Full text of "Notes by a naturalist on the "Challenger", being an account of various observations made during the voyage of H.M.S. "Challenger" around the world, in the years 1872-1876, under the commands of Capt. Sir G. S. Nares and Capt. F. T. Thomson"

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NOTES

A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER,'

BEING

AN ACCOUNT OF VARIOUS OBSERVATIONS

MADE DURING THE

VOYAGE OF H.M.S. " CHALLENGER " ROUND THE WORLD,

IN THE YEARS 1872—1876,

UNDER THE

Commands of Capt. Sir G. S. NABES, R.N., K.C.B., F.B.S.,
and Capt, F. T. THOMSON, B.N.

H. N. MOSELEY, M.A., F.RS.,

FELLOW OF EXETER COLLEGE, OXFORD, MEMBER OF THE SCIENTIFIC STAFF OF

H.M.S. "CHALLENGER."

With a Map, Two Coloured Plates, and numerous Woodcuts.

ILorrtroit:
MACMILLAN AND CO.

1879.

LONDON :
HARRISON AND SONS, PRINTERS IN ORDINARY TO HER MAJESTY,

ST. martin's LANE.

CHARLES DARWIN, ESQ., LL.D., F.R.S., &C,

FROM THE STUDY OF
WHOSE JOURNAL OF RESEARCHES
I MAINLY DERIVED MY DESIRE TO TRAVEL ROUND THE WORLD,
TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF WHOSE THEORY

I OWE
THE PRINCIPAL PLEASURES AND INTERESTS OF MY LIFE,

AND WHO HAS
PERSONALLY GIVEN ME
MUCH KINDLY ENCOURAGEMENT
IN THE PROSECUTION OF MY STUDIES,

THIS BOOK IS, BY PERMISSION, GRATEFULLY DEDICATED.

EKKATA.

Page

Line

Foe,

Read

Myrmelion

Myrmeleon.

Halcyon erythroryncha

Halcyon erythrogastra

Garde de l'eau

Gare a, l'eau.

105

which.

whom.

121

Neospiza

JSesospiza.

122

note 1 and 4

ibid.

125

Inaccesible

Inaccessible.

128

acts . . . assists

act . . . assist.

163

North or West

north of west.

169

Hastla

Haastia.

181

Halabcena

Halobazna.

257

JPhalanyister

Phalanyista.

276

Musschenbrook

Musschenbroek.

293

Chorophyly

Chlorophyll.

295

Solitarias

Solitaria.

301

Lats. 16° and 20° E.

Lats. 16° and 20° S.

352

alerrimum

aterrimum.

385

Heading

Amboina

Banda.

499

11, 24

Hawai

Hawaii.

504 33 and in note

ibid.

514

Chionider

Clionider.

PREFACE.

The contents of this book were mainly written on board H.M.S.
" Challenger," and sent home from the various ports touched at,
in the form of a journal. Much of the book has been printed
directly from the sheets of foreign note paper on winch the
journal was transmitted. Since, however, very much of it was
intended for family reading, a good deal of matter descriptive of
various well-known animals and phenomena has been struck
out, as well as the accounts of the long voyages and various

dredgings.

A considerable amount of the less technical matter, even
thouo-h treating of matters often before described, contained in
the original letters, has, however, been retained in the hopes
that it may interest general readers. The whole has been
revised and corrected, and the scientific names of birds and
animals have been corrected, as far as possible, by means of
the notices of the " Challenger " collections published by various
specialists since the arrival of the ship in England.

I venture here to make an appeal to specialists engaged in
working at " Challenger " material to spare me copies of their
papers, and to assure them that, as I hope this book will show,
I take an interest in the collections of all kinds made during
the " Challenger's " voyage, that I took a large share myself in
the bringing together of the collections, and that such papers

Vi PREFACE.

will not be thrown away upon me. It is almost impossible to
collect them unaided from the various Journals in which they
are published.

I have given in the form of foot-notes, and also in some
instances, at the ends of the chapters, references to various works
relating to the subjects treated of. No attempt has, however,
been made to afford a complete bibliography; I have merely
noted down those works which I have happened to consult
myself, in the hopes that such references may be found of some
assistance. At the end of the book I have given a list of books
and papers published, relating to the " Challenger " Expedition.
This is no doubt far from perfect ; I have only made it as full
as my information allows.

I should have wished to have been able to illustrate this
book more fully ; the reason I have not clone so is simply that
of expense. I have introduced amongst the figures, which are
otherwise new, about twelve which are printed from cliches,
and which may no doubt be familiar to some readers as occur-
ring in other works. I make no scruple to use them as illus-
trating the subject, and as being better than no figures at all
of the objects referred to.

Since it was not considered expedient to attach a Botanist
to the " Challenger " Expedition, because the special work of
the ship lay in deep-sea exploration, I undertook the collection
of plants during the voyage. I received instructions at Kew
before starting. My best thanks are due to my friend Sir
Joseph Hooker for the constant encouragement in my work
which he conveyed to me by letter throughout the voyage,
and for the care and trouble bestowed on my collections. I
have to thank further my friend Prof. Oliver for the prompt-
ness with which he examined the collections and named them,
and made arrangements for the description and enumeration
by various authors of all the cryptogams as well as for kindly

PREFACE. Vll

correcting and arranging for publication of my own notes on
plants collected, and for presenting them to the Linnean Society.

I have to thank my friend Mr. W. T. Thistleton Dyer, for
much kind assistance and information conveyed to me through-
out the cruise. I have also to thank the various authors,
whose names will be found in the list of papers at the end
of this book, for having undertaken the description of my
collections of cryptogams and other plants.

To my friend Prof. G. Eolleston I am indebted for various
kind offices performed during the course of my voyage, and
for having seen through the press several scientific papers sent
home by me for publication.

I would here express my obligations to Sir C. Wyville
Thomson for having selected me as a member of the Scientific
Staff of H.M.S. " Challenger." The fact that the " Challenger "
Expedition started at all, is principally due to the energy and
perseverance of Sir C. Wyville Thomson and Dr. Carpenter.
I sincerely hope that before very long another scientific ex-
ploring expedition may be despatched from England under
Government auspices.

I would also return my best thanks to Captain Sir G. S. 1ST ares
and Captain F. T. Thomson for their invariable kindness and
courtesy to me personally, and for the many occasions on which
they gave me special assistance in my work during the voyage.

I am further bound to express my gratitude to all my mess-
mates and many friends on board the ship, who constantly
helped me in various ways. The interests of a Commander
and a Eirst Lieutenant on board a man-of-war are as directly
opposed to all scientific operations, especially those of Botany
and Zoology, which are necessarily more or less connected
with dirt and untidiness, as they can possibly be. I have to
thank Captain J. E. L. P. Maclear and Lieuts. P. Aldrich and
A. C. B. Bromley, for having so often good-naturedly put up with

viii PREFACE.

my various messes and disfigurements of their decks. My best
thanks are further due to Staff- Commander T. H. Tizard, Navi-
gating Officer of the " Challenger;' who piloted us so safely
amongst so many reefs and into so many little-frequented
harbours. He was always ready to afford information during
the voyage, and has also done me much most generous service
in this way subsequently, whilst I have been preparing the
present work for the press. A reference to his valuable papers
on deep-sea temperatures will be found in the list at the end of

this book.

To Mr. E. Eichards, our Paymaster, we were all indebted for
the careful planning of many pleasant excursions on shore and
various acts of kindness.

My indebtedness to my colleagues, Mr. J. Y. Buchanan,
Mr. J. Murray, Dr. J. J. Wild, and the late E. Von Willemoes
Suhm, I have expressed in several places in the text of this

work.

It is perhaps somewhat out of place in a private work of
the present kind, to express my gratitude to the actual pro-
moters of the "Challenger" Expedition — The Lords of the
Admiralty. I cannot, however, refrain from saying, as has so
often been done before by others, that all honour is due to
them for having promoted this memorable Expedition, and for
the completeness with which it was furnished in every respect.
The thanks of all scientific men are due to them, and I cannot
but feel personally thankful in consideration of the extreme
pleasure which I derived from the voyage.

Thanks are no less due to the two successive hydrographers
to the Admiralty, Yice-Aclmiral Sir G. H. Eichards, Knt., C.B.,
F.E.S., &c, and Captain F. J. Owen Evans, E.K, C.B., F.E.S.,
for the skill with which the Expedition was planned and carried
out. I have to thank both of them for many advantages derived,
and also for their personal kindness to me on all occasions.

PREFACE. IX

To Mr. W. B. Blakeney, B.K, I am personally indebted for
various arrangements made at home by him, during the voyage,
for my benefit.

I have, finally, to thank my friend Prof. E. Bay Lankester,
Fellow of Exeter College, for assistance and advice received
during the progress of this book; and also my friend the
Bev. Thomas Sheppard, B.D., Fellow of Exeter College, for
having kindly read through all the proof sheets, and assisted in
their correction.

Exeter College, Oxfoed,
December, 1878.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

TENEBIFFE, ST. THOMAS,
BEKMUDA.

Circumstances of the Voyage, p. 1.
Teneriffe, 2. Cochineal Plantations,
2. Excursion up the Peak. Trade-
wind Cloud, 3. Zones of Vegetation,
4. Sunset seen above the Clouds, 5.
Babbits and other Animals on the
Peak, 6. Peculiar Spider's-web, 8.
Catching Sharks off Sombrero Island,
West Indies, 8. Appearance and
habits of Bemora, 9. Pilot fish, 9.
Island of St. Thomas, 11. Calcareous
Seaweeds, 12. Sea Urchins with poi-
soned Spines, 12. Burrowing Spider, 13.
Nest of Termites, 14. Pelicans edible,
15. Sand-box tree, 15. Defensive
colouring of Spines of Cacti, 16. Beach
Conglomerate, 17. Sea Beans, 17.
Bermuda, 18. Calcareous Sand-rock,
18. Caves, 22. Vegetation, 23. Peat,
23. Boatswain Birds, 25. Land Ne-
mertine, 26. Corals in Caves, 27.

CHAPTER II.

AZOEES, MADEIEA, CAPE
VERDES.

Fayal Island, Azores, 29. Porpoises on
the Feed, 30. Town of Horta, 30.
Peculiar Dress of the Women, 31.
Island of Pico, 32. St. Michael's Is-
land, 32. Native Ferns and Australian
introduced Trees, 33. The Threshing-
floor and Women at the Mill, 33.
Vegetation of the Azores, 34. Hot
Springs at Furnas, 35 Plants Growing
in the Hot Water, 36. Caldeira des
Sette Cidades, 37. Madeira, 38. Grand
Cural, 39. Curious Caps worn by the
Men, 40. The Island at Sunset, 41.
St. Vincent Island, Cape Verdes, 41.
Vegetation of the Island, 42. Ascent
of Green Mountain, 43. Different
Causes of Variation of Vegetation with
Altitude, 45. Structure of Basaltic
Dykes, 46. Calcareous Seaweeds on
Bird Island, 46. Habits of Crabs, 48.

Miniature Oasis, 51. Flying Gurnet
Hooked, 51. Mode of Catching Bonito,
Island of Fogo, 54. Porto Praya,
Jago Island, 55. Use of Foot in

53.

St.

and

57.

Domingo

Feeding by Kites, 55. Kingfisher
Galinis, 56. Hauling the Sein,
A Large Shark, 57. San
Valley, 59. Monkeys, 60. Bemark-
able Freshwater Crustacean, 60. Lime-
stone Band in the Cliff of the Harbour,
64.

CHAPTER III.

ST. PAUL'S BOCKS AND FEE-
NANDO DO NOBHONA.

St. Paul's Bocks, 67. Equatorial Cur-
rent, 68. Nests of Noddies, 69. Pre-
datory Habits of Grapsus strigosus, 70.
Fishing off the Bocks, 71. Nests of
Boobies, 72. Pugnacity of the Young
Birds, 72. Other Inhabitants of the
Bocks, 73. Fishing for Cavalli with
Salmon tackle, 74. Geological Struc-
ture of the Bocks, 75. Seaweeds Grow-
ing on the Bocks, 76. Fernando do
Norhona, 77. Calcareous Sand-rock
containing Volcanic Intermixture, 78.
Tree Shedding Leaves in Dry Season,
78. Jatropha urens, 79. Buds, 79.
Brazilian Convicts, 80. St. Michael's
Mount, 82. Frigate Birds Nesting, 83.
Pigeons Nesting with Sea Birds, 83.
Lizards of the Islands, 84.

CHAPTER IV.

BAHIA.

Harbour and Town of Bahia, 85. Beli-
gious Procession, 86. Black Angels,
87. Land Planarians, 89. Clicking
Butterfly, 89. Primeval Forest, 90.
Shooting Humming Birds and Toucans,
91. Caxoeira, 93. Mewing Toads, 93.
Excursion to Feira St. Anna, 93. Mule
Biding, 94. Former Highway Bobbers,
95. Inn at Feira St. Anna and its
Guests, 96. The Fau, 97. Anteaters
Eaten as Medicine, 97. Vaqueiros, 98.
Tailing Cattle, 99. Horse Dealing, 100.

Xll

CONTENTS.

German Settler in the Country, 100.
Driving Cattle in the Bush, 101. Farm
Slaves, 102. Preparation of Cassava,
102. Overburdened Ant, 104. Three-
toed Sloth, 104. Slavery in Brazil, 105.

CHAPTEE V.

TRISTAN DA CUNHA, INACCES-
SIBLE ISLAND, NIGHTINGALE
ISLAND.

Settlement of the Island, 108. Geological
Structure, 109. Vegetation, 110. Tem-
perature of Fresh Water, 111. Phylica
arborea, 111. Rigorous Climate, 112.
Condition of the Settlers, 113. In-
accessible Island, 114. Rock-hopper
Penguins, 117. Tussock grass. 117.
Penguin Rookeries, 119. Peculiar Land
Birds, 121. Noddies and other Sea
Birds, 123. Southern Skuas, 123.
Wild Swine, 124. Change of Habits
of Penguins, 125. Nightingale Island,
126. Vast Penguin Rookery, 127.
Seal Caves, 127. Rocks Worn by the
Feet of the Penguins, 128. Molly-
mauks and then- Nests, 130. Deriva-
tion of Seamen's Names for Southern
Animals, 129. Dogs run Wild in a
Penguin Rookery, 132. Migrations of
Penguins and Seals, 133. Insects, &c,
of the Group, 134. Flowering Seasons,
134. Sea Beans, 135. Relations of the
Flora, 135.

CHAPTER VI.

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.

Aspect and Formation of the Country,
138. Simon's Bay, 139. Appearance
of the Vegetation, 140. The Road to
Cape Town, 140. The Silver Tree,
142. Habits of Baboons, 143. The
Rock Rabbit, 144. Habits of Rodent
Moles, 145. Kitchen Middens, 147.
Burial Places of Natives, 149. Ante-
lopes, 150. An Ostrich Farm, 151.
Tracks of Animals in the Sand, 152.
Great Variety of Flowering Plants, 153.
Clawless Otter, 154. Land Planarians,
154. Chameleon, 154. Jackass Pen-
guins, 155. Bdellostoma, 156. Rare
Whale with Long Tusks, 157. Peri-
patus Capensis, the Ancestor of Insects,
159. The Turacou, 161.

CHAPTER VII.

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. THE
CROZET ISLANDS.

Appearance and Formation of Marion
Island, 163. Vegetation of the Island,

165. Azorella selago, 165. Limit of
Vegetation in Altitude, 168. Relations
of the Flora, 169. Former Extension
of Land in this Region, 169. Nesting
of the Great Albatross, 172. Mode
of Courtship, 174. Skuas, 174.
" Johnny " Penguins, 175. Rock-
hoppers, 175. Rookeries of King Pen-
guins, 176. Absurd Appearance of the
Young Birds, 177. Singular Mode of
Incubation, 178. Habits of Sheath-
bills, 179. Appearance of the Crozet
Islands, 181. Tree-trunks found in the
Islands by former Voyagers, 182.

CHAPTER VIII.

KERGUELEN'S LAND.

Position of the Island, 184. Its Moun-
tains and Fjords, 185. Active Volcano,
186. Christmas Harbour, 186. Sea
Elephants and Fur Seals, 187. Shoot-
ing Teal, 190. The Kerguelen Cab-
bage, 191. Wingless Flies and Gnats,

192. Vegetation at Successive Heights,

193. Fossil Wood, 195. Rookeries of
Rock-hopper and Macaroni Penguins,
195. Penguins Inhabiting a Cave, 196.
Betsy Cove, 196. Glaciation of the
Land Surface, 197. Iceborne Rocks,
198. Excavation of the Fjords, 199.
Beds of Burnt Coal, 199. The Sea
Leopard, 200. Killing Sea Elephants,
201. Nature of the Trunk of the Sea
Elephant, 202. Carrion Birds, 206.
The Giant Petrel, 206. Habits of
Several Burrowing Petrels, 207. The
Diving Petrel, 208. Habits of Sheath-
bills, 209. Struggle for Existence
amongst the Birds. 213. Whaling
amongst the Kelp, 213.

CHAPTER IX.

HEARD ISLAND.

Diatoms on the Sea Surface, 216. Mac-
donald Island, 216 Whisky Bay,
Heard Island, 217. Coast-line com-
posed of Glaciers, 219. Structure of
the Glaciers, 219. Terminal and
Lateral Moraines, 220. Glacier Stream,
221. Rocks Cut by Natural Sand
Blast, 222. Lava Flow and Denuded
Crater, 222. Scanty Vegetation, 224.
Range in Elevation of Arctic and
Southern Plants Compared, 225. Mode
of Hunting Sea Elephants, 227. Habits
of these Animals, 228. Sealers Inha-
biting Heard Island, 229. Birds of the
Island, 229.

CONTENTS.

Xlll

CHAPTER X.

AMONGST THE SOUTHEKN ICE.

First Iceberg Sighted, 232. Typical
Forms of Southern Bergs, 233. Pre-
servation of Equilibrium, 234. Wash-
lines, 234. Caverns, 235. Bi-tabular
Bergs, How Formed, 236. Weather-
ing of Bergs, 238. Stratification of
Ice in Bergs, 239. Cleavage, 240.
Scarcity of Rocks on Bergs, 242. Dis-
coloured Bands in the Ice, 243. Bev.
Canon Moseley on the Motion of Gla-
ciers, 244. Colouring of Bergs, 245.
Blue Bergs, 246. Surf on the Coasts
of Bergs, 246. Scenic effects of Ice-
bergs, 246. Appearance of the Pack-
ice, 248. Discolouration of Ice by Dia-
toms, 249. Gales of Wind amongst
the Icebergs, 250. Snow Bow, 252.
Whales Blowing, 252. Grampuses,
253. Birds amongst the Ice, 253.
Antarctic Climate in Summer, 254.

CHAPTER XL

VICTORIA. NEW SOUTH WALES.

Excursions into the Bush near Melbourne,
256. Opossum Snare, 257. Tracks of
the Aborigines on Tree-trunks, 258.
Town of Sandhurst, 259. The High-
est Tree in the World, 260. Abori-
gines on a Government Beserve, 261.
Ornithorynchus paradoxus, 262. Leaves
of Australian Trees, why Vertically
Disposed, 264. Fur Seal in the Open
Sea, 265. Sydney Harbour, 266. The
Blue Mountains, 266. Excavations in
the Ground caused by Bain, 267.
Shooting Opossums by Moonlight, 267.
Fruit-eating Bats, 268. Hunting Ban-
dicoots, 269. Browera Creek, 270.
Intimate Relation of Land and Sea
Animals, 271. Geological Import of
this, 272. Medusae in Fresh Water,
272. Kitchen Middens, 273. Drawings
by Aborigines, 273. Handmarks, 275.
Trigonia and Cestracion, 276.

CHAPTER XII.

NEW ZEALAND. THE FEIENDLY
ISLANDS. MATUKU ISLAND.

Wellington, New Zealand, 277. The
Bata Tree, 278. Kingfisher with Lit-
toral Habits, 278. Peripatus, 279.
Egg Capsules of Land Planarians, 279.
The Vegetation of the Kermadec Is-
lands, 280. Bed coloured Muscles of
the Shark, 281. Island of Eua, 282.
General Appearance of the Island of
Tongatabu, 282. Tongan Natives, 283.

Mode of Hairdressing, 284. Facial ex-
pression of the Natives, 284. A Pea-
jacket a Badge of Distinction, 285.
Town of Nukualofa, 286. Dress of
Tongan Women, 287. Getting Fire by
Friction, 287. Deserted Plantations,

290. Fruit-bats Feeding on Flowers,

291. Herons, Tree-swifts, and other
Birds, 291. Parasitic Algse in Forami-
nifera, 292. Matuku Island, Fiji
Group, 293. The Island an Ancient
Crater, 293. Its Vegetation, 294.
Encircling Beef, 294. Flocks of
Lories, 295. Periophthahnus, a Fish
Living on Land, 295. Living Pearly
Nautilus, 297. Its Mode of Swimming,
297. Account of the Nautilus, by
Rumphius, 299.

CHAPTER XIII.

FIJI ISLANDS.

Position and Area of the Islands of the
Group, 301. Kandavu Island, 302.
Grindstones for Stone Adzes, 302.
Shooting Birds in the Woods, 303.
Terrestrial Hermit Crabs, 304. Visit
to a Barrier Beef, 306. Ovalau Island,
308. Excursion to Livoni, 308. Fijian
Convicts, 309. Log Drum, 309.
Native Hairdressing, 310. Kaava
Drinking, 311. Buying Stone Adzes,
313. Excursion to Mbau Island, 314.
Structure of the Island, 315. Na
vatani tawaki, 316. Belies of Canni-
balism, 318. Interview with King
Thackombau, 319. Connection of
Wooden Drums and Bells, 321. Ex-
cursion up the Wai Levu, 322. Sugar
Plantations at Viti, 323. Freshwater
Sharks, 325. Joe the Pilot, 325.
Fijian Fortifications and Tombs, 326.
A Chief's House and his Children, 328.
A Missionary Meeting, 329. Various
Modes of Painting the Body, 331.
Grand Dancing Performances, 331.
Primitive Origin of Music, Poetry, and
the Drama, 333. Wesleyan Missionary,
335. Albino Native, 335. Congrega-
tion of Races at Levuka, 336. Fijian
Modes of Expression, 336. Laughter,
337. Cicatrisation, 338. The Ula, 338.
Particulars concerning Cannibalism,
339.

CHAPTER XIV.

NEW HEBE IDES. CAPE YORK.
TORRES STRAITS.

Api Island, New Hebrides, 342. Fring-
ing Reefs, 343. Proofs of Elevation,
344. Coral Living Detached, 344.
Natives of Api, their Ornaments and
Weapons, 345. Condition of Returned

XIV

CONTEXTS.

Labourers, 345. Expression of the
Emotions, 346. Kaine Island, 347.
Its Geological Structure, 347. Its
Vegetation, 348. Nesting of Wide-
awakes, Gannets and Frigate Birds,

349. Dead Turtles, 350. Somerset,
Cape York, 350. Nests of White Ants,

350. Combination of Indian and Aus-
tralian Features in the Vegetation, 351.
Various Birds, 351. Habits of the
Kifle Bird, 352. Ends Fertilizing
Plants, 353. Camp of the Blacks, 354.
Habits of these Natives, 354. Curious
mode of Smoking, 356. Food of the
Blacks, 357. They cannot Count
Higher than Three, 358. Absolute
Nudity of the Men, 359. Coral Flats,
360. Collection of Savage Weapons at
Cape York, 361. Wednesday Island,
Torres Straits, 361. Structure of
Coral Flats, 362. Giant Clam, 362.
Native Graves, 363. Booby Island,
363. A Halting Place for Birds during
Migration, 364. Many Land Birds on
an Almost Bare Bock, 364.

CHAPTER XVI.

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.

AEU.

CHAPTER XV.

KE. BANDA. AMBOINA.
TEBNATE.

Appearance of the Am Islands, 366.
Trees Transplanted by the Waves, 368.
Masses of Drift Wood, 368. Malay
Language, 369. Ballasting a Guide,
369. Management of Clothes during
Kain, 369. Back Country Natives, 370.
Great Height of the Trees, 371. Nests
of the Metallic Starling, 372. Parrots
and Cockatoos, 372. Bird- winged
Butterflies, 373. Shooting Birds of
Paradise at Wanumbai, 375. Deposit
of Lime in Streams, 378. Boat Crews
from the Ke Islands, 379. Fungus
Skin Disease, 379. Ke Island Danc-
ing, 380. Houses at Ke Dulan, 381.
Leaf Arrows, 381. Bird caught in a
Spider's Web, 382. Ascent of the
Volcano of Banda, 382. Algae growing
in the Hot Steam Jets, 383. Numer-
ous Insects at the Summit, 384.
Alteration in Sea Level, Marked on
Living Corals, 385. Nutmeg Planta-
tions, 386. Transportation of Seeds
by Fruit-Pigeons, 386. Saluting at
Amboina, 387. Danger to the Eyes in
Diving for Corals, 389. liaised Reefs,
389. Myrmecodia and Hydnophytum,
389. Moluccan Deer, 390. Ternate
Island, 390. Chinese and their Graves,
391. Sale of Birds of Paradise, 391.
Ascent of the Volcano, 392. The
Mountain Vegetation, 392. The Ter-
minal Cone, 393. View from the Sum-
mit, 394.

Zamboanga, Mindonao Island,

395.
Paddy "Fields and Buff alos, 395. The
Lutaos and then Pile-Dwellings, 396.
Pile-Dwellings on Dry Land, 398.
The Ground Floor a late addition to
the First Story, 399. Wide Dis-
tribution of Pile-DweUings, 399.
Their Possible Origin, 400. Dances
Performed by the Lutaos, 401.
Bamboo Jews Harp, 401. Lutao
Canoe and Weapons, 402. Search for
Birgus Latro, 403. Birds' Eggs
hatched in the Sea Sand, 403. Alcyo-
narian Corals. Basilan Island, 404.
Cart-wheels cut from Living Planks,

405. Galeopithecus and Flying Lizard,

406. Cebu Island, 407. Mode of
Dredging up Euplectella, 407. Mactan
Island, Eaised Eeef, 408. Large
Cerianthus, 408. Trachytie Volcano
at Camiguin Island, 409. Temperature
at which Plants can Grow in Hot
Mineral Water, 410. Manila-hemp
Plantations, 411. Manila, 411. Shirt
worn over Trousers, 411. Clothes
Originally Ornamental only, 412. Half-
hatched Ducks' Eggs Eaten, 412. Cock
Fighting, 412. Sale of Indulgences,
414.

CHAPTER XVII.

CHINA. NEW GUINEA.

Hong

Kong, 415. Pigeon English, 415.
Chinese Method of Writing compared
with European Methods, 417. De-
velopment of Chinese and Japanese
Books from Kolls, 417. Plants coloniz-
ing a Pagoda, 419. Sights of Canton,

419. Chinese and English Examina-
tions, and their subjects compared,

420. The Honam Monastery, 421.
Chinese Floral Decorations, 421. A
Chinese Dinner, 422. Dragons' Bones
and Teeth, 423. Origin of Mythical
Animals, 423. Chinese Account of
the Dragon, 425. The last Dragon
seen in England, 426. Use of Uni-
corn's Horn as Medicine in Europe,
426. Chinese and English Medicine
compared, 428. Chinese Accounts of
the Pigmies and of Monkeys, 428
English Mythical Animals, 430.
Sea Serpent, 430. Owls living
Ground Squirrel in China, 431.
the Talaur Islands, 432. Driftwood
off the Ambernoh Eiver, New Guinea,
432. Animals Inhabiting it, 434.
Humboldt Bay, 435. Signal Fires of
the Natives, 435. Bartering at Night,
436. Numbers of Canoes, 437. Rela-
tive Prices of Native Property, 439.

The

with

Off

CONTEXTS.

Attempts at Thieving, 439. Modes of
Expression, 440. Mode of Threatening
Death by Signs, 441. Armed Boat
Bobbed, 442. Villages of Pile-Dwell-
lings, 445.

CHAPTEE XVIII.

THE ADMIBALTY ISLANDS.

History of Visits to the Islands, 449.
Eagerness of the Natives for Iron, 451.
Trade Gear, 451. Trading with the
Natives, 452. Geological Structure of

the Islands, 455.
overhanging

Orchids and Ferns
the Sea, 455. Fern re-
sembling a Liverwort, 455. Difficul-
ties in Collecting Words of then* Lan-
guage from the Natives, 456. Their
Methods of Counting, 457. Curious
Mode of Expressing Negation, 457.
Physical Characteristics of the Natives,

458. Hairiness of Baces Compared,

459. Possible Signification of Moles,
459. Clothes, Han Dressing and
Ornaments of the Natives, 460. Tat-
tooing and Painting, 463. Betel-
Chewing and Food, 464. Houses,
Temples, and Canoes of the Natives,
465. Their Implements and Weapons,
467. Artistic Skill of the Natives, 469.
Then Musical Instruments
and Singing, 471
472.
472.

Hair in their
Beligion, 474.
Natives, 477.
and Toys, 477

Fortification
Wooden Gods, 473

Dancing
Their Polygamy,
of then Villages,
Skulls and
Temples, 474. Their
Disposition of the
Their Fear of Goats
Population of the

Islands, 478. Domestic Animals, Birds
and other Animals at the Islands, 478.
Habits of Gar-Fish, 479.

CHAPTEE XIX.

JAPAN. THE SANDWICH
ISLANDS.

Tedious Voyage to Japan, 481. Jinrik-
sha Coolies, 482. Worship of the
White Horse, 482. Japanese Sight-
Seers, 483. Consulting the Oracle,
483. Japanese Pilgrims, 484. Book
Shops and Beligious Shops, 484.
Biver Embankments, 485. Bice Fields,
485. Houses of Wood and Paper, 485.
English Bed-room Exhibited at the
Exhibition, 486. Money Boxes, 487.
Pilgrims and Priests, 487. Interest
taken by the People in Tojins, 488.
Cold Water Cme, 488. Painting of
the Face in China and Japan, 489.
Japanese Tattooing, 491. Japanese
Modes of Expression, 482. Japanese
Pictures and Theatres, 493. Barren

Appearance of the Sandwich Islands,
495. Honolulu, 495. Supremacy of
American over Native Productions, 496.
Principal Trees of Oahu Island, 497.
King Kalakaua, 497. Hawaian Burials,

498. Visit to the Crater of Kilauea,

499. Ponds of Fluid Lava, 501.
Mode of Formation of Pele's Hair, 502.
Lava Fountains and Cascades, 502.
Becent Eruptions, 503. Hawaian
Hook Ornament, 504. Its Probable
Beligious Signification, 505.
Stone Club, 510. Affinities
New Zealand and Hawaian Art, 510
Inter-breeding on Isolated
512.

Hawaian
between

Islands,

CHAPTEE XX.

TAHITI. JUAN FEBNANDEZ.

Death of Budolph Von Willemoes Suhm,
513. Scientific Papers and Journals
left by Him, 513. Papeete, 514.
Excursion into the Mountains, 516.
Fly-Fishing in a Mountain Stream,
516. Uses of the Wild Banana, 517.
Vegetation Composed mainly of
Ferns, 518. Camping at Night,
519. Tahitian Mountain Map, 520.
Ascent to 4,000 feet Altitude, 521.
Petrels Nesting at this Height,
521. Their Possible Influence in
Distribution of Plants, 522. Ignor-
ance of the Natives Concerning the
Mountains, 523. Mode of Alternation
of Generations in the Mushroom
Coral, 524. Structure of Millepora,
525. Structure of the Stylasteridae,
528. Catching Land-Crabs, 535.
Tahitian National Air, 536. Juan
Fernandez, 537. Preponderance of
Ferns, 537. Destruction of Trees, 538.
Gunnera Chilensis, 538. Conspicuous
Flowers, 539. Humming Ends of the
Island, 539. Their Fertilization of
Flowers, 539. Smallness of the Island
Compared with the Number of Endemic
Forms, 541. Endemic Palm, 541.
Dendroseris, 542.

CHAPTEE XXI.

CHILE. MAGELLAN'S STBAITS.
FALKLAND ISLANDS. ASCEN-
SION.

Valparaiso, 543. The Andes not Con-
spicuous, 543. Cattle lassoed in the
Streets, 544. Excursion up the
Uspallata Pass, 544. Leafless Mistle-
toe on the Leafless Cactus, 545. An
Equestrian Hair Cutter, 546. Dead
and Disabled Animals on the Pass,
547. Use of the Lasso in Bobbery and
Flirtation, 548. Cleverness of a Horse
on a Mountain Path, 548. Fjords of

XVI

CONTENTS.

the "Western Coast of Patagonia, 549.
Density of the Forest, 549. An Anchor
Broken, 550. Fuegians, 550. Wild
Geese at Elizabeth Island, 551.
Kitchen Middens, 552. The Falkland
Islands, 553. Visit to Port Darwin,
553. Scotchmen turned Gauchos, 554.
Chapinas and Tropijes, 554. Wild
Horses and their Habits, 555. Various
Modes of Handling Cattle in Different
Parts of the World, 557. Goose-Bolas
made of Knuckle Bones, 558. Flies and
Gnats with Eudimentary Wings, 558.
Skeleton of Ziphioid Whale, 559.
Fuegian Arrow-heads Scattered in the
Islands, 560. Habits of Jackass Pen-
guin, 560. Ascension Island, 561.
Land Crabs, 561. The Hatching of
Turtles' Eggs, 561. Shooting at Fly-
ing Fish, 562. Birds at Boatswain
Bird Island, 563.

CHAPTEE XXII.

LIFE ON THE OCEAN SUEFACE
AND IN THE DEEP SEA. ZOO-
LOGY AND BOTANY OF THE
SHIP. CONCLUSION.

Plants of the Ocean Surface, 566. Fauna
of the Sargasso Sea, 567. Protective
Colouring of Pelagic Animals, 568.
Variety of Pelagic Animals, 569.
Flight of the Albatross, 569. Flight
of Flying Fish, 570. A Pelagic Insect,
571. Pelagonemertes described, 572.
Phosphorescence of Pelagic Animals,
574. Giant Pyrosoma, 574. Uncer-

tainty as to Eange in Depth of Pelagic
Animals, 575. The Depth of the
Oceans and Depressions on the Earth's
Surface, 576. Deep-Sea Dredging, 578.
Vast Pressure existing in the Deep
Sea, 579. Experiment showing this
made by Mr. Buchanan, 579. Condi-
tions under which Life Exists in the
Deep Sea, 580. Eange of Plants in
Depth, 581. Food of Deep-Sea Ani-
mals, 581. Experiment on Eate of
Sinking of a Salpa, 582. Vegetable
and Animal Debris Dredged from
Great Depths, 583. The Deep Sea, a
High Eoad for Distribution of Animals,
583. Deep-Sea Faunas and Alpine
Floras Compared, 585. Nature of
Deep-Sea Fauna a source of Disap-
pointment, 586. Kemarkable Deep-
Sea Ascidian, 587. Localities specially
Eich in Deep-Sea Forms, 589. Eela-
tions of Deep-Sea Animals to One
Another, 590. Phosphorescent Light
in the Deep-Sea, 590. Colours of
Deep-Sea Animals, 591. Cockroaches,
Moths, Mosquitos, House-flies, Cric-
kets, Centipedes and Eats on board the
" Challenger," 592. Plants on board
the Ship, 594. Pet Parrot, Casso-
wary, Ostriches, Tortoises, Spiders,
Fur Seal, and Goat on Board, 594.
Adaptation to Sea Life, 596. Sinall-
ness of the Earth's Surface, 597. Slow
Eate of Travelling, 597. Man and
possibly Protoplasm existent on the
Earth alone, 598. Necessity for im-
mediate Scientific Investigation of
Oceanic Islands, 599.

List of Books and Papers relating to the " Challenger "

Expedition, 601-606.

General Index.

LIST OF COLOUEED PLATES.

Antarctic Icebergs, to face Title-page.

View of Pack Ice from Foretop, to face page 248.

Track Chart, with Contour of the bottom of the Ocean, to be inserted at
the end of the book.

A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

CHAPTER I.

TENEEIFFE, ST. THOMAS, BERMUDA.

Circumstances of the Voyage. Teneriffe. Cochineal Plantations. Excur-
sion up the Peak. Trade- wind Cloud. Zones of Vegetation. Sunset
seen above the Clouds. Eabbits and other Animals on the Peak.
Peculiar Spider's Web. Catching Sharks off Sombrero Island, West
Indies. Appearance and habits of Eemora. Pilot Fish. Island of St.
Thomas. Calcareous Seaweeds. Sea Urchins with Poisoned Spines.
Burrowing Spider. Nest of Termites. Pelicans edible. Sand-box
Tree. Defensive colouring of Spines of Cacti. Beach Conglomerate.
Sea-beans. Bermuda. Calcareous Sand-rock. Caves. Vegetation.
Peat. Boatswain Birds. Land Nemertine. Corals in Caves.

circumstances of the voyage.-— H.M.S. " Challenger/' a main-
deck corvette, with auxiliary steam power, left Portsmouth on
December 21st, 1872, for a voyage of three years and a half
round the world. The object of her cruise was to investigate
scientifically the physical conditions and natural history of the
deep sea all over the world. The ship was with that aim
specially fitted with sounding and dredging apparatus, and car-
ried a scientific staff, appointed by the Lords of the Admiralty,
and placed by them under the direction of Sir Charles Wyville
Thomson, F.B.S., &c. I accompanied the expedition as one of
the naturalists on this staff.

In consequence of the special nature of the mission, the sea voy-
ages were tedious and protracted, the ship being constantly stopped
on its course to sound and dredge. Since the results obtained
by deep-sea dredging, even in most widely distant localities, were
very similar and somewhat monotonous, all reference to them
will be deferred to the end of this narrative ; where their natural-
history aspects will be discussed shortly as a whole, and where
oceanic animals and plants will also be treated of to some extent.

The voyage of the " Challenger " occupied three years and

2 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

155 days, and out of this period about 520 days, or portions of
these, were available for excursions on shore. A very large pro-
portion of the time in harbour was necessarily spent at places
where dockyards and workshops were available for repairs to the
ship. The stays made at less-frequented places of especial
interest to the naturalist were comparatively short. This cir-
cumstance should be borne in mind by the reader.

After stopping at Lisbon, Gibraltar, and Madeira, which
latter island was afterwards visited a second time, and will be
referred to in the sequel, the ship reached Teneriffe, one of the
Canary Islands, and anchored off Santa Cruz, the chief town of
the island, on February 7th, 1873.

Tenerift'e, Canary Islands, February Sth to 14th, 1813. — The
most striking feature in the natural vegetation of Teneriffe is
the Euphorbia canariensis. The fleshy prismatic branches of
this plant are devoid of leaves, have a blueish-green colour, and
are perfectly straight and perpendicular, being disposed side by
side, and 10 or 15 feet in height. The plant is abundant all
over the rocks at a low elevation, and resembles a cactus in
appearance. It has an abundant milky juice, which is very
acrid and poisonous. Of the introduced vegetation, the planta-
tions of the broad-lobed cactus (Opuntia), employed for the raising
of the Cochineal insect, are curious. The crop of insects was, in
the month of February, just being started on the plant, that is to
say, the female insects were being placed upon the leaf-shaped
lobes of the plant to lay their eggs, and start a fresh brood. The
females are, when thus put out at the beginning of the season,
held on to the plants by means of white rags tied round the
lobes. Hence the fields, when seen at a distance, look as if they
contained some crop bearing a continuous sheet of large white
blossoms. I was greatly puzzled by them when looking at them
as the ship was approaching the island. The island is so steep
and rocky that it has been terraced for purposes of cultivation,
and nearly every available spot has been treated in this manner.

I accompanied a party on an excursion up the Peak. The
way led from Santa Cruz, through the Cochineal fields, and up a
steep but well-engineered road, planted with tamarisk trees to
the summit of the central ridge of the island. Here was passed

TENERIFFE. 3

a dilapidated town, thoroughly Spanish in its architecture, with
some fine houses in it in a ruinous condition. The central square
of the town was overgrown with weeds, and its streets mostly
covered with grass ; but so are many in the capital, Santa Cruz,
itself. On the way, droves of mules, ponies, and donkeys were
passed, laden with country produce. The countrymen wear a
peculiar dress, black trousers reaching only to the knee, and an
ordinary blanket of the natural colour of the wool, drawn into
pleats at one end to go round the neck, and worn over the
shoulders as a cloak. If the blanket were dyed of some dark or
bright tint the dress would not look very remarkable ; but its
dirty-white colour has a strange appearance. The countrywomen
have very fine figures and are most of them very handsome.
We passed through another town where a private collector has
a museum containing a number of mummies, skulls, and relics of
the Guanches, the ancient inhabitants of the Canaries. The
" gabinete," the owner of which was absent, was in a somewhat
decayed condition, and was a sort of general collection of
curiosities, a survival of the old Earitatenkammer, which is the
parent of modern more select collections, just as the West
African fetisch house may be regarded as the primitive and
savage representative of the Earitatenkammer. Man seems to
be almost the only mammal that collects and stores uneatable
objects. Amongst birds, on the other hand, the collecting
instinct is widely spread, as witness magpies and Bower-birds,*
and even Penguins, one of which collects variously- coloured
pebbles. It will be a great pity if the Guanche remains, con-
tained in the Teneriffe Gabinete, do not reach some good
European museum.

From the neighbourhood of this second town was obtained
the first view of the far-famed Peak, " Pico de Teyde." The
middle part of the mountain was concealed by a dense bank of
white clouds, the condensed vapour of the trade wind. Beneath,
a broad valley stretching down to the bright blue sea, with its
snow-white edging of surf, was thrown partly into deep shadow
by the cloud-bank, partly lit up by the bright hot sun. The sun

* 0. Beccari, " Le Capanne ed i Giardini del Amblyornis inornata"
Ann. del Mm Civ. di St. Nat. di Genova, Vol. IX, 1876-7.

A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

shone brilliantly upon the snowy peak of the mountain, high up
in the sky above the clouds. On the shore lay the town of

PEAK OF TENERIFFE FROM THE KOAD ABOVE OEOTAVA.

(From a sketch by the Author.)

Orotava, from which the ascent was to be made. The English
vice-consul at Orotava, who kindly made arrangements for the
trip, told me that the growth of the vine in Teneriffe was fast
being supplanted by the cultivation of Cochineal ; 2,000 pipes
only were being produced around Orotava, whereas 200,000
were formerly made. He expected, however, that since Cochi-
neal was falling in price, the wine trade would revive. The
Canary wine is certainly of most excellent flavour.

The route up the mountain lay up a long sloping ridge,
which leads to the base of the actual cone of the Peak. This
ridge is bounded by a precipice on the side facing Orotava. The
villagers tried to dissuade the party from going farther after we
had ascended about 2,000 feet, saying that we should be frozen
to death.

The well-known zones of vegetation of the Peak of Teneriffe
are not very well defined on the route which we adopted. The
limit of cultivation was reached at about 3,000 feet, at which
height corn of some kind was just springing up, and we passed

TENEEIFFE. O

above this into a zone covered with a tree-like heath {Erica
arborea). This heath continued for about 2,000 feet, and then
ceased abruptly, and we came, higher up, amongst large blueish-
green bushes of a sort of broom (Spartocytisus nubigenus), called
by the natives " Eetama," amongst which we pitched our tent, at
an elevation of 6,500 feet. Above the Eetama, a small violet
{Viola teydeana) is said to extend up to 10,000 feet, and above
this all is barren. The pine (Pinus canariensis) which grows on
some parts of the mountain is not seen on the usual track of
ascent. A halt was made amongst the heath for lunch, and
plenty of water-cresses were found growing in a spring. We had
to carry water up with us from tins spring, since there is no
water to be obtained above, except by melting snow. The
porous volcanic ashes soak up all the water yielded by the
natural melting of the snow above, and there is no place where
any can be gathered.

At about 4,000 feet elevation we went through a dense bank
of cloud, formed by the trade wind, a similar one to that which
was seen from below on the day before, and winch had hidden
the middle of the mountain from our view, but not the same, for
in the early morning there had not been a cloud in the sky.
The bank formed at about mid-clay. At our camp, far above
this cloud-bank, the sun shone brightly, until about six o'clock
in the evening, when it began to disappear, and the air, which
had been almost too hot, became suddenly cold, the temperature
going down almost to freezing point.

We enjoyed a very extraordinary sunset effect. The upper
surface of the cloud-bank .stretched away like a snow-white
billowy sea beneath us in every direction, hiding the actual sea
from our sight entirely, but just allowing us a glimpse of the far-
off island of Palma, which appeared as a purple streak at the
edge of the cloud horizon. As the sun went down the clear sky
beyond the white motionless cloud-bank became tinged of a
brilliant oiange colour, and over it there shot out from the
descending sun a fan of pale crimson streamers deeply tinted at
their base, and gradually fading off into the dark blue sky above
but visible nearly to the zenith. Beyond the great cloud-bank
more distant streaky clouds, lit up of a brilliant violet, formed

6 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

a sort of background to the scene. Some amongst these little
distant clouds from time to time assumed fantastic shapes, and
once we were almost persuaded that we were looking upon the
sea in the distance with two very far-off ships upon it, but it
was merely a delusion. The sea was entirely shut out from our
view, except once for a few instants when a small rift in the
cloud -bank occurred and gave us a momentary glimpse of the
rippling surface far below, a sort of vista view dimmed by the
misty frame through which it was seen.

All the while the snowy peak itself was perfectly cloudless
and stood out clear and sharp against a deep blue arctic-looking
sky. Soon the sunlight faded and the moon came out bright,
and the peak glistened in its light, which was strong enough for
me to read by easily. The view of our tent and camp fire
amongst the dark broom bushes with the moonlit snowy peak
in the background, fronted by some dark ridges of lava, was
most picturesque.*

We set fire to some of the large Eetama bushes and soon had
a tremendous blaze, the bushes fizzing and crackling loudly in
the flare, the flames shooting high up into the air so that they
were seen at Orotava, and even at Santa Cruz. The ground
froze on the surface around our tent during the night, the
thermometer standing at 30° F. just before sunrise.

I walked from the camp to the Canaclas — a remarkable plain
covered with scoriae, and shut in on nearly all sides by a perpen-
dicular wall of basaltic cliff. From this plain of vast extent the
present terminal cone of the mountain rises. The Canadas
represents an ancient and much larger crater in the centre
of the remnant of winch the more modern smaller peak has
been thrown up. The bottom of the Canadas is dotted over
with the Retama. The ground was devoid of any other vegeta-
tion. I was surprised to find that rabbits were tolerably abun-
dant in the Canadas. I saw several but could not manage to
get a shot as they were wary. They feed on the Eetama. They
have no holes, but live in any chance crack or hole in the rock

* For an account of the Peak of Teneriffe and its cloud phenomena,
see C. Piazzi Smyth, F.E.S., &c, " Teneriffe : an Astronomer's Experiment."
London, Reeve, 1858.

TENERIFFE. 7

or under the bushes ; hence I could not trap them, though I took
traps with me for the purpose. They are small. I obtained in
Orotava a stuffed specimen of a black variety with a white spot
on the forehead, which is occasionally found. Of birds in the
Canadas I saw only a lark and a warbler (Sylvia), and of lower
animals I found only a Lepisma and a Centipede (Scolopendra)
which were very abundant under the blocks of pumice.

The radiant heat of the sun was extremely powerful on the
arid plain of the Canadas. We had no guides, and our mule
drivers had left us. All refused to accompany us at this season
of the year to the top of the peak. We therefore ascended only
to a height of about 9,000 feet, the last 200 feet of which was
chmbed over snow. Here we watched the often described
struggles of the opposing winds, the trades and anti-trades,
as shown by the eddying and twisting of the wreaths of cloud.

In the neighbourhood of the camp at 6,500 feet, winter was
evidently still in force as far as the animals were concerned.
All the spiders and beetles I could find there were under stones,
apparently hybernating. I was astonished to find at tins altitude
a Gecko (Tarentola f) also hybernating, coiled up in a hole
under a stone. This lizard has a long range in altitude, since I
found another specimen close to sea level.

After two nights we moved our camp to a spring at about
3,500 feet altitude amongst the Arboreal Heath, on the verge of
the precipice bounding the ridge by which we had ascended.
Here it was much warmer at night, and at daybreak the tem-
perature was only as low as 45° F. But we had descended
within the cloud-bank and had heavy rain, and should not have
succeeded in lighting a fire for cooking had we not been helped
by a mountain shepherd who was evidently well accustomed to
setting a fire going in the rain, and soon got our kettle to boil.
He was a fine powerful man and very honest and obliging,
as were all the peasants with whom we came in contact.
Stimulated with a shilling he turned collector, and soon returned
with boxes full of snails and beetles. The steep side of the
ridge overlooking Orotava is covered with a luxuriant vegetation
of laurels, heaths, and ferns, and is very different in this respect
from the comparatively barren surface of the slope above. A

8 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

finch (Fringilla teijdeana) peculiar to the island of Teneriffe, is
to be obtained only in some pine woods near Orotava, and is

rare.

In the Cochineal plantations a spider (I believe an Upeira) is
very common, which makes a horizontally extended web, com-
posed of fine square meshes. The web is supported by sus-
pending threads in the midst of a globular labyrinth of irregu-
larly disposed fibres. In the centre the horizontal net is drawn
upwards into a short conical tube, at the end of which is an
opening. The female always occupies a position immediately
over this hole, which is apparently intended to allow of easy
access to either side of the net. The egg bags are suspended in
a vertical line immediately over the opening, and are often
as many as four in number. In those I examined, the upper-
most bag always contained fresh eggs, the lower fully developed
young, and the others two intermediate stages. The male lives
in the lower part of the irregular globular mass, and is very
much smaller than the female, but is marked with brilliant
silver patches on the abdomen.

In one of the churches at Santa Cruz is a flag taken by the
Spanish from Nelson, and there preserved as a trophy. The
ship left Teneriffe on February 14th, and reaching the trade
winds on February 20th, sailed pleasantly before them across
the Atlantic to the Virgin Islands.

Off Sombrero Island, March 15th, 1813. — "Whilst dredging

was proceeding off the Island of Sombrero, on the approach to
St. Thomas, two sharks (Carcharias brachiurus) were caught
with a hook and line. One of these had the greater portion of
one of its pectoral fins bitten off, there being a clean semi-
circular cut surface, where the jaws of another shark had closed
and nipped it. through. Attached to the sharks were several
" Sucker-fish" (JZchineis remora), as commonly is the case.
Sometimes these "Suckers" drop off as the shark is hauled on
board. Sometimes they remain adherent, and are secured with
their companion. In this case four out of six " Suckers " were
obtained with the two sharks. They were seen to shift their
position on the sharks frequently as these struggled in the water
fast hooked.

ST. THOMAS.

The Eemora is a fish provided, as a means of attachment,
with an oval sucker divided into a series of vacuum chambers
by transverse pleats. The sucker is placed on the back of the
fish's head. The animal thus constantly applies to the surfaces
to which it attaches itself, such as the shark's skin, its back.
Hence the back being always less exposed to light is light-
coloured, whereas the belly, which is constantly outermost and
exposed, is of a dark chocolate colour. The familiar distribution
of colour existing in most other fish is thus reversed. No doubt
the object of the arrangement is to render the fish less con-
spicuous on the brown back of the shark. Were its belly light-
coloured as usual, the adherent fish would be visible from a
great distance against the dark background. The result is that
when the fish is seen alive it is difficult to persuade oneself at
first that the sucker is not on the animal's belly, and that the
dark exposed surface is not its back. The form of the fish,
which has the back flattened and the belly raised and rounded,
strengthens the illusion. When the fish is preserved in spirits
the colour becomes of a uniform chocolate and this curious
effect is lost. When one of these fish, a foot in length, has its
wet sucker applied to a table and is allowed time to lay hold, it
adheres so tightly that it is impossible to pull it off by a fair
vertical strain.

Fishing for sharks was a constant sport on board the ship
when a halt was made to dredge anywhere within a hundred
miles or so of land in the tropics. Sharks were not met with in
mid-ocean. Mr. Murray* examined these sharks thus caught,
and reports that they all, whether obtained in the Atlantic or
Pacific Ocean, belonged to one widely distributed species, except-
ing one other kind obtained off the coasts of Japan. The
hammer-headed shark (Zygoma malleus) was taken by us only
with a net on the coasts.

The sharks were often seen attended by one or more Pilot-
fish (Naucrates sp.) as well as bearing the " Suckers" attached to
them. I often watched with astonishment from the deck this
curious association of three so widely different fish as it glided
round the ship like a single compound organism.

* J. Murray, "Proc. R Soc," No. 170, 1876, p. 540.

10 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

The sharks, as a rule, were not by any means so easily
caught as I had expected. Frequently they were shy and would
not take a bait near the ship, though they never failed to bite if
it was floated some distance astern by means of a wooden float.
It is always worth while for naturalists to take what sharks they
can at sea, since their stomachs may contain rare cuttle fish
which may not be procured by any other means. The sharks
caught were always suspended over the screw well of the ship.
It was amusing on the first occasion on which one was got on
board, sprawling and lashing about on the deck, to see two
spaniels belonging to officers on board put their bristles up and
growl, ready to fly at the fish. The dogs would probably have
lost their heads in its mouth if not driven back.

Sometimes the sharks were bold enough and would bite at a
bit of pork hung over the ship's side on the regulation shark
hook which is supplied to ships in the navy, and which is an
iron crook as thick as one's little finger, and mounted on a heavy
chain. No shark was hooked during the voyage which was
large enough to require such a hook. Nearly all the sharks
caught and seen were very small, from five to seven feet in
length. The largest obtained was, I think, one netted at San
Jago, Cape Yerde Islands, which was 14 feet in length. Large
sharks seem scarce. I was disappointed, and had expected to
meet with much larger ones on so long a voyage. The largest
shark known seems to be Carcharodon rondelettii of Australia.
There are in the British Museum the jaws of a specimen of this
species which was 36 \ feet in length. (Giinther, " Catalogue of
Fishes.") The "Challenger" dredged in the Pacific Ocean in deep
water numerous teeth of what must be an immensely large
species of this genus. The great Basking-shark (Selache maxima),
a harmless beast with very minute teeth, ranging from the
Arctic seas to the coast of Portugal, has been known to attain a
length of more than 30 feet.

Sharks occasionally seize the patent logs, which being of
bright brass and constantly towed, twirling behind ships, no
doubt appear to them like spinning baits intended for their use.
The pilot fish often mistakes a ship for a large shark, and swims
for days just before the bows, which it takes for the shark's

ST. THOMAS. 11

snout. After a time the fish becomes wiser and departs, no
doubt thinking it has got hold of a very stupid shark, and
hungrily wondering why its large companion does not seize some
food and drop it some morsels. The " Suckers " often make the
same mistake and cling to a ship for days when they have lost
their shark. I fancy that porpoises and whales, when they
accompany a ship for several days, think they are attending a
large whale. A Hump-back whale followed the "Challenger" for
several days in the South Pacific.

Island of St. Thomas, March 16th to 24th, 1813. — The island

of St. Thomas, one of the Virgin Islands, or Danish West Indies,
was reached on March 16th. As the ship steamed in towards
the harbour, Frigate birds soared high over-head with their long
tail feathers stretched widely out. A number of brown pelicans
(Pelicanus fuscus) were flying at a moderate height near the shore,
and every now and then dashing down with closed wings into
the water on their prey like gannets, their close allies. Often
several of the birds dashed down together at the same instant.

The island of St. Thomas itself, as well as its outliers, is
covered with a wild bush growth, which at first sight might
perhaps be taken for original vegetation, but which is composed
of plants which have overrun deserted sugar plantations. It is
only in a few remote parts of the island that any original forest
exists and in small streaks of broken ground bordering the
watercourses. The whole of the country in the island of
St. Thomas and in all the immediately adjoining islands was
cropped with sugar-cane until the emancipation of the slaves in
1848. Since that time the ground has been allowed to run wild.
There was only one estate partly under cultivation at the time
of the ship's visit, and the owner of it, Mr. Wyman, told me
that he made no sugar, but found sufficient sale for his canes in
the raw state to be cut up and sold for chewing. Mr. Wyman
was nearly ruined by the emancipation, and said that the
planters received only 50 dollars per head compensation for the
loss of their slaves, and that after the lapse of three years' time.

All about the shores in every small bay were to be seen
wrecks of vessels of all kinds, and in various stages of dilapida-
tion, which had been wrecked by the hurricanes, for which

12 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

St. Thomas is notorious, and close to our anchorage was a portion
of a large iron dock which had been sunk before ever it could
be used. Behind the town of St. Thomas are hills rising to
a height of 1,400 feet at their highest point.

I landed at one of the many wooden jetties amongst
numerous negroes of both sexes lolling about and chewing
sugar-cane, their constant occupation. The shore is covered
with corals bleached white by the sun, and amongst these lay
quantities of calcareous seaweeds (Halimeda opuntia and H.
tridens), branching masses composed of leaf-shaped joints of
hard calcareous matter articulated together. These were all
quite dry and bleached white, and hard and stiff, like corals.
Seaweeds belonging to two very different groups of algae thus
secrete a calcareous skeleton, Halimeda and its allies belonging
to the SiphonaceaB, green algse, and Lithothamnion and allied
genera belonging to the Corallinaceae, which are red coloured
algae. These lime-secreting algse are of great importance from
a geological point of view as supplying a large part of the
material of winch calcareous reefs and sand rocks are built up.
At St. Thomas the Siphonaceae are especially abundant, whereas
at other places, as at St. Vincent, Cape Verde Islands, the
Corallinaceae appear to supply most of the calcareous matter
separated from the sea water by plants.

The rise and fall of the tide at St. Thomas is only about a foot;
yet along the very margin of the water 1 found plenty of animals
living, some of them only just awash. Sea urchins (Diadema
antillarum), with extremely long sharp spines, were very common.
The spines penetrate a bather's foot or hand with the greatest
facility, and breaking off leave a very unpleasant wound. In
gathering specimens I got wounded in the finger, though I took
great care ; so well are the animals protected. The animals keep
their long spines in constant motion, so that it is very difficult
to avoid being pricked if one tries to handle one. The wound
produced by the spines is apt to fester, but there appears to be
no poison on the spine. In the case, however, of another genus
of sea urchins which I dredged in abundance in shallow water
on the Philippine coast, and in which the short spines are hollow
and tubular at their extremities, a definite poison certainly

ST. THOMAS. 13

exists. Probably there is a poison gland in the tube. A sharp
stinging pain, like that produced by the sting of a wasp, but not
quite so intense, is felt at the instant when one of these spines
pierces the flesh, and the pain lasts for about five minutes.
These urchins are peculiar, because they have a perfectly flexible
test or shell, and are, I believe, of the genus Asthenosoma (Grube).
Allied forms are common in great depths, but in these I never
experienced so marked a stinging effect as in the case of the
shallow-water ones.

Large Chitons, three inches in length, were abundant along
the shore of St. Thomas, and a very large Annelid with
glistening yellow setse {Eunice), was a constant feature about
the water's edge, crawling over the rocks. In dredging in
shallow water most of the seaweeds obtained were of a brilliant
green colour,* and amongst these lived a crab and a Squilla
which were of exactly the same shade of green, evidently for
protection and concealment.

There is only one kind of Humming-bird at St. Thomas. It
is very common, and constantly to be seen hanging poised in
the air in front of a blossom or darting across the roads. It is
remarkable how closely Humming-birds resemble in their flight
that of Sphinx moths, such as our common Humming-bird
Sphinx, named from this resemblance. There are in their flight
exactly the same rapid darts, sudden pauses, and quick turns,
the same prolonged hovering over flowers. The most con-
spicuous bird is called commonly in the island " Black -witch "
(Crotopliaga ani T). These birds are usually to be seen in flocks
of three or four, in constant motion amongst the bushes, and
screaming harshly when they apprehend danger. The birds
behave very much like magpies. They are somewhat smaller
than the English magpie and black all over. They belong
structurally to the family of the cuckoos (Cuculidce).

A large ground spicier (Lycosa) is very abundant in the island,
inhabiting a hole in the ground about six inches in depth, and
from half an inch to an inch in diameter, and with a right-
angled turn at the bottom to form a resting chamber for the
spider. Some negro boys dug the spiders out for me. They

* Udotea cyathiformis, U. conglutinata, and U. Jlabellata, and others.

14 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

said that their bite was poisonous, and that they fed on lizards,
leaving their holes at night to search for them. The boys soon
grubbed one out with a knife, a great heavy venomous-looking
brute about three inches across. It bit savagely at my forceps.
The holes of these spiders were so common, that on one tolerably
clear patch of about an acre in extent, they were dotted over the
entire area at about one or two feet distance from one another.
I noticed the holes at once, and was astonished when the boys
told me they were spiders' holes.

A species of White-ant {Termite) is very common, which makes
large globular nests as much as two feet in diameter, and which
are perched high up in the fork of a tree. The nests are made
of a hard brown comb. From the bottom of the tree covered
galleries about half an inch in breadth lead up on the surface of
the bark to the nest, looking like long narrow brown streaks
upon the trunk of the tree. The galleries usually follow a some-
what irregular course up the trunk to the nest, reminding one of
the curious deviations which are always to be seen in footpaths,
cut out by people walking across fields, in their endeavours to go
straight from one point to another. The galleries, or rather
tubular ways, for they have bottoms to them, are made of the
same tough brown substance as the nests, and are cemented
firmly to the bark. Though they are so broad in order to allow
numerous ants to pass and repass, they are only high enough
for the ants to walk under. I broke one of these galleries, and
a number of soldier Termites came out and began biting my
hands, hardly making themselves felt, but as brave as if they
had a sting. I had to break a considerable length of the gallery
before I got to any of the working Termites, as they had retired
from the scene of danger. A species of Peripatus* is found in
St. Thomas, but I did not succeed in meeting with any. An
Agouti, a species of rodent (Dasyprocta) , occurs in the island, and
Mr. Wyman told me that it was common in the gullies near his
sugar plantation.!

* See Chapter VI.

t Mr. Wallace, " The Geographical Distribution of Animals," London,
Macmillan, 1876, Vol. II, p. 63, in the account of the mammals of the West
Indies, says an Agouti inhabits " perhaps St. Thomas." There seems to
have been doubt about the matter.

ST. THOMAS. 15

I went out on a shooting excursion to the opposite side of
the island in pursuit of wild goats. The only game we brought
back was a wild common fowl which I had shot in the bushes.
Goats, pigs, guinea fowl, and the domestic fowl breed in the
wild condition in various parts of the island, being sprung, as
I was told, in most instances, from stock which has escaped and
been scattered during hurricanes. The ferine fowls are very wary
like their progenitors, the Indian Jungle-fowl, and are not at all
easy to shoot. We sat down to lunch on the shore. Flights of
the brown pelicans (Pelicanus fuscus), kept passing over our
heads, flying always almost exactly over the same spot on their
way from one feeding ground to another. We shot a number of
them as they flew over at the desire of the German overseer of
the farm where we had left our horses, who wanted the birds for
eating. I should have thought a pelican to have been, next to a
vulture, almost the least palatable of birds, but the man said
they were very good. There were about 300 tame goats at the
farm, and a few cows. The milk was sent into the town every
morning in wine bottles and fetched about eighteen pence a
bottle.

Large silk cotton trees (Eriodendron) are common, growing
along the road-sides in St. Thomas. These trees are shaped
something like walnut trees, but have a rough bark. They bear
large green pods full of a substance like cotton. Perched in the
forks and all over their branches are numerous epiphytes of the
pine-apple order (Bromeliacece). On the far side of the island
I saw several * Sand-box " trees (Hura crepitans). The tree is
one of the Euplwrbiacew, allied to our Spurges, and has a
poisonous irritant juice ; but its most remarkable peculiarity is
its fruit. A number of seed capsules, shaped like the quarters of
an orange, are arranged together side by side as in an orange, so
as to form a globular fruit. When the fruit has become quite
ripe and dry, suddenly all the capsules split up the back, opening
with a strong spring, and the whole fruit flies asunder, scattering
its seeds for a distance of several yards, and making a noise like
the report of a pistol. I gathered one of the fruits which is
called commonly " Sand-box," because it was formerly used for
holding sand to sift over writing instead of blotting-paper. It

16 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

was boiled in oil when gathered and this prevented its flying
asunder. The fruit I gathered went off with considerable
violence when I touched it one day on board ship after it was
dry, but it did not make much noise.

Another Euphorbiaceous tree, the Manchineel, grows in St.
Thomas, and its juice is almost as poisonous as that of the
" Sand-box " tree. The fable ran that if a man allowed rain to
drop off its leaves on to his skin, his skin would be burned and
inflamed by it.

I landed one day on one of the small outliers of St. Thomas,
Little Saba Island, about a mile and a half distant from the
main island. A puffin (Puffinus sp.) was nesting in holes amongst
the grass, laying a single large white egg. The birds allowed
themselves to be caught in the nest with the hand. Our
spaniels kept bringing them to us, retrieving them with great
delight. The island was covered with thorny cactuses. It was
impossible to avoid their prickles, and I got covered with them
when in pursuit of wild goats and pigeons. There were four
kinds of cactuses, a prickly-pear {Opuntia) with spines three-
quarters of an inch long ; a quadrangular stemmed cactus, like
the most familiar one in green-houses ; a cactus with rounded
ribbed stem, growing in candelabra-like form (Cereus), and a large
dome-shaped cactus, a foot and a half high and bearing a crown
of small red flowers (Ilelocactus).

The spines must be a most efficient protection to the cactus
from being devoured by large animals. I have often noticed that
if one approaches one's hand slowly towards some of the forms
with closely set long spines, doing it with especial care to try and
touch the end of one of the spines lightly without getting pricked,
one's hand always does receive a sharp prick before such is
expected, the distance having been miscalculated. There seems
to be a special arrangement in the colour of the spines in some
cases, possibly intended directly to bring about an illusion, and
cause animals likely to injure the plant to get pricked severely
before they expect it, and thus to learn to shun the plant. Whilst
the greater length of the spines next the surface of the plant is
white, the tips are dark-coloured or black. The black tips are
almost invisible as viewed at a good many angles against the

ST. THOMAS. 17

general mass as a background. The spines look as if they
ended where the white colouring ends, and the hand is advanced
as if the prickles began there, and is pricked suddenly by some
unseen black tip. The experiment is easily tried in any cactus
house at home.

In the beach of Little Saba Island there was being formed a
reddish sandstone conglomerate rock composed of the cUbris of
the rock of which the higher parts of the island consist, cemented
together by calcareous matter derived from the corals, and
calcareous sand. This rock, which was hard and compact,
contained embedded in it plenty of the various corals from the
beach and large Turbo shells (T. pica) with their nacre quite
fresh in lustre, and their bright greenish colour unimpaired.

Large examples of these Turbo shells, as much as two inches
• in diameter at the base, are in St. Thomas carried up far inland
by terrestrial Hermit-crabs. I saw a large number of them
amongst the bush at an elevation of 1,000 feet, some of them
with the crabs in them, many empty. These large heavy sea
shells occurring in abundance at great heights, puzzled geologists
until it was found that they were carried up by the crabs.

On the shore at Little Saba Island grew a number of plants
of Guilandina bonduc. This plant bears a pod covered with
prickles which contains nearly spherical beans of about the size
of a hazel nut, which have a perfectly smooth, as it were, enamelled
surface, and are flinty hard. These seeds float, and are carried
by ocean currents to distant shores, and are in Tristan da Cunha
and Bermuda known as " Sea-beans," and supposed to grow at
the bottom of the sea, Don Jose de Canto showed me one
found in the Azores.

The coral reefs of St. Thomas are remarkable for the large
size and luxuriant growth of certain corals upon them, especially
two species of the genus madrepora named from their resemblance
to antlers, Madrepora cervicornis and M. alcicomis. I saw at
Little Saba Island, a Brain-coral which measured four feet in
diameter of the base and three feet in height.

A list of the flowering plants of St. Thomas, and other information,
is given in "A Historical Account of St. Thomas, W.I." By J. P. Knox.
New York, Charles Scribner, 1852.

18 A NATURALIST OX THE "CHALLENGER.

Bermuda, April 5tli to 21st, and May 2Jth to June 12th, 18*J3.

— Bermuda is entirely a coral island, that is to say, the complete
mass of the island now above water, and that below sea level, as
far at least as excavations which have been made have extended,
has been brought together by the agency of lime-secreting animals
and plants, aided by the winds and waves, and alterations in the
height of the sea-bed. It is the most distant coral island from
the equator, lying about 9° of latitude north of the Tropic of
Cancer, in about the same latitude as Madeira, which island has,
however, no coral reefs. It is distant from Cape Hatteras, the
nearest point of the American coast, about 600 miles.

Bermuda consists of a series of islands, some very small
indeed, others several miles in length, there being, it is said, an
island for every day in the year. The islands are disposed in an
irregular semicircle, and the larger ones of the chain are narrow
and elongate in form. This semicircle or rather semiellipse is
completed below water, or made into an entire atoll shape by a
series of coral reefs, as may be seen by a glance at the chart. A
few narrow and winding passages lead in through the reefs to the
harbours of St. George's, Ireland Island, and Hamilton the
capital town. The highest point is only about 300 feet above
the level of the sea.

The islands are almost entirely composed of blown cal-
careous sand, more or less consolidated into hard rock. In
several places, and especially at Tuckers-town and Elbow Bay,
there exist considerable tracts covered with modern sand dunes,
some of which are encroaching inland upon cultivated ground,
and have overwhelmed at Elbow Bay a cottage, the chimney of
which only is now to be seen above the sand. The constant
encroachment of the dunes is prevented by the growth upon
them of several binding plants, amongst which a hard prickly
grass (Cenchrus) with long, deeply-penetrating root fibres, is the
most efficient, assisted by the trailing Ipomcea pes caprce%
When these binding plants are artificially removed, the sand at
once begins to shift, and the burying of the house and the
present encroachment at Elbow Bay are said to have originated
from the cutting through of some ancient sand-hills for military
purposes.

BERMUDA". 19

The sand is entirely calcareous and dazzling white when seen
in masses. When examined closely, in small quantities, it is
seen to consist of various-sized particles of broken shells. By
gathering samples from the shores where the material of which
the sand is formed is first thrown up, and selecting portions
where eddies of the wind have left the heavier particles together,
a sand full of large fragments of shell, and containing even many
whole shells of smaller species, may be obtained, and from the
examination of these an accurate conclusion may be arrived at
as to the main constituents of the finer more comminuted sand,
which is driven inland by the wind, blown up into the dunes,
and from which the whole island above water has been formed.

The sand may be seen to be made up in by far its greater
part of the shells of Mollusca. Species of Tellina, Cardium, and
Area contribute most largely to compose the mass, together with
large quantities of pink-coloured fragments derived from a Spon-
clijlus, which is common about the islands. A few Gasteropodous
shells contribute fragments, and a considerable number of
Foraminiferous shells occur in the sand, and no doubt careful
examination would reveal the presence of fragments of tubes of
Serpulce, corals, calcareous algse, Bryozoa, and Cirrhipede shells ;
but there can be no doubt that by far the greater mass is derived
from the shells of Mollusca.* Thus, although the foundations of
Bermuda, and its natural breakwaters and protections, without
which it would not exist, are formed by corals, the part above
water is mostly derived from another source, and even below
the water the same is the case for some distance, for the same
beds of sandstone were met with in an excavation carried to a
depth of 50 feet.

The shells, more or less broken, are thrown up upon the
beach, and there pounded by the surf. As the tide recedes, the
resulting calcareous sand is rapidly dried by the sun, and the

* It would be of great interest to determine by careful microscopic
examination, what are the relative percentages of the very various cal-
careous structures composing the calcareous sands of coral islands in dif-
ferent parts of the world. I collected specimens of all the calcareous sands
accessible during the voyage of the "Challenger" with that object. They
vary very much in composition, some being mainly Foraminiferous.

C 2

A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.

finer particles are borne off inland by the wind, to be heaped up
into the dome-shaped dimes. The rain, charged with carbonic
acid, percolates through the dunes, and taking lime into solution,
re-deposits it as a cement, binding the sand grains together .*
Successive showers of rain, occurring at irregular intervals, some
charged more, some less highly, with carbonic acid, and forming-
each a crust on the surface of the dune of varying thickness,
produce a series of very thin, hard layers in the mass of sand,
alternating with seams of less consolidated and sometimes quite
loose sand. Crusts of consolidated sand are to be observed com-
monly on the surfaces of fresh sand dunes. These layers or
strata of the hardened sand follow in form the contour of the
dunes, and thus, where these have been perfect domes or mounds,
dip outwards in all directions, with curved surfaces from a cen-
tral vertical axis. Such an arrangement is constantly to be seen
where sections of the older rocks are exposed. I saw especially
good instances of it in a small island, near Castle Island in
Harrington Sound. Where banks or long rounded ridges of sand
have been formed, strata following the surfaces of these in
inclination are produced.

All kinds of curious irregularities in arrangement are to be
found in the bedding of the strata, resulting evidently from the
encroachment of one dune upon the edge of another, or the
action of various eddies of wind, or the burying of a small dune
in the edge of a larger one. In some cases, an already hardened

STKATA OF SAND ROCK, CASTLE HARBOUR, BERMUDA.

dune, after having suffered denudation by the action of the
waves, lias become buried in a more recent sand mound, and

* The process is described by Jukes in his account of Raines Islet.
"Voyage of the 'Fly,'" p. 339, and elsewhere.

BERMUDA. 21

this process may have been repeated several times, as the
accompanying diagram, showing the arrangement of bedding in
some rocks at Castle Harbour, will show. I saw no rock in
Bermuda with an inclination in its bedding of more than 35° 30 ',
which is not much more than the slope of some of the sand-
hills.

Dana terms this calcareous sand-rock, " Drift sand-rock."*
Nelson terms it "iEolian formation" in his account of the geology
of the Bermudas. t Jukes observed that in Heron Island the
main strata of calcareous rock composing the island dipped out-
wards from the longitudinal axis of the island towards the shore,
north and south, with an inclination of from 8° to 10°, and
Nelson observed similar dispositions of the strata at Bermuda.

The rock of Bermuda presents all degrees of consolidation,
from beds of mere unagglutinated friable sand to extremely
hard and compact stone. The main component rock is a good
deal softer than Bath stone. A much harder rock occurs at two
places in the islands only, and is quarried for the construction of
forts. The red fragments of Spoiidylus shell are especially well
preserved in it. A bed of lignite was found at a depth of 40 feet
below sea level in excavating for dockyard purposes, being
evidently an ancient peat bed, such as those which, now occur in
the islands, overwhelmed by the sand. Besides these primary
sand rocks, a conglomerate is being formed on the shore in some
places, composed of beach fragments cemented together, as
usually occurs in coral islands. The sand rock contains various
fossils, most abundantly a land snail (Helix) now abundant in the
islands, and a much larger one, now extinct, but closely resem-
bling the present species in other respects than size. The bones
of turtles and birds are also found in the rock, and all the
common marine shells of the islands. The rock, when exposed,
is honeycombed by the action of the rain, and that of sea water,
and on the coast its surface has a remarkable corroded appear-
ance. It is eaten into cup-like hollows all over, separated from

* Dana, " Corals and Coral Islands." Sampson Low & Co. London,
1875, p. 182.

t Major-Gen. Nelson, E.E., "On the Geology of the Bermudas."
Trans. Geol. Soc. London, Vol. V, 1840.

22 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

one another by extremely sharp projecting points and edges of
thin laminae, which break with a crackling noise under the feet.
In some places on the coast the rock has been left by denudation
projecting in isolated pinnacles and peaks of fantastic form.

The surface of the rock is not only honeycombed by the
action of rain, but hardened by re-deposit of carbonate of lime ;
and a fresh surface exposed to the weather soon becomes
covered with a hard film. Extensive caverns exist all over the
islands, undermining the rock in all directions, and filled at the
bottom with water, which, in caves near the sea, rises and falls
with the tide and is salt. At Paynter's Yale Cave the water is
only brackish, so that the communication underground with the
sea must be slight. Such caves must necessarily result from the
consolidation of masses of loose sands by means of the percola-
tion of rain water. The carbonate of lime taken up must leave
cavities unless the whole mass were to shrink gradually ; but as
the outer or upper layers receive the water first, they become
consolidated, and hardened more thoroughly than the inner.
Subsequently, these outer layers being hardened, the water
ceases to take up so much lime from them, but passes through
cracks and clunks, to dissolve away the softer interior, which
sinks and falls in. A cave is the result, on the roof of which
stalactites form at once.

The falling in of the roofs of ancient caves oives rise to manv
peculiar features in the landscape of Bermuda. The stalagmites
at Walsingham Cave are far under water, proving a sinking of
the floor of the cave which might possibly be supposed to be
local, due to the giving way of some hollow beneath ; but since
the same condition is to be seen in nearly all the caves, and
there is the further evidence of the sunken bed of lignite, there
seems no doubt that there has been a general sinking of the
island in comparatively recent times. In some places on the
coast of Bermuda are reefs composed by Serpulse, which were
called by Nelson Serpuline reefs. These often form regular
circles or tiny atolls, as it were, about 20 to 30 feet in diameter.
The form evidently results from the fact that the most externally
placed animals have a great advantage in procuring food over
those placed behind them or in the centre of the area,

BERMUDA. 23

The scenery of Bermuda is in some respects not unlike that
of northern lake districts, for the numerous small islands which
are dotted over the sounds and land-locked sheets of water are
covered with vegetation down to the water's edge. The dark
colour of the juniper trees (Juniper us harhadensis), called in the
island " cedar," the prevailing foliage, not unlike that of pines in
appearance, gives the landscape a northern aspect, and on cloudy
days, the island as viewed from the sea, looks cold and bleak.
Only the extreme lowness of all the land is characteristic and
distinctive. Next conspicuous to the juniper as a general feature
in the vegetation, is probably the oleander, which having been
introduced, flourishes everywhere. A large portion of the un-
cultivated land is covered with a dense growth of another
introduced plant, Lantana camera, a most troublesome weed.

The most refreshing and beautiful vegetation in Bermuda is
that growing in the marshes and caves. The marshes or peat
bogs lie in the inland hollows between two ranges of hills.
These bogs are covered with a tall luxuriant growth of ferns,
especially two species of Osmunda (0. cinnamomea and 0.
regalis). Some ferns are restricted to particular marshes. In
some Acrostichum aureum grows densely to a height of from 4 to
5 feet. Together with the ferns grow the juniper which thrives
in the marshes, and a Palmetto, which gives a pleasing variety
to the foliage.

The peat of these marshes is mainly composed of the cUlris
of the rhizomes of the ferns and roots and bases of the sedges,
especially of one very large species of Cladium. A bog moss
grows in the marshes, but is not abundant enough to take much
share in the peat formation. The peat burns well and has very
much the appearance of ordinary home peat. The stems of
junipers are occasionally found in it in good preservation, and of
larger size than any now growing on the island. The formation
of peat at sea level in so warm a climate, seems very unusual.
Darwin has dwelt on the peculiar conditions of climate necessary
to the formation of peat. In South America and the Falkland
Islands, as here, the peat is formed by the slow decomposition of
plants other than mosses.*

* Darwin, " Journal of Researches," 2nd Ed. London, J. Murray,
1845, p. 28?.

24 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

I have referred to the falling in of the roofs of caves. At
the mouths of nearly all the caves are hollows with steep rocky
sides, produced by the falling in of former extensions of the
caves. One of the largest of these is at the mouth of Paynter's
Vale Cave. This hollow is sheltered from the sun by its steep
walls, and is hence constantly shady and moist. It is a natural
fernery, fifteen species of ferns being found within its small
compass, two of them occurring nowhere else in the islands.
Wild coffee trees thrive amongst the ferns in the hollow. The
plants of Bermuda, which are of West Indian origin, were
transported thither, probably, as Grisebach* states, by the Gulf
Stream, or general drift of heated surface water in this direction.
Others may have travelled with the cyclones which pass con-
stantly from the West Indies in the direction of Bermuda, and
sometimes reach the island. There are no winds blowing
directly from the American coast which would be likely to
carry seeds, the anticyclones taking a different direction. It is,
however, probable that the occurrence of American plants in the
islands is connected with the fact that the islands are visited
from time to time by immense numbers of migratory birds from
that continent, especially during their great southern migration.

Of these the American Golden Plover (Charadriiis marmoratus)
seems to visit Bermuda in the greatest numbers, but various
other birds, frequenting marshes, Gallinules, Rails and Snipes,
arrive in no small quantities every year. These birds have
probably brought a good many plants to Bermuda, as seeds
attached to their feet or feathers, or in their crops. The seed
used for the onion crops in Bermuda is all imported yearly,
mostly from Madeira, and the potato seed is brought from the
United States. Various seeds cannot fail to reach the island
with these imports, and the constant importation of hay must
have led to the introduction of many more.

Shipwrecks furnish additions to the flora occasionally. A
vessel laden with grapes was wrecked on the coast a short time
ago. The boxes of grapes were washed ashore, and the grape
seeds germinated in abundance, so that Sir J. H. Lefroy was
able to gather a number of small plants for his garden.

* A. Grisebach, "Die Vegetation der Erde." Leipzig, 1872. 2te
Bd. II, s. 454.

BERMUDA.

The only export of the Bermudas is vegetables ; potatoes,
onions and tomatos. These are said to be best in the world, and
they reach New York very early in the season and command a
very high price. The "Mudians" are, however, so lazy that they
do not grow enough potatoes for home consumption, and at the
time of our visit to the islands, at the same time that new
potatoes were being exported to New York, large quantities of
the former year's American crop were being imported in the
returning steamers.

Some of the most conspicuous of the present land-birds of
Bermuda, such as the " Bed bird," or Cardinal, have been intro-
duced for ornamental effect. The birds most interesting to us
were the " Boatswain birds " (Phaethon flavirostris), since we
now met them in numbers for the first time, though we afterwards
became so familiar with them amongst the Pacific Islands and
elsewhere. The birds are white, a little smaller than our com-
monest English gull, and shaped more like a sea swallow or tern,
though allied to the gannets and cormorants ; in their tails are
two long narrow feathers of a reddish tint, which as the bird
flies, are kept extended behind, and give it a curious appearance.

BOATSWAIN BIKD.

The birds breed, more or less gregariously, in holes in the
rock formed by the weathering out of softer layers. It is easy
to secure them in the hole by clapping a cap over its mouth and
often both male and female can be caught together. It is how-
ever quite a different matter to get hold of them for stuffing :
their bills are very sharp and strong, and they fight furiously,

26 A NATURALIST OX THE " CHALLENGER."

screaming nil the while. Only one egg is laid, and it is of a
dark red colour like that of the Kestrel. Eats abound in the
islands, and I saw one hunting about the holes evidently on
the look-out for eggs or young. These must be the only enemies
the birds have except man, and they would find no difficulty in
driving the rats off, but I saw several eggs broken and sucked,
no doubt in their absence.

On one of the islands I saw a pair of crows, but they were
very scarce, since blood-money to the extent of two-shillings a
head had been put upon their heads by the Government.

Crabs abound at Bermuda : a species of Grapsus, a crab which
will be frequently referred to by me, climbs the mangrove trees
with the greatest ease. A white Sand-crab (Ocypoda), burrows
deep in the sand-hills, and is very difficult to dig out, and a huge
ugly Land-crab (Cardisoma) is common further inland. A small
White-crab (JRemvpes) lives in the sand on the shore just below
the verge of the water ; it burrows rapidly in the sand until
covered, and then by ejecting a small jet of water from its gills
clears a small passage for respiration, remaining concealed.

A land Nemertine worm was discovered by Von Willemoes
Suhm, living in moist earth. Only one other terrestrial Nemer-
tine was known hitherto, and that was discovered by Semper in
the Philippine Islands ; this worm Von Suhm named Tetras-
temma agricola, placing it in the same genus with certain
aquatic species* When irritated it darts out its armed proboscis
with great rapidity in defence. It also uses the proboscis as an
aid in progression, shooting it out and lixing its tip to a distant
point and then drawing the body up to the point by contracting
the protruded organ. The animal is ciliated all over, and has
two pairs of eyes. The earth in which it lives contains a good
deal of salt. The animal was found to live for hours in salt
water, but to die at once when placed in fresh water.

The corals of Bermuda may be seen growing to great advan-
tage by the use of a water glass. The species are very few in
number, there being only about ten species of Anthozoan corals,
and two of Hydrozoan. The latter two species of MiUepora are

* A. Von Willemoes Suhm, Ph.D., " On a Land Nemertine found in
the Bermudas." Ann. and Mag. Nat, Hist. 1874, XIII, p. 409,

BERMUDA.

very abundant, and contribute largely to the reef formation.
While some species such as the great " Brain coral," (JDvploria

LAND NEMERTIXE, TETRASTEMMA AGRICOLA. (YOUNG MALE.)

Pt 1 — 4 Successive portions of the proboscis ; 1 entrance ; 2 papillary portion ; 3 pouch
of stylets ; 4 glandular p ntion ; ca muscular entrance of glandular portion ;
o mouth ; i intestine ; g ganglion ; n lateral nerves.

(After a figure by Von Willemoes Suhm.)

cerebriformis), which is conspicuous at the bottom as a bright
yellow mass appear to prefer to grow where the water is
lighted up by the sunshine ; other .species, such as Millepora
ramosa and Symj)hyllict dipsacea, seem to thrive best in the
shade. One species, Mycedium fragile, which forms very thin
and fragile plate-Like laminae, which are, when bleached white,
almost the most beautiful of corals, occurs growing in colonies
in great abundance, in water from a foot to a fathom in depth
inside small caverns.

All around the Bermuda coast, wherever it is at all sheltered,

28 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

large black Holothurians, are excessively numerous. They are
to be seen covering the white sandy bottom all over, lying a few
feet only apart.

I was greatly indebted during my stay at the Bermudas to
General Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B., F.K.S., then governor of the
islands, both for his kind hospitality and constant information
and assistance in scientific matters.

For a further account of the geology of the Bermudas, see " Nautical
Magazine," 1868, p. 486, and also J. M. Jones, F.L.S. on the " Geological
Features of the Bermudas." Trans. Nova Scotian Institute of Nat. Hist.,
May, 10, 1869.

For the Mollusca, Bev. H. B. Tristram, Froc. Zool. Soc, 1861, p. 403.
For the Birds of Bermuda, Lieut. Beid, E.E., F.Z.S., "Zoologist," 1877.
Bepr. from the "Field" newspaper.

For a general account of the Natural History of the islands, see " The
Naturalist in Bermuda," by J. M. Jones, F.L.S. London, 1859.

For the Vegetation, see Dr. Bhein, " Ueber die Vegetations- Verhalt-
nisse der Bermudas-Inseln." Vortrag gehalten beim Jahresfeste der
S.N.G., 25. Mai, 1873. Also papers on collections made by me in the
Journal of the Linnean Society, for which see the list of papers at the end
of this work.

CHAPTER II.

AZORES, MADEIRA, CAPE VEEDES.

Fayal Island, Azores. Porpoises on the Feed. Town of Horta. Peculiar
Dress of the Women. Island of Pico. St. Michael's Island. Native
Ferns and Australian-introduced Trees. The Threshing floor and
Women at the Mill. Vegetation of the Azores. Hot Springs at
Furnas. Plants Growing in the Hot Water. Caldeira des Sette
Cidades. Madeira. Grand Coral. Curious Caps worn by the Men.
The Island at Sunset. St. Vincent Island, Cape Verdes. Vegetation
of the Island. Ascent of Green Mountain. Different Causes of
Variation of Vegetation with Altitude. Structure of Basaltic Dykes.
Calcareous Seaweeds on Bird Island. Habits of Crabs. Miniature
Oasis. Flying Gurnet Hooked. Mode of Catching Bonito. Island
of Fogo. Porto Praya, St. Jago Island. Use of Foot in Feeding by
Kites. Kingfisher and Galinis. Hauling the Sein. A Large Shark.
San Domingo Valley. Monkeys. Kemarkable Freshwater Crus-
tacean. Limestone Band in the Cliff of the Harbour.

Azores, Joiy 1st to 10th, 1813. — After a voyage of 19 days
from Bermuda on July 1st, the " Challenger" steamed in towards
the island of Fayal, which was soon sighted as a blue haze in the
far distance which mingled with the clouds and showed a faint
outline only here and there. The haze became darker and
darker as the island was approached and the outline more
distinct, and at last we began to make out the shape of the
island clearly with our glasses, and to see the great belt of
cultivation on the lower region, with its thickly set rectangular
patches of ripe corn. The highest point of the island is only a
little over 3,000 feet above sea level ; this part of the structure
was not sighted at all by us, for it remained always covered
with clouds.

The whole of the Azores are volcanic, only on Sta. Maria
Island is there a small deposit of limestone containing marine
shells, of miocene date. The islands are composed of beds of lava,
basaltic and trachytic, and cones of scoriae and pumice. As we

30 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

approached Eayal numerous craters became visible, of the usual
truncated conical form, but in all stages of decay, and as usual
of all sizes. Some huge volcanic masses form the main ridge of
the island, and from the slopes and bases of these numerous
baby volcanoes rise up, and are seen clustering together in
irregular groups.

One crater close to the shore and partly cut into by the
waves was very conspicuous. In its loose pumice walls the
sea had made an excavation, and had exposed vertical columns
of harder trachyte. The lip of the crater facing the sea is partly
broken down, and a view is thus obtained right into the conical
hollow inside, which is now partly under cultivation. The
crater is called Castello Branco by the inhabitants.

The whole lower part of the island, which has a more gradual
slope than the steep cones above, is closely cultivated, and showed
as seen from seawards a series of intermingled bright green and
yellow fields interspersed with glistening white villages, and
numerous churches and monasteries.

As we neared shore, a large shoal of porpoises was seen close
by, going at great speed in full chase after fish, the whole shoal
skipping together, four or five feet out of water for several
successive bounds in hot pursuit. The shoal was closely
attended by a flock of gulls which follow in order to pick up
the fish which are bitten or wounded by the porpoises, but which
the porpoises have no time to stop to pick up. In the Arafura
sea, I have seen frigate birds hanging over a shoal of porpoises
with the same object, and in just the same manner in the tropics
terns and noddies follow the shoals of large predatory fish
(Caranx) to pick up the crumbs. The demeanour of a shoal of
porpoises on the feed is a very different thing from their lazy
rolling motion which one more commonly sees.

We rounded a promontory formed of two old craters, one of
them with its seaward half entirely demolished by the waves,
and its hollow inner slope terraced for cultivation, and came in
sight of Horta, the capital town of Fayal. It is almost the
most beautifully situated town I have ever seen. It is built
along the shore of a wide bay, the white houses being crowded
together on a very narrow, almost flat belt of land. Im-

AZORES.

mediately behind the main body of houses, rises a series of
steep hills covered with the most brilliantly green gardens,
orange trees, and magnolias, with houses dotted amongst them
at various heights, and here and there churches and monasteries.
The lower hills are backed by the main mountain mass, the
summit of which was hidden in the clouds. In full view of
Horta is the island of Pico with its towering cone.

The town is thoroughly Portuguese in appearance. The
houses are whitewashed as at Lisbon, with green Venetian
blinds and window frames and balconies. The women are
better looking than at Lisbon. They dress in remarkable dark
blue cloth cloaks with enormous long coal-scuttle shaped hoods
to them, so that one has to look down a sort of tunnel to see a
pretty face at the end of it, and it is impossible to get any but
a full face view of a beauty, or
to steal a sly glance at all.
The girls save up their money
most carefully, in order to
become possessed of one of
these fashionable cloaks. They
cost about six pounds, and a
girl has to work two years and
a half to get one. Horta has
many primitive ways. The old
women sit at their doors and
spin with the spindle and dis-
taff.

The gardens are all sur-
rounded by high walls to pro-
tect them from the furious
gales which blow here in win-
ter, and which would else de-
stroy all the fruit trees. Fruit
was abundant, apricots were bought at 20 for a penny. The
prevalence of small pox in the town prevented our making any
stay. I slipped on shore in a fruit boat, or I should not have
been allowed to land at all.

The sea beach has a most peculiar appearance to an eye not

COSTUME OF WOMEN AT HORTA.

(From a photograph.)

32 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

accustomed to volcanic shores, being composed of fine volcanic
sand which is absolutely black. The sand is made up of ground-
up lava and ejected dust, and is full of crystals of olivine,
augite, hornblende, and quartz, with abundance of magnetic iron
particles, which cling to a magnet when it is brought near.

The ship was off Pico in the evening of July 2nd. The
clouds gradually cleared off the island, at first hovering about
its summit, then remaining as a belt some way below the top
of the cone, and finally disappearing altogether, and leaving the
majestic peak in full view, lit up by a splendid red sunset glow.
The peak is a steep cone, rising abruptly to 7,613 feet above sea
level from a more gently sloping base, on which are numerous
secondary craters which look like little pimples on the surface of
their huge parent. The top of the cone is cut off horizontally and
out of the huge crater on the top arises towards one side of it a
little secondary cone which forms the highest point of the whole.

St. Michael's Island, July 4th to July 9th, 1813. — We neared

the island of San Miguel. The island has mountains of from
2,300 to 3,500 feet altitude at either end, and a lower range of
hills joins these together. Ponta Delgada, the capital of San
Miguel, lies on the sea shore opposite, about the middle of the
lower ransje of land.

The volcanic cones and slopes leading from these to the sea
are formed of light pumice and ash soil, very friable and easily
cut into by the action of water. Hence, water-courses have cut
their way deep into the surface of the country, and as San
Miguel is viewed from seawards, its most striking feature is
formed by the numerous deep gullies which are seen running
parallel to one another, and with almost straight courses from
the high land down to the sea. Ponta Delgada is composed of
houses similar to those of Fayal, but it is not nearly so pretty as
the latter town, the land behind not being steep, and there being
no bay shut in by hills. A breakwater is required to form a
harbour.

I formed one of a large party which paid a visit to the valley
of Furnas and its hot springs, distant about 30 miles from the
port town. We travelled in carriages, each drawn by four
mules. From the nature of the country already described,

AZORES.

we had to cross numerous water- worn gullies, and our road led
constantly up and down steep hills. We crawled up one side of
the ridges, and made fearful dashes down the other, the mules
going with great spirit. We passed between fields of maize and
corn, with tall hedges of reeds (Arundo donax), planted round
them to break the force of the wind, and a kind of lupine
planted in geometrical patterns amongst the corn to be ploughed
in after the crop was reaped, as manure.

We passed many fine flower gardens, planted with a large
variety of Australian, New Zealand, and South American plants,
and went by numerous hills, small volcanic cones, planted with
firs and various timber trees with great care. The appearance of
the island has been wonderfully modified by careful plantation,
most of the work having been done by a Mr. Brown, a gardener
from Kew, who was brought to the island 30 years ago by
Don Jose de Canto, to superintend the laying out of his garden.
We halted for luncheon at a small stream under a clump of
Australian blue gum trees, beneath which on the margins of the
stream grew a profusion of ferns. Here flourished the cosmo-
politan break fern, and another Pteris (P. arguta); Woodwardia
radicans, not so long ago discovered to occur in Great Britain, a
splendid bright green fern, with large fronds, the tips of which
bend over to meet the soil, and then take root, whence the
name ; Asplenium monanthemum, hardly to be distinguished in
appearance from our home A. trichomanes ; Asplenium marinum,
Adiantium nigrum, — the lady fern, the hart's tongue, the male
fern, and the common polypody. With these was Osmunda
regalis, and abundance of the Maiden hair.

We crossed the lower central ridge of the island, and looked
down upon the bright blue sea on the other side. We passed a
threshing floor where threshing was going on in the old biblical
style, as all over the Azores, where primitive customs are
maintained to an extraordinary degree. The threshing floor is a
circular flat space, usually near a house in the home corn-field,
about 40 feet in diameter, and with a bottom of cement or some
hard mortar. On this the corn is laid and pairs of oxen are
driven round and round over it, yoked to a heavy wooden sledge-
like machine, like that used for dragging casks on in England.

34 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

A man often sits or stands on the drag, and the girls ride on it
for fun. Usually two yoke of oxen are employed. At the floor
we halted at, the oxen were not muzzled, and were feeding freely,
but they often are so, as we saw at other floors.

A little further on we came upon two women grinding at the
mill. A pair of circular stones, one placed on the top of the
other, are used ; the upper fitted with a straight upright handle,
the thing being in fact a simple quern. Two women standing-
facing one another, catch hold of the handle, one at the top, the
other lower down, and they send the upper stone round at a
good pace, each exerting her strength when the handle is
furthest off from her, and thus pulling to the best advantage.

We next passed a small town, Eibeira Grande, where there
were numerous churches and a monastery, and a pretty patch of
public garden laid out by Mr. Brown, and planted principally
with Australian shrubs, Banksias and Melaleucas. At a road-side
inn, at which we pulled up to water the mules and refresh the
drivers, the church choir was singing remarkably well, practising
an ancient chant in a room overhead, with a piano as an accom-
paniment. None of the poorer houses in the town, or indeed all
over the island, have any glass in the windows, but only shutters.
Glazed windows are scarce ; only the priests, shopkeepers, and
merchants have them.

We turned up inland from the sea, and mounted the high
land, making across the island again in a zigzag direction. At
last we gained the summit and came out upon a moor covered
with bog myrtle (Myrica fay a) , break fern, Woodwardia radicans,
heath {Erica azorica), and a splendid fern (Dicksonia culcita),
which almost forms a tree, and which has a beautiful golden brown
silky substance covering its young shoots, which is gathered and
used for stuffing cushions. Several tree ferns have a similar
substance developed on them. The moor looked very like a
Scotch moor, and stretched away far over the flat hill tops.

There are 40 flowering plants found in the Azores, which
grow nowhere else in the world, Erica azorica, the heath, is one
of them. The rest of the plants are either South European, or
belong to the Atlantic flora, a name given to a series of plants
which grow on the Azores, Canaries, and Madeira, and nowhere

AZORES. 35

else. Of these Atlantic plants 36 are found in the Azores.*
Examples of them are the laurel (Laurus canariensis) and the
juniper (Juniperus brevifolia). One little plant, a Campanula
(C. viclalii), is found only on one small rock on the east coast of
Mores (one of the Azores), and nowhere else in the world.
Nearly all the shrubs and trees of the Atlantic group of islands
are evergreens.

We crossed a stretch of the plateau, and suddenly looked
down on the other side of it into an immense deep, nearly
circular crater, beautifully green. Its undulating bottom was
dotted over with white houses -amongst gardens and corn-fields,
and in the distance was seen a small column of steam hovering
over the hot springs. We drove down a steep incline for at
least a couple of miles, and at last reached the village of Furnas.
The road hence to the hot springs led across a small stream fed
by them, deeply stained red, and smelling strongly of sulphu-
retted hydrogen. Thence the path went up a little valley, cut
out in the low ridge of very fine light whitish ashes which
separates the main Furnas valley from that part of it in which
the Furnas lake is situate. It is a beautiful tiny glen, with dark
evergreen foliage on its steep banks, and on the swamp borders
of its narrow bed were masses of the brilliant green leaves of the
eatable Arum -(Caladium esculentum), one of the staple foods of the
Polynesians, their " taro." The taro is cultivated all over the
islands, but thrives here especially in the warm mineral water.

The Furnas lake is about three miles in circumference.
There are two groups of boiling springs, the one at the margin
of the lake, the other close to the town of Furnas.

The boiling springs near the lake are scattered over an area
of about 40 yards square, covered with a greyish clayey deposit ;
a geyser or hot-spring formation, being composed of matter de-
posited by the hot water. No doubt the present hot springs are
the dwindled remains of former fully developed geysers. The
principal spring consists of a basin about 12 feet in diameter,
full up to within about 2 feet of the brim of a blueish water,
which in the centre is in constant and most violent ebullition,

* A. Grisebach, " Die Vegetation der Erde." Leipzig, 1872, 2ter Bd.
s. 503.

D 2

36 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

the water being thrown up a foot in height as it boils forth. A
constant column of steam rises from the basin. Near by is a
sort of fissure, from which issue at short irregular intervals jets
or splashes of boiling water mingled with steam and sulphuretted
hydrogen in abundance. This spring makes a gurgling, churning
sort of noise ; the large basin, a sort of roar.

In the sides of the fissure grow, in the area splashed by
the hot water, some green lowly organized algae (Botryococus),
which form a thick crust upon the rock surface. Similar
growths of lowly organized plants in the water of hot springs
have been observed in various parts of the world.* At a couple
of feet distance from this hot spring rushes up a perfectly cold
iron spring with a considerable stream of water.

All around are small openings, from which sulphuretted
hydrogen and other gases issue with a fizzing noise, and coat
the openings with bright yellow crystals of sulphur. The
ground around is hot, too hot in many places for the hand to
rest upon, and it is somewhat dangerous to approach the pools
of hot water at all closely, since the hard crust on the surface
may give way and one may be let fall into the boiling mud.

Just above these hot springs is a beautiful mountain stream,
which forms little cascades as it tumbles down to the lake
valley from the fern-clad moor above.

At the town of Furnas is an inn kept for families who come
in the season to drink the waters and bathe. There is a free
bath house built by the Government, with marble baths and hot
and cold mineral water laid on to each. The whereabouts of
the springs near the town are marked by clouds of steam. The
springs are scattered over a larger area than at the lake springs,
and the grey geyser formation is piled into irregular hillocks
around them, instead of presenting a nearly flat surface as at the
other springs. Here the principal spring is like that at the lake,
but the amount of hot steam rushing up is much greater, and
the noise is almost deafening. The water is thrown up about

* For further account of the vegetable growths in the hot spring of
Furnas, see Linn. Journ. Bot., Vol. XIV, p. 321. Also papers on the
same by Mr. W. T. Thiselton Dyer and Mr. W. Archer, ibid., pp. 326-

328.

AZORES. 37

two or three feet in a constant hot fountain. Close by are sulphur
springs with hot water issuing in violent intermittent splashes ;
and there is also one deep chasm, from the depths of which
boiling hot blue mud is jerked out in similar splashes. The
mud hardens on the sides of the cavity into a crust made up of
successive laminae.

The natives use the natural hot water to heat sticks or planks
in, in order to bend them. They also sometimes dig holes in the
mud and set their kettles in them to boil. As at the other
springs, there are cold springs issuing from the ground, close to
the boiling ones. One spring has its water charged with carbonic
acid and effervescing. All the springs empty into one small
stream, which then runs down to the sea, with a complex mixture
of mineral flavours in its water, and retains its heat for several

miles.

In the shores of the lake there are large extents of geyser
deposit, forming strata 40 or 50 feet in thickness, and evidently
resulting from hot springs, now worked out, but with a few small
discharge pipes of heated gas remaining active here and there.
Near the seaward end of the lake is a hole, where, as in the
Grotto del Cane, an animal, when put into it, becomes stupefied
by inhaling the carbonic acid gas discharged.

I made an excursion from Ponta Delgada to the Caldeira
des Sette Cidades, or Cauldron of the Seven Cities. It is a
marvellous hollow of enormous size, with two lakes at its
bottom and a number of villages in it. One slowly climbs the
mountains from the sea and suddenly looks down from the
crater edge upon the lakes, 1,500 feet below. On the flat bottom
of the crater, which is covered with verdure and cultivated
fields, are several small secondary craters, the whole reminding
one of a crater in the moon. One of these small craters has
been so cut up by deep water-courses, that between them only a
series of sharp radiating ridges is left standing, and the crater
has thus a very fantastic appearance.

San Miguel was suffering from a drought, at the time of our
visit, which had been of long duration. A grand procession
therefore took place in order to procure rain, in which a
miraculous image the " Santo Christo," the jewels presented at

38 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

the shrine of which are reputed amongst the people to be worth
one million sterling, was carried round the town. The figure
is apparently of wood and is in a squatting posture with the
legs crossed. It was borne in a litter, with a canopy over it, on
men's shoulders. Next day, from seawards, we saw clouds
hanging low over the island, and it seemed as if the image had
been again miraculously successful.

The most complete account of the geology of the Azores is that
of G. Hartung, "Die Azoren." Leipzig, Engelmann, 1860. See also
F. Du Cane Godman, " Nat. Hist, of the Azores." London, Van Voorst
1870. Also T. Vernon Wollaston, " Testacea Atlantica." London, Eeeve
and Co. On the Coleoptera Crotch, P.Z.S., 1860, p. 359.

Madeira, February 3rd to 5th, July 15th to l'Jth, 1853. —

Madeira is a mass of mountainous rocks, rising to 6,000 feet in
height. The town of Funchal nestles close to the water's edge and
straggles up the side of the valley in which it lies. In the early
morning the island, viewed in clear weather from seawards, is of
a beautiful hazy violet, whilst the sea is of the deepest blue.

The beach at the landing-place near the town is formed of
large pebbles of basalt and is very steep. In landing, boats
provided underneath with runners like those of a sledge are
used on account of the surf. They are backed in stern first and
are hauled up directly they ground by men stationed on shore.
The main part of the town lies close to the beach and is very
like the old part of Lisbon.

The fish market yields many rare fish to naturalists. Deep-
sea fish every now and then find their way, for some reason or
other, to the surface at Madeira and get picked up, and several
very rare fish are known from here only ; as for example, a
curious small fish,* allied to the Angler, described by Dr.
Giinther from a single specimen. The " Challenger " dredgings
yielded several close allies, and showed that the fish in question
was undoubtedly a deep-sea form, as had been surmised. Huge
Tunnies, weighing some of them from 60 to 100 lbs., are sold in
the market. Their flesh is quite red, like beef, and they are cut
up and sold just like butchers' meat. The great beauty of
Funchal lies in its gardens, where plants of tropical and tem-

* Mehmocetus, " Proc. Zool. Soc.," 1864, p. 301.

MADEIRA. 39

perate climates thrive together. Bananas, pine-apples, aloes,
vines, prickly pears, gnavas, mangoes, oranges, grow together,
with a profusion of flowers.

The island being resorted to by so many invalids, the
cemetery forms a conspicuous feature in the scenery. The coffin-
makers have the unfeeling habit of manufacturing their wares in
front of their shops in the public streets. The roads are narrow
and run directly up and down the steep slopes. They are paved
with small pieces of basalt, three or four inches long. The
stone pavement has become, by constant use, polished and
slippery, and the traffic is carried on by means of sledges on
runners instead of with wheels. These come down the steep
hills at a very rapid pace.

I made an excursion to the Grand Cural. We rode ponies
which trotted or galloped up the steepest hills. A native went
with each pony and hung on to its tail to help himself along
when the pace was fast. We passed through the gardens on the
outskirts of the town ; then higher, through fields of sugar-cane
and corn, up amongst the vineyards, terraced on the hill sides, and
with the vines trained on horizontal trellis work ; then past the
hovel-like cottages of the country people, till we reached the
district of pine and sweet chestnut trees.

The pine woods were deliciously cool. We passed them and
came out upon open grass slopes with occasional patches of basalt
rock sticking up out of them, the slopes themselves being com-
posed of disintegrated scoriae. We climbed the slopes on foot
and reached a height of about 5,000 feet. From thence we had
a commanding view of the Grand Cural, a huge gorge or rent in
the mountain mass, precipitous on one side and almost so on the
other. The precipitous side opposite us was in the deepest
shadow, so much so, that we could hardly trace the details upon
its surface, but we could yet see that every available ledge had
been terraced and brought into cultivation. The sun shone
brightly on the dark red and purple scoriae and lava, and on its
clothing of chestnuts and pines, on our side of the chasm, which
being thus in high light contrasted forcibly with the deep gloom
of the opposite wall. A magnificent panorama of the south side
of the island was visible from our position, with its volcanic

40 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.

cones and white houses scattered amidst the green. After we
had enjoyed the scene but a few moments, a thick mist shut it
from our view and we descended.

It is only in the highest parts of the island of Madeira, that
anything is to be seen of the true indigenous vegetation. Below,
cultivation has destroyed the native plants. On the upper
slopes the common furze and broom and the brake fern grow in
abundance.

The countrymen of Madeira wear, on gala days, curious
pointed blue cloth caps, very small, and resting only on the back
of the head. The point is a long pointed cylinder, which sticks
out stiffly from the back of the head. It seems to be a curious
abnormal development, due to insular isolation, of the pointed
bag which hangs down from the knitted worsted nightcap-like
head covering of Mediterranean and Spanish seamen, and English
yachting men. The point seems to be a sort of rudimentary

organ which has undergone subsequent
modifications for the sake of ornament.
A minute tag of the red lining of the
cap is turned up in front and behind
with great care, and no doubt is also a
rudiment of some former appendage of
the head dress. There seems to be a
curious general tendency in the Atlan-
tic islands, amongst the inhabitants, to
develop strange head dresses. The hoods
of the women of the Azores have been
described. Besides these, the men wear,
or wore, in some of the islands, a curious
cap, in which a pair of side flaps have been developed into a
regular pair of horns, projecting vertically above the head.

I was told that Madeira wine is sometimes manufactured in
the island out of red wine, the colour being taken out with
animal charcoal. I knew that red wine was constantly made
out of white wine, but had not suspected the opposite manu-
facture.

July icth, i8?3- — On our second visit to Madeira we were
unable to land owing to the prevalence of small pox on shore.

CAP WORN BT PEASANTS OF
MADEIBA.

MADEIRA. 41

I visited a steamboat which came into the harbour for coals and
which was running between the Bight of Benin and Liverpool.
The whole ship was covered with cages full of grey parrots ; even
in the forecastle, in the seamen's sleeping place, every available
nook was full of parrots. The deck was covered with various
African monkeys, and there was a large wild cat in a den, and
some large snakes (Pythons) in a box. All these animals were
intended for sale in Liverpool.

We left Madeira in the evening. The ship passed quickly
out of the lee of the land and into the trade wind and was soon
driving along before it, dashing a sheet of foam from under the
bows. There was a splendid sunset. The sky was lighted up
with brilliant golden and red tints, behind and to the west of the
hazy blue mountains of Madeira, in front of which floated here
and there small filmy clouds. Beneath the higher mountains,
were the green lower ranges, half lighted up by the evening
light, half in intense black shade. Lower down again, on the
shore, lay the glistening white town with its dark black cliffs on
either hand.

As it grew darker, the lower ranges and details of the view
became gradually lost, and at last all that was to be seen was
the dark outline of the mountains against the sky, with the
twinkling lights of Funchal far below, and a few lights dotted
about on the hill-side above. At last we lost sight of the island
altogether and sped south before the breeze, not to return so far
north of the equator again for nearly two years, when we reached
Yeddo, in Japan, in nearly the same latitude.

For a list of works and papers relating to the Zoology of Madeira, see
"Preussische Expedition nach Ost-Asien." Zoologie, ltes Kap. Madeira,
pp. 1-25.

Cape Verde Islands, July 21th to August 9th, 1813. — The ship
was off the island of St. Vincent of the Cape Verde group
on July 27th, and the islands of Sta. Lucia and St. Antonio
were in sight ; a heavy mist hanging over the high mountains
of the latter. We anchored at Porto Grande, the harbour of
St. Vincent.

The island is about 12 miles long by six broad. It has an
irregularly oval form, and consists of a flat central tract more or

42 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

less broken by low bills surrounded by a range of nigh land.
The low central district is evidently the bottom of an ancient
crater, of the wall of which the high surrounding range is the
remains. The range is composed of strata dipping outwards
from the ancient centre of eruption. It is cut up by a series of deep
valleys having a general radiate arrangement, into ridges of
various heights, which are again cut up by secondary transverse
valleys so as to culminate in a series of irregular peaks.

Some of the ridges are of considerable altitude. The Green
Mountain is 2,483 feet in height, and one other mountain to
the extreme south of the island, 2,218 feet. A break in the
encircling range to the north-west forms the harbour or Porto
Grande, in the entrance to which lies a small island, called Bird
Eock, a fragment of the range, once continuous in this direction.

More barren and desolate-looking spots than St. Antonio and
St. Vincent appear as approached from seawards, after they have
been suffering from their usual prolonged droughts, it is im-
possible to conceive of. Their general aspect reminded me of
that of Aden or of some of the volcanic islands in the Eed Sea.
At the time of our visit, no rain had fallen for a year at
St. Vincent. Sometimes it does not rain for three years.

The mountains are of black volcanic rock terminating seawards
in precipices, in which the numerous dikes, which traverse them
in all directions, stand out conspicuously, often projecting far
through weathering of the matrix. Between the hill ranges,
stretches a flat sandy plain covered with sand dunes and with
ranges of low rounded hills of a bright red ochre tint. The
white sandy plain terminates at the head of the harbour in a
sandy shore, where is a miserable town, composed mostly of
mere hovels, and a black coaling jetty.

The whole was glaring in a fierce sun, and appeared almost
devoid of vegetation, but from the anchorage some black tufts
could be made out with a telescope, which consisted of small
bushes of lavender (Lavandula rotundifolia) , the most abundant
plant in the island, and on the summits of the higher hills a few
Euphorbia bushes (U. tuckcyana) could be made out in the same
way. On the sandy plain at one spot is a thick growth of low
tamarisk bushes which stretches from the shore inland, amongst.

ST. VINCENT, CAPE VERDE ISLANDS. 43

which at about half a mile from shore is a group of half a dozen
small trees. These are a Tamarind (Tamarindus indica), some
thorny acacias (A. cdbida), and Terminalis catappa. They stand
in an old enclosure in front of the ruins of a house, and are
green and nourishing, and show that much might be done by
cultivation, even for St. Vincent.

From a statement in Horsburg's Directory, in the description
of St. Vincent, that " as much wood may be cut here in a short
time as can be stowed away," I was led to suppose that possibly
in old times there was much more vegetation in the island and
hence more rain, and that the trees had been destroyed as at San
Jago, according to Darwin,* but I find that in accounts of the
island published in 1676, t the vegetation is described as having
almost exactly the same appearance and range as at the present
day. The firewood is mentioned, but described as a bush,
evidently the tamarisk, and said to be scanty and very bad.
The island is described as being as barren as it is now.

The plains I found covered all over with the spiny fruit of a
small creeping plant (Trihidus cistoides). Almost the only plants
retaining any living and green leaves were the lavenders, on the
bushes of which wTere to be found here and there a green sprout
put forth apparently in anticipation of the wet season. Many
of the plants were so chip dry, that I had to gather specimens
in boxes, as they would not stand pressing.

The plains were covered with grass seeds. The island is said
to become green as if by magic after rain, and at St. Jago, where
the rain had been earlier, the plains at about 500 feet elevation
were covered at the time of our visit with a bright green coat of
seedlings ; but a day's moderate rain which occurred on July
30th at St. Vincent had not produced any visible effect by
August 5th, the day on which we sailed. The bottoms of the
valleys and hill-slopes to the southward, are covered with a dry
hay-like grass ; but the goats and cattle kept in this part of the
island were dying in numbers from starvation.

On June 30th, I made an excursion with a small party, up

* "Journal of Eesearches." London, J. Murray, 1845, p. 2.
t Dapper's "Africa." Amsterdam, 1676. "Eilanden van Africa,"
p. &

}3.

44 A NATURALIST OX THE "CHALLENGER."

Green Mountain. It was raining, and the coal contractor on
shore, who arranged matters for our trip, warned us that we
should all catch a terrible fever if we went and got wet. We
went however, and did not suffer, and I cannot help thinking
that it is to some extent the extremely rare occurrence of
rain which inspires dread of it in St. Vincent. Our party of
three started on two ponies and a donkey, over the latter of which
Murray soon broke a pet walking-stick of mine of Bermuda
juniper, in trying to urge him into the right path. A strapping
negress, one of the coaling gang, started on foot for the mountain
with the lunch on her head.

The road led over the bottom of the old crater, and then up
the steeper end of the mountain by a zigzag path in places built
up in steps and in others hewn out of the rock. The soft friable
soil of the plain was in many places already converted into
tenacious mud by the rain.

As the hill-slopes are ascended from the plains, the plants
become greener and more abundant. In a narrow gorge at the
commencement of the ascent of the mountain, some small
gardens were passed, at an elevation of about 200 feet above
sea level. They contained sugar-cane, pumpkins, and a small
date palm ; and maize was just being planted in them. There
were a few cotton bushes growing near. At 700 feet, Euphorbias
and woody Composites commenced, and the hill-side was covered
with coarse dry grass. At 1,000 feet, small Boraginaceous bushes
with pink flowers (Echium stenosiphon) commenced. At 1,300
feet I found the first patch of moss and Marchantia, with a fern
and a live snail. At 1,700 feet a Statice (S. Jovis barba) was
abundant on the cliff.

The lavender grows right up to the top of the mountain, but
is there entirely fresh and green instead of black and withered
as below. A leafless trailing Asclepiad (Sarcostemma daltoni)
commenced at 900 feet. All the plants on Green Mountain
appear to extend their range of growth to the summit. On the
summit, the land is all more or less under cultivation, and maize,
potatoes, tomatos, and pumpkins grow there. There are several
cottages on the summit, and near one is a double circle of large
Agaves.

ST. VINCENT, CAPE VERDE ISLANDS. 45

In the Green Mountain, the appearance of the several plants
at successive heights is due mainly to the gradual increase in
amount of moisture received by the soil as a higher and higher
zone is reached. Closely similar conditions determine the distri-
bution of plants on many other mountains, such as on Green
Mountain in the Island of Ascension.

The distribution of plants in successive zones on mountains
which is most familiar, is that brought about by a successive
decrease in temperature with increase of altitude, the Alpine flora
being that which withstands a prolonged covering of snow. In
Kerguelen's Land thus, a rapid decrease of vegetation is en-
countered as the mountains are ascended, and at 1,000 feet
most of it ceases.

On some active volcanoes, however, as at the Banda Group near
the Moluccas, a gradual decrease in the vegetation in correspon-
dence with increased altitude is brought about by exactly opposite
conditions, namely, gradual increase of heat. Here, close to the
crater at the summit, the soil is excessively hot, yet one or two
plants grow in it where it is almost too hot for the botanist's
hand, and these straggle upwards, beyond distanced more sensi-
tive competitors, till a region is reached which is barren of all but
lowly organized algse, which grow around the mouths of natural
steam jets, as about the hot springs in the Azores and elsewhere.

In very high latitudes only, apparently, is the vegetation
not influenced by altitude. On the mountains in East Green-
land, the same plants extend from sea level up to as high
as 7,000 feet altitude. This circumstance is accounted for by
the fact that here the sun never rising far above the horizon, its
rays strike the mountain-slopes nearly or quite vertically, and
hence by their greater power compensate for the larger amount
of heat lost by radiation at great elevations. The flat land
receives the rays on the other hand very obliquely, and hence
with much less force.*

The combination of effects due to difference of aspect with
regard to the trade wind and sun produces a marked difference

* "Die Zweite Deutsche Nordpolarfahrt in den Jahren 1869 und
1870," 2ter Bd. Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse. Leipzig, F. A. Brockkaus.
" Klima und Pflanzenleben auf Ostgronland," von Adolph Pansch in Kiel.

A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.

in the altitudes at which plants can grow at various aspects in
St. Vincent. Thus Aizoon canariense, a Malvaceous plant which
on Bird Eock grows close to the sea level on its windward side,
does not commence on the leeward side of the hills of the main
island till 700 or 800 feet. On the mountains on the southern
side of the island, the vegetation does not come so far down
the windward slopes, since the wind is heated and dried before
reaching them, by passing over the hot central plain.

Vertical dikes of basalt are very numerous all over the island,
penetrating the main component rocks, by the disintegration of
which they are often weathered out so as to project as walls.
They usually show a columnar structure, the columns being as
usual at right angles to the cooling surfaces. I saw several in
which the cleavage in the centres of the masses was laminar
and parallel to the lateral surfaces, whilst on either side the dikes
were composed of very regular small columns disposed at right
angles to these surfaces. In the Auvergne district, I have observed
dikes in which laminar cleavage parallel to the surfaces occurred
at the sides of the dikes and the columnar cleavage in the centre
just the opposite condition.

^Oif[l&>

sit]

DIAGRAMS OF THE CLEAVAGE STRUCTURE OF BASALTIC DYKES.

1 In S. Vincente; 2 in the Auvergne, near M. Dore; a central portion with laminar cleavage ;
b lateral regions with horizontal columnar cleavage ; c lateral regions with laminar cleavage ;
d central mass with horizontal columnar cleavage.

On Bird Island, the rocks about tide mark, are covered
with a broad band of a dense incrustation composed of Coralli-
nacese, which forms a striking feature in the appearance of the
island as seen from the sea, and is more marked here than on the
main island. The Corallinaceae are seaweeds which secrete a
dense skeleton of carbonate of lime. The incrustation on Bird

ST. VINCENT, CAPE VERDE ISLANDS. 47

Island is of several colours, white, bright pink or cream colour,
and is mainly composed of two species, of Lithothammion,
L. polymw-phv/rn and L. mamillare. The incrustation assumes
very varied forms, being simply incrusting, and following the
form of the rock surface on which it rests, or forming smooth
rounded convex masses, or being covered with a close set series
of projections, sometimes of considerable length, and with a
sinuous arrangement.

I broke off specimens from the mass with my geological
hammer. It is bored in all directions by Mollusks, such as
Lithoclomus caucligerus — a Senegambian species with two curious
little tails at the hinder extremities of the valves so cut out as to
lap over one another when the shells are closed. On the whole,
plant-life seems to play a far more important role than do corals
in accumulating carbonate of lime around the Cape Yerdes.
The principal role in this respect is however played by the larger
Forarainifera, of the shells of which the calcareous sand of
St. Vincent is mainly composed.

I made excursions every day along the shore or over the hot
sandy plains or over the sharp and rugged lava, in search of
plants and animals. So desolate is the place that a naval
schoolmaster, who had come to St. Vincent to join the
" Challenger," got lost on one of the mountains just before
the arrival of the ship, and died of exposure. His body was
found only after the lapse of several months.

On a visit to Bird Eock, I found that the sea birds' dung
forms there, as at St. Paul's Eocks, pendent stalactite-like masses.
The rock is composed of volcanic conglomerate and tuff, traversed
in all directions by dikes of hard almost obsidian-like lava. Small
rock pools at a short distance above the waves were filled with
solid salt evaporated out from the spray. On the main island,
on the windward side, the shore rocks are covered high up with
an incrustation of salt dried out from the spray blown up by the
trade wind. Men-of-war use Bird Eock occasionally as a target,
and there were plenty of broken shot and shell upon it.

At low tide, along the shore of the main island, numerous
rock pools were exposed at low tide. These are inhabited by
vast numbers of sea urchins (Echinometra) which rest within

48 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

rounded cavities in the rock excavated by the urchins for them-
selves, both in the calcareous sand rock and volcanic conglome-
rate. With these was a coral (Porites) which forms small rounded
masses, bright yellow or whitish pink in colour, and a grey Paly-
thoa, a compound sea anemone, that is a colony composed of
sea anemones closely joined together, and here forming sheet-
like masses often a foot in diameter, encrusting the rock. An
Aplysia, or sea slug, with a pair of large skin folds continued up
from the sides of the body, and lapping together over the back
of the animal, was common, and is probably the one referred to
by Darwin, as seen at St. Jago.*

A Rock-crab (Grapsus strigosus cf.), was very abundant, run-
ning about all over the rocks, and making off into clefts on one's
approach. I was astonished at the keen and long sight of this crab.
I noticed some make off' at full pace to their hiding places at the
instant that my head showed above a rock fifty yards distant.
The crab often makes for the under side of a ledge of rock when
escaping from danger, and may then be caught resting in fancied
security by the hand brought suddenly over it from above. The
dry rocks were covered with the dung of the crab, which is in
the form of small brittle white sticks about an inch in length,
very puzzling objects at first sight. The cast shells of the crab,
which are bright red and very conspicuous, were lying all over

the rocks.

At Still Bay, on the sandy beach on which, although it is on
the leeward side of the island and the sea surface was smooth,
a heavy rolling surf was breaking, I encountered a Sand-crab
(Ocypoda ippeus), which was walking about, and got between it and
its hole in the dry sand above the beach. The crab was a large
one, at least three inches in breadth of its carapace. In this
species of crab, the eyestalks are very long. The eyes are on the
side of the stalks which are longer than eyes, and projecting
above them are terminated by a tuft of hairs. When the
animal is on the alert, these long eyestalks are erected and
stand up vertically side by side far above the level of the
animal's back.

With its curious long column-like eyes erect the crab bolted

* Darwin, " Journal of Researches," p. G.

ST. VINCENT, CAPE VERDE ISLANDS.

down towards the surf as the only escape, and as it saw a wave
rushing up the shelving shore dug itself tight into the sand and

OCYPODA IPPEUS.

(About half natural size.)

held on to prevent the undertow from carrying it down into the
sea. As soon as the wave had retreated, it made off full speed
along the shore. I gave chase, and whenever a wave approached,
the crab repeated the manoeuvre. I once touched it with my
hand whilst it was buried and blinded by the sandy water, but
the surf compelled me to retreat, and I could not snatch hold of
it for fear of its powerful claws. At last I chased it, hard
pressed, into the surf in a hurry, and being unable to get proper
hold in time it was washed down into the sea.

The crab evidently dreaded going into the sea. These sand-
crabs breathe air through an aperture placed between the bases
of the third and fourth pairs of walking legs, and leading to the
gill chamber. They soon die wdien kept for a short time
beneath the water, as shown by Fritz Muller's experiments*

A lizard or gecko is very common both at St. Vincent and
San Jago. It appears to be the Tarentola Delalandii of Madeira,
or closely allied to this.

* " Facts and Arguments for Darwin," p. 33. London, John Murray,
1869.

50 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

A beetle, a species of Cicindela, is very common on the dry
sand along the seashore, and is very difficult to catch. The
beetles sit five or six together on the sand, and fly off before the
wind directly they are approached. They are so quick that I
could not catch them with my net. I found, however, that if a
handful of sand were thrown at them, they seemed paralyzed for
a few moments, and could be picked up with the hand.

Most of the insects on the island are to be found amongst
the clumps of tamarisk. An Ant-lion (Myrmelion) is very
common, making pitfalls for the ants under the lee of all the
tamarisk bushes. Spiders are abundant. A large and handsome
yellow spider (Nephila). makes large webs of yellow silk every-
where amongst the bushes. The silk is remarkably strong, and
the supporting threads of the web often bend the tips of the
tamarisk twigs, to which they are fastened, right down. Either
the spider drags on the thread and bends the twig, or the twig
becomes bent in growing, after being made fast to. The result
is that the thread is kept tense, although yielding to the wind.

I ascended one clay one of the steep slopes on the north-east
side of the town, on the leeward side of the encirclino- rano-e of
the island. It was terribly hot and parchingly dry, but the
instant the summit was reached, the refreshing trade wind was
felt in full force, and its influence was everywhere seen in the
increased vegetation, and wherever it lapped over the crest, or
crept through a gully, green tufts marked its range.

I climbed a peak about 850 feet in altitude, from which there
was a comprehensive view of the island, showing well the
general outward dip of the strata composing the encircling
range. In the distance was the irregular mountainous outline
of the island of St. Antonio, which was blue and hazy-looking,
with a line of white clouds hanging against it at a height of
about 2,000 feet. How I longed to be at the summit of the
principal mountain, 7,000 feet high, to see the European wild
thyme growing there far above the Atlantic and African plants !
A sheer precipice led down from my feet to the surf and the sea
driven into white crested waves by the trade wind, which was
blowing with more than ordinary violence, so that it was difficult
to stand on the edge of the cliff.

ST. VINCENT, CAPE VERDE ISLANDS. 51

I found a chasm in the cliff where it was possible to descend.
At about 200 feet from the bottom of the cliff, where the
stratified volcanic rock was intersected in all directions by dikes,
was a very small spring, from which issued perhaps a quarter of
a pint of water in an hour. It was the only natural spring I
saw in the islands, although a few others exist. There was
green slimy matter round the spring composed of diatoms and
other low algse, and a small mass of vegetable mould, in which
grew two plants which I had not met with elsewhere in the
island, a yellow flowered crucifer (Sinapidendron Vogelli) and
Samolus Valerandi.

This miniature oasis was only about four feet in circumference,
and absorbed the whole of the w^ater yielded by the scanty
spring. A number of wood-lice sheltered in it. I suppose the
seeds of these two plants must have been carried to the spring
by birds coming to drink.

On returning to the town down the leeward slopes, I passed
the principal wells of the town ; they are dug in a now dry
stream bed, and are about 15 feet in diameter, and 25 to 30 feet
in depth. There was plenty of water in them, but it was
slightly brackish, and probably partly derived from the sea.

The trammel net was set nightly in the harbour by Mr. Cox,
the boatswain, and yielded some fine fish ; amongst these were
some large flying gurnets which evidently, from their being-
caught in the trammel, frequent the bottom a good deal like our
wingless gurnets. One was caught with a line at the bottom.
I hooked one, however, near the surface, when fishing with a rod
and trout tackle for small mackerel and silver fish. This was
quite a novel experience in fishing. The flying fish darted about
like a trout and then took a good long fly in the air, and in an
instant was down in the water again and out again into the air,
and being beyond my skill in playing with such light tackle,
soon shook itself loose and got free.

A species of Balistes, called the trigger-fish, because it has a
stout trigger-like spine on the back and the belly, which can be
erected as a defence, was caught in the net. The living fish when
held in the hand makes a curious metallic clicking noise by
grating its teeth ; similarly Diodon antcnnatus makes a curious

E 2

52 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

noise by the movement of its jaws, as noticed by Darwin * I
have heard the sound in the case of a Diodon hystrix canght at
St. Thomas ; it is a sort of grunting sound. A large hammer-headed
shark (Zygoma malleus), about 12 feet long, was also netted and
put an end to the net fishing for some time by tearing the net

to pieces.

We left St. Vincent on August 15th. I went on that day
with Captain Nares on a boat excursion to collect corals in a
small bay with a westerly aspect, not far from Porto Grande. On
our way we passed under a rocky mountain, 1,594 feet in height,
which has an outline remarkably like that of a man ; the nose,
mouth, and chin, are well marked, and the entire range in con-
nection looks like a giant lying on his back.

The small bay we visited was bounded by steep cliffs. On
the rocks beneath was the usual zone of calcareous seaweeds.
A coral (Cce?iopsammia Ehr enter giana), composed of bundles of
delicate tubes fused together side by side, covered the rocks
profusely just below tide level, forming bright vermilion and
bright yellow masses, which showed out conspicuously as the
swell fell now and then and exposed the rock surface lower
down than usual. The coral appears to vary in colour in an
irregular manner, some clusters of the coral being red, with the
exception of one or two tubes at one corner of the mass, which
were yellow, and I saw a young yellow bud given off from a red
parent tube. Some masses were entirely yellow, and in some
places only yellow corals were to be seen, but on the whole the
red predominated.

At the north point at the mouth of the bay was a regular
fishing station, where two young Africans were fishing, and
where the whole rock was reeking of dead and decaying fish, and
a small cave was full of debris, having evidently been made use
of by fishermen for many years.

The two young negroes at first occupied themselves in
catching small fish with a short bamboo rod, baiting with
pounded fish, and catching various little rock fish and a Scarus.
They then began pounding and breaking up the small fish and

* Darwin, " Journal of Researches," p. 14.

ST. VINCENT, CAPE VERDE ISLANDS. 53

throwing largish pieces of the mass into the verge of the surf off
the point to attract large fish.

They watched until they saw a large fish taking these baits
on the top of the water, and then they threw a bait on a hook
attached to a long cod line. They thus caught a large Cavalli
(Caranx), of the mackerel tribe, which they had to play for some
time and finish with a spear. Large Garfish (Belone) sometimes
came within reach, and were easily caught, being very ravenous.

One fish, a kind of Bonito or tunny {Thynnus Argentivittatus),
of about 25 lbs. in weight, was attracted by the baits, and
coming close in swam backwards and forwards in front of the
stand on the rock, taking every bait thrown on to the top of the
water. The negroes kept feeding the fish for some time to give
it confidence. A very strong piece of cord with a hook like a
salmon gaff made fast to it, was then baited with a small bit of
fish, just enough to cover the point of the hook, and a stout
bamboo was used as a rod. The cord was hitched tight round
one end of it, with about a foot of it left dangling with the hook.
One negro held the rod and the other the cord.

The bait was held just touching the surface of the water.
The fish swam up directly and took it, the negro holding the
bamboo struck sharply and drove the big hook right through the
fish's upper jaw, and both men caught hold of the line and
pulled the fish straight out on to the rock. The negroes evidently
felt quite certain of their fish directly they saw it swimming
backwards and forwards in front of the rock. I was astonished
that so large a fish could be caught in so absurd a manner. The
negro holding the pole was not six feet from the fish when it
took the bait.

The inhabitants of St. Vincent are mostly negroes from the
adjacent coast. In the town at Porto Grande there was an
albino negress, who was exhibited to visitors.

Of birds the most conspicuous at St. Vincent are the
scavenger vultures (Kathartes pernicopterus) , the same which are
to be seen in great numbers about the native town at Aden, and
about all the towns of Egypt and northern Africa, and which
even follow caravans across the desert as gulls follow ships.
The birds were always to be seen about the waste land close to

54 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

the town where garbage was thrown, and were often to be seen
hunting over the refuse heaps in company with ravens and
crows. Some small finches were common in flocks on the hills
and some small hawks.

At the periods of migration, quails are extremely abundant
on the island, as at St. Jago, and often afford good sport to naval
officers ; they are, however, mere birds of passage here, and there
were none at the time of our visit. Of sea birds I saw a cor-
morant and a bird which looked in the distance like a Merganser.
Gulls and terns were absent entirely.

I was told that the goats which are wild on the island, have
all attained a red colour resembling that of the rocks, and that
they were hence very difficult to find and shoot ; I, however,
saw none myself.

August 6th. — The island of Fogo was in sight ; it appeared to
our view as two truncated cones, showing out against the sky
above a bank of clouds. One of the cones, which is 9,000 feet
in height, is much higher than the other, and has a tiny secondary
cone at one edge of its main terminal crater, just like Pico in
the Azores. The volcano is active, but had no smoke issuing
from it as we passed. The peaks showed out against the sky
far above the horizon.

I was constantly astonished at the great height above the
horizon to which high mountainous islands seem to rise when
viewed from a long distance at sea. This appearance was
especially marked in the case of the Peak of Teneriffe. One is
apt to scan the region of the horizon, when the Peak is just in
sight far too low down, being accustomed to search for much less
elevated objects which become visible directly they rise above
the horizon. The line of sight traversing in that direction,
clearer air allows the summit of the high distant mountain to
be visible long before the base.

When we were approaching the Azores, we sighted the island
of Corvo at a distance of sixty miles. The island appeared re-
markably near, being thrown up high above the horizon probably
by atmospheric refraction. The distance of the island was
guessed from its appearance at from seven to twenty-five miles.
The island disappeared from view before mid-day by a change in

ST. JAGO, CAPE VERDE ISLANDS. 55

the condition of the atmosphere, which nevertheless appeared
clear.

St. Jago island, August 1th, 8th, and 9th, 1813. — The ship

anchored at Porto Praya, the port town of San Jago, Cape Yerde
Islands, on August 7th. The harbour is exposed to the south-
west, and, during the rainy season, from August to October, when
south-west gales are frequent, is unsafe. The harbour is
bounded by black basaltic cliffs, in which, in several places, a
fossiliferous limestone bed, which is described by Darwin,
shows out as a conspicuous white streak.

The town is placed on an isolated mass of a flat, elevated
plain, which terminates abruptly seawards in the cliffs above
described. A deep valley, with a flourishing grove of cocoanut
trees at its bottom, separates this mass from the main table-
land on the east side. On the west side, at the base of the mass,
lies a sandy plain which extends far back into the country and
terminates seawards in a sandy bay, admirably adapted for the
use of the sein net. On this plain, behind the town, is a large
plantation of date-palms, with artificially irrigated gardens
beneath their shade. The dates "were hanging thick upon the
trees, but were as yet yellow and unripe ; in ripening they turn
first red and then deep purple or black.

There is a large Baobob tree near the town, which has been
mentioned by travellers: its stem is irregular in transverse
section and short ; it measured 42 feet in circumference at the
time of our visit. The tree was then in full flower, with no
fruit as yet of any size.

The country rises inland in a succession of terrace-like steps
often remarkably flat at the tops, and formed by successive
flows of lava. The flat table-land nearest the sea was parched
and had very little green upon it. Behind rises a succession of
small conical hills and higher table-lands, which were brilliantly
green.

As the ship came to anchor, a flock of kites (Milvus korschum)
came wheeling round the stern, just as do gulls ordinarily, and
keep swooping down after garbage from the ship. Instead of
seizing the morsels with their beaks, like gulls, they did so with
their claws, putting out one foot for the purpose as they swooped

56 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

down, and seizing the food with it with wonderful precision.
As they rose they bent down their heads and ate the food at
once on the wing from their claws. Some large fish came round
the ship, and amongst them some sharks, one of which was seen
to seize one of the kites as it put its foot down to the water
and carry it down after a short struggle.

I landed with a party in search of quail shooting. We
landed at a small stone jetty under the cliff beneath the town,
and mounted by a zigzag path and steps to the top ; here just
above the landing-place are the barracks, one-storied, with iron-
grated unglazed windows, a conspicuous feature in the view of
the town from the anchorage. The town consists of about two
dozen two-storied houses, mostly surrounding a public square,
and a number of one-storied hovels and low wooden houses,
disposed in three or four parallel streets, along the ridge on
which the town stands. The inhabitants are nearly all negroes,
the remainder being Portuguese and half-castes. Attempts were
being made to improve the place, and there was a fountain in
the middle of the square with young trees planted round it and
good water is laid on to the town from a distance of several
miles.

As soon as we landed we were beset by a crowd of negro
boys, wanting to carry our cartridge bags and show us where
plenty of quails and galinis were to be found. We each selected
our boy and made for the high flat plain across the valley to the
west. The plain was covered with tufts of short dry grass, and
scanty patches of young seedling grasses just coming up. Scat-
tered about were patches of the darker green of the abundant
trailing Convolvulus (Tpomcea pes ccifprce), The elevated plains
are intersected in all directions by deep gorges cut out by water-
courses which were now quite dry ; the gorges have usually
steeply sloping sides which terminate above in a range of cliffs.

Quails were not at all plentiful, being only migratory visitors
to the island, and not having as yet arrived. The entire party
shot only about twenty. The Kingfisher mentioned by Darwin
{Halcyon Erytliroryncha), is common. The bird is peculiar to the
island, though very closely allied to an African species. It is a
beautiful bird of a brilliant blue and white with a red beak.

ST. JAGO, CAPE VERDE ISLANDS. 57

Like many other kingfishers it is not aquatic in its habits, but
feeds mainly on locusts and other small terrestrial animals. It
has a terribly harsh laughing cry, a feeble imitation of that
of its congener of Australia, the laughing jackass.

We met with several flocks of wild galinis, which are abun-
dant on the island, but are very difficult to approach. The
birds inhabit the slopes of the gorges which are covered with a
thick growth of oil trees (Jatv&plvcL mrcas) which have very
much the habit and general appearance of castor-oil plants.
The flocks of galinis station sentries to keep a look-out from
some rocky eminence, and these, when once they have dis-
covered an enemy, never lose sight of him, but carefully watch
the stalking operations of a sportsman and give warning as soon
as he gets too near to their comrades and is just expecting
to get a shot.

We returned to the town in the afternoon in order to join a
seining party. All English men-of-war on foreign service are
provided with a sein net, and a seining party is regarded as
a sort of lark or picnic by the Blue-jackets. There are always
plenty of volunteers eager to go, and a good many officers
are ready to join.

With us, Mr. Cox, the boatswain, was the great man on such
occasions, and he enjoyed the sport as much as anyone in
the ship. The party of volunteers, of perhaps thirty men besides
the officers, goes ashore in the afternoon at about four o'clock in
one of the cutters with the net in the dingey, the smallest ship's
boat. Then the net is payed out, and everyone is dressed
and prepared for going into the water up to his neck and
hauling on the lines. At last in comes the bag of the net,
or " cod " as Mr. Cox calls it. It is run up the beach with
a final spurt, and then comes the fun of handing out the fish
and looking at the many unfamiliar forms, for which the Blue-
jackets have all sorts of extraordinary names.

At one haul on the present occasion there was a large shark
(Carcharias sp.), 14 feet long in the net. Mr. Cox in the dingey
following the net as usual as it was drawn in, in order to free it
if it should hitch on the bottom, sighted the shark swimming
round within the rapidly decreasing circle, and making bolts at

58 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

the net to try and break through. And the beast would have
burst through had not Mr. Cox hammered it on the head with
a boat-hook whenever it turned at the net, whilst the men
belaboured it with anything they could get hold of as it got
drawn into shallow water.

There was great excitement, and it seemed very uncertain
whether the shark would not break the net and let out not only
itself but all the other fish. At last we ran the brute up high
and dry, and then it suffered instant punishment.

The sailor has absolutely no pity upon a shark. I have
heard one of our men say to a shark which he had just hauled
on to the forecastle with a line, " Ah, thou beggar, thou'd hurt I
if I was in the water and now I'll hurt thee," whereupon
he caught it a vicious kick and proceeded to gouge it. When a
big shark like the present one is landed it is regarded as a
general enemy, against whom everyone has an old score to
pay off. Mr. Cox shoves the boat-hook about five feet into its
mouth and down its throat. The others job the beast in the
eyes with sticks and knives and make a deep slash across
the tail to prevent its lashing out, and proceed to open the belly,
where the usual miscellaneous collection is found ; lots of ships'
beef bones, a two pound lead sinker of a fishing line, with chop-
stick and hooks complete, &c, &c.

We caught plenty of fish. Gray and red mullet, a Gar fish
or Greenbone, with long slender beak-like jaws (Belone), and
another fish closely like the Greenbone, but with a long beak-
like lower jaw only, the upper jaw appearing as if cut off close
to the snout (Hemiramplms). With these were other curious fish
with deformed-looking heads (Argyrciosus setipinnis, Gcdeoides
polydactylus).

A fire had been lighted on the shore and we had a ship's
boat's cooking stove with us. We fried some of the fish, and
with bread and preserved meats and plenty of beer made a
good supper, and set to work again hauling the net till it had
long been dark. Then we had hot tea and grog, and packed our
net and fish into the boats and pulled on board.

We did not reach the ship until past 11 P.M., and at 3 A.M.
I was, by arrangement, to start on a trip to try and ascend the

ST. JAGO, CAPE VERDE ISLANDS. 59

high mountain of the island called San Antonio, 7,400 feet
in height, in search of the European plants which grow there.

I had a very short sleep and landed at 3 a.m. I found two
horses ready at the landing-place but my guide was not there,
and it was a long time before I could make the men with
the horses, who spoke only Portuguese, understand what I
wanted. At last a negro, who was sleeping on the pier, agreed to
find the guide, John Antonio, for a shilling, and I sat down on
the pier wall to listen to the surf and watch the crabs (Grcqmus
strigosus) running about, for nearly an hour.

The parapet of the jetty had a capping upon it projecting
some distance and with a rounded edge. I saw a crab running
on the jetty, and I thought I could catch it, but to my astonish-
ment it ran with readiness over the edge of the parapet, round
the projection and down the flat face of the wall, with all the
ease of a fly under similar circumstances.

At last my guide, John Antonio, a negro who spoke English,
arrived. He was to have been at the rendezvous at 3 A.M., but
said he was too sleepy. We mounted and rode off inland ;
after about an hour's ride day began to break. As we ascended
successive terraces the hills became greener and greener, being
covered with a continuous carpet of seedling grass, and other
herbs, as yet only two or three inches in height. John said that
it would be a foot or eighteen inches high later on, and that then
the quails would abound and the galinis breed, so that the
breeding season of these birds appears here to occur in autumn,
determined by the rainy season. Numbers of the galinis are
taken when quite young, and their eggs are also sought after.

The quantity of birds of prey in San Jago is remarkable.
We passed numerous large falcons at rest on dead trees and
several hawks, and an owl flew across the road just at daybreak.
I saw also two eagles in San Domingo Valley. Eavens and
crows are abundant.

The valley of San Domingo, into which our road at length
led, is deep, with precipitous cliffs and steep mountains on either
side, rising from 1,000 to 2,500 feet above sea level. The valley
is broken here and there by lateral offsets and backed towards its
head by irregular mountain masses. The view up the valley is

60 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

very beautiful. Beneath the cliffs, which are encrusted with
lichens and stained of various colours, often of a deep black, are
steep talus slopes covered with oil trees, with a few other shrubs
sparingly intermingled. At the bottom of the valley is a strip
of comparatively level land, on which are cultivated all sorts of
tropical fruits, pineapples, bananas, oranges, lemons, guavas and
cocoanuts : with cassava, sweet potatoes and sugar-cane as field
crops.

All along the valley a little way up the slopes are small
huts, where boys are stationed, whose duty it is to keep off
the monkeys, which abound amongst the rocks, and the wild
blue rock pigeons (Cohimba Uvea) which are very numerous, and
were seen flying about in flocks and alighting in the road as we
went along.

John Antonio said that the monkeys used their tails to pull
up the sugar cane and cassava with, an unlikely story, since the
monkeys must be some imported African species run wild.
I was astonished to hear that there were monkeys at all in the
island, and have not seen the fact mentioned in any account of
the place. John said that the monkeys never came out in wet
weather. I did not see any of them. The boys kept up a
constant shouting, which resounded through the valley.

At the bottom of the valley is a small stream running rapidly
over the stones, like a trout stream, and everywhere very shal-
low. In this stream grow watercresses and several familiar
English water plants, and I found two ferns on the banks. Two
kinds of freshwater shrimps live in the stream under the stones,
and are very abundant, notwithstanding the shallowness of the
water. One is a Palsemon, a large prawn, as big as the largest
specimens of our common river crayfish, and with long and
slender biting claws.

The other kind is a very different animal, somewhat smaller,
and of the genus Atya, which is distinguished by having no
nippers on the larger pairs of walking legs, but only simple
spine-like ends to them. The two front pairs of walking legs
have, however, most extraordinarily shaped claws at their extre-
mities; quite unlike any occurring in other Crustacea, except
the Atyidre, as will be seen from the figure. These claws or

ST. JAGO, CAPE VERDE ISLANDS.

nippers have slender arms of equal length and dimensions,
which are linked together so as to open and shut like a pair of
forceps, closing flat against one another.

atya sulcatipes. (Xatural size.)

a One of the front pairs of walking legs. Beneath ; the same pair enlarged ; a the nippers

widely open ; b the crescent-shaped joint to which they are hinged.

At their extremities these forceps arms are provided with
thickly-set brushes of long hairs, as long as the arms themselves.
These hairs expand in the water when the forceps are opened,
and evidently form a widely-sweeping grasping surface, by
which small particles of food or minute animals can be caught.
No doubt these forceps catch the food of the Atya, and the
larger legs with simple pointed ends enable it to hold on to the
stones in the rapid stream.

The pair of forceps is not attached directly at its hinge
joint to the end of the limb, but at a point on the side of one of
the arms. Here it is hinged on to a crescent-shaped joint, into
the crescent of which the rounded end of the forceps is received
when the apparatus is retracted and at rest. The complicated
manner of jointing gives a very wide sweep and great mobility
to these very curious prehensile organs.

The genus Atya must, from its very wide distribution, be a
very ancient one. Species of the genus occur in the West
Indies, in the Philippines, in Samoa, and in Mexico, besides in
the Cape Yerde Islands. The Cape Yerde species * is possibly

* Atya sulcatipes (Newport) ? A. scabra (Leach). " Ann. and Mag.
Nat. Hist.," 1847, p. 158, where is a list of species. Upolu is in it placed by

62 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

identical with one occurring in Mexico. In Mexico and the
West Indies the animal occurs in the sea : elsewhere in fresh
water.

I am greatly indebted to Sr. Jose M. Quirino Chaves, U. S.
Vice-Consul of Porta Praya, who most kindly sent me specimens
of the above described Crustacea, on my writing to him, when
preparing this journal for the press. The only specimen which
I secured on my visit was lost by accident on board the " Chal-
lenger." The Palsemon is called in the island " Christao," The
Atya, " Mouro."

John Antonio said there were no fish in the San Domingo
stream, " cos river fresh water." He evidently thought that fish
were to be found only in the sea.

We passed the village of San Domingo, which consists of
scattered thatched stone houses, and the road became worse and
worse, being sometimes knee-deep in mud. The ponies, small
fine-built bays, began to show signs of giving in, and soon
spurring would not make mine move further. I had to dismount
and flounder back to a cottage, where we had a rest, and fed the
ponies with grass. The excursion up the mountain is evidently
too long for one day, although John Antonio had declared before-
hand that it was an easy matter. I had been riding five hours,
and we were still a long way from the place where the actual
ascent commences. The ponies went very badly, at little more
than a foot-pace. It was raining more or less during the whole
time that we were in the valley.

The Portuguese, at whose house we stopped, said that it was
impossible to ascend the mountain in the rainy season, because
of the falls of stones, or stone avalanches, which were common
and dangerous. All this I failed to find out before leaving the
town, the natives of the island there knowing nothing of the
mountain. At the house I got some coffee, which was grown in
the valley just below.

I ascended the steep side of the valley, to a ridge about
1,500 feet above sea level, but did not find anything in the plant

mistake in New Zealand instead of Samoa. M. Edwards places Atya
with Alpheus. Dana, (U.S. Exp. Ex. Crustacea), places Atya, Atyoides
and Caridina, in a special family Atyidse, next the Astacidae.

