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NUCLEAR
SURVIVAL
MANUAL

BOSDEC — The Concrete Curtain

JAMES R. FAIRLAMB

From the collection of the

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San Francisco, California
2006

NUCLEAR

SURVIVAL

MANUAL

BOSDEC - The Concrete Curtain

NUCLEAR SURVIVAL MANUAL

BOSDEC - THE CONCRETE CURTAIN

BY
JAMES R. FAIRLAMB

FIRST EDITION

PUBLISHERS
DREXEL WINSLOW & FARRINGTON

P. O. BOX 55 • BUTLER, N. J.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 63-21932

Printed in the United States of America

TKe Colonial Press Inc.

Clinton, Mass.

CONTENTS INDEX GUIDE

PAGE

Dedication 19

Foreword 21

CHAPTER 1
Surviving Immediate Effects of a Nuclear Explosion 27

SURVIVAL FOR ONE MINUTE
THERMAL RADIATION

Flash

Fireball heat

Afterwinds

Firestorms

Vaporization

INITIAL NUCLEAR RADIATION
BLAST

Overpressure

Air blast

Mach front

Blast wave

Overpressure and wind velocity decay

Blast winds

Ground shock and Shockwaves
FALLOUT

Early fallout

Delayed fallout

CHAPTER 2

Types of Nuclear Weapon Explosions 35

AIR BURST

Thermal radiation effects of an air burst
Nuclear radiation effects of an air burst
Blast effects of an air burst
Timing of effects of 1 MT air burst

PAGE

GROUND BURST

Thermal radiation effects of a ground burst
Initial nuclear radiation effects of a ground burst
Blast effects of a ground burst
Fallout radiation effects of a ground burst

SUBSURFACE BURST

Thermal radiation effects of a subsurface burst
Initial nuclear radiation effects of a subsurface burst
Blast effects of a subsurface burst
Fallout radiation effects of a subsurface burst

CHAPTER 3
Thermal Radiation 39

THERMAL RADIATION
HEAT

Heat reflection and absorption
BURNS

Flash burns

Flame burns

Hot gas burns

Burn ranges for exposed persons
EYE INJURIES

Permanent

Temporary

CHAPTER 4
Nuclear Blast 43

INJURIES DUE TO BLAST

Direct causes of injuries due to blast

One MT wind velocity, positive phase duration and

peak OP

Peak overpressures at maximum distances from G Z
Probable fatality percentages for estimated OP ranges

PAGE

Indirect cause of injuries due to blast
CRATERS

Crater zone guide

Observable crater

Rupture zone

Plastic zone

True crater

Maximum crater dimensions

CHAPTER 5
Nuclear Radiation Guide 51

TYPES OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS

Fission

Fusion
TYPES OF NUCLEAR RADIATION

Alpha particles

Beta particles

Gamma rays

Neutrons

UNITS OF NUCLEAR RADIATION ENERGY AND BIOLOGICAL
DAMAGE MEASUREMENT

MEV— million electron volts

Roentgens

Rads

Rems

RBE

Radiation conversion guide
INITIAL NUCLEAR RADIATION

Prompt gamma rays

Delayed gamma rays

Initial nuclear radiation dose range

Initial gamma ray dose range

Time and percentage for initial gamma radiation received

PAGE

RESIDUAL NUCLEAR RADIATION

Early fallout

Fallout size and percentage of radioactivity carried

Estimated fallout dose from 20 MT ground burst

Early fallout pattern for 1 MT ground burst

Decontamination by earth moving techniques

Conversion of known dose rate to that of any other
time

Residual radiation decay table

Long half life radioisotopes

Fallout cannot induce radioactivity
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR RADIATION

lonization

Symptoms

Radiation by inhalation
NUCLEAR RADIATION SHELTER TIME GUIDES

Nuclear radiation dose rate time guide

Nuclear radiation allowable stay time guide

CHAPTER 6
Nuclear Radiation Protection Shields 69

BARRIER SHIELDING

Half value layer thickness

Material shielding efficiencies

Equivalent half value layer protection factors

Protection factor

Fallout protection factor guide

Tenth value layer thickness

Equivalent tenth value layer protection factors— fallout

Equivalent TVL protection factors— initial radiation
GEOMETRY SHIELDING

Geometry shielding protection examples

Neutron barriers

PAGE

TIME SHIELDING

Nuclear radiation time decay
Lifetime nuclear radiation computation

CHAPTER 7
Nuclear Explosion Survival Range 79

Minimum survival ranges (from GZ)

Thermal radiation

Blast

Initial nuclear radiation

Crater

Survival precautions

Square and cube root table

Squares and cubes table

CHAPTER 8 83

Shelter Building Controversy

COMMUNIST OBJECTIVES

POPULAR CLICHES

ANALYSIS OF POPULAR CLICHES

"I don't want to live — "

"If everything will be blown down — "

"Some people are going to have guns — "

"We should forget about shelters — "

"Building shelters may precipitate a nuclear attack — "

"I can't afford a shelter -"

CHAPTER 9

Getting to the Shelter 89

STRATEGIC WARNING
TACTICAL WARNING

PAGE

ENEMY OBJECTIVES

Possibility of a complete surprise attack
DAY TIME ATTACK
NIGHT ATTACK

NEAR project
PROTECTION AT WORK
PROTECTION AWAY FROM SHELTER

CHAPTER 10
Nuclear Attack Possibilities 93

ESTIMATES OF COMMUNIST ATTACK CAPABILITY
NUCLEAR ATTACK WEAPON SIZES
NUCLEAR ATTACK PATTERN

Possible methods of bomb delivery

Nuclear attack timetable

Possibility of invasion

Targets

Chance of survival

CHAPTER 11
Essentials for Survival 97

AIR

Oxygen concentration in air

Carbon dioxide concentration in air

Air supply methods

Carbon dioxide removal by soda lime

Carbon dioxide removal by Zeolite
WATER

Water and radioactivity

Reservoir water

Shelter water sources

PAGE

FOOD

Food warehousing

Food supply requirements
FIRE AND HEAT ENERGY

Electricity

Public utility electricity

Generator electricity

Battery electricity

Propane and natural gas

Coal

Wood

Charcoal briquets

Alcohol

Candles

Kerosene
CLOTHING

Adults

Men

Women

Teenagers

Children

General shelter clothing suggestions

SHELTER FROM THE ELEMENTS

HAND TOOLS

MEDICINE

Medical supplies

CHAPTER 12
BOSDEC 109

BOMB SHELTER IN DEPTH CONCEPT
BOSDEC SYSTEM PRINCIPLES

Primary shelter

Secondary shelter

PAGE

Shelter lock

Collateral BOSDEC advantages
BOSDEC basic requirements
PRIMARY SHELTER SPECIFICATIONS
Primary shelter design features
Primary shelter ventilation
Primary shelter air changes

CHAPTER 13
How to Meet BOSDEC Specifications 1 1 5

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION
PRIMARY SHELTER CONSTRUCTION

Emergency escape hatch

Generator and blower instructions

PRIMARY SHELTER COMPARTMENTS
Primary shelter floor plan
Primary shelter living quarters
Primary shelter storage room for food and tools
Primary shelter air intake and filter room
Primary shelter ventilation motor blower
Chemical ventilation

FILTERS

Precipitator electric filters

Air purifier filters

Primary shelter water storage

Air intake and filter compartment equipment

PRIMARY SHELTER GENERATOR AND AIR EXHAUST ROOM
Fractional horsepower motor current draws
Electrical appliance current draws
Generator area equipment
Electric supply schematic guide
Automatic-Electro utility system

PAGE

SECONDARY SHELTER

Secondary shelter floor plan

Secondary shelter sanitary facilities

Secondary shelter ventilation

Secondary shelter equipment
SHELTER LOCK

Shelter lock floor plan

Shelter lock equipment
SHELTER PREPARATION PROCEDURES

Water shutoff

Water supply schematic guide

Electricity shutoff to house

Air shutoff

Generator electric current draw

Primary shelter electric control panel

CHAPTER 14
General Food Information 137

UNAVAILABLE FOOD
SELECTING FOOD

Food preparation

New commercial frozen food storage
SEQUENCE OF FOOD USE

Fresh food

Foods in deepfreeze

Canned and long shelf life foods
FOOD PREPARATION SUGGESTIONS

Utilization of cans and cartons

Primary shelter food

Secondary shelter food

Serving food

Kitchen utensils for shelter use

Kitchen supplies for shelter use

Secondary shelter food list

PAGE

CHAPTER 15
Primary Shelter Menus 145

CALORIE INTAKE
MEAL TIME CYCLES
SELECTION OF FOOD

Cost of meals
BREAKFAST MENUS
LUNCH MENUS
DINNER MENUS
SHOPPING LISTS FOR PRIMARY SHELTER MENUS

Condiments, staples, spices, coffee and tea, etc.
EMERGENCY TRAVEL FOOD

CHAPTER 16
Shelter Equipment and Supplies 153

Personal sanitary needs

Shelter housekeeping supplies

Hardware supplies

Portable mechanical and electrical equipment

General purpose equipment and supplies

CHAPTER 17
General Radiation Information 157

RADIATION DETECTORS

Survey meters

Dosimeters

NORMAL RADIATION EXPOSURES
RADIATION DOSES AND RECOVERY TIMES

Safe roentgen dosages under emergency conditions
EMERGENCY EXCURSIONS FROM SHELTER

Leaving shelter

Returning to shelter

PAGE

CHAPTER 18
Emergency Shelter First Aid 161

BLEEDING

BREATHING PROBLEMS

BURNS

FRACTURES

PREGNANCY

IDENTIFICATION TAGS

CHAPTER 19
Basic Nuclear Physics 163

ELEMENTAL STRUCTURE

Elements

Atoms

Nucleus

Protons

Neutrons
ISOTOPES
FISSION
IONIZATION

Ionizing radiation
RADIATION

Radioactive atoms
BIOLOGICAL NUCLEAR EFFECTS

Internal radioactive poisoning

CHAPTER 20
America After a Nuclear Attack 171

ABSORBED RADIATION

Areas of intense radiation
Radiation weathering effect

PAGE

RECONSTRUCTION AND RELOCATION PROGRAMS

Military leadership

Registration

Area certifications
RADIATION BANKING CONCEPT

Deposits and withdrawals

Older people
RECONSTRUCTION EFFORTS

Basic Materials

Heavy manufacturing

Medicine
Clothing
GOVERNMENT PLANNING

Glossary 1 79

Bibliography 135

Equipment and Food Sources 187

DEDICATION

This effort is dedicated with love to all the chil-
dren of the world. With it goes the fervent
prayer that their parents will use more wisdom
in making the life or death decisions coming up
in the future than they did in getting our world
into such a predicament.

FOREWORD

In the year 1963 the two way power struggle between the free
world and Russia became a three way contest. By 1965 China will
probably have accomplished a nuclear reaction; by 1970 China
will have nuclear weapons; and by 1980 China will have a nuclear
attack capability. Red China, those simple agrarian reformers,
have already announced long and loud that they intend to exter-
minate capitalism the moment that they can gain more than they
will lose. Chinese strategy may well be to defeat Russia ideologic-
ally and/ or militarily and then take on the free world. As the
ultimate aim; Red Chinese domination of the world! The first act
must be the subjugation of India as a flank protection. You
have witnessed the opening ploys. Let us not be completely and
thoroughly naive.

The simple minded man who doesn't have sense enough to
come in out of the rain has been the bench mark of stupidity for
a long time. He is about to lose his place to the man who "doesn't
have sense enough to come in out of the fallout."

Many people use the stock expression "I don't want to live like
a mole or a rabbit and dive into a hole when in danger." In effect
these people are saying that they don't have as much sense as
a rabbit.

Why should people be subjected to ridicule for a natural desire
to seek protection from danger? A nuclear attack would turn our
entire country into a war theatre. Each citizen would become a
soldier in a battle for survival. Every army in modern history has
dug in for protection. Has any stigma ever been attached to a
command to dig foxholes or trenches? What is so sensible about
standing out in the open and inviting destruction?

An embattled population would necessarily play a passive role
in a period of nuclear attacks. Certainly all civilians will auto-
matically seek shelter. Whether they duck under the kitchen table
or into a planned shelter is just a question of degree of protection.
The principle is the same. To cope with this problem it will be
necessary for most persons to discard ideas gleaned from scary,
ill informed articles and to study the actual facts.

If you decide to build a shelter you will want to judge for
yourself the degree of protection necessary or possible for you and
your family. The purpose of this manual is to make all known facts

available to you in one complete reference so that your decisions
will be based on facts — not on the opinions of others.

One of the main facts to consider is this — if you build a pro-
tective shelter and never use it during a nuclear attack you may
lose several thousand dollars. If you don't build it and a nuclear
attack occurs — you may lose your life.

It doesn't seem logical to trust to luck or some one else's pre-
digested opinions on such a vital matter. It makes just as little
sense to design and build a shelter for fallout protection only, when
a combined blast and fallout shelter can be built with a little more
effort and money. You will need a strong shelter — not a bargain
basement.

We are all afraid of the unknown. Fear is a poor basis for
intelligent planning. This is the main reason why a clear under-
standing of nuclear problems is so necessary to the average man.
This manual is not intended to solve your problems. It is designed
to give you the basis for wise decisions. After all, it is your problem
— your decision and no one can make it for you. You are entitled
to facts — not salestalks, not piecemeal information, not communist
propaganda or cabdriver opinions.

Nuclear energy is a fact of life. It cannot be ignored or side
stepped. Yet that is what people are trying to do when they say
that they don't want to live in a nuclear world. They might as well
say that they don't want to live in a world where cancer and blind-
ness are a part of life's risks. Facts must be faced — as they always
have been faced.

Hundred of thousands of public spirited persons have volun-
teered for Civil Defense and Disaster Control duty. The vast
majority serve their country without pay and unfortunately, with
very little thanks. They work very hard to plan the protection
and conservation of our citizenry in any kind of disaster. They
have been terribly handicapped by official apathy at the national
level, lack of intelligent and much needed laws with teeth in them
and — money.

For instance, sixteen years after exploding the first nuclear
bomb, our government still has not made a real effort to decentral-
ize industry or make mandatory shelters in our schools. What an
opportunity we have missed to protect our most valuable asset —
our children. All of the schools built since 1946 could have had
combination shelters and cafeterias in their basements had some-
one been far sighted enough. This could have been done with very
little additional expense. Think of the peace of mind that would

have resulted from just a little intelligent planning at the proper
level.

A diligent search of government literature failed to disclose
one instance where an underground family bomb shelter has been
built and tested near a nuclear test explosion. Why hasn't this been
done? Since only persons associated with the government and the
government itself have access to basic nuclear weapon data, all
tests must be done by the government. Obviously all nuclear data
in any book on the subject must be based on government released
information.

Fortunately President Kennedy has given many indications
of his awareness of the problems and has taken initial measures
to do something about them. In the past two years several very
interesting and informative books have been published. Let us hope
that the effort is expanded and that the flow of really useful
information needed will be supplied.

Have you ever had a vague, uncomfortable feeling that inter-
views and speeches to which you listened are selling defeatism?
That you are being softened up by a well organized line of pro
communist propaganda featuring no shelters, complete unilateral
disarmament, peace at any price, etc. Overlooked is the fact that
our past gestures of cooperation were taken as signs of weakness
or stupidity. This line is epitomized by the typical fellow traveler
slogan "better red than dead." Just a few thousand well placed
and highly articulate fellow travelers can make more noise and
influence more people than the overwhelmingly vast majority of
Americans who feel otherwise. The aim of this propaganda is
confusion and division of our citizens in times of crisis and decision.

America must realize that even capitulation to communism
would not be a guarantee against nuclear war. What happens when
the Chinese produce a nuclear weapon? When the Russians and
the Chinese start warring among themselves? The entire world
will become radiation contaminated in various degrees — and there
is very little we can do about it by ourselves. The implications of
nuclear problems to come stagger the imagination. To attempt to
solve these problems by unilateral disarmament would be like
atttempting to reduce crime by firing the policemen.

Human nature has not changed very much in centuries. Yet
it is man's supreme egotism, reflected in each generation— that his
generation is different. That human nature has changed drastically
in the 20 or 30 years of his generation when it has not, indeed,
changed much in the past 2,000 years. Little has been learned from

history or from the men with a desire to rule the world — and with
so little time on earth to accomplish this dream: Genghis Khan,
Alexander, Napoleon and Hitler. How short or convenient is our
memory! The more we placated Hitler, the bolder and hungrier he
became. Finally, under the most adverse conditions we had to face
the truth. The meek will some day inherit the earth — but at this
stage of our evolution only the strong and resolute can remain free.

What we call Communism today is actually Fascism. It enlists
the aid and support of some simple minded, even well intentioned
people and mistaken malcontents alike. They then spend half their
lives damning Fascism — and the other half serving it under the
delusion that they are helping their fellow men.

Magazine articles, newspaper ads and talks given by pre-
sumably well intentioned but uninformed persons have bombarded
you with information of sorts. This purports to show that you will
be blinded by a nuclear explosion, maimed or killed by hurtling
debris including bodies, incinerated by fires and tossed around by
blast waves. Of course, they seldom mention that all of these dire
predictions are based on the assumption that you will not have an
adequate shelter and will be, in fact, out in the open. These articles
quote barbers and taxicab drivers and probably boost circulation —
but they do not contain any useful information. They are emotional
appeals to the natural desire of everyone for peace and safety and
they ignore facts. Several excellent, factually informative mag-
azine articles have been conspicuous by their objective and helpful
approach.

Individual scientists and groups of scientists have been par-
ticularly vocal on the subject of shelters. Some say build shelters
and others say it is useless. This advice comes from men with
comparable scientific backgrounds. Their political and philosoph-
ical backgrounds usually differ. However, the fact that a person
is a scientist is not proof that he is particularly competent to judge
other affairs with superior ability.

Much of the information in this manual was developed from
Office of Civil Defense, Department of Defense and Atomic Energy
Commission publications. Some of the statistics are based on data
obtained by extrapolation, interpolation and the application of
scaling laws. The subject of nuclear weapon behavior is so complex
that the use of these methods is sometimes necessary. The results
of these computations should not be construed as exact figures,
because of the many conditions and forces which differ with each
nuclear explosion. Because many figures presented are approxi-
mate for any given weapon explosion, they serve as planning guide-

lines and should be verified and confirmed by radiation instrument
checks under the actual conditions prevailing at any given time.
With so many variable factors involved it was considered essential
that every effort be made to use maximal figures for most weapon
effects to present the worst possible conditions for each statistic.
Therefore, these figures may vary in different degrees from other
statistics covering the same area of interest.

This manual is not intended to provide the electrical, plumbing
or carpentry details of shelter building. No effort has been made
to explain how every bolt is to be set, every electrical outlet placed,
every yard of concrete poured or every reinforcing bar placed. It is
intended as a guide for shelter construction, a reminder and a
checklist — not a detailed blueprint.

With a combined ceiling mass of seven feet and space equal
to 500 cubic feet per person you can wait out the explosion,
thermal radiation, firewinds, blast including an overpressure of
100 psi and early fallout and still be more than 90 <% safe two and
one-half miles or more from the ground zero of a fifty megaton
explosion. You will not be incinerated, barbecued or hit by hurtling
bodies if you are in a well designed shelter. You can take intelligent
steps to increase your chance of survival.

The purpose of this manual is not to consciously sell the idea of
building a shelter. If you decide to do so, remember that you can
eliminate the generator, well and other desirable but non-essential
features that are expensive and still have the same degree of pro-
tection but not the same amount of convenience.

There is something slightly ridiculous about expecting in-
telligent citizens to protect themselves from nuclear explosions
crouched in makeshift $50 leantos covered with sandbags. Prac-
tically all officials seem reluctant to tell the people that they must
spend more than the cost of a television set for nuclear protection.
Our purpose is to explain the problem and avenues of solution.
If at times the solution seems involved and redundant it is because
the problem is involved and all known means of planning a shelter
are presented. For instance, three types of air filtration are shown
in the BOSDEC concept — but only one is necessary. We believe
you can make your choice if you have the information available.
That is what we are trying to do.

Your main problem may not be to survive a nuclear attack
but to survive a nuclear war and to just exist in the immediate post
attack world until that war is won. The BOSDEC system would
then prove to be much more than just a nuclear bomb shelter.

Many questions you may now have regarding this concept would
be answered at that time.

It would be tragic if America built a nuclear weapon to win
a war and instead lost a civilization.

Our most fervent prayer is that you will never use your shel-
ter under the conditions for which it was designed — and that a
true peace, honorable and just to all mankind will come to the
people of the world. If it does not, our main protection from the
iron curtain and the bamboo curtain may well be survival shelters
— the concrete curtain.

Illegitimi non carborundum!

James R. Fairlamb.

CHAPTER 1

Surviving Immediate Effects
of a Nuclear Explosion

SURVIVAL FOR ONE MINUTE

All nuclear weapon explosions produce basic reactions. The ex-
act degree is dependent on variables. But at the instant of an ex-
plosion several events start to occur. They will be mentioned in the
order observed or felt. These effects are covered in greater detail
in chapters three, four and five. 1.01

Irrespective of location, three nuclear weapon explosions
would probably be the maximum to which any one person would
be subjected. If he survived these three possible bursts — he would
have survived them all. Whether 50 or 500 bombs were delivered
in an attack is academic where the immediate personal effects of
an attack are concerned.

1. The flash is over in less than one second.

2. The thermal radiation is over in less than one minute.

3. The blast or Shockwave is over in less than one minute.

4. The initial nuclear radiation is over in less than one minute.

5. The early fallout is over in less than one day.

6. Outside radiation is reduced to 1/100 in two days.

7. Delayed fallout is mostly over in less than one week. 1.02

THERMAL RADIATION

About 35% of a burst's energy consists of thermal radiation.
During surface or air bursts (below ten miles) it is delivered in
two phases or pulses. The first phase is an ultraviolet flash repre-
senting 1% of the radiant energy. The second phase carries 99%
of the thermal radiation, lasts about 30 seconds for a 10 megaton
burst and is the main cause of skin burns. Bursts above a 20 mile
altitude emit thermal radiation in a single, one second pulse. The
heat effect produced by an explosion in the first minute is called
"prompt thermal radiation". 1.03

FLASH

The flash or initial phase of thermal radiation is many times
brighter than the sun. It travels at the speed of light, 186,000 miles
per second, and lasts for just a few millionths of a second. Anyone
looking directly into this flash would be blinded. Sunglasses do not

provide protection against this eye damage. The blink reflex takes
0.15 second, so the flash is over before the eye can blink. Ultra-
violet radiations cause more eye damage than visible or infrared
rays and permanent eye injury may be expected by persons look-
ing directly at the fireball. But the ultraviolet flash is so brief
that any protection, a newspaper for example, could prevent blind-
ness. If caught in the open or near a window, action should be
taken to minimize burn injury before the maximum of the second
pulse. Up to this time only 20 percent of the thermal radiation
will have been received. A large proportion can be avoided if shel-
ter is obtained before or soon after the second thermal pulse max-
imum which is 3.2 seconds after burst for a 10 megaton explosion.
It occurs more slowly for larger weapon yields. 1.04

FIREBALL HEAT

For several seconds after an explosion the core of the burst is
so bright it cannot be looked into with the naked eye. Called the
fireball, this core is millions of degrees in temperature and between
3.5 and 4.5 miles in diameter for a 10 megaton or a 20 megaton
explosion. The heat travels at the speed of light, lasts about 30
seconds for a 10 megaton air burst, and is mostly infrared. The
fireball rises at a rate of about 250 to 350 feet per second and
reaches its maximum diameter in approximately one to one and
one-half minutes. Both the flash and the fireball can cause serious
burns to exposed skin within up to 30 miles from ground zero
(guide 3.10). 1.05

AFTERWINDS

The strong updraft of the hot fireball creates inflowing winds
called "afterwinds" which are largely responsible for sweeping
dirt and debris up into the stem of the fireball. This debris is
irradiated and later descends to earth as fallout. 1.06

FIRESTORMS

The flash and the fireball heat also start fires and may cause
"firestorms". Firestorms are generated when air rushes in to re-
place superheated rising air and fans the flames of many small
fires. Closely built up areas or dense forests are necessary for
transmitting fire from one object to another before a firestorm
becomes possible. The firestorm which badly damaged the German
city of Hamburg during the second world war, reached tempera-
tures of up to 2500° F. However, a properly designed and equipped
shelter, with air intake and exhaust ports kept closed so that the

firestorm would not draw the air out of it, would experience a tem-
perature rise of only a few degrees under the same temperature
conditions. Firestorms appear to reach a maximum two to three
hours after an explosion and would decrease to moderate about six
hours after the burst. 1.07

VAPORIZATION

The fireball's intense initial heat is rapidly dissipated as it
moves outward from ground zero. The speed of this movement is
so great that the burst's initial heat lasts less than one minute.
However, in that fraction of a minute the fireball will vaporize al-
most everything above ground within about a 2.3 mile radius of
a 20 megaton burst. It will burn everything above ground within
a wider range depending on size and type of weapon, height of
burst, etc. Heavy concrete structures have been known to resist
vaporization within the area of the fireball. 1.08

INITIAL NUCLEAR RADIATION

Between 3% and 5% of nuclear explosion's energy is wrapped
up in the initial nuclear radiation. It is that part of the nuclear
radiation that occurs within one minute after the explosion. The
time is the same for all weapon yields. At the instant of explosion,
radioactive products of the bomb itself bombard the earth with
initial nuclear radiation which creates induced neutron radioac-
tivity at and near the crater site. 1.09

Included in this radiation are nearly all the neutrons and
prompt gamma rays, both being released within one second after
the burst. The initial nuclear radiation covers an area about the
size of the fireball which is 4.5 miles in diameter for a 20 megaton
weapon. It is most dangerous within two miles from ground zero.
Within one minute practically all the weapon residues will have
risen to such a height that appreciable amounts of initial nuclear
radiation cannot reach the ground. The effects of this type of ra-
diation are generally afforded little attention since within the area
directly under the fireball, where initial nuclear radiation is pos-
sible and most dangerous, the blast and thermal effects are an
equal or greater hazard to inadequately protected persons. 1.10

BLAST

About 50% of the explosive energy is expended in producing
the blast effect. This effect follows the flash, heat and initial nu-
clear radiation very closely. It travels more slowly and is not felt
as quickly as the heat and light. A fraction of a second after the

burst this high pressure wave develops and leaves ground zero
at about 2,000 miles per hour. It quickly decelerates to about the
speed of sound, 760 miles per hour. In 10 seconds (for a one mega-
ton burst) it is about 3 miles from ground zero. At 50 seconds
after the explosion it has progressed to about 12 miles from ground
zero. This blast wave creates very strong winds called "blast
winds" (1.21). These blast winds start at velocities of hundreds of
miles per hour but slow to hurricane speed at about 10 miles from
ground zero. 1.11

OVERPRESSURE

The energy of a blast wave is measured by the amount of
overpressure created. Overpressure is the amount of pressure oc-
curring in excess of normal atmospheric pressure which is 14.7 psi
at sea level at 70° F. A given pressure occurs at a distance from
the ground zero of a nuclear burst in proportion to the cube root of
the bomb energy yield. 1.12

At a little more than three miles from ground zero a 10 mega-
ton explosion creates a 15 psi overpressure. A 100 megaton burst
creates a 15 psi overpressure seven miles from ground zero. This
is about twice the distance of the 10 megaton burst for the same
overpressure. In other words a weapon with ten times the yield of
any other just about doubles the radius of equivalent overpres-
sure. 1.13

AIR BLAST

Air blast in the form of a blast wave has little effect below
the surface of the earth. When a blast wave hits the earth most of
its energy is reflected. This reflected wave can cause damage. The
direct (unreflected) and reflected waves merge into a "Mach front"
at a distance from ground zero about equal to the height of the
explosion. 1.14

MACH FRONT

The overpressure of a Mach front is usually about twice that
of the direct blast wave. In a building the direct pressure of a blast
wave might be reflected from the walls and then could be twice
the unreflected pressure. A person's location against a wall could
be the most dangerous so far as direct blast effects are concerned
because the reflected overpressure is then at its peak. On the other
hand a location away from the wall, while decreasing this hazard,
increases the possibility of body displacement. 1.15

BLAST WAVE

The blast wave is actually divided into two phases. The com-
pression or positive phase and the suction or negative phase. The
compression phase lasts for about two to four seconds for a one
megaton explosion, depending on the distance from ground zero.
The compression phase will reach a point 5 miles from ground
zero in about 20 seconds for a one megaton burst. It is the most
dangerous phase of the blast wave. The suction phase lasts longer
(about 2 or 3 times as long as the compression phase) but does
not vary as much (about 4 psi under the ambient pressure) from
normal pressure. One particular hazard of the suction phase is its
ability to suck air out of a shelter unless the shelter air intake
and exhaust ports are closed and secured. Government shelter tests
show that animals in a shelter survived when the outside over-
pressure was 90 pounds per square inch. 1.16

Blast and overpressure from any megaton range weapon will
crush almost all above ground structures within about a three mile
radius from ground zero. Reinforced, heavy, poured concrete struc-
tures stand a chance near the periphery of this three mile radius
depending on weapon size, terrain and other variables. 1.17

A shallow (top of earth cover equal to original grade) buried
concrete arch, with a 16 foot span and a central angle of 180°,
consisting of 8 inch thick concrete with a 4 foot earth cover was
only moderately damaged (could be used) at 160 psi to 220 psi
overpressure. It was lightly damaged at 120 psi to 160 psi over-
pressure. 1.18

At about 12 miles from ground zero the blast effect is almost
gone and the overpressure reduced to that prevalent during a very
high wind. The overpressure and wind velocity decay for a 20
megaton ground burst is shown in guide 1.19. 1.19

OVERPRESSURE AND WIND VELOCITY DECAY
20 MT GROUND BURST

Overpressure (psi) Wind Velocity (mph) Distance from GZ (miles)

TOO

1400

1.8

1100

2.0

850

2.8

600

3.6

310

5.1

165

7.6

3.5

120

10.0

15.2

1.3

20.0

Guide 1.19

At distances more than three miles from ground zero each
one psi of overpressure equals about thirty to forty miles per hour
wind velocity. Since the blast and blast winds follow the thermal
radiation by a few seconds any fires started by the intense heat
may be either fanned into greater activity or snuffed out by the
blast winds depending on the type of fire, location, time of year
and weather conditions. 1.20

BLAST WINDS

The passage of a blast wave or the Mach front resulting from
it, creates very strong winds called "blast winds" which accom-
pany the blast wave. Blast winds are much stronger than the
afterwinds accompanying the updraft of the rapidly rising fire-
ball. Blast winds blow away from ground zero during the compres-
sion phase and blow back toward ground zero during the negative
or suction phase. 1.21

GROUND SHOCK AND SHOCKWAVES

Shock from a ground burst transmitted solely through the
earth is usually small compared with shock of the air blast waves
from the same explosion, which passes over the surface. When the
blast effect occurs underground or underwater it is called a shock-
wave. Underground bursts expend much of their energy in trans-
mitting groundshock and digging a crater. Craters produced may
be as wide as 3500 feet and as deep as 800 feet depending on the
size of the weapon and the ground material at the crater site. Am
underwater explosion at a depth of one hundred feet creates waves
of the magnitude shown in guide 1.22. 1.22

WAVES CREATED BY 100 FT. DEEP UNDERWATER EXPLOSION

Weapon Size (MT) 1 Mile from GZ I'/z Miles from GZ

40 ft.

25 ft.

45 ft.

30 ft.

50 ft.

35 ft.

Guide 1.22

FALLOUT

A 10 megaton explosion must occur at an altitude of less than
7000 feet for appreciable fallout to be generated. A one megaton
burst must occur below 3000 feet to create significant fallout. 1.23

About 10% to 15% of all nuclear explosion energy is in the
form of early and delayed fallout. The composition and rate of
decay of radioactive fallout depends upon the basic materials used
to construct the weapon. Since the fallout consists of weapon
residues plus the dirt and debris sucked into the ascending fireball,
the size of the individual fallout particles will also depend par-
tially on the type of ground material at ground zero (rock, sand,
clay, etc. ) . The fallout from one 15 megaton explosion consisted of
particles from about 25 microns to about 500 microns or from one
thousandth to one fiftieth of an inch in diameter. Fallout descends
in two stages ; early fallout and delayed fallout. 1.24

EARLY FALLOUT

Early fallout contains about 60% of all fallout energy. It falls
within 24 hours after the burst. Depending on location relative to
ground zero of the explosion, the early fallout will start to fall
about one half hour after the flash. This is mostly fallout that had
been swept up into the fireball and contaminated. It is the most
dangerous fallout and can contaminate large areas with an inten-
sity sufficient to create an immediate hazard to people within those
areas. 1.25

Naturally the largest fallout particles fall first. They are
about the size of grains of sand or sugar i.e. within a 20 to 2000
micron range. Directly under the fireball and close to its periphery
some of the fallout may be up to one half inch in diameter. The
density of fallout is about 2.5 grams per cubic centimeter or ap-
proximately that of dry sand. A human hair is 75 microns in
diameter. 1.26

All early fallout descends within one day. The two types of
hazards that these fallout particles represent are:

1. Actual contact of radioactive material with the skin which
can cause "beta burns". Beta burns are caused by beta par-
ticles. They should be washed off immediately.

