rOTES ON MUHAMMADANISM
lEV. IP. HUGHES. CM. S
SECOND mrnm.
jl 7G6 Broadway
'^
'd PRINCETON, N. J. -''
^ PR^IICBTON._^:.
fiECJUN 1880
Division.
Section ..
Shelf. Number..
..B.?.l4..!
...a..a.a...
NOTES
ON
MUHAMMADANISM.
With the Publisher:
Compliments.
NOTES
MUHAMMADANISM,
BEING OUTLINES OF
THE RELIGIOUS SYSTEM OF ISLAM.
Rev. T. p. "^hughes, M.R.A.S.,
C.M.S., MISSIONARY TO THE AFGHANS, PESHAWAR.
SECOND EDITION,
EEVISED AND ENLARGED.
LONDON :
Wm. H. ALLEN & CO., 13, WATEELOO PLACE, S.W.
PUBLISHERS TO THE INDIA OFFICE.
1877.
(.411 rigMs reserved.)
LONDON :
FEINTED BY W. H. ALLEN AND CO.
PEIHCETOIT
RECJUN 1880
TO THE SECOND EDITION.
The favourable reception whicli has been ac-
corded to the first edition of these outlines
of the Muhammadan system has encouraged
me to put forth a revised and enlarged edition.
I am glad of the opportunity ; for, the first
edition contained numerous errors, consequent
upon my bringing it out during a short and
hurried visit to England, in the summer of
1875. Still, notwithstanding its numerous and
manifest short- comings, it has been pronounced,
by an eminent Arabic scholar, as not only
a 2
VI PEEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
"about the best outlines of Muslim faitb
lie had seen"; but as having '' the rare merit
of being accurate.^*
T. P. H.
Peshaivar, 16t7i August 1877.
PREFACE
TO THE FIRST EDITION.
Theee is a general impression amongst
European students of Islam, that it is a
simple system of Deism unfettered by numerous
dogmas and creeds, wliich are supposed to be
such an insuperable hindrance to an acceptance
of Christianity. Such was the opinion of the
historian Gibbon, and it is also the view taken
by some who seek to weaken the authority of
the Christian system by extolling the merit of
its great rival creed. But even amongst the
advocates of Christianity there is altogether an
erroneous impression as to what Muham-
madanism really is. Dean Stanley has an ad-
mirable chapter on the subject of Islam in his
VIU PEEFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
'' Eastern Church"; but he tells his readers that
'' the Quran contains the ivhole of the religion of
Muhammad " ; and Mr. Zincke, in his exceed-
ingly interesting book, " Egypt of the Pharaohs
and the Khedive," appears to be under the
same impression ; for he says, '' the Quran is an
all embracing a7id sufficient code, regulating
everything.'' Whereas the true state of the
case is, that whilst the Quran is the highest
authority for Muslim doctrine, still, the " faith-
ful," whether Sunni, Shi^'h, or Wahhabi,
must receive the sayings and practices of their
Prophet as of divine obligation ; for, in Islam,
the teachings of the " Sacred Traditions "
must be received side by side with that of the
Quran itself ; and the Muslim who would escape
the suspicion of heresy must not dare to
question the teaching of the learned doctors,
whose opinions have been handed down in
numerous commentaries and ponderous volumes
divinity.
In publishing these ''Notes on Muham-
PEEFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. IX
madanism," tlie author is fully conscious of
tlieir imperfections,* but lie ventures to liope
tliat tliey will contain information which may
be suggestive to Missionaries and others
interested in the study of Islam.
Upon a thoughtful study of the present work,
the reader cannot fail to observe what an
important place dogmatic teaching occupies in
the system under consideration. There are
those amongst English and Continental writers
who regard all dogmatic teaching as antiquated,
and who would recommend the Christian
Missionary to keep dogma in the back- ground,
when dealing with such a religious system as
Muhammadanism. But Muslim divines would
spurn such teaching as unworthy of theologians,
whether of Islam or of Christianity. The
trumpet must give no uncertain sound. It
is a solemn thing for a Christian Missionary to
be engaged day by day in unsettling the
* They are hond fide notes of a Dictionary of Islam,
which the author has in course of compilation.
X PEEFACE TO THE EIEST EDITION.
religious opinions of immortal beings, unless
he feels tliat he has something good and true
to offer in the place of opinions renounced. If
we call upon the millions of Islam to loose from
their moorings amidst the reefs and shoals cf a
false system, and to steer forth into the wide
ocean of religious inquiry, we must surely
direct them to some fair haven of refuge where
they will find rest and peace. It has been
well said by Dr. Martensen* that " a mind
starved by doubt has never been able to produce
a dogmatic system''; and we are quite sure
that all who have had practical experience of
Muhammadanism, will agree that none could
be so helpless in dealing with Muslim doctors,
as those who are wandering about in the un-
certainty of doubt, and cannot stand firm in
the certainty of faith.
On the other hand, Muhammadanism may
be used as a schoolmaster to bring men to
* " Christian Dogmatics," by Dr. H. Martensen, Bishop
of Zeeland, Denmark.
PEEFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION. XI
Christ, for mucli wliicli is contained in its
elaborate system is expressive of man's great
and exceeding need. Tlie Christian controver-
sialist, in dealing with Muhammadanism, must
ever remember that it contains a two-fold
element of truth. The Founder of Islam
derived much of his system from that great
unwritten law of God which is ever speaking
to men of every nation and of every clime ;
and he was also greatly indebted to the written
law of the Holy One of Israel, although he
received it from Talmudic sources. To quote
the words of Bengel, the commentator, " the
Law " — whether it be that written on the con-
science, or in the pages of the Quran, or in
God's revealed word — "the law hounds a man
till he betake himself to Christ ; then it says
to him, ' Thou hast found an asylum ; I pursue
thee no more; thou art wise, thou art safe.' "
Notwithstanding its fair show of outward
observance, and its severe legal enactments,
there is something in Islam which strikes at the
XU PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
very root of morals, poisons domestic life, and
(in its truest sense) disorganizes society. Free-
dom of judgment is crushed, and a barrier has
been raised not merely against the advance of
Christianity, but against the progress of Civi-
lization itself. It is impossible to account for
this peculiar feature in Muhammadan nations
by attributing it to the peculiarities of Oriental
races, or other accidental circumstances. The
great cause lies in the religious system which
they profess, which binds them hand and foot.
For everything in religion, in law, in life, and
in thought, has been measured for all time.
Muhammadanism admits of no progress in
morals, law, or commerce. It fails to re-
generate the man, and it is equally powerless
in regenerating the nation.
Futney, 17th August 1875.
CONTENTS,
I. Muhammad 1
II. Islam 10
III. EuLE OF Faith 12
IV. The Qtjran 14
V. Inspiration 47
VI. The Traditions 50
VII. Ijma' 61
VIII. QiAs 64
IX. Faith .66
X. Allah, or God 67
XI. Angels 79
XII. Prophets 84
Xni. The Day op Eesurrection and
Judgment . . , . .87
XIV CONTENTS.
Page
XIY. Heaven 91
XV. Hell 96
XYI. The Decrees of G-od .... 98
XVII. The Five Foundations op Pkactical
Eeligion 101
XVIII. The Eecital of the Ceeed . . 102
XIX. Prayer 104
XX. Ramazan, or the Month of Fasting 119
XXI. Zakat, or Legal Almsgiving . . 125
XXII. Hajj, or Pilgrimage to Mecca . 130
XXIII. The Law 137
XXIV. Sin 139
XXV. Punishment 141
XXVI. Lawful Food ..... 143
XXVn. Farz-i-Kafai . . . . .146
XXVIII. Fiteat 147
XXIX. Salutations 148
XXX. Caliph 150
XXXI. Muhammadan Clergy, Scholars, and
Saints 155
XXXn. Theological Literature . . . 160
XXXIII. Muharram and Ashuraa . . . 163
CONTENTS.
XV
Page
XXXIV.
Akhiri Ghahar Shamba
167
XXXY.
Bara Wafat .....
168
XXXYI.
Shab-i-Barat
169
XXXYII.
'Id-ul-Fitr
171
XXXYIII.
'Id-ul-Azha . .0 . .
173
XXXIX.
NiKAH, OR Marriage ....
177
XL.
Talaq, or Divorce ....
182
XLI.
Janaza, or Burial ....
185
XLII.
Slavery
194
XTiIII.
Khtjtbah, or the Friday's Sermon .
198
XLIY.
Jihad, or Eeligious War .
206
XLY.
Martyrs . . . ...
211
XLYI.
The Four Orthodox Sects
212
XLYII.
The Shia'hs
214
XLYIII.
The Wahhabis
219
XLIX.
SuFiisM, OR Mysticism
227
L.
Faqirs, or Darweshes
234
LI.
ZlKR, OR THE EeLIGIOUS SERVICES OF
THE Darweshes ....
243
LII.
The Lord Jesus Christ
256
TJTI.
The Crucifixion of our Saviour
261
XVI CONTENTS.
Page
LIV. The Divinity of Christ and the
Holy Trinity .... 264
LV. Tahrif, or the Alleged Corruption
OF THE Sacred Books of the
Jews and Christians . . . 267
Index of Technical Terms . .275
NOTES
ON
MUHAMMADANISM.
I.— MUHAMMAD.
The earliest biograpliers of the Arabian Pro-
phet, whose works are extant in Arabic, are
Ibn-Ishaq (a.h. 151), Ibn-Hisham (a.h. 218),
Waqidi (a.h. 207), and Tabari (a.h. 310). Is-
mail Abulfida, Prince of Hamah, in Syria (a.h.
733), compiled a Life of Mnhammad in Arabic,
which was translated by John Gagnier, Pro-
fessor of Arabic at Oxford (a.d. 1723), and into
English by the Rev. W. Mnrray, Episcopal
clergyman at DufEus, in Scotland.* Dr. Spren-
ger of Calcutta commenced a Life of Muham-
* Mr. Murray's translation was published at Elgin
(without date). It is exceedingly scarce, the British Mu-
seum not possessing a copy.
1
2 MUHAMMAD.
mad in Bnglisli, and printed tlie first part of it
at Allahabad (a.d. 1851) ; but it was never
completed. The learned author afterwards
published his work in German in 1869.* The
only Life of Muhammad in English, which has
any pretension to original research, is that by
Sir William Muir of the Bengal Civil Service. t
Muhammad (lit. the praised one), son of
Abdul Muttalib, by his ^vife Amina, was born
at Mecca, August 29th, a.d. 570. He assumed
the prophetic office at the age of fort}^, fled
from Mecca at the age of fifty-four, and died
at Medinah, June 9th, a.d. 632, aged sixty-two.
The Hijrat, or Hegira (the flight from Mecca),
which is the Muhammadan era, dates from July
16th, A.D. 622.
The character of Muhammad is an historic
problem, and many have been the conjectures
as to his motives and designs. Was he an
impostor, a fanatic, or an honest man — " a very
prophet of God?" And the problem might
* Das Leben iind die Lehre des Mohammad. A.
Sprenger. 6 vols. 8vo. Berlin, 1869.
t Life of Mahomet. 4 vols. 8vo. London, 1858-61.
New Edition. 1 vol. 8vo. London, 1877.
MUHAMMAD. '6
have for ever remained unsolved had not the
Prophet himself appealed to the Old and New
Testament in proof of his mission. This is
the crucial test, established by the Prophet
himself. He claims to be weighed in the balance
with the Divine Jesus. Having done so, we
find him wanting.
Objection has often been made to the manner
in which Christian divines have attacked the
private character of Muhammad. Why reject
the prophetic mission of Muhammad on account
of his private vices, when you receive as inspired
the sayings of a Balaam, a David, or a Solomon ?
We do not, as a rule, attack the character of
Muhammad in dealing with Islam; it rouses
opposition, and is an offensive Ime of argument.
Still, in forming an estimate of his prophetical
pretensions, we contend that the character of
Muhammad is an important item in our bill of
indictment. We readily admit that bad men
have sometimes been, like Balaam and others,
the divinely appointed organs of inspiration ;
but in the case of Muhammad his professed in-
spiration sanctioned and encouraged his own
vices. That which ought to have been the foun-
tain of purity was, in fact, the cover of the
1 A
4 MUHAMMAD.
Prophet's depravity.* But liow different it is
in the case of tlie true propliet David, where, in
the words of inspiration, he lays bare to public
gaze the enormity of his own crimes. The deep
contrition of his inmost soul is manifest in every
line — " I acknowledge my transgression and my
sin is ever, before me : against Thee, Thee only,
have I sinned, and done this evil in Thy sight."
The best defenders of the Arabian Pro-
phett are obliged to admit that the matter of
Zeinab, the wife of Zeid, and again, of Mary,
the Coptic slave, are "an indelible stain" upon
his memory; that " he is once or twice untrue
to the kind and forgiving disposition of liis best
nature ; that he is once or twice unrelenting in
the punishment of his personal enemies; and
that he is gnilty even more than once of con-
niving at the assassination of inveterate o|)po-
nents; " but they give no satisfactory explana-
tion or apology for all this being done under
the supposed sanction of God in the Quran.
In formmg an estimate of Muhammad's pro-
*■ Vide Quran, chap, xxxiii. 37, and chap. Ixvi. 1.
t Vide Muhammad and Muhamniadism, by Mr. E.
Bosworth Smith, M.A., an Assistant Master of Harrow
School.
MUHAMMAD. O
phetical pretensions, it must be remembered
that lie did not claim to be tlie founder of a
new religion, but merely of a new covenant.
He is tlie last and greatest of all God's pro-
phets. He is sent to convert tlie world to
tlie one true religion which God had before
revealed to the five great lawgivers — Adam,
Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus ! The creed
of Muhammad, therefore, claims to supersede
that of the Lord Jesus. And it is here that we
take our stand. We give Muhammad credit as
a warrior, as a legislator, as a poet, as a man of
uncommon genius, raising himself amidst great
opposition to a pinnacle of renown ; we admit
that he is, without doubt, one of the greatest
heros the world has ever seen ; but when we
consider his claims to supersede the mission of
the Divine Jesus, we strip him of his borrowed
plumes, and reduce him to the condition of an
impostor ! * For whilst he has adopted and
* " There are modern biographers of the Prophet who
would have us believe that he was not conscious of
falsehood when making these assertions. He was under
a hallucination, of course, but he believed what he said.
This is to me incredible. The legends of the Koran are
derived chiefly from Talmudic sources ; Muhammad must
6 MUHAMMAD.
avowed his belief in tlie sacred books of the
Jew and the Christian, and has given them all
the stamp and currency which his authority
and influence could impart, he has attempted
to rob ' Christianity of every distinctive truth
which it possesses — its Divine Saviour, its
Heavenly Comforter, its pure code of social
morals, its spirit of love and truth — and has
written his own refutation and condemna-
tion with his own hand, by professing to con-
firm the divine oracles wliich sap the very
foundations of his prophetical pretensions.
have learned them from some Jew resident in or near
Mekka. To work them up in the form of rhymed Suras,
to put his own peculiar doctrines in the mouths of Jewish
patriarchs, the Virgin Mary, and the infant Jesus (who
talks like a good Moslem from his birth), must have re-
quired time, thought, and labour. It is not possible that
the man who had done all this could have forgotten all
about it, and believed that these legends had been brought
to him ready prepared by an angelic visitor. Muhammad
was guilty of falsehood under circumstances where he
deemed the end justified the means He was
brought face to face with the question which every spi-
ritual reformer has to consider, against which so many
noble spirits have gone to ruin, — will not the end justify
the means ? " — " Islam under the Arabs," by Major Durie
Osborn, p. 21.
MUHAMMAD. /
We follow the would-be prophet in his self-
asserted mission from the cave of Hira to
the closing scene, when he dies in the midst
of the lamentations of his harem, and the con-
tentions of his friends — the visions of Gabriel,
the period of mental depression, the contem-
plated suicide, the assumption of the prophetic
office, his struggles with Meccan unbelief, his
flight to Medina, his triumphant entry into
Mecca — and whilst we wonder at the genius of
the hero, we pause at every stage and inquire,
" Is this the Apostle of God whose mission is to
claim universal dominion to the suppression not
merely of idolatry, but of Christianity itself? "
Then it is that the divine and holy character
of Jesus rises to our view, and the inquiring
mind sickens at the thought of the beloved, the
pure, the lowly Jesus giving place to that of the
ambitious, the sensual, the time-serving hero of
Arabia. In the study of Islam the character
of Muhammad needs an apology or a defence at
every stage; but in the contemplation of the
Christian system, whilst we everywhere read of
Jesus, and see the reflection of His image in
everything we read, the heart revels in the
« MUHAMMAD.
contemplation, the inner pulsations of our spi-
ritual life bound witliin us at the study of a
character so divine, so pure.
We are not insensible to the beauties of the
Quran as a literary production, although they
have, without doubt, been overrated ; but as we
admire its conceptions of the Divine nature its
deep and fervent trust in the power of God, its
frequent deep moral earnestness, and its sen-
tentious wisdom, we would gladly rid ourselves
of our recollections of the Prophet, his licen-
tious harem, his sanguinary battle-fields, his
ambitious schemes ; whilst as we peruse the
Christian scriptures we find the grand central
charm in the divine character of its founder.
It is the divine character of Jesus which gives
fragrance to His words ; it is the divine form of
Jesus which shines through all He says or does ;
it is the divine life of Jesus which is the great
central point in Grospel history. How then, we
ask, can the creed of Muhammad, the son of
Abdullah, supersede and abrogate that of Jesus,
the Son of God ? It is a remarkable coincidence
that whilst the founder of Islam died feelino*
that he had but imperfectly fulfilled his mis-
MUHAMMAD. 9
sion,* the founder of Cliristianity died in tlie
full consciousness that His work was done — '' It
is finished." It was in professing to produce
a revelation which should supersede that of
Jesus that Muhammad set the seal to his own
refutation.
* Waqidi relates that Muhammad shortly before his
death called for a " shoulder blade " upon which to write
another chapter of the Quran, which should prevent them
going astray for ever.
10
II.— ISLAM.
Isla'm is tlie name given to tlie Muhammadan
religion by its founder. Abdul Haqq (the com-
mentator on tlie Mislikat) says it implies '' sub-
mission to the divine will."
In tlie Dictionary of tlie Quran entitled
Moglirab, Mdm is explained as ''entering into
peace (salm) with another," alluding to the
fact that he who embraces Islam in a Mu-
hammadan state becomes free from all those
penalties and disabilities which belong to one
who does not embrace the faith.
In the Quran the word is used for doing
homage to God. Islam is said to be the religion
of all the prophets from the time of Abraham,
as will appear from the following verses (Surat-
ul-Imran, ver. 78, 79) : — "We believe in God
and in what hath been sent down to Abraham,
and Ishmael, and Isaac, and Jacob, and the
Tribes, and in what was given to Moses, and
Jesus and the Prophets from their Lord. We
ISLAM.
make no difference between tliem, and to liim
are we resigned (i.e. Muslims). Wlioso desire tli
any other religion than Islam, that religion
shall never be accepted of him, and in the next
world he shall be lost."
There are three words nsed by Muhammadan
writers for religion, namely, Bin, Millat, and
Mazliah ; and in the Kitab-nt-Tarifat the dif-
ference implied in these words is said to be as
follows : — Din as it stands in its relation to
(xod, e.g. Din-UIlah, the religion of God; Millat,
as it stands in relation to a prophet or lawgiver,
e.g. Millat-i' Ibrahim, the religion of Abraham;
and Mazliah as it stands in relation to the
divines of Islam, e.g. Mazhah-i-Hana/i, the re-
ligion of Hanifa. The expression Din, however,
is of general application.
Those who profess the religion of Islam are
called Musalmans, Muslims, or Momins.
AJil-i'Kitdh,"- the people of the Book," is used
for Muhammadans, Jews, and Christians.
12
III.— RULE OF FAITH.
The Muhammadan rule of faitli is based
upon what are called the four foundations of
orthodoxy, namely, the Quran, or, as it is
called, Kaldrn JJllali, the Word of God; the
Hcidis {^\. Aliddis), ov the traditions of the
sayings and practice of Muhammad; Ijmd\ or
the consent of the Mujtahidin, or learned
doctors ; and Qids, or the analogical reasoning
of the learned.
In studying the Muhammadan religious sys-
tem it must be well understood that Islam is
not simply the religion of the Quran, but that
all Muhammadans, whether Sunni, Shia'h, or
Wahhabi, receive the Traditions as an authority
in matters of faith and practice. The Sunni
Muhammadans arrogate to themselves the title
of traditionists ; but the Shia'hs also receive the
Hadis as binding upon them, although they do
not acknowledge the same collection of traditions
as those received by their opponents. The
RULE OF FAITH. 13
Wahliabis receive tlie "six correct books of the
Sunnis."
The examjde of Muhammad is just as binding
upon the Muslim, as that of Him who said
" Learn of ane " is upon the Christian, and very
many were the injunctions which the "Pro-
phet " gave as to the transmission of his sayings
and practice, and very ekiborate is the canon
whereby Muslims arrive at what they believe
to be the example of their Prophet. If, there-
fore, the grand and elaborate system of morals
as expressed in the law of Islam has failed to
raise the standard of morality amongst the
nations of the earth which have embraced its
creed, it is not unreasonable to conclude that its
failure rests in the absence of a living example
of truth.
14
lY.— THE QUEA'N.*
The word Quran is derived from the Arabic
Qara, which occurs at the commencement of
Siira xcv., which is said to have been -the
first chapter revealed to Muhammad ; and has
the same meaning as the Hebrew hara, '' to
read," or ''to recite," which is frequently used
in Jeremiah xxxvi., as well as in other places
in the Old Testament. It is, therefore, equi-
valent to the Hebrew mikra, rendered in Nehe-
miah viii. 18. "the reading." It is the title
given to the Muhammadan Scriptures which
are usually appealed to and quoted from as the
" Quran Majid,'' or the '' Glorious Quran "; the
" Quran Sharif,'' or the " Noble Quran " ; and is
also called the '' Fitrqdn,'' or " Distinguisher,"
* The contents of this article aj^pear as an Introduction
to the Eoman-Urdii edition of the Quran, published at
Ludianah, North India, 1877.
THE QURAN. 15
''Kaldm JJIUK' or the ''Word of God,"
and ''Al hitdh,'' or ''the Book."*
Muhammadans believe the Quran to be the
inspired Word of God sent down to the lowest
heaven complete,! and then revealed from time
to time to the Prophet by the Angel Gabriel.
There is, however, only one J distinct assertion
in the Quran of Gabriel having been the me-
dium of inspiration, namely, Siira-i-Baqr (ii.),
91 ; and this occurs in a Medina Sura, revealed
about seven years after the Prophet's rule had
been established. In the Siira-i-Shura (xxvi.),
192, the Quran is said to have been given by
the '' Bilh ul A'onin,'' or Faithful Spirit; and
in the Siira-i-Najm (liii.), 5, Muhammad claims
to have been taught by the " Shadid-ul-Qud,''
* According to Jalal-ud-dm Syuty there are fifty-five
titles of the Quran. (See the Itqan, p. 117.)
t See Jalal-ud- din's Itqan, j). 91. The " Eecording
Angels" mentioned in the Sura-i-Abas (Ixxx.), 15, are
said to have written the Quran before it was sent down
from heaven.
X Gi-abriel (Jihrdtl) is only mentioned twice by name
in the Quran : once in the verse noted above, and again
in the Siira-i-Tahrim (Ixvi.), 4. He is supposed to be
alluded to under the title of Euh-ul-Qudus, or the Holy
Spirit, in Suras Baqr (ii.), 82, 254 ; Maida (v.), 109 ; Nahl
(xvi.), 104.
16 THE QUEAN.
or One terrible in power ; and in tlie Traditions
tlie agent of inspiration is generally spoken of
as "an angel " [malali).* It is, therefore, not
qnite certain throngli wliat agency Mnliammad
believed liimself to be inspired of God.
According to Ayesliali, one of the Prophet's
wives, the revelation was first communicated
m dreams. Ayeshah relates f: — " The first
revelations which the Prophet received were
in true dreams ; and he never dreamt but it
came to pass as regularly as the dawn of day.
After this the Prophet was fond of retirement,
and used to seclude himself in a cave in mount
Hiraa and worship there day and night. He
would, whenever he wished, return to his
family at Mecca, and then go back again,
taking with him the necessaries of life. Thus
he continued to return to Khadijah from time
to time, until one day the revelation came
down to him, and the angel (inalaJi)^ came
* Malak. Hebrew, MalaJch, an angel ; pro23liet ; a name
of office, not of nature. See Wilson's Hebrew Lexicon,
p. 13.
t Mishkat, bk. xxiv. chap. v. pt. 1.
X Capt. Matthews, in his edition of the Mishkat, has
followed the Persian Commentator, and translated the
THE QUEAN. 17
to liim and said, ' Read ' (iqarda) ; but tlie
Propliet said, ' I am not a reader.' And tlie
Propliet related, that he (i. e. the angel) took
hold of me and squeezed me as much as I
could bear, and he then let me go and said
again, ' Read ! ' And I said, ' I am not a
reader.' Then he took hold of me a second
time, and squeezed me as much as I could
bear, and then let me go, and said ' Read ! '
And I said, ' I am not a reader.' Then he
took hold of me a third time and squeezed me
as much as I could bear, and said : —
" ' Read ! in the name of thy Lord who created ;
Created man from a clot of blood in the
womb.
*' ' Read ! for thy Lord is the most beneficent.
He hath taught men the use of the pen ;
He hath taught man that which he
knoweth not.'*
'' Then the Prophet repeated the words him-
self, and with his heart trembling he returned
(l. e. from Hiraa to Mecca) to Khadijah, and
word Malah, Gabriel, instead of Angel, and most of our
English authors have quoted the tradition from his book.
* Sura-i-Alaq (xcvi.), the first five verses. The other
verses of the chapter are of a later date.
. 2
18 THE QURMT.
said, ' Wrap me up, wrap me up.' And tliey
wrapped him up in a garment till his fear
was dispelled, and he told Khadijah what had
passed, and he said : ' Yerily, I was afraid
I should have died.' Then Khadijah said,
' No, it will not be so. I swear by Grod, He
will never make you melancholy or sad. For
verily you are kind to your relatives, you
speak the truth, you are faithful in trust, you
bear the afflictions of the people, you spend
in good works what you gain in trade, you
are hospitable, and you assist your fellow
men.' After this, Khadijah took the Prophet
to Waraqa, who was the son of her uncle,
and she said to him, ' 0 son of my uncle I
hear what your brother's son says.' Then
Waraqa said to the Prophet, ' 0 son of my
brother! what do you see?' Then the
Prophet told Waraqa what he saw, and
Waraqa said, 'That is the Ndmmis^ which
G-od sent to Moses.' Ayeshah also relates
* Ndmns. Understood by all Commentators to be the
angel Gabriel. It lias, however, many significations, e.g.
Law, Voice, Sound, &c. (see Johnson's Arabic Dictionary)
Probably a corruption of the Greek vojjlo^, which is always
used in the New Testament for the Law of Moses.
THE QURAN. 19
tliat Haris-ibn-Hisliam asked tlie Prophet,
' How did tlie revelation come to you ? ' and
tlie Propliet said, ' Sometimes like tlie noise
of a bell, and sometimes tlie angel would
come and converse with me in the shape of
a man.' "
According to A'yeshah's statement, the
Siira-i-Alaq (xcvi.) was the first portion of
the Quran revealed; but it is more probable
that the poetical Suras, in Avhich there is no
express declaration of the prophetic office, or
of a divine commission, were composed at an
earlier period. Internal evidence would assign
the earliest date to the Suras Zilzal (xcix.),
Asar (ciii.), A'dijat (c), and Fatilia (i.), which
are rather the utterances of a searcher after
truth than of an Apostle of God.
The whole book was not arranged until
after Muhammad's death, but it is believed
that the Prophet himself divided the Siiras
and gave most of them their present titles,
which are chosen from some word which oc-
curs in the chapter.* The following is the
* The ancient Jews divided the whole Law of Moses
into fifty-four Sections, which were called Sidrah, or an
2 A
20 THE QURAN.
account of tlie collection and arrangement of
the Quran, as it stands at present, as given
in traditions recorded by Bokliari : —
" Zaid-ibn-Sabit, relates*: — ' Abii-Bakr sent
a person to me, and called me to liim, at tlie
time of the battle with the people of Zema-
mah ; and I went to him, and Omar was with
him ; and Abii-Bakr said to me, " Omar came
to me and said, ' Yerily, a great many of the
readers of the Quran were slain on the day
of the battle with the people of Zemamah ;
and really I am afraid that if the slaughter
should be great, much will be lost from the
Quran, because every person remembers some-
thing of it ; and, verily, I see it advisable for
you to order the Quran to be collected into
one book.' I said to Omar, ' How can I
do a thing which the Prophet has not done.'
He said, ' I swear by God, this collecting of
the Quran is a good thing.' And Omar used
to be constantly returning to me and saying :
' You must collect the Quran,' till at length
order or division. These sections had each a technical
name, e.g. the first was called "Bereshith," and the second
'' Noah." (See Dr. Adam Clark on Genesis.)
* Mishkat, bk. viii. chap. iii. pt. 3.
THE QUEAN. 21
God opened my breast so to do, and I saw
wliat Omar had been advising.' And Zaid-ibn-
Sabit says that, 'Abu-Bakr said to me, "You
are a young and sensible man, and I do not
suspect you of forgetfuhiess, negligence, or
perfidy ; and, verily, you used to write for the
Prophet his instructions from above ; then
look for the Quran in every place and collect
it." I said, " I swear by God, that if people
had ordered me to carry a mountain about
from one place to another, it would not be
heavier upon me than the order which Abu-
Bakr has given for collecting the Quran." I
said to Abu-Bakr, " How do you do a thing
which the Prophet of God did not ? " He
said, " By God, this collecting of the Quran
is a good act." And he used perpetually to
return to me, until God put it into my heart
to do the thing which the heart of Omar
had been set upon. Then I sought for the
Quran, and collected it from the leaves of
the date, and white stones, and the breasts
of people that remembered it, till I found the
last part of the chapter entitled Tmiha (Re-
pentance), with Abil-Khuzaimah Ansari, and
mth no other person. These leaves were in
22 THE QURAN.
the possession of Abu-Bakr, until Grocl caused
him to die; after which Omar had them in
his life-time; after that, they remained with
his daughter, Hafsah ; after that, Osman com-
piled them into one book.'
" Anas-ibn-Malik relates : — ' Huzaifah came
to Osman, and he had fought with the people
of Syria in the conquest of Armenia ; and
had fought in Azurbaijan, with the people of
Irak, and he was shocked at the different
ways of people reading the Quran. And
Huzaifah said to Osman, " 0 Osman, assist
this people, before they differ in the Book
of Grod, just as the Jews and Christians differ
in their books." Then Osman sent a person
to Hafsah, ordering her to send those portions
which she had, and saying, " I shall have
a number of copies of them taken, and will
then return them to you." And Hafsah sent
the portions to Osman, and Osman ordered
Zaid-ibn-Sabit, Ansari, and Abdullah-bin- Zu-
bair, and Said-ibn-Alnas, and Abdullah-ibn-
ul-Haris-bin-Hisham ; and these were all of
the Quraish tribe, except Zaid-ibn-Sabit and
Osman. And he said to the three Quraish-
ites, ''When you and Zaid-ibn-Sabit differ
THE QUEAN. 23
about any part of tlie dialect of the Quran,
tlien do ye write it in tlie Quraisli dialect,
because it came not down in the language
of any tribe but theirs." Then they did as
Osman had ordered; and when a number of
copies had been taken, Osman returned the
leaves to Hafsah. And Osman sent a copy
to every quarter of the countries of Islam,
and ordered all other leaves to be burnt, and
Ibn-Shahab said, " Kharijah, son of Zaid-
ibn-Sabit, informed me, saying, * I could not
find one verse when I was writing the Quran,
which, verily, I heard from the Prophet ; then
I looked for it, and found it with Khuzaimah
Ansari, and entered it into the Siira-i-Ahzab.'"
This recension of the Quran produced by
Khalifa Osman has been handed down to us
unaltered ; and, as Sir William Muir remarks,
"there is probably no other book in the
world which has remained twelve centuries
with so pure a text."*
That various readings (such as Christians
understand by the term) did exist when Os-
man produced the first uniform edition is
* Muir's " Life of Mohamet," vol. i. Introduction.
24 THE QUEAN.
more than probable, and the Shi'ahs have al-
ways charged the Ansars * with " having
mutilated and changed and made the Quran
what they pleased; " a charge, however, which
they do not attempt to prove, beyond the
mere assertion that certain passages were
omitted which favoured the claims of Ali to
b.e the first Khalif.
The various readings (Qira^at) in the Quran
are not such as are usually understood by
the term in English authors, but different
dialects of the Arabic language. Ibn Abbas
says the Prophet said, " Gabriel taught me
to read the Quran in one dialect, and when
I recited it he taught me to recite it in an-
other dialect, and so on until the number of
dialects increased to seven." t
Muhammad seems to have adopted this ex-
pedient to satisfy the desire of the leading
* See the Hyat-ul-Kalub, a Shi'ah book of Traditions,
leaf 420. " The Ansars were ordained to oppose the claims
of the family of Muhammad, and this was the reason why
the other wretches took the office of Khalif by force.
After thus treating one Khalif of God, they then muti-
lated and changed the other Khalif, which is the book of
God."
t Mishkat, bk. ii. chap. ii. pt. 1.
THE QUEAN. 25
tribes to have a Quran in their own dialect;
for Abdul Haqq* says, '' The Quran was first
revealed in the dialect of the Quraish, which
was the Prophet's native tongue ; but when
the Prophet saw that the people of other tribes
recited it with difficulty then he obtained per-
mission from God to extend its currency by
allowing it to be recited in all the chief dialects
of Arabia, which were seven : — Quraish, Tai,
Hawazin, Ahl-i-Yaman, Saqif, Huzail, and
Bani-Tamin. Every one of these tribes ac-
cordingly read the Quran in its own dialect,
till the time of Osman, when these differences
of reading were prohibited."
These seven dialects are called SahaHa-Ahruf,
and the science of reading the Quran in the
correct dialect is called ^Ilm-i-Tajivid,
The chronological arrangement of the chap-
ters of the Quran is most important. In the
present Urdii edition, as well as in all Arabic
editions, the Siiras are placed as they must
have been arranged by Zaid-ibn-i-Sabit, who
put them together regardless of all chro-
* Abdul Haqq, the Persian Commentator of the
Mishkat.
26
THE QUEAN.
nological sequence. If, therefore, we arrange
them according to the order which is given
in Syuty's Itqan,* we shall not fail to mark
the gradual develo^Dment of Muhammad's mind
from that of a mere moral teacher and re-
former, to that of a prophet and warrior
chief. The contrast between the earlier, mid-
dle, and later Suras is very striking. He
who at Mecca is the admonisher and persuader,
at Medina is the legislator and the warrior,
who dictates obedience, and uses other weapons
than the pen of the poet and the scribe.
When business pressed, as at Medina, poetry
makes way for prose; and although touches
of the poetical element occasionally break
forth, and he has to defend himself up to a
very late period against the charge of being
merely a poet, yet this is rarely the case in
the Medina Suras, in which we so frequently
meet with injunctions to obey God and the
Prophet, t
To fully realize the gradual growth of Mu-
* The chronological list as given in Jalal-ud-dm Sjuty's
Itqan will be found in the Index of the Suras.
t See Eodwell's Introduction to the English Quran, in
which the Suras are chronologically arranged.
THE QUEAN. 27
liammad's religious system in his own mind,
it is absolutely necessary to read the Quran
through, not in the order in which it now
stands, but that in which Muslim divines ad-
mit that it was revealed. At the same time
it must be remembered that all Muhammadan
doctors allow that in most of the Siiras there
are verses which belong to a different date
from that of other portions of the chapter;
for example, in the Siira-i-'Alaq the first five
verses belong to a much earlier date than
the others; and in Sura-i-Baqr, verse 234 is
acknowledged by all commentators to have
been revealed after verse 240, which it abro-
gates.
The sources whence Muhammad derived the
materials for his Quran, are, over and above
the more poetical parts, which are his own
creation, the legends of his time and country,
Jewish traditions based upon the Talmud,
perverted to suit his own purposes, and the
floating Christian traditions of Arabia and
South Syria. Muhammadanism, however, owes
more to Judaism * than it does to either
* See a book by M. Geiger entitled, " Was hat Mu-
hammed aus dem Judentliume aufgenommen," in which
28 THE QURAN.
Christianity or Sabeanism, for it is simply
Talmudic Judaism adapted to Arabia, plus
the Apostleship of Jesus and Muhammad.