ST. JAGO, CAPE VERDE ISLANDS. 63

way to reward me, the plants being the same as lower down the
slope. The oil tree (Jatropha curcas) grew np to the top of the
slope. There were none of the mountain plants which occur at
St. Vincent at this height. There were a good many fungi.
They apparently spring up luxuriantly during the wet sea-
son. Plants generally grow at a lower level at San Jago than at
St. Vincent. Thus, Sarcostemma Daltoni in San Jago grows
abundantly almost at sea level on the cliffs near the harbour.
In St. Vincent I found none lower than 900 feet.. The plant
was in full bloom at San Jago. In St. Vincent I found only
a single blossom, though the plant wTas very abundant.

I exchanged a drink of ship's rum with my Portuguese host
for his cup of coffee. He had a very pretty young yellow wife,
who on my return to the house was pounding maize in a large
wooden mortar, assisted by a very black servant girl, each of
them wielding a heavy pestle, and striking alternately, like
blacksmiths on an anvil. A little water was sprinkled on the
maize to assist the process.

John Antonio was well known all along the road, and most
elaborate courtesies passed between him and every one we met,
or whose house we passed by, sometimes a Creole, sometimes
a Portuguese. He explained that the Creole greeting which
he used meant, " What you feel ? " In Portuguese he always
addressed everyone as Sir, and after mutual congratulation
on the subject of health, he entered into a lengthy explanation
of who I was, which wasted a great deal of our time. John
was a thin, spare man, with a very ragged coat and trousers,
which had evidently once been respectable on a previous
owner. He was perpetually hungry and thirsty.

As soon as the horses were rested we started back. I shifted
my single spur, for John and I wore a pair between us, to my
left foot, and managed to reach the town by 3 P.M., in time to
join a second seining party. The seining was suddenly brought
to a conclusion, for a south-west gale being expected, we were
hurried on board. A heavy swell had set in by the time we
reached the ship., so that there was some difficulty in getting up
the ship's side. We found all the boats hoisted, and steam up,
ready for sea at a moment's notice.

64 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

San Domingo Valley, with its succession of mountain ridges
and peaks becoming bluer and bluer in the distance, is one of
the finest mountain valleys I have ever seen, and the tropical
vegetation gives it an especial charm. The sight of such a place
is particularly delightful to a man who has for weeks been
trudging the arid hills and plains of St. Vincent, and who has
just ascended to it from the almost equally sterile plains about
the coast of San Jago.

The gale did not come as was expected, and another oppor-
tunity of landing being afforded, I went with Buchanan to look
at the peculiar limestone bed described by Darwin.* On our
way we passed through the grove of cocoanut trees ; at the foot
of these trees arehiumerous holes of a large land crab (Cardisoma) ;
the female of this land crab was found by Von Willemoes Suhm
to carry its eggs and newly hatched young under its abdomen ;
the young emerge from the eggs in the larval zoea condition,!
and are found- in that state attached to the abdominal legs of the
mother.

As we made our way along the cliff we disturbed a flock of
rock pigeons which breed abundantly in ' the cliff, and also a
wild cat, which was no doubt watching them. The cat was of
a reddish tabby colour; they are very abundant on the island,
and it is not easy to understand how so many animals of prey,
cats, hawks, crows, &c, manage to subsist here. In the quail
season no doubt they have abundance, but in the dry season they
must often be nearly starved.

The limestone band exposed in the cliff around the harbour
is topped by a thick mass of basaltic lava, which as it flowed
over the limestone baked and heated it, and altered its structure.
The limestone band crumbles and weathers away, and thus
leaves a hollow all along the cliff about half way up its height,
which forms a convenient path for men and goats. By the
cropping out of the limestone the under surface of the lava-

* C. Darwin, " Journal of Researches," pp. 5, 6.

t R. Von Willemoes Suhm, " On some Atlantic Crustacea from the
1 Challenger ' Expedition." " On the Development of a Land Crab." Trans.
Linn. Soc, 2 Ser. Zoology, Pt. I, 1875, p. 46. Proc. R. Soc, No. 170, 1876,
p. 582.

ST. JAGO, CAPE VERDE ISLANDS. 65

flow is exposed to view and in many places ripple marks can be
seen in it.

The limestone bed, where exposed to the air, is of a dazzling
white ; it is full of rounded nodules of a calcareous alga as
described by Darwin,* a species of Lithothammion.f I dredged
closely similar nodules to these in ten fathoms off the Philippine
Islands, in bushelsfull. These nodules were living masses of
Corallinacece, but loose rounded and unattached, yet covering
and composing the sea bottom. The basalt, undermined by the
cropping out of the limestone, falls in large masses and splitting
off with great regularity leaves the cliff with a remarkably
smooth vertical surface.

Eed or precious Coral occurs at San Jago, and also at St.
Vincent. There are four or five Spanish boats, and seven
belonging to Italians, engaged in the fishery for it at San Jago.
It occurs in about 100 to 120 fathoms, and is dragged for with
swabs as in the Mediterranean : the strands of the swabs are
made up into a net with about a four-inch mesh. A duty of a
dollar a kilogram is paid to the Government on the coral.

A pair of huge fish came round the ship whilst at anchor in
the harbour during the afternoon ; one, supposed to be the male,
was struck with a harpoon, but after some time managed to draw
it out by its struggles ; it twisted up the harpoon and was said
even to have moved the ship in its throes. I did not see the fish,
but from the description, coupled with the fact that there were a
pair of the fish, it seemed probable that the fish were the huge
ray Cephaloptera, the " Devil fish," which has curious horn-like
projections sticking out in front on either side of the mouth.
The fish were described as " as big as an ordinary dining-room
table." t

The voyage from San Jago to St. Paul's Eocks occupied nine-
teen days. When we were two days out some swallows paid us
a visit, flying behind the ship. We ran at first parallel with the
African coast, and then stretched over westwards to St. Paul's

* C. Darwin, "Volcanic Islands," p. 3. Smith and Elder, London, 1866.
t Prof. G. Dickie, " Journ. of Linn. Soc," Vol. XIV, p. 346.
X For an account of a visit to Porto Praya, see G. Bennett, " "Wander-
ings in New South Wales," Vol. I, p. 15. London, R Bentley, 1834.

66 A NATURALIST OX THE "CHALLENGER."

Bocks. We passed first through a region where we had a pretty
steady south-west wind, an African land breeze or monsoon.
Here we had occasional heavy showers, but not so much rain as
was to be expected, since we were passing a region where it
rains on an average for seven hours out of every twenty-four, all
the year round. We next steamed through the belt of equatorial
calms to reach the south-east trade winds, and left the Guinea
current, which was running at the rate of 21 miles in 24 hours.
We entered the trade wind on August 21st, and the air became
damp and cooler than before, and we were soon running before
the wind at the rate of seven or eisdit knots.

CHAPTER III.

ST. PAUL'S BOCKS AND FEBNANDO DO NOBHONA.

St. Paul's Rocks. Equatorial Current. Nests of Noddies. Predatory-
Habits of Grapsus strigosus. Fishing off the Rocks. Nests of
Boobies. Pugnacity of the Young Birds. Other Inhabitants of the
Rocks. Fishing for Cavalli with Salmon tackle. Geological Structure
of the Rocks. Seaweeds growing on the Rocks. Fernando do Nor-
hona. Calcareous Sandrock containing Volcanic Intermixture. Tree
Shedding Leaves in dry season. Japtropha urens. Birds. Brazilian
Convicts. St. Michael's Mount. Frigate Birds Nesting. Pio-eons
Nesting with Sea Birds. Lizards of the Islands.

St. Paul's Rocks, August 28th and 29th, 1813. — The ship

arrived at St. Paul's Bocks, on August 25th. The rocks are
about 540 miles distant from the coast of South America, and
350 miles from the island of Fernando do Norhona. The group
of rocks is scarcely more than half a mile in circumference, and
their highest point is only 64 feet above sea level.

At 5 p.m., the rocks were about half a mile from the ship.
Their smallness is the striking feature in their appearance as
they are approached. They show themselves as five small pro-
jecting peaks, which are black at their bases, and white with
birds' dung on their summits. A yellowish-white band shows

ST. PAUL S ROCKS.

out about tide mark. The sea was clashing up in foam at the
south-east end of the rocks, and a long line of breakers stretching
from the opposite end marked the course of the equatorial
current.

The birds were to be seen hovering over the island in
thousands. Only three kinds inhabit it. Two noddies and the

F 2

68 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

booby. The noddies (Anous stolidus and A. melanogcnys) are
small terns or sea swallows, black all over, with the exception of
a small white patch on the head. The booby (Sula leucogaster)
is a kind of gannet. The full-grown birds are white on the
belly, with a black head and throat ; the black ending on the
neck, where it joins the white in a straight conspicuous line.
The back is dark. The younger birds are brown all over. Some
few of both birds soon came off to have a look at the ship.

We moved gradually up to the islands, sounding as we went ;
the Captain and Lieutenant Tizard mounted into the foretop,
and steered the vessel from thence, looking out for rocks. The
water is deep right up to the rocks, and a hawser was sent on
shore in a boat, and made fast round a projecting lump of rock,
and the ship was moored by means of it in about 100 fathoms of
water, although not more than 100 yards distant from shore.
Such an arrangement is only possible under the peculiar circum-
stances which occur here. The wind and current are constantly
in the same direction, and keep a ship fastened to the rock
always as far off from it as the rope will allow.

I never properly realized the strength of an oceanic current
until I saw the equatorial current running past St. Paul's Eocks.
Ordinarily at sea the current of course does not make itself
visible in any way ; one merely has its existence brought to one's
notice by finding at mid-day, when the position of the ship is
made known, that the ship is 20 miles or so nearer or farther off
from port than dead reckoning had led one to suppose she would
be, and one is correspondingly elated or depressed. But St. Paul's
Eocks is a small fixed point in the midst of a great ocean
current, which is to be seen rushing past the rocks like a mill-
race, and a ship's boat is seen to be baffled in its attempts to
pull against the stream.

Between the two extremities of the main body of rocks, is a
bay, enclosed by a somewhat semicircular arrangement of the
rock masses. We landed on the eastward side of this bay.
Landing from a boat is a little difficult. There is a perpetual
swell running in the bay, although it is on the sheltered side of
the rocks, and one has to jump as the boat rises, and cling to the
rocks as best one may.

ST. PAUL'S ROCKS.

I landed in the first boat. The rock was covered with
noddies, and their nests, some containing eggs, whitish in colour,
with red spots at the larger end, and others with young in them,
little round balls of black down. The air was full of noddies
and boobies, circling about, and screaming in disgust at the
invasion of their home.

The noddies' nests are made of a green seaweed (Caulerpa
clavifera) which grows on the bottom in the bay and around the
rocks, and which getting loosened by the surf, floats, and is
picked up by the birds on the surface. The weed is cemented
together by the birds' dung, and the nests having been used for
ages, are now solid masses, with a circular platform at the
summit, beneath which hang down a number of tails of dried
seaweed. The older nests pro-
ject from the cliffs on the shel-
tered sides of the rocks, like
brackets, having been origin-
ally commenced, as may be
seen by the complete gradua-
tions existing, by a pair of
birds laying an egg on a small
projecting ledge of rock and J
adding a few stalks of weed.

It is only the stronger and
more vigorous noddies that are
able to occupy and hold posses-
sion of a nest of this descrip-
tion. There are only a limited
number of such on the island, there not being cliffs enough to
accommodate more.* The island being somewhat over-populated,
a great many noddies have to put up with the bare flat rocks
as breeding-places, and there they lay their eggs in any slight

NEST OF NODDT AT ST. PAUL S ROCKS.

* The two species of noddy occurring at the rocks are so nearly alike,
that I did not notice at the time that there was more than one species
present ; a fact which I have since learnt from Mr. Howard Sanders'
paper — "On the Laridse of the Expedition," Proc. Zool. Soc, 1877, pp.
797, 798. Possibly the birds, which make bracket-like nests, are of one
species only, and those which build on the ground, of the other.

70 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

hollow or chink. They are plucky birds, and the old ones
sometimes make dashes at the head of an intruder who goes
too near their nest. They had so little fear of man, from want
of experience of his cruelty, that we could have caught any
number of them with our hands.

In vast abundance, all over the rocks, crawls about a crab
(Grapsus strigosus), the same as that already noticed at the
Cape Verde Islands. This crab has been referred to by nearly
all visitors to the rocks. It is far more wide-awake than the
birds, and keeps well out of reach, being thus of some difficulty
to catch. The crabs are all over the rocks, every crevice has
several in it.

You are fishing, and you have put down at your feet a nice
bait, cut with some care and difficulty from a fish sacrificed for
the purpose. You are absorbed in the sport. A fish carries
off your bait ; you look down and see two crabs just disappearing
into an impracticable crevice, carrying your choice morsel
between them. You catch a fish and throw it down beside you.
Before long you find a swarm of crabs round it, tearing morsels
off the gills, using both claws alternately to carry them to their
mouths ; and a big old crab digging away at the skin of the fish,
and trying to bite through it.

If a bird dies the crabs soon pick its bones, and I saw one
old crab profiting by our having driven off all the old birds, and
carrying off a young bird just hatched. The older crabs are
richly coloured, with bright red legs. The crabs have odd ways,
and curious habits of expressing anger, astonishment, suspicion,
and fear, by the attitude of their claws. When two old crabs
meet unsuspectingly in a crevice they dodge one another in an
amusing way, and drawing their legs together strut on tiptoe.

In the tropics one becomes accustomed to watch the habits
of various species of crabs, which there live so commonly an
aerial life. The more I have seen of them the more I have been
astonished at their sagacity. I had, I do not know why, always
considered them as of low intelligence.

Admiral Fitzroy gives an account of the large numbers of
fish caught off the rocks by his men, and states that they hauled

st. Paul's rocks. 71

the fish up fronl the bottom with difficulty because they were
always rushed at by voracious sharks.

In the evening volunteers for fishing were called for, and I
went in the jolly-boat with about six officers and four or five
men. A cutter full of men also put off. We made fast to the
line across the bay, and for a long time got nothing, till at
last, when we were getting tired, one man caught a shark, about
three feet long, and we all got good bait from him.

Then we caught more sharks, and it was at last discovered
that we ought to have been fishing at the surface, and not at the
bottom. As soon as we took the sinkers off our lines and
allowed the baits to float we began to haul in large fish, some of
them 20 lbs. in weight, as fast as possible. The fish were
" Cavalli " (= seahorse ?) — a species of Caranx, which is allied to
our mackerel, and very good to eat.

The fish were very game, and pulled hard, making phosphor-
escent flashes as they dashed about in the water under the boat,
it being now dark. Every now and then someone hooked a
shark (Car char ias sp), and then there was a tremendous fight,
and all the lines in the boat were tangled and fouled as the big
fish rushed around. At last it either broke the line, or was
hauled on board. When the latter was the case everyone stood
clear, whilst the shark hammered in its flurry the thwarts and
bottom of the boat, till they resounded. At last its tail was cut,
and it was then soon slit up into bait pieces.

Sometimes, a tremendous sudden pull was felt at one's line,
and it went fizzing through one's fingers without possibility of
checking it. The only thing to be done was to take a turn
round a belaying pin. Then came a check, and the line broke
right off, without even a momentary struggle, and some big-
shark went off with hook and bait, without probably noticing
anything the matter. We returned to the ship at 12 P.M., with
enough fish to give the whole ship's company a breakfast.

In the morning I went to a white peak on the western side of
the bay. This rock forms the home of the boobies, which are
not nearly so numerous as the noddies, and seem to be almost
restricted to this one peak out of the five of which the islands
are made up.

72 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

The whiteness of the rock is caused by the birds' dung,
which in some places forms on the rocks, as described by
Darwin, an enamel-like crust, which is hard enough to scratch
glass. I found some of this at about 45 feet above sea level.

The rock is 50 feet in height, steep on the sheltered sides,
and there hung all over with the bracket-like nests of the
noddies ; the weather-side slopes more gently ; and all over
it, on every little flat space, are the boobies' nests, mere
hollows, some containing two eggs, but mostly with one only.
The eggs are as large as a fowl's, sometimes dirty- white all over,
sometimes blotched with brown.

In many of the nests were young, which were of all ages ;
some just out of the egg, ugly big-bellied black lumps, without
a particle of down or feathers ; then larger ones, as big as one's
fist, covered with white down ; then others as large as a fowl,
thickly clothed with down ; then larger ones again, with brown
wing feathers and brown feathers on the breast, the white down
remaining only in patches, about the head especially. Then
birds with brown feathers all over, full- sized and just beginning
to fly.

Two almost full-grown birds, as big nearly as geese, were
having a desperate fight at the bottom of the slope as I came up.
They evidently thought each other the cause of the whole
disturbance. They fought furiously with their sharp bills,
flapping their wings, and half screaming, half croaking, with
anger. They fought till they were quite exhausted, and could
not stand, but went at it again after they had rested awhile and
recovered their breath.

Some old boobies were sitting on their young on the top of
the peak. They would not move until actually pushed off the
nest. The young, both of boobies and noddies, are very brave,
and scream and strike out hard at anything put near them. Our
spaniels could not tackle the young boobies, but after one or
two pecks fought quite shy of them ; and even the little noddies
kept the dogs pretty well at bay, twisting round in the nests and
always showing front. Natural selection has no doubt brought
about this bravery in the young, to protect them from their
constant enemies, the crabs.

st. Paul's rocks. 73

Around all the nests were small flying fish, which are
brought by the old birds in their crops, and ejected for food for
the young or for the females whilst sitting. Fitzroy visited
St. Paul's Eocks on February 16th ; Eoss on May 29th; we on
August 29th; on all these occasions eggs and young birds were
found. Hence, breeding goes on all the year round.

The only other terrestrial inhabitants of the rocks besides
the birds are insects and spiders which prey on them. They
are most of them to be found by breaking up the nests of the
noddies. Darwin* mentions the following : — A pupiparous fly
(Olfersia), living on the booby as a parasite. This fly belongs to
the same group as the curious Nycteribia, so common on the
bodies of fruit-eating bats. The group is remarkable for the
fact that the female, instead of laying, like most insects, eggs
which produce grubs, produces a chrysalis, from which the fly
in a short time emerges.

A Staphylinid beetle (Quedius), a tick, a small brown moth,
belonging to a genus which feeds on feathers, and a wood-louse,
living beneath the guano, and spiders, complete Darwin's list.
We found two species of spiders, which cover the rock in some
places with their web, and in addition to the insects noted by
Darwin, the larva of a moth, apparently a Tortrix, and a small
Dipter. Yon Willemoes Suhm also found a Chelifer, but could
not find either the beetle or wood-louse.

Besides these there are of course to be reckoned the lice,
parasites usual upon the two birds, and the list of air-breathing
inhabitants seems then complete.

St. Paul's Eocks being close on the equator, the sun was
extremely powerful, and the white guano-covered rocks reflected
the radiant heat-rays with the same effect as does a snow surface
in Switzerland. Our faces were severely sunburnt. At the base
of the " Booby's hill " is a flat expanse of rock with tide pools
upon it, in which were shoals of small fish, a black and yellow
banded Clicetodon and numerous small gobies. The sides of the
pools were covered with a grey Pcdythoa, a sea anemone, forming
colonies of the same species apparently as that at St. Vincent,

* Darwin, "Journal of Researches," p. 10.

74 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

Cape Verde Islands. The only seaweeds, however, growing in
these pools were encrnsting nullipores (Corallinacece).

Numerous Cavalli had been caught by the men fishing from
off the rocks in the morning. Lieutenant Aldrich started fishing
for them with a salmon rod and tackle. The fish fought for the
bait, racing after it as it was drawn along the top of the water
in the small bay. One could pick out the largest fish in the
shoal and manoeuvre the bait with the rod, so as to prevent any
but that one taking it. The fish showed fine sport, and I broke my
salmon rod over one of them in trying how hard I could give him
the butt ; we played them until tired out, and then gaffed them.

The Cavalli bite best in the early morning and at night ; at
noon and in the afternoon they seem to cease feeding, and as
soon as they leave the field open, shoals of trigger-fish (Balistes),
a species of a sooty black colour with a blue streak along the
base of the anal and posterior dorsal fins, appear on the scene,
and rush at the baits and soon clear the hooks, being nearly safe
from being hooked because of the smallness of their mouths.
These fish are quite fearless and are small, weighing only about
one pound, and of no use for food.

With these fish appears a bright red and green Wrasse
(Labrus), and a small blue Choetodon with dark stripes. Three
other fish which I saw caught were a Barracuda pike (Sphyrcena
barracuda), a yellow eel with black spots (Murcena), and a red
Beryx. A Eock-lobster, a small Palinurus, is very common about
the rocks, and is to be seen clinging to the rock, having crawled
just above the reach of the waves. I caught some of these in
lobster pots which I set for them.

Late in the afternoon I had to procure three boobies for
stuffing They are by no means so foolish as their name would
imply. They had learnt by experience, even in a day, and I now
had considerable difficulty in getting within shot of the old birds.

I climbed the highest peak, which is 64 feet above sea level ;
the top affords only just standing room ; from it one sees the
whole of the rocks, and their smallness in size is most striking ;
here is an island group 540 miles distant from the nearest
mainland, and yet not nearly so large as, say, the Holmes in the
Bristol Channel.

ST. PAUL'S ROCKS. 75

The group consists of five peaks of rock, disposed in four
principal masses which are separated by three narrow channels,
through which the surf perpetually roars and boils ; over one of
these channels it is possible to cross at low water, the tide
rising and falling here about five feet. The rocks are disposed
in a sort of horse-shoe round the bay; they are composed of
hard black rock, and another yellowish rock with black laminse
in it, " full of variously coloured pseudo fragments," according
to Darwin a variety of the former black rock.

There are in places bands of a green stone resembling Ser-
pentine. The whole is intersected by various veins, mostly
nearly vertical and running in all directions, consisting of
various rocks, viz. : brown ferruginous lamina?, a coarse con-
glomerate of beach pebbles, and a finer conglomerate which
contains fragments of sea shells and nullipores, and which are
considered by Darwin as evidently of later origin than the
main mass of the rocks. These seams of conglomerates have
the appearance of having been formed of beach fragments
washed into fissures in the rock and consolidated there. Each
face of the containing fissure is covered by a peculiar dense and
hard black layer of about a quarter of an inch in thickness.
This black layer is mentioned by Mr. M'Cormick in " Eoss's
Voyage"; Mr. Buchanan found it to be composed of "phosphate of
lime, peroxide of manganese, a little carbonate of lime and
magnesia, with traces of copper and iron."* He considers that
the rocks as a whole may be classed as Serpentine.

Mr. Darwin has dwelt on the importance of the fact that
the rocks are not volcanic, like nearly all other oceanic islands.
The depth to the eastward of St. Paul's Eocks is irregular, and a
depth of only 1,500 fathoms was obtained shortly before we
approached them, succeeded by deeper water. There is no con-
necting ridge between the rocks and Fernando do Norhona. No
doubt the rocks are the remnants of a much larger tract of land
now submerged, probably once continuous with these irregular
masses in their neighbourhood, and which may have had a
vegetation of its own.

* J. Y. Buchanan, "Proc. B. Soc," No. 170, 1876, p. 613.

76 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

With regard to the present vegetation, as stated by Darwin
and Boss, there are no aerial plants on the rocks, not even a
lichen; I found however a microscopic alga (Protococcus affinis),
growing on the guano in. sheltered places and colouring it of a
dull green. In the stagnant pools on the rocks grow two low
green algae, Prasiola minuta and Oscillaria sordida, and a few
diatoms.

The rocks are poorly supplied with the larger species of
seaweeds, apparently because these are unable to endure the
constant heavy surf. The high-tide mark is formed by a band
of a pinkish white nullipore (Lithothammion polymorphum) ; its
calcareous masses form an incrustation on the rocks, in places
two inches in thickness, and which is bored in all directions by
tubicolous annelids, and has its surface thus pierced all over by
small round holes. This band is referred to by M'Cormick as
the work of coral insects ; there are no corals at all about the
rocks, except in deep water.

Above the band of Lithothammion is a band of dark red
staining on the rocks, caused by an encrusting alga (Hilden-
brandtia expansa), and from the region of the tide mark depends
a filamentous brown seaweed [Chonospora atlantica). The
green weed (Caulerpa claviferd), of which the noddies build their
nests, grows in from two to twenty fathoms about the rocks.

Of the whole of the eleven species of non-microscopic algse
belonging to the rocks, two are peculiar, and the remainder are
known to occur at widely different localities at the Cape of
Good Hope, east coast of Australia, Venezuela, &c*

I went out for a second night's fishing. The fish for some

reason did not bite so well as before, having possibly, like the

birds, profited by experience ; but the men in one of the cutters

alongside us, kept up a succession of songs with hearty choruses,

and with the aid of rum and beer and the moonlight, and an

occasional bite, the time soon passed away until midnight, when

our boat returned to the ship with a party which had been

stationed on the rocks to observe stars for determination of

longitude.

* Prof, G. Dickie, "Algse collected at St. Paul's Rocks." Liiin. Jour.
Botany, Vol.. XIV, p. 311.

FERNANDO DO NORHONA. 77

Accounts of St. Paul's Rocks are to be found in C. Darwin, " Journal
of Researches," 2 Ed., p. 8. "Volcanic Islands." Smith and Elder,
London, 1844, pp. 31, 32. Fitzroy, " Voyage of ' Adventure ' and ' Beagle.' "
Ross, "Voyage to the Antarctic and Southern Regions," Vol. I, pp.14-18 ;
with extracts from the Journal of Mr. M'Cormick, Surgeon to the
" Erebus."

Island of Fernando do Norhona, September 1st and 2nd, 18*73. —

The ship reached the island of Fernando do Norhona on Sep-
tember 1st The island is in lat. 3° 50' S., and is about 200 miles
distant from Cape San Eoque, the nearest point of South America.
The main island of Fernando do Norhona is about four miles in
length, and nowhere more than four and a-half broad, and the
length of the group formed by it and its outliers is seven
geographical miles. The main island is long and narrow, and
stretches about N.E. and S.W.

At the eastern extremity is a series of islets known as
Platform Island, St. Michael's Mount, Booby Island, Egg Island,
and Rat Island. On the southern side of the main island are
several outlying rocks, one of which, called Les Clochers, or Grand
Pere, appears as a tall pinnacle with a rounded mass of rock
balanced on its summit.

At about the middle of the northern coast of the main island
is a remarkable column-like mass of bare rock, which projects to
a height of 2,000 feet, and is known as the Peak. The south-
western extremity of the island runs out into a long narrow
promontory, which is composed of a narrow wall of rock.

In this, at one spot near sea level, the sea has broken a
quadrangular opening through which the sea dashes in a
cascade. This opening, known as the " Hole in the Wall," is
visible from a considerable distance at sea. At the opposite
extremity the island terminates in a low sandy point with
sand dunes upon it, beyond which stretch out the outlying
islets already referred to.

The Peak forms a most remarkable feature in the aspect of
the island as viewed from the sea, and appears to overhang
somewhat on one side. One other hill in the island is 300 feet
in height. The island is volcanic, but has evidently undergone
a vast amount of denudation, so as to obliterate all traces of the
centres of eruption. The Peak is composed of phonolith, or

78 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

clinkstone, as is also St. Michael's Mount, which is a conical mass
300 feet in height.

Eat Island and Booby Island are formed of a calcareous
sandstone, an JEolian formation like that of Bermuda, but here
containing volcanic particles intermixed. This rock is weathered
in a closely similar manner to that at Bermuda, the exposed
surface being covered with irregular projecting pinnacles with
excessively sharp honeycombed surfaces, in places on Bat
Island as much as two feet in height.

On the western side of Bat Island, close to the shore, a beach
of large oval pebbles of phonolith is embedded in tins sand rock.
In Blatform Island the sand rock overlies columnar volcanic rock.
The main island is thickly wooded, and appears beautifully green
from the sea.

The principal trees are what Webster, who visited the island
in 1828, calls the Laurelled Bar a, which has dark green laurel-
like leaves, and an abundant milky juice, but the exact nature of
which is unknown, since I did not succeed in procuring a
specimen, and a Euphorbiaceous tree, or rather tall shrub, called
by Webster, Jatropha or Binhao (Japhopha gossypifolicC).

It has a pink flower, and at the time of our visit had only
single tufts of young leaves immediately beneath the inflo-
rescence, although in full flower. Its bare stems and branches
render it a striking object amongst the green of the creepers
when the forest is viewed from the sea. Webster says that it
casts its leaves in July and August, that is, at the commencement
of the dry season. It is evidently the tree mentioned by Darwin
as occurring on the Beak.

There is a dry and a rainy season on the islands. The rainy
season is from January to July, and the dry from July to
December. In the dry season there is occasionally want of
water, but it often falls heavily during this season, as it did during
our stay, on September 2nd.

Fernando do Norhona is used by the Brazilians as a convict
settlement. Close to the base of the Beak is the citadel or small
fort, on which the Brazilian flag was seen flying as we approached
the shore, and beneath this are the convict buildings, a group of
low huts, with the governor's house, a small church, and a long

FERNANDO DO NORHONA. 79

low building in which some of the convicts are locked up at night.
Farther to the eastward on some low-lying land close to the
beach is an old ruined fort, off which we anchored at about
4 P.M.

Captain Nares landed at once and paid a visit to the governor
of the island to ask permission for our parties to land and
explore, and I availed myself of permission to follow him on
shore and hear the result of the interview. The surf was heavy
on the sandy beach ; one of our boats was upset in it, and I got a
sea round me in landing, up to my neck.

I found the littoral blue flowered convolvulus (Ipomcea pes
caprce), so common in the West Indies and Cape Verde Islands,
abundant on the shore. It was beset by a Dodder (Cuscuta),
winch parasite was seen twining round it everywhere in masses.

A horrible pest, a stinging plant, Jatropha urens, one of the
Euphorbiacece, was very common. The plant has a thick green
stem, and leaves resembling those of our common garden gera-
niums in shape, and a small white flower. The plant is covered
with fine sharp white bristles, winch sting most abominably. I
lassoed a specimen with my knife, lanyard and kicked it up by
the roots and carried it on board carefully slung on a stick, but
I got stung as I was putting it in paper to dry, though handling
it with forceps, and the stinging sensation lasted for more than
two days. The pain is like that produced by the nettle, but far
more intense.

The path to the settlement led through the woods. The ground
was covered with innumerable large black crickets (Grylhos).
These are most astonishingly abundant, especially around the
cultivated fields. The woods were also full of flocks of reddish
brown doves (Peristera geoffroyi), a species which occurs in
Brazil, and has possibly been introduced into the island. They
are in vast numbers, and, being scarcely ever shot at, are so tame
that we had to throw stones at them to make them take wing.
Many of them had nests and eggs, and they probably breed all
the year round.

I saw also a small warbler {Sylvia), with greenish brown
plumage, and a bird which, from its appearance and song, I took
to be a thrush of some kind. Mice are extraordinarily abundant,

80 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.5'

running about everywhere amongst the bushes. Large butter-
flies seemed to be absent. I saw only a small blue butterfly
{Polyommatus). A tomtom was being beaten as a call for the
convicts, which reminded me of the exactly similar drumming
which wearies one on coffee estates in Ceylon.

On the slope of a hill opposite the fort is a square of open
space, roughly pitched with stones, at the top of which is the
governor's house, with a row of bread-fruit trees planted in front
of it. A black sentry was lolling in front of the house.

I was told that there was a garrison of about 120 men on the
island, and that these, with a few officials, constituted the entire
non-convict population. There were said to be 1,400 convicts on
the island. They are all let loose during the day-time, the blacks
being locked up at night whilst the whites are allowed to live in
their huts with their families, if they have any. They have to
answer a roll-call daily, and are flogged if they fail.

They are all criminals, political prisoners not being confined
here ; many of them are murderers, capital punishment not being
exacted in Brazil. They have as a rule a horribly ruffianly
appearance, especially the blacks, and being mostly half naked
they appear especially savage.

All are, however, not of this bestial type. Some few are
well educated, "and convicts do duty as waiters and interpreters
to the governor. The interpreter of the time being was a most
gentlemanly looking fellow and well dressed. He was well
informed and spoke English and French well ; he was most polite,
and on the governor's producing coffee and cake, took a cup with
the rest.

He told us that the ordinary punishment for a convict was
50 lashes, but that troublesome ones got as many as 500 lashes
delivered with a rod cut from one of the native trees. No one
had ever stood to receive more than 250 cuts. After that they
were supported by means of rests placed under the arms until
the flogging was complete. Then they were taken to the
hospital and never seen again. He had known a man receive
700 lashes. Two-thirds of the convicts had been flogged during
the last seven months. He said he himself had had a misfortune
and had got 64 years' imprisonment. He had bought off 20

FERNANDO DO NOPJIONA.

of these. He would like a bible and some newspapers. He
would sooner die than be flogged. His statements must be
taken for what they are likely to be worth.

The convicts receive a small pay, and are obliged to find
their own living. The black ones are obliged to work for ten
hours daily on Government plantations. Some of these convicts
£0 out fishing on small rafts made of three or four logs lashed
together, provided with a small stool for a seat. A basket for
the fish is placed on the raft in front of the seat, and a small
fishing-rod is stuck up behind.

CONVICT ON FISHING EXPEDITION.

(From a sketch by Lieutenant H. Swire, R.N.)

The men steer these rafts with great dexterity through the
surf with a paddle, usually standing up to paddle, and sitting
down to fish. At a distance, the raft being almost entirely
under water, the men look as if walking on the water. These
rafts were termed " catamarans " by the naval officers. Sailors
are apt to apply this term to any out-of-the-way canoe or boat
for which they have no other name. I believe the word is of
South American origin. Xo boats of any kind are allowed on
Fernando do Norhona, for fear the convicts should use them to
escape with.

The huts of the convicts form a sort of small town round the
square. They have most of them a bit of garden enclosed. I
saw several women and children. There are plantations of
sugar-cane, maize, cassava, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, bananas,
and melons. The latter are remarkably fine in size and flavour,
both water and marsh melons ; we paid about three pence each
for them.

We had to wade in up to our middle, to reach our boats

A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.

on account of the surf. A large shoal of dolphins (Delphinus)
was feeding in the bay close to the shore.

The governor having first given full permission for explora-
tion subsequently retracted it, and sent off a message to say that
he would allow no surveying or collecting. This was most
unfortunate, since very little is known of the fauna and flora
of Fernando do Norhona.

September 2nd. — I landed with Captain Nares on St. Michael's
Mount, a conical outlying mass of phonolith, 300 feet in height.
It is comparatively inaccessible, and owing to its steepness has
never been cultivated ; hence it seemed likely to yield a fair
sample of the indigenous flora of the group. Most of the plants
collected proved, when examined at Kew, to be common Brazi-
lian forms, but a fig tree (Ficus norhonce) with pendent aerial
roots like the banyan, which grew all over the upper parts
of the rock, and which in favourable spots forms a tree 30 feet in
height, proved to be of a new species and peculiar to the island,
as far as is yet known.*

The only land birds which I saw on the island were the
doves, but I saw a nest, probably that of a finch. The principal

FRIGATE BIRD. TACHYPETES AQUILA.

bird inhabitants of the island were boobies and noddies of the
same species as at St. Paul's Eocks, but far shyer here than there,

* Ficus norhoTwe. D. Oliver, F.K.S., "Icones Plautarum," Vol. Ill,
3rd Ser., p. 18, p. 1222.

FERNANDO DO NORHONA. 8

and boatswain birds and frigate birds (Tachypetes aquila). These
latter soared high overhead, looking, with their forked tails, like
large kites.

All these birds nest on the rock. They circled round our
heads in vast numbers as we stood on the top of the rock. The
frigate birds put their nests here well out of harm's way, on the
very verge of a precipice which was quite inaccessible. I could
look down and see the nests, five or six of which were built
close together, almost touching one another, and each containing
a single egg.

On the low cliffs of Booby Island, the noddies and boobies
nest on all the available ledges, and sat on their nests quite
undisturbed as we rowed past them. It was curious to see the
doves nesting together with these two sea birds on the same
ledges and with their nests intermingled with theirs. The
utmost harmony seemed to prevail on the breeding ground.
A similar association of land and sea birds occurs in Great
Britain. In caves on the coast of Harris, in the Hebrides,
starlings and rock pigeons nest together with cormorants.*

Progression on Eat Island is by no means pleasant. The
calcareous sand rock of which the island is composed, is, as has
been before described, weathered on the surface in the same
curious manner as at Bermuda. The surface is here so deeply
excavated by pluvial action as to leave projecting a series of
sharp edged honeycombed pinnacles, often two feet in height,
and separated from one another by intervening jagged holes and
crevices. Into these, as they are in many places overgrown by
creepers, one's foot and leg readily slip and may easily get badly
bruised and cut ; whilst in putting out one's hand to save a fall
it is not at all improbable that one lays hold of a vigorous plant
of Jatropha urens, which can show no quarter even if it had
the will.

A small Gar-fish (Belone) was caught in abundance at the
foot of St. Michael's Mount. A Grapsus (G. strigosus), the same
species as that at St. Paul's Eocks, occurred on the shore rocks,
but as far as I saw, Land-crabs and Sand-crabs (Ocypoda) are
absent from Fernando do Korhona.

* Macgillivray, " British Water Birds," Vol. II, p. 397.

G 2

84 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

Two lizards occur in the islands, which are South American
in their affinities.* One, Thysanodoxtylus bilineatus, is one of
the Iguanidce. The genus is distinguished by a scaly projection
on the outer side of the hinder toes. The species occurs also in
South America. We did not meet with this lizard, which was
obtained in the island by the officers of H.M.S. " Chanticleer."

The other lizard, Euprepes pundatus, belongs to the Scin-
cidce. The species is peculiar to Fernando do Norhona, its
nearest ally, E. maculatus, inhabiting Demerara. This lizard
is very abundant on the main island, and especially so on
St. Michael's Mount, where it is remarkably tame. Some
specimens are more than a foot in length. I did not see the
Gecko mentioned by Webster.

I could find no fern on any of the islands, nor any moss
or Liver-wort. These may, however, no doubt occur on the
moister parts of the main island. Fernando do Norhona is in
its fauna and flora closely allied to South America. It has
however, a peculiar species of fig and a peculiar lizard. Possibly
amongst the three land birds noted, other than the dove, peculiar
species may occur, but it seems unlikely that it will hereafter
yield either in fauna or flora any very remarkable endemic
forms. The seaweeds of the island are found by Professor
Dickie to be related chiefly to those of the Mexican Gulf.

Accounts of Fernando do Norhona are to be found in "Webster's
narrative of Capt. Foster's voyage. " Voyage of the Chanticleer." London,
1834. See also Appendix for Webster's notes on the Geology and Natural
History of the Island.

Darwin's "Journal of Researches," p. 11.

Darwin's " Volcanic Islands," p. 23.

" Report and Charts of the U.S. brig 'Dolphin,'" edited by Lieut.
S. P. Leet "Washington, 1845, p. 75.

Snow's "Voyage to Tierra del Fuego and the South Seas." London,
Longmans, 1857, p. 32.

* Gray, "British Museum Catalogue of Lizards," p. 193.

CHAPTER IV.
BAHIA.

Harbour and Town of Bahia. Religious Procession. Black Angels.
Land Planarians. Clicking Butterfly. Primaeval Forest. Shooting
Humming Birds and Toucans. Caxoeira. Mewing Toads. Excur-
sion to Feira St. Anna. Mule Riding. Former Highway Robbers.
Inn at Feira St. Anna and its Guests. The Fair. Anteaters Eaten
as Medicine. Vaqueiros. Tailing Cattle. Horse Dealing. German
Settler in the Country. Driving Cattle in the Bush. Farm Slaves.
Preparation of Cassava. Overburdened Ant. Three-toed Sloth.
Slavery in Brazil.

Bahia, Brazil, September 14th to 25th, 18*3. — The ship ap-
proached Bahia under steam and sail, on September 14th. It
was all the morning almost a dead calm, and at noon the stock
of coal came to an end, with the exception of a few bushels
which had to be reserved for steaming to anchorage amongst
the shipping in the harbour. The ship crept slowly towards
shore in the afternoon, under sail, at the rate of about a mile an
hour.

As the shore was approached, swarms of a butterfly, a Heli-
conia (H. narcea), filled the air, and settling on the ship, alighted
everywhere and penetrated even into the ward-room. With
these a few beetles, flies, and a Hymen opterous insect came on
board, whilst a land bird settled in the rigging.

The anchor was dropped in the harbour at about half-a-mile
from shore. The city of Bahia or San Salvaclos lies on the
north side of a wide and extensive bay, the Bahia de todos
os Santos, or Bay of All Saints. On the north side of the bay is
a slightly elevated ridge, stretching east and west, on which the
town is built, and under the lee of which is the anchorage for
shipping.

The town resembles Lisbon in the general appearance of its
buildings. These are mostly whitewashed, with very numerous

86 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER,"

windows. They rise one above another on the hill- side, with a
large number of convents and churches interspersed amongst
the houses. The churches have all two towers at the west ends,
as at Lisbon, and usually an open plateau or square in front.
The architecture is thoroughly Portuguese.

The bright green tropical vegetation, the palms and banana
plants, interspersed between the buildings, give the town in
reality a different look from that of a home Portuguese town. A
small strip of flat land intervening between the foot of the ridge
occupied by the main town, and the harbour, affords space for
wharves and warehouses for the mail steamers and general
shipping. There were a large number of small trading vessels
at anchor in the harbour, and two Brazilian vessels of war, a
gun brig, and a small iron ram, which had conspicuous shot
marks on its hull, received in the Paraguayan war.

The usual mode of ascent from the lower shipping district to
the higher town is by means of sedan chairs of the old European
pattern, which are painted black, with yellow beading, and are
carried up the hill, each by a pair of negroes. A mechanical
lift was being constructed to take the place of this primitive
arrangement.

I preferred walking, and made my way through steep narrow
stinking streets, where slops were being constantly emptied from
upper stories without any warning or " Garde de i'eau." After
a stiff climb, I reached the main street of the town, which runs
all along the top of the ridge, and was just in time to see a
religious procession, held in commemoration of the day of the
saint of one of the churches.

The bells of the church were clanging and tinkling, sound-
ing something like Swiss cow-bells, a regular jangle, "tinkle,
tinkle, tinkle, cling, cling, clang," and the procession was pouring
itself from the church door. First came men in blue cassocks
with white surplices over them, carrying lighted paper lanterns
on poles. They marched on and then formed line on each side
of the street for the rest of the procession to pass.

Then came men with white cassocks and black surplice-like
vestments, also bearing lanterns, and at intervals amongst them
were borne silver crosses with bunches of artificial flowers on

BAHIA. 87

silver-mounted poles, carried on either side of each of them.
Amongst these also walked here and there a priest, in the usual
cassock and alb, and one or two old monks with hooded robes
and double chins, with a well-nourished appearance.

A crowd of acolytes succeeded, dressed nearly like the
priests, and, like them, mostly white-skinned or but slightly
yellow. All the remainder of the procession had deep yellow-
brown or almost black faces. A body of priests came next, and
then the saint, carried on a silvered platform on the shoulders
of eight bearers.

The saint was a wooden figure, of life-size, with a Vandyke-
like countenance, black hair, moustache, and beard. He was
dressed in a stiff crimson velvet cape, worked with gold lace,
crimson trunk hose, and flesh tights over very thin and shaky
legs, and had a curious sort of plume or cockade of feathers and
tinsel sticking up at the back of his head.

In front of the saint, skipped along two little girls, one of
them with a dark yellow complexion, the other jet black. They
were dressed as angels, with wings of feathers and tinsel.
Around the saint marched a guard of soldiers with fixed
bayonets, and immediately behind came a military brass band
in full bray, but playing well. Another body of soldiers fol-
lowed with fixed bayonets and led by their officers with drawn
swords.

Behind the procession followed a crowd of negro women,
crushing through the street. The negro women of Bahia are
strapping females and apt to become very stout. The balconies
in the narrow street were crowded with the wives and daughters
of the townspeople, who pelted the saint as he passed with
bouquets of flowers.

Vespers were going on at the churches. I entered one, an
oblong building with a small apse for a chancel, and a row of
rectangular pillars on either side, shutting off the aisles. There
were three or four clerestory windows, but no others. The
interior was profusely ornamented with bright colour and gilt
tracery in relief. The chancel and altar, which had an elaborate
gilt reredos, were brilliantly lighted up by candles, whilst the
body of the church was comparatively dark, having no light but

88 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

that which reached it from the chancel. The air was full of
incense, and the whole effect was fine and impressive.

The floor of the church was crowded with negro women,
kneeling and singing at intervals a simple chant in response to
a choir which could not be distinguished in the gloom. There
were a few white women in the church, but they appeared to go
into the aisles and not to mix with the blacks.

After the procession was over, fireworks, rockets full of
crackers and blue lights, were let off, and the soldiers marched
to their barracks. They were small dark-skinned dwarfed-look-
ing men. Fireworks are as invariable concomitants of religious
ceremonies in Bahia as in China, and as they are let off before
as well as after the ceremonies, occasionally wake one up at
4 A.M.

There are tramways in Bahia leading to the railway station,
the Campo Grande, and out into the country. The Campo
Grande is a large open space, turfed and surrounded by trees.
It is here that the best residences are, and there are several
hotels, including a Swiss one, and a German one with a Kegel-
bahn, and where dinner is served in regular German style.
There are large numbers of Germans in Bahia, and a great part
of the trade is in their hands.

There are public gardens in Bahia, and a theatre, and at
certain seasons an opera troupe comes from Bio de Janeiro to
perform. At the distance of a mile or two from the town, where
the country tramway ends, the roads degenerate at once into
mere green lanes, and lead between a succession of small mud-
built cottages, each with its fenced garden, and numerous
intervals of neglected land, often planted with coffee bushes
but overgrown with weeds.

The principal features of the vegetation are made up of
banana plants and large mango and Jack-fruit trees. The Jack-
fruit is a huge sort of bread-fruit, as large as a man's head, and
grows on a large tree with dark green laurel-like foliage. These
three trees are no more indigenous than are the people with
whose well-being they are so dosely bound up, but are of Asiatic
origin, as the people are of European and African extraction.

At a short distance from the town the country is covered

BAHIA. 80

with a thick wild growth, but with numerous scattered cottages.
The inhabitants of these are mostly black, but there are many
whites amongst them, and white and black children are to be
seen playing together on almost every doorstep.

I frequently visited these suburbs to search for Land-
planarian worms,* which I found resting beneath the sheathing
leaf stalks of the banana plants, just as I had found them in
Ceylon, and accompanied, curiously enough, as in Ceylon, by a
peculiar slug ( Vaginulus).

A butterfly which makes a clicking sound whilst flying, a
fact first observed by Darwin, is common near Bahia.f I only
heard the sound when pairs were flying together in courtship.
I do not know whether the butterfly in question at Bahia is
Prqrilio fcronia, the species which Darwin met with at Bio de
Janeiro. It has, however, the peculiar drum with a spiral
diaphragm with it at the base of its wings, as described by
Doubleday. This organ of sound is large and conspicuous.

I made an excursion with one of the sub-lieutenants about
20 miles inland, along the railway intended to reach Pernambuco,
but at the time of our visit, completed only for about 60 miles
to the Bio Francisco. Free passes were given by the railway
company to all the officers of the " Challenger," and the officials
of the line, who were Englishmen, were extremely hospitable
and gave us every possible assistance.

Leaving Bahia, the railroad led along the shores of the bay,
fringed with gardens and houses. Further on the land was
covered with wild vegetation, with occasional sugar plantations
and frequent cottages. Almost the whole of the land has been
cleared at some time or other of the dense forest winch once
covered it.

On a sugar plantation, ground is cleared in patches. The
patches are planted and cultivated for about fifteen years and
are then allowed to run waste, or sleep, as the Brazilians put it.
A fresh piece of land is then cleared, and so the whole estate is

* See H. N. Moseley. " Notes on the Structure of several Forms of
Land Planarians." Quart. Journ. Micro. Sci. Vol. XVII, New Ser.,
p. 273.

t C. Darwin, " Journal of Researches," p . 33.

90 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

gradually gone over, and the original clearing eventually reached
again. The forest land on the banks of the Lower Moselle is
cultivated in much the same way.

There were no large trees to be seen along the route, but rather
a dense growth of large shrubs and small trees, bound together
by creepers and loaded with epiphytic plants, amongst which the
Bromeliacece, plants allied to the pineapple, were most conspi-
cuous, especially one with a bright scarlet and blue inflorescence.

Near the station where we stopped there was a small river
and a patch of primaeval forest, which was what we had come to
see. A guide led us a short distance into the forest. The most
striking feature about it was the immense height of the trees,
their close packing and great variety. At home we are accus-
tomed to forests composed mainly of one gregarious species of
tree. Here the trunks are covered with parasites and climbers.
Mistletoes of various kinds, some of them with scarlet flowers,
grow amongst the upper branches, from which also hang down
the stems of various creepers in festoons, often sweeping the
ground. In the forks of the great branches repose the large
green masses of the Bromeliaceous plants, and up the trunks
climb numerous aroids with their huge sagittate leaves. The
ground is covered with decaying branches, and here and there
dead trunks, on which grow fungi in abundance.

The forest was so thick as to be quite gloomy and dark, and
as we passed along the path we heard no sound and saw no
living animal, except a few butterflies (Heliconice), some small
fish in a little stream, along which the path led, and an Oven-
bird gathering mud for its curious nest. There were two
deserted armadillo holes close to the path, but we saw no
mammal of any kind, nor did I see a single wild mammal during
my short stay in Brazil, notwithstanding the abundance of forms
which exist in the country. The abundant vegetation hides
them from the casual view, and they are not conspicuous, as in
an open country, such as California.

We returned to the railway station, where we found beds
made up for us in the waiting room. Thanks to the energy of
the English railway officials, Bass's ale is to be had at all the
stations on the line at 2s. 2d. a bottle.

BAHIA. 91

As soon as it was dark, numbers of fireflies came out. The
small negro boys of the village lighted a bonfire and sat round
it, making horrible squealing noises by blowing through short
conical tubes, made by rolling up strips of palm leaf spirally,
and so arranged that at the mouth-piece there are two pieces
placed flat against one another, as in the reed of a hautboy.
Such excruciating sounds seem to be as pleasing to the youthful
African ear as to that of the London street boy.

Next morning at daybreak, we started off to a part of the
forest where the negro guide said there were Toucans. We
passed a tree covered with white blossoms, over which about
a dozen Humming-birds of three species were hovering. We
shot some, but it is not an easy matter to obtain them in good
condition. They are of so light weight that they often hang
amongst the leaves when killed, and even when they do fall it
is almost impossible to watch them and distinguish them from
the failing leaves knocked off lyy the shot.

Then the ground beneath the bushes is frequently covered
with thorny plants and sharply cutting grasses, amongst which
it is not pleasant to force one's way, and where search is almost
hopeless. The negroes who make it their business to collect
Humming-birds for sale can afford to wait till they get their
birds in good position.

The birds did not care at all for the sound of a gun but went
on buzzing like sphinx moths over the flowers quite uncon-
cernedly, whilst their companions at the same bush are being
shot one after another. They can even often be caught with a
butterfly net, or knocked down with a hat. I saw five species
on the wing whilst in the neighbourhood of Bahia.

We turned into the gloomy forest and for some time saw
nothing but a huge brown moth, which looked almost like a bat
on the wing. All of a sudden, we heard, high upon the trees, a
short shrieking sort of noise ending in a hiss, and our guide be-
came excited and said " Toucan." The birds were very wary and
made off. They are much in request and often shot at. At
last we got a sight of a pair, but they were at the top of such a
very high tree that they were out of range.

At last, when I was giving up hope, I heard loud calls, and

92 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER/

three birds came and settled in a low bush in the middle of the
path. I shot one, and it proved to be a very large toucan
(Ramphasios arid). The bird was not quite dead when I picked
it up, and it bit me severely with its huge bill. Most of the
plumage of the bird is of a jet black colour, but the throat is of
a brilliant orange, and the breast has a bright- scarlet patch.
The bill is brightly coloured yellow at its base, and has a light
blue streak along its upper crest, but these colours soon fade
after the bird is skinned. The skin round the eye is coloured
scarlet.

Into the wide bay of Bahia, which is twenty miles across in
the broadest part, open several navigable rivers, on two of which
steamers ply regularly. The Peruaguacu is the largest of these
rivers, and it is navigable for 54 miles up to a town called
Caxoeira. At Caxoeira a railway was in process of construc-
tion. The English engineer of the line, a Mr. Watson, most
hospitably provided me with a free pass by the steamer to
Caxoeira, and one of his own mules, and a guide for a trip up
country thence.

The river steamers are small paddle-boats, old and dirty.
The Caxoeira boat was crowded with passengers, mostly Brazi-
lians and negroes, but amongst them several German Jews going
up to buy diamonds.

The bay has all the appearance of an inland lake, there
being several islands scattered about in it covered with green to
the water's edge. Near its mouth the banks of the river are
somewhat low but backed by hills, and here and there are
mangrove swamps. As the river was ascended the hills and
cliffs on either hand soon became higher. They are thickly
covered with vegetation, but with cliffs and occasional rock
masses showing out bare amongst it.

The scenery on the whole is not so unlike that of the Ehine,
excepting that there are no castles : but the white buildings
of sugar estates perched here and there on the tops of the lower
hills take their place. The far-off hills appear of the usual
blueish green due to distance, and successive ranges become
gradually yellower as they lie nearer to the eye of the observer
and show more and more plainly the forms of the vegetation

BAH1A. 93

clothing them ; only in the actual foreground do the palms
and feathering bamboos, planted in long lines as boundaries,
distinguish the scenery as tropical. The bamboos are especially
conspicuous, from the bright yellow green of their foliage. The
steamer left Bahia at 10 a.m. and reached Caxoeira at 4 p.m.

caxoeira. — There are two towns at Caxoeira, one on each
side of the river. These consist of the usual whitewashed
houses and two or three churches, one broad street and several
narrow ones, with mostly dirty dilapidated two-storied houses
tailing off towards the country into one-storied hovels. On
the river, canoes hollowed out of a single tree trunk, simple
and trough-like in form and pointed at both ends, ply between
the town and its suburb. They are large enough to contain six
persons.

The hotel at which we stayed consisted of a restaurant below
and a long barn-like chamber above, with a passage down the
middle, and a series of small bed chambers on either hand,
enclosed by partitions about twelve feet in height. As one lay
in bed one looked up at the bare rafters and tiles, and was apt to
receive unpleasant remembrances from the bats. I have seen
sleeping places arranged in the same manner in the hotel at
Point de Galle, Ceylon, and it is closely similar in all Japanese
houses ; the great disadvantage is that you have to put up with
the snorings and conversations of all the guests in the hotel.

In the evening, just outside the town, in a small pond, a
number of small toads were making a perfectly deafening noise.
The sound is like a very loud harsh cat's mew, and I could not
at first believe that it would come from so small an animal. It
is however not unlike the extraordinary moan made by the
fire-bellied toad of Europe {Bomhincdor igneus), but much louder
and with more distinct intervals between the sounds. The frog
tribe made a horrible noise at night at Caxoeira, a bull frog
shouting the loudest with a deep bass voice.

Trip inland. — I started on my trip in the morning. I was to
go to Feira St. Anna, about 28 miles from Caxoeira, to see the
great fair held there every Monday, and from thence go down to
St. Amaro, a town on another river running into the bay, whence
I could take steamer for Bahia. Caxoeira, Feira St. Anna, and

94 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

St. Amaro, form with each other roughly an equilateral triangle,
being each distant from the other about eight leagues.

My guide was a German, who acted as interpreter on the
railroad. He spoke English, French, Italian, Spanish and
Portuguese, and had been in Brazil about twelve years. He
was a wild sort of young fellow, and had undergone various
vicissitudes of fortune, having been once reduced to selling
jerked beef, and once having been a dancing-master. He was
a capital merry companion, knowing everyone on the road and
having a joke for all.

We rode extremely well-broken mules of large size that
ambled along, rendering it no labour to ride. Mine much
preferred his natural rough trot to ambling, and tried to make
me put up with it, finding that I was a tyro at mule riding.
But I was told that I was ruining the beast by letting Mm get
into bad habits, and was told to dig in my spurs and jerk back
his head with the bit at the same time. This receipt never
failed to make the poor brute so thoroughly uncomfortable that
he ambled as softly as possible at once.

The road led up the steep side of the river valley on to the
table land above, From the top of the hill there is a fine view
of the river and its valleys, and the white town below. Some
trees, the leaves of which turn scarlet before dropping, set
off the green of the rest of the landscape. In their action on
foliage and plant life generally, the wet and dry seasons take
the place of summer and winter at home, and many plants
become bare of their leaves at the dry season, and only burst
out again into leaf at the commencement of the wet season.
This condition is far more marked in other regions of South
America. Humboldt observed that certain trees anticipated the
coming wet season, and put out their leaves some weeks before
there was any appearance of its approach.

The road was very much like a green lane. In places a
regular slough of mud, in others dry and sandy ; it was broad,
but usually more or less overgrown with grass and weeds, with
a narrow track picked out along the best ground by the mules.
There were numerous cottages along the road, and fields of
tobacco, maize, and cassava ; every now and then a bit of wood

BAHIA. 95

was passed with beautiful flowers growing about it, and amongst
them numerous forms of Melastomacece with their characteristic
three-veined leaves.

I saw here most of the plants which I had collected at
Fernando do ISTorhona growing as road-side weeds. As we
rode on, a splendid Iguana, about three feet in length, ran across
the road. I was astonished at the brilliant dark green and
bright yellow-green colouring of the animal, and have never
seen any other lizard so bright.

Every now and then a village was passed ; in the first, as it
was Sunday, the villagers were enjoying a cock-fight. Every
villager keeps a fighting-cock. Good Lisbon wine is sold along
the road ; the drinking-places consist of a hole about a yard
square in the gable-end of the usual mud-walled cottage, placed
at such a height as to be convenient to a man on horseback, who
thus gets his drink without dismounting. Ladies travel along
the road either in the saddle or in a sedan chair slung between
two horses or mules by means of a long pole.

A thick growth of myrtles and shrubs which was passed,
was pointed out as having been the hiding-place of a notorious
highway robber, a negro named Lucas, who used to lay in wait
for merchants on their way to the fair at St. Anna ; he was the
terror of the district, and committed several murders and worse
atrocities. Though he was caught and executed in 1859, stories
about him are already beginning to assume a mythical dress,
and I was told that miraculous flowers grew out from a tree to
which he bound one of his victims, a white girl, leaving her to
die of exposure.

We took seven and a half hours over the 28 miles to Feira

St. Anna.

Feira St. Anna. — The town consists of about three long
parallel streets, with a broad cross street, or rather open oblong
space on which the small dealers erect their booths on fair day.
We rode into the town at about five o'clock in the evening.

The girls were all dressed in their best, expecting home their
various sweethearts who are away all the week in search of
cattle, and only come to town on Sundays in time for the fair
on Monday. Several of them greeted my guide as an old

96 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

friend, as we rode up a long street to the other end of the town.
Here is an open common-like space surrounded by houses, which
serves as tobacco and cattle market. We stopped at an inn close
to the market.

The inn was a one-storied house, consisting of an eating room
fronting the street, and two sleeping rooms, and a kitchen behind.
The eating room had large windows with jalousies, but no glass,
looking out upon the market. It had a cement floor, a trestle
table at one end for eating on, a small table opposite with a red
curtained box upon it, containing the household gods, the Virgin
in plaster, and Sta. Antoinetta in china, and a half round table
with an inkstand for the use of those customers who could write.

The host, an old Brazilian, greeted us with great politeness,
and we bowed according to custom to the assembled guests.
The company consisted of about half-a-dozen cattle dealers, who
were in animated discussion concerning the prices of stock.
One of them, who was quite black, was evidently the sharpest of
the lot, and a wag. Presently there came in a dirty coarse-
looking grey-haired man with a black skull-cap on; he wore a
dilapidated black garment something like an Inverness cape.
He was chief vicar of the town ; he was in considerable excite-
ment, and addressed himself to the black cattle dealer, who
produced a letter for him.

The reverend gentleman had not got his spectacles with him,
so the host proceeded to spell out the letter aloud. It appeared
that the vicar did a bit of general trading, and had sent some
horses, mules, and slaves to a neighbouring fair, in hopes of a
good price. The letter was to inform him that he had made a
bad speculation, and that no buyer had been found. The vicar
was in a great rage, and made an excited oration about the
hardships of his position and terrible depreciation in the value
of slaves, and left. He was said to receive £60 per annum as
stipend and fees in addition.

We had some excellent fresh beef for dinner, fried in small
pieces with garlic and potatoes and carrots, and with it farinha,
the coarse meal made from cassava root, the fine siftings from
which are tapioca. The farinha is universally used here, and is
very good with gravy.

BAHIA. 97

The sleeping apartment was a space of abont eight feet square,
separated from the front room by a low partition : in it were
three light cane-bottomed sofas, one at each end, and one op-
posite the door ; they were packed so close together as to touch
one another. A neatly folded small coverlet and a pillow were
placed in the middle of each.

Here we turned in ; the third bed being occupied by a very
dirty dealer in tobacco. Eenderecl sleepless by the fleas, I lay
awake most of the night listening to the mingled crying of
children, barking of dogs, croaking of frogs in the marsh below,
and squeaking and groaning of the axles of the ox-carts bringing
merchandise to the fair.

Though other charges were comparatively cheap, we had
each to pay two shillings for our beds, as did also some of the
cattle dealers who slept in a small house over the way, rented
by the host for that purpose, and to keep the guests' saddles and
bridles in.

At 6 A.M. there was no bustle or signs of the fair, and not
till 9 or 10 o'clock did strings of mules, laden each with a
pair of bales of tobacco, arrive opposite the inn. The mules
carry about seven or eight arrobas (arroba = 25 lbs.). The
tobacco comes to the market compressed and cut into neat
rectangular bundles ; the merchants test it by pulling some
from the bundle and rolling a rough cigar.

In the broad open street in the middle of the town were
rows of small booths, at which farinha, fruit, vegetables, and
jerked beef, imported largely from Buenos Ayres, were for sale ;
the dried beef varies in price from six to two milreis = 2s. an
arroba. It seemed singular that it should pay to bring it to a
place where fresh meat was so abundant.

Other stalls offered needles and thread, sweet stuff for
children, &c. ; but most trying to a naturalist's eye, were stalls
where various Eodents and other small native animals were for
sale, spitted on wooden skewers, roasted and dried for eating.
Amongst these I saw at least a dozen of the tree-climbing ant-
eater, the Tamandua, and many Three-toed Sloths : the skulls of
all were split open, and they were utterly lost to science. The
flesh is supposed to cure various diseases.

98 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

Makers of the long riding boots so fashionable here wan-
dered about the fair trying to sell their handiwork, and I bought
from a similar wanderer one of the vaqueiro's leather hats,
which did me the best of service in thick and thorny forests
throughout the remainder of the cruise ; with this on my head
I could butt my way head first into any bush with impunity.

Close by the market-place was the church of the vicar
already mentioned, which had a mosque-like dome ornamented
with variously coloured dinner and tea plates set in patterns in
cement, a very original form of decoration.

In the leather market quantities of skins of leather were
exposed for sale, and also tanned puma skins used for saddle-
cloths, and boa-constrictor skins, also tanned, used to make boots
and said to be remarkably waterproof.

But the great sight of the fair is the cattle market, the
situation of which has already been described ; the cattle are
bred at estates far up the country, where they run wild in the
bush and are caught and branded, and drafted for market every
two years.

The men who look after and drive the cattle are termed
" vaqueiros " in Portuguese. They are of all shades of colour, from
black to white ; they are dressed when at work from head to
foot in undyed red brown leather ; they wear leather breeches,
high leather boots with huge spurs, a leather coat like a longish
jacket, and a leather hat with rounded close-fitting crown and
broad brim : they ride small rough horses, which are worth
at Feira St. Anna from £4 to £5. They ride in saddles of the
form commonly called Mexican or Spanish.

The vaqueiros receive as payment from the owners every
tenth head of cattle brought to market. They are, of course,
extremely expert riders, and it is marvellous what work they get
out of their small horses.

The breeders rarely bring the cattle to market on their own
account, but sell them to dealers, who take them to Feira
St. Anna, and hand them over to other dealers again, who sell
them in Bahia or Caxoeira.

The cattle are driven by the vaqueiros, who use a short,
leather thong to strike them with. Bands of from 20 to 50 head

BAHIA. 99

of cattle were being driven into the market as we approached.
A vaqueiro rides in front of each herd, one on each side, and one
or more behind. They keep up a constant shouting, and bring
the animals along at a fair pace.

Every now and then, a beast wilder than the rest, or less
exhausted by the long journey from the interior, breaks away,
and goes off at full gallop over the open market-place or up the
street. Off gallop two or three vaquieros, in full chase, with
outstretched arms, spurring their horses to the utmost. They
try to drive the beast back into the herd, and often succeed
forthwith ; but often it gets in amongst another herd, and then
it is wonderful to see how rapidly they manage to single it out,
get it on the outside of the herd, and start it afresh.

Sometimes the animals are very fresh and wild, and make off
at full pace, and cannot be headed. The vaqueiros then strain
every effort to come up behind them, catch hold of their tails,
and spurring their horses forward so as to get up alongside the
beasts, give a sudden violent pull, which twists the animals round,
and throws them sprawling on their sides.

The cattle, though they fall so heavily that this expedient is
resorted to as little as possible at the fair, because it bruises the
meat, are often up after a fall and off again in an instant ; but
two or three falls knock the breath out of them, and they are
then driven back to the herd quietly. Sometimes, even this
treatment does not subdue them, and then they are lassoed
round the horns and dragged back.

The various herds were driven in compact bodies against the
walls bounding the market, and some of the vaqueiros dis-
mounted, and kept the cattle together by the use of their thongs
and shouting, but one at least at every herd remained mounted
ready to chase any animal which might break away. The scene
was most exciting. Often three or four cattle were loose at once
and careering madly in all directions, jumping over obstacles
like deer, and with two or three vaqueiros after each, at full
gallop, spurring their little horses to the utmost, twisting and
turning with wonderful dexterity.

One wild cow went right up the main street. She was very
fast, and five vaqueiros had a sort of race after her ; now one

H 2

100 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

gained a little, now another, and it appeared as if the beast were
going to make off altogether ; but at last a big black vaqueiro
shot ahead, and threw her sprawling in the road. I kept close
to a sheltering corner, ready to retreat round it when a beast
came in my direction.

The cattle dealers rode round from herd to herd, on their
mules and horses, and most of the dealing was done on horseback.
As soon as a herd was sold, it was driven off, one or more
vaqueiros accompanying the drovers, according to the wildness
of the cattle.

In the middle of the open space, horses and mules were
being sold. The sellers of the horses were mounted on them,
and were showing off their paces in an open lane formed
amongst a crowd of buyers and lookers-on. The sellers made
their horses amble full pace up the lane, turn sharp round, and
return : and on reaching the starting-point, stop suddenly,
without slacking pace in the least beforehand, in doing which
the animals were thrown almost back upon their haunches. The
being able to stop thus suddenly when in full pace is one
of the points most admired in horses by Brazilians.

The horses are small, but well made. Good well-trained
horses cost about £40. Good riding mules are worth as much or
even more. The Brazilians of the better class ride their ambling
horses, with their legs straight and stiff and carried right forward,
with the toes turned up and the tips of the toes only resting on
the stirrup irons. The vaqueiros, however, ride much in the
usual English fashion.

Sheep are used as beasts of burden in a small way in Feira
St. Anna. I saw three or four laden with small barrels of water
slung across their backs. They were driven by children, who
were thus taking water from the well outside the town round to
the various houses. The sheep seemed perfectly trained, and
went along at a smart pace. Sheep are used as beasts of burden
in Ladak to transport goods over the mountains of Little Thibet,
and carry from 20 to 30 lbs. ; * but their use for such purpose is
very uncommon.

In the crowd we met with a German farmer, who was a

* " The Middle Kingdom," Williams, Vol. I, p. 204.

BAHIA. 101

friend of my companion, and he invited us to pass the night at
his house, his farm lying on the road to St. Amaro, by which
we were to travel. We had our mules brought up to the inn
door, and there gave them a feed of maize to make sure that they
got it. We saddled them ourselves in front of the inn, and
after much ceremonious shaking of hands with the host, and
polite speeches, rode off.

On the road we passed several herds of cattle, which were
being driven towards Baliia. In one of these some of the cattle
were very wild. There were three vaqueiros in charge of it, a man,
and two lads of from 16 to 18 years of age. There was thick
bush on either side of the road, and every now and then the cattle
broke away into this. The use of the rough lurcher-like clogs
which follow the vaqueiros now appeared. In the thick scrub
the vaqueiro could do nothing without his dog. The cattle are
out of sight in an instant, and go off dashing full pace through
the bushes. The dogs are after them at their heels at once, and
drive them, to the vaqueiros, who dash off into the thick of
the bushes in pursuit, bending right forward in the saddle, and
stooping till their heads are beside their horses' necks, to avoid
the branches.

One cow came full charge down the road behind me, and I
had only just time to back my mule into the bush out of the
way. One of the lads was after her. He seized her tail just as
he was opposite to me, held on for about twenty yards, and then
digging in his spurs and shooting forwards, turned her over with
a thud. She was up, however, again, and off into the bush in an
instant, and he after her with the dog in full pursuit, and I saw
him disappear under the branch of a tree with his body laid
right back on his horse's rump to avoid it.

We passed about sunset through a village, where there is a
hospital, a very substantial building, erected by the vicar, who
diligently collected subscriptions for that purpose for many
years. The church was lighted up and the people were going to
vespers. One of the villagers was pointed out to me by the
German farmer as being the hereditary owner of a large estate
worth several thousand pounds, and a number of slaves. He was
quite black and dressed in tatters, and looked like a slave him-

102 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

self, and was driving cows along the road. He conld neither
read nor write.

Onr host was an emigrant from the Hartz District. He had
been ont in Brazil about 14 years, and had a farm of several
hundred acres, most of which was grass land ; the grass growing
where sugar had once been planted. He bought cattle and sheep at
Feira St. Anna, kept them some time on his farm, and then killed
them and sold the meat in St. Amaro and the district. He also
grew a large patch of sugar-cane, which was ground at a large
mill close by, he receiving half the sugar produced as his share.
He had bought one slave : all foreigners, except English, being
allowed to possess slaves in Brazil. The slave was married to a
girl, who was principal servant in the house. The farmer had
assisted the girl to buy her freedom.

Frau Wilkens, his wife, who had no children, described the
girl as most trustworthy, honest, and deeply attached. Her
small child, a chubby little negro, was a great pet in the house.
The greater part of the work on the farm was done by slaves
hired from the owners of neighbouring plantations. There was a
row of about thirty very small wooden houses or huts on a
neighbouring hill, where the slaves belonging to the owner of the
sugar mill lived.

Cassava or Mandiocea, which is a Euphorbiaceous plant,
allied to our common spurge, was also grown on the estate,
and there was a small manufactory of farinha. The Cassava
(JatropJm manihot) is an indigenous South American plant,
though now widely spread in the tropics, and was cultivated in
Brazil by the original inhabitants, before they were molested
by Europeans. The plant is not unlike the castor-oil plant
in appearance, and is planted in rows slightly banked up.

The tubers are long and spindle shaped. The preparation of
them was conducted in a small hut. A large fly-wheel was
turned by a negro, and drove, by means of a band, at a rapid
rate, a small grinding wheel provided with iron cutting teeth.
The cassava root, which had been peeled and washed by a
negress, was reduced to a coarse meal by means of the grinding
wheel. The meal was then put into a wooden trough, and a
board was tightly pressed upon it by means of a lever, heavily

BAH I A. 10

weighted with stones. The cassava was thus left in the press
for twelve hours, in order that the poisonous juice which it
contains should be expressed. The meal was then taken out and
dried on a smooth stone surface, beneath which a wood fire was
burning.

The resulting chalky- white meal, when sifted, yields samples
of three degrees of fineness. The finest, a white flour-like
powder, is tapioca, i.e., true, original tapioca, an imitation of
which, made from potato starch, is commonly sold in England.
The intermediate sample is used in starching clothes and in
cooking; and the coarsest substance, which is coarser than
oatmeal, and consists of irregularly-shaped dried chips of the
roots, is called farinha, and is, as before described, commonly
eaten with gravy at dinner, taking the place of bread, and
forming a staple article of food.

Our host was well to do, having thrived best of all the
emigrants who came out writh him, and, having no family to pro-
vide for, talked of going home soon. An old German was
staying in the house, an idler, whose real occupation was
gardening, his father having been Imperial gardener, as he
informed us with great pride. He had landed, more than twenty
years before, at Eio, and had reached Bahia on foot. He was
now travelling from estate to estate, and staying at each as long
as he could, under pretence of doing up the garden, but although
he had been two months at the farm, the few square yards of
garden were as yet untouched.

He had been too lazy to learn Portuguese, and understood
very little. He did a little trade in the way of peddling books.
He seemed, however, a favourite at the farm, and was well taken
care of, tea being made as a special luxury for him, and he had
many stories to tell, and quaint sayings, and had amusingly
strong Prussian sympathies.

The farmer guided us to a large tract of primitive forest close
by, which was extremely difficult to penetrate. Here I caught a
curious bat (Saccopteryx canina). This bat has remarkable
glandular pouches on the under sides of the wings, at the elbow-
joints ; these pouches are well developed only in the males,
rudimentary in the females, and secrete a red-coloured strongly-

104 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

smelling substance, supposed to act as a sexual attraction. The
bat was resting on a bare tree-trunk, asleep, the dense forest
growth overhead making this exposed situation quite dark
enough for it. I caught it with a butterfly net.

On our way back to the farm, we watched some ants
carrying off bits of cassava leaves to their holes. One cannot
walk anywhere in the neighbourhood of Bahia without seeing
these Leaf-cutting Ants (CEcodoma) at work. Their habits have
been described by many observers, and recently by Mr. Belt * at
great length.

One soldier-ant was carrying a piece of young cassava root, two
inches in length. It held the stick by one end thrown over its
back, but not touching it, the other end projecting far behind the
insect. There was just a balance. The slightest extra weight on
the hinder tip of the stick would have upset the bearer back-
wards. The ant staggered from side to side under its burden,
like a heavily-laden porter, and got along very slowly.

I pulled the burden away and then put it back again. The
ant struggled a long while to get it back into its old position,
but could not. Then it tried to balance it crossways by the
middle, but one end always tilted up, and the other stuck against
the ground. So at last the ant cut the stick in two, and carried
off one half, a worker hoisting the other. The further road to
St. Amaro lay through sugar estates all the way. I left
St. Amaro early next morning by steamer, and reached Bahia at
10 A.M.

Bahia. — On the quay I bought a living full-grown Three-
toed Sloth {Bradypus tridactylus) from a countryman for two
shillings. We kept the animal alive in our work-room for some
days, where it hung on to the book shelves and bottle racks,
and crawled about. As I could not get it to feed, I had to
kill it.

The beast was the most inane-looking animal I ever saw, and
never attempted to bite or scratch ; none of us could look at its
face without laughing. It merely hung tight on to anything
within reach. It showed, however, one sign of intelligence.

* " The Naturalist in Nicaragua," by Thos. Belt, p. 71, et seq.
London, John Murray, 1874.

BAHIA. 105

I hung it on a brass rod used for suspending a lamp beneath one
of the skylights in our room. It remained there half a day,
hanging head downward, and constantly endeavouring to reach
the book shelves near by, but without success. At last it found
out an arrangement of its limbs by which this was possible, and
got away from the lamp rod, and in future whenever I hung it
up on the rod it climbed to the book shelves within five minutes
or so.

When I reached the ship I found that a case of yellow fever
had occurred on board. This determined our immediate de-
parture, and we sailed for Tristan da Cunha direct, being
obliged to hasten to cold weather, for fear of other cases breaking
out. We thus missed our intended visit to the islands of
Trinidad and Martin Vas, to which I had looked forward with
the greatest interest, since they are the only islands in the
Atlantic, the flora and fauna of which are absolutely unknown.

A word or two about slavery in Brazil. A law is now in
force by which every child born in the country is free, and
further, a master is obliged to free a slave if the slave can raise
a sufficient sum to buy himself off. The value to be paid is
fixed by a Government valuer, and the sum is always fixed as
low as possible by him. Slaves commonly buy themselves off,
and a Society exists which assists them to do so, advancing the
money on loan, and receiving it back by instalments. Slaves
also go round and collect money from charitable people to assist
them in the matter. The fact that the children become free, and
that the slaves can buy themselves off so cheaply, has made them
fall very much in value. A female slave's time is much taken up
with her children, which a master has to feed, although after all
they do not belong to him. Hence a strong young man was
worth, at the time of our visit, only about £120, and a young
woman about £70 to £80.

The slaves, however, do not often change hands. Old
families pride themselves on the numbers of their hereditary
slaves, and often having fallen in the world and being poorly off,
have nevertheless a dozen slaves, for whom they find hardly any
work, and whom they can scarcely afford to keep. These slaves
are much attached to their masters, and often their masters to

106 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

them. A member of the House of Assembly has been known to
refuse to speak on an occasion of importance, because his foster
brother, a slave, had just died.

The slaves are hired out as servants: and foreign residents,
especially English, who cannot hold slaves, hire them as domestic
servants. They make the engagements with the slaves them-
selves, and pay them the wages, and the slaves carry these wages
to their owners, who, if kind ones, give them a fourth part or so
as a present. Other slaves are hired from the owners, but not
the best ones. At the best hotel in Bahia, kept by a German,
most of the servants were thus hired slaves. The proprietor
said that was much better than buying slaves, since when they
were ill you sent them back to their owners and got fresh ones.

Owners also employ their slaves as sellers of various goods
in the streets. The slaves are usually well treated, but in some
rare cases owners are cruel and beat them. At Caxoeira, a
pretty girl was collecting money to buy herself off because,
according to her story, her master beat her constantly. There is
no slave market in Bahia. The slaves that have not been born
in the country, but were brought from the coast, have marks
cut on their cheeks, the marks of the tribes to which they
belong, and of which they are proud. There are many of these
to be seen in the streets ; but there is no means of distinguishing
a slave from a freed man. The following slave statistics are
taken from the Anglo-Brazilian Times : —

Brazil Slave statistics.—" In the province of Goyaz the 8,903
slaves registered in 1872, had on the 31st of December, 1875,
become reduced to 7,888 by 357 deaths, 222 liberations, and 436
removals. At the same date there existed 921 freebom children
of slaves. In the province of Pernambuco, during the same
four years, the 106,201 slaves diminished 3,386 by death, and
1,049^ by emancipations. From September 28th, 1871, to the
end of December last, the number of children of slaves born free
under the law of 1871 was 12,312, of whom 2,802 died, leaving
9,510. In the province of San Paulo there died, from April,
1872, to the end of 1875, of the 147,746 slaves registered, 8,561
and 3,410 were emancipated. In 111 of the 151 parishes the
ireeborn births were 18,176, of whom 5,861 had died.

BAHIA.

107

We left Baliia on September 25th. The voyage to Tristan
da Cunha was not very eventful. ' A suspicious case of fever
appeared on board, and we were for some time in anxious
suspense as to whether we were not going to suffer from an
epidemic of yellow fever, but all turned out well. We crossed
the track of sailing vessels bound round the Cape, and sighted
two English vessels bound for Chittagong and Point de Galle.
There is some doubt as to when the first Albatross was met with ;
but a bird, either an Albatross or the Giant Petrel (Ossifraga) was
seen on October 4th, in lat. 27° 43'. We arrived at Tristan da
Cunha on October 15th.

108

CHAPTER V.

TRISTAN DA CUNHA, INACCESSIBLE ISLAND,
NIGHTINGALE ISLAND.

Settlement of the Island. Geological Structure. Vegetation. Tempe-
rature of Fresh Water. Phylica arborea. Eigorous Climate. Con-
dition of the Settlers. Inaccessible Island. Eock hopper Penguins.
Tussock Grass. Penguin Eookeries. Peculiar Land Birds. Noddies
and other Sea Birds. Southern Skuas. Wild Swine. Change of
Habits of Penguins. Nightingale Island. Vast Penguin Eookery.
Seal Caves. Eocks Worn by the Feet of the Penguins. Mollymauks
and their Nests. Derivation of Seamen's Names for Southern
Animals. Dogs run Wild in a Penguin Eookery. Migrations of
Penguins and Seals. Insects, &c, of the Group. Flowering Seasons.
Sea Beans. Eelations of the Flora.

Tristan da Cimha, Oct. 15th, 1813. — The ship arrived at
Tristan da Cunha on October 15th. The island of Tristan da
Cimha is one of a group composed of three, the other two
being called Nightingale and Inaccessible Islands. Besides these,
another small island, Gough Island, lies about 200 miles to the
south and somewhat to the east of Tristan da Cunha, and from
its vegetation would seem to be naturally included in the group.

Tristan da Cunha itself lies in Lat. 37° 2' 48" S., Long. 12°
18' 20'' W., distant westward from the Cape of Good Hope,
1,550 miles, and about one-third farther from Cape Horn, lying
nearly on a line drawn between the two Capes ; it lies 1,320
miles south of St. Helena. The island is about 16 square miles in
area* it is nearly circular in form, its highest point is 8,326 feet

above sea level.

The latest information concerning the inhabitants of the
island, extant at the time of our visit, is to be found in the

* I regret exceedingly, that owing to ignorance of the nature of a
German geographical square mile, I concluded that Grisebach had, in his
" Veer, der Erde," made an error in describing the area of Tristan as two
geographical square miles, and that I stated this in " Jouvii. Linn. Soc."
Bot, Vol. XIV, p. 328.

TRISTAN DA CUNHA. 109

"Cruize of H.M.S. < Galatea/ " p. 28 (London, Allen and Co., 1869).

In this account reference is made to the various mentions of the

place in books of travel. The visit of the Dutch brig " Dourga " in

about 1827 is omitted * Before the time of the second exile

of Napoleon, the island had been settled by some American

agriculturists ; but their adventure failed, and the place was but

scantily inhabited until the date at which Napoleon was sent

to St. Helena.

A corps of Artillery was then sent to Tristan, and batteries

were begun to be constructed. A corporal named Glass received

permission to stay on the island when the men were withdrawn,

and a small colony sprang up which has lasted till the present

time, Glass having been for many years regarded as a sort of

governor. The numbers were at one time over 200, but were at

the time of our visit about 90 ; the younger members of the

settlement constantly migrate to the Cape.

We anchored at early morning on the north-west side of the
island of Tristan da Cunha, nearly opposite to the settlement.
The island here rises in a long black cliff range; above this
stretches a plateau about 2,000 feet above sea level, on which
can be discerned from below two or three small secondary
craters ; above the plateau rises the Peak, a conical mountain with
rounded summit, which at the time of our visit and throughout
the year, excepting in the middle of summer, is covered over with
a smooth shining cap of snow, its lower slopes being dotted over
with irregular patches of snow, between which the dark rocks
showed out in relief. The whole island has a peculiar cold
barren uninhabitable appearance, which seems to be character-
istic of the islands of the Southern Ocean.

The cliffs show a very regular stratification, and are com-
posed throughout of a series of beds lying nearly horizontally, but
dipping slightly towards the shores, at least they appear to do
so east and west of the anchorage. The beds, which are con-
spicuously marked, are alternately of hard basalt and looser
scoriaceous lava, with occasional beds of a red tuff. The whole
section is traversed by numerous dykes, mostly vertical and

* " Voyage of the Dutch Brig of War, ' Dourga,' " p. 2. Trans, by W.
Earle, London, John Madden and Co., 1840.

110 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

usually narrow, and is not unlike that exposed in the Grand Cural
at Madeira in appearance.

Streams, or rather cascades, which come dashing down to the
sea during the constant heavy rains, have eaten their way into
the cliffs, and their beds form conspicuous features in the view as
narrow gullies, descending the rocks in a series of irregular steps.
At the foot of the cliffs, immediately opposite the anchorage, are
debris slopes and irregular rocky and sandy ground, forming a
narrow strip of low shore land.

The settlement lies on a broader and more even stretch of
low land which extends westwards. In the margin of this
lower tract a small low secondary cliff has been formed by the
waves. Steep debris slopes lead from the cliffs above to the
settlement tract, and the cliffs are here and there broken into
ledges and deep gullies, by which ascent to the summit is easy.

At the landing-place the beach is formed of black volcanic
sand, but elsewhere in the neighbourhood, of coarse basaltic
boulders. At the summit of the Peak, as the inhabitants told
us, is a crater basin with a lake at the bottom of it. From their
description given, it appears that there is something like the
Canadas of the Peak of Teneriffe, around the terminal crater.

The cliffs have a scanty covering of green, derived mainly
from grasses, sedges, mosses, and ferns, with darker patches of
the peculiar trees of the island (Phylica arhoi m), and the crowberry
(Empetrum nigrum var. rubrum). These dark patches become
more and more marked towards the summit. Conspicuous
patches of bright green are formed under the cliffs at the foot of
the watercourses by a dock (Rumex). Further dotted about
amongst the other herbage are rounded tufts of pale blueish-
green, consisting of the tall reed-like grass (JSpartina arun-
dinacea), which is peculiar to the Tristan da Cunha group and
Amsterdam Island.

On nearer inspection the damp foot of the cliff is found to
be covered with mosses and liverworts, which latter form, in
favourable situations, continuous green sheets covering the earth
beneath the grass.

Two ferns, an Asplenium (A. obtusatum, Forst.), growing in
the clefts of the rocks just as does our home A. marimcm, and

TRISTAN DA CUNHA. Ill

Lomaria alpina are most abundant under the cliffs. The Lomaria
plants where situate on stony slopes, and comparatively starved,
were all provided with fertile fronds, whilst when growing in
rich vegetable mould, they were commonly without fructification.

The commonest flowering plants under the cliffs are Apium
australe, wild celery, almost the same as the common garden
plant abundant here, in Tierro del Fuego, and in the Falkland
Islands : the crowberry : the common sow-thistle, a cosmopolitan
weed : and a plant with strongly scented leaves (Chenopodium
tornentosum), which is used as tea by the islanders, a decoction
of the leaves being drunk with milk and sugar. The islanders
call it " tea."

Creeping amongst the damp moss, is a small narrow-leaved
plant with small bright red berries (Nertera depressa).

The streams which run down the cliffs, and which vary from
violent dashing cascades in rain time, to narrow rills fed only
by the melting of the snow above in dry weather, were small at
the time of our visit ; their water soaks into the banks of sand
at the foot of the cliffs and on the shores, and is mostly lost,
but in some places reappears in the shape of shallow freshwater
ponds close to the sea beach.

The water of the streams had a temperature of 50° F., whilst
the ponds were warmer, 54° F. The temperature of the lower
regions of the island is no doubt constantly reduced by the
descent of the cold water from the snow far above ; in the gully
above the settlement, shrubs of Phylica arborea commence at
about 400 feet elevation.

The trees have in this locality all been cut down for fire-
wood, but there is still plenty of wood on the island : Phylica
arborea is the only tree occurring in the islands ; it is a species
found only in the Tristan da Cunha group, in Gough Island, and
in the far-off island of Amsterdam, 3,000 miles distant. Other
species of the genus occur at the Cape of Good Hope, but they
are low and shrubby. It belongs to the natural order of the
Buckthorns (Rhamnacew).

The foliage of the tree is of a dark glossy green, with the
under sides of the narrow, almost needle-like leaves, white and
downy. Hence the tree, which in habit is very like a yew,

112 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

presents as a whole a mixture of glaucous grey, and dark olive-
o-reen shades ; it bears berries of about the size of sweet-peas
which are eaten by the finch which lives in the islands.

The constant heavy gales do not permit the tree to grow
erect ; the trunk is usually procumbent at its origin for several
feet, and then rises again often at a right-angle. It is always more
or less twisted or gnarled. In sheltered places, as under the cliffs
on the north-east of Inaccessible Island, the tree is as high as 25
feet, but it is not nearly so high on the summit of the island, though
the trunks are said there to reach a length of 30 feet or more.

The largest trunk I saw was about one foot in diameter, but
they are said to grow to eighteen inches. The wood of the tree is
brittle, and when exposed, rapidly decays, but is serviceable when
dried carefully with the bark on. The German settlers in Inacces-
sible Island, used it even for handles to their axes and other tools.
The Tristan da Cunha group has a terrible climate. For
nine months in the year there is constant storm and rain, with
snow. It is only in the three summer months that the weather
is at all fine. In October the " bad season," as the islanders
called it, was just beginning to pass away, but the weather was so
uncertain that the ship might have had to leave her anchorage
at a moment's notice, and only a steamer dared anchor at all.
Hence no one of our party was allowed to go for more than half
an hour out of sight of the ship, nor for a distance of more than
an hour's walk from the settlement.

I botanized under the cliffs on the lowland in the morning,
and intended to reserve the upper plateau and cliff ascent for
the afternoon, but as I was making my way up the steep
slope above the settlement in the afternoon at about 3 or 4
o'clock, suddenly a dark squall came scudding over the sea, and
rapidly reaching us, and climbing the hill-side, chilled us to
the bone. My guide, a small boy, born and bred in the island,
crouched down instantly under the tall grass and fern, lying on
his side, drawing up his legs, tucking in his head, and screwing
himself down into the grass like a hare into her form. We
followed his example, and found that the perfection of the shelter
to be thus obtained from such scanty herbage was astonishing.
The squall being felt at the anchorage, up went the recall

TRISTAN DA CUNHA. 113

flag on board the ship, and as soon as the hail ceased, I had to
hurry down to the shore, without having ascended the mountain
side for more than 500 feet. I was only able to secure a
specimen of the tree fern (Lomaria Boryana), which grows in
the islands, and is common also in the Falkland Islands and
Fuegia, and at the Cape of Good Hope.

The boy was peculiarly taciturn, and, like all the islanders,
extremely curt in his language, and very independent. Like
most of the others he showed a strong Yankee twang in the
little I got him to say, and he seemed to have considerable
difficulty in understanding what I said to him in ordinary
English, and indeed often not to be able to understand at all.

Having heard that there were penguins in the island, but at
some distance, and not to be approached without wading, I
had offered a reward of £1 for a pair, with their eggs. I found
them ready for me in one of the huts, and I paid for them.
Had I known what countless numbers I was so soon to be
amongst I should not have made such an offer, but I have found
in the long run, that on a voyage like this, where there is so
much uncertainty, it is always best to take the very first oppor-
tunity, and I always landed on the places we visited with the
very first boat, even if it were only for an hour in the evening.
It may come on to blow, and another chance may never occur.
I strongly advise any naturalist similarly situated to do the same.

The cottages of the Tristan people are built of huge blocks
of a soft red tuff, fitted together without mortar, and are
thatched with tussock grass. They are all low one-storied
houses, with small enclosures formed with low stone walls about
them, in which a few vegetables are grown, and pigs and geese
roam about. The potato fields are all walled for shelter from
the wind. A large quantity of potatoes are grown, and form the
principal source of food.

The islanders had about 400 or 500 head of cattle and about

as many sheep. They often lose cattle in the very cold weather

from exposure. There is no horse on the island. Formerly

there were numbers of wild rabbits, but they are now almost, if

not quite, extinct, as are certainly the wild goats and pigs, which

have been entirely killed off.

114 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

The Sea Elephants (Morunga elepliantina) have almost
entirely deserted the island. The last was seen two years be-
fore our visit on the beach, just below the settlement. Seals are
seldom seen on the island. The islanders make yearly visits to
Inaccessible and Nightingale Islands in pursuit of seals, but
these are becoming scarcer every year.

A mouse lives about the houses in the settlement, but there
is no rat on the island.

This I gathered from conversation with some of the islanders
in one of the cottages ; the walls of which were decorated all
over with pictures from illustrated newspapers. Several of the
women were dark, of mixed race, from the Cape of Good Hope.

On the way down to the beach I saw two willow bushes
growing in the stream running down from the settlement. The
stream has cut deeply into the alluvial soil, and the willows, here
entirely sheltered from the wind, thrive well. They could only
grow in such a place.

We got geese, sheep, beef, and potatoes from the Tristan
people, who knew well how to charge the full value for every-
tlnng. They are all sharp at a bargain, and as on an average
twelve ships visit them each year, or one a month, they manage
to live pretty comfortably without working very hard.

Four or five of them who came on board to receive the money
for the provisions, stayed as long as ever they could, till the ship
was well under way, begging for all sorts of things, such as
matches and copybooks for their children, and putting down all
the drink they could get. They never have any store of strong
drinks on shore, because when any spirits are landed the liquor
is cleared out at once in a single bout. At last the men went
over the side, and we made off for Inaccessible Island, where, as
we heard from the Tristan people, there were two Germans, who
might be in distress.

The appearance of Tristan da Cunha, as seen in the distance,
is very remarkable. The snowy peak up in the clouds shows
out far above the high dark plateau, with its precipitous cliffs
everywhere leading down to the sea.

Inaccessible Island, October 16th, 1873. — The ship moved over
to Inaccessible Island and kept close under its high cliffs all night.

TRISTAN DA CUNHA. 115

Inaccessible Island lies W. by S. i S. of Tristan, distant
about 23 miles, i.e., from the Peak of Tristan to the centre of
Inaccessible Island. The island is about 4£ miles in length, from
east to west, and about 2 miles broad, 4 square miles in area.
The highest point of the island is 1,840 feet in altitude. We
anchored on the north-east side.

All night the penguins were to be heard screaming on shore
and about the ship, and as parties of them passed by, they left
vivid phosphorescent tracks behind them as they dived through
the water alongside.

In the morning we had a view of the island. It presented
on this side a range of abrupt cliffs, about 1,000 feet in height,
of much the same structure as those of Tristan, viz., successive
layers of basalt, traversed by vertical or oblique dykes, but mostly
by narrow vertical ones. At the foot of the cliffs are some very
steep debris slopes extending in one place a long way up the
cliff, but not so as to render the ascent possible.

In front of these stretches a strip of narrow uneven ground,
formed of large detached rocks and detritus from the cliffs above,
which terminates seawards in a beach of black boulders and
large pebbles. In one place, where the cliff is somewhat lower
than elsewhere, there is a waterfall, which at the time of our
visit was scantily supplied with water, but from the marks left
by it on the rocks and vegetation, evidently attains much greater
dimensions in rainy weather. The cascade pours right down
from the high cliff above into a dark pool of peaty water on the
beach below. The rocks about its course are covered with
mosses and green incrusting plants.

The face of the cliff generally is sprinkled over with green,
the vegetation consisting principally of tussock grass (Spurt ina
arundinacea), Apium graveolens (a small sedge), Sonchus olcra-
ceus (Sow thistle), fiumex (Dock), and ferns: with dark green
patches of Phylica arbor ea on the debris slopes and ledges.
The strip of accessible lower shore land is mostly covered with
a dense growth of tall grass, called by the Tristan people
" tussock," but quite different in structure from the well-known
tussock of the Falklancls, though in outward habit resembling it

very closely.

i 2

116 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

Amongst the grass are several patches or small coppices of
Phylica arborea trees, which keep the ground beneath them free
from tussock, it being covered instead with a thick growth of
sedges, ferns, and mosses, which form an elastic carpet on the
dark peaty soil. Amongst the moss creeps Nertera depressa,
with its bright red berries, and the Potentilla-like Acama
ascendens grows here and there together with the "tea-plant''
of the islanders.

The stems and branches of the Phylica trees are covered with
lichens in tufts and variously coloured crusts, and the branches
of the trees meeting overhead these little islands as it were, in
the seas of tall grass, afford most pleasant shady retreats, which
seem a perfect paradise after the terrible struggle and fight
through the penguin rookery, which it is necessary to endure in
order to reach them.

In the early morning, we made out with a glass two men
standing on the shore gazing at the ship. The Captain went on
shore first, and brought off the men, who proved to be the two
Germans we had heard of at Tristan da Cunha. They were
overjoyed at the chance of escape from the island; we gave
them breakfast, and heard something of their story.

They both spoke English, one of them remarkably well.
They were brothers ; one of them had been an officer in the
German army during the war, the other one a sailor. They had
got landed at Inaccessible Island by a whaling vessel, in the
hopes that they would be able to make a considerable sum by
killing fur seals, and taking their skins. They had been bitterly
disappointed.*

After breakfast, I landed with one of the Germans as guide
with a large party. We passed through a broad belt of water,
covered with the floating leaves of the wonderful seaweed
Macrocystis pirifera, which here, as at Tristan and Nightingale
Island, forms a sort of zone around the greater part of the

* For an account of the sojourn of the Germans in the island, and
valuable particulars as to the habits of the various birds, see an article by
Mr. R Eichards, Paymaster, H.M.S. "Challenger," "Two Years on In-
accessible," in the "Cape Monthly Magazine," Dec, 1873. Cape Town,
J. C. Juta.

TRISTAN DA CUNHA. 117

island, and of which we afterwards saw so mnch at Kerguelen's
Land.

As we approached the shore, I was astonished at seeing a
shoal of what looked like extremely active very small porpoises
or dolphins. I could not imagine what the things could be,
unless they were indeed some most marvellously small Cetaceans;
they showed black above and white beneath, and came along in
a shoal of fifty or more, from seawards towards the shore at a
rapid pace, by a series of successive leaps out of the water, and
splashes into it again, describing short curves in the air, taking
headers out of the water and headers into it again; splash,
splash, went this marvellous shoal of animals, till they went
splash through the surf on to the black stony beach, and there
struggled and jumped up amongst the boulders and revealed
themselves as wet and dripping penguins, for such they were.

Much as I had read about the habits of penguins, I never
could have believed that the creatures I saw thus progressing
through the water, were birds, unless I had seen them to my
astonishment thus make on shore. I had subsequently much
opportunity of watching their habits.

We landed on the beach ; it was bounded along its whole
stretch at this point by a dense growth of tussock. The
tussock (Spartina arundinacea), is a stout coarse red-like grass :
it grows in large clumps, which have at their base large masses
of hard woody matter, formed of the bases of old stems and
roots.

In penguin rookeries, the grass covers wide tracts with a
dense growth like that of a field of standing corn, but denser
and higher, the grass reaching high over one's head.

The Falkland Island " tussock " (Dactylis coespitosa), is of
a different genus, but it seems to have a similar habit.
Here there is a sort of mutual-benefit-alliance between the
penguins and the tussock. The millions of penguins sheltering
and nesting amongst the grass, saturate the soil on which it
grows, with the strongest manure, and the grass thus stimulated
grows high and thick, and shelters the birds from wind and
rain, and enemies, such as the predatory gulls.

On the beach were to be seen various groups of penguins,

118

A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.

either coming from or going to the sea. There is only one
species of penguin in the Tristan group ; this is, Eudyjptes scdtator,

GROUP OF " ROCK HOPPERS " AT INACCESSIBLE ISLAND.

(From a photograph.)

or the " well diving jumper." The birds stand about a foot
and a half high; they are covered, as are all penguins, with a
thick coating of close set feathers, like the grebe's feathers that
muffs are made of. They are slate grey on the back and head,
snow white on the whole front, and from the sides of the head
projects backwards on each side a tuft of sulphur yellow plumes.
The tufts lie close to the head when the bird is swimming or
diving, but they are erected when it is on shore, and seem then
almost by their varied posture, to be used in the expression of
emotions, such as inquisitiveness and anger.

The bill of the penguin is bright red, and very strong and
sharp at the point, as our legs testified before the day was over ;
the iris is also red. The penguin's iris is remarkably sensitive
to light. When one of the birds was standing in our " work
room" on board the ship with one side of its head turned
towards the port, and the other away from the light, the pupil

TRISTAN DA CUNHA. 119

on the one side was contracted almost to a speck, whilst widely
dilated on the other; Captain Carmichael observed the same
fact.* The birds are subject to great variations in the amount
of light they use for vision, since they feed at sea at night as
well as in the day time.

It seems remarkable that there should be only one species
of penguin at the Tristan da Cunha group, since in most
localities several species occur together. It would have seemed
probable that a species of "jackass" penguin (Spheniscus),
should occur on the islands, since one species (S. Magellanicus),
occurs at the Falkland Islands and Fuegia, and another (S.
demersus), at the Cape of Good Hope, intermediate between
which two points Tristan da Cunha lies. The connection between
these two widely separated Sphenisci is wanting ; it perhaps once
existed at Tristan, and has perished.

Most of the droves of penguins made for one landing-place,
where the beach surface was covered with a coating of dirt from
their feet, forming a broad tract, leading to a lane in the tall
grass about a yard wide at the bottom, and quite bare, with a*
smoothly beaten black roadway ; this was the entrance to the
main street of this part of the " rookery," for so these penguin
establishments are called.

Other smaller roads led at intervals into the rookery to the
nests near its border, but the main street was used by the
majority of birds. The birds took little notice of us, allowing
us to stand close by, and even to form ourselves into a group for
the photographer, in which they were included.

This kind of penguin is called by the whalers and sealers
" rock-hopper," from its curious mode of progression. The birds
hop from rock to rock with both feet placed together, scarcely
ever missing their footing. When chased, they blunder and
fall amongst the stones, struggling their best to make off.

With one of the Germans as guide, I entered the main street.
As soon as one was in it, the grass being above one's head, one
was as if in a maze, and could not see in the least where one

* In the " Supplement to the British Museum Catalogue of Seals and
Whales," p. 7, reference is made to a like peculiarity of the iris in the case
of Otaria Jubata.

120 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

was going to. Various lateral streets lead off on each side from
the main road, and are often at their mouths as big as it, more-
over, the road sometimes divides for a little and joins again :
hence it is the easiest thing in the world to lose one's way, and
one is quite certain to do so when inexperienced in penguin
rookeries. The German, however, who was our guide on our
first visit, accustomed to pass through the place constantly for
two years, was perfectly well at home in the rookery and knew
every street and turning.

It is impossible to conceive the discomfort of making one's
way through a big rookery, hap-hazard, or " across country " as one
may say. I crossed the large one here twice afterwards with
the seamen carrying my basket and vasculum, and afterwards
went through a larger rookery still, at Nightingale Island.

You plunge into one of the lanes in the tall grass which at
once shuts out the surroundings from your view. You tread on
a slimy black damp soil composed of the birds' dung. The
stench is overpowering, the yelling of the birds perfectly terri-
'fying ; I can call it nothing else. You lose the path, or perhaps
are bent from the first in making direct for some spot on the
other side of the rookery.

In the path only a few droves of penguins, on their way to
and from the water, are encountered, and these stampede out
of your way into the side alleys. Now you are, the instant you
leave the road, on the actual breeding ground. The nests are
placed so thickly that you cannot help treading on eggs and
• young birds at almost every step.

A parent bird sits on each nest, with its sharp beak erect and
open ready to bite, yelling savagely " caa, caa, urr, urr," its red
eye gleaming and its plumes at half-cock, and quivering with rage.
No sooner are your legs within reach than they are furiously
bitten, often by two or three birds at once: that is, if you have
not got on strong leather gaiters, as on the first occasion of
visiting a rookery you probably have not.

At first you try to avoid the nests, but soon find that impos-
sible ; then maddened almost, by the pain, stench and noise, you
have recourse to brutality. Thump, thump, goes your stick, and at
each blow down goes a bird. Thud, thud, you hear from the

TKISTAN DA CUNHA. 121

men behind as they kick the "birds right and left off the nests,
and so you go on for a bit, thump and smash, whack, thud, " caa,
caa, urr, urr," and the path behind you is strewed with the
dead and dying and bleeding.

But you make miserably slow progress, and, worried to death,
at last resort to the expedient of stampeding as far as your breath
will carry you. You put down your head and make a rush
through the grass, treading on old and young hap-hazard, and
rushing on before they have time to bite.

The air is close in the rookery, and the sun hot above, and
out of breath, and running with perspiration, you come across
a mass of rock fallen from the cliff above, and sticking up in the
rookery ; this you hail as " a city of refuge." You hammer off it
hurriedly half a dozen penguins who are sunning themselves
there, and are on the look-out, and mounting on the top take out
your handkerchief to wipe away the perspiration and rest a while,
and see in what direction you have been going, how far you have
got, and in which direction you are to make the next plunge.
Then when you are refreshed, you make another rush, and so on.

If you stand quite still, so long as your foot is not actually
on the top of a nest of eggs or young, the penguins soon cease
biting at you and yelling. I always adopted the stampede
method in rookeries, but the men usually preferred to have their
revenge and fought their way every foot.

Of course it is horribly cruel thus to kill whole families
of innocent birds, but it is absolutely necessary. One must
cross the rookeries in order to explore the island at all, and
collect the plants, or survey the coast from the heights.

These penguins make a nest which is simply a shallow
depression in the black dirt scantily lined with a few bits of
grass, or not lined at all. They lay two greenish white eggs
about as big as duck eggs, and both male and female incubate.

After passing through the rookery, we entered one of the
small coppices I have already described. Hopping and flutter-
ing about amongst the trees and herbage, were abundance of a
small finch and a thrush ; no other land birds were seen. The
finch (Neospiza Acuhnce) looks very like a green-finch, and is
about the same size.

122 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

The thrush (Nesociclda eremita) looks like a very dark-
coloured song thrush, but it is peculiar for its remarkably
strong acutely ridged bill. It is peculiar to the Tristan group.
It feeds especially on the berries of the little Nertera ; but also
is fond of picking the bones of the victims of the predatory
gull (Stercorarius antarcticus). The finch eats the fruit of the
Phylica.

It was here that we first encountered that remarkable
tameness, and ignorance of danger in birds which has been so
constantly noticed by voyagers landing on little frequented
islands, and notably by Darwin, who dilates on the fact in his
account of the Galapagos Archipelago.

The thrush and finch hopped unconcernedly within a yard or
two of us, whilst stone after stone was hurled at them, and till
they were knocked over, and often sat still on a bough to be
felled with a walking stick. By whistling a little as one ap-
proached them, numbers could be thus killed, and yet the
Germans, with their house close by, had been constantly thus
killing the thrushes for eating for two years. The birds are,
however, not quite so tame in Tristan Island.

The finch seems to have become extinct in Tristan da Cunha
itself. Yon Willemoes Suhm was told that the Tristan da
Cunha people had tried to introduce the bird into their island.*

We were in search of another land bird, a kind of Water-Hen
(Galimda nesiotis), which is found on the higher plateau at
Tristan, and is described by the inhabitants as scarcely able to
fly. We could not meet with a specimen. Only very few
inhabit the low land under the cliffs, and we were not able to
land at the only place from which the higher main plateau of
the island is to be reached.

The Germans said that the Inaccessible Island bird is much

* I presume that the Neospiza Acuhnce of Cabanis, described from old
specimens from Bullock's collection, is the Emberiza Braziliensis of Car-
michael. No second species of finch was seen or heard of by us as
existing now in the islands. The genus Neospiza is peculiar to the
Tristan group, but of South American affinity. Crithagra imularis, the
other finch described by Cabanis as found in the group, is a peculiar
species allied to African forms. A list of the Tristan land birds collected
by the " Challenger " has not yet appeared.

TRISTAN DA CUNHA. 123

smaller than G. nesiotis, and differs from it in having finer legs
and a longer beak. This is, however, hardly probable, since
the Tristan species occurs at Gough Island.

The family of Gallinididce is remarkably widely spread, and
one of these birds is in several instances the inhabitant of some
isolated island group ; several occur thus in the Pacific. This is
curious, since one would at first perhaps think these birds bad
flyers, but they are not, and are not uncommonly met with on
the wing at sea far from land, just as we met with Water-rails
between Bermuda and Halifax.

Sitting on the tree-tops with the thrushes were numerous
" noddies " of the same two species as those of St. Paul's Bocks.
It was strange to see birds wdiich one had met with on the
equator living in common with boobies, here mingling with
Antarctic forms. The noddy however ranges far north also, even
occasionally to Ireland.

The whole of the peaty ground underneath the trees in the
Phylica woods is bored in all directions with the holes of
smaller sea birds, called by the Germans " night birds," a Prion
and a Puffinus.

The burrows that these birds make are of about the size of
large rats' holes. They traverse the ground everywhere, twisting
and turning, and undermining the ground, so that it gives way
at almost every step. A further account of these birds and their
habits, will be found in the account of Kerguelen's Land, in
which island they abound.

I went along the beach, and through a second wood towards
the waterfall, where wTas the hut of the Germans, and their
potato ground. A flock of thirty or forty predatory gulls
(Stercorarius Antarcticus), were quarrelling and fighting over
the bodies of penguins, the skins of which had been taken in
considerable numbers by our various parties on shore. The
Skua is a gull which has acquired a sharp curved beak, and
sharp claws at the tips of its webbed toes. The birds are
thoroughly predaceous in their habits, quartering their ground on
the look-out for carrion, and assembling in numbers where there
is anything killed, in the same curious way as vultures.

They steal eggs and young birds from the penguins when

124 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

they get a chance, but their principal food here appears to be
the night birds, especially the Prions, which they drag from
their holes, or pounce on as they come out of them. The place
was strewed with the skeletons of Prions, with the meat torn off
them by these gulls, which leave behind the bones and feathers.
The Antarctic Skua is very similar in appearance to the large
northern Skua, of which a figure is given here in default of
better. The two species were at first considered by naturalists
to be identical ; they differ however, especially in the structure
of the bill. The Skua is of a dark brown colour, not unlike
that of most of the typical birds of prey. We met with the

BRITISH SKUA, STERCORARIUS CATARRACTES.

bird constantly afterwards on our southern voyage, as far down
even as the Arctic Circle ; and a specimen was noticed by Ross
further south still, in Possession Island.

The hut of the Germans was a comfortable one of stone,
thatched with tussock and with a good frame window and door,
and comfortable bunks to sleep on. There used to be wild goats
on the top of Inaccessible Island, and there are still plenty of wild
pigs. The ferine pigs were, as the Germans told me, of various
colouring, and showed no tendency to uniformity ; but the goats
were almost invariably black, only one or two had a few white
markings about head, neck, and chest. The sows used to be
seen with litters of seven or eight young, but in a few days the
number dwindled to one or two ; the sows probably eating their
young. The young suffered often from a sort of scrofula, in
which the glands about the neck became much enlarged.

TRISTAN DA CUNHA. 125

The pigs now remaining are mostly boars : they are very
hairy and have long tusks. The hogs are fierce, and one of the
Germans told me that one once regularly hunted him, as if to
attempt to kill him for food. The pigs feed mainly on birds
and their eggs, but eat also the roots of the tussock and wild
celery; they have nearly exterminated a penguin rookery on
the south side of the island, but a few penguins remain, who
have learnt to build in holes under stones, where the pigs
cannot reach them.

This fact is curious, as showing how easily circumstances
may arise, such, that in an island even so small as Inaccesible,
one colony of birds may develop a totally new habit, whilst
other colonies of the same species preserve their original cus-
toms. And yet how strong is the tendency in birds to preserve
their habits ! I know of no more striking instance of this than
the fact that the Apteryx of New Zealand (A. Australis) con-
siders it necessary to put as much of its head as it can under its
rudiment of a wing, when it goes to sleep.*

The pigs cannot get down the cliffs to the rookeries on the
north side of the island.

One penguin at the Falkland Islands (Spheniscus Magel-
lanicus) regularly nests in burrows, sometimes twenty feet long.
Another species of the same genus (Spheniscus minor), breeds in
neat holes burrowed in sandbanks, at New Zealand.f

On the beach are large banks of seaweed, but as at Tristan
the heavy surf so batters the weeds, that it is difficult to find a
serviceable specimen. An Octopus is very common amongst
the stones, about the edge of the surf. I caught several at-
tracted by the washing of the penguins' flesh and skins in the
water. A Chiton, Patella and Buccinum are also common about
the shore, as at Tristan.

All night long the penguins on shore in the rookery kept up
an incessant screaming, no doubt lamenting the terrible invasion
to which they had been subjected. The sound at a distance was
not unlike that which one hears from tree-frogs in the south of

* T. H. Potts, "On the Birds of New Zealand," Vol. II, 1869, p. 75.
Trans. N. Z. Institute.

t T. H. Potts, Ibid., Vol. V, 1872, p. 186.

126 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

Europe, "Caa Quark, Caa Quark, Ca Caa Ca Caa." In the
morning we moved to Nightingale Island, taking the Germans
with us.

Nightingale island, Oct. i?th, 1813. — Nightingale Island, the
smallest of the Tristan group, lies 20J- miles S.W. of Tristan
Island, and about 22 miles N.W. by W. of Inaccessible Island.
The island is about l^th miles long, by less than one mile
broad ; its area is thus not more than one square mile. We
steamed up to the north-west side in the morning.

In the north-east is a rocky peak, from which an elevated
ridge runs down to the sea on the east side, whence the Peak is
accessible. On the north side it is impracticable, being too
precipitous. A lower ridge stretches N.E. and S.W. on the
south side of the island, and a broad valley separates the
western termination of this ridge from the high ground and
peaks on the N.E. ; the highest peak is 1,100 feet in height, and
the highest point of the lower ridge, 960 feet.

The whole of the lower land, and all but the steepest slopes
of the high land and its actual summits, are covered with a
dense growth of tussock, which occupies also even the ledges
and short slopes between the bare perpendicular rocks of the
Peak. The lower ridge is covered with the grass on all except
its very summit, where amongst huge irregularly piled boulders
of basalt, grow the same ferns as are found in Inaccessible
Island, and Phylica arborea trees. The summit of the higher
ridge appears to have a similar vegetation, the tussock ceasing
there.

In the sea of tall grass, clothing the wide main valley of the
island on its south side, are patches of Phylica trees, growing in
many places thickly together, as at Inaccessible Island, with
a similar vegetation devoid of tussock, beneath them. The
appearance of the tall grass, when seen from a distance, is most
deceptive ; as we viewed the island from the deck of the ship,
about a quarter of a mile off, we saw a green coating of grass,
coming everywhere down to the verge of the wave-wash on the
rocks, and stretching up comparatively easy looking slopes
towards the summit of the Peak.

The grass gave no impression of its height and inipenetra-

TK1STAN DA CUNHA. 127

bility, and one of the surveyors started off jauntily to go to the
top of the Peak and make a surveying station. On closer
inspection, however, the real state of the case might be inferred,
for there was plainly visible a dark sinuous line leading from
the sea, right inland through the thickest of the tussock. This
was a great penguin road, and the whole place was one vast
penguin rookery, and the grass that looked like turf to walk on,
was higher than a man's head.

I made out with my glass a great drove of penguins on the
rocks under the termination of the road, and I went below at
once to put on my thickest gaiters.

We pulled on shore through beds of kelp, and landed on
shelving rocks leading up to caves, the haunt of the Fur Seals in
the proper season. We met the surveyors coming back, well
pecked and dead beat, having given up the Peak in despair.

The shelving rock is composed of volcanic conglomerate, full
of irregular fragments and rounded lumps of hard basalt, and
various scoriaceous forms ; in places also of a similarly deri-
vative rock of a reddish colour, but devoid of larger embedded
fragments. In a cliff about forty feet in height, adjoining and
rising from the shelves, are beds of fine-grained volcanic sand-
stone rock, banded yellow and black, and horizontally bedded,
probably of submarine formation.

These beds constitute the whole mass of two or three small
outlying rocks or islands lying to the N.E., and are there also
horizontal. These beds appear about twenty feet thick in the
cliff, and above them is a layer of basalt of about the same
thickness, which extends east and west, capping the softer beds
and conglomerates. This layer is evidently a lava flow of com-
paratively late date, as it seems to have run down the valley
between the two ridges, and to have come from the south ; its
upper surface is a little rounded, higher in the centre, and
thinning off at the edges, as may be seen in the section exposed
in the cliff.

It is on the almost level upper surface of this flow, that the
great penguin rookery lies. The island has evidently, like
Inaccessible Island, undergone immense denudation, and there
is no trace of any centres of action remaining. In the low cliffs

128 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

of the coast, numerous caves are formed by the eating out by
waves of the softer strata underlying the hard cap of basalt.

The caves are so numerous as to form a striking feature in
the appearance of the island as it is approached from seawards ;
such caves are not apparent at Inaccessible or Tristan da
Cunha Islands.

The caves with the sloping ledges leading up to them, are
frequented as was said by fur seals. Four years before 1,400 seals
had been killed on the island by one ship's crew ; they are much
scarcer now, but the island is visited regularly once a year by
the Tristan people, as is also Inaccessible Island. The Germans
only killed seven seals at Inaccessible Island, but the Tristan
people killed forty there in December, 1872. Two seals were
seen by us in the water about the rocks, but none on land.

The sloping rock ledges are covered with a thin coating of
dark green ulva, which, when dry, has a peculiar almost metallic
glance. A short scramble up the rocks brought us at once face
to face with the tall grass and penguins.

The party broke up into small groups, each choosing what it
thought the best route for penetrating the enemy's country. I
made along the rocks to the point where, as I had seen from
the ship, the main street ended : here were hundreds of penguins
coming from and going to the sea in droves, or hurrying along
singly to catch up some drove, or lolling about on the rocks,
basking ; the moving ones going along hop, hop, hop, just like
men in a sack race.

The hard rock was actually polished, and had its irregu-
larities smoothed oft' where the feet of the birds had worn it
down at the entrance to the street. No doubt the Diatom
skeletons present in the food and dung of the penguins, and
always in abundance in the mud of their rookeries, adhering to
their dirty feet, acts as polishing powder and assists the wearing
process.

The street did not open by a single definite mouth towards
the sea, but split up into numerous channels leading down to a
number of easy tracks through the rocks. A little way in there
was a clear open track six feet wide, and in places as much
as eight or ten feet in width.

TRISTAN DA CUNHA. 129

On each side narrow alleys led at nearly right angles to the
rows of nests with which the whole space on either side of the
main street was taken up.

Amongst the penguins here were numerous nests of the
yellow-billed Albatross {Diomeclea culminata) called by the
Tristan people " Mollymauk," variously spelt in books, Molly
Hawk, Mollymoy, Mollymoc, Mallymoke. It is, as are most
of the sealers' names in the South, a name originally given to one
of the Arctic birds, the Fulmar, and then transferred to the
Antarctic from some supposed or real resemblance.

In the same manner the name given by northern whalers to
the Little Auk is given in the South to the Diving Petrel of Ker-
guelen's Land. And the term " clap match " given to the female
southern fur seals by the sealers is the name originally given by
the Dutch to the hooded seal or " bladdernose " of Greenland
(Cystocephalus), and is a corruption of the word "Klapmuts,"
a bonnet, " the seal with a bonnet/' It is curious that in this
case the term should have been thus transferred to so very
different a seal, which has nothing resembling a hood, but the
word is so peculiar that there can be no doubt about its origin.

Various similar corruptions are in use as terms for southern
animals. The name A lbatross itself is the Spanish word " alca-
traz " a " gannet." The Spanish no doubt called the albatrosses
they met with " gannets," their familiar sea bird, just as common
sailors will call every sea bird a gull, and a foreigner's corruption
of the word became adopted as a special name for the bird.

The name Penguin is another instance in point. The word
was not coined, as often supposed, by the early Dutch navigators,
from the Latin word " pinguis," but is, as has been shown by
M. Eoulin, and others, a Breton or Welsh word, " pen gwenn,"
" white head," the name originally given to European sea birds
with white heads, probably to the Puffin (Mormon fratercula).
The name Pingouin is applied in modern French to the Great
and Little Auk. In early voyages the name is applied to
various exotic sea birds. In early Dutch travels the true
meaning of the word is given, and it is stated to be English.*

* Sy worden Pinguijnsghenaemt niet van wegenhaer vettigheyd, so de

130

A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

The Mollymauk is an albatross about the size of a goose,
head, throat, and under part pure white, the wings grey, and
the bill black with a yellow streak on the top and with a bright
yellow edge to the gape, which extends right back under the eye.
The yellow shows out conspicuously on the side of the head. It
is not thus shown in Gould's coloured figures. The bird is
extremely handsome. They take up their abode in separate pairs
anywhere about in the rookery, or under the trees, where there
are no penguins, winch latter situation they seem to prefer.

They make a cylindrical nest of tufts of grass, clay, and
sedge, which stands up from the ground. The nest is neat and
round. There is a shallow concavity on the top for the bird to
sit on, and the edge overhangs somewhat, the old bird under-
mining it, as the Germans said, during incubation, by pecking
away the turf of which it is made.

I measured one nest, which was 14 inches in diameter and

10 inches in height. The
nests when deserted and
grass-grown make most
convenient seats. The
birds lay a single egg,
about the size of a goose's,
or somewhat larger, but
elongate, with one end
larger than the other, as
are all albatross eggs.
The egg is held in a sort of pouch whilst the bird is incu-
bating. The bird has thus to be driven right off the nest before
the egg is dropped out of the pouch and it can be ascertained
whether there is one there or no.

The birds when approached sit quietly on their nests or
stand by them, and never attempt to fly; indeed they seem,

schryver van dit Journael verkeerdelijck meent, maer om dai sy witte
hoofden hebben, want dat betekent Pinguijns in't Engelsch, gelijck in
Sir Thomas Candish voyage te sien is. " Begin ende Voortgang vande
vereenigde Neederlandtsche Geoctroyeer de Ost-Indische Compagnie." Ite
deel. Long folio, Pub. 1646. " Schip.-vaerd der Hollanders nae de Straet
Magal janes," p. 28.

NEST OF THE MOLLYMAUK.

TRISTAN DA CUNHA. 131

when thus bent on nesting, to have forgotten almost the use of
their wings.

Captain Carmichael, in his account of Tristan da Cunha,
relates how he threw one of the birds over a cliff and saw it fall
like a stone without attempting to flap, and yet these birds will
soar after a ship over the sea as cleverly as any other albatross ;
indeed, the same peculiarity occurs in the case of the large
albatross when nesting.

When bullied with a stick or handled on the nests, the birds
snap their bills rapidly together with a defiant air, but they
may be pushed or poked off with great ease. Usually a pair is
to be seen at each nest, and then by standing near a short time
one may see a curious courtship going on.

The male stretches his neck out, erects his wings and feathers
a bit, and utters a series of high-pitched rapidly repeated sounds,
not unlike a shrill laugh. As he does this he puts his head
close up against that of the female.

Then the female stretches her neck straight up, and turning
up her beak utters a similar sound, and rubs bills with the male
again. The same manoeuvre is constantly repeated.

The albatrosses make their nests sometimes right in the
middle of a penguin road, but the two kinds of birds live
perfectly happily together. I saw no fighting, though, small
as the penguins are, I think they could easily drive out the
Mollymauks if they wished it.

The ground of the rookery is bored in all directions by the
holes of Prions and petrels, which thus live under the penguins.
Their holes were not so numerous in the rookery at Inacces-
sible Island as here. The holes add immensely to the difficul-
ties of traversing a rookery, since as one is making a rush, the
ground is apt to give way, and give one a fall into the black
filthy mud amongst a host of furious birds, which have then full
chance at one's eyes and face.

Besides the mollymauks and petrels, one or two pairs of
Skuas had nests on a few mounds of earth in the rookery. How
these mounds came there I could not understand.

The Skuas' eggs are closely like those of the lesser black-
backed gull, and two in number. The birds swooped about our

132 A NATURALIST OX THE "CHALLENGER

heads as we robbed the nests, but were not nearly so fierce as
those we encountered further south. All round their nests
were scattered skeletons of Prions.

I, with three sailors carrying my botanical cases, attempted
to scale the Peak ; we had a desperate struggle through long
grass and penguins, and at last had to come back beaten, and
made for the Phylica patches, where the ground was clear.
Thence I fought my way through the grass up to the top
of the lower ridge of the island, but though there were no
penguins on this slope, I never had harder work in my life.

I had to stop every ten yards or so for breath, the growth of
the grass was so dense. My men lost me and never reached
the top. On the summit I found the rest of the party which
had come on shore, full of the hardships they had suffered
in getting through the rookery, and looking forward with no
pleasure to the prospect of going back again through it.

Two spaniels had been brought on shore and were taken
through the rookery, partly by being carried, partly dragged.
One of these was lost on the way back ; he would not face the
penguins and could not be carried all the way, so got left behind,
and I fear must have died and been eaten by Skuas.

Poor old " Boss," Lieutenant Channer's pet, though one-
eyed and too old to be much good for shooting, was a favourite,
and we were all very sorry for him. Three volunteers charged
back into the rookery in search, but it was of no use. He was
frightened to death and would not answer to a call.

The dogs brought to Inaccessible Island by the two Germans
ran wild in the penguin rookery, notwithstanding their exertions
to keep them at home, and finally the dogs had to be shot.
They fed themselves on the eggs and young.

After getting through the rookery on to the rocks, it was
amusing to see the party arrive singly and in twos at all sorts
of points of the edge of the rookery and on the verge of the
cliff, having lost their direction, and often to their disgust
having to turn back through the edge of the rookery again
to reach some spot where they could get down to the sea.

The penguins were having their evening bath and pluming
themselves on our arrival. The number of birds here must be

TRISTAN DA CUXHA. 133

enormous. At least one-fourth of the surface of the island and
small outlyers, for these also are rookeries, must be covered
by them ; taking thus a space a quarter of a mile square, and
allowing two only to a square yard, there would be nearly
400,000 penguins.

The rookery has evidently once been larger than at present,
since a good part of the tall grass, now not occupied by birds,
had old deserted nests amongst it. Probably the number of
birds varies considerably each season.

One of the most remarkable facts about the penguins is that
they are migratory ; they leave Inaccessible Island, as the
Germans told us, in the middle of April after moulting, and
return, the males in the last week of July, the females about
August 12th ; and I do not think it possible that the Germans
could have been mistaken. Whither can they go, and by what
means can they find their way back ? The question with
regard to birds that fly is difficult enough, but it may always be
supposed that they steer their course by landmarks seen at
great distances from great heights, or that they follow definite
lines of land. In the present case the birds can have abso-
lutely no landmarks, since from sea level Tristan da Cunha is
not visible from any great distance; the birds cannot move
through the water with anything approaching the velocity of
birds of flight ; they have however, the advantage of a constant
presence of food. The question of the aquatic migration of
penguins and seals seems a special one, and presents quite
different difficulties to that of the migration of birds of flight.
The penguins certainly do not go to the Cape of Good Hope nor
St. Helena, and they cannot live at sea altogether.

The migration of the turtles at Ascension Islands, seems to
be possibly a parallel case. The young turtles on leaving the
egg go down to the sea and disappear, returning only when full
crown to breed ; this is the account given bv residents. If
they do really leave the neighbourhood of the island, there seems
no possible means by which they can find their way back.

There is little fresh water on Nightingale Island. I saw one
pond in the rookery, but the water was undrinkable. In a
cave, however, where we landed, there was a scanty trickling

134

A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER

spring of excellent water filling a small basin ; water enough to
keep three or four persons alive might be got here.

We left Nightingale Island in the evening, and made for the
Cape of Good Hope.

Besides the birds I have mentioned, the great Albatross

(D. exulans) breeds at Tristan da
Cunha, and on the top of Inac-
cessible Island. At Tristan da
Cunha it nests actually within
the crater of the terminal cone
around the lake, 7,000 feet or
more above the sea.

The Mollymauk is common
in Tristan da Cunha, and its eggs
were brought off to us by the
islanders for sale ; they are not
bad eating. Cape pigeons (Daption
capensis) and the Giant-petrel
(Ossifraga gigantea), nest in Tris-
tan da Cunha, and one specimen
of Procrtlaria glacial oides, was obtained on shore by Yon
Willemoes Suhm.

There are two land shells of the genus Balca allied to pupa ;
an Oniscus, three small Curculios, four Geometrce, a Hippobosca,
Musca, and Tijmla, mentioned by Captain Carmichael as found
in Tristan da Cunha ; we found them also, and besides an lulus
was very common, and several spiders.

From what the Germans told him, Von Willemoes Suhm
concluded that there were two butterflies, a Vanessa and an
Argynnis in the island ; if so, these may no doubt be attracted
by the scarlet blossom of the Pelargonium, so abundant in the
island, and fertilize it, and act as a stimulus to the preservation
of its colour, and to some extent account for this.

Otherwise one must regard this case as an instance of the
survival in an island, where it is now without function, of a
brightly coloured flower developed originally in the progenitors
of the plant on a continent amongst numerous insects.

Though some of -the plants in the Tristan da Cunha group

GREAT ALBATROSS, DIOMEDEA EXCLANS.

TRISTAN DA CUNHA. 135

appear to flower all the year round, others have their regular
blooming season. This is the case with the Pelargonium and
the Tea plant. The Pelargonium blossoms, according to the
Germans, in the middle of summer. Large numbers of the plants
come into blossom at the same time, so that the beach is thickly
strewn with the coloured petals fallen from the cliffs.

The Tea plant was nowhere found in blossom hi October,
though it was abundant. The Phylica trees were all in the
same stage of development, bearing fully formed but green fruit.

The existence of the Cape Horn current sweeping up to
the islands, may account for the presence of many South
American plants in them. The part of the Brazilian current
which turns from the coast of South America, and runs across to
the Tristan group, brings with it many seeds to the islands, but
these, being tropical, do not germinate. The seeds are cast upon
the beach at Tristan, and are familiarly known amongst the
islanders as sea beans, from a belief that they grow at the bottom
of the neighbouring sea.

Two of these seeds were shown to me ; one of them was a
bean of a tropical American tree, the other was the seed of a
Guilandina* also tropical, which seed, singularly enough, is also
cast up sometimes at Bermuda, and is there called a sea bean,
and worn on watch chains as a curiosity, and I believe as an
antidote to drowning. •

Sir Joseph Hooker, in his lately published account of the
Botany of Kerguelen's Land,| writes : " The flora of Tristan da
Cunha, Nightingale and Inaccessible Islands, is essentially
Puegian, with an admixture of Cape Genera, but with none of
those characteristic of Kerguelen's Island. Of Cape types it
contains a Pelargonium and an abundance of both the Phylica
and Spartina of Amsterdam Island, together with species of
Oxalis and Hyclrocotyle. The Puegian and Falkland Island
plants of Tristan da Cunha and its islets, which have not
hitherto been found in the islands south and east of them, are
however, more numerous than the Cape genera even, and include

* See page 17.

t Transit of Venus Expedition, Botany. " Observations on the Botany
of Kerguelen's Land," p. 8. By Sir J. D. Hooker, P.B.S.

136 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

Cardamine Mrsuta, Nertera depressa, Empetrun nigrum var.
rubrum, Lagenophora Commersoniana, and Apium australe ;
and the flora contains besides the strictly American genus
Chevreidia"

The close similarity of the flora of the three islands of the
group points to a former connection between them. Their high
cliffs, composed of successive layers of lava, and the absence,
except in Tristan da Cunha, of well marked centres of eruption,
as well as their general features, show that they have undergone
great denudation. A sounding between Tristan da Cunha and
Inaccessible Island gave a depth of 1,000 fathoms ; between
Inaccessible and Nightingale Islands, the depth was 460
fathoms.

It is obvious, from the relative position of the three islands,
that the prevalent winds blow directly from Inaccessible Island
towards Nightingale Island and Tristan da Cunha.

With regard to the Cryptogamous vegetation of the group,
nearly all the seaweeds, as appears from Prof. Dickie's report on
the specimens collected by me, are Cape of Good Hope species,
or occur at the Cape as well as at numerous other localities ; two
only are new and apparently endemic. Of Fungi, an Agaricus,
which grows on the Phylica stems, is described by Mr. Berkeley
as new, as A. phylicigena. Of the mosses and Hepaticce, Mr. Mitten
describes ten species as new, out of thirty-six collected by me ;
of eleven lichens collected, two were new ; one, Lecanora acun-
hana, is noted by Nylander as " bene distincta."

An Islander told me that the flowering plants on Gough
Island were the same as those of Tristan da Cunha, but he
thought there were different ferns ;■ he had lived there some
time sealing.

Scientific Notices of the Tristan da Cunha Group.

Du Petit Thouars, flora of the island, in his "Melanges."

Captain Carmichael's account of the island in " Linn. Trans.," Vol XII,
p. 496.

For descriptions of the collections of plants made by me in the Islands,
see list of papers relating to the "Challenger" Expedition, at the end of this
Book.

For a description of Gallinula nesiotis, by P. L. Sclater, F.R.S., &c, see
"Proc. Zool. Soc, 1855," p. 146.

TRISTAN DA CUNHA. 137

For notes on the Zoology of the Islands, see Von Willemoes Suhru,
"Proc. R Soc.," No. 170, 1876, p. 583.

For notes on the Geology, see J. Y. Buchanan, Ibid., p. 614.

For Birds, see " Cabanis iiber zwei neue Finken-Arten." Journal fur
Ornithologie, 1873, s. 153, 154.

The ship took ten days to reach the Cape of Good Hope;
the only interesting feature of the voyage was the appearance of
the various southern Oceanic birds which constantly were to be
seen flying at the stern. The great albatross or Cape sheep,
the Mollymauk, which however was not seen far from land ;
the Giant-petrel (Ossifraga gigantea), the Cape hen {Procellaria
cequinocticdis), the Cape pigeon (Daption capensis), a Prion and
a Stormy-petrel.

138

CHAPTER VI.

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.

Aspect and Formation of the Country. Simons Bay. Appearance of the
Vegetation. The Koad to Cape Town. The Silver Tree. Habits of
Baboons. The Eock Rabbit. Habits of Rodent Moles. Kitchen
Middens. Burial Places of Natives. Antelopes. An Ostrich Farm.
Tracks of Animals in the Sand. Great Variety of Flowering Plants.
Clawless Otter. Land Planarians. Chameleon. Jackass Penguins.
Bdellostoma. Rare Whale with Long Tusks. Peripatus capensis, the
Ancestor of Insects. The Turacou.

Simons Bay, October 28th to December 11th, 18^3. — We

anchored at Simons Bay on October 28th, but found ourselves
in quarantine because we had had yellow fever on board at
Bahia.

The Cape of Good Hope lies at the end of a long narrow
promontory running nearly north and south, and forming
between itself and Cape Hangklip on the east, a large bay
known as False Bay, whilst at its point of origin from the
mainland and on its east side, is Table Bay with Cape Town at
its head.

The promontory has a sort of backbone of mountains, which
in some places come right clown steep into the sea, in others
are flanked by more or less extensive sand-flats. The moun-
tains are highest towards the northern extremity of the ridge
which terminates in the far-famed Table Mountain, 3,550 feet
in height. Constantia Berg, about one-quarter of the distance
from this point to the Cape, is 3,200 feet high; the remaining
mountains range from about 2,000 to 1,500 feet.

The sandy flats are towards the southern part of the pro-
montory almost confined to its Western side, the steep slopes of
the mountains on the False Bay side, being for the most part

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 139

washed directly by the sea, but at the head of False Bay a wide
extent of flat sandy plain extends right across the head of the
bay and round the foot of Table Mountain northwards. This
plain is known as the " Cape Flats."

The Cape of Good Hope is at the tip of the promontory,
and is not, as I used to think, the southernmost point of Africa.
Cape Agulhas to the eastward is far south of it.

The mountains are entirely composed of a hard metamor-
phic sandstone, passing in many places into a white quartzite
which is disposed in perfectly horizontal strata. This perfect
and remarkably uniform horizontality of the rock-beds is the
cause of the peculiar form of the Cape land surface and forms
the chief feature in the landscape.

Everywhere the mountains rise by a series of steps with
flat intervening surfaces. Table Mountain itself derives its
name from its horizontal flat top, bounded by perpendicular cliffs
rising straight up from the flats ; and the same formation being
continued for hundreds of miles inland, the country continually
rises in steps forming successive table lands, known as the
Karroo Plains, about 2,000 feet above sea level, and beyond these
the Eoggefeld, 3,500 feet in elevation.

We steamed into False Bay past the Cape Point lighthouse
up to Simons Bay, where is the dockyard. The long range
of mountains extending from Hangklip along the eastern shore
of False Bay in the district known as Hottentots' Holland, seen
in the distance was strikingly beautiful, with soft and delicate
outlines, and lighted up with beautiful pink and violet tints as
in an Italian landscape. I was astonished at the beauty of the
scenery, as I had been led from the accounts of Simons Bay
to expect nothing but a desert of sand.

Simons Bay lies on the east side of the Cape promontory,
and about half way up the west side of False Bay. There is a
dockyard, houses for the dockyard officials and workmen, a
small barrack, a naval hospital, a small town of one street
stretching along the shore, and a few houses scattered on either
side of the road which leads in one direction towards Cape Town,
in the other towards Cape Point. The town stands on a narrow
tract of land composed of talus from the hills which rise in

140 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.

steep slopes behind it, buried more or less in different places in
glistening white sand.

The hills about the Cape district have all an exactly similar
appearance as far as their clothing with vegetation is concerned.
They look not unlike Scotch moorland, being covered every-
where with low bushes without trees. The vegetation has
a general brownish or greyish tint; there are no bright greens in
the landscape. This arises from the fact that the plants are
nearly all evergreen, and have, as a rule, either narrow needle-
like leaves, like the pines, or leaves covered with grey downy
hairs ; in fact, all sorts of contrivances for resisting their great
enemy, the drought.

The most characteristic feature, however, in the landscape is
the showing through in all directions of the red soil between
the bushes and clumps of vegetation; the interspaces not
being filled in with grasses, and no continuous covering of
vegetation being formed.

In the flowering season, from June to August, which depends
here on the rainy season, and falls thus in mid-winter, the
aspect of the landscape is entirely changed, and whole tracts of
country are coloured of most brilliant hues. We were too late
for this, but nevertheless could form an idea of what it must be
like, because, though the greater numbers of plants of each of
the various species blossom all together at the regular season
of the species, there are always to be found stragglers blossom-
ing at other seasons, and nearly every plant can be collected in
flower by search at almost any period of the year.

Simons Bay is 84 miles from Cape Town by road, but a
railway runs from a village called Wynberg, about 14 miles
distant from Simons Bay, to the town. There is practically
only one road at Simons Bay, for though two others start with
great promise, the one along the shore towards Cape Point, and
the other up the steep hill at the back of the town (Eed Hill),
they soon lose their character and dwindle to the condition
of mere tracks over the moorland, very difficult for a stranger
to follow, as I more than once found. Hence " going up the
road " or " down the road," is the term at Simons Bay for visits
to and fro Cape Town.

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 141

The road follows the shore, being cut out on the side of the
steep coast, and crosses at several places sandy sea beaches, where
the driver keeps the horses with their feet at the very verge of
the surf, because the sand is harder here, as everyone knows
who has had to walk along a sandy shore.

The conveyances are two-wheeled carts with a hood cover,
open in front and with two parallel seats placed transversely.
There is a pole to them, and a pair of horses are always driven,
great care being taken as to balancing. I never saw a pair
of horses thus driven in a two-wheeled vehicle before.

The drivers are mostly Malays, of whom there are large
numbers in Cape Town and Simons Town, emancipated slaves
of the Dutch, or progeny of these. Those who disregard expense
take four horses to one of these traps, and the mail always has
four. It is a shabby cart, like the rest. The Malays drive well,
and manage a very long whip to a nicety. The travelling is not
dear ; a cart and pair to Wynberg, i.e., 14 or 15 miles, costs 15s.

Half-wray to Wynberg is a noted wayside inn, called "Farmer
Peck's," with a long rigmarole about the Gentle Shepherd of
Salisbury Plain, over the door, and some Latin verse, and inside
some quaint old prints illustrating coarsely the Life of the Prodigal
Son. Here it is the custom to stop and take stimulants, and a
peculiar drink of milk, eggs, and brandy is made, and is highly
recommended for anyone coming down wTith a bad head after
dissipation at Cape Town.

The road after this leaves the head of the bay behind and
stretches over part of the flats, and passing at a distance High
and Low Constantia, where the celebrated wine is made, reaches
Wynberg. Wynberg is by far the most beautiful spot about
Cape Town, and almost as beautiful as any village I have seen ;
but then nearly all its beauties are derivative, not indigenous,
and arise from the fact that it is situate in the midst of thick
pine groves and plantations of other trees. Here one sees
growing together the European pines, the oak, poplars, and the
gnarled and contorted South American Cactus (Cereiis), and
numerous Australian gum-trees and acacias.

The road at Wynberg leads through a grove of pines for
a mile or more, the pines meeting overhead and forming a

142 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

delicious shade, and shutting in the road on either hand with
their closely set stems. No doubt the very trying heat and glare
of the open sand-flat over which one drives before reaching the
Wynberg grove, makes one exaggerate the beauty of its refresh-
ing shade. Even amongst the grove the brick-red dusty soil
stains the trunks of the trees, and after long absence of rain
turns the very foliage brick-red. At Wynberg is the cricket
ground where the Army plays the Navy, the Army the Cape
Town Club, and so on, and also a most excellent hotel, known
as " Cogill's," after the proprietor.

Above Wynberg are the talus slopes and debris mounds of
Table Mountain, covered with the wonderful Silver-tree, whose
leaves shine like burnished metal, and which is found nowhere
else in the world but about the slopes of this mountain and its
immediate neighbourhood. It does not even grow at Simons
Bay. Nowhere on the earth but just round this one mountain.

The Silver-tree (Leacadendron argenteum) is one of the
Proteacece, which natural order is characteristic of the flora
of the Cape and South Australia, the genera being nearly
equally divided between the two regions, and found scarcely
anywhere else. A few only are found in tropical Australia, in
New Zealand, South America, and equatorial Asia. Another
group of plants, the Restiacece, serve further to connect the Cape
with Australia, and there are other marked alliances.

The wide difference between the West and East Australian
flora has been treated of by Sir Joseph Hooker, and the greater
resemblance of the Western Australian flora to that of South
Africa. Sir Joseph Hooker thinks it probable, from botanical
grounds, that Western Australia was connected with the Cape
district by land at a time when it was severed from Eastern
Australia.

How is it that Marsupials are not found at the Cape, being
nevertheless found in the Great Oolite in England ? It would
seem necessary almost that they must have been present at the
Cape and have died out, unless it is possible that Proteacece and
Restiacece are very much older than Marsupials, in which case
they would be very old indeed.

Table Mountain is most easily accessible from this side, and

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 143

it was from hence that I ascended it with Dr. Mansell, F.L.S.,
as my guide, who gave me most useful information about the
Botany.

From AVynberg the rail takes one in about half an hour to
Cape Town, the train stopping at about half a dozen villages or
suburbs, where many of the business men of the city live.
Cape Town is not very interesting in itself. There are few fine
buildings. The best is that containing the library and museum.

The officers of the ship liked Cape Town for its gaiety and
dancing. I enjoyed Simons Bay most thoroughly, because it
is a place where one can get at once amongst wild nature, and
over the hills and moors, amongst the rocks, or along the coast,
and come into immediate relation with examples of nearly all
the characteristic South African animals in their wild condition.
I constantly crossed the high ridge of the Cape promontory, just
above Simons Bay, and made across to the shore on the other
side. The whole promontory is one tract of open moorland, with
only a few farms and houses of boers with small holdings,
scattered at lonsf distances from one another.

On one of my first expeditions I came across a troop of
baboons, Cynocephahts porcarius. They are as big as a New-
foundland dog when full grown. They live especially about
the sea-cliffs and steep talus slopes leading down from these
to the sea ; but they are to be met with also on the open moor-
land above. They live in droves or clans, of 30, 40, or even
up to 70, and there wrere three such bodies of them in the
country immediately about Simons Bay, and in the tract
stretching down to Cape Point.

When on the feed, two or three keep watch, and one usually
hears them before one sees them. The warning cry is like the
German " hoch " much prolonged. As soon as they see one,
three or four of them mount on the scattered rocks so as to have
a clear view over the bushes and heaths, and watch every move-
ment of the enemy, so that it is extremely difficult to get within
shot of them. If one stands still, or does not go any nearer,
merely passing by, they employ themselves, as they sit un-
concernedly, in scratching in the usual monkey fashion ; but still
never losing sight of their object of suspicion.

144 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

Once I came across a troop on a sudden, on looking over a
low cliff. They dashed off at a tremendous pace, galloping on all
fours, till far out of shot, when they climbed up on to a rocky
eminence, and calmly sat down to watch me. The baboons
live on roots, which they dig up, and on fruits, and they turn
over the stones to search for insects and such food under-
neath. It is striking thus to see monkeys roaming about on
open moorland, where there are no trees. I had never properly
realized the fact before.

The track of the baboons in the sand is unmistakable. The
foot makes a mark where the animal has been galloping, just
like that of a child's foot ; the fore-limb makes a mark not half
so deeply indented, the hand being used merely to touch on, as
it were, to prepare for a fresh spring with the feet. I found the
skeleton of one of the baboons in a cave at Cape Point. The
animal had evidently crawled into the cave to die.

Everywhere amongst the rocks lives the Bock-Babbit (Hyrax
ccvpensis). The Babbits live in large crevices in the cliffs or under
huge masses of rock, which have fallen and lodged on some
ledge. In the places frequented by them the rock ledges are
covered with bushels of their dung. They come out to feed in
the mornings and evenings, but also bask sometimes in the hot
sun at mid-day.

They are very inquisitive, and sit up on a rock, and look at
one, and then suddenly dash into their hiding-place. After a
time, if one remains quiet, they come out for another look, and
afford a good chance for a shot. Their cry of alarm is a sort of
short hissing noise, not a whistle like that of the marmots, of
which animal they immediately remind one, though so widely dif-
ferent in structure, their nearest living ally being the rhinoceros.

They had young at "the time of our visit, and I met with two
litters, each of three young, which were about the size of very
large rats, with soft chocolate-brown downy hair. The young
play about on the rocks together like kittens, chasing one
another, and darting in and out amongst the clefts. I shot two at
one shot. One of these, when dying, made a regular squeal very
like that of a rabbit. The old ones are hard to kill, carrying off
a considerable charge of shot, and they bite very fiercely.

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 145

Amongst the heath are partridges and a few quails, at some
seasons plenty of the latter ; but just now, only a few were to be
found, and they were breeding. I saw two nests. In the
thicker bushes are so-called " pheasants " (Francolinus). There
are introduced true pheasants about the foot of Table Mountain
in considerable numbers, preserved for shooting.

A large shrike, with a yellowish breast, is the commonest
and most conspicuous of the smaller birds ; but the most beau-
tiful are the little Kectariniclce or Honey-birds, winch here take
the place of the Humming-birds of South America, and in their
splendid gold and green colouring are almost equal to them.
Above Simons Town is a sort of small gorge or chasm in the
mountain-side, where there is a waterfall with beautiful ferns
growing about it, and where above, on the cliffs, nest hundreds
of swallows. I used as a boy to wonder how chimney swallows
and house martins managed to nest before there were any
houses.

The sandy flats and fields about the sea-shore are covered
with mole-hills, and bored in all directions with tunnels, large
enough to admit the hand and arm easily, by the huge Sand-
mole (Bothy ergus suilus). Bathyergus is a Eodent, with an
excessively long pair of projecting lower gnawing teeth. It is
a foot long, and covered with a light grey-brown silky fur.

There is another similar Eodent mole of about half the size
(Georychus capensis), which rather affects higher land, but occurs
also sometimes with Bathyergus.

The two together are in such abundance as to cover the
country in all directions with mole-hills, and in galloping over
the sand one is very apt to be thrown headlong by one of their
galleries giving way under the horse's feet. I had two such falls
in one day. A clever horse, brought up in the country, learns
however, whilst turned out on the run, to lift Ins foot out of a
hole without stumbling.

It is the custom to call the moles, such as we have in Europe,
the true moles, and to regard these Eodent moles as animals which
in some extraordinary way have adopted habits not proper to
Eodents, but natural and what is to be expected in a certain
group of Insectivora. But in reality, there seems to be no

146 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.

reason why the one set should be the true moles rather than the
other, excepting merely as a matter of home nomenclature and
prejudice. The South American Eodent mole, the "tucutuco"
(Ctenomijs), is familiar as described by Darwin in his Journal.
And besides this, there are all the Spalacini, or Blind-moles, of
which there are nine genera, including Bathyergus and Georychus,
forming steps towards the ground squirrels, Geomys.

Of the true moles, or Insectivora, with the habits and outward
shape of Bathyergus and Georychus, there are only five or six
genera in all. Why should not Talpa be looked upon as the
plagiarist ? There is still another very different animal, with
mole-like habits, the little armadillo (Chlamyphorus) of the
Argentine Eepublic. It seems remarkable that no Marsupial in
Australia has become modified to suit mole-like habits. All
other Mammalian habits almost have been adopted by Mar-
supials. Bathyergus has, like our Talpa, a bare snout, and strong
diomnor bands and feet. It burrows of course in search of roots
and vegetable food only, not for worms like Talpa.

The people about Simons Town have an idea that the animals
work the earth at certain stated hours, and have regular periods
of rest ; but I was always able, by going over a good deal of
ground, to find one working at any time of the day. The heaps
thrown up are huge, a foot high, five or six times as big as those
of our little mole. A fresh heap is betrayed at once by its
darker colour, i.e., its dampness ; in a few hours the dry heat of
the Cape reduces it to a glistening white.

One has not long to watch, standing a few yards off, before
the fresh heap is seen to heave up, three or four times in suc-
cession, as the mole forces freshly scooped-out earth up into it
from below. I tried at first shooting into the heap as it was
thus heaving, in the hopes of getting the mole, but never with
any success. In order to shoot the worker, the earth should be
quickly thrown back from the fresh heap, and the hole laid open
to the air.

One then has only to retire about ten paces and wait pa-
tiently. The mole does not like the fresh air, and in the course
of five minutes or so, comes back to fill it up, but usually puts
its head out for a moment first, to find out what's up, though it

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 147

certainly cannot see far with its minute eyes, which are not
bigger than the heads of carpet pins, the whole eye-ball when
extracted being not bigger than a tenth of an inch in diameter.

