban, iv, 107
Martamam, i, 124
Martignac, II, 5
MARTIN, n, 234
MARTIN, P., n, 140
MARTIN, St., ii, 221
Martin, Church of St., Padua,
ii, 165
MARTINEZ, Fernando, i, 178, 266,
267
MARTINI, Mart., i, 6, 122, 123,
159, 175, 182, 291; ii, 177, 182,
183, 186, 188, 192, 201, 205,
209, 210, 214, 216, 217, 233,
242, 246; iv, 243
MARTINS, F., see MARTINEZ, F.
Martyrdom of Four Franciscans
at Tana in Salsette, ii, 117-132 ;
in. 14, 76, 77, 79; of six
Franciscans and another at
Almaliq in 1339, in, 31-3, 212;
of Stephen, a young Friar at
Sarai, HI, 83 ; of two Francis-
cans in Tartary, m, 28 ; of ten
thousand Christians in Armenia,
in, 40
Marullo, n, 141
Marv, i, 97, 102-4, 123, 190; HI,
22-4; iv, 184
Marv-ar-Rud, i, 102
Marv-ash Shahijan, I, 102
21 — 2
324
INDEX
Mary, St., Island, n, 147
Masalak-al-absdr, I, 307; n, 144,
194. 195; iv, 138
Masin (Mahachin), I, 121, 127,
151
Maskat, n, 112; in, 68; iv, 36
MAS LATRIE, Count of, in, 138
Masnad, iv, 139
MASPERO, Georges, u, 163
MASPERO, H., i, 66; rv, 267
Massagetae, i, 34; in, 184
Massawah, I, 219
Massis, in, 163
Massissa, in, 160
Massius, Mount, i, 216
MASSON, Map, i, 310
Mastauj, i, 315
Mastra, i, 152
Masudabad, iv, 12
MAS'UDI, i, 31, 33, 43, 44, 47,
83, 84-6, 90, 96, 97, 126, 127,
136-8, 230, 241-3, 245, 247-9,
251, 306, 307; ii, in, 139,
144, 248; in, 192, 225, 245,
265
Masufah, iv, 144
Masulipatam, in, 70
Matan, n, 162
Matheu, the word, 11, 214; in,
119
Mattancheri, n, 134, 135
MATTHEW, St., in, 7, 222
MATTHEW of Arezzo, in, 5
MATTIOLI, n, 153, 154
MATTIUSS!, n, 6, 7
Matto Grosso, n, 147
MA TWAN-LIN, i, 57, 161, 199, 200;
in, 150; iv, 157
MAUI, i, 50
Maund. iv, 81
MAURICE, Emperor, i, 29, 30, 34,
"5
MAURICE, Gabriel, i, 106
Mauritania, i, 221
MAURO, Fra, i, 142, 151, 176,
i?7. 3°3, 304; n, 23, 103, 115,
I3°. J33. 160, 211, 267; in, 27,
53. 147. 2I9, 233, 244, 246, 247
MAURY, Alfred, i, 127, 128, 253
Mauttama, i, 243
Ma-wara-n-Nahr, i, 20, 98, 244;
in, 33; iv, 137, 145, 160, 161,
164, 165, 190, 212
Mayad, i, 244
Mayandur, iv, 73
MAYERS, W. F., i, 78
MAYILA DEVI, n, 142
Mayn, n, 109
Mazandaran, i, 100, 163, 275
MAZDAI, in, 253
Meau tze, 11, 187
Meaux Abbey, in, 171
Mecca, Mecha, i, 131, 246; 11, 123.
137; in, 228, 267; iv, 3, 5,
37, 192, 207, 208
Mecchino, 11, 137
Mecrit, I, 152
Meda, i, 306
Medan, n, 121
Medeia, I, 301 ; HI, 85
Medes, i, 102, 206; 11, 98; in, 16,
28
MEDHURST, Jr., W. H., i, 10
Media, i, 135, 189; in, 22
Medina, iv, 3, 190, 207
Mediterranean, i, 300; in, 180,
246
MEDLYCOTT, 11, 126, 142
Megna, rv, 152
Mehar, in, 161
Mehran, i, 86
Meiling Pass, iv, 121
MEINERT, J. G., Commentator on
Marignolli, 11, 207; in, 180,
192, 193, 202, 207, 210, 213,
216, 217, 219, 229-231
Mel Shan, n, 220
Mekke, i, 246; see Mecca
Mekong, i, 128
Mekran, I, 309; iv, 160
Melaguette, Meleguette, Melegetae^
etc., ii, 153, 154
Melanchlaeni, iv, 204
MELA, POMPONIUS, i, i, 15, 16, 196,
197; ii, 252 ; in, 222
MELCHIZEDEK, in, 209
Melek-i-Rum Kaisar, i, 57
Meliancota, iv, 78
Meliapur, Meliapor, in, 250, 251;
see Mailapur
Melibar, ii, 134 ; see Malabar
MELIORANZI, Canon, ii, 14
Meliori Foro, n, 181
Melistorte, ii, 258
Melle, iv, 40
Melli, i, 219; iv, 40
Melon producing a lamb, ii, 240
Melons, I, 267 ; n, 107, 240
Melrose, in, 170
Memak, III, 84
Membaj, I, 307
Mena, in, 156
Menabar, in, 65
Menam, I, 124
MENANDER, i, 23, 46, 96, 149,
205, 206, 274
MENAS, HI, 223
MENDOZA, G. de, ii, 181, 188
MENENTILLUS of Spoleto, Friaiv
in, 5-6. 58-9
INDEX
325
MENEZES, Alessio di Gesu de,
iv, 226, 253
MENEZES, Duarte, n, 142
MENG K'l, n, 152
Meng-ku-yu-mu-ki, iv, 141
MENG-LIANG-LU, n, 194
MENINSKI, IT, 255 ; 111,54; IV. X42
Menteshe, iv, 5
Mentz, II, 34
Menzu, n, 209, 211, 212
MEODEUS, in, 252
Mercato, in, 145
MERCATOR, i, 308 ; iv, 159
Merdacas, n, 221
Merdachascia, applied to silk, n,
221
Merga, in, 76
Mergeo, iv, 73
Merkit, in, 19, 20
Meroe, i, 306
Merososso, in, 170
MERTA WIJAYA, in, 193
Mem, in, 198, 222
Merv, see Marv
Merveilles de I'lnde, 11, 146
Meselelec, iv, 229
Mesene, i, 42
Mesetelech, iv, 227
Meshed, i, 189; in, 39; iv, 3
Meshid Ali, iv, 36
Mesmeric Influence, iv, 124
Mesopotamia, i, 83, 84, 102, 189,
220, 225, 226, 252
MESSIAH, i, 113
Metaxa, the word, n, 221
Metropolitan Sees of the Nes-
torians, ill, 22, 23
Metroxylon laeve, — Rumphii, 11,
1 60
Mexicans, in, 80
Mexico, i, 180
MEYENDORFF, i, 34, 71; iv, 183,
210, 228
MEYER, Paul, n, 67
MEZZABARBA, in, 215
Miako, i, 131 ; iv, 169
MICAEL of Tar'el, St. Mar, i, 119
MICHAEL, Friar, 11, 15
MICHAEL, Patriarch, in, 223
MICHAEL, a Convert, in, 258
MICHAEL DUCAS, i, 56
MICHAEL PALAEOLOGUS, treats
about the Union of the
Churches, in, 4 ; see PALAEO-
LOGUS, M.
MICHAEL the Syrian, i, 50
MICHEL, Francisque, 11, 40
MICHELE MAMBRE, I, 290, 293
MICHELL, iv, 182
Michem, i, 301, 302
Middle Empire, in, 85 ; see
Medeia
MlE-LI-I-LING-KAI-SA, I, 44, 56
Mien, i, 301, 302; 11, 236
Miesa, in, 171
MIGNE, Patrologia, n, 100
Mijnere, i, 306
MIKIA-I-LING, i, 56
MlKIALING, I, 56
MIKLUCHO-MACLAY, n, 147
Milan, i, 86
Milazzo, in, 169
Miliaresion, i, 44, 229
MILI-I-LING KAISA, i, 56, 57
MILIS, i, 108
Milk, Trees that give, in, 96
MILLAIS, in, 214
MILLER, Hugh, 11, 262
Millestorte, Millescorte, n, 257,
258
Millet, in, 41
MILTON, in, 227
Min, R., i, 77, 175; in, 12; iv,
121
Minab, i, 85
Minabar, HI, 65
Minao, I, 85
Mines de I'Orient, n, 257
MING, i, 73, 76, 79, 87, 131, 175,
179, 237, 268, 271, 274; n, 146,
205, 206, 216, 232; in, 150;
iv, 189
Mingaur, Minglaur, Mingora, i, 74
Mingchu, n, 212; see Ning Po
Mingieda, iv, 227-9
Mingio, i, 301; n, 212; see Ning
Po
Ming-ol, iv, 231
Ming shi, II, 152; III, 13
MING Ti, i, 66
Minibar, n, 65, 74, 132; in, 230;
see Malabar
Minieh, i, 306
MINISSIMI, Luigi, n, 90
Minister of the left; — of the
right, i, 134
Minnagara, I, 241
Minocchi, n, 230
MINOR HAN, i, 139
Mints or Treasuries in Cathay, HI,
98
Min Yue, I, 39
MIQUEL, n, 157
Miracles, alleged of Odoric, n,
ii, 13-16, 275-6; by bones of
friars, n, 128 seq. ; by St. Nicho-
las's finger, in, 200 ; at tomb of
St. Thomas, in, 376
Mirapolis, in, 250; see Mailapur
Mirapor, i, 309; in, 250
326
INDEX
Miraporam, R., iv, 74
MIR IZZET ULLAH, iv, 219, 230,
239
Mirjai, n, 221; iv, 219
MIR JUMLA, iv, 176
MIRKHOND, i, 271 ; n, 236
MIR SHAH, i, 315
MIRZA ABU SAID, iv, 166
MIRZA BAISANGAR, i, 271
MIRZA HAKIM, iv, 207
MIRZA IBRAHIM, i, 313
MIRZA MAHOMED HAIDAR KUR-
KAN, iv, 193
MIRZA ULUGH BEG, i, 271 ; iv, 166
Misermans, iv, 233
Misqali, II, 107
MI-SHI-HO (MESSIAH), i, 113
Misr, in, 263
Missionary Friars, I, 213; see
Table of Contents
Missioni Francescane, n, 214
Missions to pacify the Tartars,
i, 154; First to Cathay, m, 4;
see Franciscans, Jesuits, John
of Monte Corvino, etc.
Missions Catholiques, I, 122; n,
250
Missis, in, 160
Mississa, i, 307
MITHRAS, i, 27
Mitridanes, I, 173
Miyako, I, 131; iv, 169
Moal, i, 117; in, 20
MOAWIYAH, i, 44, 48, 50; iv, 130
Mobar, see Ma" bar
Moccoli, Moccols, in, 147, 146, 164
Mo CHU, i, 148
Modilial, in, 257
Mogal, in, 20
Mogaung, Mogoung, Moquan, i,
lo, 177
Moghan, n, 105
Moghulistan, iv, 163, 164, 165,
166
Mog6r, i, 238 ; iv, 198
Mohabar, see Ma'bar
Mohamedans, i, 88, etc.
MOHAMMED II, n, 99
MOHAMMED KHUDABENDEH, n,
104
MOHAMMED KHWARIZM SHAH, i,
60
MOHAMMED TUGHLAK, iv, 14; see
MAHOMED TUGHLAK
MOHL, Jules, i, 9
Moho, n, 200
Mohochintan, i, 68
MOHONOAN, Chacha, i, 67
Mo-i, i, 44, 48
MOKAN, Khan, i, 205, 206
Molai (Male), i, 86
Molephatam, in, 30, 68; iv, 35;
see Malifatan
MOLINI, G., H, 61
MOLLAH SULEIMAN, in, 162
Mo-lo, i, 85
MOLOPAMA, I, 70
Moltan, i, 310; see Multan
Molucas, 11, 156, 161, 168, 208;
iv, 158
Mombasa, iv, 4
Monasteries and Monks, Bud-
dhist, ii, 184; in, 57, 94, 229,
233, 234, 242, 243
Monde illustre, n, 166
MONET, Henry, 11, 83
Money Paper, in, 97
MONG CH'ANG, i, 140
MONG CHI-SIANG, i, 140
Mongol, Cathay under the, from
Rashiduddin, in, 113 seq.
Mongol Conquests, i, 148 seq. ;
Dynasty in China, i, 146 seq. ;
its Fall, i, 172
Mongol Empire divided, i, 153
Mongol Expeditions to Java, 11,
151
Mongol Khans, their diplomatic
communications with Europe,
i, 166
Mongolia, I, 200, 286; iv, 163,
205
Mongols, i, 136, 288; ii, 144, 177,
245, 248; in, 20, 248
MO-NI, i, 62, 63
Monkey Mountains, iv, 108
MONOD, Gabriel, ii, 83
Monreale, i, 241
Mons Beatus, in, 267
Monsol, in, 225
Monsters and Strange Beasts, ii,
230; in, 255, 258, 259; in the
cloister at Cansay, ii, 202 ; in,
260
MONTANUS, II, 210
Montaperti, m, 178
MONTE CORVINO; see JOHN of
MONTE CORVINO
MONTECROCE, RlCOLD of, I, 155
170; II, I, 22, 98, 104, III, 223,
250; in, 225, 234, 260; iv, 135,
143
MONTENIANI, Girolamo, ii, 20
MONTEREALE, Count Pietro, ii, 17
MONTFAUCON, I, 25, 27, 212-6, 2 1 8,
219, 227, 228, 230, 231; II, 56
MONTGOMERIE, Capt. J. G., I, 3ii,
312; II, 248, 254
MONTIGNAC, II, 2O
Monument of Odoric, n, 17 seq.
INDEX
327
MOOR, Notices Indian Arch., ii,
149, 157, 168, 174
MOORCROFT, I, 317, 318; IV, 230
Moors in China, singular meeting
of, iv, 128
Mootapilly, in, 70
Mophi, i, 151
Mopsuestia, i, 307
Moquanne, in, 8
Moradabad, iv, 18
MORANVILLE, H., HI, 37
Moray, in, 170
Morda sangue, in, 167
Morea, in, 153
MOREL-FATIO, i, 299
MORELLI, J., II, 64
Morilloum, i, 228
Morocco, in, 145; iv, 39
Morpeth, in, 171
MORRISON, Dr. R., n, 232
Mortiliano, 11, 22
Moscov, i, 305
MOSES, i, 221; in, 209; iv, 175,
224
MOSES of Chorene, I, 93, 94, 159
MOSHEIM, i, 114, 162; in, 5
MOSINANG, I, 73
Mosque, Forcible driving to, iv,
32, 225
Mo ssu PAN, i, 97
MOSTANSIR, III, 223
MOSTAS'IM BlLLAH, I, 153 ; IV, 87
Mosul, i, 119, 189; n, 109; in,
22, 23, 199, 225; IV, 3
Mo TSUNG, i, 147
MOUHOT, H., i, 128
MOUKHINE, I, 311
MOULE, A. C., ii, 215 ; in, 15 ;
iv, 269, 270
MOULE, G. E., n, 192, 193, 195,
203, 204
Mountain of the Moon, in, 198
MOUNTAIN, OLD MAN of the, n,
257 seq.
