Observations on man, his frame, his duty and his expectations

CD

O

■CO

CD

OBSERVATIONS

ON

MAN

HIS FRAiME, HIS DUTY, AND HIS
EXPECTATIONS.

IN TWO PARTS.

PART THE first:

CONTAINING

OBSERVATIONS ON THE

FRAME OF THE HUMAN BODY AND MIND,

AND ON THEIR

MUTUAL CONNECTIONS AND INFLUENCES.

By DAVID HARTLEY, M. A.

'I EDITION.

LONDON:

FIRST PRINTED IN MDCCXLl^-

Reprinted for

J. JOHNSON, St. PAUL'S CHURCIl-YARD, BY W. EYRtS, H"

WAR KINGTON.

M D C C C I.

THE

PREFACE.

1 HE work here offered to the public con-
fifts of papers written at different times, but
taking their rife from the following occafion.

About eighteen years ago I_was informed,
that the Rev. Ml.^Gax, then living, afferted
the poflibility of deducing all our intelledlual
pleafures and pains from alfociation. This
put me upon conlidering the power of affoci-
ation. 7Mr. Gay publiflied, his fentiments
on this matter, about the fame time, in a
Diifertation on the fundamental Principle of
Virtue, prefixed to Mr. Archdeacon Law's
Tranflation of Archbifhop King's Origin of
Evil.

From inquiring into the power of affo-
ciation I was led to examine both its con-
fequences, in refped: of morality and religion,
and its phyfical caufe. By degrees many dif-
quifitions foreign to the dodrine of affocia-
tion, or at lead not immediately conne<5ted
with it, intermixed themfelves. I have here
put together all my feparate papers on thefe

A 2 fubjeds,.

iv P R F F A C E.

fubjccfls, digcflini; thcin in fuch order as they
ffc-HAcd jvaturally to ruggeft ; and adding fuch
things as were ncccllliry to make the whole
appear more complete and fyftematical.
'' I think, however, that I cannot be called
a fyftcm-niakcr, fince I did not firit form a
fyllem, and then fuit the fadts to it, but was
carried on by a train of thoughts from one
thing to another, frequently without any
exprcfs defign, or even any previous fufpicion
of the confequences that might arife. And
this was moft remarkably the cafe, in refpedt
of the dodrine of neccjjity ; for I was not at
all aware, that it followed from that of alfo-
ciation, for feveral years after I had begun
my inquiries ; nor did I admit it at lafl with-
out the greateft reludlance. "

There are two things in thefe papers,
which require a particular apology. Firft,
The imperfe(fl flate in which they are pre-
fented to the reader. Secondly, The great
freedom which I have ufed in refpedt of all
orders of men in the conclufion of the fecond
part.

As to the firftj'vlf the reader will be fo
"^ favourable to me as to expedl nothing more
than hints and conjectures in difficult and
obfcure matters, and a fliort detail of the
principal rcafons and evidences in thofe that
are clear, I hope he will not be much dif-
appointed. However, be this as it will, I
have in one part or other of thefe papers
alleged all that I know material, in fupport
-of my fyftem -, and therefore am now deiirous

to

PREFACE. V

to recommend it to the confideration of
others.

I have tried to reconcile fuch inconfift-
encies, real or apparent, and to cut ofF fuch
repetitions and redundancies, as have arifen
from my writing the feparate parts of this
work at different times, and in different
lituations of mind. But I have ftill need of
great indulgence from the reader on thefe and
other accounts. )

As to the fecond thing -, I can truly fay,
that my free and unreferved manner of fpeak-
ing has fiowed from the fincerity and earneft-
nefs of my heart. But I will not undertake
to juftify all that I have faid. Some things
may be too haftv and cenforious ; or, how-
ever, be unbecoming my place and flation.
I heartily wifh, that I could have obferved
the true medium. For, want of candour is
not lefs an offence againfl the gofpel of
Chrift, than falfe fhame, and want of courage
in his caufe.

Some perfons may perhaps think, that I
ought not to have delivered my opinions fo
freely and openly, concerning the neceifity of
human acfrions, and the ultimate happlnefs of
all mankind ; but have left the reader to
deduce thefe confequences, or not, as Ihould
appear mofl: reafonable to him. But this
would, in my opinion, have been a dilin-
genuous procedure. Befides, thefe tenets
appear to me not only innocent, but even
highly conducive to the promotion of piety
and virtue amongfl mankind. However,

A 3 that

vi PRE F A C E.

that no one may niHapprchend nie to his owa
hurt, I will here make two remarks hy way
ot" anticipation.

Firll, then, I_ no where deny pradical
free-will, or that voluntary power over our
affections and anions, by which we deliberate,
fufpcnd, and choofc, and which makes ari
clllntial part of our ideas of virtue and vice,
reward and punilhment ; but, on the con-
trary, eflahlilli it (if fo plain a thing will
admit of being farther eftablifhed) by {hew-
ing in what manner it refults from the frame
of our natures.

Secondly, I do n^oil firmly believe, upon
the authority of the fcriptures, that the
future punilhment of the wicked will be
exceedingly great both in degree and duration,
/. e. infinite and eternal, in that real pradical
fenfe to which alone our conceptions extend.
And were I able to urge any thing upon a'
profane carelefs world, which might convince
them of- the infinite hazard to which they
expofe themfelves, I would not fail to do it,
as the reader may judge even from thofe
paifages for which I have above apologized.

December, 1748.

THE

THE

CONTENTS

OF THE

FIRST PART.

INTRODUCTION.
Definitions J i — 4. DiJiribuHon of the firji party Page 4.

CHAP. I.

Of the GENERAL Laws, according to which
the Sensations and Motions are per-
formed, and our Ideas generated.

'The doifrines of vibrations and affociation propofedy 5.
"Their mutual connexion y 6.

SECT. I.

Of the Dofbrine of Vibrations, and its Ufe for
explaining the Senfations.

General evidences for the dependence of fenfation and
mo I ion on the brainy 7, 8. General evidences for the
dependence of ideas on the brainy 8, 9. Infia7ices fhewing
that fenfations remain in the mind for a froort time after
the fenfible obje5ls are removed y 9 — 11, The infinitefi-
mal medullary particles vibrate during fenfation, 11, 12.
Of the Mthery 13 — 16. Of the uniformity y continuity y

A 4 foftnefsy

viii CONTliNlS OF THE

Joftnefs and a^'ive powers of the medullary Jubflntice,
1 6 — -2 1. Of the manner in which vibrations are
communicaled to the whole medullary fubflancCy i\ — 25.
Prefumpions in favour of the doctrine of vibrations,
25 — JO. Corollaries from this do£irinet 30 — 23'
Jilaterialily of the j'oul no confequcnce of ity 33, 34.
Phenomena of fenfble pleaj'ure and pain agreeable to the
dot'trine of vibrations ^ 34 — 44. Ph.cnomena of Jleep
agreeable to the dodiritte of vibrations, 45 — 55.

SECT. II.

Of Ideas, their Generation and Afibciations, and of
the Agreement of the Dodrinc of Vibrati(Jns with
the Phenomena of Ideas,

Of the generation- of the ideas of fenjation, 56 — 58.
'The repetition of Jenfory vibrations generates a difpofition
to correfponding vibratiuncles or miniature vibrations,
<j8 — 64. Of the pozver of raifing ideas by ajfociation
in the fimplcfl caje, 65—67. Of the power of raijtng
miniature vibrations by affocialion in the fimplefi caje,
67 — 72. Of the formation of complex ideas by ajfocia-
tion, 73— '79- Of the formation of complex miniature
vibrations by ajfociation, 79, 80. The complex vibra-
tions lafi -mentioned -may be jo exalted in jome cajes, as
to be no longer jnimaiures, but equal in ftrength to
jenj^jry vibrations, bo — 84.

SECT. 111.

Of mufcular Motion, and its two Kinds, automatic
and voluntary ; and of the Ufe of the Doftrines
of Vibrations and Aflociation, for explaining thefe
refpedlively.

// is probable^ that mujcular motion is performed by
the fame general means as jenjation, and the perception
df ideas, ^5 — 88. Phccnomena of mujcular contratlion

agreeable

FIRST PART. ix

agreeable to the dotlrine of vibrations ^ 88 — 90. Pro-
'penfity of ihe mujeles to alternate contrarian and relaxa-
tion a<{reeahle to the do5irine of vibrations, 90, 91.
^he origin of motory vibrations ^ 91 — 94. The general
method of explaining the automatic motions by the doc-
trine of vibrations, 94 — 100. The generation and
eijfociation of motory vibratiuncleSy 10 1, 102.' The
general method of explaining the voluntary and Jemivo-
luntary motions, 103 — !I2. Of the manner in which
the endeavour to obtain pleafure, and remove ^ain, is
generated, 1 1 2 — 1 1 4.

CHAP. II.

Containing the Application of the Doc-
trines of Vibrations and Association
to each of the Sensations and Motions
in particular.

^ S E C T. I.

Of the Senfe of Feeling.

Of the Jeveral kinds of feeling, and the general caujes
of the different degrees of exquifitenejs in this fenje, t i 5
— 117. An inquiry how far the fenjations of heat and
cold are agreeable to the docfrine of vibrations, 118 —
125. An inquiry how far the phenomena of wottnds,
burns, bruijes, lacerations, inflammations, and ulcers^
arc agreeable to the do 5irine of vibrations, 126, 127.
An inqtiiry how far the fh<enQmena of itching and titil-
lation are agreeable to the doElrine of vibrations, 128
^- 1 30. An inquiry how far the fenjations attending
preffure and mujcular contraction are agreeable to the
do5frine of vibrations, 130, 131. An inquiry hozv far
ihe phenomena of numbneffcs, and^ paralytical injenfi-
bilities, are agreeable to the do^rine-.., of vibrations, 131
•—134. An inquiry how far the phisnomena of ve-
nomous

X COSITENTS OI' TEIE

Homtus bite's and Jlings art agreeable to the doElrine of
vibrations^ IJ4— ij6. An inquiry how far the tan-
gibU qualities of bodies admit of an explanation ayjee-
able to the dotlrlne of vibrations ^ 136 — \yi. Of the
manner in which we are enabled to judge of the /eat of
imprejficns made on the external Jnrface of our bcdieSj
ijS — 1 40. Of the manner and degree in which we
are enabled to judge of the feat of internal pains y 140 —
142. Of the manner -and degf-ee in which the pleafures
and pains of feeling contribute^ according to the do^rine
of affociatiou^ to the formation of our intelkolual plea-
fures and pains ^ 143 — 145. Of the ideas generated
by tangible impreffionSy 145 — 147. Of the automatic
motions which arife from tangible impreJfionSj 147 —
149. Of the manner and degree in which theje autO'
matic motions are influenced by voluntary and Jemivolun-
tary powers, 149, 150.

SECT. II.

Of the Senfe of Tafte.

Of the extent of the organ of tafle^ and the different
powers lodged in the different parts of it, 151, 152.
An inquiry how far the ph.cnomeua of tajiesy and their
Jpeciftc differences^ are agreeable to the doSIrine of vibra-
tions^ 153 — 157. An inquiry how far the fever al fen-
fations which affe5l the ftcmach and bowels^ are agree-
able to the doolrine of vibrations y 157 — 159. An in-
quiry how far the phtenomena of hunger are agreeable to
the doclrine of vibrations y 159 — 161. An inquiry how
far the phd'nomena of thirfi are agreeable to the do^rine
of vibrations y 161. An inquiry how far the changes,
generally made in the tafiey in paffing from infancy to old
a^e, are agreeable to the doSirines of vibrationSy and
affociationy 162 — 164. An inquiry how far the long-
ings of pregnant wor.icn are agreeable to the doSirines
of vibrations and affociafioKy 164 — 166. Of the man-
ner and degree in which the pleafures and pains of tafle

contribute.

FIRST PART. >i

contrihtiiei according to the doSlrine of affhciatioHy to th€
formation of our intelle^ual fleajures and fains y 166,

167. Of the ideas generated by the fever at lajfesy ib~j,

168. Of the automatic motions which arij'e from ihe
imprejfions made on the organ of tafle^ 169—176. Of
ihe manner and degree in which theje automatic motions
are influenced hy voluntary and Jemivoluntary powers^
176—179.

SECT. III.
Of the Senfe of Smell.

Of the extent and powers of the organ of fmelly 180,
181. ^n inquiry how far the general phenomena of
fmell are agreeable to the dc^rine of vibrations^ 181 —
184. An inquiry how far the Jpecific differences of
odours are agreeable to the do5irines of vibrations, 1 84,
Of the manner and degree in which pie of ant and un-
pleafant odours contribute., according to the do£lrine of
affociation, to the formation of our inielle^lual pieafures
and pains, 185, 186. Of the ideas generated by the
feveral odours, 186, 187. Of the automatic mo-
tions which ar'ife from the imprefjions made on the organ
cf fmell, 187 — 190. Of the manner and degree in
which thefe automatic motions are influenced by voluntary
and feniivohntary powers, 1 90.

SECT. IV.

Of the Senfe of Sight.

Of the immediate organ of fight, and its powers, 191,
192. An inquiry how far the phenomena of colours,
are agreeable to the doSirine of vibrations, 192— --197.
An inquiry how far flafloes of light from fir okes in the
eye, darkfpots, and giddinefs, are agreeable to the doc-
trine of vibrations, 198 — 200. An inquiry how far
the judgments made by fight, concerning magnitude,
difiance, motion, figure, and pofition, are agreeable to

the

xii CONTENTS OF TlllL

the do^frine of affbciadcttt aoo — 204. yfn inquiry
boiv far the phenomena of ftngle and double vifion are
agreeable to the do£Irine of ajfociatiouy 204 — 207. Of
the manner and degree in which agreeable and d.fiyree-
able imprej/tons made on the eye, comribuley according
to the dottrine of ajfocia/ion, to /he formation of our
inlelle^ual pleafures and pains, 207 — 209. Of the
ideas generated by vifible impreffions, 209 — 215. Of
the automatic motions which are ' excited by imprcffions
made on the eye, 215 — ^20. Of the manner and
degree in which thefe automatic motions are influenced by
voluntary nndfemiioluntary poivers, 2 20 — 222.

SECT. V.

Of the Senfe of Hearing.

Of the iviimcdiate organ of bearing, and the general
tifes of the fever al parts of the external and internal
ear, 223 — 225. An inquiry how far the phenomena
of mufical and other inarticulate founds are agreeable
to the do£lrine of vibrations, 225 — 227. An inquiry
bow far the judgments, which we make concerning the
diflance and pofiiion of the founding body, are agreeable
to the docirine of affociation, ii"], 228. An inquiry
how far the power of diflinguifhing articulate founds
depends upon affociation, 228 — 231. 'The dotJrine of
founds illuflrates and favours that of the vibrations of
the fmall meduVary particles, 231 — 233. Of the
manner and degree in which agreeable and difagreeable
founds contribute, according to the do6irine of affocia-
tion, to the formation of our intelleclual pleafures and
pains, 233, 234. Of the ideas generated by audible
impreffions, 234 — 237. Of the automatic motions
excited by impreffions made on the ear, 237, 238.
Of the manner and degree in which theje automatic
motions are influenced by voluntary and femivoluntary
powers, 238.

SECT.

FIRST PART. xiii

SECT. VI.

^ Of the Defires of the Sexes towards each other. X

An inquiry how far the defires of the /exes towards
each other are of a fa^itious nature, and agreeable to
the theory of thefe papers, 239 — 242.

SECT. VII.

Of other Motions, automatic and voluntary, not con-
fidered in the foregoing Seflions of this Chapter.

An inquiry hozv far the motions of the hearty, ordi-
nary and extraordinary, are agreeable to the foregoing
theory, 243 — 248. An inquiry how far the aSlion of
rejpiration, with thofe of fighing, coughing^ i^c, are
agreeable to the foregoing theory, 248—254. An in-
quiry how far conmtlfive motions are agreeable to the
foregoing theory, 254, 255. An inquiry how far the
anions of walking, handling, and fpeaking, are agree-
able to the foregoing theory, 2^6 — 263.

SECT. VIII.

Of the Relation which the foregoing Theory bears
to the Art of Phyfic.

'The art of phyftc affords many proper tefls of the
doSirines of vibrations and ajfociation ; and may re-
ceive confiderable improvement from them, if they he
true, 264 — 267.

CHAP. III.

Containing a particular Application of
the foregoing Theory to the Pheno-
mena of Ideas, or of Understanding,
Affection, Memory, and Imagina-
tion. SECT.

xlvr CONTENTS OF THE

S K C T. I.

or Words, and t!ie Kieas aHbciatetl with thein.