2. Continuous body exposure to scattered and direct gamma
rays emanating from fallout particles.

Early fallout is another very good reason for remaining in a shel-
ter for at least the first day or two after an explosion. 1.27

DELAYED FALLOUT

Forty per cent of all fallout is the delayed type which falls
more than 24 hours after the explosion. This delayed fallout is
buffeted about by high altitude winds and will usually settle in low
concentration over wide areas. 1.28

Rain or snow may cause delayed fallout particles, that are at

an altitude of less than 20,000 feet, to be deposited in greater con-
centrations in some localities. Areas in which rain or snow pre-
cipitate above average amounts of fallout are called "hot spots".
Potential fallout from megaton range explosions ordinarily attains
altitudes above 20,000 feet, and spends little time below that height
in the area where rain and snow usually occurs. 1.29

Most delayed fallout will descend hundreds or even thousands
of miles away and will take months or years to eventually settle
to earth. It will represent a long term hazard. In the meantime the
delayed fallout radioactivity will be steadily decaying. 1.30

CHAPTER 2

Types of Nuclear Weapon Explosions

There are three general types of nuclear weapon explosions.
Each type produces different effects and creates a different set of
dangers. If and when a decision to build a survival shelter is made,
the hazards of each type must be recognized. Always remember
the three factors that can work in a shelter occupants favor ; time,
space and barrier shielding. 2.01

AIR BURST

An air burst is simply a nuclear explosion in the air during
which the fireball does not touch the surface. 2.02

THERMAL RADIATION EFFECTS OF AN AIR BURST

An air burst creates about 25% more thermal radiation than
a surface or subsurface explosion. Flash and heat is dispersed more
widely and with less obstruction than is the case with the other
two types of explosions. Air bursts at altitudes of more than 20
miles reduce the chance of exposed people being burned. However,
a burst occurring at this altitude would increase the incidence of
flash blindness just as far as a person can see. Atmospheric haze
and smog tends to lessen the thermal radiation effect of an air
burst by interposing a natural shield between the heat and light of
the explosion and the earth. 2.03

NUCLEAR RADIATION EFFECTS OF AN AIR BURST

Intense initial nuclear radiation is emitted by an air burst.
This can be dangerous within about a two mile radius of the fire-
ball core. At three miles from its source, this initial radiation is
negligable even for a 10 megaton explosion. Alpha and beta par-
ticles cannot reach the ground from an air burst. An air burst does
not create early fallout. 2.04

BLAST EFFECTS OF AN AIR BURST

An air burst creates the most powerful blast effect since it is
relatively unimpeded by the atmosphere through which it passes.
Some of the air blast wave energy may be translated into ground
shock if the air burst is close enough to the ground. 2.05

TIMING OF EFFECTS OF I MEGATON AIR BURST
ALTITUDE 6500 FT.

Time After Explosion
(Seconds)

Distance
Effect From GZ (Miles)

1.8

Fireball is 6300 ft. in diameter

1.8

Blast wave

1.0

4.6

Mach front forms— 16 psi OP

1.3

11.0

Blast wind— 180 miles per hour

3.2

11.0

Mach front— 6 psi OP

3.2

37.0

Blast wind — 40 miles per hour

9.5

37.0

Mach front— 1 psi OP

9.5

Guide 2.05

Summary: An air burst usually produces a most effective blast
wave, about 25% more thermal radiation, intense initial nuclear
radiation, negligible groundshock and much less fallout than a
ground burst. An air burst does not create a crater. 2.06

GROUND BURST

A nuclear explosion occurring on or very close to the earth's
surface — either land or sea — is called a surface burst. If it occurs
on or over land it is a ground burst. In any event its fireball touches
the surface. 2.07

THERMAL RADIATION EFFECTS OF A GROUND BURST

A ground burst causes thermal radiation to be directed up-
ward and outward. Therefore, it creates only about 80% as much
thermal damage as an air burst. The earth or water absorbs much
of the thermal effect that is directed downward. The flash or heat
of a ground burst .does not have the damage potential of an air
burst i.e. an unobstructed path to possible unprotected victims or
structures. The burst must also pass through or around natural
and man made barriers not encountered by an air burst. This
lessens the ground burst thermal radiation damage potential. 2.08

INITIAL NUCLEAR RADIATION EFFECTS OF A GROUND BURST

The initial nuclear radiation is less of an immediate hazard
when emitted by a ground burst. More of it is absorbed by the
earth or water and less consequently finds a human target. 2.09

BLAST EFFECTS OF A GROUND BURST

A ground burst creates less blast than an air burst at con-
siderable distances from ground zero. However, close to ground
zero the blast is greater from a ground burst. The ground shock
of a ground burst is more intensified than that of an air burst since
more of the full power of the explosion is transmitted or absorbed
by the ground in the process of digging the crater. Ground shock
damage can extend out to a distance equal to about two crater di-
ameters. Primary blast and reflected shock, which together form
the Mach front, occur at almost the same instant during a ground
burst. 2.10

FALLOUT RADIATION EFFECTS OF A GROUND BURST

A ground burst creates the greatest fallout hazard. Its fireball
and blast originate at or near the ground. Thus, accompanying
afterwinds suck much more dirt and debris into the ascend-
ing nuclear cloud for radiation and eventual distribution as fall-
out. 2.11

Summary: Ground bursts generally produce less effective blasts, at
considerable distances from ground zero, than air bursts. How-
ever, close to ground zero more blast is produced by ground bursts.
They create less thermal radiation and less immediately dangerous
initial nuclear radiation. Ground bursts generate much more
ground shock and many times the amount of fallout created by an
air burst. Ground bursts dig craters. 2.12

SUBSURFACE BURST

Subsurface bursts are underground or underwater explo-
sions where the burst occurs considerably below the earth's sur-
face. 2.13

THERMAL RADIATION EFFECTS OF A SUBSURFACE BURST

Thermal radiation created by a subsurface burst would be
minimal or non-existent depending on the depth of the explo-
sion. 2.14

INITIAL NUCLEAR RADIATION EFFECTS OF A
SUBSURFACE BURST

During a subsurface burst the initial nuclear radiation is gen-

erally absorbed by the surrounding earth or water (water is an
excellent radiation shield) as the case may be. There is less initial
nuclear radiation for a subsurface burst than for a comparable
ground burst. 2.15

BLAST EFFECTS OF A SUBSURFACE BURST

A subsurface explosion of the underground type would pro-
duce considerable ground shock ; more than an air or ground burst.
The possibility of an enemy exploding a weapon underground is
remote. It would be pointless. Underwater bursts could be a very
likely and important mode of attack; a method calculated to kill
defenders and leave the buildings and equipment virtually un-
harmed; a method comparatively easy to use; weapons easy to
deliver-say by fishing boats. A burst 2700 feet underwater will
produce a tremendous shock-wave. The resulting waves would be
20 to 50 feet high and would fan out, at ever decreasing size waves,
to about 100 miles. The implications for residents of tideland areas
are particularly serious. Not only would the danger of flooding
exist, but the water would be radioactively charged. 2.16

FALLOUT RADIATION EFFECTS OF A SUBSURFACE BURST

A moderately deep underground burst produces very little fall-
out. The amount would be roughly in proportion to the depth of
the burst. Underwater bursts can produce fallout laden rain. Here,
again, the amount of contaminated rain so produced would de-
pend on variables including depth of explosion, weather conditions,
size of weapon, etc. 2.17

Summary: Subsurface bursts create very little thermal radiation
or initial nuclear radiation. Underground bursts produce consid-
erable Shockwaves. Underwater bursts create potentially danger-
ous fallout and extremely dangerous Shockwaves. 2.18

CHAPTER 3

Thermal Radiation

Thermal radiation is felt as heat and the ultraviolet flash can,
of course, be seen. The heat lasts less than one minute. At one
mile from ground zero of a one megaton explosion complete pro-
tection from the thermal radiation would be provided by two feet
of concrete. 3.01

HEAT

Two factors cause thermal radiation heat energy to decrease
with increasing distance from ground zero of a nuclear explosion:

1. The heat from the thermal radiation is absorbed over in-
creasing areas as it moves away from the burst.

2. Attenuation of the thermal radiation as it passes through
air. The thermal dose is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the explosion. Four miles from
the ground zero the heat energy would be only one quarter
that received at two miles or one half the distance from the
same explosion. Attenuation is due to two factors —

a. Absorption : Atoms and molecules in the air absorb, and,
thereby, remove part of the heat from a nuclear explo-
sion.

b. Scattering: Heat is diverted from its normal path by
means of oxygen and nitrogen in the air. Another im-
portant form of scattering is the reflection and bending
of light rays by smog and dirt particles in the air which
causes diffusion rather than direct transmission of
thermal radiation. 3.02

The scattering effect is very important. Ordinarily thermal
radiation will travel in a straight line from the fireball especially
after an air burst. Much of the thermal radiation arriving at a
target from fairly long distances will have been scattered. This
heat will then arrive from many directions. Clouds can reduce the
amount of thermal radiation received at a point on the ground.
Dense smoke or fog interposed between an air burst and the tar-
get can reduce to as little as one tenth the amount of heat which
would have been received with clear visibility. 3.03

HEAT REFLECTION AND ABSORPTION

Thermal radiation is emitted quickly. The intensity rate is
high on the surface but the conductivity is low. The extent of heat
absorbed or reflected depends on the type, color, thickness, tem-

perature and moisture content of the material or object. Thermal
radiation absorbed by a material produces the heat that deter-
mines the damage done to that material. The length of time of the
heat exposure and the degree of heat are very important factors.
Highly reflecting and transparent materials will not absorb much
thermal radiation. Even a thin material can often transmit a large
proportion of the heat and thereby escape damage. However, the
heavier the fabric or material, the better the protection from heat.
Providing the color is the same, wool provides more protection
than cotton. 3.04

Dark materials will absorb much more thermal radiation than
the same material when light colored. Dark materials char more
readily than light colored fabrics. When charred, a light colored
material assumes the same characteristics as a dark material.
Light colored fabrics reflect or transmit up to 90% of thermal
radiation to which they are exposed. They absorb very little. 3.05

Surface damage to building materials can be minimized by the
use of light colored paints and hard varnishes to reflect the ther-
mal radiation. A number of modern plastics including Bakelite,
cellulose, acetate, Lucite, Plexiglas, polyethylene, Teflon and vinyl
plastic withstand heat so well that more than sixty calories per
square centimeter are necessary to produce melting or even dark-
ening. This is many times the amount of heat that would cause
dangerous human burns (3.10) . Glass is highly heat resistant. 3.06

BURNS

Thermal radiation has one very dangerous capability. It has
the intensity necessary to inflict fatal damage to the human body
in the form of burns. A building or survival shelter strong enough
to protect against blast will provide sufficient protection from di-
rect heat. Earth is an excellent heat absorber. 3.07

Thermal radiation causes three main types of burns:

1. Flash burns are caused by direct exposure. They are not
deep burns because of the short exposure duration. Flash
burns can be most severe when intervening clothing is
drawn tightly against the body at points such as the elbows
and shoulders. Loose fitting clothes with some air space
next to the skin minimize flash burn injuries.

2. Flame burns are caused by thermal radiation originated
fires. These burns would be usually deeper and consequently
more serious than flash burns. In fact, they would be much
like burns resulting from fires of non-nuclear origin.

3. Hot gas burns which are dangerous even when protected
from flash or flame burns. Hot gas burns are a particular
hazard if superheated air is inhaled. 3.08

The larger the nuclear weapon yield, the more thermal radiant
exposure required to produce an equivalent effect. The lower yield
weapons deliver their heat in a very short time (less than one half
second). The more powerful weapons require as much as several
seconds. Generally the longer the exposure time for a given thermal
dose, the less damaging is that dose. A thermal dose of seven cal-
ories per square centimeter of skin area from a one megaton ex-
plosion can produce a second degree (blistering) burn. It takes
about nine calories per square centimeter (cal/cm2) from a ten
megaton weapon to cause a similar second degree burn. Four calo-
ries per square centimeter from a ten megaton burst will cause
first degree (redness) burns. Third degree burns destroy the full
thickness of the skin. 3.09

The unit used to express the degree of thermal exposure is the
"calorie per square centimeter (of skin area)". This is abbreviated
to "cal/cm2." Thermal radiation doses between 3 and 4 cal/cm2
cause first degree burns (redness) ; between 6 and 10 cal/cm2 cause
second degree burns (blisters) and over 10 cal/cm2 cause increas-
ingly severe burns which may be classified as third degree burns
(charring) depending on circumstances. Thermal exposure to over
12 cal/cm2 will cause third degree burns. 3.10

BURN RANGES FOR EXPOSED PERSONS - AIR BURST

CLEAR ATMOSPHERE - DISTANCE FROM EXPLOSION

THERMAL RADIATION RECEIVED

Explosion
Yield

Third Degree
Burns (Charring)
Miles Cal/cm2

Second Degree
Burns (Blisters)

First
Burns

Degree
(Redness)

Megatons

Miles

Cal/cm2

Miles

Cal/cm2

6.5

3.1

6.7

3.2

3.3

8.2

3.4

8.5

3.5

9.1

3.6

9.6

3.8

Guide 3.10

EYE INJURIES

Most thermal radiation burns would be similar to those which
would result from fires of non-nuclear origin. The big exception is
the possibility of serious eye injury. There are two main types of
thermal radiation eye effects :

1. Permanent injury from chorioretinal burns.

2. Temporary injury or flash blindness from explosion flash.

Permanent eye damage can be caused if the focusing action of the
eyes causes them to concentrate enough direct thermal energy on
the retina. The fireball must be in the field of view before focusing
can take place. Should this occur, permanent eye injury may be
suffered at distances from ground zero greater than the distances
at which heat causes skin burns. 3.11

If the retina receives more light than it needs for seeing, but
less than the amount which would cause a burn, flash or tem-
porary blindness can ensue. Flash blindness is apt to occur at
greater distances at night since the pupil is enlarged and the eye
is adapted to the dark. During the daylight hours the pupils are
small and the range within which flash blindness can occur is
correspondingly shorter. Atmospheric conditions also affect the
distances at which eye damage can occur. 3.12

Scattered thermal radiation (3.02) does not cause perma-
nent damage to the retina of the eye. It can contribute to flash
blindness resulting from the dazzling effect of bright light. Burns
near the center of the eye can cause considerable loss of vision.
However, if a chorioretinal burn is mild, eyesight may scarcely
be affected. This is also true if the burn is around the outside
edge of the retina. 3.13

Among Japanese survivors of the Hiroshima nuclear bomb at-
tack on August 6, 1945 and the Nagasaki attack on August 9, 1945
only one case of retinal injury was reported although there were
many cases of temporary blindness lasting up to 2 or 3 hours.
It is a fair assumption that only a small proportion of people
would be facing a nuclear explosion in such a way that the fire-
ball would be in their field of vision at any given instant. 3.14

CHAPTER 4

Nuclear Blast

The blast effect of a nuclear explosion behaves like a wall of
pressure leaving the core of the fireball in a wave at very high
speed. The passage of this blast wave creates turbulance in the air
as it pushes outward from the burst. This turbulance is called a
blast wind. The blast wave consists of a compression and a suc-
tion stage (1.16). This tremendous force causes blast injuries
which can be divided into two general categories. 4.01

INJURIES DUE TO BLAST

The two types of injuries resulting from a nuclear explosion
are: direct injuries caused by the high air pressure injuring lungs
and tissues ; indirect injuries caused by flying objects and by phys-
ical movement or displacement of the body. 4.02

DIRECT CAUSES OF INJURIES DUE TO BLAST

Direct blast injuries are affected by three blast wave factors.

1. The peak overpressure in effect during blast wave passage.

2. The rate of pressure rise of the blast wave.

3. The duration of the compression stage of the blast wave.
Guide 4.03 provides information on peak overpressures and com-
pression stage durations. 4.03

•If the pressure rise is at a rapid rate (the time rise period
is short) the blast wave will have greater damaging effects on the
body than that of a slowly increasing pressure. This is similar to
the effect of exerting an equal pressure in the form of a punch
or a shove. A pressure increase in stages is less dangerous than a
single sharp pressure rise. 4.04

An increased duration time will increase the possibility of
damage for a given peak overpressure ; but only to a certain point.
When this point, which could be a duration of from 30 to 400 milli-
seconds according to body size, is reached it is only the amount
of peak overpressure that is important for a short rise time blast
wave. The compression stage positive phase duration for a given
peak overpressure varies with the weapon energy yield and explo-
sion height. 4.05

For explosions in the megaton range the duration of the com-
pression phase of a sharp rising blast wave lasts so long that the
peak overpressure is the primary factor to be considered where
direct injury is concerned. Any nuclear attack is almost certain
to involve megaton yield weapons. 4.06

1 MT WIND VELOCITY - POSITIVE PHASE DURATION

PEAK OP - ARRIVAL TIME PEAK OP
10 MT PEAK OVERPRESSURE - PEAK OP ARRIVAL TIME

Miles
From
GZ

1 MT Wind
Velocity
(MPH)

1 MT Positive Peak OP Peak OP Arrival Time
Phase Duration (psi) (sec)
(Sec.) 1 MT 10MT 1 MT 10MT

900

1.75

150

2.5

1.5

464

2.25

6.5

278

2.69

9.4

9.5

177

3.02

5.5

117

3.24

3.40

2.6

3.43

2.1

3.44

1.7

3.45

1.4

3.45

1.3

4.5

3.45

1.0

Guide 4.03

An important factor which could affect the damage a blast
wave might do is "dynamic pressure". This is air pressure result-
ing from the drag from blast winds acting on structures and ob-
jects. Dynamic pressure is influenced by peak overpressure,
duration of compression (positive) phase and shape of object. At
overpressures less than 70 psi the peak overpressure is more than
the dynamic pressure. The 70 psi overpressure occurs at about the
time the blast winds have a velocity of less than 1100 miles per
hour. Therefore, for practical purposes, the peak overpressure
is the governing factor in considering underground survival
shelters. 4.07

Studies indicate that a peak overpressure of 35 psi with a
positive pressure phase duration of 400 milliseconds could be fatal
provided the rise time was short. Lung damage can occur at over-
pressures as low as 15 psi. Eardrums could rupture at overpres-
sures from 5 psi to 40 psi. There could be eardrum rupture in
about one-half the instances where the overpressure is between
20 psi and 30 psi. 4.08

Loose objects, including occupants, within an underground
shelter, could be tossed around by the effect of part of a blast
wave being translated into ground shock. This tossing effect could
occur even though the shelter showed no signs of damage. The
amount of ground shock would be proportional to the OP of the
blast wave. All objects which might be subjected to this type jolt

within the shelter should be secured, possibly by automobile seat
belt type apparatus. 4.09

PEAK OVERPRESSURES AT MAXIMUM DISTANCES
FROM GROUND ZERO

Peak
OP

(psi)

Blast Wind Air Burst
Velocity Distance in Miles
(MPH) 1 MT 5MT 10MT 20 MT

Ground Burst
Distance in Miles
1 MT 5MT 10 MT 20 MT

10.0

17.0

21.0

27.0

8.2

14.0

18.0

22.0

7.0

11.5

14.4

18.0

5.3

9.0

11.4

15.0

100

5.5

9.0

11.4

14.4

4.0

7.0

9.0

11.0

130

4.5

7.0

9.7

12.0

3.3

5.6

7.0

9.0

165

4.0

6.7

8.4

11.0

3.0

5.0

6.0

7.6

190

3.5

6.0

7.5

9.5

2.6

4.4

5.6

7.0

215

3.2

5.5

7.0

9.0

2.3

3.9

5.0

6.2

240

3.0

5.0

6.2

8.0

2.2

3.8

4.7

6.0

270

2.7

4.6

6.0

7.3

2.0

3.4

4.3

5.4

300

2.5

4.1

5.2

6.5

1.9

3.3

4.1

5.2

400

1.5

2.4

3.0

4.0

1.6

3.0

3.5

4.3

500

1.0

1.7

2.2

3.0

1.3

2.2

3.0

3.5

580

1.2

1.5

2.0

1.2

2.1

2.6

3.3

670

1.0

1.1

1.4

1.1

2.0

2.4

3.0

850

1.0

2.2

2.7

940

2.0

2.4

1050

1.7

2.2

1100

1.7

2.1

1300

1.6

2.0

1400

1.5

1.9

100

1500

1.2

1.5

1.8

Guide 4.07

PROBABLE FATALITY PERCENTAGES FOR ESTIMATED
OVERPRESSURE RANGES

Probability of Death
(Percentage)

Estimated Overpressure Range

(psi)

35 to 45

45 to 55

55 to 65

Guide 4.08

Thoracic (chest) and abdominal cavity areas are prone to feel
the effects of compression and decompression caused by blast
waves. Damage also occurs at the junctions between tissues and
air containing organs. Hemorrhage and rupture of the organs are
the main consequences. Lungs are affected by edema (fluid in the
lungs). Body damage of these types should be handled with min-
imal bodily activity, since death can occur in many cases that
otherwise might recover. Brain injuries would usually be the result
of flying debris or body displacement rather than the over-
pressure. 4.10

INDIRECT CAUSES OF INJURIES DUE TO BLAST

The indirect nuclear blast injuries caused by the blast wave
and blast winds are similar to those caused by cyclones or hurri-
canes. Depending on the velocity of the wind and the weight of
the object, the blast wave will pick up almost everything in its path
and hurl it through the air. The only protection against being hit
by flying objects or becoming a flying object is to be underground.
It is as simple as that. 4.11

Tests conducted with a 165 pound dummy in a 5.3 psi over-
pressure area (about 170 mph wind velocity) showed that it at-
tained a maximum velocity of 21 feet per second within one-half
second after the blast wave arrived. The dummy traveled 13 feet
before hitting the ground and then slid or rolled another 9 feet.
Under similar conditions a prone dummy did not move. This em-
phasizes the advantage of taking prompt action at the instant of
explosion to secure some protection from the blast in the interval
before the blast and blast winds arrive. This protection may best
be secured by falling prone with the head directly away from the
explosion. Even with the head directly toward the burst the body
area exposed would be minimal and the possibility of body dis-
placement likewise reduced. 4.12

Available data indicates that an impact velocity of 10 feet per
second would probably not be fatal in most cases ; between 10 feet
and 20 feet per second some fatalities might occur; at velocities
more than 20 feet per second, death would result in a sharply rising
percentage of cases. 4.13

CRATERS

The blast of a ground explosion expends much energy in dig-
ging a crater. The crater depth decreases with increasing height
of the explosion. Cratering becomes insignificant long before a
burst height is reached at which the fireball just touches the
ground. A significant crater will not be formed unless the height

of the explosion is less than about one-tenth the maximum fire-
ball radius. 4.14

Multiplying the radius or depth of the crater formed by a ten
megaton explosion by the cube root of ten provides the crater
radius or depth of a 100 megaton explosion. This radius or depth
would be about twice the value of a ten megaton burst. This rule
is valid for other bomb yields. 4.15

The formation of a crater is deceptive. There are actually
three zones or areas involved. Two of these zones spread out fan-
wise from the observable crater or third zone and are under and
around it. These three zones are the observable crater, rupture
zone and plastic zone. 4.16

CRATER ZONE GUIDE

MUSHROOM HEAD

RUPTURE ZONE, IVfc X Crater Radius

TRUE CRATER, 2 X Crater Radius

PLASTIC ZONE, 2'/2X Crater Radius

RADIAL

CRACKS
COMPRESSED EARTH

TRUE
CRATER

OBSERVABLE CRATER

The observable crater is that part of the total crater that can
readily be seen. 4.17

RUPTURE ZONE

The rupture zone is that part of the true crater which is di-
rectly adjacent to the observable crater. Explosion stresses not
powerful enough to blast material out of the ground, but which
exceed the strength of the earth in the rupture zone, create radial
cracks. The rupture zone including the observable crater has a
diameter of about one and one half times that of the observable
crater. 4.18

PLASTIC ZONE

The plastic zone is the third area affected by the cratering
action of a nuclear ground burst. It is directly adjacent to the
rupture zone. The plastic zone consists of earth which has been
subjected to sufficient dynamic strain to deform it, but not enough
to dig a crater or cause radial cracks. The line of demarcation be-
tween the rupture and plastic zones is somewhat arbitrary since
the two zones blend together. The plastic zone has a diameter of
approximately two and one half times that of the observable
crater. It is in the plastic zone that the first hope of survival from
blast in an underground BOSDEC type shelter is possible. 4.19

Survival in the plastic zone is a possibility especially if the
shelter is designed to take advantage of the soil particle's tendency
to lock together in the form of an arch in the plastic zone. This
arching effect permits stresses to be transmitted around a prop-
erly designed shelter instead of through it. Such a buried reinforced
concrete arch type shelter would suffer only light damage at over-
pressures between 120 psi and 160 psi. Reflected pressure build-up
at the interface of the soil and an underground shelter is very
small. 4.20

TRUE CRATER

All of the observable crater and rupture zone plus about one
half of the plastic zone may be referred to as the true crater. It
has a diameter of roughly two times the observable crater. Within
this true crater area there would be almost complete destruction
caused mainly by direct ground shock and partially by shock in
the ground induced by blast waves above the surface. In the area
beyond the true crater the effects of ground shock are unimportant

but blast waves may damage weak underground structures or
shelters not sufficiently buried. A small, well designed under-
ground shelter would suffer only light damage such as slight
cracking and severance of brittle pipe connections at a distance
from ground zero equivalent to two and one half observable crater
radii. 4.21

MAXIMUM CRATER DIMENSIONS
(APPROXIMATE - FEET)

Observable Crater 1 MT 5 MT 10MT 20 MT

Depth - Dry soil 300 500 650 800

Depth - Rock 240 400 520 640

Radius -Dry soil 650 1100 1400 1700

Radius -Rock 520 880 1120 1360

Rupture Zone

Depth - Dry soil 450 750 975 1200

Depth - Rock 360 600 780 960

Radius -Dry soil 975 1650 2100 2550

Radius -Rock 780 1320 1680 2040

Plastic Zone

Depth - Dry soil 750 1250 1625 2000

Radius -Dry soil 1625 2750 3500 4250

NOTE: There is practically no effect of blast in rock in the
plastic zone.

Guide 4.21

The statistics shown in Guide 4.21 are for maximum radii
and depths. Authoritative estimates for these effects, under the
same conditions, range down to about 50% of these values. The
more conservative estimates, while appearing high, are used here
to present the maximum danger potential. 4.22

Approximately one half the dirt displaced from a nuclear ex-
plosion crater is thrown out of the crater. The balance is com-
pressed into the walls and floor of the crater by the force of the
burst. 4.23

CHAPTER 5

Nuclear Radiation Guide

TYPES OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS

FISSION

The fission process consists of splitting the nucleus of a heavy
element such as uranium 235 or plutonium 239 into two lighter
nuclei. The splitting releases the binding force which holds the
nucleus of the atom together and results in the release of great
energy. Fissionable atoms release neutrons which strike other fis-
sionable atoms causing them to split apart. This releases more
neutrons thereby continuing the chain reaction. Neutrons produced
in fission are almost all high energy or fast neutrons. 5.01

FUSION

The fusion process consists of combining two light (hydrogen
isotopes) nuclei into a nucleus of a heavier atom and thereby re-
leasing tremendous energy. Fusion requires a temperature of mil-
lions of degrees only attainable by fission. Fission triggers fusion
and the result is a thermonuclear explosion. Weight for weight
a fusion explosion is about three times as powerful as a fission
burst. Generally the total energy of a thermonuclear explosion
is attributable one half to fission and one half to fusion. More high
energy neutrons are created by fusion than by fission. 5.02

TYPES OF NUCLEAR RADIATION

The complete utilization of one pound of uranium or plutonium
in fission releases energy equal to that of 8000 tons of TNT.
About 125 pounds of fission products per megaton of fission energy
are produced by a nuclear fission explosion. They decay by the
emission of beta particles often accompanied by gamma rays.
This radioactivity is large initially but falls off at a rapid rate as
a result of radioactive decay. 5.03

There are only two ways by which the surface of the earth
and objects upon it may become contaminated as a result of a
nuclear explosion; by induced radioactivity following the capture
of neutrons by various elements present in the earth or sea and
by fallout— the descent of radioactive particles from the mush-
room head and stem formed by a nuclear explosion. Because of the
particulate matter involved, fallout has a tendency to collect on

horizontal surfaces such as streets, roofs, tops of vehicles and on
the ground. The simplest way to remove it is by hosing it down
if water is available. 5.04

The amount of radioactive contamination and its distribution
is mainly dependent on the energy yield of the explosion, the rela-
tive contributions of fission and fusion to the total yield, the height
of the burst, weather conditions and the terrain over which the
explosion occurs. About 90% of the total radioactivity is contained
in the mushroom head of the fireball and 10% in the stem. Megaton
range explosions seem to have most of the radioactivity in the
lower third of the mushroom cloud. 5.05

Depending on the elements used in constructing a nuclear
weapon, a wide and varied mix of radiation is involved. There are
four types of nuclear radiation created by a nuclear explosion.
These are the products of the changes that constituent elements
of the weapon undergo before losing their radioactivity and
becoming stable (19.12). 5.06

ALPHA PARTICLES

Alpha particles have a positive electric charge and have mass
and weight. They are usually emitted by the heavier radioactive
elements such as polonium 210, 214 and 218, plutonium, radium
226, radon 222, thorium 230 and uranium 234 and 238. Alpha par-
ticles cannot penetrate the outer layer of unbroken skin. They lose
their energy just passing through two or three inches of air or
even a piece of paper. They are potentially dangerous only when
they are ingested by means of radiation contaminated air, water
or food. 5.07

BETA PARTICLES

Beta particles have a negative electric charge and have mass
and weight. They are physically identical with electrons which are
subatomic particles moving at high speed. Beta particles are usu-
ally emitted by light to medium radioactive elements. They cannot
penetrate heavy clothing and have a range of about ten or fifteen
feet in air. They can cause "beta burns" when in direct contact
with the skin. Beta particles are potentially dangerous mainly
when they are ingested by means of contaminated air, water or
food. 5.08

GAMMA RAYS

Gamma rays are pure energy consisting of short, highly pen-
etrating electromagnetic waves and have neither mass nor weight.

They are much like X-rays and are emitted by many materials
at the same time that alpha and beta particles are being thrown
off. Gamma rays leave a radioactive nucleus at 186,000 miles per
second, the speed of light. The penetrating power of a gamma ray
is related to its energy measured in MEV (5.15). Generally, the
higher the energy the more powerful the radiation force striking
a barrier, and the thicker that barrier must be to reduce the
amount of radiation passing through it by a given factor. 5.09
To reduce the effect of gamma radiation by a factor of one
hundred would require the following approximate densities for
these several MEV penetrating powers.

GAMMA PENETRATION
MEV ENERGY VS. DENSITY SHIELDING

Factor of 100

V2 MEV 1 MEV 2 MEV

Concrete 12 inches 15 inches 20 inches

Earth 20 inches 24 inches 30 inches

Guide 5.10

Gamma radiation from fallout originates from many energy
sources. These rays vary in energy up to a maximum of about 3
MEV. The net average penetrating effect of this energy mix is
roughly equivalent to the 11A MEV average energy of cobalt 60.
The approximate energy of gamma rays created by nitrogen cap-
ture (5.13) is 6.5 MEV, while that from fission products within
one minute after a nuclear explosion is about 2 MEV. 5.10

Gamma rays striking a barrier are either absorbed, partially
scattered and trapped within the barrier or passed through the
barrier unchanged in direction after being partially absorbed. The
degree to which these gamma rays are attenuated is a function
of their power measured in MEV. Gamma radiation is also halved
by passage through about twenty-five feet of air. 5.11

NEUTRONS

Neutrons are neutral particles having mass and weight but
without an electrical charge. They are present in all atomic nuclei
except light (ordinary) hydrogen. Neutrons are needed to start
the fission process and many neutrons are produced by fission
and fusion reactions in nuclear explosions. 5.12

Neutrons may be divided into two general types : fast or high
energy neutrons and slow or low energy (thermal) neutrons. Many
fast neutrons may be slowed down and slow neutrons captured

during the neutron-nuclei interactions following a nuclear explo-
sion. These interactions can be classified in two categories : absorp-
tion (capture) and scattering. As fast neutrons pass between the
weapon and the ground, many of them collide with the relatively
light nuclei of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere and are
slowed down. The resulting slow neutrons and others of low energy
may then be captured and removed by nitrogen nuclei collisions.
Usually they emit gamma radiation in the process. This gamma
radiation is easier to attenuate than the neutron radiation. 5.13
Scattering collisions either result in conversion of neutron
energy into gamma radiation for fairly fast neutrons or transfer
of neutron energy to the interacting nucleus without change and
without creating gamma radiation for many high and low energy
neutrons. The fast and slow neutrons that escape nitrogen capture
or scattering collisions may be driven into the ground creating, by
interaction with soil elements, "induced radioactivity". 5.14

UNITS OF NUCLEAR RADIATION ENERGY AND
BIOLOGICAL DAMAGE MEASUREMENT

MEV - MILLION ELECTRON VOLTS

The energy or penetrating ability of nuclear radiation is meas-
ured in units of MEV or million electron volts. The amount of
material required to produce this energy is measured in curies.
A curie is the amount of radioactive material in which the radio-
active atoms are disintegrating at the rate of 37 billion atoms per
second. The amount of material is not important here. The pene-
trating ability is important. 5.15

ROENTGENS

Roentgen is the unit of exposure dose which measures the
ability of gamma rays (and X-rays) to produce ionization in air.
The abbreviation of roentgen is r and of roentgens per hour is
r/hr. 5.16

RADS

Rad is a unit of any radiation absorbed dose. 5.17

REMS

Rem (roentgen equivalent man) is a unit of biological dam-
age making it possible to use one unit to measure all types of
nuclear radiation. 5.18

RBE

RBE (relative biological effectiveness) is a unit which con-
verts rads of different types of nuclear radiation into rems. This
unit is necessary since a rad of one type radiation may cause
more or less biological damage than a rad of another type of
radiation. 5.19

RADIATION CONVERSION

Many authorities believe that the radiation value for neutrons
is RBE equals 1.0, but other sources, also authoritative, feel that
neutrons should be assigned a higher RBE value. There is also
some diverse opinion on alpha particles. The higher value in each
case has been used in the following guide 5.20.