Of course, a charge of shot at the moment the animal shows
its head is effective. But the easiest method of getting speci-
mens is on scraping away the earth from the fresh mound
to insert in the hole a common rabbit gin, well secured with peg
and string. I trapped a good many Bathyergi in this way, and
one Georychus. Bathyergus is very fierce when dragged out of
its hole, fast by one leg in a gin. The animal bites the air
savagely with its enormous teeth, which project an inch and a
half from the lower jaw, and makes an angry half-snarling, half-
grunting noise.

I took several of the moles on board the ship alive in a sack.
I let the sack swing by accident against one of my legs, and one
of the moles gave me a very unpleasant nip, biting through
the sack and my clothes.

When put in a strong wire cage the mole first tried to
burrow, but finding that absolutely impossible, tried to bite the
wires all round, and that failing, became sullen and quiet. The
animal can evidently see for short distances.

Besides these moles, which are a great pest in gardens, there is
a little Insectivorous mole (Chrysochloris inauratus), the Golden-
mole, which is not more than half the size of our English mole,
and has a dark silky fur shot with most brilliant metallic golden
tints. This mole makes quite superficial runs in the ground, so
near the surface that the earth is raised all along the run, and
hence the track can be followed everywhere above ground.
When one of these is seen at work, it can be thrown out with a
stick or spade at once.

I several times went over the hills to the coast on the other
side of the promontory. At White Sands, nearly opposite, are a
series of shell mounds, or " kitchen middens," which occur also at
Cape Point and many places along the coast. There are huge
mounds of large Patellas, Haliotis, and other shells ; the limpets
are so large as to make convenient drinking cups.

All about the mounds are to be found various stone imple-
ments used by the people, either Bushmen or Hottentots, who

L 2

148 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

made the mounds (probably Bushmen). There are flat stones,
each with a long shallow groove worn on them, and small
cylindrical stones lying about which fit the hand, and have
evidently been used for rubbing up and down the grooves, and
have indeed thus worn them. The use of these grooved stones
is uncertain. The usual idea is that various bulbs and roots
used by the midden people were ground in them. Perhaps
they used them partly for pounding or rubbing tender the hard
muscular foot of Haliotis, Patella, and other Gasteropods, to
prepare them for eating.

Haliotis (the large Ear-shell) is prepared now at the Cape
for eating by pounding, as also at the Channel Islands. The
Haliotis, as cooked at the Cape, is excellent, quite a luxury.
No iron is allowed to touch it in preparation ; it must be got
out of the shell with horn or wood implements, then pounded
with stone or wood and finally stewed. It is considered that if
iron touches the animal it becomes rigidly contracted and
hopelessly tough. It is quite possible that the popular opinion
may be correct, and that contact with iron may produce a rigid
tetanus of the muscles.

Some of the grooved stones have grooves on both sides, one
groove having been evidently worn out. Some of the grooves
are as much as a foot long and two inches, or a little more, in
width.

Besides these stones there are the well-known digging stones ;
circular disc-shaped stones, perforated in the centre. The stone
is passed over a stick, the lower end of which is hardened in the
fire or thrust into an antelope's horn, and the stick thus weighted,
is used by the Bushmen and Hottentots to dig roots. A Bush-
man whom the late Dr. Bleek, the distinguished South African
linguist, had under his charge, called the apparatus a squaw's
stick, because, of course, the squaws have to do the digging. He
showed us how it is used.

Well-made spear and arrow-heads and scrapers are found
with these things, but are comparatively scarce, and far more
abundant on the Cape Flats.

Very broken pieces of a coarse pottery are common about
the refuse heaps. The pottery is black, and seen on fracture to

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 149

be full of fragments of quartzite. I found two pieces with
handles, evidently the side handles of pots. In the Cape
Museum are plenty of similar pieces, and also a drawing on
a small slab of stone, from a neighbouring cave which was
probably a home of the midden people.

The middens lie in places where there are banks of shifting
sand. As the sand shifts, there are exposed, all about on the
slopes, heaps of stones, evidently put together for some purpose.
A considerable number of human bones were lying about. I
turned over several of the stone heaps which had evidently been
hitherto undisturbed, and excavated for a short depth beneath
them without finding any interments ; but in one case a complete
skeleton lay around one of the heaps, and at Cape Point I saw
a second one lying beneath a similar heap, having been evidently
buried in a crouching position with the body unstraightened
after death. The majority of the stone heaps have, however,
certainly not been graves, but are very possibly the remains
of places where fires have been lighted.

The sand at White Sands is calcareous. As it shifts before
the wind it in many places buries bushes growing near the
shore. These die, and their stems, buried in the sand, decay,
and in doing so set free a certain amount of acid which brings
about a solution and redeposit of calcareous matter in the
sand. The sand immediately surrounding the stems is thus
cemented into a solid mass which encrusts the remains of the
bark. The wood decays away, and a pipe with a wall of
cemented calcareous sand is the result. The sand shifting
again, these pipes, which are often branched, are left exposed on
the beach.*

In my excursions to White Sands I often stopped at the
cottage of an old-fashioned " boer." He was a boer in a very small
way : an old man who, at the age of nearly sixty, had married
a young wife. He was partly of French parentage, many French
having come to the Cape at the time of the Eevolution. These
people were wonderlully hospitable, and gave me milk, coffee,

* Darwin observed similar structures in Australia, but in this case the
cavities left by the decaying branches had been filled in by hard calcareous
matter. "Journal of Pcesearches," p. 540.

150 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

and Cape brandy, and were delighted to hear about the
" Challenger's " voyage.

The old man had a huge old Dutch bible, 150 years old,
with pictures, maps and commentary. He prided himself very
much on his knowledge of it, and got it down, put on his
spectacles and showed me the map of the Garden of Eden, with
Adam and Eve and the rivers. He knew it by heart, and
evidently considered it as of perfect geographical accuracy.
But the commentary was his delight. It was the true old
gospel that he loved. He terribly disliked modern innovations.

I was led to cultivate his acquaintance, because he let slip
at our first interview the information that he knew where, close
by, there was the skeleton of a Hottentot lying under a rock.
Directly he had said so I saw that he repented, and at first he
would not hear of showing me the place. He said he was afraid
the ghost of the skeleton would haunt him.

It was a long time before his wife could laugh him out of
this notion. Eventually he showed me the place, but un-
fortunately the bones were rotten and the skull was battered
in, the man having apparently been murdered, whether Hot-
tentot or no, and half covered up in a hurry with a few stones.

I had naturally a desire to see wild antelopes at the Cape.
I did not, however, in the least expect to see one without going
into the interior, and was surprised to find that antelopes still
exist in the Cape peninsula, and I had a shot at three of them
on the very Cape of Good Hope itself. I had an erroneous
notion concerning antelopes, that they all lived in much the
same way, forming vast herds that roamed over flat plains, and
performed migrations in bodies from one place to another as
scarcity of food necessitated.

Now, however, I found that the various species are mostly
totally different in their habits. Some are nocturnal, some
diurnal ; some live on the mountains, some on the plains, some
amongst the bushes, some in forests ; some are gregarious, others

solitary.

The antelopes are all called "Bok" (goat), pronounced in
the country "Buck" by the Cape people. The two antelopes
about Simons Town are what the Dutch named, from its

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 151

resemblance to that animal the roebuck, " Eheebok ,! (Pelea
capreola) and the "Grysbok" (grey goat) (Galotragus melanotis).
The Eheebok lives about on the stony hills and rocks in
small herds of from six to a dozen, or so. There are now forty
or fifty of these antelopes on the estate of a Mr. McKellar at
Cape Point, and there are plenty of Grysbok there also. I
twice went over to Cape Point Farm from Simons Town to
hunt these antelopes.

The Eheebok are shot either by being stalked, or more
easily by being driven, they using regular passes in the hills
where guns can be posted. The Eheebok is as large as a small
fallow deer, and of a light-grey colour ; it is extremely difficult
to see it at any distance, it being so like in colour to the bush
and rocks. It is only as it moves its tail and shows the white
underneath it, that the hunter catches sight of it at first ; the
white patch under the tail is certainly a very material dis-
advantage and source of danger to the animal. It is very wary
and difficult to stalk ; it feeds in the day-time.

The Grysbok on the other hand, lies hid in the thickest
bushes or beds of reed, during the day, and only comes out to
feed at night time. It is very small, less than half the size of
the Eheebok. When rain has fallen, it is easily tracked to its
lair, and turned out and killed with shot, but in dry weather the
only chance for the sportsman is to drive it up by riding through
the bushes and shooting from horseback, or to turn it out with
dogs. I saw one only dash for a moment through the bush, spring
lightly over a mass of thick low scrub, and disappear instantly
in the bush again, before I could get my gun to bear. The
animal is of a dark-red colour. Mr. McKellar used to hunt the
Grysbok with beagles with great success.

Mr. McKellar, who was most kindly hospitable, has an
ostrich farm, but his flock of birds was not very large at the
time of our visit, he having had bad luck at first in breeding.
He owns the actual Cape of Good Hope and a long stretch of
the moorland adjoining, and has thrown a wire fence right across
the peninsula, so as to give his ostriches the run of a large tract,
stretching right down to the Cape itself. One old hen ostrich
was a pet about the house, but used to do sad damage in the

152 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

farm-yard, eating the young goslings, swallowing them like
oysters. It was amusing to go with Mr. McKellar into one of
his breeding paddocks ; here a pair of ostriches were brooding
on a nest of eggs, dividing, as usual, the labour between them.
The cock was very savage and attacked all intruders, so his
master had a long pole with a fork at the end of it, and
when the ostrich ran at the party, he caught its neck in the
fork. The ostrich was excessively enraged, but soon had to give

in.

A kick from an ostrich is well known as very dangerous.
The only thing to do when attacked without means of defence,
Mr. McKellar said, is to lie flat down and let the bird walk on
you till he is tired. I was astonished at the brightness of the
red colouring developed on the front of the legs of the cock
bird during the breeding season. The ornamental appearance
of the bird is greatly enhanced by it.

A narrow but strong and high pen was provided for plucking
the birds in. They are driven into it and held fast. It is found
better to pluck the feathers out than to cut them off. The
stumps, if left in, are apt to cause trouble.

Young ostriches, when first from the egg, have curious horny
plates at the tips of their feathers, like those in the feathers of
one of the Indian jungle fowls, and some other birds not in the
least related to one another.

The Cape Peninsula becomes very narrow towards its ter-
mination, and ends in two capes, Cape Point, on which is
the lighthouse, and the Cape of Good Hope. The Cape of Good
Hope itself is a mass of rock terminating in perpendicular cliffs
towards the sea, but with ledges here and there on which
numbers of cormorants (Phalaeocorix capensis) nest.

Behind the terminal rocky mass is a waste of white sand,
horribly dazzling to the eyes in bright sunshine. Similar sand,
loose and deep, so that one's foot sinks into it at every step, lies
all around the farm-house, but is more or less covered with
bushes. This sand is terribly tiring to walk on, but after a little
rain the various animals can be tracked on it as easily as on fresh
snow, and it is thus that they are best hunted.

The boys thus find numbers of small tortoises {Testvdo

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 153

goemetrica), which are here in great numbers, extremely pretty-
ones with embossed shells. These shells are often made to do
duty as ornamental paper weights, being filled with lead. Besides
these there are the tracks of the various snakes. A broad groove
with a much narrower groove in its centre, marked by the tip of
the tail, is made by the terrible Puff-adder (Clotho arietans), on
which one always stands a chance of treading when walking
about. Then there are Cobra tracks, and tracks of numerous other
snakes. Both Cobras (naja haje ?) and Puff-adders are sufficiently
abundant about Simons Town. I had four or five adders and
two Cobras brought me to preserve. The Cobra was caught
swimming in the sea, just off the dockyard.

Again, there are tracks of the Ichneumon (Herpestes), called
by some name sounding like " moose haunt," and those of the
Musk-Cat (G-enetta felina), both extremely destructive, and
trapped and hunted with all energy by the farmers. There are
tracks of porcupines leading to their holes, which are often in
the caves about the sea cliffs, and have stray quills lying about
their mouths, sufficient evidence of the nature of the inhabitant.
There are Ptock-rabbit tracks, and there are the tracks of the
Rheebok and Grysbok, all to be readily distinguished by an
educated eye.

The great variety of the flowers at the Cape is a source of
constant interest to the naturalist. It is also pleasant to see in
their wild condition, large numbers of beautiful flowers, with
which one has long been familar as the chief decoration of green-
houses at home. All over the hills grow " Everlastings " (Heli-
chrysum), some with large snow-white flowers, others of various
bright tints. There is an endless variety of handsome heaths,
and numerous familiar Pelargoniums. Amongst bulbs, there are
various showy Gladiolus and various species of Iris, and the tall
white-flowered Aroid (Richardia cethiopica), commonly called
" Arum" without the white spathe and golden spadix of which
no English conservatory is complete ; all these are very common.

I had not before I saw the Cape flora, realized the wonderful
power of change-ringing, as it were, in plants. Here may be seen
a plant with a yellow flower, very like a dandelion, but with
leaves dark on the upper surface, and downy beneath, yet in

154 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

shape like those of our familiar plant. Close by, one meets
with a similar flower with neeclle-like leaves, like those of a
heath ; close by again, is another growing on a low bush with
leaves, something in the style of those of the holly : then again,
another with extremely sharp stout thorny spines for leaves,
then another heath-like, but with the leaves reduced to small
tubercles. These are all forms with this one sort of flower (I
speak only as to outward appearance). One easily finds a white-
flowered daisy as it were, ringing similar changes, and so on.
Lobelias, again, are to be seen with exactly similar looking blue
flowers ringing all the changes of heath forms, spiny forms, &c.

Amongst the animals which live on the Cape Peninsula,
the Clawless otter (Luira inunguis), is, worthy of mention : it is
a very large otter, twice or three times as large when full grown
as the European one. It lives about the salt marshes and lakes,
and is tolerably common ; it hunts like the South American
marine otter, in companies, but only of three or four. It has no
claws on the fore feet, having lost them by natural selection in
some way or other, and on the hinder feet the claws are
wanting on the outer toes, and only rudiments of them remain
on the middle ones. There are, however, pits marking the
places where the claws used to exist. The webbing between
the toes is also in this otter rudimentary ; the beast altogether
is very heavily built, with the head very broad and powerful.
It appears to be an otter bent on returning to land habits.

I found two species of Land Planarian worms on some
American Agaves, in the grounds of the Observatory. At first I
thought these Planarians might have been introduced from
South America with the Agaves, but they correspond in structure
exactly with the genus Rhyncliodemus of Ceylon, and seem
certainly indigenous, although Land Planarians were not hitherto
known to exist in Africa.*

A small Chameleon is very abundant everywhere on the
hedges near Cape Town. We had one alive in the ward-room :

* For a description of these Planarians, and an account of the Land
Planarians obtained during the voyage elsewhere, see H. N. Moseley,
" Notes on the Structure of several forms of Land Planarians." Quar.
Journ. Micro. Sci., Vol. XVII, New Ser., p. 273.

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 155

it was quite tame and rested quietly on a bunch of twigs, hung
up to the lamp rail, and would whip flies out of one's fingers
from a distance of at least four inches with its tongue. It gave
birth to three young ones one night: they twisted their tails
round the twigs on which the mother was reposing at once, and
at once began catching flies ; but our house-flies were too big for
their mouths to swallow, and they had to chew away at them
for a long time before they could get any juice out of them.

About the sea-shore at Simons Bay, are quantities of cor-
morants, or shags, as they are called (Phalacrocorax capensis) ;
they sit in groups on all the rocks about the town, and bask in
the sun, and at times appear in vast flights darkening the air.
Gannets (Sula capensis) are constantly in sight, and gulls {Lams
dominicanus) ever flying over the water.

I paid a visit to an island in False Bay, called Seal Island.
It is a mere shelving rock on which it is only possible to land
on very favourable occasions. The whole place is a rookery
of the Jackass penguin (Spheniscus demersa). It is an ugly
bird as compared with the crested penguin of Tristan da
Cunha ; the bill is blunter, but the birds can nevertheless bite
hard with it : [all the penguins seem to bite rather than peck].
The birds here nested on the open rock, which was fully ex-
posed to the burning sun and occasional rain. It must not be
supposed that either penguins or albatrosses are necessarily
inhabitants of cold climates, a species of penguin and an
albatross breed at the Galapagos Archipelago, almost exactly
on the equator.

There was not a blade of grass on the rock, but it was covered
with guano, with little pools of filthy green water. The birds
nested under big stones, wherever there was place for them ; most
of the nests were, however, quite in the open. The nests were
formed of small stones and shells of a Balanus, of which there
were heaps washed up by the surf, and of old bits of wood, nails,
and bits of rope, picked up about the ruins of a hut which were
rotting on the island, together with an old sail, some boat's spars,
and bags of guano, evidently left behind by guano-seekers. The
object of thus making the nest is no doubt to some extent to
secure drainage in case of rain, and to keep the eggs out of

156 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

water washing over the rocks ; but the birds evidently have a
sort of magpie-like delight in curiosities : Spheniscus magdla-
nicus at the Falkland Islands, similarly collects variously coloured
pebbles at the mouth of its burrow. Two pairs of the birds had
built inside the ruins of the hut.

All the birds fought furiously, and were very hard to kill.
They make a noise very like the braying of donkeys, hence their
name ; they do not hop, but run or waddle. They do not leap
out of the water like the crested penguins when swimming, but
merely come to the surface and sit there like clucks for a while,
and dive again. We dragged off a number in the boat for
stuffing, and took young and eggs ; the old ones fought hard
in the boat and tried to bite one another's eyes out.

There was a large flock of terns on the rock, rendering it
quite white on one part, but they were not nesting. There were
plenty of shags' nests, some few with young ones, but most of
them were already relinquished : they were built on a higher
standing-piece of the rock, and were large round deep nests made
of dried seaweed.

There is a great fishery at the Cape of a fish called " Snook," a
sort of Barracuda, which is salted and dried, and sent mainly to
Mauritius for sale. The Snook boats were always to be seen
about in the bay. The fish are caught with a hook and line,
whilst the boat is in motion. The fishermen are especially
careful not to get bitten by the fish as they haul them in ; wounds
caused by the bite of the fish are said to fester in a violent
manner as if specially poisoned.

The fish, however, which is most interesting from a scientific
point of view, which is caught at the Cape, is a large Myxinoid
(Bddlostoma) allied to the lamprey. Two or three, of these were
cauo-ht with a hand line and fish bait from our ship whilst
at anchor at Simons Bay, and they are not at all uncommon,
though so very rare in European museums. The specimens
cauo-ht were nearly three feet in length. They swallowed the
bait far down, and astonished the sailors by the immense
quantity of gelatinous slime which they discharged from the
surfaces of their bodies when drawn on board. The slime forms
masses of a jelly-like substance.

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.

157

The villages between Simons Bay and Wynberg have fences
made of various bones of whales. A whale fishery was formerly
carried on here, but no longer pays. An extremely interesting
and very rare whale is occasionally procured at the Cape. It is
a Ziphioid, Mesoplodon layardii. The Ziphioids are a group of
the toothed whales and allied to the sperm whale. They have
the bones of the face and upper jaw drawn out and compressed
into a long beak -like snout which is composed of solid bone,
hard and compact like ivory. The upper jaw is devoid of teeth,
having lost them in the process of evolution, and the lower jaw,
which is lengthened and pointed to correspond with the upper,
retains but a single pair of teeth.

In the species in question, Mesoplodon layardii, these two
teeth in the adult animal become lengthened by continuous
growth of the fangs into long curved tusks. These arch over the
upper jaw or beak, and crossing one another above it at their
tips, form a ring round it and lock the lower jaw, so that the
animal can only open its mouth for a very small distance

1 Skull of Mesoplodon layardii. 2 Lower jaw ; a small cap of dentine on the tooth. 3 Top of lower
jaw seen from the front, showing the ring formed by the teeth. Copied from the British
Museum Catalogue of Seals and Whales.

indeed. The tusks are seen always to be worn away in front
by the grating of the confined upper jaw against them. How

158 A NATUliALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

the animal manages to feed itself under these conditions is a
mystery.

It is remarkable that the main mass of each tusk is made up
of what appears as an abnormal growth of the fang.* The
actual conical tooth, that is the original small cap of dentine of
the tooth of the young animal, which corresponds to the part of
the tooth showing above the gum in other whales, does not
increase at all in size, but is carried up by the growth of the
fangs, and remains at the tips of the tusks as a sort of wart-like
rudimentary excrescence.

Specimens of Mesoplodon layardii are excessively rare, and
I sought diligently for such during the whole of my stay at the
Cape, and was rewarded by procuring parts of two skulls. One of
these, a skull without the lower jaw, I found near Mr. McKellar's,
at Cape Point. The skull was exposed on the beach, being stuck
up with its beak thrust into the sand to be used as a rifle

target.

The animal, as Mr. McKellar told me, had come on shore
about eight years before. It yielded oil of a very superior
quality, which sold for more than twice the price of ordinary
whale oil. It was about 10 feet in length, and was, as far
as he remembered, coloured black on the back and white on the
belly, with a conspicuous line of demarcation of the colours on
the side. The beast had the usual tusks.

The other specimen consisted of the snout and lower jaw,
with the tusks of another example of the species. It was given
me by Mr. A. M. Black, of Simons Town. The animal came on
shore at Walwick Bay in 1869. It yielded 80 gallons of oil,
and was from 16 to 18 feet in length. It is remarkable that
these whales seem never to be met with or caught at sea. They
always are procured by their running on shore. The Ziphioids
are especially interesting, because many species were abundant

* Prof. Owen, with the single original specimen only before him,
considered that the tusks had acquired " an abnormal direction and state
of growth "in that particular specimen. " Palseontographical Soc.,"Vol.
XXIII 1869 p 26. Prof. Flower, though knowing of a second specimen,
still seems do'ubtful. "Trans. Zool. Soc," Vol. VIII, 1874, p. 211. Now
that more specimens are known, there can be no longer doubt as to the
normal occurrence of the condition described.

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 159

in Tertiary times, and their beaks being so dense in structure as to
be readily preserved as fossils, are common in such deposits as the
Eed Crag of Suffolk. I had the good luck to procure another
Ziphioid at the Falkland Islands during the voyage, near Port
D arwin.

I stayed at the hotel at Wynberg for a fortnight, whilst
working at the anatomy and development of Peripatus capensis.
Peripatus is an animal of the very highest importance and
antiquity, and I believe it to be a nearly related representative
of the ancestor of all air-breathing Arthropoda, i.e., of all insects,
spiders, and Myriapods.

The animal has the appearance of a black caterpillar, the
largest specimens being more than three inches in length, but
the majority smaller. A pair of simple horn-like antennae
project from the head, which is provided with a single pair
of small simple eyes. Beneath the head is the mouth provided
with tumid lips and within with a double pair of horny jaws.
The animal has seventeen pairs of short conical feet, provided

peripatus capensis. (Natural size.)

each with a pair of hooked claws. The skin of the animal
is soft and flexible, and not provided with any chitinous rings.

The animal breathes air by means of tracheal tubes like
those of insects. These, instead of opening to the exterior by a
small number of apertures {stigmata) arranged at the sides
of the body in a regular manner as in all other animals provided
with tracheae, are much less highly specialized. The openings
of the short tracheae are scattered irregularly over the whole
surface of the animal's skin.

It appears probable that we have existing in Peripatus
almost the earliest stage in the evolution of tracheae, and that
these air tubes were developed in the first tracheate animal out
of skin glands scattered all over the body. In higher tracheate
animals the tracheal openings have become restricted to certain
definite positions by the action of natural selection.

160

A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.

The sexes are distinct in Peripatus. The males are much
smaller and fewer in numbers than the females. The females
are viviparous, and the process of development of the young
shows that the horny jaws of the animal are the slightly

modified claws of a pair
of limbs turned inwards
over the mouth as de-
velopment proceeds ; in
fact, " foot-jaws," as in
other Arthropods.

Before I studied
Peripatus at the Cape,
nothing was known of
its manner of develop-

HEAD OF EMBRYO OF PERIPATUS CAPENSIS, SHOWING meilk, nOl 01 Llie iaCl

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ,AW. ^ ft ^^^ ^ ty

means of tracheae. It was generally placed with the Annelids,
though its alliance with the Myriapods had been suspected by
Quatrefages.

That Peripatus is a very ancient form is proved by its wide
and peculiar distribution. Species of the genus occur at the
Cape of Good Hope, in Australia, in New Zealand, in Chili, in
the Isthmus of Panama and its neighbourhood, and in the West
Indies. If its horny jaws were only larger they would no doubt
be found fossil in strata as old as the Old Eed Sandstone at
least.

The animal is provided with large glands, which secrete a
clear viscid fluid, which it has the power of ejecting from two
papillae, placed one on either side of the mouth. When the
animal is touched or irritated, it discharges this fluid, with great
force and rapidity, in fine thread-like jets. These jets form a
sort of net-work in front of the animal, which looks like a
spider's web with the dew upon it, and appears as if by magic,
so instantaneously is it emitted.

The viscid substance, which is not irritant when placed on
the tongue, is excessively tenacious, like bird-lime, and when I
put some on a slip of glass, some flies approaching it were at
once caught and held fast. It appears from the observations of

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 161

Captain Hutton on the New Zealand species,* that the jet of
slime is used by the animal not only as a means of offence, but
to catch insects, on which the animal feeds.

I found only vegetable matter in the stomachs of the Cape
species, and concluded that the animals were vegetable feeders.
The animals live at the Cape in or under dead wood, and I
found nearly all my specimens at Wynberg, in Mr. Maynard's
garden, in decayed fallen willow logs, which were in the con-
dition of touchwood. I tore the logs to pieces, and found the
animals curled up inside.

The animals are very local, and not by any means abundant,
so that an offer of half-a-crown for a specimen to boys did not
produce a single example. My colleague, the late Von Willemoes
Suhm, and I both searched hard for Peripatus. He was unsuc-
cessful ; but I was lucky enough to find a fine specimen first
under an old cart-wheel at Wynberg. Immediately that I
opened this one I saw its trachea? and the fully-formed young
within it. Had my colleague lighted on the specimen he would
no doubt have made the discovery instead.

Peripatus capensis is- nocturnal in its habits. Its gait is
exactly like that of a caterpillar, the feet moving in pairs, and
the body being entirely supported upon them. The animals can
move with considerable rapidity. They have a remarkable
power of extension of the body, and when walking stretch to
nearly twice the length they have when at rest.f

Had I not been engaged for so long a time in working at
Peripatus, I should have certainly paid a visit to the Knysna
Forest, accessible by steamer from Cape Town, which contains
wild elephants preserved by Government, and numerous ante-
lopes, and other large animals. My principal object in going,
however, would have been to see the curious bird, the Touracou
(Turacus albocristatus), one of the Plantain-eaters. This bird has
bright red feathers in its wings, the red colouring matter of which

* Capt. F. W. Hutton, "On Peripatus Novse Zealandiae." Ann. and
Mag. Nat. Hist,, 1876, p. 362.

t For a detailed account of the anatomy, and development of Peripatus
Capensis, see H. N. Moseley, "On the Anatomy and Development of
Peripatus Capensis." Phil. Trans. E. Soc, 1874, p. 757.

162 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

is soluble in water, so that the birds are apt to wash their red
feathers white when in confinement.

The colouring matter, " Turacin," as was discovered by
Prof. A. H. Church,* is distinguished by yielding a remarkable
absorption spectrum, and contains a considerable quantity of
copper. The bird is very common in the Knysna. and I was
told by sportsmen who had shot it, that in rainy weather it will
hardly fly, but crouches down under the bushes, and may some-
times be knocked down with a stick.

A most extraordinary statement concerning these birds, to
the effect that the red colour, when washed out of the feathers,
becomes restored, is made by M. Jules Verreaux.f It seems
impossible to understand how this can happen, since there seems
no means by which the colouring matter can be conducted from
the body of the bird to the web of the feather. Such a result
seems only possible in Horn-bills, some of which, as is well
known, paint their feathers yellow by rubbing in a yellow
secretion discharged from glands under the wing.

M. Yerreaux states that in rainy weather, just as I was
informed, the Turacous get their feathers wet through, and are,
in consequence, unable to fly, but crouch on the ground, instead
of resting on the tree-tops as usual. He caught several with the
hand, the colour came out on his hands from the wet feathers.
He washed the colour out of their wings with soap and water
till the feathers were almost white. The bright red colour
however, returned directly the feathers were dry, and this
occurred even when the same bird was washed twice in the
same day.

The red colouring matter is scarcely at all soluble in pure
water, but the addition of the slightest trace of alkali to the
water enables it to extract the pigment from the feathers, and
yield a blood-red solution.

For notes on P. N. Zealandine, see H. N. M. Ann. and Mag. Nat.
Hist., 1877, p. 85.

* " Researches on Turacin," Phil. Trans., 1870, p. 627.
t M. Jules Verreaux, " Proc. Zool. Soc," 1871, p. 40.

163

CHAPTER VII.
PRINCE EDWARD ISLANDS. THE CROZET ISLANDS.

Appearance and Formation of Marion Island. Vegetation of the Island.
Azorella selago. Limit of Vegetation in Altitude. Relations of the
Flora. Former Extension of Land in this Region. Nesting of the
Great Albatross. Mode of Courtship. Skuas. " Johnny " Pen-
guins. Rock Hoppers. Rookeries of King Penguins. Absurd
appearance of the Young Birds. Singular Mode of Incubation.
Habits of Sheath-bills. Appearance of the Crozet Islands. Tree-trunks
found in the Island by former Voyagers.

Marion Island, December 26th, 18^3. — Marion Island, which
with the smaller island of Prince Edward makes up the Prince
Edward Group, was sighted on the evening of December 25th.
The centre of Marion Island is in lat. 46° 52' S., long. 37° 45' E.,
that of Prince Edward Island in lat. 46° 36' S., long. 37° 57' E.,
the City of Lyons being in a nearly corresponding latitude
in the northern hemisphere.

The islands are distant from the Crozets (which lie a little
to the north or west of them, and are the nearest land) 450
miles. The African continent is distant from them about 960
miles, the nearest point being about Cape Recife at Algoa Bay.
From Kerguelen's Land the Marion Islands are distant about
1,200 miles, from Lindsay and Bouvet Islands about 1,400
miles, from Tristan cla Cunha and Gough Islands about 2,150
miles ; and, lastly, from the Falkland Islands and Euegia
(to which, in common with all the other Antarctic islands
hitherto examined, except the Campbell and Auckland group,
they are in their flora most nearly related) they are distant
about 4,500 geographical miles.

The islands lie, as do the Crozets and Kerguelen's Land, well
within the course of the Antarctic drift, which, fusing with the
Cape Horn current, sweeps in an easterly direction across the

m 2

164 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

Antarctic sea and further within the broad belt of prevalent
westerly winds. The combined action of the winds and the
current have, no doubt, brought about in greater part the
diffusion of the Fuegian and Falkland Island plants to the
islands lying eastward of them; but it is possible that the
multitude of sea-birds inhabiting the islands, and nesting, as
they do, amongst the herbage, may have been of influence
in the matter by transporting seeds attached to their feathers or
feet. Most of the birds are of widely wandering habits.

The island of Marion, the larger of the two forming the
group, and on which alone of the two an opportunity of landing
was afforded, is about 11 miles in length, 8 in extreme breadth,
and about 80 square miles in area. The highest point is about
4,250 feet above the sea-level. The island is entirely volcanic,
and presents the usual features of volcanic islands which are of
considerable age. The highest land is in the centre; and
irregular slopes lead down to the sea on all sides. These slopes
are of very moderate inclination, and are broken in numerous
places by shallow valleys bounded by cliffs where the more
ancient flows of lava have suffered denudation. These valleys
are occupied by more recent lava-flows, which still retain their
rough pinnacled upper surface. Further, all over the slopes
and summits of the island are scattered irregularly, numerous
small cones, formed mostly of conspicuously red scoriae. The
lava is basaltic, presenting in many places in the cliffs a columnar
structure. Some sand gathered on the shores of a small fresh-
water lake near the sea was full of augite and olivine crystals.

The island was sighted, together with Prince Edward Island,
on December 25th, but was not approached closely till the
morning of December 26th. The upper part of the island was
covered with snow, commencing, as usual, on the slopes as
patches lying unmelted in sheltered hollows, succeeded by a
general thin coating or powdering over, through which the black
rock showed out in all directions, and above this, again, on the
highest cones and peaks, forming a continuous sheet of glistening
white. The summits were enveloped in clouds, which lifted or
dispersed in a partial manner from time to time. Below the
snow and up amongst the patchy region, the slopes of the island

MARION ISLAND. 165

were covered with a coating of green, .which formed a contrast
to the dark cliffs and red lower cones, which were almost
destitute of verdure and had very little snow upon them. Here
and there large patches of yellow showed out amidst the green,
and were conspicuous even at some distance from the shore.
It was found that these patches were formed of mosses. The
mosses, indeed, occurring thus in patches, some dark, some
nearly white, and others yellow, form the principal features in
the vegetation as seen from a distance, showing out, as they do,
amongst the very uniform mixture of phanerogamic plants.
The small rocky projections on the rough surfaces of the modern
lava-flows, standing out dark above the verdure, have at a
distance exactly the appearance of low bushes with dark foliage,
and were at first believed to be such. Landing was effected on
the north-east side of the island. The day was remarkably
line and sunshiny.

The rocks, about high-tide mark, are covered with a dense
growth of the large brown seaweed, D' Urvillcea uiilis, which is of
great assistance in breaking the surf. Beyond the ordinary
reach of the sea, but still within the beach-line, the rocks are
covered with a crassulaceous plant (Tillcea moschata, D.C.),
occurring also in Kerguelen's Land Succeeding the beach is a
thick growth of herbage investing a swampy black peaty soil,
which covers the underlying rock more or less thickly every-
where on the lower ground and extends up with the herbage
almost to the snow. The principal plants forming the thick
growth are an Accena {Accena ascendens), Azorella selago, and
a grass {Poa cookii, Hk. £). The Accena is by far the most
abundant plant on the island.

The Azorella forms low, convex, bright green patches in
intervals between the Accena or cake-like masses at its roots.

Azorella selago is a characteristic plant of the southern
islands, and will be frequently referred to in the sequel. It
belongs to the Umbelliferse. It forms lar^e convex masses often
several feet in diameter, which are compact and firm, and when
on solid ground yield little to the tread. The masses are made
up of the stems and shoots of the plants closely packed together
side by side, with their flowering tips and small stiff and tough

166

A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.

leaves forming an even rounded surface at the exterior, being all
of the same length. The interior of the masses is full of dead
leaves and stems. The whole where growing in abundance

VIEW IN KERGUELEN'S, NEAR ROYAL SOUND.

In the foreground, the rounded masses formed by Azorella selago. From a
photograph. In the distance, Mt. WjriUe Thomson.

forms sheets and hummocks which invest the soil sometimes for
acres in extent at Kerguelen's Land, with a continuous elastic

green coating.

An allied plant, Bolax glebaria, forms similar

MARION ISLAND. 167

masses at the Falkland Islands, and there is a tendency in many
Antarctic plants to assume a similar habit, as in the case, e.g.,
of Lyallia kerguelensis.

The grass is abundant everywhere, mingled with the Accena
and Azorella. The plants are, no doubt, rendered especially
luxuriant by the dung of the numerous sea-birds ; but no mutual
benefit arrangement has sprung up between the Poa and the
penguins, as it has at the Tristan da Cunha group between the
penguins and Spartina arundinacea. The Poa cookii nowhere
forms a tussock. The rookeries of King Penguins are entirely
bare, and the grass is not more luxuriant around the nests of the
Golden-crested Penguins than elsewhere. The Poa was the
only grass found in flower in the island. Different-looking
forms were observed, especially around the numerous pools
of water on the hill slopes ; but they are possibly mere modi-
fications of the same grass due to alteration of conditions ; none
of them were in flower. Pringlea antiscorbutica, the Kerguelen
cabbage,* is at least in the part of the island explored, by
no means so abundant as at Kerguelen's Land. It was some
time before a plant was found ; but subsequently a good many
were met with, but not growing in groups of more than four or
five plants. Some were found on the very verge of the shore,
within reach of the spray, and the rest on the banks of a small
rivulet. The cabbage was mostly in full flower and bud, with
sepals and anthers complete. No plants were found with seed
at all ripe. The last year's seeds were decayed. This plant at
least would appear to have a regular summer flowering-season,
since Sir Joseph Hooker found only the fruit at Kerguelen's
Land in the winter.

Of the ferns the Lomaria alpina is the most conspicuous,
forming thick and wide patches amongst the Accena and grass,
and occurring abundantly everywhere. Aspidium mohriodes
was found growing under sheltered banks beside the small stream
together with the other three ferns.

Hymenophyllum tunbridgense, the British species, and Poly-
podium australe grow abundantly on the sheltered sides of the

* For an account of this plant and figure, see under Kerguelen's Land,
p. 184.

168 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

projecting rock-masses already mentioned, but are dwarfed and
almost hidden amongst the mosses. They grow in greatest
luxuriance on the damp banks of the stream.

The mosses are in most striking abundance,* and, in some
very wet places, form continuous sheets over the ground many
square yards in extent. Lichens are not in very great quantity,
except the incrusting forms, which are tolerably abundant
on the rocks.

An attempt was made to reach the actual upper limit of
vegetation, but failed from being commenced too late in the day.
The ascent was up the bed of the small stream already men-
tioned, which lay at the verge of one of the modern lava-flows,
where it abutted on a low cliff exposing a more ancient flow in
section. The more recent flow had a very gradual inclination of
not more than 8°. The first scattered patches of snow were
encountered at about an elevation of 800 feet. A patch of the
cabbage was met with at 1,000 feet.

The highest point reached was at about 1,500 feet elevation.
Here Ranunculus biternatus had disappeared, and where growing
a little lower down was very much dwarfed. The Azorella,
with a few mosses, formed the principal vegetation; but the
green was merely dotted over the bare rock and stones. The
patches of snow were here frequent. The Azorella appeared
from this point to be continued on for about 300 feet more,
becoming scantier and scantier. The absolute limit of vege-
tation may probably be placed at about 2,000 feet. The part
explored was somewhat sheltered. A red cone of scoria? more
exposed was quite bare of green from about 1,000 feet elevation
upwards.

At about 1,400 feet elevation, the water in a shallow pool
exposed to the sun was found to have a temperature of 65° F.,
the temperature of the air in the shade being 44°. At 900 feet
a similar pool, but one which had a small stream of colder water
running into it from the cliff, had a temperature of 55°, the air
here being at 45°. The thermometer here, when plunged into
the midst of a rounded mass of Azorella, rose to 50°. It is

* Thirty -one species were collected, five of which are described by
Mr. Mitten as new.

MARION ISLAND. 169

evident that these mounds retain and store up a considerable
quantity of the sun's heat; and this fact probably yields a
partial explanation of their peculiar form, which is that of so
many otherwise widely different Antarctic plants, and of some
New Zealand Alpine plants [Raoidia, Hastia). No doubt power
gained of resistance to wind is one of the chief causes of
assumption of this form.

The island being of such considerable area, and so short a
time having been available for the examination of its flora, no
conclusions can be drawn from the absence of certain plants,
such as Lyallia, which might have been expected to occur there,
since they occur in Kerguelen's Land associated with nearly all
those found. Although the few plants on such islands as these
are, as a rule, widely spread, yet some appear to be local and
somewhat scarce, as, for example, the Aspidium, which was
only found at the last moment, under the banks of one of the
streams. It is thus highly probable that several plants have
been overlooked, and amongst them possibly Lyallia. The nine
flowering plants collected in the island are all identical with
the species growing in Kerguelen's Land ; and the same is
the case with the Club-mosses. Of the ferns, two occur in
Kerguelen's Land, which has also two others not occurring here.

Fifteen vascular plants in all were found in the Island of
Marion.

Mr. Darwin suggests that Kerguelen's Land has been mainly
stocked by seeds brought with ice and stones on icebergs.*
The occurrence of Pringlea on Marion Island, as also on the
Crozets and Kerguelen's Land, probably points, however, to an
ancient land connection between these islands, which the an-
tiquity and extent of denudation of the lavas would seem to bear
out. It is difficult to see how such seeds as those of Pringlea
could have been transported from one island to another by birds ;
and these seeds seem to be remarkably perishable ; besides, the
distinctness of the genus points to a former wide extent of land on
which its progenitors became developed. The existence of fossil
tree-trunks in Kerguelen's Land points to similar conditions.
Sir J. D. Hooker, in the " Flora Antarctica," p. 220, expressed
* "Origin of Species," 6th Edition, p. 354.

170 A NATUKALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

the above conclusion after his voyage with Capt. Ross, 35 years
ago, and with singular foresight suggested that there has taken
place "the destruction of a large body of land, of which St. Paul's
and Amsterdam Island may be the only remains ; or the sub-
sidence of a chain of mountains running east and west, of which
Prince Edward Island, Marion and the Crozets are the exposed
peaks." This view is directly confirmed by the discovery by
the " Challenger's " soundings of the Kerguelen Plateau, which
"rises in many parts to within 1,500 fathoms of the sea
surface, and forms the common foundation of all the islands
situated in this part of the world, viz., Prince Edward's Islands,
the Crozet Islands, the Kerguelen Group, the Heard Islands, and
the islands of St. Paul and Amsterdam," " as proved by the
soundings of both the ' Challenger ' and the ' Gazelle.' "* The
occurrence with the cabbage on Heard Island, of the helpless
wingless fly, seems a further proof that the plant was not
conveyed to the various islands by birds. It is hardly possible
that both could have been transported. The fly could probably
not exist without the cabbage. The existence of the same
species of fresh water fish in New Zealand, Tasmania, the
Falkland Islands and South America, points also to the former
existence of more intervening land between these points, f

* " Thalassa," an Essay on the Depth, Temperature and Currents of
the Ocean, by J. J. Wild, of the Civilian Scientific Staff of H.M.S.
"Challenger," pp. 19 and 23. London, Marcus Ward, 1877.

f A. R. Wallace, "The Geographical Distribution of Animals,"
Vol. I, p. 401, 403. London, Macmillan, 1876.

The species of Phanerogamia and vascular cryptogams found in
Kerguelen's, Marion, and Heard islands, are enumerated in Prof. Oliver's
report upon my collection, " Journ. Linn. Soc," XIV, p. 389, from which
report the specific names above cited are taken. For the Cryptogamia
of Marion Island, vide list of papers at the end of this book.

The following are the temperature-observations taken on board the
" Challenger" by Staff Commander Tizard, R.N. : —

On December 26th, when the ship was off Marion Island, the ther-
mometer, read at six in the evening, showed for the preceding twelve
hours, maximum 45°'5 F., minimum 36°'2.

December 27th. The ship was occupied dredging off both islands ;
6 a.m. maximum 43° F., minimum 40o,5 ; sea-surface 40° to 41°.

On December 26 the temperature at 10 a.m. was 37° *8 F. ; midday,
43° ; midnight, 42°.

MARION ISLAND. 171

The tracts of lower, nearly flat, land of Marion Island skirting
the sea, and the lower hills and slopes along the shore, presented
a curious spectacle as viewed from the ship as it steamed in
towards a likely-looking sheltered spot for landing. The whole
place was everywhere dotted over with albatrosses, the large
white albatross or Goney (J), exulans). The birds were scattered
irregularly all over the green in pairs, looking in the distance
not unlike geese on a common.

A boat-load of explorers went on shore, everyone having a
heavy stick, as it was expected that we might meet with Fur
Seals. As the boat pulled on shore cormorants flew about over
our heads in numbers. A gull also was common, probably the
same as at Kerguelen s Land, and I saw a small bird fly by,
close to the water, which was probably Pelacanoides tirinatrix,
also of Kerguelen.

As we approached the shore we saw a pair of terns sitting
on the rocks, probably Sterna virgata, which occurs at Kerguelen's
Land ; beautiful birds of a light soft grey and white plumage
with coral red beaks and feet. The Giant Petrel or " Break-
bones " was also wheeling about over the water, and a few large
albatrosses.

As we neared the beach we saw a bird like a small white
hen, eyeing us inquisitively from the black rocks, against which
a considerable swell was washing. This bird was the " Sheath-
bill " {Chionis minor), of which we afterwards saw so much.

The surf is subdued a great deal by the thick growth of
D' Urvillcea utilis upon the rocks. The plant is a huge brown
seaweed with stout stems, as thick as one's wrist, attached to the
rock by large conical boss-like suckers, and with large spreading
leaves on the stalks, provided with floats composed of a series of
honeycomb-like air-cells within a thickened frond. With some
little difficulty we scrambled out on to the rocks, which were
extremely slippery.

The first to get on shore fell in immediately with a female
Sea-Elephant lying on a little patch of damp grass-land at the
mouth of a miniature gully, opposite to which we landed.
They thought they had got a Fur-Seal, and killed the animal at
once by striking it on the head with a stone.

172

A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER.

I made my way up a steep bank and over a low hill to
reach the plain where were most albatrosses. The walking was
extremely tiring. The bank was steep and the soil saturated
with moisture, and consisting of a black slimy mud, with holes
full of water everywhere. The thick rank herbage concealed
these treacherous places, and the ground being covered with
Azorella tufts, these gave way under one's feet and rendered
progression excessively wearying. Further, the sun coming out
bright and hot every now and then, made us, who had gone
on shore thickly clad, perspire very freely.

The albatrosses were all around, raised from the ground. Their
nests are in the style of those of the Mollymauks, but much
larger, a foot and a-half at least in diameter at the top. They
are made up of tufts of grass and moss, with plenty of adhering
earth beaten and packed together, and are not so straight in the
sides as those of the Mollymauks, but more conical, with broad
bases.

GREAT ALBATROSS ON ITS NEST, MARION ISLAND.

(From a photograph.)

The female albatross is sprinkled with grey on the back, and
is thus darker than the male, which is of a splendid snow-white
with the least possible grey speckling, and which was now, of

MARION ISLAND. 1

— o

i O

course, seen in his full glory and best breeding plumage ; the tails
and the wings of both birds are, of course, dark. The albatrosses
one meets with at sea are most frequently birds in young plumage
or bad condition, and have a rather dirty draggled look.

The brooding birds are very striking objects, sitting raised up
on the nest, commonly with the male bird beside it. They sit
fast on the nest when approached, but snap their bills savagely
together, making thus a loudish noise. They will bite hold of
a stick when it is pushed up against their bills. They need a
good deal of bullying with the stick before they stand up in the
nest and let one see whether they have got an egg there or no.

Then the egg is seen to appear slowly out of the pouch in
which it is held during incubation. It is nearly five inches long,
or about as big as a swan's, and is white with specks of red at
the large end. Only one egg is laid. In most of the nests there
were fresh eggs ; in some, however, nearly full grown young
birds.

At Campbell Island, of the Campbell and Auckland group,
the young of Diomedea exulans were found just breaking the
shell in February by an exploring party.* Charles Gooclridge,
who was one of a sealing party on the Prince Edward Islands in
1820, and spent two years on the Crozets, says, that the albatrosses
there lay at about Christmas, and that the period of incubation is
about three months. (?) The young, he says, were wing-feathered,
and good to eat about May, and did not fly off till December.f

The young albatrosses are dark grey in plumage. They snap
their bills, like the old ones, to try and frighten away enemies.

The old birds never attempt to fly, though persistently ill-
treated or driven heavily waddling over the ground. Very many
were killed by the sailors that their wing-bones might be taken
out for pipe stems, and their feet skinned to make tobacco
pouches. The old males tried to run away when frightened, but
never even raised their wino;s.

* "Notes on the Geology of the Outlying Islands of New Zealand.
Reported by Dr. Hector, F.E.S." Trans. N. Zealand Inst., Vol. II, 1869,
p. 75.

t " Narrative of a Voyage to the South Seas, and eight years' residence
in Van Diemen's Land," p. 35, by C. M. Goodridge. London, Hamilton
and Adams, 1833.

174 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER

■>■>

It is amusing to watch the process of courtship. The male
standing by the female on the nest raises his wings, spreads his
tail and elevates it, throws up his head with the bill in the air,
or stretches it straight out forwards as far as he can, and then
utters a curious cry, like the Mollymauks, but in a much lower
key, as would be expected from his larger larynx. Whilst
uttering the cry, the bird sways his neck up and down. The
female responds with a similar note, and they bring the tips
of their bills lovingly together. This sort of thing goes on for
half an hour or so at a time. No doubt the birds consider that
they are singing. Occasionally an albatross flies round and
alights upon the grass, but I saw none take wing.

There were numerous nests of the Skua about amongst the
herbage in dry places. Two nests of these birds are never built
near together. The birds always have a wide range of hunting
ground round their nest. The Skuas in Marion Island were
extremely bold and savage, as they were also in Kerguelen's
Land. When one approaches the nest they swoop down, passing
with a rush close down to one's head, whizzing past one's ears in
a most unpleasant manner.

The two birds take turns at towering above, and thus swoop-
ing. They have sharp claws and beaks, and no doubt would
injure one's face or eyes severely if they touched them as they
passed. One has to beat them off with a stick or gun barrel.
They are very clever in avoiding the stick as they rush past,
but several were knocked down. Sometimes I have had to
waste a charge on them to get rid of them. Some pairs are
much more savage than others. They have a harsh cry. Of
course, when their young is handled they are most furious, and
one has to keep a stick going as one carries it off. The birds
are very like the Northern Skuas in their habits. One of them
swooped down on a duck which I had shot one day at Kerguelen's
Land which fell in the water. The bird picked it up when I was
not more than half a dozen yards off, and was making off with it in
its beak, carrying it easily, when I brought it down with a second
shot, the duck thus costing me two barrels.

I searched the sea-shore along for a considerable distance in
the hope of finding Fur-Seals, but saw none. Three sorts of

MARION ISLAND. 175

penguins were abundant. One was a penguin called by the
sealers the "Johnny" (Pygosceles tceniata), the " Gentoo" of the
Falklands. This penguin is a great deal larger than the crested
Penguins, in fact nearly as big as the King Penguin. The beak
is bright red, long and sharp-pointed, the back dark blackish, the
breast white. The colour of the back is continued on to the
head, but a white patch on the top of the head in contrast with
the dark colouring is the marked feature about the bird. These
penguins we nowhere meet with nesting. They are often
associated with the King Penguins. They were usually to be
met with here and in Kerguelen's Land in parties of a dozen or
twenty or thirty on the grass, close to the shore, and were
apparently moulting at the time of our visit. At Christmas
Harbour, Kerguelen's Land, some lots of them camped at
100 feet, at least, up the steep but green hill-side at the end
of the harbour.

These penguins do not hop, but run, and when closely pur-
sued throw themselves on their bellies on the ground, and
struggle along, rowing themselves with violent blows of their
wings on the sand or mud, dashing the mud into one's eyes, as
one chases them. When in the water, as they come to the sur-
face, they make a sort of very feeble imitation of the leap of the
crested penguins, never throwing the whole of the body out of
the water, but only the back. They are also to be seen
swimming about when undisturbed, with their head and back
out of the water, and body horizontal.

Another penguin, the "Eock Hopper" (Eudyptes saltator),
the same species that occurs at Tristan da Cunha, but a little
smaller, as far as I could judge, was nesting about the low cliffs
on the shore. The ground on which the nests were made was
very wet and filthy, and the nests were, like those of the
Jackass Penguins at the Cape of Good Hope, made of small
stones, raising the egg about an inch from the mud. These
penguins were exactly like the Tristan ones in their cry, and
were quite as savage, but then they were in full sight, and not
amongst grass ; for though there was plenty of grass just over
them, nearly a foot in height, they prefer to build where the
ground is quite bare. The birds therefore for some reason have

17G

A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER.

adopted slightly different habits from those of the representatives
of the species at Tristan da Cunha.

Most interesting, however, by far, amongst all rookeries of
penguins which I have seen, was one of King Penguins (Apte-
nodytes longirostris), which I met with a little further along the
shore. The rookery was on a space of perfectly flat ground of
about an acre in extent. It was divided into two irregular
portions, a larger and smaller, by some grassy mounds. The flat
space itself had a filthy black slimy surface ; but the soil was
trodden hard and flat. About two-thirds of the space of one of
the portions of the rookery, the larger one, was occupied by
King Penguins, standing bolt upright, with their beaks upturned,
side by side, as thick as they could pack, and jostling one

another as one disturbed
them. In the figure the

birds' heads are drawn
as if held horizontally.
This is unnatural, the
head and neck should be
stretched out vertically,
quite straight, with the
tip of the beak pointed
directly upwards.

The King Penguins
stand as high as a man's
middle, they are distin-
guished at once not only
by their size, but by two
narrow streaks of bright
orange yellow, one on each
side of the glistening white
throat.

Penguins were to be
seen coming from and
going to the sea from the

KING PENGUIN. APTENOB.TES LONGIKOSTK.S. ^^ ^ g^g^ and

not in companies like the Crested Penguins. The King Penguins,
when disturbed, made a loud sound like " urr-vrr-urr" They

t-rt-r

MARION ISLAND. 17

run with their bodies held perfectly upright, getting over the
ground pretty fast, and do not hop at all. A good many were
in bad plumage, moulting, but there were plenty also in the
finest plumage.

On the small area of the rookery, which consisted of a flat
space sheltered all round by grass slopes, and which formed a
sort of bay amongst these, communicating with the larger area
by two comparatively narrow passages, was the breeding esta-
blishment.

These penguins are said by some observers to set apart regular
separate spaces in their rookeries for moulting, for birds in clean
plumage not breeding, and again for breeding birds. Here the
breeding ground was quite separate and the young and breeding
pairs were confined to this smaller sheltered area. This was
the only King Penguin rookery which I saw in full action.
At Kerguelen's Land, the King Penguins were only met with in
scattered groups of a dozen and twenty or so, and they were
then not breeding, but only moulting.

On this breeding ground, at its lower portion, numbers of
penguins were reclining on their belhes, and I thought at first
they might be covering eggs, but on driving them up, I saw they
were only resting. There was a drove of about a hundred pen-
guins with young birds amongst them. The young were most
absurd objects. They were as tall as their parents, and moved
about bolt upright with their beaks in the air in the same
manner ; but they were covered with a thick coating of a light
chocolate down, looking like very fine brown fur.

The down is at least two inches deep on the birds' bodies,
and gives them a curious inflated appearance. They have a
most comical look, as they run off to jostle their way in amongst
the old ones. They seemed to run rather better than the adults,
but perhaps that was fancy.

Absurd in appearance as these young are, those that are just
dropping the clown and assuming the white plumage of the
adults, are far more so. Some are to be seen with the brown
down in large irregular patches, and the white feathers showing
out between these. In others the down remains only about
neck and head, and in the last stage a sort of ruff or collar of

178 A NATURALIST OX THE "CHALLENGER."

brown remains sticking ont round the bird's neck, and then,
when it cocks up its head, it looks like a small boy in stick-up
collars. The manner in which these young ones cock up their
heads gives them a peculiar expression of vanity, and as they
ran off on their short stumpy legs, I could not resist laughing

outright.

At the farthest corner of the breeding space, in the most
sheltered spot, was a clump of birds of a hundred or more. The
birds were most of them in a slightly stooping posture, and with
the lower part of their bodies bulged out in a fold in front. As
I came up and bullied these birds with my stick a little they
shifted their ground a bit, with an awkward sort of hopping
motion, with the feet held close together. It immediately struck
me that they were carrying eggs with them, as I had read that
King Penguins do. Their gait was quite peculiar, and different
from the ordinary one, and evidently laboured and difficult.

I struck one of them with my stick, and after some little pro-
vocation she let drop her egg from her pouch, and then at once
assumed the running motion. These birds carry their egg in a
complete pouch between their legs, and hold it in by keeping
their broad web feet tucked close together under it. They make
absolutely no nest, nor even mark from habitually sitting in one
place ; but simply stand on the rookery floor in the described
stooping position, and shift ground a bit from time to time, as
occasion requires. I suppose the egg is not dropped till the
young one begins to break the shell. Charles Goodridge says
that the period of incubation is seven weeks, and that the birds
commenced laying in the Crozets in November, and continued to
lay, if deprived of their eggs, till March.

The birds with eggs were sitting close together. When, on
my frightening them, some were driven against others, savage
fights ensued, and blood was drawn freely; the birds whose
ground was invaded striking out furiously with their beaks.

Eound about the brooding birds were others, I think males,
in considerable numbers. These males probably feed the
females with which they are paired. There were also some
young downy birds. If one of these latter was driven in
amongst the brooders it was at once pecked almost to death.

M.VKION ISLAND. 179

The young ones utter a curious whistling cry, of a high
pitch and running through several notes, quite different from
the simple bass note of the adults.

The rookery was only inhabited in about a quarter of its
extent, but it was strewed everywhere with the bones of the
penguins in heaps, and on the verge of the rookery was a small
ruined hut, with the roof tumbled in, and overgrown with weeds,
and containing an old iron pot and several old casks, and some
hoop iron ; evidently an old sealer's hut. The sealers had pro-
bably employed their spare time in making penguin oil, and
taking perhaps skins, which are made up into rugs and mats at
the Cape of Good Hope, often only the yellow streaked part
about the neck being used. Hence the many bones and empti-
ness of the rookery. The egg of the King Penguin is more than
ordinarily pointed at the small end. It is greenish-white, like
other penguin eggs.

Living also about the rookery was a flock of about thirty
Sheath-bills {Chionis minor). The instant they saw us ap-
proaching they came running in a body over the floor of the
rookery in the utmost excitement of curiosity, and came right up
within reach of our sticks, uttering a " Cluck Cluck," which with
them is a sort of half -inquisitive, half-defiant note. We knocked
over several with big stones and our sticks ; but the remainder
did not in the least become alarmed. They just fluttered up off
the -ground to avoid a stone as it was sent dashing through the
thick of them ; but immediately pitched again, and ran up, as if
to see how the stone was thrown. I only on one other occasion
saw the Chionis thus living gregariously in flocks ; at Kerguelen's
Land we found them already paired, except one flock which I
saw near the entrance of Eoyal Sound, and at Marion Island
many were already paired. That they should thus form flocks,
when not breeding, is what might be expected from their near
alliance to the Plovers.

At the rookery these birds were living on all sorts of filth
dropped by the penguins, and were the scavengers of the
place, and when I drove some of the brooders off their eggs,
and an egg or two got broken, the Sheath-bills, who had
followed us up closely, notwithstanding the slaughter we had

x 2

180 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER.

done amongst them, came and pecked at the eggs almost between
onr legs.

The Sknas of course were close at hand, and swooped down at
once on the body of a penguin that we skinned. Beyond the
penguin rookery was a large tract of nearly flat land, very
swampy, and covered with grass. On the drier parts were
numerous troops of from twenty to thirty King Penguins, and
in one place a smaller rookery, but as far as I saw without
brooders.

There was here a shallow freshwater lake, on which some
young albatrosses were swimming. I ascended the slope inland
towards the snow, going up the gentle slope of the modern-
looking lava flow already referred to. The ground was very
boggy, and let one sink in sometimes almost up to the middle.
There were numerous Great Albatross's nests scattered about,
but they did not extend more than 100 feet above sea level, and
hardly anywhere as high up as that.

Far above the level of these, I found a young bird, I think
the young of the Giant Petrel, in a nest scarcely raised from the
ground ; the young bird vomited up the contents of its stomach
and gush after gush of red oily fluid at me as I stirred it up
with a stick. All the petrels vomit oil in this way, and the
white ones thus are apt to spoil themselves for stuffing in a
most provoking way, before one can get their mouths and
nostrils stuffed with cotton wool.

The valley in which the lava flow up which I was going, lay,
was bounded to the south by a cliff about 200 feet high, com-
posed of a series of more ancient lava flows. The lowermost of
these showed a more perfect columnar structure than the upper-
most, and the columns of the lower layers were much smaller
than those of the upper. A small stream ran down in the
narrow depression, between the border of the lava stream and
the talus slopes of the cliff. In the bed of this were at intervals
small beds of a compact red earth, forming almost a rock,
deposited by the stream, and subsequently in places cut through
by it and exposed in section.

High up, at about 500 feet elevation, 'were some four or five
Sooty Albatrosses (Diomedea fuliginosa, the Piew or Pio of

CROZET ISLANDS. 181

sealers), soaring about the tops of the cliffs and probably nesting
there. This bird is continually to be seen about cliffs and
higher mountain slopes, and seems never to nest low down like
the Mollymauk and Gony.

In holes in the banks at this elevation, a Prion was ex-
tremely abundant, but it was also pretty abundant down about
sea level. Its peculiar angry cry, somewhat like the snarling
of a puppy, uttered as it hears footsteps about its hole, is very
puzzling at first as one listens to it, coming up from the ground at
one's feet, but is unmistakable and quite unlike the cry of any
other of the Procellaridce, which we met with ; I see however
that Mr. Eaton in his notes, as cited by Mr. E. B. Sharpe, says :
" that the cry of the petrel Halabcena ccerulea is exactly similar
to that of the Prion." We dug out a bird with its egg.

I saw a hole with ears of grass dragged into it, and like a
mouse's. It is not unlikely that there is a mouse in the island,
as at Kerguelen ; in Goodridge's time mice were so abundant on
St. Paul's Island, that he speaks of feeding hogs, which he kept
in confinement, on them. They were found lying in heaps in a
dormant state in the early mornings (1. c, p. 65). A Curculio and
two Staphylinidw were found by Von Suhm on the island, and
also a small land shell which was common. A fly with rudi-
mentary wings was also found by him, apparently the same
as one of those at Kerguelen's Land {Amaloj)Uryx maritima).
No land bird was met with, and no duck was seen, though one
species of duck is so abundant at Kerguelen's Land.

crozet islands, Jan. 2nd, 18*4. — We ran on towards the
Crozet Islands, before the westerly winds, and after lying about
close to this group in a dense fog, which prevented our sighting-
it and landing on Hog Island as we had intended, the fog at
last lifted slightly on the evening of Jan. 2nd.

We ran in between Possession Island and East Island, as
Ross had done thirty years before. As we steamed towards the
land, the coast of Possession Island could just be discerned
under a dense fog bank, the white breakers being plainly
visible. The fog lifting a little more, a long range of cliffs could
be seen ; the tops of these, however, were still hid, together with
all the higher portion of the island, in the densest fog. The fog

182 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

seemed to lie some little way off the land, for the cliffs were
lighted up by sunlight. Down these cliffs in several places,
waterfalls poured into the sea.

As we neared the island and entered the passage between
Possession Island and East Island, and came opposite the
sealers' anchorage at Navire Bay, we had a clear view of this end
of the island. It here presented a series of gentle slopes,
bounded by low littoral cliffs. Further off, towards America
Bay, the cliffs were seen to be much higher. ISTavire Bay is a
very slight indentation of the coast line, affording hardly any
shelter : it has a beach of large pebbles, and from it extends up
inland a sinuous valley, appearing to my eye as rather a space
left between two lava flows than the result of denudation. On
one side of the beach was seen a hut and a store of oil barrels.

A shot was fired, but no one showed himself. The place
was evidently deserted. There was too much surf on the beach
to allow of landing. It was late in the evening, and a bank of
fog appeared to be drifting up to envelope us ; so after sounding
we made for Kerguelen's Land, greatly of course to my dis-
appointment, for the flora of the Crozets was then quite unex-
plored. The slopes, however, appeared from the ship as if covered
with a similar vegetation to that of Marion Island, which how-
ever, did not extend so high up the mountains.

The slopes were covered with albatrosses, nesting as at
Marion, and the birds seen about the ship were the same as at
that island, but in addition a Molly mauk was seen.

East Island presents towards Possession Island, very high
sheer precipices, with most remarkable jagged summits. Only
these summits, with their bold outline showing out against the
sky, lit up by the light of the sunset, were to be seen ; the base of
the cliffs was hidden in impenetrable fog. The Crozets are in
about the same latitude as the Prince Edward Islands.

Crews of vessels have several times been cast away on the
Crozet Islands. I have already referred to the account given by
Charles Goodridge of his stay of two years in the islands in
1821-23.* Goodridge describes the discovery by his party at

* "Narrative of a Voyage to the South Seas, &c.," pp. 42, 43, by C. M.
Goodridge. London, Hamilton and Adams, 1833.

CEOZET ISLANDS. 183

above a mile from the reach of the tides, of several trunks of
trees about 14 feet long, and measuring from 14 to 18 inches
through, which were found lying on the ground as if thrown
up by the sea. The wood was close, heavy, and hard, but being
split up with wedges made very good clubs. Hence it was not
fossil wood. Goodridge concluded that it was drift-wood thrown
up so far during some volcanic convulsion.

We were told by the sealers that the rabbits, which are
abundant on the Crozets, were not good to eat, because of their
food. The wild hogs were, in Goodridge's time, very fierce and
dangerous to approach single handed. The hogs have large
tusks. Sealers told us that it would not be well to introduce pigs
into the other southern islands, as they would destroy the birds,
the main support of chance castaway mariners. The last account
of a visit to the Crozets is that of Captain Lindesay Brine, RK,
who saw an iceberg 300 feet in height within sight of the group.*

The mean temperature of the air whilst the ship was off the
islands, from December 30th to January 2nd, was about 44° or
45°. The highest reading was 50°, which occurred twice, the
lowest 39-6°.

January 6th. — We sighted Bligh's Cap in the evening. It
appeared as a hazy rounded cone on the horizon. Numerous
birds surrounded the ship, and as on our approach to the other
islands, penguins were to be seen in every direction. The birds
were, Dromedea exulans, D. fidiginosa, D. culmiuata, a Prion,
Dctption Capensis, Ossifraga gigantea, and an Oceanitis. A Skua
also was seen, though the land was eight miles distant A
squall in the morning brought a slight fall of snow. The water
assumed a peculiar dark colour, probably from its shallowness.
Bligh's Cap is a small outlying rocky island to the north of
Kerguelen's Land.

January ith. — After lying off for the night we reached
Christmas Harbour and anchored at 8.30 p.m.

For a list of Plants collected in the Crozet group by the U.S. Transit of
Venus Expedition, see J. H. Kidder, M.D., "Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus.," No.
3, II, p. 31.

* Capt. Lindesay Brine, B.N., "Geogr. Mag.," Oct., 1877.

184

CHAPTER VIII.

KERGUELEN'S LAND.

Position of the Island. Its Mountains and Fjords. Active Volcano.
Christmas Harbour. Sea Elephants and Fur Seals. Shooting Teal.
The Kerguelen Cabbage. Wingless Flies and Gnats. Vegetation at
Successive Heights. Fossil Wood. Rookeries of Rock Hopper and
Macaroni Penguins. Penguins Inhabiting a Cave. Betsy Cove.
Glaciation of the Land Surface. Iceborne Rocks. Excavation of the
Fjords. Beds of Burnt Coal. The Sea Leopard. Killing Sea
Elephants. Nature of the Trunk of the Sea Elephant. Carrion
Birds. The Giant Petrel. Habits of several Burrowing Petrels.
The Diving Petrel. Habits of Sheath Bills. Struggle for Existence
amongst the Birds. Mode of Whaling amongst the Kelp.

Kerguelen's Land, January 1th to January 30th, 1814. —

Kerguelen's Land extends from about lat. 48° 39' S., to lat.
49° 44' S* Its southernmost point is therefore in about
corresponding latitude to the Lizard in Cornwall, which is in a
little less than 50° K In longitude, very roughly speaking,
Kerguelen's Land corresponds with the island of Eodriguez,
the Maldive Islands, Bombay, Tobolsk, and the mouth of the
Eiver Obi.

The extreme length of the island is about 85 miles, and the
extreme breadth 79 miles ; but the coast is so much indented by
sounds or fjords that the area of the island is not more than,
very roughly, 2,050 square miles, or about three times as great
as that of Oxfordshire.

The island lies within the belt of rain at all seasons of the

* Lat. of Cape Francis, the northernmost point, 48°- 39 S., long.
69°-02 E.

Lat. of Cape Challenger, the southernmost point, 49°'44 S., long.

70°'05 E.

Extreme breadth between long. 70°'35 E. and long. 680>42 E.
The Lizard is in lat. 49°'57 0' 41" N.

kerguelen's land. 185

year, and being reached by no drying winds, and its temperature
being kept down by the surrounding vast expanse of sea, has
hence its soil and vegetable covering permanently saturated
with moisture. Further, with this fact of constant precipitation
of moisture is connected the form of the island itself, since fjord
formation is accomplished only by glaciation on a large scale, and
this can only occur where there is a constant supply of snow.
The island further Kes within the line of the Antarctic drift, as
do also the Crozets and Prince Edward Group ; and this cold
current must reduce the temperature considerably.

The island is in the region of prevailing westerly winds, the
course of which is in the Southern Ocean, untrammelled and
undisturbed by barriers of land. Since the line of greatest
length of the island lies in a north-west and south-east direction,
and the coast line, though much broken, trends on either side
in the same direction, the north-east side is the sheltered one,
and that, consequently, where are the safest anchorages, whilst
the south-west side is the weather one.

The island is throughout mountainous, made up of a series
of steep-sided valleys separated by ridges and mountain masses,
which rise to very considerable heights. Mount Eoss, the
highest, is 6,120 feet in altitude, Mount Eichards 4,000 feet,
Mount Crozier 3,250, Mount Wyville Thomson 3,160, Mount
Hooker 2,600, Mount Moseley 2,400.

The island thus, when viewed from the sea at a distance,
presents a remarkable jagged outline of sharp peaks, which is
most striking when the island is observed from the south. The
valleys run down everywhere to the sea, broadening out as they
approach it. The coast is broken up everywhere by deep sounds
or fjords, which resemble closely in form the fjords of Norway,
and of all other parts of the world were fjords exist. They are
long channel-like excavations of the coast-line, occupied by
arms of the sea, often shallower at the mouths* than at the
upper extremities, and bounded on either hand by perpendicular
cliffs.

The island is of volcanic formation as far as it has yet been

* The shallowness of the mouths of the fjords is well marked in the
case of Royal Sound and Rhodes Bay.

186 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

investigated, and there is no doubt that it is entirely so formed,
the beds of coal alone excepted, and certain beds of red earth,
which are of the same origin as the coal, but merely different in
that they have undergone a more intense heating.

The island has undergone immense denudation, and on its
whole north-eastern and southern regions there is no trace
of any volcanic cone or signs of comparatively modern volcanic
action, as at Marion Island. Every appearance bespeaks con-
siderable antiquity.

Nevertheless it seems to be certain that there exists towards
the south-west of the island, a still active volcano with hot
springs in its neighbourhood. We fell in with an American
whaling captain, Captain Fuller, who has been often on the
weather shore, and is well acquainted with the position of the
volcano, and though he had not been actually at it himself, some
of his men had ; and in Tristan da Cunha we received indepen-
dent testimony in the matter from old sealers.

The appearance of the island in the region of the volcano
must thus be very different from that of the north-eastern and
south-eastern portions.

As necessarily follows from the presence of fjords, the whole
of the lower rock surface of the island shows most marked
evidence of glaciation.

Christmas Harbour, almost on the extreme north of the
island, is a small example of one of the fjords. It is a deep
inlet with dark frowning cliffs on either hand at its entrance.
The land on either side runs out into long narrow promontories,
which separate the harbour from another similar fjord on the
south and from a bay on the north. The promontories thus
formed are high and bounded throughout almost their entire
stretch by sheer precipices on either hand. On the northern
side only of Christmas Harbour, somewhat above its mouth, does
the land rise in a steep broken slope, which can be ascended
directly from the sea.

At the termination seawards of the southern promontory, is
the well-known arched rock of Christmas Harbour, a roughly
rectangular oblong mass, evidently formerly continuous directly
with the rest of the promontory, but now separated from it,

KERGUELEX S LAND. 187

except at its very base, by a chasm, and perforated so as to form
an arch. Above the high cliffs on the south side of the harbour,
towers up a huge and imposing mass of black-looking rock with
perpendicular faces ; this overhanging somewhat towards the
harbour from the weathering out of soft strata beneath it, looks
as if it might fall some day and fill the upper part of the harbour.
On the north side rises a flat-topped rocky mass 1,215 feet in
height, called Table Mountain.

At the head of the harbour is a sandy beach and small
stretch of flat land, as exists at the heads of all the fjords, and
beyond this the land rises in a series of steps, separated by short
cliffs towards the bases of Table Mountain and the great rock
on the south.

The appearance of the whole is extremely grand, and the
marked contrast between the blackness of the rocks and the
bright yellow green of the rank vegetation clothing all the lower
region of the land, so characteristic of the appearance of all
these so-called Antarctic Islands, renders the general effect in fine
weather, most beautiful. I landed on the morning of the 7th of
January at the head of the harbour, with a large party, all eager
to kill a Fur Seal ; as the boat grounded on the black volcanic
sand, some greyish brown forms were made out, lying amongst
the grass just above the beach. A rush wras made to the spot,
but they were found to be only four Sea Elephants, reclining
beside a small stream which runs down here from a little lake
on a small plateau above, into the sea.

The Elephants, wThen stirred up, raised their heads and put on
their usual savage expression which they exhibit when disturbed,
which is effected by contracting the facial muscles about the
nose, so as to throw it into a series of very prominent transverse
folds. They opened their mouths, showed their teeth and
uttered a roar, which consists of a series of quickly succeeding
deep guttural explosions. They bit savagely at a stick, and
twisted it out of our hands, but made no attempt to go to sea,
making on the contrary into the stream, and up it inland,
moving by the regular flop flop motion of the body, like that of
the common British seal, but more clumsily performed.

"Whilst everyone was either looking at these Elephants, or

188 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

beating the ground for ducks, I looked round for other seals, and
on a shot being fired, I saw the head of an animal raised high
above the grass on the flat close to the beach, and about a
hundred yards off. I knew at first glance that it was a Fur
Seal, and made for it in all haste. The seal, or Sea Bear, was
lying in a sort of form in the grass. It contrasted most strongly
in its appearance and gait with the Sea Elephants we had just left.

The Otariadce, or seals with external ears, differ from all
other seals in that, in progression on land, they turn their hinder
limbs or flippers forwards, and rest on the backs of them, and
raising the body from the ground with the fore limbs, shuffle
along with a sort of awkward walking gait, by the alternate use
of the hind limbs. All other seals keep their hind limbs stretched
straight out behind when on land as when in the water, and these
limbs are therefore of no aid in moving on land, which is accom-
plished entirely by undulating movements of the body. The
Otariadce are in fact connecting links between the true seals
and such beasts as the Sea Otter ; their limbs still retain some of
their old land functions.

The Sea Bear has besides a thick coating of long hair, the
familiar thicker layer of silky fur beneath, which renders its
skin so valuable. The Sea Bears are nimble on land as compared
with the helpless Sea Elephants, and can climb up on to rocky
ledges, and even spring some little distance.

The seal I had found was an old male, covered with greyish-
brown shaggy hair, and with a short greyish mane about the
neck. He moved his head up and down uneasily when dis-
turbed, as one sees a bear sway his head. One of the party
came up as we were watching him, and running up close to the
beast, as if it had been a helpless Sea Elephant, was forced to
retreat in a hurry, for the beast made a savage dash at him, open-
mouthed.

The seal was very difficult to kill outright. Fur Seals
are easily knocked over with a blow on the nose, but are very
tenacious of life, and require to have their throats cut directly
they are stunned, or they escape after all.

There are still a considerable number of Fur Seals about
Kerguelen's Land. I killed two ; two others were killed by our

kehguelen's land. 189

party at Howes Foreland, and two others were seen there.
Two of the whaling schooners killed over 70 Fur Seals on one
day, and upwards of 20 on another, at some small islands off
Howes Foreland to the north. It is a pity that some discretion
is not exercised in killing the animals, as is done in St. Paul's
Island in Behring's Sea, in the case of the northern Fur Seal. By
killing the young males, and selecting certain animals only for
killing, the number of seals may even be increased.* The sealers
in Kerguelen's Land kill all they can find.

The sealers told us that the southern Fur Seals sometimes eat
penguins, and that they had found the remains of them in their
stomachs. Seals feed to a very large extent on Crustacea. Thus
Otaria jubata is said to feed more on Crustacea and smaller fish,
than on large fish, and in the Campbell and Auckland Islands
to eat also birds,f and Mr. Brown, in his account of the habits of
Arctic seals and whales, says that the food of the northern seals
consists mostly of Crustacea, species of Gammarus, called " seals'
food " by the whalers 4 In summer the Northern Seals eat fish.
They sometimes take down birds, but not often. Dr. Buckholtz
found only Crustacea in the stomachs of Phoca Greenlandica in
the Arctic regions, mainly Gammarus Arcticus, and G. Themisto.^

The sealers told me, that sometimes, but very rarely, they
found another kind of seal, like the Fur Seal somewhat, which
they called the " Sea Dog." A second species of eared seal
probably thus occurs as a rarity at Kerguelen's Land.

The whole beach of Christmas Harbour was covered with
droves of the Johnny Penguin (Pygosceles tamiata) and King
Penguins, and establishments of these penguins were to be seen
on small level grassy spaces far up the hill slope.

* " The Eared Seals." J. A. Allen. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard
Univ., Cambridge, Mass., Vol. II, No. 1.

t For an account of the habits of the Southern Sea Lion, see " Twenty
Months in the Campbell and Auckland Islands." Peterm. Mitt. 1866,
s. 103.

+ R. Brown, " On the Mammalia of Greenland," with succeeding
papers on the Seals and Whales. "Proc. Zool. Soc," 1864.

§ "yDie zweite Deutsche Nord-Polarfahrtin den Jahren 1869 und 1870,"
2. Bd. Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse. Leipzig, F. A. Brockhaus, 1874.

W. Peters, " Zeugethiere und Fische."

190 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.

Teal were shot in great numbers by our party. The teal of
Kerguelen's Land (Querquedula Eatoni) is peculiar to the island
and the Crozets. It is somewhat larger than our common teal,
and of a brown colour, with a metallic blue streak, and some
little white on the wing. It is enormously abundant all about
Kerguelen's Land, near the coast. I killed in one day, twenty-
seven teal, and similar bags were frequent. Four or five guns
used to bring back usually over 100 birds.

The teal feed mainly on the fruit of the Kerguelen cabbage, and
are extremely good eating. They were the greatest treat possible
to us, when living, as we necessarily were, almost entirely on
preserved meat.

The teal are to be found mostly in flocks, or when breed-
ing in pairs. They are, where they have not been shot at by
sealers, remarkably tame, and require to be kicked up almost to
afford a shot. At one valley near Three Island Harbour in
Eoyal Sound, which had probably not been visited by man for
thirty or forty years, perhaps hardly ever, after tramping some
distance after teal without success, I saw a flock get up from the
bed of a river which ran down the valley, about 150 yards off. I
thought the birds must be wild and had been recently shot at ; but
no, they got up merely to come and look at me. They pitched
about 40 yards off, and then set off running towards me in line,
like farm-yard ducks, seven of them in a row, headed by a drake.
As a sportsman, I hesitate to describe the termination of the
scene. Only those who have been long at sea know what an
intense craving for fresh meat is developed by a constant diet of
preserved and salt food. The teal were most excellent eating,
and there were many mouths to feed. My rule was always to
shoot them on the ground if I could, and as many at a shot as
possible. When I could not do this I took them flying, and with
tolerable success.

Some of the teal were breeding at the time of our visit ;
some with young full-fledged and already away from the nest ;
others with eggs. The nest is a neat one, placed under a tuft of
grass, and lined with down torn from the breast of the parent
bird. There were five eggs in one nest that I found.

The duck, when put up off the nest, to effect which the nest

kerguelen's land. 191

requires almost to be trodden upon, or when found with her
young away from the nest, nutters a few yards only, as if
maimed, and pitches again, and cannot be frightened into a long
flio-ht. It is curious that the bird should have retained this
instinct where there are no four-footed or human enemies ;
possibly she finds it a successful ruse when the brood is attacked
by the Skuas.

The young must fall constantly a prey to these ever-watchful
Skuas, for in most cases I found only a single young one fol-
lowing the mother. There were no young met with in the
condition of flappers, and the general breeding season was
probably only about to begin, as it was with many birds of
the island. The greater part of the birds were yet in flocks.

The flat stretch of land at the head of Christmas Harbour is
covered with a thick rank growth of grass (Festuca Cookii), and a
Composite herb with feathery leaves and yellow flower (Gotula
plumosa), also with Azorella as at Marion Island, with Acoena
Montia fontana and Callitriche verna about the dampest places.
The soil is black and peaty and saturated with water. It is
almost impossible to find anything to burn ; the Azorella is the
only thing that will burn, and sometimes pieces of this may be
found that are dry enough, in places where the Azorella bunches
overhang small precipices, and the water can thus drip away.

The feature which distinguishes the general appearance of
the vegetation of Christmas Harbour from that of Marion Island
is the presence of the Kerguelen Cabbage in large quantities.
The plant grows on the slopes and bases of the cliffs in thick
beds. The cabbage is in appearance like a small garden
cabbage, but often with a long trailing stalk. It is, however,
not annual, but perennial, and the flowering stalks, instead of
coming out from the centre of the head, come out laterally from
the sides of the stalks between the leaves.

The old flower stalks die and wither, but do not drop off. I
counted on one cabbage at Betsy Cove 28 flowering stalks, of
different ages ; three of them only being of the current year's
growth and fresh. They appeared to belong to eight successive
years. The cabbage about Christmas Harbour was either in
flower or green fruit, mostly the latter. It was only to the

192

A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.'

south of the island, about Eoyal Sound, that ripe seed was met
with; but there, especially at Mutton Cove, it was abundant.
The cabbage (Pringlea antiscorbutica), which like the familiar
vegetable is a cruciferous plant, is peculiar to the Prince Edward,
Crozets, Kerguelen and Heard Islands, and belongs to a genus
with no near ally.

KERGUELEN CABBAGE, PKIXGLEA ANTISCORBUTICA.

(From a photograph.)

Crawling about the heart of the cabbages, and sheltering
there, are to be found swarms of the curious wingless fly, like-
wise peculiar to Kerguelen's Land, and islands where the cabbage
is found. The fly (Calycopterix Moseleyi, Eaton) is simply a loiig-
leo-o-ed brown fly, with very minute rudimentary wings. It crawls
about lazily on the cabbage, and lays its eggs in the moisture
between the leaves, about the heart of the plant.

Another fly ( A ma lopUryxmaritimci), with wings rudimentary
but larger in proportion to the body than in the other, is found
about the rocks, on the sea shore, where it jumps about when
hunted, as if it wrere a small grasshopper. It is the same as

KEKGUELEX'S LAND. 193

found at Marion Island, where it was discovered by Von
Willemoes Suhm. Probably the fly frequenting the cabbage
exists also at Marion Island; but we did not know where to
look for it when there, and cabbages were not very abundant ;
but it is possible, also, that this fly does not extend there, for
we saw no teal on Marion Island, though they exist in abundance
on the Crozets, and especially on Possession Island, where, as
we were told by the sealers, there is a lake full of them.
However, we examined but a very small tract of Marion Island,
and similar tracts are to be found in Kerguelen's Land, with
very few cabbages, and consequently without teal. Both animals
may abound in parts of Marion Island not visited by us.

A wingless Gnat (Halyritus amphibius) also inhabits the
sea-shore, living amongst the sea-weed constantly wetted by the
tide. I discovered at the Falkland Islands, a similar wingless
gnat, and a fly which I believe to be closely allied to the
Kerguelen Amalopteryx, and which thus adds to those already
known* a further interesting link between the forms of life
inhabiting these widely separated islands.

I mounted up the slope towards Table Mountain. The
climb is up a succession of steps, the successive flat ledges pre-
senting; o-laciated surfaces scattered over with stones fallen from
above. The thick rank vegetation ceases at about 300 feet
altitude, and then becomes more sparse. Colobanthus Ker-
guelensis, a Caryophyllaceous plant, peculiar to Kerguelen's
Land and Heard Island, affects the more barren stony ground
at this elevation, and I did not meet with it anywhere about
the lower slopes, or amongst the peaty soil. At Heard Island
it grows at sea-level.

At about 500 feet elevation, a very handsome lichen (Neuo-
pogon Taylori) commences rather abruptly. It is a very con-

* See Eev. E. H. Eaton. " Breves Dipteramm uniusque Lepidopte-
rarum insulse Kerguelensis indigenarum diagnoses." The Entomologists'
Monthly Magazine, August, 1875, p. 58.

C. 0. Waterhouse, "On the Coleoptera of Kerguelen's Land." Ibid., p. 50.

There are five genera of Diptera in the island (four of Muscidse, one of
Tipulidae, all cited as endemic in the southern islands. Possibly, however,
two of these occur in the Falkland Islands. The beetles are all apterous,
one having the elytra united. Two genera and all the species are endemic.

194 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

spicuous plant, being of a mingled bright sulphur-yellow and
black colour, and of large size. It is abundant on the higher
rocks everywhere. Azorella and the cabbage grow up to about
1,000 feet, the height of the ridge from which the rocky mass
forming the top of Table Mountain rises. Here the cabbage
ceases, but Azorella is continued in very small quantities to the
top of the mountain, growing on its very summit, but only in
very sheltered corners between rocks and much dwarfed.

Azorella, the cabbage, and a grass (Agrostis Antarctica), were
the only flowering plants growing at 1,000 feet, and these only
very sparsely. The land at this height presented a series of
ridges of barren rock and piles of stones. At Mutton Cove and
about Royal Sound, a very marked line, at about 1,000 feet,
separates the green lower slopes from the barren stony ridges
and peaks above. It is probably the line above which snow lies
for the greater part of the year unmelted, though the hills just
above it, at Mutton Cove, were quite free from snow at the time
of our visit.

In a pool of water, on the summit of Table Mountain, I
found a quantity of specimens of a small Lmnbriculus, or allied
form of Annelid.

The phonolith of which Table Mountain is composed, is full
of olivine crystals, occurring in large rounded masses as in the
Ardeche valley, and many other volcanic districts.

A comparatively low ridge separates the head of Christmas
Harbour from the sea directly beyond. On a flat expanse of
this riclge are two small freshwater lakes, in which grow two
water plants, Limosella aquatica and Nitella Antarctica, both
widely spread plants, the first occurring, amongst other places, in
England ; and the second being very closely allied to a common
English species.

I found Limosella aquatica only in these particular lakes, and
then only after a very long search, since it resembles extremely
closely, in its general appearance, when growing in masses, a Ra-
nunculus {Pi. Moscleyi, Hk.f), which grows with it in the water.
Above the lakes the ridge rises somewhat, and then ter-
minates in an inaccessible precipice fronting the sea, with short
talus slopes below, on which are rookeries of crested penguins.

kerguelen's land. 195

Under the peculiar overhanging rock, on the south of the har-
bour, are beds of fossil wood, and the excavation beneath its
base is hence called Fossil- wood Cave. The wood occurs in beds
lying nearly horizontal, and a few feet only in thickness.

The beds are of a soft whitish clay-like matter, which is
full of black vegetable remains, all apparently so charred and
decomposed, as to give little or no hope of any structure being
made out in them.

The wood is in large trunk-like masses ; the largest which I
saw was about 1^ feet in diameter ; in some the bark is pre-
served. The wood is in various states of fossilization, some
of it being comparatively soft, other specimens extremely hard,
passing even in the centre into actual basalt, containing small
amygdaloidal masses of zeolites. Analcite and other zeolites
are abundant in the Kerguelen lavas, as are also agates.*

On the talus slopes beneath the cliffs, along the whole south
side of Christmas Harbour, are vast Penguin rookeries ; the
Penguins here nesting amongst the stones where vegetation is
entirely wanting : and to the north of the harbour at its entrance
are other similar rookeries. Towards the upper part of the
harbour, the rookeries are those of the smaller crested penguin
called "Eock-hopper" by the sealers (Eudyptes saltator),t\\Q same
as that at Marion Island, but nesting scattered amongst these is
another kind of penguin, Eudyptes chrysolcyihiis, the Macaroni
of sealers.

This bird has a most beautiful golden crest, showing con-
spicuously on the middle of the upper part of the head, com-
mencing just behind the beak, and with a plume on each
side as in the bi-crested species. The bird is larger than the
" Eock-hoppers," and is further distinguished from them by
the presence of a naked, somewhat tumid space, at the base of
the beak, which is of a light pink colour. In other colouring
the bird resembles the Eock-hoppers. This penguin occurs at
the Falkland Islands, where it nests as at Kerguelen's Land, in
small quantities amongst the Eock-hoppers.f

The birds however, only thus nest amongst the other pen-

* See J. Y. Buchanan, " Proc. E. Soc," No. 170, 1876, p. 617.
t " Proc. Zool. Soc, 1865," p. 527.

0 2

196 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

gums where they are few in number : towards the head of the
harbour, and under the natural arch, they have enormous
rookeries of their own, where, singularly enough, a few of the
Eock-hoppers nest as guests amongst them ; they have large
rookeries also in Heard Island, where their eggs are gathered in
large quantities by the sealers for eating. The sheath-bills are
as abundant here as at Marion Island, but they are larger and
heavier than are the birds of that island, and seem to form a
sub-species. They will be again referred to.

During our stay at Kerguelen's Land, we put into several
harbours on the coast. At Aldrich Sound I found a cave in the
sea-clirT fronting Ship's Channel and under Mount Bromley.
The cave had been formed by the excavation by the waves of
the volcanic rock, which had been altered, and rendered more
yielding at this spot by the intrusion of a dyke which had
destroyed the tenacity of the rock by its heat. The dyke which
was a narrow one, and almost vertical in direction, was inclined
a little, at one part of its course, so as to form the roof of the
cave on one side.

The cave was long and tunnel-like. The " Pock-hopper "
penguins breed in this cave. I went into it about forty yards
until it was quite dark ; the penguins retreated still before me.
I had no means of getting a light to explore the cave further.
The small penguin of New Zealand (Sphenisctcs minoi^) has been
observed breeding in like manner in the inner chamber of a
dark cave * and this mode of nesting is in keeping with the
usual habit of this species and others of breeding in deep
burrows, which are of course quite dark.

About Betsy Cove and Poyal Sound, to the southward the
valleys are broader, and there is more open flat land than there
is around Christmas Harbour, and there are thus here large
expanses covered with vegetation.

At Betsy Cove we stayed about ten days surveying the
surrounding district. The Cove is also called Pot Harbour,
from there being an old broken iron pot on the beach, a whaler's
t ry pot, used for boiling down blubber. As we came into the
harbour and anchored, though not more than a quarter of a
* "Trans. N. Zealand Inst.," Vol. II, 1868, p. 75.

kerguelen's land. 197

mile from the beach, from some peculiar condition of the at-
mosphere, the pot looked of immense size, even when viewed
with a glass, and two King Penguins (Aptenodytes longirostris) ,
standing beside it, looked like men in white and black clothes.
I went on shore with a boat at once at the desire of Sir Wyville
Thomson, to get the penguins, for we thought they must be
stray specimens of the huge antarctic penguin Aptenodytes Fosteri.
I cannot understand how the delusion came about, it was cer-
tainly complete. The pot has been for forty years on the beach.

There are two skulls of the southern Whalebone whale
(Euoalcena Aiistralis, Gray) lying here in the surf : such skulls
are common all along the coast, remaining with other bones
where whales have been towed on shore to be boiled down.

At Three Island Harbour in Eoyal Sound, there is a long
row of them on the shore.

The neighbourhood of Betsy Cove is very interesting from a
geological point of view, for it is here that the glaciation of the
surface is most marked, and the glaciated surfaces most easy of
access. Close to the harbour, on the north, are a series of roches
moutonnes, but the best examples are on the road from Betsy
Cove to the head of a fjord adjoining, called Cascade Beach,
because there is a waterfall on a stream which falls into its
upper extremity.

Betsy Cove and Cascade Reach are both indentations in a
larger bay called Accessible Bay, which lies at the end of a wide
valley stretching far inland, and bounded on either hand by
long elevated ridges. In this broad valley, the bottom of which
forms one of the flat expanses already referred to, project up a
number of flat topped rocky hills, with smooth ground upper
surfaces bounded all round by vertical cliffs ; some of the most
characteristic of these hills are to be met with on the way up
the south side of Cascade Beach from Betsy Cove.

The tops of these hills show everywhere rounded surfaces,
most obviously ground smooth by ice action, but the rock is
not sufficiently hard to retain striation marks, and since the
whole surface of the land has evidently undergone immense
denudation subsequently to its glaciation, these are nowhere to
be made out, and moraines have also disappeared.

198

A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER.'

The ridges north and south of the broad valley look at first
glance as if they might be moraines, but their main structure is
rock, in its original position, though covered mostly by talus. A
similar ridge to the south of the great fjord, Eoyal Sound, has
likewise very much the appearance of a moraine ; but here also
the main constituent is volcanic rock in situ. There is nowhere
to be seen a free-standing ridge composed entirely of moraine
matter; but about the flat-topped hills, just described, there
are beds of sand and stones that may represent broken-down
remains of moraines.

Eesting on the rounded surfaces of the flat-topped hills, and
scattered over them in all directions, are immense quantities of
stones of all sizes. The stones have all their angles sharp and

1CEBORNE ROCKS RESTING ON GLACIATED SURFACES, NEAR
BETSY COVE, KERGUELEN'S LAND.

unweathered, and they rest in all sorts of positions on the
smoothed rock, and they have most evidently been dropped into
their present position by ice floating over the glaciated surfaces
when these were in a submerged condition.

The summits of the flat-topped hills are formed of caps of
basalt, showing usually columnar structure in their cliff faces.
These caps of basalt of the several hills appear, undoubtedly, to
have formed at one time a continuous sheet.

Exactly similar flat-topped hills occur everywhere about in
Kerguelen's Land, and notably in Eoyal Sound, which is a deep
and grand fjord studded all over with numerous rocky islets,
probably 100 or more in number. These islets are all flat-
topped with erratics on their upper surfaces, and they appear
to increase gradually in height towards the head of the Sound.
The hills are of the same constitution as those about Betsy

KERGUELEX'S LAND. 199

Cove, and if the great valley at Betsy Cove were submerged,
we should have on its northern side the hills projecting as
islands, and giving a miniature representation of those in Eoyal
Sound.

There can be but little doubt that the whole of these islands
in Eoyal Sound were once connected, and that there was thus a
broad sheet of lava rock with a gentle inclination from inland
towards the sea. This slope was covered with a huge glacier,
which was bordered by the mountain ridges now bounding the
Sound to the north and south, and, perhaps, deposited some of
the talus at present forming part of the ridge above Mutton
Cove. After grinding the whole surface of its bed, the glacier
shrunk and cut deeper channels between masses of rock, which
were left standing, and thus formed the present islands.

Either during this period, or after glaciation had ceased,
the whole was submerged till the upper surfaces of all the
islands were under the sea, and then ice drifting seawards from
the remnants of the shrunken glaciers at the heads of the fjords,
dropped upon the rock surfaces the erratics which at present lie
upon them. At this time all the moraines were washed away.

At the base of the hills about Betsy Cove, the bottoms of the
secondary valleys are as distinctly glaciated as the main valleys
themselves, and the slopes of the smoothed surfaces seem to
lead towards the cavity and mouth of the present Cascade
Harbour.

About Betsy Cove, thin beds of a red earthy matter a foot or
two in thickness are very common, underlying beds of basalt
and weathering out in the cliffs so as to leave ledges and low-
roofed caverns. They occur in exactly the same manner as the
beds of coal at Christmas Harbour ; and when this coal is burnt
in the fire it bakes to a compact mass of red earthy matter,
exactly resembling that above referred to. There seems no
doubt that these red beds, as well as the coal beds, represent old
land surfaces. The soil consisting of black peaty matter as now,
not many feet thick, has been overflowed by lava streams,
which in the case of the coal have been only hot enough to char
all the vegetable matter, in the other case have burnt it to an ash.

The coal at Christmas Harbour consists of abundant earthy

200 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

matter, full of charred remnants of vegetable tissue, but I could
find no recognizable leaves or definite forms, except something
which resembled a Chara. Even microscopic structure seems
entirely destroyed. From the glaciated condition of the beds
overlying the coal and red earth, the great antiquity of the
Kerguelen vegetation is evident. It has been dwelt upon by
Sir J. D. Hooker.

At Betsy Cove are the graves of some whalers, none of very
old date. They have small white painted wooden monuments.
It was at Betsy Cove that the best teal shooting was enjoyed,
there being several small rivers in the neighbourhood, and
plenty of small ponds and marshy ground with abundance of
cabbages. On one of my teal shooting excursions I met with a
Sea-Leopard (Stenorynchus L&ptonyx, Gray). The beast is very like
the common British seal in appearance. It is spotted yellowish
white and dark grey on the back, the under surface being of a
general yellowish colour.

The one in question was small, not more than five feet long.
It was asleep, lying almost on its back on the grass in a little
bay. The poor beast showed no fight at all, and never snarled
or showed its teeth. I killed it with a stone and my hunting
knife, and sent it on board to be made into a skeleton.

The Sea-Leopard seems still pretty abundant on the coasts. I
saw one much larger in Eoyal Sound, and Yon Willemoes
Suhm killed another. The sealers said they intended to visit
Swain's Island, a small outlier, to kill a herd of 400 of these
seals reported to be in a rookery there.

Farther along the coast, on the same day, I encountered
a small herd of Sea-Elephants consisting of four females and two
males. One male was much larger than the other, and the four
cows were reclining beside him, the younger and less power-
ful male lying apart from the rest. All were resting on a thick
bed of seaweed cast up by the tide on a beach of large pebbles.

The male was 12 feet long and enormously heavy and fat.
The females were about eight feet in length. All were of a
light fawn colour except one female which was shedding her
coat, and was covered over with patches of reddish hair. Though
I fired my gun at some teal close by, the Elephants were little

KERGUELEN S LAND.

201

disturbed. The males just raised their heads and then went to
sleep again ; the females took no notice.

I went up close to the older male and excited him in the
hopes of seeing him raise his trunk-like snout, and he was
roused again later on, but this had not the effect of making him
move from his ground or frightening him at all ; but on one of
the ship's cutters, for which I had sent a petition to the ship,
coming into the bay full of men in order to kill specimens of
the Elephants and take them on board, the Elephants became
immediately alarmed as if accustomed only to expect danger
from boat parties.

I had forgotten that the Tristan da Cunha people had told
me that they always shot the male Sea-Elephant and lanced the
cows, and I thought the beast could be stunned by blows
on the snout like Fur-Seals, so Lieutenant Channer, who had
been out shooting with me, went up to the big male and began
hammering him on the snout with a stick heavily loaded with
lead, but without any effect beyond enraging the beast to the
utmost. The animal was not stunned by the blows, because
the skull of the Sea-Elephant is protected above by a high inter-
muscular ridge or crest, and the bones around the nostrils are very
strong. In these point s
the Elephant is very
different from the Fur-
Seal. The beast raised
itself on its fore-flippers
and at the same time
twisted up its tail into
the air, just as represented
in "Anson's Voyages,"
where the Sea-Elephant
was figured for the first
time as the Sea-Lion of
Juan Fernandez.

The beast raised its head and opened its huge mouth to the
widest, showing formidable teeth and a capacious pinkish gullet,
from which proceeded loud and angry roars.

The animal was too young to have a largely developed

OLD MALE SEA-ELEPHANT OF JUAN FERNANDEZ.

(Copied from Anson's Voyages.)

202

A NATURALIST OX THE " CHALLENGER.

trunk. There was merely an arched projection thrown up for
some little distance above the nostrils, partly by inflation, partly
by strong contraction of muscles on each side of the nose. If
the beast had got hold of Channer he would have bitten a limb
to pieces at one crunch. The head of the stick came off, and
so I ran up and put a bullet into the animal's heart.

This male Sea-Elephant when enraged had its snout much in
the condition as that shown in Leseur's plate * in that one of

SEA-ELEPHANTS.

(Copied from Leseur's Plate.)

the animals of the group represented, which is just going to land
from the sea on the left-hand side of the landscape. The old
male elephants were described by the sealers of Heard Island as
having a trunk 10 inches in length. These old males were called
" Beach-masters/' Anson's sailors called the largest male at
Juan Fernandez the " Bashaw."

I obtained from a harponeer on board one of the whaling-
schooners which we fell in with at Kerguelen's Land, a very well
executed carving in a soft volcanic stone from Heard Island,
which represented two men skinning a dead Beach-master. Un-
fortunately, this was lost with other curiosities in transit from
the ship, after we reached home. In this, the trunk of the old
male Elephant was shown hanging like a short flaccid tube from
the snout. It is shown somewhat thus in Leseur's figure, drawn
for Peron, in the case of the animal represented as lying on
beach in the foreground ; but the trunk there is probably shown

* "Voyage de Decouvertes aux terres Australes." Peron et Leseur.
Paris, 1807. ° Atlas PL XXXII.

KERGUELEX'S LAND. 203

much too prominent and solid looking. The old sealers used to
eat the trunks as a tit-bit, calling them " snotters." Goodridge
speaks of it as " a sort of fleshy skin, which hangs over the nose."
In Anson's Voyage it is described as hanging down five or six
inches below the end of the upper jaw. Peron says very little
in his account of the Sea-Elephant about the trunk.*

I give here a woodcut, from a rough drawing made for me by
the harponeer above referred to, of a " Beach-master," with its
trunk in the inflated condition.

The trunk, when the animal is enraged, is inflated and
erected, being blown full of air. From the drawing it appears
that Anson's figure is probably nearly correct in the matter of
the trunk, as it certainly is in the manner in which the tail is
curled up into the air in the enraged beast.

DRAWING OF OLD MALE SEA-ELEPHANT.

(By a Harponeer.)

The trunk is produced by inflation of a loose tubular sac of
skin placed above the nostrils, just as is the "cap" in the
northern Bladder -nose seal (Cystaphora proboscidea). The trunk
is evidently, as appears from both the drawings, sacculated, and
hence irregular in form when inflated. In the Bladder-nose
the nasal cap develops, only at advanced age, just as in the case
of the trunk of the Sea-Elephant.

I bought the stone carving from the harponeer for a sovereign

* For Peron's " Histoire de l'Elephant Marin," see I.e. T. II, p. 32. A
translation of it is given in Brewster's " Edinburgh Journal of Science,"
1827, Vol. II, p. 73.

204 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER

and a bottle of whisky. He would not have taken five pounds
less the whisky, as it was a matter of honour with him that he
should get a drink for his shipmates out of the proceeds.

Whilst we were killing the male Elephant, two of the cows
had been killed by the sailors ; one of them got away for a time
to our extreme regret, badly wounded, into the sea, and the
unfortunate animal had to be shot several times before it was
killed. Being wounded, it made back for the shore. I was
astonished at this, since it is directly contrary to the ordinary
habits of seals. I presume the animal sought safety with the
rest of the herd.

The Sea-Elephants have a most enormous quantity of blood
in them. This wounded female stained all the water of the head
of the little bay, red. The blood, so black as it is in the body
of the seal, and dark like the muscles, became of a bright arterial
red as it mingled with the sea water. Mr. E. Brown (in his
account of the Arctic Seals and Whales inhabiting the Coasts of
Greenland, " Proc. Zoolog. Soc," 1864), refers to the remarkably
dark colour of the flesh of seals, due to the gorging of the muscles
with venous blood ; and states further, that in the young seals,
which have never been in the water, the muscles are red, and
that the blood of the seal, dark when shed, turns thus red, when
exposed to sea water or the air.

These Sea-Elephants, which were prepared as skeletons on
board the ship, were found to have only a greenish slime in their
stomachs. Neither the Otariadw nor the Sea-Elephants feed
during the breeding season, but live upon their fat, becoming
gradually thinner and thinner. The Sea-Elephants have a
reo-ular layer of blubber on their bodies like that of whales and
porpoises. So perfect a protection is this non-conductor against
loss of heat, that a dead walrus, which like most seals has the
same covering, has been found to retain its internal temperature
after having lain 12 hours in ice-cold water* In the Fur-Seals
(At otocephalus), there is no such thick layer of blubber de-
veloped, but only a small quantity of fat attached to the skin.

* " Die zweite Deutsche Nord-Polarfarht in den Jahren 1869 und 1870."
2. Bd. Wissenschafttliclie Ergebnisse, Leipzig, F. A. Brockkaus, 1874.
W. Peters, Zeugetliiere und Fisclie.

kerguelen's land. 20

The muscles also are redder than in other seals, more like beef,
or muscles of land animals generally, not black, and the meat
was found very good to eat by some of our crew. Mr. Brown
(loc. cit.) speaks of a green slime found by him in the stomachs
of the northern Bladder-nose (the northern representative of the
Sea-Elephant). He ascribes it to seaweed adhering to Mollusca
(Mya truncata) eaten by the seal. It is, however, probably only
bile pigment. Peron found cuttle-fish beaks and Eucus in the
Sea-Elephants' stomachs. The walrus, like the Bladder-nose,
feeds on Mollusca. In a walrus, dissected by the second German
North Polar Expedition, the bodies of from 500 to 600 {My a
truncata) were found in the stomach, with only one single
small piece of shell, the animal evidently rejecting the shells
with great care. Stones are found in all seals' stomachs,
apparently just as in those of penguins.

There seems little fear of the Sea-Elephant dying out, not-
withstanding that everyone that can be got at is killed and
boiled down by the sealers. I saw myself, at Kerguelen's Land,
eighteen Elephants, and one at Marion Island. On the weather-
side of the island is a beach, where are thousands of Sea-Elephants.
These can be got at from land, but shallow water and a heavy
surf prevents the approach of a boat. Hence, if the animals be
killed and their blubber boiled down, the casks cannot be got off
to a ship, nor can they be transported over land.

The beach is called Bonfire Beach, because some English
sealers made a lot of oil here, headed it up in casks, and then
found they could make no use of it. So they piled the casks
up and set fire to them, in the hopes of driving some of the
Elephants to more convenient quarters. The numbers of seals
at Kerguelen in ancient times must have been enormous. Their
vast old empty rookeries are still marked by trough-like hollows
in the ground, where the seals used to lie.

We rolled the dead Sea-Elephant down to the water, and got
him afloat with some difficulty, then towed the three animals oft
to the ship with great labour, by rowing against the wind,
through the thick beds of kelp {Macrocystis jpirifera). Whilst
we were at work on the beach, crowds of birds began to assemble,
especially the Giant Petrel or "Breakbones" {Ossifraga gigantea),

20G A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

the " Nelly " or " Stinker " of sealers. This bird in its habits is
most remarkably like the vnlture.

It soars all day along the coast on the look-out for food. No
sooner is an animal killed, than numbers appear as if by magic,
and the birds are evidently well acquainted with the usual
proceedings of sealers— who kill the Sea-Elephant, take off
the skin and blubber, and leave the carcass. They settled down
here all round in groups, at a short distance, a dozen or so
together, to wait, and began fighting amongst themselves, as if
to settle which was to have first bite.

The birds gorge themselves with food, just like the vultures,
and are then unable to fly. I came across half a dozen together
at Christmas Harbour in this condition. We landed just oppo-
site them ; they began to run to get out of the way. The men
chased them, they ran off, spreading their wings, but unable to
rise ; some struggled into the water and swam away, but two
went running on, gradually disgorging their food, in the utmost
hurry, until they were able to rise, when they made off to sea.

The northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) seems to resemble
the " Breakbones " very closely in habits. Like it, it does not
nest in holes like most Proccllaridce. It feeds in the high north
on carrion, and becomes so gorged with meat from a whale's
carcass as to be unable to fly without disgorging*

I was astonished at the comparatively small qnantity of food,
that is, the smallness of the extra weight, which made all the
difference between the bird's not being able to rise at all, and its
being able to soar away with almost its usual power. It would
be interesting to test various birds with weights and compare
their power in this respect. A Procellaria is evidently very
much below an Accipitine in strength in this matter though so
perfect a flyer.

But the " Breakbones ' were not the only birds which
assembled to feast on the remains of the Sea-Elephants. With
them came the Skuas, but not in great numbers, and multitudes
of gulls and Sheath-bills, which latter were the most impudent,
and the first to dare approach a dead cow Elephant which we
left on the rocks. The whole of the birds must have been clis-
* MacGillivray, "British Water Birds," Vol. IT, p. 436.

KEEGUELEX's LAND. 207

appointed, when they found we were not sealers, for they appa-
rently could not penetrate the skin of the dead cow, and a day or
two afterwards only the eyes were pecked out : but the Break-
bones were then still hanging about the carcass, waiting, though
not in such numbers as before.

On another day, beneath the cliffs, north of Betsy Cove, I
found a young Fur-Seal lying amongst some boulders at the foot
of the cliff. There was a broad flat shelf of rock here, nearly
level with the sea, and forming an excellent landing-place for
seals, so I was especially hunting for them, but should have
missed this one amongst the rocks, had it not attracted my
attention by a sort of half-hiss, half-snarl. I killed it, and
carried the whole beast with great labour to the ship, half a mile
or more, on my back, in order that a skeleton should be made
of it.

On several occasions I superintended parties of stokers, who
volunteered to dig up birds and eggs for our collection. This
is the method in which very many of the birds of Kerguelen
are most readily procured. The beaten ground beneath the
Azorella is perforated everywhere with holes of various petrels.
Those of the Prion {Prion desolatus) are most numerous. They
are about big enough to admit the hand, but the nest and egg-
are nearly always far out of reach, the holes going in a yard and
a-half sometimes.

Prion is a small grey bird, a petrel from the form of the
nostrils, but with a broad boat-shaped bill, with extremely fine
horny lamellce, projecting on either margin of the bill inside.
The bird flies like a swallow, and was nearly always to be seen
in flocks about the ship, or cruising over the sea, or attendant on
a whale to pick up the droppings from its mouth. Hence it is
termed by sealers the "Whale-bird." Its food, as that of all
the petrels except the carrion ones, seems to consist of the very
abundant surface animals of the south seas, especially of small
Crustacea. These form also, apparently, the only food of the
penguins; for the stomachs of all the penguins which we
examined were crammed with them only. The Prion lays a
single white egg.

Besides the Prion there is the " Mutton-bird" of the whalers

208 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

(CEstrelata Lessoni),& large Procellarid, as big as a pigeon, white
and brown and grey in colour. It makes a much larger hole
than the Prion, six inches in diameter, and long in proportion.
At the end is a round chamber with a slight elevation in the
centre, where the nest is somewhat raised, with a deeper passage
all round ; at least, I saw this in two nests. The old bird is
very savage when pulled out. It makes a shrill cry, and bites
hard, the sharp decurved tip of the upper mandible being driven
right through a man's finger if he is not careful in handling the
bird. The egg is white, and about the size of a hen's.

Another petrel, Majaquens cequinoctialis, which also is often
to be seen cruising after the ship, but then always solitary,
is called the " Cape Hen " by ordinary sailors, and " Black
Night Hawk" by the whalers. It makes a hole, larger a good
deal than that of the Mutton-bird, and nearly always with its
mouth opening on a small pool of water, or in a very damp
place. The hole is deep under the ground and very long, two
vards or more. The birds seem to make their holes in certain
places in company. At one place, on the shores of Greenland
Harbour, I found a number of such holes, all within a small
area. The bird utters a peculiar prolonged and high pitched
cry, either when dug into on the nest and handled, or on going
into the hole and finding its mate there.

I saw once about a dozen of these birds swimming together
at Eoyal Sound, but usually they hawk over the sea singly, with
a long sweeping flight like that of the albatross. The young
are like round balls of grey down, and, as might be expected,
have the nostrils much more widely open than the adults.

Further we found a Stormy Petrel (Oceanitis sp.). It makes a
short small hole in the turf at the verge of the cliffs,, and lays a
white egg, with slight red speckles at one end, large in size in
proportion to the bird.

A more interesting petrel is the diving Procellarid (Pelcca-
noides urinatrix), which is a petrel that has given up the
active aerial habits of its allies, and has taken to diving, and has
become specially modified by natural selection to suit it for this
changed habit, though still a petrel in essential structure. The
habits of the bird, which occurs in the Straits of Magellan, are

KERGUELENS LAND.

209

described by Darwin in his Journal.* This bird is to be seen
on the surface of the water in Koyal Sound when the water is
calm, in flocks of very large numbers. On two days in which
excursions were made in the steam pinnace, the water was seen
to be covered with these birds in flocks, extending over acres,
which were black with them. The habits of the northern Little
Auk are said to be closely similar to those of this bird ; so close
is the resemblance, that the whalers have transferred one of
their familiar names for the Little Auk to the Diving Petrel. The
diving petrels dive with extreme rapidity, and when frightened,
get up and flutter along close to the water, and drop and dive
again. It is a curious sight to see a whole flock thus taking
flight. The birds make holes in the ground like the Prions, and
lay an egg white with a few red specks at one end. They breed
in enormous quantities on the islands in Eoyal Sound. They
are readily attracted by a light, and some were caught on board
through coming to the ship's lights.

On one of the digging excursions I found a nest of the
Sheath-bill (Chionis minor), and subsequently found several
others. The bird has a wide
range, corresponding to that
of the Kerguelen cabbage,
occurring like it in the
Prince Edward Islands, the
Crozets and Heard Is-
lands. Another species of
the genus occurs in Pata-
gonia. It resembles the
Kerguelen species closely in
general appearance, though
differing in many essential
points. A figure of it is
here given in default of one
of the Kerguelen bird. It micrht however almost stand for this
latter. The birds (the " Paddy " of the sealers) are present
everywhere on the coast, and from their extreme tameness and

vO^' — -.

SHEATH-BILL OF FUEGIA. CHIONIS ALBA.

* " Journal of Eesearclies/; p. 290.

210 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

inquisitive habits, are always attracting one's attention. A pair
or two of them always forms part of any view on the coast.
The birds are pure white, about the size of a very large pigeon,
but with the appearance rather of a fowl. They have light pink-
coloured legs, with partial webbing of the toes, small spurs on the
inner side of the wings, like the spur- winged flower, and a black
bill with a most curious curved lamina of horny matter projecting
over the nostrils. Eound the eye is a tumid pink ring bare of
feathers ; about the head are wattle-like warts.

The birds have been examined anatomically by De Blain-
ville,* who concluded that they are nearly related to the Oyster-
catchers. The birds nest under fallen rocks along the cliffs, often
in places where the nest is difficult of access. The nest is made
of grass and bents, and the eggs are usually two in number, and
of the shape of those of the Plovers, and of a somewhat similar
colouring, spotted dark red and brown. They have been de-
scribed and figured by Gould, and he considers the eggs to show
further alliance of the Sheath-bills to the Plovers. I found two
nests with three eggs, but two is the most usual number.

The young are black on coming from the egg, following the
usual law with white birds, the white colouring being' a lately
acquired peculiarity. The young one has the nostrils wide
open and merely a tumidity about the posterior margin of the
nostrils and across the beak where the sheath is commencing to
grow out.

On sitting down on the rocks where there are pairs of Sheath-
bills about, one soon has them round him, uttering a harsh, half
warning, half inquisitive cry on first seeing one, and venturing
gradually nearer and nearer, standing and gazing up at the
intruder with their heads turned on one side. The birds come
frequently within reach of a stick, and can often be knocked over
in that way, or bowled over with a big stone, as they will sit
quietly and allow half a dozen stones, as big as themselves
almost, to be thrown at them.

At length, only after being narrowly missed several times,

* "Voyage de la Bonite," Zoologie, Tom. I, p. 107 ; PI. Oiss. IX.
The anatomy of the Sheath-bills has been further lately made the
subject of a memoir by Dr. Kidder. " Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus.," No. 3.

KERGUELEX'S LAND. 211

they take flight, and make off, uttering their harsh note a succes-
sion of times. If a bird be knocked over with a stick, it is
usually only stunned, the Sheath-bills are very tenacious of
life. If the one thus caught be tied by the leg with a string
and allowed to flutter on the rocks, in front of one as one sits,
the neighbouring sheath-bills will come at once to fight with it
and peck it, and can be knocked over one after another. When
courting one another, the birds show all the attitudes of pigeons,
the male bowing his head up and down and strutting, making
a sort of cooing noise.

The birds eat seaweed and shell-fish, mussels and limpets,
besides acting as scavengers, as already mentioned. They carry
quantities of the limpet and mussel shells up to the clefts or
holes under the rocks which they frequent. They readily feed
in confinement, and we had several on board the ship, running
about quite at home. One of them established itself in one of
the cutters for a short time, and used to take a fly round during
the voyage to Heard Island and return again to the ship.

The birds, though usually to be seen running on the rocks,
can fly remarkably well, and their flight is like that of a pigeon.
I have seen them flying at a great height about the cliffs of
Christmas Harbour.

A Tern {Sterna virgatat), the "Mackerel-bird," "King-bird,"
or " Kinger " of sealers, nests on the ground amongst the grass,
laying a single egg, just like that of other terns. When a nest is
approached the old birds are very bold, and fly round the head
of the intruder, uttering a sharp cry. Their young are brown
and remarkably like a thrush at first glance were it not for the
web feet. When I saw one for the first time I thought a Land-
bird had been found in Kerguelen, but such certainly does not
exist except the Sheath-bill, if it can be considered as such. It
is, however, worthy of note here, that in Antipodes Island, which
lies south-east of New Zealand and a little nearer the South
Pole than Kerguelen's Land, parroquets are abundant, although
the island is covered with tussock,* and without trees.

* "Notes on the Geology of the Outlying Islands of New Zealand.
Reported by Dr. Hector, F.R.S." Trans. N. Zealand Institute, Vol. II,
1869, p. 176.

P 2

212 A NATURALIST OX THE " CHALLENGER."

The Gull (Larus Dorninicanus) nests also on the open ground
amongst grass tufts, and the birds breed in considerable flocks
together, choosing often some dry place on the lower slopes of a
hill-side. I saw two such places where there were a few nests
with young and remains of many more. No regular nest is
made. The young are brown-coloured. The old birds make a
great deal of noise when the young are carried off, but make no
attempt to protect them. The brown colour of the young is
closely like that of the dead grass in which they lie, and
under which they hide on approach of danger. The colour is
protective to them; they are, certainly, very difficult to see
amongst the grass.

A species of Cormorant (Phalacrocorax verrucosus), which
occurs at the Falkland Islands and at New Zealand, and which
is almost certainly the same bird which we saw at Marion
Island, is very abundant about Kerguelen. The birds are very
handsome, especially the male. The chest is white, the back
dark brown and black with green metallic tints upon it. At
the base of the bill are large orange warty protuberances.

The birds build on ledges of the cliffs, or on the higher part of
steep declivities leading directly down into the sea. They are
especially fond of the horizontal grooves and ledges in the cliffs
formed where the red earth bands weather out beneath the
harder overlying basalt. They are gregarious in their nesting,
and in places small islands or projecting headlands, are stained
yellow-white with their droppings, so as to be conspicuous from
a distance at sea.

The birds make a compact neat round nest, raised about
a foot from the ground, and composed of mud and lined with
grass.

They lay either two or three eggs, pale blue in colour, and
covered with a chalky substance, as are all cormorants' eggs.
The young are ugly beasts, covered with intensely black down.
When there are three in the nest nearly full-fledged they form an
absurd sight, since the nest is then not big enough to hold more
than one properly, so the greater part of the bodies of the three
young projects out, and then, to crown the absurdity, the mother
comes and sits on the top of these three young as big as herself.

kerguelen's land. 213

An idea of the relations of the various birds to one another
in the struggle for existence will be gained from the following
incident : I saw a cormorant rise to the surface of the water,
and lifting its head, make desperate efforts to gorge a small
fish which it had caught, evidently knowing its danger, and in
a fearful hurry to get it down. Before it could swallow its
prey, down came a gull, snatched the fish after a slight struggle
and carried it off to the rocks on the shore. Here a lot of other
gulls immediately began to assert their right to a share, when
down swooped a Skua frcm aloft, right on to the heap of gulls,
seized the fish and swallowed it at once.

The shag ought to learn to swallow under water, and the
gull to devour its prey at once in the air. The Skua is merely a
gull which has developed itself by fighting for morsels.

We fell in with three American whaling schooners at
Kerguelen. They work Heard Island for Sea Elephants and
Kerguelen for whales more especially. They get their principal
hands at Fogo in the Cape Verdes on the way out ; the Portu-
guese there being very willing to embark, even for a South Sea
whaling cruise, in order to escape the military conscription.
The schooners, which belong to two different owners, are tended
by a barque, which brings out provisions and takes home oil and
skins.

A difficulty would arise from a whale when struck running
through the thick beds of kelp (Macrocystis) which everywhere
form tangled barriers at a certain distance from shore. This is
got over by having large very sharp knives ready, which are
held close beside the line as the boat scuds through the water,
dragged by the whale, and cut a clean passage in the weed.

The whales are killed by means of a bomb, a cylindrical
iron tube full of powder provided with a fuse and pointed at
one end ; at the other, provided with feathers like an arrow.
The whole is not unlike a laro-e crossbow bolt. The feathers
are made of vulcanized indiarubber, and when the bolt is
rammed into the gun from which it is fired, are wrapped round
the end of the shaft. As soon as the bolt leaves the muzzle
they expand, and prevent the bombs wobbling or capsizing.

The invention is extremely ingenious. The bomb is fired

« mr. TT^Tn^T> "

214 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

from a heavy gun from the shoulder, and is good up to about
fifteen paces. It is fired into the whale just behind the flipper.

It goes in, and after a while makes a loud explosion, often
killing the beast almost at once. Four kinds of whales are
common about Kerguelen's Island, but only one, the Southern
Whalebone Whale, is regularly hunted. A bomb is fired into
the other kinds, if there is a chance of doing so from the ship, and
if the beast hit appears maimed, it is then tackled on to with the
harpoons. Similar bombs are now regularly used in the North.

I was sorry to leave Kerguelen's Land, for I enjoyed the
place thoroughly. We had wonderfully good weather, and
sometimes the sun was extremely hot. The sunrises and sun-
sets were often most gorgeous, and the view in evening or early
morning up Eoyal Sound, with its wide expanse of sea dotted all
over with rocky islands, like some large inland lake, and with
Mount Eoss towering blue in the distance, and capped with
snow and glaciers, is most grand and beautiful.

The climate of Kerguelen's Land is, as is that of all the
neighbouring islands, remarkably equable. It is never very
warm, never very cold. In the middle of winter, during Boss's
stay there, the thermometer rarely fell below freezing point, and
the snow never lay on the lower land more than two or three
days. The whalers told us that it was very rarely that ice
formed which would bear; and Sir J. D. Hooker speaks of
breaking ice on the Christmas Harbour Lake only two inches
thick, and taking from under it Limosella in full flower.

During our stay, the highest reading of the thermometer was
59° F., and the lowest 39°'5 F. : the mean about 43° or 44° :
this in the middle of summer, or rather slightly past the middle.
The bane of the place consists in the constantly occurring sudden
storms of wind, one of which made us drag our anchor at Betsy
Cove, and might easily have sent the ship against the rocks, and
two of which kept us tediously beating about off the land on two
occasions, when we were making from one point to another.

For a complete list of the birds of Kerguelen's Land, see E. Bowdler
Sharpe, F.L.S., F.E.S. " Trans, of Venus Expedition, Zoology of Ker-
guelen's Land. Birds." From this paper the names of birds given above
are taken.

kerguelen's land. 215

For the Crustacea, see E. J. Meirs, F.L.S., F.Z.S. Trans. Venus
Expedition. Ibid.

For the Terrestrial Annelida, see E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S. Ibid.

See "Further contributions to the Natural History of Kerguelen's
Island," by J. H. Kidder, M.D. "Bull. U.S. National Mus.," No. 3,
1876, II.

See also, for an account of the island, " Narrative of the Wreck of the
' Favourite ' on the Island of Desolation ; detailing the adventures,
sufferings and privations of John Munn ; an Historical Account of the
Island and its Whale and Sea fisheries." Edited by W. B. Clarke, M.D.
London, 1850.

216

CHAPTEE IX.

HEAED ISLAND.

Diatoms on the Sea Surface. Macdonald Island. Whisky Bay, Heard
Island. Coast-line composed of Glaciers. Structure of the Glaciers.
Terminal and Lateral Moraines. Glacier Stream. Kocks Cut by
Natural Sand Blast. Lava Flow and Denuded Crater. Scanty
Vegetation. Kange in Elevation of Arctic and Southern Plants
Compared. Mode of Hunting Sea Elephants. Habits of these
Animals. Sealers Inhabiting Heard Island. Birds of the Island.

February 2nd, 1814.— We sailed from Christmas Harbour,
whither we had gone at the termination of our survey to
erect a cairn with instructions for the Transit of Venus Ex-
pedition, on February 2nd, and made for the Macdonald Group,
which lies about 240 miles to the south-east of Kerguelen's
Land. The channel between the two groups is extremely
variable in depth, bottom being found at times in less than
100 fathoms, and at others no bottom being obtained in from
220 to 425 fathoms.

The sea surface was full of Diatoms, which filled the towing
net in large masses. These masses were found by Mr. O'Meara
to be composed mainly of various species of Chaetoceros, with
spines of extraordinary length, aggregated in small masses of a
jelly-like substance. Occurring with these species of Chostoceros,
were representatives of five other genera of Diatoms, three of
which were of new species.*

Heard Island, February 6th, 1874. — On February 6th, after

beating about for several days in fog, and lying becalmed during
one day, we sighted the northernmost island of the Macdonald
Group. It was alternately brightened up by sunshine, and

* Rev. E. O'Meara, M.A., " On the Diatomaceous gatherings made at
Kerguelen's Land, by H. N. Moseley." Linn. Journ., Botany, Vol. XV,
pp. 56, 57.

HEAKD ISLAND. 217

hidden in the drifting scud and mist. It consists of a small
main rocky mass, and two outliers with a very irregular outline
and weather-beaten appearance.

The main mass is Macdonald Island, and gives the name to
the group. It is bounded on all sides by cliffs, which are high
towards the eastward, but lower towards the westward. There
was no snow on the island ; on one stretch of sloping flat land,
a covering of vegetation could be made out no doubt similar to
that of Heard Island. One of the outliers is in the form of a
pinnacle, projecting straight up from the sea.

We anchored at Heard Island, in Corinthian or Whisky
Bay, as it is named by the sealers, in the afternoon ; I landed at
once with Captain Nares and Mr. Buchanan. Heard Island is in
about lat. 53° 10' EL, long. 73° 30' E. It is thus in about the
same latitude as the eastern entrance of the Straits of Magellan,
and in a corresponding latitude in the southern hemisphere, to
our city of Lincoln in the northern ; it is in nearly the same
longitude as Bombay. It is about twenty-five miles in extreme
length, and six in extreme breadth, and has an area of about
80 square miles. The island is elongate in form, stretching in a
direction about N.W. by W., and S.E. by E. The southernmost
extremity turns eastward, and runs out into a long narrow
promontory.

Whisky Bay is near the northernmost extremity of the
island. To the south-east of the ship, as she lay in the small
bay, were seen a succession of glaciers descending right down to
the beach, and separated by lateral moraines from one another ;
six of these glaciers were visible from the anchorage, forming by
their terminations the coast-line eastwards. They rose with a
gentle slope, with the usual rounded undulating surface up-
wards towards the interior of the island, but their origin was hid
in the mist and cloud ; and Big Ben, the great mountain of the
island, said to be 7,000 feet in height, was not seen by us at all.

One of the glaciers, that nearest to the ship, instead of
abutting on the sea-shore directly with its end, as did the others,
presented, towards its lower extremity its side to the action of
the waves, and ending somewhat inland, formed a well-marked
but scanty terminal moraine.

218

A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER.

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HEARD ISLAND. 219

To the sea-shore this glacier presented a vertical wall of
ice, resting directly upon the black volcanic sand composing the
beach. In this wall was exposed a very instructive longi-
tudinal section of the glacier mass, in which the series of
curved bands produced by differential motion were most
plainly marked, and visible from the distance of the anchorage.

The ice composing the wall or cliff was evidently being
constantly bulged outwards by internal pressure, and masses
were thus being split off to fall on the beach, and be melted, or
floated off by the tide. The ice splits off along the lines of the
longitudinal crevasses, and falls in slabs of the whole height of
the cliff; a freshly fallen slab, a longitudinal slice of the glacier,
was lying on the beach.

The fallen ice floats off with the tide. Some stones, which
were dredged in 150 fathoms between Kerguelen's Land and
Heard Island, were believed by Mr. Buchanan to have been
recently dropped by floating ice from Heard Island. The
stones in question were as yet not penetrated by the water.*

The other glaciers in sight cut the shore line at right angles,
and thus had no terminal moraines, the stones brought down by
them being washed away by the sea.

The glaciers showed all the familiar phenomena of those of
Europe with exact similarity. There are here the same systems
of crevasses, more marked in some regions than others, and
dying out towards the termination of the glacier, where the
surface is smooth and generally rounded. The crevasses were
of the usual deep blue colour, and the ridges separating them of
the usual fantastic shapes.

Above, the glaciers were covered with snow, which, as one
looked higher and higher, was seen to gradually obliterate the
crevasses, and assume the appearance of a neve. The extent
of glacier free from snow was very small ; the region in which
thawing can take place to any considerable extent being confined
to a range not far above sea level.

Here and there were to be seen, on the surface of the glacier,
the usual deep vertical pipe-like holes full of water. These
were lined by concentric layers of ice, composed of prisms
* J. Y. Buchanan, " Proc. B. Soc." No. 170, 1876, p. 609.

220 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

disposed radially to the centres of the holes and produced by
successive night frosts.

Cones of ice covered with sand, and appearing as if com-
posed of sand alone, but astonishing one by their hard and
resistant nature when struck with a stick, were also to be seen
on the glacier. I have seen closely similar cones in Tyrol;
and, when a tyro at alpine climbing, have jarred my hand in
attempting to thrust my alpenstock into them. Here the sand
was black and volcanic. Small table-stones were not uncommon
upon the glacier, and, in fact, all the phenomena caused by
thawing from the action of direct radiant heat were present.

The usual narrow longitudinal lines or cracks caused by the
shearing of the ice in its differential motion were present, and
gave evidence of the grinding together of the closely opposed
surfaces forming them.

The dirt and stones on the surface of the ice were as usual
more abundant towards the termination of the glacier and the
moraine, but they were not so abundant as usual, and there
were no large stones amongst them, nor were such to be seen
in the moraine.

The harponeer of the " Emma Jane," the whaling schooner
with which we fell in at Kerguelen's Land, told me that he had
always wondered where the stones on the ice came from at all,
and no wonder, for Big Ben is usually hidden from view, and
the glaciers seem to have nothing above from which the stones
might come. Most of the stones, no doubt, reach the surface
and see the light only when they are approaching the bottom of
the glacier.

The terminal moraine showed the usual irregular conical
heaping, and marks of recent motion of the stones and earth
composing it from the thawing of the ice supporting them, and
a small stream running from the glacier-bed cut its way to the
sea through a short arched tunnel in the ice, as so commonly
occurs elsewhere. A small cascade poured out of the ice-cliff on
to the seashore from an aperture about half-way up it. All the
moraines showed evidence of the present shrinking of the glaciers.

The view along the shore of the successive terminations of
the glaciers was very fine. I had never before seen a coast-line

HEARD ISLAXD. 221

composed of cliffs and headlands of ice. None of the glaciers
came actually down into the sea. The bases of their cliffs
rested on the sandy beach and were only just washed by the
waves at high water or during gales of wind.

The lateral moraines were of the usual form, with sharp
ridged crests and natural slopes on either side. They formed
lines of separation between the contiguous glaciers. They were
somewhat serpentine in course, and two of them were seen
to occur immediately above points where the glaciers on either
hand were separated by masses of rock in situ, which masses
showed out between the ice-cliffs on the shore and had the
ends of the moraines resting on them.

A stretch of perfectly level black sand about half a mile in
width forms the head of the bay and intervenes between the
glaciers and a promontory of rocky rising land stretching out
northwards and westwards, and forming the other side of the bay.
It was on the smooth sandy beach bounding this plain that we
landed. The surf was not heavy, but we had to drag the boat
up at once.

In this we were helped by six wild-looking sealers, who had
made their appearance on the rocks as soon as the ship entered
the bay, with their rifles in their hands, and had gazed on
us with astonishment. The boss said, as we landed, he " guessed
we were out of our reckoning." They evidently thought no one
could have come to Heard Island on purpose who was not
in the sealing business.

The sandy plain stretches back from the bay as a dreary
waste to another small curved beach at the head of another
inlet of the sea. Behind this inlet is an irregular rocky moun-
tain mass forming the end of the island, on which are two large
glaciers very steeply inclined, and one of them terminating in a
sheer ice-fall. At its back this mountain mass is bounded
by precipices with their bases washed by the sea.

The plain is traversed by several streams of glacier water
coming from the southern glaciers. These streams are con-
stantly changing their course, as the beach and plain are washed
about by the surf in heavy weather. At the time of our visit
the main stream stretched across the entire width of the plain

222 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

and entered the sea at the extreme western verge of the beach.
We had therefore to ford it.

The stream was about 20 yards across, and knee-deep. It
was intensely cold, and pained my legs worse than any glacier
water I have ever waded in. The water of the stream was
brown, opaque, and muddy, charged with the grindings of the
glaciers. Sunning into the sea it formed a conspicuous brown
tract, sharply defined from the blue-green water of the sea, and
extending almost to the mouth of the bay.

The sandy plain seemed entirely of glacial origin ; it was in
places covered with glacial mud, and was yielding, and heavy to
walk upon.

Mr. Buchanan observed that the isolated rocks which had
been rolled down upon this plain from the heights above were
cut by the natural sand-blast into forms resembling trees on a
coast exposed to trade winds. The effect of every prevalent
wind was shown by the facets cut by the blown sand upon the
surfaces of the rocks, the largest facet in each case being that
turned towards the west.*

The plain was strewed with bones of the Sea-Elephant and
Sea-Leopard, those of the former being most abundant. There
were remains of thousands of skeletons, and I gathered a good
many tusks of old males. The bones lay in curved lines,
looking like tide lines, on either side of the plain above the
beaches, marking the rookeries of old times and tracks of
slaughter of the sealers. Some bones occurred far up on the
plain, the Elephants having in times of security made their lairs
far from the water's edge. A few whales' vertebrae were also
seen lying about.

On the opposite side of the plain from that bounded by the
glacier is a stretch of low bare rock, with a peculiar smooth and
rounded but irregular surface. This rock surface appears from a
distance as if glaciated, but on closer examination it is seen to
show very distinct ripple marks and lines of flow, and the rock-
mass is evidently a comparatively recent lava flow from a small
broken-down crater which stands on the shore close by.

The remains of the crater are now in the form of three

* J. Y. Buchanan, M.A., Report, "Proc. E. Soc." No. 170, 1876, \\ 622,

HEARD ISLAND.

223

fantastic irregularly conical masses, composed of very numerous
thin layers of scoriae, conspicuous because of their varying and
strongly contrasted colours and very irregular bedding. The

BROKEN-DOWN CRATER, WHISKY BAY, WITH SNOW UPON IT.

lava flow is seen in section in the low cliffs forming; the coast-

line of the harbour.

The present condition of Heard Island is evidently that which
obtained in Kerguelen's Land formerly. Glaciers once covered
Kerguelen's Land almost entirely and dipped down into the sea.
It is, however, an extraordinary fact that Heard Island, only 300
miles south of Kerguelen's Land, should thus still be in a
glacial epoch, whilst in Kerguelen's Land, a very much larger
tract, the glaciers should have shrunk back into the interior, and
have left so much of the land surface entirely free of ice, the ice
epoch being there already a thing of the past.

The great height of Big Ben, and consequent largeness of the
area where snow constantly accumulates and cannot be melted,
no doubt accounts to a considerable extent for the peculiar
conditions in Heard Island. A similar rapid descent of the
snow-line within a few degrees of latitude occurs in the Chilian
Andes,* so great is the chilling influence of the vast southern sea.

* Grisebach, "Die Vegetation der Erde." Leipzig, 1872. 2. Bd.
s. 467. Ibique citato.

224 A NATUKALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

Heard Island is in a corresponding latitude to Lincoln. No
doubt, when England was in its last glacial epoch, Heard Island
enjoyed a much milder climate, and it was possibly then that the
lar^e trees grew, the trunks of which are now fossil in Kerguelen's
Land, and that the ancestors of Lyallia and Pringlea flourished.

A stretch of land on the north-west side of the plain was
covered pretty thickly with green, which was on closer view
seen to be composed of patches of Azorella,* growing on the
summits of mud or sand hummocks, which were separated from
one another by ditches or cavities, of usually bare brown mud.

Some of these Azorella patches were of considerable extent,
and the plant was evidently flourishing and in full fruit. On
some hummocks grew tufts of the grass Poa Cookii, in full
flower and with the anthers fully developed ; and on the sheltered
banks of the hummocks the Kerguelen cabbage (Pringlea anti-
scorbutica), grew in considerable quantity, but dwarfed in com-
parison with Kerguelen specimens, both in foliage and in the
length of the fruiting stems. Most of it was in fruit, but some
still in flower, as at Kerguelen's Land.

Around pools of water in the hollows grew a variety of
a British plant, Callitriche Verna (sub sp. obtusangidata) , in
quantity, and it occurred also in abundance submerged; in
company with a Conferva. In the same sheltered spots grew
Colobanthus Kerguehnsis, in greater abundance even than at
Kerguelen's Land.

These five flowering plants,! all occurring also in Kerguelen's
Land, were the only ones found in the island, and it is im-
probable that any others grow there. Heard Island has thus a
miserably poor flora, even for the higher latitudes of the
southern hemisphere. The Falkland Islands, in lat. 51° to 52°
S., have 119 phanerogamic plants, and Hermit Island, far to the
south of Heard Island, in lat. 56° S., has 84 phanerogams, and
amongst them trees of which this island is the southern limit.

An Antarctic flora can in reality hardly be said to exist, since
there are absolutely no phanerogamic plants within the Ant-
arctic circle, and on Possession Island, lying oft' the coast of

* See p. 166.

t Prof. Oliver, P.R.S., "Journal of Linn. Soc.," Vol. XIV, p. 381).

HEARD ISLAND. 225

Victoria Land, in abont lat. 72° S., within the Circle, Sir Joseph
Hooker found* only 18 cryptogams, mosses, lichens, and algae,
no trace of phanerogams. Yet in Saltdalen, in Norway, north
of the Arctic Circle, there are fine timber forests and thriving
farms, yielding abundant crops of hay and barley. Melville
Island, in lat. 74° 75' K, 500 miles north of the Arctic Circle,
has a vegetation of 67 flowering plants.

Sir J. D. Hooker, in his latest memoir on the botany of
Kerguelen's Land, says : " The three small archipelagos of
Kerguelen Island (including the Heard Islands), Marion and
Prince Edward's Islands, and the Crozets, are individually and
collectively the most barren tracts on the globe, whether in
their own latitude or in a higher one, except such as lie within
the Antarctic Circle itself ; for no land, even within the North
Polar area, presents so impoverished a vegetation."!

About the sides of the hummocks already described grew
scantily four species of mosses, one of which proved to be new
and peculiar to the island.

The majority of the land surface of Heard Island, free from
ice, besides the green tract described, is entirely devoid of
vegetation. Only on the talus slopes of the hills on their shel-
tered sides, are seen scattered in a very few places scanty
patches of green. These composed lower down mainly of
Azorella stretch up the slopes, and terminate at an elevation
of a few hundred feet in bright yellow patches, consisting
entirely of mosses, just as at Marion Island, on the higher
slopes. I searched in vain for lichens of any kind.

There seems to be a very great difference with regard to the
vertical range of plants in these southern islands, and in the
Arctic regions. In Marion Island, I estimated the absolute
limit of vegetation at an altitude of about 2,000 feet ; in Ker-
guelen's Land, the limit seems to lie at about 1,500 feet or
lower ; plants of any kind are there already scarce at 1,000 feet
above sea level. In Heard Island vegetation seems to cease at
300 or 400 feet altitude. Yet in East Greenland, the same

* " Flora Antarctica," p. 216.

t " Observations on the Botany of Kerguelen Island by Sir J. D.
Hooker, P.R.S.," &c. Transit of Venus Expedition, Botany, pp. 2, 3.

226 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

plants are found to range from sea level up to 3,000 feet, and
there is no real limit of altitude ; even at 7,000 feet elevation
a thick cushion of moss, several inches in length, was found by
the German North Polar Expedition covering the ground.*

This remarkable condition in the Arctic regions is mainly
accounted for by Dr. Pansch, by the fact that, with the sun
always near the horizon in high latitudes, the hill-slopes re-
ceive its rays nearly vertically on their surfaces, and thus
receive more radiant heat, even than the flat land below them.
There is little cooling at night, the clouds and mist preventing

radiation.

In Kerguelen's Land, of course, in its low latitude, the
inclined surfaces do not profit so much by their inclination.
There, as in the high north, the mosses and lichens are the
highest plants in range. In the successive groups of islands,
Marion, Kerguelen, Heard, they come lower and lower down the
mountain-slopes, and in Possession Island, south of the Ant-
arctic Circle, the few flowering plants remaining below them
at Heard Island have disappeared, and they are left growing
alone.

In all the southern islands the density of the phanerogamic
vegetation, the extent of development of the individual plants,
and the number of species present, decrease directly with the
height. The facts show how much more the constant absence
of warmth, and a continuous moderately low temperature, is
inimical to plant development, than is periodical cold of the
severest kind.

The condition of the vegetation in various localities in East
Greenland depends more on the distance of these from the ice
barrier, than on their position more or less north or south. The
vegetation becomes more abundant as progress is made inland,
away from the ice-bound coast. Exactly the opposite seems to
hold in Kerguelen's Land, where the chief source of warmth.,
though at the same time the constant cause of the equalization

* " Die zweite Deutsche Nord-Polarfahrt in den Jahren 1869 und
187o." 2. Bd. Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse, Leipzig. F. A. Brockhaus.
" Kliin:i und I'ilunzenleben auf Qstgronland," von Adolf Pansch in Kiel.

HEAED ISLAND. 227

of temperature, is the sea: and where the accumulated snow
inland, and its attendant mists, render the soil there barren.

In East Greenland all phanerogamic water plants are absent,
because of the long freezing of the water in winter ; in the
southern islands there is a Limosella, and a large number of the
other Phanerogams seem to take on a special aquatic habit.

To return to Heard Island. At Corinthian Bay large masses
of seaweeds were banked up on the sandy shore. I collected
eight species, which have been described by Prof. Dickie*
Amongst them were two new species, two which occur at
Kerguelen's Land, whilst the remainder occur in Puegia. The
main mass appeared considerably different from the masses of
algse found on the Kerguelen shore. Durvillcea utilis grew
attached to the rocks under the cliffs, but the kelp (Macrocystis
jpirifera) does not grow at all about this group of islands,
according to the sealers, which is a remarkable fact, in con-
sideration of its great abundance at Kerguelen's Land.

The sealers said that the climate of Heard Island was far
more rigorous than that of Kerguelen's Land. In winter the
whole of the ground is frozen, and the streams are stopped, so
that snow has to be melted in order to obtain water. In
December, at Midsummer, there is plenty of sunshiny weather,
and Big Ben is often to be seen. It is possible to land in whale
boats, on the average of the whole year only once in three days,
so surf-beaten is the shore, so stormy the weather.

We saw six sealers ; two were Americans, and two Portu-
guese from the Cape Verde Islands. They were left on the
island by the whaling vessels which we met with at Kerguelen's
Land, their duty being to hunt Sea-Elephants. The men engage
to remain three years on the island, and see the whale ships
only for a short time in the spring of each year.

On the more exposed side of the island there is an extensive
beach, called Long Beach. This is covered over with thousands
of Sea-Elephants in the breeding season, but it is only accessible
by land, and then only by crossing two glaciers or " ice-bergs "
as the sealers call them. ISTo boat can live to land on this shore,
consequently men are stationed on the beach, and live there in

* "Journal of the Linn. Soc," Vol. XV, p. 73.

Q 2

228 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER. '

huts ; and their duty is constantly to drive the Elephants from
this "beach into the sea, which they do with whips made of the
hide of the Elephants themselves. The beasts thus ousted swim
off, and often " haul up," as the term is, upon the accessible
beaches elsewhere, and there they are killed and their blubber
is taken to be boiled down.

In very stormy weather, when they are driven into the sea,
they are forced to betake themselves to the sheltered side of
the island ; hence the men find that stormy weather pays them
best. Two or three old males, termed " beach-masters," hold a
beach to themselves and cover it with cows, but allow no other
males to haul up. The males fight furiously, and one man told
me that he had seen an old male take up a younger one in his
teeth and throw him over, lifting^ him in the air. The males
show fight when whipped, and are with great difficulty driven
into the sea. They are sometimes treated with horrible brutality.
The females give birth to their young soon after their arrival.
The new-born young are almost black, unlike the adults, which
are of a light slate brown, and the young of the northern
Bladdernose, which are white. They are suckled by the female
for some time, and then left to themselves lying on the beach,
where they seem to grow fat without further feeding. They
are always allowed by the sealers thus to lie, in order to make
more oil.

This account was corroborated by all the sealers I met with.
I do not understand it ; probably the cows visit their young
from time to time unobserved. I believe similar stories are
told of the fattening on nothing of the young of northern seals.
Peron says that both parent Elephant seals stay with the
young without feeding at all, until the young are six or seven
weeks old, and that then the old ones conduct the young to the
water and keep them carefully in their company. The rapid
increase in weight is in accordance with Peron's account.

Charles Goodrid^e gives a somewhat different account,
namely, that after the females leave the young, the old males and
young proceed inland, as far as two miles sometimes, and stop
without food for more than a month, and during this time lose
fat. The male elephants come on shore on the Crozets for the

HEARD ISLAND. 229

breeding season at about the middle of August, the females a
little later.

There were said to be forty men in all upon Heard Island.
Men occasionally get lost upon the glaciers. Sometimes a man
gets desperate from being in so miserable a place, and one of the
crew of a whaler that we met at Kerguelen's Land said, after
he had had some rum, that occasionally men had to be shot;, a
statement which may be true or false, but which expresses at all
events the feelings of the men on the matter.

The men that we saw seemed contented with their lot. The
" boss " said, in answer to our inquiries, that he had only one
Fur-Seal skin, which he would sell if he was paid for it, but he
guessed he'd sell it anyhow when he got back to the States. He
had been engaged in sealing about the island since 1854, having
landed with the first sealing party which visited the island.
For his present engagement his time was up next year, but he
guessed he'd stay two years more. He'd make 500 dollars or
so before he went home, but would probably spend half of that
when he touched at the Cape of Good Hope on the way.

The men had good clothing, and did not look particularly
dirty. They lived in wooden huts, or rather under roofs built
over holes in the ground, thus reverting to the condition of the
ancient British. Around their huts were oil casks and tanks,
and a hand-barrow for wheeling blubber about. There were
also casks marked Molasses, Flour, and Coal.

The men said they had as much biscuit as they wanted, and
also beans and pork, and a little molasses and flour. Their
principal food was penguins (Euclyptes chrysolophv.s), and they
used penguin skins with the fat on for fuel. Captain Sir G. S.
ISTares saw five such skins piled on the fire one after the other in
one of the huts.

The bay in which we anchored was thronged with Cape
Pigeons (Daption Capensis) and Prions in astonishing numbers.
The Prions were on the wing in the usual manner, in dense
flocks ; the Pigeons, called sometimes by the sealers " Egli Bird,"
were mostly feeding on the water at the mouth of the glacier
stream. They were breeding in holes in the low basaltic cliffs.

On the same cliffs was a rookery of Shags. They appeared

230 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

much whiter than the Kerguelen birds, a broad band of white
passing round the body, under the wings and across the back.
The}' were probably of the same species {Phalacrocorax verru-
cosus) which is described as developing in New Zealand a broad
white band at the close of the breeding season* The sealers
had remarked that the Heard Island Shag was whiter than the
Kerguelen one. The season at Heard Island may have been
more advanced, or a change of plumage may take place earlier ;
or from the sealers' remark it would appear that the Heard
Island birds differ in their amount of development of white from
the Kerguelen ones.f

On a steep talus slope leading down from the broken-down
crater already described, to the sea, was a large penguin rookery,
from which the sealers drew their supplies. A tern, the same as
one of the Kerguelen ones, was nesting on the terminal moraine
of the glacier at the head of the harbour. The sealers call it
" King-bird " or " Kinger." I saw brooded eggs. The gull of
Kerguelen's Land (Larus Dominicanus) was very abundant. It
was curious for the first time to see gulls perched upon a glacier.
The only other birds which I saw were the Skua (Stercorarius
Antarcticus) and the Giant Petrel (Ossifraga gigantea), and a
Stormy Petrel (Occanitis sp.), which was very abundant. The
" Sheath-bill " (Chionis) was said by the sealers to be common
in the island ; I saw one only.

The only insects which I saw w^ere the large apterous fly of
Kerguelen's Land, which shelters itself, as there, in the heart of
the wild cabbage, and a single dead specimen of a small beetle,
found amongst the Azorella, which unfortunately I lost.

I had only three hours' time on shore. I was busy hunting
for insects when I saw the Captain signalling for a return, and
picking up the biggest Sea-Elephant skull which I could find,
and knocking a few tusks out of some others, to keep as me-
mentos of this dismal spot, I made the best of my way across

* "Trans. K Zealand Inst./' Vol. V., p. 224.

t Messrs. Sclater and Salvin separate Phalacrocorax imperialis from
P. verrucosus, because of the development in it, and not in the latter, of
white on the back. It is unfortunate that no specimens could be got in
Heard Island. "Proc. Zool. Soc," 1878, p. 650.