JTords ami fbrnfcs mujl excite ideas in us by ojfo-
iiation \ and they excite idens in its by no other
means, 26S — 270. 0/ the manner in 'ujhich ideas
are djfociaied wiib words ^ 170 — 277. Con/eqttences of
this ajfociaticn of ideas with words ^ 277 — 289. Of
the nature of charatlcrs intended to reprefent obje£Js
and ideas immediately, and without the intervention of
words i 289, 290. Of the uje of the foregoing theory
for explaining the nature of figurative words and
pbra/eSy and of analogy, 291 — 297. Of the nfe of
the foregoing theory for explaining the languages and
wet bed of writing of the firfi ages of the world, icy^
— 3 1 5. Of the general nature of a philcfophical lan-
guage y with fhori hints concerning the methods in
which one might be conflruoled, 315 — 318. /In
illuflration and confirmation of the general doctrine of
ajfcciation, taken from the particular ajfociations which
take place in re/pec} of language, 3 i 8 — 3 2 1 . Illuftrations
from mufical founds, colours, and tafies, 321 — 323.

SECT. II.
Of Propofiiions, and the Nature of Affent.

Of the nature of r.ffent and diffent, and the caufes
from which they arife, 324 — 334. Rules for the
ajcertainment of truth, and advancement of knowledie,
drawn from the mathematical methods of confidering
quantity, 22)S — ZSZ- -^ general applicalian of the
theory of this and the foregoing feclion to the feveral
brayiches offciencCy 2iiiZ — 3^7'

SECT. HI.

Of the Affedions in "eneral.

to'

Of the origin and nature of the paffions in general,
368-373. SECT.

FIRST PART. xr

SECT. IV.

Of Memory.

jln inquiry hoiv far the phauomena of 'memory are
agreeable to the foregoing theory^ 374 — 3S2.

S E C T. V.

Of Imagination, Reveries, and Dreams.

An inquiry hozv far the phenomena of imagination,
reveries, and dreams, are agreeable to the foregoing
theory, 383—389.

SECT. VI.

Of Imperfedlions in the rational Faculty.

An inquiry how far deviations from found reafon,
and alienations of the mind, are agreeable to the fore-
going theory, 390 — 403.

SECT. VII.

Of the intelleflual Faculties of Brutes.

An inquiry how far the inferiority of brutes to man-
kind, in intellectual capacities, is agreeable to thr
foregoing theory, 404 — 41^.

CHAP. IV.

Of the SIX Classes of intellectual
Pleasures and Pains.

S E C T. I.

Of the Pleafures and Pains of Imagination,

An inqtdry hozv far the pleafures and pains of imagi-
nation are agreeable to the foregoing theory, 418 — 442.

SECT.

xvi CONTENTS. &c.

SECT. II.

Of the Plfahires and Pains of Ambition.

An in(fuir\ hozv far I he plc^Jnres and pains of ambition
are a^ceable to the foregoing theory, 443 — 437.

SECT. III.

Of the I'leafures and Pains of Sclf-intereft.

An inquire how far the pleajnres and pains of felf-
interejl are agreeable" to the foregoing theory, 458 — 470.

S E C T. IV.

Of the Pleafurcs and Pains of Sympathy.

An inquire how far the plea fur es and pains of fympa-
ihy are agieeable to the foregoing theory, 471 — 4S5.

SECT. V.

Of the Pleafures and Pains of Theopathy.

An inquiry hoiv far the pleafures and pains of theopja- _
thy are agreeable to the foregoing theory, 486 — 492.

S E C T. VI.

Of the Pleafures and Pains of the moral Senfe.

An inquiry hozv far the pleafures and pains of the
moral fenfe are agreeable to the foregoing theory, 493

—499-

CONCLUSION:

Containing feme remarks on the mechanifm of the
human mind, 500 — 512.

OBSER-

O B S K R V A T I O N S

ON

M A,N, &"€.

In two parts.

PART I.

Containing Observations on the Frame of the
Human Body and Mind, and on their mutual
Connections ^;/ir/ Influences.

INTRODUCTION.

jVIaN coniifts of two parts, body and mind.

The firil is fubjefted to our fenfes and inquiries,
in the fame manner as the other parts of the exter-
nal material world.

The laft is that fubftance, agent, principle, &c.
to 'which Vv'e refer the fenfations, ideas, pleafures,
pains, and voluntary motions.

Senfations are thofe internal feelings of the mind,
which iiriie from the impreffions made by external
objefts upon the feveral parts of our bodies.

Vol. I. B All

ii INTRODUCTION.

All our otlier internal feelings may be called ideas.
Some of tliclc appear to (pring up in the mind of
themlelves, fome arc liiggelUd by words, others
arile in other ways. Many writers comprehend
fnifdtions under iJea j but I every where uie thclc
words in the lenfes here afcribed to them.

The ideas which refemble fenfations, are called
iJetis of fen fatten : all the refl may therefore be called
intelleclual ideas.

It will appear in the courfc of thefe obfervations,
that the ideas of fenfation are the elements of which
all the reft are compounded. Hence ideas of fenfa-
tion may be termed //w/)/tf, intelledual ones complex.

The p/eafnres and pains are comprehended under
the fenlations and ideas, as thefe are explained above.
For all our pleafurcs and pains are internal feelings,
and, converfely, all our internal feelings feem to be
attended with fome degree either of pleafure ox pain.
However, I Ihall, for the mofl part, give the names
of pleafure and pain only to fuch degrees as are
confiderable ; referring all low, evanefcent ones to
the head oi mere fenfations and ideas.

The pleafures and pains may be ranged under
feven general clafles, viz.

1. Senfation ;

2. Imagination ;

3. Ambition ;

4. Self-intereft ;

5. Sympathy;

6. Thcopathy ; and,

7. The moral fenfe ; according as they ari'fc
from,

1. The impreflions made on the external fenfes ;

2. Natural or artificial beauty or deformity ;

3. The opinions of others concerning us ;

4. Our polTeffion or want of the means of hap-
pinefs, and fecurity from, or fubjedion to, the
hazards of mifery ;

5- The

INTRODUCTION. iii

5. The pleafures and pains of our fellow-crea-
tures ;

6. The afFedions excited in us bv the contem-
plation of the Deity ; or,

7. Moral beauty and deformity.

The human mind may alfo be confidered as in-
dued with the faculties of memor^^ imagimJion or
fancy, nnckrjljmdingy a£e£Uony and zvilL,

Memory is that faculty, by which traces of fenfa-
tions and ideas recur, or are recalled, in the fame
order and proportion, accurately or nearly, as they
were once adually prefented.

When ideas, and trains of ideas, occur, or are
called up, in a vivid manner, and without regard to
the order of former adual imprefTions and percep-
tions, this is faid to be done by the power of imagi-
naiion ox fancy.

The imderjlanding is that faculty, by which we
contemplate mere fenfations and ideas, purfue truth,
and affent to, or dilTent from, propoiitions.

The affe£iions have the pleafures and pains for
their objeds ; as the widerjlanding has the mere
fenfations and ideas. By the afFedions we are ex-
cited to purfue happinefs, and all its means, fly
from mifery, and all its apparent caufes. ^-^

The will is that fhate of mind, which is imme-
diately previous to, and caufes, thofe exprefs ads of
memory, fancy, and bodily motion, which are
termed voluntary.

The motions of the body are of two kinds, automa-
tic and voluntary. The automatic motions are thofe
which arile from the mechanifm of the body in an evi-
dent manner. They are called automatic, from their
refemblance to the motions of automata, or ma-
chines, whofe principle of motion is within themfelves.
Of this kind are the motion of the heart, and pcri-
ftaltic motion of the bowels. ,The voluntary motions
are thofe which arife from ideas and afFedions, and

B 2 which

iv INTRODUCTION.

which therefore arc referred to tlic mind; the imme-
diately preceding (late ot the mind, or of tlie ideas
and at1lolions» being termeil tc///, as noted in tlie
lafl article. Such are the a(^>ions of walking, iiand-
ling, fpeaking, t^^cc. when attended to, and per-
formed with an exprefs delign.

Tills may fcrvc as a fliort account of the chief
fubjeds confidered in the firft part of thefe ohjcr-
vntions. Thefe fubjeds are fo much involved in
each other, that it is difhcult, or even impoflible, to
begin any where upon clear ground, or fo as to pro-
ceed entirely from the Data to the ^fa-fita, from
things known to fuch as are unknown. I will en-
deavour it as much as I can, and for that purpofe
lliall obferve the following order.

Firjfy 1 (hall lay down the general laws, accord-
ing to which the ienfations and motions arc per-
formed, and our ideas generated.

6VroW/v, I Ihall confider each of the- fenfations
and motions in particular, and inquire how far the
phicnomena of each illuftrate, and are illuflrated by,
the foregoing general laws.

Thirdly^ 1 fhall proceed in like manner to the par-
ticular phenomena of ideas, or of undcrilanding,
aficction, memory, and imagination; aj[->plying to
them what has been before delivered.

Lajlly, I lliall endeavour to give a particular
hiftory and analylls of the fix dalles of intelledual
pleafures and pains, viz. thofe of imagination, am-
bition, felf-intereft, lympathy, thcopathy, and the
moral i*tn{t.

Ol^

t

OF THE

DOCTRINES OF VIBRATIONS

AND

ASSOCIATION IN GENERAL.

CHAP. I.

Of the General Laws according to which the Sen-
sations and Motions are perfqrmedy and our
Ideas generated.

My chief defign in the following chapter, is,
briefly, to explain, eftablilli, and apply the doctrines
of vibrations and ajjbciation. The firft of thefe
doctrines is taken from the hints concerning the per-
formance of fenfation and motion, which Sir Ifaac
Nezvton has given at the end of his Principia, and
in the qnejiions annexed to his Optics ; the laft, from,
what Mr. Locke^ and other ingenious perfons fince
his time have delivered concerning the influence of
ajjociation over our opinions and affediions, and its
ufe in explaining thofe things in an accurate and
precife way, which are commonly referred to the
power of habit and cuftom, in a general and in-
determinate one.

B 3 .The

6 Of the DoHrittes of Vibrations.

The do(5lrIne of vihratiotis may appear at firfl:
fight to have no connc(5Vion with that of ajjociation \
however, if thcfe doiflrines be founil in fatft to con-
tain the laws of the bodily and mental powers re-
fpedively, they mufl: be related to each other, fincc
the body and m"nd are. One may expect that vi-
hrtilions Ihould inter affocintion as their efleft, and
ajjociation point to vihriitions as Its caufc. 1 will
endeavour, in the prefent chapter, to trace out this
mutual relation.

The proper method of philolophizing feems to
be, to difcover and c(hibli(h the general laws of
adion, alVeAing the fubjedl under confidcration,
from certain feled;, well-defined, and well-atteftcd
phicnomcna, and then to explain and predid the
other pha^nomena bv thcfe laws. This is the
method of analyfis and fynthefis recommended and
followed by Sir Ifaac Nezvton.

1 Ihall not be able to execute, with any accurac}^
what the reader might exped of this kind, in rc-
fpcd of the dodrines of vibrations and aUbciatioHy
and their general laws, on account of the great
intricacy, extcnfivenefs, and novelty of the fubjeft.
However, 1 will attempt a /ketch in the beft man-
ner I can, for the fervice of future inquirers.

SECT.

and AfTociation m general.

SECT. I.

OF THE DOCTRINE OF VIBRATIONS, AND ITS
USE FOR EXPLAINING THE SENSATIONS.

PROP. I.

The white medullary Siibjlance of the Brain, fpinal
Marrozv, and the Nerves proceeding from them, is
the immediate Inflniment of Senfation and Motion,

Under the word brain, in thefe ohfervations, I
comprehend all that lies within the cavity of the
/kull, i. e. the cerebrum, or brain, properly fo called,
the cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata.

This propofition feems to be fufficiently proved in
the writings of phyiicians and anatomifts j from the
flrudlure and funftions of the feveral organs of the
human body ; from experiments on living animals ;
from the fymptoms of difeafes, and from dilTec-
tions of morbid bodies. Senfibility, and the power
of motion, feem to be conveyed to all the parts,
in their natural ftate, from the brain and fpinal
marrow, along the nerves. Thefe arife from the
medullary, not the cortical part, every where, and
are themfelves of a white medullary fubftance.
When the nerves of any part are cut, tied, or
comprelTed in any confiderable degree, the funC"
tions of that part are either entirely deftroyed, or
much impaired. When the fpinal marrow is com-
prelTed by a diflocation of the vertebra of the back,
all the parts, whofe nerves arife below the place of
diflocation, become paralytic. When any confider-

B 4 able

S Of the Dofirines of Vibrations

able injury is clt)nc to the nicclullary fubihiMce ot
the brain, ienlHtion, voluntary motion, memory,
antl Intcllert, are either entirely loll, cr much im-
paired ; and it" the injury be very great, this extends
immediately to the vital mentions alio, viz. to thofe
of the heart, and organs ot* relpiration, fo as to oc-
cafion death. But this does not hold equally in re-
I'pccl oi the cortical lubllance ot the brain ; perhaps
not at all, unlets as tar as injuries done to it extend
thcmlelvcs to the medullary lubflance. In ditlcc-
tions after apoplexies, pallies, epilepfics, and other
diflcmpers afteding the fenfations and motions, it
is ufual to find fome great dilorder in the brain,
from preternatural tumors, from blood, matter, or
ferum, lying upon the brain, or in its ventricles,
&:c. This may fultice as general evidence for the
prefcnt. The particular realons of fome of thefe
phiEnomena, with more definitive evidences, will offer
theml'elves in the courl'e ot thefe obfcrvations.

PROP. II.

Ihe ivhite mednllary Sub fiance of the Brain is aljo thc
immcdiate Infhumenty h\ which ideas are prefented to
the Mind: or,, in other IVords, zvhatevcr Changes
are made in this Suhflance^ correfponding Changes are
made in our Ideas ; and vice verfa.

The evidence for this propofition is allb to be
taken from the writings of phyficians and anatomifts;
but efpecially from tholb parts of thefe writings,
which treat of the faculties of memory, attention,
imagination, &c. and of mental diforders. It is
lufficiently raanifed from hence, that the perfeftion
of our mental faculties depends upon the pcrfedlion
of this fubflancc; that all injuries done to it, affedt
the trains of ideas proportionably j and that thefe

cannot

I

and AlTociation in general. ■ 9

cannot be reftored to their natural courfe, till fuch
injuries be repaired. Poifons, fpirituous liquors,
opiates, fevers, blows upon the head, &c. all plainly
affeifl the mind, by firft difordering the medullary
fubliance. And evacuations, reft, medicines, time,
&c. as plainly reftore the mind to its former ftate,
by. reveriing the foregoing fteps. But there will be
more and more definite evidence offered in the
courfe of theie obfervations.

PROP. III.

the Senfations remain in the Mind for a Jhort 'Time
after the fcnfible Obje5is are removed.

This is very evident In the fenfations impreffed
on the eye. Thus, to ufe Sir Ifaac Newton s words,
" If a burning coal be nimbly moved round in a
" circle, with gyrations continually repeated, the
" whole circle will appear like fire ; the reafon of
" which is, that the fenfation of the coal, in the
" feveral places of that circle, remains imprejjed on
*' the fenforium, until the coal return again to the
*' fame place. And fo in a quick confecution of
*' the colours " (viz. red, yellow, green, blue, and
purple, mentioned in the experiment, whence this
paffage is taken) " the impreflion of every colour
" remains on the fenforium^ until a revolutiou of all
" the colours be completed, and that firft colour
" return again. The impreffions therefore of all
" the fucceffive colours, are at once in the fenforium —
." and beget a fenfation of v/liite." Opt. B. I. p. 2.
Experiment 10.

Thus alfo, when a perfon has had a candle, a
window, or any other lucid or well-defined object,

before

lo Of the DoHrvici o/" V^lbrations

before his eyes, tor a confiderablc time, he may
perceive a very clear and precile image tlicreof to be
left in the fenforium^ fancy, or mind (for thefc I
condder as eciuivalent exprefTions in our entrance
upon thcfe dilquiritions), for fome time after he has
clofed his eyes. At lead this will happen frec|uently
to pcrfons, who are attentive to thefe things, in a
gentle way : tor as this aiijK\irance efcapcs the notice
of thofe who are entirely inattentive, to too earned
a defire and attention prevents it, by introducing
another date of mind or fancy.

To thele may be referred the appearance men-
tioned by Sir Ijaac Newton^ Opt. .^«. i6. viz. *' When
*' a man in the dark, prefles either corner of his
" eye with his finger, and turns his eye away from
*' his finger, he will lee a circle of colours like thofe
*' in the feather of a peacock's tail. And this
** appearance continues about a fecond of time,
*' after the eye and finger have remained quiet.'*
The fenfation continues therefore in the mind about
a fecond of time after its caufe ceafes to aft.

The fame continuance of the fenfations is alfo
evident in the ear. For the founds which we hear,
are refleded by the neighbouring bodies ; and
therefore confid of a variety of founds, fucceeding
each other at ditfcrent didances of time, according
to the didances of the feveral reflefting bodies;
which yet caufes no confufion, or apparent com-
plexity of found, unlefs the didance of the reflefting
bodies be very confiderable, as in fpacious buildings.
Much lefs are we able to didinguifh the fucceflive
pulfes of the air, even in the gravell: founds.