Wherever Muhammad departs from the mono-
theistic principles of Judaism, as in the idola-
trous practices of the Pilgrimage to the K'aba,
it is evident that it is done as a necessary
concession to the national feelings and sym-
pathies of the people of Arabia, and it is ab-
solutely impossible for Muhammadan divines
to reconcile the idolatrous rites of the K'aba
with that simple monotheism which it was
evidently Muhammad's intention to establish
in Arabia.
The Quran is divided into : —
1. Harf (pi. Hitruf), Letters; of which
there are said to be 323,671.
2. Kalimah (pi. KalimcU)^ Words ; of which
there are 77,934.
3. A'yat (pi. A'ljdt), Yerses. Ayat is a
word which signifies "signs," and it was used
that learned Jew has traced all the leading features of
Islam to Talmudic sources. Also " Literary Eemains of
Emanuel Deutsch." Essay on Islam.
THE QUEAN. 29
by Muhammad for sliort sections or verses of
his supposed revelation. There are said to
be 6,616 verses in the whole book; but the
division of verses differs in different editions
of the Arabic Quran. The number of verses
in the Arabic Qurans are recorded after the
title of the Siira, and the verses distinguished
in the text by a small cypher or circle.*
4. Sura (pi. Smuar), Chapters. A word
which signifies a row or series, but which is
now used exclusively for the chapters of the
Quran, which are one hundred and fourteen
in number. These chapters are called after
some word which occurs in the text, and if
the Traditions are to be trusted, they were so
named by Muhammad himself, although the
verses of their respective Suras were undoubt-
edly arranged after his death, and sometimes
with little regard to their sequence. Musal-
man doctors admit that the Khalif Osman
arranged the chapters in the order in which
they now stand in the Quran.
* Unfortunately the verses in Rodwell's English Quran
do not correspond with the Arabic Qurans in use amongst
the Muhammadans of India.
30 THE QUEAN.
5. Bid'iV (pi. BiiMdt), Prostrations. Tliese
are of two kinds, the RulnV of a Sura and
tlie BiihV of a Sipara, and are distinguished
in the Arabic Quran by the letter 'a in on
the margin. Muhammadans generally quote
by the Ruku and not by the verse.
6. Buba\ The quarter of a Sipara.
7. Nisf, The half of a Sipara.
8. Suls, Three-quarters of a Sipara.
9. Slpdra,^ the Persian for the Arabic Juz.
The Siparas or Juz, are thirty in number, and
it is said that the Quran is so divided to
enable the pious Muslim to recite the whole
of the Quran in the thirty days of Ramazan.
Muhammadans generally quote their Quran by
the Sijpdra and Buku\ and not by the Sm^a
and A'yat,
10. Manzil (pi. mandzil), Stages. Tliese are
seven in number, and are marked by the letters
F, M, Y, B, Sh, W, and Q, which words are
said to spell Famibeshauq, L e. " My mouth
with desire." They have been arranged to
enable the devout Muslim to recite the whole
in the course of a week.
* The Persian word Sipara is derived from si, thirty,
and ]pdra, a portion.
THE QUEAN. 31
'llm-i-Usul,^ or the Exegesis of tlie Quran,
is a science, some knowledge of which is ab-
solutely necessary to enable the Christian con-
troversialist to meet a Muhammadan opponent.
It is used by the Muslim divine to explain
away many apparent or real contradictions
which exist in the Quran, and it is also avail-
able for a similar purpose when rightly used
by the Christian in explanation of the exegesis
of his own sacred books.
The words (alfdz) of the Quran are of four
classes : — Khdss, 'Amm, MushtaraJc, and Muaiv-
ival.
(1) Khdss, Words used in a special sense.
These are of three kinds : — Khusits-ul-jins,
Special genus ; Khusus-un-nau\ Special spe-
cies; Khitsus-uh'ain, Special individuality.
(2) 'Amm, Collective or common, which em-
brace many individuals or things.
. (3) MusUarah, Complex words which have
several significations ; e.g. 'ccin, a word which
* 'Ilm-i-Usul embraces both the exegesis of the Quran
and Hadis. The most authoritative works on the 'Ilm-i-
TJsul of the Quran are Syuty's Itqan (Sprenger's edition),
and the Manar-ul-Usul, and its commentary the Nur-ul-
Anwar.
32 THE QUEAN.
signifies an Eye, a Fountain, tlie Knee, or
the Sun.
(4) Muawwal, Words which require to be
explained : e. g. Suldt may mean either the
Liturgical daily prayer {Namdz), or simple
prayer (DucV).
II. The Sentences {'Ihdrat) of the Quran
are either Zdhir or Khafi, L e. either Obvious
or Hidden.
Obvious sentences are of four classes : —
Zdhir, Nass, Mufassar, MuJiham.
(1) Zdhir, — Those sentences, the meaning of
which is Obvious or clear, without any assist-
ance from the context [harina).
(2) Nass. — Those sentences the meaning of
which is Manifest from the text : e. g. '' Take
in marriage of such other women as please
you, two, three, or four." Here it is manifest
that the expression " such other women as
please you " is restricted.
(3) Mufassar. — Sentences which are ex-
plained by some expression in the verse : e. g.
" And the angels prostrated themselves all
of them with one accord save Iblis.^' Here
THE QUEAN. 33
it is explained that Iblis did not prostrate
himself.
(4) Muhlcam. — Perspicuous sentences, the
meaning of which is incontrovertible : e. g.
Sdra-i-Maida (v.), 98, ''He (God) knoweth
all things."
Hidden sentences are either Khafi, Mushkil,
Mujmal, or Mutashdbih.
(1) Khafi. — Sentences in which other per-
sons or things are hidden beneath the plain
meaning of a word or expression contained
therein : e. g. Siira-i-Maida (v.), 42, " As for
a thief whether male or female cut ye ofE their
hands in recompense for their doings." In
this sentence the word Sdriq, " thief," is un-
derstood to have hidden beneath its literal
meaning, both pickpockets and highway rob-
bers.
(2) Mushhil. — Sentences which are ambigu-
ous : e.g. Sura-i-Dahr (Ixxvi.), 15, ''Vessels
of silver and decanters which are of glass,
decanters of glass with silver whose measure
they shall mete."
(3) Mujmal. — Sentences which are comjpen-
dious, and have many interpretations : e. g,
3
34 THE QURAN.
Siira-i-Ma'rij (Ixx.), 19, "Man truly is by
creation liasty."
(4) Mutashdhih. — Intricate sentences, or ex-
pressions, the exact meaning of wliicli it is
impossible for man to ascertain until the day
of resurrection, but which was known to the
Prophet : e. g. the letters Alif, Lam, Mim
(A. L. M.) ; Alif, Lam, Ea (A. L. R.) ; Alif,
Lam, Mim, Ra (A. L. M. U.), etc., at the
commencement of different Suras or chapters.
Also Sura-i-Mulk (Ixvii.) 1, '' In whose hand
is the Kingdom,'' i. e. God's hand (Arabic,
yad); and Siira-i-Twa Ha (xx.), '^He is most
merciful and sitteth on His throne," i. e. God
sitteth (Arabic, istaiud) ; and Siira-i-Baqr (ii.),
115, " The face of God" (Arabic, ivaj-ullali),
III. The use (isti'mdl) of words in the
Quran is divided into four classes. They are
either Haqiqat, Majdz, SaHh, or Kindyah.
(1) Haqiqat. — Words which are used in their
literal meaning : e. g. rulm, a prostration ;
zind, adultery.
(2) Majdz. — Words which are figurative.
(3) Sarih. — Words the meaning of which is
THE QURAN. 35
clear and palpable : e. g. " Thou art free,''^
'' Thou art divorced.''^
(4) Kindyah. — Words which are metaphorical
in their meaning: e. g. ''Thou art separated;
by which may be meant "thou art divorced.'*
TV, The deduction of arguments, or istidldl,
as expressed in the Quran, is divided into four
sections : 'Ihdrat, Ishdrat, Daldlat, and Iqtizd.
(1) 'Ibdrat. — The plain sentence.
(2) Ishdrat. — A sign or hint : e. g. " Born
of him; " meaning, of course, the father.
(3) Daldlat. — The argument arising from a
word or expression : e. g. Siira-i-Bani Israil
(xyii.), 23, '' Say not unto your parents fie "
(Arabic, itff) ; from which it is argued that
children are not either to abuse or beat their
parents.
(4) Iqtizd. — Demanding certain conditions :
e. g. Sura-i-]Srisa (iv.), 91, "Whoso killeth a
Mumin (believer) by mischance shall be bound
to free a slave." Here the condition demanded
is that the slave shall be the property of the
person who frees him.
An acquaintance with the use of these
3 A
36 THE QURAN.
expressions used in tlie exegetical commen-
taries of tlie Quran is of great assistance to
tlie Bazaar-preacher, for it often happens that
Maulavis interrupt the preacher by putting
some difficult question, which the most able
missionary will find it difficult to answer to
the satisfaction of a mixed assemblage. For
instance, an interesting discourse or discussion
is often interrupted by a Maulavi putting the
following question : " What did Jesus mean
when He said, ' All that ever came before me
were thieves or robbers?'" The sole object
of the Maulavi being to interrupt a profitable
conversation or sermon, the best reply to such
an one would be, " Maulavi Sahib, you know
sentences are Zahir or Khafi, hidden or evident.
That is Khafi. Hidden sentences you know
are of four kinds, Khafi, Mushkil, Mujmal, or
Mutashabih. I consider the text you have
quoted to be Mujmal, and you must admit that
it would take up too much time to explain a
Mujmal sentence in the midst of my present
discourse." Most probably the Maulavi will
be satisfied, for the preacher has applied a little
flattering unction, in supposing that the Mau-
lavi is learned in the principles of exegesis.
THE QUEAN. 37
We liave frequently silenced a troublesome ob-
jector, who lias introduced the subject of the
Trinity for no other purpose than to disturb
the preaching, by telling him that it was mu-
tashdhih, i.e. intricate, and at the same time
asking him if he knew the meaning of Alif
Lam Mim at the commencement of the se-
cond chapter of the Quran. This appears
to have been our blessed Lord's method with
troublesome objectors : " The baptism of John :
whence was it? "
It is often pamful to observe how some of
our native preachers will attempt to explain
the sacred mysteries of our faith in the midst
of an ignorant mob. Whereas learned Muslim
doctors, if placed in the same position, would
decline to discuss mysterious questions under
such conditions. They would say, as the
Christian Divine might also say, " Many things
in Grod's Avord are hidden (hhafi), and cannot
be explained to such a mixed audience as this,
and besides this, in speaking of the nature
(zdt) of God, there is always some fear of
blasphemy {I'lifr) ; I prefer speaking to you on
that subject alone, after the preaching is over."
Some passages of the Quran are contradic-
38 THE QUEAX.
tory, and are often made tlie snbject of attack ;
bnt it is part of the theological belief of the
Muslim doctor that certain passages of the
Quran are w-ansuhh, or abrogated by verses
afterwards revealed. This was the doctrine
taught by the Arabian prophet in the Siira-i-
Baqr (ii.), 105, '' Whatever verses we (z*. e.
God) cancel or cause thee to forget, we bring
a better or its like." This convenient doctrine
fell in with that law of expediency which
appears to be the salient feature in Muham-
mad's prophetical career.
In the Tafsir-i-'Azizi it is written, that ab-
rogated (mansulth) verses of the Quran are of
three kinds : (1) Where the verse has been
removed from the Quran and another given
in its place ; (2) Where the injunction is ab-
rogated and the letters of the verse remain;
(3) Where both the verse and its injunction
are removed from the text. This is also the
view of Jalal-ud-Dm, who says, that the number
of abrogated verses has been variously estimated
from five to five hundred, and he gives the
following table of twenty verses which most
commentators acknowledge to be abrogated,
THE QUEAN. 39
or Mansiclch, witli tliose verses wliich cancel
tliem, or are Ndsihh.^
* It is to be regretted that the Greek verb KaraXvo), in
St. Matthew v. '17, has been translated in some of the
versions of the New Testament by mansiikh ; for it gives
rise to needless controversy, and conveys a wrong im-
pression to the Muhammadan mind as to the Christian
view regarding this question. According to most G-reek
lexicons, the Greek word means to throw down, or to destroy
(as of a building), which is the meaning given to the
word in our authorized English translation. Christ did
not come to destroy, or to pull down, the Law and the
Prophets ; but we all admit that certain precepts of the
Old Testament were abrogated by those of the New Tes-
tament. Indeed we further admit that the old covenant
was abrogated by the new covenant of grace. " He
taketh away the first that he may establish the second,"
Heb. X. 9.
In the Arabic translation of the New Testament, printed
at Beyrut a.d. 1869, KaraXvw is translated by naqz, " to de-
molish"; and in Mr. Loewenthal's Paslito translation,
A.D. 1863, by hdtilawal, " to destroy," or " render void " ;
and in Henry Martyn's Persian Testament, a.d. 1837, it
is also translated by the Arabic ihtdl, i. e. " making void."
In both the Arabic-Urdu and Roman-Urdu it is unfor-
tunately rendered tnansukh, a word which has a technical
meaning in Muhammadan theology contrary to that im-
plied in the word used by our Lord in Matthew v. 17.
40
THE QURAN,
CO
o
.^
^ ^
CD O
O) o
6
^^ U
o
S 2
r^
Pg c^-^^
n-T
vctf
^t^
--^§
(-^
Hf^H
1-^
l^FM
o
"^ (X>
.S3
02 <^
o
S 2
•S ?-S §
-.. qn '^ «+_,
^ O •^ CD
^.^^■^ 3^
o § ^=^ 3
^^ CD CD •>! ^
^ h? H EH O
b ^
q-i CD
Id ^
02 7:3
2:! - =^ -^
^ ^ 5:! '^
3 H^EH
O c3 O
Pi <!•■ 03
PM ft
>I^^ iO
00 00 rS 00
CJS
CO
W
c3
CQ Co CO 5^" C_| 03
I I 1 .i-l -r-l 1
._< ^ . _ I I
C^
02
^^It:
(M >j 00
oi i^ ^ ^'^
c^ ^-^
uiuimminui
H^^
uimui
lO 00
CO ^ :S _- '^ o --H
00 CO ~^-^ 00 y-{^ cyi
rH rH ^ 00 C<l G<1 i— I
U
c3
PQ
CO
X. ^
02
u u u
cr' cr' cr'
c^ c^ c^
.fc-H
CD
^ 53 i=^
CO ^ ^
^ O-H
03 >. ^ •'-'a
c3 c^ c3
?H f-i ;h
c3 fin
GQ muim m uiuiw. mmmmmm m mmm
rH CQ COtJ<iO <X> r^OOOi OrHCMCO-^iO
CO r^ 00 Oi o
1—1 I— ( i—t rH <M
THE QUEAN. 41
Upon a careful perusal of tlie Quran, it does
not appear tliat Muhammad ever distinctly de-
clared that it was the object of his mission
either to abrogate or to destroy the teaching
of the previous prophets. On the contrary,
we are told that the Quran is ''A book con-
fir mat orij of the previous Scriptures and their
safeguard.''^
And yet such is the anti- Christian character
of Islam that it demands nothing short of the
entire destruction of God's revealed will to
mankind contained in the New Testament.
In dealing with serious minded Muhamma-
dans, we should, as far as possible, abstain
fi^om attacking any real or apparent contradic-
tions which may exist in the Quran, and insist
more upon a general comparison between the
two systems : — the teaching of Jesus and the
teaching of Muhammad, the position of man
under the Gospel and the position of man
under the Quran, the sonship of the Christian
and the servitude of the Muslim, the covenant
of Grace and the covenant of Works ; and
endeavour to show the true seeker after Truth
and Salvation, that it is impossible for the
* Sura-i-Maida (v.), 52.
42 THE QURAN.
mission of Miiliammad to abrogate and super-
sede that of Jesus.
It must be admitted tliat tlie Quran deserves
tlie highest praise for its conception of the
Divine nature, that it embodies much deep and
noble earnestness; but still, it is not what it
professes to be — it pulls down what it professes
to build up, it destroys what it professes to
confirm. It is not Truth, and as the counter-
feit of Truth we reject it. In the Quran we
read,* "We believe in God, and that which
was sent down unto us and that which was
sent down to Ibrahim and Ismail and Ishaq
and Yaqub and the Tribes, and that which
was delivered to Moses and the Prophets from
the Lord, and we make no distinction between
any of them." And yet this very book which
''makes no distinction between any of them"
and which is said to be '' confirmatory" of the
Scriptures, ignores the Atonement, the Sacra-
ments of Baptism and the Lord's Supper, and
denies the Crucifixion of the Saviour, the Son-
ship of Christ and the doctrine of the Holy
Trinity.
* Stira-i-Baqr (ii.), 136 ; also Sura-i-Al-i-'Imran (iii.),
83.
THE QUEAN.
43
THE TITLES
OF THE
CHAPTEES OF THE QUEAN.
No.
Title of Sura.
Meaning in
Englisli.
The Chronological Order.
According
to Jalal-ud-
din.
Accord-
ing to
Eev.J.M.
According to
Sir W. Mvdr.
1
Eodwell.
Fatiha
Preface
uncertain
8
6
2
Baqr
Cow
86
91
uncertain
3
A'l-i-'Imran
Family of Im-
88
97
A.H. 2 to 10.
4
Nisa
ran.
Women
91
100
uncertain
5
Maida
Table
112
114
A.H. 6 to 10.
6
Anam
Cattle
54
89
81
7
'Araf
Araf
38
87
91
8
'Anfal
Spoils
87
95
A.H. 2
9
Tauba
Repentance
113
113
The last
10
Yunus
Jonah
50
84
79
11
Hud
Hud
51
75
78
12
Yusuf
Joseph
52
77
77
13
E'ad ^
Thunder
95
90
89
14
Tbralaim
Abraham
71
76
80
15
Hajr
Hajr
53
57
62
16
Nahl
Bee
69
73
88
17
Bani Israfl
Children of Is-
rael.
49
67
87
18
Kahaf
Cave
68
69
69
19
Maryam
Mary
43
58
68
20
TwaHa
TwaHa
44
55
75
21
Ambiya
Prophets
72
65
86
22
Hajj ^
Pilgrimage
103
107
85
23
Muminun
Believers
73
64
84
24
Nur ^
Light
102
105
A.H. 5
25
Furqan
Quran
41
66
74
26
Sh'ura
Poets
46
56
61
27
Namal
Ant
47
68
70
28
Qasas
Story
48
79
83
29
'Ankabut
Spider
84
81
90
30
Rum
Greeks
83
74
60
31
Luqman
Luqman
56
82
50
44
THE QURAN.
No.
Title of Sura.
Meaning in
EngKsh.
The Chronological Order.
1
According
to Jalal-ud-
din.
Accord-
ing to
Rev.J.M.
According to
Sir W. Muir.
Rodwell.
32
Sijda
Prostration
74
70
44
33
Ahzab
Confederates
89
103
imcertain
34
Saba
Saba
57
85
49
35
Malaika
Angels
42
86
66
36
Ya Sm
Ya Sm
40
60
67
37
Saffat
Eanks
55
50
59
38
Swad
Swad
37
59
73
39
Zarnar
Ti'oops
58
80
45
40
Mum in
Believer
59
78
72
41
Fussilat
Explanation
60
71
53
42
Shori
Council
61
83
71
43
Zukhraf
Jewels
62
61
76
44
Dukhan
Smoke
63
53
58
45
Jasiya
Kneeling
64
72
57
46
Ahqaf
Ahqaf
65
88
64
47
Muhammad
Muhammad
94
96
uncertain
48
Fatah
Victory
111
108
A.H. 6
49
Hujrat
Chambers
106
112
uncertain
50
Qaf ^
Qaf
33
54
56
51
Zariat
Breath of
Winds.
66
43
63
52
Tur
Mountain
75
44
55
53
Najam
Star
22
46
43
54
Qamar
Moon
36
49
48
55
Eahman
Merciful
96
48
40
56
Waqia'
Inevitable
45
45
41
57
Hadid
Iron
93
99
uncertain
58
Mujadila
Disputer
105
106
uncertain
59
Hashar
Assembly
101
102
A.H. 4
60
Mumtahina
Proof
90
110
A.H. 7
61
Saf
Array
110
98
micertain
62
Jura' a
Assembly
108
94
imcertain
63
Munafiqun
Hypocrites
104
104
A.H. 65
64
Taghabmi
Deceit
109
93
82
65
Talaq
Divorce
108
101
uncertain
66
Tahrim
Prohibition
107
109
A.H. 7 to 8
67
Mulk
Kingdom
76
63
42
68
Qalam
Pen
2
17
52
69
Haqa
Inevitable-Day
77
42
51
70
Ma'arij
Steps
78
47
37
71
Nuh
Noah
70
51
54
THE QUEAN.
45
No.
Title of Sura.
Meaning in
English.
The Chronological Order.
According
to Tilal-ud-
Accord-
ing to
According to
iJ\J O cllal-LlLL-
din.
Eev.J.M.
Sir W. Muir.
Eodwell.
72
Jiiin
Genii
39
62
65
73
Muzzamnail
Wrapped up
3
3
46
74
Muddassir
Mantle
4
2
21
75
Qivamat
Resurrection
30
40
36
76
Dahr
Man
97
52
35
77
Mursalat
Messengers
32
36
34
78
Naba
News
79
37
33
79
JSTazi'at
Ministers of
Vengeance.
80
35
47
80
'Abas
He frowned
23
24
26
81
Takwir
Folding up
6
32
27
82
Infitar
Cleaving
asunder.
81
31
11
83
Tatfif
Short Measui'e
85
41
32
84
Inshiqaq
Bending in
sunder.
82
33
28
85
Buruj
Celestial Signs
26
28
31
86
Tariq
Night Star
35
22
29
87
'A'la
Most High
7
25
23
88
Ghashiya
Overwhelming
67
38
25
89
Fajr
Day-break
9
39
14
90
Balad
City
34
18
15
91
Shams
Sun
25
23
4
92
Lail
Night
8
16
12
93
Zuha
Sun in his me-
ridian.
10
4
16
94
Insliirah
Expanding
11
5
17
95
Tin
Fig
27
26
8
96
'Alaq
Congealed
blood.
1
1
19
97
Qadar
Night of
power.
24
92
24
98
Baiyana
Evidence
99
21
uncertain
99
Zilzal^
Earthquake
92
30
3
100
'Adiyat
Swift horses
13
34
2
101
Qari'a
Striking
29
29
7
102
Takasur
Multiplying
15
15
9
103
'Asar
Afternoon
12
27
1
104
Hamza
Slanderer
31
13
10
105
Fil
Elephant
18
19
13
106
Qoreish.
Qoreish
28
20
5
46
THE QURAN.
No.
Title of Sura.
Meaning in
English.
The Chronological Order.
According
to Jalal-ud-
din.
Accord-
ing to
Eev.J.M.
Eodwell.
According to
Sir W. Muir.
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
Maun
Kausar
Kafirun
Nasr
Lahab
Ikhlas
Falaq
Nas
Necessaries
Kausar
Infidels
Assistance
Lahab
Unity
Day-break
Men
16
14
17
101
5
21
19
20
14
9
12
111
11
10
6
7
39
18
38
30
22
20
uncertain
imcertain
47
v.— INSPIRATION.
AccoEDiNG to Muliammadan theologians, in-
spiration is of two kinds, Wdhi and Ilhdm.
Wdhi, is that which was given to the prophets,
and is used especially for the Quran; Ilhdm
being the inspiration to Walls, or saints.
Ilhdm is the word generally used by Christian
missionaries for the inspiration of the sacred
Scriptures, and we believe it is sometimes used
by Arabic divines for a higher form of inspira-
tion, but always in the compound form of
Ilhdm Bahhdni.
Shaikh Ahmad in his book, the Nur-ul-Anwar,
defines inspiration as follows : — " Wdhi, or
inspiration, is either Zdhir (external), or Bdtin
(internal). Wdhi Zdhir is divided into three
classes : — (1) Wdhi Qitrdn, that which was
given by the mouth of the angel Gabriel, and
which reached the ear of the Prophet after
he knew that it was Gabriel who spoke to
48 INSPIRATION.
him. (2) Ishdrat-ul-Maiah, that whicli was
received from Gabriel, but not by word of
mouth, as when the Prophet said, " The Holy
Ghost has breathed into my heart." (3)
IlJtdm, or Wdhi Qalb, that which was made
known to the Prophet by the light of jDrophecy.
This kind of inspiration is possessed by Walls
or saints, but in their case it may be true or
false. Wdhi Bdtin is that which the Prophet
obtained by analogical reasoning {c[ids) just
as the enlightened doctors, or Mujtahidin, ob-
tain it."
The Ishdrat-ul-Malalv, mentioned in the above
quotation is never used for the inspiration of
the Quran, but for certain instructions which
Muhammad professes to have received direct
from Gabriel, and which are recorded in the
Hadis, or Traditions.
Whatever may have been the actual impres-
sion upon Muhammad's mind as to the nature
of the communications he professed to have
received from God, it is evident that Muslim
theologians have no conception of the Word
of God being given in the form of the Old
and New Testament Scriptures. The most
plausible objection raised against the New Tes-
INSPIRATION. 49
tament, by Muhammadan controversialists of
the present day is, that the Christians have
lost the original Gospels and that our present
book contains merely the Hadis, or traditions,
of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. It is,
therefore, necessary to correct their common
idea that the Gospel was revealed to Jesus in
the same manner as the Quran is said to have
been given to Muhammad ; to show that it
was the special office of the Holy Spirit to
give the J^ew Testament Scriptures, and that
they came to man by the same method of
inspiration whereby the Old Testament writ-
ings were given to the Prophets of old, the
Quran being an exception to God's tcsual
method of giving inspired writings to his
Prophets.*
* Vide 2 Tim. iii. 16 : Tracra ypacftr] ©coTn/evo-ros " all scrip-
ture is Grod-breatlied " {divinatus inspirata, Yulg.), whicli
Dean Alford says is the idea common to the Jews. Vide
Jos. contra Apion. i. 7.
50
yi.— THE TRADITIONS.
The Had/is (pi. Ahddis) is, as we have already
remarked, the second part of the Muhammadan
rule of faith. It forms the body of that oral
law of the Arabian legislator which stands
next to the Quran in point of authority,
being considered by all Muhammadans, whether
Sunni, Shia'h, or Wahhabi, as a supplement
to that book. The collections of these tra-
ditions are called Hadis, being records of the
sayings of the Prophet, but they are also called
Sunna, a word which signifies custom, or
regulation.
Muhammad gave very special injunctions
respecting the faithful transmission of his
sayings ; for example, it is related by Tirmizi,
that the Prophet said, ''Convey to other per-
sons none of my words except those which ye
THE TEADITIONS. 61
know of a surety. Yerily he who purposely
represents my words wrongly, would find a
place nowhere for himself but in fire."
But notwithstanding the severe warning
given by Muhammad himself, it is admitted
by all Muslim divines that very many spurious
traditions have been handed down. Abu Daud
received onlj^ four thousand eight hundred,
out of five hundred thousand, and even after
this careful selection he states that he has
mentioned '' tJiose which seem to he authentic
and those which are nearly so." Out of forty
thousand persons who have been instrumental
in handing down traditions of " the Prophet,"
Bokhari only acknowledged two thousand as
reliable authorities. It will, therefore, be seen
how unreliable are the traditions of Islam
although they are part of the rule of faith.
Such being the case, it is not surprising that
'Um-i-Hadis, or the Science of Tradition, has
become a most important branch of Muslim
Divinity, and that the following canons have
been framed for the reception or rejection of
traditions.
4 A
52 THE TRADITIONS.
I. With reference to tlie character of those
who have handed down the tradition * : —
(1) Hadis-i-Sahih, a genuine tradition, is one
which has been handed down by truly pious
persons who have been distinguished for their
integrity.
(2) Hadis-i-Hasan, a Qnediocre tradition, is
one the narrators of which do not approach in
moral excellence to those of the Sahih class.
(3) Hadis-i-Z^mf, a weah tradition, is one
whose narrators are of questionable authority.
The disputed claims of narrators to these
three classes have proved a fruitful source of
learned discussion, and very numerous are the
works written upon the subject.
II. With reference to the original relators
of the Hadis : —
(1) IIadis-i-Marfu\ an exalted tradition, is
a saying, or an act, related or performed by
* In the first edition of these Notes the canons for the
reception and rejection of traditions were taken from
Sayyad Ahmad Khan's "Essay on Traditions," but in
the present edition they have been arranged according to
the Arabic treatise, entitled ISTukhbat-al-Faqr by Shekh
Shahab-ud-dm Ahmad, edited by Capt. W. Nassau Lees,
LL.D. (Calcutta, 1862.)
THE TEADITIONS. 63
the Propliet himself and handed down m a
tradition.
(2) HacUs-i-Mauqiif, a restricted tradition,
is a saying or an act related or performed by
one of the asJidh or companions of the Prophet.
(3) HadiS'i'Maqtu', an intersected tradition,
is a saying or an act related or performed by
one of the Tdha'in, or those who conversed
with the companions of the Prophet.
III. With reference to the links in the chain
of the narrators of the tradition, a Hadis is
either Muttasil, connected, or Munqata\ dis-
connected. If the chain of narrators is com-
plete from the time of the first utterance of
the saying or performance of the act recorded
to the time that it was wi^itten down by the
collector of traditions, it is Muttasil ; but if the
chain of narrators is incomplete, it is Munqata\
lY. With reference to the manner in which
the tradition has been narrated, and transmitted
down from the first : —
(1) Hadis'i-Mutatudtir, an undoubted tradi-
tion, is one which is handed down by very
many distinct chains of narrators, and which
has been always accepted as authentic and
genuine, no doubt ever having been raised
54 THE TRADITIONS.
againsrit. The learned doctors say there are
only five such traditions ; but the exact number
is disputed.
(2) Hadis-i-Mashhur, a ivell-hiorvn tradition,
is one which has been handed down by at
least three distinct lines of narrators. It is
called also Mustafiz, diffused. It is also used
for a tradition which was at first recorded by
one person, or a few individuals, and after-
wards became a popular tradition.
(3) Hadis-i-^Aziz, a rare tradition, is one
related by only two lines of narrators.
(4) Hadis-i-Gharib, a poor tradition, is one
related by only one line of narrators.
Khabar-i- Wahid, a single saying, is a term
also used for a tradition related by one person
and handed down by one line of narrators. It
is a disputed point whether a Khabar-i' Wahid
can form the basis of Muslim doctrine.
Hadis'i-Mursal (lit. " a tradition let loose ''), is
a tradition which any collector of traditions,
such as Bokhari and others, records with the
assertion, " the Apostle of God said.^'
Biwdyat, is a Hadis which commences with
the words ''it is related S" without the authority
being given.
THE TEADITIONS. 55
IIadis-i-Mcmizic\ an invented tradition, is one
tlie untruth of wliich is beyond dispute.
It is an universal canon tliat no tradition
can be received wliicli is contrary to the Quran,
and it is related that when 'Ayeshah heard
Omar say that Muhammad had taught that
the dead could hear, she rejected the tradition
as spurious, because it was contrary to the
teaching of the Quran.
Whatever may be the difference of opinion
as to the authority of the various traditions,
it must be remembered that they form the
groundwork of the different schools of thought
of the Muhammadan religion. It is, therefore,
impossible for European critics to form a just
estimate of the Muhammadan creed without
being acquainted with those traditions which
are generally received as authentic and genuine.
European wi^iters are unfortunately under
the impression that the "Muhammadan re-
vival" is a going back to "first principles,"
as expressed in the Quran, whereas, it is, as
we have already remarked, a revival of the
study of the traditions concerning their Prophet,
which study has undoubtedly been promoted by
the establishment of printing presses in Egypt,
56 THE TEADITIONS.
Turkey, and India. Not that we think Islam
will present any fairer proportions even when
deprived of those excrescences which are sup-
posed to have been the preternatural growth
of tradition, as long as the Pilgrimage has the
so-called divine sanction of the Quran, and the
position of women is regulated by the same
" divine oracles."
The following are the six principal collectors
of Hadis received by the Sunni Muhamma-
dans : —
1. Muhammad Ismail 5oZ;Mr^.*
Born, A.H. 194; died, a.h. 256.
2 . Muslim-ihB.'i-lIsbjj aj .
Born, A.H. 204; died, a.h. 261.
3. Abu Isa' Muhammad Tirmizi,
Born, A.H. 209 ; died, a.h. 279.
4. Ahu Baud Sajistani.
Born, A.H. 202; died, a.h. 275.
5. Abu Abdur Rahman Nasai.
Born, A.H. 215; died, a.h. 303.
6. Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn-i-Mdjah.
Born, A.H. 209; died, a.h. 273.
* The names in italics denote the usual title of the
book.
THE TRADITIONS. 57
Some divines substitute tlie following for
that of Ibn-i-Mdjah.
Muaivattda Imam MdliJc.
Born, A.H. 95; died, a.h. 179.
The following are the collections of Hadis
received by the Shia'h : —
1. The Kdfi, by Abu Jafar Muhammad, a.h.
329.
2. The Man-ld-yastahziraJi-al-Faqih, by
Shekh 'Ali, A.H. 381.
3. The Tahzib, by Shekh Abu Jafar Mu-
hammad, A.H. 466.
4. The Istihsdr, by the same author.
5. The Nahaj-ul-Baldghat, by Sayyud Razi,
A.H. 406.
Copies of the Sihah-Sittah, or ''six correct"
books of tradition received by the Sunnis, to-
gether with the seventh work by Imam Malik,
have been lithographed, and can be purchased
in the book shops of Delhi, Lucknow, and
Bombay ; but the work most read is the Mish-
kat-ul-Musabih (the niche for lamps), which is
a collection of the most reliable traditions.
This work was originally in Arabic; but it
was translated into Persian in the reign of
Akbar. It was rendered into English by Cap-
58 THE TEADITIONS.
tain Matthews, and published in Calcutta in
1809. The English translation has been long
since out of print, but efforts are being made
by the author of these notes for its republica-
tion. The popular collection of Shia'h tradi-
tions arranged in the form of an historical
narrative is the Hyat-ul-Qulub, a Persian work
which has been translated by the E-ev. J. L.
Merrick (Phillips, Sampson & Co., Boston, U.S.,
1850).
The most trustworthy of the various collec-
tions of Sunni traditions is the one usually
called Bohhdri. It was compiled by Abu Ab-
dullah Muhammad ibn-i-Ismail a native of
Bokhara. In obedience to instructions he is
said to have received in a vision, he set himself
to commence the collection of all the current
traditions relating to Muhammad. He suc-
ceeded in collecting not fewer than six hundred
thousand traditions, of which he selected only
7275 as trustworthy ! These he recorded in
his work ; but it is said that he repeated a
two ri¥at prayer before he wrote down any
one of the 7275 traditions which he recorded.
There is, therefore, every reason to believe
that the compilers of the books of tradition
THE TRADITIONS. 59
were sincere and lionest in tlieir endeavours to
produce correct and well authenticated tradi-
tions of tlieir Propliet's precepts and practice ;
but, as Sir William Muir remarks, " tlie exclu-
sively oral character of the early traditions
deprives them of every check against the licence
of error and fabrication."
Sir William Muir has very ably dwelt upon
the unsatisfactory character of Muhammadan
tradition in the first volume of his " Life of
Mahomet," to which Sayyid Ahmad Khan has
written a reply in a supplement to his essay
on Muhammadan tradition. The learned Say-
yid is in this, as in almost everything he writes
on the subject of religion, his own refutation.
Sir William Muir reveals to the public " the
higgledy-piggledy condition, the unauthenticity
and the spuriousness of Muhammadan tradi-
tions," and surely Sayyid Ahmad Khan does
but confirm the same when he writes : " All
learned Muhammadan divines of every period
have declared that the Quran only is the
Hadees mutawdtir ; but some doctors have de-
clared certain other Hadeeses also to be Muta-
watir, the number, however, of such Hadeeses
not exceeding ^ve. Such are the Hadeeses that
60 THE TEADITIONS.
ai^e implicitly believed, and ought to he Teligi-
ously observed.'^
But although the traditions of Muhammad
are shrouded with a degree of uncertainty
which is perplexing, not to say vexatious, to
the student of history, still there can be no
doubt as to the place they were intended to,
and still do occupy in the theological structure
of Islam. The example of Muhammad is just
as binding upon the Muslim as that of our
Divine Lord and Saviour is upon the Christian.
And everything Muhammad said with reference
to religious dogmas and morals is believed to
have been inspired by God ; by a " ivdM ghair-
i-mutlu\'' or an inspiration similar in kind to
that which we believe to have been given to
the inspired writers of our Christian Scriptures.
61
YII.— IJMA'.
Ijma' is the tliird foundation of tlie Mnliam-
madan rule of faith. It literally means col-
lecting, or assemhling, and in Muslim divinity
it expresses the unanimous consent of the Muj-
tahidin (learned doctors) ; or, as we should call
it, ''the unanimous consent of the Fathers."