RADIATION CONVERSION GUIDE
Type of Radiation Rads X RBE = Rems

Gamma

Beta

Alpha

Neutrons (slow)

Neutrons (fast)

Guide 5.20

The formula is rads x RBE = rems. The figures in guide 5.20
for alpha particles and neutrons may vary depending on the nuclear
radiation energy involved. 5.20

INITIAL NUCLEAR RADIATION

All nuclear radiation that occurs during the first minute after
a nuclear weapon explosion is called initial nuclear radiation. All
nuclear radiation occurring more than one minute after the explo-
sion is called residual nuclear radiation. 5.21

Deep underground or underwater explosions do not create
initial nuclear radiation. Air and ground bursts produce four dif-
ferent nuclear products that are emitted within one minute after
the explosion. They are neutrons, gamma rays, alpha and beta
particles. Initial nuclear radiation is a relatively greater menace
with a low yield explosion than with a higher yield burst. The
greater the yield the higher proportion of blast and thermal
injuries. 5.22

The initial nuclear radiation includes:

1. Nearly all the neutrons. These neutrons, which include the

"prompt" neutrons that are released in one millionth of a
second, travel a shorter distance through the air than
the initial gamma rays before being attenuated by the
same factor. The attenuation ratio is about 5 to 3. Damp
earth and water have very high efficiencies as barriers
against neutrons. Neutrons are greatly slowed down and
captured by weapon residues or by the air through which
they pass. However, enough escape to become a hazard at
considerable distances from the burst. This is also true of
gamma rays. Near the explosion center the neutron dose
is greater than the gamma dose. With increasing distance
the neutron dose decreases more rapidly than the gamma
dose, and beyond a certain point the gamma rays predomi-
nate. Ultimately the neutrons become a negligable factor
in comparison to gamma radiation. 5.23

2. All of the "prompt" gamma rays. These are all released
in the first second after a nuclear explosion. They are
gamma rays that have been produced in fission and as a
result of neutron reactions. Most gamma rays accompany-
ing the fission process are absorbed by weapon materials
and converted into other forms of energy. Only one per-
cent succeed in penetrating any great distance from the
explosion. Gamma radiation decay is greatest at the be-
ginning. Gamma rays continuing after the prompt emission
are called "delayed" gamma rays. Both prompt and delayed
gamma rays are a part of the total initial nuclear radia-
tion. Delayed gamma rays suffer little absorption by
weapon residues. Delayed gamma rays, and those resulting
from the nitrogen capture of neutrons in the air, contribute
about 100 times more nuclear radiation than the prompt
gamma rays to the total nuclear radiation received at a
distance from an explosion during the first minute after
the burst. The initial gamma radiation dose from a surface
burst is about two thirds that from an air burst at the same
distance. 5.24

Gamma rays, in a vacuum, move in a straight path at the
speed of light (186,000 miles per second). In the atmosphere these
rays are scattered by interacting with oxygen and nitrogen. They
then may reach their target from all directions. Most of the dose
will come from the direction of the explosion but a considerable
amount will come from other directions. This effect is called "sky-
shine" or "scattering". The more changes in direction a gamma
ray undergoes, the lower its energy. 5.25

The initial nuclear radiation dose measured in rems for var-
ious ranges from the ground zero of an air burst is shown in
guide 5.26

INITIAL NUCLEAR RADIATION DOSE RANGE
AIR BURST

Radiation Dose (rems) 1 MT (miles from GZ) 10 MT (miles from GZ)

100 1.8 2.4

500 1.5 2.1

1000 1.4 2.0

6000 GZ

Guide 5.26

A one megaton air burst creates an initial nuclear radiation
dose of 35 rems at 2 miles from ground zero and only one rem at
3 miles from GZ. A ten megaton air burst produces approximately
a 3 rem dose at 3 miles from ground zero. 5.26

The approximate initial gamma radiation range for various
doses from one, five and ten megaton explosions is shown in
guide 5.27.

INITIAL GAMMA RADIATION DOSE RANGE

DOSE IN ROENTGENS RANGE IN MILES

Yield 3000 r lOOOr lOOr 30 r

1 MT

1.3

1.5

1.8

2.0

5 MT

1.6

1.8

2.3

2.5

10 MT

1.8

2.0

2.3

2.5

Guide 5.27

The total unshielded initial gamma radiation dose for a 5
megaton explosion would be about 4500 roentgens at a distance of
one and one-half miles from ground zero. 5.27

The percentage of the 5 megaton, 4500 roentgen dose (5.27)
which would be received as a function of time is given in guide 5.28
— percentage of radiation, seconds after explosion.

TIME AND PERCENTAGE FOR INITIAL

GAMMA RADIATION RECEIVED
5 MT EXPLOSION AT 1.5 MILES FROM GROUND ZERO

Seconds 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 15 20
Percentage 5 10 17 20 30 42 50 60 76 80 90 98 100

Guide 5.28

It is apparent from guide 5.28 that if shelter can be taken
within one or two seconds after observing the explosion flash a
person can avoid a big percentage of the initial gamma radiation.
The greater the energy yield of the explosion, the slower the rate

of gamma ray release and the better your chance of avoiding
most of it. Initial gamma radiation has much more energy than any
other gamma radiation except that which occurs in the very ear-
liest stages of fallout radiation decay. Since practically all neutrons
are released in the first second, protective action taken against
initial gamma rays (5.28) would be useless with regard to neutron
effect. While less than one percent of the total nuclear explosion
energy is in the form of neutrons, they represent much more of a
hazard than would be indicated by this small proportion. 5.28

RESIDUAL NUCLEAR RADIATION

All radiation occurring more than one minute after a nuclear
explosion is called residual nuclear radiation. It consists of three
separate stages of contamination:

1. Induced radioactivity which is induced at the crater and
directly under the fireball by neutrons driven into the earth
at the instant of explosion. These neutrons are captured
by various elements in the soil, especially sodium and man-
ganese. This radioactivity decays much more rapidly than
fallout radiation. It extends less than one mile from ground
zero.

2. Early fallout is that which falls to earth within one day
after the explosion.

3. Delayed fallout is that which falls to earth more than one
day after the explosion. 5.29

FALLOUT PARTICLE SIZE AND PERCENTAGE
OF RADIOACTIVITY CARRIED

Size of Fallout Particles Percentage of Radioactivity

(microns) Carried

Less than 20 microns 12%

20 8

25 10

32.5 10

37.5 18

50 12

62.5 8

75 6

87.5 4

100 5

125 3

150 3

200 1
Guide 5.30

EARLY FALLOUT

Fallout descends in particles of various sizes. Naturally the
heaviest particles fall first. These particles are measured in
microns. A micron is one-millionth part of a meter and a meter is
39.37 inches. Particles with a 75 micron diameter fall at the rate
of one mile per hour. Guide 5.30 shows the percentage of total
fallout radioactivity carried by each size particle. This information
is useful for filter system planning. 5.30

The fallout dose from a 20 megaton ground burst has been
estimated to be as shown in guide 5.31 for the first hour after an
explosion. 5.31

ESTIMATED FALLOUT DOSE FROM 20 MT GROUND BURST

Miles From Ground Zero Roentgens

2 up to 15 miles 10,000 r down to 1000 r

15 up to 75 miles 1,000 r down to 100 r

75 up to 120 miles 100 r down to Or

Guide 5.31

An estimated statistical contour of probable early fallout be-
havior has been developed based on observation and partly on
computations. The reference dose rate must be adjusted propor-
tionately for known dose rates. 5.32

EARLY FALLOUT PATTERN FOR 1 MT GROUND BURST
15 MPH WIND

Reference Dose Rate
r/hr

Downwind Distance
miles

Maximum Width
miles

3000

1000

300

100

120

210

300

390

440

0.3

500

0.1

530

Guide 5.32

Fallout particles are not only an immediate danger to exposed
persons but they can contaminate clothing, rugs, curtains and
upholstered furniture at considerable distances from ground zero.

When this occurs these items must be either buried or stored in an
isolated location pending sufficient radioactive decay. Laundering,
dry cleaning or vacuuming or a combination of all three methods
may then further reduce the radioactivity. 5.33

DECONTAMINATION BY EARTH MOVING TECHNIQUES

There are several protective measures that may be taken near
a survival shelter to reduce the fallout radioactivity. Most people
will not have the necessary equipment available. The government
may have the equipment but probably will have more urgent uses
for it. This is what must be faced. About 50% of the fallout dose
rate at a shelter will come from within a radius of 50 feet. About
75% will come from within a radius of 200 feet. These figures are
based on a dose rate measurement three feet above ground in the
center of a large, flat, uniformly contaminated area. A 250 foot
strip when decontaminated will reduce the radiation dose rate by
a factor of ten — the dose rate would be only one tenth that pre-
vailing if the strip was not decontaminated. 5.34

One method that could be used to decontaminate the area
surrounding a shelter would be to scrape off or otherwise remove
a one foot layer of the contaminated soil. It must then be buried
or dumped at a safe distance. Another method would be to cover
the ground surrounding the shelter area with a one foot layer of
uncontaminated earth. Removing earth from within a 200 feet
radius reduces nuclear radiation to one fourth. 5.35

A hole three feet in diameter and four feet deep will provide
a protection factor of 40 (6.08) even if the fallout is up to the
edge. If a radius of four feet from the hole is kept clear of fallout
a protection factor of 100 will be effected. 5.36

CONVERSION OF KNOWN DOSE RATE TO DOSE RATE
AT ANY OTHER TIME

The rate of early fallout radioactive decay for various times
from one hour to 10,000 hours is shown in guide 5.37 based on a
theoretical reference starting dose rate of 1000 roentgens per hour
measured one hour after the explosion. The residual radiation per-
centage of the total radiation that has been and will be received
to infinity is shown in the two right hand columns. The dose rate
for any given time up to 1000 hours can be determined by pro-
portionment if the actual dose rate for any one time is known.
For instance, if the dose rate at 10 hours after the explosion is 21
roentgens per hour; what would be the dose rate 100 hours after
the burst? Since the known dose rate at the end of 10 hours is 21
roentgens per hour or one third of the guide 5.37 dose rate which

is 63 roentgens per hour; the 100 dose rate would be one third of
the guide 5.37 rate (4 r/hr) or 1.33 roentgens per hour. Guide 5.37
also shows that 88% of the total nuclear radiation to infinity would
have been released by the end of this 100 hour period. 5.37

RESIDUAL RADIATION DECAY*

Residual Radiation Decay
Time After Dose Rate Percentage to Infinity
Explosion (Reference) Percent Already Percent to
Hours or Days R/Hr Received be Received

1000

l]/2

610

440

230

130

100

iy2

6.2

100

200

1.7

343

1.0**

400

.70

600

.42

1000

.24

2000

.13**

10,000

416

.017**

*Residual

radiation is

nuclear radiation

emitted more than

one minute

after the
**See 6.18

explosion.

Guide 5.37

An infinity radiation dose is the amount of nuclear radiation
that would be received from continuous exposure to fallout for an
infinite time. The two columns in guide 5.37 showing these "per-
centage to infinity" figures are based on the assumption that early
fallout is complete and that, except for normal radioactive decay,
the contamination status does not change. By using guide 5.37 in
conjunction with information in paragraph 6.20 it is possible to
compute the dose which would be received for any given time
period. It is only necessary to know the dose rate at any one time
more than one hour after the explosion. 5.38

If all the early fallout from a nuclear explosion arrived in a

specific locality within 6 hours after the burst, the total dose re-
ceived would be about as shown in guide 5.39 assuming that the
sixth hour dose rate was 100 roentgens per hour. By using pro-
portionment the total dose for other radiation values can be
computed.

TOTAL RADIATION DOSE RECEIVED - DOSE RATE 100 R/HR

6 HOURS AFTER BURST
FALLOUT COMPLETE 6 HOURS AFTER EXPLOSION

At End Of Total Dose Received

1 Day 900 Roentgens

2 Days 1200 Roentgens
5 Days 1600 Roentgens

Guide 5.39

Though the dose rate would be decreasing steadily, the total
accumulated dose would keep increasing. Since the first few days
are the most dangerous, shelter protection is most urgently re-
quired during this time. If a person was sheltered for just the first
48 hours after the completed fallout, he would avoid most of the
first 1200 roentgen dose. 5.39

Fallout released from a one megaton explosion into a 15 mile
per hour wind has provided some interesting information about
radiation conditions 22 miles downwind (Guide 5.40) and 100 miles
(Guide 5.40A) downwind from the explosion. 5.40

LONG HALF LIFE RADIOISOTOPES

Before most of the delayed fallout reaches the ground the
short lived radioisotopes will have decayed almost completely.
Those having long half -lives will remain. Two of these, strontium 90
with a half life of 27.7 years and cesium 137 with a half life of
30.5 years, have great biological importance. Cesium 137 is a prin-
cipal hazard from delayed fallout because it is a gamma ray emitter
even more than one year after a nuclear explosion. These two
radioisotopes make a negligable contribution to the external radia-
tion dose when compared with that from the early fallout. Their
importance lies in the possibility that they may get into the body
directly by way of fruits and vegetables or indirectly by eating
meat from animals who have eaten contaminated vegetation.
Roughly ten percent of all atoms undergoing fission eventually
form strontium 90 or cesium 137 atoms. 5.41

FALLOUT CANNOT INDUCE RADIOACTIVITY

There are several very important points about fallout that

should always be remembered. Fallout cannot induce radioactivity.
Radioactivity can only be induced by neutrons released by fission
or fusion. This only occurs within about one mile of a nuclear ex-
plosion and in the first second after the burst. Fallout radiation
causes rearrangement of orbital electrons in atoms which can cause
ionization in the body. This ionization can result in complicated,
dangerous body cell changes. Fallout radiation does not affect
atomic nuclei and therefore cannot induce radioactivity. For this
reason water and food are not spoiled by exposure to fallout. Cans
containing food should be washed before opening and consuming
the contents, if they have been exposed to fallout dust. This mini-
mizes the possibility of fallout radiation getting into the body. 5.42

FALLOUT FROM 1 MT BURST - 22 MILES DOWNWIND
15 MPH WIND

Time After
Explosion

Conditions

Dose Rate

(r/hr)

Total Dose

(r)

1 hour
1 to 2 hours
6 hours
18 hours

Fallout had not arrived
Main fallout has arrived
Decay has started

10
1000
300
80

Very little
1000
3000
4800

Guide 5.40

FALLOUT FROM 1 MT BURST - 100 MILES DOWNWIND
15 MPH WIND

Time After
Explosion

Dose Rate
Conditions (r/hr)

Total Dose

(r)

1 hour

Fallout had not arrived

6 hours
9 hours
1 8 hours

Fallout begins to arrive
Fallout essentially complete
Fallout decay starts

1
5

1
80

Guide 5.40A

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR RADIATION

In most cases the biological effects of a given total radiation
dose decreases as the rate of exposure decreases. 1000 rems in a
single whole body dose would be fatal. The same dose, if absorbed
over a period of thirty years, would probably not have any notice-
able external effects in the majority of people. 5.43

IONIZATION

The main cause of body damage by neutrons is due to ioniza-

tion, caused by interaction of fast neutrons with hydrogen and
nitrogen in living tissues. Soil and rocks contain some ionizing ra-
diation materials that occur normally in nature; potassium 40,
uranium, thorium and radium. The character of mutations in future
generations is not changed by ionizing radiation. It is the frequency
of these mutations that is increased. 5.44

SYMPTOMS

The shedding of hair is one of the most reliable indications of
exposure to radiation. Loss of hair usually occurs two weeks after
receiving a 300 rem dose. If the hair grows back it is a sign that
the patient will recover from most of the immediate effects of
radiation. Conversely, if the hair fails to grow back, it is an indi-
cation of serious damage. Usually the only immediately pefceptable
reaction to a large radioactive dose is an itching or tingling sen-
sation. 5.45

RADIATION BY INHALATION

Inhalation of fallout particles would probably be a small haz-
ard. Almost all particles over 10 microns in diameter and over
90% of those particles more than 5 microns in diameter would be
prevented from entering the body by the nose. Most early fallout
particles having the greatest radioactivity will be considerably
more than 10 microns in diameter (5.30). However, air that is
suspected of containing fallout particles should not be directly
inhaled. A dust filter type respiratory mask should be used. 5.46

Early fallout fission products are mostly oxides. Many of
these do not readily dissolve in body fluids. This is fortunate since
the amount of absorption of these products through the intestine
walls is dependent to a large degree on the solubility of par-
ticles. 5.47

The oxides of strontium and barium are soluble. They enter
the bloodstream more readily and find their way into the bones.
Where healthy or fully developed bones are involved less absorp-
tion takes place. Iodine is also present in soluble form and soon
enters the blood and is concentrated in the thyroid gland. Even
under these conditions only about ten percent of the strontium
offered to the body is absorbed and retained. Actual tests made
on a group, after an accidental exposure resulting from a nuclear
test explosion, showed only iodine, strontium, barium and the rare
earth group in the body in appreciable amounts. 5.48

The most radiosensitive parts of the body are the lymphoid
tissue, bone marrow, spleen, reproductive organs and the gastro-
intestinal tract. The moderately sensitive parts are the skin, lungs

and liver. The least radiosensitive body parts are the muscles,
nerves and adult bones. 5.49

The shorter the radioisotope half life, the stronger, more in-
tense is its radiation. Therefore the isotopes representing the great-
est potential internal hazard are those with short radioactive half
lives and long biological half times. The biological half time is the
time required for an element in the body to decrease to one half
its original value by the natural biological process of elimina-
tion. 5.50

NUCLEAR RADIATION SHELTER TIME GUIDES

The government has prepared and published* two guides which
can provide information of extreme value after a possible nuclear
attack. Both guides are tools with which you may have to plan
post attack survival. Due to the complexity of nuclear weapon be-
havior and the many variables possible, and in fact almost inevi-
table, they are approximate for any given explosion. Both guides
are predicated on the fact that two factors must be known. First,
the elapsed time since the explosion and second, the dose rate at
one given time after the explosion. These guides are valid only if
the contamination status remains unchanged, except for normal
radioactive decay, for the time period involved and if the fallout
is complete. They should never be substituted for radiation
instrument measurement of both dose rate and total accumulated
dose. 5.51

NUCLEAR RADIATION DOSE RATE - TIME GUIDE*

Using guide 5.52, at a location where the nuclear radiation
dose rate at a given time is known, the approximate dose rate at
any other time can be computed. Assume that the known dose
rate is 35 roentgens per hour two hours after a nuclear weapon
explosion. The information required; when will the radiation dose
rate have decayed to 5 roentgens per hour? To determine the
answer, use the extreme left hand column and find the two hour
figure. Using a straight edge follow the two hour figure horizon-
tally until the figure closest to 35 is found. Follow that column
vertically down to the figure closest to five. In this instance the
applicable figure is 5.1 and the further use of a straight edge
going back to the Time column at the left shows that the dose rate
will reach 5 roentgens per hour a short time before the tenth hour
or about nine hours and fifty minutes after the explosion. 5.52

Providing the dose rate for a given time is known, the radi-
ation dose rate for any time before or after can be determined by
using guide 5.52 again. For example, the known dose rate is 35

roentgens per hour at 2 hours after the explosion. First find the
2 hour figure, follow it horizontally to the 35 r/hr figure and read
up or down that vertical column. By going back horizontally to the
time column from the chosen roentgen per hour figure the neces-
sary time and dose rate will be shown. Thus it will be seen that
the dose rate was 182 r/hr at 30 minutes after the burst and
would be 1.8 r/hr one day after the explosion. 5.53

NUCLEAR RADIATION ALLOWABLE STAY TIME GUIDE*

One of the major problems of sheltered persons may be that
they may have to leave the shelter to spend time in contaminated
areas. This could be necessary for rescue missions or for moving
to more protected or less contaminated areas. Let us assume that
a radiation dose radio report has been received. By referring to
guide 5.52 it has been determined that a person may be exposed
to a lethal radiation dose if he stays in his present location. He
must find out how long he can remain outside without serious ra-
diation exposure. First he would verify the radiation level in his
immediate vicinity by using a radiation survey instrument. We
will further assume that an authority has advised that he may
receive an allowable dose (AD) of 30 roentgens without danger.
The dose rate (DR), at the time of entry into the contaminated
area, is 50 roentgens per hour ten hours after the explosion. He
wants to know how long he can stay in the area without absorbing
more than 30 roentgens. If he knows the dose rate at time of entry
and the elapsed time since the burst, he can use guide 5.54 to
figure his allowable "stay time". Here's how. The allowable dose
(AD) of 30 roentgens is divided by the dose rate (DR) of 50 roent-
gens per hour at entry time to provide AD/DR or 30/50 equals .6
— now .6 is found in the first column and followed horizontally to
the right with a straight edge until the vertical column headed
10 hours is reached. The allowable stay time is shown as 37 min-
utes. The same formula may be used to determine allowable stay
times for other values. 5.54

*Figures used in guides 5.52 and 5.54 are from "Effects of Nuclear
Weapons", United States Department of Defense, Atomic Energy
Commission 1962.

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CHAPTER 6

Nuclear Radiation Protection Shields

There are two distinct types of nuclear radiation. Protection
from both types should be considered. These types are:

1. Initial radiation includes both neutrons and prompt gamma
rays. To attenuate (reduce) this type radiation requires
especially thick barriers. The attenuation of initial radia-
tion is further improved by using specially mixed con-
crete (6.15).

2. Fallout radiation does not need as thick a barrier as that
required to attenuate initial radiation.

It must be remembered that nuclear radiation is only one
phase of the protection problem. Thermal radiation and blast
protection are equally urgent. All three types of protection can
be analyzed, computed and planned. However, the final decision
must take into account the necessary amount of barrier to protect
from the worst possible condition. This depends on distance, but
would be either blast or initial radiation for an underground
shelter. 6.01

There are three forms of nuclear radiation protection. Bar-
rier shielding which consists of placing a barrier between the
radiation source and the target. Geometry shielding which simply
means that the greater the distance from the radiation, the less
the dose received. The third form of protection is entirely auto-
matic. Time shielding consists of time and the natural radioactive
decay that is always working in our favor. Essentially the solu-
tion to the survival problem is to put as much mass, distance and
time as possible between the explosion and the target. 6.02

BARRIER SHIELDING

A material used for a survival shelter has a different value as
a barrier when used to attenuate initial radiation than when it is
used to reduce the lower energy fallout radiation. The exact guide
headings should be carefully noted when the guides are used. 6.03
Different materials have different barrier effects in stopping
nuclear radiation. The efficiency of any material is the product of
its density (mass) and its thickness (area). In addition, where
initial radiation is involved, the constituent elements of the material
are a big factor. The more dense the material, the more it will
weigh per cubic foot and the greater will be its ability to stop
nuclear radiation. 6.04

HALF VALUE LAYER THICKNESS

One method of relating this ability to stop fallout gamma
radiation among different materials is to show the thickness of
each material that is needed to stop one half the gamma rays
emitted by a specific source. This factor is called the half value
layer or HVL. Each HVL thickness added to the first reduces the
gamma ray penetration by an additional one half. If the unshielded
radiation dose is lOOOr, one HVL thickness would reduce it to
500r; the second HVL would reduce it to 250r and the third HVL
to 125r, etc. 6.05

The shielding efficiencies for several materials are shown in
Guide 6.06.

MATERIAL SHIELDING EFFICIENCIES

Material HVL (inches) Pounds per Cubic Foot

Lead

710

Steel

480

Concrete

2.2

144

Earth

3.3

TOO

Cinder block

5.0

Water

5.3

Guide 6.06

EQUIVALENT HVL PROTECTION FACTORS

No. of Protection
HVL's Factor(PF)

MATERIAL

Radiation
Reduction
Factor

FIGURES IN INCHES

Cinder
Steel Concrete Earth Blocks

Roentgens
Per Hour

0.5

2.2

3.3

500.0

.25

1.4

4.4

6.6

10.

250.0

.125

2.1

6.6

9.9

15.

125.0

.0675

2.8

8.8

13.2

20.

62.5

.03375

3.5

11.0

16.5

25.

31.25

.01687

4.2

13.2

19.8

30.

15.625

128

.00843

4.9

15.4

23.1

35.

7.8125

256

.00421

5.6

17.6

26.4

40.

3.9062

512

.0021

6.3

19.8

29.7

45.

1.9531

1,024

.00105

7.0

22.0

33.0

50.

.9765

2,048

.00052

7.7

24.2

36.3

55.

.4882

4,100

.00026

8.4

26.4

39.6

60.

.2441

8,200

.00013

9.1

28.6

42.9

65.

.1225

16,400

.00006

9.8

30.8

46.2

70.

.0612

32,800

.00003

10.5

33.0

49.5

75.

.0306

65,600

.000015

11.2

35.2

52.8

80.

.0153

Guide 6.07

By using guide 6.07 it is possible to find out the approximate
degree of protection provided by several materials which might
be used in survival shelters. It is not necessary that just one ma-
terial be used for shelter construction to use the HVL table. Let
us assume that the shelter has a roof and walls of concrete 11
inches thick. Further assume that there is 33 inches of earth over
and around the shelter. Eleven inches of concrete equals 5 HVL.
Thirty-three inches of earth equals 10 HVL. Adding the two num-
bers of HVL — totals 15 HVL. By checking in the left hand columns
of guide 6.07 it will be seen that the shelter has a protection factor
of 32,800. 6.07

PROTECTION FACTOR

The protection factor or PF of a shelter is the ratio of a dose
which would be received without protection to the dose that would
be received by a person in a sheltered location. For example, a
protection factor of 10 means that you would receive 10 times
more radiation if you were unsheltered. Conversely you are re-
ceiving only one tenth the radiation in the shelter compared to the
radiation outside. Guide 6.08 shows a useful system for relating the
total mass thickness of a material in pounds per cubic foot directly
to the protection factor required. Providing the density of any two
or more materials is known, they may be combined to compute
their protection factor. 6.08

FALLOUT PROTECTION FACTOR GUIDE *

Mass Thickness
Pounds per Cubic Foot

Protection
Equals Factor (PF)

100

125

100

160

200

500

220

1,000

260

2,000

300

5,000

330

10,000

360

20,000

420

40,000

480

80,000

Guide 6.08

NOTE: *The figures shown in Guide 6.08 for protection factors are
approximate due to the many variables involved.

TENTH VALUE LAYER THICKNESS

Another widely used method of judging the approximate
ability to attenuate fallout gamma rays among different materials
is to show the thickness of a given material that is required to
attenuate these gamma rays by a factor of ten. This system is
much like the HVL. It is called the tenth value layer thickness or
TVL. Each TVL thickness added to the first reduces the radiation
penetration by an additional factor of ten. The first TVL reduces
the radiation to one tenth, a second TVL added reduces it to one
hundredth, and a third TVL added reduces it to one thousandth, etc.
The accuracy of this TVL method decreases with each additional
layer. Here are the shielding efficiencies for concrete and earth
expressed in terms of TVL thickness. 6.09

EQUIVALENT TVL PROTECTION FACTORS
CONCRETE AND EARTH

FALLOUT RADIATION

Number of TVL
Thicknesses

Protection
Factor

Concrete
(inches)

Earth
(inches)

100

1,000

10,000

1 00,000

Guide 6.09

Neutrons and prompt gamma rays that are part of the initial
nuclear radiation have a much higher MEV energy (5.10) than
fallout radiation. They require much more shielding to be attenu-
ated to the same degree. The amount of concrete and earth neces-
sary to provide equivalent protection factors is given in guide 6.10.
A person would be comparatively well protected from the initial
nuclear radiation of a one megaton air burst one mile away by
being sheltered by a barrier consisting of either about one foot of
steel or four feet of concrete. However, at this distance of one mile
from the explosion the shelter must be of a special blast resistant
design to survive the blast. 6.10

Three methods of computing fallout protection have been
displayed; half value, mass thickness in pounds per cubic foot
(protection factor) and tenth value layer. Guide 6.11 shows the
relationship between these three methods, using concrete as a
common denominator. While the figures are as shown in the three

tables (6.07-6.08-6.09), they reflect the approximate character of
the basic tables. The protection factors of 10 and 100 show a
lower mass thickness than is indicated by the HVL and TVL
thicknesses. However, the other values are remarkably close. Al-
ways use the most conservative figure. 6.11

EQUIVALENT TVL PROTECTION FACTORS
CONCRETE AND EARTH

INITIAL RADIATION

Number of TVL Protection Concrete
Thicknesses Factor (inches)

Earth
(inches)

1
2
3
4

100
1,000
10,000

Guide 6.10

18
36
54
72

26
52
78

104

EQUIVALENT PROTECTION FACTORS - CONCRETE

HVL - MASS THICKNESS - TVL

FALLOUT RADIATION

Protection
Factor

HVL (inches)
Thickness

Mass
Thickness (PCF)

TVL (inches)
Thickness

10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000

8
15
22
30
37

40
125
220
330
480

8
16
24
32
40

Guide 6.11

GEOMETRY SHIELDING

The exposure rate for a single small area of high radiation
can be computed if the dose rate at the source is known. This
can be done taking into consideration only the geometry shielding
effect of distance. The formula used to do this is called the "in-
verse square law". To determine the exposure rate at a given point,
square the distance in feet from the radioactive source and divide
that figure into the known source roentgen rate. More simply:
When the distance from the radiation source is doubled, the ex-
posure rate is quartered. Here is an example of a practical applica-
tion of this information. A person is standing 10 feet away from
a radiation source. If he stays there for one hour he will absorb

an almost certain fatal dose of 1000 rems. If he steps back just
10 more feet, his dose in the same time would be 250r — providing
him with an almost certain chance to recover. The main problem
with using geometry shielding computations such as shown in
guide 6.12 is that they are not accurate for dispersed or scattered
radiation. 6.12

GEOMETRY SHIELDING PROTECTION EXAMPLES
SINGLE SOURCE

Radiation at Source
(Dosage Rate r/hr)

Distance From
Source (feet)

Square of
Distance

Exposure Rate

(r/hr)

500
1,000
1 0,000
1 00,000
200,000
200,000
200,000

20
500
1,000
5,000
50
100
200

400
25,000
1,000,000
25,000,000
25,000
10,000
40,000

1.25
.04
.01
.004
80.
20.
5.