As to the fenles of tade and fmell, there feems to
be no clear dired evidence for the continuance of
their lenfations, after the proper objeds are re-
moved. But analog}' would incline one to believe,
that they mud relemble the fenfes of fight and
hearing in this particular, though the continuance

cannot

and Affociation in general. ti

cannot be perceived diftindlly, on account of the
fhortnefs of it, or other circumftances. For the
fenfations muft be fuppofed to bear fuch an analogy
to each other, and fo to depend in common upon
the brain, that all evidences for the continuance of
fenfations in any one fenfe, will extend themfelves to
the reft. Thus all the fenfes may be confidered as
fo many kinds of feeling ; the tafte is nearly allied
to the feeling, the fmell to the tafte, and the fight
and hearing to each other. All which analogies
will offer themfelves to view, when we come to
examine each of thefe fenfes in particular.

In the fenfe of feeling, the continuance of heat,
after the heating body is removed, and that of the
fmart of a wound, after the inftant of infli6tion,
feem to be of the fame kind with the appearances
taken notice of in the eye and ear.

But the greateft part of the fenfations of this fenfe
refemble thofe of tafte and fmell, and vanifli to
appearance as foon as the objeds are removed.

PROP. IV.

External ObjeEls imprejjed upon the Senfes occaJioHt firji
in the Nerves on which they are imprejjed^ and then
in the Brain, Vibrations of the fmall, and, as one may
fay, infinitefimal, medullary Particles.

These vibrations are motions backwards and
forwards of the fmall particles ; of the fame kind
with the ofcillations of pendulums, and the trem-
blings of the particles of founding bodies. They
muft be conceived to be exceedingly fhort and
fmall, fo as not to have the leaft efficacy to dlfturb
or move the whole bodies of the nerves or brain.
For that the nerves themfelves Ihould vibrate like

mufical

12 Of tbr Doffriites of Vibrations.

mulical flrinp;s, is liighly abfunl ; nor was it ever
alicTtcil by Sir Iftiar Nt'wton, or any of thoCc who
have embraced his notion of the performance of
Icnlhtion and motion, by means oi vibrations.

In like manner, we are to fuppofe the particles
which vibrate, to be of the inferior orders, and not
thofe biggcll particles, on which the operations in
chemidry, and the colours of natural bodies, de-
pend, according to the opinion of 'S'w Ifaac Nezvton.
Hence, in the propojiiiou, 1 term the medullary
particles, which vibrate, iufinitcfimal.

Now that external objects imprels vibratory mo-
tions upon the metiullary fubflance of the nerves
and brain (which is the immediate inflrumcnt of
lenlation, according to the firjl propojition) , appears
.fmm the continuance oi the IbnlHtions mentioned in
the third ; lince no motion bcfidcs a vibratory
one, can refide in anv part for the Icaft moment of
time. External objects, being corporeal, can ad
^ upon the nerves and brain, which are alfo corporeal,
by nothing but impreiling motion on them. A vi-
brating motion may continue for a fliort time in the
fmall medullary particles of the nerves and brain,
without diflurbing them, and after a (liort time would
ccale ; and fo would correfpond to tlie above-men-
tioned Ihort continuance of the I'cnfations; and there
feems to be no other fpecies of motion that can
correfpond thereto.

Cor. As this propofition is deduced from the fore-
going, fo if it could be eftablilhed upon independent
principles (of which I fhall treat -under the next), the
foregoing might be deduced from it. And, on this
fuppolition, there would be an argument for the
continuance of the feniations, after the removal of
their objecls ; which would extend to the fenfes of
feeling, tafte, and fmell, in the fame manner as to
thofe of fight and hearing.

PROP.

find Aflbciation /;/ general. 13

PRO P. V.

T^he Vibrations mentioned in the laft Propoftiion are' ex-
cited, propagated, and kept up, partly by the jEther, -
(i.e. by a very fubtle and elajlic Fhdd^and partly
by the Uniformity, Continuity, Softnefs, and a^ive
Powers of the Medullary Subjlance of the Brain,
fpinal Marrow, and Nerves.

This propofition is chiefly an evidence and expla-
nation of the foregoing; and accordingly might
have been included in it. However, as it is of great ,
importance in the prefent fubjed, I thought it beft
to give it a diftindl place and conlideration..

Before I enter upon the proof of it, it will be
proper to premife fomething by way of explanation,
concerning the aether, and the qualities of the
medullary fubftance jull mentioned.

Sir IJaac Neivton fuppofes, that a very fubtle and
elaftic fluid, which he calls ather, for the fake of
treating upon it commodioufly under an appropriated
name, is diffufed through the pores of grofs bodies,
as well as through the open fpaces, that are void of
grofs matter. He fuppofes likewife, that it is rarer,
in the pores of bodies than in open fpaces, and even
rarer in fmall pores and denfe bodies, than in large
pores and rare bodies ; and alfo that its denlity in-
creafes in receding from grofs matter, fo, for inflance, 1
' as, to be greater at the -r— of an inch from, the fur-
face of any body than at its furface ; and fo on. To
the aftion of this aether he afcribes the attractions
of gravitation and cohefion, the attraftions and
repulfions of eleftrical bodies, the mutual influ-
ences of bodies and, light upon each other, the
efleds and communication of heat, and the perform-
ance of animal fenfation and motion. My bufinefs

in

14 Of the DoHrines o/* Vibrations

in thcfc ohfercatioHs^ is only with the lad ; hut tlic
rcailcr will lU) well to confult what Sir Ifiiac Newton
has hirolclt ailvanccd concerning the cxitlcnce of this
athcr, and the properties and powers which he has
akrihed to it, in the lad paragraph of his Principia^
the ^tejTtons annexed to his Optics^ ami a Letter
from him to Mr. Bo\U\ lately publillicd in Mr.
Bo\/e\ Lite. As to myfelf, 1 am not fatistic^!, that
I underdantl him perfeifHy on this fubjcd. I will
hint a few things partly from liim, partly from my
own reflexions, concerning the exiltencc and pro-
perties of this iether.

Since a thermometer kept, /';/ vaaw^ varies with
the heat and cold of the room, in which it is
placed, as much as another furrounded by air ; and
fmce the fmall parts of hot bodies probably vibrate
to and fro, and by thus vibrating keep up the heat
for a certain time j one may conjefture, that a fub-
tle medium remains after the air is exliaufted, and
that heat is communicated to the thermometer
fulpcndcd /;/ vacuo by the vibrating motions of this
medium. See Opt. ^i. i8.

The greater dcnfity of the sethcr at a diftance
from bodies than at their furface, may be conjedurcd
from the various phenomena folved by this fuppo-
fition ; which pha^nomena may alfo be alleged as
probable evidences of the exiftence of the aether.
See Opt. §lit. and the Letter to Mr. Boyle.

The great fubtlety and claflicity of the sether
may be inferred from the motions of the planets, .
and quick propagation of light, if we firft fuppofc
its exillence, and concurrence in the propagation of
light, and efficacy in caufing gravity. And from
its great elallicity we may infer, that it is extremely
fufceptible of vibrations and pulfes, in the fame
manner as common air. See Opt. ^er.

Since the grofs bodies that lie upon the furface of
the earth emit air particles, conflituting a thin,

elaftic

and Aflbciation in general. i^

elaftic fluid, of great efficacy in performing the
ordinary operations of nature, it feems not unna-
tural to expedl, that the fmall particles of bodies
fliould emit a proportionably attenuated air, ;. e. an
^ther, which may likewife have a great fhare in the
fubtle aftions of the fmall particles of bodies over
each other. The emiffion of odoriferous particles,
light, magnetical and electrical effluvia, may alfo
be fome prefumption in favour of the exiftence of the
jBther. Moreover, it is reafonable to expeft, that it
fhould have a repulfive force in refped: of the bodies
which emit it ; and for the fame reafons, its par-
ticles may repel each other. It may therefore be
elaftic, compreffible, and apt to receive vibrations
from the laft caufe ; and, from the firft, may be
rarer within the pores of bodies than in large open
fpaces, and grow denfer as the diftance from grofs
matter increafes. Our air is indeed denfer near the
earth than in the higher regions ; but this is owing
to its gravity, prevailing againft its expanfive force.
If we fuppofe the gravity of the sether to be very
fmall, and its elafticity or expanfive and repulfive
force very great, both which muft be fuppoied,
if we admit it at all in the manner propofed by
Sir If aac Newton, its denfity may increafe in receding
from grofs matter, and be much lefs in the pores of
bodies, than in open fpaces void of grofs matter.
Thus we may fuppofe even the air, which remains
in the large pores of fuch bodies as repel its particles,
to be rarer than the common external air.

Laftly, Let us fuppofe the exiftence of the aether,
with thefe its properties, to be deftitute of all dire6fe
evidence, ftill, if it ferves to explain and account for
a great variety of phienomena, it will have an indi-
re(fl evidence in its favour by this means. Thus we
admit the key of a cj'^pher to be a true one, when it
explains the cypher completely :, and the decypherer
judges himfelf to approach to the true key, jn pro-
portion

1 6 Of the DoHrinei' '6f Vibrations

portion as he atirances in tlic cxphinntihn of the
Cvplicr ; and this without any dircd cvitlcncc at all.
And as the falle ami impelled; keys, U'hlch turn up
to the dccypherer in liis rcfcarchcs j>reparc the
way for the difcovery of the trtie and complete one,
fo any hypothcfis that has lo luuch plaulibility, as
to explain a conliderablc number of fads, helps us
to diged thefe fads in proju'r order, to bring new
opes to light, and to m ike Experimenta Cruris for
the fake of future int-iuircrs. The rule of falfe
affords an obvious and flrong indance of the poflTi-
bility of being led, with precifion and certainty to a
true conclullon from a falfe pofition ; and it is of
the very cHence of algebra to proceed in the way
of fuppofition.

\Ve come next lo cuiiu(.ier the uniformity and
continuity of the white medullary fubilance of the
brain, fpinal marrow, and nerves. Now thefe are
evident to the eye, as far as that can be a judge of
them. The white medullary fubftance appears to be
every where uniform and fimilar to itfelf throughout
the whole brain, fpinal marrow, and nerves ; and
thouQfh the cortical fubftance be mixed with the me-
dullarv in the brain, and fpinal marrow, and perhaps
in the ganglions and plexufes, yet it does not appear,
that the communication of any one part of the me-
dullar}" fubftance with e\''ery other, is cut off any
where by the intervention of the cortical. There
is no part of the medullary fubftance feparated from
the reft, but all make one continuous white body ;
fo that if we fuppofe vibrations apt to run freely
along this body from its uniformity, they muft per-
vade the whole, in whatever part they are lirft ex-
cited, from its continuity.

The cxceffive minutenefs of the veffels of which
the medullary fubftance confifts, may alio be con-
ceived as inferring its uniformity and continuity.
Thefe veflels are, by 'all anatomifts and phyfiolo-

gifts,

find AfTociation in general. I'j

gifts, fuppofed to arife from thofe of the cortical
fubftance, this being agreeable to the analogy of the
other parts of the body. And it follows from the
fame analogy, that they muft be fmaller than thofe
veflels from which they arlfe. But the finer orders
of the veflels of the cortical fubftance are far too
minute to admit of the moft fubtle injeftions, the
beft injeftors having never penetrated farther than
the grofler orders of veffcls in the cortical fubftance.
We may therefore well fuppofe, that the medullary
fubftance confifts of a texture of veflels fo fmall and
regular, as that it may have no vacuity or interval
in it, fufficient to interrupt or difturb the vibrations
of the sether, and concomitant ones of the fmall
medullary particles, propagated through this fub-
ftance in the manner to be defcribed below.

The foftnefs of the medullary fubftance is, in like
manner, evident to the fenfes, and the natural con-
'fequence of the extreme fmall nefs of the compound-
ing vefl^els, and fluids circulating through them.

If we admit the foregoing account of the uniform
continuous texture of the medullary fubftance, it
W\\\ follow, that the nerves are rather folid cap il la-
ments, according to Sir Ifaac Nezvton^ than fmall
tubulin according to Boerhaave. And the fame con-
clufion arifes from admitting the doftrine of vibra-
tions. l"he vibrations hereafter to be defcribed may
more eallly be conceived to be propagated along folid
capillaments, lb uniform in their texture as to be
pellucid when fingly taken, than along hollow ttibnli.
For the fame reaions, the doctrine of vibrations will
fcarce permit us to fuppofe the brain to be a gland
properly lb called ; fmce the diftbrmity of texture
required in a gland, appears inconfiftent with the free
propagation of vibrations. Neither can we conclude
the brain to be a gland, from the great quantity of
blood (cnt to it by the heart. It is probable indeed,
that this is required on account of the important

Vol. I. C fundions

i8 Of the Do^rities of Vibrations

funflions of accretion, nutrition, Icniation, and mo-
tion, which arc plainly jicrformed by the brain. But
then thcfe functions admit of as caly an explanation
on the hypothelis here propoled, as on that ot a glan-
dular lecretion, called nervous fluid, animal spirits,
&c. In the mean time, I cannot but acknowledge
many, or even moil things, in the Boerhnavian doc-
trine concerning the AruCture and fun(flions of the
brain, to be beaut ilul, jull, and ufeful. And it may
even be, that the do<ftrinc of a glandular lecretion,
properly qualified, is not inconfiRent with that of
vibrations.

Sir Ifaac Neivton fuppofes the nerves, when fingly
taken, to be pellucid, becaufe otherwife they could
not be lufficiently uniform for the purpofe of tranf-
mitting vibrations freely to and from the brain ; the
opacity of any body being, according to him, an
argument, that its pores are fo large and irregular,
as to diilurb and interrupt the vibrations of the
lEthcr. For the fame rcalons, we muft i'uppol'e the
fibrils of the medullary fubflance of the brain to be
pellucid, when fingly taken. And this confideration
may incline one to conjecture, that, in palfies, the
infinitefimal veflels of the fibrils of the brain, and
capillaments of the nerves, are fo obftrudted, as to
render thcfe fibrils and capillaments white and opake,
in the fame manner as the hair in old age, or the
Cornea in an Albugo.

Since the Pia Mater^ with its blood velTels, enters
the interftices of the feveral folds of the brain, one
may fufpeft, that it penetrates not only the cortical
fubftancc, but alfo the medullary, along with the
feveral defcending orders of vefTels, and confcquently
that it divides and fubdivides the medullary fubflance
into various greater and leflcr regions. One may
affirm at leafl, that fuch a diftribution of the Pia Ma-
ter would be greatly analogous to that of the cellnlar
membrane, through the fyftem of mufcles, their

feparatc

and Affociation in general. 19

feparate portions, fibres, and fibrils. But then we
may reafonably luppofe the Pia Mater to be fo attenu-
ated in thefe its procefles, as that the medullary fub-
ftance may ftill remain fufficiently uniform for the free
propagation of vibrations. Or, if there be fome little
impediment and confinemerrt in certain regions, on
account of fome exceedingly fmall difcontinuity, ari-
(ing from this intervention of the Pia Mater between
certain regions, it may, as it feems to me, fuit this
theory rather better than an abfoiute and perfeft
continuity, as before fuppofed. It is reafonable alfo
to think, that the nerves of different parts have innu-
merable communications with each other in the brain,
in the ganglions (which are, as it were, little brains,
according to the opinion of JVinJlozv), and even in
the plexufes ; and that many ph^enomena, particu-
larly thofe of the fympathetic kind, are deducible
from thefe communications. But as it feems impof-
fible to trace out thefe communications anatomically,
on account of the great foftnefs of the brain, we muft
content ourlelves with fuch conjeftures as the ph^eno-
mena fliall fuggeft, trying them by one another, and
admitting for the prefent thofe which appear mod
confiftent upon the whole, till farther light appears.
The fame, or even a greater, obfcurity attends all in-
quiries into the ufes of the particular Ihape and pro-
tuberances of the medullary fubfliance of the brain.