A Mujtahid is a Muslim divine of the highest
degree of learning, a title usually conferred by
Muslim rulers. There are three foundations
of Ijma^ : (1) Itifaq-i-QauU, unanimous consent
expressed in declaration of opinion ; (2) Itifdq-
i-Fi'li, expressed in unanimity of iwactice ;
(3) Itifdq-i-Saqiiti, when the majority of the
Mujtahidin signified their tacit assent to the
opinions of the minority by '^ silence ^^ or non-
interference.
The Mujtahidin, capable of making Tjma\
must be '' men of learning and piety, not
heretics, nor fools, but men of judgment."
There is great diversity of opinion as to
up to what period in the history of Islam,
62 IJMA*.
Ijmci^ can be accepted. Some doctors assert
that only the Ijma^ of the Mnjtahidin who
were Ashab (companions) ; others, that of those
who were not only "companions" but de-
scendants " of the " Prophet," can be accepted;
whilst others accept the Ijma^ of the Ansdrs^
(helpers,) and of the Miihdjarin, (fugitives,)
who were dwellers in Medina mth Muhammad.
The majority of learned Muslim divines, how-
ever, appear to think that Ijma^ may be col-
lected in every age, although they admit that,
owing to the numerous divisions which have
arisen amongst Muhammadans, it has not been
possible since the days of the Taha^ Taha%n,
(i.e., the followers of the followers of the
companions) .
The following is considered to be the relative
value of IJ7}ia' : —
That of the Ashdb (companions) is equal
to Hadis Mutawdtir. That which was decided
afterwards, but in accordance with the unani-
mous opinion of the Ashab, is equal to Hadis
Khahar-i'Mashlmr, and that upon which there
was diversity of opinion amongst the Ashdb,
but has since been decided by the later Mnj-
tahidin is equal to Hndis'i-Khahar'i'Wdhid.
ijma'. 63
Amongst the SMa'hs, we believe, there are
still Mujtahidin whose Ijma' is accepted, but
the Sunnis have four orthodox schools of in-
terpretation, named after their respective
founders, Hanafi, Shafa'i, Maliki, and Hambali.
The Wahhabis for the most part reject Ijma'
collected after the death of '' the Companions."
From these remarks, it will be easily un-
derstood what a fruitful source of religious
dissension and sectarian strife this third foun-
dation of the rule of faith is. Divided as the
Christian Church is by its numerous sects, it
■will compare favourably with Muhammadanism
even in this respect. Muhammad, it is related,
prophesied that as the Jewish Church had
been divided into seventy-one sects 1 and the
Christians into seventy-two ! so his followers
would be divided into seventy-three sects * ;
but every Muslim historian is obliged to admit
that they have far exceeded the limits of Mu-
hammad's prophecy; for, according to Abdul
Qadir Jilani, there are at least 150.
* The seventy -three sects are, according to some writers,
distributed as follows :—Shia'h 31, M'utazilah 21, Kha-
warij 7, Murjiah 5, Najariah 3, Jabariyah 2, Mushabiyah
1, and Najiah (the term used for the orthodox).
64
YIII.— QIAS.
QiVs (lit. " to compare ") is the fourtli founda-
tion of Islam, and expresses the analogical
reasoning of the learned with regard to the
teaching of the Quran, Hadis, and Ijma'.
There are four conditions of Qias : (1) That
the precept or practice upon which it is
founded must be of common ( ^amm ) and not
of special (khdss) application; (2) The cause
(illat) of the injunction must be known and
understood ; (3) The decision must be based
upon either the Quran, the Hadis, or the Ijma' ;
(4) The decision arrived at must not be con-
trary to anything declared elsewhere in the
Quran and Hadis.
Qids is of two kinds, Qids-i-Jali or evident,
and Qids-i-Khafi or hidden.
An example of Qids-i-Jali is as follows : —
Wine is forbidden in the Quran under the word
Khamar, which literally means anything in-
QIAS. 65
toxicating ; it is, therefore, evident tliat opium
and all intoxicating drugs are also forbidden.
Qids-i'Khafi is seen in tlie following ex-
ample : — In the Hadis it is enjoined that one
goat in forty must be given to Grod. To some
poor persons the money may be more accept-
able ; therefore, the value of the goat may be
given instead of the goat.
66
IX.— FAITH.
Faith, I'man, is defined as " tlie belief of the
heart and the confession of the mouth." It
is of two kinds — Tmdn-i-Mujmal and Trndn-
i'Mufassal.
T mdn-i'Mujmal is a simple expression of
faith in the teaching of the Quran and the
Hadis.
Tmdn-i'Mufassal is a belief in the six articles
of faith, viz. :— 1. The Unity of God. 2. The
Angels. 3. The Books. 4. The Prophets.
5. The Day of Judgment. 6. Predestination,
or the Decrees of Grod.
Q1
X.— ALLAH OH GOD.
The name of tlie Creator of tlie universe in
the Quran is Allah, whicli is tlie title given to
tlie Supreme Being by Muhammadans of every
race and language. It is called tlie special, or
essential, name of God, the ism-i-zdt ; all other
names being considered merely ism-i-safdt, or
attributes, of which there are said to be ninety-
nine.* It is supposed to have been derived
from the word ildh, a deity or god, with the
addition of the definite article al, thus Al-ildh,
The God. But Imam Hanifa says that, just as
God's essence is unchangeable so is His name,
and that Alldh has always been the name of
the great Eternal Being (vide Ghyas-ul-Loghat).
It appears to be an Arabic rendering of the
Hebrew *??< el, God. It is expressed in Per-
* Vide the ninety-nine names of God in the article on
Zikr. There is also the Ism-uV Azam, the exalted name of
God, which is said to be unknown.
5 A
68 ALLAH OR GOD.
sian and Hindustani by tlie word Khudd, de-
rived from the Persian Khud (self) ; tlie self-
existing one.
The Muhammadan belief in tlie existence of
God is expressed in the first part of the well
known confession of faith, La-ildha U-lal-
Idho, " There is no deity but God," the in-
terpretation of which occupies so prominent a
place in all treatises of divinity.
The following is an interpretation of the
Muslim belief in the existence and nature of
God, by the famous scholastic divine. Imam
Ghazali, in his book entitled Al Maqsud-ul-
asna, an extract from which Ockley has trans-
lated from Pocock's Specimen Historias Ara-
bum: —
" Praise be to God the Creator and Restorer
of all things ; who does whatsoever he pleases,
who is Master of the glorious throne and
mighty force, and directs his sincere servants
into_the right way and the straight path ;
who favoureth them, who have once borne
testimony to the unity, by preserving their
confessions from the darkness of doubt and
hesitation; who directs them to follow his
chosen apostle, upon whom be the blessing
ALLAH OR GOD. 69
and peace of God; and to go after his most
honourable companions, to whom he hath
Yonchsafed his assistance and direction which
is revealed to them in his essence and opera-
tions by the excellencies of his attributes, to
the knowledge whereof no man attains but he
that hath been taught by hearing. To these,
as touching his essence, he maketh known that
he is one, and hath no partner ; singular, without
anythmg like him; uniform, having no con-
trary; separate, ha\dng no equal. He is an-
cient, having no first ; eternal, having no be-
ginning; remaining for ever, having no end;
continuing to eternity, without any termination.
He persists, without ceasing to be ; remains with-
out falling, and never did cease, nor ever shall
cease to be described by glorious attributes,
nor is subject to any decree so as to be deter-
mined by any precise limits or set times, but is
the First and the Last, and is within and without.
'' (What God is not.) He, glorified be his
name, is not a body endued with form, nor a
substance circumscribed with limits or deter-
mined by measure; neither does he resemble
bodies, as they are capable of being measured
or divided. Neither is he a substance, neither
70 ALLAH OE GOD.
do substances exist in liim; neither is lie an
accident, nor do accidents exist in liim. Neitlier
is lie like to anything tliat exists, neither
is anything like to him; nor is he deter-
minate in quantity nor comprehended by
bounds, nor circumscribed by the differences
of situation, nor contained in the heavens. He
sits upon the throne, after that manner which
he himself hath described, and in that same
sense which he himself means, which is a sitting
far removed from any notion of contact, or
resting upon, or local situation ; but both the
throne itself, and whatsoever is upon it, are
sustained by the goodness of his power, and
are subj.ect to the grasp of his hand. But he
is above the throne, and above all things, even
to the utmost ends of the earth ; but so above
as at the same time not to be a whit nearer
the throne and the heaven ; since he is exalted
by (infinite) degrees above the throne no less
than he is exalted above the earth, and at the
same time is near to everything that hath a
being; nay, ' nearer to man than their jugular
veins, and is witness to everything : ' * though
* Vide Quran.
ALLAH OR GOD. 71
his nearness is not like the nearness of bodies,
as neither is his essence like the essence of
bodies. Neither doth he exist in anything,
neither doth anything exist in him ; but he is
too high to be contained in any place, and too
holy to be determined by time ; for he was
before time and place were created, and is now
after the same manner as he always was. He
is also distinct from the creatures by his attri-
butes, neither is there anything besides him-
self in his essence, nor is his essence in any
other besides him. He is too holy to be sub-
ject to change, or any local motion; neither
do any accidents dwell in him, nor any con-
tingencies befall him; but he abides through
all generations with his glorious attributes,
free from all danger of dissolution. As to the
attribute of perfection, he wants no addition of
his perfection. As to being, he is known to
exist by the apprehension of the understanding ;
and he is seen as he is by an ocular intuition,
which will be vouchsafed out of his mercy and
grace to the holy in the eternal mansion, com-
pleting theu^ joy by the vision of his glorious
presence.
" (His poiuer.) He, praised be his name, is
72 ALLAH OE GOD.
living, powerful, mighty, omnipotent, not liable
to any defect or impotence ; neither slumbering
nor sleeping, nor being obnoxious to decay or
death. To him belongs the kingdom, and the
power, and the might. His is the dominion, and
the excellency, and the creation, and the com-
mand thereof. The heavens are folded up in
his right hand, and all creatures are couched
within his grasp. His excellency consists in
his creating and producing, and his unity in
communicating existence and a beginning of
being. He created men and their works, and
measured out their maintenance and their de-
termined times. Nothing that is possible can
escape his grasp, nor can the vicissitudes of
things elude his power. The effects of his
might are innumerable, and the objects of his
knowledge infinite.
" (His hiowledge.) He, praised be his name,
knows all things that can be understood, and
comprehends whatsoever comes to pass, from
the extremities of the earth to the highest
heavens. Even the weight of a pismire could
not escape him either in earth or heaven ; but
he would perceive the creeping of the black
pismire in the dark night upon the hard stone,
ALLAH OR GOD. 73
and discern the motion of an atom in the open
air. He knows what is secret and conceals it,
and views the conceptions of the minds, and
the motions of the thoughts, and the inmost
recesses of secrets, by a knowledge ancient and
eternal, that never ceased to be his attribute
from eternal eternity, and not by any new
knowledge, superadded to his essence, either
inhering or adventitious.
" (His will.) He, praised be his name, doth
will those things to be that are, and disposes
of all accidents. Nothing passes in the empire,
nor the kingdom, neither little nor much, nor
small nor great, nor good nor evil, nor profit-
able nor hurtful, nor faith nor infidelity, nor
knowledge nor ignorance, nor prosperity nor
adversity, nor increase nor decrease, nor obedi-
ence nor rebellion, but by his determinate
counsel and decree, and his definite sentence
and will. Nor doth the wink of him that
seeth, nor the subtlety of him that thinketh,
exceed the bounds of his will; but it is he
who gave all things their beginning; he is
the creator and restorer, the sole operator of
what he pleases ; there is no reversing his de-
cree nor delaying what he hath determined.
74 ALLAH OR GOD.
nor is there any refuge to man from liis re-
bellion against liim, but only his help and
mercy; nor hath any man any power to per-
form any duty towards him, but through his
love and will. Though men, genii, angels and
devils, should conspire together either to put
one single atom in motion, or cause it to cease
its motion, without his will and approbation
they would not be able to do it. His will
subsists in his essence amongst the rest of
his attributes, and was from eternity one of
his eternal attributes, by which he willed from
eternity the existence of those things that he
had decreed, which were produced in their
proper seasons according to his eternal will,
without any before or after, and in agreement
both with his knowledge and will, and not by
methodising of thoughts, nor waiting for a
proper time, for which reason no one thing is
in him a hindrance from another.
" (His hearing and sight.) And he, praised
be his name, is hearing and seeing, and heareth
and seeth. No audible object, how still so-
ever, escapeth his hearing; nor is any thing
visible so small as to escape his sight; for
distance is no hindrance to his hearing, nor
ALLAH OE GOD. 75
darkness to his sight. He sees without pupil
or eyelids, and hears without any passage or
ear, even as he knoweth without a heart, and
performs his actions without the assistance of
any corporeal limb, and creates without any
instrument, for his attributes (or properties)
are not like those of men, any more than his
essence is like theirs.
" (His IV or d. J Furthermore, he doth speak,
command, forbid, promise, and threaten by an
eternal, ancient word, subsisting in his essence.
Neither is it like to the word of the creatures,
nor doth it consist in a voice arising from the
commotion of the air and the collision of bodies,
nor letters which are separated by the joining
together of the lips or the motion of the
tongue. The Koran, the Law, the Gospel,
and the Psalter, are books sent down by him
to his apostles, and the Koran, indeed, is read
with tongues, written in books, and kept in
hearts ; yet as subsisting in the essence of God,
it doth not become liable to separation and
division whilst it is transferred into the hearts
and the papers. Thus Moses also heard the
Word of God without voice or letter, even as
the saints behold the essence of God without
76 ALLAH OE GOD.
substance or accident. And tliat since these
are liis attributes, lie liveth and knowetb, is
powerful and willeth and operatetb, and seeth
and speaketh, by life and knowledge, and will
and bearing, and siglit and word, not by bis
simple essence.
" (His worhs.J He, praised be bis name, exists
after sucb a manner tbat nothing besides bim
batb any being but wliat is produced by bis
operation, and floweth from bis justice after
the best, most excellent, most perfect, and
most just model. He is, moreover, wise in bis
works, and just in bis decrees. But bis justice
is not to be compared witb tbe justice of men.
For a man may be supposed to act unjustly by
invading the possession of another; but no
injustice can be conceived of God, inasmuch as
there is nothing that belongs to any other
besides himself, so that wrong is not imputable
to him as meddling with things not appertain-
ing to him. All things, himself only excepted,
genii, men, the devil, angels, heaven, earth,
animals, plants, substance, accident, intelligible,
sensible, were all created originally by him.
He created them by his power out of mere
privation, and brought them into light, when
ALLAH OR GOD. 77
as yet they were notliing at all, but lie alone
existing from eternity, neither was there any
other with him. 'Now he created all things in
the begmning for the manifestation of his
power, and his will, and the confirmation of
his word, which was true from all eternity.
Not that he stood in need of them, nor wanted
them ; but he manifestly declared his glory in
creating, and producing, and commanding,
without being under any obligation, nor out of
necessity. Loving kindness, and to show fa-
vour, and grace, and beneficence, belong to
him ; whereas it is in his power to pour forth
upon men a variety of torments, and afflict
them with various kinds of sorrows and dis-
eases, which, if he were to do, his justice could
not be arraigned, nor would he be chargeable
with injustice. Yet he rewards those that wor-
ship him for their obedience on account of his
promise and beneficence, not of their merit
nor of necessity, since there is nothing which
he can be tied to perform ; nor can any injus-
tice be supposed in him, nor can he be under
any obligation to any person whatsoever. That
his creatures, however, should be bound to
serve him, ariseth from his having declared by
78 ALLAH OR GOD.
the tongues of the prophets that it was due
to him from them. The worship of him is not
simply the dictate of the understanding, but he
sent messengers to carry to men his commands,
and promises, and threats, whose veracity he
proved by manifest miracles, whereby men are
obliged to give credit to them in those things
that they relate."
79
XI.— ANGELS.
The existence of angels {malaJc, pi. maldik),
and their purity, are absolutely required to be
believed in by the Quran, and he is reckoned
an infidel who denies that there are such beings,
or hates any of them or asserts any distinction
of the sexes. The Muhammadans reckon four
archangels : (1) JibrdM (Grabriel), who is God's
messenger; (2) MiMil (Michael), who is the
protector of the Jews; (3) Isrdfil, who will
sound the last trumpet at the resurrection;
(4) Azrdil, the angel of death. Muhammad
undoubtedly obtained the names of these arch-
angels from the Scriptures and Jewish tra-
dition, although in the Apocryphal Book of
Enoch* the names of the six archangels are
Uriel, Raphael, Baguel, Michael, Sarahiel,
* Book of Enoch translated by Archbishop Laurence,
chap. XX.
80 ANGELS.
Gabriel — a fact wliicli may be cited as an ad-
ditional proof, tliat when Muhammad availed
himself of Jewish traditions, he quoted or
adopted them with the same want of accuracy
as when he appealed to the Divine word of
God.
There are also the two recording angels
called the Mua'qqihdf, or the angels who con-
tinually succeed each other, who record the
good and evil actions of a man, one standing at
his right hand and another on his left. These
are also called the Kirdm-ul-Katihin (the
exalted writers). The angel who has charge
of Heaven is Bezwdn and the angel who pre-
sides over Hell is Malik.
Munhar and Nakir are described by Mu-
hammad as two black angels with blue eyes
who visit every man in his grave, make him
sit up, and examine him as to his faith in God
and in Muhammad his prophet. If the answer
is satisfactory, he will be allowed to sleep on
in peace, but if he replies that he knows no-
thing of ''God's A'postle,'' then he will be struck
with an iron hammer called Mitraqat, and he
will roar out, and his cries will be heard by all
animals that may be near his grave, excepting
ANGELS. 81
men and genii.* This exciting ceremony is
said to take place as soon as the funeral party-
have proceeded forty paces from the grave ! t
Enlightened Muhammadans of the present day
attempt to explain all this in a figurative sense,
but in vain, for there is a very trustworthy
tradition, recorded both by Bohhdri and Muslim,
to the effect that Muhammad related that he
himself heard the infliction of torment on
infidels in their graves when passing through
the grave-yard, and that his camel was fright-
ened by their groans ! This is one of the many
instances of Muhammad's superstitious belief
which the more recent Muhammadan divines
endeavour to explain in a metaphorical sense.
We have, however, shown in a previous article
that the traditions of Bohhdri are of considerable
historical weight, so that there can be little
doubt that Muhammad believed " the pun-
ishments of the grave " to be real and literal,
which is opposed to the teaching of God's
revealed word {vide Eccl. ix. 10 ; xii. 7 ; Psalm
cxlvi. 4).
* Mishkat, bk. i. cliap. v.
t Vide Article on Janaza or Burial.
6
82 ANGELS.
The Devil is said to be a fallen angel who
was tnrned out of Paradise because he refused
to do homage to Adam.* He is called Iblis, a
word which is most probably derived from
halas, a wicked or profligate person ; and also
Sliaitdn (Satan). Besides angels and devils,
there are said to be a distinct order of crea-
tures called Jinn (Grenii) who were created of
fire some thousands of years before Adam.
According to tradition the species consists of
five distinct orders: — 1. Jd7in ; 2. Jinn; 3.
Sliaitdn; 4. ^Ifrit; 5. Mdrid.
Their chief abode is the mountains of Qaf,
which are supposed to encircle the world.
There are good and evil Grenii. If good, they
are exceedingly handsome ; if evil, they are
horribly hideous. The evil genii are said to
have been at liberty to enter any of the seven
heavens till the birth of Jesus, when they were
excluded from three of them. On the birth
of Muhammad they were forbidden the other
four heavens. They continue, however, to
ascend to the confines of the lowest heavens,
and there listen to the conversations of the
* Surat-ul-Baqr (ii.), 33.
ANGELS. 83
angels respecting the decrees of God, wliicli
they sometimes impart to men by means of
talismans and invocations.
The good genii are Muslims, and perform all
the religions duties of the faithful.
King Solomon is said to have had great
power over the genii by means of his magic
ring.*
Students of Islam must bear in mind that
most of the absurd stories of the genii are
related in the Quran, and have, therefore,
received from Muhammad all the authority
of a divine revelation.
* The second Tar gum on Esther i. — ii., mentions the
four classes of Genii which were given into the power of
King Solomon.
6 A
84
XII.— PROPHETS.
The number of prophets (rasul), which have
been sent by God, are said to be 224,000, or,
according to another tradition, 124,000. Of
these 313 were Apostles sent with special com-
missions, to reclaim the world from infidelity
and superstition.
Six brought new laws which successively ab-
rogated the preceding and have special titles,
or halima * : —
1. Adam (Adam), Stifi-UUah, the Chosen of
God.
2. Nuh (Koah), Nabi-Ullah, the Preacher of
God.
* Dr. Pfander, in tlie second chapter of Mizan-ul-Haqq,
states that Muhammadan Doctors assert that by the de-
scent of the Psalms the Torah was abrogated. Such, how-
ever, is not the case, for the Psalms are not said to have
abrogated the Torah, and consequently David has no
special title or Kalima.
PEOPHETS. 85
3. Ibrahim (Abraham), KhaUl-Ullah, the
Friend of God.
4. Musci (Moses), Kalim'TJllah, one who con-
versed with God.
5. 'Isa (Jesus), Buh-UUah, the Spirit of
God.
6. Muhammad, Busid-UUah, the Messenger
of God.
The number of sacred books delivered to
man are said to have been one hundred and
four, vi^. : —
Ten, to Adam ;
Fifty, to Seth (SisJi) ;
Thirty, to Enoch (Edris) ;
Ten, to Abraham ;
The Taurat, to Moses ;
The Zabur, to David ;
The Injil, to Jesus ;
The Quran, to Muhammad.
The one hundred scriptures given to Adam,
Seth, Enoch, and Abraham, are termed Salii-
fall (a pamphlet), and the other four, Kitdh
(a book) ; but all that is necessary for the
Muslim to know of these books is supposed to
have been retained in the Quran.
Luqman-i-Hakim (supposed to have been
86 PROPHETS.
^sop) and Alexander the Great are also con-
sidered by Muhammadan commentators to have
been prophets. Lnqman is mentioned in the
thirty-first Sura of the Quran, and Zulqurnain,
*'the two-horned" (supposed to have been
Alexander), in the eighteenth Sura; but it is
not clear as to what position the author of
the Quran intended to assign to these worthies.
Muhammad's enumeration of the Old Tes-
tament Prophets, both as to name and chro-
nological order, is exceedingly confused.
87
XIII. — THE DAY OF RESUERECTIOlSr
AND JUDGMENT, AND THE SIGNS
OF THE LAST DAYS.
Qi'a'mat (lit. "standing"), or the day of resurrec-
tion and judgment, is a time wliich all Muham-
madans allow is a perfect secret and known
only to God. But they say that the approach
of the day of judgment will be known by
twenty- five signs.*
1. The decay of faith among men.
2. The advancing of the meanest persons to
dignity.
3. That a maid-servant shall become the
mother of her mistress.
4. Tumults and seditions.
5. A war with the Turks.
6. Great distress in the world.
7. That the provinces of 'Iraq and Syria
shall refuse to pay tribute.
* See Mishkat-ul-Musabih, bk. xxiii. chap. iii.
88 RESUREECTION AND JUDGMENT.
8. That the buildings of Medina shall extend
to Yahab.
9. The sun rising in the west.
10. The appearance of a remarkable Beast,
called the Ddhhat-ul-arz, which shall rise out
of the earth in the temple at Mecca.
11. War with the Greeks and the taking of
Constantinople by 70,000 of the posterity of
Isaac.
12. The coming of Masih-ud-Dajjdl, or Anti-
christ.
13. The coming of Jesus Christ, who will
descend upon one of the minarets of the
Mosque at Damascus.
14. War with the Jews.
15. The ravages made by Taji'tj and Majuj
(Gog and Magog).
16. A smoke which shall fill the whole
earth.
17. An eclipse of the moon.
18. The return of the Arabians to idolatry.
19. The discovery of a heap of treasure by
the retreating of the river Euphrates.
20. The demolition of the temple at Mecca.
21. The speaking of beasts and inanimate
things.
RESUEEECTION AND JUDGMENT. 89
22. A breaking out of a fire in Yaman.
23. The appearance of a remarkable man
who shall drive men before him with his staff.
24. The coming of Imam Mahdi,* the di-
rector, who will come from Khorasan, his
troops bearing black ensigns.
25. A mighty wind which shall sweep away
the souls of all who have but a grain of faith
in their hearts.
The following is a succinct account of the
day of judgment, translated from a Muham-
madan book : — " Then shall Grod bring all men
back and raise them again, and restore to
them their souls, and gather them together.
He will then call for the books in which have
been written the good and evil actions of all
men. Then he will judge them in equity and
weigh the balance (mizdn) of their works, and
will make retribution to every soul according
to what he has done. Some shall enter Para-
dise through his goodness and mercy, and some
shall go to hell. No Muslim shall remain in
* Imam Malidi is said by the Shia'hs to have been
their twelfth Imam, Abu Kasim ; but who will come again
in the last days.
90 RESUEEECTION AND JUDGMENT.
hell for ever, but sliall enter into Paradise,
after they have suffered according to their sins,
for believers shall remain for ever in Paradise,
and the unbelievers in hell fire."
Sirdt is a bridge which all must pass over on
the day of judgment. It is said to extend over
the midst of hell, and to be sharper than the
edge of a sword. In passing it the feet of the
infidel will slip, and he will fall into hell fire ;
but the feet of the Muslim will be firm, and
carry him safely to Paradise.
91
XIY.— HEAYEN.
The Muhammadan Paradise is called Jannat
(garden) in Arabic, and BahisM in Persian;
the word Fir dans, from wliich we get our Eng-
lish word Paradise, being restricted to one
region in the celestial abodes of bliss.
There are eight different terms employed in
the Quran for heaven, and although they would
appear to be but different names for the same
region, Muhammadan divines understand them
to mean different stages of glory.
They are as follows * : —
1. Jannat-ul-Khuld (Sura xxv. 16), "The
garden of eternity."
2. Ddr-us-Saldm (Sura vi. 127), " The dwel-
ling of peace."
* These various stages of Paradise are variously given
by European authors. Those in the text are from the
Arabic dictionary, the Ghyas-ul-Loghat, and have been
compared with the verses given from the Quran.
92 HEAVEN.
3. Ddr-uUQardr (Suraxl. 42), " The dwelling
wliicli abide til."
4. Jannat-i-'Adan{Sursihi.72), "The garden
of Eden."
5. Jannat'ul-Maiud (Sura xxxii. 19), " The
garden of refuge.
6. Jannat-un-N' aim (Suravi. 70), " The gar-
den of delight."
7. Jannat-i-' Illiyun (Sura Ixxxiii. 18), " The
garden of 'Illiyun."
8. Jannat-ul-Firdaus (Sura xviii. 107), " The
garden of Paradise."
These eight stages of Paradise are spoken of
as ''eight doors'' in the Traditions (Mishkat,
bk. ii. chap. i.).
The sensual delights of Muhammad's Para-
dise are proverbial, and they must have exer-
cised considerable influence upon the minds of
the people to whom he made known his mission.
The allusions in the Quran are far too numerous
to admit of quotation, but they will be found
more particularly in Suras Ixxvi., Iv., Ivi., xlvii.
The descriptions of the celestial regions and the
enjoyments promised to " the faithful " are still
more minutely given in the traditional sayings
of the Prophet (Mishkat, bk. xxiii. chap. xiii.).
HEAVEN. 93
Apologists for Islam, Carlyle for example,
liave suggested tliat tlie sensual delights of
Muhammad's Paradise may after all be taken
figuratively, even as the Song of Solomon and
the Revelation of St. John. It is quite true
that such is the interpretation hinted at in the
Akhlaq-i- Jalali ; and Mr. Lane in his " Modern
Egyptians " says he met a Muslim of learning
who considered them figurative; but such is
not the view of any Muhammadan commentator.
All Muslim theologians have given a literal in-
terpretation of the sensual delights, and it is
impossible for any candid mind to read the
Quran and Traditions and arrive to any other
conclusion on the subject.
Islam, true to its anti- Christian character,
preaches a sensual abode of bliss in opposition
to the express teaching of our blessed Lord,
who said, '' They neither marry nor are given
in marriage, but are as the angels of heaven
(St. Matt. xxii. 30).
It is remarkable that with the exception of
one passage (Sura iii. 25), Muhammad's de-
scriptions of the sensual paradise belong to the
later period of his mission, and after he had
become a polygamist.
94 HEAVEN.
In addition to tlie seven divisions of celestial
bliss, there are said to be seven firmaments
(asmdn).
1. Of pure virgin silver, wliicli is Adam's
residence.
2. Of pm^e gold, which is Enoch's and
John Baptist's.
3. Of pearls, which is Joseph's.
4. Of white gold, which is Jesus'.
5. Of silver, which is Aaron's.
6. Of ruby and garnet, which is Moses'.
7. Of crystal, which is Abraham's.
Muhammadans undoubtedly get their tra-
dition of seven heavens from the Talmud;
but the Jewish tradition with reference to
the seven heavens was a more sensible ar-
rangement than that of the Muhammadans.
The seven heavens of the Jews are as
follow * : —
1. The vellum, or curtain.
2. The expanse, or firmament.
3. The clouds of ether.
4. The habitation, where the temple of Jeru-
* See Dr. Adam Clark on 2 Cor. xii. 2.
HEAVEN. 95
salem and tlie altar are situated, and where
Michael the great prince offers sacrifice.
5. The dwelling place, where troops of an-
gels sing.
6. The fixed residence, where are the trea-
sures of snow and hail.
7. Araboth, or special place of glory.
96
XY.— HELL.
Hell, or the place of torment, is called in
Arabic Jahannam, and in Persian Dozahh ; and
is said to liave seven portals or divisions,*
wliicli tlie Commentator Bagliawi distributes
as follows : —
1. Jahannam, for Mnbammadans ; for, ac-
cording to the Quran, all Muslims will pass
througb hell.t
2. Lazwd, a blazing fire for Christians (Snra
Ixx. 15 only).
3. Hutama, an intense fire for Jews (Sura
civ. 4 only).
* Sura XV. 44. "It hath seven portals, and at each
portal a separate band;" a tradition founded on the
Talmud. Thus in Sota 10, David is said to have rescued
Absalom from the seven dwelHngs of hell. (Eodwell.)
t Sura xix. 44, "Verily there is not one of you that
shall not go down into hell. Jahannam is the Arabic
form of the Greek yeeWa, and it is remarkable that the
word should be used for a purgatorial hell and not aSiys
which, according to the Papists, denotes that state.
HELL. 97
4. 8^ air, a flaming fire for Sabians (Sura
iv. 11, and fourteen otlier places).
5. Saqar, a scorching lieat for Magi (Suras
liv. 58, and Ixxiv. 43).
6. JaJitm, a huge hot fire for idolaters
(Sura ii. 113, and twenty other places).
7. Hdwia, the bottomless pit for hypocrites
(Sura, cl. 8).
The situation of hell is a matter of dispute.
Baghawi's distribution of the different sections
of hell is a proof of the utter recklessness of
Muslim Commentators, for in neither case are
Lazivd and Hutama apportioned to Christians
or Jews in the Quran.
98
XVL— THE DECREES OF GOD.
Taqdi'r, or the absolute decree and predes-
tination of both good and evil, is the sixth
article of the Muslim's creed. The orthodox
belief is that whatever hath or shall come to
pass in this world, whether it be good or bad,
proceedeth entirely from the divine will, and is
irrevocably fixed and recorded in the preserved
tablet (Lahw-ul-Mahfih).*
Of this doctrine Muhammad makes great use
in his Quran, and all those who have had any
practical acquaintance with the lives of Mu-
hammadans, know well to what extent it
influences the daily life of every Muslim. It
* Lahw -ul' Mahfilz, occurs only once in the Qurjin,
namely, Sura Ixxxv. 22, where it relates to the Quran
being written thereon. The Preserved Tablet on which
the actions of men are written, is called Tmim-ul-Muhin,
the clear prototype. Sura xxxvi. 11.
DEOEEES OF GOD. 99
is not only urged as a source of consolation in
every trial, but as a palliation of every crime.
" It was written in my taqdir " (fate), is an
excuse familiar to every European who has
had much intercourse with Muslim servants or
soldiers.
The following is a translation of an Arabic
treatise on the subject : '' Faith in the decrees
of God, is that we believe in our heart and con-
fess with our tongue that the most High Grod
hath decreed all things so that nothing can
happen in the world, whether it respects the
conditions and operations of things, or good
and evil, or obedience and disobedience, or
faith and infidelity, or sickness and health,
or riches and poverty, or life and death, that is
not contained in the written tablet of the
decrees of God. But God hath so decreed
good works, obedience, and faith, that He
ordains and wills them, and that they may
be under His decree. His salutary direction,
His good pleasure and command. On the
contrary, God hath decreed, and does ordain
and determine evil, disobedience, and infidelity ;
yet without His salutary direction, good plea-
sure and command, but being only by way
7 A
100 DECEEES OF GOD.
of seduction, indignation, and prohibition.
But whosoever shall say that Grod is not
delighted with good faith, or that God hath
not an indignation against evil and unbelief,
he is certainly an infidel."
101
XYIL — THE FIYE FOUNDATIONS OF
PRACTICAL RELIGION.
The five pillars, or foundations, of practice in
Islam are : —
1. The recital of the Creed, or Kalimah,^
— " There is no deity but G-od, and Muhammad
is the Prophet of God."
2. Siddt. — The five stated periods of prayer.
3. Boza. — The thirty days fast of Ramazan.
4. Zakdt. — The legal alms.
5. flay}'. — The pilgrimage to Mecca.
* The enumeration of the Creed amongst the founda-
tions of practice seems to perplex English writers, and
consequently Dr. Macbride (p. 134), and other authors,
omit it entirely, and reduce the foundations of practical
religion to four. Our readers will observe, however, that
it is the recital of the creed, and not the creed itself, which
forms one of the five practical duties of the Muslim (vide
next article).
102
XYIII.— THE RECITAL OF THE CREED.
The Recital of the Kalimah, or Creed, is the
first of the five foundations, or pillars of prac-
tice, in Islam. It consists of the following
sentence, which is always recited in Arabic : —
La - ildha - it - lot - laho Miiliamimad - ur - Basid -
Ullah, " There is no deity bnt Grod, and
Muhammad is the Apostle of God."*
When any one is converted to Islam he is
required to repeat this formula, and the
following are the conditions required of every
Muslim with reference to it : —
1. — That it shall be repeated aloud, at least
once in a life-time.
* We have here translated rasiU, " Apostle," although
it is generally rendered " Prophet," which, however, is the
more correct rendering of nahi, a word which also occurs
in the Quran. Both nahi and rasTil are translated into
Persian and Hindustani by paighamhar, which is trans-
lated into English by either Prophet, Apostle, or Mes-
THE EECITAL OF THE CEEED. 103
2. — That tlie meaning of it shall be fully
understood.
3. — That it shall be believed in "by the
heart."
4. — That it shall be professed until death.
6. — That it shall be recited correctly.
6. — That it shall be always professed and
declared without hesitation.
Something similar to this celebrated symbol
of the Muhammadan creed appears to have
existed in Arabia previous to the foundation
of Islamism. Dr. Arnold in his work on " Is-
lam and Christianity," quotes the following
prayer from the writings of Abulfaraj, which
is said to have been used by the idolatrous
Arabians : — " I dedicate myself to Thy service,
O Grod ! Thou hast no companion, except
Thy companion, of whom Thou art absolute
Master of whatever is his." *
* Circumcision (Kliatnali) although never once enjoined
in either the Quran or Traditions, is an institution of
Islam ; but it is not incumbent upon adults, the recital of
the creed being sufficient.
104
XIX.— PRAYER.
Peayer (Arabic Suldt, Persian and Hindustani
Namdz, Puslito Nmuz) is tlie second of tlie five
foundations of practice in Islam. The constant
round of devotion which characterizes Muham-
madan nations is a very remarkable phenomenon
in the system. We translate the words Suldt
and Namdz by the English word prayer, al-
though this "second foundation" of the re-
ligion of Muhammad is something quite distinct
from that prayer which the Christian poet so
well describes as the " soul's sincere desire
uttered or unexpressed." It would be more
correct to speak of the Muhammadan Namdz
as a service; ''prayer" being more correctly
rendered by the Arabic du^a. In Islam prayer
is reduced to a mechanical act, as distinct from
a mental act; and in judging of the spiritual
character of Muhammadanism, we must take
into careful consideration the precise character
PEAYEE. 105
of tliat devotional service wliicli every Muslim
is required to render to Grod at least five times
a day,* and wliicli, undoubtedly, exercises so
great an influence upon the character of the
followers of Muhammad.