Guide 6.12

Fallout gamma radiation is attenuated by a factor of 1000
by passage through one half mile of air and is halved by passage
through only 25 feet of air. 6.13

NEUTRON BARRIERS

Shielding protection from neutrons poses several special
problems. The mass density that attenuates gamma rays so readily,
is also effective for reducing neutron radiation. However, to really
have maximum protection from neutrons requires different, more
difficult shielding. Elements having a low atomic weight such
as water provide the best neutron shielding. The hydrogen and
oxygen constituents of water both meet this requirement. The
interaction between neutrons, hydrogen and oxygen during the
attenuation process creates gamma rays. Protection from this
gamma radiation must be provided. Concrete and damp earth
provide good protection against neutrons and gamma rays. This
is true since concrete and damp earth have hydrogen to slow
down and capture neutrons and calcium, silicon and oxygen to
absorb gamma rays. 6.14

A very special type of concrete can be used to attenuate neu-
tron radiation. It is called "heavy" concrete and includes in its
mix iron (oxide) ore (limonite) and small pieces of iron scrap. Seven
inches of this heavy concrete can reduce the neutron flux by a
factor of ten. Eighteen inches of ordinary concrete would be

needed to provide the same degree of attenuation (6.10). Two other
effective aids to neutron attenuation can also be added. They are
the mineral barytes (a compound of barium) , and colemanite which
contains a high proportion of boron. Boron has an unusual prop-
erty; it absorbs neutrons without becoming radioactive. Coleman-
ite, incorporated in a concrete mix, captures slow (low energy)
neutrons readily and releases low intensity gamma rays which
are fairly easy to attenuate. 6.15

TIME SHIELDING

Nuclear radiation is a mixture of many different radioisotopes,
all of them decaying at different rates. Some of them have a half
life of a few seconds, others a half life of hours, still others have
half lives of days, months and years. Several have half lives of
thousands of years, up to about one million years. The half life of
a radioisotope is the time needed for the radioactivity of a given
isotope to decay to one half its original intensity. The mixture of
these radioisotopes, emanating from a nuclear explosion, has been
calculated to decay according to a formula (6.18). 6.16

Fallout radiation will decay from one minute after a nuclear
explosion to one day after the burst by a factor of 3000. At the
end of one week the radiation dose rate will be one tenth that of
the rate at the end of one day. The total decay factor from one
minute after the explosion to one week after it will be 30,000. At
three months after an explosion the radiation intensity will fall to
about 0.01% (one ten-thousandth) of its value at one hour after
the explosion. 6.17

Nuclear radiation decreases by a factor of ten as time in-
creases by a factor of seven. A radiation dose rate of 1000 roent-
gens per hour at one hour after an explosion would decay in seven
hours to 100 roentgens per hour. Forty nine hours after the explo-
sion (7x7) the rate would be 10 r/hr (factor of 10). This 10 r/hr
would decay to 1 r/hr by 343 hours (7 x 49) after the explosion.
This formula can be inaccurate by as much as 25% for the first
two weeks and 50% for the period from two weeks to six months.
After six months the dose rate decreases at a more rapid rate
than the generally applied formula given here. Other examples of
the use of this rule are: at 14 hours after an explosion the dose
rate will be one tenth that prevailing 2 hours after the burst; at
21 hours the dose rate will be one tenth that at 3 hours, etc. 6.18

With a 100,000 r/hr dose rate outside, a shelter with a pro-
tection factor of 10,000 would reduce it to 10 r/hr inside the shel-
ter. Seven hours later the 10 r/hr dose rate would decay to about
1 r/hr — a comparatively safe radiation rate which would still be
rapidly decaying. 6.19

NUCLEAR RADIATION - TIME DECAY

Time
After Explosion

Reference Dose Rates
Roentgens Per Hour

hour

1000

5000

10,000

hours

100

500

1,000

49
343
2352

hours (2 days)
hours (2 weeks)
hours (14 weeks)

0.1

50
5
0.5

100
10

weeks

0.01

0.05

Guide 6.18

LIFETIME NUCLEAR RADIATION COMPUTATION

A simple method of computing the expected lifetime dose to
which a person would be exposed after a nuclear explosion has
been used by the government. It is based on the assumption that
the person remains in the same location, under the same conditions
for the rest of his life. Fallout is complete and the only change is
normal radioactive decay. The dose rate for the first hour in the
area is multiplied by the elapsed hours since the explosion and the
figure obtained is multiplied by a factor of five. Any dose rate be-
tween about 100 r/hr and 200 r/hr during the first hour in the area
would indicate a possible eventual fatality unless the exposed per-
son moved to a more protected or less contaminated location. The
situation of this theoretical person would become more dangerous
if the 100 r/hr dose rate was effective more than one hour after
the explosion. Whenever different methods of computing lifetime
doses are used, the maximum figure should be used as a planning
guide. 6.20

LIFETIME NUCLEAR RADIATION COMPUTATION EXAMPLES

Exposure First x
Hour in Area

Elapsed Hours
Since Explosion

x Formula _
Figure

Total Expected
Lifetime Dose (r)

50 r

250

6 r

360

10 r

1,200

3 r

450

0.5 r

100

0.1 r

400

200

0.025 r

343

Guide

6.20

There are several ways to use the information which can be

developed by computing expected lifetime doses (6.20). Several

typical uses follow:

Example 1. A nuclear attack creates a dose rate of
6000 r/hr at the end of one hour. A shelter having a
protection factor of 10,000 is occupied. What would
be the expected lifetime dose for the occupants if
they remained in the shelter ? The exposure dose rate
would be 0.6 r/hr in the shelter. 0.6 x 1 x 5 = 3 roent-
gens lifetime dose. Obviously people cannot stay in a
shelter for a lifetime. Assuming that the occupants
stay in the shelter for two weeks and then emerge,
what will be their radiation status ? The outside radi-
ation will have decayed from 6000 r/hr to 6 r/hr
(6.18). The anticipated outdoors lifetime dose at this
point is 6 x 343 x 5 = 10,290 roentgens. The shelter
occupants must plan to move to a less contaminated
area. They will be safe enough in their shelter
while they make plans; that is if the food and
water hold out.

Example 2. These people are fortunately five or six
miles from ground zero. The outside radiation is 300
r/hr for the first hour. They wait two weeks (343
hours) then emerge. Their anticipated lifetime dose
will be .3 x 343 x 5 = 515 roentgens. This situation
is marginal. They can go back into the shelter or
move to an area where the dose rate is lower i.e.
further away from ground zero. If they have a bull-
dozer (and fuel) they could remove a one foot depth
of topsoil from a 250 foot radius of the shelter and
attenuate the radiation by geometry shielding. This is
most unlikely of course. Actually their plight is not
critical. They could spend only one half their time in
the shelter and still absorb less than 300 roentgens
in a lifetime. Since most of the figures for practically
all of the tables shown are approximate, they should
be used as a guide for planning purposes. The execu-
tion of all plans must be based on accurate radiation
survey and dosimeter readings if they are avail-
able. 6.21

You can do nothing about time shielding or time. You cannot
start it. You cannot stop it. If you are alive, it will help you after
a nuclear attack ; if you are dead, it will mean nothing to you. You
can do nothing about geometry shielding before or during a nuclear
attack. You cannot pick the target much less the actual ground zero
of an explosion. Even though the odds are fantastically in your
favor that any nuclear weapon explosion would be more than two
miles from you, you cannot be absolutely certain. The only possible

step you can take to protect yourself is to build or have available an
adequate shelter. Then if you survive the acute, sharp jab of ini-
tial radiation, blast and heat in that first critical minute after a
burst, you may take advantage of geometry and time shielding
against the chronic, nagging attrition of fallout radiation. 6.22

CHAPTER 7

Nuclear Explosion Survival Range

It is possible to put together the facts that have been assem-
bled in preceding chapters and use them to assess the chances of
nuclear explosion survival in a BOSDEC type shelter. 7.01

MINIMUM SURVIVAL DISTANCES FROM GROUND ZERO

GROUND BURST

Effect

1 MT

5MT

10 MT

20 MT

Heat (fireball radius)
Blast (100 psi overpressure)
Initial Radiation (1000 rems)
Crater (observable— radius)
Crater (rupture zone— radius)
Crater (plastic zone— radius)

.8 miles
1.0 miles
1.5 miles
650 ft.
975 ft.
1 625 ft.

1.2 miles
1.2 miles
1.8 miles
1100ft.
1 650 ft.
2750 ft.

1.8 miles
1.5 miles
2.0 miles
1 400 ft.
2100ft.
3500 ft.

1
2

.3
.8
.2
.3
.5
.7

miles
miles
miles
miles
miles
miles

Guide 7.01

THERMAL RADIATION

The fireball radius of a 20 megaton weapon is about 2.3 miles.
This is the greatest distance, of any dangerous effect, from the
ground zero of a ground burst. All other effects shown in Guide
7.01 occur less than 2.3 miles from ground zero. It has been estab-
lished that survival is possible, in a well designed shelter, under
the periphery of the fireball. We will assume, however, that the
shelter is just outside the fireball area. The heat will not be a
problem in a BOSDEC type shelter. 7.02

BLAST

The blast from a 20 megaton explosion will generate an over-
pressure of 100 psi at 1.8 miles from ground zero. The BOSDEC
shelter will provide ample protection from this overpressure. Ac-
tually the overpressure would be only 60 psi at 2.3 miles from
ground zero and BOSDEC can withstand more than double that
60 psi overpressure. Blast will not be a problem. 7.03

INITIAL NUCLEAR RADIATION

Initial nuclear radiation at 2.2 miles from a 20 megaton ground

burst would be about 1000 rems per hour and rapidly decreasing.
With a protection factor of only 1000 (against initial radiation)
the shelter occupants would see a dose of less than one rem. No
problem here. 7.04

CRATER

The plastic zone would extend out to 1.7 miles from ground
zero. Beyond that point there would be very little shock. At 2.3
miles from ground zero there would be even less. Definitely no
great danger from ground shock. 7.05

Summary: About the only conclusion that can be drawn is that
survival is not only possible in a BOSDEC shelter 2.3 miles from
the ground zero of a 20 megaton explosion, it is practically a cer-
tainty. Indeed, an occupant of such a shelter would have an excel-
lent chance of survival at two miles from the explosion. Using the
fireball radius as a limiting factor, survival appears probable at
1.8 miles from the ground zero of a 10 megaton burst; 1.2 miles
from a 5 megaton explosion and about one mile from a one megaton
explosion. These figures indicate that survival is probable 4.8 miles
from the ground zero of a 100 megaton burst. 7.06

SURVIVAL PRECAUTIONS

The things which should be considered are these:

1. Be certain to plan a shelter to provide the basic pro-
tective features.

2. If you must use the shelter be sure the intake and
exhaust ports are closed and secured.

3. If you are in an area where firestorms are possible,
stay "buttoned up" for 12 to 18 hours. BOSDEC sys-
tem provides enough air and the firestorm should be
past its peak in about 6 hours.

4. Do not leave anything loose in the shelter. The over-
pressure transmitted into and through the ground may
turn loose articles into projectiles inside the shelter
even though the shelter itself is not damaged. This is
the reason for the admonition — no glass in shelters.
Bunks should be securely fastened to the wall. Auto-
mobile seat belts may be utilized for a short time if
conditions indicate an immediate need. 7.07

SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS - SQUARES AND CUBES

Since computing many weapon effects involves the use of
square and cube roots and inverse square roots, these figures are
given below for ready reference. 7.08

Number Square Cube Square Root Cube Root

1.000

1.5

2.250

3.375

1.225

1.145

4.000

8.000

1.414

1.260

2.5

6.250

15.62

1.581

1.357

9.000

27.00

1.732

1.442

3.5

12.25

42.88

1.871

1.518

16.00

64.00

2.000

1.587

4.5

20.25

91.12

2.121

1.651

25.00

125.00

2.236

1.710

5.5

30.25

166.4

2.345

1.765

36.00

216.0

2.449

1.817

6.5

42.25

274.6

2.550

1.866

49.00

343.0

2.647

1.913

7.5

56.25

421.9

2.739

1.957

64.00

512.0

2.828

2.000

8.5

72.50

614.1

2.915

2.041

81.00

729.0

3.000

2.080

9.5

90.25

857.4

3.082

2.118

100.00

1000.0

3.162

2.154

400.00

8000.0

4.472

2.714

2,500.00

125,000.0

7.071

3.684

100

10,000.00

1,000,000.0

10.000

4.642

Guide 7.08

CHAPTER 8

Shelter Building Controversy

There has been so much printed in newspapers and magazines
about the pros and cons of survival shelters that an examination
of the controversy seems in order. The problems and possible ben-
efits of nuclear power will be with us for eternity. Yet, the whole
question of what to do about it has been treated by many people
as something that can be handled or rather ignored by using a
few childish stock phrases. 8.01

Consider the first few automobiles that appeared on the dirt
roads of America a comparatively few years ago. The only re-
sponse of many people was "get a horse". Had someone predicted
that within a short time vast highway systems would be built and
the whole mode of American life changed, he would have been
labeled insane. If this person had the preception to predict that
someday every home would incorporate a garage, that big
cities would have huge garages, many of them underground, for
the sole purpose of parking these automobiles, they would have
been packed off to a psychiatrist — except that psychiatry was
largely unknown then. The point was and is: we live in a rapidly
changing world. 8.02

Certainly millions of Americans must have enough vision and
imagination to understand that the nuclear weapon problem can-
not be solved by sweeping it under a verbal carpet of trite cliches.
Practically all the comments against survival shelters follow the
same general pattern. They are repeated endlessly by persons un-
familiar with nuclear power, shelter theory and communist ob-
jectives in the cold war. 8.03

COMMUNIST OBJECTIVES

Communist objectives are generally agreed to be these:

(a) To force America to capitulate without a fight.

(b) To promote the idea that communism is inevitable.

(d) To force America into spending itself into bankruptcy.

(e) To get America to disarm without adequate inspection.

(f ) To talk America out of building survival shelters.
This will leave us a fit subject for nuclear blackmail.

This is an easily recognizable pattern. Everyone must agree
that if these communist aims are achieved we will lose our liberty
without a missile ever being launched from an enemy pad. 8.04

POPULAR CLICHES

Now consider the popular cliches in use, always bearing in
mind the communist aims. These cliches are used by millions of
fine, loyal anti-communist citizens — but the basic conception and
impetus is supplied and fostered by many misguided people who
wittingly or unwittingly play into the hands of communists.

(a) I don't want to live in a world which has been devas-
tated by blast, firewinds, radiation and hurtling debris.

(b) If everything will be blown down or burnt within 30
miles of a nuclear explosion, why should I try to
save myself ?

(c) Some people are going to have guns in their shelters
and they won't be shooting communists. They will be
shooting women, children and neighbors.

(d) We should forget about shelters and spend all of our
effort and money on backward nations and on out-
lawing nuclear war.

(e) We shouldn't build shelters because this will worry the
communists and they may attack us with nuclear
weapons.

(f) I can't afford a survival shelter.

These remarks with variations are heard everywhere. 8.05

ANALYSIS OF POPULAR CLICHES

If every citizen had a shelter we would have a great deterrent
force. Why? Because then we could not be blackmailed when the
moment of decision arrived. The communists respect only strength
and preparedness. The emergence of America from lethargy will
inspire a stepped up tirade of ridicule. What a terrible thing it
would be if we end up talked out of the precious liberty for which
Americans have fought and died. 8.06

"I DON'T WANT TO LIVE -"

Of course the people saying this want to live. In fact they will
probably be the first ones trying to get into someone else's shelter.
Ironically the choice whether or not they want to live is not theirs
to make. The enemy will decide that to a certain degree. One won-
ders whether these people have a moral right to say in effect, that
they don't want to live and that therefore their wives and children
must die too. 8.07

Once enough of this type people think that they are resigned
to dying, they become a perfect target for communist propaganda.

They do not have to die. All they must do is accept capitulation to
communism and they can live. That is why this cliche is so vicious.
These people seem to get most of their mental exercise jumping at
conclusions. Have they ever considered that every American has
a duty to protect his family, himself, his country and the free
world? 8.08

"IF EVERYTHING WILL BE BLOWN DOWN OR BURNT -"

This statement ignores one basic fact. An underground shelter
cannot be blown down or burnt. Potentially dangerous blast and
thermal radiation merely pass over a properly designed and built
shelter. Heat requires time for destruction. A pan of water can be
placed over a fire for one second and it will not heat the water
appreciably. Thermal radiation from a nuclear explosion lasts much
less than one minute. 8.09

"SOME PEOPLE ARE GOING TO HAVE GUNS -"

This type of trash about shooting women and children has
been quoted by a high churchman and also a reporter for a national
magazine. Judge for yourself how sensible and responsible these
people are if that is their real opinion of their fellow citizens. This
type statement usually is voiced by people who are not too bright,
who are merely reflecting their own probable reactions or who, for
reasons of their own, are trying to discredit the protection con-
cept. 8.10

As for shooting neighbors trying to force their way into a
shelter — what kind of neighbors are these? Are these the people
who would rather die than come out into a devastated world? If
a person built a five person survival shelter for his wife and three
children, and someone tried to force his way in by throwing out
two children occupants so the intruder and his wife could move
in — then he should be shot. 8.11

If someone walked into the minister's or reporter's home and
took over, what would they do? Communism constantly strives to
stir up controversy, sow discord, encourage weakness and promote
panic. When an article is read — think ! What is the author trying
to do? What message is he trying to get across? What are his
reasons and his logic? Most of these statements will be found to
be emotional appeals to every normal person's longing for peace
and security and revulsion toward the use of force. Even though
almost everyone recognizes that the shooting of women and chil-
dren is far-fetched and unlikely, it does promote a negative re-
action. That is all it is meant to do. 8.12

Police protection would, of necessity, come practically to a

standstill during a nuclear attack. Each person must then take
the responsibility for protecting his family and home from criminal
elements. No thinking person would deny that he had the right
and duty to keep armed hoodlums out of his home. This right is
guaranteed to all Americans. 8.13

There is no reason, moral or otherwise, why an individual
should work, plan, save and build a shelter for his family and then
let anyone come along and put him and his family out of it. In the
event of a war the government would have its hands full. In a
land of present plenty all can plan to feed and protect themselves
if they are foresighted. There are certain things every person must
do for his family and himself. 8.14

"WE SHOULD FORGET ABOUT SHELTERS -"

Since when can peace be secured by unilateral disarmament
and a posture of weakness. Lack of adequate survival shelters for
our citizens in a nuclear world is a real weakness. Have we learned
nothing from our dealings with Hitler? Nothing from the plight
of peaceful India? How can any reasonably intelligent person ex-
pect a proven bully to change his ways because his intended victim
refuses to protect himself? 8.15

One may as well try to eliminate automobile accidents by
cancelling his collision insurance and donating the premiums to a
school for poor drivers, as to insure peace by donating money to
backward countries. Yet this suggestion has cropped up. The idea
of helping backward countries may have some merit but not as a
means of insuring peace, and certainly not as a substitute for
building shelters. 8.16

"BUILDING SHELTERS MAY PRECIPITATE A NUCLEAR ATTACK"

Remember, communists respect just one thing — strength.
A nation protected from nuclear attack is much stronger than one
whose citizens are unsheltered. Just as long as the communists
realize that they will not gain as much as they lose — they will
never attack. A well armed, survival sheltered America is needed
to deter a nuclear attack. 8.17

A government believing it might lose 80% of its citizens would
be far more compliant than one that knew that 80% of its citizens
would survive. Communists have always attacked at a time and
place of their own choosing. The theory that a shelter program
would cause them to change their timetable can be discarded. It
will deter any possible attack. 8.18

If we must die as a result of a nuclear attack, let us at least
die fighting for our lives and freedom and not just lie down in

the open without even the wits to dig a hole into which to retire
for protection. 8.19

"I CAN'T AFFORD A SHELTER"

Maybe the person who says "I can't afford a shelter" really
means it. The chances are that this is just a quick and easy way
to defer or brush off an unpleasant decision. Millions of Americans
live in apartment houses and other places that preclude the possi-
bility of building individual shelters. They have a very special
problem. Let us hope the government steps in and makes possible
adequate shelter protection for them. 8.20

For the majority of citizens the decision must be a personal
one. The FHA guarantees loans for shelters, payable over long
periods of time. A good shelter program is financially possible. If
a person can afford a $4,000.00 car, a $20,000 home or a recrea-
tion room, hi-fi or color TV set and wall-to-wall carpeting he prob-
ably can afford a survival shelter. 8.21

Isn't it slightly ridiculous for a person to spend thousands of
dollars for a garage to protect an automobile and then balk at
spending an equal amount to protect his family ? A survival shelter
in normal times can be used for many purposes ; storage space for
food, clothing, household supplies and deepfreeze which otherwise
would take up valuable present space. The uses to which a shelter
may be put are only limited by a person's ingenuity. 8.22

Summary: Unless the decision to protect your family is made on
the basis of common sense and logic, you may well wake up some
day to find out, along with all other citizens, that our country has
been talked out of free and independent existence and into a com-
munist state ; that this was done without the launching of a single
missile from a communist pad; that freedom will have vanished
and that we all can then say — and really mean it, "I DON'T
WANT TO LIVE IN A WORLD LIKE THIS". 8.23

CHAPTER 9

Getting To The Shelter

If a person has a shelter, the big question is whether he and
his family will have time to get into it. This depends on many
factors that cannot be foreseen; such as geographical location,
time of attack, proximity to the shelter, size of community in which
he lives and degree of warning. There are two types of warnings
that must be considered. 9.01

STRATEGIC WARNING

A typical example of a strategic warning occured on October
22, 1962, the day the United States blockaded Cuba. All Americans
were aware that there was a possibility, however remote, that a
nuclear attack could follow this action. A strategic warning is
signaled by events which in themselves are not sufficient to con-
stitute a war threat but which contain an element of dangerous
consequences. This type warning concerns interpretation of events
and could provide hours or even days of warning. 9.02

TACTICAL WARNING

A tactical warning is based on information which does not
require interpretation. In the event of a nuclear attack, a tactical
warning would probably come from our outlying early warning sys-
tems. This would provide up to fifteen minutes warning. However,
the almost inevitable strategic warning coupled with the tactical
warning would be of tremendous significance if intelligent plans for
such an eventuality had been made. A tactical warning is not con-
cerned with whether or not there is an attack, but solely with how
much time is available before the explosions may be expected. 9.03

ENEMY OBJECTIVES

The very first objective of any enemy attack would be to
knock out American retaliatory capabilities. This strategy is essen-
tial. Missile launching sites are more dangerous to attackers than
civilian populations. Our Strategic Air Command bases, Polaris
submarines, hard, soft and foreign missile pads all must be neutral-
ized before the enemy could afford the comparatively unrewarding
luxury of bombing American cities. 9.04

POSSIBILITY OF A COMPLETE SURPRISE ATTACK

There is little chance that any aggressor could mount a
nuclear attack on the United States and make all the preparations
necessary to brace themselves for the inevitable devastating
counter attack without tipping their hand. Here is why. A potential
enemy must do these things:

(a) Move all their naval vessels into position.

(b) Deploy military forces to exploit the tactical advan-
tages resulting from a surprise attack.

(d) Bolster homeland defenses for the swift disaster that is
certain to be visited upon them.

(e) Recall all high government officials abroad at the time.

(f ) Prepare all missile and aircraft bases for maximum use.
In addition for the next few years a potential enemy must

use aircraft to deliver nuclear weapons. This makes impossible the
task of completely concealing an attack. All weapon carrying air-
craft must be dispatched hours ahead of the missiles so that the
delivery on all targets would be coordinated. These targets would
include hundreds of different locations scattered in Europe and
North America. 9.05

The timing of such an attack would require almost unbeliev-
able planning, accuracy and good luck to succeed in hiding all
the preparation activities from diplomats and other information
sources. Our modern technology is such that it would require a
miracle for a complete surprise to be achieved even if all other
information sources failed. 9.06

A warning time of many hours would only be important if a
person already had a shelter. It allows time to use a shelter — not
to build one. 9.07

Vast areas of America are so geographically situated that
even hundreds of nuclear weapons would not knock out towns in
those areas. From the Mississippi River to the Pacific coast states
and almost the entire mountainous parts of southeastern and
northeastern United States are practically invulnerable to a
knockout blow. 9.08

DAY TIME ATTACK

Throughout the country a high percentage of housewives
and pre-school children would be at home or close to it at any given
minute of the day. With thirty minutes warning it might be pos-
sible to pick up school children very close by and get them into
the shelter. Here, again, preplanning and a thorough knowledge

of local civil defense regulations will pay off in the event of
an emergency. 9.09

There would probably be fifteen to thirty minutes with a
tactical warning. For people employed in suburban or rural areas
who work within several miles from home, there is an excellent
chance of getting home in time. 9.10

A no-warning day light attack will force everyone to take
whatever cover is at hand wherever they may be. School children
will be in the care of their teachers. At this time a terrible price
may be paid if a community has planned and built schools without
adequate shelters. 9.11

NIGHT ATTACK

Depending on the hour, from 75% to 95% of all Americans
would be home if an attack came at night. Due to the time differen-
tial between the United States and the Soviet Union, the American
night time is the Russian day time. It would seem logical that an
enemy attack would occur early in the evening to permit them to
absorb the counterattack during their daylight hours. 9.12

With just a few minutes warning, a family could be shepherded
into a shelter at home. With no warning, even in a target area, a
person observing the flash of an explosion twelve miles away would
have one minute to get into a shelter, before the blast
wave arrived. 9.13

NEAR PROJECT

In order to be certain that even sleeping persons can be
alerted, your government has perfected a device which plugs into
any electric outlet serviced by a public utility. This box emits a
very distinctive signal when our warning system determines that
enemy missiles or aircraft are on their way for an attack. It will
probably sell for a nominal price. The system is called the NEAR
project. Some power stations have already been equipped to trigger
the signal. Others are being similarly equipped and the entire sys-
tem should be operational in the near future. The signal device is
automatic and performs the function of a nuclear attack alarm
clock. A person's chances of survival are enhanced by the careful
planning and preparation which will enable him to make the best
possible use of whatever warning time is available. 9.14

PROTECTION AT WORK

If a person works for a farsighted employer he may have a

shelter in his office or plant in which he can spend the first critical
minute after a nuclear explosion. He may then be able to get home
in thirty minutes before fallout starts, providing he has a planned
route which does not conflict with Civil Defense regulations. 9.15

PROTECTION AWAY FROM SHELTER

If a person should be caught far from home in strange sur-
roundings when a warning signal sounds, there are several things
that can be done to increase chances for immediate survival. 9.16

Try to get inside. A basement corner is best since if offers
protection from building collapse. Lie down, curl up and face away
from glass or loose objects. Face the wall if in a corner with no
windows. Face away from the wall if not in a corner since this in-
creases protection to face and eyes. 9.17

If in the country, try to crawl into a culvert or any low spot
protected by the terrain. Get under one end of a bridge or into a
ditch. As a last resort slide under a car. 9.18

Anyone remembering to count the seconds between the initial
flash and the arrival of the blast wave, can divide that figure by
five and the result will provide the approximate mileagp from the
ground zero of the explosion. 9.19

Summary: Even if a family is somewhere else when an attack
occurs, a home survival shelter is a worthwhile haven, a meeting
place in which to ride out the storm of a world gone crazy. The
peace of mind that goes with at least making the effort to protect
a family makes the project well worthwhile. That is the pessimistic
side of the coin. At best the shelter will provide protection for
members of a family who are home or close to home in the event
of an attack. The alternative is a simple, duck under the kitchen
table and pray situation. A shelter will provide a family with as
much physical security as can be obtained in a nuclear world. 9.20

CHAPTER 10

Nuclear Attack Possibilities

Building a nuclear survival shelter is something like buying
insurance. It's a good idea to investigate the reason for the policy,
its cost and the extent of protection or coverage that can be ex-
pected. On the basis of available information, certain estimates
can be made about the form an initial nuclear attack might take
and the general outline an ensuing nuclear war might follow. 10.01

ESTIMATES OF COMMUNIST ATTACK CAPABILITY

An Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization (now called the
Office of Emergency Planning) study in 1959 showed an attack
pattern presumed to involve the use of 263 nuclear weapons by an
enemy. The study assumed each bomb to be 20 megatons or smaller
with a total attack force of about 3,000 megatons. These 263 bombs
would be aimed at 224 targets. 10.02

Other United States government sources have estimated that
the communists would have from 300 to 1,000 intercontinental bal-
listic missiles (ICBM's) by mid 1962. In 1961 another government
authority thought that the communist arsenal contained 35 to 50
nuclear tipped ICBM's. By the end of 1962 the nuclear weapon
stockpile was estimated to contain 80 nuclear bombs and associated
delivery hardware (ICBM's). Intercontinental ballistic missiles
are not in themselves a threat. They are the means of delivering
nuclear warheads on target. 10.03

NUCLEAR ATTACK WEAPON SIZES

The effectiveness of a nuclear weapon does not progress
geometrically according to size or yield. A 50 megaton bomb is not
2]/2 times as devastating as a 20 megaton bomb. Therefore, the
chances are that smaller yield bombs would be used in an attack.
The largest to be expected ; 20 megatons. 10.04

Twenty megaton bombs are less expensive, use less precious
nuclear material and are easier to deliver than 50 megaton bombs.
A 20 megaton weapon will do about two thirds as much damage
as a 50 megaton bomb. 10.05

NUCLEAR ATTACK PATTERN

An estimate that appears to be possible for the next few years
would comprehend the delivery of between 300 and 500 nuclear

weapons by an enemy. These would be delivered in a mixture of
air and ground bursts. Each bomb would be 20 megatons or
smaller. They would be aimed at about 300 target areas. These
areas would include all missile sites, military bases and probably
basic steel, chemical and oil industrial complexes. 10.06

POSSIBLE METHODS OF BOMB DELIVERY

In the immediate future (until 1965) these weapons would
probably be delivered about 40% by missiles and the balance by a
combination of aircraft and probably some seacraft. After 1965
the percentage of bombs delivered by missile would increase fairly
rapidly until practically all weapons used in an attack would be
delivered in this manner. This appraisal of the delivery technique
possibilities is just one persons opinion based on information
available to everyone. 10.07

NUCLEAR ATTACK TIMETABLE

It would seem self evident that in the event of a nuclear war
a big percentage of an enemy's nuclear weapons would be launched
immediately. This must be done in an effort to achieve a knockout
blow. However, if all the weapons were fired in the initial attack
and something went wrong the assailant would be a sitting
duck. Therefore, a kind of balance must be maintained by an
aggressor. 10.08

The percentage of weapons fired in the first hour or day of
a surprise attack would probably run about 50% to 70% of the
total available to the enemy. These weapons would be used for
strategic purposes. The balance of the bombs would be divided
into two categories. About 20% to 40% to be used during the first
30 days of the war for tactical purposes. Tactical targets would
include targets still intact after the initial attack and other
locations which posed a problem to the attacker. 10.09

The approximately 10% of weapons remaining would probably
never be fired. To do so would completely denude the attacker
militarily. With even a few bombs left they would be in a position
to use nuclear blackmail even if almost completely wiped out. With
these bombs they might try to place America in the same position
that we occupied after the Korean war. You will remember that
we then achieved the almost impossible — we snatched defeat from
the jaws of victory. 10.10

POSSIBILITY OF INVASION

If communist agents reported that enough of our people and

facilities were destroyed, and if there were enough enemy sur-
vivors, an invasion of our country might be attempted. This must
be done before we had a chance to bring our resources to bear on
the problem and after the radiation had subsided or decayed to a
reasonably safe level. This would be approximately between two
weeks and six weeks after the initial attack. 10.11

There are other invasion risks that must be considered, and
which could form the basis for an entire book. This is neither
the time nor place to go into detail about them. However, there
are so called neutrals who might take advantage of a weakened,
tormented America to try what they would never dream about
while the United States was powerful and strong. While some of
these neutrals are genuinely friendly to us, they are subject to
political developments which could change their attitude prac-
tically overnight. Cuba is a typical example of this type of change.
We cannot afford to overlook any eventuality when our very life
as a nation may hang in the balance. 10.12

TARGETS

Every attack target must be counted on to receive at least
one bomb. Many of them may receive a second bomb if they are
extremely dangerous to the enemy. The absolute limit that any
target would be likely to receive would be three bursts. There
would be few, if any, of these areas. In a suitable shelter, a person
will be safe unless he is less than about two miles from ground zero
of one, two, or at most, three nuclear bomb explosions. The enemy
is more noted for the power of their ICBM's than for the accuracy
of their missile guidance systems. 10.13

Out of a total of between 224 to 300 target areas, the enemy
could not spare more than one or two weapons for any one target.
Within a radius of 30 miles from ground zero there are 2,800 square
miles. The area in which there would be almost complete devas-
tation from a 20 megaton explosion would be only 28 square miles
(3 mile radius). 10.14

CHANCE OF SURVIVAL

A majority of people living in a target area and over 90% of
all other Americans can survive a nuclear attack if they are in
suitable shelters. Persons protected in a shelter anywhere within
30 miles of a target would have a 100 to 1 chance to survive one
nuclear burst. Obviously the odds decrease the closer anyone gets
to the target and increase further away from the target. 10.15

CHAPTER 11

Essentials For Survival

Air, water, food, fire (heat energy), clothing, shelter (from
natural elements), tools, utensils, medicine and electricity are
essentials for survival. These are generally considered to be neces-
sary for man's survival under any circumstances. We can
exist without the last four items on the list. Mere existance
is not enough if we are to rise up after an attack and re-
build our civilization. 11.01

The first three essentials (air, water and food) must be
available in order to remain alive. The second four (fire, clothing,
shelter and tools) are almost as necessary. But it is conceivable
that we could survive for some time without them. The last two
items are comparatively new to our civilization. 11.02

A survival shelter should have as many sources as possible
for each of the first four necessities. In planning survival facilities,
arrangements must be made for adequate supplies of each neces-
sity before the need arises. A person must know how neces-
sary they are, how difficult they may be to obtain and the
estimated time before they may become available to citizens
after an attack. 11.03

AIR

The most essential element of life is air. A person can live for
only about five to eight minutes when deprived of air. 11.04

Air is abundant; it is free, it is everywhere. It does not
normally need processing. It does not need to be grown, trans-
ported, cooked or purchased. It merely requires filtration by well
known, simple methods to insure its availability during and after
a nuclear attack. 11.05

OXYGEN CONCENTRATION IN AIR

A minimum oxygen concentration of 16% in air is necessary
to sustain life. An oxygen concentration analyzer is available which
provides oxygen concentration percentages. It is simple to operate
but is expensive. 11.06

CARBON DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION IN AIR

A carbon dioxide concentration in excess of 3% in air can be
fatal. A carbon dioxide test unit is available to provide concentra-

tion information. It is inexpensive but complicated to use. 11.07

AIR SUPPLY METHODS

Survival shelter air can be supplied by several methods:

(a) A blower powered by public utility electricity.

(b) A blower powered by generator electricity.