We come, in the lafl place, to confider what adive
properties may belong to the fmall particles of the
medullary fubftance, /. e. to the fmall particles which
compofe either the ultimate veHels of this fubftance,
or the fluid which circulates in thefe ultimate veffels.
The common docflrine concerning; the powers of the
nervous fyfhem luppofes the fluid fecreted by, and
circulating through, the medullary fubftance, to be
of a very adive nature ; and this may be, though
the tafte of the medullary fubftance in brute ani-
mals difcovers no iuch adivity. For the power of

C 2 imprefling

iO Of the Dotlr'mes of Vibrations

imprcfTing taftcs fcems to rffKlc in i)articlcs much
larger than thole which we arc here confidcring. And
ic 1^ liirticiently obvious, that many poilbns, mineral,
vegetable, and animal, have the moll aflive properties
concealed under infipid, or at leall moderate favours.
Now that Tome power.*; of attradlion or repulfion, or
rather of both at different dilbnces, refide in the fmall
particles of the medullary fubflance, can fcarce be
doubted after fo many indances and evidences, as
Sir Jjaac Nevi'ton has produced, of attra6\ive and
repulfivc powers in the fmall particles of various
bodies, OpticSy ^^wy 31. meaning, as he does, by
attraction and rejiulfion, a mere mathematical ten-
dency to approach and recede, be the caufe what it
will, impulfe, prefTuie, an unknown one, or no phy-
fical caufe at all, but the immediate agency of the
Deity. Tiie fmallnefs alio of tlie particles of the
medullary fubltance may not improbably incrcafe
their activity, in refpeift of their bulk, agreeably to
Sir Ifaac Newton s conjecfture concerning the particles
ofthen:ther. Which may be farther inferred from
the nature of thele attra<5lions and repulfions; for
fince they feem to be as fome reciprocal power of the
dirtance, we may judge, that only the nearefl: parts of
large particles v;ill be eminently active, and that the
more remote ones will be an impediment to their
actions ; whence fmall particles, having nearly as
great a6live powers, and much lefs matter to be
moved, will, upon the whole, be more active in pro-
portion to their bulk, than large ones. If we farther
luppofe the particles of the fluids, which circulate
through the ultimate vcflels of the medullary fub-
flance, to be fmaller than the particles which compofe
thefe vefTcls, then will thev aljb be more active. And
thus we feem to approach to all th^t is probable in the
received doflrines concerning the nervous fluid, and
the animal fpiri:?, fuppofed to be either the fame or
difi^erent things j and all the arguments which Boer-

haave

and Allbciation in general. 2i

haave has brought for his hypothefis, of a glandular
fecretion of a very fubtle adive fluid in the brain,
may be accommodated to the Newtonian hypothefis
of vibrations.

Having thus endeavoured to fettle our notions
concerning the sether, and eflablilli our evidences for
its exiftence and properties, and for the uniformity,
continuity, foftnefs, and active powers of the medul-
lary fubftance, we come, in the next place, to inquire
in what manner thefe may ferve to explain or evince
the vibrations of the medullary particles, afferted in
the foregoing ^r(9/)o////(9;i.

Firft then, We are to conceive, that when external [
objects are imprelfed on the fenfory nerves, they ex- \
cite vibrations in the cether refiding in the pores of \
thefe nerves, by means of the mutual aftions inter- \
ceding between the objeds, nerves, and aether. For ;
there feem to be mutual adions of all the varieties -
between thefe three, in all the fenfes, though of a
different nature in different fenfes. Thus it feems,
that light affects both the optic nerve and the ^ther j
and alio, that the affcdions of the aether are com-
municated to the optic nerve, and vice verfd. And
the fame may be obferved of fridlons of the fkin,
taftes, fmells, and founds. The impulfe, attradion,
or whatever elfe be the adion of the objed, affeds
both the nerves and the ^tether ; thefe affed each
other, and even the objed^ or im^^reffion itfelf, in
moft or all cafes, fo as to alter or m^odify it. And
the refult of thefe adions, upon the v.'hole, may
be fuppofed fuch a compreffion or increafe of denfity
in the jether, as muft agitate its particles with vibra-
tions analogous to thofe which are excited in the air
by the difcharge of guns, by thunder-claps, or by
any other method of caufing a fudden and violent
compreffion in it.

Secondly, We are to conceive, that the vibratioi^s
thus excited in the cether will agitate the fmall par- '

C 3 tides

22 Of the DoiJyiiies of Vibrations

tides of the medullary fuhflancc of the fenfory nerves
with Ivnchronous vibratii)ns, in tiic iiinie miinncr as
the vibrations ot the air in lounds agitate many
regular bodies with correljionding vibrations or trem-
blings. And here the uniformity, foftnei's, and active
powers of the medullary lubllance, iimll be con-
fideicd as previous rccjuifitcs and alnftances. A want
of uniformity in the medullary lubllance, would ar-
gue a like want of uniformity in the xther contained
within it. The hardnels of it, if it extended to the
particles, would caufe an ineptitude to vibratory mo-
tions in the particles of theie particles, ;. e. in the
inlinilcfimal jxirticles confidered in this and the fore-
going/>ro/)<y/V/o;/. And a want .of aftive powers in
theie particles would lufibr the excited motions to
die aw; y prematurely.

One may conjecture, indeed, that the rays of light
excite vibrations in the Imall particles of the optic
nerve, by a direct and immediate aftion. For it
feems probable, fi-om the alternate fits of eafy tranf-
milTion and refledion, that the rays of light are them-
felves agitated by very fubtle vibrations, and eon-
fequcntly that they muft communicate thefe direftly
and immediately to the particles of the optic nerves.
And it may be alfo, that fapid and odoriferous par-
ticles are agitated with fpecific vibrations, and that
they communicate thefe dirc(5lly and immediately to
the fmall particles of the guflatory and olfaftory
nerves refpeftively, as well as to the interjacent
aether. Upon this fuppofition, the vibrations of the
iether muft be conceived as regulating and fupporting
the vibrations of the particles, not as exciting them
originally.

Thirdly, The vibrations thus excited in the zether,
and particles of the fenfory nerves, will be propa-
gated along the courfe of thefe nerves up to the
brain. For the <ether refiding in the medullary fub-
ftance, being of an uniform denfity on account of

the

and Aflbciation in general 23

the fmallnefs of the pores of the medullary fub-
flance, and uniformity of its texture, before tal,<:eii
notice of, will fuffer the excited vibrations to run
freely through it. And the fame uniformity, toge-
ther with the continuity, foftnefs, and active powers
of the medullary fubftance, will farther contribute to
the free propagadon of the vibrations; fince, on
thefe accounts, it follows, that the particles, which
were laft agitated, may eafily communicate their agi-
tations or vibrations to the fimilarly pofited and equally
contiguous ones, without interruption, and almoft
without any diminution of force. This free propa-
gation of vibrations along the courfe of the nerves
may be ill uft rated and confirmed by the like free
propagation of founds along the furface of water,
which has fometimes been obferved in ftill, calm
nights.

Fourthly, The vibrations here defcribed are con-
fined to the medullary fubftance, or at leafl: are only
propagated feebly and impecfeftly into the neighbour-
ing parts, on account of the heterogeneity and greater
hardnefs of the neighbouring pares. The firfl will
make the sether of different denfities, and, in fome
cafes, there may be almoft an interruption or difcon-
tinuity of it ,- and the laft will indifpofe the particles
to receive and communicate vibrations j and we may
fuppofe from both together, agreeably to what has
been already remarked, that only frnaU vibrations,
and fuch irregular ones as oppofe each other, will juft
begin to take place in the immediately contiguous
parts, and there ceafe without proceeding farther. Ic
is fomewhat analogous to this in founds, that they
are much fooner loft in pafting over rough furfaces
than fmooth ones ; and particularly, that they receive
a much greater diminution from the irregular furface
of the earth, than from that of ftill water. However,
a particular exception is here to be made in refpe6t
of the fibres of the mufcles and membranes, into

C 4 which

24 Of the Doolr'incs of Vibrations

whicli the vibrations of the .tthcr and metlullaiy
particles fcem to be piojiagatcd with great rieetlom
and ftrcngih, as will be ll-en hereafter. Which may
perhaps be fome argument, that nnifciiJar Hbies are,
according to Boerhaavc\ oj)inion, mere productions of
the ultimate nerves.

Fifthly, As foon as the vibrations enter the brain,
thty begin to be propagated freely every way over
tlie wjiole medullary fubllance ; being diminiflied \\\
ftrengih, in proportion to the quantity of matter
agitated, juft as in founds, t. e. as it were in a reci-
procal duplicate ratio of the diftance from the place
where the fenfory nerve affcCled by the vibrations
enters the brain. Or, if we fuppofe the Pia Mater
to make fome fmall difcontinuity in the medullary
fubftance by its procefles, as has been hinted above,
then we muft alfo fuppofe, that the vibrations, which
afcend along any fenfory nerve, affe<5l the region of
the brain which correlponds to this fenfory nerve
more, and the other regions lefs, than according to
this proportion.

Sixthly, Since the vibrations, or reciprocal mo-
tions of the fmall particles of each nerve are made
in the fame line of direction with the nerve, they
mufl: enter the brain in that direction, and may pre-
ferve fome fmall regard to this direction at confider-
able diftances within the brain ; efpecially if this be
favoured by the flruflure of the nervous fibrils in the
brain. Hence the fame internal parts of the brain
may be made to vibrate in different dire6lions, accord-
ing to the different diredtions of the nerves by which
the vibrations enter.

And thus it appears, that, admitting the exiftence
and fubdety of the aether, and the qualities of the
medullary fubftance here alleged, a probable account
may be given, 'how the vibrations, afferted in the laft
propofition, may be excited in the fenfory nerves,
and propagated thence over the whole medullary fub-
ftance.

and AfTociation in general. 25

flance, and over that alone. And the fuitablenels of
this propofition to the lad, and of both to a variety of
phasnomena, which will be fcen in the courfe of thefe
obfervations, may be confidered as fome evidence for
both.

Let it be remarked alfo, that, if the performance
of fenfation by vibratory motions of the meduliary
particles be admitted, the exiftence of a fubtle elaftic
fluid muft be admitted in xonfequence thereof, as the
only means that can be conceived for their rife and
ittt propagation, fo as to anfwer to the phenomena
of fenfe, motion, and ideas ; and reciprocally, if the
exiftence of fo fubtle and elaftic a fluid, as the -^ther
defcribed by Sir IJaac Newtony can be eftabliftied upon
independent principles, it may reafonably be fuppofed
to penetrate the pores of the medullary fubftance,
how fmall foever they be, in the fame manner as air
penetrates groflfer cavities and pores, and, like air,
both be itfelf agitated by vibrations from a variety of
caufes, and alfo communicate thefe to the medullary
particles. Vv e may therefore either deduce the doc-
trine of vibrations here propofed from the confideration
of the sether, or the exiftence of the asther from the
do6trine of vibrations, according as either of thefe can
be firft eftabliihed.

There is alfo fome light and evidence to be caft
upon one or both of thefe propofitions, from feveral
natural ph^enomena; as I will endeavour to fhew in
the following remarks. >

I. Heat in natural bodies is probably attended by
vibrations of the fmall parts. This may be inferred
from the duration and gradual declenfion of heat,
and from the grofs general proportion which is ob-
ferved between this duration and the denfity of the
heated body. For a vibratory motion^ would fubfift
for fome time, decline gradually, and be kept up
longer, cateris 'paribus^ where the number of vi-
brating particles were many, than where few. • The

fame

i6 Of the Do^rines of Vibrations

fame hyporhefis is well fulled to the rarefaction,
nuicliry, dilVolution, and otiier changes of texture
which heat produces in bodies, according to their
various natures. And if we farther confider, tliat
all bodies, contiguous to each other, come, after a
fliort tiiiie, to the lame degree of heat, viz. that of
the circumambient air ; thole which are hotter iofing
fomething, and thofe which are colder gaining j ancl
yet tliat the air is not necclfary for the conveyance
of heat, as appears from Sir JJaac Newton*s expcii-
ment of the two thermometers above-mentioned j
it will appear highly probable, both that heat in
bodies is attended by vibratory motions of the fmall
parts, and alfo that thefe are communicated to conti-
guous bodies by vibrations of a fubtle fluid, by an
argument fomething different from that urged above,
in fpeaking of the two thermometers j at leaft the
confideration of the equality of temperature, to
which all contiguous bodies are known, by common
obfervations, to arrive, will caft fome light upon that
argument. And, upon the whole, it will follow, that
heat in us is caufed, or attended, by fubtle vibrations
of the medullary fubftance, which is the immediate
inftrument of all the fenfations ; and that a fubtle
fluid is concerned in the produftion of this effed.
And what is thus proved of heat, may be inferred
to hold in refped of all the other fenfations, from the
argument of analogy.

2. Light is fo nearly related to heat, that we mufl:
fuppofe the argument of analogy to be particularly
ftrong in refpeft of it : but, befides this, we have an
independent argument for the exiftence of vibrations
here, alfo for their communication by a fubtle fluid,
if we admit Sir Jfaac Newton's hypothefis concern-
ing the caufe of the alternate fits of eafy refleftion
and tranfmilTion, as 1 have above remarked.

3. As founds are caufed by pulfes or vibrations
excited in the air by the tremors of the parts of

founding

and Aflbciation in general. 27

founding bodies, they muft raife vibrations in the
membrana tympani; and the fmall bones of the ear
feem peculiarly adapted, by their fituation and muf-
cles, to communicate thefe vibrations to the cavities
of the vejiibulumi fennicircular canals, and cochkay
in which the auditory nerve is expanded ; i. e. to the
nerve itfelf. Now though thefe are grofs vibrations,
in refpeft of thofe which we muft fuppofe to take place
in the aether itfelf, yet they prepare the way for the
fuppofition of the more fubtle vibrations of the
asther, and may be the inftrument of thefe, in the
fame manner as very grofs reciprocal motions of
bodies in the air are obferved to produce, by per-
cuflion, thofe quicker vibrations in which found
confifts.

4. We are, in fome meafure, prepared alfo for
admitting the doctrine of vibrations in the animal
funftions, from that difpofition to yield a found up-
on percuffion, which appears in fome degree in almoft
all bodies J fince this fhews, that the difpofition to
vibrate is general, or even univerfal, in the bigger
orders of particles ; and therefore makes it more
eafy to conceive, that there may be a like difpofition
in the leffer orders, t. e. in the infinitefimal medul-
lary particles, confidered in this and the foregoing
fropojition,

5. The mutual attra6lions and repulfions which
feem to intercede between all fmall particles, concur
to the fame purpofe. For when the attractions and
repulfions are changed, by changing the diftances of
the particles, thefe muft ofcillate to and fro for fome
time, before they can gain their former equilibrium.

6. Elafticity feems to refult from mutual attrac-
tions and repulfions of fome kind, and is evidently
the caufe of vibrations in mufical ftrings, and many
other bodies. It feems alfo, that there is fcarce any
body entirely devoid of elafticity. And thus elafti-
city

a8 Of the Dothines of Vibrations

citv is connC(5leJ with the dodrinc of vibrations in
dilfcrcnc ways.

7. The cHUivia of declric bodies reeoi to have
vibrating motions. Vot they are excited by fiiclion,
patting, and heat ; and excite liglit, found, and a
pricking fcnfation. 'I'hcy have alfo a repulfive power
in rcfped of each other, as the particles of air have ;
and therefore mull:, Hke them, be eafily fufceptiblc of
vibrations. Their motions along hempen ftrings re-
femhic the motions along; the nerves in fcnfation and
mufcular contradion ; and tlu'ir attra(5live powers, at
the end of I'uch llnngs, relcnible the powers of the
lenfations over the mufcles for contra(^l:ing tliem. So
that elediicity is alfo conneded in various ways with
the doctrine of vibrations.

Laftly, To fum upgLn one wh.n has been remarked
in the lafl: five paragraphs : as the attradlions of
gravitation, eieftricity, magnetifm, and cohefionj
with the repulfions which attend upon the three
laft, intimate to us the general tenor of nature in
this refpedt -, viz. that many of its phnsnomena are
carried on by attraftions and repulfions j and that
thefe may be expected to take place in the fmall de-
fcending orders of particles, as well as in grofs bo-
dies, and in the biggeft component particles ; fo
the pulfes of the air, the tremors of founding bodies,
the propagation of founds both through the air, and
along contiguous folid bodies, the ofcillations of elaftic
bodies, and the phasnomena of electricity, may, in
like manner, ferve as a clue and guide to the inven-
tion, and afford a prelumption, that other reciprocal
motions or vibrations have a great fliare in the pro-
du(5lion of natural phenomena.