HEARD ISLAND. 231

the muddy and yielding plain, and through the glacier stream,
although the skull was almost more than I could carry, in
addition to rock specimens and a big vasculum. We got off only
just in time, for a considerable sea was running by the time that
we reached the ship.

We were to have landed again on the following morning;
but the wind shifted, and there was a thick fall of snow, covering
the deck to the depth of two inches, and rendering the shore of
an uniform white, excepting where a few black precipitous rocks
showed out here and there in relief. The moraines were scarcely
visible, and we realized how fortunate we had been in having hit
upon so fine a day for landing on the island.

We got under way at about 5.30 a.m. As we left the bay
we saw, even at this early hour, one of the wretched Portuguese
starting off to walk the beaches in search of his prey, the
miserable Elephants.

232

CHAPTER X.

AMONGST THE SOUTHEEN ICE.

First Iceberg Sighted. Typical Forms of Southern Bergs. Preservation
of Equilibrium. Wash Lines. Caverns. Bi-tabular Bergs, How
Formed. Weathering of Bergs. Stratification of Ice in Bergs.
Cleavage. Scarcity of Rocks on Bergs. Discoloured Bands in the
Ice. Rev. Cauon Moseley on the Motion of Glaciers. Colouring of
Bergs. Blue Berg. Surf on the Coasts of Bergs. Scenic effects of
Icebergs. Appearance of the Pack Ice. Discolouration of Ice by
Diatoms. Gales of Wind amongst the Icebergs. Snowbow. Whales
Blowing. Grampuses. Birds amongst the Ice. Antarctic Climate
in Summer.

Amongst the Southern Ice, February 8th to March 4th, 1814. —

From Heard Island we ran nearly due south for six days,

FIRST ICEBERG, SIGHTED FEBRUARY IOtH.

(From a sketch by Lieut. H. Swire, R.N.)

approaching the Antarctic Circle at an average rate of about
115 miles a day. The first iceberg was sighted on February 10th,

AMONGST THE SOUTHERN ICE. 233

in a latitude nearly corresponding to that of the Shetland Islands
and Christiania in Norway, in the northern hemisphere.

The temperature gradually fell as we went southwards, and
on February 9th went down for the first time to just below
freezing point in a snow squall.

At first, all the icebergs seen were numbered each day, and
their positions noted down ; but when we came to have 40 in
sight at once this plan was abandoned, and wre subsequently had
more than a hundred in sight on several occasions.

The typical form of the Antarctic iceberg, as seen above
water, and apparently the form which it always has when first
set free on its wanderings, is very simple. The top is a nearly
flat expanse of snow, and this is bounded all around by per-
pendicular cliffs. The boundary lines of the expanse are no
doubt always in the first instance nearly straight lines, since
they must be produced by the splitting off of the berg from the
parent mass, and the previous splitting of similar bergs from its
own outer border when still attached.

A considerable number of the undecayed bergs seen by us
were almost rectangular in outline. Some few were irregularly
oval, and the weathered ones of course of all possible irregular
outlines.

Since ice requires about
nine times its volume to be
immersed in order to float
it above sea water, the por-
tion of an iceberg which
shows above water is a verv
small proportionate part of
the mass. Mr. Buchanan

DIAGRAM TO SHOW THE PROPORTION OF AN ICEBERG

made an accurate estimate immersed, and above water.

of the specific gravity of samples of the berg ice, and calculation
of amount of immersion of icebergs. The proportionate depth
of a berg below water will of course depend on the form and on
the relative density of the upper and lower strata of the mass.
Usually, no doubt, the mass below water is far less than nine
times the vertical depth of the height of the part above water,
from two considerations. Firstly, the sides of the berg are not

234 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

perpendicular, but long ledges run out from the base of the cliffs
below water, the immersed part being thus much larger in figure
than the exposed ; and, secondly, the exposed part is of lighter,
less compact ice, and often further lightened by excavation of
caves, and presence of crevasses.

So large a proportion of the bergs being required to be
immersed in order that the bergs broken off from the parent
ice masses should float in stable equilibrium, with their surfaces
originally uppermost maintained still in that position, it is
necessary that the pieces thus breaking off, supposing their upper
surfaces to be square, should be at least as wide as they are
thick If this were not the case, if the density of the ice masses
were uniform, the bergs would necessarily topple immediately
they broke free, and this fact would be shown by their strati-
fication being vertical to their plane of flotation. This, however,
seems never, as far as I could judge from the bergs I saw, to
occur. Tilting only takes place after bergs have been long
weathered. The bergs seem nearly always to be of large area
in proportion to their thickness, and to maintain their original
balance for very long periods. No doubt the much greater
density of the ice composing the lower portions of the bergs
tends to keep them in their original position.

The waves, partly no doubt because of the water at the very
surface being warmed by the sun, and partly no doubt by heat
resulting from their motion, cut a wash-line all round the bergs,
which appears as a concave groove-like channel with a polished
inner surface, just at the water-level.

When bergs rise to a higher level, or tilt, these wash-lines
remain marked on the bergs, as straight polished streaks, visible
from a great distance (coloured plate, fig. 5), giving evidence
of the former lines of flotation of the bergs. Sometimes, several
ancient wash-lines are visible on one berg, and where the
cliff surfaces on which they are scored are protected at their
base from the waves by secondary cliffs or projections, they may
remain intact for very long periods.

The wash-lines being: hollowed out at the bases of the cliffs,
these latter soon overhang, and large masses split off along
the lines of joint and cleavage, and fall. The masses evidently

AMONGST THE SOUTHERN ICE. 235

split off tolerably evenly from the whole height of the cliffs,
for these are nearly always, when thus still water-worn at
their bases, perpendicular, and on our firing a shot at a ber«
cliff, the ice split off in this manner from the whole height of
the cliff.

When there are crevasses in the ice at the level of the wash-
line leading into the ice from it, the wash of the waves hollows
out caverns which resemble in general form caves cut in the
same manner by waves on coast-lines, and have their mouths
wider at the levels of the wash-lines.

The presence of caves is a proof that a berg has floated
at the level of the wash-line, along which they lie for a long
period. The remains of the upper part of the crevasse which has
assisted in the development of a cave, is often to be seen stretch-
ing up from its roof. Often by change of line of flotation of a
berg, a line of caves is carried up far above sea level, and three
or four caves disposed along an old wash-line are thus often to
be seen on the surface of a berg, the line being sometimes
horizontal, sometimes tilted. In a berg which has undergone
extreme denudation, or on a narrow spur of a young berg, a cave
may be excavated right through the berg and give rise to a
natural arch. A further degeneration of the arch gives rise to
an isolated pinnacle.

The base of the berg under water beneath the wash-line beino-
supported by the water, does not split off at once like the cliff
above when cut into. Hence the waves constantly deepening
the wash-line as the cliffs fall, and eating their way into the
berg at the water-line, a platform of ice is left behind under
water, projecting at the base of the cliffs above it. After a
time the part of the berg above water losing weight, the berg
rises, and this platform is raised above water, and the berg thus
becomes two-storied or bi-tabular.

A fresh wash-line is cut below the margin of the platform
now raised, and low perpendicular cliffs are formed round it.
A third platform may be formed in the same manner and raised,
and the berg may become three-storied.

At the base of the older cliffs in each case, the old wash-line
is usually to be seen where the cliffs are joined by the platform

236

A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

succeeding them, but in some instances it is obscured by the
subsequent formation of a debris slope from the falling of the
cliff; for the cliff, as on land, when no longer cut into by the
waves at its base, tends to degenerate into a slope of natural
inclination.

The resemblance in the weathering of a berg by the action
of waves to that undergone by a rocky coast under the same
circumstances is complete. Caves, cliffs, pinnacle-like outliers,
and a shore platform at the base of the cliffs, are formed in
a closely similar manner in each case.

In order that a horizontal platform of any wide extent should
be formed beneath the water, it is necessary that the berg should
float at almost exactly the same level for a very long period. I
do not properly understand how this occurs. Each time that a

BI-TABULAR ICEBERG.

At the base of the upper cliff is seen the old wash line. (From a sketch by the Author.)

mass of ice falls from the undermined cliff in order that the
equilibrium should be maintained, it is necessary that nine times
that bulk of ice should be removed from the base.

No doubt portions of the platforms below water are con-
stantly being split off by the upward pressure and floating to
the surface as " calves." The formation of a large platform
under water must, however, depend on such a " calving " not
taking place, unless on sides of the berg other than that on
which the platform is formed. Nevertheless, by some means or
other, either by melting or calving, a very uniform wasting of
the berg below water must take place in order to form a plat-
form. It cannot be supposed that the amount of snow which
lulls on the berg when set free can be sufficient to balance the
loss by the action of the sea.

There must be a reason why the bergs which thus become

AMONGST THE SOUTHERN ICE. 237

two-storied have their lower story commonly, as in the bero-
figured here in the text, only at one of their ends. Probably a
certain amount of lower platform existed all round this berg
when it first rose, but this was cut away on all the sides where it
was narrow, by being undermined by the waves. The line of
the main upper cliff was thus soon reached on these sides, and
this cliff was then itself further undermined, so that, as shown
in the sketch, the old wash-line was obliterated, and remained
only at the base of that cliff which was protected by the still
remaining secondary platform.

The greater undermining of bergs at one side may, no doubt,
be due to their taking up, from the shape of their parts exposed
above water and the relation of these parts in position to the
form of the parts below water, a particular direction with regard
to the wind, and maintaining this so that one particular side is
usually the windward one, and therefore most battered by the
waves.

It seems far more difficult to explain how it occurs that bergs
suddenly rise to a considerable height further out of water than
that at which they have floated before. Such a sudden rise
must necessarily be supposed in order to account for the two-
storied form.

In order that, in the case of the berg figured for instance, a
rise should occur from the height of the old wash-line to the
present water-line, a mass of the berg above water must have
been suddenly removed, equal in volume to the whole part
of the berg above water lying below the level of the top of the
lower story.

It seems almost incredible that such a mass should break off'
and fall away suddenly. A splitting of a berg in two can
be readily understood, but the mass in this case must come
entirely from the part of the berg above water. It cannot have
split off at an angle, for the walls of the berg in question were
perpendicular cliffs. The berg certainly had never toppled.

A different explanation possible is, that nine times the
volume of ice above referred to, was suddenly added to the part
of the berg below water by its passing into cold water or a
change of season. It may be that the raised story represents

238 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

the effects of growth of the base of a berg during one winter
when it probably still lay far south. The surface water would
be colder then, and the cliffs not being so much, or hardly
at all undermined, time would be allowed for the rising without
destruction of the platform, and thus the process need not be so
sudden.

At first sight it seemed to me easy enough that the berg
should rise suddenly by the falling of part of its mass, but on
considering the matter with a plan showing the vast proportion
of its bulk required to be thus removed, I found the question
more difficult.

The height of the main cliffs of the bi-tabular berg figured was
estimated by Captain Tizard at about 200 feet, and that of the
lower cliffs at 60 feet. We saw some distant bergs which were
possibly 300 or 400 feet in height and three or four miles
in length. A berg 200 feet in height would have a base extend-
ing to a depth of 300 fathoms or so, according to its form, and
this base will be thawed at different rates at successive depths,
according to the distribution of temperature in the water at the
various depths. The shapes of the bergs below water must
thus follow curves corresponding to those used by physicists to
express successive deep-sea temperatures graphically.

A very large proportion of the bergs seen by us were as thus
described, flat topped and maintained their original balance.
Very many were bounded by a single range of cliffs washed by
the waves all round. In some these ranges were evidently old
and very much indented. These are simple bergs (see the
coloured plate, fig. 4.)

Many were highly complex, combining two stories, lines of
caves, talus slopes, and evidences of having tilted to a certain
angle from the original line of flotation once or twice ; some
were excessively worn and weathered, having apparently been
long in warmer regions, and were pinnacled and broken up
by deep gullies or channels bounded often by rounded ridges
projecting at their mouths on either side.

One much weathered pinnacled berg was passed which had
its entire surface shining and polished as if it had recently
toppled, and no fresh snow had fallen since this had occurred.

AMONGST THE SOUTHERN ICE. 230

We saw several with the parts which had been below water
partially exposed by tilting. The surfaces of these were always
polished and smooth. We saw no berg tilt or turn over during
our voyage. One we saw was divided into three separate
columnar masses as far as the part above water was concerned.
No connection of the columns was visible.

The platforms under water at the bases of the bergs often
run out into spurs and irregular projections, and these may be
dangerous to ships going too near. Soundings were taken on
one of these platforms and gave seven fathoms at some distance
from the berg and three and a half nearer in.

Nearly all the flat-topped bergs showed numerous crevasses
in their cliffs near their summits, and these were always widest
towards the summits, and were irregularly perpendicular in
general direction.

The flat tops of the bergs had usually rather uneven surfaces,
being covered with small hillocks, apparently formed by drifting
of snow, or showing irregularities where they covered over the
mouths of crevasses. The surfaces in fact, looked just like
those of the " firn ': or " neve," the cracked snow-fields at the
heads of European glaciers, and appeared as if they would be
equally dangerous to traverse, except with a party roped together.
The second stories of bergs were always covered with snow,
which had fallen on them after their emergence.

The stratified structure of the bergs is best seen in the case
of flat-topped rectangular bergs, where an opportunity is afforded
of examining at a corner two vertical cliff faces meeting one
another at a right angle; we had several such opportunities.
The entire mass shows a wTell-marked stratification, beino- com-

BECTANGDLAR BERG.

Viewed at one of its corners.

posed of alternate layers of white opaque-looking, and blue,
more compact and transparent ice. Staff-Surgeon E. L. Moss,

240 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

B.K, M.D., of the late Arctic Expedition, describes a similar
stratification as occurring in Arctic ice. He had opportunities
of examining the ice closely at leisure, and describes each
stratum as consisting of an upper white part merging into a lower
blue part, the colour depending on the greater or less number
and size of the air-cells in the ice.*

Towards the lower part of the cliffs, the strata are seen to be
extremely fine and closely pressed, whilst they are thicker
with the blue lines wider apart, in proportion as they are traced
towards the summits of the cliffs. In the lower regions of the
cliffs, the strata are remarkably even and horizontal, whilst
towards the summit, where not subjected to pressure, slight
curvings are to be seen in them corresponding with the in-
equalities of the surface and drifting of the snow.

In one berg there was in the strata at one spot, somewhat
the appearance of complex bedding, like that shown in iEolian
calcareous sand formations, such as those of Bermuda.! The
strata were often curved in places, but always in their main line
of run, horizontal, i.e., parallel to the original flat top of the berg.
The strata in the cliff at the level of the wash-line of a
rectangular berg 80 feet in height, were so thin and closely
packed, that they looked almost like the leaves of a huge book
at a distance, for by the lap of the waves the softer layers had
been to some extent dissolved out from between the harder.
In one berg where the face of the cliff was very flat and seen
quite closely with a powerful glass, the fine blue
bands were seen to be grouped, the groups being
separated by bands in which no lines were visible,
or where these were obscured by the ice frac-
turing with a rougher surface, not with a per-
fectly even and polished one, as existed where
^r.^,.^ ^ , ,, the blue bands showed out.

STRUCTURE OF ICE.

a a Blue bands, bb The cliff surfaces, where freshlv fractured, show

Layers without striae.

an irregular jointing and cleavage of the entire
mass, very like that shown in a cliff of compact limestone. In

* "Observations on Arctic Sea Water and Ice." Proc. Boy. Soc,
No. 189, 1878, p. 547.
t See p. 20.

— i -^ ' '

AMONGST THE SOUTHERN ICE. 241

one or two bergs I noticed a fine cleavage lamination like that
of slate or shale, the laminae being pa-
rallel to the face of the cliff, and breaking
up at their edges with zigzag fracture,
almost as in diamond cleavage of slate ;
this condition may have been produced
by peculiar exertion of pressure in this
particular berg.

When the lower cliff of the two storied rEACTCRE OF ICE CLIFF'
berg, described and figured in the text, had a shot fired into it,
large masses of ice fell, raising a considerable swell in the sea.
The pieces of the cliff split off in flat masses parallel with the
face of the cliff, just as I noticed to be the case in the splitting
of the glacier cliffs at Heard Island, and did not tumble forward
but slid down the face of the cliff, keeping their upper edges,
parts of the old plateau surface, horizontal.

The ice floated round the ship in some quantity ; it was
opaque and white-looking, somewhat like white porcelain, and
the shattered fragments had remarkably sharp angular edges,
showing that the ice was very hard and compact, far more so
than its appearance in mass would lead one to suppose, since it
looks at a distance as if it were hardly consolidated, but merely
closely pressed snow. Its manner of cleavage only gives
evidence at a distance of its very compact nature.

Many of the floating fragments were traversed by parallel
veins of transparent ice, which were those which, when seen on
a cliff surface, look blue. A shot fired at the top of the higher
cliff produced no effect, the ball apparently going in without
splitting off any ice at all.

The greater approximation of the strata towards the base of
the bergs is no doubt due to the increasingly greater pressure
sustained by them. The blue lines seem to represent successive
slight surface thawings of superimposed falls of snow. In these
lines of clear transparent ice, a complete fusion of the snow
particles has taken place. The opaque white ice between them
though, as appears from its fracture, very compact, is less so than
these bands, as shown by its being melted sooner.*

* See preceding page.

242 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

There can hardly be a doubt that the ice must be of
increasing density from its summit downwards.

Several small bergs were passed, which showed hardly
any blue stratification in their cliffs ; the top surfaces of
these showed rounded conical hillocks, and a general appear-
ance of formation by wind drifting of the snow. What
few bands were present, were conformable in curve with
the irregular surface. It appeared as if the denser mass
wTere here all below water, and not large enough to float
more than the lighter, more friable and recent top deposit
above the water.*

Antarctic icebergs have been met with by merchant vessels
in higher latitudes, varying in length from one to seven, or even
ten miles in length. In 1854, a vast body of ice was passed
and reported by twenty-one merchant ships in lat. 44° to 40° S.,
long. 28° to 20° W., a latitude corresponding to that of the
northern coast of Portugal. The ice mass, which was probably
a group of icebergs locked together, was in the form of a hook,
60 miles long by 40 broad, enclosing a bay 40 miles in breadth ;
none of the ice masses composing it exceeded 300 feet in
height, t

During the short time that we were amongst the icebergs
we met with none that bore upon them any moraines or rocks
which could with certainty be determined as such. The scarcity
of such appearances has been remarked by former voyagers.
Nevertheless, there are numerous instances of rocks having been
seen on southern bergs.

Several observers have met with rocks on bergs. Wilkes
saw many such; Eoss also, and the latter, on one occasion
landed a party on a berg on which there was a volcanic rock
weighing many tons, and which was covered with mud and

* For a magnificent series of large photographic views of . Arctic
icebergs and ice scenery, see " The Arctic Regions," by William Bradford.
London, Sampson Low and Marston, 1873.

t " South Atlantic Directory," p. 94. W. H. Rosser, and J. F. Murray.
London, 1870. Here will be found a general account of icebergs in the
South Atlantic. On same subject see J. T. Towson, "On Icebergs in
the Southern Ocean." Liverpool, 1859.

AMONGST THE SOUTHERN ICE. 243

stones.* Mr. Darwin has published a note on a rock seen on
an Antarctic iceberg in lat. 61° S.f

Dr. Wallicht remarks on the similar scarcity of the appear-
ance of stones or gravel on northern bergs. Not one in a
thousand shows dirt, &c. He attributes this to the very small
disturbance of their centres of gravity which icebergs undergo
when floating freely. Stones and gravel may be present in
most cases, but remain most frequently invisible under water in
the lower parts of the bergs. We dredged up in deep water on
two occasions, near the pack-ice. fragments of gneiss and slate
which wrere certainly transported thither by ice.

On three occasions we saw discolourations of bergs. In one
case there was a light yellow band on one surface of a cliff high
up, possibly the result of birds' dung which had fallen on the
snow when the layer was formed ; it was too high up to be due
to Diatoms.

On another occasion two bergs were passed at a distance,
which showed conspicuous black-looking bands, apparently dirt
bands. In one of the bergs there were two or three such bands,
very broad, parallel to the blue bands, and separated by con-
siderable intervals, in which the berg showed the usual strati-
fication. In another (coloured plate, fig. 8) two black bands
existed at one end of the berg and one at the other. Both were
parallel in direction to the blue bands, but the stratification at
the end where the two black bands were, was inclined at an
angle to that of the remainder of the berg, as if a dislocation of
a part of the berg had taken place. These bergs were too far
distant to allow of the exact nature of the black bands being
determined.

In none of the numerous bergs did I see any bending or
curved vertical bands, grains evidence of a former differential
motion in the mass, such as are to be seen on every land glacier.
How far the absence of these characteristic lines of motion may

* Eoss, " Antarctic Voyage," Vol. I, p. 173. London, J. Murray, 1847.

f C. Darwin, "Notes on a Eock seen on an Iceberg in lat. 61° S."
Geog. Soc. Journ. IX, 1839, p. 528, 529. "The Voyage of the 'Eliza
Scott,' Commander John Balleny." Journal of Eesearches, p. 251.

X G. U. Wallich, M.D., F.L.S., &c, "The North Atlantic Sea Bed,"
Pt. 1, p. 56. London, Van Voorst, 1826.

R 2

244 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER

be explained by the fact, that only about the uppermost tenth of
the entire height of the bergs is seen, I do not know. A berg
200 feet in height above water, when floating, must, if it were of
symmetrical form and equal density throughout, have an actual
height of about 2,000 feet.

A mass detached from the edge of the barrier, and then
showing lines of motion might, whilst floating, receive a sufficient
addition of weight by successive falls of snow to sink it entirely
below water in supporting the new structure.

Moraines and large rock masses would become hidden by
such snow accumulations, both towards the free margins of the
continuous glaciers, and also after the bergs containing them
were detached ; and a berg laden with rock need not expose it
to view until after long thawing or capsizing.

The accumulation of rocks and stones in the form of definite
moraines is, of course, a phenomenon which can only be pro-
duced by the accompaniment of thawing or evaporation of ice
in combination with its motion. If both these processes occur
to very small extent in the ice of the glaciers, whose free edge
forms the Great Barrier, the rocks and stones received from the
overhanging cliffs inland, or supporting beds, will be distributed
evenly throughout the mass, and never be concentrated at all.
The crevasses seen in the upper parts of the bergs might be pro-
duced after a berg is set free by the greater expansion, through
increase of temperature, of the denser ice at the base of the mass.

I may be allowed here to make a remark with regard to the
movements of glaciers, a subject to which my late father, the
Eev. Canon Moseley, devoted much time and research. The
theory propounded by him to account for the descent of glaciers,
which, as he proved most conclusively, cannot take place by
means of their weight alone, was that the motion was due to the
expansion and contraction of the mass. A heavy body lying on
a slope, inclined ever so little, and subject to expansion and
contraction, must necessarily crawl down the slope, every change
of dimensions tending to push the mass in the direction of least
resistance.* This theory has been considered inadequate, and

* Rev. H. Moseley, F.RS., " On the Descent of Glaciers," Proc. Roy.
Soc, April 19, 1855. "On the Mechanical Impossibility of the Descent of

AMONGST THE SOUTHERN ICE. 245

very little weight has been given to it, because, although ice
expands more under the influence of heat than any other known
solid, it is a bad conductor of heat, and the temperature of Swiss
glaciers is said not to vary. Now, whatever may be the case
with the tiny moribund glaciers of Switzerland, it seems to me
that in the case of the vast continental ice of the Antarctic
regions, and of the North in Greenland and elsewhere, a very im-
portant cause of motion must be expansion and contraction, due
to changes of temperature. In the Arctic regions there is a
considerable range of temperature below freezing point, and it is
impossible but that the ice, however bad a conductor it may be,
should not change its temperature very greatly, and constantly
when in an atmosphere which ranges during the day, for
example, between —10° F. and +19° F., a range of 29°. It is
admitted on all hands that a certain amount of motion of all
glaciers is due to expansion and contraction, produced by varia-
tion of temperature ; but it is contended that the proportion so
contributed to the general motion is insignificant in amount.

The colouring of the southern bergs is magnificent. The
general mass has a sugar-loaf-like appearance, with a slight
blueish tint, excepting where fresh snow resting on the tops
and ledges, is absolutely white. On this ground-colour there are
parallel streaks of cobalt blue, of various intensities, and more or
less marked effect, according to the distance at which the berg
is viewed. Some bergs with the blue streaks very definitely
marked have, when seen from quite close, exactly the appearance
of the common marbled blue soap, (coloured plate, fig. 6).

The colouring of the crevasses, caves, and hollows is of the
deepest and purest possible azure blue. None of our artists on
board were able to approach a representation of its intensity.
It seemed to me a much more powerful colour than that which is
to be seen in the ice of Swiss glaciers. In the case of the bergs
with all their sides exposed, no doubt a greater amount of light
is able to penetrate than in glaciers where the light can usually
only enter at the top. A large berg full of caves and crevasses,
seen on a bright dav, is a most beautiful and striking object.

Glaciers by their weight only." Proc. Roy. Soc, 1869, p. 202. Also
" Phil. Mag.," May, 1869. Further papers in " Phil. Mag.," 1869, 1870.

246 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

One small berg was passed at a distance which was of
remarkable colour. It looked just like a huge crystal of sul-
phate of copper, being all intensely blue, but it seemed as if
attached to, and forming part of, another berg of normal colour
(coloured plate, fig. 7). Possibly it was part of the formerly sub-
merged base, and of more than ordinary density. Only one other
such berg was seen. The intensity of the blue light received from
the bergs ordinarily is such that the grey sky behind them
appears distinctly reddened, assuming the complementary tint,
and the reddening appears most intense close to the berg.

At night bergs appear as if they had a very slight luminous
glow, almost as if they were to very small extent phosphorescent.

The sea at the foot of the bergs usually looks of a dark indigo
colour, partly, no doubt, out of contrast to the brighter blue of
the ice. Where spurs and platforms run out under water from
the bases of the berg cliffs, the shallow water is seen to be
lighted up by reflection of the light from these.

The surf beats on the coast of an iceberg as on a rocky shore,
and washes and dashes in and out of the gullies and caverns,
and up against the cliffs. Washing in and out of the caves, it
makes a resounding roar, which, when many bergs surround the
ship, is very loud. So heavy is the surf on the bergs, and so
steep are they as a rule, that we did not see one on which we
could well have landed from a boat.

As the waves wash up into the wash-lines of the bergs they
form icicles, which are to be seen hanging in rows from the
upper border of these grooves.

A line of fragments is always to be seen drifting away from
a large berg. These are termed wash-pieces. They are very
instructive as showing the vast relative extent of submerged ice
required to float a small portion above water ; the parts of the
fragments below water being visible from a ship's deck.

The scenic effects produced by large numbers of icebergs,
some in the foreground, others scattered at all distances to the
horizon and beyond it, are very varied and remarkable, de-
pending on the varying effects of light and atmosphere.

On one occasion, as we were approaching the pack ice, some
distant bergs were seen to assume a most intense black colour.

AMONGST THE SOUTHERN ICE. 247

This was due to their being thrown in shade by clouds passing
between them and the sun, and the heightening of this effect
by the contrast with brilliantly lighted up bergs around them.
They looked like rocks of basalt.

On February 15th, a remarkable twilight effect was seen
to the southward at about 10 p.m. A narrow band or line of
dazzling bright yellow light shone out through a long narrow
gap intervening between the lower edge of a densely dark cloud
bank and the equally dark, almost black, horizon line. The
horizon line was uneven, showing minute black projections or
jags, due to hummocky pack ice.

The distant flat-topped icebergs showed out black and sharp,
with rectangular outlines against the bright band, and some of
them joined with their dark bodies, the dark cloud line to the
dark horizon line, bridging over the band of light. The whole
effect was very curious, and drew all on deck to gaze at it.

We frequently enjoyed the sight of brilliant red sunsets.
Then the bergs directly between the observer and the illuminated
sky show a hard, almost black outline. Bergs lying on the
horizon, right and left of the setting sun, reflect the light from
their entire faces, or from those parts of their faces which lie at
the necessary angle. Hence, bright red bergs, and also fantastic
red forms, due to reflection from very uneven surfaces, appear on
the horizon. Bergs that are nearer take a salmon tint.

In one remarkably brilliant sunset, just before the lower
limb of the sun reached the horizon, it was of a brilliant golden-
yellow, wdiich lit up the spars and shrouds of the ship with
a dazzling light. Later on, the horizon became excessively
dark. Above it was a streak of golden light, succeeded by
a band of green sky, the two colours being separated by a
narrow horizontal violet cloud. Above the green were dark
clouds lighted up with bright crimson at the edges. The
bergs reflected the crimson and yellow light, and assumed the
brightest hues.

Bergs in the far distance, in ordinary daylight, when lighted
up often have a pinkish tinge, and then look remarkably like
land. The deception is very complete. No doubt Commodore
Wilkes was deceived by it. Bergs often also, from the presence

248 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

of deep shadows, have the appearance of having rocks upon
them when they have not.

We entered the ice rather unexpectedly, on February 13th.
I was on deck at 11.30 p.m. Two icebergs were then in sight
aheas, only just visible in the dim foggy haze. They became
gradually more plain, and then a berg was reported right ahead.
Sail was shortened, and we glided slowly on. A line of mist,
contrasting strongly with the dark water, seemed in the un-
certain light, to be creeping over the surface of the sea towards
us ; in reality we were approaching it. Its edge was most sharply
defined. We passed it, and immediately the dark water showed
a sprinkling over of white dots, which looked as if they had been
snow-flakes, which for some reason had fallen on the water without
melting. These white specks became larger and larger, and closer
together, and all at once I realized that we were amongst the ice.
The thin layer of mist was hanging over its edge.

The pieces increased rapidly in size and thickness, as we
went farther and farther ahead, until, in a very few minutes, we
were forcing our way through a sort of soup-like looking fluid,
full of large pieces of ice. The pieces were as much as six feet
long, and three or four broad, all flat slabs, and standing six
inches or so out of the water. The pieces bumped and grated
against the ship's side, and the water line being near the level of
the officers' heads, as they lay in their berths asleep, several
came up on deck to see what had happened. We soon steered
out of the edge of the pack again.

Next morning I viewed the ice from the foretop, and
made a sketch of its appearance {see the coloured plate oppo-
site). All along the horizon, southwards, was a white line of ice,
broken here and there by the outlines of bergs fast in the pack at
various distances from the ship ; some partly beyond the horizon,
and with only their tops showing ; others at the outer edge of the
vast expanse of ice ; others at all intermediate positions.

The field of ice appeared continuous, except just near its
edge, where meandering openings, like rivers, led into it, some-
times for a mile or so. The edge of the pack was very irregular,
projecting as it were in capes and promontories, with bays
Ik 'tween, as on a broken coast-line. The fields of ice were made

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AMONGST THE SOUTHERN ICE. 249

up of large fragments closely packed together. The pieces were
not, however, much tilted or heaped up upon one another, as
commonly occurs in packs.

Off the edge of the pack, extended serpentine bands of float-
ing ice which drifted before the wind ; they are termed, " stream
ice." We dredged within one of the streams. All the packs
which we saw were similar to the one described.

Sometimes, the smaller floating masses of ice at the edge of
the pack were covered with fresh snow. The parts of them
projecting above water were sometimes of very fantastic shapes.
Some were like the antlers of deer, others like two pairs of
antlers with three or four upstanding and branching horns, all
borne aloft by irregularly shaped submerged floats. The soft
upper masses of loose or but slightly congealed snow often split
off and fell away as the masses floated past.

The ice was frequently stained of the yellow ochreous tint
described by Sir J. D. Hooker, and found by him to be caused
by Diatoms washed up on to the ice by the waves, and hanging
on its rough surface.* The colouring was always most marked
about the honeycombed wash-lines of the ice blocks. Pancake
ice is similarly discoloured by Diatoms in the Arctic regions.t

On February 25th we entered the edge of the pack, sailing
amongst some loosened outliers of it. The sea was covered
with masses of ice up to 10 feet in length. These consisted
mostly of light snow ice, and did not project more than from
two to four feet out of water. The upper parts of the masses
were composed of white fresh snow, or honeycombed wet frozen
snow, which had been partly melted by the waves. Very many
of these ice masses were stained of an ochre tint, by Diatoms and
other surface organisms.

The lower submerged ice was transparent, but extremely full
of large air vesicles. The ice below the water line, and under

* Sir J. D. Hooker's collections were described by Ehrenberg. See
Capt. Boss's " Antarctic Voyage," Vol. I, p. 339, 341. London, J. Murray,
1847. Ehrenberg's " Eeport on Deposit from Pancake Ice," collected by
Dr. Hooker.

t Eobert Brown, " On the Discolouration of the Arctic Seas." Quart.
Jour. Micro. Sci., 1865, p. 240.

250 A NATURALIST OX THE " CHALLENGER."

the overhanging edges at that level looked blue. The upper
masses were quite opaque.

I went in a boat to collect discoloured ice. The discoloura-
tion appears far less marked when the ice is seen at close
quarters. It becomes almost invisible when the porous snow-
ice drains dry. When however a small piece of the ice is
seen floating nearly submerged, it looks almost of a chocolate
brown colour.

Mr. Buchanan made experiments on the melting point, and
amount of salt contained in salt-water ice. He came to the con-
clusion from analyses of successive meltings and the varying of
the melting point, that in salt-water ice " the salt is not contained
in the form of mechanically enclosed brine only, but exists in
the solid form, either as a single crystalline substance, or as a
mixture of ice and salt crystals."

He thinks that by fractional melting, salt water ice might be
made to yield water fit to drink, although when a lump is
melted as a whole, the resulting water is undrinkable.*

We crossed the Antarctic Circle on February 16th, passing
about six miles to the south of it. There was open water ahead,
but the " Challenger " was not strengthened for ice work, and we
were not ordered to proceed further south, so we turned back.
There seemed to be a deep opening in the pack here, nearly due
south of Heard Island. We subsequently passed within six miles
of what is marked on maps as Wilkes' Termination Land, and
found that this did not exist. Wilkes no doubt was deceived by
the land-like appearance of distant icebergs. It is to be noted
that he merely says that he saw appearance of land here, sixty
miles distant, but high and mountainous. Others have named
it for him and placed it on the charts.

On two occasions, whilst amongst the southern ice, our ship
was in some little danger, having to ride through heavy gales of
wind amongst numerous icebergs in thick weather.

On the morning of February 24th there was a fresh breeze,
in which we sounded in 1,300 fathoms, and attempted to dredge,

* J. V. Buchanan, M.A., "Observations on Sea- Water Tee," Proc. H.
Soc., No. 170, 1870, p. (509.

AMONGST THE SOUTHERN ICE. 251

but the ship drifted so fast before the wind, that the dredge did
not reach the bottom. The wind became fresher and fresher,
and the barometer sunk to 28°'50. The atmospheric pressure is
however, for some reason, normally low in the Antarctic regions,
and Eoss once observed it as low as 28°*35.

Before long it blew a gale, with dry powdery drifting snow,
obscuring the view and rendering it impossible to see for a
greater distance than 200 or 300 yards. The thermometer sank
to 21° F., the lowest reading which occurred during the cruize.
Before the weather became very bad we steamed up under the
lee of a small sloping berg, with the intention of making fast to
it if possible by means of ice anchors.

This was found impracticable, the slope of the berg being too
steep to allow of men dropping on to it from the end of the
jibboom, as had been intended. The ship was then placed under
the lee of the berg, with the view of facilitating the reefino- of
top sails, as a preparation for the coming gale. Either a back
current set the ship on to the berg, or the berg itself was drifting
towards us with the wind more rapidlv than was expected. A
collision ensued, and the jibboom was forced against the side of
the berg and broken, together with some parts of the rigging in
connection with it.

The end of the jibboom left a star-like mark on the sloping
wall of the berg, but had no other effect on the mass. The men
who were aloft reefing the topsails, came down the back stays
helter-skelter, expecting the top-gallant masts to fall, but no
further damage ensued.

As the weather became worse we were in rather a critical
position. We were surrounded by bergs, with the weather so
thick with snow that we could not see much more than a ship's
length, and a heavy gale was blowing. The full power of steam
available was employed. Once we had a narrow escape of
running into a large berg, passing only just about 100 }^ards to
leeward of it by making a stern board, with all the sails aback,
and screwing full speed astern at the same time. The deck was
covered with frozen powdery snow, and forward was coated with
ice from the shipping of seas.

On February 28th again there were 40 icebergs in sight at

252 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

noon. It came on to snow thickly at about 4 p.m., and another
o-ale came on. The plan adopted by Captain Sir G. Nares, was
to lay down the bearings of the adjacent bergs before the weather
became too thick for them to be seen, and then steaming with
all the power of the ship against the gale, to hang on as long as
possible under the lee of a large iceberg, and when driven away
from that, to steam rapidly across to the lee of another, the
position of which was known by the bearings taken. So we
went on steaming backwards and forwards through the whole of
a thick dark night.

When it was at all foggy in calm weather, we hove to
amongst the bergs during the night.

One evening, when there was a very slight fall of snow at
the time that there was a brilliant sunset, a snow bow was seen
arching high up in the sky. It did not show regularly arranged
prismatic colours, but only a uniform bright pinkish yellow hazy
light. It was brighter at its lower extremities, like a rainbow.

With regard to animals, we saw not a single seal, on the ice
or in the water, during our Southern trip. No doubt we did not
go far enough south, or sufficiently amongst the pack ice to
meet with them. When we were off the pack ice, and especially
when we neared the Antarctic Circle, whales were extremely
abundant, apparently all of one species, a " Finback," probably
the southern " Tinner " (Physalus Australis). I saw no Eight
Whale amongst them at all.

As these whales moved under water close to the ship, the
light reflected from their bodies lighted up the water around,
and enabled one to follow their movements. I several times
went away in a small boat from the ship, to shoot birds for our
collection.

On these occasions the whales sometimes blew quite close
to the boat. The appearance of a whale's spout as seen from
the level of the sea, is very different from that which it has
when seen from the deck of a ship ; it appears so much higher
and shoots up into the air like a fountain discharged from a
very fine rose. The whale of course in reality, does not dis-
charge water, but only its breath ; this however, in rushing up
into the air hot from the animal's body, has its moisture con-

AMONGST THE SOUTHERN ICE. 253

densed to form a sort of rain, and the colder the air, just as in
the case of our own breath, the more marked the result.

When the spout is made with the blowhole clear above the
surface of the water, it appears like a sudden jet of steam from
a boiler. When effected, as it sometimes is, before the blowhole
reaches the surface, a low fountain as from a street fire-plug is
formed, and when the hole is close to the surface, at the moment
a little water is sent up with the tall jet of steam. The cloud
blown up does not disappear at once, but hangs a little while,
and is often seen to drift a short distance with the wind.

The expiratory sound is very loud when heard close by, and
is a sort of deep bass snort, extremely loud, and somewhat pro-
longed ; it might even be compared to the sound produced by
the rushing of steam at high pressure from a large pipe.

Smaller Cetaceans, probably of a kind of Grampus (Orca),
were very common near the Circle ; these had a high dorsal fin
placed at about the middle of the length of their bodies. Im-
mediately behind the fin there was a large white saddle-shaped
patch, extending across their back, and they had further a con-
spicuous white blotch on each side just behind the head, and in
front of the flippers. The white patches contrasted strongly
with the dark general colour of the body. These Grampuses
swam about in small shoals with their high dorsal fins projecting
far out of the water, like those of sharks do sometimes, and
also those of Sword-fish. The Grampuses seemed habitually to
swim thus, and the group of pointed sickle-shaped black objects
moving through the water, had a curious appearance at a dis-
tance. I cannot identify this Grampus with a described species.

As soon as we neared the edge of the pack ice, a petrel
which we had not seen at the islands we had left, became
common (Thalassceca glacialoides), and as soon as we reached
the ice we fell in with the beautiful snow-white Petrel (Pago-
droma nivea), which is never to be found far from the antarctic
ice. The bird flies very much like the Whale Bird (Prion) : it
settles on the water to feed ; it remains on the wing late at
night when the other birds have disappeared. I have seen the
birds flying about the ship as late as 11 o'clock at night, when
it was quite dusk.

254: A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

Besides these two petrels we saw when at the edge of the
pack, the Sooty albatross (Diomedea fuliginosa), the Giant petrel
(Ossifraga gigantea), Majaquens cequinoctialis and the Cape
pigeon. These birds all left us when we entered the edge of
the pack-ice, they appear to remain at its very margin ; but in
the ice we met with a Skua (Stercorarius antarcticus), which bird
ranges very far south, and was seen in Possession Island within
the Antarctic Circle by Eoss.

Penguins were common at the edge of the ice. They pro-
gressed through the water like Eock-hoppers, and probably were
the Eudyptes Adelicc of Eoss's Expedition, since they had black
heads ; we could not catch any, though we tried to get some
which were on an ice-block ; they seemed shy.

We seldom saw birds on the icebergs, but a flock of Cape
pigeons was sometimes seen roosting on the top of one. The
Great White Albatross {Diomedea exidans) accompanied the ship
only about 500 miles south of Heard Island, stopping at more
than 200 miles from the edge of the pack.

The Cape pigeon left us when we were in about the latitude
of Kerguelen's Land, on our return from the ice northwards to
Australia, and in exchange for it we fell in with a petrel like
the Mutton-bird, which bird had not accompanied us south.
We also met at the same time with a second species of albatross

(J), melanophrys ? ).

The last iceberg was seen by us on March 4th, in about the
latitude of Heard Island. On March 9th, the South Australian
current began to make itself felt, and the air became warm and
pleasant. We gave up fires, and the sea being calm, were able for
the first time since leaving Kerguelen's Land to take out our
scuttles and air our cabins. On March 12th, we were within
the westerly winds, and we had more albatrosses round the ship
than we had ever had before ; the Gony and D. melanophrys.

Appended are the summaries of the temperatures of the air
during the months of January and February, observed in the
Antarctic regions on board H.M. ships " Erebus " and " Terror."

AMONGST THE SOUTHERN ICE.

IT,"

Means of Temperatures observed on board H.M. ships "Erebus" and
"Terror," in January, 1841, 1842, 1843, on 93 days. Between lat
64° and 78° S., long. 53° to 58° W. and 155° to 168° E.

4 A.M.

28°795

8 A.M.

30°-065

Xooii

31° 540

4 P.M.

31°o94

8 P.M.

29°-956

Midnight

28°-982

Hence general mean for the month, 30o,155.

Means for February observed on the same ships on 84 days. Between
lat. 60° to 78° S., long. 6° to 56° W. and 158° W. to 165° E.

4 A.M.

26°- 7 6

8 A.M.

27°-34

Noon

2s°-20

4 P.M.

28°-09

8 p.m.

27°-32

Midnight

26°-59

Hence general mean for the month, 27°'3S4.

From " Contributions to our Knowledge of the Meteorology of the
Antarctic Regions." Published by the Authority of the Meteorological
Committee. Stanford, Charing Cross, 1873.

256

CHAPTER XL

VICTOEIA. NEW SOUTH WALES.

Excursions into the Bush near Melbourne. Opossum Snare. Tracks of
the Aborigines on Tree trunks. Town of Sandhurst. The Highest
Tree in the World. Aborigines on a Government Eeserve. Orni-
thorynchus paradoxus. Leaves of Australian Trees, why Vertically
Disposed. Fur-Seal in the Open Sea. Sydney Harbour. The Blue
Mountains. Excavations in the Ground caused by Bain. Shooting
Opossums by Moonlight. Fruit-eating Bats. Hunting Bandicoots.
Browera Creek. Intimate Belation of Land and Sea Animals.
Geological Import of this. Medusae in Fresh Water. Kitchen
Middens." Drawings by Aborigines. Handmarks. Trigonia and
Cestracion.

Melbourne, March 11th to April 1st, 1814. — We sighted Port

Otway in a glassy calm, and steamed past Hobson's Bay Heads
into Port Philip on March 17th, and anchored off Sandridge, the
seaport suburb of Melbourne.

The English house sparrow may be seen quite at home on the
beach at Sandridge in flocks, picking up the refuse from the ships,
and also about Melbourne generally. The bird is beginning
to be a pest to the Acclimatization Society which introduced
it, and finding good food in the cages of the animals in the
Society's Gardens, refuses to leave them, but consorts with the
parrots in the trees and bushes, and steals the food on every
opportunity.

I made three excursions from Melbourne. The first was
with Mr. Stephenson, the chief of the railway department, to a
piece of wild bush-land belonging to him, about 25 miles distant
from the city. We started with our host in a light bush waggon,
with materials for camping out. We were not seven miles
away from the city before the road became a sort of slough,
through which the horses could hardly drag the waggon, although

oi:'?

VICTORIA. 257

we all got out ; and before we reached a camping ground it was
pitch dark, and one of the springs was broken.

We had some difficulty in finding our way in the bit of bush
to the best camping place, and then in finding the water hole
and leading the horses to it. We set fire to a great fallen log,
made tea in a "billy," a simple tin pot with wire handle, the
universal Australian camp teapot, and had hardly lain down
to sleep under our tent before it came on to rain heavily. It
continued to rain all the next day.

Waking in the night I heard Opossums (Phalangister vulpina)
caterwauling in the gum trees close by, and in the early morning
the Laughing-jackasses and Piping Crows kept up a curiously
contrasted concert ; the loud harsh laugh of the former min-
gling with the flute-like musical notes of the latter.

Notwithstanding the rain, I shot a beautiful paroquet, of
which and other birds numerous flocks were flying about. With
the help of a neighbouring farmer, who rented the bush for
grazing, an Opossum was driven out of its hole in a dead-
branch or " pipe " of a gum tree and secured.

The scratches of the claws of the Opossum on the bark
of the tree, show at once whether a tree is inhabited or not.
All the bigger trees were scored deeply and marked with a
regular track right up to the various pipes in the dead-branches
far overhead. The timber of many of the gum trees decays
away in the heart with great rapidity. Hence, whenever a
branch is broken off, a pipe is soon formed, and it is especially
these holes with abrupt entrances which the opossum affects.

The tracks are always on the side of the tree trunk on which
the slope renders ascent most easy. The opossum economizes
liis force, or is lazy, and this fact is turned to advantage by
trappers, who snare the opossums in order to make the opossum
rugs, of which so many are used in Australia and exported.

A short piece of a stout branch with a fork at the end,
is placed leaning against the butt of a tree meeting the opossum
path, the jaws of the fork embracing the round of the trunk
a little, so as to keep all steady. About a foot or so from
the fork a noose is placed on the lean-to, being kept in place by

a notch.

258

A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER/*

The Opossum always conies down head foremost, and finding
an almost horizontal path to the ground ready made for it,

_*?«-*■«

vj^-

OPOSSUM SNARE.

takes it at once, gets its head in the noose, falls off and is hung.
The only precaution necessary, is to allow the animal room
enough to swing free so that it cannot catch hold of the trunk.
A trapper had lately been camping on this bit of bush, and
nearly all the large trees had their lean-to's remaining.

To ascend to a hole in a tree to drive opossums out in the
daytime, a light sapling with convenient lateral branches is cut
down and placed against the tree, and forms a ready ladder.

One of the most curious sights in the bush was that of the
ancient tracks of the Aborigines up the trees, which had been
climbed by them to obtain opossums or wild honey. These
tracks are the series of small notches made each by three blows
of the tomahawk, to admit the great toes, and thus act as a
ladder to the Black man. The tracks, which are to be seen
everywhere in Australia, lead to the most astonishing heights,
up bare perpendicular smooth-barked gum-trees. Knowing
bushmen can distinguish the ancient ones made by the stone
tomahawk before the Blacks obtained iron from the English.
Many are to be seen on old dead barkless tree- trunks, and now
that the Blacks are gone they remind one of fossil foot-prints
of extinct animals.

Marvellous as this power of climbing with so little support
is, it can be done by Whites, and I was assured in New South
Wales, when on the Hawkesbury river, that there was a White
man in the neighbourhood who could beat any Black at this

VICTORIA. 25 9

sort of climbing, doing it in exactly the same way, and being often
employed by my informant in collecting wild honey for him at
so much a nest. In the same way there are said to be Whites
who can throw the boomerang better than any Blacks. In fact,
a White man, when he brings his superior faculties to bear
on the matter, can always beat a savage in his own field, except
perhaps at tracking.

We looked up into all the trees for a native bear (Phascolarctos
cinereus), and saw tracks of , Kangaroos, but not the animals
themselves. We stayed out only one night, and got back as we
arrived only at nightfall, after a protracted struggle with the
mud. The roads were mostly short cuts, and were what are
called "made, but not metalled." Making a road is simply
clearing of trees a line of ground of a certain breadth and
marking the bounds with a plough. In using such a road,
constant divergencies have to be successively made in order to
avoid deep mud and swampy bits, or occasionally fallen trees,
and the track gradually widens and straggles in the adjoining
bush.

My next excursion was to Sandhurst, a rapidly grown mining
town, winch has arisen since 1851 at the site of the most paying
Victorian diggings. The railway for a long distance, as it nears
Sandhurst, passes through the midst of various sites of old
diggings. The surface of the ground on each side of the line for
miles at a stretch has been turned over, scooped out and heaped
up, and presents the appearance of an endless succession of
deserted gravel pits. Here and there a few solitary diggers,
mostly Chinamen, were rewashing the dirt, but nearly all was
waste and bare. The vast extent of the fields, and amount of
work done, astonished me.

Sandhurst, or Bendigo, is a large town with a newly run-up
appearance, built amongst the openings of the shafts of the
numerous mines. The surface gold was long ago worked out,
and the rich quartz reefs below are now being mined by means
of shafts and drives. A new shaft was being sunk in the very
centre of the town, in front of the principal banks and the
verandah-covered pavements, which were crowded with share-
brokers, doing business in the open streets. The great winding

s 2

260 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER,5'

wheel and its supports looked out of place in the middle of the
principal square and public garden of the city.

I went down two of the mines, and saw specks of gold in the
richest quartz reef. Some of the very richest quartz, however,
hardly shows the gold to the eye, for the metal lies hid in black
dirty-looking streaks in the white rock, and is only brought
to light after the process of crushing and amalgamation. I saw
also the crushing establishments, where the din of the heavy
iron stampers falling with a crash upon the quartz was absolutely
deafening. Although the men employed in feeding the stampers
are from habit able to converse, notwithstanding the noise, I
could not hear in the least when my companion shouted into
my very ear. I saw the pasty amalgam and the gold fresh from
the retort, known as " cake," and finally I handled heavy masses
of melted cake fuzed into solid ingots worth many thousand
pounds. The mining people were most hospitable.

My last excursion was up the valley of the Yarra, to the
besfinnino- of the " ranges." the Australian word for mountains, at
a place called Healesville. I went with one of the assistants of
Baron Yon Midler, the celebrated botanist, who kindly offered
me his assistant as a guide. My object was to see some of the
enormous Eucalyptus trees which grow in the "ranges," and
which, as discovered by Baron von Muller, are the highest trees
in the world, exceeding in height the Sequoia gigantea of
California. One of these trees, measured when fallen, was found
by Baron Muller to be 478 feet in length.*

We travelled about 50 or 60 miles bv coach. The coaches
are very like Californian coaches, and are rough but very strong,
the bodies being slung by thick leather straps to wheels as stout
as cart wheels. The road is scarcely anywhere better than is

* The highest estimate ever made of the height of a Sequoia gigantea
is that of Bigelow, who put the height of one at from 420 to 470 feet.
Bigelow, in " Whipple's Expedition," p. 23 (Pacific Railroad Explora-
tions) ; cit. by Grisebach, " Veg. der Erde."

Sir Joseph Hooker, in a lecture delivered at the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, April 12th, 1878, and published in separate form, p. 12,
cites Prof. Whitney's careful measurements of the heights of Californian
Big Trees as the best available estimate up to date. Average height
275 feet ; maximum height a little over 320 feet.

VICTORIA. 261

an English green lane in a clay soil district. In wet weather
deep ruts are cut in it ; then these are baked dry and hard, and
at the next shower form watercourses and get scooped out
deeper than ever. The road at last conies to consist of a
series of sharp ridges separated by intervening troughs, often
two feet deep. The consequence is that as the coach rattles and
leaps bumping over these, the suspended body of the coacli
heaves and sways, and this to such an extent that my companion
and a lady in the coach were sea-sick all the way.

We travelled over some of the roughest of the road at night
which, of course, made matters worse, since the " driver " could
not see the pitfalls ; but, like a Californian " stage driver," he
well knew all the dangerous ones, even in the dark, and in one
or two places made detours through the bush for a little way.

The ranges are covered with a dense forest of gum trees, in
many places of enormous height, standing with their smooth
trunks close together, and running up often for a height of
200 feet without giving off a branch. The light-coloured stems
are hung with ragged strips of separated bark.

The great slenderness of the trunks of these giant gum-trees
in proportion to their height is striking, and in this respect they
contrast most favourably with the Californian " big trees," which,
in the shape of their trunks, remind one of a carrot upside down,
so disproportionately broad are they at their bases. The large
species of gum tree, the tallest tree in the world, is Eucalyptus
amygdalina. As Baron von Miiller says, " the largest specimens
might overshadow the pyramid of Cheops."

Beneath, in the gullies, is a thick growth of tree-ferns and
underwood on the banks of a mountain stream. The under-
growth is the haunt of Bush Wallabies (Halmaturiis ualabatus).
I put one of them suddenly to flight as I was creeping through
the tangled, almost impenetrable, vegetation in the hopes of
getting a shot at the Lyre-birds, which were to be heard calling
in all directions. The animal gave a tremendous bound and
seemed more to fly than leap.

Not far from Healesville is a Government reserve, where u
number of Aborigines are maintained at Government expense
under a missionary. The reserve is called Coranderrk. There

262 A NATURALIST OX THE " CHALLENGER."

were about 120 Blacks there. They live in a small village of
rouo-h wooden or bark houses, in the midst of which is the house
of Mr. Green, the superintendent.

The Blacks have lately been employed in cultivating hops,
and with tolerably good success, but they are incorrigibly lazy.
They are delighted when the plough breaks down, and im-
mediately take a holiday with glee. They had just finished
picking the crop, so were playing cricket at about half a-mile
from the village, and whilst they were amusing themselves, three
Whites employed about the place were hard at work. In fact,
the Whites do most of the work. The Black women might make
much money by plaiting baskets for sale, and the men by catching
fish and hunting, but they never will work till hard pressed.

We found the cricket party in high spirits, shouting with
laughter, rows of spectators being seated on logs and chaffing
the players with all the old English sallies ; " Well hit ; " " Bun
it out ; " " Butter fingers," &c. I was astonished at the extreme
prominence of the supraciliary ridges of the men's foreheads. It
was much greater in some of the Blacks than I had expected to
see it, and looks far more marked in the recent state than in the
skull. It is the striking feature of the face.

The men were all dressed as Europeans ; they knew all about
Mr. W. G. Grace and the All-England Eleven. One of them
tried to impress on me the heaviness of the work they had just
gone through in hop-picking, and that now it was a holiday, and
he wished to know how much a bushel was paid in England
for such work, evidently wanting to be able to be even with
Mr. Green in the matter. The great difficulty at these reserves
is to manage the distribution of payment for labour. At present,
or until lately, all the proceeds went to a common stock. Of
course, this makes all lazy.

Close by the reserve flowed the Eiver Yarra, in which the
Platypus abounds, the " Water mole," as it is called here, or the
" Duck-bill ': (Omitliorynclius paradoxus). I offered the men
three half-crowns for one recently shot. Some of the Blacks
thought they might try and get one ; but although one half-
crown is the usual price, no one thought of leaving cricket or
his looking on at the game : nor, though I offered a good price

VICTORIA. 263

for a boomerang, did any one care to fetch one from the
village.

ORXITHORYXOHUS PARADOXIC.

Down by the river bank I found a Black camped by a fire,
with three women, and a lot of mongrel curs. He was just
going to fish. He had a 21m. and was much excited at the
notion of " three half-a-crown " for a Platypus. We crept along
the bank of the river, the Black first, then I, then my companion.
The Black went stealthily along, with his head stretched forward,
and every muscle tense, stepping with the utmost care, so as not
to rustle a twig or break a stick under foot, and assuming a
peculiarly wild animal appearance, such somewhat as I had
noticed in a Tamil guide of mine in Ceylon when we were
hunting for peacocks and deer. Once he started back, as a
snake made off through the bushes.

It was all to no purpose. I was doomed not to see a living
Platypus or even a Kangaroo in Australia. I saw only the
footprints of the Platypus (like those of a duck), which the Black
pointed out to me, in a regularly beaten track, made by the
animals from one pond to another. The Black said that he was
certain the Platypus did not lay eggs, and that he had several
times seen the young ones, and his description of them agreed
with what I knew from Dr. Bennett's researches on the subject.

Next clay, as I was going down in the coach, I received two
specimens of the Platypus, shot by this man. Unfortunately,
the jolting and heat of the coach, on the journey down to the
coast, rather spoilt them for microscopical examination, for
which I had wished to procure them. I wished especially to
examine the eyes, to see if the retina contains brightly pigmented
bodies, as in the case of reptiles and birds. I could not find any

264 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

trace of them ; but possibly, if the tissues had been fresher, I
should have met with them, for Hoffman has discovered their
existence in marsupials.

Whilst we were hunting along the river bank, numerous
bright parroquets were flying about amongst the trees, and a
great flock of white cockatoos flew overhead, harshly screaming
at the danger. They settled in some trees near, but were far too
wary to let me get a shot, though I did my best to creep on
them. The smaller bright parroquets are not at all wary as a
rule, but are most easily shot.

Grisebach, in his account of the Vegetation of Australia*
dwells on the close relation of interdependence which exists
between the tree vegetation and the coating of grass which
covers the ground beneath it ; and remarks, that the amount of
light allowed by the trees to reach the ground beneath them is
rendered more than usually great by the vertical position in which
their leaves grow. Hence the growth of the grass beneath is aided.

It may be that this permitting of the growth of other plants
beneath them, and consequent protection of the soil from losing
its moisture, besides other advantages to be derived, is the prin-
cipal reason why, as is familiarly known, two widely different
groups of Australian trees, the Eucalypti and Acacias, have
arrived at a vertical instead of a horizontal disposition of their
leaves by two different methods.

The Acacias have accomplished this by suppressing the true
horizontal leaves, and flattening the leaf-stalks into vertical
pseudo-leaves or "phyllodes." The gum-trees, on the other
hand, have simply twisted their leaf-stalks, and have thus ren-
dered their true leaves vertical in position. There must exist
some material advantage, which these different trees derive in
common, from this peculiar arrangement, and the benefit derived
from relation to other plants by this means may be greater and
more important than that arising from the fact that the vertical
leaves have a like relation to the light on both sides, and are
provided with stomata on both faces.

In support of this conclusion I was told, when at Melbourne,

fc A. Grisebach, "Vegetation der Erde," p. 210. Leipzig, W. Engelman,
1872.

VOYAGE TO SYDNEY. 265

that when the native vegetation was cleared away from under
gum-trees they ceased to thrive, and in time perished. I was
shown a number of gum-trees, not far from the city, scattered
over some public land, covered with only short turf, which
seemed to be mostly in a dying condition.

April 2nd, i§?4. — On the voyage to Sydney, two Fur Seals
were seen about the ship. They were of a smaller species than
that occurring at Kerguelen's Land. They swam alongside with
remarkable ease and rapidity, having in the water just the
appearance of porpoises. The hind limbs were stretched out
straight behind, as the animals swam, and the motion mostly
maintained by rapid strokes of the fore limbs. The tail, how-
ever, i.e., the fin-like expanse formed by the closely applied and
outstretched flat hind nippers, was used with an undulating
movement, just as is the tail fin in porpoises.

The seals swam with ease and rapidity from the stern to the
bows of the vessel, though it was going 4^ knots at the time,
thus going 9 knots at least. In fact they swam with all the
ease of a porpoise, and as once or twice they threw their heads
and backs out of the water in a forward leap, I should certainly
have mistaken them for these animals, had I not seen them
almost at rest several times, and with their heads well out of
water.

I never before realized the close connection between the seals
and whales, and how easily a whale might be developed out
of a seal. The far seal is one which on land still bends its hind
limbs forwards, as do land mammals. The seals without exter-
nal ears, like the sea elephants, carry them habitually stretched
out behind, as this one does in swimming. Little modification
would be necessary in order to turn the otherwise useless hind
limbs of the earless seals into the whale's broad tail fin, which
probably represents the remains of the seal's webbed hind
flippers. We afterwards, in the Straits of Magellan, became
familiar with the motions of Fur Seals in the water, and frequently
saw them there in shoals, progressing through the water by a
series of leaps exactly like porpoises or Kock-hopper penguins.

A bird followed the ship in some numbers, which is appa-
rently intermediate in its habits between the gulls and terns, a

266 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

delicate beautiful little sea-bird {Larus Novce Hollandim). The
bird was abundant about the ship in Hobson's Bay, and in Port
Jackson. At Wellington, in New Zealand, a species very closely
allied, but a little smaller in size {Larus scopulinus) * hovered
round the ship in the harbour.

Sydney, April ?tn to June 9th, 1814. — The ship arrived at
Sydney on April 5th. Port Jackson is famed for its beauty. It
is a broad stretch of water, opening to the sea by a narrow
passage, between "heads" as they are called, and running far
inland, into branches and bays, in great number. Towards the
upper part of the harbour, the vegetation extends down the
water, and the little cliffs of sandstone rock with their covering
of green are extremely picturesque. Port Jackson is one of the
many harbours said to be the best in the world ; but it lacks
shelter, and the passage at the heads is not deep enough for a
large ironclad to pass through.

I made various excursions from Sydney, during our stay.
One of these was to Botany Bay ; a sixpenny omnibus journey.
The country here is flat and open, and the vegetation would be
very like that of the Cape of Good Hope, in general appearance,
were it not for the Grass-trees and Banksias. The far-famed
bay is a quiet sandy inlet, resorted to for excursions and the
enjoyment of sea air by the Sydney people, and now inhabited
principally by keepers of tea gardens. Not far off, across the
Bay, the curious Monotreme, the Porcupine Ant-eater [Echidna),
is abundant, and can readily be found by means of terriers.
Some men procured one living for Von Willemoes Suhm.

Another excursion was to the Blue Mountains. A trip to
the Mountains was given as an act of hospitality by the ministers
of the New South Wales Government to the officers of the
" Ancona," a German war- vessel, which was at Sydney, and to
those of the " Challenger." It is the custom for the Ministers
thus to give picnics to parties of men, ladies not being invited.

The Blue Mountains are piles of horizontally stratified sand-
stone, rising behind Sydney to about 2,500 feet, with remarkably
abrupt terminations on either side, and cut into extraordinary

* Howard Saunders, " On the Larin?e," Proc. Zool. Soc. 1878, p. 187,

NEW SOUTH WALES. 267

deep gullies and chasms, with perpendicular walls, which bound
projecting headlands.

Prof. Dana treats at great length of the question of the mode
of formation of these extraordinary gullies and precipices, in his
lt Geology of the U. S. Exploring Expedition," and gives various
reasons for showing that the whole has been due to aqueous
erosion ; as have also the exactly similarly formed harbours of
the coast, with their very numerous branches. These, however,
have been subjected to lowering of level, and thus filled by the
sea.

These multi-ramified inlets of the sea resemble fjords in
many points, most curiously, but are very different in origin,
being in fact canons, which by the sinking of the land have
been invaded by the sea.

The rains, both at Melbourne and Sydney, are extremely
violent, and in the friable and easily decomposed soil, have a
marvellously excavating effect. At Camden Park, 40 miles
from Sydney, I was shown by Captain Onslow, E.N., a deep
chasm in a perfectly level expanse of grass-covered land, which
was at least 20 feet deep and 20 yards across. All this had
been scooped out in a dozen years or so by the rain. In its
precipitous walls and isolated pinnacles of undisturbed soil, it
curiously represented the Blue Mountain configuration on a
small scale. It is only necessary to plough a furrow anywhere
in the soil about Camden to lead to the formation in a short
time of such a chasm.

I twice enjoyed the kind hospitality of Sir William Mc Arthur,
at Camden Park. The park is 10,000 acres in extent. Here I
went out on several occasions to shoot opossums by moonlight.
The opossums are out feeding on the trees at night or are out
on the ground, and rush up the trees on the approach of danger.
They are very difficult to see by one not accustomed to the
work, but those who habitually shoot them discover them with
astonishing ease.

In order to find the animals, one places himself so as to get
successive portions of the tree between his eye and the moon-
light, and thus searching the tree over, at last he catches sight
of a dark mass crouching on a branch, and usually sees the ears

268 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

pricked up as the animal watches the danger. This is called
" mooning " the opossums. Then with a gun in one's hand one
fully realizes for the first time the meaning of the saying
" 'possum up a gum-tree."

The unfortunate beast has the toughness of his skin alone to
trust to ; " bang " and down it comes with a heavy thud on the
ground, falling head first, tail outstretched, or it clings with
claws or tail, or both, to the branches, swaying about wounded,
and requires a second shot. It must come down at last, unless
indeed the tree be so high that it is out of shot or it manages to
nip a small branch with its prehensile tail, in which case it
sometimes contrives to hang up even when dead and remain out
of reach.

Nearly all the female opossums which I shot had a single
young one in the pouch. The young seemed to be attached
with equal frequency to the right or left teat. I shot the animals
in the hopes of obtaining young in the earlier stage, but found
none such. Amongst stockmen, and even some well-educated
people in Australia, there is conviction that the young kangaroo
grows out as a sort of bud on the teat of the mother within the
pouch. We killed about 20 opossums in a couple of hours on
each occasion on which I went out.

Sometimes we got a Native Cat, Dasyurus viverrinus. It is
not easily seen in the trees unless there are dogs to pick out the
tree. On one occasion we came upon a small animal allied to
the Native Cat, but much rarer, Phascogale %)enicillata.

Once I visited a great "camp" of fruit-eating bats, "Flying
Foxes ' as they are here called (Pteropus poliocephalus). In
a dense piece of bush, consisting principally of young trees, the
trees were hung all over with these bats, looking like great
black fruits. As we approached the bats showed signs of un-
easiness, and after the first shot were rather difficult to approach,
moving on from before us and pitching in a fresh tree some way
ahead.

The bats uttered a curious cackling cry when disturbed.
They were in enormous numbers, and although thousands had
been shot not long before by a large party got together for the
purpose, their numbers were not perceptibly reduced. They do

New south wales. 269

great harm to the fruit orchards about Paramatta, and the fruit
growers there organise parties to shoot them. They have the
cunning to choose a set of trees where the undergrowth is
exceedingly dense, and where it is therefore difficult to get
at them. I shot seven or eight, but they are very apt to hang
up by their hooked claws when shot, and I lost several. I could
find no Nycteribia living on these bats, although these insects
are usually so common on the various species of Pteropus.

At Pennant Hills, near Paramatta, there is plenty of bush-
land and a fine large "common" as it is called, i.e., a tract of wild
uncleared land of several thousand acres, in which all the
neighbouring landowners have the right to cut timber and
firewood. It is a fine wild track, with gullies, in which run
small streams amongst the sandstone rocks and steep rocky
banks covered with ferns, orchids, and Grass-trees, and other
plants, forming a varied and beautiful vegetation.

Here there are still plenty of Bush Wallabies (Halmcdurus
tialabatus), and three were shot for me one morning. They are
wary and difficult to approach, and I rode all day in the bush
without seeing one. There are nests of wild European bees
also in the dead limbs of the gum-trees, and we felled a tree and
got out about thirty pounds of fine honey.

Once we started a Kangaroo Piat, Hypsiprimnus, from its
round ball-like nest, which was lying on the ground under a
tuft of grass. It was like a large wren's nest. The rat is said to
be wary enough never to return to the nest when once disturbed,
but always to make a fresh one.

At night we went out with a pack of terriers and mongrels
of all kinds, to hunt Bandicoots (Perameles nasuta). Only one
little terrier was of much use, but he was worth a great deal for
this kind of work.

He has not been long off into the fern before we hear his
short sharp bark, and know he is on the scent. Off go all the
curs that have been hanging at our heels, lazy and doing nothing,
to join in the fun. At last a peculiar whining bark is heard,
and " Snap's " master knows that the Bandicoot is run to earth;
the earth in this case being the hollow pipe running down the
stem of some fallen gum-tree.

270 A NATURALIST OX THE " CHALLENGER."

A long stick is cut and thrust into one end of the pipe
whilst a bag is held at the other, and the Bandicoot is soon
bagged. The Bandicoot does not attempt to bite, but requires
to be held exceedingly tight or else easily escapes the hands by
the power of its spring. One female had three young in the
pouch. Often the tree is too long for the stick, and then a hole
has to be chopped to get the animal out.

I made two excursions to Browera Creek, one of the many
branches of the main estuary, or rather inlet, into which the
Hawkesbury river runs. The creek is a place full of interest.
Suddenly, after traversing a high plateau of the horizontal sand-
stone, the traveller meets with a deep chasm about 1,000 feet in
depth, but not more than a quarter of a mile wide.

This chasm or channel has precipitous rocky walls on either
side, with more or less talus slope, and at the bottom runs the
river, a small stream, over which one can easily jerk a pebble
when standing at its brink. The chasm or creek takes a wind-
ing course, so that only short sweeps of it can be seen at a time,
and as it widens out and turns sharply or again contracts, one
seems, when in a boat on its waters, to pass through a succession
of long narrow lakes.

The river, or rather stream, at the place where we approached
the creek, is tidal. It is impossible to say where the river ends
and the sea begins. The main part of the creek is a long tor-
tuous arm of the sea, ten or fifteen miles in length, and is itself
provided with numerous branches and bays. These frequent
branchings are perfectly bewildering to a man not accustomed
to row on them every day in his life. The whole is, in fact,
like a maze.

The side walls of the creek are covered with a luxuriant
vegetation, with hugh masses of Stagshorn Fern (Plalycerium)
and "rock lilies" (orchids), and a variety of timbers, whilst there
are Tree-ferns and small palms in the lateral shady gullies.

The descent to the river is very steep, and it was a difficult
matter to lead the horses down. As we descended, we heard the
Lyre-birds calling all round ; at the bottom, on a little patch of
Hat alluvium covered with grass, is a small house and barn,
where a man lives with his family all alone, and shut out from

NEW SOUTH WALES. 27 1

the world. He is extremely industrious, and by fishing, wood-
cutting, honey gathering, and the proceeds of his farm-yard,
must be doing well ; we stopped at his cottage for two nights,
and hired his boat.

Browera Creek is of varied interest. As an example of denu-
dation, it appears to correspond exactly to what is seen at a
much higher level in the Blue Mountains. The extraordinary
proximity into which animals found usually only in open sea,
are here brought with those only occurring inland, is of great
interest from a geological point of view ; it recalls at once to the
mind such mixtures of marine and terrestrial animal remains, as
those occurring in geological deposits, such as the Stonesfield
beds.

Here is a narrow strip of sea-water, twenty miles distant
from the open sea ; on a sandy shallow fiat, close to its head, are
to be seen basking in the sun, numbers of Sting-rays (Trygon))
a kind of skate provided with a sharp saw-edged bony weapon
(the sting), at the base of its tail. All over these flats, and
throughout the whole stretch of the creek, shoals of Grey
Mullets are to be met with ; numerous other marine fish in-
habit the creek, some growing to 150 lbs. in weight, and often
caught weighing as much as 60 or 80 lbs. A Diodon or Trunk-
fish, is amongst the fishes. Porpoises chase the mullet right up
to the commencement of the sand-flat.

At the shores of the creek the rocks are covered with masses
of excellent oysters and mussels, and other shell-bearing
mollusks are abundant, whilst a small crab is to be found in
numbers in every crevice.

On the other hand, the water is overhung by numerous
species of forest trees, and by orchids and ferns, and other
vegetation of all kinds ; mangroves grow only in the shallow
bays. The gum-trees lean over the water in which swim
Trygons and mullets, just as willows hang over a pond full of
carp. The sandy bottom is full of branches and stems of trees,
and is covered in patches here and there by their leaves.

Insects constantly fall on the water, and are devoured by
the mullets. Land birds of all kinds fly to and fro across the
creek, and when wounded may easily get drowned in it. Walla-

272 A NATURALIST OX THE "CHALLENGER?*

bies swim across occasionally, and may add their bones to the
debris at the bottom.

Hence here is being formed a sandy deposit, in which may
be found Cetacean, Marsupial, bird, fish, and insect remains,
together with land and sea-shells, and fragments of a vast land
flora ; yet how restricted is the area occupied by this deposit,
and how easily might surviving fragments of such a record be
missed by a future geological explorer ! The area occupied by
the deposit will be sinuous and ramified like that of an ancient
river-bed.

The inlet being so extremely long and so narrow, although
the rise of the tide is two feet or more at the head of the creek,
the interchange of water with the ocean is very small; the
water in the upper parts of the creek, is merely forced back to
a higher level by the tide below at flood-tide, and similarly
lowered again at ebb. Hence, after heavy rain, the surface
water in all the upper parts of the creek is so diluted by the
torrent of fresh water from the stream, that it becomes almost
fresh ; indeed, at the time of our visit, it was for three or four
miles down, which was, as far as we went, so little brackish as
to be drinkable. At a short depth, no doubt, the water was salt.

Here are the most favourable conditions possible for turning
marine animals into freshwater animals ; in fact the change of
mode of life presents no difficulty. Below, no doubt, the water
is always salt, but the fish find a fluid gradually less and less
salt as they rise to the surface.

We caught the mullets in the almost fresh water, with a net.
The oysters were flourishing in the same water, and with them
the mussels and crabs ; I even saw an abundance of Medusa?,
and a species of Rliizoplwva swimming in the creek above the
sand-flats, where there was scarcely any salt at all in the water,
yet evidently in most perfect health.

Occasionally, in times of long drought, the water becomes as
salt as the sea. The fishermen told me that after sudden very
heavy freshets of water from the river, some of the shell-fish
sickened and died. He accounted for the presence of numerous
dead cockle-shells (Cardium) in the bed of the creek, since
he had never found the animals there alive, by supposing that

NEW SOUTH WALES. 273

they had all been killed off' by some unusual influx of fresh
water many years before.

But beyond all that has been described, and beyond the ex-
treme beauty of its wild and rocky scenery, the Browera Creek has
yet another interest ; it was in old times the haunt of numerous
Aborigines, wdio lived on its banks in order to eat the oysters
and mussels, and the fish.

On every point or projection, formed where a side branch is
given off by the main creek, is to be seen a vast kitchen midden
or shell mound. So numerous are these heaps of refuse, and so
extensive, that it has been a regular trade, at which White men
have worked all their lives, to turn over these heaps and sift out
the undecomposed shells, for making lime by burning them ;
unfortunately the numerous weapons thus found in the heaps,
have mostly been thrown away.

There is now not a single Black on the creek. Many of the
mounds are very ancient, and it must have taken a very long
time for such heaps to accumulate. Stone hatchet blades are
still to be picked up in considerable numbers, and I obtained
several. The heaps are very like those at the Cape of Good
Hope in appearance, but there were none of the peculiar piles of
stones about them, which I noticed at the latter locality.

The softer layers weathering out from under the harder slabs
of the horizontally bedded sandstones, form numerous shelters
and low-roofed caves, along the creek banks. It was in these
caves or " gunyas," that the blacks used to camp, and in front,
of all of them, a mass of shells slopes down towards the creek
just as the Cape of Good Hope.

I dug into one of the heaps ; places were found where fires
had been made, and there were numerous bits of burnt stick and
charcoal, a piece of Wallaby bone charred by the fire, and the
thigh bone of a Black woman. This latter was found without
any of the remaining bones of the skeleton, the woman having
been perhaps eaten piecemeal. These relics wTere buried in a mass
of cockle, oyster and mussel shells, mingled with much black
powdery matter composed of decayed shells, and other debris.

The walls and roofs of the caves are covered all over with
drawings executed by the blacks in charcoal on the rock. These

274

A NATURALIST OX THE "CHALLENGER."

are interesting from their rude character, and sketches of them
are given in the accompanying woodcut.

AUSTEALIAN NATIVE DRAWINGS.

1 Opossums ; 2 a fish ; 3 uncertain ; 4 a white man — drawn with charcoal, in caves, Browera
Creek. 5 figure of kangaroo, five feet in height — cut in a slab of stone — same locality.

The row of four figures (1) evidently is intended to represent
four-footed animals, probably opossums (Plialangista), the draw-
ing being of about the size of that animal. Two of the figures
are roughly shaded. There were several similar rows of the same
figures in one cave.

Figure 2 is a tolerably good representation of one of the fish
of the Creek. It also is shaded.

Figures 3 I do not understand. The larger may be intended
for a shark. Figure 4 is evidently intended for a white man.
North American Indians are said to have distinguished white
men in their drawings by putting a tall hat on them. Such a
form of headdress must be astonishing to a savage at first
acquaintance.

Near one of the caves, on a flat slab of stone standing
naturally erect, is a figure of a Kangaroo cut out in the stone

NEW SOUTH WALES. 275

itself. The figure is five feet in height. It is marked out by
means of an incised groove, which is an inch and a half in depth.
The figure is shaded, or rather rendered more conspicuous by
the chipping of irregular small holes all over the area represent-
ing the body, and also as in the charcoal drawings of opossums,
by means of lines.

The fore-legs of the Kangaroo seem not to have been finished,
or the artist has been especially unsuccessful in his attempts to
represent them, and perhaps has tried to correct them, as appears
possible from the number of lines. The contour line of the body
is carried across the root of the tail. Similar drawings, executed
by cutting grooves in stone, are common about Sydney.

In Peron and Leseur's " Voyage,"* a plate is given of similar
drawings of fish and Kangaroos by Blacks, from Port Jackson,
and one of the drawings shows a similar attempt at irregular
shading, as seen in some of the present figures. Another plate
of the same work, shows the Blacks living on the shore, about
caves under cliffs, such as those here described. The plates in
question are unnumbered, and I could not find reference to them
in the text of the book.

Besides the drawings, in almost every cave were hand marks.
These marks have been the subject of much discussion, and
various speculations have been made as to some important
meaning of the " Eed Hand of Australia." These hand marks
have been made by placing a hand against the flat stone, and
then squirting a mixture of whitish clay and water from the
mouth all around. The hand being removed, a tracing of it stands
out in relief, and where the sandstone is red, appears red on a
whitish ground.

The hand marks have evidently been made hap-hazard, just
as the drawings. They are now often out of easy reach, the
former floors of the caves having slipped away. They are
grouped in all sorts of ways, and amongst them I saw one in
which a finger was missing, the native having possibly had a
finger cut off as a matter of ceremony. The figure of a whole
man is said to exist thus executed, in Cowan Creek, close by.

* " Voyage des Decouvertes aux terres Australes." Peron et Leseur.
Paris, 1807, Atlas.

T 2

276 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.'

Delightful though it was at Sydney to make so many friends
amongst one's countrymen, after so long a voyage from home,
and to enjoy their far-famed hospitality, one could not as a
naturalist, help feeling a lurking regret that matters were not
stiii in the same condition as in the days of Captain Cook, and
the colonists replaced by the race which they have ousted and
destroyed, a race far more interesting and original from an
anthropological point of view.

Whilst we were at Sydney, the ship's steam pinnace was
constantly employed in dredging for Trigonia shells in Port
Jackson. These shells, in shape very like cockles, are imme-
diately known by their brilliant pearly lustre within, and curious
complicated hinges. They vary very much in the tint of the
nacre inside. Some are orange-tinted, others pink or purple,
some without colour. The shells are worn very much by the
ladies of Sydney, as earrings and other ornaments, being set in
gold.

The shell is especially interesting to the naturalist, because
it occurs fossil in secondary deposits in Europe, and was long
supposed entirely a thing of the past, until discovered living
in Sydney Harbour. Moreover, with it occurs in the harbour a
most remarkable fish, the Port Jackson Shark (Cestracion Phi-
lippi) which is also closely allied to fish, remains of which are
found in the deposits together with the Trigonias.

It was believed for some time that the modern Trigonias
were very restricted in their distribution. A species occurs
however at Cape York, and Mr. S. C. J. W. van Musschenbrook,
Governor of Ternate in the Moluccas, told me that he had
obtained specimens of the genus from the coast of Halmahera
(Gilolo). A Port Jackson Shark is also found far away from
Australia, in the Japanese seas, and at intermediate localities.

277

CHAPTER XII.

NEW ZEALAND. THE FRIENDLY ISLANDS.
MATUKU ISLAND.

Wellington, New Zealand. The Eata Tree. Kingfisher with Littoral
Habits. Peripatus. Egg Capsules of Land Planarians. The Vege-
tation of the Kermadec Islands. Red coloured Muscles of the Shark.
Island of Eua. General appearance of the Island of Tongatabu.
Tongan Natives. Mode of Hairdressing. Facial expression of the
Natives. A Pea Jacket a Badge of Distinction. Town of Nukua-
lofa. Dress of Tongan Women. Getting Fire by Friction. Deserted
Plantations. Fruit -bats Feeding on Flowers. Herons, Tree-swifts,
and other Birds. Parasitic Algae in Foraminifera. Matuku Island
Fiji Group. The Island an Ancient Crater. Its Vegetation. En-
circling Reef. Flocks of Lories. Periophthalmus, a Fish Living on
Land. Living Pearly Nautilus. Its Mode of Swimming. Account
of the Nautilus, by Runxphius.

Wellington, June 28th to July 9 th, 1S94. — We encountered
constant gales on the voyage from Sydney to Wellington in
New Zealand. The voyage lasted 14 days, and we arrived at
Wellington on June 28th. The ship had to be anchored for two
nights under the lee of D'Urville Island, on the south side of the
entrance to Cook's Straits, until the weather moderated sufficiently
to allow of the ship's passing up the straits to Wellington.

We found deep water, 2,600 fathoms; between the Australian
coast and New Zealand, as might have been confidently predicted
from the vast difference of the New Zealand from the Australian
fauna and flora. Around New Zealand itself, there is a con-
siderable extent of shallow sea with very uneven bottom, and
from this shallow a stretch of comparatively raised bottom is
extended to Northern Australia, including on its surface Norfolk
Island and Lord Howe Island.

The stay at Wellington was very short, and as I was not
in good health I saw very little of the country. The town

27$ A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

necessarily contrasts unfavourably in appearance with Sydney.
The buildings are all of wood, even Government House. There
is one long principal street following the shore, and the
remainder is more or less scattered. Tattooed Maories were to
be seen commonly walking about in the streets, but all in
European costume, reminding one somewhat of English gipsies.

The coast hills in the general appearance and colour of their
vegetation, as seen from sea, recalled Kerguelen's Land, especially
the shores about D' Urville Island, but all the valleys and inland
slopes are covered with a dense forest and almost impenetrable
bush. The trees are covered with epiphytic ferns, and Astelias,
Liliaceous epiphytes, which, perched in the forks of the branches,
remind one in their habit and appearance of the Bromeliaceous
epiphytes of Tropical America.

One of the most remarkable trees which was pointed out
to me by Mr. T. Kirk, E.L.S., is the Eata, a Metrosideros, M.
Rohusta. This, though a Myrtaceous plant, has all the, habits of
the Indian figs * reproducing them in the closest manner. It
starts from a seed dropped in the fork of a tree, and grows
downward to reach the ground; then taking root there, and
gaining strength, chokes the supporting tree and entirely destroys
it, forming a large trunk by fusion of its many stems. Never-
theless, it occasionally grows originally directly from the soil,
and then forms a trunk more regular in form. Another Metro-
sideros, M. florida, is a regular climber.

I did not see many birds. The gull of Kerguelen's Land
(Larus Dominicanus) was common in the harbour. On the
telegraph wires along the shore sat a Kingfisher (Hcdcyon
sanctus) in abundance, and dashed down from thence on its
prey into the shallow water of the harbour. It interested me
because it was the first Kingfisher that I had thus seen leading
a littoral existence and feeding on sea fish. I afterwards became
familiar with Kingfishers thus inhabiting the seashores in the
Straits of Magellan and the coast of Oregon in North-west
America. In the poulterers' shops the curious parrot, or Kaka,
Nestor Meridionalis, is hung up for sale. Mr. Potts describes this

* T. Kirk, F.L.S., " On the Habit of the Eata, Metrosideros robusta."
Trans. New Zealand Inst, Vol. IV., 1871, p. 267.

NEW ZEALAND. 279

bird as tearing away the dead wood of trees in search of insects,
and appearing to replace to some extent in its habits in New
Zealand, the totally absent Woodpecker.

The New Zealand Peripatns (P. Novce Zealanclice) is abundant
near Wellington amongst dead wood, and I had 40 or 50
specimens brought to me as the result of a day's search in the
Hutt Valley. As in the case of the Cape of Good Hope species,
the males are much less abundant than the females.

In essential structure and habits the animal closely resembles
the South African species. It is distinguished by having fewer
pairs of feet, viz., 15 instead of 17. The females all contained
young although it was mid-winter.

Land Planarian worms are also pretty common near Welling-
ton. In their anatomical structure, these New Zealand species
are more nearly allied to South American forms of the genus
Geoplana than to the Australian Land Planarians. These latter
belong to a special genus, Camoplana, which has affinities with
the genus Bliyncliodemus of India and the Cape of Good Hope.*

Mr. W. T. Locke Travers, F.L.S., to whom I am indebted for
much kindness and scientific information during my stay at
Wellington, brought me specimens of Peripatus N. Zealandice, and
also of Land Planarians, together with the egg capsules of the
latter, which were hitherto unknown.

They are spherical in form, of about the size of sweet-pea
seeds and of a dark brown colour. The capsules have a tough
chitinous wall, and contain four or five young Planarians each.
The production of these capsules by the Land Planarians I
regard as further evidence in favour of the affinity of these
worms to the leeches, on which I have dwelt elsewhere.t

* Captain F. W. Hutton informs me that, as far as he knows, the
genus Bipalium does not exist in New Zealand. His assertion that it did
exist there in his well-known and admirable paper, " On the Geographical
Eelations of the New Zealand Fauna," Trans. New Zealand Inst, Vol. V.,
1872, p. 227, was due to imperfect determination of the genus in the
case of the species of Geoplana of the locality.

f H. N. Moseley, " On the Anatomy and Histology of the Land
Planarians of Ceylon." Phil. Trans. 1875, p. 148. Also "Notes on the
Structure of Several Forms of Land Planarians." Quart. Journal, Micro.
Sci., Vol. XVII, p. 275.

a r\x~

280 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

Off the Kermadec Islands, September 14th, 1814. — We were 111
the morning in sight of Eaoul or Sunday Island, and Macaulay
Island, of the Kermadec group. No landing was effected on
any of the islands. This small group of islands forms with
New Zealand, McQuarrie Island, and the Tonga group, a direct
line of volcanic action, stretching about N.E., and thus at right
angles nearly to the north-west lines, which are followed by
most of the remaining Pacific groups, such as the Fijis, for
example. The Kermadec Islands are all very small. The flora of
Eaoul Island was described by Sir J. D. Hooker* from collections
made by Mr. MacGillivray, of H.M.S. " Herald." Forty-two
vascular plants are known from the islands, of which five are
endemic species. Half of the number consist of New Zealand
ferns. The large proportion of ferns in the flora is most remark-
able, and also their New Zealand character. There are no
currents leading from New Zealand towards the Kermadecs.
The group lies in the fork of the great current which, stretching
westward from the region of Ducie, Pitcairn and Tubai Islands,
follows the line of the Tropic of Capricorn, and branching, sends
its northern half to the east coast of Australia to form the East
Australian current, whilst its other half passes down S.W. to
sweep past the east coast.

The group lies just at the northern limit of the zone of
westerly winds, and within that of calms and changeable winds,
but so close to the limit that the winds may well have trans-
ported many of the plants, and the preponderance of ferns
may be clue to the possible fact, that the winds have been the
main agents in the colonization of the islands, and have sufficed
to carry the minute fern spores, whilst heavier seeds have
seldom reached the island, and by other means of transport.

If fern spores are diffused mainly by wind, it should be
especially difficult for them to cross the zones of constant rains,
and there ought to be a marked separation of fern forms in
distribution about those lines.

There is no connection between the flora of the Kermadecs
and that of Norfolk Island, although sucli would have been

* Sir J. D. Hooker, "Botany of Kaoul Island." Jour. Linn. Soc, Bot.
Vol. I., 1857, p. 125.

OFF THE KERMADECS. 281

expected, as Sir J. D. Hooker states, on all considerations to
occur. The soundings of the " Gazelle " and " Tuscarora," have
proved that a channel of more than 2,000 fathoms in depth,
passes up between New Zealand and the Kermadec Islands.
Hence, an ancient land connection cannot be looked to as an
explanation of the New Zealand affinities of the Kermadec
flora.

Whilst dredging was going on off the islands, a shark (Car-
charias brachyurus), which was attended by a pilot fish (No it-
erates sp.)} was caught ; it was, as is commonly the case, covered
by a small parasitic Crustacean, a species of Pandarus. Some
specimens of this parasite had, curiously enough, a Barnacle
(Lepas) attached to them as large as themselves.

On the shark being skinned, I noticed that a layer of super-
ficial or skin muscles extending all over the animal, and only
about one-fourth of an inch in thickness, is coloured dark-red
by blood-colouring matter (Haemoglobin) , as are all the muscles
of Mammalia. .The main internal muscular mass of the shark
is pale, almost white.

Prof. Eay Lankester has described several similar instances
of the restriction of the red colouring matter to certain muscles
only in animals which possess it.* A closely parallel case is
that of the little rish, the " Sea-Horse " (Hippocampus), in which
the muscles of the dorsal fin only are red.

Mr. Lankester accounts for the presence of the Haemoglobin
in the dorsal fin muscles only in this case, by the special activity
of the fin in question, but such an explanation fails in the case
of the shark, the skin of which is apparently immovable ; more-
over, the structure of the skin precludes the idea of the red
matter beneath it having a respiratory function.

Mr. Lankester has shown that Hcemoglobin is entirely
wanting in one fish at least, the white transparent oceanic
surface fish Lep>tocep)lialus, and I believe that small oceanic Flat-
fish, Pleuronectids;* will prove also to be devoid of red-blood
colouring.

I was extremely vexed that no landing on the Kermadec

* E. Ptay Lankester, "On the Distribution of Hcemoglobin." Proc.
Royal Soc., No. 140, 1873.

282 A NATURALIST OX THE "CHALLENGER."

Islands was arranged. Further information concerning the flora
of the islands is very much wanted, and it seemed hard to be
dredsfino- off the islands and not to be able to land.

Tongatabu, July 19th to July 22nd, 1814. — Our approach to

the Friendly Islands group was heralded by the appearance of
a Tropic Bird, which was seen flying behind the ship, although we
were 150 miles as yet distant from Tongatabu.

We sighted the island of Eua in early morning, and passed
to the north of it. The island is elevated in its highest point
600 feet above the sea, and is volcanic, with coral rock at its
base. An ancient, now upraised sea-cliff of the coral rock, is
conspicuous from the distance, forming a line above the present
coast-cliff, as described by Dana.*

The island appears covered with bushes, with very few trees,
and isolated palms on the summits of the high ground. The
bushes on the higher land appear to be all bent over in the
direction of the trade wind.

The sky was dull, covered with grey clouds, and the air even
somewhat chilly, and the islands did not look bright and sun-
shiny, as I had expected these, the first South Sea Islands I had
seen, to look. At the base of the Eua, the surf in places raised
jets of spray, looking from a distance like thin white smoke.

Tongatabu was seen seven miles distant from the small Eua,
stretched along the horizon as a long narrow neutral tint band,
with an indented upper margin : towards the northern end the
band thinned out into isolated rows and groups of palm-trees,
which looked like dots on the watery horizon. As we ap-
proached nearer, the forms of the cocoanut-trees became more
and more distinct. At length we shortened sail and steamed
through the reefs with a long stretch of palm-covered land on
the one hand, and numerous islets on the other, some bearing
many cocoanut palms, others with few.

The main island is exceedingly flat and low, its highest
point being only 60 feet above sea level. It thus stretched
itself before our view as a horizontal streak of green of uniform
width, the width being due merely to the height of the vegetation ;
here and there at the water's edge, were seen small inlets and
* J. I). Dana, " Coral Reefs and Islands," p. 30.

TONGATABU. 283

stretches of white sandy beaches, or low honeycombed and
weathered clifflets of coral rock.

Above these, appeared a band of dark foliaged shrubs, and
shrubby trees with shore-loving plants at their foot, growing in
the sand ; and as a background behind, rose a mass of cocoanut-
trees of various heights, but densely packed together, and thus
forming with their crowns a tolerably even line ; no palms other
than cocoanuts were to be seen in the mass.

On the small scattered islets which were near at hand, Screw-
Pine trees were conspicuous, their stems surrounded with prop-
like aerial roots, whilst on the main island these trees, which
are numerous along the shore, were almost lost to view against
the general backing of dark foliage.

As we steamed on, Ave could see beneath the cocoanut-trees
on the shores, the villages of the islanders, composed of small
houses of palm mats and grass thatch, and, as the news spread,
we saw the villagers assemble on the beach in their conspicuous
white or red clothing, to gaze at the ship.

In the harbour were several American whalers, waiting for
the whales expected to come into the bay in a few days, and
also a small German vessel of the firm of Goddefroy Brothers,
the famed collectors of South Sea Island productions.

Not until we had passed the most difficult twist in the
passage into the harbour, did the pilot come out, in a small
English-built boat manned by four sturdy Tongans.

These Tongans were naked, except that they had a cloth
round the waist, and one of them a further girdle of green
Screw-Pine leaves ; they had all, however, linen shirts, which
they put on as they got cool ; and the coxswain, formerly a
Mataboolo, or lord, but degraded for drunkenness, wore besides
a pea jacket.

The boat was a whale-boat, belonging to the King. As is
always the case, the men being so little clothed, looked to us
bigger than they really were. They were, however, remarkably
finely made men, with all their muscles well developed, and all
of them were extremely well nourished. The Tongans have
large broad foreheads and faces, the lower jaws being wide at
their articulation, the chins narrowung off rather abruptly from

284 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

the face. The nose is flattened, but not very much ; the eye-
brows are straight, the lips not large or protuberant.

The colour of the Tongans is of a light brownish-yellow with
a tino-e of red. Their hair forms the most remarkable feature in
their appearance ; it is worn in a sort of mop sticking straight
up from the head, and composed of a mass of small curls ; it is
black naturally, as are the eyebrows, beard, and moustache,
which latter are, however, scanty as a rule ; but it is altered to
a rust colour by the application of coral lime.

The colouring is usually only applied partially so as to give
a contrast between the black and red locks. Sometimes the
centre of the head is left black, and a marginal zone coloured
red ; at others isolated locks all over the head are reddened so
as to show a black mop variegated with red. Various other
fashions are adopted. The Tongans often sit on their heels like
Indian races, but more usually sit cross-legged in the posture in
which Buddah is ordinarily represented.

Having studied Mr. Darwin's work, " On the Expressions of
the Emotions," I was immediately struck on seeing the men
conversing in the boat with one another, by the unusually
marked development of facial expression exhibited by them.
The muscles of the forehead during animated conversation,
are contracted and relaxed incessantly, and in a most varied
manner ; the brow is strongly wrinkled, and the eyebrows are
jerked up to such an extent as to remind the observer at once of
the jerking up of the eyebrows in monkeys.

I made as careful a study as time would permit of the
various expressions of the emotions ; all of them appear to coin-
cide in their intimate character with those of Europeans, and
this holds good also in the case of the expressions of children,
but the movements made use of are much more strongly
marked in the Tongans than in Europeans : thus, for example,
in the expression of astonishment I noticed the eyebrows thrown
up with a succession of strong jerks, not merely raised once as
with Europeans. The use of the forehead muscles is very
peculiar, and it indeed seems to be the most characteristic
feature noticeable about a Tongan. I saw no similar exaggerated
facial expression amongst Hawaians or Tahitians. There was

TONGATABU. 285

nothing interesting to be noted about the means of expression of
these latter islanders ; probably they have copied European
modes of expression to a large extent.

In some of their gestures, the Tongans differ remarkably
from us ; in beckoning, to call a person, they use, like the Malays
and others, the hand with its back turned towards their bodies,
and the palm directed towards the person called ; the hand is
moved downwards and inwards, instead of upwards and inwards
as with us.

In affirmation the head is jerked slightly upwards, the eye-
brows being raised a little at the same time. I asked one of
the missionaries who visited the ship, about this matter, and to
test it he pronounced the word for yes, and involuntarily threw
up his head. The gestures accompanying the language are
necessary to its perfect use, and to speak without them would
be like speaking a European language with a false accent.

In negation, the head is sometimes moved slowly from side to
side, but never shaken. In pointing out the way to a place, the
lips are pouted in order to indicate direction at the same time that
the hand is used to point with in the ordinary manner. The
use of the arms and head in gesture language, is very remark-
able, and conversations are carried on thus in an extremely
animated manner, with the help of very few actual words.

The coxswain of the pilot's boat, the ex-member of the
nobility, wore, as I have said, a pea-jacket ; a photograph was
taken of the boat's crew. I could not persuade the coxswain to
take off the pea-jacket, in order to make the group uniform ; he
would only promise that if he were photographed with the
jacket on in the group, he would allow himself to be taken with
it off, separately afterwards. The jacket was a thick garment
of the usual pilot cloth, fit only for an English winter, but the
man evidently regarded it as a mark of distinction and decora-
tion, and a proof that he was coxswain.

I had much difficulty in getting a lock of hair from one of
the boat's crew, and only succeeded by the help of a missionary,
who explained that I did not want it for purposes of witchcraft.
The man also evidently was loth to part with a single lock of
what was. his chief pride. I often, in collecting hair of various

286 A NATURALIST OX THE "CHALLENGER."

races subsequently, for scientific purposes, had amusing difficul-
ties to contend with, and I suspect some of the girls, from whom
I got specimens, thought I was desperately in love with them.

The most prominent feature in the town of Nukualofa, as the
principal place in the island is called, is the small white church
which stands on the summit of a rounded hill about 40 feet in
height. Conspicuous also is the King's house, a respectable-
looking small one-storied wooden building with a verandah.
There is, further, the Government building, a neat wooden
structure with a tower in the centre and a wing on either side,
each containing a single office-room. Here the revenue of the
Friendly Island Group, which amounts to about £7,000 or
£8,000, is dispensed, and the King's seal is attached to docu-
ments. At a small printing office close by, an almanac, a
magazine, bibles, and a few books, are printed in the native
language.

The remainder of the town consists almost entirely of native
houses. The houses of the Tongans are small and oblong in
shape, about 20 feet by 10 feet in dimension. The walls are of
reed mats or plaited cocoanut leaves, and the thatch of reeds.
The posts and beams, often of cocoanut stems, are lashed
together with plaited cocoanut fibre. The ground within is
simply covered with Pandanus mats. There are usually two
doors or openings opposite one another in the middle of each
side of the house, which are closed with a mat only. In most
houses a sleeping chamber is partitioned off at one end by
means of mats.

The only furniture to be seen within is the kaava bowl and
the pillows, wooden rods supported on four legs, on which the
neck is rested in sleep in order that the elaborately dressed hair
may not be disarranged. Most Polynesians use similar pillows,
and very various other races, such as the ancient Egyptians and
the modern Japanese. Long practice is required to allow of
their use. I have tried a Japanese pillow, but found it far too
painful to be endured for even half an hour.

Near the houses are small sheds, underneath which a hole in
the ground serves as an oven for cooking.

The houses at Nukualofa are clustered under the cocoanut

TOXGATABU. 287

trees, with three or four open roadways between them. The
people are remarkably hospitable, and delighted to get a strange
visitor into their houses to sit and communicate what little can
be managed in this way between persons knowing almost
nothing of each other's languages. They offer kaava or cocoa-
nuts as refreshment.

The women are large, they have fine figures and are, most of
them, handsome. They wear a cotton cloth round the loins
reaching down below the knees, or often, and especially on
week-days, a " tappa " or native cloth, made from the Paper
Mulberry. The missionaries have compelled them to cover their
breasts, which is done with a flap of cloth thrown up in front,
and a fine is imposed on any woman seen abroad without this
additional covering. The women, however, evidently have little
idea of shame in the matter; and often the cloth is put on
so loosely that it affords no cover at all.

The hair of the women was formerly cut short as amongst
so many savages where the men keep to themselves the right
of cultivating and decorating the hair, but now it is often
allowed to grow long and fall down the back. It is oiled and
powdered with sandal-wood dust as a perfume. On Sundays a
few women appear in complete European dress, wearing muslin
gowns, and hats profusely decorated with gaudy artificial flowers.
The girls are most accomplished coquettes.

The missionaries have prohibited dancing, and also the
chewing of the kaava root, which is now grated instead. The
chewing method was believed to spread disease. The people
are diminishing notwithstanding all the efforts of the mission-
aries. There are nowr only about 8,000 islanders in the whole
group.

The Tongans are a fine manly race, and delighted us all.
We should all have liked a longer stay in their island. They
are an extremely merry race, fond of practical jokes ; and as I
was rowed on shore by a crew of them, they kept playing all
kinds of pranks on one another between the strokes of the oars,
such as bending over and catching at each other's legs, and they
were full of laughter the whole time.

I had some difficulty in persuading one of the natives to get

288 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

fire for me by friction of wood. Matches are now so common
in Tonga that the natives do not care to undergo the labour
necessary for getting fire in the old method, except when driven
by necessity. No doubt the younger generation will lose the
knack of getting fire by friction altogether.

The method adopted in Tonga is the usual Polynesian one
of the stick and groove. The wood of the Hibiscus tiliaceus
is made use of. It is extremely light when dry. It must be
extremely dry in order that it can be used for getting fire. In
order to procure fire, a stick or stout splinter of the wood about
a foot in length is cut at one end so that it has a sharp edge
bounded by two sloping surfaces on one side of the end. The
side of the tip is thus in the form of a wedge with a sharp

edge.

This stick is held in a slanting position between the two
thumbs crossed behind it, and the fingers of the two hands
crossed in front of it. The sharp edge of the wedge is applied
to the surface of a large billet or stem of the same dry wood,
and the stick is rubbed backwards and forwards, a certain
amount of pressure being exerted. A V-shaped groove about
four or five inches in length is thus cut into the billet. If the
piece of wood to be grooved is rounded and smooth, a slight
score is sometimes made upon it with a knife beforehand in
order to prevent the stick from slipping.

Of course everything depends on the larger billet being
kept absolutely immovable during the process. Sometimes the
operator holds it with his own feet, or often gets some one
else to stand on it for this purpose. The stick is rubbed back-
wards and forwards, slowly at first. It must not be pressed
on too hard or the rubbing surfaces become polished, nor too
softly or no heating results. In applying the exact amount of
pressure, a great deal of the knack of getting the fire readily, no
doubt, depends.

If the operation is proceeding well, there should be a con-
stant feeling of slightly grating friction to the operator as he
rubs, and a fine powder should be rubbed off from the surface of
the groove and pushed along by the end of the stick, so that it
accumulates at the far end of the groove in a small heap.

TOXGATABU. 280

Great care must be taken that this small heap of powder is not
shaken or blown away.

The friction being kept up slowly and steadily, the sides of
the groove begin to blacken and soon to smoke. Eapid strokes
are now resorted to, the fine dust rubbed off becomes black like
soot, and at last ignites at the end of the stroke just as it is
pushed into the small accumulated heap, which acts as tinder.
A tiny wreath of smoke ascending from the heap shows that the
operation has been successful. A gentle blowing soon sets the
whole heap aglow.

The operation is excessively tiring to the wrists, since it has
to be prolonged for a considerable time, but the greater the
practice the less the waste of force. I have never succeeded in
getting fire myself, though Mr. Darwin succeeded at Tahiti;
and I have seen several Englishmen do so after practice, and
especially Dr. Goode, E.K, who frequently lighted a candle
in tins way to show me the process on board H.M.S. " Dido" at
Fiji. It is easy enough to get smoke and char the wood a
little, but very difficult to get the actual fire. The slightest
halt during the friction is fatal.

The old stone implements have entirely gone out of use in
Tonga, and they are not plentiful, but I bought several from
natives who had them put away in their houses. They call
them "toki Tonga," Tongan axe, or adze, in distinction to foreign
axes, whereas the Sandwich Islanders spoke of their adzes when
I was buying them as stone adzes, " pohaku koi." All the stone
adzes which I saw were unmounted ; no doubt the handles had
been used long ago, when iron was introduced, to fasten hoop-
iron blades on to in the place of the discarded stone ones. The
stone adze blades I procured were all of simple form like those
of Fiji, and not with complex curved surfaces and shanks like
those of Tahiti and some other Polynesian Islands.

The manners and customs of the ancient Tongans are pro-
bably better understood than those of any other Polynesian
Islanders, because of the existence of Mariner's well-known
account of them.*

The Island of Tonga is about 27 miles in extreme length,

* " An Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands. Compiled from

290 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

and 10 in extreme breadth. The island is entirely composed of
coral-reef rock, without, as far as is known, any blown-sand
formation. The sand on the beaches is scanty. The presence
of blown sand-rock on coral islands must depend on the freedom
of some part of the coast from breakwaters of coral, in order that
a heavy surf may form sand in abundance. In Bermuda the
sand is derived from the unsheltered side of the island.

In some rock, about 30 feet above sea level, I saw, as Dana
describes, some Brain Corals imbedded in the position in which
they had grown. About the reefs are to be seen curious cylin-
drical blocks of coral standing on end, and often hollowed out at
the top. These arise from the growing of a mass of ordinarily
rounded coral until the top reaches the surface of the water or
an insufficient depth to allow of further growth. The top of
the mass then dies, whilst growth goes on at the sides, and
the dead core is hollowed out by decay.

The surface of the rock in Tonga is covered with a reddish
soil, like that of Bermuda. It is so hidden with soil and vege-
tation that it is very difficult to observe the rock structure.
The wells, round holes sunk to a depth of four or five feet close
to the shore, show a mere continuation of the reef-structure of
the shore covered by about a foot of soil.

I wTas interested to recognise amongst the littoral plants of
Tonga, many forms which I had gathered on the shores of the
far-distant Bermuda. They were cosmopolitan tropical plants,
and became familiar objects on nearly all the tropical shores
visited subsequently. One plant grows in Tonga which is
almost identical with one occurring in Kerguelen's Land, but
it again is cosmopolitan, and a wTater weed, Nitella flexilis. To
remind one of Australia, there are Casuarina trees in Tonga, but
they are nowhere abundant.

In every direction in Tonga are large tracts of land which
have been under cultivation, but are now overrun with a wild
growth, affording plain evidence of the reduction of the popu-
lation. These tracts are overrun with a dense low tangle of
several species of convolvulus and a trailing bean. The position

Communications by Mr. W. Mariner, severa years resident in those
Islands." By John Martin, M.D., London, 181 7.

TONGATABtt. 291

of the more recent clearings is marked in the distance by the
projection from the main mass of dark foliage of the dead
branches of trees that have had their bark ringed. These, with
a species of Acacia (?), which at the time of our visit in winter
had a yellow tint upon its foliage, formed a marked feature in a
general view of the vegetation from a distance.

There are naturally no indigenous mammals in Tonga except
bats. A large Fruit-bat, probably Pteropus keraudrenii which
occurs in Fiji and Samoa and also in the Caroline Islands,* is
very abundant. These Fruit-bats appear on the wing in the
early afternoon in full sun-light, and at the time of our visit
were feeding on the bright red flowers of one of the indigenous
trees. Flowers form an important proportion of the food of
Fruit-bats. In New South Wales, at Botany Bay in May,
numbers of Fruit-bats were to be seen feeding on the flowers of
the gum trees. The bats must probably often act as fertilizers,
by carrying pollen from tree to tree, adherent to their fur.

As dusk comes on, the Fruit-bats on the wing become more
and more plentiful. It is probably only those specially driven
by hunger that come out before dusk. Besides these large bats,
there are small Insectivorous bats in Tonga, which dart about
amongst the cocoanut trees, but we obtained no specimens.
The heavy flap flap of the Pteropus is as strongly contrasted
with the rapid motion of the true bats, as is the flight of a goose
with that of a swallow. There are plenty of horses and cattle
in Tonga, and the high ground of Eua is occupied as a sheep
run.

A small Heron (Demicgretta sacra) wades about on the coral
reefs at Tonga, and catches small fish, and is also to be seen fre-
quently inland all over the island. This bird changes its plumage
from pure white to uniform grey, and all stages of parti-coloured
plumage were to be seen during our visit. Contrary to the
usual rule, the bird is white when young, and dark in the mature
state. Hence the ancestors must have been white, and the race
is assuming a darker plumage for protection.

In the groves, the most abundant bird is one about the size of

* "Journal des Museum Godeffroy, Heft II. 1873." "Die Carolinen
Insel Yap oder Guap."

D 2

292 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

a sparrow ; brown with yellow wattles (Ptilotis carunculata).
The bird has a sweet and very loud song, and fills the woods
with its melody. A Kingfisher {Halcyon sacra) is constantly to
be seen sitting on dead twigs, ready to dart on its prey.
Amongst the cocoanut trees a beautiful little Swift (Collocalia
spocliopygia), of the same genus as the species by which the
edible birds' nests, the well known Chinese luxury, are made,
and which is a Swift, and not a Swallow, as it is commonly
called, skims about with a constant twittering. These Tree-
swifts are especially abundant about the villages, though they
nest in the crowns of the cocoanut palms.*

In the thickest masses of foliage, a most beautiful small
Fruit Pigeon, of a bright green, with a patch of the purest
purple on its head {Ptilinopus porphyraceus) ,is to be heard cooing
gently, and the great Fruit Pigeon (Carpopliaga pacified), the
note of which is harsh and drawling, but still derivable from a
coo, is to be shot with ease by creeping up to the trees on the
berries of which it is feeding at this season.

There are two Parrots known from Tonga, but they are very
scarce. One of them, Platycercus tabuensis, is found only in
Tonga and in the neighbouring island of Eua. It is called the
Pompadour Parrot, from the peculiar purple red of its head and
neck. The natives procure it alive from Eua, where it is abun-
dant. One was bought for a shilling in the port during our
stay. The other is a parroquet (Coripkilusfringillaceus), but is
also scarce in Tonga. I saw neither of the parrots in the wild
condition.

Lizards are abundant in Tonga, but of only two or three
species. Otosaurus microlepis, one of the Scincidse, is peculiar to
the group. On the reefs an Eel (Murama), whitish yellow-coloured
spotted with brown, occurs. It is very snake-like in its move-
ments, and I took it, on encountering it in the water, for the true
Sea Snake (Pelamys bicolor), which also occurs here.

A large Foraminifer (Obiiolites) is very common on the reefs.

* For an account of the nesting of Collocalia, see Bernstein, " On the
genus Collocalia." Acta Societatis Scientiarum Indo-Nederlandicse, Vol.
II. For the nesting of the closely allied "Tree-swift," Dendrochelidon,
see Bernstein, " Habits of Javan Birds," Ibid. Vol. III.

MATUKU ISLAND. 293

The shells, as large as threepenny pieces and like them in form,
but of a chalky white colour, were to be seen in hundreds in the
shallow pools. I preserved some of these in absolute alcohol,
and observed that a green colouring matter was dissolved out in
the spirit. On examining the soft structure of the animals, I
found they were full of minute cells with very distinct trans-
parent walls, which had all the appearance of unicellular algae.
It is possible that the green colouring of the spirit was due to
the solution of chorophyly contained in the cells. The cells are
evidently identical with those described by Dr. Carpenter, as
existing in Orhitolites, and which he regarded as animal in
origin, and describes as having a crimson hue in spirit
specimens.* It seems just possible that they may be algae,
existing as parasites within the Foraminifera. If so, their
presence would, as my friend Prof. Eay Lankester has pointed
out to me, give further support to the hypothesis that the well-
known yellow starch-containing cells of Radiolarians, are like-
wise parasitic vegetable organisms, and not essential components
of the Radiolarians, in the bodies of which they occur.

Matuku Island, Fiji, July 24th, 1814. — We hastened along

with the trade wind, and on July 24th were off the island of
Matuku, one of the Fiji group, lying about 70 miles east of
Kandavu. The island is volcanic, and surrounded by a barrier
reef, which is about 16 miles in circumference. The highest
peak is about 1,200 feet in height. I climbed to the top of this
peak. From the summit the island was seen to consist of a
single crater, the edge of which had been denuded and cut into
a series of fantastic peaks, with intervening steep sided gullies.
The ancient crater itself now forms the harbour, the inlet to
which is through an opening in the girdling reef, at a spot
where the border of the crater has been broken down. The
surfaces of the irregular hills showed the peculiar sharp angled
ridges so characteristic of volcanic cones denuded of pluvial

action.

The windward side of the main peak was precipitous, and
covered with thick vegetation, whilst the leeward side was

* W. B. Carpenter, F.K.S., &c, "Introduction to the Study of the
Foraminifera," Eay Society, 1862, p. 35, PL IV. fig. 1.

294 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

open, covered only with grass and Pandanus trees. I was
uncertain whether this condition was due to clearing by the
natives or to the greater access of moisture from the trade wind
on the windward side. Seemann describes such a condition
produced by aspect, as common to all the Fiji Islands. There
are however dense patches of wood here and there on the lee-
ward side also of the crater in Matuku, and it may be that all
the grass-covered area has been cleared at some time for culti-
vation, the island being too small and low to vary much in
atmospheric conditions. .

At all events the most prominent feature in the appearance
of the vegetation of Matuku, is the contrast of the light green
open grass slopes with the dark patches of wood. The grass is
high and reedy, and very tiring to force one's way through, as
are also the wooded tracts. Through these latter a road had to
be cleared with the knife. In some places the grass had been
fired by the natives, as a preliminary to cultivation.

The view from the summit of the island was most interesting
as well as beautiful. We stood on what is now the highest
point of the edge of the weathered crater. Beneath, on the one
side, a steep slope led down to a narrow tract of flat land border-
ing the sea. This was partly open and swampy, covered with
sedges and ferns, and with Pandanus trees dotted about over it,
and partly covered with groves of cocoanut trees. On the other
side, a vertical precipice, terminating in a similar steep slope, led
down into the crater itself.

The cliff and internal slope of the crater were covered with
thick and tangled wood, amongst which grew, even close to the
summit, a few cocoanut palms, and one or two trees of the palm
called " Niu Sawa " by the natives (Kentia exorliiza).

All round the island, except for a very short interval at the
entrance to the harbour, was a circling zone of white breakers,
marking the position of the barrier reef. The zone was separated
from the shore of the island by a band of water, which had a
slightly yellowish tinge, caused by its shallowness and the colour
of the coral-built bottom.

The vegetation of Matuku is very different from that of
Tonga-tabu, though no doubt much like that of Eua. Ferns

MATUKU ISLAND. 295

are numerous instead of scanty, and amongst them a beautiful
climbing species (Lygodium reticidatum) is abundant. I saw
but few Casuarinas. In the woods the trees are almost hidden
by a network of convolvulus.

The most conspicuous trees, except the Screw-pines and
Cocoa-nut palms, at the time of our visit were those of a species
of Erythrina* which was in full scarlet blossom. On the
honey of the flowers of this tree a most beautiful Lory (Domicella
solitaria) was feeding, and with it some little Honey-birds
(My zonula jugularis). The Lory is one of the most beautiful
little parrots existing, showing a splendid contrast of the richest
colours, jet black, red, and green. It is peculiar to the Fiji
Islands. It flies in flocks, and hence the term " solitaria s"
might lead to an erroneous impression.

A swallow (Hirundo tahitica) was flying about in considerable
numbers, at the summit of the peak.

Hopping about on the mud, beneath the mangroves on the
shore, was the extraordinary fish, Periophthalmus, at which I
had often been astonished in Ceylon. This little fish skips
along on the surface of the water, by a series of jumps, of the
distance of as much as a foot, with great rapidity, and prefers
escaping in this way to swimming beneath the surface. I have
chased one in Trincomali Harbour, which skipped thus before me
until it reached a rock, where it sat on a ledge out of the water
in the sun, and waited till I came up, when it skipped along to
another rock.

The fish are very nimble on land, and difficult to catch. They
use their very muscular pectoral fins to spring with, and when
resting on shore the fore part of their body is raised and sup-
ported on these. There seems to be no figure of this very
remarkable fish which shows it at all in the attitude which it
assumes when alive. The accompanying woodcut has been
drawn from a specimen kindly lent to me by Dr. Giinther, and
I have put the fish as nearly in the natural position which it
assumes when on land, as I can from memory.

* Erythrina Indica. The " Araba " flowers in August, the time to plant
yams ; hence the flowering of this tree is the basis of the Fijian Calendar.
Seemann, " Flora Yitiensis.';

296 \ A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

The eyes of the fish, which is one of the Gobies, are remark-
ably prominent, projecting directly upwards from the skull,

PERIOPHTHALMUS KOLREUTERI.

On land ; in act of leaping.

The fish in mangrove swamps often sits on the lower branches
and roots. From what I have seen of its habits, I should expect
that it would be drowned by long immersion in water. The
Fijian species is Periophthafomis Kolreuteri. Dr. Giinther, in
his description of the genus, remarks : " these fishes are able to
progress out of the water, on humid places, and to hunt after
their prey which consist of terrestrial insects," &c*

The natives of Matuku were mostly regular Fijians, though
there were some pure Tongans amongst them, immediately to be
distinguished by their use of the forehead muscles in expression.
There is no doubt also mixed blood in the island. The houses
of the people were miserably dirty, and built on filthy black
muddy flats close to the sea.

I saw a boy make his way over a mangrove swamp, with
remarkable rapidity, by crawling over the tops of the mangrove
roots, and thus avoiding the mud below. Just so, the coast
natives in parts of New Guinea are said to traverse the low
swampy shore.

In dredging off Matuku Island, in 320 fathoms, on a coral
bottom, some Phorus, Tim*itelloJy and a few other shells were
brought up, as well as numerous specimens of the blind crusta-

* Dr. A. Giinther, " Brit. Mus. Cat., Fishes," Vol. III. p. 97.

MATUKU ISLAND. 297

cean, Polycheles, and other animals, showing the fauna to be a
true deep water one, and with these a living specimen of the
Pearly Nautilus {Nautilus pompilius). This was the only speci-
men obtained during the voyage of this animal so rarely seen in
the living condition by any Naturalist.

The animal was very lively, though probably not so lively as
it would have been if it had been obtained from a less depth,
the sudden change of pressure having no doubt very much
disarranged its economy. It, however, swam round and round a
shallow tub in which it was placed, moving after the manner of
all Cephalopods, backwards, that is with the shell foremost. It
floated at the surface with a small portion of the top of the
shell just out of the water, as observed by Rumphius. The
shell was maintained with its major plane in a vertical position,
and its mouth directed upwards.

The animal seemed unable to sink, and the floating of the
shell, as described, no doubt was due to some expansion of gas in
the interior, occasioned by diminished pressure. The animal
moved backwards slowly by a succession of small jerks, the pro-
pelling spouts from the siphon being directed somewhat down-
wards, so that the shell was rotated a little at each stroke, upon
its axis, and the slightly greater area of it raised above the
surface of the water.

Occasionally, when the animal was frightened or touched, it
made a sort of dash, by squirting out the water from its siphon
with more than usual violence, so as to cause a strong eddy on
the surface of the water.

On either side of the base of the membranous operculum-like
headfold, which, when the animal is retracted, entirely closes
the mouth of the shell, the fold of mantle closing the gill
cavity was to be seen rising and falling, with a regular pulsating
motion, as the animal in breathing took in the water, to be
expelled by the siphon.

The tentacular-like arms contrast strongly with those of
most other Cephalopods, because of their extreme proportional
slightness, and also their shortness, though they are not shorter
proportionately than those of the living Sepia. They are held
by the animal whilst swimming extended radially from the

298 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

head, somewhat like the tentacles in a sea anemone ; but each
pair has its definite and different direction, which is constantly
maintained. This direction of the many pairs of tentacles at
constant but different angles from the head, is the most striking-
feature to be observed in the living Nautilus.

Thus, one pair of tentacles was held pointing directly down-
wards. Two other pairs, situate just before and behind the eyes,
were held projecting obliquely outwards and forwards, and
backwards respectively, as if to protect the organs of sight. In
a somewhat corresponding manner, the tentacular arms of the
common cuttle-fish, whilst living, are maintained in a marked
and definite attitude, as may be observed in any Aquarium.

The very great abundance of the shells of the Pearly Nautilus
is most strangely contrasted with the rarity of the animal belong-
ing to them. The circumstance is no doubt due to the fact that
the animal is mostly an inhabitant of deep water. The shells of
Spirula similarly occur in countless numbers on tropical beaches,
yet the animal has only been procured two or three times. We
obtained one specimen during our cruize, which had evidently
been vomited from the stomach of a fish.

I expect that both Nautilus and Spirula might be obtained
in some numbers, if traps, constructed like lobster-pots and
baited, were set in deep water off the coasts where they abound
in from 100 to 200 fathoms. Nautilus is occasionally caught
both at Fiji and in the New Hebrides, in this manner, in com-
paratively shallow water, and the animals were so taken in the
time of Rumphius, at the end of the seventeenth century. Traps
seem never to have been tried for them in deep water.

The fact that the livincr Nautilus was obtained from 320
fathoms, shows that it occurs at great depths. It is probably a
mistake to suppose that it ever comes to the surface voluntarily
to swim about. It is probably only washed up by storms, when
injured perhaps by the waves. The living specimen obtained by
us seemed crippled, and unable to dive, no doubt because it had
been brought up so suddenly from the depths.

The following is a translation of the account given of the
habits of the animal by Rumphius, whose figure of the animal,
as seen when taken out of the shell, is probably still the best

MATUKU ISLAND. 299

extant.* "When the living Nautilus floats at the surface of
the water, it protrudes its head with all the tentacles out, and
spreads these out in the water, keeping the hinder part of the
curl of the shell all the while above water. On the bottom,
however, the animal creeps with the other side uppermost,
with the head and tentacles on the bottom, and makes tolerably
fast progress.

" The animals remain mostly at the bottom, creeping some-
times into hoop nets set for fish, and lobster-pots ; but after a
storm, when the weather becomes calm, they are to be seen
floating in troops on the surface of the water. They are doubt-
less raised up by the waves caused by the storms. It follows
that they keep themselves together in troops on the bottom
also. The floating, however, does not last long, for drawing in
all their tentacles, the animals turn their boats over, and go
down again to the bottom.

" On the other hand, the empty shells are frequently to be
found floating or cast up on the shore, for the defenceless animal,
having no operculum, is a prey to crabs, sharks, and crocodiles ;
and therefore the shells are mostly found with the edges bitten
off. Since the animal does not adhere fast to its shell, its
enemies can easily drag it out, leaving the empty shell to float.

"The young of this Nautilus, not larger than a Dutch
shilling, are of a clean mother-of-pearl colour wuthin and with-
out. The rough shell substance overgrows the mother-of-pearl
only after a time, and this overgrowth commences from the
foremost part of the boat.

" The Nautilus is found in all the Moluccan islands, and also
around the Thousand Islands off Batavia in Java, yet mostly
only the empty shells are met with, for the animal is seldom
found unless it creeps into the lobster-pots.

" The animal is used for eating, like other ' Sea cats '; but it
is somewhat harder in flesh and difficult of digestion. The
shell is in much greater request, for the manufacture of the beau-
tiful drinking vessels so well known in Europe."

It appears from Dr. Bennett's notes on various species of

* D'Amboinsche Rariteitkamer door, G. E. Kumphius. Amsterdam,
1705, p. 61, Taf. XVII. Fol. 62.

300

A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER.

Nautilus, that the natives in the New Hebrides dive for Nautilus
Macromphalus, and also take it in fish-falls baited with an
Echinus, whilst the Fijians trap Nautilus Pompilius, with a
boiled " Kock lobster " for a bait *

* Dr. G. Bennett, F.K.S., &c., "Proc. Zool, Soc. 1859," p, 226-229.

301

CHAPTER XIII.

FIJI ISLANDS.

Position and Area of the Islands of the Group. Kandavu Island. Grind-
stones for Stone Adzes. Shooting Birds in the Woods. Terrestrial
Hermit Crabs. Visit to a Barrier Reef. Ovalau Island. Excursion
to Livoni. Fijian Convicts. Log Drum. Native Hairdressing.
Kaava Drinking. Buying Stone Adzes. Excursion to Mbau Island.
Structure of the Island. Na vatani tawaki. Relics of Cannibalism.
Interview with King Thackombau. Connection of Wooden Drums
and Bells. Excursion up the Wai Levu. Sugar Plantations at Viti.
Freshwater Sharks. Joe the Pilot. Fijian Fortifications and Tombs.
A Chief's House and his Children. A Missionary Meeting. Various
Modes of Painting the Body. Grand Dancing Performances. Primi-
tive Origin of Music, Poetry, and the Drama. Wesleyan Missionary.
Albino Native. Congregation of Races at Levuka. Fijian Modes of
Expression. Laughter. Cicatrization. The Ula. Particulars con-
cerning Cannibalism.

Fiji Islands, July 25th to August 11th, 1S?4. — We arrived at
Kandavu Island, Fiji, on July 25th, and stayed at Fiji till
August 10 th, the ship making a short trip to Levuka in Ovalau,
and returning to Kandavu to complete a survey of the harbour.
Ngaloa Bay.

The Fiji Group is scattered over an area of about 40,000
square miles on either side of the meridian of 180° W., between
lats. 16° and 20° E. The meridian of 180°, roughly speaking,
runs northward through the western end of the Aleutian chain,
and between Bearing's Straits and Kamschatka, and southward,
passes just to the east of New Zealand. In latitude, the Fijis
correspond roughly with Tahiti, Bio Janeiro and Bodriguez. In
the northern hemisphere with St. Thomas in the Virgin Islands,
St. Vincent, Cape Verde Islands, and Bombay.

The land surface of the Fijis is about 7,000 square miles in
area, or about 1,000 square miles in excess of that of Yorkshire,
and there are about 150 islands in the group, excluding the very

302 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

small ones.* Viti Levu, the largest island, is 94 statute miles
long by 55 broad.

The town or village at Ngaloa Bay, in Kandavn Island, was,
at the time of our visit, miserably small, consisting of a few
native huts, with three or four small stores kept by Europeans,
and a whisky shop.

The main bulk of the island of Kandavu, as of that of
Ovalau, is made up of a coarse conglomerate, composed of
rounded fragments of volcanic rock. The surface of the islands
is worn by denudation in such a manner as to present, as
viewed from a distance, the appearance of a series of obtuse-
angled triangles, rising one above the other. These are more
numerous and less distinctly defined towards sea-level, whilst
above, their apices form a line of peaked mountain-summits.
The lower triangles are the foreshortened secondary ridges,
formed on the mountain slopes by denudation. They struck
me as having a more than ordinary uniformity of slope and
general features in the Fiji Islands.

The whole of these slopes and ridges in Kandavu and
Ovalau are covered with a dense dark green forest growth, except
where, in some places, patches of land, often of large extent, and
always very conspicuous, have been cleared for cultivation..
The village at Ngaloa Bay is built at the mouth of a small
rocky mountain stream which affords a pleasant bath. The
Fijians still make use of a bow and arrow to shoot small fish in
the stream, using arrows with several jagged prongs. On the
banks of the stream, the surface of the live rock is in several
places covered with deeply scored grooves, having been used
formerly by the natives for grinding and shaping their stone
adzes. I fancy most of the grinding work was done by the
women, and when I see a finely polished Celt, I always picture
to myself the male savage getting a stick and hammering his
wife occasionally until the stone assumed the desired form.

* The whole Fiji Group, exclusive of Coral islets, includes an area of
about 5,500 square miles of dry land, while at the period when the coral
commenced to grow, there were at least, as the facts show, 15,000 square
miles of land, or nearly three times the present surface. J. D. Dana,
" Coral Reefs and Islands/' p. 94. N. York, Putman, 1853.

FIJI ISLANDS. 30

•>

Tims the man procured it with the least possible expenditure of
labour on his part. Similar grinding places, with grooves cut in
the rock, whither natives used to come to grind their stone axes,
are known in Australia.

There are no roads in the island of Kandavu, merely narrow
tracks through the woods and along the shores, which it is
excessively tiring to traverse. I made one shooting excursion
at Kandavu. The route lay first amongst beds of reeds on a
small expanse of flat land at the mouth of the valley in which
the stream runs ; then skirting a mangrove swamp bordering the
shallow interior lagoon part of the bay, led amongst " taro " beds,
and up a steep slope into the densely tangled woods. Here the
trees were matted together with creepers overhead, and climbing
ferns (Lygoclium) twined up the trunks in the shade beneath.

Two young Fijians went with me. We climbed the steep
dark path for a long time without hearing any bird at all. To
see a bird without having heard it first was, from the denseness
of the foliage, impossible. At last we heard a curious low
whistling cry of two constantly repeated notes. The natives
soon made out the bird overhead, but it was long before I could
get a glimpse of it amongst the leaves, and as they kept bringing
me nearer and nearer, in order to show me the bird, I was so
close at last that it was nearly knocked to pieces by a charge of
No. 12 shot. It is a constant difficulty in collecting birds in
these dense tropical woods, that the birds are only able to be
distinguished at very close quarters.

The bird proved to be a new species of Pigeon, Chryscena
viridis (Layard), peculiar to Kandavu Island. It is small and
of a yellowish-green colour with a yellow head. The pigeons
of the genus Chryscena have a very remarkable structure in the
feathers of the breast and neck. The barbs of these feathers
are devoid of barbules, but are provided instead with a series of
small swellings, ranged at intervals along them. The plumage
of the bird has thus, to the naked eye, a peculiar loose
appearance.

The Kandavu Island birds were formerly erroneously sup-
posed to be the young of another Fijian species, Chryscena
luteovirens, and we thus, considering all our specimens to be

304 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

young, concluded that this circumstance explained the peculiar
whistling note of the birds, which is quite unlike that of other
full grown pigeons. We obtained a specimen of a closely
similar bird from Taviuni, in which the plumage is of the
brightest orange {Glirysama Victor).

As we crossed a small clearing, I shot a large Fruit-pigeon
(Carpophaga pacified) which flew across ; the same bird which is
so common in Tonga. On returning to the bottom of the valley,
we heard the loud screams of the brightly coloured parrot, Platy-
cercus splendens. There were a pair of the birds, but they were
so wild that I could not get a shot. They are, however, not
usually wild, and a large number were shot by some of the
officers of the ship. By the bank of the stream I found a pair
of the Kingfisher, which is so common in Tongatabu, Hal-
cyon sacra.

A large green Lizard, which is found at Kandavu and, I
believe, in the other members of the Fiji group, was brought to
us alive. The Lizard (Chloroscartes fasciatus) is an Agamid, of a
genus peculiar to the Fiji group. It measures more than two
feet and a-half in length. It has a pouched throat with a cross
fold. All the scales of the body are keeled, and it has a low
crest of triangular scales on the neck.*

In all parts of the Fijis which I visited, I met with
abundance of a land-inhabiting Hermit Crab of the s^enus
Ccenobita, allied to the well-known crab Birgus latro of the Philip-
pines and elsewhere, which feeds on cocoanuts. Birgus latro
is apparently a Hermit Crab, which has given up using a shell to
protect itself, because it has grown too large to be contained by
any shell. It has therefore developed, as a substitute, a
hardened covering to the hinder part of its body, which was,
no doubt, soft, as in other Hermit Crabs, when it wore a
shell. The Hermit Crabs of the genus Ccenobita are smaller,
and always wear shells like marine Hermit Crabs.

On one small coral island, off the mouth of the Wai Levu,
the beds of the littoral Convolvulus (Ipomcea) were swarming
with these air-breathing Hermit Crabs, carrying about with

* For a description of this lizard, bv Dr. Giinther, see " Proc. Zool.
Soc. 1869," p. 189, PI. XXV.

FIJI ISLANDS. 305

them all kinds of shells in the hot sunshine. In Kandavu
they climb the hills and go far inland, bearing their shells with
them, as do the terrestrial Pagtiridce in St. Thomas and other
West Indian islands.

On the shores of Wokan Island, in the Aru group, a small
species of Ccenobita was extremely abundant on the stones and
about the dry rocks above tide-mark. "When alarmed they
withdraw their claws and heads suddenly into their shells, and
drop off their support as if feigning death. In one place at Aru
I came upon such numbers of them, that their shells made
quite a distinct slight rattling noise, as a drove of them alarmed
let go their hold, and their shells fell amongst the stones.

But what has impressed most deeply upon my memory the
fact of the existence of these terrestrial Hermit Crabs, was a
surprise which I encountered at the Admiralty Islands. When
collecting plants there, I thought I saw a fine large Land Snail
resting on one of the topmost twigs of a bush about four feet in
height. I grasped the specimen, but instead of feeling the
slimy snail's body, I got a very unpleasant bite from a large
Hermit Crab, and I then saw that the shell was a marine one
(Turbo).

The genus Ccenobita has one of its nippers especially stout
and powerful. In the Admiralty Islands a species gnaws the
roots of one of the littoral trees (Calophyllum inophyllum). I
have seen 20 or 30 of these crabs gnawing at one long wound
made by them in a root, apparently feeding on an exuding gum.

Professor Semper of Wurzburg has examined the breathing
apparatus of the Cocoanut Crab (Birgus latro), and finds* that
a large cavity on the back, commonly called the gill cavity, has
the function of a true lung. By means of blood-vessels in its
walls the animal breathes air directly. This cavity has been
commonly said to contain water, by which the animal was
supposed to moisten its gills, in order that it might breathe
through its gills alone. The breathing of the animal by the
gills when on land is considered by Semper as secondary.
Similarly, the gill cavity acts as a true lung in other Land crabs.

* " Ueber die Lunge von Birgus latro." Zeitschrift fur Wiss. Zoologie,

1878, s. 282.

306 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

At Kandavu I had an opportunity of visiting the outer
margin of a barrier reef. It was one of the reefs stretching
across the mouth of JSTgaloa Bay. As such a reef is approached
from behind in a boat, and viewed from sea level, nothing is
visible of the reef itself at a distance but a line of small
detached masses of rock which appear here and there, standing
out dark against the horizon. As the waves approach suc-
cessively the different portions of the reef, their crests are seen
rising dark above the reef-line. Then as the waves break
against the margin of the reef, the isolated rock-masses show
out in relief against the white background of foam.

As the reef is approached more closely, the water becomes
shallower, and assumes a yellow tinge, caused by the light
reflected from the growing corals. The boat now requires to be
steered with care along a zigzag path between coral patches, and
at last grates on the growing coral as the water shallows rapidly
towards the margin of the reef, and it becomes necessary to
wade in order to proceed further.

It is in the shallow sheltered water, inside the actual edge
of the barrier, that the finest and best grown specimens of the
corals are to be found. The tufts, bushes, and rounded masses of
the various corals are to be seen growing here in abundance,
but yet scattered over the area, with plenty of more or less
barren interspaces in the " coral plantation," as Dana terms it.
The various forms of the spongy tissued Madreporas, are the
characteristic feature in these Fijian reefs, there being no less
than 26 species of Madrepora known from Fiji.

The outer margin of the reef is raised above the level of the
coral plantation in the still waters within, and the water on it
is thus very shallow at low tide, and often the margin is laid
dry. At Ngaloa Bay the barrier reef springs from the fringing
reef, running out from the coast across the mouth of the bay.
Its elevated margin was not more than 20 to 30 yards wide.
There is an elevated strip of about this width stretching all along
the reef; its surface is remarkably even, and but few stunted
corals were growing upon it, but Alcyonarians were abundant,
and the whole surface was covered with a crust of calcareous
seaweeds (Corallinacece).

FIJI ISLANDS. 307

The water on the reef edge was usually not much more than
ankle-deep, but the breakers sent from time to time so strong a
current inwards across the barrier, that it was difficult to keep
one's footing. On the reef were resting irregularly shaped
masses of solid stony corals, portions of various Astrceidce, Pori-
tidce, or of reef rock, thrown up upon the marginal platform of
the reef by the surf, and reminding one, as they rested in all sorts
of positions, of the scattered rock fragments on a glacier. Some-
times they even rest on a narrowed support like " table-stones,"
having become first cemented to the platform, and subsequently
gradually undercut by the waves. Dana has figured such table-
stones. It is these thrown-up fragments which are, as has been
described, the only portions of the actual reef visible from a
distance.

The chief differences between the fauna of the Fijian reefs
and those of Bermuda, are the absence at Fiji of any large
quantities of coral formed by Milleporidce and large branching
Oculinidce, and the absence of the large flexible Gorgonidce,
which form so striking a feature at Bermuda. The great abun-
dance of Madrepores forms the characteristic feature in the
Fijian reefs. I saw, however at Fiji, no Madreporas so large
and fine in growth as those of St. Thomas.

On the reef-margin, by turning over the cast-up rock frag-

ACEOCLADIA MAMILLATA.

ments, I found a few cowries, some huge Troclii, also specimens
of Turbo operculum, and other shells. Various Holothurians and
a large bright ultramarine-coloured Starfish (Ophidiaster), were

x 2

308 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

in countless numbers, and some splendid Sea-urchins, with
huge thick spines (Acrocladia mamillata), were found. A Shark
appeared in the shallow water showing its back fin high out of
it ; the fish was chased with boarding pikes by the Blue-jackets,
but was too wary to allow its pursuers to come within reach.
Captain Nares set up his theodolite on the reef, and took angles
whilst we collected specimens.

Whilst at Levuka (in Ovalau Island), I made a trip with
Lieut. Suckling, E.N"., over the steep mountain ridge which backs
the town, to the native villages of Livoni and Bureta. A cor-
poral of the Fijian army and two prisoners, natives of Livoni,
were sent by Mr. Thurston with us as guides.

The track led up the bed of a rocky mountain stream, and
at times up nearly perpendicular faces of rock, which were,
however, easy to climb because of the nature of the rock already
alluded to, the harder embedded masses in the conglomerate
weathering out so as to project and form foot-rests and con-
venient grasping places for the hands. As we ascended, the
soil became moister, the wood denser, and the trees more and
more covered with epiphytes.

Now and again we passed small cascades tumbling into
basins amongst the black boulders. The rocks around were
overgrown with ferns and mosses in great variety ; wild plan-
tains and beautifully variegated Dracwnas grew in abundance,
and amongst them the scarlet Hibiscus in full flower. The
overhanging tree-stems were green with climbing ferns, or
served as supports to climbing Aroids with large fenestrated
leaves. The beauty of the various features of this mountain
stream are, however, far beyond my powers of description.

Near the summit of the ridge, the tree stems and branches
became covered with orchids, and in places were loaded with
dense masses of the bird's-nest fern (Asplcnium nidus), and
large Lycopods and mosses. On the summit, a hard chase after
a rat ensued, as I offered a shilling reward for the animal, which
might have proved at this elevation, I thought, a Native Eat,
though the black rat and Norway rat are abundant in Levuka.
There was, however, so much cover for the rat under the
decayed logs and undergrowth, that it soon escaped.

FIJI ISLANDS. 309

The ridge where we crossed it was very narrow, and we
almost immediately commenced a steep descent down the bed
of a stream on the other side. On the way down, a flock of
Lories (Domicella solitaria, " Kula," Fijian), flew by, whilst the
trees were full of warbling birds (Ptilotis procerior).

We reached Livoni, formerly a populous village, and the
head-quarters of the Kaivolo or mountaineers of Ovalau, who
long defied King Thackombau, murdered one of his envoys,
and were the terror of the Levuka people. The place was now
entirely in ruins, the inhabitants having been made prisoners,
and their town burnt by Thackombau. There remain now,
only the oblong mounds of earth on each of which formerly
stood a house, and the ditch and bank of earth, with which the
village was fortified.

The place is used now as a convict station, and here a num-
ber of prisoners, mostly Kaivolos, or " devil men," from the hill
tribes of the large island "Viti-levu," were undergoing their
various terms of imprisonment. Eight Tongan soldiers and an
old English drill-sergeant were sufficient to keep the convicts in
subjection. The men were made to work at clearing the sur-
rounding land, and planting sweet potatoes and yams ; whilst
they were at work, the Tongans mounted guard over them with
loaded muskets, and though the opportunities in the thick bush
seemed so great, they were said never to escape ; they are very
much afraid of the Tongans.

I was shown amongst the convicts one of the Burns mur-
derers, who was said to have been caught when dragging the
body of a white woman by the hair through the bush, with a
view to eating it. I put a few questions through an interpreter :
the man protested that he had never eaten human flesh, and
that he would have no desire to eat me if he had a chance. He
had evidently learnt that this was the proper attitude to assume
with regard to this question. I expected that he would have
made no scruple in confessing to former Cannibalism.

A drum was used at Livoni for summoning the prisoners,
which was new to me in its construction: three cylindrical
holes were cut in the ground in a row, the central one being
about twice as large as the others. They were about 1 foot

310

A NATURALIST OX THE " CHALLENGER."

SECTION OF FIJIAN LOG DRUM.

a Log ; b b rests ; cc c resonating holes ; d surface
line of the ground.

and 6 inches in diameter respectively ; over these holes a log
of light Hibiscus wood was supported on two cross rests of
rolled up palm-leaf mat. placed in the interspaces between the
holes. The holes in the earth acted as resonators, and when

the log was struck with a
wooden mallet, a loud sound
was produced as from the
ordinary Fijian drum or
" lali," which consists of a
loo- hollowed out like a
canoe ; this was a rough
substitute. The use of holes
in the earth as resonators is remarkable.

Hearing that there was to be a " meke meke " or native
dance at the next village, Bureta, we went on to this place, the
path crossing and recrossing continually a stream running here
through comparatively flat land, ■ and in places as much as
20 yards across. We found numerous visitors in Bureta, many
of whom had passed us on the road. All were dressed in their
best, with bright new girdles of yellow and scarlet dyed Pan-
danus leaves, bodies and hair freshly oiled, ornaments displayed,
and faces painted black or red or a mixture of both.

The various methods of dressing;- the hair are so numerous as
to be indescribable. The thickly growing crisp mop of fine close
curls is trimmed just as an old-fashioned yew hedge used to be.
Sometimes a single thick tuft is left projecting from the back of
the head, sometimes a diagonal ridge-like tuft, sometimes one,
two, or more small plaited tails only, sometimes a curtain-like
fringe shading the neck.

The hair is constantly dressed with shell or coral lime, both
to kill vermin and to change the colour, and also, certainly,
as a fashion. Most of the young Mbau chiefs that I saw
had their hair always in this condition. These young chiefs
cut their hair in front in a straight line across the forehead
and square at the temples ; and, in fact, trimmed it so that
when whitened with lime it reminded one most forcibly of a
barrister's wig. A young Mbau chief was on a visit at Bureta,
and besides having his hair whitened, his face was blackened

FIJI ISLANDS. 311

for the meke, and the contrast between black and white was
most effective.

Kaava* drinking was going on in the chief's house at the
time of our arrival, the young Mbau chief presiding at the
ceremony. It is usual to decry kaava as a drink altogether,
because, no doubt, of the nasty manner in which it is prepared,
but some persons who habitually drink it praise it as extremely
pleasant and cooling. Many of the resident whites at Fiji, as I
was told, took kaava once or twice daily, and I knew personally
of a German planter and an English settler who did so. It
seems, however, to be only at Fiji, in Polynesia, that this occurs.
In the Sandwich Islands and in Tahiti the Whites never think of
drinking kaava, but scout the idea.

The taste is at first strange and unpleasant, and has often
been compared to that of Gregory's mixture. Travellers usually
never make more than one trial of the drink. The taste is,
however, certainly not more unpleasant than that of London
porter, for example, must be on the first occasion to Frenchmen.
Great satisfaction must be derived by Polynesians from the use
of kaava, or it w^ould not have been so universally upheld as a
drink amono-st them, nor would its use have become associated
as it is with an elaborate ceremonial.

Usually, when the party with which I travelled in the large
island of Fiji entered a village, the chief of the village made a
request, as an offer of hospitality, that we would drink kaava
with him ; and we sat on his right and left hand at the head of
the circle, or rather long loop, formed by those present on such
occasions. At the bottoms of the two sides of the loop were
seated the servants, or a few of the lower orders of the village,
who crawled in crouching and cringing, expressing their humility
before the chief in the most ostentatious manner, looking indeed,
sometimes, as if they were really half afraid to come at all.

The kaava is prepared at the opposite end of the loop from
that at which the chief sits. Young men with good teeth are
chosen to do the chewing, and they pay great regard to clean-
liness, rinsing their mouths and hands carefully with water

* A solution in water of the chewed root of a Pepper (Piper methy-
sticum). An intoxicating drink.

312 A NATURALIST OX THE "CHALLENGER."

before they commence their task. There is a considerable
amount of knack to be acquired in the chewing of the kaava
root. If it is well chewed very little saliva should be mixed
with it, and it should be produced from the mouth in an almost
dry round mass about as large as the mouth can contain.

The masses produced by several chewers are mixed with
water and the infusion is strained, as has been often described.
The bowl is placed in front of the chief. It is a four-legged
wooden bowl cut out of a single block. It has a string of cocoa-
nut fibre fastened to it underneath to a loop cut in the wood.
By this string the bowl, when not in use, is hung up against the
wall in the chief's house. When the prepared bowl is placed
before the chief it must always be so turned that the string
is directed away from him. The chief is served first in his own
private cocoanut shell. Then the others present, in order of
their rank and position of their seats, receive shells full. We
were always served immediately after the chief. It is the
correct thing to drink the cocoanut-shell full off at a draught,
and then spin the cup on its pointed end on the mat in front of
one and say " amava," or a word sounding closely like this,
meaning, I was told, " it is emptied ; " in fact, " no heel taps."
After the chief has drunk, the company all clap their hands in
token of respect.

A considerable quantity of kaava, of a strength such as that
of the infusion ordinarily drunk at Fiji, must be taken in order
to produce intoxication ; but I have known a single cocoanut-
shell of strong Fijian kaava make an Englishman unaccustomed
to the drink feel a little dizzy and shaky about the legs. There
is a very great difference in the strength of kaava, depending
very much on whether the portion of the root employed is young
or old, and of course on the amount of water employed.

The infusion of the pepper-root is not allowed to stand so as
to ferment, but some change probably is effected in the active
principles by the action of saliva, for grated kaava, which is now
used in Tonga, by order of the missionaries, as a substitute for
the chewed preparation, is not so good as the latter. I have
known three-quarters of an ordinary tumbler-full of Awa (the
Hawaian forrn of the Polynesian name for the drink), specially

FIJI ISLANDS.

313

prepared by an old woman, in Hawai, Sandwich Islands, as of
extra strength, make an Englishman intoxicated within ten
minutes of the time at which it was drunk.

The effects are very like those of alcohol, in that the gait
becomes very unsteady, and the slightest touch sends the person
affected off his balance. An elation of spirits is produced also,
but apparently no drowsiness.

At Bureta I was able to buy, for sixpence each, a dozen stone
Adzes, such as were used for canoe making in the Fijian group,
before iron implements were imported. The adze blades are of
basalt. They are bound to the handles with twisted or plaited
cocoanut fibre. Many of these were still mounted on their

FIJIAN STONE ADZES.

Showing two methods in which the blades are mounted.

handles, and are now used by the people who have not parted
with them, for cracking nuts. For an exactly similar adze I had
paid six shillings in Levuka, and clubs which here were to be
bought for a shilling, cost a dollar on the other side of the ridge.
It is wonderful how little knowledge has penetrated as yet from
Levuka to Bureta, so short a distance off. The natives could
not understand a half-crown, nor could they be induced to give
four sixpences for a florin. Threepenny-bits they would not
take at all. " Sixpenny " and shilling they knew well. The

314 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

young Mbau chief of course understood these things, and also
thoroughly understood the working of my central fire breech-
loading gun, he having one of his own at Mbau. Most of the
chiefs have good English fowling-pieces and rifles.

After a long delay, and constant promises of a commencement,
the dance was begun in a flat oblong open space in the village,
which had a raised bank on two sides of it, on which the spec-
tators assembled. As it got dark, bunches of reeds were lighted
and held up around by girls to light up the dance, for the moon
did not come up till late.

Only the young men, all visitors at Livoni, and belonging to
the army, danced. We waited on, hour after hour, for the girls
to commence, but they took so long in decorating themselves
and getting ready, that after four hours' delay we were obliged
to leave in a canoe which we hired for a dollar to make the
journey to Levuka by sea.

We had no sooner left than the girls commenced dancing,
and they probably waited for us to leave. I saw exactly the
same dance as that performed by the young men executed after-
wards in Yiti Levu, many of the performers even being the
same ; I will therefore describe it further on.

We started in the canoe in the tidal part of the Livoni River
at about 10 p.m., and it being low tide, and there being no wind,
the canoe had to be poled the whole way down the river, and
along the shore, except for short stretches, where deep water
compelled the men to paddle. We had imagined that we had
only five miles or so to go, but found tnat the river on which we
were came out on the coast of Ovalau, beyond the end of the
adjacent island of Moturiki, or almost at the very opposite side
of Ovalau from Levuka. We stretched ourselves on the small
outrigger platform of the canoe, but the motion was too irregular
and the bed too unsteady to allow of much sleep. It was
not till half-past 4 a.m., that we reached Lieut. Suckling's
schooner.

At 6 a.m., on the same day, July 31st, I started on a cruise
in one of the ship's boats, called the barge, to the island of Mbau,
and the Wai Levu, with a party which was to join the ship
again at Kandavu.