It is absolutely necessary that the service
should be performed in Arabic; and that the
clothes and body of the worshipper should be
clean, and that the praying place should be
free from all impurity. It may be said either
privately, or in company, or in a Mosque —
although services in a Mosque are more meri-
torious than those elsewhere.
It is always preceded by ablution (Wimi),i
and, if said in a Mosque, by the Azdn and
* It is remarkable that there is but one passage in the
Quran in which the stated times of prayer are enjoined,
and that it mentions only four and not five j^ei'iocls : —
Surat-ur-Eum (xxx.), 17, " Glorify God when it is even-
ing (masa), and at morning (subh), — and to Him be
praise in the heavens and in the earth, — and at afternoon
(^ashi), and at noon- tide (zuhr).'^ But all commentators
are agreed that masa includes both smi-set and after sun-
set ; and, therefore, both the Maghrib and 'Ishaa prayers.
t Wuzu is the ablution of the face, hands, feet, &c.,
which is necessary before every time of prayer. Ghusal,
or the washing of the whole body, is performed after cer-
tain legal defilements.
106 PEAYEE.
Iqdmat, terms which will be explained after-
wards.
The regular form of prayer begins with the
Niyyat, which is said standing, with the hands
on either side : —
" I have purposed to offer up to Grod only,
with a sincere heart this morning (or, as the
case may be), with my face Qibla-wards, two
(or, as the case may be) raFat prayers Farz
(Sunnat, or Nafl).^^
Then follows the Takbir-i-Tahrimah, said with the
thumbs touching the lobules of the ears and the open
hands on each side of the face : —
" Grod is great ! "
The Qiam, or standing position. The right hand placed
upon the left, below the navel,* and the eyes looking to
the ground in self-abasement. During which is said the
Subhan f: —
"Holiness to Thee, 0 God ! "
'' And praise be to Thee ! "
" Great is Thy name ! "
* The Shafia', and the two other orthodox sects, place
their hands on their breasts ; as also the Wahhabis. The
Shia'hs keep their hands on either side. In all the sects
the women perform the Qiam with their hands on their
breasts.
t The Shia'hs omit the Subhan.
PEAYEE. 107
" Great is Tlij greatness ! "
" There is no deity but Thee ! "
The T'auuz * is then said as follows : —
" I seek refuge from God from cursed Satan/'
After which the Tasmiyah is repeated : —
" In the name of God, the compassionate, the
merciful.
)>
Then follows the Fatihah, viz., the first chapter of the
Quran f: —
'' Praise be to God, Lord of all the worlds ! "
" The compassionate, the merciful ! "
" King on the day of reckoning ! "
'' Thee only do we worship, and to Thee
only do we cry for help."
" Guide Thou us in the 'ttraight path,"
" The path of those to whom Thou hast been
gracious; "
" With whom Thou art not angry,"
" And who go not astray." — Amen.
After this the worshipper can repeat as many chapters
of the Quran as he may wish ; he should, at least, recite
one long or two short verses. The following chapter is
* The T'auuz is also called the 'Auzohillah.
t The recital of the Quran is called the Qira'at, or
reading.
108 PEAYEE.
usually recited, namely, the Surat-ul-Ikhlas, or the 112th
chapter : —
" Say : He is God alone : "
" God tlie Eternal ! "
"He begettetli not,"
" And is not begotten ; "
" And there is none like unto Him."
The Takbir-i-Euku', said whilst making an inclination
of the head and body and placing the hands upon the
knees, separating the fingers a little.
" God is great ! "
The Tasbih-i-Euku', said in the same posture.
"I extol tlie holiness of mj Lord, the
Great!"*
"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the
Great!"
"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the
Great!"
The Qium-i-Sami Ullah or Tasmia', said with the body
erect, but, unlike the former Qiam, the hands being placed
on either side. The Imam says f aloud,
'' God hears him who praises Him."
* The Shia'hs here add, " and with his praise." This
is also added by the Shia'hs to the Tasbih-i-Sijdah.
t When the prayers are 'said by a person alone he
recites both sentences.
PEAYEE. 109
The people then respond in a low voice.
" 0 Lord, Thou art praised."
Takbir-i-Sijdah, said as the worshipper drops on his
knees.
''God is great!"
Tasbih-i-Sijdah, recited as the worshipper puts first his
nose and then his forehead to the ground.
" I extol tlie holiness of my Lord, the most
High ! "
" I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most
High ! "
" I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most
High ! "
Then raising his head and body and sinking backward
upon his heels, and placing his hands upon his thighs, he
says the Takbir-i-Jalsa.*
"God is great!"
Then, whilst prostrating as before, he says the Takbir-
i-Sijdah.
'' God is great ! "
And then during the prostration the Tasbih-i-Sijdah as
before.
" I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most
High ! "
* The Shia'hs here omit the Takbir, and say instead,
" I rise and sit by the power of God ! "
110 PEAYER.
" I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most
High ! "
" I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most
High!"
Then, if at the close of one rak'at, he repeats the Takbir
standing, when it is called Takbir-i-Qiam ; but at the end
of two rak'ats, and at the close of the prayer, he repeats it
sitting, when it is called Takbir-i-Qa'ud.*
" God is great ! "
Here ends one rak'at or form of prayer. The next rak'at
begins with the Fatihah or 1st chapter of the Quran. At
the close of every two rak'ats he recites the Attahiyat,
which is said whilst kneeling upon the ground. His left
foot bent under him he sits upon it, and places his hands
upon his knees and says f : —
" The adorations of the tongue are for Grod,
and also the adorations of the body, and alms-
giving ! ' '
" Peace be on thee, 0 Prophet, with the
mercy of God and His blessing ! "
" Peace be upon us and upon God's righteous
servants ! "
* The Shia'hs here recite the Takbir :— " God is great!"
with the thumbs touching the lobules of the ear, and add,
"I seek forgiveness from God, my Lord, and I repent
before Him ! "
t The Shia'hs omit the Attahiyat.
PEAYEE. Ill
Then raising the first finger of the right hand he recites
the Tashahhtid : —
"I testify tliat there is no deity but Grod*;
and I testify that Muhammad is the servant
of Grod, and the messenger of Grod ! " t
The Darud is said whilst in the same posture.
" 0 God, have mercy on Muhammad and on
his descendants 4 as Thou didst have mercy
on Abraham and on his descendants. Thou
art to be praised, and Thou art great. 0 God,
bless Muhammad and his descendants, as Thou
didst bless Abraham and his descendants ! "
" Thou art to be praised, and Thou art
great ! "
Then the Du'a—
"0 God our Lord, give us the blessings of
this life, and also the blessings of life everlast-
ing. Save us from the torments of fire."§
* The Shia'hs add, " who has no partner."
t Every two rak'ats close with the Tashahhud.
:|: The Shia'hs merely recite: — " Grod have mercy on
Muhammad and his descendants ; " and omit the rest.
§ The Du'a is omitted by the Shia'hs, who recite the
following instead : — " Peace be on thee, 0 Prophet, with
the mercy of God and His blessing!" "Peace be upon
us, and upon God's righteous servants !"
112 PEAYEE.
He then closes with the Salam.
Turning the head round to the right, he says —
" Tlie peace and mercy of God be with
you."
Turning the head round to the left, he says —
'' The peace and mercy of God be mth
yon."
At the close of the whole set of prayers,
that is, of Farz, Sunnat, Nafl, or Witr, the
worshipper raises his hands * and offers np a
^' Mundjdt,'' or supplication. This usually con-
sists of prayers selected from the Quran or
Hadis. They ought to be said in Arabic,
although they are frequently offered up in
the vernacular.
These daily prayers are either Farz, Sunnat,
Nafl, or Wit7\ Farz, are those number of
rak'ats, (or forms of prayer,) said to be enjoined
by God. Sunnat those founded on the practice
of Muhammad. Nafi, the voluntary per-
formance of two rak'ats, or more, which may
be omitted without sin. Witr, an odd number
* The hands are raised in order to catch a blessing
from heaven, and they are afterwards drawn over the face
in order to transfer it to every part of the body.
PEAYEE. 113
of rak'ats, either one, three, five or seven, said
after the night prayer. These divisions of
prayer are entirely distinct from each other.
They each begin afresh with the Niyijat. The
worshippers may rest for awhile between them,
bnt not converse on worldly subjects. The
Wahhabis think it correct to say the Sunnaf
prayers in their houses and only the Farz
prayers in the mosque.*
In order that our readers may be able to
judge of the mechanism of this Muhammadan
performance of prayer, we annex a time-table
of the Muslim's common prayer, showing the
number of raFats or forms ; from which it will
be seen what is required of a pious Muham-
madan. The five times of prayer are enjoined
in the Quran, the other three periods of prayer
are voluntary. (See next page.)
Upon reference to the form of prayer, or
rak'ats, which we have given, and which admits
* Mr. Palgrave, in his " Central and Eastern Arabia,"
states that he observed that the Wahhabis were careless as
to the legal ablutions. Perhaps he was not aware that
the worshippers had performed the ablutions, and had
said the Sunnat rak'ats privately before they came into the
mosque.
8
114
PRAYER.
ft
!
M
P^
n
PI
•J^Tiii
: : : : i> : : :
•FT^lt
: (M : (N <M 00 cx> o>
: (M : cq cq : : :
•zaBj
(M tj* T? CO >* : : :
•ZJTJJ
8Jopq ^•Buntig
iM -5^ : : : : : :
•I13UOI!;dO dXB
qoiqM cj-Bntrng
: : ^ : -* : : :
g
!
i
1
da-Sahar-
nmuz.
da-Miispe-
khin-nmuz.
da-Mazi-
gar-nmuz.
da-Makh-
am-nmuz.
da-Maz-
khuftan-
nmuz.
da-Ishraq-
nmuz.
da-Ghar-
mi-nmuz.
da-Shpe-
nmuz.
* 1
Fajr-ki-
Namaz.
Zohar-ki-
Namaz.
'Asur-ki-
Namaz.
Maghrib-
ki-Namaz.
'Aysha-kf-
Namaz.
Ishraq-ki-
Namaz.
Zoha-kl-
Namaz.
Tahajud.
ki-Namaz.
1
Namaz-i-
Subh. _
Namtiz-i-
Peshin.
Namaz-i-
Digar.
Namaz-i-
Shani.
Namaz-i-
Khuftan.
Namaz-i-
Ishraq.
Namaz-i-
Chast.
Namaz-i-
Tahajud.
1
<1
Sulat-ul-
Fa jr.
Sulat-ul-
Zuhr.
Sulat-ul-
'Asar.
Sulat-ul-
Maghrib.
Sulat-ul-
'Ishaa.
Sulat-ul-
Ishraq.
Sulat-ul-
Zuha.
Sulat-ul-
Tahajud.
<1)
From dawn to sun-
rise.
When the sun has
begun to decline.
Mid-way between
No. 2 and No. 4.
A few minutes after
sun-set.
When the night has
closed in.
When the sun has
well risen.
About 11 o'clock A.M.
After mid-night
1
r-IC<JC<5-^iO i-((MCO
•aaivaa dO saoiaad aAU anx
•iaviKinoA a-av hoihal
saoiuad aauHx
PEAYER. 115
of no change or variation, whether used for the
"time of travelling," in the "time of danger,"
or in the " time of need," it will be seen that
notwithstanding the beauty of its devotional
language, it is simply a superstitious rite,
having nothing in common Avith the Christian
idea of prayer.
The devotions of Islam are essentially " vain
repetitions," for they must be said in the
Arabic language, and admit of no change or
variety. The effect of such a constant round
of devotional forms, which are but the service
of the lips, on the vast majority of Muham-
madans, can be easily imagined. We believe
that the absence of anything like true devotion
from these services accounts for the fact that
religion and true piety stand so far apart in
the practice of Islam.
In addition to the daily prayers, the following
are special services for special occasions :
SuUt-ul-Juma\ — " The Friday Prayer." It
consists of two rak'ats after the daily meridian
prayer. .
Suldt'ul-Musdfir. — " Prayers for a traveller."
8 A
116 PEAYEE.
Two rak'ats instead of the usual number at the
meridian, afternoon, and night prayers.
Suldt-ul-Khcmf.—" The prayers of fear."
Said in time of war. They are two rak'ats
recited first by one regiment or company and
then by the other.
Suldt'Ul'Tardwih. — Twenty rak'ats recited
every evening during the Ramazan, immediately
after the fifth daily prayer.
Suldt'Ul-Istihhdra. — Prayers for success or
guidance. The person who is about to un-
dertake any special business, performs two
rak'at prayers and then goes to sleep. During
his slumbers he may expect to have " ilhdm,''
or inspiration, as to the undertaking for which
he seeks guidance !
Suldt-ul-Khasuf. — Two rak'ats said at the
time of an eclipse of the moon.
Suldt-ul'Kusuf. — Two rak'ats said at the
time of an eclipse of the sun.
The Azdn, is the summons to prayer pro-
claimed by the Muazzin, or crier, in small
mosques from the door or side, but in large
mosques it ought to be given from the minaret
(mandrat). The following is a translation,
PRAYEE. 117
" God is great ! God is great ! God is great !
God is great ! I bear witness tliat tliere is no
God but God ! (repeated twice) I bear witness
that Mubammad is the Apostle of God ! (re-
peated twice) Come to prayers ! Come to
prayers ! Come to salvation ! Come to salvation ! *
God is great! Tliere is no other God but
God!"t
In the early morning the following sentence
is added : " Prayers are better than sleep."
The summons to prayer was, at first, the
simple cry, " Come to prayer." Bingham tells
us that a similar custom existed at Jerusalem
(vide Antiquities, vol. ii. p. 489) : '' In the mo-
nastery of virgms which Paula, the famous
Eoman lady, set up, and governed at Jerusalem,
the signal was given by one going about and
singing hallehtja, for that was their call to
church, as St. Jerome informs us."
The Iqdmat (lit. '' causing to stand ") is a
recitation at the commencement of prayers in a
congregation, after the worshippers have taken
* The ShiVlis add, " Come to good works !
t The Shia'hs recite the last sentence twice.
118 PRAYER.
up their position. It is exactly tlie same as
the Azdn, with the addition of the words,
" prayers are now ready."
The Iqamat of the Shafia' and the Wahhabis
is just half the length of that of the Hanifis.
119
XX.— EAMAZA'N, OR THE MONTH OF
FASTING.
The Bamazdn * is the ninth month of the Mn-
hammadan year, which is observed as a strict
fast from the dawn of day to snnset of each
day in the month. The excellence of this
month was much extolled by Muhammad, who
said that during Ramazan " the gates of Para-
dise are open, and the gates of hell are shut,
and the devils are chained by the leg"; and
that *' only those who observe it will be per-
mitted to enter by the gate of heaven called
Bay y an.'' Those who keep the fast " will be
pardoned all their past venial sins."t In the
* The word Bamazdn is derived from Bamz, to burn.
The month is said to have been so called either because it
used (before the change of the calendar) to occur in the
hot season, or because the month's fast is supposed to
burn away the sins of men. (See Ghyds-ul-Loghdt.)
t Mishkat-ul-Musabih, bk. vii. chap. i. sect. 1.
120 EAMAZAN, OR THE MONTH OF FASTING.
montli of Ramazan, Muhammad said, the Quran
began to be revealed from heaven. *
The fast does not commence until some Mu-
salman is able to state that he has seen the
new moon. If the sky be over- clouded and
the moon cannot be seen, the fast begins upon
the completion of thirty days from the begin-
ning of the previous month.
The Ramazan must be kept by every Mu-
salman, except the sick, the infirm, and preg-
nant women, or women who are nursing their
children. Young children, who have not reached
the age of puberty, are exempt, and also tra-
vellers on a journey. In the case of a sick
person or a traveller, the month's fast must
be kept as soon as they are able to perform
it. This is called Qazd, or expiation.
The fast is extremely rigorous and mortify-
ing, and when the Ramazan happens to fall
in the summer and the days are long, the
prohibition even to drink a drop of water to
slake the thirst is a very great hardship. Mu-
hammad speaks of this religious exercise as
"easy, "fas most probably it was when com-
* Quran, Surat-i-Baqr, verse 181.
t Ihid,
RAMAZAN, OE THE MONTH OF FASTING. 121
pared with the ascetic spirit of tlie tinies. Sir
William Muir * tliinks Muhammad did not
foresee that, when he changed the Jewish in-
tercalary year for the lunar year, that the fast
would become a grievous burden instead of an
easy one ; but Muhammadan lexicographers
say, the fast was established when the month
occurred in the hot season {see note, p. 119).
During the month of Ramazan twenty ad-
ditional ra¥ats, or forms of prayer, are re-
peated after the night prayer. These are
called TardiDih.
Devout Muslims seclude themselves for some
time in the Mosque during this month, and
abstain from all worldly conversation and en-
gage themselves in the reading of the Quran.
This seclusion is called 'Itiqdf. Muhammad
is said to have usually observed this custom
for the last ten days of Ramazan.
The LaykiUuI-Qadr, or the "night of power,"
is said by Muhammad to be either on the
twenty-first, twenty-third, or twenty-fifth, or
twenty-seventh, or twenty-ninth. The exact
date of this solemn night has not been dis-
* Life of Mahomet, iii. p. 49.
122 EAMAZAN, OR THE MONTH OF FASTING.
covered by any but tlie Prophet himself, and
some of the Companions, although the learned
doctors believe it to be on the twenty-seventh.
Of this night Muhammad says in the Quran
(Surat-ul-Qadr) : —
" Yerily we have caused it (the Quran) to
descend on the night of power.
"And who shall teach thee what the night
of power is ?
'' The night of power excelleth a thousand
months ;
" Therein descend the angels and the spirit
by permission
" Of their Lord in every matter ;
"And all is peace till the breaking of the
morn."
By these verses commentators * understand
that on this night the Quran came down en-
tire in one volume to the lowest heaven, from
whence it was revealed by G-abriel in portions
as the occasion required. The excellences of
this night are said to be innumerable, and it is
believed that during it the whole animal and
vegetable kingdom bow in humble adoration
* Tafsir-i-Hoseini.
EAMAZAN, OE THE MONTH OF FASTING. 123
to the Almighty, and the waters of the sea
become sweet m a moment of time ! This
night is frequently confounded * with the Shah-
i'Bardt ; but even the Quran itself does not
appear to be quite clear on the subject, for
in the Surat-i-Dulahdn we read, " By this clear
book. See, on a blessed night have we sent it
down, for we would warn mankind, on the
night wherein all things are disposed in wis-
dom." In which it appears that the blessed
night, or the Laylut-uUMubaral', is both the
night of record and the night upon which the
Quran came down from heaven, although the
one is supposed to be the twenty-seventh day
of Eamazan, and the other the fifteenth of
Shaban.
M. G-eiger identifies the Ramazan with the
fast of the tenth (Leviticus xxiii. 27) ; it is,
however, far more likely that the fast of the
Tenth is identical with the 'Id-i-Ashura, not
only because the Hebrew 'Asilr, ten, is retained
in the title of that Muhammadan fast ; but
also because there is a Jewish tradition (vide
Adam Clark), that creation began upon the
* By Lane, in his " Egyptians," and by other writers.
124 RAMAZAN, OR THE MONTH OF FASTING.
Jewisli fast of the Tentli, wliicli coincides with
the Muhammadan day 'Ashura, being regarded
as the day of creation. Moreover, the Jewish
'Asur and the Muslim 'Ashura are both fasts
and days of affliction. It is far more probable
that Muhammad got his idea of a thirty days'
fast from the Christian Lent. The observance
of Lent in the Eastern Church was exceedingly
strict both with regard to the nights as well
as the days of that season of abstinence ; but
Muhammad entirely relaxed the rules with
regard to the night, and from sunset till the
dawn of day the Muslim is permitted to indulge
in any lawful pleasures and to feast with his
friends ; consequently large evening dinner-
parties are usual in the nights of the Ramazan
amongst the better classes. This would be
what Muhammad meant when he said, " God
would make the fast an ease and not a diffi-
culty," for notwithstanding its rigour in the
day-time, it must be an easier observance than
the strict fast observed during Lent by the
Eastern Christians of Muhammad's day.
125
XXI.— ZAKAT, OR LEGAL ALMS-
GIYING.
Zaka't (lit. ''purification"), the legal alms,
or poor rate, is the fourth of the five founda-
tions of practice. Zakat should be given an-
nually of five descriptions of property, provided
they have been in possession a whole year;
namely, money, cattle, grain, fruit, and mer-
chandise. There are several minor differences
amongst the various sects as to the precise
explanation of the law with reference to these
legal alms ; but the following are the general
rules observed by Sunni Musulmans : —
(1.) Money. If he is a Sdhih-i-Nlssab {i. e.
one who has had forty rupees in his possession
for a year), he must give alms at the rate of
one rupee in every forty, or two and a half
per cent.
(2.) Cattle. Should his property consist of
sheep or goats, he is not obliged to give alms
126 ZAKAT, OB LEGAL ALMSGIVING.
until tliey amount to forty in number. He
must tlien give one for one hundred and
twenty, and two for tlie next eighty, and then
one for every hundred afterwards. For camels
the following is the rate : — from 5 to 24, one
sheep or goat; from 25 to 35, one yearling
female (bint'l'muJchdz) camel; from 36 to 45,
one two-year old female (hint-i'lahicn) camel;
from 46 to 60, one three-year old female
(hiqqah) camel; from 61 to 75, one four-year
old female (jaz^ali) camel; from 76 to 90, two
two-year old female camels; from 91 to 120,
two three-year old female camels ; and from
121 and upwards, either a two-year old female
camel for every forty, or a three-year old
female camel for every fifty.
For cows or bulls : — If 30 cows, a one-year
old female calf; if 40, a two-year old female
calf, and so on, a one-year old female calf for
every 10.
Alms for buffaloes are the same as for sheep.
For horses, either the same rate as for
camels, or two rupees eight annas for every
horse whose value exceeds one hundred rupees.
Animals used for riding, and beasts of burden,
are exempt.
ZAKAT, OR LEGAL ALMSGIVING. 127
(3.) Fruits. For fruits watered by rain a
tenth is given; but if irrigated, then a twen-
tieth part.
(4.) Grain. The same rate as for fruits.
(5.) Merchandise. For the capital, as well
as for the profits, Zalcdt is given at the rate of
one in forty, provided the owner be a Sahib-i-
nissab. For gold bullion, half a misqdl (=67^
grains) is given for every 20 misqal weight.
For silver bullion at the rate of 2^ per cent.
For whatever is found in mines, if over 240
dirhams in weight (^2 lbs. 2oz. 2 dr.), a fifth
is required ; and if the money be laid out in
merchandise, alms are to be given on the
profits.
"Wood and pearls are exempt, and also cloth-
ing ; but not jewels.
The following are the classes of persons on
whom it is lawful to bestow the Zakat : —
1. Such pilgrims to Mecca as have not the
means of defraying the expenses of the journey.
2. Religious mendicants.
3. Debtors who cannot discharge their debts.
4. Beggars.
5. Poor travellers.
128 ZAKAT, OR LEGAL ALMSGIVING.
6. Proselytes to Muhammadanism.
The Zalcdt, or legal alms, must be distin-
guislied from tlie Sadaqa, or offerings, wliicli
is a term more especially applied to tlie offer-
ings on tlie 'Id-ul-Fitr (q.v.) although it is
used for almsgiving in general.
As far as we have been able to ascertain,
it does not appear that the Muhammadans of
the present day are very regular in the pay-
ment of the Zakat, which ought to be given
on the termination of a year's possession. In
countries under Muhammadan rule it is ex-
acted by Government.
It is somewhat remarkable that Muhammad
in his institution of legal almsgiving did not
more closely copy the Jewish law in the giving
of the "tenths," more particularly as the
number ten appears to have been so frequently
preferred as a number of selection in the cases
of offerings in both sacred and secular history.
The Muhammadan Zahdt, however, differs very
materially from the Jewish tithe ; for the latter
was given to the Levites of the Temple, and
employed by them for their own support and
for that of the priests, as well as for festival
ZAKAT, OR LEGAL ALMSGIVING. 129
purposes. The Muliammadan priesthood are
supported by grants of land,* and offerings at
the time of harvest, and are not permitted to
take any of the Zakdt. Moreover, the descen-
dants of the " Prophet " are not allowed to
accept of either Zahdt or Sadaqa, because
" they are of the Prophet's own blood and
not to be included in the indigent."
Whatever may be the weak points in Mu-
hammadanism, all candid observers, acquainted
with the condition of Muliammadan nations,
must admit that its provision for the poor is
highly commendable. As we have journeyed
from village to village amongst the Afghans,
we have been frequently struck with the ab-
sence of great poverty ; and even in our large
cities, where Muliammadan beggars are numer-
ous, it must be remembered that they are
either religious mendicants or professional
beggars, and for the most part quite unworthy
of charitable relief.
* Land, or any property appropriated for religious or
charitable purposes, is called waqaf.
130
XXII.— HAJJ, OH PILGRIMAGE TO
MECCA.*
Ha.j.t, or Pilgrimage to Mecca, is tlie fifth of
the five foundations of practice. It is said, by
Muhammad, to be of Divine institution, and
has the authority of the Quran for its obser-
vance, t Its performance is incumbent upon
those men and women who have sufficient
means to meet the expenses of the journey,
* Only three Englishmeu are known to have visited
Mecca, and to have witnessed the ceremonies of the Pil-
grimage : — Joseph Pitts, of Exeter, a.d. 1678 ; John Lewis
Burckhardt, a.d. 1814 ; Lieut. Eichard Burton, of the
Bombay Army, a.d. 1853. The narratives of each of these
"pilgrims" have been published. The first account in
English of the visit of a European to Mecca, is that of
Lodovico Bartema, a gentleman of Eome, who visited
Mecca in 1503. His narrative was pubHshed in Willes
and Eden's Decades, a.d. 1555.
t Vide Quran, Sura xxii. 28.
HAJJ, OR PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA. 131
and to maintain their families at home during
their absence.
The ceremonies observed on this occasion
are so ridiculous that they do more to reveal
the imposture of Muhammad than any other
part of his system. They are, even by the con-
fession of Muhammadans themselves, the re-
licts of the idolatrous superstitions of ancient
Arabia; and they are either evidences of the
dark and superstitious character of Muham-
mad's mind, or, what is perhaps even more
probable, they show how far the "Prophet"
found it suit his purpose to compromise with
the heathen Arabians of his day. The merits
of the pilgrimage are so great, that every step
taken in the direction of the K'aba blots out
a sin; and he who dies on his way to Mecca
is enrolled on the list of martyrs.
However ingeniously the apologists of Islam
may offer excuses for some of the weak points
of Muhammad's religious system, and endeavour
to shield the " Prophet of Arabia " from the
grave and solemn charge of having " forged
the name of God," the pilgrimage to Mecca
can admit of no satisfactory solution. In its
institution the false prophet layeth open his
9 A
132 HAJJ, OR PILGEIMAGE TO MECCA.
own folly, for in the ridiculous ceremonies of
the Hajj, we see the law-giver, whose professed
mission it was to uproot the idolatry of Arabia,
giving one of its superstitious customs the
authority of a Divine enactment. The pilgrim-
age to Mecca is one of the numerous inconsis-
tencies of Muhammad's pretended revelation.
The following is the orthodox way of per-
forming the pilgrimage, founded upon the ex-
ample of the " Prophet" himself.
Upon the pilgrim's arrival at the last stage*
near Mecca, he bathes himself, and performs
two rak'at prayers, and then divesting himself
of his clothes, he assumes the pilgrim's sacred
robe, which is called Ihrdm. This garment
consists of two seamless wrappers, one being
wrapped round the waist, and the other thrown
loosely over the shoulder, the head being left
uncovered. Sandals may also be worn, but
not shoes or boots. After he has assumed the
pilgrim's garb, he must not anoint his head,
shave any part of his body, pare his nails, nor
* These are six in number, and are situated about five
or six miles from Mecca in different directions. They
are called Miqdt.
HAJJ, OE PILGEIMAGE TO MECCA. 133
wear any other garment than the Ihrdm. Im-
mediately on his arrival at Mecca he performs
the legal ablutions, and proceeds to the Musjid-
ul'Hardm, or Sacred Mosque, and kisses the
Hajr-ul-asivad, or the black stone, and then
encompasses the K'aha^ seven times. This act,
which is called Taivdf, is performed by com-
mencing on the right and leaving the ICaha on
the left. The circuits are made thrice with a
quick step or run, and four times at a slow
pace.t He then proceeds to the Maqdm-i-
Ibrahim (the place of the prophet Abraham)
and performs two rah'at prayers, after which
he returns to the black stone and kisses it.
He then goes to the gate of the temple leading
to Mount Safa, and from it ascends the hill and
* Some confusion exists in the minds of English authors
with regard to the word K'aba. The Temple or Mosque
at Mecca is called Musjid-ul-Haram (the sacred Mosque),
or Bait-ullah (the house of God). The K'dba (lit. a cube)
is the square stone building in the centre, containing the
black stone. And the Hajr-ul-aswad is the black stone
itself, which Muslims say was originally white, but became
black by reason of men's sins.
t Sharastani informs us, that there was an opinion pre-
valent amongst the Arabs that the walking round the
K'aba, and other ceremonies, were symbolic of the motion
of the planets, and of other astronomical facts. (Bodwell)
134 HA.TJ, OR PILGEIMAGE TO MECCA.
runs from the summit of Mount Safa to tliat of
Mount Marwali seven times ! On the top of
the hill he remains for a few moments, and
raising his hands heavenwards supplicates the
Almighty.
On the eighth day, which is called Tarwiah,
he unites with his fellow-pilgrims at Mina in
the usual services of the Muslim ritual, and
stays the night.
After morning prayer he rushes to Mount
'Arifat, where, having said two rak'at prayers
with the Imam and heard the Khnfbah (or
oration), he remains until sunset. He then
proceeds to Muzdalifah, and having said the
sunset and night prayers, he stays the night at
that place.
The next morning, which is the 'Id-td-Azhd,
or great feast, he comes to three places in Mina,
marked by three pillars called Jamra. At each
of these pillars he picks up seven small stones,
or pebbles, and having said some particular
prayer over each pebble and blown upon it, he
throws it at one of the pillars. This ceremony
is called Bami-ul-Jamdr, or the throwing of
pebbles.
He then proceeds to the place of sacrifice at
HAJJ, OR PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA. 135
Mina, and performs the usual sacrifice of the
'Id-ul-Azha; after this sacrifice he gets him-
self shaved, and his nails pared. The pilgrim
garb is then removed and the pilgrimage is
ended, although he should rest at Mecca the
three following days, Avhicli are called the Ay-
ydm-ut-Tashriq, or the days of drying up the
blood of the sacrifice. These are three days
of well earned rest after the vigorous peri-
patetic performances of the last four days.
The pilgrimage must be performed on three
days of the month of Zul Hijja, namely from
the seventh to the tenth; a visit to Mecca at
any other time has not the merit of a pil-
grimage.
Before he leaves Mecca the pilgrim should
once more perform the circuits round the
K^aha, and throw stones at the sacred pillars,
each seven times.
He then proceeds to Medina, and makes his
salutations at the Shrine of Muhammad. The
Wahhabis do not perform the last act, as it is
contrary to their principles to visit shrines.
The Musulman who has performed the pil-
grimage is called Hdji.
The K'aba is also called the Qibla, or the
136 HAJJ, OE PILCtEIMAGE to MECCA.
direction to wliicli Muslims are to pray.
Mosques are, therefore, always erected Qibla-
wards. At tlie commencement of Islam, the
Qibla was Jerusalem ; but when Muhammad
failed to conciliate the Jews to his prophetic
pretensions, he made the K'aba the Qibla, or
the direction in which to pray.
The pilgrimage cannot be performed by
proxy, as some English authors have stated,
although it is considered a meritorious act to
pay the expenses of one who cannot afford to
perform it. But if a Muhammadan on his
death-bed bequeath a sum of money to be paid
to a certain person to perform the pilgrimage,
it is considered to satisfy the claims of the
Muslim law. If a Muslim have the means of
performing the pilgrimage, and omit to do so,
its omission is equal to a Icahira, or mortal
sin.
137
XXIII.— THE LAW.
Mtjhammadan law consists of two divisions,
Rawd and Ndratvd, i. e., Tilings lawful and
Things unlawful.
I. — That which is lawful is divided into
five classes.
1. Farz. — That which has been enjoined
in the* Quran.
2. Wdjih. — That of which there is some
doubt as to its Divine institution.
3. Sunnat. — The example of Muhammad,
which consists of three kinds : —
Sunnat-i-F'ili. — That which Muhammad
himself did.
Sunnat-i-Qauli. — That which Muhammad
said should be practised.
Sumiat'i-Taqriri. — That which was done
in the presence of Muhammad and
which he did not forbid.
138 THE LAW.
4. Mustahah. — That which Muhammad
sometimes did and sometimes omitted.
5. Miihdh,—Th^t which may be left unper-
formed without any fear of Divine punishment.
II. — Things unlawful are of three classes : —
1. Hardm. — That which is distinctly for-
bidden in the Quran and Hadis.
2. Makruh. — That of which there is some
doubt as to its unlawfulness, but w^hich is
generally held to be unclean or unlawful.
3. Mufsid. — That which is corrupting and
pernicious.
The divisions of lawful and unlawful do not
merely apply to food, but also to ablutions and
other customs and precepts.
139
XXIY.— SIN.
The Muhammadan doctors divide sins into two
classes, very mucli as the Roman Catholic
divines do ; the usual Roman designation
being that of mortal and venial sin, whilst
Muhammadans use the expressions Kahira and
Saghira, " Great " and " Little." Kabira are
those great sins, of which, if a Musalman do
not repent, he will go to the purgatorial hell
reserved for sinful Muslims. The divines of
Islam are not agreed amongst themselves as to
the exact number of Kabira sins, but they are
generally considered to be seventeen {vide
Fawaid-us-Shari'at).
1. Kufr, or infidelity.
2. Constantly committing Saghira, or little
sins.
3. Despairing of the mercy of God.
4. Considering one's self safe from the wrath
of God.
140 SIN.
5. False witness.
6. Qazaf, or falsely charging a Musulman
with adultery.
7. Taking a false oath.
8. Magic.
9. Drinking wine.
10. Appropriation of the property of or-
phans.
11. Usury.
12. Adultery.
13 Unnatural crimes.
14. Theft.
15. Murder.
16. Fleeing in battle before the face of an
infidel.
17. Disobedience to parents.
141
XXY.— PUNISHMENT.
Punishment is divided into three classes : —
Hadd, Tazir, and Qisds.
1. Hadd is tliat punishment which is said
to have been ordained of God in the Quran
and the Hadis, and which must be inflicted.
The following belong to this class : — Adultery,
for which the adulterer is stoned. Formication,
for which one hundred stripes are inflicted.
Drunkenness, for which there are eighty stripes.
The slander of a married person, that is, bring-
ing a false charge of adultery against a married
person, for which the offender must receive
eighty lashes. This punishment is said to
have been instituted by God, when 'A yesha,
the favourite wife of '* the Prophet," was
falsely charged with adultery ! Apostacy, for
which the Murtadd, or Apostate, is killed,
unless he repent of his error within three days.
When an Apostate from Islam has been killed
according to the law, or has left the country,
142 PUNISHMENT.
his property goes to those of his heirs who
still reraain Musulmdns {vide the " Al Sira-
jiyah").
2. Tazir is that punishment which is said
to have been ordained of God, but of which
there are not special injunctions, the exact
punishment being left to the discretion of the
Qazi, or Judge.
3. Qisds (lit. " retaliation " ) is that punish-
ment which can be remitted by the person
offended against, upon the payment of a fine or
compensation. The punishment for murder is
of this class. The next akin to the murdered
person can either take the life of his kinsman's
murderer, or accept a money compensation
(Diat), There is also' retaliation in case of
wounds. Qisas is the lex talionis of Moses,
'' eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand,
foot for foot, burning for burning, wound for
wound, stripe for stripe " (oule Exodus xxi.
24). But in allowing a money compensation
for murder, Muhammad departed from the
Jewish code.
143
XXYI.— LAWFUL FOOD.
No animal is lawful food unless it be slaugh-
tered according to the Muhammadan law,
namely, by drawing the knife across the throat
and cutting the windpipe, the carotid arteries,
and the gullet, repeating at the same time the
words '' Bismillali AllaJw Akbar,'^ i. e. '' In
the name of the great God." A dean animal,
so slaughtered, becomes lawful food for Mus-
lims, whether slaughtered by Jews, Christians,
or Muhammadans.
In the '' Sharah Waqaia "it is said that the
following creatures are lawful (Jialdl) : —
1. Those animals that are cloven-footed and
chew the cud, and are not beasts of prey.
2. Birds that do not seize their prey with
their claws, or wound them with their bills,
but pick up food with their bills.