Nor is it an objeftion to this, but rather a con-
firmation of it, that thefe principles of attraftion and
repulfion of the feveral kinds, and of vibrations,
are dependent upon, and involved within each other,

fincc

and Aflbciation in general. 29

fince this alfo is agreeable to the tenor of nature, as
it is obferved in the body, in the mind, in fcience
in general, and in the feveral branches of each fci-
ence in particular. Each part, fiiculty, principle,
&c. when confidered ^nd purfued fufficiently, feems
to extend itfelf into the boundaries of the others, and,
as it were, to inclofe and comprehend them all.
Thus magnetifm mixes iifelf with the gravitation
both of bodies upon the furface of the earth, and
with that of the moon to the earth : a polar virtue
of the fame kind feems to have a principal fhare in
the formation of natural bodies, efpeciaily thofe
whofe parts cohere in regular figures : eleflricity
may alfo extend, without being excited by fridion or
otherwife, to fmall diftances, and join with the juft
mentioned polar virtue, in making the parts of bo-
dies cohere, and, in fome cafes, in regular figures.
The efl^ervefcence which attends the mixture of acids
and alkalis, and the folution of certain bodies in
menflruums, fermentation, and putrefaftion, are
all general principles of very extenfive influence,
nearly related to each other, and to the fore-m.entioned
mutual attraflions and repulfions, and are polTeffed
of the fame unlimited power of propagating them-
felves, which belongs to the feveral fpeciefes of plants
and animals. A repulfion which fliould throw off
indefinitely fmall corpufcles with indefinitely great ve-
locity from all the bodies of the univerfe (a thing that
would be very analogous to the emiffion of light,
odoriferous particles, and magnetical and electrical
effluvia, and to the generation of air and vapour),
might caufe the gravitation of all the great bodies
of the univerfe to each other, and perhaps other kinds
of attraction. Some of thefe corpufcles, by flopping
each other in the intermundane fpaces, or other mu-
tually repulfive corpufcles lodged there from caufes
not yet difcovered, may cdmpofe a fubtle vibrating
medium. The vibrations of this medium, being

continued

^o Of the Dodrines of Vibrations

continued to the great bodies of the univerfe, may
i'o far agitate their rmall parts, as to give their at-
tracliive and repuK'ive powers an opportunity to exert
ihciiirclvcs witli great vigour; and the emifllon of
the above-mentioned corpufcles may be, in part, oc-
cafioned by the aitradions and confequent coUifions
of fmall [larts thus agitated ; fo that elaftic cor-
pufcles may be thrown off from thcfe fmall parts with
inilctinitcly great .velocity. And it would be no ob-
jedion to tliefe or fuch like fuppofitions, that we
could not explain, in any definite manner, how thefe
things are cffeded, nor put any limits to the fizes
of decreafing corpufcles, or their adlive powers in
refpeft of each other. Nor would this be to reafon
in a circle, more than when we argue, that the heart
and brain, or the body and the mind, depend upon
each other for their funflions ; which are undeniable
truths, however unable we may be to give a full and
ultimate explanation of them. However, it is not
impofTible, on the other hand, but future ages may
analyfe all the adtions of bodies upon each other, up
to a few fimple principles, by making fuch fuppofi-
tions as the pha^nomena fhall fuggeft, and then trying
and m.odelling them by the phccnomena. At leaft this
is what one is led to hope, from the many fimple,
and eafy folutions of very complex problems, which
have been produced within the two lad centuries.

We may draw the following corollaries from the
hypothefis of vibrations, as laid down in the two fore-
going propofitions.

Corollary i. The vibrations of the medullary
particles may be affecled with four forts of differ-
ences ; viz. thofe of degree, kind, place, and line
of diretflion. Vibrations differ in degree, according
as they are more or lefs vigorous -, i. e. as the particles
ofcillate to and fro, through a longer or fhorter very
fhorc fpacej i. e. as the imprefTion of the object is
ftronger or weaker, and thus afFeds the medullary

particles

and Aflbciation in general. 31

particles more or lefs vigoroufly, either diredly and
immediately, or mediarely, by generating a greater
or lefs degree of condenfation in the pulfes of the
sether. Vibrations differ in kind, according as they
are more or lefs frequent, /. e. more or lefs numer-
ous, in the fame fpace of time. They differ in place,
according as they affeft this or that region of the
medullary fubftance of the brain primarily. And they
differ in the line of diredion, according as they enter
by different external nerves.

CoR. 2. The magnitude of each fenfation is chiefly
to be eftimated from the vibrations which take place
in the medullary fubfl:ance of the brain, thofe which
are excited in the fpinal marrow and nerves, being for
the mofl: part, fo inconfiderable, in refpedl of the juft
mentioned ones, that they may be negleded.

CoR. 3. The brain may therefore in a common
way of ipeaking, be reckoned the feat of the fenfitive
foul, or the fenforium, in men, and all thofe ani-
mals where the medullary fubftance of the nerves and
fpinal marrow is much lefs than that of the brain j
and this even upon the fuppofition laid down in the
firft propofition, viz. that the whole medullary fub-
ftance of the brain, fpinal marrow, and nerves, is the
immediate inftrument of fenfation, and equally related
to the fenfitive foul, or principle. But if there be
any reafon to fuppofe, that the firft propofition is
not ftridly true, but that the fpinal marrow and
nerves are only inftruments fubfervient to the brain,
juft as the organs of the hand, eye, ear, &c. are to
them, and the brain itfelf to the foul, we may con-
clude abfolutely, that the fenforium of fuch animals
is to be placed in the brain, or even in the innermoft
regions of it. Now there are fome phsenomena which
favour this, by fhewing, that whatever motions be
excited in the nerves, no fenfation can arife, unlefs
this motion penetrate to, and prevail in, the brain.
Thus, when a nerve is compreffed, we lofe the fenfe

of

32 Of the DoJlriues of Vibrations.

of ffclinp: in the part to whicli it leads: a perfon nniich
intent upon his own thoughts docs not hear t!ie found
of a clock ; /. e. the vibrations excited by this found
in the auditory nerve cannot penetrate to, and prevail
in, the brain, on account of ihofe which already
occupy it: and a peil'on who has loft a 1 inn b often
feels a pain, which fceins to proceed from the ampu-
tated limb ; probably becaufc the region of the brain
correfi^nding to that limb, is ftill aFFetftcd.

If It be certain, tliat Ibme of the medullary parts
have been difchargetl, in abfcelTes of the brain, one
would incline to think, that the external pans of the
vtcdullti are inftrumental, in refpecft of the internal.
And, on tlie other hand, one may queftion, whether,
in animals of the ferpentinc form, and thofe whofe
brains are comparatively fmall, and in all thofe of the
polypous kind, the fenforinm be not equally difFufed
over the whole medullary fubftance, or even over all
the living parts. I only hint thefe things, not pre-
fuming even to conjefture, but only to excite thofe
who have proper opportunities, to inquire carefully
into thefe matters.

CoR. 4. If we allow the exiftence of the asther,
and its ufe, in performing fenfation, thought, and
motion, as it may be infeired from the two fore-
going propofitions, compared with fuch other things
as follow in thefe obfervations, in favour of the "tloc-
trine of vibrations i we may conclude, that the asther
mull have a confiderable fhare in the produftion of
many other natural phenomena ; and therefore fhall
have a fuflicient foundation for trying how far it will
carry us, agreeably to the facts. I would recommend
this, in a particular manner, to thofe perfons who are
much converfant with electrical pha^nomenaj efpecially
as Sir Ifaac Newton him.felf, whofe great caution and
refervednefs, in difficult and doubtful matters, arc
fufficiently knov/n, has made no fcruple to affirm, that
the powers of eledlrical bodies are owing to the

adion

md Allbciation in general. 33

a6tion of the lEther. See the hft 'paragraph of the
Principia.

Scholium. Ic may be proper to remark here, that
I do not, by thus afcribing the performance of fenfii-
tion to. vibrations excited in the medullary fubftance,
in the lead prefume to aflert, or intimate, that matter
can be endued with the power of fenfation. It is
common 10 all fyflems, to fuppofe fome motions at-
tendant upon fenfation, fince corporeal objefts muft,
by their adions, imprefs fome motion upon our bo-
dies, and particularly upon that part which is mofl
nearly related to the fentient piinciple; /. e. upon the
medullary fubftance, according to the firft and fe-
cond propofitions. I lay down thefe propofitions,
therefore, as 'eftablilhed by the common confent of
phyficians and philofophers; and upon that foundation
proceed to inquire into, and determine, fome matters
of a more difficult nature ; fuch as the complex pro-
blems concerning fenfations, ideas, and motions, and
their mutual influences and relations. .

The following inftance may illultrate this : the
quantity of matter in bodies is always found to be
proportional to 'heir gravity: we may therefore either
make the quantity of matter the exponent of the
gravity, or the gravity the exponent of it, accord-
ing as either can be beft afcertained j notwithftanding
that we are entirely at a lofs to determine, in
what mechanical way each atom contributes to the
gravity of the whole mafs ; and even though we
fhould, with fome, fuppofe this effect to be mime-
chanical, and to arife from the immediate agency of
God. And, by parity of reafon, if that fpecies of
motion which we term vibr? ions, can be fhewn by
probable arguments, to attend upon all fenfations,
ideas, and motions, and to be proportional to them,
then we are at liberty either to make vibration? the
exponent of fenfations, ideas, and motions, or thtfe
the exponents of vibrations, as beft fuits the inquiry j

Vol, I, D , however

34 Of the DocJrines of Vibrations.

however impoflible it may be to difcover in what
way vibrations caule, or are conne<5teil with fenfa-
tions, or ideas ; /'. e. though vibrations be of a cor-
poreal, lenfations and ideas of a mental nature.

If we fuppofe an intinitcfimal elementary body to
be intermediate between the foul and grofs body,
which appears to be no improbable fuppofition,
then the changes in our fenfations, ideas, and mo-
tions, may coirefpond to the changes made in the
medullary fubllance, only as far as thefe correfpond
to the changes made in tiie elementary body. And
if thcfc lall changes have fome other fource be-
fides the vibrations in the medullary fubftance, fomc
peculiar original properties, for infkance, of the ele-
mentary body, then vibrations will not be adequate
exponents of fenfations, ideas, and motions. Other
fuppofitions to the fame purpofe might be madej
and, upon the whole, I conjedlure, that though the
firft and fecond propofitions are true, in a very
ufeful practical lenle, yet they are not fo in an ultimate
and precife one.

PROP. VI.

The Phienomena ofjenfible Pleqfure and Pain appear t§
be very Jiiil able to the DoSfrine of Vibrations.

The moft vigorous of our fenfations are termed
fenfible pleafures and pains, as noted above, in the
introdutflion. And the vivid nature of thefe engages
us to be very attenti^^e to their feveral properties,
relations, and oppofitions. It is requifite therefore,
in our inquiry into the doftrine of vibrations, to
examine, how far the phienomena of fenfible plea-
fure and pain can be deduced from, or explained by it.

Firft

and Aflbciation in general, 35

Firft then. The do6lrine of vibrations feems to
require, that each pain fliould differ from the corre-
fponding and oppofite pleafure, not in kind, but in
degree only ; i. e. that pain lliould be nothing more
than pleafure itfelf, carried beyond a due limit. P'or
of the four differences of vibrations mentioned in the
firft corollary of the foregoing propofition, three are
given, viz. thofe of kind, place, and line of direc-
tion, in the pleafures and pains which correfpond,
as oppofites to each other : there is therefore nothing
left, from whence the difference of fuch pleafures and
pains can arife, except the difference of degree. But
the phsenomena appear to be fufficiendy fuitable to
this reafoning, inafmuch as all pleafure appears to
pafs into pain, by increafing its caufe, impreffion,
duration, fenfibility of the organ upon which it is
impreffed, &c. Thus an agreeable warmth may be
made to pafs into a troublefome, or burning heat, by
increafe, or continuance j and the fame thing holds,
in refpeft of friftion, light, and founds. And as
medicinal bodies appear, from obfervations both phi-
lofophical and vulgar, to be endued with more adive
properties than common aliments j i. e. xo be fitted
for exciting ftronger vibrations; fo their taftes and
fmells are, for the moft part, ungrateful ; whereas
thofe of common aliments are pleafant. It may be
obferved alfo, that fome painful fenfations, as they
decreafe by time, or the removal of the caufe, pafs
into pofitive local pleafures, of the fame fpecies as
the preceding pain ; thus (hewing the near alliance
between pleafure and pain ; and that a mere difference
in degree puts on the appearance of one in kind, at
a certain point. I fuppofe it may be referred to this
head, that fome bitter and acrimonious taftes leave
an agreeable relifli of the fweet kind upon the tongue,
after fome time.

Secondly, It agrees well with the dodrine of vi-
brations, that all evident folutions of continuity in

D 3 the

<^

3^ Of the Doihiues of Vibrations

the living parts occafion pain, inafinuch as a folution
of continuity cannot liappen without a violent imprel-
fion of fome fcnfiblc objtcl, nor, by confequencc,
without violent mutual actions between tlie objecft,
nerves, and .rther. 'ihe folution of continuity does
therefore prefuppofe that degree of violence in the vi-
brations, which exceeds the linnit of pleafure, and is
proper to pain, according to the foregoing paragraph.

I'hirdiy, We tnay, in like manner, give a reafon,
from the doctrine of vibrations, both why a mode*
rate degree of diftention in the parts is neceflary to
their growth, and pleafurable fl:ate ; and alfo why all
great diftentions are attended with pain for a con-
fiderable time, before they are raifed to fuch a pitch
as to caufe a vifible folution of continuity. For a
great diftenfion is equivalent to a vigorous impreflion
of a fenfible objeft, being often caufed by fuch j and
as the fituation of the fmall particles is changed in
great diftentions, their mutual adions will be changed
alfo, and fo may give rife to more vigorous vibra-
tions ; and thefe increafed vibrations may either fall
within the limits of pleafure, or go beyond them, ac-
cording to their degree. We are alfo to confider,
that, in all confiderable diftentions there is an increafe
of fri6lion between the vcficls and circulating fluids,
and confequently of heat, i. e. of vibrations.

But befides this, it feems not in)probable, that in
preternatural and painful diftentions, the fmall par-
ticles are perpetually feparating themfelves from their
former cohefions, and running into new ones ; fo that
a minute and invifible folution of continuity is carried
on during the whole diftention, till fuch time as this
degree of diftention becomes familiar to the parts,
and the fituation and mutual acSlions of the fmall par-
ticles be accommodated to ft. Thus the caufe of the
pain in diftentions will arife from the folution of con-
tinuity, and may be referred to the foregoing head.
And converfely it appears, that in manifeft foiutions

of

and Aflbciation in general, 37

of continuity, occafioned by wounds, burns, &c. there
always arifes in the neighbouring parts, which are
inflamed, a preternatural diftention of the fmali
fibres and veflels ; by which means the pain is re-
newed and continued. Every manifeil folution of
continuity does therefore, according to the explana-
tion of diftention juft laid down, include within itfelf
an infinite number of minute invifible folutions.

Hence we may afk, whether this minute invifible
folution of continuity in the infinitefimal medullary
particles of the brain, is not that common limit, and
middle point, which feparates pleafure from pain, and
of which the vifible folutions of continuity, which are
caufed by external injuries, are a type, and alfo a
means, viz. by propagating violent vibrations up to
the brain. It is iome prefumption in favour of this
pofition, that all conjeftures concerning invifible
things ought to be taken from vifible ones of the
fame kind j alfo that it is particularly fuitable to the
dodrine of vibrations; inafmuch as, laying down this
dodtrine, one may eafily conceive how moderate and
pleafant impreflions may agitate the medullary par-
ticles in fo moderate a degree, as that they fliall again
return to their former fituations and connexions,
when the agitation is over; whereas violent and pain-
ful ones may force the particles from thence, and give
rife to new ones ; /'. e. to the folution of continuity.
And as the body is fo formed, that great and vifible ■
folutions of continuity may be healed again, and the
parts refl:ored, in great meafure, to their primitive
integrity and perfedion, by the power of nature,
unlefs where there is a lofs of fubftance (and yet even
here the fame end is obtained in part) ; fo we may
fuppofe, that the power of nature reflores all minute
folutions of continuity in the conftituent, infinitefimal
particles, almoft inllantaneoufly, and fo that the body
receives no perceptible detriment from fingle in-
ftances, though it probably does from frequent repe-

D 3 titioiiSi

2% Of the Bo^frines cf Vibrations

titions ; agreeably to which, it is generally fiippofed,
that pain, by often returning, impairs the faculties,
both bodily and mental.

I'ourthly, 1 he bones, nails, hair, and cuticle,
may confilU-ntly with the doctrine of vibrations, have
a folution of continuity produced in their parts, with-
out pain enfuing ; for they are hard and therefore in-
capable, as it feems, of receiving and communicating
to the contiguous nerves, and thence to the brain,
vibrations of any confidcrable degree of ftrength. We
are alfo to fuppofc, that in palfies, mortifications, &:c.
changes of texture of fomevvhat a like kind, are pro-
duced, fo as to render tlie parts affe<5led thereby in-
capable of conveying fcnfation to the medullary fub-
ftance of the brain. Okl age, inadivity, inflamma-
tion, pain, &:c. are in like manner to be confidered,
as inducing fuch a degree of condcnfation, fixation,
and callofity, in the medullary fubftance itfelf, as
muft end at lad: in infenfibility and death.

Fifthly, It is not unfuitablc to the do6lrine of vibra-
tions, that the frequent repetition of the fame external
imprefTions fliould iiave die power of converting original
pains into pleafures, and pleafures into mere fenfations,
;. e. into evanefcent pleafures, as we find it has in faft.
For this may be efi^eded by fuch a change in the organ
and brain, as that the organ (hall fend weaker and
weaker vibrations perpetually to the brain, upon every
fuccelTive renewal of the fame imprefTion, and the
brain become perpetually lefs and lefs difpofed to re-
ceive ftrong vibrations, though the power of com-
munication from the imprefTions fhould continue the
fame. It remains therefore to be inquired, what gene-
ral tendencies in the fmall medullary particles, might
difpofe them to undergo fuch changes. And it ap-
pears to me, that a change of the fpheres of attrac-
tion and repulfion in thefe particles, upon every
change in their fituations, fo as always to lean to-
wards the fituation laft fuperinduced, might be fuffi-

cient

and Aflbciation in general. 3g

cient for this purpofe. However, this is a mere fup-
pofition, and 'that of a very reclufe nature. Only
let it be obferved, that the fa6l to be here accounted
for, viz. the decreafe in the efficacy of impreffions
frequently repeated, is , both an evident one, and alfo
muft have its rife from fome powers in the fmall
parts of matter over each other. It muft therefore
admit of an explanation, either from the doflrine of
vibrations, or from fome other law of m.atter and
motion. And if the doctrine of vibrations be found
fuitable to other phasnomena, it may be prefumed not
to be unfuitable to this, till fuch time as fome manifeft
inconfiftency between them Ihall appear.