FIJI ISLANDS. 315

There being little wind all day, we failed in reaching Mbau
on the first day, but arriving in its neighbourhood about dusk,
we mistook a projecting headland of Viti Levu,* some miles
north of Mbau, for the island of Viwa, and a small island lying
off this headland for Mbau. It was impossible to distinguish in
the gloom what were islands and what promontories, against the
dark background of the Viti Levu coast.

All around Mbau, Viwa, and the neighbouring coast are
extensive shallow coral and mud flats, the mud being brought
down by one of the mouths of the Eiver Wai Levu, which opens
in the direction of Mbau. After making several attempts to
reach the island which we supposed to be Mbau, and constantly
grounding on the coral, we anchored in a deep channel between
the coral flats for the night. In the early morning we made
out Mbau, conspicuous from the white house of the missionary
upon its summit, and soon reached it.

Mbau is a very small island, not more than half a mile in
circumference. It consists of a central hill, of about 50 feet
elevation, with a flat area at its top, and bounded by steep grass-
covered slopes, surrounded by a tract of flat ground. The cen-
tral mass is composed of a friable stratified rock, of a greyish or
reddish colour. An exactly similar rock composes the main land
immediately opposite the island, and the strata there correspond
in inclination with those of Mbau. The central mass of the
island is thus a small detached fragment left standing by the
denuding waves. The passage between the mainland and Mbau
is so shallow as to be fordable at high water, and is nearly dry
at low water.

The flat lower part of Mbau which is raised only a few feet
above the sea, consists of made ground, built up of blocks of
coral, and mud and stones collected from the vicinity at low
water, and secured all around against the action of the sea by
means of large slabs of a sandstone (said to come from the main
island), having been brought in canoes a distance of several
miles. These stone slabs are set up on end, so as to form a
parapet, and keep the earth from washing clown. The slabs

* Viti Levu (pronounced Veetee layvoo). Levu means "great."

Settlers often clip the u, and talk of " Viti lib."

316 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER

project far above the level of the land surface, and thus form at
the same time a sort of fence or wall. At intervals, openings are
left in the parapet, where the water flows np short channels
into the area of made ground, and allows canoes to put in at
Irish water into small harbours as it were.

The top of the hill was formerly used as a general refuse
heap by the natives, but it is now occupied by the house of the
missionary. The native houses all lie on the flat low tract close
to the sea. Mbau has been long a native fortress of great
strength. Hence the immense labour which has been spent on
its formation. It is now the residence of King Thackombau,
and almost everyone in the island is a chief or of high family.

The whole surface of the island, including the hill -ground, is
covered almost everywhere with a thick kitchen-midden deposit
of black soil, full of large trochus-shells and cockles (Carclium),
which abound on the mud flats all around. Mingled with these
are quantities of human bones ; Mbau having been one of the
places in Fiji at which cannibalism was most largely practised.
There are very few trees growing on Mbau, and the food, such
as taro and yams, is all brought from the main land, where there
are extensive plantations.

One of the most interesting features in Mbau is perhaps the
stone against which the heads of the human victims destined
for the oven were dashed, in the ceremony of presenting them
to the god Dense. This stone stands close to one corner of the
remains of the foundations of the ancient temple of Denge, the
" ISTa Vatani Tawake." The temple itself was destroyed when
the Mbauans became Christians, but the mound on which it
stood remains, and is of great interest.

It is a large oblong tumulus of earth, supported by two
series of vertically-placed slabs of stone, exactly similar to those
used for the sea parapet. The slabs of the lower series are much
larger than those of the upper, and the upper series is placed
further inwards, a sort of step being thus formed in the tumulus
all round. The mound must be about 12 feet high, and some
of the stones of the lower series are more than six feet in height.

Opposite the centre of one side is set up a large column of
basalt, and there is another opposite the strangers' house. These

FIJI ISLANDS.

317

columns are said to have been taken in war, from some enemies
on Viti Levu, and intended to have been used as posts for the
king's house. The columns are however said by Dana* to
have been brought by a Mbau chief from a small island in the
harbour of Kandavu, which is composed of them, and where
they were long desperately defended by the inhabitants, who
held them sacred.

The whole mound most strikingly reminds one of ancient
stone circles and such erections at home. Were the earth of
the mound to wash away, numbers of the stone slabs might
remain standing on end. I give a copy of a rough sketch which
I took of the place in its present condition. Its condition before
its destruction is to be seen in a book entitled " Fiji and the
Fijians," by Thos. Williams (London, Hodcler and Stoughton,
1870). The tumulus supported a large " Mbure ': or temple,
with the usual high-peaked roof and long projecting decorated
ridge pole.

Now the mound is falling into decay and covered with grass,
and a small pony (there are very few horses in Fiji, and of

Sacrificial Stone.

NA VATAM TAWAKI, MBATJ, FIJI.

course only room for this one in Mbau) belonging to Eatu
David, the king's eldest son, found the top of it a pleasant place
to graze on. The pony had a quiet life, for Eatu David having

* Dana : " U. S. Exp]. Ex., Geology," p. 348. The columns at Mbau
are referred to by Capt. Erskine, "Islands of the Western Pacific,"
p. 193, London, J. Murray, 1853, who, however, did not recognise them as
of unartificial formation.

318 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

been kicked off on his first attempt at riding, had not tried

acram

The sacrificial stone, against which the heads of the victims
were dashed, is an insignificant looking one, in no way different
from the other slabs, except that it is smaller and stands by
itself a little in front of them, near one corner of the monnd.
In front of it, in old time, bodies have been heaped up till they
formed a pile ten feet high. Whilst I was sketching the mound
and its stones, a very pretty daughter of one of the chiefs came
and looked on, and at my request wrote her name and the Fijian
name of the mound in my sketch-book, in a very good round

hand.

There are several similar slab-built foundations of temples
about the open space near the site of the Na Vatani Tawaki, but
except in the case of one small one, they are not in such good
preservation. The slabs from one of these are now being used
to construct the foundations for a Wesleyan church. Con-
spicuous amongst the buildings close by, is the large " visitors'
house," where guests were entertained, and, if of distinction,
always provided with human flesh, at least once, by their hosts.

Beside the building, a slight depression in the turf is the
remains of one of the ovens used for cooking the " long pig," for
this is the actual name by which human flesh always went in
the Fijian language. I always thought it a joke, until I was
told by the interpreter. On a tree overhanging the ovens are to
be seen notches, cut in the trunk from its base to its summit, an
old score of the number of victims cooked beneath.

There is another stone, not far from Thackombau's house,
which is smooth, and somewhat like a millstone in appearance.
The ground around this is paved with slabs of coral rock, which
had been perforated with holes by boring mollusks and worms
before it was taken from the water. So many heads have been
dashed against this stone, that it has happened that human teeth
have fallen into almost all the holes in the slabs, and have
becomed jammed there. The slabs were quite full of them.

This second stone was seen by Captain Wilkes' officers, and
is mentioned by Brenchley. We were told by the people that
a second ceremony was performed at it, the heads of bodies

FIJI ISLANDS, ;319

being a second time pounded to pieces here, in honour of the
slayer, who drank kaava from some grooves which are to he seen
in the slab in front. The grooves are however very irregular,
and look much rather as if they had been made in sharpening
stone axes. I think this second stone must have been used by
a separate tribe, occupying this quarter of Mbau, for even on
this small island the people were often much divided.

On going up the hill we came suddenly upon two old women
bathing in a fresh water pool. They made for deep water in a
hurry, but I saw that they were tattooed of a uniform indigo blue
colour, from the hips to near the knees, just like the Samoan men.

King Thackombau was visited in the morning by two of our
party, who took him by surprise ; he was found lying on his
stomach, reading his Bible. I went with a party and we were
regularly announced. The king, who was dressed in a flannel
shirt, and a waist cloth reaching to his knees, rose to receive us,
and came forward and shook hands. He is a very fine looking
man, six feet high, with his dark face set off with abundance of
grey hair. His eyes are bright and intelligent, and his face full
of expression, and in this respect very different from that of the
ordinary Fijian of lower rank.

Three chairs were produced, but this was the whole stock
in the house, and those of our party without chairs sat on the
matted floor. The king reclined on his stomach as before, on
his own peculiar mat, at the head of our circle, with his Bible
and Prayer Book neatly piled on the right hand front corner of
the mat. We said, through our interpreter, that we were glad
to see His Majesty looking so well, and explained the nature of
the voyage we were making in the " Challenger." I was then
deputed to give an account of the wonders of the deep sea. In
this subject Thackombau took the liveliest interest, inquiring
about what kinds of animals existed in the deep water, evidently
knowing the shallow-water ones well. He was very much
interested in the fact that they are so often blind. He said he
could not understand the depth in miles, but comprehended it
perfectly in fathoms.

He then inquired the strength of the various navies, asking
after that of England, Germany, France, Russia and America,

320 A NATURALIST OX THE " CHALLENGER."

and wanting to know even the numbers of wooden and iron
ships. The information we gave him drew from him the
remark that the English were a wonderful people, far greater
than the Fijians.

The house was a large barn-like one of ordinary Fijian
structure, with tall open roof, and a sleeping place separated off
at one end with a "tappa" curtain. There was the usual square
hearth, with its edging of stone. Overhead were stored the
heads of canoe masts. A European chest of drawers, a table,
a lamp, and two tin coffee pots, were the only visible articles of
luxury. Against the door-post hung a fine club, freshly painted
blue, belonging to the king's youngest son.

We asked the king for a pilot, to take us up the mouth of
the Wai Levu, the great river which opens nearly opposite
Mbau. He sent out at once to order one for us, and we took our
leave of this knowing old Christian, who is currently reported
to have partaken of 2,000 human bodies, and is certainly known
to have cut out, cooked and eaten a man's tongue, in the man's
sight, as a preparation to putting the rest of him in the oven,
and that merely to spite the man because he begged hard not
to be tortured, but to be clubbed at once.

The contrast between Thackombau and King George of Tonga
was very striking, at least as far as concerns their behaviour
before visitors. Thackombau took the liveliest interest in every-
thing, and put question after question, whereas it seemed im-
possible to interest King George in any subject. He said nothing
at all during our interview. Both are warriors of renown, and
fought their way to their positions.

Eatu David the eldest son of Thackombau was very hospi-
table, and invited us to drink kaava with him in the evening,
when he produced a bottle of brandy also. We wished to see
a dance, but this was not possible, because it was Saturday
evening, which is by order of the missionaries kept in a certain
way sacred, as a preparation for Sunday. For the same reason
Eatu David dare not allow his retinue to sing a chant used
during kaava drinking, and which we were anxious to hear.

We pitched a sort of tent on a very small islet, about forty
yards off Mbau, and slept there. Eatu David sent us off a

FIJI ISLANDS. 321

young pig and a couple of fowls all alive, a most welcome
present. They were killed and consumed within an hour of
their arrival. The islet on which we slept is made up of blocks
of coral, weathered and bored by various animals, piled up by
the waves. The blocks near tide-mark are so blackened by
exposure, that I took them at first for vesicular lava.

Around Mbau are extensive shallow mud flats, the mud
being brought down by the Wai Levu. Across these flats we
sailed next morning, with scarcely a breath of wind, though our
pilot, whom we christened " Joe," kept constantly calling for a
breeze, using an old Fijian pilot's chant, " Come down, come
down, my friend from the mountains."

As we drifted slowly away over the glassy water, the view
behind us was beautiful. Far away, blue in the distance, was a
long range of the lofty peaked mountains of Viti Levu, still the
abode of the Kaivolos, the long-haired mountaineers, the canni-
bals. Nearer lay a streak of dark green undulating low country,
bounded seawards by low cliffs, and showing near the coast the
numerous cultivated clearings of the natives. Just off the cliffs
of Yiti Levu lay the small island of Viwa. In the foreground
was the island of Mbau, with its crowded reed houses, its strange
stone parapets, and its green hill topped by the missionaries'
white house. From the centre of the village came the sound of
what was the old cannibal death drum, beating now for morning
prayers.

There were twTo of these drums in front of the strangers'
house. They are simply logs of wood, hollowed out above into
troughs, and supported horizontally on posts at about three feet
above the ground, looking like horse-troughs. One was larger
than another. They were beaten with two wooden billets alter-
nately, and gave out different low bass booming notes. Very
similar drums are used amongst the Melanesians, as at Efate
in the New Hebrides,* and at the Admiralty Islands, where
however they are stuck upright in the ground, and the mouths
of the trouQ-h-like cavities are contracted to narrow slit-like
openings, the trunks being hollowed out through these. The

* "A Year in the New Hebrides," p. Ill, by F. A. Campbell.
Melbourne, George Roberston, 1873.

322 A NATURALIST OX THE " CHALLENGER."

Japanese wooden bell, or narrow-mouthed wooden drum, seems
to be merely a more perfect development of these drums, and
no doubt the actual bell was derived from the copying of some
such wooden instrument in metal. The addition of a clapper to
a bell is a late improvement. Japanese bells still have none,
but are sounded by means of a beam of wood, swung against
them from outside. The term " drum " should perhaps be
restricted to instruments with a tense membrane.

As a musical instrument, our ordinary English Chapel Bell
is much on a par with the Fijian drum, and makes an equally
uncultivated and unpleasant noise.

The great river, the Eewa Eiver, or Wai Levu (great water)
opens into the sea by several mouths. We ascended by the
northernmost. About the mouth of the river the land is flat
and alluvial, and the river is bordered on either hand by a thick
growth of mangroves. Below these trees, slimy mud slopes are
left bare at low tide, on which a Periophthalmus* hops about on
the feed just as a frog might hop about. Close to the sea the
mud is covered with a sea grass (Halophila), and hence looks
greenish when left uncovered. Ducks {Anas superciliosa) are
common on the mud at the river's brink, as is also a Heron
(Demiegretta sacra), which pitches often in the Mangroves. The
Ptilotis sings amongst these mangroves, and the Parrot Platycercus
splendens screams amongst them.

After a stay at ISTovaloa, where there is a mission college for
training native teachers, and where Fijians learn even rudimen-
tary algebra, we drifted up with the rising tide, grounding
once and having to wait an hour to float off again. We passed
many villages, and several canoes full of people. We slept at
Nadawa, where a small paddle steamer, the property of a trader
living there, Mr. Page, and built by him there, was under repairs
and waiting for new engines from Sydney. Here also was a
sort of Hotel kept by two Englishmen. Mr. Page, who was
extremely hospitable, gave me a bed.

In the morning we had to beat against the land breeze up
the main river, which we had entered just below Nadawa. The
Wai Levu is a fine large river, in some reaches 300 yards across,

* See page 296.

fiji islands. 32;;

and in occasional flood time pouring so much fresh water into
the sea, that ships at anchor three miles off its entrance are
able to take in their store of drinking-water from the water
alongside them.* Dana calculates the volume of water poured
in Eewa Harbour at 500,000 cubic feet per minute, and that
discharged by all the mouths of the river together at 1,500,000
cubic feet. The area of the Delta is 60 square miles.

The mangrove thickets had ceased before the main river
was reached, and here above Navusa the low banks on either
4 hand were hidden by a dense mass of a tall grass, a species of
Saccharum, or w7ild sugar-cane. For the first twelve miles or so
of its lower course, the river flows through its delta, and hence
the banks are low and the country flat. Some few miles above
Navusa the banks become steeper, and low hills commence.
These gradually become more frequent as the ascent is continued,
until steep slopes, with intervening stretches of flat land, are of
constant occurrence on either hand. The view up the river now
shows a succession of ridges, one behind the other, rising gra-
dually in the distance, and terminating in a line of distant blue
mountains.

The steep slopes are covered with a thickly interwToven vege-
tation, the large trees being covered with Epiphytes, Ferns,
Lycopods, and climbing Aroids, and festooned with creepers.
These creepers in places form a continuous sheet of bright green,
falling in gracefully curved steps from the top of the slopes to
the bottom, and almost entirely concealing their supports. Here
and there tall Tree-ferns rear their heads amongst the tangled
mass, and palms (two species of Kentia) form a conspicuous
feature amongst the foliage.

We were forced to anchor in the evening to await the turn
of the tide. As it became dusk numbers of Fruit-Bats flew over-
head, whilst in the beds of reeds a constant cry was kept up by
the coots and water rails. On the tide turning we had to take
spells of an hour each at the oars as our time was short, and by
paddling on gently all night we reached before daylight a spot
about 35 miles from the mouth of the river called " Viti."

At Viti, a Mr. Storck and his wife live. Mr. Storck is a

* Dana, " Geology of United States Expl. Exp.," p. 348.

Y 2

324 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

German, and was the assistant of Mr. Seemann during his
investigation of the plants of Fiji. He was extremely hospitable.
He had taken to growing sugar, as cotton had failed, and had a
splendid crop, which he calculated to weigh 62 tons of cane to
the acre. Mills were about to be erected, and there seemed
every prospect of sugar paying well. There were already
20 plantations of sugar on the Eewa Eiver. It was curious to
see a man from the New Hebrides islands, so notorious for the
murders of white men committed in them, acting as nurse to one
of Mrs. Storck's children, and hushing the baby tenderly to sleep
in his arms. He was one of the imported labourers, concerning
whom so much has been written.

About Viti there are abundance of large Fruit-Pigeons, of the
pigeons with purple heads, identical with those of Tongatabu
(Ptilinopus porphyraceas) ; also of the "Kula" (Domicella solitaria),
and the " Kaka " (Platyccrcus splendens). The Kaka attacks the
sugar-canes, and does considerable damage. There are some
huge fig-trees at Viti, with the typical plank-like roots and com-
pound steins. Here also grow one or two cocoanut-trees, which
are rarities so far up the river, for at the inland villages along
the river there are no cocoanut-trees, and a regular trade is
carried on by the natives in bringing the nuts up the river from
the coast, in canoes, to barter them with the inland people.

The Black Eat and Norway Eat are abundant at Viti, and
there is also a native Field Mouse, according to Mr. Storck, but I
could not procure one in our short available time. I do not
know whether a field-mouse is known from Fiji. A large fresh-
water Prawn is common, and is caught for eating by the Fijian
women, and in their baskets I saw also an Eel (Murcena).

A red stratified sandstone, with a slight inclination of its
strata, is exposed in section opposite Mr. Storck's house. It is
said to contain no fossils. An exactly similar rock is exposed at
various spots for several miles down the river.

On the way down the river, the barge constantly grounded
on shoals, our pilot, Joe, knowing nothing of the upper part of
the river. We had to strip our clothes off constantly and jump
overboard to shove the boat over the shallows, which at last stuck
fast and had to remain in that condition till the tide came up

FIJI ISLANDS. 325

and turned again. Joe, the pilot, cautioned us about jumping
over into the water, as he said there were sharks. A shark,
about three feet long, is common as far up as Mr. Storck's plan-
tation, and large sharks are believed to be common in the lower
parts of the stream, and are mentioned in Jackson's Narrative, in
the appendix to Capt. Erskine's " Islands of the Western Pacific,"
as often taking down natives in the neighbourhood of Ilewa.
At Naclawa, however, Mr. Page bad never seen one, and I saw
women there constantly standing up to their necks in the water,
collecting freshwater clams (Unio), evidently without fear.

The Shark of the Wai Levu is Carclmrias gangeticus, found
also in the Tigris at Bagdad, 350 miles distant in a straight line
from the sea, where it attains a length of 2 -J feet. It is common
in large rivers in India. It breeds in fresh water in Yiti Levu,
inhabiting a lake shut off from the sea by a cataract.*

There are sharks inhabiting fresh water in other parts of the
world, as in South America, in the Lake of Nicaragua ; f and in
a freshwater lake in the Philippines there lives permanently a
"Pay," a species of Saw-fish. A peculiar genus of Mugiiidce
occurs in the Wai Levu, G-onostomyxus ("sa loa" Fijian). It has
been described by Dr. Macdonald.J

Joe, our pilot, was I suppose, about 35 years old. He had no
notion of his age, but said, when asked by the interpreter in his
own language (he knew no English at all), that he was five
years old. When asked if he had eaten human flesh, he said
" No "; that he had killed four men, but had never been allowed
a taste by the chiefs. He evidently thought himself in this
respect an injured man. He had had four wives. He suffered much
from cold on the river in the early morning ; but, dressed up in a
blanket suit by the Blue-jackets, who were very kind to him,
managed to keep alive, and seemed to enjoy himself pretty well,
especially at meal times.

We passed a hill, opposite which the water of the river is
supposed to have the effect of making the whiskers and beard
grow, and the spot is resorted to by young Fijians, in order to

* "Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist./' Ser. 4, Vol. IV., No. 79, July 1874, p. 36.

+ Thos. Belt, " The Naturalist in Nicaragua," p. 45.

% J. D. Macdonald, R.N., M.D., F.RS., " Proc. Zool. Soc." 1869, p. 38.

326 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER

force their hair. Joe said that he had been and bathed there
when young.

We passed numerous villages on the river side and landed at
some to buy clubs, spears, kaava bowls, and other implements,
and the river was lively with canoes laden with yams and cocoa-
nuts. In most places the people crowded to the banks to stare
at us, and the girls and boys shouted as we passed. On the
upper part of the river I heard a call used which reminded me
somewhat of a European mountaineer's jodel ; it sounded like
" He, Hah, ho, ho, ho." Our guides to the top of the mountain in
Matuku, used the same call when at the summit. Mountaineers
in all parts of the world seem to have some such cry. The echo
no doubt provokes it.

One village, Navusa, some few miles above Naclawa, inte-
rested me, as having its fortifications still perfect. It occupies
an oblong rectangular area, two sides of which are protected by
a natural water defence. On the other two a deep ditch is dug
and the earth has been thrown up inwards to form a bank, on
the summit of which is set a strong palisade, which is extended
around the whole area. Three narrow openings, only wide
enough to admit one man at a time, give means of access. The
openings are guarded by a sort of stile, over which a slab with
notches for the foot leads up on one side, a similar one leading
down the other.

The whole site of the village has been levelled and raised.
Nearly all the houses rest upon raised platforms of earth, a foot
or six inches in height ; the chief's house being especially
elevated. Around all the houses were immense heaps of the
shells of the fresh-water mussel (Unio), which is very common
in the river. The site of an old village on Mr. Storck's estate
was made up of beds of these mussel shells. We saw at Navusa
canoe-building going on. For an adze, a broad chisel was used,
fixed into what had been the handle of an old stone adze, just
as the Admiralty Islanders fix blades of iron tub hoop into the
old handles of their shell adzes. A chisel of hard wood was
used for caulking, shaped just like our own caulking irons.

Near Nadawa, on the road to Nakello, is the village of Tonga-
drava, which has also been strongly fortified. It is of an oval

FIJI ISLANDS.

327

form, with two deep broad ditches encircling it, a zone of fiat
ground intervening between these. Narrow cross banks on
opposite sides of the village lead across the ditches. Formerly
all Fijian towns were fortified. Those in the Rewa district
appear to have been remarkable for their strength,* especially a
town called Tokotoko, where there was a perfect labyrinth of
moats and ditches.

The people of Nakello, a large village, about two miles from
Nadawa, according to Jackson's Narrative, were peculiar amongst
the Fijians for not eating human flesh; it being forbidden
"tambu" with them. In the centre of Nakello are the
tombs of two chiefs. They consist of two large tumuli of
earth, adjoining one another, one being older than the other.
The older tumulus is oval in form, about 20 yards in dia-
meter at the base, with sloping sides, and about 10 feet in
height. At the top is a flat circular space, which is en-
closed by a wall formed of slabs of coral and coral rock, set
on edge ; none of the slabs being very
large. Another line of slabs sur-
rounds the mound about halfway up,
and here there is a sort of step on
the side of the mound. "Within the
upper circle of stones are some slabs
of Tree-fern stem set on end like the stones. The more recent
mound has no circles of stones, and is oblong in form.

Our object in visiting Nakello was to be present at a grand
dancing performance, which happens in each district only once
a year, and which we were lucky enough to arrive just at the
right time to see. The dance takes place on the occasion of
the collection of the contributions made to the Wesleyan Mis-
sionary Society, by the natives. Such dancing performances
used always to be held when the annual tribute was paid over
to the chiefs, and dancing on their collection days has been
encouraged by the missionaries. The policy of the Wesleyan
Society pursued in Fiji is very different from that maintained by
the missionaries in Tonga, where dancing is suppressed.

SECTION OF TUMULCS AT NAKELLO.

1 Lower circle of stones ; 2 upper circle
3 Tree-fern stems.

* Capt. Erskine's " Islands of Western Pacific." App. A, p. 459.

328 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

The village was full of visitors, and everyone was dressed in
his best. The Dancing Green in front of the chief's house was
cleared, and a white tappa flag was stuck up in the centre. We
called on the chief, and found him sitting on his mat in a fine
large house, about 40 feet long by 20 broad, 10 feet in height to
the slope of the roof, and 25 feet to the ridge pole. The house
was built of a wooden frame, the rafters and beams being secured
with plaited cocoanut fibre or sennet. The walls are of reed,
the roof a thatch of grass. The sleeping place at one end was
on slightly raised ground, six inches above the rest of the floor,
and was divided off by a curtain of tappa suspended from a cord
stretched across. The floor was merely the earth covered with
mats. This description will suit any Fijian house except as to
dimensions.

The chief sat on his mat near the middle of the house, whilst
four or five servants and a visitor sat at the far end. The chiefs
small boy was being polished up by his nurse for the festivities,
and another woman was making girdles of jasmine twigs for
the chiefs little daughter, holding one end of the garlands
between her toes, as she twined the twigs into the sennet with
her fingers at the other.

When the small boy was handed from one nurse to another,
each nurse, after handing him, went through the usual ceremony
of respect to a chief, sat still a moment and clapped her hands
four times reverently, and did the same after handing the boy to
his father. The clapping was not done so as to make a noise,
the palms of the hands were merely brought together quietly
four times. The women looked reverently on the floor whilst
doing it, as if saying a prayer. It was not at all done as an act
of ostentation — indeed the women's backs might be turned to the
company at the time — but appeared much more like a ceremony
of private devotion. The posture of the hands whilst clapped
together is the same as that of Europeans and Japanese and so
many races, during prayer.

The chief dressed his son's head himself. The head dress-
ing consisted in shaving off all the boy's wool, except a vertical
ridge which was left intact at the back, and looked some-
what like the crest of a Greek helmet, and in smearing the

FIJI ISLANDS. 329

whole of the shaved part with a thick coating of a bright
vermilion red.

We drank kaava and tasted Fijian puddings, which are
glutinous semi-fluid masses, made of taro and cocoanut, and
flavoured with molasses. The puddings are kept done up in a
bag of banana leaf, and are very nasty, though specially prepared
as a luxury on this occasion. The chief showed us two clubs,
family heirlooms, which had killed a large number of illustrious
enemies ; but since, as he told us, they are always kept very
carefully oiled, just as we oil our cricket bats, there was no hair
or remains of blood or brains about them.

It was past noon before the people began to assemble in
considerable numbers, and seat themselves on the banks and
rising ground, commanding a view of the dancing-place. The
dancing was begun by the body of young men which I had
before seen practising the same dance for this grand occasion
at Bureta, in Ovalau.

There were about 80 men in this company. A party stood
together in the centre and kept up a sort of chant, one of their
number beating time with two sticks upon a small bar of light
wood, which was held by the hands of another. The remainder
danced round to the chorus in a ring, but every now and then,
changes between members of the ring and chorus took place.
One of the chants I took down as " Raihi val sal sate a durum."
The last sound was uttered with a peculiar lingering humming
sound. The words chanted, usually have no meaning, corre-
sponding to our fal la la, and similar sounds.

The chant was commenced always as a solo, the chorus
joining in after the first few notes. Combined with the music,
with excellent effect at various stages of the dance, was the
loud clapping of hands, which was done in most perfect time,
the claps of all the dancers and chorus sounding as one. Two
kinds of claps were used, one with the hands hollowed, and the
other with them flat. The two sounds thus produced served
further to diversify the effect, and there was also added a loud
shrill cry used in some of the figures just before their conclusion,
and uttered by one performer only, and which came in very
well.

330 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

The dancing consisted in most varied motions of the head,
arms, body, and legs, the same motions exactly being gone
through by every member of the circle in most perfect time.
At one time the head and shoulders were bent forward, and the
hands swung clapping together, at the same time as short side
steps were made, carrying the performers round in the circle.
Then a half-squatting position was suddenly assumed and the
head was thrown first on to one shoulder, then the other. Then
the performers would move on again, and stretch their arms out
with a fixed gaze, as if shooting with the bow. The motions
were none of them very quick, and none very fantastic.

The men wore fringes of various kinds, hanging from round
their waists, mostly a combination of the yellow and red Panda-
nus leaf strips and the black fibrous girdles of the fungus
(Rhizomorpha). Most of them had also fringes of Rhizomnrpha
just below the knee, often with beads strung upon them. All
had their bodies well covered with cocoanut oil, and their hair
trimmed with great care.

Bv the time the first dance was over, there was a dense
concourse of spectators round the .Green. The missionary
arrived, a table was set out under a tree opposite the chiefs
house, and three native teachers, two of them Tongan men, sat
behind it to receive the money. The inhabitants of the various
villages and smaller districts now advanced in separate troops,
walking up in single file to the table and throwing down, each
man or woman, their contributions upon it, with as loud a rattle

as possible.

As each contribution fell, the three teachers and some of the
members of a further large body of teachers from the college,
who were squatting close by, shouted " Vinaka, vinaka " (slowly),
" Vinaka, vinaka, vinaka" (quickly), which means "good, good,"
or "hear, hear." Many bystanders joined in the applause.
The money consisted of all sorts of silver coins, and a very few
copper ones, and over £100 must have been collected in coin.

The people of the various villages, and the districts subject
to the chiefs of these, prepare dances for this yearly occasion for
many months, and they vie with one another in the splendour
and perfection of the performance. As each band came up and

FIJI ISLANDS. 331

made its contribution, a part or the whole of it at once proceeded
to perform the prepared dance, and when this was over another
party approached the table, and so on.

The people as they filed up to the table formed a wonderful
spectacle. The girls were most of them without coverings to
their breasts, but the upper parts of their bodies were literally
running with cocoanut oil, and glistened in the sun. The men
and boys were painted in all imaginable ways, with three
colours, red, black, and blue. There were Wesleyans with face
and body all red, others with them all blackened soot black, others
with one half the face red, the other black. Some had the face
red and the body black, and vice versd. Some were spotted all
over with red and black. Some had black spectacles painted
round the eyes. Some had a black forehead and red chin.
Some were blue spotted, or striped on the face with blue, and
so on to infinite variety. How amused would John Wesley have
been if he could have seen his Fijian followers in such guise !

For many of the dances the men were most elaborately
dressed. They were covered with festoons of the finest gauzy
white tappa, or cuticle of the shoot cf the cocoanut tree. These
hung in long folds from the backs of their heads, and were
wrapped round their bodies as far as up to the armpits and
hung from the waist down to the knees in such quantity as to
stick out almost in crinoline fashion. Eound the men's heads
were turbans, or high cylindrical tubes or mitres of white tappa,
whilst hanging on their breasts were pearl oyster shells set
in whales' teeth, the most valuable ornament which a Fijian
possesses, and which he is forbidden by the chiefs to sell.

Some of the men had remarkable head-dresses. One of
them for instance had, sticking out from the front of his head,
and secured in his hair, a pair of light thin twigs of wood, which
were a yard in length. They were slightly bent over in front of
his face, and at their extremities were fastened plumes of red
feathers. The whole was elaborately decorated. As he danced,
the red plumes swayed and shook at each jerk of his head with
great effect.

The most interesting dances were a Club Dance and a Fan
Dance, in each of which a large body of full-grown fighting men,

332 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

some of them with grey beards, performed. In all the dances,
except the first one already described, the chorus sat on the
ground at a corner of the Green, and usually contained a
number of small girls and boys, and used in addition to the
wooden drum, a number of long bamboo joints open at the
upper end, which, when held vertically and struck on the
ground, give out a peculiar booming note.

In each of the dances there was a leader, who gave the word
of command for the changes in the figures, and his part was
especially prominent in the Club Dance, In this dance all the
attitudes of advance, retreat, and the striking of the blow, were
gone through with various manoeuvres, such as the forming of
single file and of column. Clubs are carefully decorated when
used for dancing; some clubs indeed seem to be kept for dancing
with, and to correspond to our Court swords in being merely
decorative. There are flat spaces near the heads of the curved
clubs, which on festive occasions are freshly smeared with red,
blue, or white paint. Coloured strips of Screw-pine leaf are
often wound round the clubs, and some clubs are decked with
beads strung on Bhizomorpha fibres. Thackombau's son's club
was, as I have said, freshly painted blue near the top. Thackom-
bau on State occasions had a decorated club carried before him,
just as at home the Vice-Chancellor of Oxford, and even the Presi-
dent of the Eoyal Society. No doubt at some future time, when
fire-arms have been superseded, rudimentary guns, richly orna-
mented, will be carried in state before distinguished personages.

In the Fan Dance, all the dancers were provided with a fan
of tappa stretched on a wooden frame. They divided themselves
into two parties, which formed into single file in the same line
with one another, but with a considerable interval between the
two parties. The two bands took up the chant and danced
alternately, answering each other as it were. The fans were
waved in various attitudes, and at the end of each movement
thrown suddenly up over the head (still held in the hands), a
wild war-cry, uttered by the whole line simultaneously, accom-
panying the movement. The war-cry was of a single prolonged
high-pitched note, and sounded intensely savage.

In another dance, performed by a large body of men, about

FIJI ISLANDS. 333

120 I think, the dancers formed a sort of rectangular group,
arranging themselves in eight rows, the leader being in the centre
of the front row. Once or twice the leader came forward to the
chorus, and addressed a few words in a dramatic manner partly
to them, exhorting them to do their duty well, partly to the
spectators.

A club dance by boys was one of the performances. In one
figure of this the boys, standing in a line with their bodies bent
forwards, jerked their hips with a most astonishing facility, first
to one side and then to the other. The motion, especially in
cases where the boys had a large quantity of tappa projecting
behind as a sort of bustle, was most ludicrous, and the audience,
instead of crying the oft repeated "Vinaka, vinaka," fairly
shouted with laughter.

A band of women of the district, headed by the Queen of
Eewa and her daughter, who were both dressed in bright blue
striped prints, marched slowly forwards across the Green to
deposit their offerings, singing a chant, descriptive of various
incidents from the New Testament, the descriptive part being
a solo, whilst the whole band joined in a constantly repeated
chorus containing the words Allelujah, Amen. This song was
in lieu of a dance.

The principal interest of the performances, however, lay in
the obvious fact that here were to be observed the germs of the
drama, of vocal and instrumental music, and of poetry, in almost
their most primitive condition in development. In these Fijian
dances they are all still intimately connected together, and are
seen to arise directly out of one another, having not as yet
reached the stage of separation.

The dance is evidently first invented by the savage, then
rhythmical vocal sounds are used by the dancers to accompany
it, and simple instruments of percussion are employed to keep
time. As the dance becomes gradually more varied and complex,
the accompanyists are separated as an orchestra, the actual per-
formers joining less and less in the vocal part until, as here, they
merely utter a single loud cry or note occasionally during the

dance.

The instrumental music of the orchestra remains long sub-

334 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

ordinate to the vocal and very simple, being represented at Fiji,
as described, by the single small wooden drums and the bamboos.
The orchestra, continuing its performance in short intervals in
the dancing, and commencing somewhat before the first figures,
in order to allow the dancers to be ready to take up the measure,
as was the case at Nakello, comes at length to perform solos ; and
hence the origin of music apart from dancing. The gradual com-
plication of the music and improvement and multiplication of
instruments follows, until vocal and instrumental music change
places in importance and become also at length separated from

one another.

The dances being descriptive of victorious battles and such
exploits, the chants, at first mere musical sounds and war-cries,
become short descriptions of the fight, or praises of the warriors,
and hence the origin of poetry. I could get no explanation of the
meaning of the chants used at Nakello ; as far as I could gather,
they were without meaning, mere convenient sounds ; but Fijian
songs do exist, for Joe, our pilot, sang part of one one day and
explained that it related to the superiority of the Mbau men to
the Eewa men.

The origin of the drama is clearly seen in the stepping
forward of the leader of the dance, as described, and dramatic
enunciation by him of a short speech. A further step was to
be seen in one of the other dances, when the leader, before his
troop came on to the ground, rushed forward brandishing two
spears in his hands, and gave a short harangue descriptive of
what he was going to do.

The separation of the dancers in the Fan Dance into two
parties, performing alternately and responsively, is also interest-
ing and brought the Greek chorus and drama into one's
thoughts. It was of course not necessary to have recourse to
Fiji in order to trace the origin of dancing, music, and the
drama. This has been done fully long ago. But nowhere, I
believe, is the primitive combination of these arts so forcibly
brought before the view, as a matter of present-day occurrence,
as in this group of islands.

The most extraordinary feature in the Nakello performance
was the extreme order and decorum of this concourse of three or

FIJI ISLANDS. 335

four thousand people. It seemed astounding, whilst looking on
at these blue, red, and black-painted Fijians nourishing their
clubs and shouting their war-cries, to reflect that this was a
Wesleyan Missionary meeting. The representative of the power
which has tamed these savages was a little missionary, with
battered white tall hat and coat out at elbows, who stood beside
us and who took no prominent part in the ceremonies, but yet
had full sway over the whole, no dance having been prepared
without his previous sanction.

There could be no doubt as to the amount of good which
had been done to these people, and it is sincerely to be hoped
that the Wesleyan Missionaries will be left unmolested to con-
tinue the work in which they have been so successful, and which
they have begun and carried out often at the risk, in some
instances with the loss, of their lives.

The men and children attending the meeting vied with one
another in getting money to contribute, and were ready to sell
anything they had almost for what we would give them. One
boy pestered us to buy an old hen, and followed us about with
the bird. Others sold us clubs and ornaments. The great wish
was to have several pieces of silver to make a rattle on the table,
and two sixpences wTere worth much more than a shilling, two
shillings more than half-a-crown. Immediately the ceremony
was over everything went up in value, and a good many articles
pressed on us before, were not now to be had at any price.

Amongst the crowd was an Albino Boy. He was perfectly
white, his skin having a peculiar look, almost as if covered with
a white powder, in places. His eyes appeared as if the iris were
of a pale-grey colour. He hid his eyes either from the light or
because of shyness. His parents said he could see perfectly.
I could not examine him closely as he roared at the prospect.
Albinos seem unusually common amongst Melanesians, and are
constantly mentioned by travellers. Hence these savages,
when first seeing Whites, no doubt often took them for a
race of Albinos. I saw several hunch-backed dwarfs amongst
the crowd.

We sailed from the Wai Levu, or Eewa Eiver, to Kandavu,
stopping at a small island on the way, to buy a pig and some

336 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

fowls. A voyage in an open boat has many discomforts, espe-
cially when the boat is crowded. The managing to sleep six
together in the confined space of the stern-sheets of a ship's
barge, was a difficult matter, especially as the available surface
was rendered extremely irregular by the various articles neces-
sarily stowed upon it, such as provision boxes and beer cases.
We all slept with our shooting-boots on, to ensure mutual
respect, as we lay packed like herrings in a barrel. On the
whole the trip was pleasant enough, and the inconveniences
as nothing compared with the interest of a visit to such places
as Mbau and Viti Levu.

One feature of interest in the Fijis, which I have forgotten to
mention, arises from the importation of labour. At Levuka are
to be seen men from the New Hebrides and Solomon Islanders.
Further, the curious straight-haired most characteristically
featured Tokelau race, or Union Islanders, mostly girls: also
Tongans and Samoans and a few Negroes from the United
States. Eepresentatives from almost all Polynesia, assemble
here and may be studied by the Anthropologist.

Nothing surprised me more than the great power of the
chiefs in Fiji, and the absolute subserviency of the lower classes
to them. The reality of the various grades of rank amongst such
savages, and the abject condition of the slaves, were facts which
I had not previously realized.

Facial expression is far less marked in the Fijians than the
Tongans. Amongst the lower classes there is a remarkable
want of expression ; there is also, as far as I saw, entire absence
of gesticulation during conversation. The methods of affirma-
tion and beckoning are the same as in Tonga ; the throwing up
of the head in affirmation is common to many races, being used
by the New Zealanders, Abyssinians, and Tagals of Luzon* The
forehead muscles are little used, at least by the ordinary people.
Amongst the families of the chiefs there is much Tongan blood.
Thackombau wrinkled his forehead constantly during his con-
versation with our party, and one of the mountaineers, prisoners
whom I saw at Livoni in Ovalau, knit his brows frequently
when I was asking him about his eating human flesh.

* C. Darwin, " The Expressions of the Emotions," p. 275.

FIJI ISLANDS. 337

Our interpreter, an Englishman, who had married a Fijian
woman, and who knew the people well, told me that old women
sometimes clap the hands twice in expressing astonishment.
This habit of expression is evidently derived from the clapping
of hands in expressing respect to a chief, and is interesting as
showing how peculiar means of expression may thus be of
entirely artificial origin. The clapping of hands is used as a
ceremony of respect to superiors in Japan, as at the funeral of
Okubo, the minister lately assassinated in Yedo, at which " all
present saluted the deceased with three claps of the hands."*

The interpreter further said that the mountaineers in express-
ing astonishment, shake backward and forwards transversely
once or twice, the right hand held hanging back foremost from
the half-extended arm ; a similar gesture is stated by Darwin to
be used by Northern Australian natives, to express negation.

A short click made with the tongue and repeated several
times, is also used by the mountaineers to express astonishment,
and also to express pain, as on striking the foot against a stone,
or even by a man when hit by a bullet, louder exclamation
being repressed through bravery. The same sound is used by us
in pain, but more often to express disappointment, as on saying
" what a pity ! "

The audience at Nakello, when they shouted with laughter,
produced a general sound exactly like that proceeding from a
European audience. No doubt the sound of laughter is one of
the very earliest and oldest of human cries. It is certainly an
astonishing sound, and one that it is very difficult to listen to and
analyze without prejudice and a remote feeling of sympathy.
The best way to study it that I know, is to seize on opportunities
when one is being constantly interrupted, say at one's club, in
reading a serious book, by shouts of laughter from a party of
strangers ; one can then note the curious variety of spasmodic
sounds produced, and marvel that men in the midst of rational
conversation should be compelled by necessity to break off
suddenly their use of language, and find relief and enjoyment in
the utterance of perfectly inarticulate and animal howls, like
those of the " Long-armed Gibbon."

* The Japan Mail, June 6, 1878, p. 306.

338

A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

It is a curious fact that the cries of the Gibbon are uttered
in a similar manner in a series, on slight provocation. When
one lately in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, was
in the proper mood, a very slight snatch of a whistle from
the keeper would set the animal off into the utterance of a
regular peal of howls, which appeared to follow one another
spasmodically.

Cicatrization of the skin is practised by the Fijians, but the
scars produced are not so much raised as are those of the men of
Api in the New Hebrides. I saw a series of circles thus marked
on one chief's arm ; he said they were done with a fire stick, and
on the occasion of the death of a relation, or out of respect on
the death of a chief. In the women, scars are sometimes made
to enhance beauty. Young boys when troublesome, are some-
times caught by the old men, and have their flesh gashed in
various places to make them sore, and keep them quiet for a
time. The little finger is commonly absent on the right hand,
having been cut off as a ceremony.

With regard to Fijian weapons, the annexed
figure represents a well-known wooden weapon,
which consists of a slender handle about a foot
in length, and a heavy rounded knob cut out of the
same piece ; the knob is in fact the base of the tree
stem, from which the weapon is made. The weapon
is one of the commonest of those brought to Europe
from Fiji, and exhibited in museums. It is not a
club, as it is usually called and labelled, but a
missile weapon, which is thrown with great force
with the hand, revolving rapidly in the air as it
flies, and striking a very formidable blow, often in
the face. Settlers in Fiji told me it was the only
native weapon which they feared when fighting with
Fijians. The native name of the weapon is " Ula,"
The head of the ula is usually beset with a circle of
large oval knobs, as shown in the figure. These knobs are
the stumps of the lateral roots of the tree, from which the
weapon is cut. When the ula is carved out of solid wood, a
circle of knobs is often cut round the head of it, in imitation of

FIJIAN DLA.

FIJI ISLANDS. 339

those derived in the original weapon from the lateral root
stumps. Some ulas have perfectly smooth heads.

With regard to Cannibalism, I gather many of the following
details from our interpreter : When visitors of distinction paid a
great chief a visit, he was expected to provide human flesh for
their entertainment. If there were no prisoners, a man whose
special office it was to obtain such food for the chief, went in
search and often killed some girl or woman he met with alone,
belonging to a village not far off.

Young woman was considered to be the best eating;
Europeans were not thought so good to eat as natives, no
doubt because of their very mixed diet, and much greater
consumption of animal food. The bodies were prepared with
care for cooking, and were usually baked in the well-known
oven in the ground. A special vegetable, a species of Solanum
(*S. anthrojpophagorum), was eaten with the baked flesh,
just as was the case in New Zealand. The vegetable was
eaten with human flesh as a suitable condiment, not as an
antidote. There is no reason to suppose that ill effects fol-
lowed the eating of human flesh any more than from the
consumption of any other kind of flesh. The sturdy health of
the grey -haired Thackombau is sufficient evidence against such
a supposition.

The flesh was eaten cold as well as hot, and the cold cooked
flesh was often sent as a present to a distance by one chief to
another. A four-pronged fork of wood was used in eating-
human flesh, and was held more or less sacred, but it was also
used for eating other food occasionally.

The New Zealanders were, however, probably the most pro-
fusely cannibal race that has existed. As many as 1,000 New
Zealand prisoners have been slaughtered at one time after a
successful battle, that their bodies might be put into the ovens.

In 1828, the captain of an English merchant ship, named
Stewart, made an agreement with a tribe of Maoris under a
renowned chief, Te Eauparaha, to convey a war party to a
distant village on the coast, for the remuneration of a cargo of
New Zealand flax. The warriors were landed at night, exter-
minated the village, and brought off the bodies of the slain to

z 2

340

A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER/'

the ship, where they cooked them in the ship's coppers ; the
captain nevertheless duly received his cargo.*

In 1832 or 1833, a large party of Maoris was landed by
another English merchant vessel on the Chatham Islands, small
outliers of New Zealand. The islands were inhabited by a
weaker race, " Maoriori," 1,500 in number. The Maoris simply
ate their way through the islands, killing the Maorioris as they
required them for food, and making the victims dig the ovens
they were to be cooked in, and collect wood for the purpose.!
Their object in going to the island was to feed upon the in-
habitants, a Maori who had visited the islands, when engaged as
a seaman on a European vessel, having reported the islanders as
plump and well fed.

Whilst the New Zealanders considered the palms of the

FIJIAN DOUBLE CANOE.

(From a photograph.)

hands and the breast as the best eating,:} the Fijians especially
preferred the flesh of the arm above the elbow, and that of the

* W. T. L. Travers, E.K.S., "The Life and Times of Te Kuaparaah."
Trans. New Zealand Inst. Vol. V, 1872, p. 78.

t H. H. Travers, " On the Chatham Islands," Ibid. Vol. I, 1860, p. 176.

X E. Dieffenbach, "Travels in New Zealand," Vol. II. p. 129. London,
J Murray, 1843.

FIJI ISLANDS. 3^1

thigh.* Not more than five-and-twenty years ago, White resi-
dents are said to have joined the natives in their cannibal feasts
at Ovalau, Fiji.t

Whilst we were at Fiji, the burning question with the
settlers was whether the group was to be annexed by Great
Britain or not. The planters and all the store-keepers were
eagerly hoping for the annexation, and many had staked their
fortunes on the event. The missionaries, on the other hand,
were praying in the best interests of the natives, as they viewed
them, that the place might remain as it was. The result is well-
known ; the Fijis are now British. Thackombau and his suite
were taken to Sydney for a trip in a man-of-war, and they
returned bringing the measles with them, by which about one-
third of the native population was at once swept off.

* C. Wilkes, " Narrative of U.S. Exploring Expedition," Vol. V,
p. 101. New York, 1856.

t J. D'Ewes, "China, Australia, and the Pacific Islands," p. 151.
London, 1857.

342

CHAPTER XIV.

NEW HEBRIDES. CAPE YORK. TORRES STRAITS.

A pi Island, New Hebrides. Fringing Reefs. Proofs of Elevation. Coral
Living Detached. Natives of Api, their Ornaments and Weapons.
Condition of Returned Labourers. Expression of the Emotions.
Eaine Island. Its Geological Structure. Its Vegetation. Nesting
of Wideawakes. Gannets and Frigate Birds. Dead Turtles.
Somerset, Cape York. Nests of White Ants. Combination of Indian
and Australian Features in the Vegetation. Various Birds. Habits
of the Rifle Bird. Birds Fertilizing Plants. Camp of the Blacks.
Habits of these Natives. Curious mode of Smoking. Food of the
Blacks. They Cannot Count Higher than Three. Absolute Nudity
of the Men. Coral Flats. Collection of Savage Weapons at Cape
York. Wednesday Island, Torres Straits. Structure of Coral Flats.
Giant Clam. Native Graves. Booby Island. A Halting Place for
Birds during Migration. Many Land Birds on an Almost Bare
Rock.

Api Island, New Hebrides, August 18th, 1814. — We left

Kandavu on August 11th, and made a week's run before
the trade wind to the island of Api, in the New Hebrides,
having on board the ship some labourers, natives of that island,
who had worked out their time in Fiji, and were to be returned
to their home.

We were off the east coast of Api, on August 18th, having
passed several small adjacent islets, " Three-hill " island amongst
them, all volcanic. Api lies south of Ambrym and Malicolo, and
between these islands and Efate or Sandwich Island. It is in
about the same latitude as the northern part of the Fiji group.
The island is upwards of 20 miles long and its highest peak is
about 1,500 feet above sea-level.

The island rises in steep slopes from the sea with here and
there only a stretch of flat shore land. It consists of a series of
peaks and steep-sided valleys and ridges. The whole is entirely
covered with the densest possible vegetation, excepting on very

API ISLAND. 343

small spots, with difficulty discerned with a glass, where plots are
cleared by the natives for cultivation.

The ship steamed close in to the island, opposite a spot where
a valley terminated towards the sea with a widened mouth,
evidently containing a river. There was a stretch of flat land
at the bottom of the valley on which were conspicuous amongst
the other foliage some cocoanut palms and another species of
palm. As we came near natives appeared on the shore, some
hiding in the bushes, others running along at full speed, whilst
some shouted a loud " hoa." One man stood on the shore and
waved a green branch with untiring perseverance.

These natives were said to be hostile and dangerous, and
therefore the first party, the " Captain's," which landed, was
armed, but the returned labourers acted as an introduction and
made matters smooth ; still, as all the natives were armed,
either with bows and poisoned arrows, clubs, or trade muskets,
and as the inhabitants of these islands are noted for treachery,
no one was allowed to leave the beach, and our stay lasted for
only a few hours. Thus we saw very little of this island, which
had certainly never been landed upon before by any scientific
man or naval officer.

The shore is made up of a banked-up beach, composed of small
fragments of volcanic rock and volcanic sand, mingled with a
large proportion of coral fragments, and is fringed by a narrow
shore platform of coral, which, in the place where I examined
it, was not much more than 100 yards wide. The New Hebrides
have no barrier reefs but only narrow fringing reefs. The cause
of this, Dana concludes to be the fact that volcanic action has, in
this group of islands, been very recent. There are still several
active volcanoes in the group, and one was said by our returned
labourers to exist in Api. (The word Api means in Malay,
" lire "). Submarine ejections of carbonic acid and the falling of
fine dust might render the growing of reef corals round an active
volcanic island nearly impossible.

The Api shore reef is remarkable for its extreme flatness.
Almost everywhere the living corals embedded in it are growing
only laterally, the upper surfaces being dead from want of suffi-
cient depth of water. In some small specimens of a massive

344 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

Porites the consequent flattening of the top and expansion of
the lateral dimensions was most excellently shown in pieces
convenient for museum purposes.

The Corals, which were few in number of species, were finer
grown towards the outer verge of the reef, as is always the case
on shore platforms, the very opposite condition to that which
holds in case of barrier reefs. In some places were deep holes
in the coral platform, reminding one of glacier crevasses on
a small scale, evidently arising from the loose nature of the
sloping beach on which the coral structure here rests. On the
reef rest weathered remains of a more ancient shore platform
which are honey-combed and wave-worn. The rock composing
them is, however, undoubtedly in situ, and proves elevation of
the islands to the extent of five feet or so. Similar fragments
of raised reef were found by Mr. Murray at a short distance up
the bed of the stream already mentioned. A massive porites was
one of the corals on the reef. Some specimens of this species
were unattached, though living, being in the form of rounded
masses, entirely covered with living polyps, and I suppose from
time to time rolled over by the waves. They reminded me of
the similarly detached rounded masses formed by some Lichens
(Lecanora esculenta), which are rolled about over the land by the
winds as are these coral colonies by the waves.

On the reefs were comparatively few free living animals, but
here I saw for the first time one of the huge Synaptas, which are
abundant amongst the East Indian Islands and at the Philippines.
The animal was a yard long and two inches in diameter, and
looked like an ugly brown and black snake. The instant I
touched one I knew what it was, for I felt the anchor-shaped
hooks in its skin cling to my hand.

One animal on the reefs I could not understand the nature
of. About six white tentacles, each nearly six inches in length,
and of a uniform thickness of not more than -^th of an inch,
were expanded on the reef in a radiate manner. On irritation
they were slowly but entirely retracted. I could not succeed in
digging the owner of them out of the reef rock. I have never
seen this animal elsewhere.

Above the shore the first land plant met with is the ubi-

API ISLAND.

345

quitous tropical Littoral plant (Ipo?ncea pes caprce). It is always
the first plant above the high-water mark in these tropical
shores. Above a skirting of this commenced a thick growth of
largish trees, a species of Barringtonia, a Fig, and the common
Pandanns of the Pacific Islands occupying the shore margin.
A few paces inside the wood it was gloomy, from the thickness
of the growth of trees and creepers overhead. The same climb-
ing Aroids grew here as at Fiji, and a Dracmna was common, and
also a beautiful climbing Asclepiad (Hoya) with white waxy
flowers, and one or two ferns. I could not penetrate the wood
far enough to get any adequate idea of the
nature of the vegetation. Five birds were
shot in Api, Artamus melaleucus (a Shrike),
a Swallow (Hirundo Tahitica), a Swift, a
Fruit Pigeon, and the Kingfisher {Halcyon
julice). I saw no sea birds.

The Api men wore as clothing nothing
but a narrow bandage of dirty European
fabric of various kinds. They are a small
race, few, I should say, being above five feet
in height. Their limbs, and especially their
legs, are small and badly shaped. They are
much darker in colour than Fijians ; they
seemed quiet enough. Several amongst those
we saw were returned labourers, and were at
once known by their having fastened to their
waist cloth the key of the chest which every
labourer brings back with him, containing
the fruits of his toil. The labourers thus
retain the property for which they have
worked even in Api. Two men joined me
on the reef. One had been in Queensland,
the other in Fiji. Both spoke a good deal of
English ; and one said he was willing to go
to Fiji again.

Nearly all the men wore a small trian-
gular ornament, cut out of one of the septa
of the pearly Nautilus shell, and threaded by the syphon hole in

CHARM CCT OCT OF THE
SEPTUM OF A NAUTILUS
SHELL, AND EARRING MADE
OF TORTOISESHELL, AND A
PIG'S TAIL. API ISLAND.

346 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

it, tied round their necks. Many had broad flat tortoiseshell
bracelets, and nearly all earrings made of narrow strips of tor-
toiseshell moulded into a flat spiral, from which hung sometimes,
as ornaments, the tips of pigs' tails.

The bows used by the natives are made of hard wood. The
arrows are without feathers, but notched for the string, and
made of reeds with heavy wood ends, and tips of human
bone. The tips are all covered with poison, which is in the
shape of a black incrustation. The arrows have an elaborate
and artistic coloured decoration in the binding round the part
where the bone tips are inserted. The men were unwilling to
part with these arrows, which they prize highly. They carry
them rolled up in an oblong strip of plantain leaf, and showed
by signs that they considered the poison deadly, and were much
in awe of it.

The men have all of them cicatrization on their bodies,
usually representing a human face, and placed sometimes on the
shoulder, but more often upon the breast, and sometimes on
both breasts. They understood the value of the usual trade
articles very well. Knives, tobacco, and pipes were what they
wanted most, but they were not eager at all to trade, and few
weapons or ornaments were obtained from them. The tortoise-
shell bracelets they would not part with at any price. It was
very trying to leave a totally unknown island like Api after two
hours only spent on the shore.

I had an opportunity of watching the expressions of the Api
men on board during the voyage. During their whole stay they
had a peculiar dejected look, and, like the lower order of Fijians,
a marked want of expression in conversing with one another.
In laughing they were affected and childlike, or girlish, hiding
their faces with their hands. The hands in doino; this were half-
clasped, the face turned away on one side, and the clasped hands
held over the shoulder in front of the face, just as in the case of
a shy child. Often the thumb was held in the mouth, the hand
half-hiding the face in laughter. I heard no loud laughter, but
a steady look at one of the men nearly always called forth a grin,
which expression was used invariably to show consciousness of
being gazed at. The forehead muscles were little used. When

KAINE ISLAND. 347

the men were talking amongst themselves their faces showed
little expression. When a little excited they ran their voices up
into a sort of affected falsetto.

Amongst the men on shore I noticed a shrugging of one
shoulder, the head being leant over towards the same side,
constantly used to express disinclination to accept proffered
barter, and a pouting of the lip, the under lip being much thrown
up, was used at the same time, or alone, to express the same
meaning. To signify " Farewell," the hand was held up, palm
outwards, and with the fingers extended.

Rainc island, August 31st, 1814. — The ship passed Eaine
Island on the afternoon of August 30th, and anchoring about
five miles off, under the lee of a reef, returned and landed a
party on the island next day. A very full account of Eaine
Island is given by Jukes.* The island is at the entrance of the
most usually employed passage through the Great Barrier Eeef of
North Eastern Australia. It is about three-quarters of a mile
long, and composed of calcareous sand rock, closely similar to
that of Bermuda, excepting that it is remarkably evenly bedded.

The strata dip towards the shores with a slight inclination.
I measured the dip on the north-east side of the island, near
the beacon, and found it 7°. I cannot say whether it is uniform
all round the island. Towards the centre the strata seemed to
be horizontal. Jukes observed a similar dipping of the strata in
Heron Island,! but does not mention it as occurring at Eaine
Island. This condition would arise from the island being formed
as a single low sand dune, in which consolidation subsequently
took place ; though why a series of smaller dunes and ridges
should not here have been formed, and hence a rock like that of
Bermuda, with contorted strata, have arisen, I do not see : per-
haps from the constancy of the direction of the winds, or from the
smallness of area, or the absence of adequately binding plants.

The shore of Eaine Island was of glistening white calcareous
sand, made up of fragments of shells, corals, and Foraminifera,
Immediately above the beach line, where grass commenced and
with it the breeding-place of the terns, the colour of the sand

* " The Voyage of the 'Fly,'" Vol. I, pp. 126 and 338.

t Ibid., p. 7.

348 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

became redder, and consolidated crusts were here common
upon its surface, as at Bermuda. The sand rock is mostly
redder than the beach sand from which it is formed. Perhaps
this is due to the loss of a certain quantity of lime, and con-
sequent greater proportion of iron ; or perhaps to the action of

the birds' dung.

On the island I found eleven flowering plants ; I believe
there are no more. Two of these are grasses. The grass covers
tracts bordering the shores, where no other plant grows, and it
is here that the terns breed. I could find no moss, fern, or lichen
on the island, so that here from the action of drought and ex-
treme heat, the conditions are just the opposite of what they are
in an Antarctic island, such as Possession Island, where Crypto-
gams only grow. Some Fungi, and low algae possibly, on the
birds' dung, and perhaps some parasitic fungi on the plants,
were probably the only Cryptogams in the island. There were
even no seaweeds to be seen cast up on the beach.

There were no vestiges remaining of gardens made on the
island in 1844, by the crew of the " Ply/' and planted with cocoa-
nuts, pumpkins, and other plants ; all has been overwhelmed by
the drift sand. I found what I hope may prove a favourable
spot, and planted pumpkin, tomato, capsicum, water melon, and
Cape gooseberry seeds. I think the latter plant very likely
indeed to grow. There is very good black vegetable soil in
places on the island.

The most striking feature at Ptaine Island is formed by the
birds. They are in such numbers as to darken the air beneath
as they fly overhead, and the noise of their various mingled
screams is very trying to the ears at first, but not so painful as
that of a penguin rookery. Eleven species of birds were seen on
the island. A heron, seen only at a distance, the cosmopolitan
" Turnstone," and a small Gull {Larus Novce Hollandice) appeared
to be casual visitors to the island, as they were not nesting
there ; the Turnstones being seen in flocks on the shore.

The birds breeding on the island were as follows : — A Land-
rail (Ralhis pectoralis), a widely spread species, occurring com-
monly in Australia, Central Polynesia, the Moluccas, and the
Philippines. These birds were tame, and were knocked down

RAINE ISLAND. 349

with sticks and caught by the hand. They had full-fledged
young running about.

A Tern {Sterna fuliginosa), a widely spread species, the
well-known " Wideawake " of Ascension Island, was exceedingly
abundant. The stretches of flat ground above the shore line
covered with grass were absolutely full of the brown fledged
young of this bird. Eggs were already very scarce. A Noddy
(Anous stoliclus), the same bird as that at St. Paul's Eocks and
Inaccesible Island, so far off in the Atlantic, makes here a rude
nest of twigs and grass amongst the low bushes, but often nests
also on the ground. There were plenty of eggs of this bird, it
being not so advanced in breeding as the tern.

Two species of Gannets, Sulci leucogaster and Sula cyanops,
were nesting on the ground, and especially on a plot of ground
quite flat and bare of vegetation ; probably the site of the
dwellings of the men employed in 1844 in putting up the beacon
on Eaine Island. Sula leucogaster, the Booby of St. Paul's Eocks,
makes a slight nest of green twigs and grass on the ground.
Sula cyanops makes a circular hole in the earth, about 1^ inches
deep. This species is nearly white, with the naked parts about
the head of a dull blue, and with a bright yellow iris, which
gives the bird a ferocious look as it ruffles its feathers and
croaks at an intruder. It would almost seem as if the cause of
the colouring of the eye might be the savage appearance which it
gives the bird, which may thus be protected from attack. A
third smaller species of Gannet (Sula piscatrix) has red feet,
which distinguish it at once from the other two. I saw one or
two of its nests made in the bushes, like those of the noddies,
raised six inches from the ground.

There remain to be mentioned the " Frigate Birds " (Tachy-
petes minor). Their nests were nearly all confined to a small
area near the cleared patch already referred to. They are like
those of Sula piscatrix, raised on the bushes, and are compact
platform-like masses of twigs and grass matted together with
dung, about eight inches in diameter. There were no eggs of the
birds in the nests, but mostly far advanced young, which were
covered with frills of a rusty coloured down. The old birds
soared overhead, and could only be obtained by being shot;

350 A NATURALIST OX THE "CHALLENGER."

whereas the gannets were easily knocked over on the nests
with sticks. It is curious to see the Frigate birds, the nesting-
place of which is usually on high cliffs, as at Fernando Norhona,
here, through the entire security of the locality, nesting on the
ground. The main body of the Frigate birds remained during
our stay soaring high up in the air, with their eagle-like flight,
far above the cloud of other birds beneath.

On the island were lying about the shells of numerous
turtles which had died there. In one place there was quite a
heap of these at a spot where there was a sort of miniature
gully, bounded by a perpendicular wall of rock about two feet in
height. It appeared as if the turtles had crawled up from the
sea-shore to spawn, and being stopped by this small cliff, had
been unable to turn round or go backwards, and had died there.
A Locust (Acridium) was very common amongst the grass on the
island, and a large Earwig (Forftcula) under the stones.

Cape York, Australia, Sept. 1st to Sept. 8th, 18*4. — The

" Challenger " reached Somerset, Cape York, the northernmost
point of Australia, on the evening of September 1st. The coast
leading up from the south towards Somerset, presents a succes-
sion of sandy bays, which looked glaring and hot as we passed
them in the distance. Behind these sands the country rises in
a succession of low hills, and is covered with a thick vegetation.
Somerset lies in a narrow channel, formed between the small
island of Albany and the mainland. The island, and also parts
of the mainland bordering the sea, at the entrance to the channel
from the south, are bare of trees, excepting " Screw pines," and
covered only with a grass, in the dry season withered into hay.

These open grass-covered spaces are rendered most remark-
able objects, because they are covered in all directions with the
nests of Termites (White ants). These nests are great conical
structures of a brick red colour, often as much as ten feet in
height. Standing up all over the open country, they give the
scene almost the appearance of a pottery district in miniature,
beset with kiln chimneys.

The tide runs in a regular race through the channel between
Albany Island and Somerset, and we drifted rapidly with it to
an anchorage opposite the small bay in which Somerset lies,

CAPE YORK. 351

On the one hand is a small strip of Mangrove swamp ; in the
centre, a long beach of sand ; on the other hand, the commence-
ment of a range of low cliffs.

Behind the shore of the Bay the land rises steeply, and is
covered with wood, except where cleared around two conspicuous
sets of wooden buildings, the one the residence of the magistrate,
the other the barracks of the water police.

Three other wooden houses, one on the beach used as a store,
the other two nearly in ruins, and only temporarily inhabited,
make up with these the whole settlement of Somerset. There
were only five or six permanent White residents. At the time
of our visit there were in the place besides, others belonging to
a small Mission Steamer intended for New Guinea, and also the
skippers of two vessels employed in the pearl shell trade.

The country is wooded in every direction, but with con-
stantly recurring open patches covered with scattered acacias,
gum trees, and Proteacese with grass only growing beneath. In
the dense woods, with their tall forest trees and tangled masses
of creepers, one might for a moment imagine oneself back in
Fiji or Api, but the characteristic opens, with scattered Eucalypti,
remind one at once that one is in Australia. The principal
features of Australian and Indian vegetation, are, as it were,
dovetailed into one another.

In the woods, the tree trunks are covered with climbing
aroids, and often with orchids. Two palms, an Areca with a
tall slender stem not thicker than a man's wrist, but fifty feet
high, and a most beautiful Caryota, strong evidence of Indian
affinities in the flora, are abundant. The Cocoanut Palm, as is
well known, is not found anywhere growing naturally in
Australia, though it is abundant in islands not far from Cape
York. At Cape York some trees had been planted, but they
appear not to thrive. One of these, already more than eight years
old, at which age it ought to have been bearing fruit, had as
yet a trunk only a few feet in height. A Eattan Palm, trailing
everywhere between the underwood, is a terrible opponent, as
one tries to creep through the forest in search of birds.

The number and variety of birds at Cape York is astonishing.
Two species of Ptilotis (P. crysotis and P. filigera) , different from

352 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

those at Fiji, but closely resembling them, suck the honey from,
or search for insects on, the scarlet blossoms of the same Ery-
thrina tree as that at Fiji. With these are to be seen a Myzo-
mela, and the gorgeous little brush-tongued Parroquet (TricJio-
glossus swainsonii), which flies screaming about in small flocks,
and gathers so much honey from the flowers, that the honey
fairly pours out of the bird's beak when it falls shot to the
ground. Amongst the same flowers is to be seen also a true
Honey-bird (Nectar inia frenata), with brilliant metallic blue

tints on its throat.

The common white-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua galerita) is
here wary and difficult to get near, though not so much so as in
the frequented parts of Victoria. The great black Cockatoo
(Microglossum alerrimum) is to be found at Cape York, but I
did not manage to see one. The Pheasant Cuckoo (Centropus
phasianus) rises occasionally from the long grass in the opens,
and though of the cuckoo tribe, has exactly the appearance of a
pheasant when on the wing.

On one of my excursions I shot a large brown Owl (Ninox
boobook), which was sitting at daybreak in the fork of a large
tree, and which my native guide espied at once, though I had
passed it. The great prize at Cape York is however the Eifle-
bird (Ptilorhis Alberti) one of the Birds of Paradise. The bird
is of a velvety black, except on the top of the head and breast,
where the feathers are brightly iridescent with a golden and
green lustre. In the tail also are two iridescent feathers.
The bird lives in the woods, where the trees and undergrowth
are twined with creepers. It does not frequent the higher forest
trees much, but the tops of the shorter sapling-like growths and
masses of creepers binding these together.

The call of the bird consists of three loud shrill short
whistling notes, followed by a similar but much lower pitched
note. The third of the first three whistles is somewhat louder
and shorter than the two preceding. This is the full call of the
bird, sometimes only two notes are uttered before the low note,
and sometimes only a single whistle.

The call is most striking and peculiar, and guided by it, one
steals gradually through the wood, treading cautiously upon the

CAPE YORK. 353

dead leaves, and tries to creep within shot of the birds. The
call is uttered usually only at intervals of several minutes ; it is
very easily imitated by whistling, and thus a call may often be
elicited, and the bird's whereabouts discovered.

The bird is extremely shy, and the snapping of a dead twig
is sufficient to scare it, and it requires great patience and per-
severance to shoot one. It several times happened to me that I
got within fifteen or twenty yards of a Eifie-bird, and stood
gazing into the thick tangled mass of creepers overhead, where
I knew that the bird was, without being able to get a glimpse
of it, until at last it darted out without my catching sight of it.

The bird takes short rapid nights from one part of the bush
to another, the rounding of the front of the wings giving it a
peculiar appearance when on the wing. The Blacks pointed out
the red fruit of the Areca palm as the food of the bird, and I
found abundance of the seeds of this palm in the stomach of a
bird which I shot. The one bird which I shot was hopping
about up and down amongst a thick piece of bush, much in the
way of a wren or warbler. The male in full plumage is indeed
a splendid object ; the female and the young birds of both sexes
are of a dull brown colour, as is the case with all the Birds of
Paradise.

When walking in the woods in search of birds, a slight
rustling in the fallen leaves attracts one's attention, and the
Black guide becomes greatly excited. It is a pair of the " Mound-
birds " (Megapodus tumulus), which are disturbed and are seen
running off like barn-door fowls, and when thus luckily hit
upon are easily shot. Several "Brush Turkeys" (Talegalla
Lathami), were shot during our stay at Somerset, and the huge
mounds thrown up by them were common objects at the borders
of the scrubs, but the season was not far enough advanced for
them to have commenced laying eggs.

A brilliant Bee-eater {Merops ornatus) was common at Cape
York, and to be seen seated, as is the wont of Bee-eaters, on
some dead branch, and darting thence from time to time after
its prey. A little Ground Pigeon (Geopelia), not much bigger
than a sparrow, was also abundant.

A species of Swallow-shrike (Artamus leucopyyialis) was

A A

354 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

very common, sitting in small flocks in rows on wires stretched
for drying clothes near one of the houses, just as swallows sit on
telegraph wires in England. The birds made excursions after
flies, flying just like swallows, and returned to their perching
place. Those which I shot all had their feathers at the bases
of their bills clogged with pollen from the flowers, in which no
doubt they had been searching for insects ; like some humming-
birds, they must act as fertilizers, carrying pollen from one flower
to another.

In all my excursions I was accompanied by Blacks. An
encampment of natives lay at about half a mile from the shore ;
the camp was a small one, and composed of the remnants of
three tribes. There were 21 natives in this camp when I visited
it early one morning in search of a guide, before daybreak,
before the Blacks were awake. Of these 21, about six were adult
males, one of whom was employed at the water police station
during the day time ; there were four boys of from ten to four-
teen years, two young girls, two old women, two middle-aged
women, and the remainder were young women.

One of the old women was the mother of Longway, who
acted as my guide, and who had a son about ten years old. The
Blacks were mostly of the Gudang tribe, a vocabulary of the
language of which is given in the Appendix to MacGillivray's
" Voyage of the ' Eattlesnake.' "* The natives were in a lower con-
dition than I had expected. Their camp consisted of an irregu-
larly oval space concealed in the bushes, at some distance off
one of the paths through the forest. In the centre were low
heaps of wood ashes with fire-sticks smouldering on them. All
around was a shallow groove or depression, caused partly by the
constant lying and sitting of the Blacks in it, partly by the
gradual accumulation of ashes inside, and the casting of
these and other refuse immediately outside it. On the outer
side of this groove or form, were stuck up at an angle, large
leaves of a Fan Palm here and there so as form a shelter, and
under the shelter of these the Blacks huddled together at night
to sleep.

A camp of this shape with a slight mound inside, and a
* For a further account of Cape York, see Jukes, " Voyage of the ' Fly.' '

CAPE YORK.

355

bank outside, formed involuntarily by primitive man, may have
given the first idea of the mound, the ditch, and rampart. The
large amount of wood-ashes accumulated in such a camp,
accounts for their occurrence in such large quantities in kitchen -
middens, where camping must have been in the same style. A
good many shells brought from the shore lay here and there
about the camp.

There were besides in the neighbourhood remains of shelters
of the common Australian form, long huts made of bushy
branches set at an angle to meet one another above, and
partially covered with palm-leaves and grass ; these the Blacks
used occasionally.

In the daytime the young women and the men were usually
away searching for food, but two miserable old women, reduced
nearly to skeletons, but
with protuberant sto-
machs, with sores on
their bodies and no cloth-
ing but a narrow bit of
dirty mat, were always
to be seen sitting huddled
up in the camp. These
hags looked up at a visitor
with an apparently mean-
ingless stare, but only to
see if any tobacco or bis-
cuit were going to be
given them ; they exhi-
bited no curiosity, but only scratched themselves now and then
with a pointed stick.

The younger women had all of them a piece of some European
stuff round their loins. Some of the men had tattered shirts, but
one, who acted as my guide, was invariably absolutely without
clothing, as was his son, who always accompanied him. The
only property to be seen about the camp were a few baskets of
plaited grass, in the making of which the old women were some-
times engaged and which were used by the gins for collecting
food in. Two large Cymbium shells, with the core smashed out,

A A 2

OLD WOMAN, CAPE YORK.

(From a rough sketch by Lieut. A. Channer, K.N.)

356 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

had been used also to hold food or water, but were replaced for
the latter purpose now by square gin bottles, of which there
were plenty lying about the camp, brought from the settlement.

The most prized possession of these Blacks is, however, the
bamboo pipe, of which there were several in the camp. The
bamboos are procured by barter from the Murray islanders, who
visit Cape York from time to time, and the tobacco is smoked in
them by the blacks in nearly the same curious manner as that
in vogue amongst the Dalrymple Islanders. No doubt the
Australians have learnt to smoke from the Murray Islanders.*

The tobacco-pipe is a large joint of bamboo, as much as two
feet in length and three inches in diameter. There is a small
round hole on the side at one end and a larger hole in the
extremity of the other end. A small cone of green leaf is inserted
into the smaller round hole and filled with tobacco, which is

BAMBOO TOBACCO-PIPE USED BY THE NATIVES OF CAPE YORK.

lighted at the top as usual. A man, or oftener a woman, then
opening her mouth wide covers the cone and lighted tobacco
with it and applies her lips to the bamboo all round it, having
the leaf cone and burning tobacco thus entirely within her
mouth. She then blows and forces the smoke into the cavity
of the bamboo, keeping her hand over the hole at the other end
and closing the aperture as soon as the bamboo is full.

The leaf cone is then withdrawn and the pipe handed to the
smoker, who, putting his hand over the bottom hole to keep in
the smoke, sucks at the hole in which the leaf was inserted, and
uses his hand as a valve meanwhile to allow the requisite air to
enter at the other end. The pipe being empty the leaf is re-
placed and the process repeated. The smoke is thus inhaled
quite cold. The pipes are ornamented by the Blacks with rude
drawings.

* J. Beete. Jukes. " Narrative of the Surveying Voyage of H.M.S.
' Fly,'" Vol. I, p. 65. Loudon, Boone, 1847.

CAPE YORK. 357

The bamboo pipes of Dairy mple Island are described as
having bowls made of smaller bamboo tubes instead of the leaf
cone. There are many such in museums. Possibly the leal' is
only a makeshift. The Dalrymple Islanders, however, sucked the
bamboo full of smoke from the large hole at the end instead of
Wowing.

It is remarkable that the Southern Papuans should have
invented this peculiar method of smoking for themselves, since
there can be little doubt that they derived the idea of smoking
from the Malays, probably through the Northern and Western
Papuans. There seems no doubt that the habit of smoking, as
well as the tobacco plant, were first introduced into Java by the
Portuguese * and the habit and plant no doubt spread thence to
New Guinea. The Papuans at Humboldt Bay smoke their
tobacco in the form of cigarettes.

No other property than that mentioned was to be seen about
the camp of the Gudangs, but on our asking for them, Longway
produced some small spears and a throwing stick, which were
hidden in the bush close by ; and a second lot of spears was
produced afterwards from a similar hiding-place. The Blacks
keep what property they have thus hidden away, just as a dog
hides his bone, and not in the camp ; hence it is impossible to
find out what they really have. I saw no knife or tomahawk.
No doubt the practice of thus hidiDg things away from the camp
has arisen from constant fear of surprise from hostile tribes.

The Blacks feed on shell fish and on snails (a very large
Helix), and on snakes and grubs and such things, which are
hunted for by the women. The women go out into the woods
in a gang every day for the purpose of collecting food, and also
dig wild yam roots with a pointed stick hardened in the fire.
They have not got the perforated stone to weight their digging-
stick, and are thus behind the Bushmen of the Cape in this
matter. A staple article of food with these Blacks is afforded
by the large seeds of a Climbing Bean {Entada scandens), and
their only stone implements are a round flat-topped stone and
another long conical one, suitable to be grasped in the hands.
This is used as a pestle with which to pound these beans on the
* A. de Candolle, " Geographie Botanique," T. II, p. 850.

• >

58 A NATUEALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

flat stone. Both stones are merely selected, and not shaped in
any way.

These Blacks seem never to have had any stone tomahawks,
and their spear-heads are of bone. They seem not to hunt the
Wallabies or climb after the Opossums, as do the more southern
Blacks, but to live almost entirely on creeping things and roots,
and on fish, which they spear with four-pronged spears. Staff-
Surgeon Crosbie of the " Challenger " saw Longway and his boy
smashing up logs of drift-wood and pulling out Teredos and eat-
ing them one by one as they reached them.

I tested Longway and also several of the Blacks together at
the camp, by putting groups of objects, such as cartridges, before
them, but could not get them to count in their language above
three — piama, labaima, damma.* They used the word nurraf
also, apparently for all higher numbers. It was curious to
see their procedure when I put a heap of five or six objects
before them. They separated them into groups of two, or two
and one, and pointing to the heaps successively said, " labaima,
labaima, piama," " two," " two," " one." Though another of my
guides had been long with the Whites he had little idea of count-
ing. After he had picked up two dozen birds for me and seen
them packed away, I asked him how many there were in the
tin : he said Six. I wish I had paid more attention to the
language of these Gudangs. ISTo doubt amongst such people
language changes with remarkable rapidity ; especially as here,
where tribes are mixed, and some of the words at least seem
to have changed since MacGillivray's time.

The Blacks are wonderfully forgetful, and seem never to carry
an idea long in their heads. One day when Longway was out
with me he kept constantly repeating to himself " two shilling/'
a sum I had promised him if I shot a Bifle-bird, and he constantly
reminded me of it, evidently with his thoughts full of the idea.
After the day was over, and we were near home, he suddenly
left me and disappeared, having been taken with a sudden desire
to smoke his bamboo, and gone by a short cut to the camp.

* MacGillivray, "Gudang Dialect." He gives "epiamana elabaiu
ilama."

t = uuora ? MacGillivray.

CAPE YORK. 359

When I found him there he seemed astonished and to lur.
forgotten about his day's pay altogether.

The Blacks spend what little money they get in biscuit at
the store. And they know that for a florin they ought to get
more biscuit than for a shilling, but that is all. Food is their
greatest desire. Their use of English is most amusing, espe-
cially that of the word " fellow." * This feller gin, this feller
gin, this feller boy," said Longway, when I asked whether some
young Blacks crouched by the fire were boys or girls. They
apply the term also to all kinds of inanimate objects. There
are several graves of Blacks near Somerset. I asked Longway
what became of the Black fellows when they died ; he said " fly-
away," and said " they became White men."

About 35 miles from Somerset is a tribe of fierce and more
powerful Blacks, of which the Gudangs are in great terror.
When I wanted some plants which were a little way up a tree,
Longway was not at all inclined to climb, but let a sailor who
was with me do it. Longway's boy said he could not climb.

As I have said, Longway was always completely naked. He
not only had no clothing of any description, but no ornament of
any kind whatsoever, and he was not even tattooed. Further, he
never carried, when he walked with me, any kind of weapon,
not even a stick. His boy, who was always with him, was in
the same absolutely natural condition. It was some time before
I got quite accustomed to Longway's absolute nakedness, but
after I had been about with him for a bit, the thing seemed
quite familiar and natural, and I noticed it no more.

On one of our excursions, Longway begged me to shoot him
some parroquets to eat. I shot half a dozen at a shot. I should
not have clone so if I had known the result. Longway insisted
on stopping and eating them there and then. I was obliged to
wait. Longway and his boy lighted a fire of grass and sticks,
tore a couple of clutches of feathers off each of the birds and
threw them on the fire for the rest of the feathers to singe partly
off. Before they were well warm through, they pulled the birds
out and tore them to pieces, and ate them all bleeding, devour-
ing a good deal of the entrails.

On one occasion, when I wished to start very early on a shoot-

360 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

ing expedition, in order to come upon the birds about daybreak,
which is always the best time for finding them in the tropics,
I went to the camp of the Blacks to fetch Longway, just as
it was beginning to dawn. The Blacks were not by any means
so easily roused as I had expected ; I found them all asleep, and
had to shout at them, but then they all started up scared, as if
expecting an attack. I had great difficulty in persuading Long-
way to go with me at that early hour, and he complained of the
cold for some hours. I think the Blacks usually lie in camp
till the sun has been up some little time, and the air has been
warmed.

With regard to expression, I noticed that the Gudangs used
the same gesture of refusal or dissent as the Api men, namely,
the shrugging of one shoulder, with the head bent over to the
same side. Their facial expressions were, as far as I saw them,
normal, I mean like those of Europeans.

Altogether, these Blacks are, I suppose, nearly as low as any
savages. They have no clothes (some have bits of European
ones now) no canoes, no hatchets, no boomerangs, no chiefs.
Their graves, described in the " Voyage of the 'Fly,'" are remark-
able in their form. They are long low mounds of sand, with a
wooden post set up at each of the corners. There is far more
trouble taken with them than would be expected.

The beach at Somerset is composed of siliceous sand. One
becomes so accustomed when amongst coral islands, to see the
beaches made up of calcareous sand, that it appears quite a
novel feature when one meets again with siliceous sand, to
which only we are accustomed in Europe. The sandy beach
slopes down, to end abruptly on a nearly horizontal mud flat,
bare at low water, which is mainly calcareous, and in fact a
shore platform reef, but with few living corals on it. At low
water, during spring tides, blocks of dead massive corals, such
as Astrceiclm are seen to compose the verge of these mud flats,
and it is from the detritus of these that the mud is formed.
Amongst these blocks are but few living corals, a species of
Euphyllia, small Astrccas, and cup or mushroom-shaped
Turbinarias.

There is a considerable variety of species of seaweeds on the

WEDNESDAY ISLAND. 361

flats. There are also several forms of Sea-Grasses : a species of
Halophila, the large hairy Enhalus, and a Thalassia urr<>w all
together, and spread in abundance over the mud, which is matted
with their roots in many places.

The channel between Somerset and Albany Island is shallow,
being nowhere more than 14 fathoms in depth. The dredge
here brought up a rare species of Trigonia, and the " Lancelet "
Amphioxus lanceolatus, which seems to have an extremely wide
range in distribution. The fauna on the whole was very like
that of Port Jackson.

Cape York is a sort of emporium of savage weapons and
ornaments. Pearl shell-gathering vessels (Pearl shellers as they
are called) come to Somerset with crews which they have picked
up at all the islands in the neighbourhood, from New Guinea,
and from all over the Pacific, and they bring weapons and orna-
ments from all these places with them. Moreover, the Murray
Islanders visit the port in their canoes, and bring bows and
arrows, drums, and such things for barter.

The water police stationed at Somerset deal in these curiosi-
ties, buying them up and selling them to passengers in the
passing steamers, or to other visitors. Hence all kinds of savage
weapons have found their way into English collections, with the
label "Cape York," and the Northern Australians have got credit
for having learnt the use of the bow-and-arrow. I believe that
no Australian natives use the bow at all.

Weapons from very remote places find their way to Cape
York, and thus no doubt the first specimens of Admiralty Island
javelins reached English museums. Accurate determination of
locality is of course essential to the interest of savage weapons.
Staff-Surgeon Maclean, of the " Challenger," had a large New
Guinea drum of the Crocodile form thrust upon his acceptance,
as a fee for visiting a patient on board one of the ' Pearl
shellers " ; he gave it to me.

Wednesday Island, Torres Straits, Sept. 8th, 1814.— We left
Cape York on September 8th, and made for the Prince of Wales
Passage through Torres Straits. I landed at Wednesday Island
a distant outlier of Cape York, which, with Hammond Island, is
passed close by in the track through the passage. The island is

362 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGEE

about two miles long, it is made up of quartz porphyry, forming
hill masses, a couple of hundred feet or so in height, with sandy
flats at their bases.

In places, the hill slopes come right down to the sea,
forming small headlands, and here the beach is composed of
boulders with small stretches of quartz sand derived from the
rocks between them. Along a wider bay to the north, the
whole beach is made up of calcareous sand and broken and
dead shells. A shore platform reef extends all along this side
of the island; in some places it is made up of consolidated
coral rock, full of large masses of dead corals cemented together
with coral mud, or seen projecting here and there between
muddy pools of water.

In other places the coral rock passes gradually into regular
mud flats. There were very few living corals indeed about the
shore platform ; it required careful searching to find them. I
found only the species of Uuphyllia, which was at Somerset, and
a small Astrcea, One large mass of Astrcea thrown up by the
waves and embedded in the mud, had a small patch on one
side of it still alive, the rest was quite dead.

Though stony corals were so scarce, soft Alcyonarians were
in great abundance. The rock was full everywhere of the Giant
Clam (Tridacna), the largest bivalve shell which has ever existed,
a familar adornment of fountains and oyster-shops in England-
This mollusk lives sunk in a cavity of its own in the rock, with
only its brilliant blue or green mantle fringes showing and
betraying its retreat. These protruded mantle lobes have the
appearance of huge expanded elongate sea anemones, and at
first sicdit one takes them for such. The shells must be quarried
out of the rock with a hammer and chisel if they are wanted.

The main peculiarity of these coral flats, as at Somerset, is
their extreme muddiness and the small quantity of life about
them. A Sargassum grows abundantly on the rock masses, with
several other algas. No doubt the decomposition of these and
the soft Alcyonarians is that which renders the coral mud so
dark and slimy. The occurrence of beaches of calcareous and
siliceous sand close together, both rising from the same coral
Hat, is an interesting fact, as showing how easily beds of such

BOOBY ISLAND. 363

very different materials may become associated or superposed.
A large Chania shell is very abundant, cemented to the hard
porphyry rocks, and recalled to one's mind forcibly the extinct
Hippurites.

The hills of the island are covered with a scrub, nowhere
very dense or high, whilst there are small mangrove swamps at
the edge of the mud flats. The low sandy tracts are open,
covered with scattered gum trees with long grass growing
beneath them, just as at Cape York. The long grass and
bushes were parched and dry, and burnt rapidly when we fired
them. On the shore were an Oyster-catcher, a small Plover, and
a Sandpiper, in flocks. The few Land-birds seen, were Cape York
species, the common Bee-eater, little Ground Dove, Artamus,
White Cockatoo, and a Brush Turkey.

Close to the shore were two native graves, and the remains
of shelters made of branches, and of fires. The island is often
visited by the natives of the Straits when on their voyages, but
not permanently inhabited. There were two graves placed side
by side, consisting of oblong mounds of sand, each with six
wooden posts placed regularly at the corners and middles of the
longer sides. The posts had many of them large shells placed
on their tops as decorations ; the mounds were decorated with
ribs of Dugongs, placed regularly along their sides and arching
over them, whilst Dugong skulls, all without the tusks, and large
shells adorned their summits.

In dredging in shallow water off Wednesday Island, a mon-
ster Starfish was obtained, apparently a species of Oreaster ; it
measured 1 ft. 9 ins. from tip to tip of its arms, and 5 inches in
the height of its central disc.

Booby Island, Torres Straits, Sept. 9th, 1874. — On the fol-
lowing day I landed on Booby Island, which acts as a sign-post
to ships entering the Prince of Wales Passage from the Arafura
Sea, on the other side of Torres Straits. The island is of the
same coarse quartz and felspar rock as Wednesday Island ; it is
only about two-thirds of a mile in circumference, and 30 to 40
feet in height. The greater part of the rock is white with the
dung of sea birds, the Booby and the "Wideawake," which
frequent it in vast numbers. The birds were, however, not

364 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

breeding here at the time of our visit : one egg of the tern only
was found. These birds were hence shy, and left the rock on the
approach of the boat, and remained flying round it until our
departure.

Most astonishing is the number and variety of land-birds,
which is to be found on this small island. It is so small that,
when the boat party had landed and had spread over it, it
became dangerous to shoot in almost any direction, for fear of
hitting some one. Yet here I shot seven species of land-birds,
and saw three others.

Most of the birds of Cape York are constantly migrating,
and the resident official at Somerset told me that the constant
change from month to month of the birds seen about his place
was most astonishing. The Torres Straits Islands serve as
resting places for the birds crossing from New Guinea ; Booby
Island is evidently thus used, and the number of its land-birds
is thus to be accounted for.

This island corresponds thus in this respect with such an island
as Heligoland in Europe, which is a well-known halting-place of
birds of passage, and at certain seasons swarms with land-birds,
resting on their journey, so that ornithologists visit it to procure
the rarest of birds. Heligoland also, like Booby Island, is almost
devoid of trees, and the birds have to pitch there in the potato-
fields. Upwards of 300 species of land-birds rest on the island,
which is a point in the direct lines of migratory flight.*

A small cleft runs up into Booby Island, and nearly across it,
and, affording shade and shelter, allows of the growth of a small
thicket of shrubs of a species of fig. Besides these shrubs the
island has little vegetation, except scanty grass, and about half-
a-dozen species of herbs. Amongst the branches of the figs,
lives a most beautiful Fruit-Pigeon (Ptilinopus superbus), with
head of a brilliant purple, the body green, and shoulders red. A
Painted Quail {Turnix melanonotus), was found amongst the
grass. The other birds which I saw or shot were a Land-rail, a

* J. F. Naumann, " Ueber den Vogelzug mit besonderer Hinsicht
auf Helgoland," s. 18. Ehea, Leipzig, 1846.

H. Seebohm, " Supplementary Notes on the Ornithology of Heligoland,"
Ibid. 1877, p. 156.

BOOBY ISLAND. 365

Mound-bird {Megapodius tumulus), a Bee-eater (Merops ornatus),
a Zosterops (Z. luteus), very like Z. flaviceps of Fiji, a Pachy-
cephalia, a Kingfisher [Halcyon sancta), and a thrush-like bird,
of which I saw only one specimen.

The Pigeon seems to be a permanent resident in the island.
The Megapodius astonished me most ; I did not know that the
bird possessed powers of flight sufficient to take it to such an
island; it must have been migrating. The fact no doubt
explains the occurrence of species of Megapodius in various
Pacific Islands. The quails are present at some times in Booby
Island in enormous numbers'. On August 13th, 1841, the
officers of the " Beagle " shot on it 145 quails, 18 pigeons, 12
rails of two species, and three pigeons.*

The Dove and the Bail were here for the first time procured
by Mr. Bynoe, and named by Gould from Booby Island speci-
mens. It is the last place in the world, as viewed from the sea,
with clouds of Boobies hovering over it, from which one would
expect two new land-birds to hail. Our officers laughed at the
notion of there being Quails or anything to shoot upon it. The
officer of the " Beagle " found a native grave on the island.
There are several caves on the island, in one of which a store
of provisions is kept for shipwrecked seamen. The caves are
now several feet above high water-mark, and possibly they point
to a slight elevation of the island.

* " Discoveries in Australia. Also An Account of Capt. Owen Stanley's
Visits to the Islands of the Araf nra Sea," Vol. II, p. 329. By J. Lort Stokes,
Commander, R.N. London, Boone, 29, New Bond Street, 1846.

366

CHAPTER XV.

ABU. KE. BAKDA AMBOWA TEENATE.

Appearance of the Aru Islands. Trees Transplanted by the Waves.
Masses of Drift Wood. Malay Language. Ballasting a Guide.
Managemeut of Clothes during Rain. Back Country Natives. Great
Height of the Trees. Nests of the Metallic Starling. Parrots and
Cockatoos. Bird Winged Butterflies. Shooting Birds of Paradise at
Wanumbai. Deposit of Lime in Streams. Boat Crews from the Ke
* Islands. Fungus Skin Disease. Ke Island Dancing. Houses at Ke
Dulan. Leaf Arrows. Bird caught in a Spider's Web. Ascent of
the Volcano of Banda. Algae Growing in the Hot Steam Jets.
Numerous Insects at the Summit. Alteration in Sea Level, Marked
on Living Corals. Nutmeg Plantations. Transportation of Seeds by
Fruit-Pigeons. Saluting at Amboina. Danger to the Eyes in Diving
for Corals. Raised Reefs. Myrmecodia and Hydnophytum. Moluc-
can Deer. Ternate Island. Chinese and their Graves. Sale of Birds
of Paradise. Ascent of the Volcano. The Mountain Vegetation. The
Terminal Cone. View from the Summit.

The Aru Islands, September 16th to September 23rd, 1814. —

On our way to the Aru Islands we crossed the Arafura Sea,
which lies to the west of New Guinea. The sea is extremely
shallow, being only from 30 to 50 fathoms in depth. After a
voyage of six days, from Torres Straits, we sighted the southern
part of the Aru Islands, so familiar to naturalists from Mr.
Wallace's account of them, in his " Malay Archipelago," and so
full of interest to us as the home of Birds of Paradise.

We sailed along the western coast of the islands. The
southern portions are not covered with forest, but appeared in
the distance as open grassy downs, and immediately further
north similar open country occurs frequently, amongst the
forest in patches. The grass, though it appears like turf in
the distance, is probably tall and reed like. A line of cliffs
of no great height forms the coast line. The low cliffs are

THE ARU ISLANDS. 307

broken at intervals and there the coast is wooded and shows
a white sandy beach.

The cliffs appear as if formed of a stratified ferruginous red
rock. Here and there on the rocks were conspicuous white
patches on the cliffs, the nesting-places of Boobies, of which
large flocks were seen flying to roost as evening came on.

Masses of closely-packed tree-stems with dense foliage
masses above, appeared lining the shore where it was flat.
There were no cocoanut palms to be seen amongst them.
After coasting during the whole night, Dobbo, the port of the
islands, was reached in the morning. Dobbo lies on the small
island of Wamma, which is separated opposite the town by a
narrow channel from the large island of Wokan.

The striking feature in the vegetation of Wamma, as viewed
by one who has just been amongst the Pacific Islands, is the
very small proportion of palms showing amongst the general
mass of foliage. There are only two small clumps of cocoanut
trees near the town. The leafy masses rising above the wdrite
beach might almost be taken to be made up of elm trees, the
tree tops being rounded in the same manner. The whole has
a dull blueish tint.

As we neared Dobbo, turning up the passages between the
two islands, we passed large quantities of leaves, fruits, and
flowers, and branches of trees floated off from the shores, and
now drifting about mingled with a floating seaweed (Sargassum).
Off the Ke Islands we met with similar drifts of land vegetation
and also amongst the Moluccas ; and I was astonished at the
large quantities of fresh vegetable matter thus seen floating on
the sea.

The sea birds, especially terns, habitually resort to the float-
ing logs as resting places, and it is curious to see them in the
distance, appearing as if standing on the surface of the water,
the logs themselves being often invisible. Not only are large
quantities of fruits capable of germinating thus transported from
island to island* but entire living plants, even trees, are washed
from island to island and transplanted by the waves.

* Mr. Darwin has recorded the experiments which lie made in con-
juncture with Mr. Berkeley to determine the period of time during which

368 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

On the shores of Little Ke Island I found on the beach,
above the ordinary reach of the waves, a large mass of the
pseudo-bulbs of an epiphytic orchid with its roots complete.
It was partly buried at the foot of a tree and seemed quite
lively. It had evidently been washed up in a storm. At
Malanipa Island, off the coast of Mindonao Philippines, I found
a young Sago Palm, which was just beginning to form a stem,
washed up just above the ordinary beach line, and firmly rooted,
though in an inclined position, and growing vigorously. Several
authors have described the large quantities of floating vegetable
matter to be met with in the Malay Archipelago and neighbour-
hood. Chamisso remarked on the quantity of floating seeds off
Java, and the casting up of Barringtonia, Aleurites triloba, and
Nipa Palm seeds on the shores in germinating condition.*

These large drifts from the forests have a further interest, in
that they let drop their remains to the bottom of the deep sea,
thereby not only serving as food to the deep-sea animals, but
leaving their husks to be preserved as fossils in deep-sea
deposits. I shall refer to this latter point in considering deep-
sea questions in the sequel.

We anchored off the town of Dobbo, not in the least altered
in the few years since Wallace's visit, with its line of Macassar
trading vessels drawn up on the beach ; its " prau " builders at
work, and a crowd assembled to gaze at us. We were visited by
Malay notables in their finest dresses of coloured silks, and by
Dutch half-caste missionaries who came in tail coats and tall
hats.

The sun was excessively powerful at Aru, and I felt the
glare on the white sandy beach more severely than anywhere
else during the voyage. In wading in search of seaweeds on the
coral shore platform, I positively found the water much warmer
than was pleasant to my legs. The water was very shallow,
only half way up my knees, and was heated by the reflections
from the white bottom.

various seeds will resist the action of sea- water, in the " Origin of Species,"
6th Ed., 1876, pp. 324, 325.

* Chamisso, " Bemerkungen auf einer Entdeckungs-Reise, 1815-1818,"
p. 366-401. Weimar, 1821.

THE AEU ISLANDS. 3G9

We encountered the Malay language for the first time at
Dobbo, and since no one there, except the missionaries, who
spoke Dutch, understood any European language, it was fortu-
nate that our navigating officer, Staff-Commander Tizard, had
learnt the language when engaged in surveying in the China
Seas and on the coast of Borneo. He arranged for guides and
started us with a small stock of the language.

It is the easiest in the world to pick up a little of. There is
no grammar, and anyone who has got a Malay dictionary can
talk Malay. " I go," " I shall go," " I went," are aU expressed by
the same word in Malay, and one is irritated on discovering how
thoroughly satisfactory such a simple arrangement is, to reflect
on the endless complications of verbs and their inflexions in so
many other languages and on the time which one has wasted
over them.

I made several excursions on shore with one or more guides.
One whom I generally took with me was a very active fellow,
and I soon found him too quick for me in the close hot forest.
I have always found it a bad plan to let native guides suppose
that one is easily tired and unable to keep up with them, so I
adopted an expedient with the man which has served me in
good stead on other occasions, and which can be recommended
to naturalists. Soon after I got on shore I examined a large
stone with care and interest, turning it over once or twice, and
then gave it him to carry, and when he had this ballast in addi-
tion to my vasculum, I found that I could keep on pretty good
terms with him. In the evening, when we reached the boat, I
conveyed the stone on board the ship with due solemnity and
threw it overboard.

I was amused at the manner in which my guides met a heavy

storm of rain. They had of course no umbrellas, but did not

wish to get their clothes, which consisted merely of two cloths,

one worn round the shoulders and the other round the loins,

wet. They simply stripped naked, rolled their clothes up tight

inside a large Pandanus leaf, and so walked along with me till

the rain was over, when they shook themselves dry and put their

clothes on again. Meanwhile my clothes were wet through and

had to dry on me.

B B

370

A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

»?

A very large species of Screw-pine (Pandanus), with a fruit
as big as a man's head, is common along the shore. It is a com-
mon East Indian littoral plant. The stem, though large, is soft
and succulent, and hence with a small axe one can enjoy all the
pleasure of felling a large tree without any fatigue. The deep
cut made by a single blow is most gratifying to one's feelings of
power, and having cut down one tree to obtain a specimen of the
fruit, I found myself felling two or three others wantonly.

On the Island of Wokan, not far from the anchorage, Sago
palms abound in the swamps. Several parties of natives from
the back country were living near the shore, having come from a
distance in their boats, to prepare a store of sago to take home
with them.

They lived in small low-roofed houses made of poles and
reeds, and raised on posts about two feet above the swampy
ground. These temporary houses were so low that the natives

HOUSE OF BACK-COUNTRY NATIVES. WOKAN ISLAND.

could only squat or lie in them. The men were darker than the
inhabitants of Wokan in the neighbourhood, and looked to me
more Papuan in appearance. They were armed with finely-
made spears with iron blade-like points, six or eight inches long,
and ornamented worked wooden handles. They would not part
with these at any price.

They resented my looking into their house, no doubt because
the women were there. The women seemed extremely shy, and

THE ARU ISLANDS. 371

huddled together out of the way, and the same was the case at
Wanumbai. The men had wrist ornaments, closely similar in
make to those common in New Guinea, at Humboldt Bay, and
at the Admiralty Islands. These are broad band-shaped wristlets
made of plaited fibres (of Pandanus ?), yellow and black worked
into a pattern.

These bracelets of the Aru Islanders were ornamented with
European shirt buttons in lieu of the small ground-down shells
(Neritina) used at New Guinea and in the Admiralty Islands for
the same purpose. The buttons came, no doubt, from the Chinese
traders, and probably the natives thought they were intended
for this purpose, as they look not so very much unlike the shells.
The men had a number of leaf buckets full of sago, ready pre-
pared, and we saw their rude kneading-trough and strainers of
palm fibre, in a swamp close by.

The trees are excessively high and large in the Aru forests. To
a botanical collector, with no time to spare, such a forest is a hope-
less problem. Only the few low-growing plants can be gathered,
and the orchids and ferns that hang on the stems low down,
especially along the coast. A few palms can be cut down. The
flowers and fruits of the trees, the main features of the vege-
tation, and those most likely to prove of especial interest, are far
out of reach.

The trees cannot be cut down. It would take a day at least
to fell one. The only hope is to lie on one's back and look for
blossoms or fruit with a binocular glass, and then try and shoot
a branch down. Very often, however, the trees are far too high
for that, and then the matter must be given up altogether.

Growing on some of the high trees in Wokan Island, I saw
most enormous Stag's-horn ferns (Platy cerium). I certainly
imagined they must be at least eight feet in the height of the
fronds. I could not reach any but very small specimens.

A species of Fig, a wide-spreading tree with large leaves,
seemed to me remarkable, because the fruit was borne only on
the pendent aerial roots. A tree of another species of fig-
amused me, because its pendent roots had wound spirally around
the parent stem of the tree itself, and had nearly choked it. It
eeemed just that a fig, so accustomed to choking other trees,

bb2

372 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

should thus once in a while choke itself ; but no doubt the tree
suffered little, the roots taking fully the place of the strangled
trunk.

The Eattans are a serious obstacle in excursions in the
forests. The tendrils of these trailing and climbing palms are
beset with rows of recurved hooks, which as they are drawn
across one's flesh, in a dash made to get a shot at a bird,
cut into it as readily as knives, but with a more unpleasant
wound.

An immense tree, with a tall stem free from branches, until
at a great height it spread out into a wide and evenly shaped
crown, was full of the nests of the Metallic Starling {Calornis
metallicct), a very beautiful small starling with dark plumage,
which displays a brilliant purple metallic glance all over its
surface. The birds breed thus gregariously. There must have
been three or four hundred nests in the tree ; every available
branch was full of them. The birds were busy flying to and fro,
and were quite safe, for the tree was so high that they were out
of shot of my gun at least, which was not a choke bore.

On one of my excursions in the forest I met with a flock
of brilliant plumaged Parrots. They were apparently feeding in
company with a flock of White Cockatoos. I managed to stalk
one of the parrots, and shot it. The cockatoos set up the most
angry harsh screaming, and evidently made common cause with
the parrots. They sat and screamed at me on a tree close by, as
angrily as if one of their own flock had been shot, and flew over
my head high up out of reach of the gun, looking down at the
dead bird and still screaming.

Once, as I was making my way through thick undergrowth
in a swampy place, my guide touched my arm and pointed and
said " Casiiari." I was too late to see the big bird, but I saw the
tracks of its feet in the mud ; and now, for the first time,
realized the fact that the Cassowary, a large Struthious bird, can
inhabit a dense forest. I had always coupled Struthious birds
in my mind with open downs or plains, or at all events with
brushwood and occasional trees. I had also not before under-
stood that " Cassowary " was the Malay name of the bird.

I searched for Land Planarians without success. There can

THE ARU ISLANDS. 373

however, be no doubt that they exist in Am, since they occur in
Australia, Ternate, and the Philippines.

The splendid large Bird-winged Butterfly, with brilliant green
and velvety black wings (Omithqptera poseidon) was common
in the woods, but flew high and was difficult to catch. I shot
one or two with dust shot, without their being utterly damaged.
I once, however, was lucky enough to find a flock of about a
dozen males, fluttering round and mobbing a single female.
They were then hovering slowly, quite close to the ground, and
were easily caught.

The female had thus a large body of gaudy admirers from
which to make her choice. Interesting results might possibly
be derived from a series of experiments, in which, in the case of
brightly coloured and decorated butterflies, the colours should
be rubbed off the wings of a few amongst a number of males, or
painted over of a black or brown colour. It might be tested
whether the females would always prefer the brightly coloured
ones. Dark coloured butterflies might possibly have the wings
of the male touched up with a little colour.

Similar experiments might be made with more chance of
success in the case of gaudy birds, the feathers of the cock being
dyed dark, or enhanced in colouring in the case of a little deco-
rated male. The hen might be kept in a cage between two males,
and it might be noted to which she gave the preference, and then,
whether an alteration in the colours of the plumage caused a
change in her inclination. If the artificial increase of colouring
succeeded as an experiment, then experiments might be made to
learn what colours, or mixture of colours, is most attractive in
various cases.*

A party visited Wanumbai, Mr. Wallace's old hunting-
ground, in the ship's steam-pinnace. We steamed across a sort
of lagoon, shut in by the islands, passing on the way a large Sea

* Mr. Tegetmeier stained some pigeons with magenta at Mr. Darwin's
request, but the birds were not much noticed by the others. Mr. Darwin
cites the case of the pied peacock, and that of the silver pheasant which
had its plumage spoiled, and which was then rejected by the hens. No
systematic experiments, however, seem to have been made on this subject
though they could easily be carried out in the case of birds. C. Darwin,
" The Descent of Man," Vol. II, pp. 118, 120, London, Murray, 1871.

374 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

Snake on the top of the water, and made our way up the remark-
able canal-like channel, for the formation of which Mr. Wallace
found it difficult to account. The people of Wanumbai were
very much scared at the appearance of the pinnace, full of men
with guns, but we had taken some Malays from Dobbo with
us to act as pilots, and introduce us, and they jumped on shore
and addressed the people of Wanumbai (" Orang Wanumbai,
Ye men of Wanumbai/') and soon made matters right. They
told them that we had only come to shoot " dead birds " {Burong
mate), the trade term by which the Birds of Paradise are known.

On the margin of the narrow sea channel, was a compound
house, an oblong building raised on numerous posts above the
ground. Inside it had a central passage, leading from the door
to the back wall, and on either side of this it was divided into
small pens by lowT irregularly made partitions. Each of these
pens held a family, and the women huddled together to hide
themselves in the corners of them, just as did those in Wokau
Island.

We purchased bows and arrows from the natives. The
arrows are very like New Guinea arrows in the various forms of
their points, but are all provided with a notch and feathers, the
latter being often bright parrots' feathers. Some have a blade-
like point of bamboo, and a man who was watching a native
plantation, to keep wild animals off from it, told me he used
these for shooting pigs. Some are tipped with Cassowary bone,
some are many-pronged, and these are used for shooting birds,
and are not exclusively fish arrows, as is often supposed.

Besides these, there are the arrows with a large blunt knob
at the end, used for stunning the large Birds of Paradise, with-
out spoiling their skins, as described by Wallace. Pointed
arrows are however used more frequently for this purpose, as
Mr. Wallace relates, because the birds are so strong as to escape
being stunned, and the points are more certain weapons. It is
curious that closely similar knobbed arrows are used in South
America by certain tribes, to kill Trogons and other fine
pluniaged birds. One man brought for sale a large Bird of
Paradise, dried in the usual manner for sale, but he wanted the
lull price for it asked by the Chinese dealers at Dobbo.

THE ARU ISLANDS.

375

I procured two guides, a boy and a man, and promised them
a florin for every Bird of Paradise that I shot. I had previously

HEAD OF A SOUTH AMERICAN BIRD ABROH',
IN THE CHRISTY COLLECTION.

HEAD OF AN ARROW USED FOR SHOOTING BIRDS
OF PARADISE IN THE ARC ISLANDS.

been in pursuit of the birds at Wokan, but they were not so
common there, and I believe that the native guides did not exert
themselves to show us the birds, as they no doubt regard them
more or less as property, and a source of wealth.

My first acquaintance with the great Bird of Paradise (Para-
disea apocla) was at Wokan. I was making my way through
the forest with a guide in the very early morning, when a flock
of birds flew by in the misty light, passing right over my head.
They flew like a flock of Jackdaws somewhat, and I was disgusted
to realize, when too late, that they were a flock of the very birds
I was in search of. I did not fire for fear of disturbing the
woods. I heard them cry soon after " wauk, wauk/' but could
not come up with them.

At Wanumbai with my guides, I first encountered a number
of Fruit-Bats, which were on the wing in the early morning, and

376 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

I killed one with a young one hanging at its breast. We soon
heard the cry of the great Bird of Paradise, " wauk, wauk." I
crept up within shot with my guides several times, but as usual,
though they saw the bird plainly amongst the foliage, I could
not make it out in time, though I saw the leaves rustle. I did
not want to fire without making sure. The guides in view of
the florin, were as excited as I was, and kept seizing my arm
and pointing, " burong mate, burong mate," but away went the
bird without showing itself to me.

The birds seemed to keep constantly on the move in the
trees, hopping from branch to branch, and were very quick and
silent in their flight away to a fresh spot. Several times I saw
the birds amongst the branches of trees, so high that it was use-
less to shoot at them, and my cartridges, specially prepared with
nearly four drachms of powder, had no effect. •

The birds seemed to be as often single as in companies, and
were evidently on the feed in the early morning. At last a hen
bird flew up off the ground close to me, with a small lizard in
her beak, and pitched on a dead branch to eat it, and I shot her.
But what of course I wished, was a male in full plumage. This
however was not to be obtained. It is remarkable what a very
large proportion of young males and females of the great Bird of
Paradise there seem to be, to the comparatively small number
of males in full dress. Not one of these latter was shot. I
believe I saw one at the top of a high tree, but am not certain.
Probably the old males are warier, being often hunted, and keep
out of the way. They require four or five years to develop full
dress.*

At the breeding season, when the natives kill most of them,
they assemble, and are easily obtained.

The cry " wauk," is not so far removed from such cries as those
of the Eook and others of the Corvidcv, to which the Paradise

* It is improbable that P. apoda, loses its breeding plumage as soon as
the breeding season is over. P. minor, as has been observed in the case of
specimens kept in confinement in the Regent's Park Gardens, certainly
loses its plumes only at the moulting season, like other richly ornamented
birds. P. apoda moults, according to Wallace, in January or February, and
is in full plumage in May. At all events there must have remained birds
with plumes in September.

THE ARU ISLANDS. 377

birds are allied. The voices of birds need however no more
necessarily be a test of the pedigrees of the birds themselves,
than need language be a test of true race connection amongst
mankind.

Many birds imitate one another's cries, and the Hon. Dailies
Harrington,* long ago showed by experiment, that nestlings
learn their song from their parents, and even their call note, and
if taken away very early from the nest, learn the song of any
other bird with which they are associated, and then do not acquire
that proper to their own species, even if opportunity be afforded.

If nestling birds were brought up apart from other birds,
they would no more sing, than would men similarly reared have
any idea of talking to one another.

Under these circumstances the birds would utter only what
Barrington terms their chirp, a cry for food, which, peculiar to
each species, is uttered by all young birds, but which is entirely
lost as the bird reaches maturity. Untaught men would be as
speechless as apes, far less able to communicate with one
another than deaf mutes who watch the communications of
others. It is a pity that it is impossible, on humanitarian
grounds, to repeat now the experiment of King Psammetichus.
It would be interesting to watch the result.

In the case of the other smaller species of Paradise Bird
found in the Aru Islands, the King-bird (Cicinnurus regius) the
males in full plumage seemed as common as the simple brown
young males and females. The natives knew these latter well,
as forms of the brilliant red bird, though so vastly different, and
several times pointed them out to me, as " Gobi, gobi," their
name for the " King-bird."

The King-birds were even more abundant at Wanumbai than
the larger species. The males, when settled in the trees, con-
stantly uttered a cry which is very like that of the Wryneck
or Cuckoo's Mate. I saw most of them in the lower trees of
the forest, at about 30 feet from the ground. One shot by

* " Experiments and Observations on the Singing of Birds," by the Hon.
Daines Barrington. Phil. Trans. Yol. LXIII. 1773, p. 249.^ A. B.
Wallace, " Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection," p. 220.
London, Macmillan, 1875.

378 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

Mr. Abbott, engineer of the " Challenger," when we were together
in Wokan, hovered and hopped for some time about a mass of
creepers hanging from a large tree, apparently searching for
insects. As it hovered, it showed its bright scarlet back like a

flash of fire.

Usually, the bird sitting on the twigs and seen from below

shows none of its beauty.

The birds seem very tame, but like the Kifle-bird, and the
Great Bird of Paradise, are usually in constant motion. One
full-plumage bird sat on a twig, about four feet from the ground,
and looked at me for a while at not more than three yards
distance, and then darted away, more out of natural impulse, I
imagine, than fear.

I shot five of the birds in one day. One of them had the
wonderful spiral green tail feathers, only just growing out. The
bright lapis-lazuli blue colour of the bird's legs and feet when
fresh, greatly enhances its beauty. Luckily the skin of the
Paradise Birds is tough, and I found the King-bird easy to skin.
The short red feathers encroach on the base of the bill, on its
upper surface in an unusual manner, the tip of the bill only
being free, and this gives the head a curious appearance.

The coral rock of Wokan Island is exposed in section, on the
shore not far from Dobbo, in a cliff about 11 feet in height.
The strata are inclined towards the sea at an angle of about 20°.
Inland, the surface is marked by a series of ridges of small
elevation, and from the presence of numerous bivalve shells,
seems to have been raised above sea level.

There is a fresh-water stream not far from Wanumbai, which
flows over the coral rock, overhung by dense vegetation. In the
bed of the stream, a constant deposit of carbonate of lime is
taking place, and the bed is partitioned into a series of pools,
separated by ridges and projections of stalactite-like substance,
which lines also the pools themselves. Similar deposits in
tropical streams have been observed elsewhere, as in Eoaring
River, Jamaica.*

It was elicited by Captain Tizard, from the Malays at Dobbo,

* Sir H. T. de la Beche, F.B.S. " The Geological Observer," p. 13,
2nd Ed. London, Longman, 1853.

THE KE ISLANDS. 379

that a deer abounds in the northernmost of the Am Islands • no
doubt it is of the same species as the deer of Amboina (fiusa
moluccensis) : I was shown the horns. It must have been intro-
duced either by the Malays or Dutch.

The Chinese dealers in Manchester and Birmingham goods
and arrack at Dobbo, used cajuput oil as a preservative for their
Birds of Paradise skins, to keep off ants and other insects.

Books referring to the Am Islands. " Discoveries in Australia," also "Ad
Account of Capt. Owen Stanley's Visit to the Islands of the Araf ura Sea," by
J. Lort. Stokes, Commander, R.N., Vol. II., p. 333. London, Boone, 1846.

" Voyage of the Dutch Brig ' Dourga.' " Trans, by W. Earle. Madden
& Co., London, 1840.

A. R. Wallace, F.R.S., &c, " The Malay Archipelago."

The Ke Islands, September 24tli and 25th, 1874. We Crossed

over from the Am Islands to the Ke Islands, taking a day on
the passage and dredging and sounding between the two groups,
finding a depth of 300 fathoms. Whilst we were off the coast
of Great Ke Island several boats full of natives put ' off to the
ship. The boats were described by Wallace. They are shaped
like whale boats and are fastened together with rattans.

The crews used paddles with long blades pointed at the
ends and cross handles. They paddled in time with a chanted
cadence identical with one used by the Fijians in their dances,
"e ai o turn turn." At intervals the sound rose loud from the
approaching boats as it was taken up in chorus.

The chant was accompanied by a drum with a tense mem-
brane, on which two sounds were made by striking it slightly
with the tips of the fingers or more violently with the palm of
the hand, the sound reminding one that one was getting, in one's
travels, nearer towards India.

The men, a boat-load of whom came on board, were like the
Am Islanders, but mostly, I thought, stronger built. They wore
their hair long and loose, and had no ornaments. Most of them
wore only an apron of cloth. All of them were in the most
horrible state of skin disease, their skins being in a rough scurfy
condition in many cases all over the body. I have not seen
elsewhere such bad cases of vegetable itch. The disease is due
to a parasitic fungus and closely allied to or identical with

380 A NATUEALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

Pityriasis versicolor. Dr. Crosbie, Staff-Surgeon of the " Chal-
lenger," made a careful microscopical examination of it. The
disease is widely spread in Melanesia and Polynesia.*

The men kept constantly scratching themselves violently,
and life can be hardly worth having in Great Ke Island. Yet
the disease is one easilv cured. After all, the natives are no
worse off than were Cambridge under-graduates in the middle
of the seventeenth century, and they used to be nearly
physicked to death into the bargain, absolutely in vain.f

The men begged for all kinds of things, and especially spirits
and tobacco. One of the boats had well-made pottery, nicely
ornamented with patterns in red, for barter. The men, as did
also the Malays at Dobbo, used a slight click with the tongue,
accompanied by a very slow shaking of the head, to express
astonishment.

We anchored off Little Ke Island. Several boats came off
paddling to a different but very similar chant. The men being
ship-builders by profession, were delighted with the ship, and
ran all over it and climbed into the rigging.

A dance was got up on the quarter-deck. The drum was
beaten by two performers and a song accompanied it, but there
was no clapping of hands, as in Fiji. The whole mode of danc-
ing was absolutely different, and the attitudes of the dancer were
sufficient alone to have told one that one was amongst Malays
and not Melanesians or Polynesians.

The dance, in which only two or three performers danced at
a time, consisted of a very slowly executed series of poses of the
body and limbs. There was no exact keeping of time to the
accompaniment nor unison of action between the dancers. The
hands and arms during the action were slowly moved from
behind to the front, the palms being held forwards and the
thumbs stretched straight out from them.

In another dance a motion, as of pulling at a rope, was used.
The chant to one dance was the words " uela a uela." There

* See Tilbury Fox, M.D., " On the Tokelau Ringworm and its Fungus."
The "Lancet," 1874. p. 304.

t John Strypes' " Letters to his Mother, Scholse Academical," p. 293.
Christopher "Wordsworth, Cambridge, 1872.

THE KE ISLANDS.

381

was also a dance of two performers with pieces of sticks, to
represent a combat with swords. The whole was closely like
the dancing of the Lutaos which we saw later at Zamboangan in
the Philippine Islands, but not so elaborate.

The ship moved to an anchorage off the small town of Ke
Dulan. The houses were all raised on posts, except the Mahom-
medan Mosque, which building shows a curious development of
the high-peaked Malay roof into a sort of half tower, half spire,
representing no doubt an equivalent of the dome. Under the
caves of the houses baskets were hung up for
the fowls to nest in.

Some boys were playing near the village,
and, as a toy, they had a very ingeniously
made model of a spring gun, or rather spring
bow, a trap by which a large arrow is shot
into a wild pig, on its setting loose a catch.

Our guide, a boy, wearing a turban, placed his

hand on his turban and said, " Mahommed," and

explained to Captain Tizard that the small

boys at play, whose heads were bare, were not

such as he, but heathen. He was evidently

very proud of his religion.

The Ke Islanders, besides arrows like those

of the Aru Islanders, use others which are

peculiar. They are light thin narrow strips cut

out of the long leaves of what I believe is a

species of Canna. The strips are so cut that

the stiff midrib of the leaf forms the shaft of

the arrow, and portions of the wings of the leaf

are left on at the base of the arrow to act as

feathers. The point is simply sharpened with

the knife.

These leaf arrows when dry are hard and

stiff. They are very easily made by a few

strokes of the knife, and a large bundle of them

is carried by the archer. They are shot away

at a bird in the bush without the trouble being taken to find

them again, as in the case of other arrows. They are so small

ARROW CUT OUT OF A
CANNA LEAF.

382 A NATURALIST OX THE " CHALLENGER."

and light that they make very little show in their flight, and no
noise ; and I saw a youth shoot at least a dozen of them, at a
large Nutmeg Pigeon, without the bird's doing more than move
its head, and start a little as they flew by almost touching it.

These Nutmeg Pigeons {Carpopliaga concinna) are very large
heavy birds. Some of those shot weighed 2 lbs. I shot two at
one shot as they sat on a branch on a high tree right over
my head. They fell one on each side of me with a very
heavy thud, and I believe would have stunned me had they
not luckily just missed my head. I had never considered this
danger before.

Mr. Darwin in his Journal* refers to Epeira clavipes, as said
by Sloane to make webs so strong as to catch birds. At Little
Ke Island Yon Willemoes Suhm actually found a strong and
healthy " Glossy Starling " (Calornis metallica) caught fast in a
yellow spider's web, and he took the bird out alive and brought
it on board the ship to be preserved.

The Banda Group, September 2 9th to October 2nd, 18*74.

Prom the Ke Islands the ship proceeded to the Banda Group,
famed for its nutmegs. On the voyage, which consumed three
days, a small island named Bird Island was passed, from which
at one spot smoke was issuing from amongst rocks covered with
a white incrustation. The smoke was evidently a volcanic
fumerole.

Banda Island was reached on September 29th. The ship
anchored in a harbour, shut in by three surrounding islands.
On one of these was the town, the old fort built by the Portu-
guese, and the residences of the Dutch Officials. Another
island is the small active volcano of the group called Gunong
Api (mountain fire) ; the Malay equivalent of the word volcano.
On the third island (Great Banda) are the principal nutmeg
plantations. I accompanied a party which ascended the vol-
cano, which is 1,910 feet in altitude only. It appears to be
very seldom climbed, either by Dutch residents or natives.
The mountain is a steep simple cone. The ascent was made on
the east side. The cone is covered with bushes up to within about
700 or 800 feet of the summit, and with the help of these climb-

* " Journal of Researches," p. 36.

THE BAXDA GROUP. ;;,S:;

ing is easy though arduous. Above the limit of the hushes there
are steep slopes of loose stones, wearying to climb and constantly
falling. Above these, again, the surface of the cone is hard, the
fine ashes and lava fragments of which it is composed, bein^
cemented together so as to form a hard crust. This is roughened
by the projection of fragments, but still smooth enough to require
some care in the placing of the feet to men wearing boots. The
Malay guides with naked feet stood with ease upon it anywhere.

The inclination of the slope is about 33° ; and to a man who
easily becomes giddy no doubt would be rather formidable in
descent. An American traveller, who had probably never been
up any other mountain before he ascended the Banda Volcano,
has written a most appalling account of the danger which he
encountered in descending. To a man with an ordinarily good
head there are no difficulties in the ascent or descent.

At the summit the fragments of basaltic rock were under-
going slow decomposition under the action of heated vapours
issuing in all directions from amongst them, and were softened
and turned white, like chalk. Any of these fragments when
broken showed part of their mass still black and unaltered,
and the remainder white ; the decomposition not having reached
as yet through the whole.

Jets of hot steam issued in many places from fissures. Around
the mouths of these were growing gelatinous masses formed
by lowly organized algae closely similar in appearance to those
found growing around the mouths of hot springs in the Azores.*
Here, however, there was no water issuing, the only moisture
being supplied by the condensation of the steam. There was
no accumulation of water, but drops of moisture hung on the
sides of the fissures.

In some places the gelatinous algse, and a white mineral
incrustation, formed alternate layers coating the mouths of the
fissures. The steam on issuing within the fissure had a tem-
perature of 250° F. ; and where the crust of algas was flourishing
the thermometer showed 140° F. The steam had a strongly
acid and sulphurous smell.

On the summit of the mountain, where the ground is cool, a

* See page 36.

384 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER

Fern, a Sedge, and a Melastomaceous Plant grow. Besides these,
I found another flowering plant, growing in a crack in the midst
of a strongly snlphureons smoke which issued constantly from it.
The thermometer when laid on the surface of the ground where
this plant was growing showed a temperature of 100° Y. ; and at
a depth of one and a half feet below it the soil about the fissure
had a temperature of 220° F.

At the summit of the mountain were numerous flying insects
of various kinds, although there was nothing for them to feed
upon, and large numbers of them lay dead in the cracks, killed
by the poisonous volcanic vapours. So numerous were they
that the Swallows had come up to the top of the mountain
to feed on them.

I noticed similarly large numbers of insects at the summit
of the volcano of Ternate, at an altitude of more than 5,000 feet.
Insects are commonly to be seen being carried along before the
wind in successive efforts of flight. No doubt they are blown
up to the tops of these mountains, having towards the summits
no vegetation to hold on to. The winds pressing against the
mountains form currents up their slopes; and in the case of
volcanos, which are heated at the summits, no doubt there is
a constant upward draught towards their tops, caused by the
ascending column of hot air.

I dwell on the accumulation of insects at the tops of these
mountains, because when blown off into the free air from these
great elevations by heavy winds, as no doubt they often are, the
insects are likely to fly and drift before the wind to very long
distances, and thus be aided in colonizing far-off islands.

I found the skull of an Opossum (the Woolly Phalanger,
Cuscus) on the mountain. The animal is common in the Banda
Group. It occurs also in the Moluccas and elsewhere. Its
occurrence on the Banda Islands seems most easily accounted
for on the supposition that it escaped from confinement, having
been brought to the islands at some time by Malay voyagers.
Malays seem fond of keeping wild animals in confinement.
or taming them. There were several such pet animals about the
houses at Dobbo, at the time of our visit.

At the base of the Banda Volcano, on the shores of the

AMBOIXA. 385

island, a belt of living corals composed of a considerable
variety of species is easily accessible at low tide. Of these
corals the largest bulk is composed of massive Astrceids, of
which about ten different forms were collected. A massive
Forties is also very abundant.

One species of "Brain Coral," and an Astrcea, form hu^e
masses, often as much as five feet in diameter, which have
their bases attached to the bare basaltic rock of the shore.
The tops of all of these coral masses are dead and flat and some-
what decayed : but on these dead tops fresh growth is now taking
place, showing that slight oscillations in the level of the shore of
a foot at least have taken place recently. The tops of the corals
have been certainly killed by being left exposed above water.

Such slight oscillations are to be expected at the base of an
active volcano. The present re-growth is due to the corals
being now again submerged. The fact that these corals are
to be seen growing on the bare rock itself, and not on cUbris
of older corals, shows that the coral growth is very recent.

The Brain Coral grows in convex, mostly hemispherical,
masses ; the Astrcea more in the form of vertically standing
cylindrical masses, or masses which may be described as made
up of a number of cylinders fused together. The masses of the
Astrcea are usually higher than those of the Mceandrina by about
a foot, because they are able to grow in shallower water, and
they thus range also higher up on the beach.

Many of the masses of this Astrcea in the shallower water
are left dry at each low-tide, and appear to suffer no more in
consequence than do the common Sea-anemones of our English
coasts, which are so closely allied to them. T have not seen
any other species of coral thus growing where it is exposed at
low tide. The " Brain Coral " apparently cannot survive ex-
posure, and hence the tops of its masses have been killed during
the change of depth of the water at about a foot below the height
at which those of the Astrcea have perished.

The common Mushroom Coral, so often to be seen as a chim-
ney ornament in England (Fungia sp.), is most extraordinarily
abundant on the shore, at a depth of one or two feet at low
water, and with it an allied larger, similarly free-growing coral

c c

386 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

{Herpetolitha Umax). The Mushroom corals cover the bottom in
places in such large quantities, that a cart-load of them might be
picked up in a very short time ; I have nowhere seen them so
common.

I visited one of the Nutmeg Plantations in Great Banda.
The nutmeg is the kernel of a fruit very like a peach in appear-
ance and which makes an excellent sweetmeat when preserved
in sugar. The owner of the plantation, a very wealthy Malay
native of Banda, told me that about one male tree to every
fifty females was planted on the estate ; he had a superstition
that if a nutmeg seed was planted with its flatter side upper-
most, it would be more likely to produce a male seedling.

Formerly, before the Dutch Government renounced its mono-
poly of the growth of nutmegs in the Moluccas, the trees were
strictly and most jealously confined to the Island of Great
Banda. The utmost care was taken that no seeds fit for ger-
mination should be carried away from the island, for fear of
rival plantations being formed elsewhere ; seeds were, however,
often smuggled out.

The Government destroyed the Nutmeg trees on all the
other islands of the group. It was, however, found necessary to
send a Commission every year to uproot the young nutmeg
trees sown on these islands by the Fruit-Pigeons, called Nut-
crackers by the Dutch residents {Garpophaga concinna).

The various Fruit-Pigeons must have played a most im-
portant part in the dissemination of plants, and especially trees,
over the wide region inhabited by them. Sir Charles Lyell,*
referring to the transportation of seeds by the agency of birds,
noted especially this transportation effected by pigeons, and
quotes Captain Cook's Voyages to the effect that at Tanna
" Mr. Foster shot a pigeon," (obviously a Garpophaga), in whose
craw was a wild nutmeg. t

At the Admiralty Islands very large numbers of a Fruit-
Pigeon (CarpopJiaga rhodinolosma), were shot by the officers of
the "Challenger/' Their crops were full of fruits of various
kinds, all of winch I had failed to find, or reach in the growing

* " Principles of Geology," 10th Edition, Vol. II, p. 69.

t " Cook's Second Voyage," Vol. II, p. 69. London, Strachan, 1777.

AMBOINA. 387

condition in my botanical expeditions. Amongst these fruits
were abundance of wild nutmegs, and wild coffee-berries ; many
of the fruits were entirely uninjured, and the seeds quite fit for
germination.

No doubt, when frightened or wounded by accident, the
pigeons eject the whole fruits, and they habitually eject the hard
kernels, as I saw quantities of them lying about under the trees
on a small island at the Admiralty Islands, on which the birds
roost in vast numbers.

As soon as ever a few littoral trees, such as Barringtonia and
Calophyllwn inophyllum, have established themselves by means
of their drifting seeds on a freshly dry coral islet, the Fruit-
Pigeons alight in the branches in their flight from place to place,
and drop the seeds of all kinds of other trees with succulent fruits.
I have seen the pigeons thus resting on two or three small littoral
trees, which as yet form almost the only vegetation of Observatory
Island, a very small islet in Nares Bay, Admiralty Islands.

Hearing the sound of music in the native district of the
town of Banda one evening, I made my way towards a house
from which it came, in the hopes of seeing a Malay dance.
Instead of this I found Malays indeed dancing, but to my dis-
appointment, they were dancing the European waltz.

I saw a Mahommedan's dancing-party in one of the houses ;
the performers were of course all men. The room in which
they danced was widely open to the street, and lighted up.
About twenty men dressed in their best sat on mats placed
against the wall round the room, the host occupying a place at
one end ; two members of the party rose at a time and danced.
The movements were very slow, and frequently the two dancers
led one another by the hand and presenting themselves to
different sides of the assembly in turn, bowed with great cere-
mony ; the whole reminded me somewhat of a quadrille.

Amboina, October 5th to 10th, 1814.— On the ship anchoring
at Amboina, it was found necessary that a salute should be fired.
The " Challenger " being, as a surveying ship, provided with very
few guns, was usually excused this ceremony, but it was thought
by the Dutch authorities that the natives would not properly
understand the arrival of a foreign man-of-war, without the usual

cc2

388 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

honour being paid to the Dutch flag ; so two small Armstrong
breech-loaders were let off alternately through the bow ports.

The old Dutch saluting guns on the fort seemed to return
the unpleasant noisy compliment with some difficulty, and one
of them leapt off the parapet into the ditch, in the excitement of
unwonted exercise. It is to be hoped, that before long the
intolerable nuisance of saluting will be done away with ; it is
most astonishing that civilized persons can be so much the
slaves of habit, as to make a painful noise of this kind when
necessity does not require it ; everyone concerned dislikes the
noise, and there is a great waste of material.

The custom, however, shows signs of dying out, for it has
reached already to some extent a rudimentary condition. In
large war- vessels, the actual fighting guns are considered too big
to be played with in this manner, and a special saluting battery
of small old pattern guns, useless for any other purpose, is kept
mounted on the forecastle for the sole sake of making this
hideous noise.

I have read of a case in which in a small out-of-the-way
European colony, the governor had to send on board a foreign
man-of-war which had arrived in his port to beg for powder to
return the customary salute. We may, however, congratulate
ourselves that matters might be worse ; there are some unfor-
tunate races, the members of which have to spend their money
in powder and let it off, on all occasions of petty private
domestic rejoicing.

The coral banks, though abundant, were not so easily acces-
sible at Amboina as at Bancla, being in deeper water, and
specimens of most of the species could only be procured by deep
wading and diving. After diving for corals in a depth of about
ten to twelve feet, I found my eyes very sore for some hours
afterwards. I believe that this soreness was most probably
produced by the stinging organs of the corals ; all corals are
provided with urticating organs. The stinging produced by the
Hydroid corals of the genus Millepora was long ago noted by
Darwin and others.* In the West Indies the coral is sometimes
called sea-ginger.

* " Journal of Kesearches," p. 464.

AMBOINA. 389

In the case of most Anthozoan corals, the stinging organs are
not powerful enough to make themselves felt through the skin of
the hands, but I have often felt my hands tingle after having been
employed in collecting corals, other than Millepora, on the reefs.

In diving, the face and open eyes are brought close to the
corals at the moment that these are grasped and irritated, and it
seems possible that the eyes might become seriously inflamed
' and injured by the action on them of the nettle-cells. I mention
the circumstance as a warning to collectors ; where Mille-
porids are present, great care should certainly be exercised.

On the shore of the harbour of Amboina, coral reef rock occurs
raised many hundred feet above sea level, forming a steep hill-
slope. At the summit of the ridges so formed the rock stands
out here and there, weathered into fantastic pinnacles, with sur-
faces honeycombed by the action of rain, just as at Bermuda.*

Some of the smaller trees growing on these ridges are
covered with the curious epiphytes, Myrmecodia armata and
Hydnopliytiim formicaum ; these are plants belonging to the
natural order Cinclwnacece. Both plants are associated in their
growth with certain species of ants ; as soon as the young
plants develop a stem, the ants gnaw at the base of this and
the irritation produced causes the stem to swell ; the ants con-
tinuing to irritate and excavate the swelling, it assumes a
globular form, and may become larger than a man's head.

The globular mass contains within a labyrinth of chambers
and passages, which are occupied by the ants as their nest. The
walls of these chambers and the whole mass of the inflated
stem, retain their vitality and thrive, continuing to increase in
size with growth. From the surface of the rounded mass are
given off small twigs, bearing the leaves and flowers.

It appears that this curious gall-like tumour on the stem
has become a normal condition of the plants, which cannot
thrive without the ants. In Myrmecodia armata the globular
mass is covered with spine-like excrescences. The trees I
referred to at Amboina, had these curious spine-covered masses
perched in every fork, and with them also the smooth surfaced
masses of a species of Hydnophytwm,.

* See pages 21, 78, and 83.

90 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.

Numerous dealers brought trays of the shells for which
Amboina is famous to the ship, but the prices asked are so high,
that it would probably pay to bring some of the shells back
again from Europe to Amboina for sale to passing visitors.
Cassowaries' eggs were also offered for sale, and large quantities
of Deers'-horns {Rasa molaccensis).

The Deer are very abundant in Amboina. I accompanied a
party which went in pursuit of them. We had a letter to a
native head-man in one of the villages on the shores of the inlet
in which the harbour lies. The head-man treated us hospit-
ably, and collected about a dozen beaters. The Deer were
lying down concealed on a plain of some extent close to the shore,
covered with tall grass in some places up to our middles, and
skirted by bushes.

We saw a Stag and two Hinds make off out of range, as
we made our way along the edge of the tall grass. The men
beat the bushes at the edges of the grass, and at last drove a
Hind out of one clump to the guns, and it was shot. The
numerous tracks in the grass showed that plenty of deer must
come there to feed.

Ternate Island, October 14th to 11th, 18*4. — The island of
•Ternate is an active volcanic cone rising direct out of the sea to
a height, according to " Challenger " observations, of 5,600 feet.
My small aneroid indicated the height as somewhat less, but
was no doubt in error. The island, which belongs to the Dutch,
lies almost exactly on the equator. Separated from it by a nar-
row strait is the somewhat similar cone of Tidore. The lower
slopes are planted with nutmegs, cloves, pepper, cocoa trees,
and a profusion of fruits.

The mountain is unquiet, and there were said to occur on an
average three or four earthquakes every week ; I had great
hopes that I should have an opportunity of feeling one, but was
disappointed. The Dutch keep up a Government staff at the
island, very much to the benefit and happiness of the people,
but I believe at a considerable financial loss.

The Governor or Resident of the island at the time of the
visit of the " Challenger," was an accomplished naturalist, S. C.
J. W. van Musschenbroek ; he received the Expedition with the

TERXATK. 391

greatest kindness and hospitality, and even got up a ball on
the shortest notice. The musicians were Malays, who were
indefatigable, but knew only one tune.

The Resident presented a fine collection of Snakes and Corals
to the Expedition, and gave the greatest assistance and informa-
tion on all natural-history matters. There are a large number
of Chinese in the population of the island, and the Captain China,
or head of the Chinese under the Dutch, according to their
well-known method of Government in East Indian Colonies, was
one of the notables present at the ball.

The Chinese have been for hundreds of years in the island,
and I was astonished to learn that some of them have, in the
course of generations, entirely lost the knowledge of their own
language, and now speak only Malay. I was told that it was
even possible that the Captain China himself might be in this
condition. I had thought this quite impossible in so strongly
conservative a people, and indeed had not realized the fact that
numerous generations of Chinese are born, die, and are buried in
these islands under Dutch rule.

At Amboina, the large and costly tombs of the Chinese form
a feature in the landscape on the hill-sides * and there is a large
Chinese graveyard at Ternate, with many tombs of great age.
I had fancied that all dead Chinese were carried to China to be
buried, at all events if rich. The English seem to be the only
civilized migratory people who never lose their language.

Instances of such loss by all other European races are to be
found in the United States.

Malay collectors are sent every year to New Guinea from
Ternate, to collect Birds of Paradise and other Birds, and a
regular trade with New Guinea is carried on from this port.
The Malay collectors are some of them extremely expert in pre-
paring and preserving bird-skins. They mount them with a small
stick stuck into the tow stuffing, and protruding at the tail The
skin is handled by the stick, and thus the bird's feathers are
prevented from being injured.

* Similarly at Timor, the costly Chinese tombs at which island are
figured in Perou and Leseur's " Voyage," published 1807.

392 A NATURALIST ON THE ''CHALLENGER.'

There are several Mahommedan dealers in bird-skins in the
town of Ternate. A Papuan Bird of Paradise (Paradisea
Papuana), well skinned, cost about eight shillings, and I gave
fourteen shillings for a well-skinned Eed Bird of Paradise
(P. rubra). Skins of various Paradise Birds, prepared flat, and
dried in the old native style, were common and cheap enough.
Amongst these skins were a large quantity of what I believe was
the very rare Black and Scarlet-coloured Parrot (D. pequetti).
These birds could hardly have been killed and thus prepared
for sale, as ornaments, like the batch they were amongst ; but
they were unfortunately of no good as natural-history specimens
in their mangled condition.

As I wished to ascend the Peak of Ternate in search of
plants, the Eesident provided four Malay guides for the purpose.
I started with Lieutenant Balfour. We passed a night at the
house of one of the Government officials, who kindly offered us
hospitality, at an altitude of about 1,000 feet. Leaving the house
at 4.30 A.M. on the following morning, we commenced the climb
through a field of sugar-cane. The path led nearly straight up
the cone all the way, and was excessively steep, and the ground
was very slippery from a heavy fall of rain the night before.

It was pitch-dark for the first hour, and we slipped and fell
constantly. At an altitude of about 2,000 feet above sea level, the
last cleared and cultivated land, a rice-field, was passed. On the
border of the field grew several of the Saguir palms (Arenga
saccharifera), which are abundant in the gardens at sea level.
An intoxicating drink is made from the juice of this palm, and
like many other palms it yields sugar.

Above the rice-fields, woods were entered at about daylight,
and these extend up to an altitude of about 4,150 feet. Jack-
fruit and a Wild Plantain were observed to grow up to a height
of about 2,600 feet. In the woods was a small hut, used by men
who come up to hunt the deer, which are abundant on the
mountains. On a tree close to the hut was cut the name of
Miklucho Maclay, the well-known explorer of New Guinea.

Prom the verge of the woods, at 4,150 feet altitude, for about
750 feet further ascent, a dense growth of tall reeds was tra-
versed. At this height (4,800 feet above sea level), a ridge was

TERXATE. 393

reached from which a descent of about 100 feet was made into
an outer ancient crater, corresponding to the Canadas of the
Peak of Teneriffe.

There are two such outer ancient craters at the summit of
the Peak of Ternate, and the ridges forming the old borders of
these craters and the outer portions of the bottoms of the craters
themselves are traversed in succession on the way to the ter-
minal modern cone of eruption which stands in the inner of the
two.

The outer and oldest of the craters is a wild-looking place,
inhabited by numerous wild pigs and deer. It is covered with
a growth of bushes and a small tree fern, and four other species
of ferns,* and with these grows a Club-moss (Zycopodium), and
a Whortleberry ( Vaccinium). The shrubs were apparently of
only two species, and the flora seemed a very poor one in number
of species.

The second ridge, marking the summit of the inner extinct
crater, is about 50 feet higher than the outer one. Within this
inner crater there is scarcely any vegetation, a few scattered
blades of grass only. Here was met with a large mass of lava,
evidently recently ejected from the active crater, and hurled to
this distance. The mass had a smooth reddened surface, and
was deeply split all over by cracks formed evidently by con-
traction on cooling.

The terminal cone itself is entirely devoid of vegetation.
The cavity of the inner extinct crater from which it rises is
filled up, except at its margin, by the results of later eruptions.
Hence the base of the terminal cone lies about 60 feet above the
level of the margin of this crater, and is approached by a gentle
ascent.

The cone itself rises steeply and suddenly, with a slope of
30°, and is about 350 feet in height. The guides had hesitated
somewhat when we ascended the slope leading out of the first
extinct crater, and had done their best to persuade us not to go any
farther, telling us it that was dangerous to proceed. They lagged

* Gleichenia dichotomy Pteris incisa, Polypodium phlebiscopum.
J. G. Baker, F.E.S., "On the Polynesian Ferns of the 'Challenger'
Expedition." Journ. of Linn. Soc, Bot., Vol. XII. p. 104.

394 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

behind as we approached the terminal cone, and as soon as we began
to climb it, turned round and ran back as fast as they could go.

We were told afterwards that they have strong superstitious
fears concerning the volcano, and believe that if anyone climbs
the terminal cone, a terrible eruption and earthquake are certain
to ensue. It appeared as if there might be some real risk in the
ascent. The cone is not composed of ashes, but of masses of
basaltic lava of various sizes; all of these on the surface
appeared freshly fractured and split, as if quite recently thrown
out of the crater, and broken up on cooling.

At the summit, a slope of 30°, exactly the same as that of
the outside of the cone, the natural slope no doubt of the lava
fragments, leads down into the crater, from a sharp ridge, along
which we walked. A dense smoke rose from the interior of the
crater, and hid its form and extent entirely from view.

The wind was easterly (E. by 1ST.), and drove the smoke
away from the side of the crater on which we were. The smoke
is excessively suffocating, and a sudden shift in the wind might
be fatal to anyone who was a short way down within the crater,
or even at some places on its margin. It would not be easy to
get down it in some places, at all events in a hurry. It was
only possible to descend about 20 yards into the crater, and
even then the vapours inhaled were very trying. Steam and
acid vapours issued from cracks everywhere, decomposing the
lava amongst which they passed. In most of the cracks were
small quantities of sulphur.

From the margin of the crater overlooking the town of
Ternate there was a magnificent view, embracing the island of
Halmaliera (Gilolo), which lay spread as a map beneath us, and
the peak of Tidore, and many far-distant islands. Our guides
rejoined us when we came down to the outer crater.

For the benefit of any future explorers of the Peak, which is
very seldom ascended, I give the time required for the ascent.
We left the house at 1,000 feet altitude at 4.30 A.M., reached the
margin of the outer crater at 8.30 a.m., and the summit at
9.30 A.M. The temperature of the air at an altitude of 4,800
feet was 71° F. at 8.30 A.M. At the summit of the mountain it
was 68°-5 F. at 9.30 a.m.

.395

CHAPTER XVI.

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.

Zaniboanga, Mindonao Island. Paddy Fields and Buffaloes. The Lutaos
and their Pile-Dwellings. Pile-Dwellings on Dry Land. The Ground
Floor, a Late Addition to the First Story. Wide Distribution of
Pile-Dwellings. Their Possible Origin. Dances Performed by the
Lutaos. Bamboo Jew's Harp. Lutao Canoe and Weapons. Search
for Birgus Latro. Birds' Eggs hatched in the Sea Sand. Alcyonarian
Corals. Basilan Island. Cart-wheels cut from Living Planks.
Galeopithecus and Flying Lizard. Cebu Island. Mode of Dredging
up Euplectella. Mactan Island, Eaised Reef. Large Cerianthus.
Trachytic Volcano at Camiguin Island. Temperature at which
Plants can Grow in Hot Mineral Water. Manila-Hemp Planta-
tions. Manila. Shirt Worn over Trousers. Clothes Original lv
Ornamental only. Half-hatched Ducks' Eggs Eaten. Cock Fighting.
Sale of Indulgences.

Philippine Islands, October 24th to November 12th, 1814,
January nth to February 5th, 1815. — The ship arrived on October
24th, 1874, at the town of Zaniboanga, which lies at the ex-
tremity of a long promontory projecting from the west side of
the large island of Mindanao, the southernmost of the Philippine
group. A small area at the tip of this promontory belongs to
Spain ; a wide tract behind it belonging to Portugal ; whilst the
entire island of Mindonao is about half of it Portuguese, and
half Spanish. The ship paid a second visit to Zaniboanga on
the return journey southwards, from January 29th to February
5th, 1875.

On landing at Zamboanga I was immediately reminded that we
were nearing India, and scenes in Ceylon were recalled at once
to my memory. Swampy paddy fields stretched everywhere
round the town with plenty of snipe in them, and the domestic
buffaloes Jay about wallowing in mud pools and throwing water
over their backs with their scoop-like ears. In one pool, several
native women were bathing in company with the buffaloes.

396 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

Especially interesting in the Philippines are the various
stages in development and modification of pile-dwellings. All
the native buildings are pile-dwellings or modifications of them,
and some of the better houses, built under European influence,
are evidently copied directly from the same models.

Pile-dwellings are first invented as an expedient for raising
houses in the water for protection ; but when the race which for
generations has thus dwelt surrounded by water takes to living
on dry land, actuated somewhat no doubt by sanitary consider-
ations, it follows the ancient pattern of architecture with slavish
exactness, and only by gradually introduced modifications of that
plan, arrives at last at a house supported directly on the grouDd.

At Zamboanga and at the neighbouring island of Basilan,
which we also visited, are settlements of a considerable number
of a race called by the Spanish " Moros " {i.e., Mahommedans),
who keep themselves strictly apart from the Bisayan and other
Malay races, amongst which they here dwell. The Moros at
Basilan still build their pile-dwellings out in the sea, so that
they can only be approached by boats. At Zamboanga, however,
where the Moros seem somewhat more tamed by Spanish influ-
ence, they have so far come on shore with their houses, that
these are built in a row along the beach, and at low tide are not
entirely surrounded with water, whilst the shore can always be
reached from them by means of a plank. The main inhabitants
of the Philippines, in the course of successive generations, have
taken their houses altogether on shore, except where here and
there there are houses in swampy ground, which form a sort of
gradation between the two conditions.

The Moros or " Lutaos " are said to have settled in Minclonao
in the seventeenth century, and to have considered themselves
until quite recently, as subjects of the Sultan of Ternate* They
are a fierce and warlike race, pirates by profession at all events
not lono- a^o at Basilan and Mindonao, and still so at the Sulu
Islands. They seem but half subjected to the Spanish rule.f The

* Dr. Th. Waitz, " Anthropologic der Naturvolker," 5te Th. ltes Hft.
Die Malaien, Leipzig, 1865, s. 56.

t Since the above was written, the Sulu Islanders have during this
year, 1878, submitted to Spanish rule on receipt of a sum of money. • An

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.