3. Fish; but no other animals which move
in the water.
144 LAWFUL FOOD.
4. Locusts.
Some commentators say tliat tlie liorse is
lawful ; but it is generally held to be '' mah-
ruhr
Fish found dead in tlie water is unlawful ;
but if it be taken out and die afterwards it is
lawrful.
Alligators, turtles, crabs, snakes, frogs, etc.,
are unlawful. Wine is expressly forbidden in
tlie Quran ; and, in tlie judgment of tlie learned,
this prohibition extends to whatever has a ten-
dency to intoxicate, such as opium, bhang,
chars,* and tobacco. The Akliund of Swat t
has issued several ^^fahvdhs,^^ prohibiting the
use of tobacco ; but the cliilam (or pipe), having
become a national institution, no notice has
been taken of the inhibition. The "Wahhabis
do not permit its use. In Trans-Indus terri-
tory, the liukka, or cliilam, is never allowed
in a mosque.
* Bhang and Chars are intoxicating preparations of
hemp.
t The Akhund of Swat is a great religious leader a-
mongst the Muhammadans of North India and Central
Asia. He resides at Seydii, in Swat, about twenty miles
beyond the British frontier.
LAWFUL FOOD. 145
From what we have written, it mil be seen
that a Muslim can have no religions scruples
to eat with a Christian, as long as the food
eaten is of a lawful kind. Sayyid Ahmad
Khan Bahadur, C.S.I., has wiitten a treatise
proving that Muhammadans can eat with the
AJiI-i-Kitdb, namely, Jews or Christians. The
Muhammadans of India, whilst they will eat
food cooked by idolatrous Hindus, refuse to
touch that cooked either by Native or Euro-
pean Christians ; and they often refuse to allow
Christians to draw water from the public wells,
although Hindus are permitted to do so. Such
objections arise solely from jealousy of race,
and an unfriendly feeling towards the ruling
power. In Afghanistan and Persia, no such
objections exist ; and no doubt much evil has
been caused by Grovernment allowing Hindu-
stani Musulmans to create a religious custom
which has no foundation whatever, except that
of national hatred to their English conquerors.
10
146
XXYII.— FARZ-I-KAFAl^
Faez-i-Kafa'i' are tliose commands which are
imperative (fcirz) ; but which, if one person in
eight or ten perform, it is equivalent to all
having performed it.
1. To return a salutation.
2. To visit the sick, and inquire after their
welfare.
3. To follow a bier on foot to the grave.
4. To accept an invitation.
5. To reply to a sneeze, e. g. if a person
sneeze, and say immediately afterwards, " God
be praised" {Alhamdo lillah), it is incumbent
upon at least one of the party to exclaim,
" God have mercy on you " (YarhamuJc Allah).
There is an interesting chapter on the
custom of saluting after sneezing in Isaac
D'Israeli's *' Curiosities of Literature," from
which it appears that it is almost universal
amongst nations. -?
147
XXYIII.— FITRAT.
FiTEAT (lit. '' nature'") is said to be certain
ancient practices of the prophets before the
time of Muhammad, which have not been for-
bidden by him.
In the Hadis '' Muslim,^' the customs of
fitrat are said to be ten in number.
1. The clipping of the mustachios, so that
they do not enter the mouth.
2. Not cutting or shaving the beard.
3. Cleaning the teeth (^. e. miswdh).
4. Cleansing the nostrils with water at the
usual ablutions.
5. Cutting the nails.
6. Cleaning the finger-joints.
7. Pulling out the hairs under the arms.
8.
-t.
-Mc *-
*
9.
ii^
^ ^
*
10.
Cleansing
the mouth with water at the
time of ablution.
10 A
148
XXIX.— SALUTATIONS.
The usual Muhammadan salutation is "^ as
saldmu ^aleham,^' i. e. " The peace of God be
with you."
When a person makes a " saldm,'^ and any
of the assembly rise and return it, it is con-
sidered sufficient for the whole company.
The lesser number should always be the first
to salute the greater; he who rides should
salute him who walks ; he who walks, him who
stands ; the stander, the sitter, etc. A man
should not salute a woman on the road ; and
it is considered very disrespectful to salute with
the left hand, that hand being used for legal
ablutions.
The ordinary salute is made by raising the
right hand either to the breast or to the fore-
head.
In Central Asia the salutation is generally
given without any motion of the hand or body.
SALUTATIONS. 149
Pupils salute their masters by kissing tlie
hand or sleeve, which is the usual salutation
made to men of eminent piety.
Homage is paid by kissing the feet of the
ruler, or by kissing the ground or carpet.
In Afghanistan, conquered people pay hom-
age hj casting their turbans at the feet of the
conqueror ; and the heads of tribes often lessen
the size of their turbans before appearing in
the presence of their rulers.
150
XXX.— THE CALIPH.
The Calipli, or Khalifa {i. e. the vicegerent of
the Prophet), is the sovereign dignity amongst
Mnhammadans, vested with absolute power.
The word more frequently used for the office
in Muhammadan works of jurisprudence is
Imam (leader), or Imdm-ul-Azam (the great
leader). It is held to be an essential principle
in the establishment of the office, that there
shall be only one Caliph at the same time ;
for the Prophet said: — ''When two Caliphs
have been set up, put the last to death and
preserve the second, for the last is a rebel"
{vide Mishkat, bk. xvi. chap. i.). According
to all Sunni Muhammadan books, it is absolutely
necessary that the Caliph be "a man, an adult,
a sane person, a free man, a learned divine, a
powerful ruler, a just person, and one of the
Quraish " {i. e. of the tribe to which the
Prophet himself belonged). The Shia'hs, of
THE CALIPH. 151
course, hold that he should be one of the
descendants of the Prophet's own family ; but
this is rejected by the Sunnis and Wahhabis.
The condition that the Caliph should be of the
Quraish, is very important ; for thereby the
present Ottoman Sultans fail to establish their
claims to the Caliphate.
After the deaths of the first five Caliphs, —
Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman, Ali, and Hasan, —
the Caliphate, which is allowed by all parties
to be elective, and not hereditary, passed suc-
cessively to the Ommiades and Abbasides.
The temporal power of the Abbaside Caliphs
was overthrown by Houlakon Khan, son of the
celebrated Jengiz Khan, a.d. 1258 ; but, for
three centuries, i\\e descendants of the Abba-
side, or Bagdad, Caliphs resided in Egypt, and
asserted their claim to the spiritual power.
The founder of the present dynasty of
Ottoman Sultans was Osman, the son of a
tribe of Oghouz Turks, a powerful chief,
whose descendant, Bazazet I., is said to have
obtained the title of Sultan from one of the
Abbaside Caliphs in Egypt, a.d. 1389. When
Selim I. conquered Egypt (a.d. 1516), it is
asserted that he obtained a transfer of the title
152 THE CALIPH.
of Caliph to himself from one of the successors
of the old Bagdad Caliphs. It is, however, a
mere assertion ; for the title and office being
elective, and not hereditary, it was not in the
power of any Caliph to transfer it to another.
Force of circumstances alone has compelled
the ruler of the Ottoman Empire to assume
the position, and has induced his subjects to
acquiesce in the usurpation. We have not
seen a single work of authority, nor met with
a single man of learning, who has ever at-
tempted to prove that the Sultans of Turkey
are rightful Caliphs ; for the assumption of the
title by any one who is not of the Quraish tribe
is undoubtedly illegal and heretical, as will be
seen from the following authorities : —
(Mishlvdt'ul-Musdhih, bk. xxiv. chap, xii.)
" Ibn-i-Umr relates that the Prophet of God
said : — ' The Caliphs shall be in the Quraish
tribe as long as there are two persons in it,
one to rule and another to serve.' "
{8ha7'h-til-Mutvdqif, p. 606. Arabic Edition.
Egypt.)
''It is a condition that the Caliph (Imam)
be of the Quraish tribe. All admit this, except
the Khawarij and certain Mutazilahs. We all
THE CALIPH. 153
say with the Prophet : ' Let the Caliph be of
the Quraish ' ; and it is certain that the Com-
panions acted upon this injunction, for Abu
Bakr urged it as an authority upon the Ansars,
on the day of Sakhifah, when the Companions
were present and agreed. It is, therefore, for
a certainty established that the Caliph must be
of the Quraish."
(The Hujjat-UUah-al-Bdlaghah, p. 335.
Arabic Edition. Delhi.)
'* It is a necessary condition that the Caliph
(Imam) be of the Quraish tribe."
(The Kashhdf-i-IstaldJiat. A Dictionary of
Technical Terms. Edited by Colonel K
Lees, in loco.)
"The Caliph (Imam) must be a Quraish."
It is a matter of history that the Wahhabis
regarded the Turkish Sultan as a usurper when
Sana took Mecca and Medina in 1804 ; and to
the present day, in countries not under Turkish
rule, the Khutbah is recited in behalf of the
Amir, or ruler of the Muslim state, instead of
the Ottoman Sultan, which would not be the
case if he were acknowledged as a lawful
Caliph. In a collection of Khutbahs, entitled
the Majmua' Khutbah, the name of the Sultan
154 THE CALIPH.
does not once occur, although this collection
is much used in Muhammadan states. We
have seen it stated that the Sultan is prayed
for in Hyderabad and Bengal ; but, we believe,
it will be found, upon careful inquiry, that he
was not mentioned hy name^ until very recently,
in any of the mosques of India. Khutbah in
which there are prayers for the Ottoman Sultan
by name, have been imported from Constanti-
nople ; but, whoever may be the rightful Caliph,
it is certain that, according to law, the only
sovereign who can be prayed for in an Indian
mosque, is " Alexandrina Victoria, Empress of
India" (Qaisar-i-Hind) ; for all Muhammadans
admit that the Friday Khutbah cannot be re-
cited without the permission of the ruler.
155
XXXI.— MUHAMMAD AN CLERGY,
SCHOLARS, AND SAINTS.
The Muslims liave no liereditary priestly caste
as the Hindus, nor liave tliey a distinct order
of clergy exactly corresponding witli those of
the Christian Church. But still there is a
powerful hierarchy possessed of great jDolitical
and religious influence, which resembles the
Jewish Scribes and Lawyers.
In countries under Muhammadan rule the
religious dignitaries are appointed by the king,
who is properly the highest spiritual authority
in the kingdom. The Shekh - ul - Islam at
Constantinople unites in himself the functions
of the Primate and Lord Chancellor.
The following are the chief religious func-
tionaries, in a state governed according to
Muhammadan law.
Qcki. — The minister of justice, who passes
156 MUHAMMAD AN OLEEGY, ETC.
sentence in all cases of law ; religious, moral,
civil, or criminal.
Mufti. — The law officer, wlio expounds the
law, and in difficult cases supplies the Qdzi with
'' faUms " or decisions.
There are still persons in India bearing the
titles of Qdzi and Mufti, but the offices have
ceased to exist under British Grovernment.
The Indian law, however, permits civil cases
being decided by Muhammadan divines, if both
parties consent to the arrangement.
Imam. — The Arabic word Imam is said, by
Sale, to answer to the Latin antistes, the pre-
sident of the temple. It is also used for the
four successors of Muhammad, the four great
doctors of the four orthodox sects, the twelve
great leaders of the Shia'hs, and for any great
religious leader. It is, however, commonly
used for the person who leads the daily prayer,
and is in receipt of the revenues of the mosque.
The titles of Qdzi, Mufti, and Imdm may be
said to embrace the various appointments held
by Muhammadan divines ; but there are also
numerous titles to denote doctors of Science
and Divinity.
Tahih. A doctor of medicine.
MUHAMMAD AN CLEEGY, ETC. 157
HaJcim, A doctor of pliilosopliy, used also
for a doctor of medicine.
Miihaqqiq. A very learned doctor in one or
two sciences.
Maulawi, also Mulld. A doctor of divinity,
used for any person wlio has been educated in
the Muliammadan religion, and assumes the
office of teacher.
FaqiJi. A doctor of law.
Mutahallim. A doctor of theology.
Muhaddis, A doctor of the law of the
traditions.
Mufassir. One learned in the commentaries
on the Quran.
Madams. An academical doctor, i. e., one
educated in some school of reputation.
Doctors of Divinity are of three grades :
Maulavi, 'Alim (pi. 'Ulama), MujtaJiid (pi. Muj-
tahidin). The title of Mujtaliid is held by very
few Sunni Muhammadans, but is more common
amongst the Shia'hs.
In addition to these titles, which express the
degree of learning, there are others which
denote the piety and sanctity of the individual.
Fir and Wall are the common titles ; but the
158 MUHAMMAD AN CLEEGY, ETC.
following express certain degrees of reputed
sanctity : —
^A'bid, one constantly engaged in tlie worship
of Grod.
Zdhld, one who leads a life of asceticism.
The title of Faqir does not always denote one
who has renounced the possessions of the world,
but is applied to any one of a humble spirit,
one poor in the sight of Grod, rather than in
need of worldly assistance.
Quthah and Ghaus, the highest orders of
sanctity. According to vulgar tradition, a
Grhaus is a saint whose ardour of devotion is
such, that in the act of worship his head and
limbs fall asunder ! whilst a Qiithah is one
who is supposed to have attained to the state
of sanctity which reflects the heart of the
Prophet.
There are four titles of respect which
scarcely belong to either the religious or the
learned class, but are of more general use : —
Sliekh, an appellation which literally signifies
an elder or aged person. It is a common title
of respect, and is almost synonymous with our
English ''Mister.'' In Egypt and Arabia it
MUHAMMADAN CLEEGY, ETC. 159
appears to be used for the Hindustani and
Persian Khan, or chief.
Miydn, (lit. "a master" or "friend") gene-
rally used for the descendants of celebrated
saints, but also as a title of respect.
Sayyid, generally pronounced Syud (lit.
"lord"). For the descendants of Muham-
mad from his daughter Fatimah and her hus-
band 'Ali. The word Sayyid is often used as
part of a name, without reference to family
descent from the Prophet ; as Sayyid Ahmad,
Sayyid Shah, &c.
Mr, also used for Sayyids, but not exclu-
sively.
160
XXXII.— THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.
MuHAMMADAN tliGological literature is very ex-
tensive, and in consequence of the cheapness
of lithographic printing, it is daily increasing.
The following are its chief divisions : —
(1.) Hadis. — Accounts of the precepts and
practice of Muhammad. The collectors of
Hadis may be numbered by hundreds, but the
chief authorities are the six books known as
the Sihdh-i-Sita, or " six correct boolcs.'' The
popular work on the sub ect amongst the
Sunnis of India being the Mishkat-ul-Musabih.
{See article on Traditions.)
(2.) Us{d (lit. "roots").— Treatises on the
rules and principles of the four foundations of
the Islam law, — being expositions of the exe-
gesis of the Quran and Hadis, and the prin-
ciples of Ijma' and Qias. The most popular
works on this subject are the Manar, by
THEOLOGICAL LITEEATURE. 161
Abdullah ibn Alimacl, a.h. 710, and the Talwi'
Tauzia', by 'Ubaid-Ullah ibn Mas'ud, a.h. 747.
(3.) 'Aqdid (lit. ''creeds"). — Expositions of
scholastic theology, founded upon the six ar-
ticles of faith. The most celebrated exposition
of the Islam creed being that by Imam Ghazali,
A.H. 505. In India the work most read is the
8harah-i-'Aqdid, by Maulavi Mas'ud S'ad-
ud-din Taftazani, a.h. 792.
(4.) Fiqah. — Works on Muhammadan law,
whether civil or religious. The work most
read amongst Sunnis is the Hiddyah, written
by a learned man named 'Ali, a.h. 593; part
of which has been translated by the late Colonel
Charles Hamilton. A smaller work, entitled
the SJiarah Waqaiah, by Abdul Haqq, is also
much used.
(5.) Tafsir. — Commentaries on the Quran.
These are very numerous, and contain very
many Jewish traditions of the most worthless
character. One of the latest and most learned
of these productions is said to be the short
commentary by Shah Wali Ullah of Delhi, who
died A.H. 1176.
The best known commentaries amongst the
Sunnis are Baizawi (a.h. 685), Madarik (a.h.
11
162 THEOLOGICAL LITEEATUEE.
701), Jalalain (a.h. 911), Bagliam (a.h. 515),
MazMri (a.h. 1225), Hoseini (a.h. 900).
(6.) Siyar. — Ecclesiastical history, i. e, tlie
history of Muhammad and his successors. This
branch of literature, Sayyid Ahmad Khan of
Aligarh says, " is the one which requires the
most emendation."
The chief authorities on the life of Mu-
hammad and early days of Islam, in addition
to the Hadis, are Ibn Ishaq, Ibn Hisham,
Waqidi, and Tabari; whilst the most popular
histories amongst the Sunnis of India are the
Rawzat-ul-Ahbab, by 'Ataa Ullah ibn Fazl
Illlah, A.H. 1000, and the Madarij-un-Nabuwat,
by Shekh Abdul Haqq, a.h. 1025.
In addition to his theological studies, the
Muhammadan student is instructed in Mantiq
(logic), /S'ar/ (inflexion), and Nahw (syntax).
The text of a book is called Matan, the
marginal notes HasJmjah, and its commentary
Shark.
163
XXXIII.— MUHARRAM AND 'A'SHURA'A.
The Miiharram (lit. " that wliicli is sacred ")
commences on the first of the month * of that
name, and is continued for ten days, the
tenth day being called 'A'shurda, They are
days of mdtam, or lamentation, in commemora-
tion of the martyrdom of 'Ali, and of Hasan,
* The twelve months of the Muhammad lunar year are
as follows : —
1. Muharram.
2. Safar.
3. Eabi'-ul-awwal.
4. Eabi'-ul-akhir.
5. Jamad-al-iila.
6. Jamad-al-ukhra.
7. Eajab.
8. Sh'aban.
9. Ramazan.
10. Shawwal.
11. Zul-Q'ada.
12. Zul-Hijja.
The sacred month.
The month which is void.
The first of spring.
The last of spring.
The first dry month.
The last of spring.
The revered month.
The month of division.
The hot month.
The month for going [forth (hunt-
ing).
The month of rest.
The month of pilgrimage.
11 A
164 MUHAEEAM AND 'aSHUEAA.
and Husain,* as observed by tlie Sliia'hs ; but
the day ^A'shurda (the tenth) is also held
sacred by the Sunnis, the observance of the
month having been enjoined by Muhammad on
account of its having been the month of creation.
The ceremonies of the Muharram differ much
in different places; but the following are the
main features of the festival as observed by the
Shia'hs. A place is prepared which is called
the ' A' shuT'hhdna (the ten-day house), or
Imdm-Bdra (the Imam place), in the centre of
which is dug a pit, in which fires are kindled,
and at night the people, young and old, fence
across the fire with sticks and swords, and
whilst dancing round it, call out, " Oh 'Ali !
noble Hasan ! noble Husain ! bridegroom ! alas
friend ! stay ! stay ! etc. ; the cry being re-
peated in the most excited manner hundreds of
times, until the whole assembly has reached the
highest pitch of excitement. They then form
* The Khalifa 'Ali was assassinated in the Mosque of
Cufa, A.D. 660. Hasan was poisoned by his wife, at the
instigation of Yazid. Husain was slain, with three and
thirty strokes of lances and swords, a.d. 680. The story
of Husain is one of the most touching pages of MusHm
history.
MUHAEEAM AND 'aSHUEAA. 165
themselves in circles, and beat themselves with
chains in the most frantic manner. The women
repeat a funeral eulogium, and the Maulavis,
the Boiuzat'US-Shuhddda, or the Book of
Martyrs.
On the seventh day there are representations
of the marriage ceremony of Qasim, and of the
martyrdom of Husain ; and on the eighth day
a lance or spear is carried about the city to
represent Husain 's head, which was carried on
the point of a javelin by order of Yazid. In
addition to these representations, there are the
Tazias, Tabiits, or biers, of the tombs of Hasan
and Husain, a horse-shoe in representation of
Husain' s swift horse, and the standards of
Hasan, Husain, and Qasim, and other Muslim
celebrities.
The Sunni Muhammadans do not usually
take part in these ceremonies, but observe the
tenth day, ^A'shurda, being the day on which
God is said to have created Adam and Eve,
heaven, hell, the tablet of decree, the pen, fate,
life, and death.
Muhammad commanded his followers to ob-
serve the ^A'shurda by bathing, wearing new
166 MUHARRAM AND 'aSHURAA.
clothes, applying surma * to tlie eyes, fasting,
prayers, making peace with one's enemies, as-
sociating with religions persons, relieving or-
phans, and giving of alms.
The fast of 'A'shurda is a Sunnat fast, i, e.
not founded upon an injunction in the Quran,
but upon the example of Muhammad.
* Surma is antimony or galena ground to a fine powder,
and applied to the eyelids to improve the brightness of
the eyes.
167
XXXIV.— A'KHIHI CHAHA'R SHAMBA.*
A'khiei Chaha'e Shamba is the " last Wednes-
day " of tlie montli of Safar, and is a feast lield
in commemoration of Muhammad's having ex-
perienced some mitigation of his last illness
and having bathed. It was the last time he
performed the legal bathing, for he died on the
twelfth day of the next month. In some parts
of Islam it is customary, in the early morning
of this day, to write seven verses of the Quran,
known as the Seven Saldms, and then wash off
the ink and drink it as a charm against evil.
The A'khiri Chahar Shamba is not observed
by the Wahhabis, not being enjoined in the
Quran and Hadis.
* The Persian name for the day ; the Arabic being
Arb'da-ul-AJcMr, i. e. " the last Wednesday."
168
XXXY.— BA'RA WAFAT.*
The Bdra Wafdt {_l. e. Bar a, "twelve," and
Wafdt, ''death") is tlie twelfth day of the month,
Rabi-ul-Awwal. It is observed in commemor-
ation of Muhammad's death.
On this day, Fdtihahs (i. e. the first chapter
of the Quran), are said for Muhammad ; and
both in private houses and in the mosques, the
learned recite portions of the Traditions and
other works in praise of the excellences of
Muhammad. These customs are usually ob-
served for the whole twelve days, although the
twelfth day is held most sacred.
The Wahhabis do not observe the Bdra
Wafdt, as its observance is not enjoined in the
Quran or Hadis.
* The Hindustani name of the day, there being no
special title for the day in Persian or Arabic.
169
XXXYI.— SHAB-I-BARAT.*
Shab-i-Bara't, tlie ''night of record," is ob-
seryecl on the fifteenth day of the month,
Sh'aban. It is the ''Guy Fawkes Day" of
India, being the night for display of fireworks.
On this night, Muhammad said, Grod regis-
ters annually all the actions of mankind which
they are to perform during the year ; and that
all the children of men, who are to be born and
to die in the year, are recorded. Muhammad
enjoined his followers to keep awake the whole
night, to repeat one hundred rah' at prayers,
and to fast the next day; but there are ge-
nerally great rejoicings instead of a fast, and
large sums of money are spent in fireworks.
The Shab-i-Barat must not be confounded with
* The Persian title; the Arabic being Laylat-ul-Mu-
baraJca.
170 SHAB-I-BAEAT.
the Laylat-ul-Qadr (night of power), mentioned
in the Quran, which is the twenty- seventh
night of the Eamazan. The 8hah-i-Bardt,
however, is frequently called Shab Qadr, or
the night of power, by the common people.
171
XXXYII.— 'ID-UL-FITR, OR THE
LESSER FESTIVAL.
'Id-ul-Fitr (lit. "the feast of breaking tlie
fast "), is called also the feast of Ramazan, tlie
Feast of Alms, and the Minor Festival. It is
held on the first day of the month of Shawwal,
which is the day after the close of the Ramazan
fast. On this day, before going to the place of
prayer, the Sadaqa, or propitiatory offerings,
are made to the poor in the name of God.
The offerings having been made, the people
assemble either in the Jama'-i-Masjid (i. e. the
principal mosque), or proceed to the 'Idgah,
which is a special place for worship on festivals.
The worship commences with two raWat prayers,
after which the Imam takes his place on the
second step of the mimbar (pulpit) and recites
the Khuthah, concluding with a prayer for the
king. After this is ended, he offers up a
mundjdt, or supplication, for the people, for the
172 'iD-UL-FITE, OR THE LESSER FESTIVAL.
remission of sins, the recovery of the sick, in-
crease of rain, abundance of corn, preservation
from misfortune, and freedom from debt. He
tlien descends to the ground, and makes further
supplication for the people, the congregation
saying Amin at the end of each supplication.
At the close of the service the members of the
congregation salute and embrace each other,
and offer mutual congratulations, and then
return to their homes, and spend the rest of
the day in feasting and merriment.
173
XXXYIII.— 'ID-UL-AZHA', OE THE
FEAST OF SACEIFICE.
Id-ul-Azha,* or the Feast of Sacrifice, is
called also Yaum-un-Nahr, Qurhdn-i- Id, Qur-
hdn Bayrdm, Baqr-i-Id (the Cow Festival), and
the Great Feast, and is held on the tenth day
of the month Zul-Hijja. This festival has
become part of the Meccan pilgrimage, of
which it is the concluding scene, although
it appears that Muhammad at first intended to
conform to the custom of the Jews in observing
the great day of atonement, but, when he failed
to maintain a friendly footing with the Jews,
he merged the rite into the Meccan pilgrimage.
This feast, however, is the great Muhammadan
festival, which is observed wherever Islam
exists ; and it is a notable fact that whilst
Muhammad professed to abrogate the Jewish
* Vulsr. 'Id'Uz-Zohd.
174 'iD-UL-AZHA, OR THE FEAST OF SACRIFICE.
ritual, and also ignored entirely the doctrine of
the atonement as taught in the New Testament,
denying even the very fact of our Saviour's
crucifixion, he made the ''day of sacrifice''
the great central festival of his religion.
There is a very remarkable Hadis, related
by 'A yesha, who states, that Muhammad said,
" Man hath not done anything on the 'Id-ul-
Azha more pleasing to God than spilling
blood; for verily the animal sacrificed will
come, on the day of resurrection, with its
horns, its hair, and its hoofs, and will make the
scales of his (good) actions heavy. Yerily its
blood reacheth the acceptance of Grod, before it
falleth upon the ground, therefore be joyful
in it."* Muhammad has thus become unwill-
ingly a witness to the grand doctrine of the
Christian faith that " without shedding of
blood, there is no remission." The animal
sacrificed must be without blemish, and of full
age ; but it may be either a goat, a sheep, a cow,
or a camel.
According to the commentator Jalal-ud-din
Syiity, the sacrifice was instituted in com-
* Mishkat-ul-Masabih, bk. iv. chap. xlii. sect, 2.
'ID-UL-AZHA, OE THE FEAST OF SACRIFICE. 175
memoration of Abraliam's willingness to sa-
crifice liis son Ismail ! The following is the ac-
count given by Muhammadan writers: — "When
Ibrahim (the peace of Grod be upon him)
founded Mecca, the Lord desired him to pre-
pare a feast for Him. Upon Ibrahim's (the
friend of Grod) requesting to know what He
would have on the occasion, the Lord replied,
* Offer up thy son Ismail.' Agreeably to God's
command he took Ismail to the K'aba to
sacrifice him, and having laid him down, he
made several ineffectual strokes on his throat
with a knife, on which Ismail observed, ' Your
eyes being uncovered, it is through pity and
compassion for me you allow the knife to miss :
it would be better if you blindfolded yourself
with the end of your turban and then sacrificed
me.' Ibrahim acted upon his son's suggestion
and having repeated the words ' hismillah allah-
ho ahhar' (i.e., 'in the name of the great
God'), he drew the knife across his son's neck.
In the meanwhiloj however, Gabriel had sub-
stituted a broad-tailed sheep for the youth
Ismail, and Ibrahim unfolding his eyes ob-
served, to his surprise, the sheep slain, and
his son standing behind him." The account
176 'ID-UL-AZHA, OE THE FEAST OF SACEIFICE.
is a ridiculous parody upon tlie words of the
inspired prophet Moses. In tlie Quran the
name of the son is not given, although com-
mentators state, that the Prophet said, that he
was a descendant of the son of Abraham who
was offered in sacrifice.* The sacrifice, as it is
now performed on the 'Id-ul-Azha is as fol-
lows : — The people assemble for prayer at the
'Idgah as on the 'Id-ul-Fitr ; after prayers
the people return to their houses. The head
of the ^family then takes a sheep (or a cow or
camel) to the entrance of his house and sa-
crifices it, by repeating the words, " In the
name of the great God," and cutting its throat.
The flesh of the animal is then divided, two-
thirds being kept by the family, and one-third
being given to the poor in the name of God.
* The name is not given in the Quran, but it is in the
Hadis Sahih Bokhsiri.
177
XXXIX.— NIKAH, OR MARRIAGE.
Nik AH, is tlie celebration of tlie marriage con-
tract as distingnislied from tlie festive rejoicings
whicli usually accompany it; the latter being
called Shddi in Persian and Urdu, and ' Urs in
Arabic.
Marriage, according to Muliammadan law, is
simply a civil contract, and its validity does
not depend upon any religious ceremony.
Tlie legality of marriage depends upon the
consent of the parties, which is called Tjah and
Qabill, viz. declaration and acceptance ; the
presence of two male witnesses, or one male
and two females * ; and a dower of not less
than ten dirhems to be settled upon the woman.
The omission of the settlement does not, how-
ever, invalidate the contract ; for, under any
* In Muliammadan law woman, instead of being man's
" better half," is only equal to half a man !
12
178 NIKAH, OE MAEEIAGE.
circumstances, tlie woman becomes entitled to
her dower of ten dirliems or more. Muliam-
madans are permitted by tlie Quran* to marry
four free women, and to have as many female
slaves as lie may possess. Marriages for a
limited period were sanctioned by " the
Prophet"; but this law is said to have been
abrogated, although it is allowed by the Shia'hs
even in the present day. These temporary
marriages are called Miifah, and are undoubt-
edly the greatest blot in Muhammad's moral
legislation.
Marriage is enjoined upon every Muslim, and
celibacy is frequently condemned by Muham-
mad. The '' clergy" are all married men, and
even the ascetic orders are, as George Herbert
would have said, " rather married than un-
married." It is related in the Hadis, that
Muhammad said that, "when the servant of
God marries, he perfects half his religion."
Not long ago we met a Faqir of the Nuksh-
bandia order, a man of considerable reputation
* " Of women who seem good in your eyes marry two,
or three, or four; and if ye fear that ye shall not act
equitably, then one only, or the slaves whom ye have
acquired." (Sura iv. 3.)
NIKAH, OE MAEEIAGE. 179
at the court of Cabul, who said that he wished
to lead a celibate life, but that his disciples had
insisted upon his "perfecting his religion" by
entering upon the married state !
As the religious ceremony does not form part
of the legal conditions of marriage, there is no
uniformity of ritual observed in its celebration.
Some Qazis merely recite the Fdtihah (the first
chapter of the Quran), and the Darud, or
blessing ; but the following is the more com-
mon order of performing the service. The
Qazi, the bridegroom, and the bride's attorney,
with the witnesses having assembled in some con-
venient place, arrangements, are made as to the
amount of Dower, or Mahr. The bridegroom
then repeats after the Qazi the following : —
1. The Istighfdr, ''I desire forgiveness from
God, who is my Lord."
2. The four chapters of the Quran com-
mencing with the word '' QitZ." These chap-
ters have nothing in them connected with the
subject of marriage, and appear to be selected
on account of their brevity.
3. The Kalhna, or Creed. " There is no
deity but Grod, and Muhammad is the Prophet
of God."
12 A
180 NIKAH, OE MAEEIAGE.
4. The Sift-ul-Imdn, A profession of belief
in God, tlie angels, tlie scriptures, the prophets,
the resurrection, and in fate or absolute decree
of good and evil.
The Qazi then requests the bride's attorney
to take the hand of the bridegroom, and to
say, " Such an one's daughter, by the agency
of her attorney, and by the testimony of two
witnesses, has, in your marriage with her, had
such a dower settled upon her, do you consent
to it ? " To which the bridegroom replies,
" With my whole heart and soul, to my mar-
riage with this woman as well as to the dower
already settled upon her, I consent, I consent,
I consent ! "
After this the Qazi raises his hands, and
offers the followmg prayer : —
" 0 great God ! grant that mutual love may
reign between this couple, as it existed be-
tween Adam and Eve, Abraham and Sarah,
Joseph and Zulekha,* Moses and Zipporah,
his Highness Muhammad and 'A yesha, and his
Highness 'AliMurtuza and Fatimah-uz-Zahra."
* According to Muhammad, Joseph afterwards married
Zulekha, the widow of Potiphar.
NIKAH, OE MAERIAGE. 181
The ceremony being over, the bridegroom
embraces his friends and receives their con-
gratulations. Mkah is preceded and followed
by festive rejoicings, which have been variously
described by Oriental travellers ; but they are
not parts of either the civil or religious cere-
mony.
182
XL.— TALA'Q, OR DIYORCE.
In Islam tlie wife is tlie property of tlie lius-
band, and consequently slie can be disposed of
by divorce at a moment's notice. Tlie law has,
however, placed certain slight restrictions upon
the exercise of this right, and has ruled that
there are three kinds of divorce : —
(1.) Taldq-i-AJisan, or "the most laudahle form
of divorce," is when the husband divorces his
wife when she is in a state of purity, by one
sentence, " thou art divorced,^^ or words to that
effect. This is esteemed the best form, because
the sentence having been only pronounced once^
the husband can again change his mind, with
the consent of his divorced wife, at any sub-
sequent period, until she marries another.
(2.) Taldq-i-Hasan, or " a laudable form of
divorce," is when the husband divorces his wife
TALAQ, OR DIVOEOB. 183
by prououncing the sentence, " thou art di-
vorced,^' .dnrmg liis wife's period of purity, and
at intervals of a montli.
(4.) TaIdq-i-Bid\ii, or "an irregular form of
divorce," is wlien tlie linsband repeats the
sentence three times on one occasion.
Whenever the sentence of divorce is repeated
three times it is a Taldq-i-Mutlaq, or an ir-
revocable divorce, after which the husband
cannot marry his repudiated wife until she has
married and lived with another, and is divorced
by her second husband.
In all cases of repudiation, except when a
wife requests her husband to divorce her, the
dower must be repaid to the woman, an ar-
rangement which often prevents a man exer-
cising the privilege.
The ground of divorce, under the Mosaic
law, was " some uncleanness in her " (vide
Deut. xxiv. 1 — 4), and of which there were
two well-known interpretations. The school of
Shammai seemed to limit it to a moral de-
linquency in the woman, whilst that of Hillel
extended it to the most trifling causes. Our
Lord appears to have confirmed the interpre-
184 TALAQ, OR DIVOECE.
tation of Sliammai (St. Matt. v. 32), whilst
Muliammad adopted that of Hillel, but dis-
pensing with the ''bill of divorcement" en-
joined by the Mosaic code, thereby placing the
woman entirely at the will and caprice of her
husband.
185
XLI.— JANA'ZA, OE BURIAL.
Jana'za is the term used both for the bier and
for the Muhammadaii funeral service. The
burial service is founded upon the practice of
Muhammad, and varies but little in different
countries, although the ceremonies connected
with the funeral procession are diversified. In
Egypt, for instance, the male relations and
friends of the deceased precede the corpse,
whilst the female mourners follow behind.
In North India and Central Asia, women do
not usually attend funerals, and the friends and
relatives of the deceased walk behind the bier.
There is a tradition amongst some Muhamma-
dans that no one should precede the corpse, as
the angels go before. Funeral processions in
Central Asia are usually very simple in their
arrangements, and are said to be more in ac-
cordance with the practice of the "Prophet,"
than those of Egypt and Turkey. It is con-
186 JANAZA, OE BUEIAL.
sidered a very meritorious act to carry the
bier, and four from among the near relations,
every now and then relieved by an equal num-
ber, carry it on their shoulders. Unlike our
Christian custom of walking slowly to the
grave, Muhammadans carry their dead quickly
to the place of interment ; for Muhammad is
related to have said, that it is good to carry
the dead quickly to the grave to cause the
righteous person to arrive soon at happiness,
and if he be a bad man it is well to put
wickedness away from one's shoulders. Fu-
nerals should always be attended on foot; for
it is said, that Muhammad on one occasion re-
buked his people for following a bier on horse-
back. " Have you no shame ? " said he, " since
God's angels go on foot, and you go upon the
backs of quadrupeds?" It is a highly meri-
torious act to attend a funeral, whether it be
that of a Muslim, a Jew, or a Christian. There
are, however, two traditions given by Bokhari,
which appear to mark a change of feeling on
the part of the time-serving Prophet of Arabia
towards the Jews and Christians. "A bier
passed by the Prophet, and he stood up ; and
it was said to the Prophet, this is the bier of
JANAZA, OE BURIAL. 187
Jew. 'It is tlie liolder of a soul/ lie re-
plied, ' from whicli we should take warning
and fear.' " Tliis rule is said to have been
abrogated, for, " on one occasion the Prophet
sitting on the road when a bier passed, and the
Prophet disliked that the bier of a Jew should
be higher than his head, and he therefore stood
up." Notwithstanding these contradictory tra-
ditions, we believe that in all countries Mu-
hammadans are wont to pay great respect to
the funerals of both Jews and Christians. Not
long ago, about sixty Muhammadans attended
the funeral of an Armenian Christian lady at
Peshawur, when the funeral service was read
by the Native clergyman. In the procession
the Muhammadans took their turn with the
Native Christian converts in carrying the bier,
and assisting in lowering the coffin into the
grave. During the reading of the service,
some few seated themselves on the grass, but
the majority listened attentively to the funeral
office, which was impressively read by the
Native pastor, himself a Christian convert
from Muhammadanism.