(d) Emergency oxygen cylinders, commercially available.
Oxygen cylinders contain 244 cubic feet of 99% pure oxygen.
They would be quite expensive for shelter storage due to the
cylinder cost. 11.08

CARBON DIOXIDE REMOVAL BY SODA LIME

It is possible to insure a supply of good air in temporarily
sealed shelters by using soda lime to remove excess carbon dioxide.
This technique in conjunction with the use of makeup oxygen from
cylinders can be used in times of emergency. Soda lime regenerates
itself continuously by chemical reactions. Eventually it becomes
completely saturated and can no longer regenerate. It must then
be discarded and replaced. The indicating type which changes color
from white to pink when it is becoming saturated should
be used. 11.09

CARBON DIOXIDE REMOVAL BY ZEOLITE

Another system, for removing waste gases from a sealed
chamber containing three people (a spacecraft), has been de-
veloped by a large chemical company. During a period of 720 hours
(30 days) more than 210 pounds of carbon dioxide (1.1 pounds
per person per day) can be trapped by a substance called Zeolite,
which may be used indefinitely. The carbon dioxide when trapped
may be expelled from the chamber or shelter. This system, if it is
made available for shelter use, could solve one of the biggest air
purification problems when used in conjunction with a supply
of cylinder oxygen. 11.10

WATER

Man can survive only a few days without water or substitute
liquids. Water is less abundant than air. It is normally available
in a potable form from lakes, rivers, streams, rainfall and from
underground reservoirs called water tables which may be tapped
by wells. 11.11

WATER AND RADIOACTIVITY

Water shares one peculiarity, among others, with air. In a pure
state neither can become radioactive. Only impurities consisting of
fallout made radioactive by the nuclear explosion can radioactively
contaminate air and water. Dust particles in air and solids sus-
pended in water can and do become radioactive and thereby
transmitters of nuclear radiation when they have been directly
charged by the nuclear explosion products. Fortunately the earth
acts as a gigantic and effective filter. Water from a moderately
deep well will usually be free from radiation and can be safely used
due to its underground source. 11.12

RESERVOIR WATER

If reservoirs are a persons main water source there is a chance
that his supply may become contaminated. Regular normal water
treatment including coagulation, sedimentation and filtration tech-
niques will remove contamination. 11.13

When reservoir water is merely chlorinated it may be unfit
to drink for several days after an attack. Dilution and natural
radioactive decay will cause the contamination to decrease with
time. 11.14

WARNING — Boiling fallout laden water is of absolutely no
value in removing radioactivity. 11.15

SHELTER WATER SOURCES

Shelter liquid supplies can be made available by these methods :

(a) A 550 gallon or smaller water storage tank.

(b) Water extracted from shelter atmosphere by the de-
humidifier.

(d) Contents of the hot water heater if the tank was shut
off from the usual supply before the nuclear attack.

(e) A well.

Water may also be available from a supply previously stored
in plastic containers shortly before an emergency. 11.16

FOOD

All food must be grown. This takes time. It is not possible to
speed up the process appreciably. Much that we eat today must be
dug or picked, processed, transported, warehoused, distributed
and purchased. 11.17

In a normal peacetime economy this is a time consuming

process. Imagine how much longer it would take to do all these
things after an attack. Then the whole process would be compli-
cated by special soil tests and preparation, partially destroyed
processing facilities, crippled transportation, burned out ware-
houses and sharply curtailed distribution facilities. 11.18

Consider these examples. It takes anywhere from 3 months
to 3 years to bring meat to market. Vegetables spend as much as
6 months in transit to the consumer. This is the situation in peace-
time with everyone cooperating, everything going smoothly and a
surplus of food in almost every category. 11.19

We must assume that most of our foodstuffs will go up in
nuclear smoke in the event of an attack. Some will be burned, some
blasted to pieces and much will be contaminated. A lot will just rot
for lack of refrigeration, transportation, warehousing or people
to process it. 11.20

FOOD WAREHOUSING

Remember that almost all processed food is stored in ware-
houses located close to large population centers for rapid and easy
distribution. Unfortunately this logical peacetime system makes
our food supply extremely vulnerable in the event of a nuclear
attack. 11.21

To lessen this danger to our vital food supply the government
might encourage the building of underground warehouses. Fast
depreciation tax write off certificates have been issued to business
in the past for far less important facilities. 11.22

There is one place where food, already admirably packaged
for warehousing, can be stored safely, conveniently and econom-
ically— in a person's own home. More specifically in his own
survival shelter. 11.23

FOOD SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS

As an absolute minimum, a 90 day supply of food is rec-
ommended. A six month supply is more realistic. A 24 month supply
would not be beyond the realm of common sense. This does not
mean that a person and his family would spend 3, 6 or 24 months
in a shelter, but they will need food from their own supply when
they do emerge from the shelter. (See Chapter 15 for complete
shelter menus and shopping lists.) 11.24

By sound planning, and possibly after making a few minor
sacrifices, anyone can gradually build up a reserve supply of food.
A reserve which will see them through any emergency up to and
including a nuclear calamity. 11.25

This type planning should give a person great peace of mind.
It will also ease the tremendous burden his government will bear

100

in feeding others who could not or would not prepare for a
nuclear emergency. Again, remember, the better prepared we are —
the less susceptible our government will be to nuclear blackmail.
Our efforts will also help to decentralize and disperse food sup-
plies which in turn will aid in eliminating wartime distribution
problems. 11.26

FIRE AND HEAT ENERGY

Fire or heat energy consists of heat energy for cooking, for
maintaining a comfortable atmosphere and for lighting. Heat
energy for these three purposes is not as abundant as air or water.
It is more abundant than food. In normal times there are many
sources of heat energy: electricity, propane or natural gas, wood,
coal, charcoal, alcohol, candles and kerosene. These possible sources
of emergency energy are reviewed below. 11.27

ELECTRICITY

Electricity is useful for all three purposes of cooking, heating
and lighting. It is the only source of energy that meets all three
requirements. It provides the best illumination and shelter cooking
energy. When used for cooking it does not burn valuable oxygen.
It has one major drawback; it cannot be conveniently stored.
There are two possible sources of readily usable electricity in a
survival shelter. 11.28

PUBLIC UTILITY ELECTRICITY

Public service utility electricity may, and probably will, be
subject to frequent interruption if not outright power failure in
the event of a nuclear attack. Whenever it is available this power
should be used for lighting, heating and cooking in a shelter. This
source should be first choice for use with electrically powered
utensils such as hot plates, frying pans, heating pads and
coffee makers. 11.29

GENERATOR ELECTRICITY

Generator electricity is an excellent replacement for public
utility electricity. It should never be used when utility power is
available because generator power can be stored in the form of the
fuel oil upon which the generator operates. When a generator is
used the energy expenditure for heating, ventilation and cooking
should be planned so it runs for the shortest possible time. All

101

electrical chores should be arranged and charted to get maximum
power usage for a limited time each day, up to the limit of the
generator capacity. This conserves fuel. All electrical needs except
lighting may be taken care of in one hour a day or in a short time
as possible. Care must be taken in planning generator use to make
certain that generator capacity is not exceeded. 11.30

BATTERY ELECTRICITY

The third source of emergency shelter electricity is battery
power. It should be used mainly for emergency lighting and for
powering portable radios. While batteries have the advantage of
being storable, they are not long lived enough to count on for
much more than a few days use unless they are used for occasional
service. Then they may last for a few months. They are useful and
necessary but they also have serious limitations. There are
several exceptions. 11.31

Flashlights that can be recharged by plugging into an elec-
trical outlet seem to be a more dependable source of emergency
lighting. Main utility or generator electricity must be available
often enough to make recharging feasible if rechargable flash-
lights are to be of much service. 11.32

A storage battery can be useful for radios, emergency lighting,
generator starting and other light or intermittent electrical chores.
A storage battery may be kept charged by plugging it into an
electrical outlet when either utility or generator power is available.
This requires a battery charger unit. Another device which is
pedaled like a bicycle is on the market. It permits charging the
storage battery solely by foot power. 11.33

PROPANE AND NATURAL GAS

Gas is useful for cooking and heating under normal conditions.
Natural gas cannot be stored. Propane can be stored but the chance
of an explosion due to the possible heat of a nuclear burst makes
the storing of gas in or near a shelter hazardous. Gas burns
precious oxygen in a shelter. The use of gas in a survival shelter
is not recommended. 11.34

COAL

Coal has just one advantage. It can be stored. It is hard to
ignite, control and extinguish so that it can be reignited. It burns
precious shelter oxygen and gives off noxious gases. No coal
in a shelter. 11.35

102

WOOD

Wood is abundant and excellent for cooking, heating and in-
cidental lighting. It can be stored. It burns oxygen and requires a
flue. Wood may be useful in the shelter lock (12.07) for post attack
use when radiation levels have decayed to a safe level but before
normal organic fuels are available. Wood cannot be used in the
primary shelter. 11.36

CHARCOAL BRIQUETS

Charcoal can be stored and contains more heat energy per
cubic foot than wood. It consumes oxygen and in a shelter gives off
noxious gases. While it would be excellent for post shelter use it is
definitely dangerous for shelter cooking. 11.37

ALCOHOL

Alcohol must be considered the first choice substitute for
electricity for use in cooking. It is available in canned solid form
in stores and is easily and conveniently stored in small containers
which are easy to ignite, extinguish and reignite. It does burn
oxygen. Alcohol may be used for emergency shelter cooking when
electrical services are unavailable. 11.38

CANDLES

Candles are easily stored. They are useful for emergency
lighting and for heating small quantities of food. They burn oxygen.
Long thin candles are best for lighting and short thick candles for
heating food. They may be used in a shelter in the absence of
anything better. 11.39

KEROSENE

Kerosene is mainly useful for lighting. It is dangerous
to store, burns oxygen and can create smoke. It is not for
shelters. 11.40

CLOTHING

Clothing is a subject to which much thought should be given.
Not only for the comparatively short period of actual attack but
for the intermediate period after the attacks and before a return
to nearly normal sources of clothing. The discussion of clothing

103

here is divided into three groups; adults, teenagers and children.
Generally all clothing should be selected for its warmth and du-
rability— not its style or fashion. 11.41

ADULTS

Adults should not be too much of a problem. Having achieved
their full growth, most adult sizes become to a degree static. Most
adult outer garments are discarded for esthetic rather than
functional reasons. They are out of style or worn. Very seldom do
they stop being a protective covering — shielding the wearer from
the elements. Most adults could get by in an emergency for 2 or 3
years with the clothes they have. 11.42

MEN

Men should have on hand a 36 months supply of the following
articles :

Undershirts Handkerchiefs Belts

Shorts Sweaters Scarves

Socks Shoes Gloves

Shirts Overshoes Raincoats

Pajamas Jackets Slacks

Hats Overcoats

11.43

WOMEN

Women should have on hand a 36 months supply of the follow-
ing articles:

Scarves

Sweaters

Slacks

11.44

TEENAGERS

Teenage clothes would be the same general types worn by
adults. Denims and other long wearing, inexpensive and easy to
maintain materials should be favored. Teenagers should have a
36 months supply of clothes with due consideration for growth
possibilities. 11.45

104

Panties

Girdles

Overcoats

Brassieres

Jackets

Raincoats

Blouses

Shoes

Skirts

Stockings
Slips

Overshoes
Handkerchiefs

Gloves
Night clothes

CHILDREN

Children's clothes would be similar in types to adult clothes.
There are some special needs of infants and very small children.
These needs are listed below:

Diapers Rubber pants Sweaters

Shirts Vests Night clothes

Hose Shoes Hats

Coats Coveralls Gloves

Special care must be exercised in gauging probable child
growth over a 36 months period. This is especially true of these
articles for children: shoes, socks, underwear and trousers. It is
much better to store clothes on the large side since oversize gar-
ments are more comfortable than undersize ones. Children can
always grow into oversize clothes. 11.46

GENERAL SHELTER CLOTHING SUGGESTIONS

Shoes — Sneakers or comfortable slippers would be especially
suitable for shelter wear for the entire family. Since activity would
be somewhat restricted (that's the understatement of the year)
the usual shoe problem of normal existence should be less acute.
Preference should be for thick soled, long wearing shoes for pro-
tection when it is safe to leave the shelter. These shoes definitely
should be on the large side for children. They may then be worn
over slippers or padded by wearing extra socks to get maximum
use from them. 11.47

White Coveralls — These coveralls mentioned elsewhere (Guide
16.03) are especially suited for wear outside the shelter. Large,
and many small, particles of radioactive dust can easily be seen
on them and brushed off. The one piece type construction keeps
out much fallout laden dust. 11.48

Old Suits and Overcoats — Men, especially, should keep
suits and overcoats which would ordinarily be discarded. Reason:
It may be necessary, at some time immediately after an attack,
to leave the shelter for a few minutes for a dire emergency.
Clothing exposed to such high radiation should be discarded and
not brought back into the shelter. An old suit or coat will provide
as much protection from radiation as a new one. 11.49

After an attack we do not know what we will find when we
finally leave our shelters. Maybe the government will not be able
to provide food, medicine and clothing for some time after an
attack. It may have to concentrate on defense hardware. It will
be up to each of us to have on hand the dozens of small items
upon which we depend to live, but which we take so much for
granted in our normal everyday life. 11.50

105

HAND TOOLS

There are certain hand tools that are inexpensive and prac-
tically indispensable. These and other very useful tools and items
of equipment are listed below as a checklist. These tools should
enable anyone to make minor repairs, remove debris and perform
general utility chores. The 12 foot ladder makes an excellent
emergency stretcher and a good bridge if one is needed. 11.51

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.

HAND TOOLS

hoe

crowbar

wrecking bar

sledgehammer

pick (point & chisel)

coal shovel

axe

hatchet

block & tackle

claw hammer

hacksaw w/10 blades
1 pair wire clippers
1 -'50 ft. length Manila rope

C/2")

1-12 ft. ladder

1 -50 ft. water hose

1 ball peen hammer

1-2 man manual wood saw

1 spade

1 pr. rubber insulating gloves

2 steel wedges

1 soldering (non-electric) iron
1 monkey wrench

23. 1 crescent wrench

24. 1 set open end wrenches

25. 1-6-ft. carpenters rule (folding)

26. 1 measuring tape

27. 3 assorted screwdrivers

(slotted)

28. 1 carpenters crosscut saw

29. 3 assorted screwdrivers

(Phillips head)

30. 1 hand drill

31. 1-1" augur bit

32. set drills

33. set wood chisels

34. cold chisel

35. adapter, water hose to basin

36. set files

37. 1-24" stillson wrench

38. 1 pair vise grip pliers

39. 6 ft. 5000 Ib. close link chain

w/grab hook and ring

40. 1 putty knife

41. 6 brainard tel-o-posts

(telescopic jack posts)

Guide 11.51

MEDICINE

There are certain medical supplies so basic that they would be
found in almost every medicine chest. These items plus others
useful for handling minor aches, pains, cuts and bruises are listed
as a reminder for persons stocking a shelter. Don't forget to include
special medicines presently required or that may be required in
the foreseeable future. 11.52

106

MEDICAL SUPPLIES

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.

Sleeping pills (for children) 24.

Aspirin 25.

Baking soda 26.

Boric acid 27.

Petroleum jelly 28.

Anti-acid powder 29.

Band aids 30.

Laxative 31.

Hydrogen peroxide 32.

Burn ointment 33.

Toothache drops 34.

Milk of Magnesia 35.
Non-habit forming pain pills 36.

Ammonium ampoules 37.

Styptic pencil 38.

Bandage scissors 39.

Rubber gloves 40.

Elastic bandage tape 41.
Eye drops with dropper

Water purification tablets 42.

Medicones 43.

1 roll gauze bandage 44.
4 triangle bandages

3 ace bandages

2 padded splints

1 tourniquet

6-4 x 4 gauze pads

6-2 x 3 gauze pads

%" wide adhesive tape

Tongue depressors

Q-tips

Baby powder

Baby oil

Sanitary napkins

Red Cross First Aid Book

Home medical book

Hot water bag

Antiseptic solution

Salt tablets

Vitamins

Medium first aid dressings

8" x 7V2"

1" adhesive compress

Tweezers

Assorted tubular bandages

Guide 11.52

SHELTER FROM THE ELEMENTS

Shelter from the elements refers to shelter in its basic pre-
nuclear meaning. Shelter from rain, cold, snow, sleet, hail, heat,
tornados, cyclones, floods and hurricanes. Fortunately a properly
designed survival shelter automatically protects against almost
all the natural elements. 11.53

There can be problems with heat and cold in a survival shelter.
Since most shelters are covered by considerable earth and concrete,
the range of temperature should be comparatively narrow due to
the natural insulating qualities of these two barriers. In some
deep mines the temperature seldom varies more than a few degrees
from 75 °F regardless of surface temperatures. In a shelter without
artificial heating or cooling, the temperature should never go below
50 °F or above 85 °F. The actual range of temperature in a BOSDEC
type shelter is estimated to be between a low of 60 °F and a high
of about 80°F. 11.54

The shelter should have a wool blanket for each occupant.

107

While shelter temperatures may not always be cozy by normal
standards, the shelter would be livable without any artificial
heating or cooling. 11.55

The exact temperature of any shelter depends on many
variables including the following:

(a) Depth of shelter.

(b) Barrier materials used.

(d) Size of shelter.

(e) Number of occupants.

(f) Amount of heat generated by cooking, etc.

(g) Part of country in which the shelter is located. 11.56

108

CHAPTER 12

BOSDEC

To understand this new shelter concept it may be necessary
to discard many preconceived notions about survival shelters
gleaned from other sources. There is no such thing as an econom-
ical bomb shelter. One might just as well talk about an economical
war. Neither exist. The object of a shelter is not to save money.
It is to protect and save lives. This does not mean that intelli-
gent planning must be abandoned in favor of thoughtless
spending. 12.01

Conditions for each family, each home will differ markedly.
Terrain, type of original house construction, financial resources,
size of family and geographical location all bear directly on shelter
requirements. Perhaps no one will want to build a shelter
and equip it in exactly the manner described here. This does
not matter. 12.02

BOMB SHELTER IN DEPTH CONCEPT

Instead of dogma the BOSDEC or bomb shelter in depth con-
cept provides building block units of safety and convenience. How
much of the system you will need or use is entirely up to you.
The decision is yours alone. The ultimate responsibility for the
safety and security of your family will also be yours. From
BOSDEC it is hoped you will find enough information, in factual
form clearly explained, to make the proper decisions. 12.03

BOSDEC SYSTEM PRINCIPLES

BOSDEC is based on the centuries old defense in depth
principle used by ancient Roman legions and modern armies alike.
Basically the plan places a shelter within a shelter and provides
dual barriers between the weapon effects (blast, heat and fallout)
and the shelter occupants. Maximum application of this principle
will protect shelter occupants from the hazards of air or ground
nuclear bomb bursts created by a 20 megaton weapon at any point
more than 2.3 miles from the shelter. The BOSDEC shelter will
provide complete protection even closer to ground zero of smaller
yield nuclear bomb bursts. It provides both geometry and barrier
shielding. BOSDEC consists of three sections or areas. 12.04

109

PRIMARY SHELTER

The primary shelter is the center or heart of the system. It is
the place where you and your family will ride out the effects of a
bomb explosion, direct nuclear radiation, thermal radiation, fire-
winds, blast wave and early fallout. The primary shelter occupants
can safely stay in this section for up to 24 hours with all ventilation
intake and exhaust ports closed. This can be done without using
supplemental oxygen supplies and without the necessity of carbon
dioxide absorption. The primary shelter is sunk five feet below
the surface of the ground. It is surrounded on three sides by
earth. The fourth side opens into a basement room called the
secondary shelter. 12.05

SECONDARY SHELTER

The secondary shelter is directly below the home and has
most of the protective features of the primary shelter. One main
exception; the secondary shelter does not have an earth cover.
Both the primary and secondary shelters have two feet thick rein-
forced concrete ceilings. But the primary shelter has a five foot
thick earth cover over the concrete ceiling. A one foot reinforced
concrete ceiling plus seven feet of earth cover would be just about
as effective and much less expensive. The secondary shelter has a
protection factor of 2000 (6.07) and could be occupied as soon as the
outside nuclear radiation level has decayed enough. Since it is an
integral part of the home, it could be occupied in normal times by
a member of the family as a self contained apartment. The sec-
ondary shelter is connected to the outside by another basement
room called the shelter lock. 12.06

SHELTER LOCK

The shelter lock is the third section or area of the BOSDEC
system. It contains a fireplace for heat and cooking after safe
radiation levels are reached but before complete return to normal
outside conditions. The shelter lock may also be stocked with a
supply of firewood to service the fireplace. Shelter refuse, well
sealed pending permanent disposal by burial outside, may be
placed in the shelter lock temporarily. The shelter lock can have
any type ceiling but a minimum of four inches of reinforced con-
crete is recommended. 12.07

The net effect of these three sections of the BOSDEC system

110

is to provide a weather tight concrete apartment that contains
rooms providing varying degrees of nuclear explosion protection
in event of attack and also permits near normal living in the post
attack intermediate period. This apartment may be all that remains
if the residence overhead is destroyed. 12.08

COLLATERAL BOSDEC ADVANTAGES

There are certain other advantages to the BOSDEC principle.
Ready access into one's basement is important to persons with
claustrophobic tendencies. Children may use the primary shelter
as a playroom in normal times. These factors are especially im-
portant since the more familiar one becomes with the shelter, the
less disturbed he will be when the need arises that forces him to
use it for survival. 12.09

BOSDEC BASIC REQUIREMENTS

The BOSDEC system requires that certain criteria be met if
a person is to take full advantage of all the provisions of the
maximum features designed into it. To use a presently existing
home it must have a below grade, windowless basement surrounded
on at least three sides by earth. The basement should be at least
20 feet by 30 feet, preferably larger. The ceiling should be 90 inches
high and at least 4 inches thick reinforced concrete, preferably
thicker. The walls must be concrete or concrete block. 12.10

PRIMARY SHELTER SPECIFICATIONS

Ideally, the BOSDEC shelter system should be built into a
new concrete or concrete block type house perched on a hillside.
The basement should be reinforced poured concrete. The basement
layout should provide adequate space for the secondary shelter
and shelter lock and the necessary construction features which
BOSDEC requires. Shelter walls and ceilings could be incorporated
in the foundation construction and basement planning. The excava-
tion for the primary shelter could be accomplished at minimal
expense if done at the same time. The primary shelter must be at
least a few feet above the water table. Unfortunately all these ideal
conditions will not exist for most of us. Existing homes must be
analyzed to determine what parts of the BOSDEC principle can be
used. This much is certain; almost every home can use some of
the BOSDEC features. 12.11

111

PRIMARY SHELTtR DESIGN FEATURES

The primary shelter is designed to provide :

(a) Sufficient air for four occupants for 24 hours or for six
occupants for 16 hours without outside ventilation or
resort to mechanical or chemical methods of air
supplementation.

(b) Protection from an overpressure of 100 psi (a 50 mega-
ton burst creates 80 psi at two miles from ground zero) .

(c) A roentgen reduction or protection factor of 10,000.
Actually the maximum BOSDEC system insures a pro-
tection factor of several times 10,000.

(d) 600 cubic feet of space for each of four occupants.

(e) 90 square feet of space for each of four occupants.

(f ) 15 cubic feet per minute of fresh air for each of four
occupants. This air to be supplied by an electrical
blower with a manual override and incorporating a
glass filter on the intake port.

(g) One gallon of stored water per day for each of six
occupants for ninety days.

(h) Space for storing a ninety day supply of food for six
occupants.

(i) An alternate escape route to the surface.

(j) A baffled entrance, surrounded by an 18 inch high con-
crete water barrier dam to keep possible water from
entering primary shelter area from the secondary
shelter area. 12.12

PRIMARY SHELTER VENTILATION

The BOSDEC system is designed to permit complete closing
of ventilation intake and exhaust ports for a period of from 16 to
24 hours without requiring any other method of oxygen supply.
This is desirable to insure protection from thermal radiation, fire-
winds and the positive and negative stages of the blast wave and
its accompanying blast winds. 12.13

Automatic check valves should be installed on all external
stacks such as intake and exhaust ports, etc. These check valves
should also embody provisions for closing and locking them closed
manually from within the shelter. 12.14

It is necessary to know the net cubic feet of space required to
safely permit a specified number of occupants to stay in a shelter
for 24 hours and shorter periods without outside ventilation. This
information is given in guide 12.15

112

PRIMARY SHELTER AIR CHANGES

Occupants

1 Air Change
Per Day

2 Air Changes
Per Day

3 Air Changes
Per Day

2
3
4
5
6

1200 cubic feet
1800 cubic feet
2400 cubic feet
3000 cubic feet
3600 cubic feet

600 cubic feet
900 cubic feet
1200 cubic feet
1500 cubic feet
1800 cubic feet

400 cubic feet
600 cubic feet
800 cubic feet
1000 cubic feet
1200 cubic feet

Guide 12.15

SHELTER LOCK

SECONDARY SHELTER

PRIMARY SHELTER

Cross Section of BOSDEC System
Guide 12:16

113

CHAPTER 13

How To Meet BOSDEC Specifications

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION

The best nuclear survival shelter is provided by reinforced
poured concrete heavily framed with steel and designed to be
earthquake resistant. It is better able to withstand blast than
brick and cinder or concrete block. Poured concrete produces much
less flying debris than either brick or block when damaged. Even
an aboveground reinforced poured concrete building will be only
moderately damaged by overpressures up to 10 psi, which is the
overpressure created 5 miles from ground zero of a 20 megaton
burst. Good building factors are resilience and ductility of frame,
strong beam and column connections and plenty of support and
diagonal bracing. All concrete should have a compressive strength
of 3000 psi or more. Concrete construction should conform to the
specifications of "Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Con-
crete (ACI 318-56)". A copy of this publication may be obtained
from "The American Concrete Institute, P. O. Box 4754, Redford
Station, Detroit 19, Michigan." Price — one dollar. 13.01

Concrete costs about $55.00 per cubic yard including cost
of forms and eight pounds of reinforcing steel per cubic yard.
If cinder blocks are used for survival shelter construction, they
should be filled with earth for greater density and more barrier
shielding. 13.02

PRIMARY SHELTER CONSTRUCTION

The two foot thick roof of the primary shelter can be built
in two 12-inch layers. The first layer is the ceiling of the
shelter and is structural and should be reinforced. The second
12-inch layer is used as a radiation shield only and need not be
reinforced. 13.03

The top of the shelter roof should be at least five feet below
a well tamped and seeded grade. The use of an aerodynamic mound
contour can reduce the incidence of blast reflection. This earth
cover serves to buttress the shelter. The roof, outside walls and
floor of the primary shelter should be protected by a vapor barrier
consisting of six mil black polyethylene insulating plastic. Inside
and outside walls should be further protected on both sides by a
moisture resistant coating. The ground above the shelter should
be sloped one half inch in each foot for effective drainage unless
an aerodynamic mound contour is used. The walls should be 16-inch

115

and the floor 18-inch reinforced concrete. The hermetically seal-
ing entrance door should be reinforced concrete in a gasketed
steel frame. 13.04

All electrical wiring in the BOSDEC shelter should be installed
through conduits. The primary shelter should have a baffled
entrance with no fewer than two right angle turns. This is im-
portant since radiation, like light, has a tendency to travel in a
straight line. A floor drain or sump in the center of a gently
sloping primary shelter entrance area may be useful depending
on circumstances. When built into a shelter, the drain should lead
through good drain pipe to a dry well prepared prior to building
the shelter. 13.05

Under certain conditions it may be desirable to install a 24-inch
or 36-inch thick by 4-inch square shelter observation window.
Properly placed it would allow outside observation with safety.
The window is also an effective radiation shield. Gamma ray
absorbing, special windows are made by adding a large percentage
of lead oxide to the glass. This can increase the weight of the glass
to 390 pounds per cubic foot or almost the weight of steel (480pcf).
Ordinary glass with excellent visual characteristics has been made
up to 141 inches (11M> feet) thick. 13.06

EMERGENCY ESCAPE HATCH

There is always a possibility during a nuclear attack that the
main shelter entrance might become blocked by debris from a
collapsing house or other material. To guard against such a
catastrophe an emergency exit should be incorporated in the pri-
mary shelter. This can be done by embedding several securely
joined sections of 48-inch diameter reinforced concrete sewer or
water supply pipe in the shelter wall or ceiling. The type with
rungs for climbing up or down should be specified. 13.07

This pipe should extend straight up or outward at an angle
of about 30 degrees to permit easy ascent by an average person.
The pipe section coming to grade should have a water and air tight
gasketed metal cover which covers the exit end of the pipe about
one inch below the outside grade. The surrounding grade should
be sloped one half inch in each foot for drainage and should be well
tamped and seeded. A gasketed metal cap or cover should be placed
at the inside shelter terminal and kept in place by suitable stainless
steel bolts. The entire length of pipe can then be filled with clean
dry sand preferably on a very dry day. A package of food or other
vital necessities may be placed in a sealed plastic container and
stored in the sand near the exit end of the pipe. This package
could always be reached from outside the shelter in the event the
owner could not get into the shelter. 13.08

116

GENERATOR AND BLOWER INSTRUCTIONS

Complete and detailed instructions on how to operate, adjust
and make minor repairs to the generator, air intake motor blower,
filter and exhaust systems should be posted in the primary living
quarters and also in the generator and air intake rooms. Special
instructions for servicing the air filters, including how often to
change them, should also be posted. The exact location of replace-
ment filters and spare parts should also be listed. This can be
extremely important. 13.09

PRIMARY SHELTER COMPARTMENTS

The primary shelter should be divided into four compartments
or rooms, the walls of which should be load bearing. These four
rooms are the living quarters, including the storage section for
food, tools and supplies; the air intake and filter area; the water
tank compartment; and the generator and air exhaust room. 13.10

PRIMARY SHELTER LIVING QUARTERS

The primary living quarters should contain the following
items. Control valves and switches should be grouped together and
clearly marked as to function :

1. Water supply control valve for residence.

2. Water supply control valve for shelter.

3. Electric switch for main utility power for residence.

4. Electric switch for controlling generator.

5. Control valve for fuel supply tank to oil burner.

6. Control valve for fuel supply tank to generator.

7. Control valve connecting well to water storage tank.

8. Electric switch controlling motor driven well pump.

9. A 24 or 36-inch thick by 4-inch square observation
window.

10. A radiation detection and survey meter.

11. Two dry chemical fire extinguishers.-

12. A 1300 watt electric wall heating panel.

13. A wash basin with hot and cold running water.

14. Toilet with sewage ejector.

15. Telephone extension.

16. Two foldaway double beds with mattresses or convert-
ible sofas.

17. Four chairs (one a rocking chair).

18. One folding table.

19. Deepfreeze.

20. 100-gallon electric water heater. This heater normally
supplies the residence above.

117

21. Electric outlets for:

a. Air blower for generator room

b. Cooking

c. Radio (make certain it works in a sealed shelter)

d. Lights

e. Spare outlet

f. Television

g. Air purifier

h. Hot water heater

i. Deepfreeze

j. Well pump
k. Air blower for living quarters

1. Dehumidifier
m. Wall heating panel
n. Oil "burner
o. Storage battery charger

22. Manual crank for motor driven air blower. The blower is
in the air intake and filter room.

23. Instruction card for operating, etc. motor blower, gen-
erator and exhaust and filter systems.

24. A well with two casings. One connected to a motor
driven electric pump for use when electricity is avail-
able. The other connected to an old fashioned manual
pump handle. Both pipes to be connected to the 550
gallon emergency water storage tank for replenishing
water supplies.

25. An exhaust port to atmosphere from the primary living
quarters should be installed to vent stale air. A positive
pressure of one quarter to one half inch of water should
be maintained in the living quarters to facilitate venting
stale air and to keep out fallout. This pressure is built
up in the shelter by the air intake blower and permits
automatic venting without a mechanical exhaust system.
The intake and exhaust openings should be far apart to
enhance circulation and to keep exhaust fumes from
being drawn back into the shelter by the intake.

26. A dehumidifier. In a shelter, humidity and heat may be
two big problems. Most people can only stand exposure
to high humidity and 95 °F heat for about ten hours. A
healthy persons may tolerate high humidity and 90 °F
heat for about 100 hours. 13.11

PRIMARY SHELTER STORAGE ROOM
FOR FOOD, TOOLS AND SUPPLIES

The storage section for food, tools and supplies is actually a
part of the living quarters; somewhat like a closet. The physical

118

arrangement of this storage space can be planned individually
according to that part of the BOSDEC system being used. 13.12

PRIMARY SHELTER FLOOR PLAN

MAIN WATER SUPPLY

Guide 13.11

119

PRIMARY SHELTER AIR INTAKE AND FILTER COMPARTMENT

The air intake and filter compartment is the part of BOSDEC
which draws in outside air by a motor operated blower, removes
fallout laden dust particles by means of glass filters and delivers
clean air to shelter occupants. Access from the primary shelter
living quarters to the air intake compartment should be through
a one half inch gasketed, air tight steel door. The barrier wall be-
tween the two rooms should have a mass thickness of 60 pounds
per cubic foot. 13.13

PRIMARY SHELTER VENTILATION MOTOR BLOWER

Unfortunately a shelter occupant is always under a threat of
power failure. In many cases this possible loss is not critical. When
the power failure affects the shelter ventilation the matter becomes
serious. Therefore, a motor blower with a manual override should
always be selected for shelter ventilation. Since this one piece of
equipment is so important, consideration should be given to the
purchase of two blowers. One motor operated and the other man-
ually operated. There could easily be circumstances when two
blowers would be very useful. For example, mechanical failure or
temporary shelter overcrowding. 13.14

CHEMICAL VENTILATION

During a nuclear attack it would be extremely dangerous to
have any outside ventilation ports open. The risk that they could
not be closed and secured in time to avoid the vacuum cleaner
effect of the negative phase of a blast wave is great. The risk run
by shelter occupants who may be in a locality where firestorms are
possible is likewise great. They may find that superheated air is
being forced into the shelter. 13.15

The only logical protection from these two hazards can be
obtained by sealing the shelter (closing and locking the ventilation
ports). In a BOSDEC shelter of the maximum protection type,
ventilation would not be a problem for 16 to 24 hours. Under these
conditions chemical ventilation has many advantages. 13.16

It is possible for six or even more people to live in the primary
shelter for days without outside ventilation. Six people need seven
cubic feet of pure oxygen per hour if the carbon dioxide is being
removed by 2.3 pounds of soda lime at the same time. 1.2 pounds
of activated charcoal per hour will absorb the pollutants and body
odors from six people (guide 13.17). Commercial oxygen that is
pure enough for human use is available in 244-cubic feet cylinders
and soda lime in 25-pound pails. One cylinder will suffice for six

120

people for about 40-hours when used with 81 pounds of soda lime
for carbon dioxide absorption. 13.17

OXYGEN, SODA LIME AND CHARCOAL REQUIRED
FOR SEALED SHELTER

People in Shelter
2345

Pure Oxygen (cubic feet per hour)

2.3

3.5

4.6

5.8

7.0

Soda Lime (pounds per hour)

1.2

1.6

2.0

2.4

Activated Charcoal (pounds per hour)

1.0

1.2

Guide 13.