397

men are short and broad-shouldered, with powerful chests and
thick-set bodies, and extremely active. Their features are of
the Malay type, but peculiar. Their eyes are remarkably bright
Their colour is light yellowish brown. They have often a slight
beard and moustache. They wear bright-coloured shirts and
rather tight-fitting trousers, buttoned close round the leg at the
ankle. The Moro women are short and small, and delicate-
limbed, most of them very handsome when young ; many of
them are very light-coloured in complexion ; their eyes, like the
men's, being extremely bright. They are fond of bright yellows
and reds in their dress, and are very fully clad. The men are armed
with circular shields and spears, and also used formerly at least
suits of armour made of plates of buffalo horn, linked together
with wire, which are very rare objects in Ethnological Museums.
At Basilan Island, at Port Isabella, the Moros houses are

PILE-DWELLINGS OF LUTA03 AT ZAMBOANGA.

constructed on piles in a small lagoon-like offset of the channel
between this island and the small outlying island of Malamaui.
The houses are entirely isolated by the water. They stand
together, and a wide rickety platform connects many of them
with one another.* At Zamboanga, the Moros houses are also
agreement has been signed at Manila, between the Sultan of Sulu and the
Spanish Government.

* For an Account of the inhabitants of the Sulu Islands, the same race

398 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

built in a group. The main house in each case is usually sup-
ported on three rows of piles ; but various additions and out-
buildings are supported on irregularly added piles. There is
always a platform before the entrance, and sometimes one for
canoes behind. It was odd to see a horse left tied by his Moro
owner to the door-post, standing up to his belly in the water,
through the rising of the tide.

The houses of the other native inhabitants throughout the
towns of Zamboanga and Ilo Ilo are mostly of closely similar pat-
tern. They stand in like manner on piles, though on dry ground,
and have a platform usually at one end. This is reached by a
short steep ladder, with widely separated and irregular rounds,
up which the house-dogs, from practice, run as nimbly and
easily as the children and their mothers. The platforms are
now used for drying clothes upon, and such purposes.

The first process of modification of the pile-dwelling gone
on shore, is the putting up of a fence of palm leaves in the
lower part of the spaces between the piles supporting the house.
A pen is thus formed in which pigs or other animals are kept.
Then well-made mats or reed walls are put up, entirely enclosing
the space between the piles, with a regular door for entrance,
and the place becomes a convenient store-house. As a further
stage, boards are nailed between the piles, and a secure chamber
is obtained.

A further step again, is the adoption of stone pillars for the
wooden piles. Wooden houses thus supported on stone repre-
sentatives of piles, may often be seen with an iron railing, pass-
ing from pillar to pillar beneath, and in this way forming an
enclosure. From stone pillars the step is easy to arches, sup-
ported on pillars of masonry as a substructure, and some houses
of business, although their upper structures have ceased to be
wooden, and are built of more solid materials, are still to be
seen amongst the rest, supported thus on the descendants of piles.

In the last stage the arches are discarded, and continuous
walls of masonry substituted as a support to the wooden super-

as the Moros, with descriptions and figures of their houses, see Wilkes'
" Narrative of the U.S. Exploring Expedition," Vol. V, Ch. IX. New
York, 1856.

THE PHILIPHNE ISLANDS. ;;99

structure. Even then the ground-floor is often still used only
as a store-house or piggery, "but in many cases is regularly
occupied.

Thus in these houses, what would seem almost an impos-
sibility is nevertheless the fact. The ground-floor is an addition
to the first story, which latter is older than it, and preceded it.
The verandah is the representative of the platform originally
intended for the inhabitants to land on from canoes.

I watched the building of one house, which when finished
looked perfectly two-storied, the lower part being neatly boarded
in, and provided with a door and windows. Nevertheless, in
the construction of the house, the history of its development
was exactly recapitulated, just as is the case familiarly in
natural history. The roof and first story were built first
complete upon the piles, and the lower structure added in
afterwards.

I could not help being struck by the remarkable resem-
blances of many of these Malay houses to Swiss chalets. In the
chalet the basement enclosed with stone walls is usually only a
cattle-stall, the first story is the dwelling-house, and as in the
Malay building, is constructed of wood. It seems possible that
the chalet is the ancient lake-dwelling gone on shore, like the
Malay pile-dwelling, and that the substructure of masonry
represents the piles which formerly supported the inhabited
portion of the house. There are similar balconies in the chalets
representing possibly the platforms. A good deal of the carving
of balconies, and some of the staircases, in the better constructed
wooden houses in Ilo Ilo, reminded me very much of that of
the same structures in chalets, though the resemblance in this
case is accidental.

The most interesting feature about pile-dwellings seems to be
their very wide geographical extension. Eepresentatives of
almost all races of man seem to have arrived at the same
expedient, apparently not by any means a simple one, indepen-
dently of one another. There are the well-known Pfhalbauten
of Switzerland, in South America the similar houses of the
Cuajiro Indians, on the Gulf of Maracaibo. In North America
the Haidahs on the north-west coast construct similar habi-

400 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

tations. Commander Cameron lately observed similar dwellings
in Lake Mohrya, in Central Africa.* In New Zealand, the
Lake Pas, which were mostly used as store-houses, are known
from the Eev. Eichard Taylor's description^ In this case, piles
were driven into the bottom of the lake, and the interstices
filled in with stones and mud, so as to form a platform.

There are the well-known New Guinea pile-dwellings, such
as seen by us at Humboldt Bay, and there are also the pile-
dwellings of all the Malay races. The Gilbert Islanders con-
struct also houses raised on piles, and a number of these natives
from the island of Arorai, who were taken to Tahiti, to serve as
labourers on cotton estates, have put up houses of this kind for
themselves in the latter islands, amongst the very different
dwellings of the Tahitians themselves.

It seems probable that the idea of a pile dwelling has in
many cases arisen from the escape of natives from enemies by
getting into a canoe or raft, and putting off from shore into a
lake or the sea, out of harm's way. If the attacked had to stay
on such a raft or canoe for some time, they would anchor it in
shallow water with one or more poles, as the Fijians do with
their canoes on rivers, and hence might easily be derived the
idea of a platform supported on piles.

The officers of a Spanish man-of-war in the port of Zam-
boanga at the time of our visit, hospitably gave us an enter-
tainment on shore, and got the Moros to dance for our amuse-
ment. Two men danced with spears and shields, in imitation of
a combat, in which the utmost rage was simulated on both sides ;
the teeth were clenched and exposed, the head jerked forward,
and the eyes starting as they advanced to the attack. The dance
of the women was like that described as performed by the
Ke Islanders. The body was kept nearly rigid, and turned round
slowly or moved a short distance from side to side by motion
of the feet alone. The feet were kept close together, and side by
side, and moved parallel to one another with a shuffling motion.

* S. L. Cameron, Coram. K.N.," Across Africa," Vol. II., p. 65. London,
1872.

t Rev. Eichard Taylor, F.L.S., "On the New Zealand Lake Pas."
Trans. N. Zealand Inst., Vol. V, 1872, p. 101.

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.

401

The principal display in the dancing consisted in the very
slow and gradual movement of the arms, wrists, and hands.
One arm was maintained directed forwards and
somewhat upwards, the other at about the same
angle downwards, and the position of the two
was at intervals gradually reversed; the hands
were turned slowly round upon the wrists, and
often the dancing consisted for some interval
merely in the graceful pose of the body, and tins
movement of the hands.

The main point in the dancing seemed to
be that all the motions should follow and pass
one into the other with perfect gradation in
time, and without any jerk or quickening. The
thumbs were always maintained extended at
right angles to the palms of the hands, as at
the Ke Islands.

A young boy danced a somewhat similar
dance to that of the girls. During his perform-
ance, he at one time put forward one leg and
curved the sole of his foot so that only the toe
and heel touched the floor, and turned round
with the foot in that position. At another time
he shuffled along slowly with the heel of one
foot in the hollow of the other.

I obtained from a Moro boy a Jew's-harp
made of bamboo, on which he was playing.
The instrument is most ingeniously cut out of
a single splinter of bamboo, the vibrating tongue
being extremely delicately shaped ; the tongue
is cleverly weighted by means of a knob of the
wood left projecting on its back. The instru-
ment produces a tone indistinguishable from
that of a metal Jew's-harp ; it is quite unlike
Melanesian bamboo Jew's-harps in its form.

A sharp tide runs in the channel between
Zamboanga and the Island of Santa Cruz Major,
which lies just opposite the town. In the tide-way, whilst

D D

MORO JEWS-HARP, CUT
OCT OF A SINGLE PIECE
OF BAMBOO.

402 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

the water was running in either direction, a most unusual abun-
dance and variety of surface-living oceanic animals and larvse of
shore forms, was obtained with the towing net ; amongst these
were Tornaria, and larvae of Bi'pnncvlids and Chiroclota. The
place would be a most convenient and productive one to a
working zoologist.

The Brachiopod Lingula is so abundant in shallow water close
to the town, that two boys gathered more than a hundred
specimens at a single low tide at the request of Von Willemoes
Suhm. Unfortunately the much prized " mariske " did not reach
the " Challenger." The boy with his bottle full was met by a rival
collector, who completed a bargain forthwith. There are rival
collectors even at Zamboanga, and we suspected, I do not know
whether rightly or not, that it was a natural-history collector
from the United States who was in the neighbourhood at the
time, who had thus been lucky enough to become possessed of
our expected treasure.

A King Crab (Limidus rotundicaudatus), is not uncommon
near Zamboanga, it is called " cancreio." Yon Suhm thought
that he had obtained a series of young larvae of Limidus amongst
the surface animals collected by the net, but he subsequently
came to the conclusion that he had been mistaken. At low
tide, by wading and turning over stones, enormous Planarians of
the genus Thysanozoon, are to be found in plenty; they are
of a dark purple colour, and measure, some of them, as much as
five inches in length, and two inches in breadth.

I accompanied Von Willemoes Suhm on a visit to the
Island of Santa Cruz Major. We sailed over in a Moro canoe
managed by two of these natives ; the boat was armed with a
large number of bamboo spears, simple light bamboos cut off
slanting at one end so as to form a sharp cutting point like
that of a quill tooth-pick in shape. A bamboo so cut is
extremely sharp, and the spears must be formidable weapons,
especially against a thinly clad adversary. Two or three dozens
of these spears were placed on rests on either gunwale of the
boat, and there were besides two round shields of a kind of
basket-work in the boat.

Our object in visiting Santa Cruz Major Island was to search

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 40;;

for the great Cocoanut-eating Crab (Birgus /"fro); it is called
"Tatos" at Zamboanga, and survives in Santa Cruz Major
because there are no Pigs in the island. Wild Pigs destroy not
only these Crabs, but dig up Shore-crabs (Ocypoda), and Land-
crabs from their holes. In Ceylon, near Trincomali, the wild
swine come down every night to the beach to dig up Crabs, and
I have seen a large tract of sandy beach which has been
ploughed up by them in the search. The " tatos " is searched
for and eaten as a delicacy in Zamboanga,

We landed close to a Moro house built out into the sea, so
as to be surrounded at high water. The inhabitants were lolling
about in the shade, and though we offered them good pay they
would not go a quarter of a mile to look for " tatos " for us. At
last a boy consented to go as guide ; instead of searching for
the Crabs under the Cocoanut trees, as I had expected, we were
shown as the haunts of the animals hollows at the roots of
mangrove and other trees in swampy ground, amongst the holes
of ordinary Land Crabs, but we could not find the tatos.

Von Suhm was anxious to investigate the development of
the Birgus from the egg. An intelligent native at Zamboanga,
who collected for us, said that the female Crab carries about large
masses of eggs with it in the month of May, and retains them
so attached until the young are developed, just like the parent;
he said the Crabs went down to the sea occasionally to drink.

A Mound Bird (Mecfa/poditcs), is common in the island. The
calcareous sand amongst the bushes close to the seashore, was
scratched and turned over in many places by these birds in
burying their eggs. Our guide dug out half-a-dozen eggs,
closely like hens' eggs in appearance, from one of these places.
The eggs were buried in the clean sand, at a depth of 3J
or 4 feet, and wTith no mound over them, or vegetable rub-
bish of any kind. The eggs are thus hatched by the simple
warmth of the sand received from the sun and retained during
the night, just in the same manner as turtles' eggs are hatched,
indeed, turtles' e^s mi^ht have been found in the same hole.
It was mid-day, and the surface sand was hot, far hotter than
the sand below, where the eggs lay, which felt as well as the
eggs distinctly cool to the touch. I had always supposed that

D D 2

404 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

these birds and their allies hatched their eggs by means of the
heat derived from decayed vegetable matter.

We shot a small Cuckoo, with a beautiful greenish golden
metallic lustre on its feathers (Centrococcyx viridis), in the
bushes. On the shore were inclosures built by the Moros as
fish traps, to retain fish as the tide receded. In the shallow
water contained in these traps were a large number of Medusce
all lying on the tops of their umbrellas, with their tentacles
directed upwards in full glare of the sun. They looked thus
posed like a lot of Sea- Anemones, and I took them for such at
first. They appeared perfectly lively, and from time to time
contracted their umbrellas ; It appeared almost as if they had
assumed their position voluntarily, and were waiting for food in
the same manner as Actinias.

Alcyonarians (social Polyps, distinguished by having eight
tentacles), are extraordinarily abundant about the beach of Santa
Cruz Major. The reef rocks are covered with the soft spongy
forms of Alcyonarians ; they form extensive beds, which are
soft and boggy to tread on in wading. Amongst these grows a
stony coral, which is likewise Alcyonarian, as I found to my
astonishment on examining its minute structure. It forms
thick erect plate-like masses which are of a chocolate colour
when living. The coral is remarkable because its hard cal-
careous skeleton is of a bright blue colour instead of white, as
usually the case. The coral is hence named Heliopora ccerulea.
It is, as far as is known, the only surviving representative of a
large number of extinct forms of Palaeozoic age, which are
familiar in the fossil condition. It is nearly allied to the well-
known Eed Coral of commerce.*

Again, another interesting Alcyonarian is abundant, together
with those just described, namely, the red Organ-Coral [Tubipora
musica). There were cartloads of this coral, dead and dried,
lying on the beach, which was entirely composed of various
coral dibris. The " Organ- Coral " was not to be found living in
shallow water on the reefs, but living specimens were dredged
from a depth of ten fathoms.

* H. N. Moseley, " On the Structure and Relations of the Alcyonarian
Heliopora Ccerulea, &c." Phil. Trans. R Soc, Vol, 166, Pt. 1.

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 40

.»

Basilan Island, Feb. 4th and 5th, 18?5. — The ship went for a
night to Port Isabella in Basilan Island, lying west of Zam-
boanga, to coal at the Spanish Government stores there. The
houses of the Moros at this place have already been referred to ;
the town was mostly in process of construction by families of
Bisayans moved from Zamboanga, and much of it was being
built on causeways and made ground constructed with coral
rock on tidal mud flats ; some families newly arrived were
camped on the sites of the houses they were building.

Separated from Basilan Island by a narrow strait is the
very small island of Malamaui. This island is mostly covered
by a dense forest of lofty trees, many of which have the curious
vertically projecting plank-like roots which are so fully de-
scribed by Mr. Wallace in " Tropical Nature."* The natives
cut solid wheels for their Buffalo carts directly out of these
natural living planks ; and the large circular window-like holes
left in the roots at the bases of the trees are curious features in
the forest.

I was constantly put on the alert by the rustling of what
sounded like some large animal amongst the dead leaves, and
expected every minute to get a shot at a deer, but at last found
that the animal disturbing the silence of the forest was a huge
Lizard (I believe Hydrosaums marmoratus), which bolted up
the trees when approached and sat in a fork. The forest was
full of these reptiles.

I wished much to see the well-known aberrant flying In-
sectivorous mammal, Gcdeopithecus Philipi^nsis, which, like a
Flying Squirrel, has membranes of skin stretched between its legs
and out on to its tail ; so that, supported on this as by a parachute,
it skims through the air in its leaps from tree to tree with a partial
flight. I had no interpreter, but found a Bisayan native who
knew Spanish. I knew what " to-morrow morning early " was
in Spanish, and also what " I want to go and shoot Galeopi-
thecus " was in Malay. And to my great amusement I com-
bined these two so widely different languages in a sentence
with perfect success, " Manana por la manana saia mau purgi

* A. E. Wallace, "Tropical Nature and other Essays," p. 31. London,
Macmillan, 1878.

406 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

passam kaguan." The man appeared accordingly next morning
at daybreak and I went with him and shot the animal.

The guide led me through the forest to some clearings belong-
in^ to Moros here living inland. Their houses were raised on
poles at least twelve feet above the ground. We went to one
where the wife of the owner, a very handsome young woman,
was sitting on the ladder with her child in her arms. Some
few trees were standing isolated, not having been as yet felled
in the clearing. On one of these, after much search, a Kaguan
(Galeopithecus) was seen hanging to the shady side of the tall
trunk. It was an object very easily seen, much more so than
I had expected. It moved up the tree with a shambling jerky
gait, hitching itself up apparently by a series of short springs.
It did not seem disposed to take a flying leap, so I shot it.
It was a female with a young one clinging to the breast. It
was in a tree at least 40 yards distant from any other, and must
have flown that length to reach it. I understood from my guide
that numbers of the animals were caught when trees were cut
down in clearing. They are especially abundant at the island
of Bojol, north of Mindonao, and their skins were sold at Cebu,
which lies near, at four dollars a dozen.

Close by on some lower trees were several Flying Lizards
(Draco volans), which similarly have a flying membrane, but in
their case supported on extensions of the ribs. I saw the little
lizards spring several times from tree to tree and branch to
branch; but they pass through the air so quickly that the
extension of their parachute is hardly noticed during the flight.
We had several of them alive on board the ship for a day or
two, where they flew from one leg of the table to another. It
was curious to see two animals so widely different in structure,
yet provided with so similar means of flight, thus occurring
together in the same grove and even on the same tree.

At Malanipa Island, a very small island, not far from Zam-
boanga, natives had felled a good many large trees to make
canoes. The suitable trees are usually at some distance from the
water. A straight broad road is cut through the smaller wood
direct from the large tree to the sea-shore; and the smaller
trees are felled so as to fall across the road. On their prostrate

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.

407

trunks the canoe is hauled to the shore. The open avenues
were extremely useful in affording an easy road into the forest
for collecting purposes.

Cebu Island, January 18th to 24th, 1815. — The ship Mas

anchored for some days in the harbour of the town of Celai, in
the island of the same name. The special interest of this place
lay in its being the locality from which the well-known delicately
beautiful silicious sponge, called Venus's Flower Basket {Ewplec-
tella aspp.rgillum), was first obtained. The sponge is dredged up
from a depth of about 100 fathoms in the channel between Cebu
and the small island of Mactan.

The fishermen use, to procure the sponge, a light framework,
made of split bamboo, with two long straight strips, about eight
feet in length, forming its front, and meeting at a wide angle to

MACHINE USED AT CEBU TO DREDGE UP EUPLECTELLA ASPERGILLUS!.

form a point which is dragged first in using the machine. The
long straight strips have fish-hooks bound to them at intervals
all along their length, the points of the hooks being directed
towards the anole of the machine.

The whole is very ingeniously strengthened by well-planned
cross pieces, and is weighted with stones. It is dragged on the
bottom by means of a light Manila hemp cord, not more than
Jth of an inch in diameter of section, which is attached to the
angle. A stone attached to a stick is fastened just in front of
the angle to keep the point down on the bottom. The hooks
creeping over the bottom and sweeping an area nearly 14 feet
wide, catch in the upright sponges and drag their bases out from
the mud. These sponges, once so rare and expensive, were a

408 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

drug in the market at the time of our visit to Cebu. They were
brought off to the ship in washing-baskets full, and sold at two
shillings a dozen.

Mactan Island consists of an old coral reef raised a few feet
(eight or ten at most) above the present sea level. At one part
of the island, where a convent stands, a low cliff fringes the shore,
being the edge of an upper stratum of the upheaved reef, of
which the island is composed. This raised reef is here pre-
served, but has over the portion of the island, immediately
fronting Cebu, been removed by denudation, with the exception
of a few isolated pillar-like blocks, which remain, and which are
conspicuous from the anchorage. These show that the whole
island was once of the same height as the distant cliff.

Opposite the town of Cebu, the island of Mactan is bordered
by a wide belt of denuded coral flat, partly covered at high tide.
The surface is scooped out into irregular basins and sharp
projecting pinnacles, and covered in all directions with mud,
resulting from the denudation. Very few living corals are to be
found on these flats, but the flats are fringed at their seaward
margin by small beds of living corals.

These muddy expanses are the haunt of numerous shore
birds. In the pools a large Sea- Anemone, of the genus Cerianthus,
expands its tentacles in the full blaze of the sun. Cerianthus is a
form which uses its "thread cells," which in all its widely varying
allies are apparently only employed as offensive stinging organs,
to construct a dwelling. The cells are shed out in enormous
abundance, and with their protruded filaments matted together,
form a tough leathery tube with a smooth and glistening inner
surface, which is buried upright in the mud.

Within this tube the Anemone lives, expanding its tentacles
at the mouth of the tube, on a level with the surface of the mud.
It has the power of moving itself with extreme rapidity down
its tube, and disappears like a flash when alarmed. The species
at Mactan Island is very large. The tube measures one foot four
inches in length, and is very thick and heavy, though made up
almost entirely of thread cells. The animal itself is six inches
in length.

This species of Cerianthus lives in shallow water in the full

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 409

heat and glare of the sun, yet another species, Cerianthust bathy-
metricus* differing from it in hardly any particular, except that
it is of much smaller size, inhabits the deep sea at a depth of
three miles, in almost absolute or entire darkness, at a tempera-
ture near freezing point, and where the water is at a pressure of
roughly, three tons to the square inch.

Camiguin Island, January 26th, 1815. — Camiguin Island lies

about 80 miles to the eastward of Cebu Island. "In July 1871
a volcanic eruption of two months' duration took place in the
island, and threw up a hill two-thirds of a mile long, and 450
feet in height, destroying the surrounding vegetation and village
of Catarman."t A visit was paid to the island in order to see
this volcano.

The volcano, a dome-shaped mass standing on the sea-shore,
was still red and glowing in cracks at the summit, and smoke
was ascending from it. There appeared to be no crater, and
Mr. Buchanan, with whom I landed, drew my attention to the
fact that the lava of which it was composed was entirely tra-
chytic. It recalled in form at once, some of the smaller trachytic
domes of the Puy de Dome district, in the Auvergne, concerning
the mode of formation of which there has been much doubt.

The mass in this case appeared never to have had any crater.
It rose with steep walls directly from the soil formerly covered
with vegetation, which it had destroyed. It appeared as if the
trachytic lava had issued from a central cavity, and boiled over
as it were, till it set into the form of the dome.

The ground around the crater was still almost bare of vege-
tation, but some plants were beginning to colonize the denuded
soil, strongly impregnated as it was with various volcanic
chemical products. Three species of ferns, as first colonists, grew
as isolated plants here and there : and along the courses of two
small streams fed by hot springs, issuing from the base of the
volcano, where the poisoned ground was constantly washed,

* H. N. Moseley, "On New Forms of Actiniaria dredged in the Deep
Sea." Trans. Linn. Soc, 2nd Ser,, Vol. L. p- 302.

t " Information received from Francis G.Gray of H.M.S. 'Nassau,'
Navigating Lieut." Hydrographic Notice, No. 8, 1872, Eyre and Spottis-
woode.

410 A NATUKALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

a good deal of vegetation was to be found, amongst which were
several sedges and grasses, and a rush.

About the mouths of cavities from which hot gases were
slowly being exhaled, a moss was found growing in great abun-
dance, with several lowly organised Cryptogams ; the whole
being confined to the spot occupied by these fumeroles and
forming green patches in the midst of the surrounding entirely
bare rock.

The hot streams were full of green algse, and as these streams,
being very small, became cooler and cooler from their source
downwards, I was able to determine the temperature at which
the algse commenced to flourish.

At the source of one of these streams, as it issued from
beneath the volcano, the water had a temperature of 1450,2 F.,
and was thus too hot to be borne by the hand. Here there were
no algse at all growing in the water. There were, however, small
green patches on stones projecting out of the bed of the stream
into the air, and also along the margins of the stream where they
were not bathed by the hot water itself, but only soaked up the
moisture and received the spray occasionally.

At a distance of a few yards lower down, in a little side-pool
fed by the stream, abundance of algse were growing, but the pool
had a temperature of only 101o,5 F., though the stream which
fed it constantly was at 122° F.

Lower down again, algse were growing in the middle of the
stream, in water at 113°' 5 F., and this seems thus to be the limit
of temperature at which the particular algse gathered, will
flourish in water impregnated with a certain amount of salts in
solution. No doubt the amount of salts present has a limiting
effect as well as the temperature.

Oscillator ice, have been observed growing in water, at a much
higher temperature, even 178° to 185° F.* The fact is interest-
ing, as showing that green algse of some considerable complexity
may have commenced life on the earth in its early history, before
the water on its surface had anywhere cooled down to a tem-
perature sufficient to be borne by the human hand, and which

* See W. T. Thiselton Dyer, F.L.S., &c, "Proc. Linn. Soc, Bot."
Vol. XIV. p. 327. Also pp. 36 and 383 of present work.

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 41 1

may have been strongly impregnated with various volcanic
gases and salts.

The upper slopes of the mountains of Camiguin Island were
thickly wooded. The lower slopes were cleared and planted
with Manila hemp. A Manila hemp plantation is not at all
pleasant or easy to traverse. The large trees, a species of
Banana (Musa texiilis) from the stems of which the fibres known
as Manila hemp are obtained by maceration, are planted closely
together. The plantations are full of fallen stems, which block
the way, and are in a half decayed condition, nasty pasty masses
which it is very unpleasant to handle and climb over, or crawl
beneath.

The ship stopped three days at the town of Ilo Ilo, the
head-quarters of the manufacture of a sort of fine muslin, made
out of the fibre of pine-apples, and which is known as " pifia."
This fabric is highly prized by the native Malay and miscella-
neous half-caste beauties, but apparently does not find much
favour in Europe, because of its always having a dusky tint. A
similar fabric is woven in some parts of India.

Manila, November 5th to 12th, 1814, January 11th to 14th, 1815.

— As we entered the Bay of Manila, there greeted us the cow-
like moan of an American-built steamer, so different from the
English whistle, and I felt at once that we had, as it were,
turned the corner of the world in our long voyage.

The dress of the Bisayan and Tagalese and half-caste
men is very ludicrous. They wear an ordinary shirt without
tucking the flaps in. The flaps hang over their trousers,
reminding one of the Australian Black's description of a
clergyman, as "white fellow belong Sunday, wear shirt over
trousers." Men who are well to do wear elaborately em-
broidered and very transparent shirts of piiia.* The shirt is the
article of dress on which the wearer prides himself most, and
especially is he gratified by the beauty of its front.

The dress of the children at Ilo Ilo and Zamboanga was
interesting. It was evidently put on them in many cases by the

* The men similarly in Nicaragua wear their shirts over their trousers.
See Thos. Belt, F.L.S., " The Naturalist in Nicaragua," p. 63. London,
John Murray, 1874.

412 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

parents as an ornament or exhibition of wealth, not in the least
from any sense of decency. All dress has no doubt been primi-
tively ornamental in origin, and has subsequently come to sub-
serve the functions of increase of warmth or gratification of
sense of decency.

A savage begins by painting or tatooing himself for ornament.
Then he adopts a moveable appendage, which he hangs on his
body, and on which he puts the ornamentation which he
formerly marked more or less indelibly on his skin. In this
way he is able to gratify his taste for change. No doubt the
stripes and patterns on savage dress represent often what were
once patterns tatooed on the body.

It is a curious fact that the transverse breast stripes and
lateral longitudinal leg stripes worn in some European dresses of
ceremony, though quite different in the history of their origin,
being, I believe, hypertrophied button-holes and selvages, are
exactly similarly disposed to those which the Australian Black
paints on his body when he prepares for a Corroboree.

I saw many of the native children in the Philippines playing
in the streets, wearing gaudy shirts, which did not reach lower
down than six inches or so below their armpits, and practically
were nothing more than broad red or blue necklaces.

The Manila natives indulge in a most extraordinary luxury,
consisting of ducks' eggs which are brooded until the young are
just beginning to be fledged, and are then boiled. It is a
sickening sight to see these embryo ducklings swallowed at the
roadside stalls, which are common at every street corner, piled
high with half-hatched eggs and taking the place of our oyster
stalls.

The great business of life in the Philippines, of the men of
all the various tame Malay races, the half-castes, and Chinese, is
certainly the sport of cock-fighting. The cock-pits in every town
are a source of revenue to the Spanish Government. Everyone
entering them pays sixpence, and the right of collecting tolls is
sub-let by auction, usually to speculative Chinese. Sundays
and the numerous Eestas and Saints'-days are devoted to cock-
fighting.

The galleries are crowded, and the excitement is immense.

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 41;;

It would be hard to say whether the Chinese coolies, who mux-
be seen closely packed aloft, with their legs overhanging the
arena, are the more eager spectators, or the darker skinned
Malays. The money bet is thrown in a heap at the feet of the
judge, in the dust of the arena. There is plenty of gold amongst
it, and unless a certain amount is staked, the particular fight
arranged is not proceeded with. There are loud shouts of offers
on one colour or another, the black cock against the red, the
brown against the white, and so on.

The spurs used for fighting are quite different from those
formerly used in England, which were conical, and fastened to
the natural spurs of the cock, or to the bases of these pared

COCK-SPUR USED IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS FOR FIGHTING COCKS.

down. The Philippine spurs are curved blades, like those of
penknives, and are fastened by a steel loop over the hind toe of
the cock, and secured by means of two prongs, which embrace
the base of the natural spur.* Hence the bird deals Iris blow at
the end of a longer lever. A single blow often lays the opponent
dead. The spur blades are kept carefully covered with leather
sheaths and as sharp as razors. If a cock runs away, as is some-
times the case, he is counted beaten. I was told that some of
the cocks survive three or four years, and kill twenty or thirty
opponents.

When not actually fighting their cocks, on the few days
intervening between the festivals, the natives train the birds and
teach them to fight, squatting opposite one another, and holding
the birds by the tails, and allowing them to strike at each other

* Similar spurs are used in Nicaragua. Thos. Belt, " The Naturalist
in Nicaragua," p. 42. London, John Murray, 1874.

414 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

without doing injury. The Chinese shopkeepers usually keep a
pet cock tied by a string to a peg on the path outside the door,
and slip out and have a friendly set-to with a neighbour's cock,
in the intervals between the arrivals of customers.

Papal indulgences for sins, and even crimes, are still sold in
the Philippines, by the Government, at its offices all over the
country, at the same counters with tobacco, brandy, and lottery
tickets, and other articles of which the Government retains the
monopoly. The perpetual right to sell indulgences in Spain and
its colonies, was granted to the Spanish Crown by the Pope in
1750. In 1844-45 the Government received from this source of
revenue upwards of £58,000.*

* For the roost valuable and exhaustive account of the Philippine
Island, see F. Jagor, " Eeisen in den Philippinen." Berlin, Wiedmann,
J 873. For account of Sale of Indulgences, see s. 108.

415

CHAPTER XVII.
CHIXA. NEW GUINEA.

Hong Kong. Pigeon English. Chinese Method of writing compared
with European Methods. Development of Chinese and Japanese
Books from Eolls. Plants colonizing a Pagoda. Sights of Canton.
Chinese and English Examinations, and their subjects compared.
The Honam Monastery. Chinese Floral Decorations. A Chinese
Dinner. Dragons' Bones and Teeth. Origin of Mythical Animals.
Chinese Account of the Dragon. The last Dragon seen in England.
Use of Unicorn's Horn as Medicine in Europe. Chinese and English
Medicine compared. Chinese Accounts of the Pigmies and of
Monkeys. English Mythical Animals. The Sea Serpent. Owls
living with Ground Squirrel in China. Off the Talaur Islands.
Driftwood off the Ambernoh Paver, New Guinea. Animals In-
habiting it. Humboldt Bay. Signal Fires of the Natives. Barter-
ing at Night. Numbers of Canoes. Belative Prices of Native Pro-
perty. Attempts at Thieving. Modes of Expression. Mode of
Threatening Death by Signs. Armed Boat Robbed. Villages of
Pile-Dwellings.

Hong Kong, November 11th, 1814, to January 6th, 1875. — The

ship was no sooner anchored at Hong Kong, than miserable-
looking Chinese came off in small boats, and began dredging
round it for refuse of all kinds, carefully washing an old cabbage
stalk or beef bone, and preserving it for food. Such boats,
usually worked by a single old man, were at work about the
ship during nearly the entire time of our stay in the port, a
constant evidence of the desperate nature of the struggle for
existence amongst the inhabitants of the country.

We soon began to learn * Pigeon English." It is not by any
means an easy language to learn, that is to really learn it. A
newcomer often mauls his speech in a childish fashion, putting
" ey " at the end of every word, and believes he is a master of
the language. But such is not the case, Pigeon English, is a
very definite language, as more than one book written on the

416 A NATURALIST OX THE "CHALLENGER."

language has shown, and unless one knows the accepted terms
for things in it, one may be entirely at a loss to make oneself
understood by the Chinese.

For example, I wanted to visit a Chinese theatre in Hong-
Kong. I tried the chair coolies with all kinds of explanations
and equivalents of " theatre " without success. At last I stopped
and got an old resident to explain. He simply said " singsong
walkey," and off went the coolies to the theatre at once. As is
well known, many of the words in Pigeon English are Portuguese
of ancient date, comparatively few are Chinese, though the
grammatical construction is all more or less Chinese.

The ordinary visitor using the strange words derived from
Portuguese usually imagines that he is employing a Chinese
word ; but if he asks a Chinaman who can understand him well
he will in return tell him to his astonishment that the word is
English. The Chinaman using Portuguese thinks he is talking
English, and the Englishman using the same thinks he is speaking
Chinese.

It is not only the uninstructed who misapprehend the
words of the " Business English." I have often been amused in
looking at a specimen of a book full of engravings of various
Eastern deities, which is exposed amongst the manuscript trea-
sures in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and labelled in Pigeon
English " Pictures of various Josses." Joss is a Chinese corrup-
tion of the Portuguese " Deos " (" God "). Most persons suppose
it is a sort of Chinese equivalent of the word Idol.

People going from China to Japan usually try to force
Pigeon English into the heads of the Japanese. The Japanese
language and its construction is of course utterly different from
the Chinese. Hence, Pigeon English is probably more difficult
for a Japanese to understand than English itself, and the lan-
guage is really not current in Japan.

I found my servant, on arrival at Japan, attempting to make
the washerman understand a series of instructions, in what he
rather prided himself as good Pigeon English, though it bore
little resemblance to the real article. The Japanese could not
understand a word, but he at once comprehended a few words of
plain English from me.

CHINA. 417

The marked feature which renders Chinese and Japanese
towns and interiors different from all others, and strikingly
peculiar, is due to the vertical method of writing employed.
All the flags, all the sign-posts, posters, and shop-signs, and all
the tents decorating the walls of the interiors, all the streaks of
bright colour in the various views, are drawn out into length
vertically, to accommodate the characters, instead of horizon-
tally, as with us.

We are apt to regard the Chinese method of writing as
utterly different from our own, because the characters express
ideas and not sounds ; but in the use of the Arabic numerals in
all European languages, there is an exact parallel to the Chinese
method. The numerals 1, 2, 3, represent ideas of numbers, and
though a Frenchman, German, and Englishman alike understand
them when written, when reading them aloud they use different
sounds as equivalents, and would not understand one another
unless specially instructed.

So it is exactly in the case of Chinese characters, only the
system is extended to all ideas, and not confined to numerals.
Even in having been derived originally from graphic represen-
tations of the numbers themselves, some at least of our numerals,
and all the Eoman numerals, correspond with Chinese characters.

Though English words are expressed by series of letters strictly
representing sounds, yet, nevertheless, when the resulting words
are taken as a whole, they are read very differently by the little
educated in the various dialects. So much so, that a book read
aloud in broad Scotch, would be little understood by an uneducated
Englishman at least. Just in the same manner, educated China-
men, speaking only different dialects, can each read a Chinese
book to themselves, with perfect understanding ; but neither can
comprehend it if it be read aloud to him by the other.

A Chinese book is very interesting in its construction. The
back of the book has its edges cut, instead of the front as with
us, and the front is left doubled in the condition in which we
leave the backs of books. The numbering of the pages and the
title of the Chinese book are placed on the front edge of each
leaf, where the paper is doubled, so that half of each character is
upon one side of the edge, and half on the other ; and the folded

E E

418 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLEXG ER."

edge has to be straightened out if the entire characters are
required to be seen.

All the leaves in a Chinese book are double, and only one
side of the paper is printed on. The back surface of the paper
is blank and wasted. The idea of cutting the pages and print-
ing on both sides of the paper seems never to have been attained.
Sometimes Japanese picture books, drawing books, and song
books, have drawings or printed pictures on both sides of the
paper ; but even then, the pages are not cut, so that the two
sides of each leaf should follow one another consecutively.

Such a book is merely a folded roll. After the folded pages
on one side have been looked at, the book must be reversed and
opened afresh at what before acted as the back, and thus the
opposite sides of the folds are brought into view. If the pages
only followed one another in the requisite order, there is no
reason why such a folded book should not be at once stitched
at the back, and have the leaves cut. The book would thus be
rendered far more handy ; but the idea seems never to have
struck the Japanese.

The folded form of book described, seems to represent a first
stage in improvement from the more ancient roll. Japanese
paintings and manuscripts are extremely common, executed
upon long rolls which are terribly tedious to unroll and roll
up again. The folded picture books, such as described, may
be pulled out into long strips, on which the pages or drawings
follow in regular order, just as on an ordinary roll. Similarly,
if ordinary printed Japanese and Chinese books were un-
stitched, the double leaves might be unfolded, and, if pasted
on to a long strip, would follow one another consecutively on
the roll.

It seems thus highly probable that the idea of the Chinese and
Japanese book arose as an improvement on the roll ; and that
this is the reason why the leaves are all double, and the paper
printed only on one side. The ordinary paper used in printing-
is possibly too thin to allow of both sides being printed on ; but
there is plenty of thicker paper available in both countries.
Even when very thick paper is used in the folding Japanese
books, often one side only of the paper is made use of. I have

CHINA. 419

never seen an example with the front edges cut, even although I
possess several folded books made of extremely stout cardboard.
The accompanying diagram will serve to illustrate the develop-
ment of the book from the roll.

DIAGKAM SHOWING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHINESE FOLDED BOOK OCT OF THE KOLL.

Nearly all Chinese and Japanese books are block books,
printed from wooden blocks, each of which contains four pages,
a pair of pages on each side. All the letters having to be
carved out on every wooden block, it is as cheap or cheaper
to fill a page with illustrations as to fill it with characters.
Hence, no doubt, the profusion of illustration, especially in
Japanese books.

I paid the usual visit to Canton from Hong Kong. On the
passage of the river the tall pagoda of Whampoa is passed.
Pagodas, as is well known, are erected as sanitary precautions
for the benefit of the cities near which they are built. They
represent sharp peaked mountains, and are intended to preserve
the balance of exhalations of the several elements, according to
the laws of the mysterious science of Fung Shui, and thus avert
pestilence and other ills.

The pagoda interested me, because on every one of the series
of balconies or ledges encircling it at successive heights, a large
variety of plants had established themselves and were flourish-
ing, in some instances bushes of considerable size. The pagoda
stands isolated, and the seeds of all these plants must have
been carried up by birds or by the wind. I was told that the
Chinese considered it lucky that plants should thus settle on
the building.

The strangest sight in Canton is certainly the water-clock,

E E 2

420 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

where a constant attendant watches the sinking of the index
attached to the float, as the water slowly rnns out ; and when
an hour is reached, hangs out a board with the hour written
upon it on the city wall, and sounds the time on a gong.

The small houses on the ferry-boats on the Canton Eiver, which
are the homes of the families which get their living by means of
them, are decorated all over inside with prints from illustrated
European newspapers, many of them of considerable antiquity.
It was amusing to find oneself confronted with " the Funeral of
the Late Field Marshal the Duke of Wellington." Pedlars and
dealers of all kinds ply their trade in the boat-towns in small
boats, with which they traverse the lanes and alleys of water.
From one of these pedlars I bought some jewellery, used by the
boat population, in which pieces of Kingfishers' feathers are set
in a gilt backing, so as to imitate, in appearance, very closely,
fine blue enamel. The play of colours on the feathers thus
mounted is extremely effective, and the jewellery is very
pretty.

One of the places ordinarily visited in Canton by tourists
is commonly called the Temple of Horrors. Here the future
punishments of the wicked are set forth in a series of groups
of modelled figures, representing all horrible tortures conceivable
in process of execution. In one of these a man is about to be
pounded by demons upon an anvil, but is rescued by the
Goddess of Mercy (Quan Yin), who, standing on a hill-side
at some distance, is represented as letting down a cushion at
the end of a string, so that the cushion is interposed between
the body of the condemned sinner and the descending mallet.
This struck me as a very quaint way of indicating merciful
interposition by the Goddess. At this temple some women
engaged in some act of religious devotion were pouring liba-
tions of some kind of spirit at the foot of one of the pillars.

At the bookshops close by the water-clock, a bookseller, from
whom I had bought some books, presented me with an old wood
block as a specimen at my request, and refused payment for it.
Yet the Chinese are commonly accused of being universally
grasping, in their dealing.

The Government competitive examination buildings are

CHINA. 421

astonishing for the large area which they cover, and the vast
accommodation which they afford. It is singular that a similar
institution should just now be in course of construction at a
vast cost in Oxford. The Chinese examination halls cannot but
recall to an English University man the close analogy which
exists between Chinese methods of mental training and learned
thought, and those in vogue at home. As in our own Univer-
sities the main energies of the learned have been devoted to the
reiterated translation into English and study of the mouldy and
worm-eaten lore of a by-gone age ; so in China successive genera-
tions of students have for centuries devoted their lives to the
acquisition of the antiquated philosophy of their remote ancestors,
for the purposes of display in competitive examination. The
reformation of the English Universities proceeds but slowly,
and notwithstanding the hopeful movements now in progress in
that direction, a period of very many years must necessarily
elapse before all branches of knowledge shall be equally and
adequately represented in them.

Like the examination halls, the great monastery at Honam
was full of interest from its close resemblances to similar
European institutions. We listened awhile to the evening-
service, intoned and chanted by the monks in their priestly
vestments, a gong and a kind of wooden bell giving out a very
sharp and short note when struck were used as an accompani-
ment. We were next shown the refectory ; here was a small
pulpit for the reading of pious books by one of the monks
whilst the others are at dinner, just, for example, as at Tintern
Abbey. Close by was the flower-garden of the monastery,
where bright flowers were carefully grown, to be used to
decorate the holy shrines. The principal flowers in blossom
were very fine large red and yellow Cockscombs (Amaranthus)
of which the gardener of the monastery was very proud and
which displayed pyramidal masses of blossom three or four
feet in height. Not far from the garden is a fish-pond and
near by a small cremation house, where the bodies of monks
who die at the monastery are burnt. The whole institution is
more or less in decay ; the monks do not act up to the rules of
their order.

422 A NATURALIST OX THE " CHALLENGER."

Chinese are especially tasteful in arranging flower decora-
tions. At a Chinese dinner at which I was present, and which
Avas most hospitably arranged for us by Mr. E. Eowitt, one of the
Hong Kong merchants, the entire walls of the room in which
the entertainment took place were covered with most beautiful
flowers set in tasteful patterns in a backing of moss.

The dining-table was closely packed with dishes of most
varied kinds, tastefully ornamented and arranged. There were
absolutely no bare spaces, a display of profusion being evidently
intended. I was astonished to find as a condiment in the
sauce of some stewed pigeons, specimens of the well-known but
curious Cordyceps sinensis. This is a fungus which attacks
and kills the caterpillars of certain moths ; the fungus pene-
trates the tissues of the living larva, and after the larva has
buried itself in the ground in order to assume the pupa state,
the fungus throws out above ground a long stem from the dead
body of the larva.

The dried dead caterpillar, with the fungus outgrowth at-
tached, is one of the many Chinese delicacies which seem so
strange to us, nearly all of which are prized, because, in addition
to their gastronomic qualities, they are credited with exercising
certain invigorating medicinal effects. The caterpillars are sold
tied up in small bundles, and the article is called " the summer
grass of the winter worm."

It is the fashion to decry Chinese delicacies as especially
nasty, and the well-known eggs, which are pickled and buried
for years before being eaten, are always cited as instances of
especially disgusting food ; but after all this is more a matter of
education and prejudice on the part of the foreign observer, than
any real difference of habit in the Chinaman. Englishmen are
apt to forget that their countrymen habitually prefer to eat game
and cheese in a state of decomposition, and the latter often
when swarming with maggots, and in a condition such that it
would possibly sicken a Chinaman to look at it. Nearly all races
fancy some form of food in a state of decomposition, and no
doubt regard that particular food when in that condition as
we do cheese, as simply " ripe."

Some of the popular prejudices with regard to Chinese cus-

CHINA. 423

toms are hardly to be comprehended. When I was a child, the
one fact I learnt about Chinamen was that they wore pigtails,
and I was led to regard that as an extraordinary and peculiar
form of hairdressing ; yet the very same fashion had only very
shortly gone out of general use amongst Englishmen ; a rudiment
of the English pigtail still exists on our court dresses, and foot-
men of Eoyal state carriages, wear a shortened pigtail still, on
certain occasions at least.

The women present at Chinese banquets, such as that de-
scribed, sit behind the chairs of the men, and receive no share of
the luxuries, but are supplied with dried melon seeds, in the
cracking and extraction of the kernels of which they occupy
their time.

Whilst at Canton, I visited the shop of a Wholesale Chinese
Chemist and Druggist, in order to try and select specimens of
Dragons' bones which are a highly-prized specific for certain
diseases in Chinese Medicine. The wholesale dealer, whose
warehouse was very large and full of Chinese medicines in bulk,
had no " Dragons' bones and teeth " in stock, but I bought a
few specimens from retail druggists who sell them by weight.

The " Dragons' teeth and bones " consist of the fossil teeth
and bones of various extinct Mammalia of tertiary age, such as
those of Rhinoceros trichorhinus, a Mastodon, an Elephant, a
Horse, two species of a Hippotherium, two of a species of Stag,
and the teeth of a large Carnivorous animal.*

The drug is imported into Japan, and I saw samples exposed
in a collection of Materia Meclica at the Kioto Exhibition.

The chief interest in the " Dragons' bones and teeth," seems
to me to be that they explain the origin of the Dragon itself,
and very possibly of other mythical animals. All mythical
animals have a strong foundation in fact and a developmental
history. In most instances, no doubt, the mythical animal is
derived from a traveller's description, or a description passed on

* For a description of a collection of these objects, by Prof. Owen,
see "Quart. Journal of Geological Sec," 1870, p. 417.

See also D. Hanbury, " On Chinese Materia Medica," p. 40. London,
1862.

Swinhoe refers to a collection of Dragons' bones in " Chinese Zoology,"

Proc. Zool. Soc, 1870, p. 428.

424 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

from mouth to mouth. From this eventually an artist has
drawn a picture of the wonderful animal, and this has become
the stereotyped representation of the beast, and has been
handed down with successive embellishments.

The story of the Argus no doubt arose from a description of
the Argus pheasant or peacock. The Dugong (not the Manattee)
was long ago shown bv Sir Emerson Tennant to have given rise
to the story of the Mermaid. No doubt the original Mermaid
was a black beauty, and only became white-skinned as the
story travelled westwards.

The Unicorn is the Ehinoceros, sketched thus from report ;
but the Narwhal's tusk having come to hand as the Unicorn's
horn, it was placed on the forehead of the animal, in the draw-
ings, and the beast still wears it in our Eoyal Arms* There is
the germ of truth in the case of the Narwhal's tusk, that the
tusk grows without a fellow on the animal's head ; no doubt it
was this fact that led to the blunder. Marco Polo was astonished
to find how different the real Unicorn was from the pictures of it
he had been accustomed to see.

The Japanese dealers in carved ivories at Kioto, who speak a
few words of English, draw attention to " netskis " cut out of
Narwhal ivory, as made from " Unicorn." I suppose this is a
survival of an old European term for the tusk, derived from the
Portuguese.

The Dragon, however, seems to have had a different mode of
origin, and to have sprung from the finding together in a fossil
deposit of the bones of various animals, and the inference, that
because they were found together they belonged to one animal.
An attempt at reconstruction produced the Dragon, and this
accounts for the animal possessing stags' horns and carnivorous
teeth, and containing in its structure a little of everything.

My friend, Mr. C. V. Creagh, of Hong Kong, kindly trans-

* " The Book of Ser. Marco. Polo," Vol. II, p. 273. Col. H. Yule,
C.B. Loudon, Murray, 1875.

The last attempt to resuscitate the heraldic Unicorn, and prove its
actual existence as such, was made in 1852, by Baron J. W. von Miiller,
" Das Einhorn vom geschichtlichen und naturwissenschaftlichen Stand-
punkte betrachtet." Stuttgart, 1852.

CHINA. 425

lated for me an account of the Dragons' bones and teeth given
in a well known Chinese work, " The Botanical and Medical
Works of Li She Chan," sometimes called " Li Poon Woo,"
Vol. XLIII. I give the account here because it is amusing in
many ways as a sample of a Chinese medical work, and seems
to bear out the above conjecture as to the origin of the Dragon,
or origin of part of the animal's structure at least.

Translation. " Dragon's bones come from the southern part
of Shansi, and are found on the mountains. Dr. To Wang
King, says that if they are genuine they will adhere to the
tongue. He informs us that the bones are cast off by the
Dragon. Dr. So Tsung says, that in the autumn a certain fish
changes itself into a Dragon, and leaves its original bones, which
are of five different colours, and are used by men as medicine.
In Shanshi is the Dragon-gate, through which when the fish leaps
it becomes a Dragon.

" Dr. Kai Tsung Shik says, that it is well known that the
Dragon is invisible to man. If this were the case, how could
we see his bones ? I myself have seen a whole skeleton, head,
horns and all, in a dilapidated mountain, and have no doubt
they come from a dead animal, and have not been cast off by
the Dragon.

" Li She Chan, remarks : I believe the above remarks to be
inaccurate. In the Tso Chiine (a history written in the time of
Confucius) an official named Wan Lung Shee used to eat spiced
Dragons' flesh. A book named Shut Yu Kee (The Eecord of
Curiosities) says that King Wo of Hon Kwok (the old name of
China) made soup of a Dragon, which fell into the palace during
a heavy rain. He invited all the high officials to partake of the
soup. The author of the Pok Mut Chee, says that Cheung Wo
got Dragon's flesh, which he steeped in vinegar, and thereby gave
to the latter five different colours. As the animal is seen and
used in this way, I have no doubt that the bones are those of a
dead Dragon, and have not been cast off.

" This medicine is sweet and is not poison. Dr. A. Koon
certainly says that it is a little poisonous. Care must be taken
not to let it come in contact with fish or iron. It cures heart-
ache, stomach-ache, drives away ghosts, cures colds and dysen-

426 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

tery, cures fainting in children, irregularities of the digestive
organs, heart or stomach, paralysis, nocturnal alarm, &c, and
increases the general health."

In the Chinese Kepository* is a further quotation from Li
She Chan concerning Dragon's bones, as follows : " The bones
are found on banks of rivers and in caves of the earth, places
where the Dragon died, and can be collected at any time. The
bones are found in many places in Szechuen and Shanse, where
those of the back and brain are highly prized, being variegated
with different streaks on a white ground. The best are known
by the tongue slipping lightly over them. The teeth are of
little firmness, the horns hard and strong, but if these are taken
from damp places, or by women, they are worthless."!

It is possible that other mythical animals besides the Dragon
may be, like it, partly of fossil origin, as were, without doubt,
numerous races of Giants, which sprung from the discovery of
Mammoth bones. Fossil bones from caves, under the name of
Dragons' bones, were long used as medicine in Europe. A live
Dragon was discovered in Sussex in 16144

It is not so long since all kinds of nastiness, such as pow-
dered Mummy and album grsecum were regularly used in English
medicine, as now by Chinese doctors. Sir Thomas Browne, in
his "Pseudoxia Epidemica/' published in 1646, although he
explodes many false notions in vogue at his day, as to the
Unicorn, yet gravely discusses the power, as antidotes to poisons,

* The Chinese Eepository, Canton, 1832-1838, p. 253. Extract from
" Pun Tsaou Kang Muh."

t For accounts of Chinese Medicine, see M. P. Dabry de Thiersant, " La
Medecine chez les Chinois." Also same author, and Dr. Leon Soubeiran, " La
Matiere Medicale chez les Chinois," also " Etudes sur la Matiere Medicale
des Chinois." Acad, de Medicine, Paris, July 16, 1873.

t "True and Wonderful, a Discourse relating to a strange and mon-
strous Serpent or Dragon lately discovered and yet living, to the great
annoyance and divers slaughters both of men and cattell by his strong and
violent poison. In Sussex, two miles from Horsham, in a wood called
St. Leonard's Forest, and thirtie miles from London, this present month
of August, 1614." Printed at London, by John Trundle. In this book a
picture of the Dragon is given. It is in the form of a large lizard
with protruded barbed tongue and rudimentary wings. The dead victims
.ne strewed in front. The Dragon was nine feet in length. Its principal
haunt was at a place called Faygate. •

CHINA. 427

of Unicorns', Elks', and Deers' horns, and their effect on epilepsy
when taken as medicine.*

In 1593, a committee of Doctors of Medicine of Augsburg,
after a careful examination of a specimen of the very rare drug,
the Unicorn's horn (Narwhal's tusk in this instance) in order to
confirm their conclusion that the horn was real Monoceros horn
and not a forgery, gave an infusion of some of it to a dog
poisoned with arsenic, and on the recovery of the animal were
thoroughly convinced of the authenticity of the specimen. Their
report, duly signed, commences, " Quin etiam visum est nobis,
ad experientiam, rerum magistram tanquam KpiT^piov descen-
dere."| In the work in which this experiment is recorded,
follows an account of another, in which a dram of nux vomica
was rendered harmless to a dog, by the action of 12 grains
of the precious horn, whilst an exactly similar dog died in half
an hour, from the same dose without the antidote.

My friend, Dr. J. F. Payne, has pointed out to me, that Uni-
corn's horn, and the skull of a man who has died by a violent
death, appear as medicines in the Official Pharmacopoeia of the
College of Physicians of London, of 1678. Unicorn's horn,
human fat and human skulls, dogs' dung, toads, vipers and
worms, are retained in the same Pharmacopoeia for 1724. A
Committee revised the Pharmacopoeia in 1742. They still
retained in the list, centipedes, vipers, and lizards. The use of
grated human skull as medicine, by unihstructed persons, sur-
vived in England as late as 1858 at least. j

The idea that PJiinoceros horn acted as an antidote to
poisons, was ancient in India. No doubt hence arose the belief
that the Narwhal ivory, supposed to be that of the Unicorn,
which beast was in reality the PJiinoceros, had the same proper-
ties. The story no doubt travelled together with that of the
animal. Drinking-cups, elaborately carved out of PJiinoceros
horn, were used in the East, and were supposed to detect or

* Sir T. Browne's Works, edited by Wilkin, Vol. II, p. 503. London,

Pickering, 1836. . .

f « Museum Wormianum sen Historia Rerum Rariorum, pp.280----.

Olao Worm, Med. Doct. Amstelodami, 1655.

X Rev. T. F. Thiselton Dyer, " English Folk Lore. London, 18/8.

428

A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.

neutralize poisons poured into them. The forms of these cups
have been largely copied by the Chinese, in ivory-white porcelain.

Ehinoceros horn is still used in Chinese medicine, and is to
be seen hanging up, together with Antelopes' and other horns,
in every druggist's shop in Canton.

Chinese medical prescriptions are excessively long, contain-
ing a vast number of ingredients, most of them inactive. It is
only lately that English prescriptions have been shortened, and
they still sometimes contain a good deal which is superfluous. A
certain air of mystery is still preserved about them. Herbalists
still practise upon the uneducated in London, in a style in some
respects not very different from that of the Chinese physician.

A large variety of most amusing mythical animals are
figured in Chinese works on natural history. Many of them
are familiar and classical, such as the Cyclops : and the Pigmies,
who are described as going about arm-in-arm for mutual protec-
tion, for fear the birds should mistake them for worms and
eat them. The story is evidently identical with that of Homer,
where the Pigmies are described fighting with the Cranes, on
the shores of Oceanos. In Japanese pictures of the Pigmies,
the "little men" (sho jin) are represented as walking arm-in-
arm on the sea-shore, with the cranes hovering over them ready
for the attack. The measured height of the Pigmies is usually
given in classical accounts, just as in the Chinese.

"The Small Men's Country is to the eastward of Tai Tong. The inhabitants are nine

inches high."

I give a, facsimile of a figure of the Pigmies, and translation
f the Chinese explanation of it, taken from the " Shan Hoi King,"
or Mountain and Ocean Kecord ; a very ancient work, parts of
which were kindly translated for me by Mr. C. V. Creagh. The

CHINA.

429

book is in the preface referred by one commentator to even so
early a date as 2205 B.C.

Many of the figures and descriptions in this book are
curiously like those which occur in European Natural-History
Works of about 250 years ago.

Of/' --"<.

HEN 1EUNG KINGDOM.

"The inhabitants of this country have long lips, hairy and dark bodies. They laugh if
they see a man laughing, and when they laugh their lips turn over and conceal
their eyes."

Some of the strange men figured are evidently monkeys. As
for example the men of the Hen Yeung Kingdom, figured and
described in the Shan Hoi King. The Chinese figure is given
in facsimile. It seems to represent an Ape of the genus Ehino-
pithecus, and might well be Rhinopithecus Boxellance, lately
discovered by the Abbe David in Eastern Thibet, and figured
by A. Milne-Edwards. The prominent nose in this species
turned up at the tip just as shown in the Chinese wood-cut.
The wide but unscientific distinction, commonly drawn between
men and the higher monkeys, is an error of high civilization and

430 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

comparatively recent. Less civilized races make no such dis-
tinction. To the Dyack, the great ape of Borneo, is simply
the Man of the Woods, " Orang Utan."

The belief in various mythical animals in England is still
very strong. We are probably not far in advance of the Chinese
in this matter. So strong is the belief, that several of the
animals in question could not be mentioned here without pre-
judice. The Sea Serpent, however, is always open to criticism.
This wonderful animal has hardly ever been seen alike by any
two sets of observers. It is nearly always easy to a naturalist
to understand the stories told. Sometimes it is a pair of whales
that is seen ; sometimes, as when the animal was seen off the
Scotch coast, and figured in the " Illustrated London News,"
a long mass of floating seaweed deceives the distant observer ;
sometimes the Serpent has large eyes and a crest behind the
head, then it is a Eibbon Fish* (Gymnetrus).

I myself am one of the few professed naturalists who have
seen the Serpent. It was on a voyage to Rotterdam from the
Thames. An old gentleman suddenly started up, shouting,
" There's the Sea Serpent ! " gesticulating with his umbrella.
All the passengers crowded to the ship's side and gazed with
astonishment at a black line, undulating with astonishing
rapidity along the water at some distance. It was a flock of
Cormorants, which was flying in line behind the waves, and
which was viewed in the intervals between them with a sort
of thaumoscopic effect.

The extremely untrustworthy nature of the descriptions sent
home is a constant feature in the natural history of the Sea
Serpent. Not long ago he was seen near Singapore (evidently
a very large Cuttle fish on this occasion). He was described as
with large eyes, spotted with brown, and without arms or legs,
but with a very long tail, and was yet said to be like a frog.

Ordinary sailors know nothing about whales or fish, and
easily imagine they see wonders. Often, of course, the Sea
Serpent stories are entirely without foundation in fact, and

* As first, I believe, pointed out by Mr. J. M. Jones, F.L.S., in " An
Account of a Eibbon Fish, 16 ft. 7 ins. in length, obtained at Bermuda."
Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860. p. 187.

CHINA.

4:U

sometimes apparently ships from which the)' emanate are laden
with rum.

Amongst the rough figures in the Shan Hoi Sing, the small
book, from which the illustrations already given are taken, is
one of a rat-like animal and a bird which lives in the same hole
with it. The description of the figures at the margin runs:
" The Bird and the Eat live together in the same hole. They
come from the mountain of the tailed rats and birds in AVai
Une where they may still be seen."

THE BIKD AND THE KAT LIVING TOGETHE& IN THE SAME HOLE.

Professor Legge has pointed out to me a reference in " The
Chinese Classics " to the mountain called the Neauou-shoo-tung-
heile, or that of the Bird and the Bat in the same hole ; and to a
note of his on the subject.* The name of the mountain in " The
Classics " certainly dates back as far as 2300 B.C.

No doubt the Bat is the Ground Squirrel (Spwmophttus
mongolicus), and the bird must be an Owl, which is associated
with it, just as is the small Ground Owl, Speotyto cunicularia of
America with the Prairie Dog, and also the Ground Squirrel of
California, in the holes of which, as familiarly known, it lives.

The genus Speotyto, is, however, peculiar, as far as is known,
to America and the West Indies ; and the fact that an Owl lives
in the holes of the Asiatic Ground Squirrel is not known to
naturalists. Mr. B. Bowdler Sharpe, however, tells me that a
small owl, Carine plumipes, exists in Northern China, which
lives in holes in the ground. Bossibly this bird has developed

* Rev. James Legge, D.D., &c. "The Chinese Classics," Vol. III.,
Pt. III. p. 140. London, Triibner, 1865.

432 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

the same curious habit of association with a Eodent as the
American Ground Owl. If so, the fact is very remarkable.*

Meangis Islands, February lOtli, lS^S. — The ship left Hong
Kong on January 6th, 1875, and after visiting various ports in
the Philippine Group as already noted, lay on February 10th
between the Meangis and Tulur or Talaur Islands, south of the
Philippines. The ship was nearest to the Island of Kakarutan,
of the Meangis Group. The large hilly island of the Talaur
Group, Karekelang, was seen in the distance, covered with
forest, but with numerous patches of cultivation.

A canoe, sharp at both ends and without outriggers, of the
Ke Island build, manned by 22 men and boys, came off to the
ship. The men wore turbans, like the Lutaos of Zamboanga,
and were many of them apparently of the same race, but
appeared to be a mongrel lot, and were very dirty-looking.
They did not, as far as we could ascertain, understand either
Malay, Spanish, or Dutch, but asked for tobacco. They brought
mats and very pretty blue and red Lories alive for sale. The
birds were secured to sticks by means of rings made of cocoa-
nut shell as at Amboina. The men did not chant or use drums
as they paddled. They had the Dutch flag flying.

Drift Wood from the Ambernoli River, New Guinea, February
22nd, 1815. — On February 22nd, at noon, the ship was about
70 miles north-east of Point D'Urville, New Guinea, where the
great Ambernoh Eiver, the largest river in New Guinea, runs
into the sea.j This river probably rises in the Charles Lewis
Mountains, on the opposite side of New Guinea ; these moun-
tains reach up to the great altitude of 16,700 feet. So large is
this river, that even at this great distance from its mouth, we
found the sea blocked with the Drift Wood brought down by it.

We passed through long lines of Drift Wood disposed in curves
at right angles to the direction in which lay the river's mouth.

* An account of Chinese Zoology is given in the " Preussischer
Expedition nach Ostasien" Zoologie, Bd. I. s. 169, "Ueber die Thierkunde
der Chinesen und unsere Kenntniss Chinesischer Thiere."

t The mouth of the river which is lined with Casuarina-trees, was
passed by Rosenberg on his way to Humboldt Bay in 1862. " Nat. Tydsch.
voor Neder. Indie." Deel. XXIV. p. 334. Batavia, 1862.

NEW GUINEA. 433

The ship's screw had to be constantly stopped for fear it should
be fouled by the wood. The logs had evidently not been very
long in the water, being covered only by a few young Barnacles
(Balanus) and Hydroids. Amongst the logs were many whole
uprooted trees. I saw one of these which was two feet in dia-
meter of its stem.

The majority of the pieces were of small wood, branches and
small stems. The bark was often floating separately. The mid-
ribs of the leaves of some pinnate-leaved palm were abundant
and also the stems of a large cane grass, like that so abundant
on the shores of the great river (Wai Levu) in Fiji (Saccharum).
One of these cane stems was 14 feet in length, and from 1J to
2 inches in diameter.

Various fruits of trees and other fragments were abundant,
usually floating confined in the midst of the small aggregations
into which the floating timber was almost everywhere gathered.
Amongst them were the usual littoral seeds, those of two species
of Pandanus, and of the Puzzle-seed (Heritiera littoralis), fruits
of a Barringtonia and of Ipomoea pes caprce.

But besides these fruits of littoral plants, there were seeds of
40 or 50 species of more inland plants, Very small seeds were
as abundant as large ones, the surface scum being full of them,
so that they could be scooped up in quantities with a fine net.
With the seeds occurred one or two flowers, or parts of them.

I observed an entire absence of leaves, excepting those of the
Palm, on the midribs of which some of the pinnae were still
present. The leaves evidently drop first to the bottom, whilst
vegetable drift is floating from a shore. Thus, as the cUbris
sinks in the sea-water a deposit abounding in leaves, but with
few fruits and little or no wood, will be formed near shore, whilst
the wood and fruits will sink to the bottom farther off land.

Much of the wood was floating suspended vertically in the
water, and most curiously, logs and short branch pieces thus
floating, often occurred in separate groups, apart from the horizon-
tally floating timber. The sunken ends of the wood were not
weighted by any attached masses of soil or other load of any
kind. Possibly the water penetrates certain kinds of wood more
easily in one direction with regard to its growth than the other.

F F

434 A NATURALIST ON THE ''CHALLENGER."

Hence one end becomes water-logged before the other ; I could
arrive at no other explanation of the circumstance.

It is evident that a wide area of the sea off the mouth of the
Ambernoh Eiver is thus constantlv covered with drift-wood, for
the floating wood is inhabited by various animals, which seem to
belong to it as it were. The fruits and wood were covered with
the eggs of a Gasteropod Mollusk, and with a Hydroid, and the
interstices were filled with Eadiolarians washed into them and
gathered in masses, just as Diatoms in the Antarctic seas are
gathered together in the honeycombed ice. Two species of Crabs
inhabit the logs in abundance, and a small Dendrocoele Planarian
swarms all over the drift matter and on the living crabs also.
A Lepas was common on the logs.

Enormous quantities of small fish swarmed under the drift-
wood, and troops of Dolphins (Coryphcenci) and small Sharks
(Car char ias), three or four feet long, were seen feeding on them,
dashing in amongst the logs, splashing the water, and showing
above the surface, as they darted on their prey. The older wood
was bored by a Pholas.

A large flock of the very widely spread bird, the Phalarope
(Phalorapus hyperboreus) was seen Hying over the drift-wood.
The birds no doubt follow the timber out from shore, and roost
on it. In England we consider this bird as one of our visitors
from the far north. It seems strange to meet with it at New
Guinea. It was previously known from the Aru Islands. Some
specimens shot had small surface Crustacea in their stomachs.

The various smaller animals no doubt congregate about the
drift-wood because it seems so act as a sort of sieve or screen,
and to concentrate amongst it the surface animals on which they
feed.

The Charles Lewis Mountains seem to be one of the most
promising fields in the world yet remaining unexplored by the
naturalist. They no doubt contain an Alpine flora which might
prove allied to that of New Zealand, since the great mountain of
Kini Ballu in Borneo has southern forms of plants at its top ;
probably there will be found on these high mountains also allies
of the New Zealand Parrots of the genus Nestor, one species of
which (Nestor notabile) is Alpine in its range. There is & Nestor

NEW GUINEA. 435

in Norfolk Island, and the genus .Dasi/ptihis of New Guinea
is allied to Nestor.

" Talok Lintju " or Humboldt Bay, February 23rd and 24th,

1815.— We sighted the New Guinea Coast as a dark purple line
along the horizon, with its upper margin hidden in banks of
mist, at about mid-day. On February 23rd, as we approached
nearer, in the afternoon, the misty clouds lifted somewhat, and
the sharp peak, the highest point of the Cyclops Mountains,
6,200 feet in height, lying just to the north of our destination,
Humboldt Bay, showed out isolated and clear above the bank of
cloud which concealed all the lower parts of the range.

The opening into Humboldt Bay, between Cape Caillie on
the north-west, and Cape Boupland on the south-east, both
precipitous and rocky, became gradually well defined. The
coast appeared far nearer to us than it was, and its distance
was judged at six miles when it in reality was at least 25
miles.

Between 5 and 6 o'clock, the mist lifted almost entirely
from the Cyclops Mountains, and they were seen to consist of a
series of irregular peaks and sinuous sharp ridges culminating
in the one simple terminal peak, which had been seen before
above the clouds. The mountain is thickly wooded to the very
apex, as could plainly be seen with a telescope. The lines of
trees which showed out against the sky along the outline of
the mountain and its ridges showed few or no Palms.

The whole coast outside the Bay is steep and rocky, without
any sandy beaches, and is thickly wooded with a dark clothing
of vegetation with lighter green patches here and there, formed
by the cultivated inclosures of the natives, or spaces which have
at some time been under cultivation by them.

It was dark when we entered the Bay, steaming slowly to an
anchorage. A light flashed from the Cape Caille shore, glim-
mered and flashed again, then another flashed, then another, and
soon a dozen or more lights close together were flashing and
moving to and fro. These signal fires were answered from the
south side of the Bay, and from another spot higher up on the
same side, and we heard the peculiar holloa of warning, " hoa,
hoa," coming over the water from many voices, and sounding

ff2

436 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

exactly like the shouts with which the savages at Api in the
Xew Hebrides greeted the ship.

The masses of lights glimmered from the very water level, as
could be seen from the mode of reflection of the flashes in the
water. The villages of pile-dwellings of Ungrau and Tobaddi
were giving the alarm and were being answered by the people
of Wawah on the other side of the Bay. We could see the
bright lights moving about, and waving to and fro as they were
carried by the excited natives along the platforms of the pile-
built villages, and could catch a glimpse of the shadows of the
natives' bodies as they passed between us and the light.

Just as the anchor was let go in 15 fathoms, a light appeared
on the water close to the ship, and a canoe was evidently
reconnoitring us, but the natives were shy and wary, and the
light disappeared again for some time. Then it was again seen
close at hand, being waved up and down ; and a native stand-
ing up delivered a volley of his language.

Lights were placed at the gangways and were waved as a
token of friendship, and all sorts of encouragemeDts were used,
but the canoe kept at a distance, paddling to and fro. The only
word we caught was " sigor," "sigor!" The canoes had two
paddlers, one at either end, apparently boys, and a full-grown
savage on the small platform in the centre.

The savage on the platform had his huge mop-like head of
hair set off by a radiant halo of feathers stuck into it, and decked
with a broad fillet of scarlet Hibiscus flowers, placed under the
edge of the mop, above his forehead. As he blew up his smoul-
dering fire-stick into a blaze, his dark face glowing in the light
and set off by the scarlet blossoms, formed a most striking, but
at the same time most savage spectacle.

The canoe at last dropped under the stern, the natives shout-
ing still " sigor " " sigor!" I leaned over the stern boat, and threw
down a gaudy handkerchief. It was at once fished out of the
water with a four-pronged fish-spear, and examined by the glow
of the fire-stick, and then another canoe which was approaching,
and which contained four natives, was shouted to in the most
excited language, expressive evidently of satisfaction.

Sigor being supposed to mean " tobacco," a cigar was let

NEW GUINEA. 437

down with a line and immediately taken and lighted, and more
were shouted for, and two cocoanuts neatly husked and tied
together with a part of the husk left attached for the purpose,
as in the many islands visited by us, were fastened to the line, to
be drawn up in exchange.

Then by cries of " sigor !" which acted as a loadstone, the
canoes were drawn up opposite the gangway, and every attempt
was made from the bottom of the ladder to invite the natives
on board, but without success ; nor would they approach near
enough to receive presents from the hand, evidently fearing a
trap, but they took a number of cigars, receiving them two at a
time, stuck between the prongs of a long fish-spear. The placing
of the cigars between the jagged points of the spear was rather
trying work, for the ship was rolling somewhat, and the spear
was thus prodded to and fro.

Another gaudy handkerchief being given to the boat which
had received one already, it was passed over to the other boat
at once, either according to some agreement as to division of
spoil or because perhaps the occupant of the boat was a chief.
The use of ships' biscuit was not understood. One native made
signs that he wanted a gun, by pretending to load his bow from
some implement picked up from the bottom of his canoe to
represent a powder flask, then ramming down in pantomime,
drawing the bow as if shooting, and saying "boom."

The natives seemed frightened to some little extent by a
" blue light," and shoved off a bit, shouting something as it was lit.
At last they left for the shore, using a word very like " to-morrow."
At one time they commenced a sort of song in their canoe, as
they lay off the ship hesitating to approach.

The canoes hung about the ship nearly all night, and in the
morning the ship was surrounded by them, and a brisk barter
commenced at daylight. At about 7.30 the ship was moved
nearer to the north-west shore of the bay, and to the dwellings
of the natives. The canoes paddled alongside, and formed a
wide trailing line as they accompanied the ship.

There were then 67 canoes in all present, and this was the
greatest number that was seen. Some few of them contained
live natives, some four, some three, some only two. In 50

438 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

canoes on one side of the vessel there were 148 natives, or
abont an average of three to a canoe. In all, therefore, there
must have been 200 natives.

From time to time the shout which was heard the night
before was raised. When heard close by, it is found to com-
mence with a short quick " Wah Wah oh 5h oh." Some few
natives had perforated Conch shells, both a Triton, and a large
conical Strombus perforated at the apex of the spire, not on the
side of one of the upper whorls, as in the case of the Triton.
These shells they blew, making a booming sound which mingled
with the shouts.

The natives evidently prize these trumpet-shells highly, and
would not part with them, perhaps from the same motives that
prevent them parting with their flutes, as described by the
officers of the " Etna."*

Many of the natives made a sign of drinking, and pointed to
a part of the Bay where water was to be procured, evidently
thinking that the ship required water. This shows that they
are more or less accustomed to ships watering here, and the
fact that the utmost endeavours failed to induce any of the
natives to come on board the ship, and their extreme caution in
their first approach, seemed to show that they must have been
frightened or maltreated in some way by recent visitors to the
Bay. When the Dutch vessel of war, " Etna," came into the
harbour in 1858, the natives clambered on board before the
cable was out.

As soon as the ship anchored again, the natives crowded
round the ship, and barter recommenced most briskly, being
carried on through the main deck ports, the natives passing up
their weapons and ornaments stuck between the points of
their four-pronged spears, and receiving the price in the same
manner.

The constant cry of the natives was "sigor sigor," often re-
peated (sigor sigor, slowly, sigor sigor sig5r, quickly). " Sigor "
was found to mean iron ; this and " soth," which means more,
were the only words of the language gathered. Iron tub-hoop,
broken into six or eight-inch lengths, was the commonest article
* "Neu Guinea und seine Bewohner." Otto Finsch, S. 144.

NEW GUINEA. 439

of barter, but most prized were small trade hatchets, for which
the natives parted with anything they had.

The iron, wherewith to replace the stone blades of* their own
hatchets, and the miserable ready-made trade hatchets, are to
them the most valuable property possible, since they lessen the
toil of clearing the rough land for cultivation, and of canoe and
house building, which with the stone implements alone to work
with, must be arduous indeed.

Hence the natives cared hardly for anything except iron ;
bright handkerchiefs or Turkey red stuff were seldom taken in
exchange, and then for very little value. Beads however were
prized. Of their own property, the natives valued most their
stone hatchets. Very probably they obtain the stone for
making them "by barter from a distance, since the rock at
Humboldt's Bay is a limestone, and the hatchets are made of
jade or greenstone, or of a slate. The labour involved in grind-
ing down a jade hatchet-head to the smooth symmetrical sur-
faces which these native implements show, must be immense.

Next in value to the stone implements were the breastplate-
like ornaments, each of which has as its components, eight or
more pairs of Wild Boars' tusks, besides quantities of native
beads, of small ground-down Nerita shells. These treasures
required a trade hatchet at least to purchase them. All other
articles, necklaces, armlets, tortoiseshell ear-rings, combs, paddles,
daggers of Cassowary bone and such things, could be bought for
plain hoop-iron, as could also bows and arrows in any quantity,
and even the wig-like ornaments of Cassowary feathers, which
the men wear over their brows, to eke out their mop-like heads
of hair.

The natives often attempted, and often succeeded in with-
drawing an arrow or two from a bundle purchased, just as it
was being handed on board. They understood the laws of
barter thoroughly, and stuck to bargains. They attempted once
or twice to keep the articles given beforehand in payment with-
out return, but often returned pieces of hoop-iron and other
things which had been handed down for inspection and exami-
nation, as to whether they were worth the article required for
them or no. One or two of these natives tried to fish things out

440

A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

through the lower deck-scuttles from the cabins with their
arrows, but were detected and frustrated in their design.

NATIVES OF THE VILLAGE OF TOBADDI, HUMBOLDT BAT.

N.B. — The arrow shown is too short, and should be as long as the bow.

Many of the men wore a pair of Wild Boar's tusks fastened
together in the form of a crescent, and passed through a hole in
the septum of the nose, so that the two tusks projected up over
their dark cheeks as far as their eyes. Most of the men had
short pointed beards, apparently cut to that shape ; the old ones
had whiskers. One old man who was bald, wore a complete
but small wig. None of the men were tattooed, but they had
large cicatrized marks on the outer sides of the upper arms, and
smaller ones on the shoulders.

The fungoid skin disease was common here as at the Aru
and Ke Islands, but only on the adults ; the boys and many of
the younger men were free of it.

The men attracted attention to barter by the cries of " urh,
urh ! " to express astonishment they struck the top of the

NEW GUINEA. 441

outer sides of their thighs with their extended palms. Refusal
of barter or negation was combined with an expression of
disgust, or rather the two ideas are not apparently separated ;
the refusal was expressed by an extreme pouting of the lips,
accompanied by an expiratory sniff from the nostrils.

The forehead muscles were very little used in expression,
though they were slighly knitted in astonishment. In laughing,
the corners of the mouth were excessively drawn back, so that
four or five deep folds were formed round the angles of the
mouth, the head was lolled back, the mouth opened wide, and
the whole of the upper teeth uncovered ; the whole expression
was most ape-like.

I started with a party in a fully armed boat with the intent
of landing. As we approached the shore, a native warrior
approached, standing as usual on the platform of a small canoe
paddled by two boys sitting in the bow and stern ; the man
held up a yam and made signs that he wished to barter ; we
halted and made signs of refusal ; he then took up one of his
arrows, and holding the point to his neck just above the collar
bone, made signs of forcing it into his body, and then throwing
back his arms and head, and turning up his eyes, pretended to
fall backwards by a series of jerks, in imitation of death ; then
he caught hold of the yam again and proffered it a second time,
and on renewed refusal, went through the imaginary killing
process again.

We began to move toward shore, when the man ran to the end
of the canoe nearest the boat, and fitting an arrow against the
string of his bow, drew the bow with his full strength and
pointed the arrow full at me ; I was standing up at the time
with a loaded double-barrelled gun in the stern of the boat.

As he drew the bow he contorted his face into the most
hideous expression of rage, with his teeth clenched and exposed,
and eyes starting. This expression was evidently assumed to
terrify us as an habitual part of the fight, and not because the
man was in reality in a rage. In Chinese and Japanese battle-
scenes, or hunting-scenes in which attacks upon large animals
are depicted, the faces of the combatants are usually represented
as horribly contorted with rage. No doubt the grimace is

442 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

assumed as a menace amongst savages on just the same principle
as that on which an animal shows its teeth. The native shifted
his aim sometimes on to Von Willemoes Suhm, and sometimes
on to Mr. Buchanan, who was nearest to him.

We were in a dilemma ; the man evidently did not under-
stand the use of fire-arms, for the whole boat's-crew was fully
armed, and we in the stern were all provided with guns. He
evidently thought that we were unarmed because we had no
bows and arrows ; he might have let slip an arrow five feet long
into any one of us in an instant.

We of course would not shoot the man in cold blood ; if we
had fired over his head, he would certainly have let fly one
arrow at least, and he was within six yards of the boat. The
boys who paddled him were exuberantly delighted at the prowess
and success of their warrior.

The canoe was pushed up to the stern of our boat, and the
man caught hold of our gunwale. Another canoe joined in to
share in the spoil, and closed in at the stern also. The two
warriors seized a large tin vasculum of mine from the seat, and
immediately began struggling between themselves for it, and
taking advantage of the struggle we pulled back to the ship.

The vasculum contained some trade knives and* three bottles
of soda-water. I expect no savages were ever so thoroughly
scared and puzzled as these when they came to open the bottles
in the bosoms of their families in their pile-dwellings.

The same man who stopped us had also stopped a boat en-
gaged in surveying, just before in the same manner, and it had
also returned to the ship.

All kinds of suggestions were made on our return as to what
ought to have been done ; we ought to have hit the natives over
the knuckles with the stretchers, or run the canoe down, or
fired over the natives' heads ; but there cannot be the least doubt
that in that case some one would have been wounded at least,
and one native at least shot.

I cannot understand how it occurred that this native knew
nothing of fire-arms, since the Humboldt has often been visited
by the Dutch, and many of the natives understood their nature ;
one man, as has been said, having plainly asked for a gun on our

NEW GUINEA. 443

first arrival. Possibly the man had come from a distant part of
the Bay either lately or some years before, or had only heard of
fire-arms and was a sceptic, or knowing that a gun would kill
birds, had thought that special magic, and not comprehended
that it would also kill men.

A small party landed with Captain Thomson from the steam
pinnace for a short time, and Mr. Murray, led by some natives,
shot a few birds. These natives were friendly enough, but when
Captain Thomson approached one of the platform villages, the
women turned out with bows and arrows, and warned the boat
away, using the same signs of death as the man who discom-
forted us.

A stay of some little time is evidently necessary in order
that the natives should become on good terms with visitors in a
strange ship, and possibly the natives had been maltreated by
the crew of some vessel since the "Etna's " long visit in 1858 ;
no doubt also the natives forget a great deal in the lapse of
sixteen years.

As time could not be spared to wait and conciliate the
natives, and violent measures were of course out of the question,
landing was reluctantly given up, and the ship sailed for the
Admiralty Islands in the evening of February 24th.

The bows of the Humboldt Bay natives are cut out of solid
palm-wood and have a very hard pull. They taper to a fine
point at either end, and in stringing and unstringing them a
loop at the end of the string is slipped on and off this point and
rests in the extended bow on a boss raised with wicker-work, at
some distance from the bow-tip.

The bows are strung quickly by their lower ends being
placed between the supports of the canoe outriggers as a ful-
crum. If an attempt be made to string a bow, by resting one
end on the ground, the tapering end snaps off directly pressure
is applied.

The bowstring is a thick flat band of rattan, and the arrows,
like all New Guinea arrows, have no notch, but are flat at the
ends, and are also without feather. The natives have never
learnt the improvement of the notch and feather. The men of
Api Island, New Hebrides, have most carefully worked notches

444 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

to their arrows, but still no feather. The Aru Islanders have
both notch and feather.*

The Humboldt Bay arrows further are excessively long, far
too long for the bows, being five feet in length, so that not more
than half of their length can be drawn. They are rather small
spears thrown by a clumsy bow for short distances than arrows.
They go with immense force for a certain distance, but only fly
straight for ten or a dozen yards, wobbling and turning over
after that length of flight.

As the anchor was being got up, when the ship's screw was
beginning to turn, two natives, who happened to be close to it
in a canoe, drew their bows hastily on it as if it were some
monster about to attack them from under water.

In the Humboldt Bay stone choppers, the stone blade is
mounted in the end of a long wooden socket piece which is
fitted into a round hole at the end of the club-like handle. The
socket piece can thus be turned round so that the blade can be
set to be used like that of either an axe or an adze.

The handle and socket piece form nearly a right angle with
one another, and the socket piece is so long that the whole seems
a most clumsy arrangement, and it is most difficult to strike a
blow with it with any precision.

The shorter the socket piece the easier it is to direct the
blade with certainty in a blow. In Polynesia generally the stone
blades are thus fixed close up to the ends of the handles, but in
New Guinea this curious long-legged angular handle is in vogue.
It is difficult to understand the reason, unless these natives
began with a chisel and mallet ; and having got so far in im-
provement as to join them together, have not yet discovered
the advantage to be gained by shortening up the socket piece.

A curious stone implement, similarly mounted to the chopper,
was common in most of the Humboldt Bay canoes. It seems to
be a kind of hammer. The stone head is cylindrical in form
tapering to fit the socket at one end, and hollowed slightly on
the striking face. The exact use of the implement is uncertain.

* For the distribution and various forms of bows and arrows, see Gen.
Lane Fox, F.R.S., &c, " On Primitive Warfare." Journ. of United Service
Inst, 186 7-9.

NEW GUINEA.

445

The awkwardness of its method of mounting is at once felt on
trying to drive a nail with it.

STONE BLADED CHOPPER AND STONE HEADED HAMMER IN USE AT HUMBOLDT BAT, ALSO A LARGER
VIEW OF THE STONE HAMMER-HEAD REMOVED FROM ITS SOCKET.

The ethnographical details of the people of Humboldt Bay
are, thanks to the investigations of the Dutch commission of
the ship " Etna," better known than those of most savages. I
extract the following account of the houses from Einsch's com-
piled account of New Guinea. It is derived from the 'Etna'1

Expedition :

The houses rest on piles which rise three feet above the surface
of the water, and are connected with one another by bridges. The
walls of each house are not higher than three feet, but the

446

A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.

roof rises as high as 40 feet, is six to eight-sided, and rests on
the central pile of the building, which either stands directly
in the sea bottom, or is built of several trees fastened together.

E-

0
-
O

<
s
o

Walls and roof are made of bamboos and palm-leaves, and
the interior is separated by partition walls made of palm-

NEW GUINEA.

44'

leaves into separate chambers for the men and women and
unmarried.

Each house has a fire-place and two small doors, which
latter form the only entrance for the light and means of exit for
the smoke. The houses are in two rows in each village, with
the worst houses at the ends of the rows.

The temples, which are placed in the middle, are mostly

TEMPLE AT TOBADDI.

octagonal, and reach to a height of 60 or 70 feet. Some
temples have two roofs, one over the other. There are figures
of men, fish, lizards, and other animals at the apex of the roofs,
and similar figures at each of the eight angles.

For accounts of Humboldt Bay, see "Dumont DTJrville Voy. de
TAstrolabe.'" Paris, 1830. "Voy. au Pole Sud." Paris, 1841.

" Neu Guinea und seine Bewohner." Otto Finsch. Bremen, Ed. Miiller,
1865, s. 132.

"Nieuw Guinea Ethnogr. en Natuururkundig onderzoocht in 1858
door een Nederl. Ind. Comniissie." Bijdragen tot de Taal Land en
Volkenkunde van Nederlandisch Indie. Amsterdam, F. Miiller, 1862,
5th Deel. From this work the three figures given above are copied.

For " Von Eosenberg's Account of the Visit," see Nat. Tydsch voor.
Neder. Indie. Deel XXIV. Batavia, H.M. van Dorp, 1862, p. 333, et seq.

448

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE ADMIKALTY ISLANDS.

History of Visits to the Island. Eagerness of the Natives for Iron. Trade
Gear. Trading with the Natives. Geological Structure of the
Islands. Orchids and Ferns overhanging the Sea. Fern resembling
a Liverwort. Difficulties iu Collecting Words of their Language
from the Natives. Their Methods of Counting. Curious Mode of
Expressing Negation. Physical Characteristics of the Natives.
Hairiness of Races Compared. Possible Signification of Moles.
Clothes, Hair Dressing and Ornaments of the Natives. Tattooing
and Painting. Betel-Chewing and Food. Houses, Temples, and
Canoes of the Natives. Their Implements and Weapons. Artistic
Skill of the Natives. Their Musical Instruments, Dancing and
Singing. Their Polygamy. Fortification of their Villages. Wooden
Gods. Skulls and Hair in their Temples. Their Religion. Dis-
position of the Natives. Their Fear of Goats and Toys. Population
of the Islands. Domestic Animals, Birds and other Animals at the
Islands. Habits of Gar-Fish.

The Admiralty Islands, March 3rd to lOth, 18*5. — The Ad-
miralty Islands were sighted on the afternoon of March 3rd.
As we sailed along the north coast of the main island, a Sword-
fish was seen showing its fins above water. It moved rapidly
with a darting motion but sinuous course. It was apparently
about five feet long. The fins showed above water, very dif-
ferently from those of any other fish. The broad dorsal fin
projected from the water in front, and the upper sickle-shaped
half of the tail fin projected at an interval behind, and seemed
as the fish moved to be chasing the fin in front. The fish was
seen to leap out of the water several times. It was probably a
species of Istiophorus.

The Admiralty Islands are a group, consisting of one large
island and numerous small ones. The group lies between
latitudes 1° 58' S. and 3° 10' S, and longitudes 146° E. and

THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS. 449

148° 6' E. between 100 and 200 miles south of the equator.
It is distant from New Hanover 130 miles, and from the nearest
point of New Guinea about 150 miles.

APPEARANCE OF ISTIOFHORUS WHEN SWIMMING NEAR THE SURFACE OF THE WATER.

The large island of the group which is oblong in form, has an
area of about 550 square miles, being thus about twice as large
as the Isle of Man. It is mostly low, but contains mountain
masses rising to a height of 1,600 feet. Our examination of the
group was confined to the extreme north-western portion of the
northern coast, and the small outlying islets in the immediate
vicinity.

The Admiralty Islands were discovered by Captain Philip
Carteret, of H.M. sloop " Swallow," on September 14th, 1767.
Captain Carteret lay off small outlying islands to the south of
the group. 12 or 14 canoes came off, and the natives at once
attacked him by throwing their lances into the midst of his
crew. He had to fire on them, and although he made efforts to
conciliate them these were entirely unsuccessful. From a state-
ment made by Dentrecasteaux it appears that shortly before 1790
the islands were visited by a frigate commanded by Captain
Morelle.

In 1791 the " Eecherche " and "Esperance" sailed from
France, under the command of Dentrecasteaux, to search for
the missing " La Perouse," the " Eecherche " having on board of
her as one of the naturalists, M. Labillardiere.

In the previous year, 1790, the English frigate " Syrius " was
wrecked on Norfolk Island, and a Dutch vessel which conveyed
her commander, Commodore Hunter, to Batavia, passed by the
Admiralty Islands. Whilst she was in sight of the shore, canoes
full of natives put off towards the ship, and showed a desire to

G G

450 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

communicate, and being indistinctly seen in the distance, their
white shell ornaments showing against their dark skins were
taken for white facings on French naval uniforms, and their
reddened bark cloths for European fabrics, and Hunter was
persuaded that here were relics of the unfortunate " La Perouse."

Dentrecasteaux received information at the Cape of Good
Hope, by a special despatch vessel sent for the purpose from the
Isle of France, of what Commodore Hunter had seen, and he in
consequence visited the Admiralty Islands with his two ships,
arriving off the islands in July, 1792. He visited the outlying
islands of Jesus Maria and La Vandola lying to the eastward,
and then coasted along the northern shore of the main island to
the same spot as that visited by the " Challenger." He com-
municated with the natives by bartering with them from his
ships and from boats, but seeing no trace of any European relics
amongst them, he concluded that Commodore Hunter had been
mistaken in the manner already described, and set sail without
effecting a landing. Two separate accounts were published of
Dentrecasteaux's cruise, one by himself, edited by Mr. Eossel,
the other by M. Labillardiere. Both contain very interesting
information concerning the Admiralty Islanders, the account by
Labillardiere being most complete in this respect, and accom-
panied by large plates of natives and weapons, and a view of
Dentrecasteaux Island.

In 1843 the islands were visited by the American clipper
"Margaret Oakley," Captain Morrell. The crew of this ship
landed at many points on the coast of the main island, which
according to Jacobs's account is called " Marso " by the natives.

They also visited many of the small outlying islands. Jacobs's
account* is full of interesting details, but evidently not entirely
trustworthy. It will be referred to in the sequel. There is no
account extant of the landing of any other Europeans on the
Admiralty Islands before the visit of the " Challenger." The
well-known explorer Miklucho Maclay has paid a lengthened
visit to the islands since our departure.

As the ship approached the anchorage canoes came off

* " Scenes, Incidents and Adventures in the Pacific Ocean," &c., pp. 164
to 182. By T. J. Jacobs. New York, Harper & Bros., 1844.

THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS. 451

through openings in the reef to the vessel, though a stiff
breeze was blowing, and the natives were evidently in great
excitement and eager to reach the ship. Paddles were waved
to show friendship, and various articles of barter exhibited to
tempt us. The constant cry was " laban, laban ! " which sounded
to us at first like " tabac tabac," but which we afterwards found
out to be, like the Humboldt Bay " sigor," the word for iron.
Iron was the wealth they coveted.

Having seen the ship securely anchored, the chief ordered
all the canoes away, and we were left alone till the morning.
In the morning trade went on briskly, the canoes crowding
round the ship, and the natives handing their weapons and
ornaments through the main deck ports. The barter we gave
in exchange principally was ordinary hoop iron broken up into
pieces about six inches in length; but we also disposed of a
great quantity of so-called " trade gear."

Trade gear is regularly manufactured for Polynesian trading,
and sold by merchants in Sydney and elsewhere, We had
bought a stock of about £300 worth for the ship's use. It
consisted of a cask of small axes, worthless articles, with soft
iron blades, butchers' knives of all sizes, some of them with the
blade 12 or 14 inches in length ; cotton cloth, Turkey red and
navy blue, beads, and other similar articles.

'The islanders had possibly traded with Europeans before our
visit within tolerably recent time* They brought off their
tortoiseshell ready done up in bundles, and they knew the
relative value of various qualities. The chief had a large
European axe, which I believe was not procured from the
ship, and many natives had hoop iron adzes. Nevertheless
they must have had very little experience indeed, otherwise
they would not have taken old German newspapers freely as
trade as they did at the first, thinking them to be fine cloth,
until rain had fallen. They soon took to making trade goods,

* There were specimens of Admiralty Island lances and gourds in Gen.
Lane Fox's Collection, and in the Christy and British Museum Collections,
procured before the " Challenger " visit. These have probably been ob-
tained from Cape York, and no doubt were taken there by tortoiseshell and
pearl-shell traders who had visited the Admiralty Group.
1 G G2

452 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

shell hatchets, and models of canoes, to sell to ns, which were
as badly made as the trade gear which we gave in exchange.
They understand the rules of barter well, and, as in Labillar-
diere's time, seemed anxious to pay their debts. They pretended,
with many expressive grimaces, to be unable to bend pieces of
tortoiseshell which they offered for sale, and of the thickness
(i.e., fine quality) of which they wish to impress the purchaser.
They often thus pretended to try ineffectually to bend very thin
pieces indeed, and fully entered into the joke when we did the
same with thin bits of hoop iron. They always required to see
the hoop-iron tested by bending before accepting it. They must
trade with one another regularly. They made signs that the ore
of manganese which they use came in canoes from a distance
eastwards. The native canoes are so seaworthy, and the natives
so enterprising and fearless in going to sea, that possibly articles
may pass by barter from island to island here over wide distances,
even to New Hanover and New Britain.

The natives took all the hoop-iron from us which they could
get, evidently receiving more than they could use, no doubt
intending it for future barter. My colleague, the late E. von W.
Suhm, believed that the natives on Wild Island recognized the
native name of Humboldt Bay (Talok Lintju), and pointed in
the direction of New Guinea, having knowledge of the place.
Hence he thought that they visited the place to trade. I think,
however, that he must have been mistaken. The Admiralty
Islanders could never make a stand against a race armed with
bows ; they would be cut off at once ; and had they once seen
bows and arrows they would surely have adopted them. (The
Australians have not done so at Cape York, though the Murray
Islanders come to trade there and bring bows and arrows with
them, but then they are far lower in intellect, and have the
throwing stick.) Many other circumstances concur against the
above hypothesis.

The Islanders were anxious to trade with us to the very
last, and followed the ship as she left the anchorage, with that
intent. They were in a highly excited state, especially at first,
and a man from whom I bought the first obsidian -headed spears
I procured, fairly trembled with excitement as I handed him two

THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS. 453

pieces of tub-hoop. The natives have no metals of their own,
excepting the ore of manganese, with which they blacken their
bodies. This ore they call " laban," and they have adopted the
same term for iron. They appear unable to work iron at all,
since they refused any pieces not of a form immediately appli-
cable to use. They preferred a small piece of hoop iron to a
conical mass of iron weighing several pounds.

The natives are quieter than the Humboldt Bay men. There
was comparatively little noise when their canoes were alongside.
There was no combined shouting. The natives are rapacious
and greedy, and very jealous of one another. The chief showed
all these traits in the highest degree. They were ready enough
to thieve, but not so constantly on the look-out for plunder, as
the Humboldt Bay Papuans.

The men showed no great astonishment at matches or a
burning-glass, apparently understanding the latter, and motion-
ing that the operator should wait until the sun came from
behind a cloud. Looking-glasses were not at all understood.
They were tried in all positions, as ornaments on the head
and breast, for example. The men seemed to see no advantage
in seeing their faces in them. In Labillardiere's time they broke
them to look for the picture, or man inside. Tobacco and pipes
were not understood. Biscuit was eagerly taken and eaten.
Great wonder was expressed at the whiteness of our legs and
chests by the natives, and the women at Dentrecasteaux Island
crowded with great curiosity and astonishment to look at a white
arm or chest. The natives, no doubt, thought our hands and
faces only painted white, and took our negroes on board for men
who had not got the paint on.

I am convinced that both the Humboldt Bay and Admiralty
Island natives believed that we bought their weapons in order
to use them as such. They frequently, when offering spears,
and bows, showed by signs how well they would kill. No
doubt they think the Whites are a race which cannot make
bows and arrows for themselves.

The ship was anchored in " Nares Anchorage," which is
sheltered by a line of outlying reefs running parallel with
the shore, and by numerous small islands. On the line of

454 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

reefs are two larger islands named Wild Island and Dentre-
casteaux Island, the latter being nearer to the anchorage.
These were the only two islands seen by ns to be inhabited.

The land surface in the vicinity of Nares Bay, consists of a
series of low irregular ridges rising one above another, with
wide flat expanses at the heads of bays on the coast, which are
scarcely or not at all raised above sea-level, and thus are in a
swampy condition. The mountains appear, from their form, to
be volcanic ; and it is probable that the obsidian used by the
natives for their spear-heads is procured in them. A trachytic
lava was found to compose one of the outlying islands ; and a
similar rock was observed on the mainland where it commenced
to rise. A platform of coral-sand rock forms the coast-line of
the main island in many places ; and a similar rock is the only
component of most of the small outlying islands.

From the position of the Admiralty Islands with regard to
the equator, their climate is necessarily an extremely damp one.
A great deal of exceedingly heavy rain fell during the stay of
the " Challenger." Rain fell on five days of the seven, during
which we were at Nares Anchorage, the total fall being 1-66
inch. The temperature of the air ranged between 86° and
75° F., the mean of maximum and minimum observations
being about 80° F. ; and the air was loaded with moisture.
Dense clouds of watery vapour hung about the forest-clad
ranges, keeping the mountains most frequently concealed ;
and in the evenings clouds of mist hung about the lower
land, looking like smoke rising from between the densely-
packed trees. In a bay some miles to the eastward of the
anchorage of the " Challenger," the mouth of a small river,
apparently the outlet of the drainage of the mountains on this
side, was found, and also a very small brook; but running
water was not elsewhere observed, and the rain probably drains
to a large extent into the swamps.

The main island, as viewed from seawards, is seen to be
densely wooded everywhere. Along the summits of the ridges
Cocoa-nut Palms show out against the sky, accompanied by
Areca Palms, as can be made out on a nearer view. The
general dark-green mass of vegetation on the hill-sides is fes-

THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS. 455

tooned with creepers, and the smaller outlying islands dotted
about in front of the main island, are all thickly wooded. The
inhabited ones are distinguished at once by the large number of
cocoanut trees growing upon them and forming the main
feature of their vegetation.

I landed twice upon the main land. The trees where the
shore is not swampy overhang the sea with immense horizontal
branches. The bases of many of the trunks of these trees are
constantly washed by the waves ; but they nevertheless have
large woody Fungi growing upon them, sometimes attached so
low down that they are frequently immersed in salt water.
The overhanging branches are loaded with a thick growth of
epiphytes ; and I had to wade up to my middle in the sea in
order to collect specimens of orchids and ferns which hung often
only a couple of feet above the water.

In other places the shore is swampy, and is either covered
with Mangroves, or with a dense growth of high trees with tall
straight trunks, so closely set that it was very sensibly dark
beneath them. In such a grove near Pigeon Island, a small
outlier near the anchorage, whilst the ground beneath is bare
and muddy, and beset with the bare roots of the trees, the
trunks of the trees and fallen logs are covered with a most
luxuriant growth of feathery mosses and Jungermaninas.

On one of these tree trunks I found a very curious and rare
Fern, known before only from Samoa and New Caledonia
(Trichomanes peltatum). The fronds of the fern are circular
in form, and, connected by a slender rhizome adhere in rows to
the bark. They are pressed absolutely flat against the bark,
so as to look like an adherent crust, and have all the appearance
of a Riccia or some such Liverwort, for which indeed I took them,
as I gathered specimens by shaving off the bark. A species of
Adders-tongue Fern (Ophioglossum pendulum), unlike our humble
little English form, otows in abundance, attached to tree stems
with long pendulous fronds as much as a yard in length.

Most of my time during our stay was consumed in the
collection of plants, since the Botany of the Admiralty Group
was entirely unknown. Several of the ferns when examined at
Kew, proved, as was to be expected in such a locality, of new

456 A NATUEALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER

species. Amongst the plants was a new Tree-fern; and one
Orchid formed a new section of the genus Dendrobium.

All my spare time was devoted to studying the habits and
language of the natives. I several times visited Wild Island,
and roamed about with a native guide. The guides always
went armed. The natives were much frightened and astonished
at first at the sound of a gun. One of my guides, when I was
shooting birds, stopped his ears at first, and bent down trem-
bling every time that I fired. The natives were, however, not
much scared by our firing our ship s guns and rockets at night,
but came off next day to the ship to trade as if nothing had
happened.

I obtained about 55 words and the numerals of the islands,
and have published the results elsewhere in a paper, a large part
of which is here reprinted, reference to which will be found at
the end of this chapter. The difficulty of obtaining correct
vocabularies from savages, of whose language the investigator
is entirely ignorant, is well known, and has been commented on
by many writers on anthropology and philology. I was well
aware of these difficulties, and I used great caution, and believe
that the words which I obtained are mostly correct.

I met with the following special difficulties with the
Admiralty Islanders in obtaining words from them. The
natives seemed always ready enough to give the names of
particular birds which had been shot, as of two kinds of Pigeons
and a Parrot, or of a Cuscus, Hermit-crab, or any such object
which they considered was strange and novel to the inquirer,
and one for which, as they thought, he wished to learn a name ;
but immediately they were asked for the word for the nose, or
arm, or any such object common to the inquirer and themselves,
they seemed to grow puzzled and suspicious, and to wonder
why one could want to know the name of a thing for which one
must have a name already. Some men were suspicious from
the first, and refused sullenly to give any words at all, and
prevented others from giving any. Some would give one or
two only, and then refuse further information, whilst I came
across two who gave me at least ten words each, quickly one
after another, but then, like the rest, failed me.

TILE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS. 457

I got a few natives together round some dead birds which I
had shot, and gathered small stones and set them to count.
The numerals are interesting, because those for 8 and 9 are
expressed as 10 minus 2, and 10 minus 1.* In the process of
learning the art of counting, a term for the numeral 10 has been
reached by the natives, before 8 and 9 have been named. This
method of forming the numerals 8 and 9 is known amongst
other distant races, such as the Ainos, and some North American
races, but apparently does not occur amongst either Polynesians
or other Melanesians. It is, however, found in the language
of one Micronesian island, Yap in the Caroline Group.

In counting objects, the natives clap their hands, held with
the fingers pointed forwards and closed side by side, once when
ten is reached, twice when twenty is pronounced, thrice for
thirty, and so on. Up to 10 counting is done on the fingers,
and after that, 10, 11, &c, are reckoned on the toes.

The idea of counting on the feet as well as the hands still
survives in Great Britain. An Irish car-driver in Co. Mayo, a
few winters ago, used the expression to me, " as many times as
I could count on my fingers and toes " for a score. The use of
the toes in counting is apt to seem extraordinary to civilized
Europeans, who constantly wear boots and shoes, and sit on chairs.
The majority of mankind who squat on the floor or ground, and
have their toes generally exposed, and from their posture near
to their hands, naturally pass to the toes in counting, after
having- exhausted the hands.

To express affirmation, the natives jerk the head up, as at
Fiji. Negation is expressed by a most extraordinary and
peculiar method. The nose is struck on its side by the
extended forefinger of the right hand, the motion being as if
the tip of the nose were to be cut or knocked off. This sign

* Admiralty Island Numerals. 1, Sip. 2, Huap. 3, Taro. 4, Vavu. 5,
Lima. 6, Wono. 7, Hetarop. 8, AndaHuap. 9, Anda Sip. 10, Sangop. Jacobs,
I.e., p. 172, gives, See. Maruer, Tollo. Ear. Leme. Ouno. Andru-tollo. Andru-
ruer. Andru-see. Songule. Thus, according to him, the numeral for 7 is
formed in the same manner as that for 8 and 9. His numerals are no
doubt from a different part of the Admiralty Group, and the method of
spelling adopted by him is very different. They still correspond closely
with those obtained by me.

458 A NATUKALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

was invariably used to express refusal of proffered barter, or
that a native had not got some article asked for. It is capable
of various modifications. The quick decided negative is given
by a smart quick stroke on the nose. In the doubtful, hesitat-
ing negative, the finger dwells on its way, and is rubbed slowly
across the nose.

The men average about 5 feet 5 inches in height, and the
women about 5 feet 1. They contrast at once with the Papuans
of Humboldt Bay, in being far thinner and lankier. Three
men who were weighed, averaged only nine stone (137 lbs.) in
weight. I saw but one native that was at all fleshy, although
such were not uncommon at Humboldt Bay. Food is perhaps
not so abundant here as on the New Guinea coast, and the
natives have not, like the Papuans, the advantage of bows and
arrows to kill game with.

The usual colour of the natives is a black-brown, often very
dark, and darker than that of the Papuans of Humboldt Bay.
The young girls and young boys appear much lighter as a rule
than the adults. Some one or two of the young women were
of a quite light yellowish-brown, as was also one young man,
who came from a distance to the ship to trade. No doubt there
is a mixture of blood, and the light coloured natives observed,
belonged to the light coloured race described by Jacobs as
inhabiting the eastern part of the main island and as constantly
made war upon by the dominant black race.*

The hair of the head, which is worn long only by the younger
adult males, formed in them a dense mop, projecting in all direc-
tions 6 to 8 inches from the head. It appeared less luxuriant in
growth than that of the Papuans of Humboldt Bay. The hair is
crisp, glossy, and extremely elastic, and every hair rolls itself up
into a spiral of small diameter.

In general appearance thus it is fine curly, like that of
Fijians. On comparing it with a very small sample of hair
of the natives of Humboldt Bay taken from several native
combs, the Papuan hair proves to be somewhat coarser, but
in other respects the two hairs are closely alike, the diameters
of the spirals of the curls being the same. Some hair from a

* Jacobs, I.e., p. 17fi.

THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS. 459

native of Api, New Hebrides, is of about the same coarseness
as the Admiralty Island hair, but the curls are of much smaller
diameter. The hair of the Api Islanders seems to be remarkable
for the fineness of its curls. In Tongan hair the curls are of far
larger diameter than those of the Papuan or Admiralty Island
hair.

The fineness of the curl of the hair in various Polynesian
and Papuan races which I have seen, seems to be pretty con-
stant in each race and characteristic. It might be estimated by
measuring the diameter of the circles formed by the separate
spirally twisted hairs, and taking the average of several measure-
ments. No doubt a certain curve of the hair follicles corresponds
with and produces the curl in the hairs, as in the case of the
hair follicles of the negro as discovered by Mr. Stewart.* But
the amount of curve will be peculiar to each race. The hair of
both head and body of the Admiralty Islanders is naturally
black, that of the head being of a glossy black.

The hair of the men's bodies was not at all abundant, nor by
any means so plentiful as it is often seen to be on the bodies of
Europeans, the hairiness of whom is apt to be underrated. I
lately saw in a travelling show an abnormally hairy Englishman.
His back and chest were covered with a thick growth of coarse
black hair, as thick as that of a gorilla. Unlike most ab-
normally hairy examples of the human race, the hair was not
continued over the whole body, but ceased at certain lines on
his arms.

The continuous covering ceased abruptly at these lines, but
beyond them were scattered small isolated hairy patches, which
formed a sort of gradation to the ordinary bare skin beyond.
These small patches, the tailing off of the hairy covering, were
regular hairy moles, such as occur so frequently on various parts
of the body in Europeans. It would seem therefore not im-
probable that such moles are in reality small patches of the
original coating of long hair of the ancestral man, a small spot of
the skin, returning by atavism to its ancestral condition.

Each organ and each histological tissue in animals and plants

* Charles Stewart, F.L.S., "Note on the Scalp of a Negro." Micro-
scopical Journal, 1873, p. 54.

460 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

has its own special developmental history. May not many
morbid growths and pathological changes in the tissues of higher
animals and plants be regarded as instances of reversion in the
particular tissues to a condition which was normal in their
earlier history ? In these the growth of the cells is, as in the
embryo, more rapid and less closely restrained by polarity, so
that the resulting masses are mostly without definite form.

Eyebrows were generally absent in the Admiralty Islanders,
very probably shaved off; the natives made signs when offered
razors, that they used obsidian knives for shaving.

I did not notice that the natives seen at Nares Anchorage
had excessively large front teeth. This fact was observed by
Miklucho Maclay. Figures are given by him of the teeth.

The septum of the nose in all the adults is perforated, and
the lower margin of the perforation usually dragged down by
the suspension of ornaments, so that in a profile view of the
face the large aperture in the septum is looked through by the

observer.

Some of the natives, as at Humboldt Bay, have most remark-
ably long Jewish noses. About 1 in every 15 or 20 has such a
nose. I at first imagined that this form of nose was produced
to some extent by long action of excessively heavy nose orna-
ments, but I saw one youth of only 16 or 17 with such a nose
very fully developed, and I saw more than one woman with a
well-marked arched nose with dependent tip, and the women
appear to wear no nose ornaments.

The lobes of the ears of all the men were enlarged, being
slit and dragged down into long loops by the weight of suspended

ornaments.

The women wear as their only clothes two bunches of grass,
one in front, the other behind. The men wear as their only
dress, excepting a white cowry shell, occasionally a narrow strip
of bark cloth about five feet long and six or eight inches in
breadth, which is almost white when new and clean. The cloth
is in the form of a long natural sac, open at both ends, being
evidently loosened from the cut limb of the tree from which it
is made by beating, and then drawn off entire. This cloth is
sometimes reddened by being rubbed with a red earth used by

THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS. 461

the natives for smearing their bodies. No better native cloth
was seen ; and the natives apparently do not know the method
of fusing the fibrous matter from several pieces of bark together,
so as to form tappa, like that of Fiji or Tonga.

The hair in the women, young and old, is cut short all over
the head, and worn thus simply, without decoration of any kind.
In the boys, the hair is short, I believe cut short, as in the
women. Only the young men of apparently from 18 to 30, or
so, wear the hair long and combed out into a mop or bush. In
the older men the hair is always short. There are probably
religious ceremonies connected with the cutting of the hair, for
the very large quantities of bunches of fresh-looking hair sus-
pended in the temples are probably not all at least, if any, taken
from the dead.

The mop of hair in the young men, possibly the warriors
(though numbers of adults, still in full vigour, had their hair
short), is carefully combed out, often reddened, and greased. A
triangular comb is worn in it, also cocks' feathers which are
bound together in plumes and fastened on to the ends of short
sticks of wood worn as hair pins. Plumes of the Mcobar
pigeon, or the Night Heron, are also thus worn.

It must be remembered that Pacific Island native ornaments
are all made to show on a dark skin. White shell or tusk orna-
ments look exceedingly well against the dark skins of natives,
although when removed and handled by Whites, they show to
little advantage. The young girls amongst the Admiralty
Islanders sometimes have a necklace or two on, but they never
are decorated to the extent to which the men are. The old
women have no ornaments. I saw one girl only with a necklace
of the beads procured from the ship. Another girl had one of
small unshaped lumps of wood, worn apparently rather as a
charm than an ornament.

Amongst the lower races of savages, decoration follows the
law which is almost universal amongst other animals. It is the
male which is profusely ornamented, whilst the female is deprived
of decoration. This condition is almost entirely reversed by
civilisation, and the grade of advancement of a race may, to
some extent, be measured by the amount of expense which the

462 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

men are willing to incur in decorating their wives. The males
in highly civilised communities revert to the savage condition of
profuse decoration only as warriors or officials, and on State
occasions.

Amongst the Admiralty Islanders, the decoration is almost
entirely confined to the men, and these seem averse to part with
any of their finery to the women.

The men wear armlets of Trochus niloticus shell, like those of
Fiji, the Carolines, and elsewhere. They wear often seven or
eight on each arm. The rings are neatly engraved with lines
forming lozenge-shaped patterns, and form very effective orna-
ments indeed.

Circular plates, ground out of Tridacna gigas shell, are also
worn, either as breastplates or on the front of the head. The
discs are faced with plates of thin tortoiseshell, perforated with
very elaborated patterns.

Long style-like ornaments of Tridacna shell are worn de-
pendent from the nose. They are closely like those which, in
the Solomon Islands, are worn stuck transversely through the
septum nasi, but are here always worn dependent by a loop of
twine. Ear and nose ornaments are also made of the teeth of
the Cuscus of the islands, and crocodiles' teeth. The ears and
nose septa are always perforated. Pieces of rolled-up leaf are
worn sometimes in the ear (perhaps those of betel pepper).

Necklaces of native beads of shell or cocoanut wood are also
worn. Eings of tortoiseshell are commonly worn in the ears,
as at Humboldt Bay. Both waist-belts and armlets of fine
plaited work, with patterns in yellow and black, are common.
These resemble those of the Aru Islands and Humboldt Bay.

Charms composed of human bones, usually the humerus,
bound up with eagles' feathers, are worn suspended round the
neck, and hanging down the back between the shoulders.

The body is seldom decorated with green leaves, as at Hum-
boldt Bay. But leaves are occasionally worn, both hanging
down the shoulders and on the arms. I saw them once so worn.
Flowers, also, are seldom worn, but a single Hibiscus rosa sinensis
flower is occasionally worn in the hair.

The full-grown men are mostly marked with cicatrizations

THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS. 463

on the chest and shoulders. These cicatrizations are in the form
of circular spots about the size of half-a-crown.

Tattooing is almost entirely confined to the women, with
whom it is universal. Two males, however, were tattooed. One,
a small boy, had a simple ring-mark round one eye. The other,
an adult, had rings round both eyes. These were, however,
exceptional cases. The tattooing is not made up of fine dots or
pricks, but of a series of short lines or cuts.* The colour is an
indigo blue. The women are tattooed with rings round the eyes
and all over the face, and in diagonal lines over the upper part
of the front of the body, the lines crossing one another so as to
form a series of lozenge-shaped spaces. The tattooing is sparse
and scarcely visible at a short distance, and nowhere are the
marks placed so close to one another as to form coloured patches
on the body, as in Fijian women or Samoan men.

The male natives occasionally had their chests and faces
reddened with a burnt red clay. Sometimes one lateral half of
the face is reddened, the other being left uncoloured. When
vermilion was given to the natives they put it on cleverly and
symmetrically in curved lines, leading from the nose under each
eye, showing that they understood how to use it with effect. I
had expected to find Magenta a popular article of trade, but it
was of no use at all. It is too transparent to show on a dark-
brown skin, and the natives rejected it directly they tried it. No
doubt the reason why they do not tattoo themselves is because
the tattooing would show so little. Perhaps it is on account of
their dark colour that Melanesians generally have adopted
cicatrization as a substitute so largely.

No doubt the natives paint themselves elaborately on festive
occasions and in war time. They were fond of being painted,
and two natives who were painted on board all over with engine-
room oil-paint, yellow and green, in stripes and various facetious
designs, were delio-hted.

The natives were also often coloured black, the colouring
matter used being an ore of manganese, which gives their bodies
a metallic lustre, like that given by plumbago or boot blacking.

* Probably made with obsidian flakes. I am informed that the
Soloman Islanders are tattooed with short cuts thus made.

464 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

The blacking was extended over the faces and chests. The old
women were often blackened, and a group engaged in singing an
incantation were all blackened. A man, who was possibly a
priest, was always blackened over the face, arms and chest, and
perhaps blackening has here a religions signification.

The natives nearly universally chew betel, using the pepper-
leaf, areca-nut and lime together as usual. Some one or two.
men were observed who did not chew at all, and had no lime-
gourds. The lime is carried in gourds of a different form from
those used at Humboldt Bay, but perforated in the same manner
at one end with a small hole through which the long spoon-stick
is inserted. The lime is conveyed to the mouth with the stick.
At Humboldt Bay the lime-gourds are not decorated. Here all
the lime-gourds are decorated, but all with nearly the same
pattern.

The use of kaava and of tobacco is entirely unknown to the
natives.

The principal vegetable food of the islanders is cocoanuts and
sago. The sago is prepared into a farine, and preserved in hard
cylindrical blocks about a foot in height, and six or eight inches
in diameter. Specimens of the preparation have been placed in
the Kew Museum.

Taro (Caladium esculentum) is also eaten. It is cultivated in
small enclosures adjoining the houses, but to a very small ex-
tent, and there are no large clearings or cultivation of any kind
which leaves its mark on the general features of the vegetation
of the islands as at Humboldt Bay, or Api, or Fiji. Plantains
are grown sparingly round the houses. A Bread-fruit tree also
grows about the villages. Several wild fruits, a Hog Plum,
(Spondias) a small Fig, and the fertile fronds of a Fern are eaten
by the natives, and they have a Sugar-cane of better quality
than that used at Humboldt Bay. Young cocoanut trees are
planted about the houses, and protected from injury carefully by
means of neatly- woven cylindrical fences. They are also planted
with care on the uninhabited islands.

The natives have no Yams (Dioscorea), nor Sweet Potatoes.

The flesh of pigs is roasted by the natives, and served for
eating, placed on a quantity of the prepared sago in large wooden

THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS. 465

bowls, which are often elaborately carved. The Opossum of
the islands (Cuscus) is also roasted, and is carried about cold,
roasted whole with head, tail and legs intact, ready to be torn
with the teeth and eaten at any moment. I saw no boilino-
being done, but the earthenware pots made by the natives were
evidently used for that purpose.

There are wells on the inhabited islands ; they are at some
little distance from the houses. They are shallow holes dug in
the coral ground. They are kept covered in with sheets of bark,
and at each, cocoanut-shell cups are hung up for drinkino-.

The houses of the natives are built on the ground,* and
always close to the shore. They are all of an elongate beehive
shape, occupying an oval area of ground. On "Wild Island they
are built of a continuous wall and thatch of grass and cocoanut-
leaves or similar material. They thus look like long haycocks
somewhat.

In Dentrecasteaux Island many of the houses have their
walls built up neatly of wood cut into billets and piled as fire-
wood is in Europe. The roofs are similar to those in Wild
Island. They are supported on two stout posts rising from the
foci of the oval floor of each house, and by a regular framework
of rafters, &c. Shorter posts, placed along the walls at intervals,
support the roofs at their periphery and the walls. Very often
the ground is excavated to the depth of a foot or so beneath the
house, so that the wall is partly of earth, and one has to step
down to get into the house.

The dwelling-houses are mostly about 20 to 25 feet long, 10
to 15 feet in height, and about ten feet in breadth. They have
a low opening at one or both ends. To the main supporting
posts of the roof are secured a series of wide horizontal shelves
placed one above another, and on these shelves food, implements
and weapons are kept. I saw these shelves in the women's
houses. In some of the houses are also bed places, consisting of
rough boards fastened against the side posts of the walls on one
side, and supported by short special posts on the other. Arms
and implements are suspended from the posts and rafters. The

* Jacobs, I.e., p. 182, describes, as seen by him, "several large villages
built on piles over the water," on the east coast of the Main Island.

H H

466 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

dwelling-houses have no further furniture. The posts are some-
times curved and painted, and occasionally a human skull is
fastened to a post, or placed under the thatch. Everything
about the houses is rough, and there is no neatness as in Fijian
buildings.

About the houses in the villages, bright-red Dracmnas are
commonly planted as ornaments, representing the flower-garden
in its most primitive stage. The temples are houses exactly
like the dwelling-houses, but larger — about 20 feet long, 15
broad and 20 in height. Some have carved door-posts of wood,
the respective carvings representing a male and female figure.
The doors are closed by a kind of hurdle.

The canoes are more of the Polynesian than the Papuan form,
i.e., they have their bows and sterns low, and simply pointed,
and not turned up and built so as to form figure-heads, as at
New Guinea and the Aru Islands. The canoes' hulls are formed
each of a hollowed trunk of a tree, with a single plank built on
above it, and a gunwale-piece as a finish. The hollowed-out
portion has slightly and equally rounded sides, and is not flat on
one side and rounded on the other, as in the Carolines. The
mast is stepped in the bottom of the canoe, just in front of the
horizontal outrigger platform. A pole of about similar length,
with a natural fork at the top, is stepped against the foremost
end of the cross-bar of the horizontal outrigger, and it and the
mast being inclined towards one another, the mast is fitted into
the fork at the top of the pole, and roused down with a rope-
stay so as to remain firm in that position. The bow and stern
are ornamented with a simple carved ridge or two, and with
Ovulum ovum shells, a single row of a dozen or so being fastened
on either side. A horizontal outrigger extends from the middle
of the canoe on one side, and is connected with a long canoe-
shaped float, and opposite to it is an inclined shelf or deck
supported on two or three stout projecting beams. A platform
is formed with planks on the horizontal outrigger, and on the
outer part of this a large store of spears and the mast and sails
are kept. On the inner part the natives sit when not paddling,
and stow on it some of their gear* food and articles for barter,
but most of these are kept on the inclined platform, where also

THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS. 467

some of the crew often sit. The canoes are from 30 to 40 feet
in length.

The sail is nearly square in form. It is hoisted to the top of
the mast, and set so that one corner is uppermost. The opposite
corner does not nearly reach down to the canoe, hence the square
sail being high above the water has a very peculiar look when
seen over the sea at a distance. As at all Pacific islands,
apparently the outrigger platform is the place of honour, and
the seat of the head-man or chief. Oto, the chief of Wild
Island, never occupied any other position, and never touched a
paddle.

Small canoes with single outriggers, holding one or two per-
sons, are used for paddling about the reefs round the islands.
The large canoes are manned by from 10 to 15 men.

The natives swim hand over hand. They never take a
header in diving, but jump in after anything upright, sinking
feet first with the body inclined forwards.

Long sein-like nets are used for fishing. These nets are
probably the property of a community, for they are kept hung
up in the temples. I saw one about a fathom in depth and of
very considerable length. Hand nets fixed on elbow-shaped
frames of wood are also used. Stake nets are used, and lines of
stakes are conspicuous objects just off the shore near the
villages.

Fish-hooks are used made of Trochus shell, all in one piece.
They are of a simple hooked form without barb. The natives
did not seem to care for steel fish-hooks, and apparently did not,
at first at least, understand their use. It is possible that they
have never found out the plan of using bait on a hook. All
Polynesian and Melanesian fish-hooks which I have seen are of
the nature of artificial baits of bright nacre, imitating small fry
in the water. If the natives did not understand the use of baits,
it is no wonder that they despised European fish-hooks.

The tool in most constant use by the natives is a small adze,
consisting of a natural crook of wood with a Terebra maculata shell
bound on to it, the shell being ground down until only one lateral
half of it remains. Such small shell adzes were abundant enough
still, but in most cases the shell had been replaced on the handle by

hh2

468 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

a piece of hoop-iron. Every man almost carried one of these
small adzes hung on his left shoulder. From the houses large
adze blades made of Tridacna and Hippopus shell were obtained.
They resemble somewhat those of the Carolines, but are very
roughly made indeed, only the actual edge being ground. None
were seen mounted, and they appeared to have gone out of use.
Axes made of hard volcanic rock were also obtained from the
houses. They have ground surfaces and are triangular in form,
and resemble the stone adzes of the Solomons, but are mounted
in an entirely different and very primitive way, as axes, being
merely jammed in a slot cut in a club-like billet of hard wood
near its end. Only one specimen was obtained mounted. These
stone implements did not seem plentiful, and the natives valued
them highly and required, a high price for them ; and when I at
first showed them a Humboldt Bay stone axe, to try and explain
that I wished to buy such from them, they were immediately
anxious to purchase it themselves. The chief had a very fine
large one, with which he would not part.

The heads of the obsidian-headed lances serve as knives,
being cut off just below the ornamented mounting which acts as
a handle.* Long flakes of obsidian are however also mounted
specially as knives in short handles. They are excessively
sharp, and used to shave with even, but are of course very
brittle. Pieces of pearl oyster shell, usually semi-circular in
shape, ground down thin to an edge on the rounded border, are
used constantly as knives to cut cordage, and for similar pur-
poses. Knives made of the spine of a Sting-ray (Trygoii) are
also used. Large ground pearl oyster shells are used to dig
with.

The Admiralty Islanders have no bows, slings, or throwing
sticks, ulas (Fiji), nor clubs. Their only weapons are lances of
several kinds, which are thrown with the unaided hand, not
even with a cord, as in New Caledonia. They have no spears,
like the Humboldt Bay men, Fijians, and others, to be used at

* This is an interesting instance of the same instruments serving
different purposes in a rude condition of the arts, other cases of which
have been dwelt on by Colonel Lane Fox, F.E.S., Lecture "On Primitive
Warfare," Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, 1867-9.

THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS. 469

close quarters, and no shields, though Jacobs mentions shields as
in use at other parts of the group.

The principal weapon is a lance formed of a small flexible
shaft of tough wood, a natural stem often, with the bark trimmed
off, to the thicker end of which is attached a heavy head of obsi-
dian or volcanic glass, which, in size, appears out of proportion
with the light shaft. The obsidian lance-head is usually of a
conical form, but some of the weapons have a knife-edge in
front, and some are irregular. They are shaped by bold wide
flaking. The points and edges are often slightly re-chipped in
order to sharpen them, but the original faces and angles are
never worked up for the sake of symmetry or balance, but re-
main rough. Many lances have their edges and points sharp and
perfect, though formed entirely by the original flaking. The
hinder borders of the lance-heads are simply rounded. They
are secured in a socket of wood attached to the end of the shaft
by means of a cement, and by being bound round with fine
twine.

Many of the lance-heads are of most irregular forms, remain-
ing just as they happened to flake out in manufacture.

The heads of the lances are kept covered with a conical
sheath of dried plantain leaf made to fit. The natives possess
an enormous store of these weapons. They have piles of them
lying on the outriggers of the canoes. On shore the men com-
monly carried two or three in their hands. In a dispute along-
side the ship one of the lances was instantly snatched up and
made ready. They are used for hunting wild pigs as well as for
fighting. The natives pointed to the mountains of the main
island as the source of the obsidian. They parted with the
lances readily, and the material must be abundant. The lances
are thrown in the usual manner, grasped by the naked hand,
being first made to quiver by a shaking motion of the hand for-
some seconds.

Though there is an enormous abundance of Wild Pigeons at
the islands the natives have invented no means of shooting
them. They can only climb the trees and catch them at roost,
or knock them off the nest.

The natives are extremely expert in wood carving, and show

470 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

most remarkable taste in their designs. The lance-heads are
often carved. The carving taking the form mostly of incised
patterns, the effect being heightened and beautified by the use
of black, white, and red pigments.

The white coral lime, the red burnt clay, the black, possibly
charcoal of some kind. The guardian deities carved on the door-
posts of the temples and posts of the houses are ornamented also
in the same style. Similar patterns are graved on the ovulum
shells and armlets. These patterns are all modifications of the
lozenge or diamond, and without curves ; but besides this,
various patterns are burnt in upon the surfaces of the chunam
gourds, and in these the lozenge is combined with various
curves.

An entirely different class of carving is that of the large
wooden bowls which are used for eating out of. These resemble
somewhat those of the Solomon islanders, being, like them,
blackened, but in the present case they are most remarkable for
their graceful forms and delicately carved handles. The bowls
are worked with wonderful precision, considering the tools avail-
able, to the circular form, appearing as true as if turned. They
are widely open, and are provided with a pair of curved handles,
which rise above the level of the tops of the bowls, and are some-
times ring-like, sometimes cut in a delicate spiral. They are
always ornamented with perforated carving, and often bear a pair
of Crocodiles, or roughly executed human figures on their outer
margins. The bowls stand always on four short legs, like the
Fijian kaava bowls. They never have a circular bottom, no
doubt because there are no level surfaces for them to rest upon,
and because the idea is derived from a four-legged stool.

A still more remarkable appreciation of symmetry and fer-
tility in design is shown in the patterns which are cut upon the
circular plates worn sometimes on the forehead, oftener on the
breast. These consist of circular white plates ground down out
of Tridacna shell, with a hole in the centre for suspension. On
the front of this white ground is fastened a thin plate of tortoise-
shell, which is ornamented with fretwork, so that the white
ground shows through the apertures. The patterns are of end-
less variety, no two being alike, and show all kinds of combina-

THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS. 471

tions of circles, triangles, toothing, and radiate patterns. The
shell back-ground is often graved also at its margin. Symmetry
is evidently striven after, but with the appliances available the
execution falls short here and there of the design. Nevertheless
these ornaments are very beautiful. Closely similar ornaments
are worn in the Solomon Islands, and also in New Hanover, and
in the far-off Marquesas Islands, curiously enough.

A regular style of ornamentation is preserved for each class
of ornaments, weapons, and implements. Thus I saw no Ovulum
shells with curved pattern like those on the gourds. Both these
and the bracelets bore simple patterns of diagonal lines graved
and blacked. The spears, also, never bore curves.

The sticks or spoons with which the chunam is carried from
the gourds to the mouth are often richly carved in the handle.
The skulls of Turtles suspended in the temples are ornamented
with patterns painted in the three usual colours. The human
skulls are likewise decorated, and some have eyes of pearl shell
inserted into the orbits on a background of black clay.

The musical instruments used are the Conch shells, per-
forated on the side as usual, a very simple Jews-harp, made of
bamboo, of the usual Melanesian pattern, Pan-pipes, of three to
five pipes of different lengths (the New Hebrides natives have
Pan-pipes with three pipes), and lastly, Drums. These latter are
hollowed out cylinders of wood with a narrow longitudinal slit
only opening to the exterior. Some of them are small, 1-J- foot
or so in length, and are carried sometimes in the canoes. The
larger drums I saw only in the temples. They are cylinders.
4 feet in height and 1^ foot in diameter, and are fixed upright
at the entrances of the temples. There were four such at the
four corners of one temple. The slit in these is not more than
4 or 5 inches broad, and I do not understand how the cylinders
are hollowed out by the natives. Yery similar drums exist at
the New Hebrides, at Efate, e.g., where they are stuck upright in
the ground in circles.*

The natives seemed to have no idea of tune, they blew the
notes on the Pan-pipe hap-hazard. The chief of Wild Island

* " A Year in the New Hebrides," by F. A. Campbell. Melbourne,
George Robertson, 1873, p. Ill, figure Fili Id Efate.

472 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

blew a child's tin trumpet with evident satisfaction. He appro-
priated it from one of his subjects, to whom I had given it, and
came off to the ship standing on his canoe platform and blowing
it with all his might, with three bright coloured cricket belts
which he had purchased, put on one above the other round his
middle. The drums were constantly sounded on Wild Island,
often in the afternoon.

The women, both old and young, dance, moving round in a
ring with a quick step. The men signified that they danced
too, but were not seen to do so. I did not see dancing myself.

I saw some old women performing a kind of incantation.
They sat on the ground in the yard of one of the houses, four of
them sitting facing one another in a circle, whilst two sat out-
side the circle. They had their faces and bodies blackened.
They uttered at regular intervals a chant, " ai aiai aiai aiai aiai
umm." The commencement was shrill, in a high key, and the
terminal " umm " was sounded low, with the peculiar humming
lingering sound, just as in Fijian chants.

Polygamy is practised. Oto, the chief, told E. Von W.
Suhm that he had five wives. I do not imagine that the aged
are killed. I saw several aged miserably lean hags, one
especially emaciated and disgusting to look upon, and also old
men. On one occasion amongst a party of 42 natives in nine
canoes there were two old men, one with grey hair, the other
somewhat infirm. Children are carried by the women generally
on the back, but sometimes on the hip astride.

The chief Oto pointed out one youth as his son, and took
away presents which were given to him.

The village at Dentrecasteaux Island is fortified. A pali-
sade about ten feet high, stretches right across the corner of the
island, where the village lies, shutting this off from the landing-
place. The path to the village led through a gate-like opening
in the palisade, which seemed in not very good repair. The
palisade was without ditch or embankment. The village itself
was surrounded by a second wall, low, and crossed by stiles ; at
Wild Island there was no fortification. The natives inhabit the
small outlying islands, probably for protection from attack.
Very few natives were seen living on the main land, and these

THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS. 473

few at one spot only. Former places of dwelling on the main
land appear to have been abandoned. We saw no actual fight-
ing, but in a quarrel about some barter alongside the ship, Oto,
the chief, attempted to strike a native in another canoe from a
distant small island. He was prevented by his own men, who
held him back. The opposite party at once got their spears
ready, and threatened him with them.

I saw no traces of Cannibalism, although an anonymous cor-
respondent of the " Times " newspaper, writing from the ship,
appears to have thought that he saw evidence of it, and Jacobs
relates an instance of the occurrence of what he supposes was a
Cannibal Feast.

There are several Temples in Wild Islands; they have
already been partially described. One such had as door-posts a
male and female figure roughly carved in wood, but elaborately
ornamented with incised patterns and colour. Between the legs
of the female figure was represented a fish. There are in the
same figure black patches with white spots, which appear to
mark out the breasts. The hair in both figures is represented as
cut short, and thus the mop of hair of the warrior is not repre-
sented in the male figure. No clothes, i.e., T-bandage of bark-
cloth, bulla shell, nor ornaments, such as ear-rings, nose orna-
ments, and breast-plates, are indicated on the figures, and the
male figure has no weapons. The ears of both figures are,
however, slit for ear-rings, and it is possible that a zone of
diagonal ornament passing round the body of the male figure
represents the plaited waistbelt commonly worn. On the upper
part of the chest of the male figure are a series of circular white
ring-marks on a black ground, which evidently denote the circu-
lar cicatrizations present in all the male natives. In the female
figure the tattooing is possibly intended by a wide patch of
diagonal ornamentation upon the abdomen, as also by lines
drawn round the eyes, and not present in the male figure. In
the male figure one lateral half of the face is painted white, and
the other red. The arrangement of paint in this way is in vogue
amongst the natives here as at Fiji ; I saw one Admiralty man
with one side only of Ms face reddened, and in Fiji, at dances, it
is common to see natives with one lateral half of the face blue.

474 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

and the other red or black. All the ornamentation on the figures
is of the common zig-zag pattern, and formed of a series of
lozenge and triangular-shaped spaces. The patterns are incised,
and coloured of three colours, black, red, and white. The parts
coloured white and red are cut in, whilst the patches of original
surface left in relief are blackened. Guardian deities, such as
these, are common in Melanesia and Papua, as is also their
combination with representations of fish ; carefully coloured
drawings of the figures were made by Mr. J. J. Wild, artist of
the Expedition, and my description of the figures is derived from
these drawings.

Another temple had no figures, but the four large drums
already mentioned. To the rafters and supports of the roofs of
these temples inside are fixed up quantities of skulls of pigs and
turtles, all arranged regularly, with the snouts downward. The
skulls were decorated with colours. With them were suspended
large quantities of balls of human hair, some evidently old,
others of recent date : these balls or masses of hair were sus-
pended sometimes in networks of string, sometimes in small
receptacles of a very open basket-work. Both the bunches of
hair and the skulls appeared often to have regular owners,
though dedicated in the temple ; the natives parted with both
freely for barter.

The hair is probably cut off as a religious ceremony ; some
men had the hair recently cut off. A Dugong's and a Porpoise's
skull were produced for barter. The natives evidently treasure
skulls of all sorts. Human skulls are likewise kept stuck up in
the thatch of the houses. At Dentrecasteaux Island, one having
an ornament in the nose was suspended to the front of a house
over the doorway by means of a stick thrust through holes in
the two squamous parts of the temporal bone. This skull the
owner could not be induced to part with, but usually they were
sold pretty freely, and they were in considerable abundance
about the houses, but often much shattered ; a dozen only were
purchased. The natives are very superstitious. When a group
was being photographed, the old women put up two long poles
transversely between themselves and it in order to protect them-
selves from its evil influence, and they could not be persuaded

THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS.

475

to sit until Captain Thomson seated himself in the centre of
the group, and was taken with them. When I began soundino-
the big drums in the temple, my guides hastily drew me out of
the place in terror, and made signs that the people from the
chiefs group of houses would come and cut my throat.

NATIVES OF THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS WITH CAPTAIN F. T. THOMSON, R.N.

(From a photograph.)

A mystery was always made about the principal temple con-
taining the images. Sometimes it was freely open, at others
closed, and I was warned back by the chief on two occasions
when I attempted to enter. The temple with the drums was
used for the suspension of the large fish nets, no doubt common
property.

The charm, made of a human humerus wrapped round with
feathers, and worn hung round the neck, was taken in the hand
and flourished about, dashed against the ground, and used
apparently to swear by during a violent harangue of one of the
chief men of Dentrecasteaux Island, who wanted possibly to
incite the natives to attack our boat, or to try and capture a
much coveted bag of trade gear in it. These feather and bone

476 A NATURALIST ON THE a CHALLENGER."

charms are sometimes made of four human ulnar and radial
bones, sometimes of hand bones, and one contained the bones
of a large bird, probably the eagle (Pandion halicetus). It is a
curious fact that one such charm which was purchased, contained
an imitation head of a human humerus, cut in wood. Possibly
the owner intended to deceive his enemies by this artifice.
Some of the officers told me that they made the natives readily
understand when they wanted to visit the temple by pointing
upwards. It would appear thus that the gods or religious
influence is supposed to reside above.

The only appearance which I saw of a religious ceremony
was the chant of the old women. One man who came off to
the ship often, invariably with his body blackened all over with
peroxide of manganese, was thought to be a sort of priest ; he
wore a narrow fillet round his head, with an ovulum ovum shell
suspended from it on one side.

The dead are buried in the ground. Two different natives,
one on Dentrecasteaux Island, and the other on Wild Island,
explained to me by signs in an unmistakeable way, that the
skulls put up about the houses were obtained by burying bodies
in the earth, and afterwards digging them up again. The value
set upon the skulls and bones as ornaments, and probably also
superstitious motives, are no doubt the reason why no marks
of burial were seen ; no mark is made probably for fear of the
bones being stolen. Two at least of the skulls procured were
those of females.

The fact that some of the men restrain themselves and ab-
stain from the use of betel, seems to be a proof of considerable
strength of character. I gave a hatchet to a guide at Dentre-
casteaux Island as pay, according to promise. He seemed
grateful, and presented me with his own shell adze in return,
unasked, and he made signs that the others had got enough, and
that we were not to give more away ; that we were being
swindled.

The natives delighted in being towed along in their canoes
by the steam pinnace, and clapped their hands with delight ;
but of course did not understand how the boat moved, nor
apparently see in the fire the cause of motion. They came up

THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS. 477

to the cutter when sailing to get a tow for their canoes, and
apparently expected to see the boat go off, head to wind, in the
same style.

The inhabitants of each small island appeared to be under a
separate chief, and quite independent of each other. The chief's
power seemed to depend on his fighting qualities. The chief of
Wild Island had considerable power. He ordered all the canoes
away from the ship on the first evening of our arrival, on our
anchoring. He took articles away from men to whom they
were given, and made arrangements for each man of a party
getting a hatchet. He never paddled himself, and he pushed
canoes out of the way when approaching the ship. He, how-
ever, clamoured with the rest for presents and trade. He had
no ceremonious respect paid to him at all.

The natives seemed friendly enough, but they were of course
excessively excited at our presence. No doubt they were afraid
of us. When a party, which landed with Captain Thomson on
Dentrecasteaux Island, was putting off from shore in a small
boat to reach the pinnace, the inhabitants seemed possibly to
be meditating an attack, for they suddenly produced their lances
and showed intense excitement ; no doubt the sight of a sack
full of trade articles in the boat was almost too tempting for
them.

We were usually on very good terms with them. On one
occasion Mr. E. Eichards, Paymaster of the "Challenger,"
accompanied a number of natives in the chiefs canoe, which
was guiding a party to Pigeon Island. He took down the
names of the whole crew.

The natives were very much frightened at some Goats which
were offered to them by Captain Thomson and refused to let
them be landed on the inhabited islands. They were very much
scared also by a wooden jointed toy Snake which I showed them
swaying to and fro; and evidently must be acquainted with
poisonous snakes, as they made signs for me to kill the thing or
it would injure me. A squeaking Doll, which kicked its legs
and arms about, frightened the chief Oto very much, and he
and others made signs at once to have the thing put out of their
sisdit.

478 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

With regard to the population of the islands, I estimated that
the population of Wild Island was about 400 or 500, and that of
Dentrecasteaux Island about 250 or 300. This estimate for
these two small northern outliers has unfortunately been mis-
taken* for an estimate of the population of the entire group,
which may, perhaps, be conjectured to amount to about as many
natives for the same range of coast line all round the main
island. Jacobs describes the entire range of outlying islands
and part of the coast of the main island as inhabited and in
places densely so.

The most remarkable fact about the Admiralty islanders is
that of their having no bows and arrows, slings, throwing sticks,
or throwing cords for their spears, no ulas, clubs, spears for hand-
to-hand fighting, and no shields. Many other Melanesians have
no bows and arrows, as the New Caledonian Loyalty Islanders,
and apparently the New Britain and New Ireland races, and the
same is the case with the natives of the south-east of New
Guinea ; bows and arrows seeming to commence on the coast
only at Humboldt Bay, but all seem to have slings or other
additional means of defence.

The only domestic animals possessed by the natives of the
Admiralty Islands in any abundance are pigs. These are partly
kept in enclosures around the houses, partly run half wild over
the inhabited islands. The pigs are small, lean, and black
coloured, and appear never to develop large tusks. No orna-
ments of large pigs' tusks were seen in the possession of the
natives. If therefore, as I believe, from signs made by the
natives, is the case, there are wild pigs on the main island of
the group, they must be unlike the Papuan pigs in this respect,
and resemble more the New Hebrides breeds. Two Dogs were
seen on Wild Island. I saw one of these a puppy. It was
white, smooth haired, like a Fox Terrier in appearance, and very
like a dog that was in the possession of the natives at Humboldt
Bay. No dogs but these two were seen amongst the natives.
No Rats were seen on any of the islands. No Fowls were seen
in the possession of the natives, but I obtained a plume of cock's

* Behm und Wagner. "Die Bevolkerung der Erde," V. Petermauu
Mittheiluiigen, 1878, s. 48.

THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS. 479

feathers worn as a head-dress from one native. Fowls must
therefore exist in the islands somewhere, but are probably scarce,
as only this one plume was seen.

With regard to the Zoology of the islands, two species of
Fruit-Bats (Pteropince) , and an Opossum (Cuscus), were pro-
cured. A Dugon and a Dolphin are also killed by the natives.
Of birds the most abundant are the Fruit-Pigeons (Carpophaga
Rhodinolmma), which feed upon the Wild Coffee and Nutmegs,
and roost in vast numbers upon one of the small outlying
islands. We saw or procured about 28 other species of birds,
including two Eagles, a Lory, and a Kingfisher, many of which
appear nearly allied to, or identical with those of the Echiquier
Islands. They have been described by Mr. P. L. Sclater, F.Pt.S.,
who finds several new species amongst them.*

Small Tree-Swifts (Golloccdia) fly about amongst the Cocoa-
nut-trees, and all day flocks of Terns and Noddies {Sterna
hmata, Anous), follow in the still waters within the reefs the
shoals of Skipjacks (Caranx), as they pursue the smaller fish.
The shores are inhabited by several species of Shore birds. I
saw on the main island a scarlet and black Parrot or Cockatoo
of some kind, which flew out of some high trees on the sea-
shore, screaming loudly, like a Cockatoo. The bird was wary,
and I could not get a shot at it. It reminded me at the time of the
rare Dasyptilus pequetti of New Guinea ; it was of about that
size. Of Eeptiles, there are two species of Turtle common here,
Chelone midas and C. imbricata, the latter the source of the prin-
cipal article of barter of the natives, tortoiseshell. In the swamp
pools is a species of Crocodile, of which the natives are in great
dread. There are also at least one species of Land and one of
Sea Snakes (ffydrophidce), and the natives showed themselves
acquainted with danger of handling Snakes. A Gecko and
blue-tailed Lizard (Euprcpes cyanurct) are also present and
abundant.

I was interested in watching the Skipjacks chase small
shoals of young Garfish (Belone). The little Garfish hotly pur-
sued, dashed out of the water, and by violent lashing of their

* P. L. Sclater, " On the Birds of the Admiralty Islands," Proc.
Zool. Soc, June 19th, 1877.

480 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

tails managed to keep themselves above the water in a nearly
upright position for a distance of several yards, as they moved
swiftly from the danger ; their motion seemed a step towards
that of the Flying-fish.

The large Gar-fish, when startled, move along the surface of
the water by a series of rapid bounds for thirty or forty yards at
a time with astonishing rapidity, and are often to be seen dash-
ing thus along when scared by a boat. I was told that in some
of the Pacific Islands they not uncommonly cause the death of
natives who, when wading in the water, are liable to have their
naked bodies dangerously speared by the long sharp bony snouts
of these fish. The fish merely bound blindly away from danger
and strike such an obstacle hap-hazard, but their weight must
render them very formidable to encounter in this manner.

The above account of the inhabitants of the Admiralty Islands is
mostly reprinted from the "Journal of the Anthropological Institute"
for May, 1877, where, in a paper on the " Admiralty Islanders," further
details, and an account of the language is given.

Literature relating to the Admiralty Islands : — " An Account of a
Voyage round the World in the years 1766, '67, '68, '69." By Philip
Carteret, Esq., Commander of H.M. Sloop "Swallow." Hawksworth's
Voyages. London, 1773, Vol. I.

Labillardiere, " Relation du Voyage a la Recherche de La Perouse.
1791." Paris, an. VIII. T. I, p. 255.

The above translated by John Stockdale. London, 1800, Vol. I. p. 296.

" Voyage de Dentrecasteaux a la Recherche de La Perouse." Redige
par M. de Rossel. T. I, p. 131.

Extracts from the above are to be found in general works, such as
Waitz " Anthropologic," Meinike " Die Inseln des Stillen Ocean," &c.

" Scenes, Incidents, and Adventures in the Pacific Ocean, during the
cruize of the Clipper ' Margaret Oakley ' under Capt. Henry Morrell."
T. J. Jacobs. New York, Harper Bros., 1844.

My attention was called to the above work by my friend Mr. A. W.
Franks, F.R.S. The book is rare in England, but there is a copy in the
British Museum Library.

481

CHAPTER XIX.
JAPAN. THE SANDWICH ISLANDS.

Tedious Voyage to Japan. Jinriksha Coolies. Worship of the White
Horse. Japanese Sight-Seers. Consulting the Oracle. Japanese Pil-
grims. Book Shops and Keligious Shops. Kiver Embankments. Eice
Fields. Houses of Wood and Paper. English Bed-room Exhibited at
the Exhibition. Money Boxes. Pilgrims and Priests. Interest
taken by the People in Tojins. Cold Water Cure. Painting of the
Face in China and Japan. Japanese Tattooing. Japanese Modes of
Expression. Japanese Pictures and Theatres. Barren Appearance of
the Sandwich Islands. Honolulu. Supremacy of American over Native
Productions. Principal Trees of Oahu Island. King Kalakaua.
Hawaian Burials. Visit to the Crater of Kilauea. Ponds of Fluid
Lava. Mode of Formation of Peles Hair. Lava Fountains and
Cascades. Recent Eruptions. Hawaian Hook Ornament. Its
Probable Eeligious Signification. Hawaian Stone Club. Affinities
between New Zealand and Hawaian Art. Inter-breeding on Isolated
Islands.

japan, April nth to June 16th, 18*5.— The Admiralty Islands
were left behind on March 10th, and a most tedious voyage, of
a month's duration, to Japan ensued. The vastness of the
expanse of water in the Pacific Ocean in proportion to the area
of the dry land, was pressed most strongly upon our attention.
Though the course north lay across a tract, which on the map
appears so crowded with islands that it seems impossible at
first sight that a straight route through them can be marked out
without encountering one of them, the ship nevertheless arrived
at Japan without any land having been sighted during the
whole voyage from the Admiralty Islands.

A fact often brought home to me before, during the " Chal-
lenger's " cruise, was tediously forced on our notice on this
voyage to Japan, namely, that the inmates of a sailing ship on
a long voyage, suffer far more from too little than from too
much wind. We were constantly becalmed, and our steam

i i

482 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

power being only auxiliary, and coal being short, we had to lie
still and wait, or creep along occasionally only at the rate of a
mile an hour.