The Muhammadan funeral service is not re-
cited in the graveyard, it being too polluted a .
188 JANAZA, OE BUEIAL.
place for so sacred an oflSce ; but either in a
mosque, or in some open space near the dwel-
ling of the deceased person, or the graveyard.
The owner of the corpse, i. e. the nearest
relative, is the proper person to recite the
service ; but it is usually said by the family
Imam, or the village Qazi.
The following is the order of the service : —
Some one present calls out, —
"Here begin the prayers for the dead."
Then tkose present arrange themselves in three, five, or
seven rows opposite the corpse, with their faces Qiblawards
(i. e. towards Mecca). The Imam stands in front of the
ranks opposite the head* of the corpse, if it be that of
a male, or the waist, if it be that of a female.
The whole comj^any having taken up the Qidm, or
standing position, the Imam recites the Niyat.
" I purpose to perform prayers to God, for
this dead person, consisting of four TakhirsJ^
Then placing his hands to the lobes of his ears, he says
the first TaWir.
'' God is great
Then folding his hands, the right hand placed upon the
left, below the navel, he recites the Suhhcin : —
" Holiness to Thee, 0 God,"
"And to Thee be praise."
* The Shia'hs stand opposite the loins of a man.
JANAZA, OE BUEIAL. 189
'' Great is Tliy Name."
'' Great is Thy Greatness."
*' Great is Thy Praise."*
" There is no deity but Thee."
Then follows the second Takhir: —
" God is great ! "
Then the Barud : —
" 0 God, have mercy on Muhammad and
upon his descendants, as Thou didst bestow
mercy, and peace, and blessing, and compassion,
and great kindness upon Abraham and upon
his descendants."
" Thou art praised, and Thou art great ! "
'' 0 God, bless Muhammad and his descend-
ants, as Thou didst bless and didst have com-
passion and great kindness upon Abraham and
upon his descendants."
Then follows the third Takhir: —
"God is great!"
After which the following prayer (Bua') is recited : —
" 0 God, forgive our living and our dead,
and those of us who are present, and those
who are absent, and our children, and our full
* This sentence is not generally recited in the Subhan
of the daily prayer.
190 JANAZA, OR BURIAL.
grown persons, onr men and our women. 0
God, those wliom Thou dost keep alive amongst
us, keep alive in Islam, and those whom thou
causest to die, let them die in the Faith."
Then follows the fourth TaJchir : —
" God is great ! "
Turning the head round to the right, he says : —
" Peace and mercy be to Thee."
Turning the head round to the left, he says : —
" Peace and mercy be to Thee."
The Takhir is recited by the Imam aloud,
but the Subhdn, the Saldm, the Dariid, and
the Dua\ are recited by the Imam and the
people in a low voice.
The people then seat themselves on the
ground, and raise their hands in silent prayer
in behalf of the deceased's soul, and afterwards
addressing the relatives they say, "It is the
decree of God." To which the chief mourner
replies, " I am pleased with the will of God."
He then gives permission to the people to
retire by saying, " There is permission to
depart."
Those who wish to return to their houses do
so at this time, and the rest proceed to the
JANAZA, OR BURIAL. 191
grave. The corpse is then placed on its back
in the grave, with the head to the north and
feet to the south, the face being turned towards
Mecca. The persons who place the corpse in
the grave repeat the following sentence : '' We
commit thee to earth in the name of God and
in the religion of the Prophet."
The bands of the shroud having been loosed,
the recess, which is called the UM, is closed
in with unburnt bricks and the grave filled
in with earth. In some countries it is usual
to recite the Surat i T'wd Hah as the clods'
of earth are thrown into the grave ; but this
practice is objected to by the Wahhabis, and
by many learned divines. This chapter is as
follows : —
*' From it (the earth) have We (Grod) created
you, and unto it will We return you, and out
of it will We bring you forth the second time."
After the burial, the people offer a fdtihah
{i.e., the first chapter of the Quran) in the
name of the deceased, and again when they
have proceeded about forty paces from the
grave they offer another fdtihah ; for at this
juncture, it is said, the two angels Munkar and
192 JANAZA, OR BURIAL.
Nakir examine the deceased as to his faith.*
After this, food is distributed to beggars and
religious mendicants as a propitiatory offering
to God, in the name of the deceased person.
If the grave be for the body of a woman, it
should be to the height of a man's chest, if for
a man, to the height of the waist. At the
bottom of the grave the recess is made on the
side to receive the corpse, which is called the
Idhad. The dead are seldom interred in
coffins, although they are not prohibited.
To build tombs with stones or burnt bricks,
or to write a verse of the Quran upon them, is
forbidden in the Hadis; but largest one and
brick tombs are common to all Muhammadan
countries, and very frequently they bear in-
scriptions.
On the third day after the burial of the dead,
it is usual for the relatives to visit the grave,
and to recite selections from the Quran. Those
who can afford to pay Maulavis, employ these
learned men to recite the whole of the Quran
at the graves of their deceased relatives ; and.
* Vide article on Angels.
JANAZA, OR BUEIAL. 193
as we have already remarked, in a former article,
the Quran is divided into sections to admit of
its being recited by tlie several Maulavis at
once. During the days of mourning the
relatives abstain from wearing any article of
dress of a bright colour, and their soiled
garments remain unchanged.
13
194
XLII.— SLAVERY.
Slaveey (^uhudiyat) lias been consecrated bj
Mubammadan law, and some of its provisions
bave been taken from tbe Mosaic code. Tbe
traces of beatbenism are, bowever, observable
in most of tbe Muslim laws witb reference to
tbis question. For example, according to
Jewisb law,* if a master slew bis slave be was
liable to punisbment, wbereas tbe Islamic code f
annexes no worldly punisbment for tbe murder
of a slave.
Tbere is no limit to tbe number of slave
girls witb wbom a Muslim may cobabit, and it
is tbe consecration of tbis illimitable indulgence
wbicb so popularizes slavery amongst Mubam-
madan nations. Some Muslim writers { of tbe
* Exodus xxi. 20.
t Hidaya, bk. xvi.
J Life of Muhaminad, by Sayyid Ameer Ali, p. 257. It
SLAVERY. 195
present day contend that Muhammad looked
upon the custom as temporary in its nature,
and held that its extinction was sure to be
achieved by the progress of ideas and change
of circumstances ; but the slavery of Islam is
interwoven with the Law of marriage, the Law
of sale, and the Law of inheritance, of the
system, and its abolition would strike at the
very foundations of the code of Muhammad-
anism.
Slavery is in complete harmony with the
spirit of Islam, whilst it is abhorrent to that
of Christianity. That Muhammad ameliorated
the condition of the slave, as it existed under
the heathen laws of Arabia, we cannot doubt ;
bat it is equally certain that the Arabian
legislator intended it to be a perpetual in-
stitution.
The following traditions * with reference to
the action of the Prophet in this matter are
notable : —
" 'Imran-ibn-Husain said a man freed six
is often said that the buying and selling of slaves
is not sanctioned by Islam ; this is not correct, as will be
seen upon reference to the Muhammadan Law of Sale.
* Mishkat, bk. xiii. chap. xx. pt. 1.
13 A
196 SLAVEEY.
slaves at his death, and he had no other pro-
perty besides; and the Prophet called them,
and divided them into three sections, and then
cast lots ; he then ordered that two of them
should be freed, and he retained four in slavery,
and spoke severely of the man who had set
them free."
" Jabir said we used to sell the mothers of
children in the time of the Prophet, and of
Abu Bakr ; but Omar forbade it in his time."
For certain sins the manumission of slaves
is the legal penalty, and a slave may purchase
his own freedom with the permission of Ms
owner.
In the Akhlak-i-Jilali,* which is the popular
work upon practical philosophy amongst the
Muhammadans, it is said that "for service a
slave is preferable to a freeman, inasmuch as
he must be more disposed to submit, obey, and
adopt his patron's habits and pursuits."
Although slavery has existed side by side
with Christianity, it is undoubtedly contrary to
the spirit of the teaching of our divine Lord,
* Akhlak-i-Jalali, by Fakir Jaiii Muhammad Asa'ad,
sect. 6.
SLAVERY. 197
who has given to the world the grand doctrine
of universal brotherhood.
Mr. Lecky believes * that it was the spirit
of Christianity which brought about the aboli-
tion of slavery "in Europe. He says, " The
services of Christianity were of three kinds. It
supplied a new order of relations, in which the
distinction of classes was unknown. It im-
parted a moral dignity to the servile classes.
It gave an unexampled impetus to the move-
ment of enfranchisement."
* History of European Morals, vol. ii. p. 70.
198
XLIII.— THE KHUTBAH, OR THE
miDAY'S SERMON.
The Khutbah is tlie oration or sermon delivered
in tlie mosque every Friday, and on the chief
festivals,* after the meridian prayer. After
the usual ablutions, the four Simnat prayers are
recited. The Khatih, or preacher, then seats
himself on the Mimhar (pulpit), whilst the
Muazzin proclaims the Azan; after which he
stands up on the second step,t and delivers
* The 'Id-i-Fitr and the 'Id-ul-Azha.
t The Mimbar is the pulpit of a mosque. It consists
of three steps, and is sometimes a moveable wooden struc-
ture, and sometimes a fixture of brick or stone built
against the wall. Muhammad, in addressing the congre-
gation, stood on the uppermost step, Abu Bakr on the
second, and Omar on the third or the lowest. Osman,
being the most modest of the Khalifs, would have gladly-
descended lower if he could have done so ; but this being
impossible, he fixed upon the second step, from which it
is still the custom to preach.
THE KHUTBAH, OR THE ERIDAy's SERMON. 199
the sermon, which must be in the Arabic
language, and include prayers for ''Muham-
mad, the Companions, and the King." There
are several books of Khutbahs published for
the use of preachers. The most celebrated of
these preachers' manuals is the Mujmua'
Khitab, printed by Abdur Rahman of Cawn-
pore. The sermons are arranged for every
Friday in the year, and are the compositions
of various Muslim divines. It is remarkable
that short sermons are meritorious ; for it is
related that the "Prophet" remarked that
" the length of a man's prayers and the short-
ness of his sermon are the signs of his sense
and understanding ; therefore make your prayers
long and your Khutbah short. "J
The following is a translation of the third
Khutbah in the book of sermons already men-
tioned; it is a fair specimen of an average
Khutbah, both as to its length and matter : —
" In the name of God, the compassionate,
the merciful.
'' Praised be God. Praised be that God who
hath shown us the way in this religion. If He
had not guided us into the path we should not
have found it.
200 THE KHUTBAH, OR THE FEIDAY's SERMON.
" I bear witness that there is no deity but
God. He is one. He has no associate. I bear
witness that Muhammad is, of a truth, His
servant and His Apostle. May God have mercy
upon him, and upon his descendants, and upon
his companions, and give them peace.
" Fear God, 0 ye people, and fear that day,
the day of judgment, when a father will not
be able to answer for his son, nor the son for
the father. Of a truth God's promises are
true. Let not this present life make you
proud. Let not the deceiver (Satan) lead you
astray.
" 0 ye people who have believed, turn ye to
God, as Nasua * did turn to God. Yerily God
doth forgive all sin, verily He is the merciful,
the forgiver of sins. Yerily He is the most
munificent, and bountiful, the King, the Holy
One, the Clement, the Most Merciful."
The preacher then descends from the pulpit,
and sitting on the floor of the mosque, offers
* Nasutl, is a name whicli occurs in the sixth verse of
the Surat-i-Tahrimah (Ixvi.) in the Quran ; it is translated
"true repentance" bj Sale and Eodwell, but it is sup-
posed to be a person's name by several commentators.
THE KHUTBAH, OE THE FEIDAY's SEEMO?^. 201
up a silent prayer. He tlien, again, ascends
the Mimbar, as before, and proceeds thus : —
" In the name of God, the compassionate,
the merciful.
"Praised be God. We praise Him. "We
seek help from Him. We ask forgiveness of
sins. We trust in Him. We seek refuge in
Him from evil desires and from former sinful
actioxis. He who has God for his guide is
never lost; and whomsoever He leadeth aside
none can guide into the right path.
" We bear witness that there is no deity but
God. He is one. He hath no partner.
" Yerily we bear witness that Muhammad
is the servant and apostle of God, and may
God have mercy upon him, who is more exalted
than any being. May God have mercy upon
his descendants, and upon his companions !
May God give them peace ! Especially upon
Amir-ul-Mominin Abu Bakr Sadiq (may God
be pleased with him). And upon him wh
was the most temperate of the "friends"
Amir-ul-Mominin Omar Ibn-ul-Khattab (may
God be pleased with him). And upon him
whose modesty and faith were perfect, Amir-
ul-Mominin Osman (may God be pleased with
202 THE KHUTBAH, OE THE FEIDAY's SEEMON.
him). And upon tlie Lion of the powerful
God, Amir-nl-Mominin Ali ibn Abu-Talib
(may God be pleased with him). And upon
the two Imams, the holy ones, the two
martyrs, Amir-ul-Mominin Abu Muhammad
Hasan and Abu Abdullah Husain (may God
be pleased with both of them). And upon
the mother of these two persons, the chief
of women, Fatimah-uz-Zarah (may God be
pleased with her). And upon his (Muham-
mad's) two imcles, Hamza and 'Abbas (may
God be pleased with them). And upon the
rest of the " companions," and upon the " fol-
lowers " (may God be pleased with all of them).
Of Thy mercy, 0 most merciful of all merciful
ones, 0 God, forgive all Musalman men and
Musalman women, all male believers, and all
female believers. Of a truth thou art He who
wilt receive our prayers.
" 0 God, help those who help the religion of
Muhammad. May we also exert ourselves to
help those who help Islam. Make those weak,
who weaken the religion of Muhammad.
" 0 God, bless the king of the age, and make
him kind and favourable to the people.
'' 0 servants of God, may God have mercy
THE KHUTBAH, OE THE FEIDAY's SEEMON. 203
upon you. Verily, God enjoinetli justice and
the doing of good, and gifts to kindred ; and He
forbiddetli wickedness, and wrong, and oppres-
sion. He warneth you that haply ye may be
mindful.*
*' 0 ye people, remember the great and
exalted God. He will also remember you. He
will answer your prayers. The remembrance
of God is great, and good, and honourable,
and noble, and meritorious, and worthy, and
sublime."
The preacher then descends, and taking up
his position as Imam, facing the Mihrdb,f
conducts two rah' at prayers. The Khatib,
however, does not always officiate as Imam.
In the above Khutbah we have inserted the
petition usually offered up in behalf of " the
king " m India, although it does not occur
in the collection of sermons from which we
have translated. Until the Mutiny of 1857,
* The ninety- second verse of Surat-i-Nahe (cxvi.) of
tlie Quran.
t The Mihrab is the centre of the wall of a mosque,
facing Mecca, to which the Imam (priest) prays. It
usually consists of a circular niche in the wall.
204 THE KHUTBAH, OR THE FEIDAY's SEEMON.
we believe that in the majority of mosques in
North India it was recited in the name of the
King of Delhi, and even now we are informed
that some bigoted Imams say it in the name of
the Sultan of Turkey. The recital of the
Khutbah serves to remind every Muhammadan
priest, at least once a week, that he is in the
land of warfare {Ddr-uUHarh) ; and the fact
that Muhammadans under Christian rule are
in an anomalous position, is a source of trouble
to many a conscientious Muslim. A few years
ago, a celebrated Muhammadan divine sent for
a native Christian officer, as he wished to obtain
his aid in an important matter. The nature of
the good man's difficulty was as follows : — The
Friday prayer, or Khutbah, must, according to
Muhammadan law, be said in the name and by
the permission of the ruler of the land. He
had been saying the Friday prayer without
permission of the ruler, and he feared that
these prayers had, consequently, not been ac-
cepted by the Almighty. He, therefore, asked
the Christian officer to obtain the necessary
permission from the magistrate of the district.
The Christian was also a man versed in Muslim
law, and he quoted authorities to prove that
THE KHUTBAH, OE THE FEIDAY's SEEMON. 205
the permission of an "infidel" rnler was not
wliat Islam enjoined.
In Turkey and Egypt, and in otlier countries
under Muslim rule, it is tlie custom for the
Kliatib to deliver the Khutbah whilst he holds
a wooden sword reversed.
The prayer for the reigning monarch, if he
be a Muslim, would be offered up in the
following manner : —
'' 0 God, aid Islam, and strengthen its
pillars, and make infidelity to tremble, and
destroy its might, by the preservation of Thy
servant, and the son of Thy servant, the sub-
missive to the might of Thy Majesty and
Glory, whom God hath aided, our master Amir
Sher 'All Khan, son of Amir Dost Muhammad
Khan, may God assist him and prolong his
reign. 0 God, assist him, and assist his armies.
0 Thou God of the religion and Lord of the
world, assist the armies of Muslims ; frustrate
the armies of infidels and polytheists, thine
enemies, the enemies of the religion."
206
XLIY.— JIHA'D, OR RELIGIOUS WAR.
Jiha'd* (lit. "an effort") is a religious war
against the infidels, as enjoined by Muhammad
in the following passages in the Quran : —
Surat-un-Msa (vi.).
" Fight, therefore, for the religion of Grod."
*****
Grod hath indeed promised Paradise to every one,
But God hath preferred those who fight for the faith."
Siirat-ul-Muhammad (xlvii.).
" Those who fight in defence of God's true religion,
God will not suffer their works to j^erish."
Those who engage in war against the infidels
are called Ghdzis. The whole question of Jihad
has been fully discussed by Dr. W. W. Hunter,
of the Bengal Civil Service, in his work en-
titled, "Indian Musalmans," which is the re-
* Some Muhammadan divines say there are two Jihads,
viz. Jihad-ul-Akbar, or the Greater Warfare, which is
against one's own lusts; and Jihad-ul-Asghar, or the
Lesser Warfare, against infidels.
JIHAD. 207
suit of careful inquiry as to the necessary-
conditions of a Jihad, or Cresentade, instituted
at the time of the excitement which existed
in India in 1870-71, in consequence of a sup-
posed Wahhabi conspiracy for the overthrow of
Christian rule in that country. The whole
matter, according to the Sunni Musulmans,
hinges upon the question whether India is
Ddr-ul-Harb, the land of enmity, or Ddr-uU
Islam, the land of Islam.
The Muftis belonging to the Hanifia and
Shafa'ia sects at Mecca decided that, '' as long
as even some of the peculiar observances of
Islam prevail in a country, it is Ddr-id-IsldmJ^
The decision of the Mufti of the Maliki sect
was very similar, being to the following effect : —
" A country does not become Ddr-ul-Harb as
soon as it passes into the hands of the infidels,
but when all or most of the injunctions of
Islam disappear therefrom."
The law doctors of North India decided that,
" the absence of protection and liberty to
Musulmans is essential in a Jihdd, or religious
war, and that there should be a probability of
victory to the armies of Islam."
The Shia'h decision on the subject was as
208 JIHAD.
follows : — '' A Jiliad is lawful only wlien the
armies of Islam are led by tlie rightful Imam,
when arms and ammunitions of war and ex-
perienced Avarriors are ready, when it is against
the enemies of God, when he who makes war
is in possession of his reason, and when he has
secured the permission of his parents, and has
sufficient money to meet the expenses of his
journey."
The Sunnis and Shia'hs alike believe in the
eventual triumph of Islam, when the whole
world shall become followers of the Prophet of
Arabia ; but whilst the Sunnis are, of course,
ready to undertake the accomplishment of this
great end, " whenever there is a probability of
victory to the Musulmans," the Shia'hs, true
to the one great principle of their sect, must
wait until the appearance of a rightful Imam.
JSTot very long ago a learned Muhammadan
Qdzi (judge) was consulted by the writer of
these notes with reference to this interesting
question, namely, whether India is Ddr-ul-
Isldm, or Ddr-ul-Harb. At first he replied
JDdr-ul'Isldm, and then, after a short pause,
he said, '' Well, sir, may I tell you the
truth?" Upon being assured that the ques-
JIHAD. 209
tion was put merely as one of theological in-
quiry, and not for any political reasons, he
replied, ''It is Ddr-ul-Harh.'' One of his
reasons for arriving at this conclusion was
the well-known doctrine of Islam that a Muslim
cannot be a Zimmi, or one who pays tribute to
an infidel power. We believe that the fact
that Muhammadans under Christian rule are
in an anomalous position, is a source of trouble
to many a conscientious Muslim. Many Mus-
lims believe that Hijrat, or flight, is incumbent
upon every child of the Faith who is under
Kafir (infidel) rule ; but, as our friend the
Qazi put it, "Where are they to go to?"
The Muslim who abandons his country under
such circumstances is called a Muhdjir, or
refugee.
When an infidel's country is conquered by
a Muslim ruler, its inhabitants are offered
three alternatives : —
(1.) The reception of Islam, in which case
the conquered become enfranchised citizens of
the Muslim state.
(2.) The payment of a poll-tax (Jiziyah), by
which unbelievers in Islam obtain protection,
and become Zimmis.
14
210 JIHAD.
(3.) Death by the sword.
In a state brouglit under Muslims, all those
who do not embrace tlie faith are placed under
certain disabilities. They can worship Grod
according to their own customs, provided they
are not idolaters ; but it must be done without
any ostentation, and, whilst churches and
synagogues may be repaired, no new place of
worship can he erected. Vide Hidayah,* where
we read : — '' The construction of churches, or
synagogues, in Muslim territory is unlawful,
this being forbidden in the Traditions ; but
if places of worship belonging to Jews, or
Christians, be destroyed, or fall into decay,
they are at liberty to repair them, because
buildings cannot endure for ever."
Idol temples must be destroyed, and idolatry
suppressed by force in all countries ruled
according to strict Muslim law.
* Hamilton's Translation, vol. ii. p. 219.
211
XLY.— MARTYRS.
The title of Shahid, or martyr, is given to
anyone wlio dies under the following circum-
stances : —
1. A soldier who dies in war for the cause
of Islam.
2. One who innocently meets with his death
from the hand of another.
3. The victim of a plague.
4. A person accidentally drowned.
5. One upon whom a wall may fall acci-
dentally.
6. A person burnt in a house on fire.
7. One who dies from hunger.
8. One who dies on the pilgrimage to
Mecca.
If a martyr dies in war, or is innocently mur-
dered, he is buried without the usual washing
before burial, as it is said that the blood of a
martyr is a sufficient ablution.
14 A
212
XLYI.— THE FOUE OETHODOX
SECTS.
Theee are four orthodox sects or schools
of interpretation amongst the Sunnis, the
Hanifi, the Shafa'i, the Mahki, and the Ham-
bali.
1. The Hanifis are found in Turkey, Central
Asia, and North India. The founder of this
sect was Imam Abu Hanifa, who was born at
Koofa, the capital of Irak, a.d. 702, or a.h. 80,
at which time four of the " Prophet's " com-
panions were still alive. He is the great oracle
of jurisprudence, and (with his two pupils
Imam Abu Yusaf and Imam Muhammad) was
the founder of the Hanifi Code of Law.*
2. The Shafa'ias are found in South India and
Egypt. The founder of this school of interpre-
tation was Imam Muhammad ibn i Idris al
* A Digest of the Hanifi Code of Law has been pub-
lished in English by Mr. N. B. E. Baillie.
THE rOUE ORTHODOX SECTS. 213
Shafa'i, who was born at Askalon, in Palestine,
A.D. 772 (a.h. 150).
3. The Malikis prevail in Morocco, Barbary,
and other parts of Africa, and were founded by-
Imam Malik, who was born at Madina, a.d.
716 (a.h. 93). He enjoyed the personal ac-
quaintance of Hanifa, and he was considered
the most learned man of his time.
4. The Hambalis were founded by Imam
Abu 'Abdullah Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn
Hambal, who was born at Bagdad, a.d. 786
(a.h. 164). He attended the lectures delivered
by Shafa'i, by whom he was instructed in the
traditions. His followers are found in Eastern
Arabia, and in some parts of Africa, but it is
the least popular of the four schools of inter-
pretation. They have no Mufti at Mecca,
whilst the other three sects are represented
there. The Wahhabis rose from this sect.
From the disciples of these four great Imams
have proceeded an immense number of com-
mentaries and other works, all differing on a
variety of points in their constructions, although
coinciding in their general principles.
214
XLYII.— THE SHI'A'HS.
The SMa'hs (lit. " followers ") are the followers
of 'Ali, the husband of Fatimah, the daughter
of Muhammad. They maintain that 'Ali was
the first legitimate Khalifa, or successor to
Muhammad, and therefore reject Abu Bakr,
Omar, and Osman, the first three Khalifs, as
usurpers. According to the Shia'hs the Muslim
religion consists of a knowledge of the true
Imam, or leader, and the differences amongst
themselves with reference to this question have
given rise to endless divisions. Of the pro-
verbial seventy-three sects of Islam, not fewer
than thirty-two are assigned to the Shia'hs.
The twelve Imams, according to the Shia'hs,
are as follows : —
1. Hazrat 'Ali.
2. Hasan.
3. Husain.
4. Zain-ul-'Abid-din.
5. Muhammad Baqr.
THE shia'hs. 215
6. Jaj&r Sadiq.
7. Miisa Kazim.
8. 'Ali Miisa Eaza.
9. Muhammad Taqi.
10. Muhammad Naqi.
11. Hasan 'Askari.
12. Abu Qasim (or Imam Mahdi).
The last Imam, Abu Qasim, is supposed
by the Shia'hs to be still alive and concealed
in some secret place ; and that he is the same
Mahdi, or director, concerning whom Mu-
hammad prophesied that the world should not
have an end until one of his own descendants
should govern the Arabians, and whose coming
in the last days is expected by all Muslims.
During the absence of the Imam, the Shia'hs
appeal to the Mujtahids, or enlightened doctors
of the law, for direction in all matters both
temporal and spiritual. Since the accession
of Ismail, the first of the Sufi dynasty, a.d.
1499, the Shia'h faith has been the national reli-
gion of Persia. The enmity which exists between
Sunni and Shia'h Muhammadans is, perhaps,
hardly equalled by the mutual animosity which
too often exists between Romanists and Protes-
tants.
216 THE SHIA*HS.
It is not true that tlie Shia'h Muhaminadans
reject tlie Traditions of Muhammad, although
the Sunnis arrogate to themselves the title of
traditionists. Thej do not acknowledge the
SiMh-i-8ita, or six correct books of the Sunnis
and "Wahhabis, but receive the five collections
of Traditions, entitled: 1. Kafi; 2. Man-la-
yastahzirah-al-Faqih ; 3. Tahzib; 4. Istibsar;
5. Nahaj-ul-Balaghat.
The Shia'h school of law is called the
Imamia,* and it is earlier than that of the
Sunnis ; for Abu Hanifa, the father of the
Sunni code of law, received his first instructions
in jurisprudence from Imam Jafir Sadiq, the
sixth Imam of the Shia'hs; but this learned
doctor afterwards separated from his teacher,
and established a school of his own.
The differences between the Shia'hs and
Sunnis are very numerous, but we will enu-
merate a few of them : —
1. The discussion as to the ofiice of Imam,
already alluded to.
2. The Shia'hs have a profound veneration
* A Digest of the Imamia code has been pubhshed by
Mr. N. B. E. Baillie. London, 1869.
217
for Imam 'Ali, and some of their sects regard
him as an incarnation of divinity. They all
assert that next to the Prophet, 'Ali is the
most excellent of men.
3. They observe the ceremonies of the
Muharram in commemoration of 'Ali, Hasan,
Husain, and Bibi Fatimah, whilst the Sunnis
only regard the tenth day of Muharram, the
'A'shurda, being the day on which Grod is said
to have created Adam and Eve, etc.
4. The Shia'hs permit Muta'h, or temporary
marriages, which are contracted for a limited
period, and for a certain sum of money. The
Sunnis say that Muhammad afterwards can-
celled this institution.
5. The Shia'hs include the Majusi, or fire-
worshippers, among the AJil-i-Kitdb, or people
of the Book, whilst Sunnis only acknowledge
Jews, Christians, and Muslims, as Kitdbiahs.
6. There are also various minor differences in
the ceremony of Suldt, or prayer, and in the
ablutions previous to prayer.
7. The Shia'hs admit a principle of religious
compromise which is called Tahia (lit. " guard-
ing one's self "), a pious fraud, whereby the
Shia'h Muhammadan believes he is justij&ed
218 THE shia'hs.
in either smoothing down or in denying the
peculiarities of his religious belief in order to
save himself from religious persecution. A
Shia'h can, therefore, pass himself off as a
Sunni, or even curse the twelve Imams, in
order to avoid persecution.
219
XLYIII.— THE WAHHA'BI'S.
This sect was founded by Muhammad, son of
Abdul Wahhab, but as their opponents could
not call them Muhammadans, thej have been
distinguished by the name of the father of the
founder of their sect, and are called Wahhabis.*
Shekh Muhammad was born at Ayina, a
village in the province . of Arad, in the country
of Najd, in the year a.d. 1691. Having been
carefully instructed in the tenets of the Muslim
religion, according to the teachings of the
Hambali sect, he in due time left his native
place, in company with his father, to perform
the pilgrimage to Mecca. At Madina, he was
instructed by Shekh Abdullah-ibn-Ibrahim, of
Najd; and, it is supposed, that whilst sitting
at the feet of this celebrated teacher, the
* Vide a Wahhabi book entitled Sulh-ul-Aklwan, by
Sayyid Allama Daud, of Bagdad.
220 THE WAHHABIS.
son of Abdul Waliliab first realized how far
tlie rigid lines of Islam liad been stretched,
almost to breaking, in the endeavour to adapt
its stern principles to the superstitions of
idolatrous Arabia. He accompanied his father
to Harimala, and, after his father's death, he
returned to his native village of Ayina, where
he assumed the position of a religious teacher.
His teachings met with acceptance, and he
soon acquired so great an influence over the
people of those parts that the Governor of
Hassa compelled him to leave the district, and
the reformer found a friendly asylum in
Deraiah, under the protection of Muhammad-
ibn-Saud, a chief of considerable influence,
who made the protection of Ibn- Abdul- Wahhab
a pretext for a war with the Shekh of Hassa.
Ibn Sand married the daughter of Ibn-Abdul-
Wahhab, and established in his family the
Wahhabi dynasty, wliich, after a chequered
existence of more than a hundred years, still
exists in the person of the Wahhabi chief at
Eyadh.*
* The following are the names of the Wahhalti chiefs,
from the establishment of the dynasty :—Muhammad-ibn-
Saud, died a.d. 1765 ; Abdul-Aziz, assassinated 1803 ;
THE WAHHABIS. 221
The wliole of Eastern Arabia lias embraced
the reformed doctrines of the Wahbabis, and
Mr. Palgrave, in his account of his travels in
those parts, has given an interesting sketch
of the Wahhabi religionists, although he is
not always correct as to the distinctive prin-
ciples of their religious creed.
In the great Wahhabi revival, political in-
terests were united with religious reform, as
was the case in the great Puritan struggle in
England ; and the Wahhabis soon pushed their
conquests over the whole of Arabia. In a.d.
1803, they conquered Mecca and Madina, and
for many years threatened the subjugation of
the whole Turkish empire ; but in a.d. 1811,
Muhammad 'Ali, the celebrated Pasha of
Egypt, commenced a war against the Wah-
habis, and soon recovered Mecca and Madina;
and in 1818, his son, Ibrahim Pasha, totally
defeated Abdullah, the Wahhabi leader, and
Saud-ibn-Abdul Aziz, died 1814 ; Abdullali-ibn-Saud, be-
headed 1818 ; Turki, assassinated 1830 ; Fajzul, died 1866 ;
Abdullah, still living. Fayzul and his son Abdullah en-
tertained Col. Sir Lewis Pelly, K.C.B., K.C.S.I., who visited
the Wahhabi capital, as Her Britannic Majesty's represen-
tative, in 1865.
222 THE WAHHABIS.
sent him a prisoner to Constantinople, where
lie was executed in tlie public square of St.
Sophia, December 19th, 1818. But although
the temporal power of the Wahhabis has been
subdued, thej still continue secretly to pro-
pagate their peculiar tenets, and in the present
day there are numerous disciples of the sect
not only in Arabia, but in Turkey and in India.
It is a movement which has influenced religious
thought in every part of Islam.
The leader of the Wahhabi movement in
India was Sayyid Ahmad, who was born at
Rai Bareli, in Oudh, in a.d. 1786. He began
life as a freebooter ; but about the year 1816,
he gave up robbery, and commenced to study
divinity in one of the mosques at Delhi. After
a few years study, he performed the pilgrimage
to the sacred city; and, whilst at Mecca,
attracted the notice of the learned doctors by
the similarity of his teaching to that of the
"Wahhabi sectaries, from whom the city had
suffered so much. He was soon expelled from
the town, and he returned to India a fanatical
disciple of the Wahhabi leader. His success
as a preacher was great, both in Bombay and
Calcutta; and having collected a numerous
THE WAHHABIS. 223
following from the ranks of Islam within
British territory, he proceeded to the north-
west frontier of India, and preached a Jihad,
or Holy War, against the Sikhs. On the 21st
of December 1826, the war against the infidel
Sikhs began, and almost every place in the
Peshawur valley is, in some way, associated
with this fanatical struggle. The mission of
this Wahhabi leader was soon brought to an
untimely end ; for, in the battle of Balakot,
in Hazarah, in May 1831, when the fanatics
were surprised by a Sikh army, under Sher
Singh, their leader, Sayyid Ahmad, was slain.*
But, as in the case of the Wahhabi leader of
Eastern Arabia, the propagation of the religious
tenets did not cease with Sayyid Ahmad's
death, and within the last thirty years Wah-
habyism has widely influenced religious thought
amongst the Muhammadans of India. The
people who hold the doctrines of the Wahhabis
do not always combine with them the fanatical
spirit of either the son of Abdul Wahhab, or
* The remnant of the Sayyid' s army formed the nucleus
of the Wahhabi fanatics, who are now stationed at the
village of Polosi, on the banks of the Indus, on the north-
west frontier of British India.
224 THE WAHHABIS.
of Sayyid Ahmad Khan ; they speak of them-
selves as Ahl-i'Hadis, or the people of the
traditions, or those who interpret the teaching
of the Quran by the example of Muhammad ;
but there can be but little doubt that the
religious principles of. the Wahhabis of India
are identical with those of the Wahhabis of
Arabia, although it does not follow that they
are imbued with exactly the same fanatical
spirit. It must, however, be remembered that
there is no separation between Church and
State in the principles of Islam, and that
Muhammadans only cease to be fanatical and
disloyal under foreign rule when they are
certain that opportunities for resistance do not
exist. In the fahvd (decision) given by a
number of learned doctors of Lucknow and
other places, dated 17th July 1870, it was
stated that " it is necessary that there should he
a probability of victory to the Musalmdns, and
glory to the ^people of Hindustan. If there be
no such probability, the Jihdd is unlaivful.^^ *
* Vide Hunter's Indian Musalmans, Appendix II. Dr.
Badger, in his article in the " Contemporary Eeview,"
June 1875, questions whether there is any real affinity
between the Wahhabyism of India and Najd, but we be-
lieve they are identical in princij)le and spirit.
THE WAHHABIS. 225
The Wahliabis speak of themselves as Mu-
tvahhid, or Unitarians, and call all others
MushriJc, or those who associate another with
God; and the following are some of their dis-
tinctive religious tenets : — -
1. They do not receive the decisions of the
four orthodox sects, but say that any man who
can read and understand the Quran and the
sacred Hadis can judge for himself in matters
of doctrine. They, therefore, reject Ijma' after
the death of the Companions of the Prophet.
2. That no one but God can know the
secrets of men, and that prayers should not be
offered to any Prophet, Wall, Pir, or Saint ;
but that God may be asked to grant a petition
for the sake of a saint.
3. That at the last day, Muhammad will
obtain permission (izn) of God to intercede for
his people. The Sunnis believe that permission
has already been given.
4. That it is unlawful to illuminate the
shrines of departed saints, or to prostrate before
them, or to perambulate (taiudf) roimd them.