Obviously this method is cumbersome, expensive and com-
plicated but it does permit sealing the shelter against blast and
f irewinds during the most vulnerable periods. A chemical air recon-
ditioner for shelter service is reputed to be planned by a company
that designed a portable chamber for Astronauts. (11.10) 13.18

FILTERS

There are three general types of filters that are involved in
shelter ventilation. The most important form of filtering involves
the trapping of dust particles. This minimizes the chance of fallout
penetrating the shelter. For this purpose glass filters are recom-
mended because of the danger, however remote, that paper filters
might ignite- as a direct or indirect result of thermal radiation.
Wherever filters are used the filtering media should be so located
as to make servicing easy. 13.19

The other two types of filters are in a sense not filters. They
are activated charcoal which absorbs odors, and silica gel which
absorbs moisture. Each of these substances is useful under certain
conditions and will be mentioned later in this chapter. 13.20

PRECIPITATOR ELECTRIC FILTERS

An alternate or supplementary method of filtering is available.
It is done by precipitators (electric air cleaners). They are more
than 92% effective in preventing passage of radioactive particles
down to a size of .001 of a micron. Dust from delayed fallout
averages 0.1 to 10 microns in diameter and early fallout is much
larger and consequently much easier to trap. A human hair is 75
microns. Precipitators are very effective against germ warfare and
are used in atomic and military installations. Their main drawback
is that they require electricity. 13.21

121

AIR PURIFIER FILTERS

Recently an inexpensive air purifier has been placed on the
market. The specifications of the unit indicate that it may work
very well in a small shelter. There may be some question about its
capacity for use in larger shelters. It weighs 20 pounds and is 7y2
inches high by 2iy2 inches wide by 12 inches deep. It uses a 3/8
inch washable foam filter to catch most visible dust and dirt par-
ticles. Smoke and particles down to a 0.03 micron size are then
trapped by a 3/8 inch glass fiber filter with an efficiency between
90% and 100%. A 3/4 inch thick activated carbon bed weighing
2y2 pounds removes 90% to 100% of all odors. A motor and 5 inch
diameter air blower then distribute 44 cubic feet of clean air per
minute into the shelter or room over an 18 inch ultraviolet lamp.
It sells for less than $60.00 and its use might eliminate the need
for a precipitator or even a separate intake blower and filter under
the proper conditions. This unit requires electricity (100 watts).
It is most efficient in a sealed room and is very quiet in operation
(54 DB). Under conditions of average air contamination the unit
will function effectively for about 2000 hours (roughly 12 weeks
constant use) before filters need replacement. Dissembly and
assembly are simple and do not require tools. 13.22

PRIMARY SHELTER WATER STORAGE

A 550 gallon stainless steel water tank should be placed in
the water tank compartment. If outside water sources fail, this
stored water would probably see shelter occupants through even
prolonged emergencies. It should be plumbed into the normal house
water supply system and connected to the well for emergency
replenishment. 13.23

To insure gravity flow, the water tank could be raised onto a
concrete cradle. A plastic water level indicator should be located
in the primary shelter living quarters. Sufficient freeway around
the tank should be planned. Since the house water system would
be connected through this emergency water tank, all plumbing
connections would be directly to the hot water heater, primary
and secondary shelter wash basins and toilets, and the secondary
shelter shower stall and bath tub. 13.24

AIR INTAKE AND FILTER COMPARTMENT EQUIPMENT

The air intake compartment incorporates a plenum chamber
to protect the filter from blast. The air line must have a right
angle bend in the plenum since radiation would travel in a straight
line into the living quarters from the filter trap otherwise. The air
intake compartment would contain two principal pieces of equip-

122

ment. An electric blower, with a manual crank for use in event of
power failure, is the heart of the ventilation system. It should have
a minimum capacity of sixty cubic feet per minute. The hand crank
should be located in the living quarter compartment. If this is not
feasible a blower must be placed in the living quarters. 13.25

The second, equally important, item is an absolute type filter
system with a capacity of sixty cubic feet of air per minute. An
absolute type filter is 99.97 percent efficient when tested with
particles of a 0.3 micron diameter. The main filtering media should
be fiber glass. The system can incorporate a bed of activated char-
coal to remove odors and a bed of silica gel to control or at least
minimize humidity. The use of activated carbon is dependant on
whether provisions, such as a supplementary cylinder oxygen
supply, for "buttoning up" the shelter are planned, and if so, to
what degree. The same is true of silica gel. The filter will be located
between the air intake port and the blower. Particulate filtering
(fiber glass) will always be necessary. Activated charcoal and silica
gel usage will be selective. Therefore these two chemical filters
should be arranged to permit bypassing them when their action is
not needed. Activated charcoal and silica gel may be renewed by
heating. The silica gel then regains its absorption efficiency and
the charcoal is reactivated. When there is no noticeable reduction
in the odors of a closed room for a period of from 12 to 24 hours,
the activated charcoal filter is probably saturated and should be
reactivated or replaced. Since heating the charcoal reactivates it
by releasing all previously absorbed odors, it should never be done
in a closed, unventilated place. Do not use a charcoal filter when
cleaning agent, insecticide or grease generated odors are present.
These odors will quickly saturate the charcoal and minimize its
usefulness for more important tasks. 13.26

An air intake line connecting the outside to the blower through
the filtering media is an important part of this system. The inlet
port should be thick walled, three inch inside diameter stainless
steel pipe. It should extend at least one foot above the surface to
keep water out and be bent to a 90° angle (radiation has a tendency
to travel in a straight line). An automatically closing blast check
valve with provision for manual closing and locking the port from
within the shelter should be used. The inlet port opening should be
screened to keep out insects and protected by a guard cage to
prevent debris from damaging it. A lead from the radiation survey
meter may be located at the inlet port. By subtracting the shelter
radiation reading from the inlet port reading the efficiency of the
filtering system can be readily checked. To insure a safety
double check on radiation levels, another lead from the survey
meter can be placed between the filter and the blower, if one
is available. 13.27

There is another method of placing survival shelter air intake
ports. If the home above the shelter is built solidly of fire resistant

123

materials, the inlet may be located inside the house over the sec-
ondary shelter. The air coming into the shelter would be cooler
in summer, warmer in winter, less contaminated and less humid
at all times. 13.28

Retractable intake and exhaust ports may be a very valuable
ventilation feature since they eliminate the chance of blast winds
snapping ventilation stacks off. 13.29

PRIMARY SHELTER GENERATOR AND
AIR EXHAUST COMPARTMENT

The purpose of a separate compartment for generator and air
exhaust use, within the primary shelter, can be stated in one word
— isolation. A generator may be run on gasoline or fuel oil. If gas-
oline is used a potentially dangerous fire hazard is created. To a
lesser degree fuel oil is a hazard. Fuel oil can also be used in normal
times with an oil burner for residence heating. The generator and
air exhaust compartment serves to isolate the noise and noxious
exhaust fumes of the generator from the primary shelter living
quarters. The generator room should have its own filtered
air intake.. 13.30

The main public utility electric line should be brought into the
residence above the shelter, through the generator compartment.
A relay should be arranged so the generator will start when the
main house power fails — and will shut off when public utility power
is restored. In addition a separate shut off switch for the generator
should be located in the primary shelter living quarters. This shut
off must be used if the shelter is sealed. The generator needs
air to function. 13.31

A storage battery should be used for automatic generator
starts. This battery can also provide excellent emergency lighting
for short periods. This battery should be kept in the generator
room. There is a company that makes a "Shelter Cycle" which will,
when peddled one hour every three days, keep a storage battery
charged. The battery may also be charged through a battery
charger connected to main utility power when available or con-
nected to the generator when public power fails. 13.32

The air intake, filter, blower and exhaust port servicing the
generator compartment would be similar to that used for the pri-
mary living quarters. Of course there is no need for activated car-
bon or silica gel in the generator room system. 13.33

Access to the generator compartment from the living quarter
should be through a one half inch steel, gasketed air tight door.
The wall separating these two compartments should have a mass
density (protection factor) of 60 pounds per cubic foot. 13.34

The information given in guide 13.35 is helpful when figuring
generator wattage loads to prevent overloading. It covers the power

124

draw of different size fractional horsepower motors. Always start
the largest size motor first. 13.35

FRACTIONAL HORSEPOWER MOTOR CURRENT DRAWS

Motor Size (H.P.)

Starting (Watts)

Running (Watts)

1/8 hp

1/4 hp
1/3 hp
1/2 hp
3/4 hp

500
1000
1500
2000
2500

300
550
700
750
1050

Guide 13.35

The approximate current drain for some common electrical
appliances is shown in guide 13.36. This permits rapid calculations
insuring more efficient use of generator power. The wattage shown
is averaged for equivalent appliances made by different man-
ufacturers. 13.36

ELECTRIC APPLIANCE CURRENT DRAWS

Appliance Watts Appliance Watts

Hot water heater

3000

Dehumidifier

240

Rotisserie- broiler

1400

Blanket

200

Radiant heater

1300

Blower

200

Hot plate

1250

Sump pump

130

Frying pan

1250

Radio-phonograph

110

Toaster

1110

Trickle battery charger

100

Coffee maker

850

Air purifier

100

Egg cooker

500

Radio

Well pump

340

Heating pad

Deep freeze

300

Precipitator

Television

260

Shaver

Oil burner

260

Clock

Refrigerator

250

Electro-luminescent light

Guide 13.36

GENERATOR AREA EQUIPMENT

A 3000 gallon fuel oil tank should be placed about three feet
underground to service the residence oil burner in normal times
and the generator during emergencies. The line from the storage
tank to the oil burner and generator should be a very good grade
of flexible metal tubing. Ground shock affects (4.21) unyielding
pipe connections even though storage vessels themselves may be
unharmed. The fuel storage tank must supply the oil burner and

125

the generator by gravity flow to insure availability when electricity
for pumping is unavailable. Fill and vent pipes for the oil tank
must be laid to the surface. The fill pipe must be capped by a
screw-on airtight cap. The vent pipe should extend one foot above
grade to keep out surface water, should be bent to a 90 degree
angle to minimize radiation penetration, screened to keep out
insects and protected by a guard cage to minimize damage by
falling trees or other debris. It would be similar to the primary
shelter living quarter air intake port. It should have a damper type
automatic check valve capable of being closed and locked in the
closed position manually from within the shelter. 13.37

A positive pressure of one quarter to one half inch of water
should be maintained in the generator compartment to facilitate
exhausting stale air to the atmosphere and to keep out fallout
particles. This pressure will be built up in the generator room by
the intake blower. It permits automatic venting without a mechan-
ical exhaust system. The intake and exhaust ports should be kept
far apart to enhance circulation and to prevent exhaust fumes
from re-entering the shelter. 13.38

. The generator and air exhaust room should contain the follow-
ing equipment:

1. A 4000 watt (four kilowatt) diesel generator. This should
be installed, serviced and maintained according to the
manufacturers instructions.

2. An air intake system that supplies all necessary air for
generator operation. This includes an air blower with
sufficient capacity to supply the system.

3. A filter with fiber glass filter material.

4. An exhaust port for venting exhaust fumes from gen-
erator to atmosphere. This port located so that these
fumes will not be drawn back into any part of the
shelter. The outlet at the surface should be bent,
screened and caged for reasons mentioned previously.

5. One lead from the shelter radiation survey meter should
be located in the generator room to double check any
possibility of a filtering system malfunction.

6. A storage battery for automatic generator starts and
emergency lighting should be placed in the generator
compartment. 13.39

AUTOMATIC-ELECTRO UTILITY SYSTEM

An automatic-electro utility system especially designed and
built for shelter service is commercially available. It contains the
following units:

1. Electric generator— from 2000 to 6000 watts for fuel
oil use. It is available with an automatic switch-over

126

when utility power fails. The 6000 watt model uses 0.7
gallon fuel oil per hour.

2. Comfort cabinet — contains four items.

(a) Air conditioner — with sealed unit.

(b) Heater — radiant type.

(d) Refrigerator

3. A sump pump for waste water ejection.

4. Fresh water supply tank — connected to present supply.

5. Multiple fallout air separator for filtering intake air.
Air circulation is adjustable, with positive exhaust sys-
tem. Manual blower override supplied.

This system may be placed in relay with house electric supply
in normal times to provide house electricity during peacetime power
interruptions. 13.40

ELECTRIC SUPPLY SCHEMATIC GUIDE

MAIN UTILITY LINE

LINE SWITCH

LIGHT

SWITCHES

SECONDARY SHELTER

TV -J
WELL
RADIO -J
LIGHTS — '
HOT PLATE J
DEEP-FREEZE -J

AIR PURIFIER '

WALL HEATER
DEHUMIDIFIER
SEWAGE EJECTOR —

"NEAR" OUTLET

AUXILIARY OUTLETS

AIR INTAKE AREA
PRIMARY SHELTER

WATER TANK AREA
PRIMARY SHELTER

LIVING AREA
PRIMARY SHELTER

Guide 13.39

127

THE SECONDARY SHELTER

The secondary shelter of the BOSDEC system is directly under
the house. It is on a different level than the primary shelter, closer
to the surface. Since the secondary shelter does not have an earth
shield it cannot provide as much protection as the primary shelter.
It does have a protection factor of more than 2000 plus a certain
amount of barrier and geometry shielding contributed by the roof
and walls of the house overhead. 13.41

SECONDARY SHELTER FLOOR PLAN

SHELTER
LOCK

SHOWER

WASH
BASIN

TOILET

LIGHT

CHAIR

TUB

LIGHT

18" HIGH WATER DAM BARRIER
CHARCOAL
AND
ELECTRIC
BROILER ELECTRIC RANGE REFRIGERATOR

PRIMARY
SHELTER

O O
O O

FOOD PREPARATION

RADIO
EXT. | |

Guide 13.41

128

Since the secondary shelter does not contain a generator and
well or have an earth cover, it lacks the convenience and 10,000
protection factor of the primary shelter. The addition of an air
intake blower, exhaust port and storage space would convert it
into a primary shelter with a protection factor of 2000. The further
addition of a generator and well would provide all facilities usually
planned for a primary shelter. The secondary shelter is furnished
for extensive cooking and fairly normal living. Millions of Ameri-
cans live in localities unlikely to be targets. They could have fallout
problems, but the expense of the complete BOSDEC system or
even a major part of it would be unwarranted. They must weigh
all the facts; is the investment for the 10,000 protection factor
and added conveniences worth the extra cost? 13.42

SECONDARY SHELTER SANITARY FACILITIES

The secondary shelter has a bathtub and shower, wash basin
and a toilet located near its entrance. This location permits rapid
showering for fallout removal, after essential trips outside the
shelter, without possibility of fallout scattering inside the shelter.
Discarded clothes may be quickly placed in the shelter lock until
radiation decay can reduce their contamination to safer levels for
clothes laundering, etc. 13.43

SECONDARY SHELTER VENTILATION

The entrance to the secondary shelter from the shelter lock
should be baffled by no less than two right angle turns in the same
manner as the primary shelter entrance. One important advantage
of using the complete BOSDEC system should be noted. When out-
side nuclear radiation has been reduced to one tenth the first hour
level (seven hours after weapon burst) the door connecting the
primary and secondary shelters may be opened to permit the sec-
ondary shelter air to replenish the primary shelter atmosphere.
This extends the time the shelter can remain sealed against possible
firestorms, etc. After the fire and high radiation danger has
passed, the primary shelter ventilation system will provide air for
both primary and secondary shelters. 13.44

SECONDARY SHELTER EQUIPMENT

The secondary shelter contains the following items of equip-
ment:

1. Wash basin connected to deep dry well.

2. A bathtub and shower connected to dry well.

129

3. Toilet with sewage ejector connected to deep septic tank.
A check valve should be placed in sewage line.

4. Electric range.

5. Refrigerator.

6. A fire brick charcoal pit, waist high with a stainless
steel grill rack and a manually and electrically operated
spit.

7. Dry chemical fire extinguisher.

8. Electric outlets for:

(a) Lights

(b) Range

(d) Radio

(e) General utility

(f) Food preparation appliances

These items will vary according to what part of the BOSDEC sys-
tem is used. 13.45

THE SHELTER LOCK

The shelter lock is on the same level as the secondary shelter
and is part of the house basement. The shelter lock should have a
four inch thick reinforced concrete ceiling. This is a sufficient
barrier since the shelter lock will not be occupied while outside
radiation levels are high. It is the connecting room or link between
the secondary shelter and the outside world. From the shelter lock
an occupant would step out into the world to survey the results of
a nuclear attack for the first time. 13.46

The walls between the shelter lock and the secondary shelter
should be sixteen inch thick concrete. The door into the secondary
shelter from the shelter lock should be one half inch steel, gasketed
and airtight. 13.47

SHELTER LOCK EQUIPMENT

The equipment and contents of the shelter lock are a matter
for personal choice. Certain essentials should be included and are
listed below:

1. A fireplace for cooking and heating. It should utilize
a "heatilator" type construction with built-in air intake
and heated air outlets for circulating warm air. Old
fashioned iron pivots should be installed in the fire-
place to provide means of suspending cooking utensils.
An adequate supply of firewood should be stored in the
shelter lock. The fireplace could be used after the return
to near normal conditions when radiation levels were
low enough.

130

2. A wall opening should be provided in the shelter lock
wall which faces the earth surrounding the basement.
This opening should be large enough to accept medium
size cartons. It should have a heavy metal hinged door
leading to a chute which ends in a predug pit outside the
shelter lock. The use of this chute permits the rapid
disposal of cases (14.14) containing sealed cans, which
in turn contain primary shelter refuse. Use of this dis-
posal feature eliminates the need for going outside the
shelter with the resultant exposure to radioactivity.
Disposal can be accomplished in a few seconds away
from the primary or secondary shelter. This is important
when radiation levels are high outside. Failure to incor-
porate this feature in the shelter lock might make
necessary valuable time consuming trips outside. Holes
at least one foot deep must be dug to bury waste, radio-
active or otherwise. Unless this is done, dogs, other
animals or rodents might find, dig up and eat this refuse,
spreading disease far and wide. 13.48

SHELTER LOCK FLOOR PLAN
Guide 13.47

GARBAGE

DISPOSAL

(Radioactive)

LIGHT

CHUTE

SECONDARY SHELTER

TO RESIDENCE OVERHEAD

LIGHT

FIREPLACE
PIVOT

l_l

131

SHELTER PREPARATION PROCEDURES

It must be assumed that a family having a BQSDEC type
shelter will keep it in shape to be used at a moments notice. Any-
thing less than complete survival preparedness may be tempting
fate. The generator, air intake electric motor blowers, filters and
other equipment should be checked every month to be certain they
are in perfect operating condition. Children who are old enough
should, take turns familiarizing themselves with the chores they
may have to do some day. 13.49

When the decision to go to the shelter has been made, certain
things should be done immediately. The necessary controls for
these actions should all be located in the primary shelter living
quarters, so that it will not be necessary to tarry upstairs.
Basically there are three main items requiring control; water,
electricity and air. 13.50

WATER SHUTOFF

First make certain that the shelter water storage tank and
other water containers are full. Then shutoff the main outside
water supply valve to the house and shelter, and drain the house
water lines. If the house was designed with this contingency in mind
the drain problem will be simple. The house water supply lines
would be at their lowest point in the secondary shelter in the base-
ment. A faucet type drain valve incorporated in the line at its

WATER SUPPLY SCHEMATIC GUIDE

STREET
SECONDARY SHELTER

PRIMARY SHELTER

Shutoff Valves

lowest point would permit easy drainage and when drained, rapid
closure of the valve without tools. Drained water could be caught
in plastic containers and saved for shelter use. Turn off the water
tank and heater supply to the residence. The next step may be
taken when convenient. Turn on the valve connecting the shelter
water storage tank to the shelter water system. 13.51

ELECTRICITY SHUTOFF TO THE HOUSE

Switch off the main public utility electricity to the house.
Shutoff the fuel oil supply to the oil burner and make certain the
fuel supply to the generator is assured. Since under normal con-
ditions it may be desirable to use the oil burner and the generator
at the same time, the control valve should be a three-way type. The
third position would permit fuel supply to the oil burner and gen-
erator simultaneously. The generator should be wired with a relay
so that it would automatically cut in when outside power fails and
would shut off when public utility current is restored. There should
be a separate switch for shutting down the generator when it is
not needed. All switch and control actions should be practiced
frequently until all prospective shelter occupants are thoroughly
familiar with them. 13.52

AIR SHUTOFF

All air intake and exhaust ports should be kept closed and
secured at all times before actual shelter use, except when par-
ticipating in shelter use drills. This eliminates the possibility of
forgetting to close the ports during an actual nuclear attack. The
port may be opened at any time after an attack if circumstances
permit. If all shelter doors are kept open in normal times there
will be enough fresh air circulating. Leaving the doors open also
allows faster entrance to the shelter in an emergency. It will only
be necessary to close the doors as you pass into the shelters.
Ample air for many hours will be available even with the shelter
' 'buttoned up." The generator needs air to operate. It cannot be
used with inlet and exhaust ports closed. There will probably be
utility electricity right up to the instant of nuclear attack and
possibly afterwards, depending on geographical location and other
factors. 13.53

GENERATOR ELECTRIC CURRENT DRAW

A safety margin of at least 10 percent of the capacity should
be maintained when using a generator. A 4000 watt generator
should not service appliances or outlets drawing more than 3600

133

watts. The available or useable current should be enough to cover
all appliances, equipment and outlets in normal use plus the largest
single cooking appliance. Of course the two heaviest current users,
the radiant wall heater and the water heater should have separate
switches and should be turned on only by switch when enough of
the other appliances are not in use. The two heaters should not be
on automatic (thermostatic) control. 13.54

PRIMARY SHELTER ELECTRIC CONTROL PANEL

PRIMARY SHELTER SWITCHES

LIVING AREA-CONTINUOUSLY

GENERATOR AREA

"ON"

wra

G Battery charger

100*

G "NEAR" ALARM 10*

G Motor blower

200*

G Electro-luminescent light 10*

G Light

100

G Lights 300*

G Generator

G Deepfreeze 300*

G Radio 80*

AIR INTAKE AREA

LIVING AREA-INTERMITTENT

"ON"

G Motor blower

200

G Light

100

G TV 260

G Precipitator

G Dehumidifier 240

G Air purifier 100

G Sewage ejector 130

WATER TANK AREA

LIVING AREA-OCCASIONALLY

G Light

100

"ON"

G Well pump

340

G Toaster 1110

G Hot plate 1250

G Fry pan 1250

G Wall radiant heater

1300

G Auxiliary outlets

G Water heater

—

SECONDARY SHELTER SWITCHES

G Radio 80 G Range (2 burners)

2500

G Lights 200 G Refrigeration

250

G Food preparation — G Rotisserie

1250

G Auxiliary outlet — G Auxiliary

—

G SHELTER LOCK MASTER SWITCH

G SECONDARY SHELTER MASTER SWITCH

G PRIMARY SHELTER MASTER SWITCH

G RESIDENCE MASTER SWITCH

Guide 13.54

134

To effectively use the available current, a chart showing
appliance current draw may be used. Such a chart (or control
panel) for the shelter described in this manual, is shown in Guide
13.54. The appliances or equipment marked with an asterisk (*)
are "on" continuously when the main utility or generator power
is available. This does not mean that they will necessarily draw
current all the time. For example, the battery charger will only
draw current when the battery needs charging; the deepfreeze
will be on and off in cycles. Appliances listed on the chart as inter-
mittent would be turned on frequently. Other appliances would be
used occasionally — at most once or twice a day. 13.55

By totaling all appliance current draws shown in Guide 13.54,
except the cooking appliances and wall and water heaters, it will
be noted that the current draw totals 2630 watts. This 2630 watt
current draw plus the 1250 watts for the fry pan or toaster totals
3880 watts and indicates a 5000 watt (5kw) generator since it is
too close to 4000 watts to provide an adequate safety margin. For
practical purposes a 4000 watt generator would be satisfactory. It
would be most unusual for lights to be on in the generator, air
intake and water tank areas while at the same time the well pump,
motor blower and both precipitator and air purifier were in use.
The TV would probably not be operating after a nuclear attack
and few people would have a precipitator and an air purifier. It
would be a simple matter to arrange power use in such a manner
as to make the simultaneous use of these units practically impos-
sible. These examples are shown as a guide to the type of planning
necessary. 13.56

135

CHAPTER 14

General Food Information

There will be many problems concerning survival shelter
food. Some can be anticipated. Others are unforeseeable. They will
vary from one family to another and from one location to another.
The food that will be stored will depend largely on size of family,
religion, geographical location, eating habits, money and space
available. One thing is certain, there are at least three staples
which will not be available during, and shortly after, a nuclear
attack. 14.01

UNAVAILABLE FOOD

The following conditions will probably prevail in the event of
a nuclear attack and its immediate and intermediate (90 days to 2
years) aftermath. Fresh milk will be impossible to obtain and
either canned evaporated or dry powdered milk must be substi-
tuted. Fresh eggs, for which there is no home substitute available,
are another food staple that will be scarce in most parts of our
country. However, chickens have a great tolerance for radiation
and fresh eggs will probably be one of the first staples available
after a nuclear attack. The third staple missing from our diet will
be butter. There is no easily storable substitute for butter as a
spread. For cooking purposes vegetable shortening or bacon grease
may be used. 14.02

For some time after a nuclear attack these fresh foods will
be scarce or completely unavailable: meats, fowl, seafood, vege-
tables, fruits and eggs. Since most of these may be obtained
as canned foods, no insurmountable problem exists in this
respect. 14.03

SELECTING FOOD

There are several useful rules to keep in mind when shopping
for shelter food supplies. Buy only foods that would be enjoyed
under normal conditions whenever possible. This is much easier
on shelter occupants who will be under emotional stress. It also
enables the family to eat the food regularly and thus rotate the
more perishable foods such as frozen vegetables, frozen meats, pack-
aged sugar, flour and crackers as well as the canned foods. All food
bought for shelter use should be dated when purchased to simplify
rotation. Buy the same quality food that would ordinarily be used.

137

In a shelter under attack no one will be in a mood to experiment
with new, economical or strange foods. 14.04

When buying shelter food select the proper size containers
for the family to be fed. Careful selection will help eliminate left-
overs that might be difficult to preserve. For example, don't buy
large cans of food for two people or small cans for a family of six.
Buy foods in case lots for convenient storage and watch the
specials. 14.05

FOOD PREPARATION

All foods to be prepared and eaten in the primary shelter
should require no more than plain heating or at most heating in
water. When the family can safely go into the secondary shelter,
broiling, roasting and baking may be attempted. This would only
be feasible in the absence of imminent attack when electricity or
wood and suitable food and additional adequate ventilation were
available. 14.06

NEW COMMERCIAL FROZEN FOOD STORAGE SYSTEM

A new process "Liquifreeze" developed for use by transporta-
tion companies, keeps "in transit" foods such as frozen meat, vege-
tables and other foods safe for periods up to thirty days. It is not
presently available for home use. Food to be kept frozen is sprayed
with liquid nitrogen. A device automatically sprays the food when
the temperature approaches a preselected point. The food is cooled
to one hundred twenty degrees below zero (f). If and when a home
unit is marketed, frozen foods may be kept really deep frozen for
a month or more without electricity. The commercial unit is so
small that it fits on top of a highway trailer and is supplied by
cylinders of liquid nitrogen. Since gaseous nitrogen is inert, and
the spray device works within a closed container, it should be
safe. 14.07

SEQUENCE OF FOOD USE
FRESH FOOD

When planning menus for a survival shelter it is sensible to
use whatever food is available in a logical order. It would not be
wise to prepare canned foods when fresh vegetables were available.
All fresh vegetables, fruits, meats arid bread, etc., would be served
first. If this is not done they may spoil or become stale. Even fresh
fruits and vegetables that have been subjected to radioactivity may
be eaten if properly prepared. They should be well scrubbed and

138

peeled to remove the contaminated outer skin or leaves. Absorbent
type foods such as cauliflower or broccoli cannot be decontami-
nated in this manner. They must be discarded by burial. 14.08

FOODS IN DEEPFREEZE

All food in the deepfreeze may and probably will be subject
to interrupted electrical service. If the deepfreeze is kept tightly
closed, even without electricity, most of the food can be cooked
and eaten a week or more after the electricity shut-off. Thawed
foods may be prepared in advance for another few days. Good food
management could permit living out of the deepfreeze for about
two weeks after electric supply failure. 14.09

CANNED AND LONG SHELF LIFE FOODS

Canned and dehydrated foods, bought for use when the
dangers of nuclear attack and resulting radiation have passed, are
used last. This food would be eaten in the intermediate period after
the attacks but before normal productivity and distribution facili-
ties are available. It would probably be prepared in the secondary
shelter. 14.10

FOOD PREPARATION SUGGESTIONS

It is unlikely that electricity or other heat energy suitable for
food preparation will be abundant in a survival shelter during the
first crucial few days after an attack. It should be conserved. As
much food as necessary should be prepared as quickly as possible
for any one meal. If and when electricity is available heat enough
water for coffee, tea or cocoa and soups to cover needs for the
entire day's menu. Then store these liquids in vacuum bottles or
jugs until used. A small night light should be kept plugged into an
easily observable electric outlet. It uses little power and will alert
occupants to the availability of electrical power. 14.11

UTILIZATION OF CANS AND CARTONS

A good sturdy wall type can opener should be used to open
cans with a clean cut, folded under edge. Save the can tops.
Cans may be used in emergencies for drinking purposes; water,
coffee, tea or soup. Use care in drying them thoroughly after
each use. 14.12

Empty cans may be filled with refuse. The refuse laden cans
may be covered by the original lid using the widest size masking

139

tape available (up to three inch width). Place the can top first on
the gummed side of the tape then place the lid on the can and tape
is securely in place. This will seal in odors. 14.13

These sealed refuse cans should then be repacked into their
original cartons and the cartons resealed with masking tape. They
may then be discarded outside the shelter (13.48) as soon as con-
ditions permit. Cartons should be opened with care to permit their
use in this manner. 14.14

PRIMARY SHELTER FOOD

Food recommended for use in the primary shelter was selected
because, in most cases, it could be eaten cold in an emergency.
Canned ham, canned bread and chow mein are good examples of
this planning. 14.15

SECONDARY SHELTER FOOD

Food suggested for use in the secondary shelter usually re-
quires more preparation and more involved cooking. For instance,
packaged macaroni and spaghetti — both requiring cooking in
precious water and the use of sauces. Obviously they would not be
too suitable for primary shelter use. 14.16

SERVING FOOD

Heat and moisture resistant plastic coated paper plates, cups
and bowls should be used for survival shelter food service. It is best
to try out the type which may be used in the shelter before buying
a supply. Good water would be wasted washing dishes, especially
under nuclear attack conditions. Fresh plates may be required for
each meal, but if they are not too soiled they may be cleaned and
reused several times. 14.17

Carefully used cups may be reused a number of times. Here's
how. After draining the last drop of coffee or tea, drink half a cup
of water. This will help satisfy water intake requirements and
freshen the cup for further use, at least for the rest of the day.
When a cup has been used for a hot liquid, make certain it is still
strong enough to hold another hot liquid. If not, use it for cold
water or cereals. To insure that each member of the family reuses
the same cup, plate or bowl, buy them in different colors or designs
and assign a color or design to each shelter occupant. 14.18

140

KITCHEN UTENSILS FOR SHELTER USE

There are certain kitchen utensils and other items of kitchen
equipment that are absolutely essential. Other utensils are very
convenient. All are listed in guide 14.19 as a reminder. Unless
otherwise specified, all utensils should be stainless steel if possible.
The plastic dishes listed are for use after the attack but before our
country returns to a nearly normal status. They are unbreakable
and therefore safe. 14.19

KITCHEN UTENSILS

Quantity Item Quantity

1. 2 2 qt. saucepans 22. 1

2. 2 rubber spatulas 23. 1

3. 1 combination bottle opener 24. 2

4. 1 salt shaker 25. 1

5. 1 pepper shaker 26. 1

6. 1 sugar bowl 27. 1

7. 1 8 inch iron skillet 28. 8

8. 1 large cooking spoon 29. 8

9. 1 large kitchen fork 30. 8

10. 1 large kitchen knife 31. 16

11. 1 small kitchen knife 32. 2

12. 1 graduated mixing cup 33. 8

13. 1 nest mixing bowls 34. 8

14. 1 pressure cooker 35. 8

15. 1 stainless steel pitcher 36. 8

16. 1 large pr. kitchen tweezers 37. 8

17. 1 grease can w/strainer top 38. 2

18. 1 candle holder— for heating 39. 1

19. 1 can opener (wall mounted)

20. 1 can opener (hand type) 40. 1

21. 1 Hibachi charcoal grill

Item

carving set
pair kitchen scissors
small vacuum bottles
large vacuum jug
funnel

vegetable peeler
table knives
table forks
soup spoons
teaspoons
serving spoons
salad forks
plastic cups
plastic saucers
plastic dinner plates
plastic soup bowls
plastic serving bowls
large plastic garbage
pail w/cover
large old fashioned
iron pot w/handle

Guide 14.19

KITCHEN SUPPLIES FOR SHELTER USE

While the kitchen supplies listed in guide 14.20 are mostly for
use in the primary shelter, many of these or similar items will also
be needed in the secondary shelter after the critical nuclear attack
period. This becomes a matter of personal decision. The items listed
represent one months supply for a family of two or three as
captioned. 14.20

141

KITCHEN SUPPLIES FOR PRIMARY SHELTER

One Month Supply Family Size

Item & Type 2 People 3 People

1. Paper plates plasticized— moisture & heat resistant 120 180

2. Paper cups and dispenser (9oz) moisture & heat

resistant 120 180

3. Paper bowls— moisture & heat resistant 60 90

4. Paper towels (rolls) 2 3

5. Paper napkins 180 270

6. Aluminum foil (rolls) 2 3

7. Sponges 1 2

8. Saran wrap 1 2

9. Hot pad holders 1 2

10. Chore boys 1 2

11. Detergent (plastic bottle) 1 2

12. Candles (for light) 30 30

13. Candles (for heat) 10 15

14. Dish towels (cotton) 2 3

15. Twine (balls) 2 2

16. Cleanser 1 2

17. Solidified alcohol 15 20

Avoid the use of glass containers whenever possible.