Mountain of Ceylon, in, 220, 227,
228, 232 ; iv, 32 ; see ADAM,
Peak
Mount Deli, n, 115; iv, 75
MUAWIA, see MOAWIYAH
MUBARAK SHAH, iv, 161
MUBARIK, n, 115
Mubids, i, 112
Muchal, in, 147
Mudiliar, in, 257
Mughisar, in, 161
Mughuls, i, 272
MUHAMMAD, in, 34; iv, 162
MUHAMMAD ABDUL KERIM MOON-
SHY, iv, 206
MUHAMMAD BAKHSHY, i, 271
MUHAMMAD BEG, i, 272
MUHAMMAD BIN KASIM, i, 254
MUHAMMAD KHAVEND SHAH, i,
271
MU HAN, I, 2O6
Muh hu, i, 112
Muhupa, i, 112
Mujah, i, 244
Mujelibe, in, 262
Mukim, ii, 146
MUKTOPIDA, i, 70
Mu ku tu su, i, 87; see Magadoxo
Mulahi, Mulahidah, ii, 258
Mulehet, Mulhet, n, 258
Mul Jawa, iv, 48, 67, 68, 96,
97, 149, 155-8
MULLER, And., i, 182
MULLER, C., I, II, 13, 14, 17,
183-5, 2OI» 2O5' 2I2, 217, 219,
3°4
MULLER, F. W. K., i, 36, 63
MULLER, Max, ii, 241
MULLIK YUZBEK, IV, 153
Multan, i, 254, 310; iv, 10, 12,
i?. 238
Miinchener Gelehrte Anzeigen, HI,
5
Munchu, in, 125
Munda, in, 145
MUNEDJIM BASHI, iv, 64
Mungali, I, 74
Mung-kie-li, i, 74
Mungkien, I, 316
Munich, in, 205
Munkan, i, 316
MUNSHI MAHOMED HAMID, i, 311
MUNTZ, E., ii, 83
MURAD, Sultan, iv, 173
MURAD Beg, iv, 186
Murad Su, in, 163
Murano, I, 290
MURATORI, n, 153
Muria, I, 152
MURRAY, Hugh, i, 302 ; n, 86,
146; iv, 189
Murz, iv, 256
Musa Sapientium, ii, 150
Musci, Jerome, in, 216
Mushar, ill, 161
Musical maidens, service by, ii,
254
Musk, i, 224, 227, 248, 251, 264,
316
Mussauites, iv, 175
Mussi, ii, 150
Mus-Tagh, iv, 215, 228
Mustakhraj, iv, 140
Musulmans in China; see Maho-
medans
Mutafilly, Mutfili, i, 309; in, 70
328
INDEX
Mutammid, I, 135
Mutapali, in, 70
Mu T'ien tze chuen, I, g
Mutlam, ii, 135
MUTOPI, I, 70
Muttra, iv, 35
Mu WANG, i, 9
Muyiri Kodu, in, 249
Muzart, iv, 228
Muzart Daria, iv, 231
Muziris, in, 249
Mygdonia, i, 216
Mynibar, 11, 130; in, 207, 249
Mysore, I, 243 ; in, 66
Naband, I, 84
Nabannae, i, 195
Nabi Yunus, in, 225
Nacchetti, Nacchi, in, 155, 169
Nadhabar, Naderbar, Nandarbar,
iv, 23
NADIR SHAH, iv, 205, 207
Nadjaf, I, 83
NA-FU-TI O-LO-NA-SHOEN, i, 69
NAGAIA KHAN, rv, 7
Nagarahara, i, 74
Ndgara kretdgama, n, 156
Nails, long, in Manzi, n, 256
Naimans, I, 148, 195, 287 ; in,
19-21, 25, 53; iv, 222
Nam, n, 1 06
Naja, i, 244
Najah, i, 143
Naked Folk, i, 303 ; in, 42
Nakh, in, 155, 156; see Nacchetti
Nakhodah, iv, 104
Nakhschiwan, in, 37
Nakkaras, n, 262, 264
NAKKASH, i, 179
Nakkut, in, 156
Nakur, n, 149
Nala, i, 10
Nalopatana, i, 228
Nam King (K'ai fung), in, 125,
126
Nam tai, i, 175
NANA, i, 70
Nanaor, i, 309
Nan ch'ang, 11, 212; in, 128
Nan chao, i, 61 ; in, 127
Nan che, 11, 182
Nandor, i, 309
Nanggolokialo, i, 74
Nanghin, in, 126
Nangias, Nangkiass (Southern
China), i, 34, 150
Nan King, i, 18, 30, 67, 76, 78,
93, 122, 123, 175, 278; n, 10,
184, 193, 204-6, 209, 216; in,
126, 128
Nan Shan, n, 187, 188
NAN SUNG, 11, 205, 206
NANTE, i, 67
Nan Ts'i Shu, iv, 267
Nanwuli, I, 82
Nan Yue, I, 39
NAOSHIRWAN, i, 95 ; see KHOSRU
NAOSHIRWAN
NAPIER, Sir Robert, iv, 22
Naples, i, 120; in, 97, 190, 200,
210
NAPOLEON I, 11, 19
NAPOLEON III, 11, 230
NARAM SIN, i, 8
Naranja, 11, 115
Nard, I, 184
Nardostachys, i, 227
Nargah, i, 151
Nargil, I, 225 ; in, 236, 241
NARSES, i, 97
NARSES, General, i, 115
NASAWI, i, 33, 256
Nas^arini, n, 130
Nasi, island, 11, 146
Nasicci, the word, see Nacchetti
NASIRUDDIN, Tables of, i, 290, 314 ;
iv, 184
NASIR UDDIN, son of BALBAN, in,
132; iv, 85
NASIR UDDIN, Sultan of Ma'bar,
in, 231; iv, 34
NASRI BIN AHMED BIN ISMAIL,
i, 138
NASR-UD-DIN, Seyid, in, 122
NA SU LA TING, III, 122
NATHAN, i, 173
NATIGAY, n, 261
NA-TU-LU, i, 206
Natuma, Natuna, I, 128
Nature, La, n, 256
NAU, F., i, 109
Nauakath, in, 24
Nava pura, i, 124
Nawus, iv, 142
Naysabur, i, 102
Nazareth, in, 200, 226
Nazavicium, i, 203
Nazzareni, n, 130
Nebo, i, 307
NEBUCHADNEZZAR, 11, 135; in,
262
Necuveram, Necuveran, n, 169,
i?3
Negapatam, i, 81 ; 11, 140; iv, 35
Negrais, iv, 93
NEGRO, G. del, 11, 79, 87, 90
Negropont, in, 29
Nehawend, i, 96
NEIGEBAUER, i, 176
Nelcynda, rv, 74, 75
INDEX
329
, 10
Nelliseer, IV, 74
Nellore, n, 141; in, 68
Nemnai, Nemtai, Nemptai, I, 175,
266
Neng kai chai man lu, I, 116
Nepal, i, 60, 69, 73
Nepalese, n, 249
Nephrit, I, 246
Nerbudda, in, 221
Nere, i, 10
Neruala, i, 310
NESSAWI, i, 33
NESTOR, Chronique, I, 245
Nestorians, i, 44, 101, 116, 119,
121, 122; II, III, 117, 132,
142, 166, 210; in, 16, 18, 19,
22, 101, 102
Nestorian Envoy to the Pope in
I5th Century, i, 177
Nestorian Metropolitan Sees, in,
22, 23
NESTORIOS, Mar, i, 119
NESTORIUS, i, 102 ; in, 48
NEUMANN, i, 31, 107, 141
Newars, i, 73
Newbattle, in, 170
NEWBOLD, Capt., 11, 262
New Guinea, n, 159
New York, i, 106
New Zealand, in, 221
NGAI Ti, i, 66
Ngan hwei, 11, 207
Ngan kwo, i, 131
Ngan si, i, 61, 63, 140; in, 127;
iv, 231, 237
NGAN Ti, i, 57
NGAO-LA-HAN, 11, 210
Nghe-an, i, 4, 135
Ngo Hu, 11, 182
Nhut-nam, i, 4
Nia, i, 251 ; iv, 190
Niandor, i, 309
NICEPHORUS, i, 49, 55
NICEPHORUS GREGORIAS, i, 46;
m, 49
NICEPHORUS MELISSENUS, i, 44
NICHOLAS'S finger, Saint, m, 200
NICHOLAS, Friar, Archbishop of
Khanbaliq, in, 12-14, 34. 35;
iv, 161
NICHOLAS, Son of ARSLAN, in, 187
NICHOLAS III, Pope, i, 301 ; in, 5
NICHOLAS IV, Pope, i, 120, 166;
in, 4, 216
NICHOLAS of Bantra, m, 13, 75
NICHOLAS COMANUS, i, 57
NICHOLAS of Molano, m, 188
NICHOLAS of Pistoia, n, 141 ; m,
5. 6. 45. 58, 59, 65
Nicobar Islands, i, 127; n, 168-
170; iv, 93
NICOLAS, Chron. of Hist., i, 219
Nicosia, in, 246
Nicoveran, 11, 167, 168
Nicoverra, 11, 25, 30-2, 34
NlEH-KU-LUN, III, 12, 13
Nieito, i, 71
Nien yu, 11, 191
NIEUHOF, i, 80; ii, 210, 213, 214;
in, 80
Niger R., in, 221; iv, 39, 40
Nigri K'itai, iv, 230
NIKITIN, Athan., i, 151, 179, 254;
in, 194
NIKPAI, iv, 161
Nikpha, I, 144
Nilawar (Nellore), in, 68, 70
Nile, i, 10, 202, 219; ii, 207;
m, 221-4; iv, 3-5, 40, 45
Nileshwar, Nileshweram, Nilexo-
ram, iv, 74
Nili, i, 10
Nimbar, m, 217, 230 ; see Nyrnbar
NIMROD, ii, 122; in, 209, 261,
263
NIN, in, 265 ; see NINUS
Ninarkovil, Nfnarqawal, iv, 35
Nine Oguz, i, 248
Nine Provinces, a name for China,
i. J77
Nineveh, i, 34 ; in, 23, 225
Ning Chu, I, in
Ning Hia, i, 116; n, 244
Ning po, i, 301 ; ii, 189, 205, 212
Ni NIE SHI, Ni-Nf-ssE (NARSES),
i, 97
NINUS, in, 264; see NIN
Ninus, i, 34 ; see Nineveh
Niobottoli, in, 170
Niomostriere, HI, 171
Nirwana, iv, 242
Nisabur, Nishapur, in, 155, 156
Nisibis, Nissibin, Nisibin, i, 119,
216; in, 22, 23
Nit-nam, i, 4, 6
NlU CHE, NlU CHEN, I, 147, 148;
ii, 177, 192, 200; in, 123
Niu kwo, i, 303
Niya, I, 251 ; iv, 190
Nizahdars, iv, 139
NlZAMUDDfN, III, 69
NOAH, i, 26, 234, 240, 246 ; ii, 102 ;
in, 163
NOAH, son of NASRI, i, 138, 252
NOBREGA, Em. de, in, 252
Nocran, i, 309
Nocueran, ii, 168
NOE, in, 163 ; see NOAH
NOGODAR, iv, 9
330
INDEX
Noisettes de Saint Gratien, in, 97
Nomisma, I, 44, 229
Noncello, II, 5
NONNOSUS, in, 9
Norai, i, 10
Norbonucche, in, 170
North-China Herald, n, 182; rv,
269
NORTHERN CHAU, i, 63
NORTHERN SUNG, i, 92
NORTHERN WEI, i, 95
Northumberland, in, 171
Notes and Queries on China and
Japan, i, 98; n, 177
Nottingham, n, 182
Nottinghamshire, in, 171
Nottola, the word, n, 116
Nouveau Diet. d'Hist. naturelle,
ii, 181, 186
Nouvelle Biographic ginerale, ii, 87
Nouvelles Annales des Voyages,
i, 114, 191
Novgorod, i, 305
Novus Orbis, n, 134
NOYAN TAKIN, in, 127
Nuabah, i, 306
Nuachet, in, 22
Nubia, i, 220, 306; in, 7, 127
Nubians, i, 220
Nuksan, iv, 259
NU'MAN, i, 83
NUMUGHAN, in, 127
Nuovo Archivio Veneto, n, 5, 91
Nutmegs, i, 264; n, 153
Nuts of St. Gratian, in, 96, 97
Nyakot, in, 22
Nyas, n, 149, 168
Nymbar, in, 207, 249 ; see Nimbar
Obillah, Obolla, I, 84, 85, 86;
ii. in
OCCAM, ii, 16, 23; see OCKHAM
OCCIONI-BONAFFONS, G., II, 93
Ocean, ii, 112; in, 180
OCKHAM, William, n, 16, 23; in,
205
OCTAI, iv, 162 ; see OKKODAI
Octorar, in, 147
Ocymurn Sanctum, ii, 116
ODO, Gerard, in. 33
ODORIC, i, 45, 76, 80, 119, 122,
I27. X53. l69, 171, 257, 276,
279, 301 ; n, see Table of Con-
tents ; in, 3, 1 1 ; iv, 258, 266, 268
ODORICUS, Ludovicus, n, 7
Oech, R., i, 211
Oechardae, I, 194, 195
Oechordas, Oechardus R., i, 194,
195, 203
Oedisius, i, 217
Ogan, rv, 231
OGUZ KHAN, i, 210
Ohind, i, 74
d'OnssoN, i, 33, 34, 167, 177, 223,
289, 299; ii, 105, 144, 178, 180,
193. 197. 234. 238, 257, 263;
iii, 107; iv, 142, 156, 162, 163,
184. 235
Oikhardai, I, 194, 195
Oitograc, Oi-togrhaq, iv, 231
Oitograch Gazo, iv, 230
OKKODAI, i, 149-151, 153, 162;
ii, 201, 234; in, 33, 34, 113,
132, 156, 186, 248; iv, 162, 163,
O-KO-TA, i, 148
OKTAI, in, 34 ; see OKKODAI
Olachi, in, 246
OLAUS MAGNUS, n, 208
Olcholtam, in, 171
Oldaraese, in, 171
Old Cairo, in, 263
OLDENBURG, Wilibrand of, I, 307
OLD GERARDE, in, 236
OLD MAN OF THE MOUNTAIN, ii,
257. 259
Olibanum, iv, 97
Olives, iv, 118
OLJAI TARKHAN, in, 121
OLJAITU, i, 121, 166; ii, 104;
in, 10, 108-110; iv, 7
OLOBET EBADASCAN, rv, 213
Olo Ot, ii, 147
OLOPUN, OLOPAN, i, 105, 109,
no
O-LO-SSU, i, 109
Oltrarra, in, 147, 148, 156
OLUGH BEGH, i, 273, 284, 300
Oman, i, 85, 126, 132, 138, 244,
253; ii, 112; in, 222; iv, 4, 5
OMAR, i, 84; in, 121
OMAR BEN KHATAB, ii, 102
OMAR FANCHAN, in, 122
OMAR KHWAJA, HI, 126
O-mei Shan, i, 75
OMONT, H., ii, 71
Omyl, rv, 163, 164
ONESICRITUS, i, 14
Onon, i, 148
Onore, iv, 73
Onyx, in, 224
Ophir, in, 76
OPPERT, in, 262
Opurocarra, i, 203
Orange, Oranges, ii, 115; iv, 239
Orang Sakai, ii, 147
Orang Tanjong, ii, 147
ORANUS, iv, 177
Orbo, i, 308
Orchoe, I, 43
Orderly Administration of China
INDEX
331
always strongly impressed
Eastern nations, I, 134
Ordos, II, 10, 244
Ordu, in, 161
Organae, Orgune, in, 82, 84
ORGANAH Khatun, iv, 161
Organci, I, 304; in, 147, 148,
154, 156; see Urghanj
Organisation, in Chinese manner,
of states in Central Asia, i, 98
Organum, Orgonum, i, 287, 289;
iv, 161
Orinoco, in, 196
ORION, i, 144
Orissa, i, 69, 73, 177; 11, 145
Orkhon, i, 64, 248; in, 19, 55
Orlando Innamorato, I, 173
Ormes, n, no, 112, 117; in, 65,
256; see Hormuz
Ormi, i, 308
Ormis, I, 309
Ormuz, i, 78
Orontes, i, 304; in, 198; iv, 95
Orosana, i, 195
OROSIUS, i, 221
ORPELIANS, i, 94
Orpiment, in, 166
Orrhatha, Orrhotha, i, 227, 230
Orte Bellanda, in, 171
Ortus, ii, 244
Oryx, i, 224
Ossetes, Ossethi, 11, 223; in, 185
Ostriches with two heads, 11, 229
OTHMAN, iv, 5
OTHMAN BIN AFFAN, iv, 130, 131
Othmani plums, iv, 209
Otrar, i, 163, 174, 288; in, 147,
148
OTTOKAR, King of Bohemia, n, 5
Ottorocorrhas, Ottorocorrhae, i,
194. 195. 203
Ouch, i, 99
Oudh, in, 85
Oukaka, in, 84
OUSELEY, iv, 184
Outchah, iv, 238
OVIDIUS NASO, Publius, i, 186,
305
Oviedo, 11, 166
Owair, i, 152
Oweke, in, 84
Ox idol, ii, 138, 169
OXENHAM, Atlas, n, 231
Oxford, in, 205, 206
Oxus, i, 23, 36, 37, 41, 59, 61,
72, 98, 104, 191, 192, 230, 248,
278, 304, 310, 312-8; in, 82,
221, 225; IV, 160, l82, 184,
186, 210, 211, 215-7, 2.55. 258
OZAR, III, 87
Pacamuria, iv, 73
Pacchino, iv, 244, 252 ; see Peking
Pachan, iv, 238
Pacific Sea, iv, 103
Padaville, in, 231
Paddaei, ii, 173
Padshah, iv, 139
Padua, ii, 12, 30, 98, 142, 165, 195
Pa-eul-ch'u-k'o, iv, 228
Pagan, i, 177; n, 153
PAGANO DELLA TORRE, ii, 14, 17
Pagdatine, i, 34
Pagi Islanders, n, 148, 149
Pagine Friulane, ii, 83
PAGIUS, in, 18
PAGNINI DEL VENTURA, G. F.,
in, 137, 138, 141, 142, 148,
229
Pa hang, i, 82
PAIGHAMISH FANCHAN, in, 122
Paigu, i, 177; see Pegu
Paijamas, u, no
Paik tjyei, i, 257
Pai-t'a shan, n, 220
Pai-ti-yen, i, 205
Pajajaran, n, 152
Pakhpos, iv, 210
PAKOR, PAKUR, i, 94
Pak Pattan, iv, 12
Pala and Ariena of Pliny, not
the plantain, in, 41
Palabadulla, in, 233
Palace of Great Khan at Cam-
balec, ii, 218 seq. ; iv, 139 seq.
PALAEOLOGUS, Michael, in, 4, 211,
230; iv, 7
Palam, iv, 12
Palambang, Palembang, ii, 157,
161
Palanka, in, 162
Palankin, in, 241
Palatine Library, Florence, Cosmo-
graphia of, and its real date, I,
176; MS. of Odoric, i, 60, 94;
Appendix II, ii, 337 seq.
Palawan, iv, 158
Palermo, i, 115, 144, 145, 241
Palestine, i, 119, 120, 143, 220;
ii, 23; in, 224; iv, 3
Palestrina, i, 120; in, 216
Paliana, i, 195
Palibothra, Palimbothra, i, 183,
190, 194
PALISHANU, iv, 205
Paliuria, iv, 78
PALLADIO, G. F., ii, 85
PALLADIUS, i, 33, 117, 118; ii,
227, 229, 247, 248; in, 15,
53. 55
PALLAS, Voyages, n, 223
332
INDEX
PALLEGOIX, i, 132
Palm leaves used to write on,
in, 242; iv, 71
PALUDANUS, i, 184; in, 236
Pa-lu-ka, iv, 231
Palur, iv, 78
Palus Maeotides, i, 305; in, 81
Pamech, iv, 217
Pamir, i, 40, 61, 192, 248, 313,
314; 111,221,222; iv, 181, 182,
184, 186, 211, 216, 217, 219
Pamir-i-Wakhan, iv, 211
PAMPHILA, i, 197, 198, 199
Panam6, iv, 78
PAN CH'AO, i, 40, 42, 43, 50, 57;
iv, 188, 231
Panche, II, 117
Panchshir, Panjshir, n, 263 ; rv, 9,
209, 255-9
Panconia, Pancovia (Pegu), I, 177,
267
Pandarani, n, 10, 133; iv, 77
Panduah, Pandua, iv, 83, 85, 154
PAN HIONG, i, 41 ; Iv, 231
Pan hwei tien, iv, 141
Panichiero, in, 146
Panja, i, 313, 314; iv, 211
Panjalin, n, 161
Pansala, in, 234
Pan She Ta Tchen, iv, 239
Panteh, n, 156
Panten, n, 155, 156
Pantheon of GODFREY of Viterbo,
in, 240
P'an tou, i, 23
P'an-tsu, i, 23
PAN YONG, i, 41 ; iv, 231
PAOLINO, I, 220; n, 132, 135,
173; in, 218; iv, 172
PAOLO, Dr., i, 240
Paoting fu, n, 152
Pao yew cheng, n, 210
Papas, i, 1 08
Paper Currency, n, 196-8, 240;
in, 149-151; iv, 112
Papsi, i, 1 08
Paracels, n, 183
Paradise, in, 196-198, 220
Parasol, in, 256
PARASTER KHAN, in, 26
Paravanor, iv, 78
Parco di Li via, in, 171
Pardadariyah, iv, 139
PARDESSUS, i, 20
PAREBANDI, in, 69
Paremporam, iv, 78
Paris, i, 1 20
PARIS, Matthew, in, 18
PARKER, E. H-, i, 142; n, 193,
232 ; iv, 269
PARKES, Harry S., i, 10
Parliament of Friuli, n, 4, 21
Parocco (Baroch), in, 76-8
Paroche, 11, 117
Parrakad, iv, 79
Parrocia, the word, in, 165
PARROT, Prof., n, 102
Pars, i, 99
Parshiam, i, 307
Parsis in China, i, 58, 112; iv,
130
PARTA of Edessa, i, 95
Parthia, i, 23, 41, 189
Parthians, I, 23, 52, 102, 216
Parthura, I, 23
Parti, i, 228
Partridges, n, 99
Parvata, i, 242
Parwan, iv, 9, 21, 22, 180, 183,
209, 211, 255, 256-9
Paryan, iv, 256, 258
Pasalain, i, 308
Pasargadae, in, 232
PASCHAL or PASCAL of Vittoria, 11,
98; in, 31, 32, 35, 55, 81,
83, 85, 212
Pascherti, i, 307, 308
Pasei, ii, 149
Pashai, iv, 9, 139, 258
Passaur, iv, 203
Passes of Hindu Kush, note on,
n, 255
Pass of Siking, in, 117
PA-TA-LIK, i, 55
Pataliputra, I, 69
Pa-tan, i, 81
Patani, 11, 155
Patefula, iv, 172
PATKANOV, K. P., i, 164
Patlam, iv, 32, 33, 34
Patna, iv, 76
Patria del Friuli, n, 82, 89
PATRICIUS, i, 26
Pattan, in, 63; iv, 173
Pattan Fattan, in, 70
PATTERSON, B. C., i, 121
Patti, in, 169
Patuk, ii, 252
PAUSANIAS, i, 16, 21, 52, 202
PAUTHIER, G., i, 2, 7-10, 28, 30,
31, 41-5, 47-57. 7°-2, 79, 80,
82, 91, 95, 96, 99, 103, 105,
107-110, 112, 114, 117, 131,
132, 134, 141, 165, 177, 237,
273, 278, 280, 285, 291, 295,
299, 302, 303, 309, 314; ii, 165,
177, 178, 184, 192, 198, 205,
210, 211, 213, 215, 2l6, 219,
220, 234, 238, 244, 245 ; iv, 4,
159, 162, 189, 238
INDEX
333
PAVET DE COURTEILLE, i, 84, 137;
ii, 236
Paychinor, I, 309
PEACOCK, 11, 255
Peacocks, n, 222 ; in, 250
Pearls, n, 146, 169; n, 225; in,
1 68
Pe Che-li, i, 278; n, 213; in, 128
PE CHEN, iv, 231
Pechin (Peking), i, 239
PECHINEGS, i, 244, 245, 247
Pedaggio, in, 144
Pedir, i, 124; n, 149
PEDRO JUAN, in, 26
Peepul tree, in, 242
PEGOLOTTI, F. Balducci, i, 159,
172, 229; ii, 101, 102, 130,
137, 146, 154, 157, 192, 196,
197, 221 ; in, 48, 82, 85, 97,
99, 137-171, 263 ; iv, 241
Pegu, i, 124, 128, 151, 177, 183,
228, 243; n, 161, 1 66; in, 194;
iv, 201
Pegua, the word, in, 41
PEHLVAN SsuLLAn, i, 278
Pel ho, in, 115
Pel lin, i, 105, 106
Pein, i, 251; iv, 189, 190
Pei p'ing fu, ii, 216
Pei shi, in, 1 86
Pei t'ing, i, 59, 62; in, 55; iv,
141, 237
Pe Kiang, iv, 121
Pe King, I, 93, 114, 122, 147,
148, 150, 153, 169, 173, 181,
258, 278, 285, 313; n, 10, 177,
192, 2O5, 213, 2l6, 220, 227,
234, 236, 249; III, 3, 13, 22,
115, 117, 128, 190, 216; iv, 44,
140, 150, 169, 180, 181, 235,
236, 239, 243, 252
Peling, ii, 147
PELLETZ, Joann. de, in, 14
Pelliceas and Filiceas, Scripture
criticism by Marignolli, in, 227,
241
PELLIOT, Paul, i, 5-8, 32, 45, 53,
63, 64, 81, 88, 89, 105, 108-
110, 113, 114, 116, 129, 136,
215, 278, 318; ii, 168, 173, 210;
in, 15, 126, 127, 182, 214;
iv, 170, 228, 230, 231, 267, 268,
270, 271
Penances of Hindus, ii, 143
Penta, Pentam, i, 301; n, 157
Pentapolis, i, 221 ; iv, 141
Penthexoire, n, 244
Pen-is 'au Kang-mu, i» 109; iv, 98,
101
Pepper, i, 225, 227, 253; ii, 34,
129, 130, 132, 133, 136, 153,
154; in, 62, 217
Pera, in, 164, 165, 211
Perak, iv, 99
Perath Mesenae, in, 22
Peregrinatores Medii Mvi Quatuor,
see LAURENT, J. C.