When the ship was about 400 miles distant from the
Japanese coast, a flock of about 20 Swallows (Eirundo rustica)
came to rest on the rigging. They were very tired, and allowed
themselves to be caught with the hand. Yokohama was at
length reached on April 11th.

At Japan I had the good fortune to become acquainted with
Mr. F. V. Dickins, a barrister, practising at Yokohama, who is
an accomplished Japanese scholar, and at the same time deeply
versed and interested in all branches of science. I am mainly
indebted to him for what little knowledge I gained of the
country. I travelled with him overland from Kioto to Yokohama.
I have never met with any persons, whether naval officers or
members of other professions, or ordinary travellers who have
been to Japan, who did not wish to go there again, so charming
are the people, and so full of interest to everyone is the country
and its belongings.

No traveller can fail to be impressed by the great powers
of endurance shown by the Japanese coolies. Two coolies will
drag a man in a jinriksha a distance of 30 miles in six hours,
along a road anything but good. The same two men dragged
me at a fair pace 30 miles on each of two successive days.

When great speed is required, three coolies are taken, and as
they run they encourage one another all the way with shouts,
" quickly," "quickly," "now pull up," and so on, and when
several jinrikshas are travelling together, the shouting reminds
one of a pack of hounds in cry. The coolies only get from four
to six shillings a piece for such a day's hard work.

I travelled more than 200 miles in this way with Mr.
Dickins along the great military road between the two capitals,
called the Tokaido (East sea road). The start was from Kobe.
Here I was delighted to see a Sacred White Horse kept in a stall at
one of the temples. The Japanese came up one after another
and uttered a short prayer before the horse, clapping their hands
reverently together in the attitude of prayer. Close by an old
man sold small measurefuls of boiled maize to be given as

JAPAN. 48

offerings. I bought a measureful for the horse, which responded
with alacrity to that form of worship, but I could not help going
through the other form as well in memory of ancient reverence
for the white horse in my own country.

There seems to be a parallel for everything European in
Japan, even for the most out-of-the-way customs. At Kama
Msigamo, near Kioto, on the slope of a hill called Daimogiyama,
is a huge representation of the written Character " clai " " great."
This is cut out on the hill side.

I was told by a Japanese that once in a certain number of
years an assemblage of persons collects together and holds a sort of
festival, and clears the area of the Character from over-growth ;
the ceremony thus exactly corresponding to the " scouring of the
white horse." On certain occasions the Character is illuminated
with lanterns so as to show out on the hill side at night. I have
a Japanese coloured sketch of it thus lighted up.

The Japanese are extremely fond of gadding about, and of
sight-seeing, and especially of beautiful scenery. Near Kobe is a
very pretty waterfall. It is crowded, wherever a good view is to
be obtained, with tea-houses and resting-places for pic-nic parties,
and I never saw the place without plenty of holiday-making
visitors. When visiting such places the Japanese express their
delight, and describe the beauties of the scene in short poems
which they write out in the evenings at their inns. A Japanese
clerk of Mr. Dickins's, a Mr. Tanaka, who accompanied us on
our journey and was a very pleasant companion, often wrote
thus short poems about our" day's doings.

One of the walks from Kobe is to the Moon Temple, which
is perched at the summit of a steep mountain ridge, clad with
beautiful woods. The climb to the temple is a severe one, up
many hundreds of steps. I was amused to see a Chinaman and
a Japanese toiling up together to the top, to consult the Oracle
about some matter of business. It seemed extraordinary that a
Chinaman, so sharp in business matters, should come so weary a
journey to take the opinion of the foreign gods. Yet the two
men were evidently equally anxious as to the result of their
inquiry. The Oracle was consulted by shaking out a lot from a
number of inscribed slips of wood packed in a case. The men

i i 2

484 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

received the case of lots from an attendant priest, and hastened
off with it to one of the shrines.

From Kobe, the large city Osaka, is reached by rail. As we
left the railway station at Osaka, a crowd of pilgrims was just
entering it. The pilgrims were clad in white, and carried long
staves, and had bottle-gourds of water or saki slung round their
necks. They were returning from the holy shrines. A passer-
by begged a blessing of one of these pilgrims who was lagging
behind the rest. The suppliant crouched down in the street,
and the pilgrim blessed him, making passes over him with his
wand. This looked strange in front of a brand new railway
station.

Pilgrimages are extremely popular in Japan. On the journey
along the Tokaido, the road was thronged with pilgrims, going to
the ancient shrine of Ise, the oldest temple in Japan of the
Shinto religion, the ancient State religion of the country, of
which the Mikado, descended from the gods, is the supreme head.

In one large town, which we reached at night, all the inns
were full of pilgrims, and we had to journey 10 miles farther
to find a resting-place. It was a curious sight to see a string
of blind pilgrims on the road, travelling on foot, holding on one
behind the other, and led by one man who could see.

In Osaka, I spent much of my time in the booksellers' quarter,
where there is nearly a mile of continuous book-shops. I bought
here a large collection of illustrated books. The shops of each
kind of wares are mostly placed together in the city.

Most interesting are the shops for articles used in religious
worship. Here rosaries of the forms proper to the various sects
of Buddhism, are manufactured by the gross, religious pictures
are sold, and small shrines of the various gods are supplied for
domestic worship, with miniature altars, candlesticks, and in-
cense-censers. To these also the family god can be sent, when
shabby, to be regilt.

Beautiful miniature lacquered shrines are also made at the
shops, containing the goddess Kanon or some other popular deity.
The shrines close with a pair of small doors, and are sold in great
quantities to pilgrims at the temples, which they visit ; as, for
example, at the Moon Temple near Kobe.

JAPAN. 485

At one temple, that of Tennoji, near Osaka, was a children's
shrine, which was hung inside with great quantities of the finest
toys of all sorts, and bright holiday clothes, placed there as offer-
ings by children.

From Osaka, the road to Kioto leads all the way along the
summit of the great embankment of the Ogawa (great river).
These earthworks rather reminded me of the great embankments
of the ancient tanks of Ceylon. At intervals, there are sluice-
gates to let the water in upon the rice-fields. The sluice-gates
are at the bottom of wells, sunk in the centres of the embank-
ments. In the ancient Cingalese embankments, there are
similar wells sunk through the middles of the embankments to
meet the outflow channels from the tanks which traverse their
bases. I was shown such an arrangement at Anuradhapura, by
Mr. Ehys Davids, who told me that its use was not understood
by engineers.

The land along the road is in the very highest culture. A
great deal of it was covered with yellow-blossomed crops of rape,
whilst here and there were wheat crops. The straightness of
the lines of planting, and the regularity of their distances from
one another, was such as I have never seen approached else-
where in any form of agriculture.

Amongst these crops were the rice-fields, usually small areas
surrounded by low narrow banks of mud, made by the laborious
process of placing lumps of mud side by side with the hands.
These enclosures are turned into shallow ponds by letting water
in if the level suit, or by pumping it in by means of a small
portable tread-mill or an undershot wheel worked by the stream
of the river, if the level is above that of the river. The field
surface is worked up by means of a buffalo and plough into a
pond of mud, and on this the rice is transplanted. The seed is
previously sown broadcast in a small special plot, from which
the birds are kept off by a scarecrow, as in England, but here
representing the rice-straw rain coat and large mushroom-shaped
hat of the Japanese peasant.

The distance to Kioto from Osaka, 32 miles, is run by the
jinriksha coolies in from five to six hours. In the hotel at
Kioto I had my first experience of a Japanese house. They are

486 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

all alike in being entirely built of wood and. paper. The par-
tition walls are all of light lath lattices, fitted as sliding panels
and covered with a tough tissue paper. Even these walls, such
as they are, often do not reach up as high as the ceiling, so that
everything that goes on or is said over the whole range of rooms
upon each floor is plainly heard.

If care is not used, one is apt in stretching oneself at night
to push a hand or finger through the wall into the next room.
A square of paper and some rice starch put matters all right
again, however. One must always take off one's boots in going
into a Japanese house, and at theatres and restaurants they are
ticketed, and a check is given for them as for umbrellas and
coats with us.

The hotel was on the side of a range of hills overlooking the
capital. Kioto, the Holy City of Japan, is by far the most
beautiful city I have ever seen when thus viewed from the
overhanging hills. Everywhere are groves of Cryptomerias
surrounding the holy places and monasteries, and above the
groves in all directions rise the high temple-roofs and porches.

A great exhibition was going on at the time of our visit. It
was amusing in going round this to see the tables completely
turned upon the English. One of the exhibits consisted of a
couple of rooms with one side removed to show the interior.
One of the rooms was fitted up as an English bed-room, and the
other as a drawing-room, both completely furnished. These
were very popular sights. The Japanese are intensely fond of
strange sights, and when the English first settled at Yokohama
long journeys were made to look at them and their houses and
to watch their strange habits, and guide-books were published for
the use of the sight-seers, in which all articles of furniture, all
implements and utensils and articles of dress of the Englishmen
were figured.

Early every morning in Kioto there is a tremendous clanging
and booming of bells from the monasteries, mingled with beating
of gongs, to call the monks to matins, and arouse Buddha
and Kanon to listen to their prayers. There is a big gong in
front of every shrine with a large heavy cord in front of it.
As each private worshipper arrives he swings the rope and

JAPAN. 487

strikes the gong, to notify the deity that he is about to say his
prayers.

The temples of the Holy City are thronged with devout
worshippers, and the floors of the shrines strewn with offered
cash thrown into them. The receptacles for offerings are not
small boxes with a slit, as in England, but large manger-like
troughs with mouths many feet long and more than a foot in
width, and when a grand service is in progress, I have watched
a perpetual rain of cash thrown into such a money-box from the
crowd in front.

There is no lack of money-boxes in Japan, every holy tree
and holy stone, in however apparently remote a spot, is garnished
with one, and even the holy white horse at Kobe solicited offer-
ings, with a box of his own. At one of the temples, we saw a
row of country pilgrims who had just arrived, and were having
a special service performed for themselves. They evidently
knew nothing of the ritual, and a clerk stood by and told them
the proper moments in the service at which they were to bow
their heads to the ground. But the pilgrims could not fall in
with the thing, and were perpetually bowing out of time, much
to the excitement of the clerk and their own apparent annoyance.

Mendicant friars sat by the roadsides in groups, perpetually
hammering small round flat gongs, and bawling out the oft-
repeated prayer, "Namu amida butsu," "Holy Lord Buddha,"
whilst passers-by threw them coppers. These mendicant priests,
with their uplifted hammers and open mouths, are common
subjects for caricature in Japanese picture-books.

Other priests perambulate the town with large square-
shaped wallets covered with silk hangings, suspended over
their chests by a broad band passed round their necks. In
these wallets they collect offerings of food. There can be no
doubt in the traveller's mind as to the activity and reality of
religion in the Holy City, it is impressed on him in some form
at every turn.

Very few English travelled along the Tokaido about the
time of our journey, because of the existence of the far cheaper
and quicker route by sea, by means of a regular line of mail
steamers. I was surprised to find that we afforded, towards the

488 A NATURALIST OX THE " CHALLENGER."

middle part of the great road where no open ports were near,
in our own persons a gratis exhibition of very great interest.

I was especially worth seeing, since I had a reddish beard
of some length. The Japanese consider beards and moustaches
excessively ugly, and they even used to put false beards and
moustaches, often red in colour, on the face-pieces of their suits of
armour, in order to assist the warrior in terrifying his enemies.

It was amusing to watch the faces of the people in some of
the towns as they glared at us. I saw one woman look as if
taken suddenly ill, on meeting me unexpectedly at a corner.
Others burst out into fits of laughter. Everywhere, the idea
uppermost in the minds of parents, was, that we were a sight
which the children should on no account be allowed to miss.
Mothers darted into the back premises and rushed back with
their children, and often when we were halting, came and
planted them in front of us, and pointed out to the children
with their outstretched hands the various points of interest in

the Tojins.

I was, as Mr. Dickins said, a first-rate Tojin. " Tojin,"
originally meaning Chinaman, the only foreigner the Japanese
knew, now means foreigner of any kind, and it is also at the
same time a term of reproach, like the well-known Chinese
" Fan kwai," " Aboriginal Imp." Impudent small boys shout
" Tojin Tojin " at an Englishman in the streets.

The Japanese being a race invariably black-haired, and with
a tolerably uniform tint of skin, are naturally somewhat as-
tonished at the great diversity in appearance of so mongrel a
race as the English, whose hair is of all possible colours, often
irrespective of that of the parents, and whose skin varies in colour
through so many different shades of brown, red, or milky-white.

The Japanese believe very strongly in the efficacy of natural
hot-springs, and also of certain cold-springs. At some springs
chapels are erected, and the patient combines the curative effects
of prayer with those of the cold douche. I saw a number of
bathers near Yokohama, standing one by one under a small
intensely cold waterfall, coming direct from a spring. They
were shivering and quaking, and half gasping half bellowing
out with pain the prayer which had to be repeated a certain

JAPAN. . 489

number of times before they came from under the spout. A
stout healthy priest stood by to direct the ceremony and take
the money.

The use of paint as an ornament in China and Japan, seems
to me to be of considerable interest. In both countries the
women regularly paint their faces when in full dress, of which
the paint is a necessary part. The painting is entirely different
in principle from that in vogue in Europe. The paint is not
put on with any idea of simulating a beauty of complexion
which might be present naturally, or which has been lost by
age. The painted face is utterly unlike the appearance of any
natural beauty.

An even layer of white is put on over the whole face and
neck, with the exception in Japan, of two or three angular points
of natural brown skin, which are left bare at the back of the
neck, as a contrast. After the face is whitened, a dab of red is
rubbed in on the cheeks, below each eye. The lips are then
coloured pink with magenta, and in Japan this colour is put
on so thickly, that it ceases to appear red, but takes on the
iridescent metallic green tint of the crystallized aniline colour.

In modern Japanese picture-books the lips of girls will
sometimes be seen represented thus green. I suppose the idea
is that such thick application of paint shows a meritorious dis-
regard of expense. It is curious that the use of aniline colour
should have so rapidly spread in China and Japan. In China at
least such was not to be expected ; but it seems to have sup-
planted the old rouge, and it is sold spread on folding cards,
with Chinese characters on them, at Canton and in Japan.

This form of painting the face seems to be exactly of the
same nature as savage-painting, and possibly is a direct con-
tinuation of it. It is like the painting of our clowns in panto-
mimes. In China, the faces of men seem not to be painted at
the present time, either on the stage or elsewhere ; but in Japan,
actors in certain plays are painted on the face with bright streaks
of red paint, put on usually on each side of the eyes. The kind
of painting is exactly that of savages.

It is a curious fact that this form of painting, surviving in
adults on the stage, is still used elsewhere for the decoration of

490

A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

young children. It is quite common to see children on festive
occasions, when elaborately dressed by their parents, further

FACE OF JAPANESE ACTOR.

(To show the mode of painting the face. From a Japanese Theatrical Picture-book.)

adorned with one or two transverse narrow streaks of bright red
paint, leading outwards from the outer corners of their eyes, or
placed near that position.

Such a form of painting possibly existed in ancient times in
China. When a man of distinction was buried in China in
former times, a certain number of servants were buried with
him. Now, figures made of pasteboard and paper, about 3 feet
or so high, are burnt at the funeral service in small furnaces
provided for the purpose in the temples, together with cart-
loads of similar pasteboard gifts, which are thus sent by the
survivors for the use of the dead in the next world. Earthenware
figures were similarly buried with great men in old times in
Japan.

The pasteboard heads of these funeral servants and retainers
are painted with streaks, some of which are put on in almost
exactly the same style at the angles of the eyes as those of modern

JAPAN.

491

Japanese actors. It seems a fair conjecture that the streaks on
these heads are a direct survival of an actual former savage
form of painting, which was
once in vogue in China, pro-
bably used to make fighting-
men hideous.

It is well known that pri-
mitive customs survive in con-
nection with funerals all over
the world with extreme tenacity.
The numerous interesting sur-
vivals existing in the case of
English funerals are familiar.

The accompanying figure
of a Japanese actor's painted
face is copied from a Japanese
theatrical picture-book. The
head of the Chinese servant is
drawn from one which I bought
at a manufactory of funeral
properties in Hong Kong.

The Chinese are not now tattooed, but in Japan the art of
tattooing has reached far greater perfection than anywhere else.
Formerly all the coolies were tattooed, often all over the body,
but now the practice is forbidden by the Japanese Government
as barbarous, and it is a criminal offence to practise the art.

The tattooing was done by special artists, who made this
their business. The outline of the subject to be tattooed is first
sketched on the skin with great care with the point of a fine
brush with Indian ink. The subjects are copied from printed
pattern-books, which are very abundant in Japan, suited to all
classes of decorative art.

The outline having been drawn, a light wooden handle, like
that of a camel's-hair brush, is used, having about five or six
fine needles set in its end in a straight line. The needles are
dipped in Indian ink, and the fingers of the left hand being used
as a guide, the outline is cut in on the skin by a series of punc-
tures with the needles, which in the hands of a skilful operator

HEAD OF FIGURE BUKNT AT CHINESE FUNERALS.
MADE OF PASTE-BOARD.

(To show the mode of painting the face.)

492 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

travel rapidly along the lines, and leave them almost as fine as
those sketched with the brush.

For sharp curves, handles with only two needles are used.
For shading, handles with needles set in a variety of forms are
employed, suited to producing broad flat tints, or, for example,
pointed or rounded scales of dragons or fish. For the black
parts of the design, Indian ink is exclusively used ; it looks
blueish when under the skin. Bright red is produced with ver-
milion. A madder-colour is also used, and sometimes a yellow.

So rapidly is the work done that an elaborately finished
design of a dragon or Japanese girl covering all the front of the
forearm will be completed in a couple of hours. Very little pain
is caused by the process, and not any or a little scarcely percep-
tible bleeding. The area tattooed is slightly inflamed subse-
quently, but not so as to cause .inconvenience of any kind, and
becomes quite healed in eight or ten days.

The results produced are astonishing in their softness, their
correctness and delicacy of outline and minuteness of detail;
and very far surpass those attained in tattooing by any other
race. In a representation of a fish or dragon every scale is
separately shaded, often with two strengths of shading, and in
birds every feather is separately finished. In some cases large
figures on the backs and shoulders of coolies are made to stand
out in relief by means of an even dark shading, extending over
the whole background. The artists recommend themselves to
Europeans, by each asserting that he is the man who tattooed
the Duke of Edinburgh.

With regard to gestures and expressions of the Japanese, I was
struck by the entire absence of any gesture accompanying affirma-
tion. A Japanese says " he," which means " yes," without moving
the head at all or making any other sign. In negation the hand
is sometimes shaken across the body with the fingers hung down.
On receiving a present of money or payment, or a cup of saki,
the hand is carried up with it to the forehead as a gesture of
thanks. In salutation, or as an expression that a person feels
honoured by the condescension of another, a curious half sucking
half hissing noise is made by drawing in the breath with the
lips partly closed, as if in sipping a fluid.

JAPAN. 493

Large waxwork exhibitions are very popular in Japan. The
figures are far better executed than European ones, and photo-
graphs of the faces of them would supply most perfect material
for studying the facial expressions of the various emotions.

In some of the theatrical books, figures are given of the
gestures to be used in declamation and in expressing the various
passions.

Japanese picture-books are full of interest. Some of the
most striking peculiarities in method of representation are
closely paralleled in European art of a few centuries ago.
The discharge of a gun or a cannon is represented as a long
band of fire stretching from the muzzle to the object hit; and
in a picture of a volley from a line of soldiers, a long streak
proceeds across the page from every one of the muskets.

In engravings illustrating old Dutch travels, such as Barent's
Voyage, a closely similar style is adopted ; a line is to be seen
drawn from the muzzle of a gun to the body of a Polar Bear,
and the bullet is shown in mid-flight. Such a mode of repre-
sentation survived in cheap European prints till quite recent
times. I bought at a stall in London, not long ago, such a
print representing the shooting of Marshal ISTey, published in
London in 1815, within a few days of his execution; in which
similar lines are drawn from the muskets of the firing party,
and all the bullets are shown on their course.

It is just possible that this method of representing discharges
of fire-arms was derived from the Europeans by the Japanese, and
is not an instance of the independent commission of a parallel
error on their part. One of the most difficult problems in draw-
ing is to separate what is actually seen from what is at the same
time mentally present. Many a beginner looking at distant
hills infers from their appearance that they are covered with
trees, and proceeds to paint them green and cover them with
detail, the result being failure. Only after practice does he
detect the fact that hills seen at a distance are really blue, and
that the details to be made out in a general glance are in reality
very slight. No doubt it is from a similar error that the bullet
is drawn in a representation of a discharge of fire-arms.

Art is employed largely in Japan in connection with religion.

494 A NATURALIST OX THE "CHALLENGER."

Lives of the Saints, elaborately illuminated and illustrated,
are executed on long rolls, or depicted on sheets arranged for
suspension on walls. Similarly pictures of the various deities
represented in groups, or singly, are suspended for devotional
purposes, and many of them curiously resemble, in general
appearance, early European representations of a similar cha-
racter. Pictures are also suspended in shrines representing the
nature of the prayer of the suppliant ; as for example, a picture
of a mother praying for her child. Pictures representing the
pleasures of Heaven and torments of Hell are also common.
These various religious pictures are sold in the vicinity of the
temples.

The illustrations in many of the Japanese Zoological books
are very interesting to a naturalist and remarkably complete.
Even Land Planarians (Bipcdium) are figured in some of them.

In a book in my collection, representing the doings of the
Ainos, the Ainos are represented as hunting Seals, or Sea Otters,
with bows and arrows from canoes. Some of the men are shown
as provided with foxes' brushes tied by strings to the ends of
short rods. The foxes' brushes are being caused to dance about
on the surface of the water as a lure to the Seals who are follow-
ing them in a shoal. Seals, or Sea Otters, must be attracted by
lures of this kind; though it seems most improbable that they
should. The figure almost certainly represents an actual occur-
rence.

I often visited the Japanese theatres. Besides the ordinary
stage there is a second stage, consisting of a narrow platform,
which lies on the left side of the audience, and extends from
the side of the main stage, the whole length of the theatre, to
a point close to the entrance door. Actors go round to the door
behind the box seats, and appearing at the end of the long plat-
form, approach the stage along it, acting their parts as they go.

In this way journeys are acted. A man may be represented
as on a journey home, and at the same time his family are seen
awaiting his return on the main stage, and he may be waylaid
and murdered, for example, on the way; two separate but
connected scenes being acted at once.

It is a curious fact, which I have not seen mentioned else-

THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 495

where, that the customary drink of Japanese women is simple
hot water. I imagined that the Japanese were the only race
that drink hot water ; but I have lately been told, to my sur-
prise, that it is the customary beverage of some old women in
England.

The ship left Japan on June 16th for Honolulu. Notwith-
standing all that has been written on Japan, the country and its
people still remain almost as great a source of interest and field
for investigation as does European civilization to the educated
Japanese themselves. The English and German Asiatic Societies
at Japan, showing as they do, a most remarkable activity, and
constantly producing papers of the greatest value and interest
in all branches of inquiry, have still probably the most fasci-
nating field of research in the world before them.

The Sandwich Islands, July 21th to August 19th, lS^S. — The
ship reached Honolulu on July 27th, after an unsuccessful dredg-
ing between the Islands of Oahu (pronounced with stress on the
penultimate), and Molokai. These islands of the Hawaian
group are most remarkable for the extremely barren aspect
which they present as viewed from seawards. In this respect
they differ from all other Pacific Islands which were visited
during the Voyage of the " Challenger " ; no trees or shrubs
form a feature in the view, but the hill slopes are covered with
a scanty clothing of grass and low herbage, which in the
summer season is yellow and parched.

Only one scanty grove of Cocoanut-trees is to be seen on the
shore of Oahu Island, to the east of the town of Honolulu, whilst
westwards the barren plains and distant bare hills recalled
almost St. Vincent, Cape Verde Islands, in their sterility. Here
are no thick belts of Cocoanut-trees fringing the shores as at
Tonga, with littoral vegetation overhanging the very surf ; no
dense forests clothing the mountains from the summits to the
shore as at Fiji, or the Admiralty Islands.

There is little more show of vegetation in the general ap-
pearance of the islands, as seen from seawards, than is to be seen
on the bleak Marion Island in the Southern Ocean.

The harbour of Honolulu is entered by a narrow channel in
a not very extensive fringing reef. The town lies on an almost

496 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

flat expanse immediately adjoining the shore, and is not very
conspicuous from the distance. It is composed of streets of very
various widths, laid out at right angles to one another, lined on
either side by very irregular rows of houses of all kinds, mostly
wooden shanties, the greater part of them occupied as general
stores.

There is a large shop of Chinese and Japanese curiosities,
and two photographers' shops, where corals, imported mostly from
the Marquesas, and spurious imitations of native implements
manufactured for sale, are disposed of, at exorbitant prices to pas-
sengers bv the mail steamers. I was told that a Chinaman is
even employed to manufacture facsimiles of the stone gods of
the ancient Hawaians for sale as genuine curiosities ; the forged
deities being represented as having been dug up in taro-fields.

The business streets are very hot and dusty, but around the
hotel and villa dwelling-houses on the east side of the town are
pretty gardens, filled with the usual imported tropical garden
plants, shrubs, and trees, which are maintained alive only by
constant irrigation ; hoses from the town supply-pipes being kept
playing on them day and night. Twenty years ago, where these
gardens now are, there was not a single tree, and now the gardens
form only a small oasis in a dry parched desert, which extends
along the coast east and west, and which is soon reached on
leaving the town in either of these directions.

On this tract, the bare volcanic rock shows out everywhere,
and its only conspicuous vegetation is a Prickly Pear (Opuntia),
introduced from America, which has spread far on either side
from the town and multiplied exceedingly, so as in places to form
a dense impassable growth, and constitute a most conspicuous
feature in the landscape. These barren parts of Oahu reminded
me somewhat of the rocky 'tracts of Teneriffe with their growth
of Euphorbia canariensis.

The Guava, a second introduced American plant, has spread
in all directions, in places forming dense thickets from which it
is difficult to drive out the half-wild cattle. The whole town
of Honolulu has a thoroughly American aspect. Americans are
supplanting the rapidly decreasing native population ; American
plants are, as has been said, covering the ground, and American

THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 497

birds have been introduced and bid fair to spread and oust the
native avi-fauna, which has no single Land-bird in common with
any other Polynesian Island group.

The only vigorous opponents of the Americans in the strug-
gle for existence are the Chinese. The natives speak English
commonly with a nasal twang, and I was much amused by a
small Hawaian boy from whom I asked the way in the streets,
who replied with the strongest twang, but with the utmost
readiness, " I don't speak no English, I don't."

Behind. Honolulu is a valley, called Nuuanu Valley, with
precipitous walls in its upper part, which becomes greener and
greener as the ascent is made by the road leading up it. The
difference of rainfall in the valley, and in Honolulu, is most
remarkable. At Waikiki near Honolulu, at sea level, the rain-
fall in 1873 was 37'85 inches, whilst in the Nuuanu Valley, 2|
miles distant inland, and at an elevation of only 550 feet, the
fall was in the same year 134' 06 inches. Captain Wilkes even
remarks that certain streets in the town of Honolulu are said to
be more rainy than others.

The leading native trees in the valley, are the Malvaceous
Paritium Tiliaccum, Acacia Koa, and the Candle Nut (Aleurites
triloba). The Paritium forms curiously tangled impassable
thickets. The Koa grows only high up on the cliff tops. The
Candle Nut, by the peculiar glaucous colour of its foliage, gives
a characteristic appearance to the vegetation. Its blue green
trees seen in the far distance, appear as rounded bushes, dotted
over the high ground above the barren shore region.

At the summit of the valley is the " pali," a narrow cleft in
the tops of the mountains, which are on the other side preci-
pitous. A beautiful view of the windward side of the island is
here suddenly encountered, and a refreshing breeze blows
through the gap. The range of cliffs forming the windward
side of the mountain range, is an ancient coast line, and against
the foot of the cliffs the sea beat in old time.

The visit of the King of the Sandwich Islands, Kalakaua, to
the " Challenger," pleased me very much. The officers of the
ship, donned, as in duty bound, full "war paint" to receive him,
and even one member of the scientific staff appeared in curious

K K

498 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

clothes, and was girt with a rudimentary sword for the occasion,
yet the Polynesian king arrived in a black frock coat, white
waistcoat, and straw hat. To a confirmed " agriologist " the
tables seemed completely turned on European civilization.

The king took the liveliest interest in the special work of
the " Challenger/' and was almost the only distinguished visitor
of the many to whom I had exhibited microscopical objects
during our voyage., who recognised the well-known anchors in
the skin of the Holothurian Synapta, and named them at first
glance. These anchors stood us in good stead at all the ports
visited, and were described in all the colonial newspapers as
belonging to the " Admiralty worm," supposed to be the most
wonderful of the deep-sea discoveries of the Expedition.

There is a most excellent musical band at Honolulu, com-
posed almost entirely of Hawaians, and numbering 20 or 30
performers, who execute complicated European music with
accuracy and most pleasing effect. No one can doubt after
listening to this band, that the Polynesian ear is as capable of
appreciating the details of music as the European. It will be
interesting to observe in the future, whether the Chinese and
Japanese, whose music is so \ery different from that of Europe,
and who profess to dislike Western music, and now at least
much prefer their own, will develope a similar capacity, and
changed appreciation in the future. The Hawaians seem to be
ahead of some of our own colonists in the matter of music, and
have a better band than existed at the time of our visit to New
South Wales, even in Sydney.

Whilst the ship was at Honolulu, I visited the north-east
side of the island, and collected at Waimanalo, on the estate of
Mr. John Cummins, a series of native skulls from a deserted
burial-place. The burials are amongst dunes of calcareous sand,
and the bones are exposed by the shifting of the sands by the
wind.

The burials are often on the sides of the gullies, between the
dunes. They have probably been made in this locality, because
of the ease with which the sand is excavated. Similar burials
occur at various spots around the coast of Oahu, and I know of
no place where so abundant material is ready at hand for the

THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 499

study of the skeletal peculiarities of a savage race, by the exami-
nation of long series of crania and skeletons, as here. Other
burials occur in caves inland, where the bodies are found in a
dried mummy-like condition.

All the bodies at Waimanalo were buried in a doubled-up
posture. One which was exhumed with care in situ, was buried
with the knees bent up to the chest and the head bent forwards,
and was placed resting horizontally on the back. Chips and
fragments of basalt were found around all the graves, but no
implements of stone.

The ship moved to Hilo, in the island of Hawai, in order
that a visit might be paid to the crater of Kilauea. A Petrel,
possibly Procellaria vostrata which occurs at Tahiti, and a
Stormy Petrel (Oceanitis), were seen about the ship between the
two islands. These birds do not seem to be included in lists of
the avi-fauna of the group. The appearance of the great
volcano of Mauna Loa is most remarkable. The slope of the
mountain, as seen from the sea, is so gradual that it seems
impossible to believe that it rises to a height of nearly 14,000
feet above sea level. The cause of the peculiar form is the
extreme fluidity of the lava, of successive flows, of which the
mountain is composed. It has run out almost like water.

Kilauea is a secondary crater on the side of the Mauna Loa,
at a height of about 4,000 feet. The island of Hawai is much
more fully clothed with verdure than Oahu, and has none of
the desert appearance of the latter. The journey to Kilauea is
a tedious and monotonous ride. The ascent is so gradual that
it is hardly perceived.

The track leads first through a fine belt of forest near the

shore, and then emerges on a weary expanse of open country,

entirely devoid of any fine trees, and mostly covered with a

scanty, low, moorland-looking growth, with Screw-pine trees

here and there. The track is scarcely marked on the bare

surfaces of the lava flows, which look almost as fresh as if the

lava had only set the day before. These surfaces are covered

in every direction by ropy projections, curved lines of flow, and

small rounded ledges showing where one part of the flow has

run over another.

kk2

500 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

The whole looks as if a vast quantity of melted pitch had
been turned out of a pot suddenly and allowed to run and set
hard.

It was getting dark before the hotel on the verge of Kilauea
was reached. During the ascent a gdc-bular cloud was seen
hanging in the air in the distance, and we were told by the
guide that it hung over the summit of Mauna Loa itself, but we
could not have told this, for the gradient being so gradual there
was no appearance of any mountain at all. As night fell, this
cloud, perpetually re-formed by condensation, was lighted up by
a brilliant orange glow reflected from the molten lava in the
great terminal crater, and the appearance was just as if a fire
was raging in the forest in the distance.

With the evening appeared an Owl: I suppose the short-
eared Owl (Otus Brachiotus), an English, European, Asian and
African bird, but which is most curiously found in no other
Polynesian group besides the Sandwich Islands. A Duck also
rose from a small marsh. A species of Duck is described as
visiting the islands from America, a distance of 2,000 miles.*
Another species occurring in the islands has been described as
peculiar to the group by Mr. Sclater from " Challenger " speci-
mens. Since this latter Duck was formerly supposed to migrate
to the islands from America, there may be some mistake also
with regard to the other species.

Not far from the crater of Kilauea there are abundant
woods of Acacia Koa trees and plenty of herbage, and no doubt
Deer which have been turned out will thrive there and multiply
rapidly. A few small Sandalwood-trees still remain uncut in
the vicinity.

The crater appeared in the dark as a wide abyss filled with
gloom, but in the distance were seen three or four glowing spots,
reminding one of furnaces seen at night in the Black Country,
and every now and again a jet of glowing matter showed itself
thrown up from a lava fountain which happened to be playing
at the time.

In the morning the crater was seen to be bounded by a

* Finsch und Hartlaub. "Beitrag zur Fauna Central Polynesiens."
Halle. H. W. Schmidt, 1867.

THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 501

range of cliffs all round, and at the bottom was a wide flat
expanse of hardened lava which looked as fresh as if it had only
just set. The crater has evidently been formed by the sudden
falling in of a vast mass of rock resulting from the fusion and
flowing away of the supporting rock below. A succession of
secondary smaller cliffs round the margin of the crater-bottom
inside mark where this process has been repeated several times,
as after the crater has been filled to certain levels, and the
lava has hardened, the support has given way over the greater
part of the area on successive occasions.

The smootli surface of the lava within the crater was closely
like that traversed on the journey from Hilo. It was cracked
by contraction on cooling in all directions, and in all the cracks,
at the depth of a foot or so, was seen to be glowing hot.

The well-known molten lake of Kilauea was at the time of
our visit rather to be termed a pond, for a stone could easily be
thrown across it. We stood on a low cliff overhanging it on the
side from which the wind drifted away the stifling vapours
exhaled from it, and threw stones into the pond of melted rock
below. A low cliff bounded the expanse nearly all round. At
the base of this cliff opposite us, in three places, a violent
surging was constantly taking place, the melted rock being-
thrown up high above the cliff by violent discharges of gas from
below.

The melted rock was thrown against the base of the cliff
in waves which, as they surged against it, made a noise like that
of waves of the sea beating similarly against rocks. There
seemed no tenacity in the melted lava, it splashed about just
like water. As the waves fell back from the bases of the cliffs,
pendent coagulations of lava were formed for an instant, and
nuns in the glowing cavities like icicles, but were remelted in a
moment by the returning waves.

The waves when thrown up were glowing brightly with heat.
The lake, itself, was covered with a thin black scum of coagu-
lated lava with red-hot cracks in it, and the whole scum moved
slowly round under the influence of the ebullition taking place
at one side as described.

Close by was another, but smaller pond, where, however the

502 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

churning up of the lava was more violent. It occurred here
also as in the other pond, at the bases of the low bounding cliffs
only. The waves clashed against the cliffs, threw their spray
high into the air above them, and the wind carried part of this
spray over the edges of the cliffs, so as to fall on the hard lava
platform above.

The spray masses, cooling as they fell, formed in their track
the threads known as " Pele's hair," like fine-spun green glass.
Many of the threads could be picked up, each with the small
mass of hardened lava still attached. These fallen masses are
closely like drops thrown out of a pitch-pot. Some were nearly
pear-shaped. Others, which had reached the ground before
setting, or when only partially set, had coiled up into various
forms as they fell, but nearly all showed an upright fine point,
where a hair had been attached to them.

Pele's hair, thus formed, drifts away with the wind and hangs
in felted masses about the rocks, and the birds sometimes gather
it, and make their nests entirely of it.

Between the two ponds was a lava fountain, the one which
had been seen playing the night before, but was now quiet. A
lava fountain is a tall hollow cone ; an extinguisher as it were,
with a hole at the summit, which is built up of successive
jets of lava thrown out of a hole, and hardened one over the
other.

The surface of the cone looks as if built up of small masses
of pitch thrown on to it hap-hazard one over another.

As the mouth of the cone contracts, the jet is thrown higher
and higher, and the spray falling all around, covers the lava
platform around with congealed drops of a lava rain, as it were.
Each of these drops forms, like the spray from the waves, a Pele's
hair.*

Over one of the ranges of low cliffs in the crater, a cascade
of lava had poured, and cooling and setting as it flowed, had
been drawn out into long ropes and rounded ridges which were
twisted one over another, and formed a curiously gnarled and

* Mr. H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., had come to the conclusion from the
observations on furnace slag that Pele's hair was probably formed in this
manner with globules attached. " Nature," Vol. XVI.

THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 503

contorted mass. Everywhere were complex ripple marks sharply
moulded in the rapidly setting melted mass.

All over the lava surfaces were to be met with bubbles,
many of them large, 4 or 5 inches across, blown in the surface
of the hot lava by the escaping gases, and now set and covered
by convex films of thin transparent lava like thin-blown green
bottle-glass.

The following is an account of a great eruption of Mauna
Loa, which has occurred since our visit, taken from the " Times ':
of April 3rd, 1877. "Hawaiian Volcanoes.— The 'Honolulu
Gazette,' states that in the last 90 years there have been 10
great eruptions on Hawaii. That of February, 1877, is the
eleventh of the series. On the 14th of that month Mauna Loa,
which is nearly 14,000 feet high, sent out an immense volume
of smoke that rose to a height of 16,000 feet, and spread out,
darkening the sky, over an area of 100 square miles, and then
a stream of lava started down the mountain sides, but the source
dried up at the end of six hours, and the eruption ceased. The
sight was grand while it lasted. Mr. C. J. Lyons writes from
Wainea that the columns of illuminated smoke shot up with
such velocity that the first 5,000 feet were passed inside of a
minute. Ten days afterwards, early on the 24th of February,
there was a submarine eruption 50 miles from Mauna Loa, near
Kealakeakua Bay. Flames were thrown up from the sea, and
numerous jets of steam arose on a line about a mile long, where
the sea was from 150 feet to 400 feet deep, as if the crust of
rock under the sea had been broken in a fissure to let the inter-
nal fires out. In many places lumps of lava were thrown up,
and it was so porous, somewhat like pumice-stone, that while
hot it floated away, but sank as soon as it became cold and
saturated with water. Another rupture, doubtless a continua-
tion of the submarine fissure, was traced inland from the shore
nearly three miles, varying in width from a few inches to 3 feet.
In some places the water was seen pouring down the opening
into the abyss below, food for the fiery element. A severe
earthquake-shock was felt by those living at Kaawaloa and
Keei during the night of the eruption."

The characteristic gods of the Hawaians were not the Sun

504

A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER.

and Moon and ocean gods which they had in common with
other Polynesians, but the offspring of the active volcanos, the
Goddess Pele and her train. I sounded our guides to see
whether they had still any reverence for Pele, the ancient god-
dess of the mountain, but apparently, according to the teaching
of the missionaries I suppose, Pele and all other Deities of old
Hawai were completely identified in the guides' minds with
the Devil of Scripture. There are, however, I was told on
good authority, plenty of Hawaians still existing, who have a
lurking reverence for, or fear of the old gods.

It cannot but be a source of regret that more of the old
Hawaian gods were not preserved, and sent to European
Museums, instead of having been burnt and destroyed, a
course which the missionaries found necessary. Of most of
them, there remain only imperfect drawings.

One of the ornaments of the Hawaians, well-known to ethno-
logists, is a pendent of a curious shape,
something like that of a fish-hook. It
is usually cut out of a Sperm-Whale's
tooth, and is worn by both men and
women, susrjended round the neck by
means of a necklace composed of small
strands of plaited human hair. The
reason for the peculiar form of the or-
nament has not been understood. I
believe, from the examination of various
drawings extant, representing the
ancient temples of the Sandwich Is-
lands, that the hook represents a sym-
bol for the head of a god.

In Ellis's account of the Sandwich
Islands, is a figure of the Hare o Keave, or House of Keave, the
sacred depository of the bones of departed kings and princes, at
Honaunau in Hawai.* Besides the obviously human-like gods,
represented as set up around this building, there are also shown
in the sketch posts of wood, near the tops of which are carved

* "Narrative of a Tour through Hawai, &c," p. 153. By William
Ellis. 2nd Ed. London, Fisher & Son, 1827.

HOOK-SHAPED HAWAIAN ORNAMENT.

Made of Sperm- Whale's tooth.

THE SANDWICH ISLANDS.

505

out, crescent-shaped objects surmounted by straight continuations

of the posts.

The gods are all shown with widely-open mouths, so that
their faces assume a sort of crescent shape, and on comparing

WOODEN GODS, FROM ELLIS'S SKETCH OF THE HARE O KEAVE.

Showing the gradations from the form of the human face to that of the crescent or hook.

them with the posts in question, it seems almost certain that
these latter really represented also gods' faces, according to a
sort of conventional mode of rendering them, or symbolic
representation. Some of the images with well-marked human
figures are shown with tall feather crowns on their heads, and
together with them are figures with a mere crescent, to represent
the face, yet wearing exactly similar crowns. One image has a
simple crescent to represent the head, closely like that of the
Hook-ornament.

A further figure of a Sandwich Island Deity, also from the
writings of Mr. Ellis,* bears out this conclusion, as does also one
of the plates of Captain Cook's "Third Voyage,"f in which Cook is
shown seated at the base of a wooden idol, in order that he may
be worshipped by the sacrifice of a pig. The idol is post-like in
appearance, and with a wide crescent-shaped opening for
a mouth. No doubt many of these post-like images were, when
in use, decorated with ornaments and cloths, and thus, as in
Tahiti, made to look more human in appearance.

* " Narrative of a Tour through Hawai, &c," p. 437. By William
Ellis. 2nd Ed. London, Fisher & Son, 1827.

t " A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean." PI. 60, Vol. Ill, p. 13. Cook
and King. London, G. Nicol, 1785.

506

A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER

The Hawaian gods, made of wicker-work, covered with
feathers, show a similar curving inwards of the face. I give a
rough sketch of one in the British Museum collection. In one

1 3 2

HAWAIAN GODS.

] and 2 Heads of gods made of wickerwork, covered with feathers. 1 From "Cook's Third
Voyage"; 2 Sketch of a specimen in the British Museum; 3 Entire god, copied
from Ellis's "Narrative."

figured in " Cook's Voyages,"* the face is entirely hollowed out,
and the eyes are borne on small flaps, projecting from the hook-
shaped back part of the image, which mainly represents the
well-known crested helmet worn by ancient Hawaian warriors.

In some instances, the hollow crescent form, as representative
of the face, seems to have been arrived at by an enormous
increase in the size of the mouth ; in others, as in the case of the
wicker image just described, by a hollowing out of the face
altogether ; the mouth here, though large, not being widened so
as to encroach upon the whole area of the face. Since, in the
worship of the gods, food was placed in the mouths, the mouths
may have been gradually enlarged as the development of the

* " A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean." PI. 67, fig. 4. Cook and King.
London, G. Nicol, 1785.

THE SANDWICH ISLANDS.

507

religion proceeded, in order to contain larger and larger offerings,
and the head in the wicker-work image may have been hollowed
out for a similar purpose.

All voyagers who saw the Hawaian images, speak of their
huge mouths. Lisiansky, evidently describing the same images

■I.

o
<

as those figured by Ellis, says that some of them bear huge
blocks of wood on their heads, and have mouths reaching from
ear to ear.* In the accompanying figure of the burial-place of
* " A Voyage Bound the World in the years 1803, 4, 5, and 6," pp.
106-107. By Urey Lisiansky. London, 1814.

508 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

the Hawaian kings, the god on the left hand shows an extra-
ordinary development of month.*

The Hawaians, in common with other Polynesians, recognized
a Moon Goddess, " Hina." The crescent-shaped faces figured by
Ellis, look almost as if they might possibly have represented
such a Moon Goddess ; but there seems to be no evidence in
favour of such a conjecture.

With regard to the hook-shaped ornament, Cook writes:
" Both sexes adorn themselves with necklaces made of small
black cord, like our hat string, often above a hundred-fold,
exactly like those of Wateeoo ; only, that, instead of the two
little balls, on the middle before, they fix a small bit of wood,
stone, or shell, about two inches long, with a broad hook, turning
forwards at its lower part, well polished."f " And sometimes a
small human image of bone, about three inches long, neatly
polished, is hung round the neck."

Captain King writes : " Both sexes wear necklaces made of
strings of small variegated shells, and an ornament in the form
of the handle of a cup, about two inches long, and half an inch
broad, made of wood, stone, or ivory, finely polished, which is
hung about the neck, by fine threads of twisted hair, doubled
sometimes a hundred-fold. Instead of this ornament some of
them wear, on their breast, a small human figure, made of bone,
suspended in the same manner.^

The form of the ornament was thus a matter of invariable
usage already in Cook's time. No similarly formed ornament
appears to occur in any other Polynesian Island. Nearly all
examples of the ornament in museums are of Sperm- Whale ivory.
I have seen one wooden one ; but none of stone. They seem all
closely alike in form ; but in the British Museum and Christy
Collections, there are necklaces made of a number of small Hook-
ornaments strung on the same strands side by side.

Prom the accounts cited it appears that human figures were

* The figures extant of this Morai vary very much, no doubt partly
because taken at different times. The one in " Byron's Voyage," when
compared with Ellis's, seems however to be simply excessively badly and
carelessly drawn.

t " Cook's Third Voyage," Vol. II, p. 232.

X Ibid., Vol. Ill, pp. 134-135.

THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 509

worn in the same manner as the Hook-ornament, as if the one
ornament were a substitute for the other. The Hawaians habi-
tually carried their gods to battle with them, and in the plates
of " Cook's Voyages " several deities are represented as borne in
each fully manned canoe. Hence it seems probable that the
people would wish to carry a representation of a god constantly
with them, and the comparison of the form of the Hook-ornament
with that of the recent-shaped and hollow-faced images of gods,
seems to leave little doubt that the hook represented the head
of a god ; and thus as a religious emblem, suspended round the
neck, corresponded to those in vogue in the case of so many
other religions. It may thus well be compared to the well-known
jade " Tikis " of New Zealand, similarly worn, which, however,
represented ancestors and tutelary deities rather than gods.*

It must have been a matter of great labour to work hard
ivory or stone into the form of the Hook-ornament. The curves
in all examples seem to correspond closely ; and there is a ridge
on the outer-curved surface of the hook, which appears to
represent the crest of the helmet. The necklace and ornament
is termed in Hawaian " Lei palaoa," simply " whale's tooth "
necklace.

These speculations as to the meaning of the Hook-ornament
will, I hope, elicit further information on the subject. General
Lane Fox has rendered familiar to ethnologists the curious tran-
sitions of form which representations of the human faces may
undergo in savage decoration under the process of successive
copyings. The details of the representation gradually dwindle
away ; a mere simple transverse crescent remains to represent
the entire face of a man on some of the paddles of New Ireland.f

Many similar degenerations of form in copying of decora-
tion are well known ; and a well-marked instance is to be seen
in the crockets on the pinnacles of the Bodleian Library at

* The origin of tattooing in Polynesia is supposed possibly to have
been from the desire to mark the body permanently with the figure of
the tutelary deity. Waitz, " Anthropologic der Naturvolker," 6ter Th.
Leipzig, 1872, s. 34-35.

t General A. Lane Fox, F.E.S., "Address to the Department of
Anthropology." Report of the British Association, 1872.

510 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

Oxford. Towards the bases of the pinnacles the crockets are
carved in the form of well-defined gurgoyle-like animals, with
open months ; but in tracing the successive crockets upwards
the shape is seen to degenerate gradually in each until towards
the tops of the pinnacles the crockets have merely a sort of scroll-
form, the origin of which could not possibly be guessed if it were
looked at separately.

It seems probable that a very large proportion of what
appears, in savage art, to be mere simple pattern ornamenta-
tion is in reality derived originally from degeneration of outline
drawings representing natural objects. The lowest savages, such
as the Australians, excel far more in their drawings of animals
and men than in their pattern ornaments on their weapons, and
the earliest attempts at art known are drawings of animals, such
as the well-known one of the Mammoth cut on its own ivory
by contemporaneous man.

At Hilo I obtained from some natives a short stone club*
which appears to have been hitherto unknown as a Sandwich
Island weapon, and is interesting as approaching in some par-
ticulars the New Zealand " Mere." It is made of basalt, with care-
fully ground surfaces, and is about 10 inches in length. It is
cylindrical in form with three sharp edges at the striking end,
and was slung to the wrist by a string passed through a hole at
one end. It was called " pohaku newa," " stone club."

My attention has been drawn by my friend Mr. A. W. Franks,
F.R.S., to the resemblance between the Hawaian images of gods
and the New Zealand human images. The accompanying
figures are given for comparison. It will be seen that there is
in them a similar extraordinary increase in the size of the
mouth, which encroaches upon and renders insignificant the
remainder of the head. Mr. Franks is of opinion that, as far as
regards the special development of art, and forms of implements
of use amongst the New Zealanders, that people are nearly
allied to the Hawaians, certainly more nearly so than to the
Samoans, from colonists of which race Hall supposed that the
Maoris were sprung. The stone adzes of the New Zealanders

* H. N. Moseley, " Note on Stone Club." Journal of Anthropological
Inst. 1877, p. 52, PI. XVIII.

THE SANDWICH ISLANDS.

511

are of the same form as those of the Hawaians, and both differ
for example from those of Tahiti.

NEW ZEALAND WOOD CARVING OF HUMAN HEAD.

To show the huge size of the mouth, from which
the tongue is seen hanging down. (From the
stretcher of a canoe in the Ashmolean Museum,
Oxford.)

NEW ZEALAND WOOD CARVING OF
HUMAN HEAD.

To show the large size of the mouth
and concavity of the face. (From
a specimen in the British Museum.)

The affinities of the New Zealand language appear to show
that the ancestors of the Maoris reached New Zealand from
Karatonga, and it appears that Hawaiki, the distant land of
which their tradition spoke, is the religious name of the mythi-
cal land of origin of the whole Polynesian race, not to be iden-
tified with any particular island.*

The well-known posts with images carved on their tops, set
up in the fences around New Zealand houses, may well be
compared with the somewhat similar posts set up round the
temples in the Hawaian group. In many cases, rough blocks of
wood on the tops of the New Zealand posts, evidently represent
the carved figures with which the other posts associated with them
are surmounted, in the same way as the crescent- shaped notches
in the Hawaian posts represent heads of gods. In New Zea-
land, however, images of the actual gods were not made or

* "Die Inseln des Stillen Oceans." C. E. Meinicke. Leipzig, Paul
Frohberg, 1875. 1. Th., s. 312.

512 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

worshipped ; the images made, represented ancestors or tutelary
deities only.

There were, according to the Government census of December,
1872, 438 lepers at the leper establishment in the Island of
Molokai. There can be no doubt that the races inhabiting all the
isolated Polynesian Islands must have sprung originally from a
very small stock, which arrived there probably hap-hazard in
canoes, or possibly sometimes in larger vessels. Hence the races
must have been produced by close interbreeding, and only very
rarely, if at all, can any extraneous blood have been interfused
by the arrival of further waifs.

May not this circumstance be connected in some degree
with the extreme liability of the Sandwich Islanders to the
attacks of leprosy ?

A similar close interbreeding must have occurred in the case
of the animals and plants inhabiting isolated islands. No doubt
many islands may have been colonized by plants which have
sprung from only a single seed transported by birds, or other-
wise. Similarly no doubt, all the birds of a species present
in an island or group, may have in many cases been the produce
of a single pair ; at all events they must certainly have often
been the produce of very few pairs ; such interbreeding would
be expected to have left its mark on insular floras and faunas.

The Government Library at Honolulu, contains a splendid
collection of Voyages and Travels relating to the islands, and
also of sumptuous illustrated works on Natural History, mostly
from the library of the late Mr. Harper Pease, the Conchologist.

For a Catalogue of various works, including Zoological, Geological and
Botanical treatises relating to the Sandwich Islands, see Catalogue
d'Ouvrages relatives auxlles Hawai, par William Martin. Paris, Challamel
Aine, Rue des Boulangers 30, 1867. The List, which forms a somewhat
thick octavo volume, is not by any means complete, but contains an im-
mense amount of information.

For the Land Shells, see Harper Pease, " On Polynesian Land Shells."
Proc. Zool. Soc, 1871, p. 449.

For a detailed account of the Volcanoes and their Geological Pheno-
mena, see W. T. Brigham, "Notes on the Volcanic Phenomena of the
Hawaian Islands." Memoirs. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. I, p. 341 ; ibid.,
p. 564. Also, J. W. Nichol, F.R.A.S., " Note on the Volcanoes of the
Hawaian Islands," Proc. R. Soc. Edin. 1875-76, p. 113.

513

CHAPTER XX.

TAHITI. JUAN FEKNANDEZ.

Death of Budolph Yon Willenioes Suhm. Scientific Papers and Journals
left by Him. Papeete. Excursion into the Mountains. Fly-Fishing
in a Mountain Stream. Uses of the Wild Banana. Vegetation Com-
posed mainly of Ferns. Camping at Night. Tahitian Mountain
Map Ascent to 4,000 feet Altitude. Petrels Nesting at this Height.
Their Possible Influence in Distribution of Plants. Ignorance of the
Natives Concerning the Mountains. Mode of Alternation of Genera-
tions in the Mushroom Coral. Structure of Millepora. Structure of
the Stylasteridse. Catching Land-Crabs. Tahitian National Air.
Juan Fernandez. Preponderance of Ferns. Destruction of Trees.
Gunnera Chilensis. Conspicuous Flowers. Humming Birds of the
Island. Their Fertilization of Flowers. Smallness of the Island Com-
pared with the Number of Endemic Forms. Endemic Palm.
Dendroseris.

Tahiti. Society Islands, September 18th to October 3rd, 18»J5. —

The voyage to Tahiti occupied a month. It was painfully
impressed upon the memories of us all by the death of Von
Willemoes Suhm, which was caused by a rapid and virulent
attack of erysipelas. Budolph von Willemoes Suhm had been,
before he joined the "Challenger" Expedition, assistant to the
illustrious Professor von Siebold of Munich. He had dis-
tinguished himself by his researches as a naturalist before he
joined the " Challenger." A list of his papers published during
the voyage will be found at the end of this book, as well as a
reference to a collection of his letters published in German after
his death.

He left many descriptions of animals and drawings, some
complete, others only partly finished. They comprehended
about 72 plates of octavo size and a few drawings of larger size.
Amongst these there are 13 of Annelids, mostly from the deep sea.
About 50 are of Crustacea, including five showing the develop-
ment of Ewphausia complete from the Nauplius stage; six

L L

514 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

illustrating the development of two species of Sergestes, and
three on the development of Amphion. Four are of Pteropods.
One of these, labelled by Von Suhm as Chionider Pterojpod, is a
most remarkable form, with large eyes borne on long stalks.
Yon Suhm was uncertain whether it was to be regarded as the
larva of a new form of Cephalopod. It has two arms only,
apparently homologous with the tentacular arms of Decapod
Cephalopoda.

Besides these drawings Von Suhm left two closely written
volumes of zoological journal in German and one volume in
English. It is to be hoped that the German journal will be
published in due course. It cannot but contain much most
valuable matter. Besides this work Von Suhm constantly kept
during the voyage the tabular record of the results of the deep-
sea dredging in an official book which was called the Station
Book.

Von Suhm had been, when a boy, an ardent collector of
birds, and some of his first publications were on European birds.
He took constant interest in birds during the voyage, and his
last excursion on shore was at Hilo, Hawai, in pursuit of the
interesting endemic birds of the islands with a native guide.
Almost the last notes that he wrote were some on the Sandwich
Islands relating especially to the birds.

I sat with him during the whole of the " Challenger " voyage,
working day after day with the microscope at the same table.
I am very greatly indebted to him for information in all
branches of zoology, and especially in the matter of zoological
literature, of which he had a most comprehensive knowledge. I
also learnt very much from him in the way of method, and I
feel that I shall always remain indebted to him for a decided
push on in my general scientific training.

He was a most indefatigable worker. He was full of hope
for the future, and, no doubt, could he have published his
journal himself, would have established a reputation as a man of
science, which would have been far greater than that winch he
most deservedly possessed at the time of his death.

The harbour of Papeete in Tahiti was reached on September
18th.

TAHITI. 515

The beauty of Tahiti, as seen from the sea, is not to be over-
rated. It forms a most striking contrast to the barren-lookino-
Oahu. One of the first sights I saw on landing was a party of
Frenchmen starting off into the mountains to shoot wild pigs.
One of them was laden with long French loaves. Another led
a dejected-looking mongrel dog by a large rope tied round its
neck, and a third had his body encircled by the usual huge horn,
without the assistance of which a Frenchman cannot go out shoot-
ing even partridges at home. I little expected that so much of
Parisian manners would not have worn off at the distant Tahiti.

The Tahitians appeared, as far as could be judged from so
short an acquaintance, to dislike their French rulers, and seemed
to like Englishmen all the more by contrast. Some natives
grew suspicious and less friendly at once because they found
that I could speak French. Possibly if the English were in the
position of rulers they would lose their popularity. The natives
have remained mostly Protestants, notwithstanding the efforts
of Ptoman Catholic missionaries during the French occupation.

Tahiti is the principal colony of France in the Pacific, and
even New Caledonia is under the rule of the head government
at Tahiti.

Tahiti is wretchedly supplied with provisions. The Guava
bush has overrun all the lower country and covered it with
scrub ; hence there is scarcely any pasturage. Cattle are
procured from the Sandwich Islands, and it depends on the kind
of weather which the sailing-vessels that bring them meet
with, whether they are worth eating or not when they arrive.

We bought for the use of our mess at Papeete the most
miserable specimens of sheep that I have ever seen. They had
come from Easter Island which is now principally occupied as a
sheep run, the inhabitants having been largely deported to
Tahiti, where some of them are employed as household servants,
the men waiting very well at the dinner-table in European dress.
The sheep had been long on the voyage, and were so miserably
poor that one of them only weighed about ten pounds when
skinned. Pork is the only animal food which is cheap and
plentiful at Tahiti.

One of the greatest treats to the natives is tea and bread-and-

L L 2

516 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

butter. A Chinaman keeps a restaurant to which Tahitian girls
are taken by their lovers in order to consume these luxuries.
Wheaten bread is greatly appreciated by Polynesians, and a
baker is one of the first tradesmen who finds a profitable busi-
ness amongst the natives on any of the islands when in process
of civilization. There was an English baker on Tongatabu, he
being almost the only White retail dealer established there.
He told me he sold a great quantity of bread to the natives.

I made an excursion up into the mountains in search of
plants. Some of the mountains rise to a height of over 7,000
feet, and I hoped to be able to reach a considerable altitude in
the search of mountain forms. It was settled that at all events
I was to reach the head of a valley called Papeno in the
interior. I was provided with native guides ; one, an old man,
supposed to be thoroughly acquainted with the mountains.

I started with Lieut. Channer and F. Pearcey, our excellent
bird skinner and factotum. The men carried our little baggage
on the ends of poles, resting on their shoulders, like Chinese
coolies. The practice of this method of carrying has been
remarked upon as one of the many evidences of the Polynesian
affinity of the New Zealanders. We traversed the beautiful
valley of Fataua, closed at its head to the view by the irregu-
larly peaked outline of the mountain, termed by the French,
from its form, the " Diadem."

The stream of the valley pours over a high cliff, which bars
the valley across in a very beautiful waterfall. In the cliff
beneath the falling water is a wide hollow, overhung by the
rock above, and in this Tropic Birds nest, and two or three were
constantly to be seen, flying about the cliff and across the
deep chasm of the valley, conspicuous against the dense green
foliage and dark rocks. Very good strawberries were growing
in a garden just above the fall. The plants were mostly in
blossom, only a few fruits were ripe. The Mango trees in the
island in the same way were mostly now in blossom, or with
young green fruit. The orange season was just at its end.

The stream is full of small fish {DaUs Mcdo) one of the
Perch family. The fish have adapted themselves entirely to
a fresh-water life, and rise to a fly like trout. Captain Thomson

TAHITI. 517

and the others of us who were fishermen, got out our fly rods
and whipped the stream, catching a few dozen. The stream
falls over the rocks and stones in small runs and stickles just
like a trout stream, and the fish thrive in the rapid water. I
carried my salmon and trout rods round the world with me, but
the last place at which I should have looked forward to throw-
ing a fly in, was Tahiti.

The first camp was made in the head of Fataua Valley, at a
height of about 1,600 feet, amongst the "Fei" or wild Plantain,
Musa uranascopus, a species which occurs also in Fiji and else-
where in Polynesia according to Seemann, though I do not know
whether the fruit of the wild plant is equally good in other places
to that of Tahiti. The plant is closely similar in appearance
to an ordinary large Banana tree, but the large bunches of fruit
instead of hanging down, stand up erect from the summit of the
stem. They are bright yellow when ripe.

A fire is lighted and a bunch of these wild bananas is thrown
into it. The outer skin of the fruits becomes blackened and
charred, but when it is peeled off with a pointed stick, a yellow
floury interior is reached, which is most excellent eating and
like a mealy potato. This is one of the very few plants which,
growing spontaneously, and in abundance, affords a really good
and sufficient source of food to man. Hardly any improvement
could be wished for in the fruits by cultivation. It could not
but be most advantageous that the plant should be introduced
into many other tropical countries. On our way up the valley
we had passed numerous natives, going down to Papeete with
loads of " Fei."

Piats live in the mountains, and climb up and devour the
ripe Bananas, and the groves of the trees are traversed in all
directions by the tracks of wild pigs, which likewise feed on the
fruit. It is strange that the pig should run wild and thrive,
under such widely different conditions as it does, and should be
able to exist equally well on wild Plantains in the warm Tahiti,
and on Penguins and Petrels in the chilly Crozets. In this
power of adaptation it approaches man.

It had been raining heavily during our walk, and was still pour-
ing when we halted, and we were all wet through. The guides

518 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.

soon built a small waterproof hut, with sticks and the huge
wild Banana leaves. Then they put up another small roof of
leaves, and finding dry dead Banana leaves under the shelter of
the freshly fallen ones, soon lighted a fire under the roof, and
we dried our clothes in the smoke before nightfall, in the midst
of the heavy rain. The Banana leaves afforded further water-
proof covers for our clothes and for my botanical drying paper.

We had brought no blankets with us, because I wished to
make the utmost attempt to scale the mountains as far as
possible, and had therefore reduced the baggage to a minimum.
I had not expected that we should suffer from cold as we did.
The thermometer showed, at about half an hour before sunset,
75° F., about an hour later, 68°'5, at midnight 63°-0, at daybreak
60°'5, and in about half an hour after daybreak it rose to 61-5°.
The main stream of the valley running past the huts, had a
temperature at daybreak of 65o,0, having retained throughout
the night the heat of the former day, which the air had so
rapidly lost. The effect of the stream on the climate here, is
thus just the opposite of that of the streams of such an island
as Tristan da Cunha.*

From this camp, the way led over several steep minor ridges
in the head of the valley, and then up to an elevation of 3,000
feet, which was reached on one of the extremely narrow ridges,
characteristic of Tahiti, situate just to the west of the u Diadem."
From the ridge, a descent was made into the Punaru Valley by
the aid of ropes fastened to the trees. The precipitous side of
the valley which we thus descended, was covered at this eleva-
tion, from about 3,000 to 2,000 feet altitude, with a dense
vegetation, composed almost entirely of ferns. A Tree Fern
(Alsophila Tahitiensis) formed a sort of forest to the exclusion
almost of other trees, and with this were associated huge clumps
of the giant fern, Angiopteris evecta, and masses of the Birds-nest
Fern (Asplenium nidus). With these grew a trailing Screw-
pine and a Draccena, but the three ferns together formed a
greater proportion of the entire vegetation than I have observed
to be the case elsewhere.t

* See page 111.

t This statement concerning the preponderance of ferns in the vegeta-

TAHITI. 519

The second camp was made at an elevation of about 1,800
feet, at a native hut in the upper part of Punaru Valley. The
natives have not forgotten their religion since the time of
Darwin's visit* Our guides said their prayers every evening
before sleeping, even when huddled together out of the rain, all
repeating the words together, and the native family at the hut
did the same. The temperature at this hut sank at daybreak
to 59° F. We suffered much from cold in the night, and still
more from Mosquitos. We had an old piece of canvas lent us
to spread on the ground to sleep on, but we crept together under
it for warmth.

In the morning we attempted to cross over a high ridge at
the head of Punaru Valley, and so reach our destination, the
Papeno Valley, but the attempt failed, the guides, after an eleva-
tion of about 3,000 feet had been toiled up to, proving not to
know the way at all. One of the guides had been over the pass
many years before, but all he seemed to know was that he had
been up a stream, so we spent the day in wading through pools
and clambering over slippery boulders in the stream beds, creep-
ing along under the overhanging branches. We kept making
attempts in various impracticable places, and at last made a
hurried descent in the evening into the valley, and had to
prepare a camp almost entirely in the dark, and in heavy rain,
at a height of 2,500 feet.

This was above the limit of the growth of the wild Banana
in any abundance, so the shelter for the night was made of the
fronds of the Birds-nest Fern {Asplenium nidus). These are
tougher and more durable than the leaves of the Banana, and
hence are used for permanent thatching, but from their smaller
size require much more time in arrangement.

We had to put up with a very small hut, which sheltered
our bodies as we lay down, but would not cover our legs, and
had to feel in our baggage in the pitch darkness for our food,
and eat it by the help of the sense of touch alone. The unfor-
tunate guides who had constructed our hut first, could find

tion of Tahiti is referred to by Mr. Wallace from my MS. "Tropical
Nature," p. 269.

* C. Darwin's "Journal of Researches," p. 411.

520 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

scarcely any more fern leaves in the dark, and they squatted
out the night together, sheltered from the rain by a small extin-
guisher-shaped erection, which looked as if one human body
could not be forced into it, much less two. The temperature
here at daybreak was 60° F., and the morning being cloudy, and
the camp lying in a narrow gorge, it remained the same for an
hour and a half after daybreak.

In the morning we descended again several hundred feet,
and sent back to the hut and procured two young men, supposed
to be practised mountaineers, and, as we thought, certain to know
the way about every pass within four or five miles of their
dwelling. One of them, as a proof of his knowledge, brought with
him what I suppose is the most primitive form of a map. It was
a thick stick of wood about a foot and a half long, with two short
cross pieces on it at some distance from the ends, and on each
of these cross pieces were set up three short uprights of wood.

I give a figure of it from memory.
The uprights represented moun-
tain peaks, and the spaces between,
the valleys.

The new guide held his map
tahitian mountain map. in his hand and took long con-

sultation with his brother, and then explained matters thoroughly
to our former guides. He clutched the uprights one after another
and dilated upon them, pointing out the peaks to which they
corresponded. There seemed no doubt we had got hold of the
right man at last.

The guides now lashed our small baggage on their backs,
instead of on poles as before, since this mode of carriage was no
longer practicable, owing to the steepness of the ascent, and we
started up the face of an extremely steep-sided ridge, a spur of
Orofena, the highest mountain of Tahiti. At the lower part, we
pulled ourselves up by means of the trailing Screw-pine, which
covered the ground with a tangled mass of its long serpentine
stems so thickly, that as we climbed over it, we did not reach the
ground beneath by a yard or more.

Near the summit of the spur, the face of the ridge was
almost perpendicular, and one of the men got up by the help of

TAHITI. 521

the bushes and let down a rope by which we reached the crest.
In order to collect plants, I had to hold my knotted handkerchief
in my teeth and fill it. It was impossible to get at a vasculum.
The crest of the ridge was nowhere more than a yard wide,
often less. There was an almost sheer fall on either hand, and
if grass and small bushes had not been growing at the edge on
each side, it would have been very difficult to walk along the
ridge without becoming giddy. It was as if one was walking
along the top of an immensely high wall.

Here and there, small MetrosicUros trees grew upon the
centre of the crest of the ridge, and when these were encountered,
we had to climb between the branches, often where they over-hung
a sheer drop below, and once we had to swing ourselves along
the steep side of the crest for a short distance past one of these
trees under its overhanging branches.

We ascended the crest of the ridge, until we had reached an
altitude of 4,000 feet, when the guides found the way barred by
a precipice and entirely impracticable. The summit of the
ridge was covered with a thick growth of the fern Gleichenia
dichotoma, and a climbing fern (Lygoclmm), and amongst the
bushes on the ridge a Whortleberry (Vaccinium) was very
abundant, and also two species of MetrosicUros. The entire
vegetation was different from that below. One of the species of
Metrosicleros was however also seen growing much lower down.

Just as the ridge met the face of the mountain, by which we
were brought to a halt, its crest widened out, and here there was
a clamp hollow with mosses and lichens growing in it, in great
abundance. Here also grew a tree [Fitchia nutans) belonging
to the Composite, with a large yellow flower. The tree was
20 feet in height, and had a trunk nine inches in diameter. It is
allied to the Composite trees of Juan Fernandez, being nearly
related to the Chicory.

Here in the soft loose soil, amongst the moss, were numerous
burrows of a Petrel, I believe Procellaria rostrata. The natives
call the bird " Night-bird," just as the inhabitants of Tristan da
Cunha call the Burrowing Petrels there " Mght-birds." The
Tropic Birds also nest far up in the mountains, and in Hawai
they nest in the cliffs of the crater of Kilauea at an altitude of

522 A NATURALIST OX THE "CHALLENGER.'''

4,000 feet. Similarly a Puffin (Puffinus nugax) nests at the top
of the Korovasa Basaga mountain, in Viti Levu Island, Fiji* and
in like manner, a Procellaria breeds in the high mountains in
Jamaica.

It seems to me possible that these birds may carry Alpine
plants as seeds and spores attached to their feathers from one
island to another, for great distances. They make their holes
in the ground where it is densely covered with herbage, and
often become covered with vegetable mould. The Procellaridce,
widely wandering as they are, have probably had a great deal to
do with the wide distribution of much of the Antarctic flora.
Grisebachf lays stress on the range of the Albatross (Diomedea)
from Cape Horn to the Kurile Islands, as possibly accounting
for the occurrence of Northern species of plants amongst the
Southern flora, and also the wide range of the Antarctic flora.
He supposes the seeds, however, to be swallowed by the Alba-
tross, with its food, after being washed down into the sea by
rivers, and perhaps swallowed by fish.

When I mentioned the matter of the birds possibly picking
up seeds whilst nesting, and so conveying them, to Mr. Darwin
in conversation, he at once objected that at nesting time these
birds, like all others, do not wander, and do not fly to a fresh
nesting place directly after nesting. It seems to me, however,
that though this objection is almost fatal to the suggestion,
occasionally birds may leave an island with mountain seeds
attached, and alight in the higher parts of a distant island from
habit. The fact that they do nest amidst the mountain flora, is
at all events to be noted.

With regard to the Albatross, it is to be noted that at Tristan
da Cunha these birds nest in the terminal crater, at a height of
8,000 feet. Former Albatrosses may have nested in high tro-
pical mountains ; the plants are possibly very much older than
the present species of Albatrosses. The great Albatross has, on
a very few occasions, been found as a straggler, north of the

* Finsch und Hartlaub, " Ornithologie der Yiti, Samoa, und Tonga
Inseln." Halle, 1867. Einleitung, S. XVIII. Peale describes the habit in
question of Procellaria rostrata at Tahiti.

t A Grisebach, " Vegetation der Erde," Bd. II., S. 496.

TAHITI. 523

equator in the Atlantic, and has reached Europe. It is most
extraordinary that the bird has not established itself per-
manently in the Northern Atlantic. The genus probably, once
extended north in the Atlantic, as it does in the Pacific, for a
form possibly ancestral has been described by Prof. Owen as
Cimoliornis Diomedeus, a fossil bird nearly allied to Diomedea
which occurs in the lower chalk at Maidstone.* The immense
rapidity of birds' flight must always be borne in mind in con-
sidering their aid in distribution of plants. A journey of 4,000
miles, at 40 miles an hour is only four days and nights' flight.

As the date of sailing of the ship was uncertain, we were
obliged to give up the attempt to reach Papeno Valley, and we
therefore returned to the native hut for the night. The sky
being remarkably clear, the thermometer sank at daybreak to
5o° F. (elevation 1,800 feet). We followed the Punaru Valley
down to the sea-shore, and returned to Papeete, along the coast.
I am much indebted to Mr. Miller. English Consul at Tahiti,
for his kindness in hunting up guides for me, and otherwise
assisting me.

Mr. Darwin refers to the fact mentioned by Ellis, that long-
after the introduction of Christianity into Tahiti, wild men lived
in the mountains, whose retreat was unknown. The ignorance
of the natives concerning the interior of the island is still, as
shown by the failure of our guides, extreme. The guides living
on the spot, did not even know on which side of the valley to
attempt to scale the ridge at its head. The men can climb ex-
tremely well, but they do not seem to have any idea of thinking-
out a route and judging it as seen from a distance, which is the
real art of mountaineering.

The natives are still grateful for favours, as in Mr. Darwin's
time. The older of our guides brought me just as the ship was
leaving, as a present, a fine stone adze, which he had been at
considerable difficulty to procure from Punaru Valley, where it
had been found in the earth, he knowing that I wished very
much to obtain one. The stone adzes are now scarce, and fetch
their full price in Tahiti.

* " Trans. Geol. Soc," 2nd Series VI, Tab. 39, tig. ± " Quart
Journ.," 1846, II, p. 101.

524 A NATURALIST OX THE "CHALLENGER."

The orange, lemon, and lime, which grow wild all over Tahiti,
do not appear to deteriorate at all in quality, nor in quantity of
fruit, although in the ferine condition. The fruit almost appears
finer and better for running wild. The oranges we all pro-
nounced the best we had ever eaten. The limes lay in cart-
loads upon the ground, rotting in the woods. It would pay well
to make lime-juice for export in Tahiti. Some native insect
must have adapted itself completely to the blossoms of the
orange tribe as a fertilizer, so abundant is the fruit. Vanilla,
which is cultivated in the island with success, requires, as every-
where else away from its home, to be fertilized by hand.

A Mushroom Coral (Fungia) is very common all over the
reefs at Tahiti. After much search, I found one of the nurse-
stocks from which the disc- shaped free corals are thrown off as
buds, as was originally shown by Stutchbury, and confirmed by
Semper, who considers the case to be an instance of alternation of
generations.*

Though the free corals were so extremely numerous, I could
only find the one nurse mass. It, as in Stutchbury 's specimen,f
consisted of a portion of a very large dead Fungia, to which were
attached all over numerous nurse stocks in various stages of
growth. Some of those in the specimens have only just de-
veloped from the attached larva, and have as yet thrown off no
buds. A small cup-like Coral is formed, and as it grows the
mouth of the cup widens and assumes somewhat the form of
the adult disc-shaped free Coral, but is still distinctly cup-
shaped. A line of separation forms in the stem of this bud,
and the bud falls off; a fresh bud then starts from the centre of
the scar left by it on the stock, and the process is repeated.
The fresh bud in its growth does not spread its attachment over
the whole surface of the old scar, the margins of which persist
as a dead zone around its base.

The line of separation of the second bud does not cor-
respond with that of the first, but is beyond it a short distance.

* Semper, " Generationswechsel bei Steinkorallen," Zeitschrift fur Zoo-
logie, 22. Bd. 1245. Leipzig, Engelmaim, 1872, s. 36.

t G. Stutchbury, " An Account of the mode of Growth of Young
Corals of the Genus Fungia." Trans. Linn. Soc, Vol. XVII. 1830, p. 493.

TAHITI.

525

Hence, the nurse stem which has thrown off several buds, is
transversely jointed in appearance. Some of the stems in the

ENLARGED VIEW OF THE SCAR LEFT ON THE END OF
THE STOCK WHEN A TOCNG CORAL HAS BECOME
DETACHED.

E Fresh discoid coral commencing to bud forth;
e wide surrounding scar surface.

DIAGRAM REPRESENTING A NURSE STOCK OF
THE MUSHROOM CORAL.

a b Successive joints of the stem which have
each thrown off a free discoid coral ;
d young mushroom coral still attached to
the last joint of the stock ; c a transverse
line marking where the present bud will
separate.

specimen I found, showed thus three rings. Stutchbury ima-
gined that each mother stock threw off only one bud, and then
died ; Semper showed that this was not the case, he speaks of
three or four generations only being produced by each stock.
Apparently the number produced is very limited. None of the
stocks in my specimens were branched. A young Coral bud
just ripe, 1-^th of an inch in diameter, dropped off one of the
stocks as I lifted the specimen from the water. Beneath it on
the scar, another very small young Fungia had begun to bud out
before its predecessor was quite free. The somewhat cup-
shaped buds, when set free, become by the direction in which
future growth takes place, flat and disc-shaped and develope
eggs, from which spring free-swimming larvae, which start fresh
stocks.

The mass of nurse stocks which I found was surrounded
on the reef by a group of fully-formed Fungias of all sizes, I
counted twenty in all. Some six of these were small and still
showed the scar of attachment which disappears in the process
of subsequent growth.

A species of Mill&pora (M. nodosa. Esper), is a very common
coral upon the Tahitian reefs. It forms irregular nodular masses
usually of small size, and often encrusts dead corals of other

526 A NATURALIST OX THE " CHALLENGER."

species. The tips of the lobes of the living coral are of a bright
gamboge-yellow colour, which shades off into a yellowish-brown
on either side of the lobes. Mr. Murray succeeded in getting
the polyps of the coral to expand under the microscope, and
handed them over to me for examination. I found them, as
Agassiz had discovered long before, to be Hydroids allied to the
Medusae and not to the Actinozoa and Sea Anemones, like the
majority of modern stony corals ; I studied the structure of
the coral minutely.*

The hard part of the coral or calcareous skeleton is finely
porous throughout, being excavated by a complex reticulation of
fine and tortuous canals which are in the freest possible com-
munication with one another. Within this porous mass at its
surface are excavated cylindrical holes or pores of two sizes.

The canal spaces in the skeleton are, when the coral is living,
filled by a network of living tissue made up of a meshwork of
branching and communicating tubes, which form a canal system,
by means of which a free circulation can pass from one part of
the coral to another.

Two kinds of Polyps inhabit the pores described as existing
on the surface of the coral. The larger pores are occupied by
short stout cylindrical polyps which have each four tentacles
and a mouth and stomach, and which are hence termed " Gas-
trozooids," whilst their pores are termed " Gastropores." The
smaller pores shelter each a very different kind of polyp, which
has a long and slender sinuous body provided with numerous
tentacles, and devoid of any mouth or stomach ; this latter form
of polyp, because its function is merely to catch food, is called a
" Dactylozooid" and its pore a " Dactylopore"

The Dactylozooids catch food for the colony and deliver it to
the Gastrozooids, which alone are able to swallow and digest it.
All the polyps of the colony are in communication at their
bases with the canal system already described, and by means
of these canals the nutritive fluids derived by the gastrozooids
from the food are distributed to the entire colony and nourish

* For further details, see H. N. Moseley, " On the Structure of a species
of Millepora occurring at Tahiti." Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, Vol. 167, 1877,
p. 117.

TAHITI.

527

it. There is thus a very complete division of labour in the
colony.

In all species of Millepora the
mouth-bearing polyps are much
more numerous than the mouth-
less ones. In some species the
gastropores and dactylopores are
scattered irregularly over the sur-
face of the colonies. In the Tahi-
tian species, however, they are
for the most part gathered into
definite groups or systems, each
consisting of a centrally placed
gastropore surrounded by a ring

of five, six, or seven dactylopores, as shown in the accompanying
figure, where the circular groups of minute pores are seen
scattered over the coral surface.

The second figure shows, much enlarged, a single system
of polyps belonging to one of these pore systems, as it appears

PORTION OF THE HARD CORAL OF MILLE-
PORA NODOSA.

(Twice the natural size.)

ENLARGED VIEW OF PORTION OF THE SURFACE OF A LIVING MILLEPORA NODOSA, SHOWING THE

EXPANDED ZOOIDS OF A SINGLE STSTEM.

In the centre is the short mouth hearing Gastrozooirl, around are the mouthless Dactylozooid>.

528 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER,

■>)

when the polyps are fully protruded from their pores and ex-
panded. Beneath is seen shaded dark part of the canal mesh work,
which maintains the general circulation of the colony. From
this stands up in the centre, the short and stout gastrozooid
with its four tentacles, and dark stomach cavity seen through
the walls of its body, and its mouth at its summit. Around are
grouped five dactylozooids, each with many tentacles, but with-
out any mouth or stomach. One of the dactylozooids is seen
bending over to feed the gastrozooid of the system.

Marvellous as is the completeness in the division of labour in
the Millepora Colony, this is far surpassed in the case of the
Stylasteridce , another family of stony corals, which, as I found to
my astonishment, is also like the family Mille_poridw, Hydroid
in structure.

In the Stylasteridce there is a canal network and common
circulation in each colony essentially similar to that in the
Mill evor idee. Two kinds of polyps also, mouth-bearing and
mouthless, are present. The dactylozooids are, however, en-
tirely devoid of tentacles, and are reduced to simple long
tapering bodies, just like the tentacles of Sea Anemones in ap-
pearance, and performing the same functions. The gastrozooids
alone bear tentacles round their mouths, and in some genera
even they have lost their tentacles, and the entire colony is thus
devoid of these appendages. In some genera there are two
kinds of dactylozooids, smaller and larger, the latter evidently
intended to be enabled to better catch food by means of their
long reach, the former probably to deliver the food so caught to
the mouth-bearing polyp.

The accompanying woodcut shows the principal living struc-
tures as they exist in one of the more simple genera of the
Stylasteridce, namely, the genus Errina. The various com-
ponent structures are displayed as they are seen when the
calcareous skeleton of the coral has been removed by the action
of acids, and the remaining soft tissues have been cut through
in a direction at right angles to the surface of the coral. The
calcareous style is introduced into the drawing in order to show
its relation to the gastrozooid. In the case of the Millevoridm,
the mode of reproduction is not known ; it is possible that they

TAHITI.

529

produce free-swimming Medusae. In that of the Stylasteridce on
the other hand, the process is well understood. Each colony

VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH THE LIVING TISSUES OF ERKINA LABIATA GREATLY MAGNIFIED, AND
WITH ALL THE CALCAREOUS SKELETON EXCEPT THE STYLE REMOVED.

The mass is seen to be made up of a network of canals, which canals are shown in many places cut
across. On the left is a gastrozooid, c 2, cut through, showing two of its four tentacles, t, its
stomach cavity, c, and its style, s t. Large canals pass from the stomach cavity to join the
general canal network. The gastrozooid is withdrawn within its sac, which lines the
gastropore, the wall of which is removed. To the right of the gastrozooid is seen a single
dactylozooid, d 2, partly protruded from its sac. On the extreme right is seen an embryo or
planula doubled up within the ampullar sac and cut through. The planula is mature and
nearly ready for escape ; e Endoderm of the planula ; e c ectoderm ; s spadix ; b layer of
ectoderm covering the planula ; a layer of soft tissue in the wall of the ampulla ;
n nemataphore.

or coral stock is of a separate sex, either male or female. In
the female stocks, eggs are developed within special chambers
hollowed out in the calcareous skeleton of the stock, and pro-
tected by a wall of hard coral, which often projects on the
surfaces of the branches, so that the breeding chambers (am-
pulla) show themselves to the naked eye like small warts on
the coral twigs. Each egg is developed within the chamber into
a cylindrical larva (planula), which is set free when mature, and
swimming off fixes itself and develops from itself by growing
and budding a new stock.

The nurse structures on which the eggs are developed, repre-

M M

530 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

sent polyps which have become solely reproductive in function,
just as the dactylozooids have become solely tentacular in function.
Hence, in these colonies certain members of the community
devote themselves to the catching of food, but cannot eat it them-
selves ; they deliver it to other members of the colony, whose only
function is to eat and digest it. These latter nourish the whole
colony by supplying blood to it through the common circulation
as the products of their digestion ; in several genera, they have
become reduced to the condition of mere stomachs, having no
tentacles or prehensile organs of their own. Other members
ao'ain of the colonies neither catch food nor eat it, but are
entirely devoted to the production of eggs and larvae, and have
thus become reduced to the condition of mere egg-bags.

In the Stylasteridce, the polyps are lodged within pores of
two kinds, just as in the Milleporidw, and, as in these latter, the
dactylopores are far more numerous than the gastropores. In
some genera of Stylasteridce, the pores are scattered irregularly
all over the surfaces of the coral stocks ; but in others they are
grouped into systems of very great complexity, and almost all
gradations of this complexity are shown in the various genera, so
that the successive stages by which natural selection has brought
about the development of the systems is clearly to be traced.

This series of stages of development is shown in the set of
diagrams on the opposite page. Figure 1 represents the con-
dition existing in the genus Sjporadopora, the dactylopores shown
as the smaller black circles are here irregularly grouped together
with a single large gastropore. The gastropore has a white
dot in its centre, marked S, indicating the " style," a rod
of the calcareous skeleton, which in many genera of Stylasteridce
acts as a support to the mouth-bearing polyp within its pore and
which by its presence gives the name to the family, Stylasteridce.
In Sporadopora, the pores of the two kinds are irregularly
scattered over the whole coral surface.

In the case of another Stylasterid, Allopora nobilis, the
development of regular systems of polyps is commenced. The
arrangement is shown in Figs. 2 and 3. In some parts of the
branches of a specimen of this Coral, the dactylopores are to be
found simply grouped in rings around a single centrally-placed

TAHITI.

531

gastropore, just as in the Tahitian Millepora (see Fig. 2). In
other parts of the same specimen, a further complication arises,

DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING THE SUCCESSIVE STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CTCLOSTSTEMS

OF THE STYLASTERIDiE.

1 In Sporadopora dichtoma. 2, 3 Allopora nobilis. 4 AUopora profunda. 5 AUopora miniacea.
6 Astylus subviridis. 7 Distichopora coccinea. s Style ; dp dactylopore ; gp gastropore ; d in
fig. 6, inner horseshoe-shaped mouth of gastropore.

as shown in Fig. 3. A shallow groove leads from each of the
dactylopores to join the gastropore cavity, and a radiate figure is
produced. No doubt the grooves are developed by the constant
bendino- inwards of the tentacular zooids to feed the mouth-
bearing zooid in the gastropore.

A more complete development of radiate systems occurs in
another species of Allopora (A. profunda), as shown in Fig. 4.
Here 12 dactopores surround each gastropore, and the grooves
are much deepened. The dactopores in this case have small
rudimentary styles, which structures are usually confined to
the gastropores. In Allopora mineacea (Fig. 5), the styles in the
dactopores are large, and have brush-like tips like the styles of
the gastropores.

In the genus Astylus, neither kind of pore has a style, the
radiate arrangement is most complete, and the highest condition
of development of the circular systems of zooids (c'yclosy stems)

M M 2

532

A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

is arrived at. These radiate cyclosystems in the Stylasteridce so
closely simulate in appearance the cups of ordinary Anthozoan
corals with their radiate septa, that they were always supposed
to be of the same essential nature as these latter, until dissection
of the soft structures of the animals of which they are the
skeleton, revealed their real significance.

The two radiate calcareous structures are in reality widely
different in nature. In the Anthozoan coral, each radiate
system is the skeleton of one polyp animal like a single Sea
Anemone, and the radiating plates of calcareous matter in the
coral cup, are supports developed inside the body of this single
polyp. In the cylosystem of the Stylasterid, on the other hand,
a large number of polyps are lodged, namely a single gastro-
zooid and numerous dactozooids.

The radiating plates of the cyclosystem, so like the septa of
Anthozoan corals, are formed of the walls of the mouths of the

PORTION OF A SPECIMEN OF THE CORAL OF ASTYLUS SUBVIRIDIS.

Showing the cyclosystems placed at intervals on the branches, each with a central gastropore and

zone of slit-like dactylopores.

dactylozooids pressed against one another as they are closely
packed together in a ring round the gastropore, and thus flattened

TAHITI.

533

out by mutual appressure. The elongate or groove-like form of
the mouths of the pores is also to a large extent brought about
by the manner in which the dactylozooids are doubled up within
them when in the retracted condition.

The figure on the opposite page represents a small part of
the skeleton or coral of a stock of Astylus subviridis, enlarged to
twice the natural size. The cyclosystems, one of which is
shown as a diagram in Fig. 6 of the preceding woodcut, are here
seen placed at intervals along the branches of the coral.

Still further complexity, however, in the cyclosystems of the
genus Astylus remains to be described. The figure below shows
one of the systems cut through vertically to display the arrange-
ments within. The gastropore has two chambers, an upper and
lower. The lower, in which the gastrozooid, which in this genus
is a mere flask-shaped stomach sac devoid of tentacles, is lodged,
communicates with the upper by a narrowed horseshoe-shaped
opening, which is more plainly seen from above in the diagram,
Fig. 6, already referred to. The opening is rendered horseshoe-
shaped by the projection from one side of it across the aperture
of a small tongue-shaped excrescence of hard coral. This pro-
jection no doubt serves to protect the polyp from injury.

VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH ONE OF THE CYCLOSYSTEMS OF ASTYLUS SUBVIRIDIS.

dp-dp Dactylopore cavities; gp upper gastropore chamber; gp^ lower gastropore chamber;
cc canals leading from the gastropore to the dactylopore cavitie9 ; b tongue-shaped projection ;
a its base cut through ; gg ampullas cut open.

The lower gastropore chamber further communicates, as seen
in the figure, at its margins by means of vertical canals with the
bottoms of the dactylopores, which are seen above it. Through
these vertical canals in the living coral pass large nutritive
vessels from the stomach of the gastrozooid all round to join the

534 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

dactylozooids and nourish them, The slit-like openings of the
dactylopores into the upper chamber of the gastropore, allow
the dactylozooids to be bent far down into the gastropore to
reach the gastrozooid, and deliver food to it.

Around each cyclosystem are grouped a zone of ampulla?,
which contain the reproductive elements, and in which, in the
case of female colonies, the young are developed. The ampullae are
shown cut open in the figure, and marked GG. Thus each cyclo-
system is, in the genus Astylus, complete in itself. It contains
its single gastropore which placed in the centre nourishes the
whole, its zone of dactylopores, and its zone of nurse structures
which produce and rear its young. Nevertheless, the numerous
cyclosystems of the colony are in communication with one
another by a common canal system traversing its branches, and
thus each is able to assist the other with nourishment, and any
part of the branches thus so perfectly fed is able to increase the
size of colony, by growing, and developing on the new twigs
fresh cyclosystems as buds. In some other genera of Stylasteridce,
various other complications in the grouping and structure of the
pores and their zooids occur. In one genus, Disticlwpora (see
Diagram 7, ante), the gastropores are arranged in regular rows
at the edges of the coral branches, and on either side of the row
of gastropores is placed a row of dactylopores. The pores are
thus everywhere grouped in three parallel rows, and they occur
only on the edges of the branches, the rest of the coral surface is
devoid of pores altogether.

The Milleporidce and Stylasteridce are so closely allied to one
another, that I have grouped them together as a sub-order of
Hydroid corals (Hydrocorallince). The Milleporidce all occur in
comparatively shallow water, and are reef corals. The Stylas-
teridw, on the other hand, although some species occur in quite
shallow water on reefs, range also to great depths, some species
having been dredged by the "Challenger" from 1,500 fathoms.
Specimens of six genera of Stylasteridce were fished up at one
haul of the trawl, from 600 fathoms, off the mouth of the Rio de
la Plata, and it was from these specimens that the details of the
structure of the family were made out, and the Stylasteridw
determined to be Hydrozoa.

TAHITI. 535

I have given an account of the Stylastericlce in this place,
because any description of them must necessarily follow that of
the Milleporidce* In having in each colony, polyps of several
kinds, and of separate functions, with a regular system of division
of labour, the Hydrocorallince resemble the Siphonophora, Hy-
droids which form similar colonies, which are free-swimming at
the ocean surface, instead of fixed to the bottom like the corals.

To return to Tahiti : — The ground just above the shore near
Papeete is everywhere burrowed by large Land Crabs. The
Crabs are difficult to catch; never, in the daytime at least,
going far from their holes, but watching a passer-by from near
the mouths of their retreats, and bolting in if suspicious of
danger, like rabbits. An old marine, whose name was Leary, who
acted as my constant assistant in collecting on shore, invented
a plan by which he caught some of the largest and oldest of
the crabs. He tied a bit of meat on the end of a string-,
fastened to a fishing rod, and by dragging the meat slowly
enticed the Crabs from their holes, and then made a dash forward
and put his foot in the hole, and so caught them. The largest
Crabs were far more difficult to catch than the younger ones.

It is curious how little animals seem to be frightened by a
long wand like a fishing-rod. I have seen Mr. Thwaites in
Ceylon put a noose of Palm Fibre, fastened at the tip of a rod
of this kind over the heads of numbers of Lizards, and carry
them off thus sniggled to put them into spirit for Dr. Gunther.
The Lizards sat quite quietly to receive the noose, though if Ave
had moved a foot nearer to them they would have run off at
once. Snakes and Lizards are nearly all caught in this manner
in the Peradeniya Gardens.

We got up anchor and steamed out of Papeete Harbour to
the time of the Tahitian National Air, a quick and lively jig
characteristic of the place, and which sets the Tahitians danc-
ing at once. It is popular with the French also : and as we

* For a detailed account of the structure of the Stylasteridse, see
H. N. Moseley, " Preliminary Note on the Structure of the Stylasteridre."
Proc. Eoy. Soc, No. 172, 1876, p. 93. Also, "On the Structure of the
Stylasteridse, a Family of Hydroid Stony Corals." The Croonian Lecture.
Phil. Trans. Eoy. Soc. 1878.

536 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

entered Valparaiso Harbour, the band on board a French man-
of-war struck up this tune to greet us and recall the gaiety of
the beautiful island we had left behind us. I give the air as
written down for me by Mr. T. Bird, the band-master of the
" Challenger," who by his indefatigable efforts, succeeded in train-
ing a very creditable brass band, during the voyage, although
only two or three at most of the Blue-jackets composing the
band, had any knowledge of music at all before the voyage
commenced.

MODERN NATIONAL AIR OF TAHITI.
Allegro.

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JUAN FERNANDEZ.

537

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Juan Fernandez, Novemher 13th to 15th, 1815. — The voyage
to Juan Fernandez occupied six weeks, as we had the bad for-
tune to be becalmed for 12 days on the passage. It was with
the liveliest interest that we approached the scene of Alexander
Selkirk's life of seclusion and hardship, and an island with the
existence of which, in the case of most of us, the very fact that
we were at sea on a long voyage was more or less distinctly con-
nected. The study of Eobinson Crusoe certainly first gave me
a desire to go to sea, and "Darwin's Journal" settled the matter.
Defoe was obliged to lay the scene of his romance in the West
Indies in order to bring in the Carib man, Friday. He thus
gained the Parrot, but he lost the Sea-Elephants and Fur-Seals of
Juan Fernandez, one of the latter of which would have made a
capital pet for Crusoe.

The island is most beautiful in appearance. The dark
basaltic cliffs contrast with the bright yellow-green of the
abundant verdure ; and the island terminates in fantastic peaks,
which rise to a height of about 3,000 feet. Especially con-
spicuous is a precipitous mass which backs the view from the
anchorage at Cumberland Bay, and which is called from its
form " El Yunque " (the anvil).

There are upwards of 24 species of Ferns growing in this
small island, and in any general view the Ferns form a large
proportion of the main mass of vegetation. Amongst them are
two Tree Ferns, one of which I only saw amongst the rocks in
the distance, but could not reach. The preponderant Ferns,
especially the Tree Ferns, give a pleasant yellow tinge to the
general foliage. Curiously enough the almost cosmopolitan
common Brake Fern (Pteris aquilina) does not occur in the
island. Four species of the Ferns out of the 24 present are
peculiar to the island, and one, Thyrsopteris elegans, is of a genus
which occurs only here. The appearance of this Fern is very

538 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

remarkable, for the cup-shaped sori hang down from the fronds
in masses, looking just like bunches of millet seed.

Everywhere for the first few hundred feet, trees are absent,
the wood having been all felled. In 1830 a large quantity of
dry old sandal- wood still remained in the valleys : but even
then there were no growing sandal-wood trees remaining.* No
doubt the general appearance of the vegetation is very different
now from what it was when the island was first visited.

I landed and climbed with a guide a steep path leading
directly up from the Bay to Selkirk's Monument. The island is
rented from the Chilian Government as a farm by a Chilian
who employs a number of labourers and rears cattle, and grows
vegetables, doing a very fair trade with passing vessels, the
crews of which, like our own, after a voyage from such a port as
Tahiti, long for a little wholesome fresh food. A considerable
sum is also realized by the sale of the skins of the Fur-Seals.
Close to the farm-house at the Bay still remain a row of old
caves dug out in the hill-side by the Buccaneers.

In ascending the path the first tree was met with at about
700 feet altitude, all below had been cut down. We passed
through a hollow overgrown by a dense growth of the gigantic
Ehubarb-like G-unnera Chilensis. Darwin remarked on the large
size of the leaves of this plant and height of its stalks as seen
by him in Chile.f The stalks of the plants he saw were not
much more than a yard in height. In this hollow the stalks
must have been 7 feet in height. We walked through a narrow
passage cut in a thicket of them with the huge circular leaves
above our heads. The leaves catch and hold a large quantity of
rain-water. The size attained by the Gunnera varies with its
situation. In many places the leaves are very conspicuous on
the hill-slopes, crowding closely as an undergrowth, and not
rising high above the ground.

It was now Spring in Juan Fernandez, as at Tahiti. Most
excellent Strawberries grow wild about the lower slopes of the

* "Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of H.M.S. ' Adventure ' and
'Beagle,'" Vol. I, p. 302. London, 1839. Visit of Capt. King, H.M.S.
' Adventure ' accompanied by Signor Bertero the Botanist, Feb., 1833."

t C. Darwin, "Journal of Researches," p. 279.

JUAN FERNANDEZ. 539

island, and especially well on banks beneath the cliffs close to
the sea-shore. The Strawberries are large and fine, but white in
colour, being, I believe, a Spanish cultivated variety. If so, they
have not at all reverted to the parent wild form, either in colour
or size ; a few only were just beginning to ripen.

At this time of the year the foliage of the Myrtles, though
evergreen, looks half dead, and these trees thus show out con-
spicuously amongst the rest. Here and there examples of the
Magnoliaceous Tree " Winter's Bark " (Dryrnis winteri), a tree
common in the Straits of Magellan were covered with showy
white flowers, and large patches of a small species of Dock
(fiumex) in full flower showed out red amongst the general
green, whilst a white-flowered Iris, growing socially formed well-
marked patches of white. A tall Bignoniaceous Shrub, which
was very common, was covered with dark blue tubular flowers.

Hovering over the flowering bushes and trees, were every-
where to be seen two species of Humming-Birds ; one of which
(Uustephanus Femandensis) is peculiar to the island, whilst the
other (E. galeritus) of the same genus occurs also on the main
land. A further closely allied but peculiar species occurs in the
island named by the Spaniards " Mas-afuera," or farther out,
because it lies 90 miles to the westward of Juan Fernandez and
so much farther from the Chilian Coast.

The Humming-Birds were extremely abundant, hovering in
every bush. In the species peculiar to the Island of Juan Fer-
nandez the male is very different in plumage from the female,
being of a chocolate colour, with an iridescent golden-brown
patch on the head, whilst the female is green. So different are
the two sexes that they were formerly supposed to represent two
distinct species, as has happened in the case of so many other
birds. This endemic Humming-Bird seemed more abundant
than the continental one. Any number of specimens might
have been shot.

In skinning some of the birds which I killed, I noticed that
the feathers at the base of the bill and on the front of the head
were clogged and coloured yellow with pollen. The birds, no
doubt, in common with other species of Humming-Birds, and
other flower-frequenting birds, such as the Myzomelida \ are

540 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

active agents in the fertilization of plants. I noticed, as has
been already mentioned, pollen attached in a similar manner
to a bird at Cape York.* Mr. Wallace conclndes that the
presence of these birds, as fertilizers, acconnts for the abun-
dance of conspicuous flowers in Juan Fernandez.

There are very few insects in the island, according to the
observations of Mr. E. C. Eeed, and only one very minute
species of Bee. Flies, of which there are 20 species, form the
most prominent feature of the entomology of the island, t Some
fertilizers, either insects or birds, must act on a very comprehen-
sive and effectual scale all over the island, as follows from the
abundance of fruit yielded by various introduced plants.

Strawberries, Cherries, Peaches, Apples, and Figs bear well ;
Strawberries and Peaches at all events very abundantly. The
Wild Peaches are spreading everywhere. These, the Cherries
and the Apples are possibly fertilized by the birds, but one would
hardly suppose that the Strawberries would be also thus pol-
lenized : though at a height of 9,000 feet in the Andes, I have
watched Humming-Birds, possibly the same species as that at
Juan Fernandez, hovering over the low mountain flowers, quite
close to the ground, where nothing like a bush was growing.

It would be very interesting, if it proved to be the case, that
Humming-Birds have in this distant island adapted themselves to
the fertilization of our common garden fruits. Besides the fruit
trees, there are many introduced plants with well-developed
flowers which thrive in the island ; a Thistle is very abundant
and luxuriant, as if eager to remind travellers to what race the
world owes the immortal Selkirk, and a Wild Turnip is rapidly
spreading. Possibly the abundant flies take some share in the
fertilizing work.

It must be remembered, with regard to insular floras, that a
plant which had developed showy flowers to attract certain
insects on some main land or other place where insects were
abundant, might, when transferred to an island devoid of insects
suitable to its requirements, nevertheless retain its gaudy flowers
little or not at all impaired, for an indefinite period, just as

* See page 354.

t A. E. Wallace, "Tropical Nature," p. 270-271.

JUAN FERNANDEZ. 541

animals which have taken to deep-sea life have some of them
retained their colours, though living in the dark.*

Selkirk's Monument is placed on the crest of a short sharp
ridge in a gap in the mountains at a height of about 1,800 feet
above the sea. From this, a steep descent leads down on either
side to the shore. Here Selkirk sat and watched the sea on both
sides of the island in long-deferred hope of sighting a sail.

Here we rested for some time, enjoying the view. Juan
Fernandez is only ten miles in length, and 20 square miles in
area, and from this elevated point nearly the whole extent of the
island could be overlooked. Yet this tiny spot of land contains
birds, land shells, trees, and ferns which occur nowhere else in
the vast expanse of the universe, but here or in the neighbour-
ing Mas-afuera. One could almost count the number of trees
of the endemic Palm (Ceroxylon Austrcde) and estimate the
number of pairs of the endemic Humming-Bird existent, at a
bird for every bush. Two of the species of Land-birds, and all
the 20 species of Land-shells of the island are endemic.

The temperature at the monument at 11 A.M. was 65° F. A
small Bat, possibly disturbed by the sound of the gun, was seen
to fly past. The common Sow-thistle (Sonchus oleraceits), the
ubiquitous weed, has climbed up the pass, and grows by the
Monument. The endemic Palm has been almost exterminated,
excepting in nearly inaccessible places, as on a rock above the
monument, where a group of the trees can be seen, but not
reached.

The terminal shoot of the palm, especially when cut just before
the tree flowers, is excellent to eat ; the developing leaf mass
being quite white, and tasting something like a fresh filbert. It
seemed to me more delicate than that of the shoot of the Cocoa-
nut. The guide knew where there was a tree remaining in the
woods not far above sea-level, and I went with him to it hoping

* See A. E. Wallace, "Tropical Nature," p. 274. London, 1878.
Mr. Darwin, " Origin of Species," 6th edition, p. 349, refers to the
similar survival of the hooks of hooked seeds in islands where there are no
mammals to the fur or wool of which they could cling. Some hooked
seeds may, however, surely also be adapted to hang in the feathers of
birds, as those of the Uncinia and Accena of the Southern Islands,
possibly, for example, are adapted to those of the Albatross.

542 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

»j

to find it in flower. As it was not, I cut it down for eating, for
the guide was only waiting to let it develop further before fell-
ing it for that purpose himself. A few seedling Palms grew
near by. Palms of the same genus occur in the tropical Andes.

Most remarkable in appearance amongst the Composite
endemic trees are the species of the genus Dendroseris, allied to
our Chicory. The specimens which I saw in flower, were rather
large straggling shrubs than trees, but with thick woody stems
and branches from 10 to 15 feet in height. The leaves are very
like those of a Dandelion in appearance, and the stem which
when split open, has a curiously jointed pith, has just the smell
of a Dandelion-root, and would, no doubt yield chicory. It
pours out, like the Dandelion and allied plants, a milky juice
when cut.

The flesh of the Wild Goats of the island is most excellent
eating, no doubt because of the abundance of the feed. In some
parts of the island, especially to the south-west, there are open
stretches covered, with long grass. Pigeons {Columba cenas),
which are said to have been imported into the island, are
common, and feed on the hill-sides in flocks.

Fish are very abundant, and easily caught, as are also Kock-
lobsters (Palimirus frontalis) which are very large, and especially
good to eat. More than 60 were caught by means of a baited
hoop-net put over the ship's side at the anchorage, and hauled
up at short intervals. The meat of the tails of these lobsters is
dried at the island for export to Chile.

N.B. — Some of the matter in the above account was sent in MS. to
Mr. Wallace, and is quoted by him in " Tropical Nature/' pp. 143 ; 270-
272.

For an account of the Land-birds of Juan Fernandez, see an article by
Mr. P. L. Sclater in "Ibis," 1871, p. 178.

For accounts of the island in old times, see " Anson's Voyage." Account
given by Capt. Woods Eogers. Funnel's (mate to ' Dampier ') Voyage.
London* 1707. Shelvocke's " Voyage of the ' Speedwell,' 1719-1722."
London, 1726, — and many others.

543

CHAPTER XXI.

CHILE. MAGELLAN'S STEAITS. FALKLAND ISLANDS.

ASCENSION.

Valparaiso. The Andes not Conspicuous. Cattle lassoed in the Streets.
Excursion up the Uspallata Pass. Leafless Mistletoe on the Leafless
Cactus. An Equestrian Hair Cutter. Dead and Disabled Animals on
the Pass. Use of the Lasso in Bobbery and Flirtation. Cleverness of
a Horse on a Mountain Path. Fjords of the Western Coast of
Patagonia. Density of the Forest. An Anchor Broken. Fuegians.
Wild Geese at Elizabeth Island. Kitchen Middens. The Falkland
Islands. Visit to Port Darwin. Scotchmen turned Gauchos. Chapinas
and Tropijes. Wild Horses and their Habits. Various Modes of
Handling Cattle in Different Parts of the World. Goose-Bolas made of
Knuckle- Bones. Flies and Gnats with Budinientary Wings. Skeleton
of Ziphioid Whale. Fuegian Arrow-heads Scattered in the Islands.
Habits of Jackass Penguin. Ascension Island. Land Crabs. The
Hatching of Turtles' Eggs. Shooting at Flying Fish. Birds at
Boatswain Bird Island.

Valparaiso, Chile. November 19th to December 11th, 1815. —

How Valparaiso came to be called the Vale of Paradise I cannot
well understand ; the voyagers who so named it, must have come
from a desert land indeed. The surrounding country has a most
barren and inhospitable appearance, the red decomposed granite
soil showing bare everywhere, and being only here and there
sprinkled over with scanty bushes. Not a tree is to be seen
anywhere from the anchorage in the harbour though a wide
view is thence obtained of the coast of the Bay.

I had expected the far-famed Andes to show out as a splendid
range in the background; but these mountains, though they
look close to the coast on the map, he so far inland that one
has to search for them in the view from the Bay in order to see
them at all. Even then they are only to be discerned on a clear
day, and when seen they look small and not at all imposing.
The residents on the hill-slopes know where the higher peaks

544 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

lie, and point them out to strangers ; but there is nothing in
their appearance which would lead one to suspect their real
grandeur were one not acquainted with it beforehand.

The hill-sides around the town are scored by the straggling
tracks of Pack Mules following the crests of the ridges. The
earth being so little held together by vegetation is readily cut
into by the rain. An excessively heavy rain-storm occurred
just before we left Yalparaiso. The water poured off the hill-
sides, flooding the streets of the town, and carried so much earth
with it that it buried the lines of the tramway in some places
with two feet of soil, and the line had to be dug out.

One sees the lasso in full use even on the quay of Yalparaiso.
It is used by the herdsmen who have to assist in shipping the
cattle which they drive down from the country. I saw two
refractory animals thus thrown down with the lasso on the pave-
ment, and subdued, amongst a crowd of passers-by. It might
have been awkward for the crowd if the men had missed their
aim ; but the matter seemed perfectly safe in their hands.

Amongst the herdsmen was a youth of about 16 years. He
made a clumsy shot with his lasso, which interfered with that
of one of the other men. The man rode his horse full tilt at
that of the boy several times, driving in his spurs and making
his horse charge with all its force. The boy returned the charge
guiding his horse so that the two met always chest to chest, and
eventually the man finding he could not upset him gave up the
attempt. I was told that this charging of horses, which corre-
sponds exactly to charging at football, is commonly practised in
Chile. It was curious to see it going on in the populous street
of a large city.

I went to Santiago, the capital of Chile, and also made an
excursion to the summit of the Uspallata Pass, which is tra-
versed by one of the roads leading over the Andes to Mendoza
in the Argentine Eepublic. I started from the town of Sta.
Rosa de los Andes. The Pass has been described by Mr.
Darwin.*

Soon after leaving Sta. Eosa the hill-sides are seen to be
covered with the tall Candelabra-like Cactus (Cereus Quisco)

* " Journal of Researches," p. 330.

VALPARAISO. 545

It has a most strange appearance. Other forms of Cacti, each
adapted to the climate of a particular altitude, succeed one
another as the slope of the Andes is climbed ; those that lie
highest being dwarf forms scarcely rising above the ground.

On the Cereus Quisco grows a Mistletoe (Loranthus aphijllus).
This Mistletoe is most remarkable, because, like the plant on
which it is parasitic, it is entirely devoid of leaves. It is
extremely abundant, growing on nearly all the Cereus trees, and
is very conspicuous, because its short stems are of a bright pink
colour. I could not understand what it was at first, as it looked
like a pink inflorescence of some kind belonging to the Cactus.

Mr. Thiselton Dyer has examined the mass of parasitic tissue
of this Mistletoe which draws the nourishment from the interior
of the stem of the Cactus. He finds that having a soft and
succulent matter in which to ramify, the basal fibres of the para-
site form a large spongy mass of great size within the stem of
the Cactus, which curiously simulates a mass of mycelium, such
as produced by a parasitic fungus.

The fact that the Mistletoe growing on a leafless Cactus has
no leaves itself, reminded me of a remark which Sir William
MacArthur made to me in New South Wales. He told me
that he had noticed that the Mistletoes growing on the various
species of Gum-trees (Eucalyptus) simulated in their foliage that
of the tree on which they grew, so that from that reason they
were difficult sometimes to find. He pointed out to me examples.
The leaves of one Australian species of Mistletoe, Loranthus
celastroicles, which grows on species of Eucalyptus, are so like
those of the Eucalyptus itself, that the varieties of the species
have been termed L. eucalyptoicles and L. eucalyptifolius. The
Australian species of Loranthus have commonly two very
different forms of leaves, broad and narrow. In the case of
L. celastroicles the broad-leaved varieties grow on Banksias mostly,
and the narrow-leaved on Eucalypti ; but both forms occur on
species of Casuarina, which is a tree with narrow needle-like
leaves ; all gradations occur between the two varieties of this
Mistletoe.*

* " Flora Australiensis," Vol. Ill, pp. 388, 390. Bentham and Mtiller.

London, 1866.

N N

546 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

Lorantlms cuphyllus is the only Loranthus without leaves.
It grows only upon the Cereus Quisco. There are, however,
species of the genus Misodendron of the Mistletoe family, which
are leafless, and yet grow on trees with well-developed leaves,
such as the Fuegian Beech Trees.

Probably the leafless Mistletoe on the Cactus has got rid of
its leaves for the same reason as the Cactus, viz., to minimise
loss of moisture by evaporation in an arid climate. The Austra-
lian Mistletoes possibly are adapting their leaves to the forms of
those of the Gum-trees, in order to benefit the trees, and thus
themselves, by interfering as little as possible with the vegeta-
tion at the roots of their host. They can hardly be supposed
to gain by being inconspicuous, but must rather be certain to
lose thereby.

After accompanying me for about half the distance up the
Pass, my companion, Lieut. G. E. Bethell, had to return and left
me to proceed with a Chilian rustic guide. As a substitute a
travelling barber joined us and attached himself to me to my
great amusement. It was curious to meet with an equestrian
hair-cutter. He had his scissors slung to his saddle. He was a
most useful man to me, for, true to his trade, he persisted in
talking to me and telling me long stories, riding beside me all
day until at last I really began to understand part of what he
said, and made rapid progress in Spanish. His great wish was
that we should reach the new house that he was building, that I
might see it. At last he led me off the road in a turn of the
valley which was excessively barren-looking, like the rest of the
landscape at this altitude, 7,000 or 8,000 feet. I could see no
house, but he led me to a large square block of fallen rock. Here,
against the rock on one side, was a sort of pen enclosed on
three sides by a wall of roughly piled stones about a yard high
and by the rock on the other.

There was no roof of any kind, but this was the " casa." It
measured about six feet square. A hole excavated under the
rock at the back was the store-room. My friend motioned me
with most elaborate politeness to enter, and offered refreshment.
He pressed especially coffee, so I agreed to that, whereupon his
servant or assistant, a lad whom we found at the " new house,"

VALPARAISO. 547

produced, after a long delay, some hot water slightly tinged
brown by about half a dozen coffee beans.

The hair-cutter had turned a rill from the river over the dry
and dusty soil near by, and grass was beginning to spring. He
insisted on riding farther with me to an inn at the bottom of the
final steep climb to the summit of the Pass, and having slept a
night and waited at the inn till my return from the summit,
accompanied me back to his house. He ceased not to talk to me
all the time, and though I was becoming comparatively proficient
in the language, I got tired of him at last, and treacherously
gave him the slip whilst he rode off into a side valley to find
some wonderful plant for me of winch he only knew the
locality.

It pleased me very much to find amongst the Alpine vege-
tation, at 7,500 feet elevation, a plant of the genus Azorella
(A. trifoliata), a genus with which I had become so familiar in
the far-off Kerguelen's Land.* A plant, Chevreulia Thouarsii,
which occurs in the isolated and distant Tristan da Cunha, is
common all over Chile ; the species found on the continent being-
identical with that of the island.

Near the summit of the Pass the slopes are almost absolutely
barren.

The line of the track is strewn with the skeletons of mules
and cattle which have perished on the journey. Very large
numbers of cattle are constantly driven over the Pass, though it
is 12,500 feet in height, from the Argentine Eepublic, and the
Chilians, in exchange for this meat, supply corn to the Argen-
tines, which, however, of course goes round by sea.

The cattle can find little or no food on the journey over the
Pass, and many die on the way ; many others are obliged to be
killed, and men occupying houses on the route buy the disabled
ones, and make a profit by drying the meat.

At one spot an unfortunate mule had fallen from a zigzag path
down a steep slope, and lay at the bottom with one of its legs
broken, and the bone protruding for six inches. My guide went
up and kicked the poor beast, which was lying down, till it got
up on three legs, but only to see if it was of any good, and he

* See page 166.

N N 2

548 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

laughed at it without the slightest feeling of compassion. I
would have given a great deal to have been able to put it out of
its misery, but I did not want the man to see that I had no
pistol with me, and I was, therefore, obliged to let the animal

lie.

There was absolutely no food, yet the man said the mule
would live eight days. There were plenty of Condors wheeling
about in different directions, but they took not the slightest
notice of the beast. I was told that they never approach
until an animal is actually dead. The drover who took the
pack off the mule had, no doubt, never given a thought to
taking the trouble to kill the animal.

There were several patches of snow which were crossed by
the track close to the summit (Cumbre), but there was no snow
on the track at the actual summit itself.

I was told that when highway murders were committed
on the Pass, the traveller attacked was usually lassoed and
dragged off his horse, and some way away from the track ; the
assailant, as soon as his man is noosed, putting spurs to his
horse ; a very unpleasant mode of death. The lasso is, however,
used on human beings occasionally with far different intent.
I saw a young girl going out on foot to milk the cows, at a
farm at some distance down the Pass, playfully lasso a young
man with whom she had been flirting, catching him round the
neck as neatly as possible, just as he was going away.

I rode a horse on the journey whilst my guide rode a mule.
We made a detour on our return journey in order that I should
see a remarkable chasm in the rock called "El salto del soldado"
(The Soldier's Leap). We had to traverse an old and neglected
route for some distance. In one place the hill-side had slipped
somewhat, and the track was gone, but steep slopes of loose
stones had to be crossed between short lengths of the remaining
path. There was a deep drop into the river below. My horse
halted a second or two before each of these slopes, evidently well
knowing their treacherous nature and also the best way of
crossing them, and then went across with a quick run as fast as
he could make his way.

Just so I should have crossed them myself on foot; the

STRAITS OF MAGELLAN. 549

momentum helps one across the sliding stones, and there is no
time for stones to roll down from above. I certainly thought
that the horse managed his feet better than the mule on this oc-
casion, and as far as my experience goes, a horse that is thoroughly
accustomed to mountain work is better than a mule to ride in
difficult places, and is certainly quicker, though the mule has
secured the credit of being the better mountaineer.

Messier Channel and the Straits of Magellan, December 31st,
1815, to January 20th, isle— The ship entered the Gulf of Peiias
on the coast of Patagonia, south of the Chonos Archipelago, on
December 31st, and for a fortnight steamed through the won-
derful series of sounds or fjords into which the south-west
coast of South America has, like the coasts of British Columbia,
of Greenland, Norway, and other countries, been slowly engraved
by the prolonged action of glaciers. Such an indented coast-
line occurs only in those regions in high latitudes where there is
a constant precipitation of moisture, since glaciers can only be
fed, and perform the eroding work where there is an abundant
snowfall.*

The Western Patagonian fjords are very beautiful. The
route led through narrow channels, between successive ranges of
mountains, capped here and there by snow and glaciers, the
dwindled representatives of those that scooped out the main
features of the scenery. The fjords remind one somewhat of
those of Norway. They branch and send off offsets on either
hand perpetually. Thus, as these long sounds are traversed,
constant glimpses are obtained down the communicating
channels, which show themselves bounded by successions of
mountain ridges, fading gradually out of sight, one behind the
other in the distance.

In the upper part of the Messier Channel, near the Gulf of
Peiias, the mountains are covered from top to bottom by a dense
forest of small trees, and one of the chief peculiarities of the
scenery is caused by the fact that these forests come right down
to the sea-shore, and overhang the beds of mussels growing on
the rocks. The channels are full of Pur Seals, which were to be

* O. Peschel, " Neue Probleme der Vergleichenden Erdkunde." Leipzig,
Duncker und Humboldt, 1876. Die Fjordbildungen, s. 9.

« mriTTT-XTrtr-Ti "

550 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER.

seen progressing tlirough the water alongside the ship in troops,
by series of bounds, just like porpoises.*

The anchor was dropped every night, it being impossible to
proceed without daylight, because of the intricacy of the channel.
Every evening I went on shore at some wilcl harbour, to wade
through swamps and crawl through the dense undergrowth, in
pursuit of wild geese, ducks, snipes, and woodcocks. In some of
the harbours it was impossible to get away from the sea-shore,
so dense was the barrier of forest everywhere. The ground is
encumbered with prostrate trees and logs, which are overgrown
with the most delicate and beautiful ferns, mostly Hymeno-
phyllums, which thrive in the constantly moist atmosphere.

At one place we fired the forest. The fire spread rapidly for
miles, covering the mountains with clouds of smoke, and some-
what endangering Mr. J. J. Wild, one of the members of the
scientific staff, who was on shore alone. After an anxious hue-
and-cry he was found safe on a rocky promontory, and brought
back to the ship in one of the boats in triumph.

About Sandy Point there is more open country, and wide
stretches of grass-land, on which we found abundance of mush-
rooms. A curious accident happened at Port Churruca, in
Desolation Island. The ship's anchor was let go in a glassy
calm, and apparently the ship was safely anchored. A short
time later, however, a slight breeze sprung up, and the officer of
the watch found that the ship was drifting freely before it.
He had just time to let go another anchor and save the ship
from drifting on shore* which was a very short distance off in the
narrow fjord. It was found that the anchor, falling heavily on
the rocks when let go, had broken in two short off, so that the
remnant did not hold at all, a fact which had not been apparent
during the calm.

Many deserted huts of the Fuegians were seen at the various
harbours ; but to my great disappointment we met with no
natives themselves. Only one day, as we steamed along the
middle of the main Strait of Magellan, near the southernmost
point of America, Cape Frowarcl, in a bitterly cold blast, we saw
on the shore, in the distance, three fires, with their smoke

* See page 265.

STEAITS OF MAGELLAN. 551

streaming out before the gale, and we could make out through
the rain the forms of the natives around them.

At Sandy Point there were two Fuegian girls and a boy,
who had been picked up in a canoe by a Chilian war-vessel. I
was struck by the ruddy colour of the cheeks of the girls, which
closely resembles that of Japanese women, especially that of
many older ones. Two Fuegian men who belonged to a Mission
schooner at the Falkland Islands did not show any ruddy colour,
but were of a uniform light-yellowish brown.

The girls and the boy slept huddled together in a heap, and
curled up for warmth. The girls were photographed by the
" Challenger " photographer. They were very shy and suspicious,
and both put one of their fingers in their mouths during the
process, on three successive occasions, that being evidently with
them the natural mode of expressing shyness.

There were no Patagonians at the Sandy Point settlement at
the time of the ship's visit. We were told that they visit the set-
tlement at intervals to sell their Guanacho robes. When the tribe
arrives at a short distance from the settlement, a messenger is sent
forward to tell the Chilian Governor that the tribe is coming
on a certain day, and expects a salute to be fired. As they ap-
proach accordingly, a salute is fired from the fort, and they ride
in, making their horses caper, and showing off their horsemanship.

When they have stayed some time in the settlement, and
have sold their robes and spent the money, mostly in drink,
they send word that they are going, and require another salute,
and as everyone is very glad to get rid of them, and they will
not go without it, they are again saluted, and depart to hunt the
Guanaco a^ain.

After leaving Punta Arenas, we landed at Elizabeth Island,
which is without trees, but covered with grass, and is likely soon
to be occupied as a sheep-run. The island is the breeding-
place of large numbers of Wild Geese (Chloephaga Patagonicha).
The geese were very abundant, and a wild-goose-chase in Elizabeth
Island is a very different matter from one at home. When I
had shot nine geese I found that I had no light task before me
in carrying them to the boat at the end of the island, over
the soft and yielding soil. Goose-shooting in the Falkland

552 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

Islands similarly soon satiates the sportsman, who finds himself
early in the day with a heavier bag than he can stagger under.

The geese at Elizabeth Island showed some wariness, and
some little trouble had to be taken in order to get within shot of
them, unless they were met with in long grass. When on the
alert, they settled on the summits of the hillocks and ridges, in
order to have a wide view of the enemy. One had to creep up
under cover of the hill-slopes, and make a final rush forwards
towards the flock. The birds are startled by this, and it is some
time before they make up their minds to fly.

No doubt the wariness of these geese is due to their pro-
genitors having been hunted for generations by natives in old
times. Elizabeth Island is fringed with Kitchen-middens of
large extent, which are full of vast quantities of bones of the
Sea Lion (Otaria jubata). Mr. Murray excavated some of these
mounds, and found some stone arrow-heads and stone fishing-
net sinkers. The island was inhabited at the time of the early
Dutch Voyages.

Besides the middens there are plenty of small shallow
circular excavations with the thrown-out earth heaped around,
which mark the site of Fuegian huts. The human debris is
evidently of all ages, and I even found a sardine tin amongst it,
perhaps left there by Cunningham.

The geese at the Falkland Islands are far tamer than those
at Elizabeth Island, and seem not to understand a gun, though
they have been shot at now for a long period. The Falkland
Islands, however, were never inhabited by any savage race, and
the birds have not had time to learn. The other birds in
Magellan's Straits, which also occur at the Falklands, as for
example the Loggerhead Ducks, show the same contrast in their
wildness. They have been hunted for generations by the hungry
Fuegians.

The young wild geese at Elizabeth Island, whilst still covered
with black down, run amongst the grass with astonishing quick-
ness, and are as difficult to shoot as rabbits. It is no easy task
to catch them by running. A brood when met with separates,
every gosling running off in a different direction. The young-
birds dodge behind a tuft of grass, and squatting closely under

THE FALKLAND ISLANDS. 553

it are at once safe. It is quite impossible to find them, and a
brood of ten or twelve goslings, as large almost as full-grown
fowls, disappears as if by magic. The goslings can only be
caught by the pursuer keeping his eye on one bird only, and
running after it at the utmost possible speed. I had no idea
that goslings would be able to secure their safety so completely.
No doubt a terrier would find them one after another. They
are far better to eat than the full-grown geese.

The ship was anchored in about 16 successive harbours in
the passage through the long Patagonian Channels and Magel-
lan's Straits. The run across from the eastern mouth of the
Straits, to the eastern extremity of the Falkland Islands, con-
sumed only three days. The sea crossed over is extremely
shallow, varying from 50 to 20 and 110 fathoms only in depth.

For the Natural History of the Straits of Magellan, see R. O.
Cunningham, M.D., "Notes on the Natural History of the Straits of
Magellan." Edinburgh, 1871.

For Accounts of the Patagonians. G. C. Musters, E.N., " At Home
with the Patagonians." London, Murray, 1873.

The Falkland Islands, January 23rd to February *Jth, 1816. —

The ship reached Stanley Harbour in the Falkland Group, on
January 23rd. The Falklands are a treeless expanse of moor-
land and bog, and bare and barren rock. Though it was
summer, and the Islands are in about a corresponding latitude
to London, a bitterly cold hail-storm pelted in my face as I
was rowed to the shore. The islands are occupied as sheep and
cattle-runs, and since sheep are found to pay best, they are
supplanting the cattle, formerly so numerous, to a large extent.

The mutton is most excellent, but the supply is so far in
excess of the small demand, that the Falkland Island Company
have a large boiling-down establishment, where their sheep are
boiled down for tallow.

I rode with Lieut. Channer 60 miles across the large island,
on which the town of Stanley is situate, to Port Darwin, in
order to examine some reported coal-beds, at the request of the
Governor. The route lay over the dreary moorland, and wound and
turned about in order to avoid the treacherous bogs. A " Pass "
in the Falkland Islands means, not a practicable cleft in the

554 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

mountains, but a track by which it is possible to ride across a
bog. The horses born and bred in the island, know full well
when they are approaching dangerous ground, and tremble all
over when forced to step upon it.

At every ten miles or so a shepherd's cottage was met with.
Usually the shepherd was a Scotchman in the employ of the
Falkland Company. Otherwise the entire route was uninhabited.
Some of the shepherds are married. They seem well off and
were very hospitable. These Scotchmen have almost entirely
supplanted the " gauchos " from the mainland, who did all the
cattle work at the time of Darwin's visit to the islands. They
come out from home usually entirely unaccustomed to riding,
but very soon become most expert with the lasso and bolas, and
can ride and break the wildest horses. There were only two
Spanish gauchos in the employ of the Company at the time of
our visit.

The Company's shepherds are each allowed eight horses, a
fresh one for every day of the week, and a pack-horse. The
horses feed together on the moorland near the shepherd's cottage,
and keep together in a band though quite free. An old broken-
down mare, which cannot roam far, is usually kept with each band.

Generally, the mare is one in which the hoofs, as occurs
quite commonly in the Falklands from the softness of the soil,
are grown out and turned up, somewhat like ram's horns.*
Though the gauchos themselves are a thing of the past in the
Falklands, their Spanish terms for all matters connected with
cattle and horses survive, and are in full use among the Scotch
shepherds. Such a maimed animal as above described is accor-
dingly called a " Chapina " (chapina, a woman's clog). The band
of horses, which is called the " Tropija," never deserts the
" Chapina."

A man, after riding 30 or 40 miles and about to change
horses, merely takes the saddle off his horse, gives the animal's
back a rub with his fingers, to set the hair free where the saddle-
cloth pressed, and lets the horse go. The horse never fails to

* The hoofs of cattle in the islands grow out in a similar manner.
"Proc. Zool. Soc.," 1861, p. 44, 1869, p. 59. See also C. Darwin's "Journal
of Researches," p. 192.

THE FALKLAND ISLANDS. 555

return to its " tropija " and feeding-ground. We changed horses
several times on the route, since we were the guests of the Com-
pany, and were treated most hospitably. We always simply
turned our tired horses loose, to find their own way back for
20 miles or so.

An experienced guide is required, in order to traverse the
Falkland Island wastes and find the Passes. To a stranger,
every hill and mountain appears alike, and many persons have
lost their way and their lives on the moors. The most ex-
perienced "camp" men (Spanish campo) get lost sometimes,
especially when a thick fog comes on, and then they trust
entirely to their horses, which make their way when left to
themselves back to their accustomed feeding-ground.

Mr. Fell, the head man of the Company at Darwin Harbour,
told me that a band of horses will always stay with a mare that
has a foal. Mr. Darwin has described a degeneration in the
size and strength of the horses which have run wild in the
Falkland Islands,* ascribing the degeneration to the action of
the climate on successive generations. Mr. Fell, and other
persons brought in constant relation with the horses, hold the
opinion that it is only the wild horses, occupying a particular
district in the neighbourhood of Port Stanley, which are small
and pony -like.

Further, they believe that the reason why these particular wild
horses are small, is that they are sprung from a stock originally
inferior in size when imported. The wild horses which are
abundant in the large peninsula, known as Lafonia, were said to
be of full size and vigour, and to show no signs of degeneration,
and to be preferred for all purposes to those bred in domestica-
tion. I saw several of these horses which had been wild ones,
and rode one. They were not at all undersized. My guide
rode a sturdy pony, which he said was one of the smaller wild
breed. I give these opinions merely as a suggestion for further
inquiry.

Mr. Fell has watched the habits of the Wild Horses in Lafonia
closely. The strong and active horses each guard their own herd

* " Journal of Besearches," p. 192. "Animals and Plants under Do-
mestication," Vol. I.

556 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

of mares. They keep the closest watch over them, and if one
strays at all, drive her back into the herd by kicking her. The
younger horses live in herds apart, but the more vigorous ones are
always on the look-out to pick up a mare from the herds of the
older ones, and drive her off with them, and they sometimes
gather a few mares and hold them for a short time, till they are
recaptured from them. When they think they are strong
enough, they try the strength of the old horses in battle, and
eventually each old horse is beaten by some rival and displaced.
The fighting is done mainly with the tusks, and front to front,
not with the heels. Thus the most active and strongest males
are constantly selected naturally for the continuation of the
herds.

The wild horses, as well as others, are often broken in by
tying them with a raw hide halter to a post, and leaving them
for several days without food or water. After long ineffectual
struggles to break loose, the animals become convinced of the
absolute power over them of the halter, and in future become
cowed and docile directly a halter or lasso is over their heads.
The wild horses when broken in, are very tame and quiet to
ride.

I was astonished at the facility with which the Falkland
Island horses obey the rein. There is no necessity, as a rule, to
make them feel the bit at all, in order to turn them. Merely
laying the part of the reins close to the hand against that side
of the neck from which they are wanted to turn is sufficient.
Well-broken horses can be turned round and round in a circle
by this means, by a gentle touch on the neck only. Our horses
in England are certainly not half so well broken.

Our progress on our ride was mostly slow, because of the
bogginess of the ground, and it was dark by the time that we
reached the end of our 60 miles ride. Mr. Fell gave us an
opportunity of seeing an assembly of the herd of tame cattle
belonging to the Company in the part of Lafonia near Darwin
Harbour. The Company has imported some first-class Bulls of
the hornless polled breed.

The wild cattle in Lafonia will probably all be killed off in
order that sheep may be substituted. At present, the Company

THE FALKLAND ISLANDS. 557

pays men to kill these wild cattle for their hides. The cattle are
thrown by means of the lasso or bolas, and ham-strung, or " cut
down," as the term is, and then killed and skinned at leisure.
2,000 had been thus killed in Lafonia in the year of our visit.

It seems remarkable that such very different means of hand-
ling wild or half wild cattle should be adopted in different
countries, and that one method should not long ago have been
found the best. The bolas is used in the Argentine Eepublic
and the Falklands, but not, I believe, in Chile. The lasso is
always used with it. In California the lasso only is used, as
also in the Sandwich Islands, the inhabitants of which derive
their methods of cattle herding from the former country.

In Brazil the cattle, as I have described,* are brought into
subjection by being tailed ; the lasso is used, but not the bolas.
In Australia and New Zealand, neither of these appliances are
used, but only the stock-whip. An experienced owner of large
herds of cattle in Australia, tells me that he considers that these
various appliances are really not wanted, and that the great art in
driving cattle is to get them to move quite slowly, and never to
excite or terrify them, and that he can tell a good manager at
once by observing whether his cattle are quietly and easily
driven. There seem to be no differences in the condition of the
country in the various regions which should render the lasso or
bolas more necessary in some than in the others.

The bolas,t as is well-known, is an apparatus consisting of
heavy balls of stone, metal, or wood fastened at the ends of long
thongs of raw hide. In the Patagonian Ostrich bolas, only two
balls are used ; for cattle and horses, three, one ball being smaller
than the others. The three thongs are brought together at one
knot. The bolas is held by the smaller ball, and whirled round
the head, and then thrown so as to entangle the legs of the
animal aimed at.

* See pp. 99-101.

t Mr. Darwin's " Journal of Kesearches," pp. 44 and 111, in his
accounts of the bolas, calls it by this name as also other authors, Musters
included. A hunter, however, from whom I bought one at Sandy Point,
and also the Falkland Islanders, said the name was not bolas, but
" boleaderos," or some word closely similar, and they considered the word
bolas incorrect. Possibly the name has changed.

558 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

The boys at the Falkland Islands have invented a small
bolas in which the large knuckle-bones of cattle are used as the
larger balls, and a smaller bone from the foreleg, as the small
ball for the hand. They use the bone bolas for catching wild
geese, creeping up to a flock and throwing the bolas at the birds
on the wing as they rise. They constantly succeed in thus
entangling them, and bringing them to the ground, and
their mothers always send out their boys when they want a
sroose, so that the birds are seldom shot at around Darwin
Harbour.

Flocks of the geese were to be seen there feeding on the grass
close to the houses, looking just like farm-yard geese. The birds
take no notice of a gun, but I soon found that they were very
quick at seeing a bolas when I carried one, well-knowing that
they were going to be molested. I could not catch one with the
bone bolas, though I came very near it, and should have suc-
ceeded with a little practice. The bone bolas comes curiously
near that of the Esquimaux in structure. The Esquimaux bolas,
used also for catching birds, has more than three balls, and these
are made of ivory.

Near Darwin Harbour, I found some .Dipterous insects with
rudimentary wings, a species of Fly (Muscidce) and a species of
Gnat (Tipididoe), which are of especial interest because similar.
Qiptera incapable of flight, occur, as already described,* at
Kerguelen's Land, and the Fly at least appears to be of the same
genus as one of the Kerguelen Flies ; a genus which has been
hitherto found nowhere else but in Kerguelen's Land and
Marion Island. It is of importance to find further connections
between Fuegia and the distant Kerguelen's Land, the con-
nections between which regions in the matter of the flora, were
so long ago demonstrated by Sir Joseph Hooker.

The Fly has small rudiments of wings. It appears closely
allied to Amalopteryx maritima (Eaton) of Kerguelen's Land,
and corresponds closely to that insect in its habits. The flies
were found near Darwin Harbour, only on the sea-coast, in
hollows under overhanging slabs of the sandstone rocks, and
sheltering in crevices. They spring nimbly like fleas or small

* See pages 192-193.

THE FALKLAND ISLANDS. 559

grasshoppers, and are a little difficult to catch. They cannot
fly at all.

The Pev. H. C. Lory, late Colonial Chaplain in the Falkland
Islands, writes to me that these flies inhabit in immense numbers
dried matted seaweed which is to be found on the sea-beaches.
He says that they escape in hundreds from the seaweed masses
when they are broken up, and that the masses are full of the
chrysalises of the flies.

The Gnats which I found, also cannot fly, having even
smaller rudiments of wings than the flies. They were found
crawling on rocks, on the shore in sheltered places, and also on
the sunny sheltered face of a peat-bank, which formed the cattle
fence across the narrow neck of the promontory of Lafonia.
The gnats run quickly, and when in danger, draw up their legs
and drop amongst the grass in order to escape. A Gnat with
rudimentary wings, occurs also in Kerguelen's Land. Some
species of flies and gnats with rudimentary wings, are known in
Europe and elsewhere, and Prof. Westwood has shown me an
apterous fly which occurs in England (Borlorus apterns). I
found besides a wingless Beetle, and one also with perfect wings,
near Darwin Harbour.

Erom the head of Port Sussex, not far off, I obtained the
skeleton of a Ziphioid Whale, complete except the paddles
which had been dragged away tied to the ends of lassos, in
order to get the oil out of them. The skull was given to me by
Mr. John Bonner, a farmer in the neighbourhood. The Whale
measured exactly 14 feet in length. It ran on shore in accord-
ance with the usual unaccountable propensity of Ziphioid
Whales*

We lashed the skeleton on a pack-horse, by no means an
easy matter in the case of so unusual a load. We rode at a
good pace, but during the long ride the lashings were constantly
getting loose, and we had to dismount at least 30 times. We
led the first pack-horse, and hunted and drove along before us
the second for which we changed it; but night overtook us
before we reached Stanley with the skeleton, and we almost
lost our way near the end of the journey.

*■ See page 158.

560 A NATURALIST OX THE "CHALLENGER."

Many of the seamen living at Stanley constantly visit the
Straits of Magellan, and bring back with them very often
Fuegian bows and arrows for their children to play with.
The boys shoot at a mark with the stone-tipped arrows, and the
tips are soon broken off and lost. The stone arrow-heads thus
become scattered about the moorland anywhere near a habita-
tion, and before long they are sure to be picked up, being inde-
structible. It must then be remembered that they are not proofs
that the Falkland Islands were once inhabited by a savage race.
Difficulties of this kind are constantly occurring ; for example,
part of a New Zealand jade Mere has been found in Yorkshire ;
ancient Chinese Seals turn up in the ground in Ireland, and I
lately had a New Zealand fish-hook sent to me by a Canadian,
as found on the shores of a Canadian Lake and the work of North
American Indians.

I wished very much to taste the luxury which Darwin par-
took of when travelling, the Falklands meat roasted with the
hide on " Carne con cuero,"* but on my asking for it everyone
spoke of the practice of so cooking food with horror, as only fit
for savages and almost with as much disgust as if I had sug-
gested cannibalism. No doubt this notion has been fostered by
the cattle owners, because of the great value of the hides, which
are necessarily spoilt by the process.

Not far from Stanley Harbour there are rookeries of the
Magellan Jackass Penguin (Spheniscus Magdlanicus). The
birds make large and deep burrows in the peat banks on the
sea-shores, and large numbers make their burrows together, so
that the ground is hollowed out in all directions.

Eound the mouths of their burrows and on the even surface
of the banks, between the holes, the birds lay out pebbles which
they must carry up from the sea-shore for the purpose. The
pebbles are of various colours, and the birds seem to collect them
from curiosity, at least there appears to be no other explanation
of the fact.f The edges of the birds' bills are excessively sharp,
and one of them bit me as I was trying to secure it, and cut a
strip out of my finger as clean as if it had been done with a
razor.

* " Journal of Kesearches," p. 190. t See pages 156-159.

ASCENSION ISLAND. 561

Ascension Island. March 27th to April 3rd, 1816. — After a
stay of ten days at Monte Video, during which time was afforded
for a visit to Buenos Ayres, the ship reached Ascension Island on
March 27th. Land Crabs swarm all over this barren and parched
volcanic islet. They climb up to the very top of Green Moun-
tain, and the larger ones steal the young rabbits from their
holes and devour them. They all go down to the sea in the
breeding season.

It always seems strange to me to see Crabs walking about
at their ease high up in the mountains, although the occurrence
is common enough and not confined to the Tropics. In Japan a
Crab is to be met with walking about on the mountain high-
roads far inland, at a height of several thousand feet, as much at
home there as a beetle or a spider. Crabs of the same genus,
Telphusa, live inland on the borders of streams in Greece and
Italy.

The sea is usually so rough around Ascension that a sort of
crane is provided at the landing steps with a hanging rope, by
which one can swing oneself on shore from a boat when it is too
rough for the boat to come close to the steps.

Close to the Dockyard is the Turtle Pond, in which there
were over a hundred Turtles at the time of our visit. At the
side of the pond an enclosed area of sand is provided, in which
the Turtles dig great holes, large enough to bury themselves in,
laying their eggs at the bottom of them. Some Turtles were
still laying, but a good many lots of eggs were beginning to
hatch out.

The Turtle eggs have a flexible leathery shell, and are
rather smaller than a billiard ball, and of the same shape.
The fresh-laid egg is never quite full, so that there is always
a slight fold or wrinkle in the yielding shell, and the seamen
sometimes puzzle themselves by trying to squeeze the egg so as
to get the dint out, but it always forms in a fresh place notwith-
standing their efforts. When the eggs are near the time of
hatching they are perfectly filled out, the shell being tense,
no doubt from the development of small quantities of gas
within it.

The sand in which the eggs are Hatched does not feel warm

o o

562 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

to the hand, but rather, in the daytime at least, cool, and it is
always moist. I gathered several sets of eggs, placed them in
large vessels full of sand, and took them on board the ship,
thinking that I should easily succeed in hatching them arti-
ficially. I wished to obtain eggs in all stages of development.
I found, however, that all my eggs perished within a couple of
days. No doubt a certain definite amount of moisture must
necessarily be maintained in the sand as well as a certain con-
stant temperature in order to keep the eggs alive and develop
them. I exposed the sand in which my eggs were to the sun
in the daytime and covered it up at night.

I used to imagine, from what I had read, that Turtles' eggs
were hatched by the direct daily heating by the sun of the sand in
which they were buried. What appears to be the case is, how-
ever, that the eggs are buried at such a depth that the sand there
maintains a constant mean temperature, never hot and never cold.
The eggs of a species of Mound Bird (Megapocliiis) are hatched
under closely similar conditions in the Philippine Islands.*

The young Turtles fresh from the eggs are kept as pets by the
seamen at Ascension in buckets of sea- water. They eat chopped-
up raw meat ravenously, using their fore-fins to assist their beak-
like jaws in tearing the morsels. Turtle-meat is served out twice
a- week as rations to the inhabitants of Ascension, who are all
naval employes. The island is commanded by a captain, and is
treated by the Admiralty as a man-of-war, a sort of tender to
the " Flora," the Guardship stationed at the Cape of Good Hope,
to which the Ascension officers theoretically belong.

I paid a visit in the small steam-vessel which is employed
in collecting Turtles from the various bays of the island to
Boatswain-Bird Island, a breeding-place of various Sea Birds.
As we steamed along the shore of the main island large Flying
Gurnets (Dactylopterus) rose, scared by the vessel, and skimmed
rapidly away in front of the bows. I stood in the bows with
my gun and tried to shoot Flying Fish on the wing, a novel
experience, but quite without success. The flight was rapid
and the boat was in constant motion, pitching and rolling; no
doubt in calm weather the thing might be done.

* See page 403.

ASCENSION ISLAND. 563

Boatswain-Bird Island is a high rock separated from the
main island by a narrow channel. The sides of the rock are
precipitous, but some sailor had managed to climb up and fix a
rope at the summit, so that it hung down the cliff. The cliff
surface was covered with guano, hanging everywhere upon it in
large projecting masses and stalactite-like formations. We
clambered up the cliff by means of the rope, being half blinded
and choked by the guano dust on the way.

In holes on the sides of the cliff, burrowed in the accumulated
guano, nest two kinds of Tropic Birds (Phaethon cethereus and
P.flavirostris). In bracket-like nests, as at St. Paul's Bocks, fixed
against the lower parts of the cliffs, breeds a species of Noddy
(Anoits), and together with these birds, a beautiful small snow-
white Tern with black eyes (G-ygis Candida), called by the seamen
the White Noddy, to distinguish it from the Black Noddy.

The summit of the rock is flat, and the plateau is covered
with guano, in hollows on which nest the Booby (Ma leuco-
gaster) and a Gannet (S. piscatrix), and the Frigate Bird (Tachy-
petes aquila). The throat of the Frigate Bird hangs in the form
of a sort of pouch in front. This pouch is bare of feathers and
coloured of a brilliant vermilion, looking as if rubbed over with
some bright red powder. The bird is thus very handsome.

All the birds allowed themselves to be knocked over with
sticks on their nests or when near them on our first reaching
the plateau, but they soon became generally alarmed and took
to flight. The Frigate Birds were on the look out whenever the
Gannets were molested, and snatched the small fish winch they
disgorged, profiting thus by the general disaster. A single
" Wideawake," the name given to the Tern (Sterna fidiginosa),
which breeds in millions gregariously at "Wideawake fair" on
the main island, was found on the plateau. The bird was nest-
ing all alone amongst the Gannets for some reason or other.

It was striking to find breeding thus in the middle of the
Atlantic, on the top of a steep volcanic rock, the same
assemblage of birds which we had seen breeding together on
a coral island at sea-level off the north-east coast of Australia.
At this latter island, namely Eaine Island * there is a third

* See page 348.

0 0 2

564

A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

species of Gannet and no Gygis ; bnt a Frigate Bird, the same
Noddy, the same two Gannets, and the " Wideawake " breed
there together as at Ascension, and also one of the species of
" Tropic Birds " of Ascension.

After a halt at Porto Praya, and St. Vincent Cape Verde
Islands, the ship was steered for England, bnt being long
delayed by contrary winds, had to put into Vigo for more
coals before it reached the Channel, and anchored at Spithead
in the evening of May 24th, 1876.

565

CHAPTER XXII.

LIFE ON THE OCEAN" SUEFACE AND IN THE DEEP
SEA. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY OF THE SHIP.
CONCLUSION.

Plants of the Ocean Surface. Fauna of the Sargasso Sea. Protective
Colouring of Pelagic Animals. Variety of Pelagic Animals. Flight
of the Albatross. Flight of Flying-fish. A Pelagic Insect. Pela-
gonemertes described. Phosphorescence of Pelagic Animals. Giant
Pyrosoma. Uncertainty as to Range in Depth of Pelagic Animals.
The Depth of the Oceans and Depression on the Earth's Surface.
Deep-Sea Dredging. Vast Pressure existing in the Deep Sea. Ex-
periment showing this made by Mr. Buchanan. Conditions under
which Life Exists in the Deep Sea. Range of Plants in Depths.
Food of Deep-Sea Animals. Experiment on Rate of Sinking of a
Salpa. Vegetable and Animal Debris Dredged from Great Depths.
The Deep Sea, a High Road for Distribution of Animals. Deep-
Sea Faunas and Alpine Floras Compared. Nature of Deep-Sea
Fauna a source of Disappointment. Remarkable Deep-Sea Ascidian.
Localities specially Rich in Deep-Sea Forms. Relations of Deep-Sea
Animals to One Another. Phosphorescent Light in the Deep-Sea.
Colours of Deep-Sea Animals. Cockroaches, Moths, Mosquitos,
House-flies, Crickets, Centipedes and Rats on board the " Challenger."
Plants on Board the Ship. Pet Parrot, Cassowary, Ostriches,
Tortoises, Spiders, Fur-Seal, and Goat on Board. Adaptation to Sea
Life. Smallness of the Earth's Surface. Slow Rate of Travelling.
Man and possibly Protoplasm existent on the Earth alone. Necessity
for Immediate Scientific Investigation of Oceanic Islands.

Plants and Animals of the Ocean Surface. — The three-fourths
of the surface of the earth which is covered with sea is thickly
tenanted by its own peculiar forms of vegetable and animal
life. These forms of life are termed " Pelagic," to distinguish
them from the Marine animals and plants which inhabit the
shores and sea-bottoms ; they inhabit the surface waters of the
open ocean and reach the shores only when washed thither
accidentally by the waves and currents. Some of these forms,

566 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

such as the Pteropods, Ctenaphora and SiphonopTwra, belong to
groups peculiar to the sea surface, and have, no doubt, a most
ancient connection with it, whilst others are forms, the more
immediate progenitors of which lived a terrestrial or littoral
existence, and which, having taken to Pelagic habits, have become
modified only in less important particulars of their structure
to suit their new habits of life.

The surface water of the open ocean is full of vegetable life.
Diatoms are to be found with the surface net everywhere, and
in high northern and southern latitudes* they abound extremely,
so as to colour the ice with their debris, change the tint of the
water, fill the towing net up with slimy masses and cover the
deep-sea bottom with a silicious deposit of their skeletons.