Guide 14.20

SECONDARY SHELTER FOODS

Meat & Seafood (canned) Miscellaneous

1. Bacon 15. Au gratin potatoes

2. Corned beef hash 16. Spaghetti (packaged)

3. Sausages 17. Macaroni (packaged)

4. Meat balls 18. Buckwheat mix

5. Chili con carne 19. Canned cheese

6. Tamales 20. Tomatoes

7. Chipped beef 21. Brown bread

8. Salmon steaks 22. Flour

9. Crab meat 23. Relish

10. Shrimp 24. Maple syrup

11. Clams 25. Oatmeal

12. Oysters 26. Various hot cereals

13. Smoked bologna 27. Baby foods (as indicated)

14. Country cured ham

Guide 14.21

142

SECONDARY SHELTER FOODS

There are many delicious canned foods on the market which
for one reason or another are not deemed suitable for the limited
facilities of a primary shelter. However in the period between the
close, mandatory confinement in the primary shelter and before
food supplies return to normal there will be occasions when the
family would enjoy a change of diet. The foods shown in guide 14.21
can be stored, prepared and served in the secondary shelter with
its expanded cooking facilities. The amount of each listed food to
be bought is left to one's discretion. Of course, all food listed for
primary shelter use can also be served in the secondary shelter.
It might be sensible to keep a few packages of vegetable seeds in
the shelter for a do-it-yourself post war project. 14.21

143

CHAPTER 15

Primary Shelter Menus

CALORIE INTAKE

Shelter occupants need a well balanced diet with a proper
calorie intake. Equally important is the need for tasteful, pleasant
food. For this reason all purpose wafer type nutrition has been
rejected here as a basis for shelter feeding. An inactive adult can
easily live on 1500 calories per day. One authority states that an
inactive adult can live on half of that or 10,000 calories for two
weeks. The menus in this section of the manual are designed to
supply a well balanced diet with an average intake of 2000 calories
per day. 15.01

MEAL TIME CYCLES

These menus are planned for a ten day cycle with different
food every meal, every day for ten days. At the end of ten days
the cycle may be repeated. These are suggested menus subject
to change or improvement according to personal tastes. All food
stocks have been figured generously so that the food supply could
be stretched considerably without starving anyone. The shop-
ping lists are based on the theory that it is better to have too
much than too little. All foods should be stored in a cool dry
location. 15.02

SELECTION OF FOOD

Foods for shelter use were selected not only on the basis of
nutrition value but also because they have almost universal appeal
to the American appetite. Other foods which might be interesting
to fewer families were listed under "Secondary Shelter Foods"
(14.21). All foods selected for either shelter have one thing in
common; they do not require refrigeration. Primary shelter foods
were limited to those items of the heat and eat type. One point to
watch, be sure to get the two pound canned ham that does not
require refrigeration. Some canned hams do need refrigeration.
Do not under any circumstances discard liquids canned with
vegetables or fruits, etc. This valuable source of shelter liquid
could safely sustain life for weeks in a dire emergency. 15.03

145

COST OF MEALS

The average cost of all food on the following menus is about
35 cents per person per meal. All stored foods should be clearly
dated so that food may be rotated to insure a fresh supply always
available in the shelter. Place all packaged foods in polyethylene
bags and tape or heat seal them for protection from moisture, etc.
This should be done preferably on a day when the humidity is very
low. This would not be necessary if food packers would can several
staple food items. Some of the main staples that should be available
canned are: sugar, flour, rice, salt, butter, pancake mix, dry
cereals, au gratin potatoes and dehydrated eggs. The menus in this
section provide for about 20 ounces or VA pounds of food per
person per day. It is easy to figure the total weight of all the food
to be stored in the shelter; 1:4 pounds x occupants x days supply
of food. 15.04

BREAKFAST

All cereals are eaten with evaporated milk diluted by equal
parts of water. This milk is also used with coffee, tea and cocoa,
unless instant hot chocolate is used. Milk for drinking is prepared
from evaporated milk in the same proportion. Some of the cereals
listed are made with a sugar coating and do not need additional
sugar. Breakfast servings allow for about 4 ounces of fruit
juice, 2 ounces of cereal, 8 crackers and 2 ounces of jam or jelly.
Coffee, tea, milk, cocoa or hot chocolate are included in every
breakfast. 15.05

BREAKFAST MENU

Day

Juice

Cereal

Supplement

Jam with
Soda Crackers

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Pineapple
Orange apricot
Grapefruit
Prune
Orange
Apricot nectar
Pear nectar
Grape juice
Apple juice
Tomato

Cheerios
Cornflakes
Grapenuts
Wheaties
Shredded wheat
Grapenut flakes
Rice Krispies
Sugar pops
Frosted flakes
Raisin bran

Grape
Elderberry
Orange marmalade
Strawberry
Peach
Currant
Plum
Crabapple
Raspberry
Cherry

Guide 15.05

LUNCH

Lunch consists of hot soup, a light supplement and coffee, tea,

146

milk, cocoa or hot chocolate. Every third day, or oftener, a meat,
chicken, fish supplement or spread is planned. Lunch servings allow
for 5 or 6 ounces of soup, 2 or 3 ounces of supplement (depending
on type of supplement) and 6 or 8 Ritz type crackers. Deviled
ham or boned chicken would not be served in the same size por-
tion as, for instance, applesauce. 15.06

LUNCH MENU

Day

Soup

Supplement— Ritz Crackers And:

Clam chowder

Apple butter

Chicken noodle

Whole cranberries

Bean and bacon

Deviled ham

Lentil

Peanut butter

Vegetable

Applesauce

Mushroom

Boned chicken

Pea

Jellied cranberries

Minestrone

Tuna fish

Pepper pot

Cheddar cheese dip

Cream of chicken

Sardines (skinless & boneless)

Guide 15.06

DINNER

Dinner, of course, is the main meal in the shelter as it is in
normal everyday life. It should be served and eaten in as normal a
manner as possible. The pychological effect on the entire family
will be well worth the trouble. The menus may be switched if per-
sonal religious observances are better served by so doing. Dinner
servings are based on 6 to 8 ounces of entree, 4 ounces of each
vegetable and 4 ounces of dessert. Coffee, tea, milk, cocoa or hot
chocolate are also served. 15.07

DINNER MENU

Day Entree

Vegetables

Dessert

1 Chicken a la king

Rice Green beans

Peaches

2 Ham (canned)

Mashed pot Corn

Pineapple

3 Beef stew

Small pot Carrots

Vanilla pudding

4 Chicken stew

Rice Succotash

Plums

5 Salmon

Mashed pot Peas

Pears

6 Meatballs

Spaghetti Asparagus

Gelatin (raspberry)

7 Frankfurters

Beets Baked beans

Apricots

8 Chicken chowmein

Fried noodles Lima beans

Cherries

9 Lamb stew

Spanish rice Spinach

Chocolate pudding

10 Pork loin

Sweet pot Applesauce

Fruit cocktail

Guide 15.07

147

SHOPPING LIST FOR PRIMARY SHELTER MENUS

To implement these breakfast, lunch and dinner menus it is
necessary to break down all meals into components and then calcu-
late the requirements for each size family. This has been done and
the list of food needed is shown in guides 15.08 and 15.08A. The
third column "ounces per portion" gives the basic food allowance
used. The fourth and fifth columns show the amount of each item
required by a family of two or three using the foregoing menus
for one month. To ascertain the amount of food required by a
family of four just double the amount for a family of two. To
figure the needs for a family of five, add the amounts for a family
of two and a family of three, etc. To find the amount needed by a
family of three for six months, multiply the one month supply by
six. Several items such as rice, instant mashed potatoes and apple-
sauce are listed more than once since they appear on the ten day
menus more than once. 15.08

SHOPPING LIST FOR PRIMARY SHELTER MENUS

Item No.

Food

Ounces
Per Portion

Ounces of Food
for One Month
Family of
2 3

Pineapple juice

Orange apricot juice

Grapefruit juice

Prune juice

Orange juice

Apricot nectar

Pear nectar

Grape juice

Apple juice

Tomato juice

Cheerios

Corn flakes

Grapenuts

Wheaties

Shredded wheat

Grapenut flakes

Rice -Krispies

Sugar pops

Frosted flakes

Raisin bran

Grape jelly

Elderberry jelly

Orange marmalade

148

24 Strawberry jam 2 12 18

25 Peach preserves 2 12 18

26 Currant jelly 2 12 18

27 Plum preserves 2 12 18

28 Crabapple jelly 2 12 18

29 Red raspberry jam 2 12 18

30 Cherry preserves 2 12 18

31 Clam chowder 6 36 54

32 Chicken noodle soup 6 36 54

33 Bean & Bacon soup 6 36 54

34 Lentil soup 6 36 54

35 Vegetable soup 6 36 54

36 Mushroom soup 6 36 54

37 Pea soup 6 36 54

38 Minestrone soup 6 36 54

39 Pepper pot soup 6 36 54

40 Cream of chicken soup 6 36 54

41 Applebutter 3 18 27

42 Whole cranberries 3 1 8 27

43 Deviled ham 2 12 18

44 Peanut butter 2 12 18

45 Applesauce 3 18 27

46 Boned chicken 2 12 18

47 Jellied cranberries 3 18 27

48 Tuna fish 2 12 18

49 Instant cheddar dip 2 12 18

50 Sardines 2 12 18

51 Chicken a la king 6 36 54

52 Ham (canned whole) 6 36 54

53 Beef stew 6 36 54

54 Chicken stew 6 36 54

55 Salmon 6 36 54

56 Spaghetti & meat balls 8 48 72

57 Frankfurters 6 36 54

58 Chicken chow mein 8 48 72

59 Lamb stew 6 36 54

60 Pork loin 6 36 54

61 Minute rice 2 12 18

62 Instant mashed potatoes 4 24 36

63 Whole potatoes 4 24 36

64 Minute rice 2 12 18

65 Instant mashed potatoes 4 24 36

66 Beets 4 24 36

67 Fried noodles 2 12 18

68 Spanish rice 4 24 36

69 Sweet potatoes 4 24 36

70 Green beans 4 24 36

149

Item No.

Food

Ounces
Per Portion

Ounces of Food
for One Month
Family of
2 3

Corn (kernalettes)

24 36

Carrots

24 36

Succotash

24 36

Peas

24 36

Asparagus

24 36

Baked beans

24 36

Lima beans

24 36

Spinach (chopped)

24 36

Applesauce

24 36

Peaches

24 36

Pineapple

24 36

Vanilla pudding

18 27

Plums

24 36

Pears

24 36

Gelatin (raspberry)

18 27

Apricots

24 36

Cherries

24 36

Chocolate pudding

18 27

Fruit cocktail

24 36

Guide 15.08

CONDIMENTS, STAPLES, COFFEE, TEA, ETC. FOR SHELTER

Certain foods are difficult, if not impossible, to plan for on a
per person basis. These items must be obtained for use with the
menus and are actually a continuation of the "Shopping List"
(15.08). There are probably some foods which your family likes
that are not on this list. By all means include them if they do not
require refrigeration or extensive preparation. Vary amounts to
suit individual tastes. 15.08A

Ounces of Food for One Month

Family of
Item No. Food 2 3

Evaporated milk

240

360

Sugar

120

180

Soda crackers

100

150

Ritz crackers

100

150

Salt

Pepper

Mustard

Ketchup

Coffee (instant)

Tea

150

100 Hot chocolate

101 Mayonnaise

102 Chocolate syrup (for children)

103 Canned candy

104 Canned nuts

105 Brown bread

106 Date nut bread

107 Canned bread (white, raisin, rye, etc.)

Guide 15.08A

EMERGENCY TRAVEL FOOD

There is always a possibility that one or more of the shelter
occupants must leave the shelter for a few days or longer due to a
dire emergency. The following kit is planned to feed one person
for two weeks or four people for four days. It is not intended to
do more than sustain life until the traveler can return to the
shelter. All of the food may be eaten hot or cold while on the go.
The entire supply can be packed easily into one medium sized
carton and sealed. The approximate weight is 25 pounds. 15.09

EMERGENCY TRAVEL FOOD

No. Quantity Item

Small saucepan

1 Ib. can chicken stew

Sterno stove

3 oz. cans tuna fish

Cans sterno

6 oz. cans boned

Books matches

chicken

Plastic spoons

15oz. can frankfur-

Plastic forks

ters

Paper cups

13 oz. can chicken

(plasticized)

a la king

Paper plates

7 oz. cans corn

(plasticized)

7 oz. cans peas

Can opener

7 oz. cans string beans

Tea bags

7 oz. cans spinach

Can instant coffee

7 oz. cans baked

Cans evaporated

beans

milk (small)

7 oz. cans carrots

Individual sugar

7 oz. cans lima beans

packs

Packages soda

Salt shaker

crackers or saltines

8 oz. cans beef stew

Packages dehydrated

Can spaghetti and

chicken soup

meatballs

Guide

15.09

151

CHAPTER 16

Shelter Equipment And Supplies

No one knows just what the condition of a post nuclear war
world would be. Many items listed here and elsewhere in this
manual may seem out of place. They would be if shelter occupants
could be sure that they would spend two weeks in a shelter and
then come out to find their home and its contents intact and un-
damaged. Remember, the equipment and supplies taken into
the shelter and the shelter itself may be the only material posses-
sions shelter occupants would have when they emerge to face
the future. 16.01

PERSONAL SANITARY NEEDS

There are certain personal sanitary and grooming supplies
that everyone uses; tooth brushes, tooth paste, soap and toilet
paper are examples. Other supplies are used specifically by men
or women. In addition, individuals have certain items which they
prefer to use. Most of these classes of needs are listed in guide 16.02
which list may be expanded by adding individual specific re-
quirements. 16.02

PERSONAL SANITARY NEEDS

Toothbrushes

16.

Shaving soap

Toothpaste

17.

Shaving brush

Toilet soap

18.

Nail clippers

Dental tape

19.

Bobby pins

Combs

20.

Hair nets

Hair brushes

21.

Hair combs

Whisk broom

22.

Hair pins

Hand brushes

23.

Cold cream

Shampoo

24.

Face lotion

10.

Deodorants

25.

Lipstick

11.

Hair oil

26.

Pumice stone

12.

Pair manual hair clippers

27.

Waterless soap

13.

Nail files

28.

Toilet paper

14.

Safety razor

29.

Kleenex

15.

Razor blades

30.

Sponges

Guide 16.02

153

SHELTER HOUSEKEEPING SUPPLIES

A list of essential supplies, including some items that are just
plain handy to have on hand, is appended (16.03) for use as a
checklist. The family must decide which of these items to stock
and how many of each. No one can do more than make suggestions.
If an encyclopedia is available, it would be a very interesting and
informative asset in the shelter. 16.03

SHELTER HOUSEKEEPING SUPPLIES

1. Masking tape 22. 1 mop

2. Scotch tape 23. Sheets

3. Rubber bands 24. Towels

4. Button assortment 25. Pillow cases

5. Book matches 26. Face cloths

6. 1 mirror 27. Soap powder

7. 1 calendar 28. 3 assorted zippers

8. 4 dozen pencils 29. Thimble

9. Writing paper 30. Pillows

10. Heat applied patch assortment 31. Chairs

11. Household oil 32. Dust pan

12. Sewing needles 33. Blankets

13. Thread 34. Playing cards

14. 2 lighters 35. Glue

15. 6 cans lighter fluid 36. Disinfectant

16. 6 spare light bulbs 37. Old newspapers (for wrapping)

17. 1 spare night light bulb 38. Old magazines (for reading)

18. Old fashioned iron 39. White coveralls for each

19. Straight pins occupant

20. Safety pins 40. Chess set and board

21. 1 broom 41. Checkers

Guide 16.03

HARDWARE SUPPLIES

A suggested list of hand tools for equipping a shelter is in-
cluded in guide 11.55 under the chapter heading "Essentials for
Survival." Most of the hardware supplies listed below have obvious
uses. For instance, putty and sealing graphite for plugging cracks
or holes and nails or screws for making minor repairs. Two items
listed are very important ; yellow and red lumber marking crayons.
When searching through the debris of collapsed houses, etc. a red
X mark means there is danger of further collapse. A yellow X
means "this location has been searched." For some obscure reason
it is called a "giraffe mark." 16.04

154

HARDWARE SUPPLIES

1. Nails 11. Manufacturers recommended spare

2. Wood screws parts for generator

3. Sheet metal screws 12. Manufacturers recommended spare

4. Nuts and bolts parts for blower

5. Concrete rawl plugs 13. Manufacturers recommended spare

6. Electric insulating tape parts for chain saw

7. Fuses for electrical system 14. Yellow and red lumber marking

8. Sealing graphite crayons

9. 100 empty burlap bags ]5 Solder and flux
for sandbagging (60 Ib.

bags) 16' Wood Putfy

10. Sakcrete 17. Glaziers putty

Guide 16.04

PORTABLE MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL
EQUIPMENT

Most of the fixed type mechanical equipment, such as the
motor blower, etc., to be used in the shelter is listed in Chapter 13.
There are six items, necessary or useful, that should be in the
shelter. Four are mechanical and two electrical. The mechanical
items are:

1. A 20 ton hydraulic jack for moving heavy debris.

2. A 5 ton screw jack for moving debris.

3. A bicycle for rapid emergency transportation.

4. A liquid fueled power chain saw and a fuel supply.
The chain saw would be extremely useful for felling trees and

sawing firewood when outside radioactivity has decayed suffi-
ciently. The fuel supply, in a safe container, should be either buried
outside the shelter or possibly stored in the shelter lock. 16.05

The two electrical items are the electric dehumidifier and the
storage battery charger that were described in Chapter 13. Both
pieces of equipment are extremely important and relatively inex-
pensive. It should be noted once again that humidity can be one
of the most annoying hazards in a shelter. 16.06

GENERAL PURPOSE EQUIPMENT
AND SUPPLIES

There are many items that should be placed in a shelter. Some
of these are difficult to classify. They are grouped here under
the heading "General Purpose Equipment." All items listed have
obvious uses. 16.07

155

GENERAL PURPOSE EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES

1. Flashlights

2. Flashlight batteries

3. Portable radio

4. Radio batteries

5. Radiation detector

6. Batteries for detector

7. Citizens band radio or walkie
talkie

8. Batteries for radio or walkie
talkie

9. 3 chemical fire extinguishers

10. 4—244 cubic ft. oxygen cyl-
inders

11. 12— 25 Ib. pails indicating soda
lime

12. Pencil sharpener

13. 2—3 way electric sockets

1 4. 2 extension cords

15. 1 stapler

16. 3 boxes refills for stapler

17. 12 air intake filters

18. 1 penknife

19. 1 hunting knife

20. Fishing line

21. Fish hooks

22. 1 waste basket

23. 1 hunting rifle

24. Ammunition for rifle

25. Storage battery

26. A clock

27. Identification tags for each
family member

28. 1 canteen

29. 1 adjustable plastic hat

30. A supply of clean rags

31. 1 Martindale mask

32. 1 thermometer

33. 1 Bible

34. Pair of dosimeters for each
shelter occupant

35. 1 reading device for dosi-
meters

Guide 16.07

156

CHAPTER 17

General Radiation Information

RADIATION DETECTORS

Radiation measurement devices may be divided into two
general types; survey meters and dosimeters. Survey meters are
calibrated in roentgens per hour (r/hr) and dosimeters in
roentgens (r). The term roentgen relates to the effect of radiation
on air. The equivalent term relating to the effect of radiation on
human tissue is the "rem" or roentgen equivalent man. Since there
is a nearly constant relationship between the energy absorbed per
gram of air and the energy absorbed per gram of tissue over a
wide range, the term or unit of roentgen is used to measure radia-
tion damage to tissue. Alpha radiation is not included in overall
roentgen readings. Beta and gamma types of nuclear radiation are
included. 17.01

SURVEY METERS

Survey meters detect and measure radiation dose rate. When
survey meters are used to measure contamination of people, food,
water, equipment and living quarters they must be capable of in-
dicating very small amounts of radiation. Therefore, survey meters
with a range of 0 to 50 roentgens per hour should be used for
this type of survey. 17.02

If a survey meter is used to measure external radiation, read-
ings up to 500 roentgens per hour may be necessary and a meter
with a range of 0 to 500 r/hr should be used. Even a survey meter
calibrated for this range should be capable of giving indications of
higher dose rates, otherwise there might not be any way to become
aware of doses exceeding 500 r/hr. 17.03

Certain radiation measurement instruments are designed to
be used in shelters, but to provide dose rate information from points
outside by means of cables extending to the outside. These meters
should indicate gamma dose rates up to 1000 r/hr. One such device
has provisions for four cables which will show outside (or inside)
radiation levels at four different points (five including the meter).
The value of such an instrument can scarcely be overestimated.
Several possible locations for these remote cables in a BOSDEC
type shelter are mentioned in Chapter 13 (13.27). Other possible
locations could include the secondary shelter, shelter lock and
the house overhead. 17.04

157

DOSIMETERS

Dosimeters detect, measure and register total accumulated
gamma dose. Some direct reading types indicate radiation accumu-
lations by color changes. Other types consist of film badges with
a piece of X-ray film in a metal holder. This film is sensitive to
radiation and when developed by standard methods, film is dark-
ened in proportion to amount of radiation received. The film is
compared with various control films from the same lot of film
that have been exposed to a known amount of radiation. The film
badge must be worn at all times by the person to whom it is
assigned. No one else may wear it. It must be developed before it
can be read. While the total accumulated dose is not known imme-
diately, the record is permanent. 17.05

There is another type dosimeter which records radiation when
electrically charged, starting with zero. Some of these can be read
by holding them up to the light. Others must be read in a reading
device designed for this purpose. The electrical type could give
false readings due to electrical leakage caused by dropping or other
damage. They are usually worn in pairs. Neither film badge
nor electrical pocket dosimeters will register alpha radiation.
This is not important since external alpha exposures are not
a hazard. 17.06

NORMAL RADIATION EXPOSURES

The average person receives about 15 roentgens of nuclear
radiation in a lifetime from natural sources plus small amounts
from medical and dental X-rays. A tiny amount may even be ab-
sorbed from wrist watches. The main sources of this radiation are
in order of magnitude; medical procedures, natural causes, cosmic
radiation, fallout from nuclear tests, TV tubes and watch dials, etc.
and industrial exposures. 17.07

RADIATION DOSES AND RECOVERY TIMES

The human body can absorb up to 100 roentgens in a short
time without any probable immediate ill effects. It can take some
radiation damage and repair it without serious permanent effect.
Radiation sickness is not contagious. Occasionally people under
very severe strain may appear to have the same symptoms. 17.08

The absorption of 100 to 200 roentgens would cause some
slight ill effect in most people. The recovery time would be about
two weeks. However, a dose of 200 to 600 roentgens would cause
severe illness or death within five to seven weeks. If not fatal,
recovery time from most of the apparent illness would be about
ten to sixteen weeks. A whole body dose of over 600 roentgens

158

received in a short time would probably be fatal. However, these
same dosages would not be as dangerous if absorbed over a long
period. 17.09

SAFE ROENTGEN DOSAGES UNDER EMERGENCY CONDITIONS

There are four possible ways that radioactive materials can
get into the body; by breathing, swallowing, breaks in the skin
and absorption through the skin. Certain radiation exposure dos-
ages would be unthinkable under normal circumstances and the
risk considered unacceptable. However, under emergency con-
ditions these following dosages would be tolerable as a maximal
limit ; less than 300 roentgens in a lifetime, less than 100 roentgens
in a month, less than 25 roentgens in one day and less than 10
roentgens in an hour. 17.10

EMERGENCY EXCURSIONS FROM SHELTER

LEAVING SHELTER

If it ever becomes necessary to leave the shelter under con-
ditions of substantial but comparatively safe radioactivity, the
following procedure should be used. First check outside radiation
dose rate and time.

1. Dress in old clothes. Put on white coveralls over
the clothes, overshoes, plastic hat, gloves and
Martindale mask.

2. Put the following articles in the coverall pockets
for emergency use:

(a) Matches

(b) Pocketknife

(d) Soap

(e) String

(f ) Safety pins

(g) Tissues
(h) Clean rags

3. Take a canteen of water.

4. Seal coveralls as follows:

(a) Place rubber bands at wrists and ankles.

(b) Seal wrists and ankles with masking tape.

(d) Seal zipper with masking tape.

(e ) Wrap rags around shoes and secure with
heavy rubber bands. 17.11

159

RETURNING TO SHELTER

When returning from emergency excursions outside shelter,
check carefully elapsed time since leaving and outside radiation
dose rate. It is especially important to use great care in undressing
in the "Shelter Lock," washing and removing the Martindale mask.

1. Before undressing or removing the mask, brush
off thoroughly or wash down if necessary or pos-
sible in the shelter lock or outside. This removes
most of the contamination.

2. Remove coveralls, outer clothing, hat, boots and
shoes.

(a) Keep mask and gloves on while doing this.

(b) Clothes should be left in "Shelter Lock" for con-
tamination check later.

(d) Wash hands thoroughly in cold water paying
special attention to finger nails.

(e) Take a cold shower — not a bath, using plenty of
soap. Put on clean clothes. 17.12

160

CHAPTER 18

Emergency Shelter First Aid

Every home and shelter should have a late edition of the Red
Cross First Aid Manual. A few simple suggestions, in outline form,
are listed here for quick reference when a First Aid manual is not
available. Immediate emergency measures for handling bleeding,
breathing problems, burns and fractures are outlined. It would be
worthwhile to memorize these basic first aid procedures. 18.01

BLEEDING

To stop bleeding apply pressure at once — hard and fast.

1. Use hands, bandage or clean cloth.

2. Do not stop to wash wound.

3. Bring edges of wound together.

4. Apply pressure for 30 minutes if necessary.

5. Use tourniquet as last resort unless skilled,
in its use. 18.02

BREATHING PROBLEMS

Remove mucous, debris, food, dentures, any obstruction or
foreign material from mouth.

1. If breathing, place head to one side to keep blood or fluids
from flowing into air passages.

2. If not breathing, apply mouth to mouth insufflation.

(a) Tilt head to sword swallower position using
pillow or blanket under the shoulder.

(b) Pinch patient's nose shut.

(d) Inhale through nose.

(e) Exhale into patient's mouth 12 to 16 times per
minute for adult, 20 times per minute for child.

(f ) Keep this up for two hours or more.

(g) Upon revival adjust your breathing rhythm
to patient's efforts. 18.03

BURNS

Light burns (reddening of skin) leave uncovered.
1. Treat pain with pain relievers or leave alone.
Deeper burns (blisters and skin destruction) cover with clean

161

dressing without ointments or salves.

1. Don't puncture blisters unless likely to break.

(a) If necessary make small sterile incision

at blister edge.

Severe burns should be handled same as deeper burns.
1. Patient should drink solution of one teaspoon salt
in one quart water. One gallon of this solution may
be drunk in first 24 hours. 18.04

FRACTURES

Splint fractures without moving patient.

1. Firmly support broken limb.

2. Simple fractures can be recognized by tenderness
to touch.

(a) Also by unnatural shape of part.

(b) By swelling.

3. Compound fractures are indicated by broken skin
and/ or protruding bone. 18.05

PREGNANCY

Married couples who are or may become expectant parents
should have some basic instruction on how to handle an emergency
delivery. A visit with the family physician or members of a local
first aid squad should provide much useful information. 18.06

IDENTIFICATION TAGS

Each member of a family should have a stainless steel tag to
be worn at all times for identification purposes. This information
should be inscribed (preferably engraved) on it

1. Name

2. Address

3. Phone Number

4. Birth Date

5. Blood Type

6. Allergies

7. Religion

8. Alternate Address

9. Social Security No.

The alternate address would probably be that of a close
relative. 18.07

162

CHAPTER 19

Basic Nuclear Physics

ELEMENTAL STRUCTURE

Practically all materials in our world consist of elements or
combinations of elements called compounds.

1. An element is a substance all of whose atoms have the
same atomic number but not necessarily the same atomic
weight.

Examples are:

a. Lead

b. Gold

c. Hydrogen

2. An element cannot be decomposed by ordinary chemical
means. A compound can be decomposed. Examples of
compounds :

a. Water— H2O

b. Salt— NAC-L 19.01

ELEMENTS

An element is formed when a large number of identical atoms
are bound together. When atoms are grouped together in certain
numbers and combinations they form molecules. Many molecules
consisting of identical atoms form an element — if different atoms,
they form compounds. 19.02

ATOMS

All atoms contain a nucleus with a heavy dense core sur-
rounded at a relatively great distance by electrons which orbit
around the nucleus at high speed. These electrons are small, almost
weightless and have a negative electrical charge. 19.03

NUCLEUS

Nuclei consist of balls of matter larger and heavier than elec-
trons. These balls are called:

1. Protons — have a positive electrical charge.

2. Neutrons — do not have an electrical charge.

3. The atomic weight of a substance is the sum total of the
number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

163

When you weigh yourself you are actually ascertaining the
sum of the weight of all the nuclei in your body.

The nucleus of each atom is held together by a force called
binding energy.

1. Some of this energy is released when a nucleus is
split in two by fission.

a. This is due to the fact that it takes less binding
energy to hold together the two fragments result-
ing from the split than to hold the original nucleus
together before fission.

If a mothball was made of nuclei it would weigh almost
30,000,000 tons. That is how heavy a nucleus is for its size. 19.04

PROTONS

For each proton in a nucleus there is one negatively charged
electron in orbit around the nucleus. A proton is approximately
equal in weight and size to a neutron.

1. The number of protons in the nucleus determines the
number of electrons in orbit.

2. The number of protons also determines the nature of the
element and its atomic number.

3. Proton's positive electrical charge equals the negative
charge of the electron.

Natural elements exist with the number of protons ranging
from 1 (hydrogen) to 92 (uranium).

1. Whenever the number of protons change, a differ-
ent element is formed.

Certain elements not existing in nature have been created by
man.

1. Their atomic numbers range from 93 to 102.

2. Since uranium is 92, these manmade elements are called
transuranic elements.

a. They are all radioactive.

b. Plutonium (94) used for nuclear weapons is very
important. 19.05

NEUTRONS

Neutrons are the balls of matter in the atomic nucleus which
do not have an electrical charge. They are about 1800 times heavier
than electrons. The number of neutrons in a nucleus ranges from 0
to about 150. In certain elements different atoms of the same
element have the same number of protons but vary in number
of neutrons.

164

1. Since chemistry is concerned with orbital electrons, these
are chemically the same element.

a. Since all these atoms have the same number of pro-
tons, they will have an equal number of electrons
in orbit.

b. Since they have a different number of neutrons
in the nucleus, the various atoms of the same ele-
ment will not all weigh the same.

2. Nuclear physicists and physical chemists view these as
different substances of the same chemical form.

a. They vary in atomic weight.

b. They are called isotopes. 19.06

ISOTOPES

Most isotopes are unstable, therefore radioactive. Some are
stable and not radioactive. The first element hydrogen has 3 iso-
topes, and tin the fiftieth element has 25 isotopes. There are more
than 1200 known isotopes.