PEREGRINE of Castello, in, 10, 28,
7i. 73
Perepen Angarry, iv, 78
Perescote, i, 293
Pergunnah, iv, 153
Perhe, I, 177
Periapatan, iv, 35
Periaville, in, 231
PERIEGETES, see DIONYSIUS
Perim, iv, 64
Perimula, iv, 157
Periplus, i, 43, 227, 254
PERITCHEHREH, i, 9
Periyar, n, 134
Per] an, iv, 256
PEROZES, i, 96, 205
Persarmenians, I, 220
Persepolis, ii, 10, 108 ; in, 232
Persia, i, 74, 84, 85, 92, 94, 95,
96, 98-104, 112, 178, 215, 218,
220, 227, 231, 238, 248, 272,
293, 309; ii, 164; in, 22, 69
Persian Gulf, i, 83, 85, 88, 146,
215, 227, 304; n, 10, in, 112,
180
Persian Song, iv, 133
Persians, i, 89, 102, 204, 205, 245;
ii, 98; in, 16, 186
PERTZ, Archiv, ii, 44, 45, 48,
49
Peru, ii, 262
Perugia, i, 156; in, 75
Perum, I, 305
PERUMAL, ii, 130; in, 69
PERUZZI, in, 140
Pervilis, ill, 231
Pesadone, Pasidum, Pasidonum,
in, 144
Pescamor, I, 309
Peshawar, i, 73, 242 ; iv, 180,
181, 203-6, 249
Pesth, i, 152
Pe tai, i, 146; ii, 177
PETER of Abano, in, 6, 195, 196
PETER of Florence, in, ii, 100
PETER of Lucalongo, I, 170; in,
55
PETER of Provence, in, 32
PETER of Sienna, ii, 117, 119,
125; in, 76
PETER, Indian, Friar, in, 212
PETER the Tartar, i, 167
PETER DELLA VALLE, ii, 113
334
INDEX
PETERMANN, Mitt., i, 218, 288,
289, 310; ii, 262
PETIS DE LA CROIX, i, 212, 283,
293. 305: ii. 105. 197; iv, 142,
163, 233, 238, 256
PETLIN, Evesko, n, 250
Petra, i, 43
Petri, i, 184
PETRUS RODULPHIUS, 11, 12, 21
Pe tsi, i, 257
PETZIGAUDIAS, loannes, i, 48
Peudefitania, in, 40; iv, 76
PFEIFFER, Ida, in, 194
Phalacrocorax sinensis, n, 189
Pharan, I, 221
PHARAOH, i, 151
Phari, n, 224, 252
Phasianus lanatus, II, 186
Phasis, i, 212
Phazania (Fezzan), i, 220
PHEITOLI, i, 54
PHILEMON, i, 189
PHILIP, Christian Mandarin, i, 236
PHILIP the Physician, in, 17, 18
PHILIP, Prior of Dominicans at
Jerusalem, in, 18
PHILIP III, iv, 199
PHILIP the Fair, i, 120, 166, 167
PHILIP of Valois, in, 37
Philippine Islands, n, 174; rv, 160
PHILIPPS and GORRES, in, 5
PHILIPPS, W. R., 11, 142; in, 253
PHILLIPS, Geo., i, 48, 77, 79, 86,
87; ii, 168, 172, 183, 186
PHILO, i, 221
PHILOSTORGIUS, i, 221
PHILOSTRATUS, n, 240
PHINEAS, m, 267
PHIRADAM SCHYECH, iv, 124
Phison R., i, 227; in, 197, 224,
225
Phoca, i, 225
Phocaea Nova, in, 43
Phoenicia, i, 220; in, 236
Phoenix Fructifera, iv, 70, 71
Phokpochengra, ii, 249
Photius, i, 14, 221
Phrygians, I, 102
Phryni, I, 17
Piaceri, Fiume di, n, 263
Piada, Piaddae, I, 195
Pian fu, i, 285
Pian la Magione, I, 156
Piazza, in, 144, 145
Piazza. Ballaro, I, 241
Picco, in, 157
Pi chan, rv, 238, 239
Pijan, iv, 191, 234, 238
Pi sha, iv, 222
Pi Shan, iv, 223
P'ien Hang, in, 128
Pien Yi tien, i, 72
Pietra Santa, in, 255
PIEVTSOV, i, 311
PlGAFETTA, II, l62, 163; II, 2O8 ;
iv, 146
Pigeon Island, rv, 35
PlLACORTE, II, 21
P'l-LO-KO, I, 6l
Pi LOU SSE, Pi LU ssu, i, 96, 97
Pima, i, 251
PlMENTA, N., IV, 199
P'ing ling, i, 40
Ping yang fu, i, 285
PINHEIRO, Em., iv, 173, 183, 203,
254
PlNKERTON, I, 125
Pinna squamosa, n, 243 ; iv, 267
PINTO, F. M., i, 122, 124; ii,
33, 205; in, 221, 223
P'i pi, in, 149
Pirabar, n, 132
PIREBANDI, in, 69
PlREZ, I, 1 80
Pirs, traditions of, in Silhet, iv,
153
Pisa, n, 12, 122; in, 244
PISANUS, Barth., ii, 16
Pisga, i, 307
PISHING, i, 295
Pishpek, i, 288
Pistachios, in, 167
Piyadahs, iv, 136
PIZARRO, i, 170
PlZZIGANI, III, l6l
PLANO CARPINI, John of, see
CARPINI
Plantain, ii, 150; in, 236
PLATO, i, 134
PLAYFAIR, ii, 205, 208
PLINY, i, 15-7, 21, 22, 184, 185,
192, 196-9, 224, 228, 254,
315; ii, 33, 208, 217, 263;
in, 259
Plum, iv, 109
Po, ii, 195, 213; in, 12
Pochang, i, 177
P6 chang tze, iv, 141
Poggi Islanders, ii, 147, 148
POGGIO BRACCIOLINI, i, 174-8
Pohwan, iv, 231
Poison, ii, 157, 158
Poland, in, 247
Pole Star, in, 195
POLI, the three, i, 169
Poliars, in, 259
Polin, i, 45
Poliu, Great and Little, i, 71 ;
iv, 267
POLLARD, A. W., ii, 78
INDEX
335
POLO, Maffeo, I, 277
POLO, Marco, I, 2, 76, 81, 82, 87,
89, 93, 105, in, 114, 117-9,
121, 128, 131, 139, 141, 144,
150, 152, 153, 161, 165, 167,
168, 173, 175, 180, 181, 214,
249, 251, 257, 267, 273, 277,
283, 285, 290, 291, 294, 296,
301-4, 309, 313; n, 24, 26, 33,
35, 98, 103, 106, 107, 1 12-6,
129, 130, 132-4, 139, 140, 146,
149-153, 156, 157, 159, 162-4,
168-170, 172, 174, 177, 182, 183,
186, 192, 193, 198-201, 209,
210, 212-4, 216, 217, 219, 220,
224, 227-9, 232, 234, 236, 239,
240, 242, 244-8, 250, 253, 255-8,
261, 263, 264; in, 18, 187, 194,
195. 253; iv, 3, 4, 137, 149,
159, 186, 188, 189, 198, 2ii,
238, 241
POLO, Nicolo, i, 168
Pololo, i, 313
Polorbech, HI, 162
Poltava, i, 305
Polumbum, n, 117, 125, 129, 131,
137
POLYBIUS, II, 153
Polypodium barometz, n, 242
Pomegranates, n, 107
POMPONIUS MELA, i, i, 15, 16,
196, 197; II, 252; HI, 222
Ponani, iv, 78
Pondicherry, iv, 69
PONTANO, lacobo, i, 232
Ponteamas, n, 156
PONTICO VIRUNIO, n, 76
Pontus, i, 183, 221 ; n, 98; in, 81
Pootoo, n, 184; HI, 269
Pope, of the idolaters, n, 250 ; HI,
93 ; of the Mahomedans, HI,
250; considered immortal, in,
216
POPE, the Poet, n, 240
Pope, i, 1 08
Poperti, i, 307
POPOV, iv, 141
POPPO, Wolfgang, n, 4
Population, of China, vast, n, 178;
HI, 95. 213, 228; of Cansay, n,
194; of Shensi, n, 247
Porca, iv, 79
Porcelain, iv, 109, 121
Porcelain phials from Egyptian
tombs, i, 10
Pordenone, 11, 3, 5, 7, 19, 21
Port Customs in China, iv, 115
Portenau, n, 5
Porto Pisano, I, 305
Portrait of Strangers, iv, 115
Portraits of Odoric, n, 21
Portraiture, Chinese skill in, iv,
114
Ports of Malabar, decay of, rv,
26 ; list of medieval, iv, 72
Portuguese, first arrival of, in
China, i, 180
Portulano Mediceo, I, 301, 309 ;
in, 147, 148
Portus Naonis, n, 5
PORUS, King, ii, 114
PO-SI-LI, i, 44
P'o sse, Po ssu, i, 89, 95, 97, 99
POSTERIOR WEI, i, 62
Posts, system of, in China, n, 233 ;
in, 92
PO-TO-LI, i, 44, 54, 55
Potsu, i, 314
POTTINGER, Eldred, iv, 208
Pou lu, i, 71 ; iv, 267
POUTIMSTEFF, I, 288
Poyang, n, 212; iv, 129
Po yeh, n, 152
PRABU KANYA KANCHANA WUN-
GU, ni, 193
Prague, HI, 199, 200, 201, 203,
204, 207, 227, 259, 264
PRAJNA, i, 112, 113
PRAPANCA, 11, 156
PRASRINMO, n, 251
PRATAPA VIRA RUDRA DEVA, in,
70
PRESBYTER COHEN, in, 26; see
PRESTER JOHN
PRESTER JOHN, i, 116, 155; n,
244, 245, 257; HI, 15-21, 25-7,
47, 222-4; iv, 177
PRETIOSUS JOANNES, HI, 26; see
PRESTER JOHN
PRIDHAM, 11, 171 ; in, 231, 233, 235
PRIMAUDAIE, Elie de la, i, 305
PRINSEP, Tibet, n, 249
Printing in China, i, 295, 298
PRISCIANUS, i, 183, 201
Probatica, in, 240
PROCOPIUS, i, 24, 46, 203, 204, 221
Prome, i, 177
PROPERTIUS, Sextus Aurelius, i,
186; n, 140
Prophecies of Latin Conquest of
India, in, 80
Propontis, n, 98; in, 81
PROU, M., iv, 270
Provence, HI, 144
Provinces of the Great Khan's
Empire, i, 231; twelve, 246;
list of them, in, 125 seqq.
PRYSE, W., Rev., iv, 152, 154
PSEUDO-CALLISTHENES, i, 304 ;
HI, 219
336
INDEX
PSEUDO-ODORIC, n, 22
Ptolemais, i, 221
PTOLEMIES, i, 220
PTOLEMY, Cl., i, 4, 6, 11-16, 22,
93, no, 143, 146, 159, 176, 183,
184, 187-192, 194, 195, 203, 213,
217, 227, 228, 241, 254, 286;
II, 112 ; in, 23, 27, 184, 197, 247,
263; iv, 228
Pu-cheng, n, 163
Pucian, Puccian, iv, 237, 238
Pudopatana, I, 228 ; iv, 65, 69,
76
Pudripatara, iv, 76
Pugman Range, iv, 255
Pu hwan, iv, 231
Pu ku chen, I, 59
PU-LA, in, 12
PtiLAD CHINGSANG, in, in
PULAKOMA BAZAE LACHA, i, 77
Pu-lam, Pu-lan, I, 45
Pulisanghin, in, 17
PULLE, G., i, 157
Pulo Condor, Pulo Condore, I, 78,
128, 129; n, 183; iv, 159
Pulovois, ii, 174
Pulowei, 11, 174
Pulse, Chinese skill in the, I, 159
Pulu, i, 71
Pu-lu-sha-pu-lo, i, 74
Pumpkin Island, i, 129
Punjab, i, 146, 292; iv, 203
Punkahs, 11, 113
PURANVAR SHAIKH, iv, 166
PURCHAS, i, 33, 182 ; ii, 35 ; iv,
193
Purchase of children to bring up
as Christians, in, 46, 55
Purgatory, in, 198
Purshavar, Purushavar, Purusa-
pura, i, 74 ; see Peshawar
Purslain, i, 246
Purut, i, 71
Puryan, iv, 256
P'u SA, i, 62
Pusse (Persia), I, 98, 99
Putlam, i, 226
Pygmies, n, 207, 208
Pyramids, iv, 45
Pyramus, in, 160, 221
Qa'an, I, 149; see Kaan
Qala'h, i, 253 ; see Kalah
Qala'i, i, 253
QALIN B. AS SACHIR, i, 138
Qalmaq, i, 281 ; see Kalmak
Qamju, i, 258
Qamul, i, 249; see Kamul
Qanun, I, 33, 256
Qaqola, iv, 96, 157; see Kakula
Qarawul, i, 274; see Karaul
Qaschi, II, 106
Qashan, ii, 106, 107; see Kashan
Qayl, i, 273, 286
Qazwin, ii, 258
QAZWINI, i, 138, 139
QIR THAY, iv, 133
Qomul, iv, 239 ; see Kamul
Quang-binh, n, 163; see Kwang
binh
Quantone, iv, 245, 251 ; see
Canton
QUATREMERE, Et., I, 34, 149, 152,
165, 167, 179, 246, 271, 275,
276, 278, 280-2, 286-8, 313;
ii, 105, 193, 195, 197, 201 ; in,
108-133; iv, 138, 166, 193,
201, 216
Quedda, Queddah, i, 127, 253
Quelinfu, ii, 205
Quengianfu, ii, 246; in, 127
Quesitan, n, 228 ; see Kie sie
QUETIF, in, 5, 37, 177
Quiloa, iv, 4
Quilon, ii, 129, 130, 133, 191, 218,
220; iv, 79
Quinsai, I, 89, 180, 267, 268; ii,
192, 193, 198; in, 126, 148;
see Hang chau
Quisci, i, 144; see Kish
Qum Aryq, iv, 228
Qum bashi, iv, 228
Qum tura, iv, 231
QUOLIBEY, i, 301 ; in, 5 ; see
KUBLAI
Quotan, iv, 222, 253 ; see Khotan
Qyzyl, iv, 231 ; see Kizil
Raba, HI, 145
Rabat Lodansa, iv, 230
Rabban, i, 109; n, 118
RACHIAS, i, 200
Radix China, I, 292
RADLOFF, i, 64 ; iv, 269
RAFFLES, n, 151, 173, 174
Rahma, Rahman, i, 243
Rahmaniya, Ramaniya, i, 243
Rai, i, 309; ii, 257; in, 22, 23
RAINALLUCI, Petrus, de Vico Cor-
bario, ii, 12
Rainstones, i, 246
Raisins, i, 165, 166
Raithu, i, 221
Ramanancor, iv, 35
Ramdyana, n, 151
Ramgulis, iv, 204
Ramgunga, iv, 18
Ramin, n, 146
Ramisseram, in, 67
Ramnad, ii, 140; in, 65, 67; iv, 35.