5. That women should not be allowed to
visit the graves of the dead, on account of their
immoderate weeping.
15
226 THE WAHHABIS.
6. That only four festivals ouglit to be
observed, namely, 'Id - ul - Fitr, 'Id - ul - AzM,
'A'shiiraa, and Shab-i-Barat.
7. They do not observe the ceremonies of
Maulud, which are celebrated on the anniversary
of Muhammad's birth.
8. They do not present offerings (JSfazr) at
any shrine.
9. They count the ninety-nine names of Grod
on their fingers, and not on a rosary.
10. They understand the terms " sitting of
Grod," and '' hand of Grod," which occur in the
Quran, in their literal (Haqiqi) sense, and not
figuratively (Majdzi) ; but, at the same time,
they say it is not revealed hoiv Grod sits, or in
what sense he has a hand, etc.*
* On this account the Christian doctrines of the Trinity
and the Sonship of Christ do not present the same diffi-
culties to the mind of a Wahhabi which they do to that
of a Sunni.
227
XLIX.— SUFIISM, OR MYSTICISM.
The term Sufi is said to be derived from the
Arabic Silf, " wool," on account of tlie woollen
garments worn by the Eastern ascetics ; or
from the Persian Sdf, '' pure," with reference to
the Sufiistic effort to attain to metaphysical
purity; or from the Greek, ao4,ia, *' wisdom," i. e,
the true wisdom, or knowledge.
Tasaivivaf, or Sufiism, appears to be. but
the Muslim adaptation of the doctrines of the
Yedanta school, which we also find in the
writings of the old academies of Grreece, and
which Sir William Jones thought Plato learned
from the sages of the East.
The Sufis are divided into innumerable sects ;
but although they differ in name, and in some
of their customs, they are all agreed in the
principal tenets, especially those which incul-
cate the absolute necessity of blind submission
to an inspired teacher, or Murshid. They
15 A
228 suFiisM.
believe that God only exists. He is in all
things, and all things in Him, and all created
beings visible and invisible are an emanation
from God, and not really distinct from Him.
That the sonl of man existed before the body
in which it is confined as in a cage. The great
object of the Siifi being to escape from the
trammels of humanity, and to return to the
bosom of divinity, whilst the teachings of their
mystic creed are supposed to lead the soul
onward, stage by stage, until it reaches the
goal — perfect hioivledge.
The natural state of every Muslim is Ndsut,
in which state the disciple must observe the
precepts of the law, or Shari^at; but, as this
is the lowest form of spiritual existence, the
performance of the journey is enjoined upon
every searcher after Truth.
The following are the stages (Manzil) which
the Siifi has to perform. Having become a
searcher after God (Tcilih), he enters the first
stage of ' IJbudiyat, " service." When the Divine
attraction has developed his inclination into
the love of God, he is said to have reached
the second stage of ^Ishaq, "love." This Divine
love, expelling all worldly desires from his
suFiiSM. 229
heart, he arrives at the tHrd stage of Zudh,
*' seclusion." Occupying himself henceforward
with contemplation and the investigations of
the metaphysical theories concerning the nature,
attributes, and works of God, which are the
characteristics of the Siifi system, he reaches
the fourth stage of M'arifat, ''knowledge."
This assiduous contemplation of metaphysical
theories soon produces a state of mental ex-
citement, which is considered a sure prognos-
tication of direct illumination from Grod. This
fifth stage is called Wajd, "ecstasy." During the
next stage he is supposed to receive a revelation
of the true nature of the Grodhead, and to have
reached the sixth stage of Haqiqat, ''truth." The
next stage is that of Wasl, " union with Grod,"
which is the highest stage to which he can go
whilst in the body ; but when death overtakes
him, it is looked upon as a total re-absorption
into the Deity, forming the consummation of
his journey and the eighth and last stage of
Fand, " extinction." That stage in which the
traveller is said to have attained to the love
of Grod, is the point from which the Sufiistic
poets love to discuss the doctrines of their sect.
The Sdlik, or traveller, is the Lover ('A'shiq),
230 SUFIISM.
and God is the Beloved One (M'ashuq). This
Divine love is the theme of most of the Persian
and Pushtu poems, which abound in Sufiistic
expressions which are difficult of interpretation
to an ordinary English reader. For instance,
Shardh, "wine," expresses the domination of
Divine love in the heart. Gisit, *' a ringlet," the
details of the mysteries of Divinity. Mai
Khdna, "a tavern," a stage of the journey.
'* Mirth," ''wantonness," and "inebriation,"
signify religious enthusiasm and abstraction
from worldly things.
The eight stages which we have given are
those usually taught by Siifi teachers in their
published works ; but in North India we have
frequently met with persons of this sect, who
have learnt only the four following stages : —
The first, Ndsut, " humanity," for which there
is the Shari'at, or law. The second Malakut,
"the nature of angels," for which there is
Tariqat, or the pathway of purity. The third
is JahartU, " the possession of power," for which
there is Warifat, or knowledge. And the
fourth is LdMd, "extinction," for which there
is Haqiqat, or truth.
The Sufi mystic seeks, by concentration of
SUFIISM. 231
his thoughts and affections on God, to lose his
own identity ; and the following fable, related
by Jalal-iid-din, ' the author of the Masnawi,*
illustrates their views on the subject. It re-
presents Human Love seeking admission into
the Sanctuary of Divinity : —
" One knocked at the door of the Beloved,
and a voice from within inquired * Who is
there ? ' Then he answered, ' It is J.' And
the voice said, ' This house will not hold me
and thee.' So the door remained shut. Then
the Lover sped away into the wilderness, and
fasted and prayed in solitude. And after a
year he returned, and knocked again at the
door, and the voice again demanded, ' Who is
there?' And the Lover said, 'It is Thou'
Then the door was opened."
In Professor Max Miiller's address to the
Aryan section of the International Congress of
Orientalists assembled in London, in September,
1874, he said: — "We have learnt already one
lesson, that behind the helpless expressions
* The Masnawi is the celebrated book of the Siif i mys-
tics which, it is said, takes the place of the Quran amongst
the majority of people in Persia.
232 suFiiSM.
Avhicli language lias devised, wlietlier in tlie
East or the West, for uttering the unutterable
re * * there is the same intention, the same
striving, the same stammering, the same faith.
Other lessons will follow, till in the end we
shall be able to restore that ancient word which
unites not only the East with the West, but
with all the members of the human family,
and may learn to understand what a Persian
poet meant when he wrote many centuries
ago : — ' Diversity of worship has divided the
human race into seventy-two nations. From
all their dogmas I have selected one — the love
of God.' "
By ''the seventy-two^' (seventy- three ? )
nations," are doubtless meant the number of
sects into which Muhammad said Islam would
be divided; but the learned Professor surely
cannot be ignorant of the fact that the " love of
God'' selected by the Persian poet, as the
dogma par excellence, is the 'hhaq, or second
* Muhammad said that, as the Jews had been di-
vided into seventy-one sects, and the Christians into
seventy-two, the Mushms would be divided into seventy-
three, that is seventy-two in addition to the " orthodox,'"
or Ndjiah sect, each sect, of course, claiming to be Ndjiah.
suFiisM. 233
stage of the Sufiistic journey. Only those who
have conversed with Siifis on this mystical love
can well realize how impossible it is for the
Christian to reconcile that practical love of
Grod, which "gave His only begotten Son,"
and that practical love to Grod, which is shown
by keeping His commandments, with that mys-
tical love, or ^Isliaq, which is the subject of
Siifi divinity.
234
L.— FAQI'RS, OR DAEWESHES.
The Arabic word Faqir, signifies poor ; but it
is used in the sense of being in need of mercy,
and poor in tlie sight of God, rather than in
need of worldly assistance. Darivesh is derived
from the Persian dar, " a door," — those who beg
from door to door. The terms are generally
used for those who lead a religious life.
Eeligious Faqirs are divided into two great
classes, the ha Shara' (with the law), or those
who govern their conduct according to the
principles of Islam ; and the be Shara^ (without
the law), or those who do not rule their lives
according to the principles of any religious
creed, although they call themselves Musul-
mans. The former are called SdliJc, or travel-
lers on the pathway (tariqat) to heaven ; and
the latter are either A'zdd (free), or Majziib
(abstracted). The Sdlilc embrace the various
religious orders who perform the Zikrs de-
scribed in our next note. The Majzub are
EAQIES, OR DAEWTJSHES. 235
totally absorbed in religious reverie. The
A'zdd shave their beards, whiskers, moustachios,
eyebrows and eyelashes, and lead lives of
celibacy.
The A'zdd and Majzith Faqirs can scarcely
be said to be Muhammadans, so that a descrip-
tion of their various sects do not fall within
the limits of these notes. The Salik Faqirs
are also divided into very numerous orders;
but their chief difference consists in their
Silsilah, or chain of succession, from their
great teachers the Khalifas 'Ali, and Abu Bakr,
who are said to have been the founders of the
religious order of Faqirs. European writers
have distinguished the various orders by their
dress and their religious performances; but
we have not been able to find that these are
the distinguishing features of difference amongst
them.
The following are the chief orders which are
met with in North India : —
1. The Naqshbandia are followers of Khwa-
jah Pir Muhammad Naqshband, and are a very
numerous sect ; they usually perform the Zikr-
i-Khafi, or the silent religious devotion de-
scribed in the next chapter.
236 FAQIES, OE DAEWESHES.
2. The Qadiria sprung from the celebrated
Sayyid Abdul Qadir, smniamed Pir Dustagir,
whose shrine is at Bagdad. They practise both
the ZiJcr-i-Jalt, and the Zihr-i-Khafi. Most of
the Sunni Maulavis on the north-west frontier
of India are members of this order. In Egypt
it is most popular amongst fishermen.
3. The Chishtia are followers of Banda
Nawaz, surnamed the Gaysu dardz, or the long-
ringletted. His shrine is at Calburgah.
The Shia'hs generally become Faqirs of this
order. They are partial to vocal music, for
the founder of the order remarked, that singing
was the food and support of the soul. They
perform the Zihr-l-Jali, described in the next
article.
4. The Jalalia were founded by Sayyid
Jalal-ud-din, of Bokhara. They are met with in
Central Asia. Religious mendicants are often
of this order.
5. The Sarwardia are a popular order in
Afghanistan, and comprise a number of learned
men. They are the followers of Hasan Bisri,
of Basra, near Bagdad.
These are the most noted orders of ba Shara*
Faqirs. The he Shara' Faqirs are very nume-
FAQIES, OE DARWESHES.
237
rous. The most popular order is that of the
Muddria, founded by Zinda Shah Murdar, of
Syria, whose shrine is at Mukanpur, in Oudh.
From these have sprung the Malang Faqirs
who crowd the bazaars of India. They wear
their hair matted and tied in a knot. The
Rafia order is also a numerous one in some
parts of India. They practise the most severe
discipline, and mortify themselves by beating
their bodies.
D'Ohsson enumerates thirty- two of the prin-
cipal religious orders, giving the name of the
founder, and the place of his shrine.
No.
Name of the
Foimder.
Place of the
Date,
Order.
Foimder' s Shrine.
A.H.
1
Alwani
Shekh Alwan
Jeddah
149
2
Adhami
Ibrahim ibn Adham
Damascus
161
3
Bast ami
Bayazid Bastami
Jebel Bestami
261
4
Saqati
Sirri Siqati
Bagdad
295
5
Qadiri
Abdul-Qadir Jikini
Bagdad
561
6
Rufali
Syyid Ahmad Euf all
Bagdad
576
7
Sahrwardi
Shihab-ud-din
Bagdad
602
8
Kabrawi
Najm-ud-din
Khwaresm
617
9
Shazili
Abul Hasan
Mecca
656
10
Maulavi
Jalal-ud-dm Mulana
Conyah
672
11
Badawi
Abul Fitan Ahmad
Egypt
675
12
Naqshbandi
Pir Muhammad
Persia
719
13
S'adi
S'ad-ud-din
Damascus
736
14
Bakhtaslii
Haji Bakhtash
Kir Sher
736
15
Khilwati
'Umar Khilwati
Caisarea
800
16
Zaini
Zaiu-ud-dm
Cufa
838
17
Bahai
Abdul Ghani
Adrianople
870
18
B air ami
Haji B air am
Angora
876
19
Ashrafi
Ashraf Eumi
Chin Iznic
899
20
Bakri
Abu Bakr Wafai
Aleppo
902
238
FAQIRS, OE DARWESHES.
No.
Name of the
Order.
Founder.
Place of the
Founder's Shrine.
Date,
A.H.
21
Sunbuli
SunbulYustifBolawi
Constantinople
936
22
Ghulshani
rbrahim Glinlsliani
Cairo
910
23
Yijit Bashf
Shams-ud-dfn
Magnesia
951
24
Umm Sunani
Shekh Umm Siman
Constantinople
959
25
Jalwati
Pir Uftadi
Bursah
988
26
'Ushaqi
Hasan-ud-dm
Constantinople
1001
27
Sliamsi
Shams-ud-dm
Madina
1010
28
Sinan Ummi
'Alim Sinan Ummi
Elmahli
1079
29
Niyazi
Muhammad Niyaz
Lemnos
1100
30
Mas'adi
Murad Shami
Constantinople
1132
31
Nuruddini
Nur-ud-din
Constantinople
1146
32
Jamali
Jamal-ud-dm '
Constantinople
1164
We insert tlie above list on the authority of
M. D'Ohsson; but we have not had an oppor-
tunity of testing the correctness of its infor-
ma^tion.
The order of Maulavis is the most popular
religious order in Constantinople. They are
called by Europeans the dancing, or whirling
darveshes, and their religious performances
constitute one of the public sights in Con-
stantinople. They have service at their Tahiyn,
or convent, every Wednesday, and at Kasim
Pasha every Sunday, at 2 o'clock. There
are about twenty performers, with high round
felt caps and brown mantles. At a given
signal they all fall flat on their faces, and rise
and walk slowly round and round with their
FAQIES, OR DARWESHES. 239
arms folded, bowing and turning slowly several
times. They then cast off their mantles and
appear in long bell -shaped petticoats and
jackets, and then begin to spin, revolving,
dancing, and turning with extraordinary
velocity.
The founder of this religious order was a
native of Balkh, in Central Asia. It is said the
spiritual powers of this extraordinary man were
developed at the early age of six years; for
once on a Friday Jalad-ud-din was at Balkh on
the roof of a house with some children of his
own age, when one of the boys asked him if it
were possible for him to jump from one house
to the other. He replied, " If you have faith,
jump up towards heaven." He then sprang
upwards, and was immediately lost to sight.
The youths all cried out as he disappeared, but
he soon returned from the celestial regfions,
greatly altered in complexion and changed in
figure ; for he had obtained a sight of the
abodes of bliss !
It is impossible to become acquainted with
all the rules and ceremonies of the numerous
orders of Faqirs ; for, like those of the Free-
240 FAQIES, OE DAEWESHES.
masons, they may not be divulged to the un-
initiated.
The following is said to be the usual method
of admitting a Muhammadan to the order of a
ha Shara^ Faqir. Having first performed the
legal ablutions, the Murid (disciple) seats him-
self before the Murshid (spiritual guide). The
Murshid then takes the Murid's right hand,
and requires of him a confession of sin ac-
cording to the following form : "I ask for-
giveness of the great Grod than Whom there
is no other deity, the Eternal, the Everlasting,
the Living One : I turn to Him for repentance,
and beg His grace and forgiveness." This, or
a similar form of repentance, is repeated several
times. The Murid then repeats after the
Murshid : — "I beg for the favour of God and of
the Prophet, and I take for my guide to God
(here naming the Murshid) not to change or to
separate. God is our witness. By the great
God. There is no deity but God. Amin."
The Murshid and the Murid then recite the
first chapter of the Quran, and the Murid con-
cludes the ceremony by kissing the Murshid' s
hand.
FAQIRS, OE DARWESHES. 241
After the initiatory rite, the Murid undergoes
a series of instructions, including the Zihrs,
which he is required to repeat daily. The
Murid frequently visits his Murshid, and some-
times the Murshids proceed on a circuit of
visitation to their disciples. The place where
these " holy men " sit down to instruct the
people is ever afterwards held sacred, a small
flag is hoisted on a tree, and it is fenced in.
Such places are called " Tahiya,'' and are pro-
tected and kept free from pollution by some
Faqir engaged for the purpose.
Those Faqirs who attain to a high degree of
sanctity are called Wcdis, the highest rank of
which is that of a Ghaus, Of such is the
Akhund of Swat, on the north-west frontier of
India. This celebrated religious leader at the
age of eighteen became a member of the Qadiria
order of Faqirs ; and shortly after his incor-
poration, he settled down on a small island in
the river Indus near Attock, where he lived the
life of a recluse for twelve years. During this
time, it is said, his only diet was the wild-grass
seed and buffalo's milk. He soon -acquired a
reputation for sanctity, and has gradually
become the great religious leader of Central
16
242 FAQIRS, OR DARWESHES.
Asia. He now resides at the village of Seydu
in Swat, where lie entertains as many as a
thousand visitors daily ; men from all parts of
the Muslim world, who come to hear his wisdom
and receive the benefit of his prayers. The
Akhund has always been a great opponent of
Wahhabi doctrines; and, although he is not
well-read in Muslim divinity, his fatwds on re-
ligious ceremonies and secular observances are
received and obeyed by all the Sunni Muham-
madans of the north-west frontier of British
India.*
* An account of the Muhammadan darweshes lias been
written by Mr. J. P. Brown, Secretary of the United States
Legation at Constantinople. Triibner & Co., London.
243
LI.— ZIKR, OR THE RELIGIOUS SER-
VICES OF THE DARWESHES.
ZiKE is tlie religious ceremony, or act of
devotion, wliicli is practised by tlie various
religious orders of Eaqirs, or Darweslies.
Almost every religious Muhammadan is a
member of some order of Faqirs, and, con-
sequently, tlie performance of zilcr is very
common in all Muliammadan countries ; but it
does not appear tliat any one method of per-
forming tlie religious service of zikr^ is peculiar
to any particular order.
Zihrs, are of two kinds, zihr-i-jali, that
which is recited aloud, and zihr-i-Jchafi, that
which is performed either with a low voice, or
mentally.
The Naqshbandia order of Faqirs usually
perform the latter, whilst the Chishtia and
Qadiria orders celebrate the former. There
are various ways of going through the exercise,
16 A
244 ziKR.
but the main features of eacli are similar in
character. The following is a zikr-i-jali as
given in the book Qual-ul-Jamil, by Maulavi
Shah Wall Ullah, of Delhi :—
1. The worshipper sits in the usual sitting
posture and shouts the word Al-lah (G-od),
drawing his voice from his left side and then
from his throat.
2. Sitting as at prayers he repeats the word
Al-lah still louder than before, first from his
right knee, and then from his left side.
3. Folding his legs under him he repeats
the word Al-lah first from his right knee and
then from his left side, still louder !
4. Still remaining in the same position, he
shouts the word Al-lah, first from the left knee
then from the right knee, then from the left
side, and lastly in front, still louder !
5. Sitting as at prayer, with his face towards
Mecca, he closes his eyes, says " La " — drawing
the sound as from his navel up to his left
shoulder; then he says i-ld-ha, drawing out
the sound as from his brain; and lastly
"il-lal-ld-ho,'' repeated from his left side with
great energy.
Each of these stages is called a Zarb. They
ziKB. 245
are, of course, recited many hundreds of times
over, and tlie changes we have described
account for the variations of sound and motion
of the body described by Eastern travellers who
have witnessed the performance of a zikr.
The following is a zihr-i-Jchafi, or that
which is performed in either a low voice, or
mentally.
1. Closing his eyes and lips, he says, ''with
the tongue of the heart,"
Al'la-Jio-sami'un, " God the hearer."
Al-la-ho-basiviriin, '' God the seer."
Al-la-ho-^ aliimm, " God the knower."
The first being drawn, as it were, from the
navel to the breast; the second, from the
breast to the brain ; the third, from the brain
up to the heavens ; and then again repeated
stage by stage backwards and forwards.
2. He says in a low voice, " Allah,' ^ from
the right knee, and then from the left side.
3. With each exhalation of his breath, he
says, " Id-ildha,'' and with each inhalation,
'' il-lal-ld-ho.''
This third zarh is a most exhausting act of
devotion, performed, as it is, hundreds or even
246 ziKR.
thousands of times, and is, therefore, considered
the most meritorious.
It is related that Maulavi Habib Ullah, now
living in the village of Gabasanri, in the Gradiin
country, on the Peshawur frontier, has become
such an adept in the performance of this zarh,
that he recites the first part of the zikr-ld-Udha
with the exhalation of his breath after the mid-
day prayer ; and the second part, il-lal-ld-ho,
with the inhalation of his breath before the
next time of prayer, thus sustaining his breath
for the period of about three hours !
Another act of devotion, which usually ac-
companies the zihr, is that of Muvdqaha, or
meditation.
The worshipper first performs zihr of the
following : —
Allaho-hdzari, '' God the present one."
AUaho-ndzari, '' God the seer."
AllahO'sJidhidi, " God who witnesses."
AUaho-mai, " God who is with us."
Having recited this zikr, either aloud or
mentally, the worshipper proceeds to meditate
upon some verse or verses of the Quran. Those
recommended for the Qadiria Faqirs by Maulavi
ziKE. 247
Shab Wall Ullali are tlie following, which we
give as indicating the line of thought which is
considered most devotional and spiritual by
Muslim mystics : —
1. Surat-ul-Hadid (Ivii.), 3.
"He (God) is first. He is last. The Manifest, and
the Hidden, and who knoweth all things."
2. Surat-ul-Hadid (Ivii.), 4.
"He (God) is with you wheresoever ye be."
3. Surat-ul-Qaf (L), 16.
"We (God) are closer to him (man) than his neck
vein."
4. Surat-ul-Baqr (ii.), 109.
" Whichever way ye turn, there is the face of God."
5. Surat-un-Nisa (iv.), 125.
" God encompasseth all things."
i, 6. Surat-ur-Rahman (Iv.), 7.
" All on earth shall pass away, but the face of thy God
shall abide resplendent with majesty and glory."
Some teachers tell their disciples that the
heart has two doors, that which is fleshly, and
that which is spiritual; and that the ziJcr-i-
jali has been established for the opening of the
former, and zihr-i-khafi for the latter, in order
that they may both be enlightened.
There certainly must be something invigora-
248 ziKR.
ting in the exercise of a zikr-i-jali to a religions
devotee, who seldom stirs ont of his mosqne ;
and we have often been told by Mania vis, that
they find the performance of a zthr keeps evil
thoughts from the mind; bnt as some of the
most devoted zdkirs (i. e. those who perform
the zihr) are amongst the most immoral men,
the religions exercise does not appear to have
any lasting effect on the moral character.
As a cnrions instance of the superstitious
character of this devotional exercise, the Chishtia
order believe that if a man sits cross-legged
and seizes the vein called KaimcLi, which is
under the leg, with his toes, that it will give
peace to his heart, when accompanied by a zikr
of the '' nafi ishdt,'' which is a term used for
the first part of the Kalimah, which forms the
usual zihr, namely : —
Ld'ildha-il-laUlaho, " There is no deity but
God."
The most common form of ziJcr is a recital
of the ninety-nine names of God ; for Muham-
mad promised those of his followers who recited
them, a sure entrance to Paradise.*
* Vide Mishkat, bk. cxi.
ziKR. 249
To facilitate this repetition, the zdhir uses a
Tashih, or rosary, of ninety-nine beads. The
Wahhabis, however, do not use this invention,
but count on their fingers. The introduction
of the rosary amongst Roman Catholics is
generally ascribed to Dominic, the founder of
the Black Friars (a.d. 1221).; but Dean Hook
says it was in use in theyear 1100 ; it is, there-
fore, not improbable that the Crusaders bor-
rowed it from their Muslim opponents ; and it
is thought that the Muhammadans received it
from the Buddhists.
There are several lists of the supposed
ninety-nine names * of God ; . but the following
is given by Muslim and Bokhari in their col-
lections of traditions : —
1. Hahman
. The Compassionate.
2.. Rahim .
. The Merciful.
3. Malik .
. The King.
4. Quddus
. The Holy One.
5. Salam .
. The Peace.
6. Momin .
. . The Faithful.
7. Mohymin
. The Protector.
* Surat-al-Araf (vii.), 179 : "Most excellent titles hath
G-od by these, call ye uj^on him."
250
ZIKR.
8. 'Aziz .
9. Jabbar .
10. Mutakabbir
11. KMliq.
12. Bari .
13. Musawwir
14. Ghafar.
.15. QaliMr.
.16. WahMb
17. Eazzaq,
18. Fattali .
19. ^Alim .
20. Qabiz .
21. Basit .
22. Khafiz .
23. Rafi .
24. Mu'iz .
25. Muzil .
26. Sami' .
27. Basir .
28. Hakam.
29. 'Adl .
30. Latif .
31. Khabir.
32. Halim .
The Incomparable
The Benefactor.
The Mighty Doer.
The Creator.
The Maker.
The Former.
The Pardoner.
The Powerful.
The Giver.
The Bestower of
Daily Bread.
The Opener.
The Omniscient.
The Res trainer.
The Expander.
The Depressor.
The Exalter.
The. Strengthener..
The Lowerer.
The Hearer.
The Seer.
The Judge.
The Just.
The Benignant.
The Knower.
The Clement.
ZIKR.
251
33. 'Azim
34. Ghafur
35. Shakur,
36. 'All
37. Kabir
38. Hafiz
39. Muqit
40. Hasib
41. Jalil
42. Karim
43. Raqib
44. Mujib
45. Wasi'
46. Hakim
47. Wadiid
48. Majid
49. Bais
50. Slialiid
51. Haqq
52. Wakil
53. Qawwi
54. Matin
55. Wall
56. Hamid-
Tlie Great.
The Great Pardoner.
The Rewarder.
The Most High.
The Great Lord.
The Guardian.
The Giver of Strength.
The Reckoner.
The Glorious.
The Munificent.
The Watcher.
The Approver of
Supplications.
The Expander.
The Physician.
The All-Loving.
The Glorious.
The Awakener.
The Witness.
The True.
The Provider.
The Powerful.
The Firm.
The Friend.
The One to be
Praised.
252
ZIKR.
57. Mulisi .
58. Mubdi .
59. Mu'id .
60. Moliji .
61. Mumit .
62. Hai .
63. Qaiyyiim
64. Wajid .
65. Majid .
66. "Wahid .
67. Samad .
68. Qadir .
69. Muqtadir
70. Muqaddim
71. Muwakhkhir
72. Awwal .
73. Akliir .
74. Zahir .
75. Batin .
76. Wall .
77. Muta'a.
78. Barr .
79. Tawwab
80. Muntaqim
81. AM .
82. Rauf .
The Counter.
. The Cause.
. The Restorer.
. The Life-giver.
. . The Death-giver.
. The Living.
. The Self-subsisting.
. The Finder.
. The G-rand.
. The Unique.
. . The Perpetual.
. . The Powerful.
. The Prevailing.
The Bringer before.
. . The Bringer after.
. , The First.
. The Last.
. The Evident.
. The Hidden.
The Governor.
. The Sublime.
. The Doer of Good.
The Propitious.
The Avenger.
The Eraser.
. The Benefiter.
ZIKE.
253
83. Malik-ul-Mulk . The King of King-
doms.
84. Zuljalal-wal-Ikram The Lord of Grlorj
and Honour.
85. Muksit.
86. Jami' .
87. G-hani .
88. Mughani
89. Muti .
90. Mani' .
91. Zarr .
92. Mfi' .
93. Niir .
94. Hadi .
95. Badia' .
96. Baqi .
97. Waris .
98. Rashid .
99. Sabur .
The Equitable.
The Assembler.
The Eich.
The Enricher.
The Giver.
The Withholder.
The Afflicter.
The Benefactor.
The Light.
The Guide.
The Incomparable.
The Eternal.
The Inheritor.
The Director.
The Patient.
The list either begins or closes with the
peculiar designation of God, Allah, making
the complete number of one hundred names
for the Deity.
The following names occur in other works
which we have consulted, and are sometimes
used in place of some of those in the list
254 ziKE.
already given : — Azali, the Eternal ; Abadi,
the Everlasting ; Maula, the Lord ; Ahad,
the only One; Mim^em, the Giver of Blessing;
Sddiq, the Righteons One; Sattdr, the Con-
cealer of Sins ; Babh, the Lord.
In the recital of these words the prefix and
inflexion are nsed thus, Ar-Eahimo ! Al-Maliko!
As-Sami'o ! etc. Many of the titles will ap-
pear to the English reader to be synonymous,
but Muslim theologians discover in them
shades of difference. It will be observed that
the titles are not arranged in philosophical
order.
In addition to the forms of zikr already
mentioned there are four others which are even
of more common use, and are known as TasMh,
Tahmid, TaJilil, and TaJcbw, They are used as
exclamations of joy and surprise, as well as for
the devotional exercise of dhr,
Tasbih is the expression Subhdn - Allah !
" Holiness be to God ! "
Tahmid. Alhamdo-Lilla ! " Praise be to
God ! "
Tahlil. Ld-iUla-ha-il'lal'ld-ho I '' There is
no deity but God ! "
TaWir, AUaho-AJcbar ! " God is great ! ''
ziKE. 255
Muhammad said, "Repeat the Tasbih a
hundred times, and a thousand virtues shall be
recorded by God for you, ten virtuous deeds
for each repetition."
When the Tasbih and Tahmid are recited
together it is said thus, SubMn-Allah loa
Bihamdihi, i. e., " Holiness be to God with His
praise." It is related in the Hadis that Mu-
hammad said, " Whoever recites this sentence a
hundred times, morning and evening, will have
all his sins forgiven."
In forming our estimation of Muhammad and
Muhammadanism we must take into con-
sideration the important place the devotional
exercise of zikr occupies in the system, not for-
getting that it has had the authoritative
sanction of " the Prophet " himself.
256
LII.— THE LORD JESUS CHRIST.
In the Quran our blessed Lord is spoken of
as 'Isa (Jesus), and Masih (the Messiah). He
is also called Kalima,* the Word (of God) ;
Qaul-ul'Haqq,f the Word of Truth ; and Bith,
the Spirit (of God) ; Etih- Ullah, the Spirit of
God, being the special title, or Kalima,
whereby Jesus is distinguished from the other
great prophets. He is one "illustrious in this
Avorld and in the next," and " who has near
access to God. "J He is " GocFs Apostle to
confirm the law, and to announce an apostle
that should come after, whose name shall be
* Surat-un-Nisa (iv.), 169.
t Surat-Til-Maryam (xix.), 35. The passage is trans-
lated by Eodwell, as well as by Persian commentators,
" this is a statement of the truth " ; but according to
Bezawi, the words Qaul-ul-Haqq may be taken as a title of
Jesus Christ, i. e. the Word of Truth.
X Surat-i-Al-i-'Imran (iii.), 40.
THE LORD JESoS CHRIST. 257
Ahmad.'* ^ He is said to have been born of
Mary, the sister of Aaron, and the daughter of
'Imran, near the trunk of a palm tree ; to
have spoken in his cradle, and to have per-
formed many miracles during his infancy ; to
have cured the blind and the leper ; to have
chosen apostles, and to have caused a table to
descend from heaven, both as '' a festival and
a sign for them." The Jews are said to have
been deceived by God, and to have crucified
another person instead of Jesus, who was
taken up into heaven, where he remains with
his mother in a lofty and quiet place, watered
with springs, until he shall come again in the
last day to convert the whole world to Islam !
The rambling incoherent account of our
blessed Lord's life, as given in the Quran,
would far exceed the limits of these " Notes " ;
but it will be found upon reference to the
following Siiras, or chapters : —
An account of the birth of the Virgin Mary.
— Siira iii. 33-37, 42-44.
Birth of Jesus announced to the Virgin
Mary.— Siira ih. 45-48 ; xix. 16-21.
* Surat-us-Saf (Ixi.), 6.
17
258 THE LORD JESUS CHEIST.
The birth of Jesus.— Siira xix. 22-28.
The miracles of the Infancy. — Siira xix.
29-32 ; iii. 48 ; v. 119.
His prophetical mission. — Siira v. 87 ; xxxiii.
7 ; xliii. 56-63 ; Ixi. 6.
His choice of apostles. — Siira iii. 51-52 ; Ixi.
14.
The Lord's table.— Siira y. 121-124.
His crucifixion. — Siira iii. 53-54 ; iv. 156-
158; V. 119; xix. 32; iii. 54.
His assumption mth the Yirgin Mary into
Paradise. — Siira xxiii. 52.
His second Advent. — Siira xliii. 59.
He must render an account of himself to
God.— Siira xxiii. I.S; v. 118-119, 125, 127;
iv. 158.
There is a remarkable Hadis related by Anas,
which inadvertently proves that, whilst Muham-
mad admitted his own sinfulness, as well as
that of other prophets, he could not charge
our Lord with sin. It is as follows : — *' The
Prophet of God said, ' In the day of resurrection
Musalmans will not be able to move, and they
will be greatly distressed, and will say, " Would
to God that we had asked Him to create some-
one to intercede for us, that we might be taken
THE LORD JESUS CHRIST. 259
from this place, and be delivered from tribula-
tion and sorrow?" Then these men will go
to Adam, and will say, " Thou art the father of
all men, God created thee with His hand, and
made thee a dweller in Paradise, and ordered
His angels to prostrate themselves before thee,
and taught thee the names of all things. Ask
grace for us we pray thee ! " And Adam will
say, '' I am not of that degree of eminence you
suppose, for I committed a sin in eating of the
tree which was forbidden. Gro to Noah, the
Prophet, he was the first who was sent by God
to the unbelievers on the face of the earth."
Then they will go to Noah and ask for inter-
cession, and he will say, " I am not of that
degree which ye suppose." And he will re-
member the sin which he committed in asking
the Lord for the deliverance of his son (Hud),
not knowing whether it was a right request or
not ; and he will say, "Go to Abraham, who
is the Friend of God." Then they will go to
Abraham, and he will say, " I am not of that
degree which ye suppose." And he will re-
member the three occasions upon which he told
lies in the world; and he will say, ''Go to
Moses, who is the servant to whom God gave
17 A
260 THE LORD JESUS CHRIST.
His law, and whom He allowed to converse
with Him." And tliey will go to Moses, and
Moses will say, '* I am not of that degree which
ye suppose." And he will remember the sin
which he committed in slaying a man, and he
will say, " Gro to Jesns, He is the servant of
God, the Apostle of God, the Spirit of God,
and the Word of God." Then they will go to
Jesus, and He will say, '' Go to Muhammad
who is a servant, whose sins God has forgiven
both first and last." Then the Musalmans
will come to me, and I will ask permission to
go into God's presence and intercede for
them.' " (Vide Mishkat, bk. xxiii. chap, xii.)
261
LIII.— THE CRUCIFIXION OF OUR
SAYIOUR.
The following are the verses in tlie Qnran
which allude to our blessed Lord's crucifixion :
Surat-un-Nisa (iv.), 157 : —
" And for their saying {ive have cursed them),
' Verily we have slain the Messiah, Jesus the
son of Mary, and Apostle of God.' Yet they
slew him not, and they crucified him not; but
they had only his likeness. And they who
differed about him were in doubt concerning
him ; no sure knowledge had they about him,
but followed only an opinion, and they did not
really slay him, but God took him up to
Himself."
Surat-ul-Maida (v.), 19 :—
*' They are in&dels who say, ' Verily God is
the Messiah, the son of Mary.' Say : And who
could obtain anything from God to the con-
trary if he chose to destroy the Messiah, the
262 THE CEUCIFIXION OF OUR SAVIOUR.
son of Mary, and his mother, and the whole
world also.'*
Surat-i-Al-i-Imran (iii.), 47, 48 :—
** The Jews plotted and God plotted : but of
those who plot is God the best. Remember
when God said, ' 0 Jesus ! verily I will cause
thee to die, and will take thee up to myself and
deliver thee from those who believe not ; and
I will place those who follow thee above those
who believe not until the day of resurrection.
Then to me is your return, and wherein ye
differ will I decide between you.' "
Whilst all Muslim commentators are agreed
as to the literal interpretation of these passages,
there is some difference as to the person cru-
cified in Christ's stead.
1. In the Tafsir-i-Bezawi it is said that
Christ asked one of his disciples to take his
place.
2. In the Tafsir-i-Mazhari, that God took
Christ in his human bodv to heaven alive.
3. In the Tafsir-i-Baghwl, that God trans-
formed Christ's appearance to one of his
enemies, a spy, who was thus crucified in his
stead by mistake.
4. In the Tafsir-i-Kalbi, that Titdnus was
THE CRUCIFIXION OF OUR SAVIOUR. 263
crucified, Grod having transferred Christ's
appearance to that person.