1. Two isotopes of the same element will have the same

atomic number but different atomic weights.
An example of how materials become radioactive isotopes in
a reactor, using cobalt as an illustration, is shown. The ordinary
cobalt is inserted into an opening in the reactor.

1. Natural cobalt has 27 protons and 32 neutrons.

a. A rod of cobalt is inserted into the reactor.

b. Billions of cobalt atoms are bombarded by billions
of neutrons.

I. This flow of neutrons is called the "neu-
tron flux."

c. A few of the cobalt atoms, possibly one in a billion,
captures a neutron and then has 27 protons and 33
neutrons.

I. These atoms have changed from cobalt 59
to radioactive cobalt 60 which gives off
strong gamma and some beta radiation.

II. Cobalt 60 has a half life of 5.3 years.

III. It was made radioactive by a process
called "neutron capture".

IV. Substances are made radioactive only by
"neutron capture". 19.07

FISSION

Fissionable refers to those atoms which can be split apart by
nuclear bombardment releasing large amounts of energy in the

165

process. It means that the material must be capable of sustaining
and multiplying the chain reaction process so that a large number
of fissions can be made to take place in a very short time. The
terms fissionable and radioactive are not equivalent.

1. Only two readily available materials are capable of sus-
taining and multiplying a chain reaction.

a. Uranium 235 — used as fuel for atomic reactors.

b. Plutonium — a man made element created by a
nuclear reaction in an atomic reactor, used mainly
for nuclear weapons.

These fissionable materials bring about a chain reaction in the
following manner:

1. They emit bits of elementary matter — neutrons.

a. These neutrons strike other atoms of the same
material causing them to break open, emitting
more neutrons and releasing binding (fission)
energy. Neutrons produced in fission process are
mostly high energy or fast neutrons.

I. For a neutron to penetrate an atom to
cause fission it must be slowed down.
Slowed down neutrons are called "thermal
neutrons". They are most liable to nitro-
gen capture and removal from nuclear
radiation. This capture usually creates
gamma radiation which is easier to at-
tenuate.

II. Water, graphite and other materials will
slow down neutrons so as to produce
fissioning. These are called "Neutron
Moderators".

b. Regrouping of split atomic material creates new
atoms called fission products.

I. Many of these are radioactive.

II. Energy and new atoms result.

III. This is a chain reaction.

c. The quantity of a fissionable material which will
provide a self sustaining chain reaction is called a
critical mass. It is necessary to have a small sur-
face area in relation to mass to be critical, other-
wise more neutrons would escape by the surface
than would be produced in the mass.

I. The quantity of a fissionable material not
sufficient to do so is called a subcritical
mass.

II. As soon as one more neutron is being
made than is being lost, the mass is
critical. At this point the multiplication

166

of the chain reaction starts to increase at
a fantastic rate.

d. Controlled fissionable energy is produced by atomic
reactors.

e. Uncontrolled fissionable energy results from the
explosion of nuclear weapons. 19.08

IONIZATION

All radioactive materials emit ionizing radiation. Ionizing is a
term used covering forms of radiation which cause rearrangement
of orbital electrons in the atoms of a substance through which the
radiation passes. The end result being formation of ion positive
and negative pairs. In living tissue these can cause biological
damage. There are many nonionizing forms of radiation:

1. Heat 3. Radar

2. Light 4. Radio

These do not have enough energy to affect orbital electrons
and damage from these forms of radiation is usually confined to
the outer layers of the body.

1. Damage is usually apparent and protective measures can
be taken such as in the case of sunburn.

2. This is not true of ionizing radiation since electron re-
arrangement in the body cannot be felt.

a. Biological damage is not apparent until it may
be too late. 19.09

IONIZING RADIATION

There are three types of ionizing radiation:

1. Gamma — short electromagnetic pure energy rays having
no mass or weight.

a. Gamma radiation originates when the discharge of
one of these alpha or beta particles from a nucleus
doesn't take enough energy along with it to leave
the nucleus in quite a contented state.

I. If the particle leaving the nucleus doesn't
take with it all the energy that the atom
wants to get rid of, it throws off some of
the energy in the form of gamma radia-
tion.

(a) Therefore, gamma radiation can

be given off by many radioactive

materials in addition to giving off

alpha or beta radiation.

II. Gamma radiation is stopped by electrons.

167

2. Beta — elementary particles carrying negative electrical
charges identical with an electron.

3. Alpha — relatively heavy atomic particles.

a. Each particle contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons
bound together.

b. They are identical with the nucleus of a helium
atom. 19.10

RADIATION

Radiation is a common expression for energy emitted in both
wave and particle form. Actually it should apply only to the trans-
mission of electromagnetic waves. Small amounts are emitted
naturally by many radioactive materials by means of the decay
process. Radiation cannot be detected by the human senses, there-
fore, radiation detection and measurement instruments must be
used.

Materials cannot be made radioactive by being subjected to
radiation. They are only made radioactive by being subjected to an
intense "neutron flux" which results in "neutron capture". 19.11

RADIOACTIVE ATOMS

The nuclei of radioactive atoms contain excess energy and are
referred to as being in an "excited" state.

1. They rid themselves of this excitation by emitting the
excess energy in the form of radiation.

a. All nuclear radiation falls into two general classes.
I. Rays
II. Particles — of subatomic bits of matter.

2. The more electrons in a material, the more gamma radia-
tion will be stopped.

a. A heavy element must be used to stop neutrons.
I. Hydrogen
II. Paraffin
III. Water

3. The process of getting rid of excess energy is called
radioactive decay.

a. Some radioisotopes decay directly to a stable state
in one step.

b. Others decay through a series of steps or chains
forming different radioactive elements called
"daughter products" before finally reaching a
stable state.

I. They emit radiation during each step of
the process.

168

II. The type of radiation can vary during
each step. 19.12

BIOLOGICAL NUCLEAR EFFECTS

The body consists of mostly empty space. To us it seems fairly
solid but considering that one drop of water contains 6 sextillion
(a 6 with 21 zeros after it) atoms it must be realized that all things
that seem solid are actually porous. The rays that pass through a
body without hitting anything are the means of registering X-rays
on film. Each ray penetrates to a different depth before finding its
target and producing its effect on the body. 19.13

The rays from radioactive materials do not hit the nucleus in
large numbers. Few of them have enough energy to penetrate or
change the nucleus. They hit the electrons orbiting the nucleus and
the energy of the ray is spent. The energy from the rays is trans-
ferred to the electrons ejected from the atoms. This is the process
called ionization. 19.14

Atoms in their normal state are electrically neutral — they
contain the same number of electrically negative electrons in orbit
as they contain electrically positive protons in their nucleus. When
radiation causes displacement and rearrangement of these elec-
trons, positive and negative ions are created. These ion pairs in
sufficient quantities can cause complex changes in body chemistry
which result in degrees of sickness or death depending on amount
of ionization caused. The radiation effect goes on all the time.
Bodies are constantly being bombarded by cosmic rays and rays
from radioactive materials in the structure of our life. 19.15

When an electron is knocked off an atom, the cell of which
the atom is a part is damaged. The body repair mechanism repairs
the cell. This radiation may be bad or it may be good. No one really
knows. We have learned to live with it since the beginning of
man. 19.16

INTERNAL RADIOACTIVE POISONING

There are two radiation problems ; external radiation exposure
and internal radioactive poisoning. This section will take up the
ingestion of radioactive particles. The body is actually a chemical
processing plant. It normally processes food and air, converting
them into energy, body tissue, bone and other body requirements.
It absorbs most things through breathing and swallowing. Since
many of the body needs are chemical in form it has a problem
when radioactive substances are introduced into it. For instance,
the bones use calcium. Radium is chemically very much like cal-
cium. Therefore, when radium is taken into the body the bones

169

have a tendency to accept it and radium is deposited in the bone.

1. Much that is inhaled is immediately exhaled.

2. Materials which are not soluble when swallowed are
rapidly excreted through the feces.

a. Soluble materials go into the bloodstream.

I. The bloodstream carries them to dif-
ferent parts of the body in accordance
with its usual procedure of supplying
body needs.

(a) Each part of the body responds
chemically to the material offered
and accepts it because it is similar
to materials it ordinarily uses or
rejects it.

(b) If radioactive iodine is offered the
thyroid gland will pick it up.

3. Sodium, hydrogen and potassium are widely used in the
body and these elements are widely distributed through-
out the body and picked up whether radioactive or not.

a. The body reacts to substances chemically whether
or not they are radioactive.

b. If none of the organs accept the substance it passes
on to the kidneys and then out of the body.

I. A very healthy body with no calcium or
other deficiencies may not accept as much
radioactive substances.

The biological half life of a radioactive element is the period
of time which it takes for one half of it to be excreted from the
body by natural processes. Combining the radiological half life with
the biological half life gives the effective half life of the material
in the body. 19.17

170

CHAPTER 20

America After A Nuclear Attack

One can only guess at the way of life of Americans in a period
immediately following a nuclear attack and war. Obviously we
could expect no mercy whatsoever from the communists in the
unlikely event that they were victorious. We would then sink into
a dull, zombie like existence — with all the well described frustra-
tions of a police state. We would probably face a small fascist con-
trolling group with a rubber stamp legislature of fellow travelers
operating under the guise of phony democracy. If America is
resolute and strong — well armed and well protected we will not
come out second best. It's useless to talk of winning a nuclear war.
There will not be a winner. 20.01

ABSORBED RADIATION

After the bombs have dropped and the debris of war has been
cleared away there will still remain one big unavoidable problem.
Radiation and people who have absorbed radiation. Let us assume
that 1000 nuclear bombs have been delivered on American targets.
The majority of these will have fallen on three main types of tar-
gets; military installations, cities and critical industrial areas.

Assume further that no two bombs have fallen in the same
total destruction area. This means that no bomb has fallen within,
let us say, three miles of another bomb. Since the total destruction
area of a nuclear weapon of large size is about 30 square miles, we
will have 1000 bombs times 30 square miles or 30,000 square miles
of total destruction and of dangerous initial (neutron induced)
radiation ground radioactivity. 20.02

AREAS OF INTENSE RADIATION

This means that out of the 3,000,000 square miles in the
continental United States, 30,000 or roughly 1% of the country will
be intensely radioactive for long periods of time — possibly a life-
time for many of us. Included in the 1% will be cities containing
miniscule proportions of total area but large percentages of total
population. People living in these city targets must be relocated —
and quickly. All the industrial capacity in the world will mean
nothing without people to run the machines and use that capacity.
Military targets will not necessarily face loss of life and human
damage comparable to big city losses. The surrounding ground will
be just as deadly radioactive and must be evacuated perhaps for a

171

period of up to 50 years. The same is true of the huge metropolitan
centers. These three classes of territory must be evacuated. New
housing for the people evacuated must be built in relatively radia-
tion free parts of the country. 20.03

No one can say how long it would be until people could return
to prewar homes, military bases and factories. It is thought by
many authorities that present methods of long range radiation
decay computation are pessimistic and that radioactive decay pro-
ceeds at faster rates than indicated by formulas presently used.
More data on this subject would be obtained over the post attack
years by actual surveys of bombed areas. 20.04

RADIATION WEATHERING EFFECT

The weathering effect of rain and snow, when better under-
stood, may indicate huge carry offs of radioactive surface mate-
rials by rivers, streams, sewers and other means. When emptied
ultimately into the ocean, the vast dilution of such dangerous
materials might speed the habitability of otherwise dangerous
areas. 20.05

New techniques, to neutralize fallout radiation, by plowing
under one foot of top soil in critical radioactive areas and the
gathering and burying of contaminated debris — all may mean
speedier returns to pre- attack locations than would be indicated
by present methods and calculations. 20.06

RECONSTRUCTION AND RELOCATION PROGRAMS

All this relocation and rebuilding must be done under adverse
conditions with equipment shortages, in radioactive atmospheres.
Obviously a completely unique and dynamic program must be
planned. It may well be that reconstruction will be under the super-
vision of the Army Corps of Engineers. Unfortunately, all Ameri-
cans are not shining knights and even as it is in peacetime, so will
there be looting, thievery and other crimes committed. Since local
and possibly even regional police protection will be spotty at best,
the military probably will have to maintain order throughout the
country.

This type of activity gives rise to the often heard complaint
that we will come out of a nuclear war with a fascist police state
run by the military. This is said with the implication that this
would be worse than turning into a communist state. 20.07

MILITARY LEADERSHIP

The military leadership of our country has always had the

172

unpleasant task of providing protection, always in time of danger,
to our citizens. This requires firmness and disciplines that are
necessary to get the job done in wartime emergencies. It is nat-
urally repugnant to freedom loving peoples. It will be necessary,
during and after a nuclear war, to impose many restrictions and
regulations upon the citizenry for not only their own protection
but also for the benefit of the country as a whole and the majority
of the population. This is inevitable. 20.08

Army, navy and airforce officers by their training, heritage
and customs, represent one of the best types of American citizen.
If we must have regimentation, how much better it will be to have
a temporary, American directed effort under civilian control than
to have a permanent one directed by commissars solely interested
in alien philosophies and problems. 20.09

REGISTRATION

One of the first post war projects must be a complete registra-
tion of all citizens. Time will be short and speed absolutely essen-
tial. Registration will be on a basis of radiation exposure and age.
There will emerge from this registration a new class system —
not one as we now think of it, but classes divided according to
radiation absorbed. 20.10

AREA CERTIFICATIONS

The country must be radiation surveyed and divided into zones
or areas according to radioactivity remaining in each zone. With
these two compilations completed an immense program to relocate
all people with high radiation absorbed doses in low radiation areas
must be undertaken. At this point the question of age becomes all
important. Young people with high radiation absorbed doses must
be given an emergency expedited status and rushed to the lowest
radiation areas. Old people with high radiation absorbed doses will
not be in quite as precarious a position for reasons to be covered
later. 20.11

RADIATION BANKING CONCEPT

To properly assign all people to classes according to radiation
dose absorbed will require a formula. No doubt the ' 'banking"
formula or a variation of it will be employed. This formula is based
on the fact that as we go through life we can absorb a certain
amount of radiation each year and not suffer any immediate ill
effects. This amount is credited to an individual's "radiation bank
account" each year. As radiation is absorbed by the same person,

173

his radiation bank account is debited. The balance in his bank ac-
count is the total radiation that he can absorb or withdraw without
any immediate ill effects. The exact value of the deposit each year
and the withdrawals are a matter of question at this time. Author-
itative sources differ on these values. Further, these values differ
according to whether normal peacetime industrial radiation prob-
lems are at issue or whether emergency wartime life or death
conditions are considered. 20.12

DEPOSITS AND WITHDRAWALS

For the sake of discussion we will say that the amount of
radiation that could be credited to a person's account each year
would be 8 roentgens or 640 roentgens for an 80 year life span.
The allowable bank withdrawal may be 5 roentgens per year within
certain limitations which result from the fact that some deposits
are "time .deposits" which may not be withdrawn ahead of time.
The time limitations might be these maximums. Not more than 10
roentgens may be withdrawn in any one hour, or more than 25r in
any one day. The limit for one month would be lOOr and for a
lifetime 300 roentgens. (17.10). 20.13

The one big drawback to the use of a commonsense system of
citizen conservation is that very few people have dosimeters, let
alone shelters. Therefore, estimates must be made in a post war
period. The only possible way to eliminate guesswork will be to
develop a method of testing designed to show total absorbed
dose, possibly by rate of cell mitosis (cell growth) or ionization
counters. 20.14

As an example let us take a man 40 years old. He has a "bank
account" of 320r and has received a total accumulated dose of 120r.
His bank balance is 200r and deposits will be made at the rate of 8r
per year for the rest of his life. Assume that he will live to be 80
years old. His maximum bank account in his eightieth year will be
520r. He may be assigned to an area where the average yearly dose
rate for the next 40 years, will be 13 roentgens per year. Since this
is the average rate over a 40 year period, the starting dose rate
at his time of entrance to his assigned area might be considerably
higher than 13r per year. These and other figures and examples
are not necessarily based on facts. They are intended to convey an
idea of what type of system might be used. The principle must be
to make assignments to areas by age and absorbed dose. Otherwise
the wasteful practice of assigning someone 60 years old, with no
appreciable absorbed dose, to an area where the dose rate is 2r per
year could occur, while a person 30 years old with an absorbed
dose of 240r might end up in an average 20r per year area. 20.15

174

A certification of age and absorbed dose for each person would
be almost mandatory in a post war world. A complete continuous
record for each person will be maintained in order to make area
assignments intelligently. 20.16

OLDER PEOPLE

In previous history it has almost always been the young men
of America who died for their country in perilous times. We may
see the position reversed. Older people with small absorbed dose
certifications will be able to go into higher radioactive areas and
operate the bulldozers and other decontamination equipment with
the least harm to themselves, and the most benefit to their country.
Time will run out for many older citizens. That is, they will ap-
proach the end of life with substantial unused absorbed dose
credits in the "bank". They will be able to volunteer for extremely
hazardous duty in highly radioactive areas without paying the
penalty exacted from young people ; a lifetime spent with marginal
radioactive absorbed dose credits. We may yet live to see the day
when grandfather comes clanking back home from the "front"
on a bulldozer in a parade of decontamination veterans to the
cheers of the crowd lining the decontaminated curb on Fifth
Avenue. 20.17

RECONSTRUCTION EFFORTS

When the radiation survey of all habitable areas of the United
States has been completed and the registration and rad certifica-
tion of all people in our country has been done, we can then decide
what products and services should have priority. Basically the de-
cision will be ; what do we need and where can we make it. 20.18

Obviously food, water, shelter and clothing needs will have top
priority. Soap, medicines, tools and utensils will come next. After
these primary needs will come bulldozers, plows, machine tools,
hardware — such as nails and screws, generators, tanning equip-
ment, cement mixers, blockmaking equipment, radio and broad-
casting apparatus. 20.19

BASIC MATERIALS

Practically all manufacturing is predicated on the availability
of certain basic raw materials such as iron ore, coal, oil and bauxite
(for aluminum). These materials will have a top priority. A certain
amount of these essentials will be immediately available — in transit,
in storage or otherwise stockpiled and in various stages of pro-
cessing in places difficult to wipe out with a nuclear attack. 20.20

175

Mines and oil wells are, by their nature, scattered all over the
map. This is a disadvantage under normal conditions — but it would
be a big asset during and after a nuclear attack. Transportation
might be somewhat of a problem in getting these resources to steel
mills and refineries. Water transportation and pipelines would
probably be least affected by a nuclear attack. It would appear
that basic materials and their transportation, while presenting
difficulties, would be delivered to facilities left intact or at least
operable. 20.21

HEAVY MANUFACTURING

Our post attack economy will require the tools of reconstruc-
tion and decontamination as well as the essential supplies for
existence. Items such as tractors, diggers, compressors, generators,
trucks, pumps, electronic communications equipment, motors, pack-
aging equipment and heavy generating facilities all require steel
and all must have a high priority. The area diversification of many
of our big companies with dozens of plants scattered widely will be
a tremendous asset. Even plants used for making conveniences
may be converted to the items urgently needed. 20.22

Very few Americans have ever seen the United States as a
whole. Almost 10,000 towns and cities over 700 population. Thou-
sands of them containing one or more factories or manufacturing
facilities. Many of these facilities are for processing farm supplies
— but a surprising number, especially in the midwest, make a large
variety of equipment. A nuclear attack, no matter how big, could
not knock out our manufacturing capability completely. 20.23

Reservoirs, housing and factories — mining and steel mill ma-
chinery plus cement making facilities, all these needs must be met.
The interrelationship among all these activities is so complex that
one can not say with authority just where the cycle starts — but
start it must. 20.24

MEDICINE

Fortunately, many of our leading pharmaceutical companies
are located in rural areas not likely to be destroyed by nuclear blast
or heat. This circumstance can do much to alleviate the inherent
health problems inevitable in the aftermath of a nuclear war. 20.25

CLOTHING

Much of the material, used for fabricating clothing, comes
from mills scattered in dozens of small towns in predominately
rural areas. This may prove to be a plus factor in solving clothing

176

problems under post war conditions. It would be almost impossible
to knock out all mills in our country or even the majority of them
with the most intense nuclear attack possible for many years. 20.26

GOVERNMENT PLANNING

Our government, which has spent over many years millions of
dollars on obscure projects of interest to very few people, must
certainly have investigated thoroughly possible post attack con-
ditions and planned for them. These plans are understandably
secret. However, anything less than a complete survey of facilities
and their capabilities for producing necessities of life outside pos-
sible target areas, would be an inexcusable dereliction of responsi-
bility. Done now, this would be a simple matter. Delayed, a terrible
price may be paid. 20.27

177

Glossary

Afterwinds — Winds created by the fireball updraft. They are
drawn inward and upward and are less powerful than blast
winds.

Air Burst — A nuclear explosion occurring at a sufficient height
to keep the resulting fireball from touching the ground.

Alpha Particles — A form of radiation lacking energy enough to
penetrate even the outer layer of skin. Usually emitted by
naturally heavier radioactive elements such as uranium, ra-
dium and thorium.

Barrier Shielding — A mass placed between the fallout and the
shelter occupant. The density and thickness provide the shield-
ing effect.

Beta Particles — A form of radiation that can be stopped by
less than 100 feet of air or by heavy clothing. They are
more powerful than alpha particles but not as penetrating as
gamma rays.

Biological Half-time — The time required for the body to rid
itself, by natural biological means, of one half the initial
value of an element taken into the body.

Blast — The initial shock generated at the instant of bomb burst.

Blast Wave — The wall of pressure moving outward from the
blast created by a nuclear bomb burst.

Blast Wind — The air movement of hurricane type winds that
are caused by, and accompany the blast wave.

BOSDEC — Abbreviation of Bomb Shelter in Depth Concept.

It consists of three areas. A primary shelter surrounded on
three sides, also top and bottom, by a minimum of one foot
of reinforced concrete and five feet of earth. The fourth side
opens into a secondary shelter connected to the outside by a
shelter lock.

Burst — The explosion of a nuclear bomb.
CFM — Abbreviation of Cubic Feet per Minute.

Combined Shielding — Radiation protection combining geometry
and barrier shielding into the total shield.

Crater — The hole in the ground created by a nuclear ground burst.

Cube Root — The number or quantity of which a given number
or quantity is the cube. The cube root of 8 is 2.

Curie — The amount of a particular radioactive substance which
undergoes 37 billion radioactive transformations per second.

179

Delayed Fallout — Consists of dirt and debris which has been
swept up into the fireball, becomes radioactive, is carried
aloft by the explosion and high altitude winds and then re-
turns to earth more than 24 hours after the explosion.

Direct Nuclear Radiation — Alpha, Beta, Gamma and neutron
radiation emitted by the products of a nuclear explosion at
the time of the burst. It is effective for less than one minute
and only within a radius of 2 or 3 miles from the explosion.

Dose Rate — The amount of radiation to which a person is ex-
posed, expressed in units of time.

Dosimeters - - A meter used to detect and register the total
accumulated exposure to ionizing radiation to which a person
has been exposed.

Early Fallout — Heavier pieces of radioactive debris that descend
to earth starting about 30 minutes after the burst and con-
tinuing for up to 24 hours.

Energy Yield - - The effective energy generated by a nuclear
explosion.

Fallout — Dust and dirt particles which have been made radio-
active by the nuclear products of a burst.

Fireball — The intensely hot and brilliant ball of fire which starts
to form at the instant of explosion. The heat lasts 10 seconds
to approximately one minute depending on weapon size.

Firestorm - - A phenomenon caused by many small fires, usu-
ally in cities or forests, combining into one superheated con-
flagration. This heat generates inrushing winds that supply
additional oxygen that intensifies the fire but also limits its
spread.

Firewinds — Created by the action of extremely hot fires burn-
ing up atmospheric oxygen which causes a vacuum into which
cool air is drawn at high speed.

Fission — A method of creating a nuclear explosion by splitting
nucleus of a heavy element such as Uranium 235 or Plu-
tonium 238.

Fissionable Materials — Materials capable of self sustaining chain
reactions.

Flash — The initial ultraviolet flash from a nuclear explosion
which lasts a few millionths of a second.

Fusion — Fusion creates a nuclear explosion by causing two light
nuclei to unite into one heavy element. Fusion is roughly
three times more effective than fission as a producer of
energy. It requires the millions of degrees of fission tempera-
ture to trigger the fusion explosion.

180

GZ — Abbreviation of Ground Zero.

Gamma Rays — The highly penetrating electromagnetic rays
emitted by the products of a nuclear bomb burst.

Geometry Shielding — The term used to describe the fallout pro-
tection inherent in distance from the fallout. The greater the
distance from the radiation, the less danger from the same
fallout.

Ground Burst — A nuclear explosion taking place at or very close
to the ground.

Ground Shock — The shock or blast effect transmitted through
the ground as a result of a ground or underground nuclear
bomb burst.

Ground Zero — The center of a point at which a ground burst
occurs. Also, the point on the ground directly under an air
burst.

HVL Thickness — Abbreviation of Half Value Layer thickness.

Half Life — The point at which an alpha or beta particle and
gamma ray will have lost one half of its radiation by radio-
active decay. Since radioactive materials do not decay at an
even rate the whole life of these rays will be much longer
than twice the half life. The decay rate is accelerated at first
but slows down gradually.

Half Value Layer Thickness — The thickness of any particular
material which will stop one half the gamma rays from pass-
ing through it.

Hot Spot — Zone of radioactive contamination containing more
radioactivity than adjacent areas.

ICBM — Abbreviation of Intercontinental Ballistic Missile.

Initial Nuclear Radiation — Nuclear radiation occurring during
the first minute after a nuclear weapon explosion.

MEV — Abbreviation of Million Electron Volts. A unit of meas-
urement indicating the penetrating power of gamma rays.

MPS — Abbreviation of Maximum Protection Shelter.
MT — Abbreviation of Megaton.

Mach Front — The combined forces or pressures of a Shockwave
(blast) and reflective shock.

Mass Thickness — The product of the unit weight and thickness
of a wall or slab which determines its protection effectiveness.

Maximum Protection Shelter — A shelter with a Roentgen reduc-
tion factor of more than 10,000 and capable of withstanding
an overpressure in excess of 100 psi.

181

Megaton — A unit of energy equivalent to 1,000,000 tons of TNT.

Micron — A unit of measurement equal to one millionth part of a
meter. A meter is 39.37 inches. A human hair has a diameter
of 75 microns.

Mil — One thousandth of an inch.
Millicurie — One thousandth of a curie.

Milliroentgen — One thousandth of a roentgen.

Mutual Shielding — The barrier shielding supplied by adjacent
buildings or other masses.

NEAR — Abbreviation — National Emergency Alarm Repeater. A
unit being developed by the Government to plug into AC elec-
tric outlets to provide an automatic attack warning.

Neutron — A particle without an electrical charge. Part of the
nucleus of an atom. Neutrons are needed to start the fission
process. Many neutrons are produced by fission and fusion
explosions.

OP — Abbreviation of Overpressure.

Overpressure — The amount of pressure in excess of normal at-
mospheric pressure which is 14.7 psi at sea level.

PCF — Abbreviation of Pounds per Cubic Foot.
PF — Abbreviation of Protection Factor.

Plastic Zone — The zone immediately adjacent to the rupture zone
of a nuclear explosion crater area. The earth is subjected to
enough stress to deform it, but not enough to produce a crater
or radial cracks.

PSF — Abbreviation of Pounds per Square Foot.
PSI — Abbreviation of Pounds Per Square Inch.

Primary Shelter — In the BOSDEC system this shelter is at the
center of a protective mass and is the place where imminent
attacks, actual bursts, thermal radiation, Shockwaves, fire-
winds, initial high radiation and early fallout would be waited
out.

It is the basic, most highly shielded protective core of the
BOSDEC system and may only be entered by going through
a shelter lock and a secondary shelter.

Primary Shock — Initial blast originating at the instant of the
nuclear explosion.

Protection Factor (PF) — This term expresses the relative amount
of radiation that would be received by an occupant of a shelter
compared to the amount he would receive if unprotected. This
factor is computed by dividing the outside radiation by the

182

shelter radiation — both measured in roentgens per hour —
which, of course, reflects the protective effects of combined
barrier and geometry shielding.

r — Abbreviation of Roentgen.

r/hr — Abbreviation of Roentgens per hour.

RAD — Abbreviation of Radiation Absorbed Dosage. A unit of any
absorbed nuclear radiation dose.

RBE — Abbreviation of Relative Biological Effectiveness. A for-
mula for relating rads of different radiations to that of
gamma rays.

REM — Abbreviation of Roentgen Equivalent Man. The biological
damage one roentgen will do to a human. Used to express all
types of radiation damage in one term.

Radiation Reduction Factor — This is the reciprocal of Protection
Factor. If the protection factor is 1000 the radiation reduction
factor would be .001 or one thousandth. It consists of the
fraction of external radiation which passes into the shelter.

Radioactive Decay — A process during which radiation decreases
by a factor of ten when time increases by a factor of seven.
Many of the radiation emitters are short lived and much of
the radiation decays rapidly at first, leaving the longer lived
emitters which slows down the total decay rate.

Radioactivity — A condition precipitated by nuclei spontaneously
undergoing atomic disintegration by the emission of alpha and
beta particles and sometimes the electromagnetic radiation of
gamma rays.

Radioisotopes (Byproducts) — Materials which may be made ra-
dioactive in an atomic reactor.

Ratemeter — The same as a survey meter.

Reflective Shock — A blast wave striking the ground, a building
or some resistant surface produces a reflective pressure which
may double the unreflected peak overpressure.

Roentgen — A unit of gamma ray exposure dosage measurement
named for a German physicist, Dr. Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen,
who discovered X-rays in 1895. All normal atoms have at least
one electron orbiting around the nucleus. Roentgens are a
measure of the number of electrons which the radiation
knocks out of orbit.

Roentgens Per Hour — The measurement of a radiation exposure
dose rate is expressed in roentgens per hour (r/hr) which is
the amount of radiation to which a person would be exposed
in one hour.

183

Rupture Zone — The area immediately adjacent to the crater of a
nuclear ground burst. The ground is subjected to enough force
to create radial cracks, but not enough to produce a crater.

Secondary Shelter - - In the BOSDEC system this shelter leads
into the Primary Shelter and serves as the intermediate area
between the shelter lock and the Primary Shelter. The sec-
ondary shelter contains many of the requirements for post
attack life. It will have a PF of about 2000 with a two foot
thick concrete ceiling.

Shelter Lock — The outer shelter connecting the outside with the
Secondary Shelter in the BOSDEC system. The Shelter Lock
has a low protection factor.

Shielding — The combined effects of barrier and geometry shield-
ing plus the radioactive decay time factor determines the cu-
mulative roentgen radiation dose in a shelter when the out-
side radiation readings are known. The shielding alone deter-
mines the PF.

Shockwave — Another term for blast wave. Usually refers to un-
derground or underwater bursts.

Skyshine — Radiation reaching a target from many directions due
to the scattering effect of oxygen and nitrogen in the air.

Square Root — The number or quantity which when squared will
produce a given number or quantity. Three is the square root
of nine.

Subsurface Burst — A nuclear explosion occurring under the sur-
face of the earth.

Surface Burst — A nuclear explosion occuring at or very close to
the surface of the earth.

Survey Meter -- A radiation meter which detects and measures
the radiation dose rate in roentgens per hour (r/hr).

Tenth Value Layer Thickness — The thickness of a given material
that will reduce radiation to one tenth of its unshielded value.

Thermal Radiation -- The heat radiation from a bomb burst. It
comes in two phases. The initial ultraviolet flash and the fire-
ball with its mostly infrared heat.

Thermonuclear Explosion — A fusion type explosion requiring fis-
sion temperatures to trigger it.

TVL Thickness — Abbreviation for Tenth Value Layer thickness.

184

Bibliography

GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS:

Fallout Shelter Surveys : Guide for Architects and Engineers 1960,
Pub. NP-10-2

Fallout Shelter Surveys: Guide for Executives, Pub. NP-10-1

Family Fallout Shelter 1959, Pub. MP-15

Civil Defense Technical Bulletin 1958, Pub. TB-5-3

Windowless Structures — A study in blast resistant design 1952
— TM 5-4.

Rescue Techniques and Operations 1953, Pub. TM 14-1

Effects of Nuclear Weapons, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
U. S. Department of Defense 1962 $3.00

Clay Masonry Family Fallout Shelters 1960, Pub. MP-18
Advisory Bulletin No. 243 OCDM August 24, 1959

First Aid: Emergency Kit, Emergency Action FCDA (OCDM)
L-2-12 1958

Fallout Protection OCD Dept. of Defense H-6 1961

Peacetime Radiation Hazards in the Fire Service

Basic Course - - Resource Manual OE-84019 and OE-84020
Instructors Guide Circular No. 657 U. S. Dept. Health, Educa-
tion & Welfare and U. S. Atomic Energy Commission 1961.

Living With Radiation: Fire Service Problems No. 2
U. S. Atomic Energy Commission 1960

Basic Civil Defense OCDM 1959 1G-3-2

Nature of Radioactive Fallout and Its Effects on Man, Part 1 and
Part 2 1957

CD in Industry by Virgil L. Couch, Director
FCDA Industry Office April 1956

185

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