INDEX
337
Ramni, Ramny, n, 146-8
RAMUSIO, i, 131, 175, 179-181,
184, 218, 270, 290, 296; n, 25,
28, 31, 32, 77, 78, 94, 96, 134;
in, 259 ; iv, 234
RAN, in, 126
Rangoon, i, 243
Raphidin, i, 221
Rasalain, i, 308
RASHIDUDDIN, i, 135, 152, 153,
167, 246, 272, 307-9; n, 133,
146, 177, 179, 180, 228, 231,
232, 246; in, 21, 24, 30, 54,
107-133, 186; iv, 133, 176, 241,
242
Ratnapura, in, 233 ; iv, 33
Rats, n, 116
Ratu Dewa, in, 193
Ravend Cini (Rhubarb), I, 293
Ravenna, in, 247
RAVERTY, i, 140
Rawalpindi, iv, 203
Rawand-i-Chini (China Rhubarb),
i 293
RAWLINSON, G., i, 8; n, 153, 164;
in, 158, 259
RAWLINSON, Sir H., i, 84, 99, 149,
192, 308, 311; n, 102, in,
232; in, 23
RAYMOND of Provence, Friar, in,
32, 33
RAYMOND DELLA TORRE, 11, 8
Razichitis, in, 22
Rebat, iv, 177
Recueil des Historians des Crois-
ades, i, 260, 262
Recueil des Historiens des Gaules,
i, 162, 263
Recueil de Voyages Soc. Giog., i,
156; 11, 28; see AVEZAC, d'
Red River (Araxes), n, 102
Red River (So'ng koy), i, 6
Red Sea, i, 88, 199, 200, 221, 306;
in, 27, 180; iv, 3, 4
REES, Cyclopaedia, 11, 153, 154
Regio Feminarum, i, 303 ; m,
194
Reg Rawan, 11, 263
Regruwan, n, 262, 263
REHATSEK, Edward, i, 271-4,
277-9, 281-7
Rei, Land of, i, 293
REINAUD, i, n, 16, 21, 31, 52,
70, 74, 83, 84, 86, 90, 98, 114,
125-8, 131, 133, 138, 228, 241,
243, 248, 253, 254-6, 285; ii,
133, 196, 208; iv, 5, 137, 152
REISKE, i, 255
REJAM, i, 151
Rejang, 11, 25, 150, 151
c Y. c. iv.
Rekem, i, 43, 52
Relations des Voyages par les A rabes,
i, 257; ii, 149
Religious Houses in Scotland and
England supplying wool, in, 170
REMUSAT, Abel, i, i, 20, 23, 41, 51,
70, 71, 83, 90, 92, 96, 98, 100,
107, 165, 166, 191, 195, 209,
223, 272; n, 156, 163, 164, 201,
208
RENAN, i, 107
RENAUDOT, Eusebe, i, 31, 125, 127
RENNELL, i, 310; in, 262
RESED, i, 129
Resengo, ii, 150, 151
REUILLY, Tibet, ii, 250
Revatikshetra, i, 254
Revesbi, Revesby Abbey, in, 171
Revolving Pagoda, i, 277
Revue Critique, n, 73, 83, 142
Revue de Geographic, ii, 83
Revue des Questions scientifiques ,
n, 83
Revue du Monde musulman, ii,
135. 199
Revue historique, n, 5, 82, 83, 89
Revue des Traditions populaires,
i. 74
Rewa, i, 74
Rey, i, 246, 309
Rhabana, i, 195
Rhaptum, I, 213
RHEEDE, i, 185, 225; in, 236
Rhinoceros, I, 222, 243; ill, 42
Rhio Strait, n, 157
Rhodes, i, 190; in, 166
Rhoncosura (palm wine), i, 225
Rhubarb, i, 269, 290, 292; ii, 247
Rhyming double names, i, 150 seq.
Riau, n, 156
RICCI, Matteo, I, 121, 182, 239;
ii, 216; in, 255; rv, 171, 178-
181, 198-200, 209, 227, 236,
244-6, 248, 250, 253, 254
Rice, in, 1 66
Rice-Wine, i, 276; ii, 199; see
Darasun
RICH, ii, 108; in, 262
RICHARD, S. J., n, 213
RICHARD, Archbishop of Nazareth,
III, 200
RICHARD, Bishop of Armelec, HI,
32, 33, 212
RICHARDSON, ii, 197, 200
RICHARDSON, Dr., Traveller in
Burmah, iv, 201
RICHTHOFEN, Baron F. von, i, 3,
5, 83, 192, 193 ; iv, 266
RICOLD of Montecroce, i, 170; n,
22; in, 260; see MONTECROCE
22
338
INDEX
RIEU, Cat. Pers., i, 140
Right, left, and centre, Masters of
Chinese titles, i, 135
RIPA, Father, II, 131, 181, 188,
199, 236
Risam, i, 151
RITTER, i, 81, 191, 286, 293, 307;
II, 135, 141, 245; in, 216, 221,
222; iv, 182, 186, 190, 194,
216, 217, 219, 229, 233, 255
Rivalse, in. 171
Rivaulx, in, 171
River of China, iv, 108
Rivers of Paradise, in, 198, 220
Rivers from a common source,
frequent allegations of, in, 221
Rivista friulana, n, 88
Roasting of pepper denied, in, 217
Robaihat, in, 192
ROBERT, King of Naples, in, 140,
214
Robinson Crusoe, n, 244, 255
ROCHA, Felix da, i, 313
Roche Abbey, in, 171
ROCKHILL, W. W., i, 85, 116, 117,
149, 156. 157. 159-161, 233,
288; n, 144, 169, 200, 223, 224,
234, 237, 245, 247, 253, 258,
261, 265; in, 18, 20, 186; iv,
4. 164, 235, 271
Rock-salt, i, 68; 11, 104; iv, 5,
39
ROCN UDDIN KHURSHAH, i, 153
RODULPHIUS, Petrus, n, 12, 21
ROGER II, of Sicily, i, 141
Roha creek, i, 254
ROHRBACHER, II, 88
ROLANDUS PATAVINUS, n, 153
Roman Empire, Chinese know-
ledge of, ii, 35 seq.
ROMANET DU CAILLAUD, I, 122;
ii, 166, 174, 214
Romania, i, 101, 212; ii, 98; in,
153, 167, 169
Romans, i, 197, 199, 204, 221
Rom. of Nat. Hist., n, 161
Rome, i, 44, 120, 216; m, 247,
255, 266
Ronda, iv, 38
Rosa sinensis, I, 198
ROSE, Sir Hugh, iv, 22
Ross, E. D., i, 314; iv, 160, 193
Rossia, i, 305
Rosso, Fiume (Araxes), ii, 102;
in, 164
Rostaor, I, 305
Rostov, i, 305
Rotin, n, 161
Roukn Eddin, ii, 197
Roussie, i, 263
ROUSTOUM, i, 99; see RUSTUM
Rozdt ul Jandt, ii, 197
RUBEN, RUPEN, i, 109
Rubeo, i, 307
RUBEUS PlNZANUS, III, l8l
RUBRUQUIS, William, i, 116, 149,
152, 156, 158, 160, 161, 163,
164, 209, 210, 272, 287-9; ii,
40, 98, 102, 144, 199, 200, 222,
224, 234, 237, 240, 252, 258,
261, 263, 264 ; in, 18, 20, 22, 25,
81, 83, 125, 146, 185, 212, 216;
iv, 70, 161, 230, 233, 235, 271
Ruby, n, 169, 172
Ruby Mines, I, 317
Rudbar Mountains, n, 258
RUDOLF of Hapsburgh, n, 5
RUDRAMA DEVI, in, 70
Rufford, Rufforte, in, 171
Ruhmi, i, 243
Rukh, ii, 117; iv, 146, 147
RuKH-UD-DfN KAI-HAUS, iv, 85
Ruknaddin Abishari Fanchan, in,
126
Rum, i, 45, 57; ill, 125; iv, 38
Rum and Farang, distinctive use
of, iv, 38
Rumford, in, 171
Rumis, iv, 175
RUMPHIUS, n, 161
Ruotolo, in, 157
RUPEN of Armenia, in, 139
Rupya dvipa, n, 151
Russia, i, 264; ill, 186
Russians, I, 245, 283; n, 177
Russians in Central Asia, I, 288,
289, 310, 311, 317; see VALI-
KHANOFF
Rustam Khail, iv, 255
RUSTUM, i, 10, 99
RUSTUM, Mirza, i, 286
RUYSBROEK, see RUBRUQUIS
RYMER, Foedera, I, 166
SAAD-UD-DfN, III, 108
Saba, or Sava, in Persia, n, 106,
107
Saba, or Sheba, Queen of, i, 218;
ii, 31, 107; in, 220, 240, 241,
258, 259, 264, 265, 267
Saba, Island, I, 123, 191-4, 196
SABAR ISHU'A, i, 108
Sabba, ii, 31
Sabju, in, 131
Sacae, i, 196, 208
SACCHIENSE (PORDENONE), ii, 21
SACHR, iv, 130
Sacred Tooth, i, 67
Sacrithma, iv, 214, 216
SACY, de, i, 90, 220; ii, 104, 141
INDEX
339
Sadaj, i, 185
Sadchu, i, 143
SADIK ISFAHANI, i, 33; iv, 8, 235
Sadinfu, i, 278, 285
Sadkawan, iv, 82, 84-6
SADOZAI Dynasty, iv, 207
SADR-UD-DIN, in, 108
Sadr-ul-Jihan, iv, 138, 141
Safed Chir, iv, 256
Saffi, Sea of, n, 108
Safflower, in, 166
Saffron, i, 228
Sagae, i, 196
Sagatin, i, 308
Saggio, in, 157
Saghanian, I, 315, 316
Saghar, iv, 23
Sagharj, iv, 138, 141
Sagina, in, 41
Sago, ii, 26, 34, 158-160
Sagus Rumphiana, 11, 160
Sagwire, 11, 157
Sahadji Hindi, i, 185
Sahra, 11, 154
Saianfu, I, 167
Sai-Arik, iv, 229
SAID ALI, iv, 190
SAIDUDDAULAT, in, 108
SAIFUDDIN, in, 126
Saimur, I, 227, 253, 254
SAINSON, C., 11, 163
St. James, n, 142
St. John, ii, 162 ; in, 44
St. Mark's Library, n, 27, 130
SAINT-MARTIN, Arminie, and ed.
of LEBEAU, i, 3, 20, 49, 54,
93-6, 210; in, 24
Saint Petersburg, iv, 182, 183
St. Susan, in, 170
Sairam, i, 271, 272; iv, 164, 230,
231
SAI TIEN CH'E, in, 121
Sak, Sakas, I, 36
Sakai, ii, 147
Sakaia, I, 202
Sakatu, iv, 144
Saknia, i, 316
Saksak, iv, 227
SAKYA MUNI, i, 74, 112, 113, 164,
272, 277; iv, 238
SALAHUDDIN, i, 278
Salatuyah, iv, 19
Salawat, iv, 33
SALDANHA, Arias, iv, 199, 226
SALE, in, 248
SALGHUR Atabeg, in, 69
SALIBAZACHA, i, 103
SALIVAHANA, in, 70
Salleo, in, 171
Salmasa, in, 22
SALOMON, in, 241
Salopatana, i, 228
Salsette, n, 114, 123; iv, 172, 173
Salt, n, 104, 112
SALT, Travels, i, 218, 220, 222
Salt Range, i, 146
Salulang, iv, 257, 258
Salutation, Chinese, iv, 176
Saluyii, I, 272
Salvastro (Sivas), HI, 161
Salwen, in, 221
Samander, in, 84
SAMANIDS, i, 101, 138; iv, 266
Samara, n, 149
Samarcha, ii, 149
Samari (Zamorin), iv, 24
Samaria, in, 226
Samarkand, i, 23, 90, 99, 103, 104,
117, 118, 123, 134, 162, 163,
174, 211, 251, 264, 265, 269,
271, 272, 286, 287, 293, 295-7;
n, 198; in, 22-4, 39, 117; iv.
138, 162, 164, 165, 166, 182,
211
Samarlanga, n, 149
Samarykand, I, 287
Sambhal, Samhal, iv, 17, 18
Samiard, in, 16
Samkuk, I, 257
Sarnlai, ii, 165
Sammour, I, 137
Samrequant, I, 162 ; see Samar-
kand
Samshu, ii, 200
Samudra, ii, 149
Samulcotta, in, 65
Samundra, I, 82
SANBUL, iv, 20
Sand, Sea of, n, 106, 107; Hills,
in, 213
Sandabil, I, 252
Sandabur, i, 139, 309; iv, 23, 24,
31, 64-6, 72; see Sindabur
Sandai, i, 176
Sandal-wood, i, 227, 253, 267;
in, 194
Sandar-Fulat, I, 128-9
Sandoddi, HI, 164
Sands, Sounding, ii, 262 seq. ; iv,
3
Sandu (Shang tu), ii, 227, 270
Sandy Sea, ii, 30, 34
Sanf (Champa), i, 128, 129, 135,
143, 253, 254; ii, 163; iv, 96;
see Champa
Sanfi, i, 143
Sangharama, i, 113
Sanghin, in, 117
Sang Kan, HI, 117
Sang Kan ho, HI, 117
22 — 2
340
INDEX
Sanir, i, 307
SANJAR, in, 33; iv, 161
Sankju, I, 255
SANK wo CHI, i, 58, 257
Sanmarcant, I, 269
SAN MIC^ELE of Verona, i, 290
SAN PAO T'AI KIEN, i, 76
Sanpo, in, 198, 222
Sansasano, in, 170
SANSEVERINO, in, 200
SANSON, N., i, 308
Santa Croce, Florence, in, 178
SANTAREM, i, 300; iv, 199
San Thome, San Tome, n, 141,
142; in, 250-2
SANTI, Philip de', n, 17
SANTO CONCORDIO, Bartholomew
di, in, 58
SANTO STEPHANO, Hieron., i, 124
SANUTO, SANUDO Marino, I, 171,
304; in, 80; iv, 3, 23
Sanyr, i, 307
SAPOR, i, 102, 141, 216; n, 112;
in, 23
Sapphire, i, 226
Saqifah, iv, 139
Saqnan, i, 313
Sara, Sarra, Sarai, Sarray, on the
Volga, i, 154, 288, 301, 307,
308; in, 10, 13, 14, 48, 53, 55,
82-5, 146, 147, 154, 156, 190,
212, 216, 225; iv, 7, 9, 49
Sarabula, in, no, in
Saracanco, in, 147
Sarachik, Saraichik, in, 85, 147
Saraga, i, 109, 196
Saragh, i, 93, 108, 159
SARAH, HI, 265
Sarakinu, iv, 8
Saralang, iv, 259
Sarandip (Ceylon), in, 131
SARAT CHANDRA DAS, n, 252, 253
Sarawasti, in, 221
Sarbisacalo, n, 101 ; in, 163
Sarc Guebedal, iv, 227
Sarchil, Sarcil, iv, 180, 210, 214,
216, 217
Sarcobolus Spanoghei, 11, 157
Sardha, in, 221
Sardinia, iv, 37
Saregabedal, iv, 227, 228-231
SAREL, Col., i, 65
SARGHIS, MAR, i, 108, 118, 199
Sarha, iv, 95, 96
Sari, i, 100
Sarikbaee, iv, 216
Sarikul, Sarikol, i, 191, 311—4,
317, 318; in, 221 ; iv, 126, 210,
215-7, 249; see Sirikul
Sank Kurnish, iv, 239
Sarkel, I, 245
Sarmatia, i, 187
Sarnau, I, 124, 178
Sarsati, iv, 12
SARTACH, i, 158, 163; in, 19
Sani R., iv, 108
Sarug, i, 307
Sarus, in, 160, 221
Sarwal, II, no
Sarygh-Abdal, iv, 228, 231
Sas, Sasu, i, 217, 218
Sasarn, i, 227
SASSANIANS, i, 83, 94
SASSANIDS, i, 42, 59, 60, 96; iv,
266
Sasus, i, 219
Satganw, Satgauam, i, 177; iv,.
82
Sati, iv, in
Satin, iv, 118
SATOK BOGHRA KHAN, i, 60
Satpdramitd-Sutra, I, 113
SATURNE, i, 245, 248
Satyr's Cape, i, 195
Saukju, i, 258
SAUL, i, 151
SAULCY, F. de, n, 53, 59
Saurnah, see Sommi
Saunghar, iv, 23
Saurequant, I, 162
Sautequant, i, 262
Sava, ii, 1 06
Savast, i, 307
SAVI, V., ii, 5, 6, 83, 91
SAWERS, S., in, 233
Sawley, in, 171
Sayad, I, 317
SAYFUSTORDT, Ulrich, in, 10, 75
Saymiir, i, 253 ; see Saimur
SBARALEA, ii, 8, 22; in, 177, 179,
200
Scala, ii, 98
SCALIGER, J. C., II, 241, 242
Scanderun, Scanderoon, i, 307 ;
in, 139, 198
Scaracanti, in, 163
SCHEFER, Ch., i, 83; ii, 83, 197;
IV» J33' I36, 206
Schelaheth, Sea of, n, 149
Scherpi, ii, 116
SCHILTBERGER, I, 174; IV, 124
SCHLAGINTWEIT, I, 246, 310, 3! I,
312, 317; II, 253; IV, 22
SCHLEGEL, G., i, 75, 303 ; ii, 83,
168, 173, 177, 200, 223, 234, 242-
SCHLOETZER, I, 245
SCHMIDT, i, 30, 93, 283, 291 ;
n, 221, 227, 263
SCHMIDT, F. M., i, 158
SCHOLASTICUS of Thebes, i, 184
INDEX
341
SCHUYLER, Eugene, iv, 164
Scialik, iv, 234
Sciapodae, Marignolli accounts for
story of, in, 254, 256
Scibetto, in, 154
Scierno, i, 177
Scintilla, La, n, 83
Scio, ii, 99, 100; in, 153
Scisia, i, 307
Sclaves, i, 245
Sclavonia, in, 81
Scorpions, n, 106
SCOTT, Sir Walter, I, 163
SCOTUS, Johannes, in, 220
Scripture criticisms by Marignolli,
in, 239
Scythia, i, 16, 93, 187, 194, 203
Scythians, i, 15, 196, 202, 206,
221, 252
Sea of Andaman, i, 127
of Azov, in, 180
of Bacuc (Caspian), see
Bacu
of Damascus, in, 180
— of Harkand, i, 127
of India, in, 64
— of Jorjan (Caspian), in, 180
of Lar, i, 127
of Marmora, in, 180, 181
— of Persia, i, 127
of Pontus, ill, 1 80
of Venice, in, 180
Sea Trade between China and
India, i, 80, and Persian Gulf,
S^seq.