In tropical seas, other lowly organized algae especially
abound-; mainly Oscillator ice, of the genus Trichodesmium. These
algae occur in the water as small brown faggots of minute
threads, resembling, as Mr. Berkeley says, minute fragments of
chopped hay. Together with these forms others often occur in
which the threads are gathered into small globular masses
with the ends of the threads all directed outwards. When
tracts of the sea are passed through, which are full of this
Trichodesmium, the water lighted up by sunlight, when looked
down into, appears as if full of small particles of mica, or some
such substance, so strongly is the light reflected from the minute
bundles of the algae.

We met with this alga in greatest abundance in the Arafura
Sea, between Torres Straits and the Am Islands. Here it was at
first encountered discolouring the sea-surface in bands and
streaks ; as the ship moved farther on, it became thicker, and at
length the whole sea, far and wide, was discoloured with it. It
remained still, however, denser in long streaks, and within these
again it was massed in small patches. There was a strong smell
from these patches, as from a pond covered with vegetation. So
abundant is Trichodesmium in some seas, that one of the explana-
tions of the name of the Eecl Sea is that the term was derived
from the discolouration of the water by vast quantities of
Trichodesmium Erythrccum.

* See page 249.

LIFE ON THE OCEAN SURFACE. 567

On the voyage from Ternate to the Philippine Islands, the
sea was again seen to be full of minute algae. In this case there
were several other forms beside Trichodesmium, and they were
embedded together in small masses of a jelly-like substance,
which also contained Diatoms. The water was perfectly full of
these masses, and tinted by them of a light brownish colour.

Besides these smaller algae living in the open ocean, there are
abundance of several species of larger seaweeds which are
Pelagic in habit. The Gulf Weed, Sargasmm bacciferum, of the
Sargasso Sea in the Atlantic, is well-known. It is brown when
dried or preserved, but when living is of a very bright yellow
colour, which contrasts pleasingly with the deep blue of the
open Atlantic. Another seaweed (Fucus vesimlosus) is to be
found also living free in the Atlantic, and the Giant Kelp
(Macrocystispirifera), in the floating condition, ranges over a wide
belt of the Southern Ocean, as proved by Sir Joseph Hooker*

All these seaweeds grow attached to rocks on various shores
as well as free, but they all produce spores, only when attached.
The Pelagic varieties multiply only by simple growth and sub-
division. A wide area covered with seaweeds corresponding to
the Sargasso Sea occurs in the North Pacific Ocean.

Were it not for the existence of this vast Pelagic vegetation
the Pelagic fauna would be but a scanty one, since the debris
derived from the land could only support a small amount of
animals. Plants are as necessary in the open sea as on land to
form the starting-point of the organic cycle by building up those
compounds required by animals as food. The algae, though brown
in appearance, contain and build up Chlorophyll, the same green
colouring matter as that which tinges the leaves of our trees and
plants on land, and which is now the only starting-point and
foundation-stone of life.

The Sargasso Sea has its own fauna of animals specially
adapted to life amongst the Gulf Weed. Amongst these there is
a small fish, Antennarms, allied to the Angler, which has long
arm-like fore-fins with which it clings on to the bunches of
Weed. The fish makes a nest of the Weed, binding together a
globular mass of it, as big as a Dutch cheese, by means of long
* " Flora Antarctica," Vol. I, pp. 464-465.

568 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

sticky gelatinous strings, which it forms for the purpose. In
the centre of the nest are deposited the eggs.

The Weed is much encrusted by a Bryozoon (Membranipora),
which makes conspicuous white patches upon its surface.
Numbers of the detached air-vessels of the Weed are to be seen
floating about amongst the living Weed-beds, coated entirely
with the white Membranipora, and they look at first like small
globular Pelagic animals.

All the inhabitants of the Gulf Weed are most remarkably
coloured, for purposes of protection and concealment, exactly like
the Weed itself. The Shrimps and Crabs which swarm in the
Weed are of exactly the same shade of yellow as the Weed, and
have white markings upon their bodies to represent the patches of
Membmnipora. The largest shrimp occurring has a dark-brown
colour with brilliant- white sharply defined areas upon its surface,
thus closely resembling the older darker-coloured pieces of Weed,
which are also most thickly covered with Membranipora.

The small fish (Antennarius) is in the same way coloured
Weed-colour with white spots. Even a Planarian worm, which
lives in the Weed, is similarly yellow-coloured, and also a Mollusc
(Scyllcea pelagica). The white patches on some of the Crabs, no
doubt, represent also, to some extent, the white shells of
Barnacles, though these are not very abundant in the Weed. A
small Crab, Nautilograpsns minutus, which varies very much in
colour, very abundant amongst the Weed, is constantly to be
found also in large numbers hanging on to floating logs and
similar objects elsewhere, and in these cases the white patches
on its body correspond closely with the barnacles by which the
logs are covered. These little crabs vary extremely in the
arrangement and forms of the white patterns on their backs,
and we found a number of them once (I believe of the same
species) which were clinging to the floats of the blue-shelled
Pelagic Mollusc lanthina, and these were all coloured, for con-
cealment, of a corresponding blue.

Pelagic animals generally seem to be either colourless or
specially coloured, with a view to protection from enemies both
above and below the surface of the water. Probably the blue
colour of lanthina and Velella is protective as resembling that

LIFE ON THE OCEAN SURFACE. 569

of the ocean water. Velella has serious enemies in the oceanic
birds and in turtles. We caught a small turtle (Chelone
imbricata) which had its stomach full of Velellas. There
are numerous other Pelagic animals thus coloured blue for
protection, such as the Mollusc Glaums, Porpita allied to
Velella, and some Salpce in which the nucleus is blue. There
are also blue Medusa?.

The dark red-brown colour of the nucleus of most Salpce is
probably an imitation of that of floating seaweed, and it occurs
in several other Pelagic animals, as, for example, Pelagonemertes.
The extraordinary transparency of most Pelagic animals is, no
doubt, a protective contrivance. In both Salpa and Pelagone-
mertes, above referred to, almost the entire body, with the
exception of the smaller parts coloured brown, as described, are
colourless and transparent, like glass. It is extremely difficult
to see these transparent animals, when one attempts to collect
them from a boat.

Almost all classes of land or shore animals seem to have
contributed to the Pelagic fauna forms which have become in
most cases extremely modified to suit their changed mode of
existence. Amongst Mammals there are the Whales and Por-
poises, the ancestors of which, no doubt, long after they had
deserted the land and had taken to a Pelagic existence, came
on shore regularly, like the Seal, at certain seasons to breed, but
at length acquired the power of even rearing their young in the
open sea.

Amongst birds the Petrels are Pelagic in habit, the largest
amongst them being the Albatross. Of the various kinds of
Petrels we necessarily saw a great deal. They were our con-
stant companions in the Southern Ocean, following the ship day
after day, dropping behind at night to roost on the water and
tracing the ship up again in the early morning by the trail of
debris left in its wake.

The Oceanic Petrels have reduced the science of flight to
the condition of a fine art. The flight of the Albatross has
always excited wonder and admiration, nevertheless, some of the
smaller Petrels fly quite as well. There are almost all gradations
to be observed in the powers of flight of different birds, in the

570 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

various stages of perfection in the shaping of the wings, and the
skill of the use of them shown by the birds. Eefinement in the
art of the use of the wings by birds seems to run in two different
directions. The flight of the Albatross, regarded as the per-
fection of one mode, the soaring method, performed by aid of
great length of wing, may be contrasted with that of the
Humming Bird, equally perfect in its way and far more rapid,
but performed by the use of short wings and excessively rapid
motion of them.

The movement of the Albatross may be compared to that of
a skilful skater on the outside edge ; the Humming Bird's flight
is just like that of an insect. The Albatross ekes out to the
utmost the momentum derived from a few powerful strokes, and
uses it up slowly in gliding, making all possible use at the same
time of the force of the wind.

I believe that Albatrosses move their wings much oftener
than is suspected. They often have the appearance of soaring
for long periods after a ship without flapping their wings at all,
but if they be very closely watched, very short but extremely
quick motions of the wings may be detected. The appearance
is rather as if the body of the bird dropped a very short distance
and rose again. The movements cannot be seen at all unless
the bird is exactly on a level with the eye. A very quick
stroke, carried even through a very short arc, can of course
supply a large store of fresh momentum. In perfectly calm
weather, Albatrosses flap heavily.

The Great White Albatrosses which are seen behind ships, are
usually by no means beautiful objects. The long wings look
far too long for the body, and being so narrow, the body looks
heavy and out of proportion to them. Further, five out of six
of the birds seen are young ones, in immature brown plumage,
and look dirty and draggled. The old birds when in their best
breeding plumage, as seen on their nests, are handsome enough.

Whilst on the subject of flight, I would say a few words
about the flight of the Flying-fish. Dr. Mobius has lately pro-
duced an elaborate paper* on the much vexed question as to

* K. Mobius, Die Bewegungen der fliegenden Fisclie durch die Luft
z. fur. Wiss. Zool. 1878, s. 343.

LIFE OX THE OCEAN SURFACE. 571

whether Flying-fish move their wings in flight or not, and after
examination of the muscular apparatus, and watching the living
fish, has come to the conclusion that they do not do so at all.
There are two widely different genera of fish, which have deve-
loped long wing-like fins for support in progress through the
air, the ordinary Flying-fish, the various species of Exoccetus
allied to the Gar-fish, and the Flying Gurnets, species of the
genus Dactylopterus.

I have never seen any species of Exoccetus flap its wings at
all during its flight. These fish merely make a bound from the
water, and skim supported by their extended fins, the tips of
which meanwhile quiver in the air somewhat occasionally, from
the action of air-currents against them, and sometimes from the
shifting a little of their inclination by the fish.

I believe, however, that I cannot be mistaken in my convic-
tion, that I have distinctly seen species of Flying Gurnets move
their wings rapidly during their flight. I noticed the pheno-
menon especially in the case of a small species of Dactylopterus
with beautifully coloured wings, which inhabits the Sargasso Sea.
Whilst out in a boat collecting animals amongst the Gulf Weed,
these small Flying Gurnets were constantly startled by the boat
and flew away before it, and as they did so, appeared to me to
buzz their wings very rapidly.

Their mode of flight seemed to me to be closely similar to
that of many forms of Grasshoppers, which cannot fly for any
great distance, but raise themselves from the ground with a
spring, and eking out their momentum as much as they can by
buzzing their wings, fall to the ground after a short flight.

I watched these little Flying-fish fly along before the boat, at
a height of about a foot above the water, for distances of 15 or
20 yards, and I chased them and caught one or two with a hand
net amongst the Weed. Dr. Mobius who similarly watched the
flight of a species of Flying Gurnet maintains that neither forms of
Flying-fish flap their wings at all during flight. I do not consider
the question as yet set at rest. Of course no Flying-fish can raise
themselves in the air at all by means of their wings alone.

There are even Pelagic insects. One of these (Haldbates)
was constantly caught during our voyage in the towing net in

572 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

the open ocean. The Atlantic species differs from the Pacific
one. The insect is one of the Bug family, with a small round
wingless body and long legs, and is black coloured. It is closely
allied to the long-legged insects (Gerrys) which are so commonly
to be seen resting on the surface of ponds and ditches in England,
moving along by a series of jerks, and casting curious looking
shadows on the bottoms of shallows when the sun is overhead.
The Ralobates lives entirely at sea, and carries its eggs about
attached to its body.

Most fish live about the coasts, and comparatively few are
met with far away from land, but there are regular Pelagic fish.
There are Pelagic Mollusca of all kinds, including perfectly
transparent Cuttle-fish, transparent Pelagic Crustaceans, trans-
parent Pelagic Annelids, and Pelagic Planarian worms.

There are even Pelagic Sea Anemones (Nautactis and its
allies) which have their bases, by means of which shore-inhabit-
ing Sea Anemones cling to the rocks, so modified as to form
chambers containing air, and thus acting as floats. Many Pelagic
animals form highly complex colonies, which float about in the
surface water, combined in one mass. Such are Chain-Salpse
and Pyrosoma. In some of these compound organisms, such as
the Siphonophora, there is a complex combination of variously
modified zooids, with a complex division of labour amongst the
members composing the colony, just as amongst the closely allied
Stylastericlce. The Siphonophora like the Stylastericlce are Hy-
drozoa, but the compound organisms they form, are soft, hyaline,
and free-swimming, whilst the stocks formed by the Stylasteridce
are stony, hard, opaque, and firmly rooted to the sea bottom.

I have described a Land Nemertine worm,* which exists in
Bermuda. Nemertines however, though like Planarians normally
shore inhabiting animals, have adapted themselves not only to
terrestrial, but also to Pelagic existence. One of the most
remarkable animals discovered by the " Challenger " Expedition,
is a Pelagic Nemertine, which I have called Pelagonemertes
Rollestoni, after my friend Prof. Eolleston of Oxford.

The body of the animal is leaf-shaped and gelatinous, and
perfectly transparent, with the exception of the digestive tract,

* See page 27.

LIFE ON THE OCEAN SURFACE.

573

which is branched as in Planarians,* and is of a burnt-sienna
colour. The worm is provided with a proboscis like that of
other Nemertines, which may be compared with that shown in
the figure of the Land Nemertine, but it is not armed with
stylets as in the latter animal. Pelagonemertes is devoid of eyes
and apparently of any other special sense organs. It constitutes
a special family of Nemertines, the Pelagonemerticlai.]

PELAGONEMERTES ROLLESTONI.

The branched digestive tract is shaded dark ; behind its central tube is seen the wide sac of the
proboscis. The proboscis is seen at the upper extremity of the body, partly protruded.
Beneath it is the mouth, with a folded opening shaded dark. On either side of the mouth are
the nervous ganglia, giving off each a long nerve tract which passes to the extremity of the
body. Just exterior to the nerve tracts on each side is seen a row of ovaries.

The smaller figure shows the proboscis sheath and coiled proboscis, as seen from the hinder
surface of the animal.

* Prof. Giard has lately described a gigantic Nemertine (Avenardia
Priei) a yard and a half in length, which has a similarly ramified intestine,
otherwise this arrangement does not occur amongst Nemertians. Ann.
and Mag. Nat. Hist., Sep., 1878.

t For a detailed description of Pelagonemertes, »ee H. N. Moseley,
" On Pelagonemertes Eollestoni." Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., March, 1875 ;
Ibid., Dec. 1875.

574 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

Most important to the student of deep-sea phenomena, are
the Foraminifera with calcareous shells, covered with long
delicate tubular calcareous spines, such as Globigcrina and its
allies, which float everywhere on the surface, and the dead shells
of which form the vast calcareous deposits on the deep sea
bottom of Globigerina mud.

At night, the Pelagic animals render themselves conspicuous
by their phosphorescence. The kind of 'light emitted, and the
manner of its appearance, varies according to the nature of the
animal causing it. Sometimes the sea far and wide, as far as
the eye can see, is lighted up with sheets of a curious weird-look-
ing light, and wherever the water breaks a little on the surface
before the breeze, the white foam is brilliantly illuminated.
This particular kind of illumination is due to Noctiluca. One
night, when we were between the Cape Verde Islands and
St. Paul's Ptocks, the sea was thus illuminated by myriads of
Noctiluca and the lower sails of the ship were seen to be dis-
tinctly lighted up by the light given off from the broken water
thrown up by the hull of the vessel.

At other times, the water where disturbed is seen to be full
of small luminous scintillating specks. This is the commonest
form of phosphorescence, and is due to various small animals,
principally small Crustacea, which give out their light thus by
flashes. Some Crustacea certainly derive their phosphorescence
from containing in their stomachs phosphorescent food, and
their excrement is phosphorescent, as first pointed out to me
by my friend, Captain Tupman, E.M.A. When large fish, or
porpoises or penguins, dash through water full of luminous
Crustaceans or Noctiluca, their bodies are brilliantly lit up, and
their track marked as a trail of light.

The most beautiful kind of phosphorescence is however that
of the Ascidian colony Pyrosoma. This, when stimulated by a
touch, or shake, or swirl of the water, gives out a bright globe of
blueish light, which lasts for several seconds, as the animal drifts
past several feet beneath the surface and then suddenly goes out.

A giant Pyrosoma was caught by us in the deep-sea trawl.
It was like a great sac, with its walls of jelly about an inch in
thickness. It was four feet in length, and ten inches in dia-

LIFE ON THE OCEAN SURFACE. 575

meter. When a Pyrosoma is stimulated by having its surface
touched, the phosphorescent light breaks out at first at the spot
stimulated, and then spreads over the surface of the colony as
the stimulus is transmitted to the surrounding animals. I
wrote my name with my finger on the surface of the giant
Pyrosoma, as it lay on deck in a tub at night, and my name
came out in a few seconds in letters of fire.

Pelagic animals range through a considerable depth of water,
near the surface of the sea, ascending to the surface at times,
especially at night when safe from enemies, and again descend-
ing. It is quite uncertain to what depth they extend their
rano-e, and whether there is a zone of water intermediate between
that near the bottom and that near the surface, which is devoid
or nearly devoid of life, as is believed by Sir Wyville Thomson
to be probably the case.

The trawl net used on board the "Challenger" swept, in
going down to the deep-sea bottom and in coming up, the entire
depth of the sea, and animals were constantly being found in the
net, about which it was quite uncertain as to what depth they
came from. Amongst these were, for example, some Medusae,
which have been found by Prof. Haeckel to be of peculiar
structure, and which may possibly be deep-sea forms ; they
may, however, also have come from a few fathoms depth only.

A net of some kind is required to settle this question which
shall be capable of being sent down completely closed to any
required depth, then opened and towed for some time, and then
again closed before it is raised. It is by no means an easy
matter to devise such a net which will be practically available.
There are numbers of animals, fish, Medusae, and Actinias for
example, which are found in the deep-sea trawl, and about which
it is a matter of speculation only as to the depth from which
they came.

Mr. Murray hit upon the expedient of using the ordinary
towing net at considerable depths* and with great success, since

* A. Baur was, I believe, the first to use the towing-net at considerable
depths. " Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte der Synapta digitata." Verhandl.
der K.L.C.D. Akad. 1864. Mr. Murray, however, invented the method
independently.

576 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER.

he constantly obtained large catches of Pelagic animals, when
very few were obtainable at the surface.

Pelagic animals are most widely- spread, closely similar forms
occurring in widely distant oceans. In this particular, the
Pelagic fauna resembles that of the deep sea. In the case of
the sea surface winds and currents are present both to aid or
limit the range of species, and the variety of climate acts
as a barrier. In the deep sea all these forms of restriction are,
however, absent.

The Deep sea and its Fauna. — I have above briefly described
the vegetation and fauna of the ocean surface, because, did these
not exist, life would be impossible, or only extremely scanty, in
the deep-sea bottom. Before referring to the fauna of the deep
sea, it will be well to consider briefly the conditions under which

it exists.

If a globe, 40 feet in diameter, be taken to represent the
earth, this will be on the scale of 1 foot to 200 miles, or 1 inch
to 16f miles, or 88,000 feet.* Thus on such a globe the
highest mountain and the deepest sea would be on true propor-
tional scale represented severally by an elevation or depression
of }rd of an inch. Were the land surfaces and sea beds sculp-
tured in due proportion on the face of this globe, the surface
would at a little distance hardly appear roughened, so insig-
nificant is the altitude of the highest mountains and the depth
of even the deepest seas in proportion with the dimensions of
the earth itself. The oceans in relation to their superficial area
are as shallow as a sheet of water one hundred yards in diameter,
and only an inch in depth, t

We are apt to form an erroneous impression as to the actual
shapes and distributions of the elevations and depressions on the
earth's surface, because only the very tops of the elevations stand
above water. The outlines of the various continents and islands
with which we are familiar on maps, are merely lines
marking the height to which the water reaches up. A very

* Lieut. Gen. E. Strachey, E.E., F.R.S., "Lecture on Scientific
Geography." Proc. Geogr. Soc, 1877, p. 191.

t James Croll, " Climate and Time," p. 135. • London, Daldy & Co.,
1875.

LIFE IN THE DEEP SEA. 577

small proportion of the elevated masses projects above water,
hence from an ordinary map we gain no truer impression of the
form of the sculpturing of the surface of the earth itself than we
should of the shape of a range of mountains if we viewed it when
all but its summits were hidden by a flood.

So small a proportion does the mass of dry land elevated
above sea-level bear to the hollows on the earth's surface beneath
this level, that the cavities now occupied by the sea would con-
tain three times the volume of the earth existing above the sea
surface. If the surface of the land and the sea bottom were
brought to a complete level, the waters of the sea covering its
even face would still have a depth of about 1,700 fathoms, being
reduced in depth by the process only about 800 fathoms *

We should obtain a more correct idea of what are the real
elevations and what the depressions on the earth's surface, if we
drew on the map or globe a contour line marking the level at
which the mass of the earth raised above this line is just equal
to the excavations beneath it, and would just fill up these hollows
if the surface of the earth were rendered even and smooth.

Although the depth of the ocean is so small in proportion to
the vastness of its expanse, the depth is, nevertheless, so great
as to be difficult of adequate realisation. The greatest depth as
yet ascertained by sounding occurs, as will be seen from the map
at the commencement of this work, in the North West Pacific
Ocean ; it amounts to about five miles and a quarter.

In order to realize such a depth, the reader should think of a
spot distant several miles from his actual position, and then
attempt to project the distant point downwards, until it lies
vertically beneath him. The average depth of the ocean between
lats. 60° K and 60° S.f is about three miles or 2,500 fathoms.
The great depth of five miles occurs only exceptionally over
very small areas.

The vastness of the depth of the Ocean was constantly
brought home to us on board the " Challenger " by the tedious

* O. Peschel, " Neue Probleme der Vergleichenden Erdkunde." Leipzig,
1876, s. 82.

t J. J. Wild, " Thalassa," pp. 14-15. London, Marens Ward & Co.,
1877.

P P

578 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

length of time required for the operations of sounding and
dredging in it. When the heavy sounding weight is dropped
overboard, with the line attached, it takes about an hour and a
quarter to fall to the depth of 4,500 fathoms, and thirty-five
minutes to reach the bottom in the average depth of 2,500
fathoms.

The winding in of the line again, is a much slower process.
It used to take us all day to dredge or trawl in any considerable
depth, and the net usually was got in only at nightfall, which
was a serious inconvenience, since we could not then, in the
absence of daylight, make with success the necessary examina-
tions of the structure of perishable animals.

The ship, when deep-sea operations were going on, used to lie
rolling about all day, drifting along with the wind, and dragging
the dredge over the bottom. From daybreak to night the
winding-in engine was heard grinding away with a painful noise,
as the sounding-line and thermometers were being reeled in.

At last, in the afternoon, the dredge-rope was placed on the
drum, and wound in for three or four hours, sometimes longer.
Often the rope or net, heavily weighted with mud, hung on the
bottom, and there was great excitement as the strain gradually
increased on the line. On several occasions the rope broke, and
the end disappeared overboard ; three or four miles of rope and
the dredge being thus lost.

At first, when the dredge came up, every man and boy in the
ship who could possibly slip away, crowded round it, to see what
had been fished up. Gradually, as the novelty of the thing
wore off, the crowd became smaller and smaller, until at last
only the scientific staff, and usually Staff Surgeon Crosbie, and
perhaps one or two other officers besides the one on duty, awaited
the arrival of the net on the dredging bridge, and as the same
tedious animals kept appearing from the depths in all parts of
the world, the ardour of the scientific staff even, abated some-
what, and on some occasions the members were not all present
at the critical moment, especially when this occurred in the
middle of dinner-time, as it had an unfortunate propensity of
doing. It is possible even for a naturalist to get weary even of
deep-sea dredging. Sir Wyville Thomson's enthusiasm never

LIFE IN THE DEEP SEA. 579

flagged, and I do not think lie ever missed the arrival of the
net at the surface.

Often when the dredge or trawl appeared, there was nothing
in it at all, and then frequently a somewhat warm debate ensued
between the members of the scientific staff and the naval officers
as to whether the instrument had ever been on the bottom or no,
the scientific view being that it had not.

Sometimes there would be only a bright red Shrimp in the
net ; and this fact, on the one side, would be held as proof that
the bottom had been reached, whilst, on the other, it was main-
tained that the Shrimp probably inhabited a region lying at some
distance above the bottom. The sledge irons of the trawl-net
were carefully examined as evidence in the matter, to test
whether they had been polished by friction on the bottom or
no, or whether they had any mud adhering to them. In future
dredging operations, it would be well to have a small cup with
a valve to it attached to the dredge or trawl, so that it shall
always retain a little of the bottom, and prevent the possibility
of the occurrence of such doubts.

The conditions under which life exists in the deep sea, are very
remarkable. The pressure exerted by the water at great depths
is enormous, and almost beyond comprehension. It amounts
' roughly to a ton weight on the square inch for every 1,000
fathoms of depth, so that at the depth of 2,500 fathoms, there is
a pressure of two tons and a-half per square inch of surface, which
may be contrasted with the 15 pounds per square inch pressure
to which we are accustomed at the level of the sea surface.

An experiment made by Mr. Buchanan enabled us to realize
the vastness of the deep-sea pressure more fully than any other
facts. Mr. Buchanan hermetically sealed up at both ends, a
thick glass tube full of air, several inches in length. He
wrapped this sealed tube, in flannel, and placed it, so wrapped
up, in a wide copper tube, which was one of those used to
protect the deep-sea thermometers when sent down with the
sounding apparatus.

This copper tube was closed by a lid fitting loosely, and with
holes in it, and the copper bottom of the tube similarly had
holes bored through it. The water thus had very free access to

p p 2

580 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

the interior of the tube when it was lowered into the sea, and
the tube was necessarily constructed with that object in view, in
order that in its ordinary use the water should freely reach the
contained thermometer.

The copper case containing the sealed glass tube was sent
down to a depth of 2,000 fathoms, and drawn up again. It was
then found that the copper wall of the case was bulged and
bent inwards opposite the place where the glass tube lay, just as
if it had been crumpled inwards by being violently squeezed.
The glass tube itself, within its flannel wrapper, was found when
withdrawn, reduced to a fine powder, like snow almost.

What had happened was that the sealed glass tube, when
sinking to gradually increasing depths, had held out long against
the pressure, but this at last had become too great for the glass
to sustain, and the tube had suddenly given way and been
crushed in the violence of the action to a fine powder. So
violent and rapid had been the collapse that the water had
not had time to rush in by means of the holes at both ends
of the- copper cylinder, and thus fill the empty space left behind
by the collapse of the glass tube, but had instead crushed in
the copper wall, and brought about equilibrium in that manner.

The process is exactly the converse of an explosion, and is
termed by Sir Wyville Thomson an " implosion." Gunpowder
exploded in the centre of a similar copper tube would in a
corresponding manner, have bulged the sides of the tube out-
wards, notwithstanding the existence of the openings at its ends.

Marine animals, no doubt, easily accommodate themselves to
these enormous pressures in the deep sea. Their tissues being
entirely permeated by fluids, the pressure has little or no effect
upon them. Moreover amongst all the various animals dredged
up from great depths, it is only some fish which show any
marked effects of the alteration of pressure to which they are
subjected in being brought to the surface. Fish with swimming
bladders come up in the deep-sea dredge in a horribly distorted
condition, with their eyes forced out of their heads, their body
tense and expanded, and often all their scales forced off.

No sun-light penetrates the deep sea ; probably all is dark
below 200 fathoms, at least excepting in so far as light is given

LIFE IN THE DEEP SEA. 581

out by phophorescent animals. At depths 2,000 fathoms and
upwards the temperature of the water is never many degrees
above the freezing point.

The nature of the food of deep-sea animals has been a matter
of some considerable speculation.* Owing to the lack of sun-
light in the depths, there is an entire absence there of vegetable
life, such as could build up the necessary food of the animals
living there, and thus render the cycle of life in those regions
self-supporting and complete as it is on land and in the shallow
seas.

Dr. Carpenter tells me he dredged living calcareous algse
(Corallinacece) in the Mediterranean Sea at a depth of 150
fathoms. As far as I observed, the " Challenger ': dredgings
did not on any occasion yield algse from a depth so great.
The greatest depth from which seaweeds were dredged by us in
any quantity was, I believe, 30 fathoms. It is a curious fact
that a species of Halo2iliila, one of the Sea Grasses, which are
flowering-plants which have become modified to a marine exist-
ence, was obtained by us in abundance off Tonga Tabu from so
great depth as 18 fathoms. At this depth it was, when we
obtained it, in full flower.

The only plants which extend their range to any great
depth are certain lowly organized parasitic Tlmllopliytes, which
infest corals and bore for themselves branching tubular cavities
in the hard skeletons of their hosts. These parasites have been
found by Prof. Martin Duncan in corals which have been dredged
from a depth of 1,095 fathoms.f These plants, nourished on the
tissues of their hosts, are able to thrive without the aid of sun-
light, just as do fungi in dark cellars and mines.

In the absence of plants amongst them, the deep-sea animals
have to derive their food entirely from the debris of animals and
plants falling to the bottom from the waters above them. This
cUbris is no doubt mainly derived from the surface Pelagic flora
and fauna, but also to a large extent composed of refuse of

* See K. Mobius, " Wo kommt denn die Nahrung von den Tiefsee-
thieren her." Z. f. Wiss., Zool. 21. Bd. Heft 2.

t P. M. Duncan, F.K.S., &c, " On some Thallophytes parasitic within
recent Madreporaria." Proc. Eoy. Soc, 1876, p. 538.

582 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

various kinds washed down by rivers, or floated out to sea from
♦ shores and sunken to the bottom when water -logged.

The dead Pelagic animals must fall as a constant rain of
food upon the habitation of their deep-sea dependants. Maury,
speaking of the surface Foraminifera, wrote, " the sea, like the
snow-cloud, with its flakes in a calm, is always letting fall upon
its bed showers of microscopic shells."*

It might be supposed that these shells and other surface
animals would consume so long a time in dropping to the
bottom in great depths that their soft tissues would be decom-
posed, and they would have ceased to be serviceable as food by
the time they reached the ocean bed. Such is, however, not the
case, partly because the salt water of the sea exercises a strongly
preservative effect on animal tissues, partly because the time
required for sinking is in reality not very great.

In order to test the matter for myself I made the following
experiment. I took a dead Salpa, of about 2 inches in length,
and placed it in a glass cylinder full of water, and 3 inches in
diameter. I allowed the Salpa to fall from the surface of the
water in the cylinder to the bottom a number of times and noted
carefully the time which it took to traverse this distance, which
was about 8 inches. I found that on an average it took 20
seconds to fall the 8 inches. This gives at the same rate, with-
out allowance for acceleration, a distance of a fathom to be tra-
versed in three minutes, or 2,000 fathoms in four days four hours.

I allowed the Salpa to remain in the sea water in the
cylinder for a long time. It was still not greatly decomposed
after having remained in the same water for a month, whilst
the ship was in the tropics ; the nucleus was after this interval
still undestroyed. The dead animal might have thus sunk to
the bottom in the greatest depths almost six times over with-
out having become so much decomposed as to be unserviceable
for food to deep-sea animals.

We obtained by our dredgings several interesting proofs of the
feeding of deep-sea animals on debris derived from neighbouring
shores. Thus, off the coast of New South Wales we dredged from

* M. F. Maury, LL.D., "The Physical Geography of the Sea," 15th
Ed., p. 322. London, Sampson Low and Marston, 1874.

LIFE IN THE DEEP SEA. 583

400 fathoms a large Sea-Urchin which had its stomach full of
pieces of a Sea Grass (Zostera) derived from the coast above.

Again, we dredged between the New Hebrides and Australia
from 1,400 fathoms, a piece of wood and half-a-dozen examples of
a large palm fruit as large as an orange. In one of these fruits
which had hard woody external coats, the albumen of the fruit
was still preserved and perfectly fresh in appearance, and white,
like that of a ripe cocoanut. The hollows of the fruits were
occupied by a small Lamellibranch Mollusc and a Gasteropod,
and the husks and albumen were bored by a small Teredo or
allied Mollusc. The fibres of the husks of the fruits had amongst
them small Nematoid Worms.

We dredged up similar land vegetable debris on many other
occasions, of which I will cite some, because they are interesting,
not only as showing that deep-sea animals must derive food
largely from such sources, but because they are necessarily of
great geological importance as showing how specimens of land
vegetation are becoming imbedded in deposits which are being-
formed at very great depths.

Between the Fiji Group and the New Hebrides we dredged
from 1,450 fathoms a piece of a branch of a tree, 3 feet in length.
Off the Island of Palma, one of the Azores, we dredged from
1,135 fathoms, the leaf of a Shrub, possibly a Holly-leaf which
was still green and firm, though water-logged. With this leaf
were numerous fish otoliths and eye-lenses. We constantly
dredged bones of whales and fish from great depths. Off the
coast of Nova Scotia we dredged a quantity of glacially striated

stones.

The deep-sea animals of course prey upon one another just
as do shallow-water species. We dredged once a fish from
2,500 fathoms which had a deep-sea Shrimp in its stomach. A
Cerianthus dredged from 2,175 fathoms had a small Crustacean
in its stomach.

The waters of the deep sea being everywhere dark and always
cold, the conditions of life in them are the same all over the world.
The temperature of the deep sea is practically the same, as far
as effect on life is concerned, under the Equator and at the Poles.
Hence there are absolutely no barriers to the migrations of

584 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER

animals in the deep sea. Time only is required for any deep-sea
animal to roam from any distant part of the earth to another.

It is only in the strata of water, comparatively near the ocean
surface, that there is any great difference in range of temperature
in various latitudes. Up to a depth of 1,000 fathoms, even from
the greatest existing depths, the range amounts only to a few
degrees Fahrenheit ; and at 1,000 fathoms everywhere the water
is cold and dark, and the conditions of life practically the same
as those in the greatest depths ; even at a depth of 500 fathoms
the water is almost everywhere as cold as 40° F. The effects of
difference of pressure may be neglected, since, when encountered
gradually, they would be of no injury to migrating animals.

Hence, even the ridges, which project up from the ocean
floor and separate areas of great depths from one another by
intervening expanses, over which the depth is only 1,000
fathoms or somewhat less, do not oppose any obstacle to the
migration of deep-sea animals. Such ridges will be seen, by
reference to the map at the commencement of this work, to exist
in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

In the Atlantic, a long sinuous ridge, with a depth of only
1,000 fathoms over it, separates the two deep troughs on either
side of the Atlantic from one another, and were the conditions
existing in 1,000 fathoms very different from those obtaining in
depths of 2,000 and 3,000 fathoms, it might well be conceived
that the Western Atlantic deep-sea animals might be isolated
from those of the Eastern Atlantic, and very greatly different
from them. As will be seen from the map, there is only one
narrow channel, lying just north of Tristan da Cunha, in the
South Atlantic, where a depth of 2,000 fathoms extends over
from one side of the Atlantic to another, and by which thus
migration in the supposed case would be possible.

Similarly in the case of the Pacific, there is only a narrow
channel, situate between the Fiji Group and Tahiti, by winch the
deep waters of the Southern Pacific communicate directly with
those of the Northern.

The deep-sea animals are however not restricted by these
ridges, and the shallows of 1,000 fathoms depth do not act as
barriers. Were there any marked isolation by great depth, we

LIFE IN THE DEEP SEA. 585

might have hoped to have met with animals of great antiquity in
the deepest holes, since these must possibly be regarded as
occupying the sites of very old depressions on the earth's
surface.

Dr. Wallich, in his celebrated work, " The North Atlantic
Sea Bed/' unfortunately never completed,. though so full of most
important discussions of deep-sea phenomena, speaks almost
prophetically of the migrations of animals which "must take
place along the deep homothermal sea; that great highway,
extending from Pole to Pole,, which is for ever closed to human
gaze, but may nevertheless be penetrated by human intelligence."*

Marine animals may throughout all time have migrated in
the course of generations across the equator, from north to south,
by way of the deep sea, and on reaching temperate or cold
latitudes, may have worked their way up into shallow water and
taken to coast life, and assumed forms more or less like those of
their ancestors who started on the journey.

Eegarded as a high-road for migration across the equator, the
deep sea may well be compared with the summits of those moun-
tain chains which, in a similar manner, have acted as bridges
across the tropics for the passage of non-tropical plants. The
deep-sea animals themselves also, considered as a group, may be
well compared to Alpine floras, there being many points of
analogy between the two assemblages.

As in the case of AJpine floras, plants which occur at sea-
level in cold or arctic regions, are found on high mountains in
temperate or tropical latitudes ; so in the case of the deep sea,
certain animals which in high northern or southern latitudes
exist in comparatively shallow water, occur at great depths near
the equator. Again, just as Alpine floras consist to a con-
siderable extent of modifications of forms growing at lower
levels in other regions of the earth, altered somewhat in non-
essentials to suit an Alpine existence, rather than of ancient and
isolated forms greatly differing from those of the lowlands ; so in
the case of the deep-sea fauna, hardly any of the animals dis-

* G. C. Wallich, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., Surgeon-Major on the Eetired
List, H.M. Indian Army, " The Atlantic Sea Bed," Pt. 1, p. 105. London,
Van Voorst, 1862.

586 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

covered as composing it are of any very important or widely-
aberrant zoological structure.

Just as some members of Alpine floras are dwarfed by the
climate to which they are exposed, so does it occur in the case of
some of the deep-sea animals : but by no means in that of all, for
some forms seem even to increase in size, through their existence
in the great depths. A deep-sea Cerianthus a Sea Anemone living
in a tube, already described in this work* may be cited as an
instance of dwarfing. Pycnogonids may be referred to as examples
of increase of size in great depths. We dredged in deep water
gigantic examples of these latter animals, measuring more than
a foot between the tips of the legs. Nearly all Crustacea seem
to increase in size in the deep sea ; we dredged large specimens
of Serolis and other large Isopods, and large Scatyellums ; the
Decapod Crustacea obtained were however none of them as
large as the larger shallow-water forms.

One coral, Bathyactis (Fungia) symmetrica, ranges from a
depth of 30 fathoms to one of 2,900 fathoms, and varies very
much in size. No very large specimens were obtained in small
depths; but very small adult specimens were found in great
depths, and no direct connection between increase of depth and
increase in dimensions was able to be determined in this case,
though the great number of specimens obtained rendered the
case a good one for examination with regard to the question
under consideration.

In many respects, the zoological results of the deep-sea
dredgings were rather disappointing. Most enthusiastic expec-
tations were held by many naturalists, and such were especially
put forward by the late Prof. Agassiz,t who had hopes of finding
almost all important fossil forms existing in life and vigour at
great depths. Such hopes were doomed to disappointment, but
even to the. last, every Cuttlefish which came up in our deep-sea
net was squeezed to see if it had a Belemnite's bone in its back,
and Trilobites were eagerly looked out for.

* See p. 408.

f " A Letter concerning Deep-Sea Dredging, addressed to Prof.
Benjamin Pierce, Superintendent of the U.S. Coast Survey." Ann. & Mag.
Nat. Hist. 1872, p. 169.

LIFE IX THE DEEP SEA. 587

A certain number of animal forms have been obtained in the
living condition from the deep sea, which were supposed, until
thus found, to be extinct, and to exist only as fossils ; but there
are a considerable number of shallow-water and terrestrial forms
which have similarly survived for long periods, and exist in the
fossil condition as well as in the living one. The exploration of
any vast hitherto uninvestigated area must necessarily add from
amongst the numerous animal forms discovered in it, some to
the list of those which are both fossil and recent. It has yet to
be shown, that in the case of the deep-sea fauna, the numbers
of such comparatively long-lived forms, are greater propor-
tionately than in that of shallow water faunas.

Large numbers of interesting new genera and species of well-
known families of animals were obtained by the dredge, but
very few which were widely different in their essential ana-
tomical structure from hitherto known forms, and thus of first-
rate zoological importance. We picked up no missing links to
fill up the gaps in the great zoological family tree. The results
of the " Challenger's " voyage have gone to prove that the miss-
ing links are to be sought out rather by more careful in-
vestigation of the structure of animals already partially known,
than by hunting for entirely new ones in the deep sea.

The excessively wide area of the floors of the oceans in the
matter of production of species contrasts markedly with wide
areas upon the land surface, which are, as has been shown by
Mr. Darwin* specially favourable to the development of varia-
tions and development of new forms.

The deep-sea animals obtained by the ship are now in the
hands of various specialists for description, and are as yet only
partially reported on. As far as I can judge from cursory ex-
amination of what was dredged, I believe that the most aberrant
and important new animal obtained by the " Challenger's " deep-
sea dredoino-s is an Ascidian, which I have described under the
name of Octacnemus Bytliius.\

* u Origin of Species," 10th Ed., p. 83.

t H. N. Moseley, "On Two New Forms of Deep-Sea Ascidians
obtained during the Voyage of H.M.S. ' Challenger.'" Trans. Linn. Soc.
2nd Ser. Zoology, Vol. I, p. 287.

588 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

The animal, of which a figure of one-half the natural size is
here given, is of a most remarkable form for an Ascidian, having
eight conical radially disposed lobes. The walls of the body are
perfectly transparent. The animal is provided with a small
pedicle for attaching itself to the sea bottom ; but the greater
part of its under surface is free and unattached. The usual exha-

DEEP-SEA ASCIDIAN, OCTACNEMrS BYTHIU3.

Above. The animal viewed from below of one-half the natural size ; the nucleus is seen in the centre
through the transparent base of the animal. P Pedicle of attachment ; B Exhalant orifice ;
R Rectum.

Beneath. Diagrammatic section through the middle line of the animal's body ; A Inhalant orifice ;
M Muscle attached to nucleus, other letters as in the figure above.

lant and inhalant apertures are present, as will be best understood
by reference to the diagrammatic section shown in the woodcut.

There appears to be no gill network present, but the
respiratory sac is flattened out so as to be stretched as a
horizontal membrane across the cavity of the body between the
inhalant and exhalant apertures, as shown in the section. The
principal viscera are gathered together into a compact nuclear
mass, just as in Salpa, and this nucleus is attached to the under
surface of the horizontal membrane.

The nerve ganglion lies on the nucleus, and there is a glo-
bular sense organ in connection with it. Special muscular slips
are present on the surface of the nucleus, and there are elaborate
muscular arrangements within the conical processes of the body
of the animal, and in connection with the horizontal membrane.
The animal seems to be entirely without immediate affinities

LIFE IN THE DEEP SEA. 589

amongst other Ascidiana, and must be placed in a special Family,
Octacnemidce.

I cannot here enter into descriptions of the many deep-sea
forms of animals which we dredged. For accounts of these and
most beautiful figures, I refer the reader to Sir C. Wyville
Thomson's " Depths of the Sea " and " The Atlantic."

We obtained the same animals from the depths in the
most widely separated places over and over again, with tedious
reiteration. There were, however, one or two localities which
we hit upon which are worth referring to, because they are
especially rich in deep-sea forms, and because these occur at them
in comparatively shallow water.

The first of these localities lies off the Island of Sombrero, in
the Danish West Indies. Here, within sight of the lighthouse,
in from 450 to 490 fathoms, the dredge yielded a very rich
harvest of deep-sea Blind Crustacea, Corals, Echinoderms,
Sponges, &c. Another very rich spot lies off the Kermadec
Islands. Here, from 630 fathoms, a marvellously rich collection
was brought up by the trawls, including very curious new blind
deep-sea fish. Ascidians, Cuttle-fish, Crustaceans (Polycheles,
Cystisoma), many specimens of Pentacrinus, large vitreous
Sponges (Poliopogon, Euplectella, Ventriculites), and many other
very valuable specimens. This is probably the richest ground
dredged by us at all.

Another rich locality lies between the Aru and Ke Islands,
and a further one, almost or quite as rich as that off the
Kermadecs, lies between the Meangis Islands and the Talour
Islands. Here, from 500 fathoms, more than thirty specimens
of living Pentacrinus were obtained at one haul of the net, and
with them all kinds of other deep-sea forms, very many of the
same species as dredged at all the other three localities
mentioned. Any yachtsman or collector wishing to obtain, with
the least trouble and most certainty rare deep-sea animals, would
do well to put his dredge overboard at one of these four above-
mentioned localities.

The deep-sea animals are, as I have said, mostly closely
allied to shallow-water forms. They appear also to live
associated together in closely the same manner as their shallow-

590 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER.

water representatives. Some are confined to the sea-bottom,
and can only crawl upon it ; others, such as the fish and shrimps,
have a power of extending their range vertically, but some of
the fish at least never rise to more than a very small height
above the bottom on which they live.

Lophioid fishes, like the Angler their close ally in shallow
water, dangle out in the great depths their lures from above their
huge mouths, to attract their prey. Hermit-crabs in the deep
sea, crawl about protected by a borrowed shell, and on this, lives
an animal allied to a Sea Anemone (Epizoantlms parasiticus), so
that the combination is closely similar to that so familiar in
shallow seas. Pycnogonid larvse rear themselves as parasites
within Hydroid colonies in the depths, just as in the shallows.

The depths of the sea being mostly dark, many of the
animals inhabiting them are blind, like cave animals, and have
their eyes reduced to mere rudiments. Many of these, such as
some blind fish and Crustacea, are provided with enormously
long and delicate feelers or hairs, in order that they may feel
their way about with these, just as a blind man does with the
aid of his stick.

Other deep-sea animals have their eyes enormously enlarged,
and thus make the best of the little light there is in the depths.
This light is, no doubt, as suggested in the early days of deep-
sea dredging by Dr. Carpenter, Sir Wyville Thomson, and Mr.
Gwyn Jeffreys,* that emitted by phosphorescent animals,
especially Alcyonarians.

All the Alcyonarians dredged by the " Challenger " in deep
water, were found to be brilliantly phosphorescent when brought
to the surface, and their phosphorescence was found to agree in
its manner of exhibition with that observed in the case of
shallow-water forms. There seems no reason why these animals
should not emit light when living in deep water, just as do their
shallow- water relatives.

The light emitted by phosphorescent animals is quite pos-
sibly in some instances to be regarded only as an accidental
product, and of no use to the animal producing it, although of
course, in some cases, it has been turned to account for sexual

* " Proc. Roy. Soc, 1869," p. 431.

LIFE IN THE DEEP SEA. 591

purposes, and may have other uses occasionally. There is no
reason why a constant emission of light should be more bene-
ficial than a constant emission of heat, such as takes place in the
case of our own bodies, and it is quite conceivable that animals
might exist to which obscure heat-rays might be visible, and to
which men and Mammals generally, would appear constantly
luminous.

However, be the light beneficial to them or not, it seems
certain that the deep sea must be righted here and there by
greater or smaller patches of these luminous Alcyonarians, with
wide intervals, probably, of total darkness intervening ; very
possibly the animals with eyes congregate round these sources
of light.

The nature of the light existing in the depths, has an
important bearing on the question of the colouring of deep-sea
animals. I examined the phosphorescent light emitted by three
species of deep-sea Alcyonarians with the spectroscope, and
found it to consist of red, yellow, and green rays only. Hence,
were the light in the deep sea derived from this source alone,
in the absence of blue and violet light, only red, yellow, and
green colours in animals could be effective ; no blue animals
were obtained in deep water, but blue animals are not common
elsewhere.

It is remarkable that almost all the deep-sea shrimps and
Schizopods, which were obtained in very great abundance, are
of an intense bright scarlet colour, differing markedly in their
intensity of colouring from shallow-water forms, and having,
apparently for some purpose, developed an unusually large
quality of the same red pigment matter which colours small
surface Crustacea.

Dr. Wallich refers at length hi his work, cited above* to the
absence of light in the deep sea, and explains the possibility of
persistence of colouring in deep sea animals, even though they
live in absolute darkness. Many deep-sea Holothurians are
coloured of a deep purple ; no doubt the colouring is useless in
their case, and is merely due to the persistence of a colouring
developed originally in shallow-water ancestors.

* " The Atlantic Sea Bed," p. 108.

592 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

The same purple colouring matter, which is easily distin-
guished by means of the spectroscope, occurs in a shallow-
water (nine fathoms) Comatula at Cape York, in the tropics,
and in a Holothurian, found in 1,955 fathoms, near the Antarctic
Sea. Many deep-sea Corals have their soft structures tinged
with a madder colouring matter which occurs also in surface
swimming Medusae of various kinds.*

No doubt, in the case of many deep-sea possessors of com-
plex colouring matters, these pigments never exercise their"
peculiar action on light during the whole life of the animals,
but remain in darkness, never showing their colour at all. Just
so in the case of many Mammalia, with thick or fur-clad skins,
the bright red colouring matter of the blood never sees the light
or appears as a red colour. It is only in a few Mammals, that
this red colouring matter is turned to account, as, for example, in
the white races of man, in which case sexual selection has
brought about a tinging of the cheeks by its aid.

Most deep-sea fish are of a dull black colour, some are white
as if bleached. The majority of deep-sea animals are coloured
in some way or another, many brightly so.

zoology and Botany of the ship. — The zoology of "Challenger"
itself was rather interesting. At the time that England was left
the ship seemed nearly free of animals, other than men, dogs,
and live stock required for food. The first Cockroaches ap-
parently came on board at St. Vincent, Cape Yerdes, for a large
one of these insects was caught by one of the lieutenants on his
bed, soon after we left that port. Cockroaches soon became
plentiful on board, and showed themselves whenever the ship
was in a warm climate. A special haunt of a swarm of them
was behind the books in the chemical laboratory, from which
Mr. Buchanan in vain attempted to evict them.

At one period of the voyage, a number of these insects
established themselves in my cabin, and devoured parts of my
boots, nibbling off all the margins of leather projecting beyond

* For observations on the Colouring of Deep Sea Animals, see H. N.
Moseley, " On the Colouring Matters of various Animals, especially of
Deep-Sea Forms dredged by H.M.S. ' Challenger.' " Quart. Journ. Micro.
Sci., Vol. XVII, New Ser., p. 1.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY OF THE SHIP. 593

the seams on the upper leathers. One huge winged Cockroach
baffled me in my attempts to get rid of him for a long time. I
could not discover his retreat. At night he came out and rested
on my book-shelf, at the foot of my bed, swaying his antennae to
and fro, and watching me closely. If I reached out my hand
from bed, to get a stick, or raised my book to throw it at him, he
dropped at once on the deck, and was forthwith out of harm's way.

He bothered me much, because when my light was out, he
had a familiar habit of coming to sip the moisture from my face
and lips, which was decidedly unpleasant, and awoke me often
from a cloze. I believe it was with this object, that he watched
me before I went to sleep. I often had a shot at him with a
book or other missile, as he sat on the book-shelf, but he always
dodged and escaped. His quickness and agility astonished me.
At last I triumphed, by adopting the advice of Captain Maclear,
and shooting him with a pellet of paper from my air-gun, a mode
of attack for which he was evidently unprepared ; but I was taken
to task for discharging the air-gun in my cabin, because it made
a noise just like the sharp crack of a spar when broken by the
force of the breeze, and created some excitement on the upper
deck, where the sound was plainly heard.

In the zoological laboratory on board, small red ants estab-
lished themselves, and used to follow trails up the legs of the
tables, and find out anything eatable. Clothes-moths were a
terrible pest, and destroyed several garments for me in my cabin.
Mosquitos swarmed in the ship at some ports, as well as house-
flies, but these both disappeared when we had been at sea for a
few days in a breeze.

Once, when we were becalmed three days out from Teneriffe,
on the voyage to St. Thomas, I went out in a boat to collect
surface animals. Some of the house-flies, which w^ere swarm-
ing in the ship, accompanied the boat on the excursion in
sufficient numbers to be a pest, I suppose in expectation of
reaching the shore.

House-crickets appeared in the ship towards the end of
the voyage, and two of them established themselves in Staff
Commander Tizard's cabin, to his great annoyance, as they were
as noisy as at home. They were, however, caught with some

Q Q

594 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

difficulty. Centipedes, of two kinds at least, were also amongst
the navifauna, and many species of spiders. Some of these
latter were, however, deliberately imported on board by the
navigating officers, in order that they might use their webs, if
wanted, as cross-wires in their theodolites.

When the ship was moored at Bermuda, alongside the wharf
in the dockyard, boards were placed on all the mooring chains
as a fence against rats. Eats nevertheless appeared in the ship,
and were all curiously enough of the old species, the Black
Eat {Mas rattus). One night, as we were sitting at whist,
Mr. J. Hynes, the Assistant Paymaster, suddenly started up with
a yell, and danced about as if gone mad, clutching one of his
legs with both hands. A rat had mistaken his trousers for a
pipe or wind-sail, and had gone up.

The only plants which made their spontaneous appearance
on the ship were Moulds. Whenever the ship entered clamp
latitudes everything in our cabins on the lower deck became
moist, and mould grew thickly over boots and all other leathern
articles. I grew mustard and cress with great success in my
wardian cases before these were required for other purposes.
I failed, however, entirely with onions and radishes, which I
also tried to grow. The plant most commonly grown on board
ship in the tropics is the Sweet Potato. It can be grown in
water and made to climb up the wall of a cabin and afford a
pleasant green.

Besides Dogs and Cats we had many different pets on board
the ship at various times. First amongst these must be placed
" Eobert " the Parrot. The bird belonged to Yon Willemoes
Suhm. He and I bought a young Grey Parrot each at Madeira,
from a ship bound from the Bight of Benin to Liverpool, with a
cargo of these birds on board.* One of the Parrots flew into a
dish full of boiling caustic potash solution in the laboratory and
perished, and we had to draw lots for the remaining bird, and
I lost.

" Eobert " survived all the extremes of the heat and cold of
the voyage and perils of all kinds, from heavy tumbles, driving
gales of wind, and the falling about of books and furniture. He

* See page 41.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY OF THE SHIP. 595

had one of his legs crippled, and his feathers never grew pro-
perly, but he was perfectly happy, and from his perch, which
was one of the wardroom hat-pegs, he talked away and amused
us during the whole voyage. His great triumph, constantly
repeated, was " "What ! two thousand fathoms and no bottom ?
Ah Doctor Carpenter, F.B.S." He knew his own name perfectly,
and I have known him climb over the ledge in at the door of
the cabin of Dr. Maclean, his chief friend, when I have been
sitting there on a dark rough night, after he had come to grief
and tumbled off his perch with a thump, plaintively appealing
with " Robert," " Robert."

After leaving the Aru Islands a young Cassowary roamed
about the decks for some time, but was soon killed as a nuisance.
No doubt, had it not been killed, it would soon have committed
suicide, like an Ostrich on board one of the men-of-war at the
Cape, which stole a piece of hot iron put down by the black-
smith beside his forge, and swallowed it hastily with fatal effect.

At Monte Video some very young South American Ostriches
(Rliea Americana) were brought on board the ship. It was
amusing to see them chasing flies on the upper deck, and, as
they darted forwards, instinctively spreading their little wings
as sails to catch the tiny draughts reflected from the bulwarks.
Mr. Darwin has described the use of the wings as sails by the
adult birds on the plains of Patagonia.*

At the Sandwich Islands, two large living Tortoises from the
Galapagos Archipelago were received on board from Captain
Cookson, R.N., who had visited the group with the special object
of collecting the very curious Tortoises found there. The Tor-
toises were fed a good deal on pine-apples, a number of which
were hung up in the Paymaster's office. The animals used to
prop themselves up against a board put across the door of the
office to keep out dogs, unable to surmount the obstacle, and
used to glare and sniff longingly at the fruit. They also learned
to know their way along the deck to the Captain's cabin, where
there was another store of Pine-apples, and where they were
often fed.

At Madeira, I had given to me some living specimens of the

* " Journal of Researches," pp. 43, 89.

Q Q 2

596 A NATURALIST ON THE "CHALLENGER."

huge Spiders (Lycosa), which inhabit the " Desertas," small out-
liers of the island, and which feed on Lizards, which they hunt
and kill. I fed the Spiders on Cockroaches. One of them
escaped, but it was brought back to me after a week by Captain
Maclear, rather crushed, he having discovered it with his toe in
the extremity of one of his boots.

At Juan Fernandez a living young Fur-Seal, about two feet in
length, was taken on board. It followed us about, crying like
a child to be fed, and was never happy unless it was being
nursed and petted. I tried to feed it with condensed milk, but
it soon died. When it was hungry, if blandishments did not
succeed in drawing attention at once to its wants, the animal,
though so young, became at once enraged and made determined
efforts to snarl and bite, with a view of enforcing its demands.

At the same island a Kid, one of the direct descendants of
Alexander Selkirk's Goats, also came on board, and learnt all
kinds of tricks on the homeward voyage. We should have
liked to have had a pet Monkey with us, but Monkeys are
strictly forbidden, by a special Admiralty regulation, on survey-
ing ships, because one once destroyed a valuable chart which
had just been completed with great labour. Even a Marmoset,
which I bought at Bahia, was considered to come under the
regulation and perished in consequence.

concluding Remarks. — I did not suffer at all from the confine-
ment of ship-life. It is wonderful how completely practice
enables a man so to modify his movements as to perform with
success, in a ship constantly in motion, even the most delicate
operations. The adjustments of the body to the motion of the
ship in ordinary weather, become, after a time, so much a matter
of habit as to be quite unconscious. I found no difficulty in
working with the microscope with the highest powers (1,100
diameters), even when the ship was rolling heavily.

There are many worries and distractions, such as letters and
newspapers, which are escaped in life on board ship, and the con-
stant leisure available for work and reading is extremely enjoy-
able. I felt almost sorry to leave, at Spithead, my small cabin,
which measured only six feet by six, and return to the more
complicated relations of " shore-going " life, as the sailors term

COXCLUDIXG REMARKS. 597

it. I had lived in the cabin three years and a half and had got
to look upon it as a home.

After a voyage all over the world, there is nothing which is so
much impressed upon the mind as the smallness of the earth's
surface. We are apt to regard certain animals as fixed and
stationary, and to contrast strongly with their condition that of
forms possessing powers of active locomotion. In reality we are
as securely fixed by the force of gravity as is the Sea Anemone
by its base ; we can only revolve as it were at the end of our
stalk, which we can lengthen or shorten only for a few miles'
distance. We live in the depths of the atmosphere as deep-sea
animals live in the depths of the sea. We can, like these, crawl
up into the shallows or we can occasionally mount at peril in a
balloon ; but the utmost extent of our vertical range is a distance
no greater than that which we can walk in a couple of hours
horizontally on the earth's surface.

The " Challenger " travelled on the voyage from Portsmouth
and back to the same port, 68,690 miles, and this distance, taking
into consideration the time consumed from port to port, was
traversed at the average pace of only four miles an hour, or fast
walking pace. In an express train on land the entire distance
could be conceived of as being accomplished in eight weeks, and
at the rate at which a Swallow can fly in about half that time.

If there were land all along the equator it would be possible
to run round the world in a train in less than three weeks. I
used to wonder how the main mass of the inhabitants of America
could have peopled the entire country down to Cape Horn, from
so remote a starting-point as Behring's Straits ; but a walk of
four miles a-day would bring a man from Behring's Straits to
Cape Horn in about seven years, and a move of a quarter of a
mile a-day would bring a tribe the same distance in a little over
a century.

The earth, considered as a comparatively insignificant com-
ponent particle of the universe, may be justly compared to a
small isolated island on its own surface. As, in the course
of ages, such an island developes its own peculiar insular fauna
and flora, so probably on the surface of the earth alone has
the peculiarly complex development of the element Nitrogen

598 A NATURALIST ON THE " CHALLENGER."

occurred which has resulted in the various forms of animal and
vegetable life.

On the theory of evolution, it is impossible that plants or
animals of any advanced complexity, at all resembling those
existing on the earth, should exist on other planets or in other
solar systems. It is conceivable that very low forms of vegetable
life may exist on other planets and may have been by some
means trans23orted to the earth : the idea is conceivable, though
highly improbable. But it is quite impossible that that infinitely
complex series of circumstances which on the earth has conspired
to produce from the lowest living forms a Crustacean for example,
should have occurred elsewhere ; still less is it possible that a
bird or a Mammal should exist elsewhere ; still more impossible
again that there should be elsewhere a monkey or a man.

All these forms are quite certainly terrestrial, and terrestrial
only, as surely as is the Apteryx a peculiar development of
New Zealand alone, or the Dodo a production of the Mascarene
Islands only. It is even probable that protoplasm, itself, the
basis of all life, is a production entirely confined to our small
planet.

That the " Challenger " Expedition has been a great scientific
success has been fully acknowledged, and all praise is due to the
Government which promoted it, and to the present Government
which has supplied funds for the publication of the results.
The highest praise is, however, due to those naturalists, especially
Sir Wyville Thomson and Dr. Carpenter, who, by their energy
and perseverance, actually originated the Expedition.

With regard to any future scientific expeditions, it would,
however, be well to bear in mind that the deep sea, its physical
features and its fauna, will remain for an indefinite period in
the condition in which they now exist and as they have existed
for ages past, with little or no change, to be investigated at leisure
at any future time. On the surface of the earth, however,
animals and plants and races of men are perishing rapidly day
by day, and will soon be, like the Dodo, things of the past.
The history of these things once gone can never be recovered,
but must remain for ever a gap in the knowledge of mankind.

The loss will be most deeply felt in the province of Anthro-

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 599

pology, a science which is of higher importance to us than any
other, as treating of the developmental history of our own species.
The languages of Polynesia are being rapidly destroyed or
mutilated, and the opportunity of obtaining accurate information
concerning these and the native habits of culture will soon have
passed away.

The urgent necessity of the present day is a scientific circum-
navigating expedition which shall visit the least-known inhabited
islands of the Pacific, and at the same time explore the series of
islands and island groups which yet remain almost or entirely
unknown as regards their botany and zoology. These promise
to yield results of the highest interest if only the matter be
taken in hand in time, before introduced weeds and goats have
destroyed their natural vegetation ; dogs, cats and pigs, their
animals, and their human inhabitants have been swept away, or
have had their individuality merged in the onward press of
European enterprise. There is still, to the disgrace of British
enterprise, even in the Atlantic Ocean, an island, the fauna and
flora of which are as yet absolutely unknown. The past history
of the deep sea, of the changes of depression and elevation of its
bottom, is to be sought to a large extent in the study of the
animals and plants inhabiting the islands which rear their
summits above its surface. These insular floras and faunas
will soon pass away, but the deep-sea animals will very possibly
remain unchanged from their present condition long after man
has died out.

LIST OF BOOKS AND PAPEES RELATING TO THE
" CHALLENGER " EXPEDITION.

BOOKS AND PAPEES BY NAVAL OFFICEES OF THE
"CHALLENGEB" EXPEDITION.

Captain Sir G. S. Nares, E.N., K.C.B., F.E.S.

Series of Eeports to the Hydrographer of the Admiralty. Nos. 1, 2, 3,
1873-74.

Captain F. T. Thomson, E.N.

Continuation of the above Eeports. Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, 1875-76.

Staff-Commander T. H. Tizard, E.N.

Eemarks on Deep-sea Temperatures, &c, embodied in the above

Eeports.
The " Challenger " Expedition. On the Methods adopted in Sounding

and Dredging : Naval Science. London, Lockwood and Co., 1873,

p. 409.

The above Eeports are mainly reprinted with a reproduction of the
Section Maps of Deep-sea Temperatures in Petermanns Mittheilungen,
1873-76, where also will be found references to various papers on Deep-sea
Physics resulting from the " Challenger " Expedition.

Lieut. Lord George Campbell, E.N.

Log-letters from the « Challenger." London, Macmillan and Co., 1876.

W. J. J. Spry, E.N.

The Cruise of Her Majesty's Ship "Challenger." London, Sampson

Low and Co., 1876.

BOOKS AND PAPEES BY MEMBEES OF THE CIVILIAN

STAFF OF THE SHIP.

Sir C. Wyville Thomson, Knt., LL.D., F.E.S., &c.

The Voyage of the "Challenger." The Atlantic, 2 Vols. London,

Macmillan and Co., 1877.
Series of Eeports to the Hydrographer of the Admiralty in the
Proc. Eoy. Soc, 1874-76.

602 LIST OF BOOKS AND PAPERS.

Preliminary Notes on the Nature of the Sea-bottom, &c Proc. Hoy.

Soc., 1874, p. 32.
Notice of New Living Crinoids belonging to the Apiocrinidae. Linn.

Soc. Journ. Zoology, Vol. XIII, p. 47.
Notes on some Peculiarities in the Mode of Propagation of certain

Echinoderms of the Southern Sea. Ibid., p. 55.
On the Structure and Relations of the genus Holopus. Proc. Roy. Soc,

Edin., 1876-77, p. 405.

J. J. Wild, Ph.D.

Thalassa. An Essay on the Depth, Temperature and Currents of the

Ocean. London, Marcus Ward and Co., 1877.
At Anchor. London, Marcus Ward and Co., 1878.

J. Y. Buchanan, M.A., F.R.S.E., &c.

On the Absorption of Carbonic Acid by Saline Solution. Proc. Roy.

Soc, 1874, p. 483.
Some Observations on Sea-water Ice. Proc. Poy. Soc, 1874, p. 431.
On the Vertical Distribution of Temperature in the Ocean. Proc Roy.

Soc, 1875, p. 123.
Preliminary Report, Chemical and Geological, on work done on board

Her Majesty's Ship " Challenger." Proc. Roy. Soc, 1876, p. 593.
Preliminary Note on the Use of the Piezometer in Deep-sea Sounding.

Proc. Roy. Soc, 1876, p. 161.
Note on the Specific Gravity of Ocean Water. Proc. Roy. Soc, Edin.,

1876-77, p. 283.
Note on Manganese Nodules found on the Bed of the Ocean. Proc.

Roy. Soc, Edin., 1876-77, p. 287.
On the Distribution of Salt in the Ocean. Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc,

Vol. XLII, 1878, p. 72.
Laboratory Experiences on board the " Challenger." Journ. of Chem.

Soc, Oct., 1878.
On the Use of the Piezometer in Deep-sea Sounding. Proc Roy. Soc,

1877, p. 161.

Rudolph v. Willemoes Suhm, Dr. Phil., &c

" Challenger " Brief e. Nach dem Tode des Verfassers, herausgegeben

von Seiner Mutter. Leipzig, W. Engelmann, 1877.
Briefe an C. Th. E. v. Siebold. I-VII, Z. fur Wiss. Zoologie, 1873-77.
Observations made during the earlier part of the Voyage of Her

Majesty's Ship "Challenger." The Atlantic. Surface of the

Atlantic Islands of the Atlantic Proc. Roy. Soc, 1876, p. 569.
On a Land Nemertean found at the Bermudas. Ann. and Mag. Nat.

Hist., Vol. XIII, 1874, p. 209.
On some Atlantic Crustacea from the "Challenger" Expedition. Trans.

Linn. Soc, 2 Ser. Zoology, Pt. 1, 1875, p. 23.
On Crustacea observed during the Cruise of Her Majesty's Ship

" Challenger" in the Southern Sea. Proc Roy. Soc, 1876, p. 585.

LIST OF BOOKS AND PAPERS. 60

On the Development of Lepas Fascicularis and the Archizoea of

Cirrhipedia. Phil. Trans., 1876, p. 131.
Preliminary Note on the Development of some Pelagic Decapods.

Proc. Eoy. Soc, 1876, p. 132.
Notes on some Young Stages of Umbellularia and on its Geographical

Distribution. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1876.

John Murray, F.E.S.E.

On Oceanic Deposits examined on board Her Majesty's Ship " Chal-
lenger." Proc. Eoy. Soc, 1876, p. 471.

On Surface Organisms and their relation to Ocean Deposits. Ibid.,
p. 532.

Preliminary Eeport on Vertebrates. Ibid., p. 537.

On the Distribution of Volcanic Debris over the Floor of the Ocean, &c.
Proc. Eoy. Soc, Edin., 1876-77, p. 247.

H. N. Moseley, M.A., F.E.S.

On the Structure and Development of Peripatus Capensis. Phil. Trans.,

Vol. CLXIV, 1874, p. 757.
On Peripatus Novae Zealandise. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., Jan. 1877.
On Pelagonemertes Eollestoni. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., March,

1875.
On a Young Specimen of Pelagonemertes Eollestoni. Ann. and Mag.

Nat. Hist., Dec. 1875.
On Stylochus Pelagicus and other Oceanic Planarians, &c Quart.

Journ. Micro. Sci., Vol. XVII, New Ser., p. 23.
Notes on the Structure of several forms of Land Planarians, &c, with a

list of all Species at present known. Ibid., p. 273.
On the Structure and Eelations of the Alcyonarian, Heliopora Caerulea,

&c, Phil. Trans. Vol. CLXVI, 1876, p. 92.
On the Structure of a species of Millepora occurring at Tahiti, Society

Islands. Ibid., Vol. CLXVII, 1877, p. 117.
Preliminary Note on the Structure of the Stylasteridse. Proc. Eoy.

Soc, 1876, p. 93.
On the Structure of the Stylasteridse, a Family of Hydroid Stony

Corals. The Croonian Lecture. Phil. Trans., 1878, p. 425.
Preliminary Eeport on the True Corals dredged by Her Majesty's Ship

" Challenger " in deep water. Proc. Eoy. Soc, 1876, p. 543.
On New Forms of Actiniaria dredged in the deep sea, &c Trans. Linn.

Soc, Zoology, Vol. I, p. 295.
On two new forms of Deep-sea Ascidians obtained during the Voyage

of Her Majesty's Ship "Challenger." Ibid., p. 287.
On the Colouring Matters of Various Animals, especially of Deep-sea

Forms, dredged by Her Majesty's Ship " Challenger." Quart.

Journ. Micro. Sci., Vol. XVII, New Ser., p. 1.
On the Inhabitants of the Admiralty Islands. Journ. Anthropological

Inst., May, 1877.
Botanical Notes in the Journal Linn. Soc, Vol. XIV, 1874 : — On the

604 LIST OF BOOKS AND PAPERS.

Vegetation of Bermuda, p. 317. On Fresh- water Algas obtained at
the Boiling Springs at Furnas, St. Michael's, Azores, p. 321. On
Plants collected at St. Vincent, Cape Verdes, p. 340 ; at St. Paul's
Eocks, p. 354 ; at Fernando do Norhona, p. 359 ; in the Islands of
the Tristan da Cunha Group, p. 377. On the Botany of Marion
Island, Kerguelen's Land, and Young Island of the Heard Group,

p. 387.
Journ. Linn. Soc, Vol. XV. Further Notes on the Plants of Ker-
guelen, with some remarks on the Insects, p. 53. Notes on Plants
collected and observed at the Admiralty Islands, p. 93. Notes on
the Flora of Marion Island, p. 481.

PAPERS BY AUTHORS NOT MEMBERS OF THE EXPEDITION.

Reports on the Collection of Birds made during the Voyage of Her
Majesty's Ship " Challenger." Proc. Zool. Soc, Nos. I-XII.

No. I. General Report, by P. L. Sclater, F.R.S., 1877, p. 534.
No. II. Birds of the Philippine Islands, by the Marquis of Tweed-
dale, F.R.S. Ibid., p. 535.
No. III. Birds of the Admiralty Islands, by P. L. Sclater. Ibid.,

p. 551.
No. IV. Birds of Tongatabu, Fiji, Api and Tahiti, by Dr. O. Finsch.

Ibid., p. 723.
No. V. On the Laridae, by Howard Saunders, F.Z.S., &c. Ibid.,

p. 794.
No. VI. Birds of Ternate, Amboina, Banda, Ke and the Aru

Islands, by Count T. Salvadori, 1878, p. 78.
No. VII. Birds of Cape York and Raine, Wednesday and Booby

Islands, by A. W. Forbes, F.Z.S. Ibid., p. 120.
No. VIII. Birds of the Sandwich Islands, by P. L. Sclater. Ibid.,

p. 346.
No. IX. Birds of Antarctic America, by P. L. Sclater and

O. Salvin, F.R.S. Ibid., p. 431.
No. X. Birds of the Atlantic Islands and Kerguelen's Land, and on

the Miscellaneous Collections, by P. L. Sclater. Ibid., 567.
No. XL On the Steganopedes and Impennes, by P. L. Sclater

and O. Salvin. Ibid., p. 650.
No. XII. On the Procellariidee, by O. Salvin, p. 735.

By means of the above Papers the scientific names of birds mentioned
in this book have been, as far as possible, corrected. Certain of the
Papers were not available for use in the earlier sheets of the book.

Albert C. L. G. Gunther, M.D., F.R.S., &c.

Notice of Deep-sea Fishes collected during the Voyage of Her Majesty's
Ship "Challenger." Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1878, Pt. 1, p. 13,
Pt. II, p. 179, Pt. Ill, p. 248.

LIST OF BOOKS AND PAPERS. 605

T. Spence Bate, F.R.S.

On the Willemosia Group of Crustacea. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,
1878, p. 273, Ibid., p. 484.

REPORTS ON BOTANICAL COLLECTIONS MADE BY H. N.
MOSELEY DURING THE VOYAGE OF HER MAJESTY'S
SHIP "CHALLENGER."

In the Journal of the Linnean Society, Botany, Vols. XIV, XV, XVI,
XVIII.

Prof. Oliver, F.R.S., &c.

List of Plants collected by H. N. Moseley, M.A. Kerguelen's Land,
Marion Island and Young Island. Vol. XIV, p. 389.

Prof. G. Dickie, M.D., F.L.S.

On the Marine Algae of St. Thomas and the Bermudas. Vol. XV,
p. 311 ; of the Cape Verde Islands, p. 344 ; of St. Paul's Rocks,
p. 355 ; of Fernando do Norhona, p. 366. Algae from 30 fathoms
off Pernambuco, Brazil, p. 375. Algse from Bahia, 377 ; from
Tristan da Cunha, 384 ; from Inaccessible Island, p. 386 ; from
Simon's Bay, Vol. XV, p. 40 ; from Seal Island, p. 41 ; from
Marion Island, p. 42 ; from Kerguelen's Land, p. 43 ; from Heard
Island, p. 47. Algse, chiefly Polynesian, p. 235 ; from Torres
Straits, Japan and Juan Fernandez, p. 446 ; from various localities,
p. 486.

Rev. M. J. Berkeley, M.A., F.L.S.

Enumeration of Fungi, Vol. XIV, p. 350.

Ibid., Vol. XV, p. 48. Ibid., Vol. XVI, p. 38, PI. II.

W. T. Thistleton Dyer, M.A., B.S.C., F.L.S.

Note on Algae in Hot Springs, Vol. XIV, p. 326.

W. Archer, F.R.S., &c.

Notes on Collections made from Furnas, Azores, containing Algae, &c,

Vol. XIV, p. 328.
Notes on Fresh-water Algae collected by H. N. Moseley, M.A. Vol.

XV, p. 445.

Dr. J. Stirton.

Enumeration of Lichens from the Islands of the Atlantic. Vol. XIV,
p. 366. Ibid., Vol. XVII, p. 152.

Rev. J. M. Crombie, F.L.S., &c.

Lichens of the " Challenger " Expedition. Vol. XVI, p. 21 1.

606 LIST OF BOOKS AND PAPEES.

The Eev. E. O'Meara, M.A.

On the Diatomaceous Gatherings made at Kerguelen's Land by H. N.
Moselet, M.A. Vol. XV, p. 55, PI. I.

J. G. Baker, Esq., F.E.S.

On the Polynesian Ferns of the " Challenger " Expedition.

Prof. H. G. Eeichenbach.

On some Orchidacese collected by Mr. Moselet of the " Challenger "
Expedition in the Admiralty Islands, Ternate and Cape York.
Vol. XV, p. 112.

William Mitten, A.L.S., &c.

The Musci and Hepatic* collected by H. N. Moselet, M.A., Vol. XV,
p. 59.

TRACK CHART WITH CONTOUR OF THE BOTTOM OF THE OCEAN

/ htil-t.u. •. 1

. . . ->s Majcus t:,-

"»

GENERAL INDEX.

Abbott, Mr. W. J., B.N., shooting Bird of

Paradise, 378.
Accena ascendens, 116, 165, 167, 191.
Acacia Koa, 497.
Acrocladia Mamillata, 307.
Admiralty Islands, the, 448 ; Fruit-pigeons

of the, 386 ; natives of the, 451-80.
iEolian formation, at Bermuda, 21 ; in ice-
bergs, 240.
Agassiz, Prof., on deep-sea animals, 586.
Agaricus phylicigena, 136.
Agouti at St. Thomas, 14.
Agrostis Antarctica, 194.
Ainos, 496.
Aizoon canariense, 46.

Albatross, origin of word, 129 ; Great White,
the, 171, 180, 254 ; nesting of the, 130, 172 ;
Sooty, the, 180, 183, 254; flight of the,
570; diffusion of plants by, 522; range of,
522.
Albino Fijian, 335.
Alcyonarians, phosphorescent, in deep sea,

590 ; various at Philippines, 404.
Aleurites triloba, 497.

Algae, at St. Paul's Kocks, 76 ; in hot water,
36, 383,416 ; parasitic in Foraminifera, 293 ;
parasitic in corals, 581.
Allopora, miniacea, 531; nobilis, 530; pro-
funda, 531.
Alpine, floras and deep-sea faunas compared,
585; plants, probable, of New Guinea, 434.
Alsophila Takitiensis, 518.
Amalopteryx maritima, 181, 192, 558.
Ambeknoh Kiver, the, 432.
Amboina, 387.
Amphioxus lanceolatus, 361.
Amsterdam Island, 135, 170.
Anas super ciliosa, 372.
Anchor, the ship's broken, 550.
Andes, the, not well seen from the coast, 543.
Angiopteris evecta, 518.
Anaus stolidus, 68, 123, 349,479; melanogenys,

68, 123.
Antelopes, habits of, 150.
Antennarius, nest of, 567.
Antipodes Island, parroquets at, 211.
Ant-lion, 50.

Ants, Leaf-cutting, habits of, 104 ; curious
relation of, »to plants, 389 ; on board the
" Challenger," 593.

Api Island, 342.
Apium australe, 111, 115.
Aplysia, 48.

Aptznodytes longirostris, 176, 197.
Aptcryx Amtralis, attitude in sleeping, 125.
Arafura Sea, 366.
Areca, 351.

Archer, Mr. W., on algae in hot springs, 36.
Arctocep/mlus, 204.
Arenga saccharifera, 392.
Argus, origin of story of, 424.
Argynnis, 134.
Armadillo, the Pigmy, 146.
Arrows, leaf, at Kb Islands, 381 ; poisoned,
at Api, 346; at the Aru Islands, 374;
of Humboldt Bay, 444.
Art, native, in the Admiralty Islands, 470.
Artamus leucopygialis, 353.
Aru Islands, 366 ; bows and arrows of, 374 ;
houses of, 370, 374 ; ornaments of, 371 ;
dredgings off, 589.
Arundo donax, hedges of, 33.
Ascension Island, 561 ; migration of turtles

at, 133.
Ascidian, remarkable deep-sea, 587.
Aspidium mohrioides, 167.
Aspleniiim, Nidus, 308, 518, 519 ; obtusatum, 110.
Asthenosoma, 13.
Astraiidse, 307.
Astrcea, 360, 362, 385.
Astylus subviridis, 531, 533.
Atlantic Ocean, form of the sea-bed of the,

584.
Atya sulcatipes, 61.

Australian Blacks, 353; camp of, 354; caves
middens, and drawings of, New South
Wales, 273 ; description of clergyman by.
411; English of, 359; food of, 357; at
Government Keserve, 261 ; habits and
utensils of, 355 ; ideas of after life, 359 ;
method of smoking of, 356 ; nakedness of,
359 ; tracks of, on trees, 258.
AzoreUa, selago, 165, 167, ' 168, 191, 224;

trifoliata, 547.
Azores, The, 29.

Baboons, habits of, 143.
Baker, Mr. J. G., on ferns, 393.'
Balanus, 433.

608

INDEX.

Balfour, A. F., Lieut. B.N., ascent of Ter-
nate, 392.

Batistes, habits of, 74 ; noise made by, 51.

Bahia, appearance of town, 85.

Bamboo Jews -harp, 401 ; spears, 402.

Banda Island, 382 ; zones of vegetation at,
45.

Bandicoots, hunting, 269.

Banksia, 266; Loranthus on, 545.

Barracuda, 74, 156.

Barrington, Hon. Dalnes, experiments on
song of birds, 377.

Barringtonia, 387, 433.

Basilan Island, 405.

Bat. Fruit, feeding on flowers, 291 ; habits
of, 268; at Aru, 375.

Bat, pouch-winged, 103.

Bathyactis symmetrica, size of, in deep water,
586.

Bathyergus suilus, habits of, 145.

BdeUostoma, 156.

Bee Eater, 353.

Belemnites, search for, 586.

Bell, origin of the, from wooden drum, 322.

Beione, 58, 83, 88 ; habits of, 479.

Belt, Mr. Thomas, on Ants, 104 ; on cock-
fighting, 413; on dress in Nicaragua,
411; on sharks, 325.

Bendigo, 259.

Bennett, Dr. G., on Nautilus, 299 ; on Onii-
thorynchus, 263 ; on Porto Praya, 65.

Berkeley, Rev. M. J., on fungi of Tristan
da Cunha, 136.

Bermuda, 18.

Betel, chewing of, 464.

Bethell, G. R., Lieut. B.N., excursion with,
546.

Betsey Cove, 196.

Bible, the, of a Boer, 150 ; King Thackom-
bau's, 319.

Bipalium, 494.

Birds, at Api, 345 ; burrowing, 123, 125, 131,
207, 560 ; change of habits in, 125 ;
migrations of, in Torres Straits, 364;
learning by experience, 74 ; Land, met with
at sea, 482 ; notes of, not necessarily a test of
race, 377 ; of Heard Island, 230; of prey
at St. Jago Island, 59 ; Sea, nesting with
Land, 83 ; Sea resting on drift-wood, 367 ;
tameness of, 122,210, 552; young, pug-
nacity of, 72 ; young, power of conceal-
ment of, 552.

Birds of Paradise, the King, 377 ; arrows
used to kill, 374 ; for sale, 391, 392 ; the
Great, cry of, 376 ; the Great, nunmit of,
375.

Birgiis latro, 304, 403.

Blekk, Dr. W. H., on Bushmen, 148.

Bladder-nose Seal, 129.

Bligh's Cap, l«:i.

Boatswain Birds, 25, 282, 5! 6, 563.

Boatswain-Bird Island, 562.

Bodleian Library, Pigeon- English at the, 416.

Bolas, the, for cattle, &c, 557 ; for wild
geese, 558.

Bolax g/cliaria, 166.

Bombinator igneus, 93.

Bonito, mode of catching, 53.

Boobies, 68, 83, 363, 563 ; nests of, 72, 83,
349, 563 ; young of, 72.

Booby Island, 83, 363 ; a resting place for
migrating birds, 364.

Books, Chinese, development of, from the
roll, 417.

Borborus apterus, 559.

Botany Bay, 266.

Botryococus in hot springs, 36.

Bows and arrows, of Api Islanders, 346;
gradual development of, 443 ; at Humboldt
Bay, 443 ; not known at the Admiralty
Islands, 468, 478.

Bradypus tridactylm, 104.

Brazil, convict settlement of, 78 ; slavery in,
106 ; excursions in, 85.

Brine, Capt. Lindesay, B.N., visit to
Crozets, 183.

Bromeliaceous epiphytes, 15, 90, 278.

Browera Creek, 270.

Brown, Mr. K., on colour of muscles of
seals, 204; on discolouration of Arctic
seas, 249 ; on food of seals, 189.

BrowNE, Sir Thomas, on Unicorns' horn,
426.

Buchanan, Mr. J. Y., on natural sand-
blast, 222 ; on rocks of Kerguelen's
Land, 195 ; on ice, 233, 250 ; on stones
dropped by ice, 219 ; on St. Paul's Rocks,
75 ; at Humboldt Bay, 442 ; experiment
on deep-sea pressure by, 579.

Buckholtz, Dr., on food of seals, 189.

Buffaloes, 395.

BURETA, 310.

Burials, of Admiralty Islanders, 476; of

Australian Blacks, 360 ; of Hawaians, 498 ;

native, at the Cape of Good Hope, 149 ;

in Torres Straits, 363.
Bushmen, middens of, &c, 149.
Butterfly, clicking, 89 ; at Tristan da

Cunha, 134 ; Bird- winged, 373.

Cacatua galerita, 264, 352.

Cactus, 16, 141, 544.

Caladium esculentum, 35, 464.

Calcareous, algse, 12, 76, 581, at St. Vincent
Island, 46 ; sand, pipes formed by, 149 ;
sandstone, with volcanic intermixture,
78 ; sandstone, weathering of, 78, 83.

Caldeira de? Sette Cidades, 37.

CaUitriche Verna, 191, 224.

Calophyllum inophyllum, 305, 387.

Calornis metalhca, 372, 382.

Calotragus melanutis, 151.

Calycopterix Moseleyi, habits of, 192.

Cameron, S. L., Commander R.N., on pile-
dwellings, 400.

Camiguin Island, volcano at, 409.

Campbell and Auckland Islands, the, 189.

Cannibalism, at Fiji, 318, 320, 325, 327 ; at
Fiji and New Zealand, 339 ; of white
men, 341 ; at Admiralty Islands, 473 ;
cannibal convicts interviewed, 309.

INDEX.

609

Canoes, at Caxoelra, 93; building, 326

felling trees for, 406 ; Fijian double, 340 ;

voyage in a, 314 ; of Admiralty Islanders,

466.
Canton, 419.

Cap worn by Madeira peasants, 40.
Cape flats, the, 139, 148.
Cape of Good Hope, 151, 152.
Cape Town, 143.
Cape Verde Islands, 41.
Cape York, 350.
Caranx, 53, 71, 479.
Carcharias, 434 ; fishing for, 71 ; large, at

St. Jago Island, 57 ; brachiurus, 8, 281 ;

gangeticus, 325.
Cardisoma, 26, 64.
Garble p lumipes, 431.
Carmichael, Captain, experiment on the

Albatross by, 131.
Carpenter, Dr. W. B., 595 ; on algse, 581 ;

originator of the expedition, 598 ; on

phosphorescence, 590.
Carpophaga, Concinna, 382, 386 ; pacifica,

292, 304 ; rhodinolcema, 386, 479.
Caryota, 351.

Cassava, preparation of, 102.
Cassowary, 372, 390; tame on board the

" Challenger,"' 595.
Casuarina, 290 ; Loranthus on, 545.
Catamaran, 81.
Cattle, driven over the Andes, 547 ; mode of

driving in Brazil, 98, 101 ; at Tristan da

Cunha, 113 ; various modes of handling,

557; wild, of the Falkland Islands,

556.
Caiderpa clavifera, 76.
Cavalli, fishing for, 71, 74.
Caves, corals growing in, 27 ; in Inaccessible

Island, 128 ; in sandstone rock, 22 ; at

Kerguelen's Land, 196.
Caxoelra, 92.
Cebu Island, 407.
Cephaloptera, 65.
Centrococcyx viridis, 404.
Centropus phasianus, 352.
Centipedes on board the " Challenger," 594.
Cereus, 16, 141 ; Quisco, 544.
Cerianthus, Bathymelricus, 409, 583 ; very

large, 408.
Ceroxylon Australe, 541.
Cestracion Philippi, 276.
Chameleon, tameness of, 154.
Chamisso, on drift wood at sea, 368.
Channer, A., Lieut., R.N., excursion with,

516, 553 ; killing a Sea-elephant, 201 ; pet

spaniel of, 132 ; sketch by, 355.
Chant, of Fijian pilot, 321 ; Fijian, used in

dances, 329 ; of the Ke Islanders, 379 ; of

the Admiralty Islanders, 472.
Chara, 200.

Charles Lewis Mountains, The, 434.
Chatham Islanders, 340.
Chaves, Sr. J. M. Q,., Crustacea from, 62.
Chelifer, 73.
Ckelone, imbricata, 479 ; food of, 568 ; midas

479, 561.
Chenopodium lomentostim. 111.

Chinese, dinner, 422 ; and English delicacies
compared, 422 ; and Japanese books, 418;
loss of language by; graves of, 391;
fighting cocks of the, 414 ; writing and
European compared, 417 ; in the Sand-
wich Islands, the, 497; examinations,
420; floral decorations, 421.

Chionis, alba, 209 ; minor, 171, 179, 209.

Chirodota, 402.

Chloephaga Patagonicha, 551.

Chlorophyll, importance of, 567.

Chevreulia, 136 ; Thouarxii, 547.

Cimoliornis Diomedeus, 523.

Clapmatch, origin of name, 129.

Climate of Antarctic Ocean, 255 ; of Heard
Island, 227 ; of Kerguelen's Land, 214;
of Tristan da Cunha, 112.

Clock, water, at Canton, 419.

Clotho arietans, 153.

Clubs, decorative and processional in Fiji
and England, 332 ; Fijian, 329.

Coal at Kerguelen's Land, 199.

Cobra, the 153.

Cochineal fields, curious appearance of, 2.

Cockatoos, 264, 352 ; and parrots, 372 ; Black,
352, 479.

Cock fighting, 95, 412 ; spurs for, 413.

Cockroaches on board tlie "Challenger," 592.

Cocoanut palm scarce inland at Fiji, 324 ;
does not thrive at Cape York, 351.

Camobita, 304.

Camoplana, 279.

Cainopsammia Ehrenbergiana, 52.

Coffee, wild, berries eaten by pigeons, 387 ;
at Bermuda, 24.

Cold water cure in Japan, 488.

Collocalia, 479 ; spodiopygia, 292.

Colobanthus Kerguelensis, 193, 224.

Colours, protective, of animals, 13, 349, 567-8 ;
of birds, experiments proposed on, 373 ; of
deep-sea animals, 591 ; of muscles of shark,
281 ; of muscles of seals, 204.

Colouring matters of Turacou, 161; of deep-
sea animals, 592.

Coluniba, Uvea, 60 ; oznas, 542.

Condor, the, 548.

Cook, Captain, observations of, 386, 508 ;
worshipped by Hawaians, 505.

Cookson, Commander R.N., 595.

Coolies, Japanese, endurance of, 482-5.

Corals, 306 ; at Bermuda, 27 ; at St. Vin-
cent Island, colours of, 52 ; Blue and
Organ corals, 404 ; Brain and Mushroom
corals, 385 ; dying at the top, 290, 343,
385; growing in caves, 2/ ; living exposed
at low tide, 385 ; living detached, 344 ;
large size of certain, 17 ; mud flats formed
by, 360-62; Mushroom, life history of,
524 ; Precious, fishery of, 65 ; coral rock at
Aru Islands, 378; stinging of, 388;
parasites in, 581, 590; deep-sea, 586.

Corallinacece, 65, 74 ; at Fiji, 306 ; at St.
Vincent Island, 46; in great depths,

581.
Coranderrk, 261.
Cordyceps sinensis, 422.
Co riphilus fringillaceus, 292.

R R

610

INDEX.

Cormorants, 152, 155, 171, 212, 229.
Costumes, Fijian fancy, 831 ; of women at

Fayal, 31.
Counting, of Gudangs no higher than three,

358 ; method of, by Admiralty Islanders, 456.
Courtship, of Great White Albatross, 174 ; of

Mollymauk, 131.
Corvo Island, 54.
Coryphozna, 434.
Cotula plumosa, 191.

Cox, Mr., R.N., boatswain H.M.S. "Chal-
lenger," use of trammel net, 51 ; seining

at St. Jago Island, 57.
Crabs, habits of, 59, 70; King, 402; at

Bermuda, habits of, 26 ; at St. Vincent

Island, 48 ; Land and Birgus, breathing

organs of, 305; Hermit, terrestrial, 17, 304 ;

Hermit, deep-sea, 590.
Crater, broken-down at Heard Island,

223 ; at Fatal, 30 ; of Kilauea, 500 ; of

Matuku Island, 293 ; of Teneriffe, 6 ;

of Ternate, 393.
Creagh, Mr. C. V., translation by, from

Chinese, 424, 428.
Crickets, House, on board the " Challenger,"

593.
Crithagra insidaris, 122 (note).
Crocodile, 479.
Crotophaga am, 13.
Crow, Piping, the, 257.
Crozet Islands, 181.
Crozier, Mount, 185.
Crosbie, A., Staff Surgeon R.N., 380, 578.
Crusoe, Robinson, 537.
Cryptogamia of Tristan da Cunha, 136;

absent at Raine Island, 348.
Cry, of the Api Islanders, 343 ; used in

mountains by Fijians, 326 ; of the Gibbon,

337; of Papuans, 438.
Ctenomys, 146.

Cuajiro Indians, houses of, 399.
Cuckoo, Golden, the, 404 ; Pheasant, the,

352.
Currents, oceanic, 68 ; at Kerguelen's

Land, 185 ; seeds transported by, 17, 135,

164.
Cuscus, 384, 465, 479.
Cyclops Mountains, the, 435.
Cystlsoma, 589.

Dactylopterus, 562 ; flight of, 571.

Dana, Prof. J. D., on the area of the Fiji
Group, 302 ; on basalt at Fiji, 317 ; on
corals, 290, 306, 307 ; on coral rock, 21 ;
on the geology of Eua Island, 282 ; on
the genus Atya, 61.

Dance, club, 331 ; fan, 332 ; development of
the, 333 ; of Admiralty Islanders, 472 ;
of Fijians, 314 ; grand, at Fiji, 327 ; of Ke
Islanders, 380 ; Mahommedan, 387 ; of
Lutaos, 400 ; waltz by Malays, 387.

Daption capensis, 134,183, 229. "

Darwin, Mr. C, <>n Aplysia, 48; on the bolas,
557 ; on " carne con cuero," 560 ; on

continental areas, 587 ; on Dlodon anten-
natus, 52 ; on expression, 284 ; on flora of
Kerguelen's Land, 169 ; on the Tucutuco,
146 ; on getting Are by friction, 289 ; on
Gvnnera, 538; on hooked seeds, 541; on
horses of the Falkland Islands, 555 ; on
icebergs, 243 ; journal of, 537 ; on lime-
stone bed at St. Jago Island, 55, 65 ; on
ostriches, use of wings by, 595 ; on peat,
23 ; on PeJecanoides urinatrix. 209 ; on
Petrels as carriers of seeds, 522 ; on sexual
selection in birds, 373 ; on spiders' webs,
382 ; on St. Paul's Kocks, 73 ; at Tahiti,
523 ; on tree in Fernando do jSTorhona,
78 ; on the Uspallata Pass, 544.

Dasyptilus, 435 ; pequetU, 392, 479.

Dasyurus viverrinus, 268.

Davids, Mr. Rhys, on embankments in
Ceylon, 485.

Deep-sea animals, food of, 581 ; colours of,
591 ; relations of, 590 ; fossil forms
amongst, 587 ; range of, 584 ; rich locali-
ties for, 589.

Deep-sea, faunas and Alpine floras com-
pared, 585 ; absence of sunlight in, 580 ;
pressure in, 579.

Deer, at Amboina, 390 ; at the Aru Islands,
379 ; introduced into the Sandwich
Islands, 500.

Delphlnus, 82.

Demiegretta sacra, 291, 322.

Dendrobium, 456.

Dendroseris, 542.

Denudation, by rain in New South Wales,
267 ; of Tristan da Cunha group, 136.

Depth, average, of the ocean, 577 ; relation
of, to area in the oceans, 576.

Diadema Antillarwn, 12.

Diatoms, Pelagic, 216, 566; staining ice, 249.

Dickens, Mr. F. V., trip with, 482.

Dickie, Prof. G., on algas, 65 ; on seaweeds
of Heard Island, 227.

Digging sticks of Gudangs, 357 ; of Hotten-
tots, 148.

Dicks<mia cidclta, 34.

Diodon, 271; antennatus , 51 ; hystrix, 52.

Diomedea, exulans, 134, 171, 180, 183, 254;
fuliginosa, 180, 183, 254 ; culminata, 129,
183, 254 ; Melanophrys, 254.

Diptera, of the Falkland Islands, 558 ;
of Kerguelen's Land, 192.

Dispersion, of insects, 384 ; of plants, 17,
135, 368, 419 ; of plants by birds, 164, 386,
522.

J)i.-<tichopora cocclnea, 531, 534.

Distribution, of genus Atya, 61 ; of Marsu-
pials, 142; of penguins, 119.

Dobbo, 367.

Dogs, run wild in penguin rookery, 132 ; of
the Admiralty Islands, 478.

Dodo, the, 598.

Domicella solitaries 295, 309.

Draco volans, habits of, 406.

Draccenas, planted by savages, 466.

Dragon, the, last seen in England, 426;
bones and teeth of, 423; Chinese account
of, 425 ; origin of, 423.

INDEX.

Gil

Dredging, deep-sea, process of, 578.

Dress, origin of, 412; peculiar, of Bisayans,
411.

Drift-wood, large masses of, 367 ; off New-
Guinea, 432 ; on deep-sea bottom, 583.

Drums, 379; log, 309; wooden, of Admi-
ralty Islanders, 471; wooden, Fijian, 321.

Drymis WinU-ri, 539.

Duck, loggerhead, the, tameness of, 552.

Dugong, the, 424 ; bones of, used as decora-
tion, 363 ; skulls of, placed in temples, 474.

Dules Malo, 516.

Duncan, Prof. Martin, on parasites in
corals, 581.

D'Urvillcea utilis, 165, 171, 227.

Dyer, Mr. W. T. Thiselton, on algte, 36,
410 ; on Lwanthus Aphyllus, 545.

Dykes, of Basalt, cleavage of, 46 ; volcanic,
109, 115, 196.

Easter Island, a sheep run, 515.

Eaton, Bev. A. E., on cry of petrels, 181 ;

on Diptera of Kerguelen's Land, 193.
Echidna, 266.
Echinometra, 47.

Echineis Remora, habits and colour of, 8.
Echium stenosiphon, 44.
Eggs, half-hatched, eaten, 412; of birds

hatched in sand, 4u3 ; of turtles, 561.
Emberiza Brazilknsis, 122 (note).
Empetrum nigrum, 110.
Equatorial current, 68.
Enhalus, 361.
Entada scandtns, 357.
Epeira clavipes, 382.
Epizoanthus p>arasiticus, 590.
Erica, arborea, 5, 7; Azorica, 34.
Erythrina Indica, 295, 352.
" Etna," the, Dutch ship of war, 438, 443, 445.
Errina labiata, 528.
Eua Island, 282.
Eubalaina Australis, 197.
Eucalyptus Amygdalina, 261.
Eudyptes, saltator, 117, 175, 195 ; chrysolophus

described, 195, 229.
Euphorbia, Canaritnsis, 2 ; tuckeyana, 42.
Euphyllia, 362.
Euplectella, 589 ; aspergillum, dredge used for,

407.
Euprepes cyanura, 479.

Eustephanus Eernandensis an&E. galeritus, o39.
Examination halls, Chinese, 421.
Exhibition at Kioto, 486.
Expressions and gestures, at the Admiralty

Islands, 457; of the Api natives, 346;

at Fiji, 336 ; of Fuegians, 551 ; of Gudangs,

360 ; of Japanese, 492 ; of Papuans, 440 ;

of rage used in fighting, 441.

Falkland Islands, the, 135, 553.
Fayal Island, 29.

Feathers, remarkable, of young ostriches,
152 ; of Chrysama, 303.

Feira St. Anna. 93,95.

Fernando do Norhona, 77.

Ferns, in the Azores, 33 ; preponderance of,
in vegetation, at Juan Fernandez, 537,
at Kermadecs, 280, at Tahiti, 518, of
Ternate, 393.

Fertilization of flowers, by bats, 291 ; by
birds, 354, 539 ; of introduced plants at
Juan Fernandez, 540 ; of introduced
plants at Tahiti, 524.

Festuca Cookii, 191.

Ficus Xorhonm, 82.

Fig tree choking itself, 371.

Fijian, chief, domestic life of, 328 ; " ula,"
338 ; convicts, 309 ; group, 293, 301 ; moun-
taineers, 309, 321 ; native's ignorance of
his age. 325.

Fiji, reality of rank at, 336.

Fire, getting of, by friction, 288 ; signal, of
Papuans, 435.

Fish, deep-sea, at Madeira, 38 ; living on
land, 295.

Fishing, for Snook, 156 ; mode of, at St.
Vincent Island, 52 ; at St. Paul's
Bocks, 71.

Fish-hooks of Admiralty Islanders, 467.

Fitchia nutans, 521.

Fjords, formation of, 185, 199, 549.

Flies, with rudimentary wings, habits of,
170, 181, 192, 558 ; House, on board the
" Challenger," 593.

Flight, of bats, 291 ; of birds, 13, 206 ; of
Draco volans, 406 ; of flying fish, 570 ; of
petrels and other birds, 569 ; loss of, at
breeding season, by albatross, 131, 173.

Flower, Prof. W. H., on tusks of Ziphioids,
158 (note).

Flowers, variety of, at the Cape of Good
Hope, 153 ; conspicuous, at Juan Fer-
nandez, 539.

Flowering season, Marion Island, 169 ; at
Tristan da Cunha, 134.

Flying-fish, flight of, 571 ; development of,
flight of, 479 ; hooked, 51 ; shooting at, 562.

Fogo Island, 54.

Fox, Gen. Lane, collection of, 451 ; on de-
velopment of weapons, 468 ; on savage
decoration, 509.

Foraminifera, at St. Vincent Island, 47;
large, 292.

Fortifications at Admiralty Islands, 472 ;
Fijian, 326 ; origin of idea of, 355.

Fossil, animals found in the deep-sea, 587 ;
wood at Kerguelen's Land, 195.

Francofinus, 145.

Frigate bird, 11, 82, 349, 563.

Fritz Muller on Ocypoda, 49.

Frogs, noise made by, in Brazil, 93.

Fringilla Teydeaivi, 8.

Fruit pigeon, 292, 304, 479.

Fuegian natives, 550.

Fucus vesiculous, 567.

Fulmarus glacialis, 206.

Funchal, 38.

Fun<n, growing, washed by sea-water, 455.

Fungia, 385 ; alternation of generations in,
524.

612

INDEX.

Fung Shui, 419.
Furnas, hot springs at, 35.
Fur Seal, 538 ; eating penguins, 189 ; killed,
187 ; pet, on board the " Challenger," 596.

Galeopitnecus Phil'qyjyensis, habits of, 405.

Galinis at St. Jago Island, 57, 59.

Galinula nesiotis, 122.

Garfish, 53, 479.

Gauchos, Scotch, 554.

Gammarus, Arcticus and Themisto, 189.

" Gazelle," ship of war, sounding by, 170,281.

Gecko at St. Vincent, 49, at Teneriffe, 7.

Geese, wild, caught with the bolas, 558 ;
shooting, 551.

Genettafelina, 153.

Geology, of Bermuda, 18 ; of Blue Moun-
tains, 267 ; of Kerguelen's Land, 185,
194, 195, 197 ; of Marion Island, 164,
180 ; of Mbau Island, 315 ; of Bat
Island, 83 ; of Baine Island, 347 ; of
St. Paul's Bocks, 75 ; of Ternate, 393 ; of
Tristan da Cunha, 127 ; deposits of land
organic remains in the deep sea, 583.

Geoplana, 279.

Geopdia, 353.

Gerry s, 571.

Georychus Capensis, 145.

Geyser, formation at the Azores, 35.

Gibbon, cries of the, 337.

Gilbert Islanders, 400.

Gilolo, 394.

Glaciers, at Heard Island, 217 ; descent
of, 244.

Glacial epoch in Heard Island, 223.

Glaciation in Kerguelen's Land, 185, 197.

Glaciated stones dredged in deep water, 583.

Gladiolus, 153.

Glaucus, 569.

Gleichmut dichotoma, 393, 521.

Globigerina, 574.

Gnat, wingless, 193, 559.

Goats, wild, at Juan Fernandez, 542 ; wild,
colour of, at St. Vincent Island, 54;
at Tristan da Cunha, 124 ; feared by
savages, 477.

Goat, pet, on board the " Challenger," 596.

GODDEFROY, BROTHERS, 283.

Gods, of Admiralty Islanders, 473 ; Chinese,
420 ; of Hawaii, 503-509 ; Japanese, 484.

Gonostomyus, 325.

Good Hope, Cape of, 138, 150, 152.

Goodridge, Charles, on King Penguins,
.178; nesting of albatross, 173; on the
Sea-elephant, 228; on tree trunks in the
Crozets, 182.

Gough Island, plants of, 136.

Gould, Mr., on birds from Booby Island,
365 ; on eggs of Chiouis, 210.

Grampus, a, 253.

Grapsus striyosus, habits of, 48, 59, 70, 83 ;
climbing trees, 26.

Green Mountain, St. Vincent Island, 43.

Grisebach, A., on diffusion of plants by

birds, 522 ; on Eucalypti and Acacias, 264 ;

on vegetation, of Bermuda, 24, of the

Azores, 35.
Ground Squirrel and owl in same hole in

China, 431.
Grysbok, 151.
Gryllus, 79.

Guava, the, encroachment of, at the Sand-
wich Islands, 496 ; at Tahiti, 515.
Guilandina bonduc, 17, 135.
Gulf-weed, fauna of the, 567.
Gymnetrus, 43U.

Gum trees, 33, 141, 258 ; giant, 260.
Gunnera Chilensis, 538.
Gunther, Dr. A. C. L. G., on Chloroscartes,

304 ; on deep-sea fish, 38 ; on Ptr'wpthal-

mus, 296 ; size of sharks, 10.
Gurnet, Flying, 51, 562, 571.
Gyyis Candida, 563.

Haastia, 169.

Haidahs, houses of the, 399.

Haeckel, Prof. E., on Medusae, bib.

Haemoglobin, in fish, 281 ; in Mammalia, 592.

Hair, of Admiralty Islanders, 458 ; curl of, in
various races, 459 ; forcing growth of, by
Fijians, 326 ; dressing at Fiji, 310, 328 ; at
Tonga, 284 ; on moles, significance of, 459.

Haircutter, equestrian, 546.

Halcyon, Erythroyastra, 56 ; sacra, 292 ; sancta,
278, 365.

Ilalimeda opuntia, 12.

Haliotis, 147 ; mode of cooking, 148.

Halmahera, 394.

Halmaturus ualabatus, 261, 269.

Halobates, 571.

Halobcena ccerulea, 181.

Halophila, 322, 361 ; flowering in 18 fathoms,
581.

Ilalyritus amphiblus, 193.

Hammer-headed shark, 52.

Hands clapped, during dancing, 329 ; to ex-
press astonishment, 337; to express respect,
in Japan, 337 ; in Fiji, 328.

Hands, gestures of, in dancing, 401.

Hand-marks made by Australian blacks,
275.

Hawaii Island, 499.

Heard Island, 196, 216.

Heat, toleration of, by plants, 36, 384, 410.

Hi lichrysum, 153.

Il< liconiai, 90.

Helicortia narcea, 85.

Heligoland, migratory birds at, 364.

Hdiopora cozndea, 404.

Hemiramphus, 58.

Hemp, Manila, 411.

Heritiera llttoralis, 433.

Hermit Island, 224.

Herpestes, 152.

Herpetolitha Umax, 386.

Hibiscus t ilia cuts, 2<S8.

llippotherium, 423.

Uirundo, tahitica, 295 ; rustica, 482.

INDEX.

613

Holothurians, abundance of, at Bermuda,
28; deep-sea, 591.

Honam, Monastery of, 421.

Hong Kong, 415.

Honolulu, 495; rainfall at, 497; scientific
library at, 512.

Hooker, Sir J. D., on the Big Trees of Cali-
fornia, 260 ; on the flora of Australia,
142 ; on the flora of Kerguelen's Land,
169, 200 ; on the flora of Tristan da
Cunha, 135 ; on ice stained by diatoms,
249 ; on vegetation of the Kermadec
Islands, 280; on vegetation of Posses-
sion Island, Heard Island, &c, 225.

Hooker Mount, 185.

Horses, charging with, 544; dealing in, in
Brazil, lUO ; with deformed hoofs, 554 ;
Falkland Island, domestic and wild,
554 ; learning not to trip in mole-holes,
145 ; and mules compared, 549 ; white,
worshipped, 482.

Horta, Town of, costume of women at, 31.

Hot springs, Azores, 35; at Camiguin,409.

Hottentots, middens of, 147.

Houses, of the Admiralty Islanders, 465,
of natives of Aru, 370; at Humboldt
Bay, 445 ; at Ke Dulan, 381 ; at the
Philippines 396 ; of Tongans, 286 ;
origin of first story in, 399.

Hoya, 345.

Humboldt Bay, 435.

Humming birds, of Juan Fernandez, 539 ;
flight of, 13, 570 ; shooting, 91.

Hura crepitans, 15.

Hutton, Capt. F. W., on Peripatus, 161 ;
on Land Planarians, 279.

Hybernation of animals on the Peak of
Teneriffe, 7.

Hydrocotyle, 135.

Hydnophytumformicarum, 389.

Hydrocorallince, 534.

Hydrophidas, 479.

Hydrosaurus namnoratiis, 405.

Hymenophyllum, 550 ; tunbridgense, 167.

Hynes, Mr. J., E.N., adventure with a rat,
594.

Hypsiprimnus, 269.

Hyrax cajjensis, habits of, 144.

Isabella, Port, houses of Lutaos at, 397.

lanthina, 568.

Icebergs at Crozets, 183 ; bi-tabular, 236 ;
colour of, 245 ; cleavage of ice of, 241 ;
dimensions of, 242 ; first sighted, 232 ;
foreign matter on, 243; height of, 238 ; run
into by ship, 251 ; stratified structure of,
239 ; sunset effects on, 247 ; typical form
of, and immersion of. 233; wash lines on,
235.

Ice, pack, 248 ; stained by diatoms, 249 ;
stream, 249.

Ichneumon, 153.

Indulgences, Papal, sold in Philippines,
414.

Ilo Ilo, pile-dwellings at, 398.

Inaccessible Island, 114; position, appear-
ance, and vegetation, 115 ; German settlers
at, 116 ; penguins at, 117 ; other birds at,
122 ; wild goats and pigs at, 124.

Insects, ancestor of, 159 ; .of Heard Island,
230 ; Pelagic, 571 ; at summits of volcanoes,
384 ; of St. Paul's Kocks, 73 ; swarms
of, blown off land, 85.

Inter-breeding in islands, 512.

Invocation of winds at Fiji, 321.

Ipomaza pes Caprce, 18, 56, 79, 304, 345, 433.

Iron, clamoured for by savages, 438, 451.

Islands, oceanic, necessity for investigation
of, 599.

Istlophorus, 448.

Itch, Vegetable, the, 379.

Jack fruit, 88, 392.

Japan, 481.

Ja23anese, picture books, 493 ; sight seeing,

483 ; women, drink of, 495.
Jatropha, curcas, 57, 63; gossyplfolia, 78;

manihot, 102 ; urens, 79, 83.
Jeffreys, Mr. Gwyn, on phosphorescence,

590.
Jew's-harp, of Admiralty Islanders, 471 ;

of Lutaos, 401.
Juan Fernandez, 537 ; Sea-elephant at,

201 ; Fur Seal of, gcat of, 596.
Jukes, Mr., on calcareous rock, 21 ; on

Kaine Island, 347.
Jumperus barbadensis, 23.

Kaava, at Tonga, 287 ; drinking, 320 ; mode

of preparing, effects of, &c, 311.
Kandavu Island, 301.
Katkartes pernicopterus, 53.
Ke Islands, 379.
Kentia, 323 ; exorhiza, 294.
Kerguelen's Land, 45, 135, 169, 184.
Kerguelen Cabbage, described, 167, 191;

seeds of, eaten by teal, 190.
Kerguelen Plateau, 170.
Kermadec Islands, 280 ; dredgings off,

589.
Kidder, J. H., M.D., on Chionis, 210 ; on the

flora of the Crozets, 183.
Kilauea, crater of, 500.
Kingfisher, at St. Jago Island, 56 ; jewels

made of feathers of the, 420 ; marine habits

of a, 278.
King, Kalakaua, 497 ; Thackombau, 309,

319 ; George, of Tonga, 320.
Kioto, 486.

Kirk, Mr. T., on the Eata, 278.
Kitchen middens, at the Cape of Good

Hope, 147 ; Australian, 273, 354 ; at Fiji,

316, 326 ; at Magellan's Straits, 552.
Kites, mode of feeding of. 55.
Knysna Forest, the, 161.

er2

614

INDEX.

Labillardiere, M., 450.

Land Crabs, catching, 536 ; killing rabbits,

561 ; young of, 64.
Land Nemertine. 26.
Land Planarians, 89, 154, 279, 494.
Language, loss of by all races, but English,

391; Malay and Spanish mixed, 405; Malay,

simplicity of, 369 ; savage, changes of, 358.
Lankester, Prof. E. Eay, ou Haemoglobin,

281 ; on Terrestrial Annelida of Kergue-

len's Land, 215.
Lams, dominlcanus 155, 212, 230, 278 ;

Novce Hollandke, 266, 348 ; scopulinus, 266.
Lasso, the, used in the streets, 544 ; use of

in robbery and flirtation, 548.
Laughing Jackass, 257.
Laughter, of Fijians, 337 ; remarks on, 337.
Lava, ponds of fluid, at Kilauea, 501 ; flow

in Inaccessible Island, 127.
Lavandula rotundifolia, 42.
Leaves, vertically of Australian, explained,

264.
Lecanora esculenta, 344.
Lefroy, Gen. Sir J. H., self-sown grapes

found by, 24 ; assistance to Expedition by,

28.
Legge, Rev. James, on Chinese natural

history, 431.
Leprosy at the Hawaian Islands, 512.
Leptocephalus , 281.
Leucadendron argent eum, 142.
Libations, pouring of, 420.
Lichens at Kerguelen's Land, 193.
Limestone bed at St. Jago Island, 64.
Limosel/a, 194, 227.
Limnhis rotundicaudatus, 402.
Lingula, 402.

Li Shi Chan, medical works of, 425.
Lithodomns caudigerus, 47.
Lithothammion, 47, 65 ; polymorphum, 76.
Little Saba Island, 16.
Livoni, visit to, 308.
Lomarla, Alpina, 111, 167 ; Botyana, 113.
Loranthus, Aphyllus, 545 ; celastroides, 545 ;

Eucalypti folius, 545 ; eucalptoides, 545.
Lutaos, the, 396, 402.
Ijutra inunguis, habits of, 154.
Lory, Rev. H. C, on Diptera, 559.
Lumbriculus, 194.
Lyallia Kerguelensis, 167, 169.
Lycopodium, 393.

Lycosa, habits of, 13 ; on board the " Chal-
lenger," 596.
Lyell, Sir C, on diffusion of plants, 386.
Lygodium retiadatum, 295.
Lyre Birds, 261, 270.

Mceandrina, 3H5.

Mbau Island, excursion to, 314.

McArthuk, Sir W., seat of, in New South

Walks, 267 ; on Loranthus, 545.
Macdonald Island, 216.

Macdonald, Dr. J. D., R.N.,on fish at Fiji,

325.
MacGillivray, Mr., 280 ; on Gudangs, 354,

358.
Maclean, Staff-Surgeon G., R.N., 595 ;

curious medical fee to, 361.
Maclear, Capt. J. P. L. P., R.N., use of air

gun, 593.
Macrocystis pirifera, 116, 205, 227, 567.
Mactan Island, 408.

Madeira, 38 ; cap worn by peasants of, 40 ;
streets of, Grand Cural, 39 ; sunset
effect at, 61 ; wine, 40.
Madrepora, 17, 306.
Magellan Straits, 549.
Magenta, useless on a dark skin, 463 ; in

China and Japan, 489.
Majaquens aiquinoctkdis, 137, 208, 254.
Malamoui Island, 405.
Malanipa Island, 406.
Malays, at the Cape of Good Hope, 141;

pets kept by, 384.
Manchineel, 16.
Manganese, used as paint, 463.
Manilla, 411.
Mauna Loa, form of, 499 ; glow from crater

of, 500.
Maoris, cannibalism of, 339.
Maorioris, 340.

Map, Tahitian mountain, 520.
Marco Polo, on the Unicorn, 424.
Marion Island, 163.
Marsupials, distribution of, 142.
Mas-afuera, birds of, 539.
Materia Medica, ancient, in England, 427 ;

Chinese and Japanese, 423.
Mattjku Island, 293.
McKellar, Mr., ostrich farm of, 151.
Meangis Islands, 432 ; dredgings off, 589.
Medicine, Chinese, 425 ; old English, 426,

427 ; flesh of strange animals used as, 97.
Medusce in fresh water, 272 ; upturned, 404.
Megapodius, eggs of, 403 ; tumidus, 353, 365.
Melastomacece, 95.
Melbourne, 256.
Melville Island, 225.
Membrampora, 567.
Merops ornatus, 353, 365.
Mesoplodon Layardii, 157.
Messier Channel, the, 549.
Metrosideros, 521 ; Robusta and Florida, 278.
Migration, of animals in the deep sea, 583,
585 ; of birds to Bermuda, 24 ; of birds of
the Sandwich Islands, 500; of birds,
Torres Straits, 364; of penguins,
turtles, and seals, 133.
Mice, at Fernando do Norhona, 79 ; at
Tristan da Cunha, 114 ; at Marion and
St. Paul's Islands, 181.
Mikloucho Maclay, 392 ; at Admiralty

Islands, 450, 460.
Microglossia!! aterrimum, 352.
Miers, Mr. E. J., Crustacea of Kerguelen's

Land, 215.
Mill, women at the, in the Azores, 34.
Millepora, nodosa, structure of, 525 ; sting-
ing of, 388.

INDEX.

615

Milleporidm, 307.

Milvus korschum, 55.

Milne Edwards, M. A., on Rhlnopit 'he c us ,429.

MlNDONAO, 395.

Misodendron, 546.

Missionaries, Dutch, 369; at Fiji, 315, 320,

327, 330, 335 ; at Tonga, 285, 287.
Mitten, Mr. W., mosses of Marion Island,

168; mosses of Tristan da Cunha, 136.
Mistletoe, 90 ; leafless on cactus, 545 ; valu-
able on Australian trees, 545.
Mobius, Dr. K., on the flight of Flying-fish,

570, 571 ; on deep-sea animals, 581.
Mole, the Golden, 147 ; the Sand, habits of,

145 ; true, and Rodent compared, 145.
Moles, hairy, signification of, 459.
Mollusca, shells of, composing rock, 19.
Mollymauk, 183, 254; nests of, 129, 130.
Monasteries, Chinese, 421.
Monkeys, at St. Jago Island, 60 ; figures of

in Chinese books, 429.
Montia fontanel, 191.
Moraines at Heard Island, 217; at

Kerguelen's Land, 198.
Morbid growths, due to reversion, 460.
Mormon fratercula, Celtic name of, 129.
Morunga elephantlna, 114, 171, 187, 200, 222,

227.
Moros, the, 396.
Moseley, Eev. Canon, on the descent of

glaciers, 244.
Moseley, Mount, 185.
Moss, Staff-Surgeon R.N.,on Arctic ice, 239.
Mosses at Heard Island, 225.
Mound-birds, 353, 365 ; eggs of, 403.
Mud spring, Azores, 37.
Mule, and horse as mountaineers, compared,
548; load of, in Brazil, 97; riding in
Brazil, 94 ; wounded, 547.
MiJller, Baron von, on Eucalyptus, 260.
Mullet, Gray, 271.

Murray, Mr. John, at Elizabeth Island,
552 ; at Humboldt Bay, 443 ; on sharks, 9 ;
use of tow-net in deep water, by, 575.
Musa, textllis, 411 ; uranoscopus, 517.
Museums, origin and development of, 3.
Musschenbroek, Mr. S. C. J. W. Van, on

Trigonla, 276 j at Ternate, 390.
Music, origin of, 333 ; instruments of, in
the Admiralty Islands, 471; knowledge
of, by modern Hawaians, 498.
Mus rattus, 594.

Mya truncata eaten by seals, 205.
Myrmecodla armata, 389.
Myrmeleon, 50.
Mythical animals, 423, 430.
Myzomela jugularis, 295.

Naja haje, 153.

Names, vernacular, of southern animals, 129.

Nares, Sir G. S., excursion with, 52, 79,

84; manoeuvres amongst icebergs, 252;

landing with, at Heard Island, 217.
Narwhal, the, 424.

Natural selection amongst wild horses, 556.

Natter ates, 9, 281.

Nautactis, 572.

Nautilograpsus minutus, 568.

Nautilus, ornament made of shell of, 345 ;

Macromphalus, 300; Pompilius, living,

caught, 297.
Navusa, 323.
Na Vatani Tawaki, 317.
Nectar inia frenata, 352.
Nectarinidm, 145.
Nelson, flag captured from, 8.
Nelson, Major-Gen., R.E., on geology of

Bermuda, 21.
Nemertine, Land, 26 ; Pelagic, 572.
Nephila, web of, 50.
Nesospiza Acuhnm, 122.
Neuopogon Taylori, 193.
Nertera depressa, 111, 116.
Nesoclchla eremita, 122.
Nestor, 434 ; Meridionalis, 279.
Nettle cells, tube composed of, 408 ; of corals,

388.
New Guinea, 432, 435; drift wood from, 432.
Newport, Mr., on the genus Atya, 61.
New Hebrides, 340.
New Zealand, 277; art of, related to

Hawaian, 510 ; tikis of, 509.
Nightingale Island, 126.
Ninox boobook, 352.
Nitella Antarctica, 194; jkxilis, 290.
Nukualofa, 286.

Oahu Island, 495.

Oasis, miniature, 51.

Obsidian, lance-heads of, 468.

Oceanitis, 183, 208, 499.

Octacnemus Bythius, described, 587.

Octopus, 125.

(Ecodoma, 104.

Ocypoda, 26, 403 ; ippeus, habits of, 48.

(Estrelata Lessoni, habits of, 208.

Oliver, Prof., on plants of Marion Island,

170.
Olfersla, 73.
Onslow, Capt., R.N., on chasm formed by

rain, 267.
Ophioglossum pendulum, 455.
Opuntia, plantations of, at Teneriffe, 2 ; at

Oahu, 496.
Opossums, Australian, shooting, 267 ; traps

for, 257.
Oracles, Japanese, consulted, 483.
Orotava, 4.

Orang Utan, significance of name, 430.
Orange and lemon, feral in Tahiti, 524.
Orbitolites, alga parasitic in, 292.
Orca amongst the ice, 253.
Greasier, very large, 363.
Ornament, Hawaian Hook, origin of, 504.
Ornithorynchus paradoxus, 262.
Omithoptera poseidon, 373.
Osaka, 484.

Oscillator'm in hot water, 410.
Ossifraga gigantea, 107, 134, 180, 183, 205, 254.

616

INDEX.

Ostrich farm, habits of the birds, at, &c, 151.
Ostriches, young, on board the ' ' Challenger,' '

595.
Otaria jubata, 189, 552.
Otariadce, 188, 204.

O'Meara, Rev. E., on Diatoms, 216.
Otosaurus microlepis, 292.
Otters, the sea, 494; the Clawless, habits

of, 154.
Otus Brachiotus, 500.
Ovulwn ovum shells, 466.
Owen, Prof., on fossil Mammalia, 423 ; on

Cimoliornis, 523 ; on tusks of Ziphioids,

158 (note).
Owl and rat in same hole, 431.
Oxalis, 135.

Pacific Ocean, shallows in, 584.

Pagoda, the Whampoa, 419.

Pagodroma nivea, 253.

Paguridaz, terrestrial, 17, 304 ; deep-sea, 590.

Painting of the body at Fiji, 331 ; at the

Admiralty Islands, 463 ; of face in

Japan and China, 489.
Palcemon in fresh water, 60.
Palm a Island, seen from the Peak of

Teneriffe, 5.
Palinurus, 74; frontalis, 542.
Palythoa, 48, 73.
Pandanus, 294, 370, 499.
Pandarus with Lepas attached, 281.
Pandion hcdlcetus, 476.
Pansch, Dr., on Arctic vegetation, 226.
Papeete, town of, 514.
Papiliof&ronia, 89.
Paradlsea Apoda, 375 ; papuana, 392 ; rubra,

392.
Paritium Tiliaceum, 497.
Parroquet, 211 ; brush-tongued, 352.
Parrots, African, ship full of, 41 ; pet, on

board the " Challenger," 594 ; at Tonga,

292 ; at Fiji, 304, 322, 325; at Aru, 372.
Patagonia, fjords of, 549.
Patagonians, saluting, 551.
Patella, 148.
Peak, of Teneriffe, ascent of, 2 ; of

Tern ate, ascent of, 392; the, of Tristan

da Cunha, 109.
Peat, at Bermuda, 23 ; at Marion Island,

165.
Pelagic, animals, range in depth of, 575 ;

animals, protective colouring of, 567,

569 ; plants and animals, 565, 576.
Pelargonium, 153; at Tristan da Cunha,

134, 135.
Pelagonemertes Rollestoni, 569, 572.
Pelamys bicolor, 292.
Pdea capreola, 151.
Pelacanoides urinatrix, 129, 171, 208.
Pele's hair, formation of, 502.
Pellcanus fuscus, habits of, 11, 15.
Penguins, 113, 115 ; origin of word, 129 ;

eaten by seals, 189 ; Jackass of the Falk •

land Islands, 560; Jackass at the Cape

of Good Hope, 155 ; Johnny, 175, 189
King, 176, 197 ; nesting in caves, 196
used as fuel, 229 ; Rock-hopper, 175, 195
Rock-hopper, mode of swimming, 117, 125
sensitiveness of iris of, 118 ; Rock-hopper
numbers of, at Inaccessible Island, 133
migrations of 133; Rock- hopper, rocks
worn by feet of, 128; Rock-hopper, rookery
of, 120, 127, 132.

Pentacrinus, many dredged, 589.

Parameles nasuta, hunting, 269.

Perlophthahnus, 295, 322.

Peripatus, at St. Thomas, 14; capensis, struc-
ture and habits of, 159 ; Aorce Zealandke,
279.

Peristera geoffroyi, 79.

Peruaguacu River, 92.

Pekon, on drawings of Australian Blacks,
275; on the Sea-elephant, 228; figure of
Sea-elephant, 202.

Petrel, diving, habits of, 208; Giant, 171,
180, 254; nesting of, 207, 521; Snow-
white, 253 ; flight of, 569.

Phaethon, 282, 516, 521 ; cethereus, 563 ; Jlavi-
rostris, 25, 563.

Phalacrocorax, verrucosus, nesting of, 212 ;
at Heard Island, 230 ; Capensis, 152, 155 ;
imperial'is, 230.

Phalanqista vulplna, shooting, 267 ; young
of, 268 ; traps for, 257.

Phalanger, Woolly, 384, 465, 479.

Phalaropus hyperboreus, 434.

Phascogale penicillata, 268.

Phascolarctos cinereus, 259.

Pheasants at the Cape of Good Hope, 145.

Philippine Islands, 395.

Phoca Greenlandica, 189.

Phosphorescence, in deep sea, 590 ; of
Pelagic animals, 574.

Phyllca arbovea, 110, 111, 115, 126, 135.

Physalus Australia, 252.

Picnics, Ministerial, 266.

Pico Island, 32.

Pigeon, with aberrant plumage, 303 ; Fruit,
292, 304, 364,382, 386, 479 ; Fruit, diffusion
of plants by, 386 ; Ground, 353 ; Nutmeg,
382 ; at St. Jago Island, 60 ; at Juan
Fernandez, 542.

Pigeon English, 415.

Pigmies, the, 428.

Pigs, of the Admiralty Islands, 478 ; wild,
125, 183 ; wild, destroying crabs, 403 ; at
Tahiti, 517.

Pigtails, Chinese and English, 423.

Pile dwellings, Papuan, 445 ; modifications
and origin of, 396-400.

Pilgrims, Japanese, 484.

Piper methysticum, 311.

Pilot fish, 281 ; habits of, 9, 10.

Pillows of Tongans, Japanese, &c, 286.

Pine-apple, fabric made from, 411.

Pityriasis versicolor, 3H0.

Planarians, large, marine, 402; Land, 89, 154,
279.

Plants, introduced, supremacy of, 496 ; diffu-
sion of, by flotation on sea, 135, 368, 419,
433 ; diffusion of, by Procellaridee, 522 ;

INDEX.

617

diffusion of by winds and birds, 24, 164,

386 ; on board the " Challenger," 594 ;

range of, in depth, 581 ; Pelagic, 216.
Platycerium, 270, 371.
Platycercus splendens, 304, 322, 324; tabuensis,

292.
Pleuronectids, Pelagic, 281.
Plumage, aberrant, of pigeon, 303 ; change

of, by heron, 291 ; of young ostriches, 152.
Poa cookii, 165, 167, 224*
Poetiy, origin of, 333.
Polyopogon, 589.
Polycheles, 297, 589.
Poly podium Austrcde, 167.
Population, of Heard Island, 229; of

Tonga, 287; of Admiralty Islands, 478.
Porcupine, hole of, 153.
Porites, 48, 344.
Porpita, 569.
Porpoises, 30, 271.
Porto Grande, 41.
Port Jackson, 266.
Porto Pray a, 55.

Possession Island, Crozets, 181 ; in Ant-
arctic Sea, plants of, 224.
Potts, Mr. T. H., on habits of the Kaka,

279 ; on Apteryx, 125.
Ponta Delegada, 32, 37.
Prawn, fresh water, at Cape Yerdes, 60 ;

at Fiji, 324.
Pressure, the, in the deep sea, 579 ; effect

of, on animals, 580.
Prince Edward Islands, 163.
Pringlea antiscorbidica, 167, 169, 191, 224.
Prion, 123, 181, 229, 253 ; deso lotus, habits

of, 207.
Procellaridce, 206.
Procdlaria rostrata, 521, 499.
Procession, at Ponta Delgada, 37 ; at

Bahia, 86.
Property, retained by natives of Api, 345 ;

relative value of Papuan, 439 ; hidden by

savages, 357.
Proteacece, 142.
Proiococcus offinis, 76.
Psammetichus, King, experiment of, 377.
Ptilinopus, i>ovi>liyvacms, 292, 324; suptrhus,

364.
Ptilotis, caruneidata, 292 ; crysotis andjiligcra,

351 ; procerior, 309.
Ptilorhis Alberti, 352.
Pttris aquilina, 33, 537.
Pteropus, 323, 375, 479 ; leraudrenii, 291 ;

poliocephalus , 268.
Pteropod with eyes on stalks, 514.
Puff-adder, 153.
Puffinus, 16, 123 ; nugax, 522.
Pycnogonids, giant, 586.
Pygosceles tceniata, 175, 189.
Pyrosoma, giant, 574.

Quail, painted, the, 364 -t at St. J ago Island,

56 ; at St. T
Quan Yin, 420.

56 ; at St. Vincent Island, 54.

Quedius, 73.

Qucrquedula Eatoni, habits of, 190.

Babbits of Teneriffe, 6 ; of Crozets, 183.
Kaces, congregation of, at Fiji, 336.
Badiolarians, yellow cells of, 293.
Bain, belt of excessive, 66 ; fall of, Honolulu,

497 ; effect of on distribution of ferns, 280.
Baine Island, 347 ; birds of, 348 ; insects

of, 350.
Rallus pectoralts, 348.
Ramphastos arid, 92.
Raoulia, 169.

Ranuncidus, biiernatus, 168 ; Moadeyi, 194.
Bat Island, 83.
Bats, Black, on board the " Challenger.'' 594 ;

at Fiji, 308, 324; Kangaroo, 269; at

Tahiti, 517.
Battans, 351, 372.
Beef, coral, encircling, 294 ; barrier, visit to,

at Fiji, 306 ; at Api, 343 ; raised, 282, 344,

389, 408.
Beligion, in the Admiralty Islands, 473 ;

in~CHiNA, 420 ; in Japan, 487, 493.
Remipes, 26.
Rtmora, the, 8, 11.
Rediacece, 142.
Betama, 5.

Rhea Americana, 595.
Bkeebok, 151.
Rhizomorpha girdles, 330.
Rhinopithecus Roxdlanoi, 429.
Bhinoceros horn, an antidote, 427 ; horn of,

cups of, 427 ; trickorhinus, 423.
Rhynchodemus, 154, 279.
Bibeira Grande, 34.
Bichards, Mount, 185.
Bice fields, 395, 485.
Ricliardia jEthiopica, 153.
Bichards, Mr. B., B.N., on habits of birds,

&c, at Tristan da Cunha, 116 (note).
Bine Bird, habits of the, 352.
Biver, great, of Fiji, 322 ; Ambernoh, the,

432.
Roches Moidonnes, 197.
Bolleston, Prof. G., Nemertine named after,

572.
Boss, Sir J., on icebergs, 242.
Boss, Mount, 185, 214.
Bowitt, Mr. B., 422.
Boyal Sound, excavation of, by ice, 198.
Rumcx, 110, 115.

Bumphius, his account of Nautilus, 298.
Rusa moluccensis, 379, 390.

Saccharum, 323, 433.

Saccopteryx canina, 103.

Salpm, 569 ; experiment on sinking of, 582.

Saluting, the, Patagonians, 551; remarks on,

387.
Samolus Valerandi, 51.

618

INDEX.

San Domingo Valley, 59.

Sandhurst, Town of, 259.

Sand-box tree, 15.

Sand, calcareous and silicious associated,
362 ; shifting of, 18 ; rock, calcareous, 347 ;
rock, calcareous, absent at Tonga, 290;
tracks of animals on, 152.

Sandwich Islands, the, 495.

Santa Cruz Major Island, excursion to,
402.

Sarcostemma Daltoni, 44, G3.

Sargasso Sea, 567.

Sargassum, 362, 367; bacclferum, 567.

Saunders, Mr. Howard, on Laridsa, 69, 266.

Savages, counting of, 358, 457 ; flower
gardens of, 466 ; forgetfulness of, 325,
358 ; difficulties in learning language from,
456 ; mistakes of, as to white men, 453 ;
relative decoration of sexes amongst, 461.

Sawfish in fresh-water, 325.

Sclater, Mr. P. L., on duck of the Sandwich
Islands, 500 ; and Mr. Salvin on Phala-
crocorax, 230.

Scyll&a pelaglca, 568.

Screw pines, 283, 294, 370; in Hawaii, 499.

Sea-anemone, living in tube, 408 ; deep-sea,
409, 586 ; Pelagic, 572.

Sea Beans, 17, 135.

Sea-elephants, 114, 171, 187 ; bones of, 222 ;
food of, 205 ; herd of, 200 ; trunk of, 201 ;
mode of hunting, habits of, 227.

Seal, Bladdernose, 203 ; food of, 189, 205 ;
Fur, 128, 188, 204; Fur, young, killed,
207; swimming of, 265 ; pet, 596.

Scalpellum, large, 586.

Sea-leopard, 200 ; bones of, 222.

Sea Serpent, the, 430.

Sea urchins, with poisonous spines, 12:
borings of, 42 ; at Fiji, 307.

Seemann, Dr., on Fijian calendar, 295 ; on
Musa, 517.

Seining at St. Jago Island, 57.

Selkirk, Alexander, 537, 538, 541.

Semper, Prof., on Fungla, 524; on lungs of
Land Crabs, 305.

Sequoia glgantea, 260.

Serolls, large, 586.

Sexual selection in butterflies, 373; experi-
ments proposed on, 373.

Sharks, at Fiji, 308; catching, 8, 71 ; colouring
of muscles of, 281 ; freshwater, at Fiji
and elsewhere, 325 ; large, caught, 57 ;
Port Jackson, 276 ; size of, and largest
known, 10 ; treatment of, by sailors, 58.

Sharpe, Mr. E. Bowdler, on birds of Ker-
guklen's Land, 214; on Ground Owls, 431.

Sheathbill, habits of, 171, 179, 196, 206, 209.

Sheep, from Faster Island, 515; at the
Falkland Islands, 553.

Signs, Papuan, expressing a gun, 437 ; ex-
pressive of killing a man, 441.

Silk-cotton trees, 15.

Silver tree, 142.

Simon's Bay, 139.

Slnapldendron Vogelll, 51

Sipkcmacece, 12.

Slpuncullds, larvae of, 402.

Stutchbury, Mr. G., on fungia, 524.

Skua, 123, 131, 174, 191, 206, 254.

Slaves, condition of, in Brazil, 105 ; property

of Europeans in Brazil, 102.
Snakes, at Cape or Good Hope, 153 ; feared

by savages, 477 ; Sea, 292.
Snipe, 395.

Solatium anthropophagorum, 339.
Sombrero Island, 8, 589.
Somerset, Cape York, 350.
Sonchus oleraceus, 115, 541.
Sorby, Mr. H. C, on Pele's Hair, 502.
Sounding, deep sea, time occupied in, 578.
Spalacini, 146.

Spartina arundlnacea, 110, 115, 117.
Spartocytlsus nublgenus, 5.
Speotyto cunlcularla, 431.
Spermojrfillus mongolians, 431.
Sphe?ilscus, Magcllanlcus, 119, 125, 156, 560 ;

demersus, 119, 155 ; minor, 125, 196.
Spkyrcena barracuda, 74.
Spider, Ground, 13 ; large, on board the

" Challenger," 596 ; making horizontal

web, 8.
Spider's web, bird caught in, 382 ; strong, 50.
Spondyhis shells at Bermuda, 21.
Sporadopora, 530.
St. Antonio Island, 41, 42, 50.
Stalactite deposit in streams, 378.
Starfish, giant, 363.
Starling, glossy, 382 ; nests of, 372.
Slatlce Jovls barba, 44.
Stenorynchus Leptonyx, 200.
Stephenson, Mr., excursion with, 256.
Stercorarlus Antarctlcus, 123, 131, 174, 191,

206,254.
Sterna, fullglnosa, 349, 363, 563 ; lunata, 479 ;

vlrgata, 171, 211.
St. Jago Island, 55, 56.
St. Michael's Island, 32.
Stone, sacrificial, at Fiji, 318.
Stone implements, at the Admiralty

Islands, 468 ; at the Cape of Good Hope,

147 ; grindstones for, 302, 319 ; used by

Gudangs, 357 ; at Fiji, 313 ; improved

modifications of, 326, 467 ; Papuan, 444 ;

Tahitian adze, 523 ; at Tonga, 289.
Stone, mounds surrounded by slabs of, 317,

327.
Stone weapons, of the Admiralty Islands,

468 ; scattered at the Falkland Islands,

560 ; Hawaian stone club, 510.
Storck, Mr., at Fiji, 323.
St. Paul's Island, 170, 189.
St. Paul's Kocks, 67 ; seaweeds of, 76 ;

Noddies and Boobies at, 68, 72 ; smallness

of, 74.
Strawberries, at Juan Fernandez, 538 ; at

Tahiti, 516.
Struggle for existence amongst birds, 213.
St. Thomas, 11.
St. Vincent Island, 41.
StylasHeridoe, structure of the, 527-35.
Suckling, Lieut. K.N., trip with, 308.
Sugar-cane, grown for chewing, 11 ; planta-
tions at Fiji, 324; at Admiralty Islands,

464; wild, 323, 433.

INDEX.

619

Suhm, K. von Willemoes, 26; on Ad-
miralty Islanders, 452 ; at Humboldt Bay,
442 ; bird caught in spider's web, 382 ; on
C'ardlsoma, 64 ; birds and butterflies of
Tristan da Cuxha, 122, 134; death of,
513 ; excursion with, 402 ; papers and draw-
ings left by, 513 ; wingless fly, 192.

Sulci, capensls, 155 ; cyanops, nest of, 349 ;
leucoyaster, 68, 349, 563; piscatrix, 349,
563.

Sulu Islands, 396.

Survivals in Chinese and Japanese funerals,
490.

Swiss chalets, origin of, 399.

Swallows, nesting on rocks, 145 ; seen at sea,
65, 482; on mountain tops, 295, 384.

Swifts, Tree, 292.

Swire, H., Lieut. E.N., sketch by, 81.

Swordfish, 253, 448.

Synapta, the Admiralty worm, 498 ; large,
at Api, 344.

Sydney, 266.

Sylvia, 79.

Table Bay, 138.

Table Mountain, 138; Kerguelex's Land,
187.

Tachypetes aaidla, 11, 82, 563 ; minor, nests of,
349.

Tahiti, 513.

Tahitians, ignorance of mountains by, 519,
523 ; national air of, 536.

Talaur Islands, and natives of, 432.

Taleyalla Lalhami, 353.

Talpa, 146.

Tamandua, roasted, 97.

Tameness of birds in islands, &c, 122, 190,
209, 552.

Tarentola, 7 ; Delalandll, 49.

Taro, 35, 464.

Tattooing of Admiralty Islanders, 463; at
Fiji, 319 ; Japanese, described, 491 ; re-
lation of, to dress, 412; origin of, 509 (note).

Taylor, Bev. Bichard, on New Zealand
Lake Fas, 400.

Teal at Kerguelen's Land, 190.

Telphusa, 561.

Temperature, of air at Marion Island, 170 ;
in the deep sea, 584 ; high, of sea water,
368 ; limit of, at which algfe grow, 410 ;
maintenance of, by seals, 204 ; of moun-
tain pools at Marion Island, 168 ; in the
mountains at Tahiti, 518; at Tristan

DA CUNHA, 111.

Temples, at Admiralty Islands, 473; at

Fiji, 316 ; of Horrors, Canton, 420 ;

Fapuan, 447 ; of Hawaii, 504.
Teneriffe, 2.
Tennant, Sir Emerson, on the Mermaid,

424.
Terebra metadata, adze blades made from,

467.
Termites, nests of, 14, 350.
Ternate, 390 ; Peak of, ascended, 392.
Test udo geometrica, 152.
Tetrastemma agricola. 26.

ThAckombau, King, burns a town, 309;
interview with, 319.

Tkalassia, 361.

Thalatsceca ylaclaloUhs, 134, 253.

Theatres, Japanese, 494.

Thomson, F. T., Capt. E.N., amongst Ad-
miralty Islanders, 475, 477 ; at Humboldt
Bay, 443.

Thomson, Sir 0. Wyville, 166, 185 ;
Director of Scientific Staff, 1 ; on deep-
sea phenomena, 589 ; at the dredge, 57* ;
on ;' Implosion," 580; originator of the
Expedition, 598 ; on range of Pelagic
animals, 575 ; on phosphorescence. 590.

Three-toed Sloth, roasted, 97 ; habits of,
104.

Threshing floor in the Azores, 33.

Thwaites, Mr. G. H. K., in Ceylon, 535.

Thynnus argtntlnttatus, 53.

Thyrsopterls eleyaits, 537.

Thysanodactylus blllneatus, 84.

Thysanozoon, 402.

Tidore, 390.

Tillcea moschata, 165.

Tizard, T. H., Staff-Corn. E.N., 369, 378;
593 ; temperatures of Marion Island,
170.

Toads, mewing, 93.

Tobacco, introduction of, to New Guinea,
357 ; market in Brazil, 97 ; pipes of
Gudangs, 356 ; smoked by Papuans, 437.

Tokelau race, 336.

Tombs, of chiefs at Fiji, 327 ; of Chinese,
at Ternate, 391.

TONGATABU, 282.

Tonga, King George of, 320.

Torres Straits, 361.

Tortoises, 152 ; large, on board the " Chal-
lenger," 595.

Toucans, shooting, 91.

Tracks, of animals in sand, 152 ; of Australian
Blacks on trees, 258 ; of OrnlthoryncUus,
263.

Trade, of Fijians, 324; of Papuans, 439;
of Admiralty Islanders, 451; gear, 451;
Wind, climatic effect of the, 45, 50.

Trap for Opossum, 258 ; for wild swine, 381.

Travers, Mr. H. H., on Maorioris, 340.

Travers, Mr. T. W. Locke, present of
specimens by, 279 ; on Maoris, 340.

Trees, destruction of, at Juan Fernandez,
538 ; high at Aru, 371 ; highest existing,
260 ; Composite, at Tahiti, 542 ; with
plank-like roots, 405 ; shedding leaves in
dry season, 94; transplanted by the waves .
368; trunks of , found in Cp.ozets, 182;
fossil at Kerguelen's Land, 195.

Trlbidus clstoldes, 43.

Trlchodesmlum, 566.

Trlchnylossus Svalnsonil, 352.

Trichomanes peltatum, 455.

Tridcwna, ornaments made from shell of,
470; living, appearance of, 362.

Trigger fish, 51, 74.

Triyonla, 276, 361.

Tristan da Cunha, 108 ; insects at, 134 ;
relations of flora of, 135.

620

INDEX.

Tr>/gon, 271 ; knives of spine of, 468.

T/lbipora musica, 404.

Tucotuco, 146.

Tumuli, under temples, 317; over graves, 327.

Tunny, the, 38.

Tupman, Capt. KM. A., on phosphorescence,

574.
Turacus albocristatus, 161.
Turbo operculum, 307 ; pica, 17.
Turkey Brush, the, 353.
Tiimix melanonotus, 364.
Turnstone, the, 348.
Turtles, 350, 479 ; eggs of, batching of, 561 ;

food of, 568.
Tussock grass, Tristan da Cunha, llo,

117, 126.

Ula, the, of Fiji, 338.

Unicorn, the, 424; horn of, experiments on,
as an antidote, 427 ; the origin of, 424.

Unio, 325, 326.

Uspallata Pass, excursion to, 544.

Vaccinium, 393, 521.
Vaginulus, 89.
Valparaiso, 543.
Vanessa. 134.
Vanilla at Tahiti, 524.
Vaquerios of Brazil, 98.
Vegetable itch, the, 379, 440.
Vegetation, Arctic and Antarctic, com-
pared, 225 ; debris of, on deep sea bottom,
583 • of the Admiralty Islands, 454 ; at
Api, 345 ; at Artj, 366 ; of the Azores,
34 • of the Cape of Good Hope, 140, 142 ,
introduced at the Cape of Good Hope,
141- of Cape York, mixed aspect of,
351; at Hawaii Island, 499; of Heard
Island, 224 ; of Kermadec Islands, 280 ;
of Mattjku Island, 294; at Tahiti, 518
521- of Tonga, 283, 290; of banks of
the Wai Levu, 323 ; limit in altitude of,
in Kerguelen's Land, 194; iu. Marion
Island, 168; in the Southern Islands,
225.
Velella, 568.
Ventriculites, 589.

Verreaux, M. Jules, on turacou, 162.
Virgin Islands, 11.
Visibility of islands at a distance, 54.
Viti, 323.
VitiLevu, 315.

Volcano, of Banda, ascent of, 382 ; active,

at Kerguelen's Land, 186; active,

Trachytic, 409; Hawaiau, eruptions of,

503 ; zones of vegetation on, 45.

Voyage, objects and duration of the, 1 ;

slowness of, 597.
Vultures at St. Vincent Island, 53.

Wai Levu, the, 322.
Wallabies, Bush, 261, 269.
Wallace, Mr. A. B., on' the Agouti at St.
Thomas, 14; on ferns at Tahiti, 518;
on Juan Fernandez, 540-41 ; on Kb
Island boats, 379 ; on moulting of Great'
Bird of Paradise, 376; on roots of trees,
405 ; at Wanumbai, 373.
Wallich, Surgeon Major, G. C, on distribu-
tion of deep-sea animals, 585 ; on colours
of deep-sea animals, 591 ; on icebergs, 243.
Walrus, food of the, 205.
Wamma Island, 367.
Wanumbai, 374.
Water clock at Canton, 419.
Waterhouse, Mr. C. 0., on the Coleoptera of

Kerguelen's Land, 193.
Waxworks in Japan, 493.
Weapons, native, of the Admiralty Islanders,
468 ; of Api, 346 ; of Fiji, 338 ; of Hum-
boldt Bay, 443 ; of Am Islanders, 370, 3/ 4 ;
mart for, at Cape York, 361 ; spurious, 496.
Wednesday Island, 361 ; birds of, 363.
Wellington, New Zealand, 277.
Wells, at Admiralty Islands, 465; at
Tonga, 290 ; at St. Vincent Island, 51.
Wesleyans at Fiji, 327, 331.
West Indies. 11.

Whales, 569;' origin of tail fin of, 26o ;
remarkable, with tusks, 157; southern,
mode of killing, 213 ; southern Fin-back,
blowing of, &c, 252 ; southern Whalebone,
197;- Ziphioid at the Falklands, o59 ;
following ships, 11.
Whisky Bay, 217.
White ants, nests of, 14, 350.
Wideawake, the, 349, 363, 563.
Wild, Dr. J. J-, 550 ; on Kerguelen

Plateau, 170 ; sketches of gods, 4/4.
Williams, Mr. Thomas, on Fiji, 317. _
Wilkes, Commodore, on Fiji, 318 ; on ice-
bergs, 242, 250 ; on the Lutaos, 398 (note) ;
on Fiji, 318, 341.
Wokan Island, 367.
Wood, drift, 367; from New Guinea Coast,

432.
Wood-lice, at St. Vincent Island, 51.
Woodwardiaradicans, §3, 34.
Wynberg, 140, 141.

Zamboanga, 395.

Ziphioid whale, 157, 559. _

Zones of vegetation, on mountains generally,
45- at Kerguelen's Land, 194; at
Marion Island, 168 ; at St. Jago Island,
63 ; at St. Vincent Island, 44 ; at Ter-
n ate, 392; in Arctic and Antarctic regions,

225.
Zostera eaten by deep-sea animal, 583.
Zoster ops, luteus andflawceps, 365.
Zygcena malleus, 9, 52.

HAEEI80N~A^l^r^^« IN OEDINAEV TO HER MAJESTY, ST. MARTIN. LAN.,

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Full text of "Notes by a naturalist on the "Challenger", being an account of various observations made during the voyage of H.M.S. "Challenger" around the world, in the years 1872-1876, under the commands of Capt. Sir G. S. Nares and Capt. F. T. Thomson"

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