It ought to be remarked here, that this tranfit of
original pains into pleafures, and of vivid pleafures
into faint ones, by frequent repetition, bears fome
relation to the above-mentioned tranfition of pains
into pofitive local pleafures, of the fame kind with
themfelves.

To this head of confideration may be rer'erred Dr.
Jurin's obfervation, viz. " That when we have been
" for fome time affeded with one fenfation, as foon
" as we ceafe to be fo affedted, a contrary fenfation is
" apt to arife in us, fometimes of itfelf, and fometimes
" from fuch caufes, as at another time would not pro-
" duce that fenfation at all, or, at leaft, not to the
*' fame degree." For the continued impreffion of
the fame objedt will fo fix upon the fenfory nerve,
and region of the brain correfponding thereto, a
tendency to one peculiar fort of vibrations, that an
impreffion of an oppofite, or very diffii^rent fort, muft
do more than ufual violence to the brain, i. e. will
excite a glaring fenfation of an oppofite nature. See
the Inftances mentioned by Dr. Jurin, in his EJfay on
diJlinSi and indijiin^ vifion.

Sixthly, We may account for the different kinds
and degrees of pleafure and pain, from the four
differences of vibrations mentioned above, viz. thofe

D 4 of

40 Of the Doflriiies of Vibrations

of dfgrcf, kind, place, and line of diredion, and
their various combinations with each other, lor it
is obvious to conceive, that thefe combinations may
be fufliciently numerous and dii^inft from each other,
to aniwer to the fafts. If the vibrations go beyond
the common limit of pleafurc and pain in one part
of the brain, at the fame time that they fall fhorc of
it in others, the refult will be a pleafure or p.iin,
according as this or that loit of vibrations prevails;
and if they be nearly equal, it will be difficult to de-
termine of which kind it is. If the vibrations fall a
little Ihort in all the parts, they will generate a high
degree of pleafure; which, however, mufl: be lefs
than the lead general pain, /. <?. fuch a one wherein
the vibrations go beyond the limits in all the parts:
but it may be far greater than partial pains, or than
thofe which afFefl only one j)articular region of the
brain. Hence we may fee, that the pains are in ge-
neral greater than the pleafures ; but then they are
more rare for the fame realbn, being fuch violent
flates as cannot arife from common impreflions. Or,
if we fuppofe the pains to be frequent, they will then
fo far alter the difpofinon of the medullary fubftance,
according to what was faid above, as that many
original pains will be converted into pleafures : which
indeed feems to be the cafe not iinfrequently ; for the
origans of the new-born infant are fo delicate, as to
receive pain from many of thofe impreflions which
afterwards yield pleafure. But then, his fourccs of
pleafure feem to be multiplied more than in propor-
tion to what he fulFers by this previous paffage
through pain.

In certain cafes of excefTive pains, the violent
vibrations appear at lafl: to excite a latent altradive
power in the medullary particle?, in the manner here-
after to be defcribed, in refpe6t of tlie fibres of the
mufcles and membranes, which puts a (top to thofe
very vibrations that excited if. Hence faintings and

ftupors.

and AlTociation in general. 41

ftupors, i. e. the ceffation of pain from violent pains.
However, a greater degree of vibrations is probably
required for exciting this attra6live power in the me-
dullary particles than in white fibres, and in white
fibres than in red ones, as will appear hereafter.

It follows alfo, from the principles here laid down,
that all the pkafures, though particularly different
from each other, ought to have a general refemblance,
in their circumftances and confequences : and the
pains likewife.

Seventhly, All the mere fenfations, which enter
the mind by the five external fcnfes, admit of a gene-
ral analyfis, upon the fame principles as the pleafures
and pains do. For all the mere fenfations were, in
their original flate, either pleafures or pains, and
vary now from their original (late only by the dimi-
nution of the degree. Let therefore all the differences
of kind, place, and line of diredtion, be combined
in all their varieties, the degree being fuppofed every
where evanefcent ; and we fhall have all the particular
vibrations from whence each mere fenfation arifes.
This is the general account. But it is a moft difficult
problem to explain, by what differences of kind the
particular fenfations, either of the fam.e, or of different
lenfes, are diftinguifhed from each other.

It feems probable to me, that the limits of the
(tvQn primary colours, viz. the extreme red, the
limit of the red and orange, of the orange and
yellow, yellow and green, green and blue, blue
and indigo, indigo and violet, and the extreme vio-
let, excire vibrations in the optic nerve, whole
times are proportional to the times of vibration of
a firing which founds the notes in order, according
to the key mentioned by Sir IJaac Newton in his Op-
Hcsy i. e. the notes D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D. This
hypothefis affords at leaft a probable reafon for the
feveral very particular breadths of the primary co-
lours,

42 Of the DoRr'tnes of Vibrations

lours, in the prifinatic oblong image of the fun, as
I lliall endeavour to llu'w in its place, Prop. 56.

If the frequency of llie vibrations excited by the
fcvcral fapid and odorous bodies in the nerves of the
tongue and membrana Icrlineideriana, could be dif-
covered, it is not improbable but this would be a clue
to lead us into the inner conftitution of natural bodies,
fince one may reafonably luppofe, that each fapid and
odorous body excites vibrations of the fame frequency
as thofe which take place in it before it is tailed or
fmeit to.

The lolution of the fame problem, in the feveral
fenfes, might alfo a little unfold to us the different
internal llru6ture of the feveral nerves, and of the
parts of the brain that correfpond thereto. l<'or it
feems probable to me, that each nerve and region
is originally fitted to receive, and, as one may fay,
fympathize with, fuch vibrations as are likely to be
impreffed upon them in the various incidents of life ;
and not that the auditory 'nerve could perform the
office of the optic, if put into its place, or vice verfd,
&c. according to Raw.

Eighthly, it is obferved by medical writers, that
pain is apt to excite a contraction in the fibres of the
neighbouring membranes. Now this is very agree-
able to that power which fenfory vibrations have, in
general, over the red fiefhy mufcles, for contracting
them in the manner to be defcribed hereafter. For
fince vibrations of a middle flrength, by defcending
into the red fibres of the mufcles, are fufficicnt to
contract them in the ordinary funCtions and aflions
of life, it is not unrealbnable to expeft, that the
ftronger vibrations which attend pain, fliould be fuf-
ficient to contraCt the pale fibres of membranes, though
thefe be in themfclves of a lefs contra6tile difpofition.

It is agreeable to this, that titillation and itching,
which lie, as it were, upon the confines of ])leafure
and pain, are more apt to diffufe themfelves over the

neighbouring

and Affociation in general. 43

neighbouring parts than pain. For titillation and
itching only agitate the fmall particles of the mem-
branes, and therefore run along their furfaces, by the
fucceffive communication of thefe agitations ; whereas
pain, by contracting the fibres, puts a flop to thefe
agitations, and confequently to its own diffufion over
the neighbouring parts.

Ninthly, Extreme and pointed parts, fuch as the
extremity of the nofe, the uvula, the epiglottis,
the nipples, and the ends of the fingers, are in ge-
neral more fubjeft to irritation, itching, and inflamma-
tion, and endued with a greater degree of fenfibility
than the other parts. Now this phsenomenon agrees
with the doftrine of vibrations, inafmuch as fuch
parts muft, according to the Newtonian hypothefis,
be furrounded with an sether of a greater denfity than
that within their pores, and which alfo grows denfer
and denfer, in a regular manner. For one may con-
ceive, that the vibrations communicated to this denfer
aether, will be ftronger in proportion to its denfity ;
and confequently, that they will agitate the fmall par-
ticles of the extreme parts alfo with vibrations ftronger
than ordinary.

It is true, indeed, that the fenfibility of each part
does depend, in great meafure, on the number, ftruc-
ture, and difpofition of the nervous papillas, which
are the immediate organ in the fenfes of feeling,
tafte, and fmell ; but then we may remark, that the
fame obfervation holds in refpeft of thefe nervous
papillfE. For they are alfo extreme and pointed parts,
and that efpecially, if we fuppofe, which feems pro-
bable, that when any part is in a ftate of exquifite
fenfibility, the nervous papillae are ereded (in fome
fuch manner as the hairs of the neck and back in cer-
tain animals, when enraged), fo as to recede from
each other, and confequently, to admit the denfer
asther between them. They may alfo, upon the fame
occafions, be made turgid, by the conftriftion of

their

44 Of the Doflrhes of Vibrations

their bafcs, arul thus have their iVnfibility, or power
of rt'Cfivinj; vibrations, increaled by ciiftcnrion.

We ipay remark liJcewifc, in piufiiing this method
of realbning, tliat the athcr whicli lies contiguous, to
the metlullary fubflance in the ventricles of the brain,
is denfer than that which lies in the meiiullary fub-
ftance itfelf. May we not therefore conje(5lure, that
one ufe of the cavitie<; of the ventricles is to increafe
and keep up all the vibrations propagated from the
external nerves into the medullary llibdance of the
brain, by means of the denfer rether lodged in thole
cavities ; that blood and lerum extravafatcd, and
lying in the ventricles, luflbcatc fenfations, by ex-
cluding this denfer jEther as well as by prcfling on
the medullary fubftance ; and, laftly, that thofe
brutes whole olfa<5lory nerves have cavities within
them continued from the ventricles, are more acute
than men, in perceiving odours, and diftinguifhing
them from each other, in parr, upon this account ?
Boerbaave is, indeed, of opinion, that the oppofite
fklcs of the ventricle always touch each other, fo as to
leave no cavity. But it feems more reafonable to
fuppofe, that a fubtle vapour, which is exhaled from
the veflels of the inverting membrane, and whofe
particles, like the vapour of water, have a repulfive
power, in refpcft of each other, prevents the abfo-
lute mutual conta6t of the oppofite fides, in com-
mon cafes. And the fame thing is favoured by the
experiments tried upon the Parifian beggar. Since
the brain in him could be fomewhat prefled in, it
feems that the fkuU was not entirely full before.

PROP.

and Aflbclation in general, js^^

PROP. VII.

'The Pbcmcmena of Sleep appear to he very Juitahle to
the Dotlrine of Vibrations.

Here I obJerve, firft, that new-born children
fleep almpft always. Now this may be acccounted
for by the do6lrine of vibrations, in the following
manner : the foetus fleeps always, having no fenfa-
tion from without imprelTed upon it, and only be-
comes awake upon its entrance into a new world,
viz. by means of the vigorous vibrations which are
i«)prefled ypon it. It is reafonable therefore to ex-
pert, that the new-born child (hould fall back into
its natural (late of fleep, as foon a? thefe vibrations
ceafe, and return again to a ftate of vigilance, only
from the renewal of vigorous impreflionsj and foon-
alternately, agreeably to the fad.

Secondly, Even adults are difpofed to fleep, when
the impieffions of external objefts are excluded, and
their bodies kept in a ftate of reft, for the fame
reafons as thofejuft mentioned '\^ the fimilar ftate of
young children. However, they incline more to vi-
gilance than children, partly becaufe their folids and
fluids are more aftive, and lefs compreflible, i. e,
more fufceptible and retentive of vibrations j and
partly, becaufe aflbciation brings in perpetual trains
of ideas, and confequently of vibrations, fufiiciently
vivid to keep up vigilance in common cafes.

Thirdly, Having prefented the reader with the
two foregoing obfervations, which are of a very
obvious kind, I will now inquire vv?ith more minute-
nefs, into the intimate and precife nature of fle^p.
It appears then, that, during fleep, the blood is
accumulated in the veins, and particularly in the venal
iinufes which furround the brain and fpinal m.arrow ;
and alfo, that it is rarefisd, at leaft for the moft part.

For

46 Of the DoHr'ines of Vibrations

For as the ac^Vioris of the nuifcles ri]ucczc the blood
out of the veins during vigilance, lo tlieir inactivity
during flcep futVers the blood to lodge in the veins;
and the decumbent pollure, which is common to ani-
mals in deep, fulfcrs it to lodge particularly in the
venal finufes of the brain antl jpinal marrow. And
it is agreeable to this, that, in moll dillcdions, the
blood is found chiefly in the veins, and, in diflec-
tions after lethargies, apoplexies, &c. the venal
finufes of the brain, and confequcntly thofe of the
fpinal marrow, which communicate freely with tliem,
arc particularly full. As to the rarefadion of the
blood, it follows from the warmth of the body,
which is an ufual attendant upon fleep, and is caufed
by the reft of the body, the warmth of the place
where the perfon Heeps, the coverings, and the fer-
mentative difpctfition of the frefh chyle, which then
enters the blood. It follows therefore, that the brain
and fpinal marrow will be particularly comprefled
during fleep, fince the blood then takes up more
fpace, is particularly accumulated within the cavities
of the fkull and vertebrse, and the hardnefs of thefe
bones will not fuffer them to yield or make more
room. It follows alfo, that the fofcnefs of the me-
dullary fubftance will fubjedt it to the effedts of this
compreflion, more than the cortical ; fo that, if we
fuppofe its fundtions to confift in receiving, retaining,
and communicating vibrations, it will be rendered
peculiarly unfit for thefe fundions, from the com-
prefTion here mentioned, i. e. the animal will be
indifpofed to fenfation and motion, agreeably to
obfervation.

There are many other arguments which might be
brought to fliew, that during fleep, and fleepy dif-
tempers, the brain is particularly comprefled, if it
were necefl^ary. But the inftance of the Pariftan
beggar, above noted, is mod to this purpofe. Thi*.
perfon had a perforation in his flvull, which did not

oflify i

- and Aflbciation m general. 47

offifyi whence, by external prcffure upon that part,
the internal regions of the brain might be affeded 5
and it was conftantly obferved, that, as the prefTure
increafed, he grew more and more fleepy, and at lafl: .
fell into a temporary apoplexy.

In young children, there feems to be a conftant
moderate preflure of the fkull upon the brain. For
the brain is of a great relative magnitude in them,
and, by its endeavour to expand itfelf, it keeps the
futures from uniting too firmly, till fuch time as it is
arrived at its full growth. It muft therefore be com-
prefled in return, by the re-a6lion of the fkull. And
this may be confidered as a circumftance, which con-
curs to render young children more apt to fleep than
adults. When old perfons are fleepy, it is a morbid
affection, and may arife either from an hydropical
difpofition, whereby the turgefcence of the neigh-
bouring parts comprefTes the medullary fubftance;
or from a defe<5l of nutrition in this fubftance, which
renders it foft and compreffible in a preternatural de-
gree. If the venal finufes, and other blood velTcls,
of the brain, be, by any accident preternaturally dif-
tended, and continue fo for a confiderable time, they
will fcarce ever recover their priftine tone and dimen-
fionsj and this fo much the more, as the perfon
approaches to old age.

For the fame reafon, as the medullary fubftance
within the fkull and vertebrae is comprefled during
fleep, that of the ganglions, plexufes, and trunks
of the nerves in other parts of the body, will be
comprefled alfo, though in a lefs degree. For this
fubftance has no blood or grofs fluids within it, and
is far the fofceft of all the parts of the body i and
the membranes, which inveft all the parts of the bo-
dy, perform the fame office to them, in a lefs degree,
as the flsuU does to the brain, /'. e. check their diften-
tion. The furrounding membranes muft therefore
comprefs the foft medullary fubftance in the gan-
glions.

\

4l Of the Dctlr'mes cf Vibrations

glions, plcxiilVs, and trunks of the nerves, during
flcep, on account o( the rarefaction of the humours
at th;it tiiiic; wlience, according to the dodrine of
vibrations, Jcnfory ones can neither afccnd freely from
the fxtern.il organs to the brain, nor motoiy ones
defcend into the limbs, /. e. the animal will be in-
lenfible and inadive, as it is found to be in faft.

Is it not probable, that, as fleep comes on, the
oppofitc fides of the ventticles of the brain approach
towards each other, on account of the comprefTion
here alfcrtcd ; alfo, that they become contiguous at
the inltant of lleep, excluding the denfer aether,
mentioned in t!ie foregoing pjopofition, thereby ?
Bv this me.iiis, the power of fenfation would receive
a remarkable diminution at the inflant of falling
afleep, as it leems to do. There might alfo in cer-
tain circumftanccs, arile a very vivid exertion of the
perceptive and motive faculties at thiit inftant, from
the cou.prefTion of the aithrr previous to its rare-
fa6lion, foch as would account for the fudden terrors
and rtartings which happen at the inftant of going to
fleep, in lome morbid cafes.

Fourthly, It is obferved, that vigilance continued
fatigue, and pain, all difpol'e ftrongly to fleep. For
all vigorous or lonai-continued vibrations muft both
generate heat, whereby the blood and juices will be
rarefied, fo as to com.prefs the medullary fubftance,
and alfo exhault this fubftance of its fluid and adive
particles, fo as to render it more eafily comprefllbie,
and Icfs fufceptible and retentive of vibrations. Great
degrees of heat feem to produce an extraordinary pro-
penficy to fleep, in nearly the fame way.