Seal, 11, 190
Seam, i, 309
Sebaste, i, 307; in, 161
Sebur, I, 307, 308
Sedasheogarh, iv, 65, 72
Seetlagunga, in, 234, 235
Segelmessa, iv, 2, 39, 119
Segin, i, 116
Se hoen R., iv, 231
Sehwan, iv, 9
Sejistan, Seistan, i, 85, 98, 99,
123, 251, 300; in, 22, 24
Se kin, I, 206
Sekjin, I, 280, 283
SELA, in, 248
Selangor, 11, 147
Selediba, i, 214
Selekur, i, 191
Selenga, i, 62 ; in, 20
Seleucia, i, 52, 120, 216
Seleucia Elymaidis, in, 23
SELEUCIDS, i, 41, 216
SELEUCUS NICATOR, i, 216
Selgie, n, 168
SELIM I. i, 216
Selitrennoi Gorodok, in, 82
SELJUKID TURKS, n, 100; iv, 5
SELMAN FARSY, i, 83
SEM, in, 239
Semali, in, 117
SE-MA TS'IEN, i, 4, 8, 9, 37
SEMEDO, Alvarez, i, 107, 122, 235,
237; ii, 187, 201; iv, 243
SEMENOV, i, 288, 289
Semin, i, 306
Semipalatinsk, iv, 183, 227
SEMIRAMIS, in, 264, 265
Semiriechie, I, 60
Semiscat (Samarkand), 111, 39
Semnan, i, 293
SEMPAD, Constable of Armenia, I,
161, 262, 266; TV, 266
Semulla, i, 254
Semur, city of, in, 40
Senaar, in, 261
SENART, Emile, ii, 142
Sendi Foulat, I, 129; see Pulo
Condor
SENECA, i, 14, 197, 199
Senfy, i, 129
Sengkili, Senghili, i, 82 ; n, 134
Seng king, Seng ling, in, 117
Seni Keui, in, 162
Senus R., i, 195
Septuagint, III, 222
Sequin, Venetian, iv, 58
Ser, i, 202
Sera, i, 15, 19, 188, 189, 191, 194,
195
Serabula, n, in
Serachuk, in, 85
Sera-Hassan-Kala'a, ii, 101
Serans, i, 309
Serendib, I, 127; in, 228, 234;
iv, 2, 32
Seree, i, i, 14-18, 20, 21, 24, 25,
32, 90, 102, 104, no, 134, 158,
159, 183, 188, 192, 193, 196-
200, 202-5; in, 219, 259
SERGIUS, i, 108, 118; in, 15
Seria, i, 202
Serice, Serica, I, 13-16, 159, 187,
192, 194, 195; in, 219
Sericum, possible origin of, I, 20 ;
etymology according to Rubru-
quis, i, 158-9
Sericus, i, 194, 195
Seriginez, ii, 228
Serinda, i, 24, 204
Seringapatam, in, 66
Sermessacalo, ii, 101 ; in, 163
Serpanil, iv, 180, 214, 216
Serpents, n, 170, 182
Seruj, Serug, I, 307
Serwal, ii, in
342
INDEX
Sesadae, I, 183, 185
Sestoria, the word, n, 163
Setemelti, i, 81, 309
SETH, in, 234, 240, 245
Sethu, in, 67
Sethu Pati, in, 67
Setines, iv, 8
SETTA, Count A. A. della, n, 62
Setu, in, 67
Setupatis, in, 69
Seuth, i, 306
Sevan, in, 40
Seven Pagodas, I, 81, 309; in, 251
Seven Seas, in, 180
Seven greatest Sovereigns, iv, 31
Seychelles, II, 166
Seyllan, in, 220, 221, 227, 231,
235. 239, 241, 242, 244, 245,
250, 268; see Ceylon
SEYYID EDJELL SHAMS UD-DfN,
III, 121, I22J IV, 89
SEYYID NASR uo-DlN, in, 122
SEYYID TADJ EDDIN HASSAN BEN
EL KHALLAL, in, 120
Shabait, Shabat, HI, 194
SHABAR, iv, 162
Sha Chau, i, 73, 117, 140
SHADY KHAJAH, i, 271, 285
SHA GELAAL, iv, 151
Shagnan, I, 313, 316; iv, 216
Shah, iv, 154
Shahabdd, in, 23
SHAH ABBAS, n, 104
SHAHAB-UD-DfN BUGHRAH SHAH,
iv, 86
SHAH JAHAN, i, 80; iv, 13
SHAH JALAL, iv, 151
SHAH JELALL, iv, 153
SHAHI BEG KHAN, iv, 166
Shah Kataur, iv, 205
SHAH MADAR, iv, 123
Sha-ho, in, 115
SHAH PUR, i, 41 ; see SAPOR
Shahr-i-nao, Shahr-i-naw, i, 124,
177; iv, 91; see Gaur
Shahrmandi, HI, 69
Shah-rood, Shah-rud, i, 190
SHAH RUKH, i, 139, 175, 179, 209,
252,271-289; ii, 196, 233, 234;
in, 92, 126, 182, 265; iv, 165,
188, 190, 191, 233, 238, 239, 241
SHAHU, iv, 17
Shahyar, iv, 230
SHAIBEK, iv, 166, 212
Shaikh mysterious, at Sinkalan,
ry, 123 seq.
Shaikh of Islam, rv, 41
SHAIKH JAMALUDDIN, in, 68
SHAIKH-UL-JIBAL, n, 257; see
OLD MAN OF THE MOUNTAIN
Shajrat ul Atrdk, i, 33
SHAKAMUNI-FU, i, 277
SHAKEMONIA, i, 163
SHAKHBAR, i, 140
SHAKHIR, i, 140
Shaki, iv, 95 ; Shaki Barki, in, 237
Shakyar, iv, 227
Shali, iv, 77
Shaliyat, n, 133; iv, 77
Shalwar, n, no
Shamal, iv, 229
SHAMS-UDDIN (!BN BATUTA), rv, i
SHAMS-UDDIN (Iliyas), iv, 85, 86
SHAMS-UDDIN ALTAMSH, i, 131
SHAMS-UDDIN FIRUZ, iv, 86
Shan, i, 153, 161
Shan baf, iv, 19
Shang Hai, i, 77, 136
Shang kho, iv, 238
Shang Tu, 11, 227, 244; HI, 116.
133
Shang yuen tsit, III, 269
Shanju, I, 256, 257
Shans, HI, 131
Shan Shan, i, 40; in, 127
Shan si, i, 32, 35, 73, 114, 278,
285; ii, 245; in, 128
Shan tan, n, 247
Shan Tung, n, 213, 214; in, 128
Shan yii, i, 149
Shao Hing, n, 189, 200
SHARIFUDDfN, I, 33, 175, 212.
305; iv, 233, 234, 256
SHARfp-UDDfN of Tabriz, iv, 119
Sharkhu, I, 143
Sharshuk, rv, 234, 238
Sha Shan, in, 213
Shatpal, iv, 257, 259
SHAW JULOLL, iv, 151
Shayok, I, 71
Sheba, i, 217; in, 191, 265; see
Saba
Sh'e ch'eng, i, 40
Sheertoo, iv, 256
SHEFFIELD, D. Z., n, 213
Sheher-al-nawi, i, 124
SHEHU, I, 210
SHEIL, Sir J., n, 100
SHEIL, Lady, Glimpses, ii, 100
SHEM, HI, 246, 248
Sheng, n, 231 ; in, 128
SHENG TSUNG, i, 147
Shenir, i, 307
Shen si, I, 30, 31, 175, 235, 237,
238, 278; n, 10, 231, 246;
HI, 127, 128; iv, 241, 247
Shen tu (India), i, 37, 65
SHER SHAH, iv, 83, 93
SHE-TIE-MI, i, 58, 59, 206
Shetik, n, 157, 158
INDEX
343
SHI, YE-LIU, i, 148; in, 21
Shiang tsu, i, 108, 109
Shibrtu, iv, 255, 256-8
Shighnan, i, 191, 192, 316
SHIHAB-AB-DIN BAYAZID SHAH, i,
80
SHIH-PI, n, 152
SHIHU, i, 74
SHI HWANG Ti, i, n, 38
Shikhini, Shikini, i, 316
Shi ki, i, 41, 42
Shilder Dawan Pass, iv, 230
Shilder Kumish, iv, 239
SHI-LI, i, 97
SHI LO SHUKIA, i, 71
SHILOYTO, i, 68, 70
Shinas, I, n
Shindi Valley, iv, 215
Shinju, Shindjtk, i, 256, 257
Shinkali, Shinkala, I, 82; II, 133,
134; see Cranganor
Shi-po, i, 136
Shipping, vast and splendid in
China, 11, 180, 211
Ships stitched with twine, n, 113;
in, 67 ; Indian, their insecurity,
in, 67 ; Chinese, described, rv, 25
Shiraz, i, 84, 99, 286, 309 ; 11, 10,
109, 178; in, 125; iv, 3, 36,
120, 131
SHIR BEHRAM, i, 272
Shirinbaf, iv, 19
SHIR MUHAMMAD OGHLLAN, i,
272 ; iv, 165
Shisham, i, 227
SHI-TAO-AN, i, 75
SHI TSUNG, i, 147
SnfYAs, n, 257
Shonghar, i, 283
Shor Kuduk, iv, 229
Shorshuk, iv, 234, 238
Shuh, Shu, kingdom of, i, 4, 65,
139, 140; in, 12
Shui king, iv, 223
Shui Yang, n, 242
Shu King, I, 8
Shu kiun ku shi, i, 116
SHUN Ti, i, 79; in, 187, 214;
iv, 139, 142
Shushan, n, 102, 106
Shustar, I, 309
Shuster, n, no; in, 23
Shwa, iv, 256
Shy-king-shan, in, 117
Shyok R., I, 71
Shyraz, i, 286; see Shiraz
Si, capital of Yu t'ien, iv, 223
Siam, i, 77, 124, 128, 151, 178,
214,277; 11.174; "1,221,252;
iv, 98, 155-8, 242, 243
Siang Yang Fu, i, 167, 168
Siao Jen, n, 208
Sia She, iv, 231
Sia wush, i, 9
Siberia, i, 245, 246, 302, 304
Sibir, i, 152, 307
Sibor, i, 227, 230; in, 76
Sicilies, Two, iv, 156
Sicily, n, 4; in, 169, 188, 229
Siculi, I, 246
SIDI ALI, iv, 2ii
SIE, i, 40
Siele, i, 214
Sielediba (Ceylon), i, 214, 225,
227, 228, 230
Sielediva, i, 214
Sie-mi-se-kan (Samarkand), in, 39
Sie-mi-sze-hien (Samarkand), i,
118
Sien pi, i, 61
Si fan, i, 238; n, 248
Sigan, i, 238, 239 ; see Si ngan
SIGOLI, S., in, 223, 224, 236
SIGURD, i, 46, 47
Si HABAHU, i, 226
SlHAB UDDIN, IV, 16
Si Hai, in, 225
Si Hai tsu, III, 115
Si hala, i, 225, 226
Sihaladipa, i, 225
Si HALO, i, 226
Si ho, i, 226
Si Hu, Western Lake of Hang
chau, i, 256; n, 201, 204
Si Hu Che, n, 203
Sihun, i, 272; in, 147, 221; iv,
164
Sijistan, i, 85 ; see Sejistan
Sikhs, iv, 204
Sikhu, i, 256; see Si Hu
SI-KI-LI-SZE, in, 15
Si King, i, 114, 116; in, 117
Sikkah, iv, 59
Sila, Silah, I, 131, 136, 137, 255,
257
Silam, i, 103
Silat Tebrau, n, 157
Silawar, in, 68, 70
Si LEAO, i, 148; in, 21
Silhet. i, 184, 310; in, 132; iv,
I5I-5
SILIUS ITALICUS, i, 186
Silk, i, 197-9. 202-4, 227; ii, 215;
in, 155; iv, in
Sillan (Ceylon), n, 170
Silsilah, I, 306
Silver, iv. in
Silver Mines, i, 316
SILVESTRE, Paliographie, 11, 70
SILZIBUL, i, 59, 206
344
INDEX
Simbirsk, iv, 6
Sim Kargha, iv, 238
SIMOCATTA, Theophylactus, I, 7,
209, 232; see THEOPHYLACTUS
SIMON, Metropolitan of Pars, n,
129
Simylla, I, 254 ; see Symulla
Sin, i, i, 5, ii, 20, 127, 144, 151,
230, 248; in, 23; iv, 137
Sinae, i, i, 3-6, 11-3, 15, 32, 90,
no, 183, 187, 188, 191-3, 195;
III, 22
Sinai, i, 27, 122, 221; 11, 262;
in, 224
Sinaitic Inscriptions, i, 222
Sincapura (Singapore), iv, 253
Sind, i, 65, 87, 138, 142, 151,
205, 230, 255; in, 28, 67, 68;
iv, 17
Sindabil, I, 139, 252
Sindabur, rv, 23, 24, 31, 64-6,
72 ; see Sandabur
SINDAR BANDI, in, 69, 70
SINDAR LEDI, in, 68, 70
Sindh (Indus), iv, 160
Sindhu (Indus), i, 86
Sindifu, i, 139
Sindu, i, 227, 230
Sinestan (China), i, 108
Sing, i, 258
Sing, provincial administrations of
Cathay so-called, n, 231 ; in,
122, 123, 125, 128
Si-ngan, i, 30, 31, 43, 56, 88, 91,
93, 105, 106, H2, 114, 116, 159,
175. 215, 235, 237, 292; n, 246;
in, 23, 54, 127, 128; rv, 223,
247; see Ch'ang ngan, Kenjan,
Khumdan
Si-ngan, Monument, I, 105-112,
159, 235-7
Singapore, i, 253; n, 156, 157,
159, 181; rv, 156, 159, 253
Singing men and women in Great
Khan's Court, n, 239
Singo, n, 231
Singugli, n, 133
Singui, n, 215
Singuimatu, 11, 214
Singulir, n, 133, 134
Singuyli, i, 82 ; see Cynkali
Sinhala (Ceylon), i, 71, 225
S£nia-ul-S£n, I, 143
SINIBALD, i, 161
Sinim, i, 3, 10, n
Sinistan (China), i, 108
Sin jabgu, i, 206
Sinjumatu, n, 213-5
Sfn Kalan (Canton), n, 179; in,
130; iv, 25, 67-9, 109, 120, 121,
123; see Chin kalan and Sin
Ki'lan
Sin Kiang, rv, 193
Sin Kilan (Canton), n, 180 ; iv, 68 ;
see Sin Kalan
Sin la, i, 257
Sin ling, i, 276
Sinope, in, 161
Sin Pao-cheng, n, 210
Sinra, i, 257
Sin T'ang Shu, I, 46
Sin teu (Indus), i, 86
Sinthao (Indus), i, 68
Sinthus (Indus), I, 227
Sin-ul-SIn, i, 135; iv, 25, 108,
120, 121, 123
Sipahis, iv, 136, 139
Sipahsalar. rv, 104
Si pei ti, in, 248
Sir Daria (Jaxartes), I, 211; in,
147; rv, 160
Sira R., i, 146
Sirab, rv, 256, 258
Siraf, i, 84-6, 125, 132, 308; ii,
133; rv, 5, 45
Siras, i, 309
Sirhind, i, 24
Sirian, i, 124
Sirikul, I, 191, 311-4, 317; ill,
221; iv, 216; see Sarikul
Sir-i-lung, iv, 257
Sir-i- Pamir, iv, 216
SIRIUS, i, 245
Sirkek, i, 158
Siro-Khaghan, i, 93
Sirsa, iv, 12
Sis, i, 161, 162, 307; in, 139, 160
Sisam logs, I, 227
Sissu, i, 227
Sista, i, 300
Sita, in, 221
Sitia, in, 67
Sittarkent, in, 146
Sitting in the air, iv, 134
Siu chau fu, i, 65
SIUEN TEH, i, 78
Siumenna, i, 82 .
Siurhia, i, 93, 159
Siu Simmoncota, in, 65
Siut, i, 306
SIVA, ii, 138; in, 65
Sivas, i, 307; in, 161
Siva-Samundra, in, 66
Si WANG Mu, i, 9, 235
Siwastan, iv, o; see Sehwan
Six-fingered folk, HI, 255
Siyalik, iv, 234
Siyalis, iv, 234
Siyaposh, iv, 204, 205
Si-yii shui too hi, iv, 141
INDEX
345
Si yii t'u che, iv, 228
Sizyges, I, 195
Sjabar-nouw (Siam), i, 124
SKEAT, Pagan Races, u, 147
Skikhini, I, 191
Skins, coats of, Marignolli's re-
marks on, in, 227, 241
Skulls, goblets of paternal, in
Tibet, ii, 252 seq.
Slamat, mountain in Java, in,
267
Slavs, i, 245
SMITH, Rev. J. J., n, 41
SMITH'S Diet., i, 10, 14, 29, 94,
189, 192, 197
Smuggling, punishment of, iv, 115
Smyrna, i, 190
Soap, in, i 66
SCARES DE ALBERGARIA, Lopo,
i, 267
Sobah, Sobaha, i, 306
Sobissacalo, n, 34
Soccabula, 11, in
Socceo, iv, 239 ; see Su Chau
Soceda, the word, 11, 164
Socieu, iv, 241, 244, 245, 247,
250 ; see Su Chau
Socotra, i, 27, 123, 220; in, 7, 8,
23, 38, 252
Sodania, i, 308
Soer, i, 87; in, 68
Soffi, i, 293
Sofi, i, 295
Sogdia, i, 205, 207
Sogdiana, i, 40, 96, 134; in, 186
Sogdians. i, 23, 59, 205, 208
Sohan, i, 306
SO-HO-TO, n, 248
Soi, Soyi R., i, 71
Sokcheu, n, 233; see Su Chau
So Kiu, i, 40; iv, 218, 231
Solagna, n, 267; see WILLIAM of.