5. In the Tafsir-i-Kamalain that Christ was
dead seven hours, then restored to life and
taken to heaven.
Tt will be seen that these commentators have
adopted the errors of the Basilidians, and other
heretics, with reference to our Lord's cruci-
fixion ; for Irenseus says that the Basilidians
held that Simon of Cyrene was crucified instead
of Christ.
The " Cross of Christ" is the missing link in
the Muslim's creed; for we have already al-
luded to the great anomaly of a religion which
rejects the doctrine of a sacrifice for sin,
whilst its great central feast is a Feast of
Sacrifice,
It is related by the Muslim historian Waqidi,
that Muhammad had such repugnance to the
sign of the cross, that he destroyed everything
brought to his house with that figure upon it.
264
LIV.— THE DIVINITY OF CHRIST, AND
THE HOLY TRINITY.
The following are the allusions to tlie Holy
Trinity and the Sonship of Christ in the
Quran : —
Surat-un-Nisa (iv.), 169 : —
"0 ye people of the Book ! overstep not
bounds in your religion, and of God speak only
truth. The Messiah Jesus, son of Mary, is
only an Apostle of God, and his Word which
he conveyed into Mary, and a Spirit proceeding
from himself. Believe, therefore, in God and
his apostles, and say not there is a Trinity (lit.
''three"). Forbear, it will be better for you.
God is only one God ! Far be it from His
glory that He should have a son * * * *
The Messiah disdaineth not to be a servant of
God."
Surat-ul-Maida (v.), 79 : —
*' The Messiah, the son of Mary, is but an
THE DIVINITY OF CHRIST. 265
apostle; other apostles have flourished before
him, and his mother was a just person ; they
both ate food."
Yerse 116 of the same Siira : —
" 0 Jesus, son of Mary, hast thou said unto
mankind, ' Take me and my mother as two
Gods beside Ood?'"
From the above verses it appears that
Muhammad thought the Holy Trinity of the
Christians consisted of the Father, the Son,
and the Virgin ; and historians tell us that there
existed in Arabia a sect called Collyridians,
who considered the Virgin Mary a divine
person, and offered in worship to her a cake
called Collyris ; it is, therefore, not improbable
that Muhammad obtained his perverted notion
of the Holy Trinity from the existence of this
sect. From the expression "they both ate
food," we must conclude that Muhammad had
but a sensuous idea of the Trinity in Unity,
and had never been instructed in the orthodox
faith with reference to this dogma.
In dealing with Muhammadans the Christian
missionary must not treat their system as
though the views of Islam were precisely those
266 THE DIVINITY OF CHRIST.
of modern Socinians.* Islam admits the mi-
raculous conception of Christ, and that he is
the ''Word'' which God *' conveyed into
Mary ; " and whilst the other five great pro-
phets are but "the chosen," ''the preacher,"
*'the friend," "the converser with," and "the
messenger " of Grod, Jesus is admitted to be the
" Spirit of God.'' He is the greatest miracle
worker of all the prophets, and whilst Muham-
mad is dead and buried, and saw corruption, all
Muslim divines admit that Jesus " saw no cor-
ruption," and still lives with a human body
in Paradise.
Moreover, it is said in the Hadis that the
Nur-i'Muhammad, the light of Muhammad,
was created before all things which were made
by God. The pre-existence of the divine
"Word which was made flesh and dwelt
amongst us " is not, therefore, an idea foreign
to the Muslim mind.
* We speak of the views of modern Socinians, for we
are aware that both the Socini, uncle and nephew, ad-
mitted the miraculous conception of Christ, and said that
He ought to be worshipped.
267
LY. — TAHRI'F, OR THE ALLEGED
CORRUPTION^ OF THE SACRED
BOOKS BY THE JEWS AND
CHRISTIANS.
Tahpj'f is' tlie word used by Muliammadan
writers to express tlie corruption of the sacred
Scriptures of the Jews and Christians, as as-
serted in the Quran.
Imam Fakhar-ud-din Razi, in his commen-
tary, explains " Tahrif^^ to mean, to change,
alter, or turn aside anything from the truth.
Muslim divines say there are two kinds of
Tahrif, namely, Tahrif-i-M^ anaivi, a corruption
of the meaning ; and Tahrif -i-Lafzi, a corrup-
tion of the words.
Muhammadan controversialists, when they
become acquainted with the nature of the
contents of our sacred books, and of the im-
possibility of reconciling the contents of the
Quran with those of the sacred Scriptures,
268 TAHRIF.
charge tlie Christians with the Tahrif-i-Lafzi.
They say the Christians have expunged the
word Ahmad from the prophecies, and have
inserted the expression '' Son of God," and the
story of the crucifixion, death, and resurrection
of our blessed Lord. This view, however, is
not the one held by the most celebrated of the
Muslim commentators.
Imam Muhammad Ismail Bokhari,* records
that Ibn 'Abbas said that " the word Tahrif
(corruption) signifies to change a thing from
its original nature ; and that there is no man
who could corrupt a single word of what pro-
ceeded from God, so that the Jews and Chris-
tians could corrupt only by misrepresenting the
meaning of the words of God."
Ibn-i-Mazar and Ibn Abi Hatim state, in the
commentary known as the Tafsir Durr-i-Mansur,
that they have it on the authority of Ibn-i-
Munia, that the Taurdt {i. e. the books of
Moses), and the Injil {i. e. the Gospels), are in
the same state of purity in which they were
* Vide Hadis-i-Sahih-Bokhari, edition printed at the
Matba' Ahmadi Meerut, a.h. 1284 (a.d. 1867), p. 1127,
line 7.
TAHRIF. 269
sent down from heaven, and that no alterations
had been made in them, but that the Jews
were wont to deceive the people by unsound
arguments, and by wresting the sense of
Scripture.
Shah Wall Ullah, in his commentary, the
Fauz-ul'Kahir, and also Ibn 'Abbas, support
the same view.
This appears to be the correct interpretation
of the various verses of the Quran charging the
Jews with having corrupted the meaning of
the sacred Scriptures.
For example, Surat-i-Al-i-Imram (iii.), 78 :
" There are certainly some of them who read
the Scriptures perversely, that ye may think
what they read to be really in the Scriptures,
yet it is not in the Scriptures ; and they say
this is from Grod, but it is not from Grod ; and
they speak that which is false concerning Grod
against their own knowledge."
Imam Fakhar-ud-din, in his commentary on
this verse, and many others of the same cha-
racter which occur in the Quran, says it refers
to a TaliTif-i-M^ anaivi, and that it does not
mean that the Jews altered the text, but
270 TAHRIF.
merely that tliey made alterations in tlie course
of reading.
But whilst all the old commentators, who
most probaby had never seen a copj of the
sacred Books of the Jews and Christians, only
charge us with a Tahrif-i-]\r auaiui, all modern
controversialists amongst the Muhammadans
contend for a Tahrif-i-Lafzi, as being the only
solution of the difficulty.
In dealing with such opponents, the Christian
divine will avail himself of the following argu-
ments : —
1. The Quran does not charge the Jews and
Christians with corrupting the text of their
sacred books ; and all the learned Muslim com-
mentators admit that such is not the case.
2. The Quran asserts that the Holy Scrip-
tures of the Jews and Christians existed in the
days of Muhammad, who invariably speaks of
them with reverence and respect.
3. There now exist manuscripts of the Old
and New Testaments of an earlier date than
that of Muhammad (a.d. 610-632).
4. There are versions of the Old and New
Testament now extant, which existed before
TAHEIF. 271
Muhammad ; for example, the Septuagint, tlie
Latiii Yulgate, tlie Syriac, the Coptic, and the
Armenian versions.
5. The Hexapla, or Octapla of Origen, which
dates four centuries before Muhammad, gives
various versions of the Old Testament Scrip-
tures in parallel columns.
6. The Syrian Christians of St. Thomas,* of
Malabar and Travancore, in the south of
India, who were separated from the western
world for centuries, possess the same Scrip-
tures.
7. In the works of Justin Martyr, who lived
from A.D. 103 to 167, there are numerous quo-
tations from our sacred books, which prove that
they were exactly the same as those we have
now. The same may be said of other early
Christian writers.
Muhammadan controversialists of the present
day urge that the numerous readings which
exist in the Christian books are a proof that
they have been corrupted. But these do not
* That Christians existed in India at a very early period
is plain from the fact that a Bishop of India signed his
name at the Council of Nice, a.d. 325.
272 TAHRIF.
affect, in tlie least, the main points at issue
between tlie Christian and the Muslim. The
Divine Sonship of Christ, the Fatherhood of
Grod, the Crucifixion, Death, and Resurrection
of Christ, and the Atonement, are all clearly
stated in almost every book of the New
Testament, whilst they are rejected by the
Quran.
The most plausible of modern objections
urged by Muslim divines is, that the Christians
have lost the Injil which was sent down from
heaven to Jesus ; and that the New Testament
contains merely the Hadis, or Sunna — the tra-
ditions handed down by Matthew, Mark, Luke,
John, Paul, and others. It is, of course, a
mere assertion, unsupported by any proof ;
but it appears to be a line of argument which
commends itself to Sayyid Ahmad Khan, C.S.I.,*
and also to Ameer 'Ali Maulavi, M.A., LL.B. f
The latter professes to be a Muhammadan
* Vide The Muhammadan Commentaries on the Holy
Bible, Part I., by Sjud Ahmad Khan, C.S.I. Ghazeepore,
1862.
t Vide The Life and Teachings of Muhammad, by Syud
Ameer Ali Moulvie, M.A., LL.B., of the Inner Temple,
Barrister-at-Law. London, 1873.
TAHRIF. 273
rationalist ; but as Islam is a system of the
most positive dogma, it does not admit either
of rationalism, or '' free thought." Sayyid
Ahmad and Ameer 'Ali no more represent the
Muhammadanism of the Quran and the Tra-
ditions, than the opinions of Mr. Yoysey
represent the teaching of orthodox Chris-
tianity.
'' Islamism is in itself stationary, and was
framed thus to remain ; sterile, like its Grod,
lifeless like its first principle in all that con-
stitutes life — for life is love, participation, and
progress, and of these the Coranic deity has
none. It justly repudiates all change, all de-
velopment. To borrow the forcible words of
Lord Houghton, the written book is there
the dead man's hand, stiff and motionless ;
whatever savours of vitality is by that alone
convicted of heresy and defection." *
* Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. 372.
18
INDEX
OF
TECHNICAL TERMS.
A.
'Abid, 158.
Abu-Daiid, 56.
Ahadis, 12.
Ahl-i-Kitab, 11.
Akhiri Chahar Shambah,
167.
Alfaz, 31.
'Alim, 157.
Al-kitab, 15.
Allah, Q7.
'Amm, 31, 64.
Ansar, 24, 62.
'Aqaid, 161.
Arb'aa-ul-Akhir, 167.
'Asar, 114.
Ashab, 62.
'Ashiq, 229.
'Ashura'a, 163.
'Ashur-Kiana, 164.
Attahiyat, 110.
'Auzobillah, 107.
Ayat, 28.
Ayyam-ul-Tashriq, 135.
Azad, 234.
AzAn, 105, 116.
Azrail, 79.
B.
Bahisht, 91.
Bait-TJllah, 133.
Baqr-i-'Id, 173.
Bara-Wafat, 168.
Ba Shara', 234.
Be Shara', 234.
Bint-i-Labun, 126.
Bint-i-Mukhaz, 126.
Bokhari, 58.
18 A
276
INDEX.
Chast, 114.
Chishtia, 236.
D.
Dabbat-ul-Arz, 88,
Dajjal, 88.
Dalalat, 35.
Darud, 111.
Dar-ul-Harb, 207.
Dar-ul-Islam, 207.
Dar-ul-Qarar, 92.
Dar-us-Salam, 91.
Darwesli, 234.
Diat, 142.
Digar, 114.
Dm, 11.
Dirham, 127.
Dozakh, 96.
Dua', 32, 111.
P.
Fana, 229.
Faqih, 157.
Faqfr, 158, 234.
Farz, 112, 137.
Farz-i-Kafai, 146.
Fatihah, 107.
Fatwa, 144, 156.
Firdaus, 91.
Fiqah, 161.
Fitrat, 147.
Furqan, 14.
G.
Gliaus, 158, 241.
Ghazi, 206.
Ghusal, 105.
aisA, 230.
H.
Hadd, 141.
Hadis, 50, 160.
Hadis-i-'Aziz, 54.
Hadis-i-Gharib, 54.
Hadis-i-Hasan, 52.
Hadis-i-Maqtu', 53.
Hadis-i-Marfu', 52.
Hadis-i-Masbhur, 54, 62.
Hadis-i-Mauquf, 53.
Hadis-i-Mauzu', 55.
Hadis-i-Mursal, 54.
Hadis-i-Mustafiz, 54.
Hadis-i-Mutawatir, 53, 62.
Hadis-i-Sahih, 52.
Hadis-i-Z'aif, 52.
Haji, 135.
Hajj, 101, 130.
Hajr-ul-Aswad, 133.
Hakim, 157.
Halal, 143.
Hambali, 213.
Hanifi, 212.
Haqiqat, 34, 229, 230.
Haqiqi, 226.
Haram, 138.
Harf, 28.
Hashijah, 162.
INDEX.
277
Hawia, 97.
Hijrat, 2, 209.
Hiqqaii, 126.
Hutama, 96.
'Ibarat, 32, 35.
Iblis, 32, 82.
Ibn-i-Majah, 56.
'Idgab, 171.
'Id-ul-Azha, 134, 173.
'Id-ul-Fitr, 128, 171.
'Ifrit, 82.
Ihram, 132.
rjab, 177.
'f jma', 12, 61.
Ilham, 47, 48.
Ilham Rabbani, 47.
Illat, 64.
'Ilm-i-Hadis, 51.
'Ilm-i-Tajwid, 25.
'Ilm-i-Usul, 31.
Imam, 150, 156.
Imam-Bara, 164.
Imam-Mahdi, 89.
Imam-ul-'Azam, 150.
Imam-ul-Mubm, 98.
I'man, 66.
rmjin-i-Mufassal, 66.
I'man-i-Mujmal, 66.
Injil, 268.
Iqamat, 106, 117.
Iqtiza, 35.
'Isa, 256.
'Ishaq, 228.
Isharat, 35.
Isharat-ul-Malak, 48.
Islam, 10.
Ism-i-Safat, 67.
Ism-i-Zat, 67.
Ism-ul-'Azam, 67.
Istibsar, 57.
Istidlal, 35.
Istighfar, 179.
Isti'mal, 34.
Israfil, 79.
Itifaq-i-F'ili, 61.
Itifaq-i-Qauli, 61.
Itifaq-i-Saquti, 61.
'Itiqaf, 121.
Izn, 225.
Jabariit, 230.
Jahamiam, 96.
Jahim, 97.
Jalalia, 236.
Jamad-ul-iila, 163.
Jamad-ul-ukhni, 163.
Jama'-i-Masjid, 171.
Jamra, 134.
Janaza, 185.
Jann, 82.
Jannat, 91.
Jannat-i-'Adan, 92.
Januat-i-'Illiyun, 92.
Jamiat-ul-Firdaus, 92.
Jannat-ul-Khuld, 91.
Jamiat-ul-Mawa, 92.
Jannat-un-N'aim, 92.
Jaz'ah, 126.
Jibrail, 15, 79.
278
INDEX.
Jilidd, 206.
Jihad-ul-Akbar, 206.
Jihad-ul-Asgbar, 206.
Jinn, 82.
Jiziyah, 209.
Juz, 30.
K.
K'aba, 131.
E:abira, 136, 139.
Kafi, 57.
Kalimah, 28, 102, 179, 256.
Kalam-Ullali, 12, 15.
Kalim-Ullah, 84.
Karma, 32.
Khabar-i-Wahid, 54, 62.
Khafi, 32, 33, 37.
Khalifa, 150.
Khalil-Ullah, 85.
Khan, 159.
Khass, 31, 64.
Khatib, 198.
Khatnah, 103.
Khuda, 68.
Khusus-ul-'ain, 31. .
Khusus-ul-jins, 31.
KhusLis-ul-nau', 31.
Khutbah, 134, 198.
Kinayah, 35.
Kitab, 15, 85.
Kitabiah, 217.
Kiram-ul-Katibim, 80.
Kufr, 37, 139.
L.
Ldhd, 191, 192.
Lahiit, 230.
Lahw-ul-Mahfuz, 98.
Laylut-ul-Mubarak, 123,
169.
Laylut-ul-Qadr, 121.
Lazwa, 96.
M.
Madarris, 157.
Mahr, 179.
Mai-khana, 230.
Majaz, 34.
Majazi, 226.
Majuj, 88.
Majusi, 217.
Majziib, 234.
Makruh, 138.
Malak, 16, 79.
Malakut, 230.
Malang, 237.
Malik, 80.
Maliki, 207, 213.
Man - la - yastahzirah - al
faqih, 57x
Mansukh, 38.
Mantiq, 162.
Manzil, 30, 228.
Maqam-i-Ibrahim, 133.
Marid, 82.
M'arifat, 229, 230.
M'ashuq, 230.
Masih, 256.
INDEX.
279
Masih-ul-Dajjal, 88.
Masjid-ul-Haram, 133.
Matam, 163.
Matan, 162.
Maulavi, 157, 238.
Maulud, 226.
Mazhab, 11.
Mihrab, 203.
Mikail, 79.
Millat, 11.
Mimbar,171, 198.
Miqat, 132.
Mir, 159.
Misqal, 127.
Miswak, 147.
Mitraqat, 80.
Miyan, 159.
Mizan, 89.
Momin, 11.
Mua'qqibat, 80.
Muawattaa, 57.
Muawwal, 32.
Muazzin, 116, 198.
Mubah, 138.
Mudaria, 237.
Mufassar, 32.
Mufassir, l57.
Mufsid, 138.
Mufti, 156.
Muhaddis, 157.
Muhajir, 62, 209.
Muhammad, 1.
Muharram, 163.
Muhaqqiq, 157.
Muhkam, 33.
Mujmal, 33.
Muj tabid, 157.
Mujtabidin, 48, 61.
Mulla, 157.
Munajat, 112, 171.
Munkar, 80.
Munqata', 53.
Muraqaba, 246.
Murid, 240.
Murshid, 227, 240.
Murtadd, 141.
Musalman, 11.
Mushkil, 33.
Mushrik, 225.
Mushtarak, 31.
Muslim, 56.
Mustahab, 138.
Mut'ah, 178.
Mutakallim, 157.
Mutashabih, 34.
Muttasil, 53.
Muwahhid, 225.
Nabi, 102.
Nabi-Ullah, 84.
Nafl, 112.
Naf i-isbat, 248.
Nahaj-ul-Balaghat, 57.
Nahw, 162.
Najiah, 232.
Nakir, 80.
Namaz, 32, 104.
Namaz-i-Digar, 114.
Namaz-i-Kbuftan, 114.
Namaz-i-Peshm, 114.
Namaz-i-Sbjim, 114.
Namaz-i-Subh, 114.
Namiis, 18.
Naqsbbandia, 235.
Narawa, 137.
Nasai, 56.
280
INDEX.
Nass, 32.
Nasikh, 39.
Nasua, 200.
Nasut, 228, 230.
Nazr, 226.
Nikah, 177.
Nisf, 30.
Niyyat, 106.
Nmuz, 104, 114.
Nur-i-Muhammad, 266.
p.
Paighambar, 102.
Peshm, 114.
Pfr, 157.
Q.
Qabul, 177.
Qadaria, 236.
Qaul-ul-Haqq, 256.
Qaza, 120.
Qazaf, 140.
Qazi, 155.
Qiam, 106.
Qiam-i-Sami-TJllah, 108.
Qiamat, 87.
Qias, 12, 48, 64.
Qias-i-Jab', 64.
Qias-i-Khafi, 64.
Qibla, 135.
Qira'at, 24, 107.
Qisas, 142.
Qurban-Bayram, 173.
Qurban-i-'Id, 173.
Quran, 12, 14.
Quran-Majid, 14.
Quran- Sharif, 14. ^
Qutab, 158.
Qutbah, 158.
Rabi'-ul-Awwal, 163.
Eabi'-ul-Akhir, 163.
Eafia, 237.
Eajab, 163.
Eak'at, 110.
Eamazan, 119, 163.
Eami-ul-Jamar, 134.
Easul, 84, 102.
Easul-Ullah, 85.
Eawa, 137.
Eayyan, 119.
Eezwan, 80.
Eiwayat, 54.
Eoza, 101.
Eowzat-us-Shuhadaa, 165.
Euba', 30.
Euh, 256.
Euh-Ullah, 85, 256.
Euh-ul-Amm, 15.
Euh-ul-Qudus, 15.
Euku', 30.
S.
Sab'ata-Ahriif, 25.
Sadaqa, 128, 171.
Safar, 163.
Saghira, 139.
Sahib-i-Nissab, 125.
Sahifah, 85.
S'air, 97.
Salam, 112, 148.
INDEX.
281
Salik, 229, 234.
Saqar, 97.
Sarf, 162.
Sarih, 34.
Sarwardia, 236.
SajyicL, 159.
Sift-ul-Iman, 180.
Sihah-Sittah, 57, 160.
Silsilah, 235.
Sipara, 30.
Sirat, 90.
Siyar, 162.
Sh'aban, 163.
Shab-i-Bar/it, 123, 169.
Shab-Qadr, 170.
Shadi, 177.
Shadid-nl-Qiia, 15.
Shafa'i, 207, 212.
Shahid, 211.
Shaitan, 82.
Sharab, 230.
Sharh, 162.
Shari'at, 230.
Shawwal, 163.
Shekh, 158.
Shekh-ul-Islam, 155.
Shia'h, 12.
Subhan, 106.
Sufi, 227.
Sufi-Ullah, 84.
Sulat, 101, 104.
Sulat-ul-'Asar, 114.
Sulat-ul-Fajr, 114.
Sulat-ul-'Isiiaa, 114.
Sulat-ul-Isliraq, 114.
Sulat-ul-Istikharah, 116.
Sulat-ul-Juma', 115.
Sulat-ul-Khasdf, 116.
Sulat-ul-Khaiif, 116.
Sulat-ul-Kusuf, 116.
Sulat-ul-Maghrib, 114.
Sulat-ul-Musafir, 115.
Sulat-ut-Tahajud, 114.
Sulat-ut-Tarawih, 116.
Sulat-uz-Zuha, 114.
Subit-uz-Zuhr, 114.
Suls, 30.
Sunna, 50.
Sunnat, 112.
Sunnat-i-F'ili, 137.
Sunnat-i-Qaidi, 137.
Snnnat-i-Taqriri, 137.
Simni, 12.
Sura, 29.
T.
Tab'am, 53.
Taba' Tab'am, 62.
Tabib, 156.
Tafsir, 161.
Tahhl, 254.
Tahniid, 254.
Tahrif, 267.
Tahrif-i-Lafzi, 267.
Tahrif-i-M'anawi, 267.
Tahzib, 57.
Takbir, 188, 254.
Takbir-i-Jalsa, 109.
Takbir-i-Qa'ud, 110.
Takbir-i-Qiam, 110.
Takbi'r-i-Euku', 108.
Takbir-i-Sijdah, 109.
Takbir-i-Tahrimah, 106.
Takia, 217.
Takiya, 238, 241.
Tabiq, 182.
Talaq-i-Ahsan, 182.
282
INDEX.
Talaq-i-Bid'ai, 183.
Talaq-i-Hasan, 182.
Talaq-i-Mutlaq, 183.
Talib, 228.
Taqdir, 98.
Tarawih, 121.
Tariqat, 230, 234.
Tarwiah, 134.
Tasawwaf, 227.
Tasbih, 249, 254.
Tasbih-i-Euku', 108.
Tasbih-i-Sijdah, 108, 109.
Tashahhud, 111.
Tasmiyah, 107.
Taurat, 268.
T'auuz, 107.
Tawaf, 133, 225.
T'azir, 142.
Tirmizi, 56.
u.
'Ubudiyat, 194, 228.
'Ulama, 157.
'Urs, 177.
Usui, 160.
w.
Wahhabi, 219.
Wahi, 47.
Wahi-Batin, 48.
Wahi-Ghair-i-Matlu', 60.
Wahi-Qalb, 48.
Wahi-Quran, 47.
Wahi-Zahir, 47.
Wajd, 229.
Wajib, 137.
Wail, 47, 157, 241.
Wasl, 229.
Witr, 112.
Wuzu, 105.
Yajuj, 88.
Yaum-un-Nahr, 173.
Zahid, 158.
Zahir, 32, 47.
Zakat, 101, 125.
Zakir, 248.
Zarb, 244.
Zat, 37.
Zikr, 243.
Zikr-i-Jali, 243.
Zikr-i-Khafi, 243.
Zimmi, 209.
Zuhd, 229.
Zul-Hijja, 135, 163.
Zul-Q'ada, 163.
London : Printed by W. H. Allen & Co., 13, Waterloo Place, S.W.
opinions of the Press on the First Edition,
" Altogetlier an admirable little book. It combines two excellent
qualities, abundance of facts and lack of theories ... On
every one of the numerous heads (over fifty) into which the book is
divided, Mr. Hughes furnishes a large amount of very valuable
information, which it would be exceedingly difficult to collect from
even a large library of works on the subject. The book might well
be called a ' Dictionary of Muhammadan Theology,' for we know of
no English work which combines a methodical arrangement (and
consequently facility of reference), with fulness of information in so
high a degree as the little volume before us." — The Academy. (Eeview
by Mr. Stanley Lane Poole.)
" It contains multiim in parvo, and is about the best outlines of the
tenets of the Muslim faith which we have seen. It has, moreover,
the rare mei'it of being accm-ate ; and, although it contains a few
passages which we would gladly see expunged, it cannot fail to be
useful to all Government emiAoye's, who have to deal with Muham-
madans; whilst to Missionaries, it will be invaluable." — The Times
of India. (Eeview by Colonel W. Nassau Lees, LL.D.)
" This small book is the most luminous, most convenient, and, we
think, the most accurate, outline , of the tenets and practices of
Islamism that we have met with. It seems exactly the sort of
comprehensive and trustworthy book, in small compass, on this
subject, that we and many more have of tenlooked for in vain.
. . . The author has evidently studied his subject in a faithful,
laborious, and scholarly manner; and has not only studied, but
mastered it. The work is of great value for general students, and
for men whose work lies among the Musulman population, such as
civil servants, and missionaries, it seems to be the very work that
is wanted." — The Friend of India.
"It is manifest throughout the work that we have before us the
opinions of one thoroughly conversant with the subject, and who is
uttering no random notions. . . . We strongly recommend ' Notes
on Muhanimadanism.' Our clergy especially, even though they are
not missionaries, and have no intention of labouring amongst
Muhammadans, or consorting with them, ought to have at least aa
m.uch knowledge of the system as can bo most readily acquired,
with a very little careful study, from this useful treatise." — The
Record.
" The main object of the work is to reveal the real and practical
character of the Islam faith, and in this the author has evidently
been successful." — The Standard.
" Its value as a means of correcting the common impressions about
Islam will reveal itself to the most cursory reader, while the author's
evident scholai'ship and intimate knowledge of his subject, bespeak
for him a patient hearing on points the most open to controversy." —
Indian Mail.
" Mr. Hughes has done good service by providing, in the shape of
these ' Notes,' a concise, well arranged, and convenient hand-book of
Islam ; so small that all missionaries can easily find time to master
it, yet so comprehensive that the information it gives will be found
sufficient — not, indeed, for the curious investigator of the science, but
for the ordinary Indian missionary. . . . Knowledge for which,
otherwise, we should be compelled to search through large volumea
in many languages, is here brought together in the compass of a
small octavo." — Indian Evangelical Review.
" In brief compass it contains a large amount of reliable informa-
tion. Instead of theories and fancies, facts are placed before ua.
Muhammadanism is represented as it really is, not as it is supposed
that it might possibly be. Instead of retailing the speculations
current in literary society at home, Mr. Hughes furnishes us vnth
brief but incisive statements, which, so far as they go, leave nothing
to be desired." — The Church Missionary Intelligencer.
A SELECTIOIT FEOM W. H. ALLEN & Go's LIST.
The LIFE OF MOHAMMED. Translated from the
Arabic of Abulfeda, with an Introduction and Appendix, By
the Rev. Wm. Murray, Episcopal Clergyman at Duffus. Very
scarce. 12s.
A MANUAL of the MAHOMMEDAN LAW OF IN-
HEEITANCE and CONTRACT; comprising the Doctrine of
the Soonee and Sheea Schools, and based upon the text of Sir
H. W. Macnaghten's Pi'inciples and Precedents, together with
the Decisions of the Privy Council and High Courts of the
Presidencies in India. By Standish Grove Gkady. 8vo. 14s.
HEDAYA, or Guide, a COMMENTARY ON THE
MUSSULMAN LAWS, translated by order of the Governor-
General and Council of Bengal. By Charles Hamilton. Second
Edition, with Preface and Index, by Standish Grove Grady.
8vo. 35s.
LAW AND CITSTOMS OF HINDU CASTES, within
the Dekhan Provinces subject to the Presidency of Bombay,
chiefly affecting Civil Suits. By Arthur Steele. Royal 8vo.
21s.
EICHAEDSON'S AEABIC, PERSIAN and ENGLISH
DICTIONARY. Edition of 1852. By F. Johnson. 4to.,
cloth. £1.
FORBES'S GRAMMAR of the ARABIC LANGUAGE.
Royal 8vo. 18s.
PALMER'S GRAMMAR of the ARABIC LANGUAGE.
8vo. 18s.
FORBES'S ARABIC READING LESSONS, consisting
of Easy Extracts from the best Authors, with Vocabulary.
Royal 8vo., cloth. 15s.
BERESFORD'S ARABIC SYNTAX. Royal 8vo. 6s.
FORBES'S PERSIAN GRAMMAR, Reading Lessons,
and Vocabulary. Royal 8vo. 12s. 6d.
CLAEKE'S PEESIAN MANUAL, containing a Com-
pendious Grammar, Exercises for Translation, Dialogues, and
Vocabulary, in the Roman Character. (In the Press.)
IBRAHEEM'S PEESIAN GEAMMAE, Dialogues, &c.
Eoyal 8vo. 12s. 6cl.
GULISTAN. Carefully collated with the original MS.,
with a full Vocabulary. By John T. Platts. Eoyal 8vo.
12s. 6cl.
GULISTAN. Translated from a revised Text, with
Copious Notes. By John T. Platts. 8vo. 12s. 6c1.
OUSELEY'S Text of the ANVAE-I-SUHELI. 4to.
£2 2s.
WOLLASTON'S Translation of the ANWAE-I-SUHAILI.
Eoyal Svo. £2 2s.
KEENE'S (Eev. H. G.) FIEST BOOK of the AN-
WAEI SOHEILI. Persian Text. Svo. 5s.
OUSELEY'S (Col.) AKHLAKI MUSHINI. Persian
Text. Svo. 5s.
KEENE'S (Eev. H. G.) AKHLAKI MUSHINI. Trans-
lated into English. Svo. 3s. 6d.
MANNING'S (Mrs.) ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL
INDIA. Being the History, Eeligion, Laws, Caste, Manners
and Customs, Language, Literature, Poetry, Philosophy, Astro-
nomy, Algebra, Medicine, Architecture, Manufactures, Com-
merce, &c., of the Hindus, taken from their Writings. With
Illustrations. 2 vols., Svo. 30s.
The HISTOEY of the BEITISH EMPIEE in INDIA.
By Edward Thornton. Containing a Copious Glossary of
Indian Terms, and a Complete Chronological Index of Events.
Third Edition. 1 vol., Svo. With Map. 12s.
The Library Edition of the above in six vols., 8vo., may be had,
price, £2 8s.
The HISTOEY of the BEITISH EMPIEE in INDIA,
from the Appointment of Lord Hardinge to the Death of Lord
Canning (1S44 to 1S62). By Lionel James Trotter, late
Bengal Fusiliers. 2 vols., Svo. 32s.
ANALYTICAL HISTOEY OF INDIA. From the
Earliest Times to the Abolition of the East India Company in
1858. By Egbert Sewell, Madras Civil Service. Post Svo. 8s.
INDIA on the Eve of the BEITISH CONQUEST. A
Historical Sketch. By Sidney Owen, M.A., Reader in Indian
Law and History in the University of Oxford, formerly Pro-
fessor of Histoiy in the Elphinstone College, Bombay, Post
8vo. 8s.
MOGUL EMPIRE. From the Death of Aurungzeb to
the Overthrow of the Mahratta Power. By Henry George
Keene, B.C.S. Svo. 10s. 6d.
This work fills up a hlanh between the ending of Elphinstone' s
and the commencement of Thornton's Histories.
HISTORY OF THE PUNJAB, and of the Rise, Pro-
gress, and Present Condition of the Sikhs. By T. Thornton.
2 vols. Post Svo. 8s.
INDIAN WISDOM, or. Examples of the Religious,
Philosophical and Ethical Doctrines of the Hindus. With a
brief History of the Chief Departments of Sanscrit Literature,
and some account of the past and present condition of India,
Moral and Intellectual. By Monier Williams, M.A., Boden
Professor of Sanscrit in the University of Oxford. Third
Edition. 8vo. 15s.
VAMBERY'S SKETCHES OF CENTRAL ASIA. Ad-
ditional Chapters on My Travels and Adventures, and of the
Ethnology of Central Asia. By Armenius Vambery. Svo. 16s.
THE USEFUL PLANTS OF INDIA, with Notices of
their chief value in Commerce, Medicine, and the Arts. By
Colonel Heber Drury. Second Edition, with Additions and
Corrections. Royal Svo. 16s.
THORNTON'S GAZETTEER OF INDIA. Compiled
chiefly from the records of the India Office. By Edward
Thornton. 1 vol., Svo., pp. 1015. With Map. 21s.
The Library Edition. 4 vols., Svo. Notes, Marginal Eeferences,
and Map. £2 16s.
GAZETTEER OF SOUTHERN INDIA, with the TE-
NASSERIM PROVINCES and SINGAPORE, with Atlas, includ-
ing Plans of all the Principal Towns and Cantonments. Royal
Svo., with 4to Atlas. £3 3s.
GAZETTEER of the COUNTRIES ADJACENT TO
INDIA, on the north-west, including SCINDE, AFGHANIS-
TAN, BELOOCHISTAN, the PUNJAB, and the neighbouring
States. By Edward Thornton. 2 vols., Svo. 253.
GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA. Comprising an Account of
British India, and the various States, enclosed and adjoining.
Fcap., pp. 250. 2s.
j^^ ^MOIES of ZEHIE-ED-DIN MUHAMMED BABEE,
' Emperor of Hindustan, written by himself in the Jaghatai
Turki, and translated par-tly by the late John Leyden, Esq.,
M.D., and partly by William Erskine, Esq., with Notes and a
Geographical and Historical Introduction, together with a Map
of the Countries between the Oxus and Jaxartes, and a Memoir
regarding its construction. By Charles Waddington. 4to.
25s.
PILGEIMAGE TO MECCA. Bj the Nawab Sikan-
dar Begum of Bhopal. Translated from the Original Urdu.
By Mrs. Willoughby Osborne. Followed by a Sketch of the
History of Bhopal. By Col. Willoughby Osborne, C.B. With
Photographs ; and dedicated, by permission, to Her Majesty,
Queen Victoria. Post 8vo. 21s.
DISTEICT MAP OF ESTDIA. Divided into Collec-
torates, with the Telegraphs and Railways, from Government
Surveys. On six sheets— size, 5ft. 6 in. high; 5ft. Sin. wide;
in a case, £2 12s. 6d. ; or, rollers, varnished., £3 3s. Corrected
to 1876 as regards Railways, Telegraphs, &c.
A GENEEAL MAP OF INDIA. Compiled chiefly from
Surveys executed by order of the Government of India. On six
sheets — size, 5 ft. 3 in. wide ; 5 ft. 4 in. high, £2 ; or, on cloth,
in case, £2 12s. 6d. ; or, rollers, varnished, £3 3s. Corrected
to 1876 as regards Railways, Telegraphs, &c.
MAP of INDIA. From the most recent Authorities.
On two sheets — size, 2 ft. 10 in. wide ; 3 f t. 3 in. high, 16s. ;
or, on cloth, in a case, 21s. Corrected to 1876 as regards
Railways, Telegraphs, &c.
MAP of the EOUTES IN INDIA. With Tables of
Distances between the principal Towns and Military Stations.
On one sheet — size, 2 ft. 3 in. wide ; 2 tt. 9 in. high, 9s. ; or, on
cloth, in a case, 12s. Corrected to 1876 as regards Railways,
Telegraphs, &c.
;;raiDn!
W. H. ALLEN and CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE, LONDON, S.W.
Date Due
*sf^
p
. . :' /:
,^>mmiii^^
f
^
il mIv
*7f
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11