And when perfons expofed to extreme cold are
overcome by a pleafing, but fatal fleep, it feemr. as if
the internal parts were aftxffted with a preternatural
warmth, from the vigorous fenfations and concomi-
tant vibrations imprellcd on the external parts by
the cold, and thence afcending to \!vit brain. It agrees

with

and Aflbciation in general. 45

with the hypothefis here propofed, that thefe uneafy
fenfations decline by degrees, till they fall within the
limits of pleafure, and, at laft, end in infenfibility.
This fleep may prove fatal, from the great difference
between the internal and external parts, in refped: of
heat J alfo from the cold's penetrating farther and
farther. Mufcular motion may prevent it, and its ill
effeds, partly as the veins are emptied by this, partly
as it warms the external parts, and cools the internal,
from the return of the cool blood into the courfe of
the circulation. If we fuppofe the circulation to ceale
entirely, at the furface of the body from the cold,
then will warm blood circulate through the internal
parts alone ; and thefe parts will continue to be de-
fended from the cold by the external ones, for a
time. And thus the body will approach to the com-
mon ftate of a perfon going to fleep.

It is eafy to fee, from the method of reafoning
here ufed, how perfons recovering from long illnelTes
fhould be much difpofed to fleep, viz. from the ex-
hauftion of the medullary fubftance, their almofl: con-
fl:ant reft, their being kept warm, and the frequent
taking fuftenance, fo as to beget great quantities of
frefli chyle, and confequently, an extraordinary de-
gree of a fermentative heat.

Fifthly, The manner in which opiates produce
fleep may be thus explained, agreeably to the doc-
trine of vibrations. Opiates' evidently excite grateful
fenfations in the ftomach and bowels. This appears
from the fliort time in which liquid opiates take
efFed j and even from immediate and direft fenfa-
tions : a perfon may even feel, that the ftomach is
the feat of the pleafurable impreflions made by
opiates. We are to fuppofe therefore, that vivid
vibrations, which, however, lie within the limits of
pleafure, afcend perpetually from the ftomach and
bowels along the par vagum, and intercoftal nerves,
up to the brain and fpinal marrow, diifufe themfelves

Vol. I. E over

^o Of the Do^rines of Vibrations

over thefc*, and from thence defccnd along the nerves
into all the parts of the body. Hence it follows,
that they will obicure and ovcr-powt*r all moderate
fenfalions, or vibrations, which liibfifted before, or
which external objcifls may from time to time endea-
vour to excite, and introduce a general pleafurable
ftate over ttic whole nervous fyflem j with trains of
pleafuiable ideas, in the manner to be explained here-
after, wlien we come to treat of ideas, their genera-
tions, aflbciations, and dependencies on bodily dates.
During this pleafurable ftate, the body will of courfe
be compofed to lell j rcftlcffnefs, tofiings, and
changes of pofturc, being caufed, for the raoft
part, by uneafy fenfations. Hence the blood will be
accumulated in the veins and venal finufes, and grow
warm both from the vigorous vibrations excited by
the opiate, and from the ablolute reft of the body.
For abfolute reft conduces, in a peculiar manner, to
make the body grow warm, by the heat rtfledted
from the contiguous coverings; as, on the contrary,
the flighteft motions frequently returning, ventilate
and cool the parts. And thus the comprefTion of
the medullary fubftance requifite for fleep, will be
induced by the aiftion of the opiate upon the ftomach
and bowels.

But, befides this, we may conceive, that the opiate
particles excite vibrations of the fame kind in all the
parts of the body, after they are taken into the blood,
and circulate with it, till fuch time as, by a perfedt
afTimilation, they lofe all their peculiar qualities.

It feems alfo, that the continued defcent of vibra-
tions, from the brain, and fpinal marrow, into the
limbs, and external parts, agitates them fo much, as to
render them unfit for receiving fenfation and motion,
in the fame manner as continued fridiion of the head,
when newly ftiaved, or fliaking the hand, occafion
a kind of numbnefs in the head and hand refpec-
tively. For a diforder raifcd in the motory nerves,

and

and AiTociatlon in general. 51

and mufcular fibres, analogous to nunnbnefs in the
fenfory nerves, and fentienc papilla, muft produce
ineptitude to motion. It feems therefore, that the
infenfibilicy and immobility which proceed from
opiates, and which concur in haftening the fleep, and
increafing its degree, arife in great part from this
caufe. The numbnefs, and - paralytic weakneffes,
which frequendy fucceed after opiates, are evidences
for what is here alleged.

Opium feems to have an intermediate degree of
aftivity between narcotics, or ftupefying poifons, on
one hand, and grateful aliments, particularly vinous
liquors, on the other. Narcotics operate fo vio-
lendy on the ftomach and bowels, the brain, and
the external parts, as to bring confufion on the fen-
fations, and trains of ideas, and convulfions on the
mufcular fyftem. And that thefe effefls are pro-
duced by a local influence on the ttomach, in the
manner propofed concerning opiates, appears, be-
caufe they ceafe, or abate much, foon after the nar-
cotic is ejefted by vomiting ; alfo becaufe whipping
a dog, after he has taken the nux vomica, contri-
butes to obviate its ill efFedls. Wines, and grateful
aliments, difpofe to fleep, partly by their immediate
,efFe<5ts on the fl:omach, partly by their effefts after
they are abforbed. But the degree not being fo great
as in opiates, it may more eafily be overcome by a
variety of common or vigorous impreflionsj in which
cafe the vivid vibrations excited by the wine, or
aliment, will illuminate all the imprefljons, and
add ftrength to all the motions. The fame thing is
obferved of opiates, in thofe who take them fre-
quendy.

Sixthly, Chylification, fanguification, nutrition,
and growth, feem to proceed befl: during fleep. This
may be conjeflured from the fleepinefs of all animals
after eating, fince fleep and chylification, &c. mufl:
here concur; and from the almoft conftant fleep of

E z new

52 Of the DoHriHes of Vibrations

new-born children, above taken notice of, fince na-
ture fecms chiefly intent on the due performance of
thcfc fun(ftions, for fomc time after birth. Now the
doctrine of vibrations may be made to illuftrate thefe
points, in fome meafurc. For fince refpiration be-
comes ftfong and convulfive at the inftant of going
to fleep, it will renew and increafe the vibrations ex-
cited in tlic nerves of the ilomach and bowels by
their contents, which we mud fuppofe to have lan-
guiflied before, in the fame manner as thofe which
fubfilted in the external fenfes. The organs of di-
gellion therefore, as well as thofe of refpiration, are
in a ftate of vigilance, and are intent upon the per-
formance of their proper functions, while the other
parts are in a fbate of fleep and inaction, and recruit-
ing, in order to perform their fun(5tions in a due
manner, upon a return of vigilance. And this holds
moCl particularly in refpedl of the medullary fub-
(tance of the brain, fpinal marrow, and nerves, which,
by the confent of all, is the chief inftrument of
nutrition and growth. Since the vibrations which
take place in it during fleep are languid, it will
then be filled and recruited, and confequently fitted
for nutrition and growth ; which will be farther
favoured by the concurrence of a complete chylifi-
cation and fanguification, at the fame time.

The increafed convulfive refpiration, and increafed
force of the heart, which take place at the inftant
of going to fleep, and continue frequently during
fleep, may perhaps be thus accounted tor, agreeably
to the dodlrine of vibrations. When vivid vibrations
ceafe in the external fenfes, and regions of the brain
belonging to them, alfo in the mufcles of the limbs,
and parts of the fpinal marrow correfponding thereto,
this abatement of vibrations muft either extend
to the whole medullary fubftance, which feems to be
the cafe in the night-mare j or if the nerves of the
heart, and organs of refpiration, and the regions of

the

and Aflbciation in general. 53

the brain and fpinal marrow correfponding thereto,
be exempted, they may be agitated even with more vi-
gorous vibrations, on account of the abatement in the
other parts, becaufe the vibrations raifed in thefe
regions during deep, by fuch of their caufes as take
place then, will be hindered from difFufing themfelves
freely, and abating their own force thereby, as foon
as the other regions are collapfed and compreffed.
Thefe caufes are, fir ft, the heat of the blood, and
pulfation of the arteries of the medullary fubftance;
both which, when increafed on any account, muft far-
ther increafe themfelves by a reflefted influence, fince
both increafe the force of the heart. Secondly, the
fulnefs and diftention of the lungs. Thefe arife
from the rarefadion of the blood, and accumulation
of it in the veins juft before fleep (at which time re-
spiration is languid), and muft at laft ftimulate the
organs of refpiration to a vigorous exertion of them-
felves, /'. e. raife vigorous vibrations in the region
of the brain correfponding thereto, juft as in the cafes
of fighing, and recovering from the night-mare.
Thirdly, we may fuppofe, that the heart, and muf-
cles of refpiration, do not exert themfelves during
vigilance, with a degree of force at all approaching
to their utmoft powers, as the limbs do^ and there-
fore, that they, and the correfponding regions of
the brain, may be qualified for a vigorous exertion
during fleep. Fourthly, an increafe in the force of
refpiration muft alio increafe the force with which
the heart moves, becaufe it propels the blood in
greater quantities upon the heart. Fifthly, an in-
creafe of force in the heart muft increafe both itfcif,
and the aclion of refpiration, becaufe the blood vef-
fels of the heart and organs of refpiration are par-
ticularly near to the heart, and therefore muft be
particularly under its influence.

Corollary i. By laying together what has been
delivered concerning fleep, in this propofition, the

E 3 diflx;rence

54 ^/ ^^^ Do^ruics of Vibrations

difference between the ftates of lleep and vigil.ince
may be thus fct before the reader, in one view. In
flccp, the nerves of the five external fenfes are in-
difpofed to receive vibrations, and the objecHis them-
felvcs arc either abfcnt, or impreflcd feebly. The
nerves of the llomacli and bowels fympathize with
thefc at fird, but recover thcmfelves at the inflant of
fleep, the wnpreflions of the aliment, &c. being then
made with unukial vigour ; and this continues during
ihc time of fleep. In like manner the mufcular fyffcem
becoines inadlive in general ; the heart, however, and
mufclcs of refpiration, are excepted, and even exert
theinlclves with an extraordinary degree of force.
The blood is rarefied fo as to take up more fpace upon
the whole ; and as there is more in the veins, and
particularly in thofc of the brain, and fpinal marrow,
than in a flate of vigilance, the medullary fubftance
is hereby expofcd to a conflunt uniform comprefTion j
whereas, in vigilance, tlie a6lion of the mufcles
fqucezes the blood out of the ve?ns, and cools it, un-
Icfs this aclion be violent, or long continued. The
glands are filled during fleep, and confequently, by
drawing off from the fulnefs of the blood veflTels,
prepare the body for vigilance, and are themfelves
fitted for the fundlions to be then performed, i. e. to
excrete their proper fluids from mufcular compref-
fion, or vibrations running up their excretory du6ts,
in the manner to be hereafter explained. The medul-
lary fubftance is, in like manner, fitted and prepared
for vigilance, whether it be of a glandular nature, or
not. However, fome vibrations mufl: take place in
it throughout, and they are particularly vivid in the
regions correfponding to the heart, organs of refpi-
ration, and organs of digeftion ; alfo in the regions
correfponding to the eye and ear, where they excite
the trains of images which are prefented to us in our
dreams. But the nature of. thefe cannot be unfolded
till we have treated of ideas, their generation and

affociations.

and Aflbciation in genera!. 55

affociations, and the nature of true and erroneous
judgments, aflent, diflent, imagination and memory.

Cor. 2. It appears alfo to follow, from the fore-
going account of fleep, and the effe6t of heat, la-
bour, piain, and opiates, in difpofing to it, that, in
many cafes of fleep, the medullary fubftance tends
to a fubde kind of inflammation, and~ is preferved
from it, and refl:ored to its natural ftate, and degree
of heat, by means of fleep fufficiently condnued.
Thus, in the accefs of mofl: fevers, the patient is
jiftlefs and fleepy, the external fenfes, mufcles, and
brain, being aff^ecled, in fome refpedls, as by opiates.
If the patient fleeps, the diftemper is cut fhort; but
if the fubtle inflammation be fo great as to prevent
that, the diftemper increafes, and comes to its period
in fome other way, according to the nature of the
fever, and circumftances .of the patient. In a coma
vigil it feems to me, that the approach of the oppo-.
fite fides of the ventricles excites fuch violent vibra-
tions, on account of the inflammation of the medul-
lary fubftance, perhaps of thefe fides particularly, as
to awake the patient, and throw him into great con-
fufion and confternation. In a frenzy, the medul-
lary fubftance irfelf feems to labour under an acute
temporary inflammation, the other parts having often
no more than a due heat, whereas, in the delirium
of a fever, the medullary fubftance orily fympathizes
with the other parts. If the inflammation of the me-
dullary fubftance be very fubtle, moderate, and per-
manent, madnefs of fome fpecies enfues. And it
feems to agree very well with the theory here pro-
pofed, that in deliriums, frenzies, and fome kinds
of madnefs, the patient does not fleep at all, or, if he
does, in a quiet manner, is freed from his diftemper;
and that, in other kinds of madnefs, and in cafes of
melancholy, the fleep is very deep, and the patient
extremely fluggifli.

E 4 SECT.

56 Of the Boiirines of Vibrations

SECT. II.

OF IDEAS, THEIR GENERATION AND ASSOCIA-
TIONS ; AND OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE DOC-
TRINE OF VIBRATIONS WITH THE PHENOMENA
OF IDEAS.

PROP. VIII.

Se)ifationSy hy being often repeated^ leave certain Vefliges,
TvpeSt or Images, of them/elves, which may be called.
Simple Ideas of Senfation.

I TOOK notice in the introduflion, that thofe
ideas which refemble fenfations were called ideas
of rcnfation; and alio that they might be called

fimplc ideas, in refpedl of the intellectual ones which
are formed from them, and of whofe very eflence it
is to be complex. But the ideas of fenfation are not
entirely fimple, fince they muft confift of parts both
co-exiftent and fuccefTive, as the generating fenfations
themfelves do.

Now, that the fimple idens of fenfation are thus
generated, agreeably to the propofition, appears, be-
caufe the mod vivid of thefc ideas are thofe where the
correfponding fenfations are mod vigoroufly im-

/prefTed, or mofl: frequently renewed ; whereas, if the
fenfation be faint, or uncommon, the generated idea
is alfo faint in proportion, and, in extreme cafes,
evanefcent and imperceptible. The exad obfervance
of the order of place in vifible ideas, and of the or-
der of time in audible ones, may likewife ferve to
(hew, that thefe ideas are copies and offsprings of
the Imprefficns r.iade on the eye and ear, in which

the

and Aflbciatlon in general. 57

the fame orders were obferved refpedtively. And
though it happens, that trains of vifible and audible
ideas are prefented in fallitrs of the fancy, and in
dreams, in which the order of time and place is
different from that of any former impreflions, yet the
fmall component parts of thefe trains are copies of
former impreflions ; and reafons may be given for
the varieties of their compofitions.

It is alfo to be obferved, that this propofition bears
a great refemblance to the third ; and that, by this
refemblance, they fomewhat confirm and illuftrate
one another. According to the third propofition,
fenfations remain for a fhort time after the imprefljorM
is removed ; and thefe remaining fenfations growl
feebler and feebler, till they vanifh. They are there-
fore, in fome part of their declenfion, of about the
fame ftrength with ideas, and, in their firlt ftate, are
intermediate between fenfations and ideas. And it
feems reafonable to exptdl, that, if a fingle fenfation
can leave a perceptible effe<ft, trace, or veftige, for
a fhort time, a fufficient repetition of a fenfation
may leave a perceptible eifedt of the fame kind, but
of a more permanent nature, i. e. an idea, which
fhall recur occafionally, at long diflances of time,
from the impreflion of the correfponding fenfation,
and vice verjd. As to the occafions and caules, which
make ideas recur, they will be confidered in the next
propofition but one.

The method of reafoning ufed in the laft para-
graph, is farther confirmed by the following circum-
flance j viz. that 'both the diminutive declining fen-
fations, which remain for a fhort fpace after the im-
pjeflTions of the objefts ceafe, and the ideas, which
are the copies of fuch imprefTions, arc far more
diftin6t and vivid, in refpe6t of vifible and audible
impreflions, than of any others. To which it may be
added, that, after travelling, hearing m.ufick, &c.
trains of vivid ideas are very apt t® recur, which cor-

refpond

^8 Of the Doilrines of Vibrations.

refpond very exa6lly to the late imprefllons, and
which are of an intermediate nature between the re-
maining Icnfations of ilie third propofition, in their
grcatcll vigour, and the ideas mentioned in this.