Solana, i, 195
Solanga, i, 152
Solangka, i, 177; HI, 125
Solanka, in, 128
Solankis, n, 115
Soldaia, i, 305 ; in, 169 ; iv, 2, 7
Soldania, n, 102, 104, 105; see
Sultania
Solghat, iv, 6
.Soli, Solli, i, 76
Solidus, i, 229
SOLIMAN, i, 57
SOLINUS, C. J., I, 22
SOLOMON, i, 218; in, 76, 232,
240, 264, 265
Soltania, i, 118, 293; n, 10; in,
36, 89, no; iv, 136; see Sul-
tania
Somali, i, 28, 217
Somdoma, 11, 105
SOMMERVOGEL, IV, 1 71, 173
Sommi, i, 159; in, 148
Somnath, Sumnath, i, 82, 309 ;
ii, 134
So mo chung, n, 199
Sonaparanta, i, 183
Sonargauam, Sonargaon, Sonar-
ganw, i, 177; iv, 83, 85, 91,
92, 93, 149
SONDER BANDI DAVAR, in, 68
Sondor, Sondur, i, 128, 152; iv,
159
Sone, ill, 221
Song Koi, i, 5
Soolo, iv, 158, 159
Soorma R., iv, 153
SOPATRUS, I, 25, 228, 229
Soratha, i, 228
Sorici di Faraone, 11, 114
Sornau, i, 124
Sornaquam, see Sonargauam
Sorrabula, n, in
SOTER MEGAS, i, 36
Soucat, iv, 159
Sounding Sands, see Sands, Sound-
ing
Sournau, i, 124
Sowchick, in, 126; iv, 241
Spain, i, 264; in, 31, 227
Spaniards, i, 216, 221
Spartel, Cape, I, 221
SPECHT, Ed., I, 205
Spectator, in, 27
Spedicamento, in, 144
SPEKE, Capt., ill, 221
Spigo, in, 168
Spike, in, 1 68
Spikenard, i, 185, 227; 11, 150
Spilimbergo, n, 21
Spinning and knitting by men, n,
129
Splitting silk stuffs to weave
again, unfounded stories about,
i, 196
Spodium, iv, 99
Spoleto, Friar MENENTILLUS of,
in, 58
Spolia Zeylanica, i, 77
SPRENGEL, M. C., n, 86; HI, 146
SPRENGER, i, 33; n, 180
SPRUNER, Atlas, I, 299
Sramanas, III, 242
SRI KUMARA KAKATIYA PRATAPA
GANAPATI RUDRA DEVA, in,
7°
Srinagar, i, 24
SRI PERUMAL, n, 130; in, 69
SRI ROMA, iv, 156
INDEX
SRONG BTSAN SGAM PO, i, 60, 69
Ssadyn-Qiir, i, 278
SSANANG SSETZEN, I, 30, 93, 276,
283; ii, 227; in, 54
Sse-jin, i, 280
Ssu ch'uan, i, 161 ; see Sze ch'uan
Standard, n, 166
STANFORD, i, 310; n, 245
Stater, I, 229
Statera, ill, 218
Stationery, 11, 204
STAUNTON, n, 188
STECKEL, Corrado, n, 74
Steelyard, right of the privilege of
St. Thomas' Christians, in, 218,
229
STEIN, Sir Aurel, I, 38, 63, 190,
192, 215, 251, 274, 318; iv, 231,
249
STEPHEN, Friar, a Bohemian, i,
156
STEPHEN of Peterwaradin, Friar,
in, 83
STEWART, Bengal, i, 79
STIELER, Hand-Atlas, 11, 156
Stod Bod, n, 248
Stone, green, for the eyes, I, 251
Stone, Red, for the spleen, i, 251
Stones, Precious, n, 171, 172
Stone Tower, I, 19, 183, 188-192,
194, 286
STRABO, i, n, 14, 17, 22, 146, 189,
221 ; ii, 252 ; in, 14
STRAHLENBERG, Phil. Joh. v., iv,
215
Straits, the, i, 77, 213
Straits of Bali, n, 160
— of Macassar, iv, 158
Strigenes, ii, 228
Suabia, in, 189
Suakin, i, 306; iv, 4
Suali, in, 77
Subahlika, in, 76, 77
Subara, in, 76; see Supera
Su Bashi, iv, 238
SUBUTAI, ni, 133
Su chau (in Kiang Nan), i, 142;
n, 192, 205
Su Chau (in Kan Su), Su Chow,
Sukhchau, Sukchur, Succuir, I,
38, 58, 117, 140, 275, 276, 286,
29°-3. 296; n, 233, 247; in,
126, 128, 129; iv, 178, 180, 181,
239, 241, 242, 244, 245, 247,
249, 250
Su Chau Chi, n, 247
Sudak, i, 305 ; iv, 2
Sudan, iv, 39, 144
Sudkawan, iv, 82
Sueves, in, 184
Suez, i, 221
Sufala, Sufalah, in, 76, 77
Su FANCHAN, m, 122
Surfs, iv, 131
Sug, iv, 159
Sugar, abundance of, in China, n,
184; in, 96; iv, 108; from
trees, n, 157; in, 61, 236
Sugo, in, 145
Suhar in Oman, i, 87
SUHAYL, i, 245
Sui, i, 30, 32, 44, 54, 63, 68, 88,
95, 97. 98, 191
Suicides of devotees in India, n,
145
Suigim, iv, 239
Suisis, ii, 102
Sui ye, iv, 164
Sukadana, iv, 159
Suk-Balhara, i, 241
Sukchu, see Su Chau
Su-le, Su-lei, i, 40; iv, 222, 231;
see Kashgar
SULEIMAN, merchant, I, 126; in,
120
SULEIMAN UL SAFADI-UL SHAMI,
iv, 27
SULEYMAN-KHEYL, iv, 206
Suli, iv, 29
Su LI P'U, i, 90
Sulphur, in, 167
Sultania, I, 169, 308; ii, 102,
104, 105, 106, 131; in, 36, 37;
see Soldania and Soltania
SULTAN SHAH, i, 271, 282; iv,
185, 186
Suluk, iv, 158, 159
Sumatra, i, 77, 78, 82, 124, 127,
128, 152, 302, 303; ii, 10, 25,
31, 34, 146-151, 157, 164, 168,
174; in, 131, 194-6; iv, 68,
94. 95, 97- I00> X45, *47> I49,
155-7, 159, 198
Sumenna, I, 82, 83
Summerkeur, Summerkent, 111,146
Sumpit, ii, 31
Sumpitan, ii, 156, 158
Sumuntala, i, 82
Sunarganw, iv, 83, 85, 91, 92; see
Sonargauam
SUN CH'UAN, i, 19
Sunda, ii, 174; iv, 65
Sundara, i, 129
SUNDARA-PANDI, III, 69
Sundar Fulat, i, 128, 129
Sundiva, iv, 81
SUNG, i, 10, 60, 72, 81, 88, 92, 114,
136, 150; ii, 177, 193, 194,
203, 206, 210, 212, 223; III,
130, 149, 186; iv, 137, 243
INDEX
347
Sungari, in, 125
Sungei Malayu, n, 156
Sungei Selitar, 11, 156
Sungora, i, 82
SUNG YUN, i, 66, 75
Sun Trees, n, 103
Sunur Kawan, iv, 91
Sunzn-matu, n, 214
Suors, n, 102
Supera, Suppara, i, 227; n, 128;
in, 76-8
Sura, i, 225
SURAJJUDJN, in, 69
Surashtra, i, 74
Surat, i, 87, 228; n, 10; in, 77;
iv, 64
SUREN, i, 94
Surkhab, i, 316, 317
Surma, iv, 151, 152, 154
Siirparaka, in, 77
Susa, n, no
Susah, in China, i, 142
Susis, n, 102
Suspha, i, 213, 214
Sustar, i, 309
SU-SUNG, n, 207
Su-tan, i, 234
Sutlej, n, 207; in, 198, 221,
222
Su-TsuNG, I, 63, 91, no
Suttee, n, 31, 32; n, 139, 140
Suvar-i-Akalim, iv, 164
Suvarna Bhumi, i, 183
Suvarna dvipa, n, 151
Svind Bheel, iv, 153
Svinsivede, in, 171
Swat, i, 74, 204
Swineshead, in, 171
SWINHOK, n, 189, 220
Swords, i, 253
Sycee, iv, 112
Sydrapetta R., in, 252
Syene, i, 216; iv, 3, 5
SYKES, P. M., n, 107
Sylhet, iv, 151 ; see Silhet
Symbolon Limen, in, 14
Symulla, r, 227, 254
Syo, 11, 236
Syr Daria, i, 211; in, 147; iv,
1 60; see Jaxartes
Syria, i, 101, 102, 104, no, 113,
120, 153, 220, 307; in, 16, 22,
166, 186, 226; iv, 3, 5
Syrian Lamb, iv, 267
Syr Jabgu, i, 206
Syro-Chinese Monument; see Si-
ngan
Syrtis, i, 221
Sze ch'uan, i, 4, 37, 61, 65, 75,
116, 139, 140, 153, 161 ; n, 186,
231, 246; in, 12, 113, 126,
128
SZE-MA TS'IEN, see SE-MA TS'IEN
Szesna R., in, 247
Tabari, i, 91, 96
Tabaristan, Taberistan, i, 100;
ii, 107; in, 22, 23
TABAS KILI, i, 290
Tabashir, n, 161 ; iv, 99
Tabya£, Tavyao-r, I, 7, 32 ; iv, 266 ;
see Taugas
Tabis, i, 197
Tablets, i, 279; 11, 237
Tabor, I, 304
Tabriz, Tauris, I, 154, 163, 167,
170, 174, 265, 293, 308; 11, 10,
31, 101-5; m, 4, 5, 45, 53,
55. 67, 75, 76, 109, in, 143,
I55> 158-161, 162-4; iv, 87
TACCHI-VENTURI, iv, 181
Taccolino, in, 160
Ta cheng, n, 210
Ta chin, i, 281
Tach^ach, Takhtakh, i, 244
Tacin (Ta Ts'in), i, 240, 241
Tadmor, iv, 36
Tafan, i, 243
Tafilet, iv, 39
Taganrog, i, 305
Tagazgaz, Taghazghaz, I, 131, 132,
143, 247, 248
TAGHABUN, i, 91
Taghajar Noyan Batu Kerkhahi,
ill, 126
Taghar, n, 255
Tagh-dum bash Pamir, iv, 211,
215
Tagliamento, 11, 82, 90
TAGMA, i, 211
TA-GOEI (WEI), i, 32
Ta Hia, I, 36, 37, 39, 65
Tahouristan, i, 108
Taianfu, I, 114
Taican, iv, 211
Taichau, i, 256
Tai du, n, 216, 217; see Tai tu
Tai hsii Pass, 11, 183
Tailasan, in, 86
T'AI Mou, i, 7
T'AI P'lNG, II, 192, 213; III, 120
Taissan, i, 29, 30
TAI TING, 11, 222, 270
T'AI Tsu, i, 53, in, 147, 148;
III, 12
T'AI TSUNG, i, 29-31, 54, 55, 59,
61, 62, 68-70, 96, 98, no, 147;
iv, 266
Tai tu (Daidu), in, 114-6; see
Tai du
348
INDEX
Taiuna, i, 114, 143
T'AI Wu, i, 7
Taiwust, i, 309
T'ai yuen fu, I, 114
Tajah, i, 114, 143, 256
Ta Jen, i, 273
Tajiks, i, 42, 88; 111,120; iv, 210,
211, 227
Tdjuddln of Ardebil, iv, 119
Takadda, iv, 40
TAKAKUSU, i, 100, 112
Takazz6, I, 218
Ta Kiang, n, 207; see Yang tze
TAKIUDDIN ABDARRAHMAN, in,
68, 69
Taknas, i, 33
Takola, iv, 157
Tala, a tank, in, 69
Talaga Masin, n, 155
Ta'lah, I, 241
Talai, Talay, n, 115, 204, 206,
209, 21 1 ; see Yang tze
Talaings, in, 127
Talaji, in, 69
Talakan, iv, 256 ; see Talikhan
Talaoch, in, 145
Talas, i, 91, 99, 119, 209, 210,
272, 288, 289; in, 24; iv, 162,
164
Talay, see Talai
Talhan, iv, 209, 211
Ta li, i, 61 ; in, 127, 131
Talikhan, i, 205 ; iv, 180, 183-5,
210, 211, 217, 256
TALIKU, iv, 161
Talilo, i, 313
Talisman, in, 86
Tallec, iv, 229
TA LO PIEN, i, 206
Ta-lo-sz', iv, 164
TALUT, i, 151
Talysian, 11, 156; iv, 159
TAM (T'ang) family, i, 239, 240
Tamalapatra, i, 184
Tamasak Island, 11, 156
Tambapanni, Tambapanniyo (Ta-
probane), i, 225, 226
Tame, i, 33
TAMERLANE, i, 297
Tamgama Jaban, i, 33
Tamgeran, iv, 215
Tamgha, HI, 143
Tamghaj, i, 33
TAMGHAJ KHAN, i, 33, 256; 11,
210
Ta-ming, I, 114
TA MING, Dynasty, i, 291
Tamlifatan, in, 131, 132
Tamositieti, i, 314, 316
Tamotas, in, 99
Tamul Annals of South India, HI,
67, 69
Tamraparni (Taprobane), i, 226
Tamraparni River, iv, 35
Tamunga, HI, 143
Tana (Azov), i, 179, 269, 270, 305 ;
in, 48, 81, 143, 146, 151-4, 156,
I58, 159, 169, 224, 225; iv, 201
Tana (Salsette, India), i, 171, 241,
254. 309; n, 8-10, 30, 31, 34,
113-5, JI7. I23> I25. I26; in,
14, 29, 30, 76, 78, 80, 84, 207;
iv, 3, 64
Tana Martyrs, 11, 117-132, 184
Tana-Malayu, i, 72; n, 156
Tanais, i, 305
Tanay R., i, 305
Tanazzar, i, 124
Tancaullaggio, in, 161
Tancharan, Tancharas gold, i, 218
Tanchat, i, 162
Tanchet, in, 22; see Tangut
T'ANG, i, 10, 19, 34, 41, 42, 44, 54,
59-62, 66, 69, 71, 86, 88, 89,
91, 97, 98, 105, 108, no, ni,
114, 116, 133, 191, 257; ii, 184,
205, 216; in, 124, 126; iv,
141, 149, 164, 188, 228, 235,267
T'ang Shu, iv, 164, 230
Tangat, i, 263; in, 24; see
Tangut
Tangath, i, 291 ; see Tangut
Tangauls, in, 161
Tang chi, I, 273
Tanghetar, Tangitar, etc., IV, 180,
215-7
T'anghsichen, n, 189
Tangier, iv, I, 38, 128
Tangi-i-Badakhshan, iv, 184, 214,
216
Tangis, i, 33
TANG KIANG, i, 4-5
T'ang king kiao p'ai sung cheng
ts'iuen, I, 106
Tangkut, in, 126, 127
Tangmash, i, 33
Tangtash, i, 33
TANGUS, i, 33, 174
Tangut, i, n6, 118, 119, 123, 143,
150, 162, 277; ii, 244; in, 22,
128, 132, 133, 148
TANIBEK, in, 211
Tanjore, i, 242; ii, 140; in, 218
Tankah, Tankhah, Tanga, iv, 54,
59, 63, 138
TANKIZ Khan (for CHINGHIZ), iv,
no, 142
TAN KO FANG, i, 97
Tanmaling, ii, 156
Tanmoetlieu, i, 72
INDEX
349
Tanore, iv, 78
Tan tan, n, 173
Tanumah, I, 128
T'ao-hua-shi, i, 33
Tao t'ai, I, 273
TAO TSUNG, I, 147
Tao yi chi lio, i, 81 ; in, 194; iv,
27, 271
Taprobane, i, 104, 198, 199, 214,
215, 220, 222, 224—8, 303
Tapti, in, 77; iv, 21, 23
TA PU-YEN, i, 148; in, 21
Taranatha, i, 73
Taranchi, iv, 238
Tarapaca, n, 262
Taras, iv, 164
Tarasu, i, 276
Taraz, i, 60, 91, 97; rv, 164
Tarbagatai, I, 289; iv, 163
Tarchan, i, 211; in, 147; see
Tarkhan
Tarchis, in, 84
TARDU, i, 206
Tarighurghan, i, 143
Tarik Baba, in, 232
Tarikhi Ahmed, iv, 206
Tarikh-i-Rashidi, i, 314; n, 198;
iv, 160, 161, 166, 193, 271
Tarikh Jahan Kushai, n, 197 ; iv,
164
Tarik-i-Wassaf, iv, 156
Tarik Mama, in, 232
Tarim, i, 35, 58, 192, 194; iv, 188,
190, 217
Tark, ill, 24
Tarkhan, I, 211; in, 147; IV,
49
Tarkhu, in, 84
Tarmapatam, iv, 76
TARMASHIRIN Khan, in, 30, 33-5 ;
iv, 161
Tarmedh, I, 191, 315, 316
Tarsa (Naiman), 111, 20
Tarse, i, 259, 260, 262 ; in, 53
Tarsia (Uighiir Gauntry), in, 53
Tarsic Letters (Uighur), in, 53
Tartar City of Peking, n, 217
Tartar Lamb, n, 31, 116; iv, 267
Tartari schenari, in, 147
Tartars, i, 179; in, 215, 248
Tartary, i, 15, 195, 264; in, 198
Tartary Cloth, ill, 99
Taschan, i, 297; see Tashkand
Tashbaliq, i, 191, 192, 286; iv,
1 86
Ta Shi (Arabs), i, 48, 62, 85,
88-92, 97, 103, 233-5; rv, 231
TA SHI (YE LIU), i, 148; m, 21
Tashkand, i, 98, 164, 271, 272,
297; iv, 166, 233
Tash Kurghan, i, 191; iv, 211,
215-7
TASTU, i, 299, 300
TATE, G. P., i, 99
TA T'EU KHAN, i, 206
Tathung, 11, 244, 245 ; m, 24, 47,
48
TA TI, i, 19
Ta Ts'in, i, 18, 41-6, 49-54, 56,
57, 63, 105, no, 112, 113, 116,
193. 233-5. 240, 241; HI, 12
Tattooed Faces, n, 149
Ta tu, n, 216; in, 128
Tau, i, 223
Taugas, Taugast, i, 7, 29-34, I43>
233; iv, 69, 266
TAUGAS, i, 264
Taun-murun Pass, i, 192
Taurelaphus, i, 223
Tauris, see Tabriz
Taurus, i, 196; in, 160, 221
TAVANTI, Angelo, in, 137
Tavern Customs in China, n, 211
TAVERNIER, i, 71; 11, 108, 112,
251; in, 262
Tavilgo, iv, 238
Tawal, iv, 157, 159
Tawalisi, iv, 68, 103, 108, 145,
149, 157-160
Ta Wan, i, 18, 36-9
Tawat, iv, 40
Tawi-tawi, iv, 159
Taydo, 11, 216, 217
Ta Yi, i, 103
TAYLOR, i, 199; in, 251
Tayu, ii, 208
Ta Yue Chi, i, 36, 205
Ta yun Kwang ming, i, 63
Tazi, i, 88
Tchao-Naiman-Soume-hoton, 11,
227
Tch'a-pouo-ho-lo, I, 69
TCH'ENG YUEN, i, 62
Tchen la, i, 8
TCHERKASOV, III, 147-8
Tchetchetlagh, iv, 217
Tchol, Tchole, in, 213
TCHO-YEN-P'OU-HOUA, III, 182
Tea, i, 131, 161, 292
Teak, i, 244, 254
Tears of Adam and Eve, n, 171;
in, 235
Tebet, n, 248, 253; see Tibet
Teghdariyah, iv, 139
Tegia, i, 306
Tehran, i, 293 ; 11, 106, 243 ; in,
22, 23
Teichungyu, I, 131
TEIGE, Jos., Zizi, *,' 232
TEIXEIRA, n, 140
350
INDEX
Tejpat, i, 185
Tekes, i, 36, 272
Tekkeh, iv, 5
TEKLA HAIMANOT, Saint, n, 132
TE KWANG (YE LIU), i, 147
Telai, in, 69
Telinga, i, 242
TELLEZ, F. B., i, 217
Tellicherri, in, 40; iv, 76
TEMPLARS, i, 169
TEMUCHIN, TEMUJIN, i, 148, 149;
in, 25, 26; see CHINGHIZ
Tenasserim, i, 12, 124
Tendek-Shahr, n, 244
Tenduc, I, 118; n, 10, 244, 245;
in, 15, 24, 25
Tenes, iv, 37
Tenghi Badascian, rv, 214; see
Tang-i-Badakhshan
TENNENT, Sir J. E., Ceylon, I, 25,
67, 68, 70-2, 75, 78, 84, 184,
199, 200, 226, 227, 253, 277;
n, 130, 166, 170, 172; in, 219,
231, 233, 234, 245, 259
Tents in felt, n, 248; iv, 268
Tephrice, in, 161
Terek Dawan, i, 191, 192. 286
Terek-lak-Payin, iv, 190
Terek River, in, 84
Terivagante, iv, 76
Terki, m, 84
Termedh, i, 191 ; see Tarinedh
Terracina, n, 199
Terra del Fuego, in, 198
Terra Incognita, i, 194, 195
Terre Sainte, 11, 105
Terrible Valley, n, 25
TERRIEN DE LACOUPERIE, i, 4-11,
149
Terter R., HI, 23
TERTULLIAN, in, 243
Teskan, Teshkan, iv, 211
Tetcaul, I, 175
TE TSUNG, i, 72, no, 113, 148
Teu-Beu, 11, 248
Tewan-tagh, iv, 228
Texel, in, 193
Thaban, i, 242, 254
Thabashir, see Tabashir
Thabis, Mountain, i, 196
Thafak, Thafan, i, 242, 243
Thagiah, iv, 38
Thagurus, Mount, I, 194
Thaifand, i, 242
Thaifu, in, 1 20
Thai-i-chi, n, 220; in, 115
Thaikan, iv, 211
Thai Nguyen, n, 165
Thai Noi, i. ^24
Thai Yai, i, 124
Thajuye, I, 114, 143
Thakbat, i, 32
Thai, iv, 259
Thalamasin, 11, 31, 155, 160
Tha'lan, i, 315
Thalec, iv, 227
Thalictrum foliosum, I, 292
Thamerlin, I, 174
Than, I, 315
Thana, n, 34; see Tana
Thangaj, i, 34
Thanh hoa, i, 51
Tharrhana, i, 195
Thathah, i, 244
Thebaid, iv, 4
Thebe, n, 202, 204
Thebes, i, 190; in, 29; iv, 45
Themistetan, i, 180
THEODORUS, i, 54
THEODORUS of Mopsuestia, i, 26
Theodosiopolis, 11, 100
THEODOSIUS, i, 47, 54; 11, 100
THEOPHANES BYZANTINUS, i, 24,
49, 115, 204
THEOPHYLACTUS SIMOCATTA, i, 7,
25, 29, 30, 32-4, 50, 115, 134,
143, 209, 232; iv, 266
Theriodes, gulf, I, 195
THEVENOT, i, 25, 227, 232; 11,
183, 205, 210, 242
Thiante, Thiante-Kiun, 11, 244, 245
Thiantse, i, 29, 30
Thin, i, n, 13, 183, 184
Thinae, I, 3, 5, n, 13, 19, 43, 159,
183, 196
Thoantac, iv, 227 ; see Toan Tac
Thogara, i, 195
THOGAY, in, 179, 180
Thoi, iv, 133
Thokarestan, i, 108
THOMAS, George, iv, 12
THOMAS, St., i, 81, 101, 162, 235,
263, 309; ii, 34, 130, 132, 134,
141; in, 6, 10, ii, 17, 45, 61,
191, 219, 249-253; iv, 4
THOMAS, St., Christians of, I, 112;
in, 217
THOMAS- A-KEMPIS, ii, n
THOMAS of Mancasola, in, 39
THOMAS of Tolentino, ii, 117, 118,
121, 122, 124, 126, 131; III, 8,
29, 76
THOMAS, sent Bishop to Cathay,
in, 1 1
THOMSEN, Vilh., i, 248; m, 126;
iv, 266
Thoth, i, 219
Three Children in the Furnace,
ill, 263
Three Churches, Tre Chiese.m, 163
INDEX
351
Three Kingdoms, I, 66, 139
Three Kings, I, 162; n, 34; in,
16
Threshold of the Khan's Palace
not to be touched, n, 224
Throani, i, 195
THSIN, i, 2 ; see TS'IN
Thsining chau, n, 215; see Ts'i
ning
Thsinju, n, 215; see Ts'inju
Thsungling, i, 191 ; see Ts'ong-
ling
THUII.LIER, Col., iv, 154
Thule, island, i, 194
THUNMANN, i, 245
Thurn and Taxis, I, 151
Thuwai, iv, 133
Thyni, i, 151
T'ian chuh (India), n, 203; see
T'ien Chu
T'iao chih, i, 18, 23, 42, 50, 51
Tiazkarai Hojaghian, iv, 193
TIBERIUS II, i, 206; iv, 143
Tibet, i, 37, 60, 62, 68-71, 131,
132, 136, 139, 142, 143, 238,
251, 281, 313, 315, 316; n, 10,
23, 224, 247, 248, 251, 252,
263; in, 131, 221, 269; iv, 86,
170, 176, 177, 183, 187, 191,
205, 268
Tibetans, i, 36, 40, 60-2, 92; n,
207, 248; in, 222
Tic, i, 212
T'ie le, i, 62; in, 55
Tien (Yun Nan), i, 4, 6, 39; in,
122
Tien R., n, 213
T'ien Chu (India), I, 52, 65, 66;
n, 203
T'ien fang, i, 131
T'ien Shan, i, 58, 117, 191, 272,
308,311,312; 111,265; iv, 1 60,
162, 163, 166, 187-9, 191-3, 228,
230, 231, 233-5, 237, 239, 271
T'IEN SHUN, i, 30
T'ien Tsin, 11, 215
T'IEN TSO, i, 147
T'ientze, i, 141
Tie sie, HI, 53
Tifer, i, 305
Tiflis, in, 177
Tigers, 11, 116
TIGRANES I, the Great, i, 48
TlGRANES II, I, 2l6
TIGRANES VI, i, 93
Tigr6, i, 217
Tigris River, i, 167, 189, 199,
216, 304, 308, 309; n, 171; in,
16, 23, 84, 125; iv, 133; the
Volga called so, in, 84
Tikodi, iv, 77
Tiladae, i, 184
Tilanchong, island, n, 169
Tiling, in, 70
Tillah, iv, 153
TILLE, ii, 6
Tilputa, iv, 21
Timbuktu, I, 219; iv, 39
TIMGHAJ KHAN, i, 33
TI-MI-TI-R (DEMETRIUS), in, 15
TlMKOWSKI, II, 217, 22O, 221, 236,
255; iv, 190, 228-230
TlMOSINA, I, 70
TIMOTHY, Patriarch, i, 103, 115
Timulla, I, 227, 254
TIMUR the Great, i, 33, 34, 174,
175, 178, 179, 211, 264, 265,
271, 272, 283, 305; ii, 100, 104,
105, 229, 233; m, 23, 34, 37,
82, 146, 147, 182, 185; iv, 12,
162, 163, 165, 166, 186, 190,
205, 207, 233, 234, 238, 256, 258
TIMUR, grandson of Kiiblai, in,
45, 116, 121
TIMUR FANCHAN, in, 122
TIMUR KURKAN, Amir, i, 285
Tin, i, 253; Tin money, ii, 150
Tindail, iv, 104
Tingdsapuho, i, 317
Ting hoeul, I, 82, 83
Tingis, i, 221
Tingkorh, i, 82
TINTI, Luigi, iv, 266
Tioman, i, 128
Tipura Hills, iv, 152
Tira, I, 307
TIRABOSCHI, ii, 14, 25, 86
Tirawari, iv, 30
Tirhut, iv, 176
TIRIDATES, i, 94
TITANS, HI, 222
TITEUPULI, i, 205, 206; iv, 266
Tithe, in, 265
TITIANUS, see MAES TITIANUS
Tiulo R., i, 305
Tiuman, I, 128
Tiyu, I, 86
Tiyuma, I, 128
Tiznaf R., iv, 210
Tjerimai, Mountain in Java, m,
267
Toan Tac, iv, 227, 228, 229, 271
TOBA (WEi), in, 55
TOBBA AL AKRAN, i, 251
Tobbat, i, 246, 248
Tobolsk, i, 307
TOCATIMUR, in, 187
Tocchetto, in, 157
TOCTAI, iv, 270
TOCTAMISH Khan of Sarai, m, 185
352
INDEX
Toddy, i, 225; ii, 117
Todorag, in, 161
Todurga, in, 161
TOGAN TEMUR, i, 79; see TOGHON
TEMUR
TOGHON, TOGON TEMUR, i, 79; 11,
227; iv, 139. 142
Toghrak Dung, iv, 230
TOGHRAL BEG MALIK YUZBEK, rv,
152
Toghuzghuz, i, 140, 247, 248
Tograchi, iv, 238
TOGRUL, in, 25
Togto, n, 245 ; iv, 270
Toguz Oguz, i, 248
Tohfat-ul-Mujahideen, n, 135
Tokharestan, i, 36, 37, 96, 97,
100, 191, 215; iv, 184
Tokharians, i, 36
Tokhlasun, iv, 234
Tokhtasun, iv, 238
Tokmak, i, 60, 288; iv, 164, 235
Tokto, n, 245 ; iv, 268
Tokyo-gakuho, i, 81
Tolentino, n, 118
Toloneo, in, 145
Tolos, i, 58, 62
Tongan, in, 76
Tong Hai, i, 39
Tong King, i, 3-5, 51, 52, 114,
167, 193; n, 163, 165; iv, 157,
158
Tong shu, n, 212
T'o PA, i, 32
Torachi, i, 305
TORBITA, in, 193
Torissi, in, 159
Toroff, iv, 153
TORRE, Raymond della, n, 8
TORRES, Jos6 de, iv, 170, 171
Torrid Zone, in, 213
Torshok, I, 305
Tortoises, 11, 32, 165, 166
TOSCANELLI, Paolo del Pozzo, i,
177, 178, 267, 268
TOSTATUS, Joannes, in, 197
Toto Ch'eng, Tou Ch'eng, 11, 245
TOUGHADJ, TOOGHAJ, I, 33
Toukiue, see Tu Kiue
T'oung Pao, i, 7, 8, 32, 41, 44,
45. 50, 53. 55. 88, 105, 109,
no, 113, 180, 215, 298, 303;
H, 83, 139, 163, 168, 173, 194,
200, 215, 223, 234, 243; rv, 267,
268, 271
TOURNEFORT, II, 99-IOI
Tower of Babel, n, 34 ; in, 261, 262
Toyuk, in, 133
Tozan, 11, 245; iv, 268
Traces of former Christianity
found by Ricci in China, i,
122 ; in Indo-Chinese Countries,
i. 123
TRAJAN, i, 216
Tranquebar, i, 228
Transit of Venus, 11, 216
Transmigration, as exhibited to
Odoric and Marignolli, 11, 203 ;
in, 260
Transoxiania, i, 19, 140, 154; m,
33. 85; iv, 136, 160, 163, 166-
TRANSTORNA, Friar Gonsalvo, in,
81
Travancore, 11, 129, 130, 135; iv,
172
Treasuries or Mints in Cathay, in,
98
Trebizond, i, 212; 11, 9, 10, 30,
31, 34, 97-100, 102; m, 133,
162-4
Trees producing flour, 11, 156;
wine, ii, 157 ; honey (i.e. sugar),
n, 156
Trees of Paradise, m, 226
worshipped, in, 242
TREO, Lucrezio, n, 6
Treviso, ii, 178
Tribute paid by Egypt to Ethiopia
on account of the Nile, m, 223.
Trichinopoly, ii, 140
Trieste, ii, 3
TRIGAULT, N., i, 122, 295; ii, 210,
214; in, 53, 255; iv, 179-181,
198, 213, 219
Triglia, ill, 158
Tropea, ill, 169
Troy, i, 266
Trubner's Record, ii, 243
Trucins, in, 93, 94
TRU'O'NG-VINH-KY, ii, 167
Trutius, ill, 93
TRYPHO, in, 243
Ts'ai chau, ii, 152
TS'A LI MO-HO-NAN, i, 67
Tsen, i, 4, 5
Tseu thung, ii, 183; see Zaitiinr
TSEU TSING-CHANG, I, 237
Ts'i, ii, 205
TSIANG FU, I, 63
Tsiang Kiun, iv, 193
Tsiang shi, i, 273
Ts'iau ts'iuan, i, 38
Ts'i chau, ii, 183
Ts'ien Han Shu, i, 8, 23, 35, 41,
42, 149
TS'IEN SHU, Dynasty, I, 140
Ts'ien tang R., ii, 188, 195
Ts'ien Wen ki, i, 78
Ts'i Ian, iv, 228
Tsi ling, i, 97, 99
INDEX
353
Tsi mu sa, iv, 141
TS'IN, Dynasty, i, 2, 3, 5-7, n,
41, 215; 11, 205, 243; iv, 266
TSIN, Dynasty, i, 41, 50, 66, 67,
93, 114, 147, 235; iv, 266
Tsin, i, 144
Tsi-nan fu, n, 214
Ts'in ju, ii, 215
Tsin ling, I, 237
TS'IN LUN, i, 18
Ts'i ning chau, n, 213, 215
TS'IN Si HWANG Ti, i, n, 38
Tsiompa, n, 163
Ts'iuan chau, i, 88, 136, 142; n,
152, 183, 184, 186; iv, 117,
118, 120, 121
Tsomoling, n, 252
TSONG KHABA, II, 250
Ts'ong ling, i, 35, 40, 191, 192
Tsuan feng, n, 194
Ts'ui Ian, n, 168, 169
TSUNG-CHIN (YE LIU), i, 147
Ts'ung jin, i, 237
Ts'ung ling, i, 35, 40, 191, 192
Ts'wan chau, 11, 152, 183, 184,
186; iv, 117, 118, 120, 121 ;
see Ts'iuan chau and Zaitiin
Ttsitsikling, i, 318
Tuam, in, 204
Tiibat, i, 246
Tubbat, i, 246
Tubot, n, 248; see Tibet
T'u fan, i, 60, 62, 71 ; n, 248
TUGAN, sonpf Kiiblai, in, 130, 131
Tiigh, i, 223
Tughaj, i, 256
TUGHLAK, of Delhi, Mahomed ; see
MAHOMED TUGHLAK
TUGHLAK TIMUR KHAN, iv, 161,
163, 165, 189, 191
Tugrakdan, iv, 230
Tu HUAN, i, 235
Tuin, i, 117, 160; n, 144; in,
93
Tukai Nam, in, 126
Tu K'ANG, ii, 200
TUKA TIMUR, iv, 161
Tukhara, I, 316
Tu Kiue, i, 58-62, 97; iv, 164,
235, 266
TUKTUKA, iv, 7
Tul, Tool, Pass of, iv, 255, 256,
258
Tula, in, 19
TULABUKA, IV, 7
Tulasi, ii, 116
TULI, in, 25, 26
TULIK, Amir, iv, 189
Tulsi Trees, ii, 25
TULUN, i, 149
c. Y. c. iv.
Tumapel, ii, 152
Turnan, ii, 198, 199
TUMAN, Amir, iv, 141
Tumchuk, iv, 229
T'u MEN, i, 58, 206
T'u MI TU, i, 62
Tungani, iv, 238
T'ung Che, i, 273
Tungeetar, iv, 217; see Tanghetar
Tung King, Tun kin; see Tong
King
Tung kup, ii, 146
Tung kwo, i, 131
Tung sheng chau, iv, 268
Tun hwang, i, 38, 40, 41, 58, 63,
113, 140
Tunis, in, 247 ; iv, 37
Tupalak, i, 315
Tupha, i, 223
T'u po, Tu bod, T'u po t'e, i, 60;
see Tibet
TUR, i, 9
Turan, i, 152; n, 263; iv, 164
Turbit, in, 1 68
Turfan, i, 40, 41, 58, 64, 140, 247,
272; in, 55, 133; iv, 141, 189,
191, 231, 233, 234, 237-9, 293
Turkestan, i, 99, 138, 288, 302,
312; n, 197, 199; iv, 145, 160,
163, 164, 186, 228, 237
Turkey, n, 263 ; in, 81
Turkish Khans, intercourse be-
tween the Byzantine Court and
the, i, 54 seq. ; 205 seq.
Turkmen, Turcomans, I, 149, 163,
247
Turk and Mongol Tribes, Chris-
tianity among the, i, 115 seq.
Turks, i, 44, 58, 59, 96, 204-8,
245, 315; ii, 177, 216; iv, 238
Turlu, i, 305
TURNER, T. Hudson, i, 167
TURNOUR, Epitome, i, 226, 243
Turpia, in, 169
Tursi, Turshi, iv, 20
Turtle, i, 225
Turusium, in, 247
Tus, i, 102
Tuscany, i, 120; in, 255
Tusce, iv, 217, 219
T'u se wei, I, 106
Tusks, n, 251; iv, 269
Tuster, TV, 36
Tut, i, 219
Tutan Dara, IV, 257
Tuticorin, iv, 35
Tu TSUNG, i, 8 1
T'u Wu, i, 58, 206
T'u yu huen, I, 61
Twer, i, 305
23
354
INDEX
Tygris, in, 84, 225 ; see Tigris R.
Tyras, I. 305
Tyre, I, 169
Tyuinus. ill, 93
Tzana Lake, I, 218
Tze tung, i, 257
Tzinia, i, 108
Tzinista, I, 12, 28, 214, 215, 227,
228
Tzinisthan, I, 28, 107, 108
Ubashi, a Class of Lama, n, 250
Uboh, iv, 12
Uchaar, in, 121
Uchh, iv, 10, 238
Uchkilisi, Uchkilisse, i, 308; in,
163
Uch Turfan, I, 40
UDALRIC, ULRIC, 7
UDALRIC, Duke of Carinthia, n, 5
UDALRIC, St., n, 21
Udhyana, Udyana, i, 71, 74
Udine, n, 3, 8, 9, 13, 14, 16, 36, 38
Uduyut, in, 20
Ufa, i, 308
Ugan, iv, 230, 231
UGHELLI, Italia Sacra, m, 10, 178
Uguech, Ugueth, in, 84
Uighur Characters, i, 166, 167
Uighiirs, I, 58-60, 62-4, 72, 88,
91, 116, 119, 178, 194, 195, 212,
247, 248; 11, 232; ni, 20, 21,
53- 54. J32» !86; rv, 160, 163,
164, 239
Ujah, rv, 10
Ujan, i, 314
Ujjain, i, 230; iv, 23
Ujjayani, i, 74
Ukak, iv, 7
Ukek, in, 84; rv, 7
UKHAGATU, iv, 139
Ukoli, in, 125
UKUNAI, i, 148
Ulus, rv, 164
Uman, in, 131, 132
Umbeyla Campaign, i, 310
Umbrella, in, 256
UMEIRA, in, 264
Umraz, Pass of, rv, 256
Umri, rv, 22
UNC, UNC CHAM (PRESTER JOHN
OF POLO), in, 19, 20, 25
Ungaria, in, 247
Unicorn, i, 222, 224, 243
Unnia, i, 215
Unona Ethiopica, n, 153
Upper India, 11, 176, 177, 180
Ural, i, 85, 212, 246
Urat, in, 48
URBAN VIII, n, 16
Urda lik, iv, 238
URDUJA, iv, 104-8, 158
Urdukand, i, 60
Urfa, Urfah, i, 307; 11, 223
Urga, iv, 239
Urganj, Urganth, Urghandj, I,
304; in, 82, 83, 85, 87, 147, 190
Urgence, in, 82
Urh-sze, I, 38
URRETA, in, 223
Urumia, Urmia, I, 304, 308; n,
197; in, 22, 163
Urumtsi, I, 117; iv, 141, 234, 238,
239
Urza, rv, 256
Ush, i, 191, 286
Ushak Tal, rv, 238
Ush Kara Langar, rv, 238
Ushnej, I, 119
Ussn, i, 309
Utak, in, 84
Utakhanda, I, 74
Utara Kuru, I, 195
Utiennang, I, 74
UTTUNGADEWA, n, 152
Uz, i, 245
UZBEK, i, 295 ; in, 84, 89, 90,
190, 2ii, 212, 216, 246, 247;
iv, 9, 160, 166, 186
Uzes, i, 247
Uzi, i, 305
UZIELLI, G., i, 268, 290
Uzma Dung, iv, 238
UZUN HASSAN, i, 178,
Uzun Tati, I, 40, 251
UZZANO, Gio. da, 11, 98, 137, 153,
219; in, 142, 148, 153, 155;
rv, 99, 118
VAofcvARA, i, 73
VALENTIJN, i, 124
VALENTINE, i, 206; iv, 49, 143
VALENTINE CAESAR, i, 54
VALENTINELLI, n, 84-7, 92
Valenza, ill, 166
VALIGNANI, iv, 178
VALIKHANOFF, Russians in Central
Asia, i, 288, 289, 310, 311, 317;
in, 55, 88; iv, 82, 193, 210, 235
Valley of Terrible Things, n, 262
VALONTE, Giov., in, 4
VALVASONE, Jac., n, 6
VAMBERY, in, 213; rv, 269
Van, Lake, I, 304, 308; 11, 107;
in, 22, 40
VAN BERCHEM, i, 88
Vancouver island, n, 174
Vandals, III, 184
VAN DEN GHEYN, 11, 83
VAN DE PUTTE, Samuel, n, 249
INDEX
355
VAN DER LITH, iv, 155, 157, 160
Varami, I, 293
Vardoj R., iv, 211
VARIN, P., 11, 220
VARRO, i, 315
VARTHEMA, i, 124, 178; in, 243
Vatami, I, 293
Vatuk, in, 84
Vaudey, in, 171
Veddahs, i, 184; in, 245, 259
Vegetable Lamb, n, 242
Veil in further India, iv, 147
Velez, iv, 39
Velletri, in, 37
Velogesia, i, 43
VELUDO, 11, 56
Velvets, ii, 106
Venia, n, 143
Venice, i, 171, 290, 295; 11, 3, 4,
10, 15, 23, 30, 100 ; in, 154,
159, 166, 169. 179, 188, 197,
207, 229
VENIUKOV, i, 310, 311, 317; iv,
182
VENNI, 11, 5, n, 17, 18, 20, 21,
27, 28, 36, 57, 77, 78, 80, 96,
119, 140, 267
VENUS, i, 248
Veramin, i, 293
Vercelli, n, 16
Verde, Cape, in, 230
Veremi, I, 293
Verona, 11, 218
Vertical Writing, in, 54
Verzino, n, 137
VESPUCCI, Amerigo, ill, 230
VETULUS DE MONTANIS, n, 257
Viatka, i, 307
Vicenza, n, 178, 246
Vienna, 11, 3
VIEYRA, iv, 223
VIGNAUD, Henry, I, 268
VIGNAY, Jean de, 11, 67, 266, 271
Vijayanagar, n, 140; in, 69
VILA, Jose Maria, 11, 214
Villa Franca do Campo, iv, 171
VILI.ANI, G., in, 178
VILLANI, Matteo, in, 255
Villa Nova, 11, 6, 19-21
VINCENT de Beauvais, 11, 34, 223
VINCENZO MARIA, P., n, 116, 135,
136, 140, 173; in, 217, 236,
237. 252
VINCENZO the Carmelite, iv, 223
Vinegar, iv, 45
VIRA-PANDI, HI, 69
VIRGIL, i, 20, 21, 185
VIRGIN worshipped in China, in,
269
VISDELOU, i, 42
VISHNU, in, 198, 222; iv, 146
Visiapur, I, 243
VlSSCHER, III, 2l8
VlSSIERE, A., II, 192, 199, 204
VITRY, Jacques de, I, 21
Vittoria, in, 31
VIVIEN DE SAINT-MARTIN, i, 74,
212, 217, 229
Vociam, Vocian, i, 301, 302 ; in,
131
Vodaric, n, 7
Vokhan, i, 313, 318; see Wakhan
Volga, i, 45, 140, 154, 156, 163,
179, 212, 245, 246, 287-9, 307,
308; n, 105, 211, 242; in, 82,
84, 185, 198, 225, 247; iv, 6,
158
VOLTAIRE, i, 107
Vost, iv, 259
Votiak, n, 223
Voyages au Nord, i, 181
Vritranes, for Buddhist Monas-
teries, III, 102
Vulgate, ii, 103, no, 208; in, 243
Vypin harbour, n, 134
Waddakare, iv, 77
WADDELL, L. A., i, 62; ii, 224,
249, 252, 253
WADDING, i, 301; n, 9, 11-14,
22, 24, 84, 85, 118, 119, 123,
125, 126, 131, 258, 262; in, 3,
4, 6, 28, 29, 31, 33, 199, 200,
206
Wadi Araba, n, 262
Wadi-ul-Makam, i, 251
Waghand, i, 313
Wagish River, i, 317
Wahabi, iv, 5_
WAHI ARDUJA, iv, 104
Wahlstatt, i, 152
Wahman, i, 243
Wai ch'eng, n, 216
Waihand, i, 74
WAIS, iv, 165
Wajan, i, 314
Wakf, i, 153
Wakhan, i, 248, 313, 316, 318;
iv, 211, 216, 259
Wakhijrui, iv, 211
Wakhjir, iv, 216
Wakhs-ab, I, 192, 315, 316
Wakhsh, I, 286, 313-7
Wakhshjird, i, 313, 315, 316
Wak-Wak, n, 139
WALCKENAER, Baron, i, 12, 127,
128, 228; n, 153; in, 194; iv,
157. 159
WALID, Khalif, i, 254
Wali-Kambing, ii, 157, 158
356
INDEX
WALKER, Col., i, 310-312; iv, 206
WALKER, John, i, 317; iv, 183,
256, 259, 310, 311
Wall of China, Great, i, 165, 175;
see Great Wall
WALLACE, A. R., n, 159
Wallachia, the Greater, in, 246
Wallachians, in, 246
WALLIN, Dr., n, 262
WALTER (o' the) Mill, n, 115
WANG CHING-HUNG, i, 76
WANG Hiuen-ts'e, i, 67, 69
WANG RANG, i, 65, 161 ; in, 15,
25, 26
WANG KIEN, i, 140
WANG Ku, in, 15
WANG MENG, i, 7
Wang Mu, I, 7
WANG NIEH, i, 75
WANG PHEITOLI, i, 54
WANG YEN-TE, i, 248; in, 133
WAN- LI, in, 12
Wanshi, in, 120
Wan sui chari, n, 220
WANZLEBIUS, in, 223
Waracha, in, 237
Warangal (Tilinga), in, 70; iv, 14,
45
WARD, Hindoos, 11, 116
WARD, n, 149
WARNER, 11, 34, 113, 166
Wasit, i, 309
Wasjird, I, 316
WASSAF, 11, 178, 179, 193, 197;
iv, 223
WASSAIF SHAH, in, 223
Water, Population on the, in
Cathay, in, 95, 224
Water-leeches, 11, 172
Water Melon, iv, 109
WATHEK BILLAH, Khalif, iv, 123
WATTERS, iv, 231
Wazipur, iv, 22
Wealth of Idol Temples in Ma'abar,
n, 142-3
WEI, i, 32, 66, 93, 95, 139, 208,
247; in, 55
Wei choui, I, 30
Wei Ho, i, 113; ii, 213, 214
Wei jung, iv, 231
Wei kan, iv, 231
WEIL, Biblical Legends, n, 122,
171
Wei lio, i, 41, 52, 199
Wei ngan, in, 122
Wei Shu, ii, 223
Wei wu eul, Wei wu rh, i, 62;
in, 55
Well, iv, 229
WELLBY, Capt., in, 121
Wen Chau, i, 136; ii, 188
WEN CH'ENG, i, 61
Wen Ho, n, 213, 214
Wen Su, i, 40
Wen Su Chau, iv, 231
WESSELS, Rev. C., iv, 171
WESTERMARCK, E., ii, 147
Whales, iv, 5
WHALID, Khalif, i, 90
WHEELER, J. T., i, 81
WHITE, Lieut. Charles, ii, 173
White Horses, ii, 239
White Huns, i, 205, 229; see
Hephthalites
White Lake, in, 247
White Mountain, iv, 192
White Sea, in, 246
Widow-burning, see Suttee
Wihara, in, 242
Wijaya, I, 226
WILBRAND of Oldenburg, ii, 22
Wild beasts in Ceylon do not hurt
foreigners, ii, 172 ; iv, 33
Wild Men, in, 259
Wild Ox (Yak), i, 223
WILFORD on Goes, iv, 216
WlLKEN, Prof., II, 147
WILKINSON, iv, 154
WILLIAM, Dr., i, 298
WILLIAM the Campanian, Friar,
in, 28
WILLIAM de Cigiis, ii, 103
WILLIAM of Modena, i, 171; in,
33
WILLIAM of Nassio, in, 179
WILLIAM of Prato, in, 13
WILLIAM of Solagna, ii, 12, 27,
32, 266, 267, 271
WILLIAM of Villa nova, in, 9, 10
WILSON, H. H., iv, 182
Wine, i, 160, 248, 267; ii, 117,
199, 200; iv, 205, 267, 268
Wodok, i, 23
Woga, i, 77
Wogouls, i, 245
Women, kingdom of, in, 192-4
WOOD, i, 17, 248, 250, 310-18; n,
263, 264; iv, 183-6, 205, 206,
209, 211, 216, 255-9
Wou k'i, iv, 235
Wou yi, iv, 235
WREDE, Baron, ii, 108
WRIGHT, Thos., ii, 40; in, 219
Wu, i, 66, 139; ii, 205; in, 12
Wu ch'ang, i, 71; in, 128, 129
Wu ch'eng che ti, iv, 141
Wu ch'wan lu, i, 75
Wu HAU, i, 61
Wu-i-shan-li, i, 23
Wu-ki, i, 276
INDEX
357
WU KIAI, I, 64
Wu Sun, I, 35, 36, 38, 40
Wu Sung, i, 77
Wu T'ai Shan, i, 73
Wu Ti, i, 4, 18, 23, 35-9, 54, 58,
68, 96
Wu TSUNG, i, in
Wu TZU-MU, n, 194
Wu wei, i, 38
WYLIE, A., i, 35, 39, 41 ; n, 205
Xanadu, see Sandu
Xan baliq, iv, 138; see Khan
baliq
XAQUEM DARXA, iv, 71
XAVIER, Jerome, iv, 201, 202,
220, 253
Xetaia (Khitai), iv, 174
Xeythona, i, 267
Yabtuar, iv, 182
Yachi, in, 126, 127
Yaconic, iv, 180, 215, 217
Yadah, i, 246
Yadava, i, 254; n, 115
YADJUDJ, i, 255
YAFATH (JAPHET), i, 2
Yak, i, 223, 273, 295
Yaka-arik, iv, 215, 230, 231, 238
Yaka-kuduk, iv, 229
YAKUB BEG, in, 127
Yakut, i, 2, 138
Yalduz, i, 272
Yam or Post House, i, 275, 276;
n, 232-4
Yampa, n, 150
Yamse (Yang Chau), 11, 210
Yamzai (Yang Chau), n, 209
Yandjou, Jangju, i, 33
Yaneku, n, 210
Yang Chau, i, 100, 136, 169, 256,
257; ii, 10, 177, 205, 209, 210;
in, 248; iv, 120
Yanghikand, in, 24
Yangi hissar, Yanghi hissar, i, 191,
318; in, 24; iv, 187, 217, 223,
238
Yangi Yuli, iv, 255
YANG MA-NO (DIAZ), i, 106
YANG Ti, i, 54, 56, 68, 95, 98
Yang tze, i, 77, 136; n, 115, 207,
213. 255
Yangui, n, 209
Yanju, i, 256, 257
YAO, i, 7, 8
Yao Chau, iv, 129
Yarkand, i, 40, 117, 246, 311,
312, 314.. 317; n, 221, 234; in,
213; iv, 162, 163, 180-3, 187-
8, 190, 191, 193, 207, 210,
215-221, 223, 225, 228, 231,
249
Yar Khoto, iv, 237
Yarmuk, i, 59
Yasa, iv, 142, 238
Yasak, iv, 142
YASAM, in, 128
Yasdi, n, 107
Yashm, iv, 219
Yasin, i, 314
Yatimak, iv, 256
Yat-nam, i, 4
Yau-ch'eng, i, 39
Yava-Koli, n, 151
Yaxartes (Syr Daria), iv, 164; see
Jaxartes
YAZDBOZED, i, no; see IZDBUZID
Ydyqut Shahri, in, 133 ; see
Idiqut Shahri
YEFREMOFF'S Travels, iv, 183
YEH, i, 51
Ye li k'o wen, Ye li ke un, i, 118;
11, 210; in, 121
YE-LIU A-PAO-KI, etc., i, 147
Yellow River, i, 116, 136, 147,
150; ii, 244, 245; see Hwang
Ho
Yemen, i, 83, 251; iv, 3, 35, 153
Yen, Kingdom, n, 216; in, 12
YEN FU, in, 15
Yenghi abad, iv, 238
YEN HI, YELIU, i, 147
Yenisei, iv, 162
Yen k'i, i, 40; iv, 222, 231, 234,
235 ; see Karashahr
Yen King, i, 47, 177; ii, 216;
see Pe King
Yen ngan, in, 122
Yen ta, n, 223
YENTHUHOLO, i, 55
Yen t'o man, ii, 168
YENYO, i, 48
Yer-ka-lo, ii, 250
YESONTIMUR, YESUNTIMUR, n,
222, 226, 270; in, 33, 35
YESSUGAI, in, 25
YE su, in, 12
Ye ta, i, 205, 229
YE-TAI-I-LI-T'O, i, 205
Ye-tha, n, 224
Ye-tu, i, 114
Yezd, i, 31, 290; ii, 10, 106-8
YEZDEGERD, YEZDIJIRD III, last
Sassanian King, i, 55, 59, 96. 97
YEZID BEN MUAWIA, i, 44
Y-ho, n, 213
Ying tien, n, 216
YING TSUNG, i, 30; ii, 222
Ying-yai-sh3ng-lan, i, 77; n, 146,
148-150
358
INDEX
Yl-SE, I, 110
YISSESSE (YEZDEGERD), i, 96
YISUN TIMUR, see YESON TIMUR
Yi TSING, i, 51; iv, 100
Yi TS'U ssu, i, 97
Yi-Yun, i, 288
Ynde, i, 262
Yogurs, in, 53
YONG Lo, i, 73, 76, 77, 80, 87;
ii, 134, 205, 216
YONG Yu, n, 191
Yotkan, iv, 222
YOUNG, John, 11, 43
Youngmyo, i, 243
YOYADA, in, 266
Ypotamuses, in, 254
Yrcanum, M., i, 304
YSENBRAS, Sir, in, 214
Ytanor, iv, 78
Yu, in, 12
Yu, Emperor, i, 177; n, 237, 200
Yu (Jade), n, 221; iv, 219
YUAN Dynasty, I, 136, 173, 267;
n, 152, 198, 199, 206, 219, 227,
231; in, 15, 128, 185, 187,
214
Yuan ch'ao pi shi, u, 248 ; in, 82,
156
YUAN-CHUANG, II, 223; S66
HlOUEN TSANG
Yuan Shi, n, 152, 198, 217, 248;
in, 82, 182, 186, 239, 248
Yuan tien chang, n, 210
Yu chau, ii, 216
Yu ch6, in, 125
Yu chu, iv, 231
Yue chi, i, 35-8, 40, 66, 229
Yueh, in, 12
Yuei-ai, i, 68
YUEN, Dynasty, see YUAN
YUEN, YE LIU, i, 147
YUEN CHAO, i, 112
Yuen Pao, iv, 112
Yu6-shang shi, i, 7, 8
Yu-hwang-ho, n, 213
Yulduz, i, 272 ; iv, 233, 234
Yii-lung-ghie-ch'i, in, 82
Yung chan, i, 161
Yung ch'ang, in, 131
YUNG CHENG, n, 249
YUNG Lo, see YONG Lo
Yung ting, in, 117
YUNG-YAU-TIAO, I, 53
Yun Ho, ii, 213
Yun Nan, i, 39, 61, 72, 76, 118,
122, 177, 244; ii, 231, 248;
ill, 122, 127, 128, 187
YUNUS KHAN, iv, 166, 191
YUNUS, an Alan Chief, in, 182
Yur, iv, 259
Yurgun, iv, 231
Yurung Kash, iv, 219
Yusce, iv, 217
Yu she, iv, 219
YUSUF, i, 280, 284
Yuthia, i, 124
Yu t'ien, I, 40, 205 ; iv, 222, 223,
231 ; see Khotan
Yu Ya, Yii Ying, ii, 189
Zab, i, 304, 308
Zaba, Zabai, I, 193
Zabaj, Zabadj, Zabag, I, 127, 138
Zabid, i, 306
Zabulistan, i, 152
ZACHARIA, Martin, in, 38
ZACHARY, Archbishop of St. Thad-
deus, in, 40
Zafernameh, ill, 82, 88
Zagan, i, 167
ZAGATAI, i, 174, 264, 269, 270;
in, 14?
ZAHiR-UDDfN, the Zinjani, iv, 19,
29
ZAHIR-UDDIN ul Kurlani, iv, 127
ZAHN, J. von, ii, 5, 6; ii, 82, 89
Zaila, iv, 4
Zaitiin, Zaytiin, i, 51, 169-172,
256, 257, 267, 301; n, 131, 177,
179, 180, 183, 184, 186, 212;
in, 10, n, 28, 71-5, 100, 115,
126, 130, 131, 180, 191, 216,
229, 230, 241, 248; iv, 2, 17,
25, 40, 67, 109, 117-121, 126,
127, 145, 149, 270
Zaituniah, iv, 118
Zam, i, 315
Zambesi, HI, 221
ZAMBRINI, ii, 62, 89, 92
Zamorin, iv, 24
Zampa, ii, 163; see Champa
Zanguebar, i, 213
Zanj, i, 85, 138
Zanzibar, I, 85, 138; in, 259;
iv, 155
Zao, iv, 25
Zarafshan, i, 38; iv, 216
Zaraguelles, ii, no
Zarangiane, i, 99
Zaranj, i, 99
Zardandan, i, 302; in, 127, 131
Zarefpod, in, 82
Zaritzin, I, 308
Zarun, i, 85
Zarya, Pass of, iv, 256
Zar-Zamin, i, 316
Zavolha, n, 241, 242
ZAYD, i, 246
ZEDLER, Lexicon, ii, 154
Zedoary, in, 167
INDEX
359
Zegana, Ziganah, n, 99
ZEMARCHUS, ambassador from By-
zantium, i, 149, 208-212
ZENKSHI, in, 33
ZENO, n, 6
ZENOB, i, 94
Zerzumen, i, 316
Zhafar, iv, 149
Zhi-nan, i, 193
Ziamba, 11, 163
Zibillo, in, 165
Zihar, iy, 23
Zi-ka-wei, i, 107
Zilan, iv, 228
ZIMMERMAN, iv, 182
Zindan, in, 232
Zindan Baba, in, 232
Zindan-i-Suleiman, in, 232
Zinghi, in, 195
Zingion, i, 218
Zingium, in, 259
ZINGUO, in, 85
Zinj, i, 212, 213, 218, 230; in, 28
Zin Zin, i, 161
Zion, Mount, in, 265
Zipangu, n, 163; in, 129
Zizera, I, 308
Zohab, in, 22, 23
ZOHAK, i, 9
Zohak, ruins, iv, 257
ZONARAS, i, 204
ZOROASTER, 11, 103; m, 53
ZOSKALES, I, 2l6
Zuanapur, i, 177
Zurich, in, 14
ZURLA, i, 176; n, 257; in, 195,
246
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