The fcnlations of feehng, tafte, and fmell, can
fcarcc be faid to leave ideas, unlefs very indiftind
and obfcure ones. However, as analogy leads one
to fuppule, that thefe fenfcuions may leave traces of
the fame kind, though not in the fame degree, as
thofe of fight and iiearing; lb the readinefs with
which we reconnoitre fenfations of feeling, tafte, and
fmell, that have been often imprelTed, is an evidence,
that they do lb ; and thefe generated traces or difpo-
fiiions of mind may be called the ideas of feeling,
tafte, and fmell. In fleep, when all our ideas are
magnified, thofe of feeling, tafte, and fmell, are often
fufficiently vivid and diftiniSt ; and the fame thing
happens in fome few cafes of vigilance.

PROP. IX.

Senfory Vibrations^ by being often repeated^ beget in the
medullary Subjlauce of the Brain^ a Difpojition to dimi-
nutive Vibrations^ which may alfo be called Vibra-
tiuncles and Miniatures, correfponding to themfelves
refpe^ively.

This correfpondence of the diminutive vibrations
to the original fenfory ones, confifts in this, that they
agree in kind, place, and line of direflion j and diflfer
only in being more feeble, i. e. in degree.

This propofition follows from the foregoing. For
fince fenfations, by being often repeated, beget ideas,
it cannot but be that thofe vibrations, which accom-
pany fenfations, fhould beget fomething which may
accompany ideas in like manner; and this can be no-
thing but feebler vibrations, agreeing with the lenfory

generating

and Aflbciation in general. 59

generating vibrations in kind, place, and line of
direflion.

Or thus : By the firft propofition it appears, that
fome motion muft be excited in the medullary fub-
ftance, during each fenlation j by the fourth, this
motion is determined to be a vibratory one : fince
therefore fome motion muft alfo, by the fecond, be
excited in the medullary fubftance during the pre-
fence of each idea, this motion cannot be any other
than a vibratory one : elfe how fhould it proceed
from the original vibration attending the fenfation, in
the fame manner as the idea does from the fenfation
itfelf ? It muft alfo agree in kind, place, and line of
direftion, with the generating vibration. A vibratory
motion, which recurs / times in a fecond, cannot be-
get a diminutive one that recurs 1/, or 2/ times; nor
one originally imprefled on the region of the brain
correfponding to the auditory nerves, beget diminu-
tive vibrations in the region correfponding to the
optic nerves ; and fo of the reft. The line of direc-
tion muft likewife be the fame in the original and
derivative vibrations. It remains therefore, that each
ftmple idea of fenfation be attended by diminutive
vibrations of the fame kind, place, and line of di-
rection, with the original vibrations attending the
fenfation itfelf: or, in the words of the propofition,-
that fenfory vibrations, by being frequently repeated,
beget a difpofition to diminutive vibrations corre-
fponding to themfelves refpedtiveiy. We may add,'
that the vibratory nature of the motion which at-
tends ideas, may be inferred from the continuance of
fome ideas, vifible ones for inftance, in the fancy for
a few moments.

This proof of the prefent propofition from the
foregoing, appears to.be inconteftable, admitting the
fourth : however, it will much eftablilh and illuf-
trate the dodrines of vibrations and aftbciationj to
deduce it direftly, if we can, from the nature of vi-
bratory

Co Of the DoHrinei of Vibrntions

bratory motions, and of an animal body ; and not
only fioin the relation between fenlations and ideas.
Let us lee, therefore, what pio^rcfii wc can make in
luch an attempt.

Fiill, then, if we admit vibrations of tlie me-
dullary particles at all, we mult conceive, that fomc
take place in the fcvtus in utero, both on account
of the .warmth in which it lies, and of the pulfation
of thofe confiderablc arteries, which pafs through
the medullary kibitance, and wiiich conlequently muft
comprefs ajid agitate it upon every contra6tion of
the heart. And thcfe vibrations are probably either
uniform in kind and degree, if we confider fliort
ipaces of time ; or, if long ones, increafe in a (low
uniform manner, and that in degree only, as the
fcclus in utero increaies in bulk and ftrength. They
are alio probably the fame in all the different regions
of the medullary fubdance. Let thefe vibrations be
called the natural vibrations.

Secondly, As foon as the child is born, external
objects act upon it violently, and excite vibrations
in the medullary fubttance, which differ from the
natural ones, and from each other, in degree, kind,
place, and line of direftion. We may alfo conceive,
that each region of the medullary fubftance has
fuch a texture as to receive, with the greateft facility,
the feveral fpecific vibrations, which the objecfts
correfponding refpedively to thefe regions, /. e. to
their nerves are molt difpofed to excite. Let thefe
vibrations be, for the prefent, called •preternatural ones,
in contradiftinction to thofe which we juft now called
natural ones.

Thirdly, Reprefenting now the natural vibrations
by iV, and the preternatural ones, from various ob-
je6t^, by y^, 5, C, &:c. let us fuppofe the firft object
to imprcfs the vibrations A, and then to be removed.
It is evident from the nature of vibratory motions,
that the n[iedullary fubftance will not, immediately

upon

and Aflbciation in general, 61

upon the removal of this objed, return to its natural
flate Nj but will remain, for a fhorc fpace of time,
in the preternatural ftate A, and pafs gradually from
A to N. Suppofe the fame object to be imprefled
again and again, for a fufficient number of times, and
it feems to follow, that the medullary fubftance will
be longer in pafTing from A to iV, after the fecond
impreffion, than after the firft, after the third imprcf-
(ion than fecond, &c. till, at lafl-, it will not return
to its natural original ftate of vibrations JV^at all, but
remain in the preternatural ftate Ay after the vibra-
tions have fallen to a diminutive pitch, their kind
and place, or chief feat, and their line of direc-
tion, continuing the fame. This ftate may therefore
be fitly denoted by ^, and being now in the place of
the natural ftate N, it will be kept up by the heat of
the medullary fubftance, and the pulfation of its ar-
teries. All this feems to follow from the above-men-
tioned difpofition of animal bodies to accommodate
themfelves to, and continue in, almoft any ftate that
is often imprefled j which is evident from innumer-
able both common and medical obfervations, what-
ever be determined concerning the manner of explain-
ing and accounting for thefe fa6l:s. For the alter-
ations which habit, cuftom, frequent impreflion, &c.
make in the fmall conftituent particles, can fcarce be
any thing befides alterations of the diftances, and
mutual a(5lions, of thefe particles ; and thefe laft
alterations muft alter the natural tendency to vi-
brate. We muft, however, here refume the fup-
pofition made in the laft paragraph, viz. that the
feveral regions of the brain have fuch a texture as
difpofes them to thofe fpecific vibrations, which are
to be imprefled by the proper obje<fl^s in the events
of life. And this will much facilitate and accelerate
the tranfition of the ftate A^ into a-y fince we are to
fuppofe a predifpofition to the ftate Ay or a.

It

62 Of the Do^hines of Vibrations

It will foinewhat illuftratc and confirm this reafon-
ing, to remark, that mufical firings always accom-
modaie themfclves to, and lean towards, the flatc
into which they were lall put. Thus the tone of a
mufical ftring either rifes or falls upon altering its
tcnfion, according as the preceding tenfion was
greater or Icfs than its prefent tenfion. Now the
fmall component parts of a mufical (Ling muft re-
cede from, and approach to each other, i. e. muft
ofcillate lengthways, during every tranfverfc ofcilla-
tion of the tiring. And this muft arife from the
mutual influences of the component particles tending
to their lalt fujierinduced (late. Let us fuppofe fome-
thing analogous to this to take place in the component
molecules of the brain, the molecules of the mole-
cules, &c. and it will follow, that A may over-power
Ni and a become the natural ftate. Now, fince
the human body is compofed of the fame matter as
the external world, it is reafonable to expecSb, that its
component particles fhould be fubjefled to the fame
fubde laws. xAnd the exquifite ftrudlure of animal
bodies in fo many other refpeifls, makes it eafier to
conceive, that the organ of organs, viz. the medul-
lary fubftance fliould be endued with a proper fubtle
ultimate ftruflure, for the purpofe of retaining a ftate
that is frequently imprefTcd. One may guefs alfo, that
it is better fuited to this purpofe during its growth, i. e,
in paffing from infancy to adult age, than afterwards;
as this would be very agreeable to the pha^nomena.

Fourthly, Suppofe now the vibrations Jj By C, D,
&c. belonging to each of the fenfes, to be excited,
and repeated in fuch order and manner as ufually
happens to the new-born infant upon its entrance into
this new fcene of things. It is evident, that thefe
will have a greater power to over- rule the natural
ftate A^, than the vibrations A from one fingle objeft
could have : for A affecEled only one region of the
medullary fubftance primarily ; whereas A^ B, C, D,

&c.

and Aflbciation in general. 6-^

&c. affed all the regions primarily in their turn. It is
evident alfo, that the fecondary vibrations, or thofe
which are propagated from the region of the medullary
fubftance primarily affe<5ted into the reft, will be over-
ruled, in great meafure, in each region, by the pri-
mary vibrations peculiar to that region. Laftly, It is
evident, that of the vibrations which are excited in
each region, no one can prevail over all the reft, but
each muft leave an effe6t, in proportion to its ftrength
and frequency. We may conceive therefore, that each
region of the medullary fubftance will have a tendency
generated in it, to vibrate with vibrations of the fame -
frequency (but weaker in degree) as thofe which the
feveral appropriated objects imprefs upon it re-
fpeftively ; and that diminutive vibrations refembling
them will rife in fuccefiion in each region. For each
region may eafily be conceived to lean fometimes to
the vibrations from one objeft, fometimes to thofe from
another, according to the ftrength, frequency, and
novelty of the impreftion, the then prefent difpofition
of the nervous fyftem, aflbciation (of which in the two
next propofitions), and other fuch-like caufes. And
for the fame reafon, as in every fenfe the idea of
fome one object of that fenfe muft prevail over all the
reft, we may conclude, that fometimes the ideas
belonging to one fenfe, fometimes thofe belonging to
another, will prevail over the reft.

Or thus : Some vibrations there muft always be in
the medullary fubftance, on account of its heat, and
the pulfation of the arteries which pafs through it.
Thefe cannot be the natural ones TV, becaufe they will
foon be over-ruled by the great force and variety of the
impreflions made on the new-born infant, which muft
alfo difpofe each region of the brain to lean to fome
or other of thofe vibrations which are excited in it
primarily. Hence we may conceive, that a very
complex fet of vibrations, arifing from the mixture
and combinations of degree, kind, place, and line of

dire(5lion.

64 Of the Dotlrines of Vibrations

dirccflion, cxifts always in the medullary fubftancc,
being kept up by its heat, and the pulfation of its
arteries, when otlier caufes arc wantinLj, almofl in
the lame manner as in a concert of mufic the air is
agitata! by vibrations of a very complex kind. But
then, as in a concert, fome one inftrument generally
Hrikes the ear more than the reft, io of the complex
vibrations which exift in the medullary fubllance,
fome one part will prevail over the reft, and prefent
the correlponding idea to the mind. Some region
muft be dilpoled, at each indant, to vibrate ftronger
than the rcll ; and of the fpecilic vibrations which are
generally imprelUd upon this region, fome one will
have a more favourable concurrence of circumftances
than the reft. And thus ic will follow, according to
the terms of the propofition, that fenfory vibrations,
by being fufficiently repeated, will beget a difpofition
to miniature vibrations correfponding to them re-
fpe<5livtly ; or, ufing the appellations above-aflumed,
that ^^, B, C, die. will beget ^, Z*, c, &c.

If we allow the proof of this propofition, thus de-
duced from the nature of vibratory motions, and of
an animal body, the foregoing propofition will fol-
low from it, and hold equally in refpeft of the fenfes
of feeling, tafte, and fmell, as of fight and hear-
ing. Or, in other words, if we allow, that original
imprefl^ed vibratory motions leave a tendency to
miniature ones of the fame kind, place, and line of
direc'tion, it will follow, that fenfations muft beget
ideas, and that not only in the fenfes of fight and
hearing, where the ideas are fufiiciently vivid and
diftin^t, but in the three others, fince their fenfa-
tions are alio conveyed to the mind by means of vi-
bratory motions. We may alfo, perhaps, difcover
hereafter, from the nature of vibratory motions, and
of the human brain, compared with the circumftances
of life, why the ideas of one fenfe are more vivid
and diftinct than thofe of another.

PROP.

and Affociation in general. 65

PROP. X.

Any Senjations A, B, C, ^c. by being ajj'ociated with
one another a Jiifficient Number of Times, get Juch
a Power over the correjponding Ideas a, b, c, ^c.
that any one of the Senfations A, when imprej'ed
alone, ftodl be able to excite in the Mind b, c, i^c.
the Ideas of the Reji.

Sensations may be faid to be afibciated together,
when their impreflions are either made precifcly ac
the fame inftant of time, or in the contiguous fuc-
eeffive inllants. We may therefore diftinguifh affo-
ciation into two forts, the fynchronous, and the
fucceflive.

The influence of aflociation over our ideas, opi-
nions and affedions, is fo great and obvious, as fcarce
to have efcaped the notice of any writer who has
treated of thefe, though the word ajfociation, in the
particular fenfe here affixed to it, was firft brought
into ufe by Mr. Locke. But all that has been deli-
vered by the ancients and moderns, concerning the
power of habit, cuftom, example, education, au-
thority, party-prejudice, the manner of learning the
manual and liberal arts, &c. goes upon this doftrine
as its foundation, and may be confidered as the detail
of it, in various circurrftances. I here begin with thd
fimplefl cafe, and fhall proceed to more and m.ore
complex ones continually, till 1 have exhaulted what
has occuriied to me upon this fubjeift.

This proportion, or firft and fimpleft cafe of aflo-
ciation, is manifefl: from innumerable common ob- I
fervations. Thus the names, fmells, taftes, and
tangible qualities of natural bodies, fuggeft their vi-
fible appearances to the fancy, i, e. excite their vi-
fible ideas j and, vice verfd, their vifible appearances
impreflfed on the eye raife up thofe powers of recon-

VoL. I F noitcring

66 Of the Doth'tnes of Vibrations

noitering their names, fmells, toftcs, and tangible
tjiialitics, which may not improperly be called tlieir
ideas, as above noted ; and in lome cafes raile up
ideas, whicii may be compared with vifible onej., in
relpert of vividnels. All which is plainly owing to
the alVociation of the feveral fenfible qualities of
bodies with their names, and with each other. Jt is
remarkable, however, as being agreeable to the fu-
pcrior vivitincfs of vifible and audible ideas before
taken notice of, that the fuggeftion of the vifible ap-
pearance from the name, is the mod ready of any
odier; and, next to this, that of the name from tlie
vifible appearance ; in which laft cafe, the reality of
the audible idea, when not evident to the fancy, may
be inferred from the ready pronunciation of the name.
For it will be flKwn hereafter, that the audible idea is
moft commonly a previous requifite to pronuncia-
tion. Other inftances of the power of aflbciation
may be taken from compound vifible and audible im-
prelFions. Thus the fight of part of a large building
iuggerts the idea of the refb inftantaneoufly ; and the
found of the words which begin a familiar fentence,
brings the remaining part to our memories in order,
the airt)ciation of the parts being fynchronous in the
Hrrt cafe, and fuccefljve in the lall.

It is to be obferved, that, in fuccefllve afTociations,
the power of raifing the ideas is only exerted accord-
ing to the order in which the afTociation is made.
Thus, if the impreffions A., B, C, be always made in
the order of the alphabet, B imprefled alone will not
raife tf, but c only. Agreeably to which, it is eafy to
repeat familiar fentenccs in the order in which they
always occur, but impofiible to do it readily in an in-
verted one. The reafon of this is, that the compound
idea, r, l>, a^ correfponds to the compound fenfation
C, Bf A ; and therefore requires the impreffion of
C, 5, Aj in the fame manner as a, hy c, does that of
yf, B, C. This will, however, be more evident, when

we

and Aflbciation in general. 67

we come to confider the aflbciations of vibratory mo-
tions, in the next propofition.

It is aifo to be obferved, that the power of afibcia-
tion grows feebler, as the number either of fynchronous
or fucceffive irnprcffions is increafed, and does not
extend, with due force, to more than a fmall one, in
the firft and fimpleft cafes. But, in complex cafes,
or the aflbciations of aflbciations, of which the me-
mory, in its full extent, confifl:s, the powers of the
mind, deducible from this fource, will be found m.uch
greater than any perfon, upon his fiift entrance on
thefe inquiries, could well imagine.

PROP. Xh

Anj Vibrations i A, B, C, ^c. by being ajociated toge-
ther a Jufficient Number of TimeSy get Juch a Power
over a, b, c, &c. the correjfonding miniature Vibra-
tions y that any of the Vibrations A, when impeffed
aloney fhall be able to excite b, c, &c, the Miniatures
of the Refi.

This propofition may be deduced from the fore-
going, in the fame manner as the ninth has been
from the eighth.

But it feems alfo deducible from the nature of vi-
brations, and of an animal body. Let A and B be
two vibrations, aflbciated fynchronically. Now, it
is evident, that the vibration A (for I will, in this
propofition, fpeak oi A and B in the Angular number,
for the fake of greater clearnefs) will, by endeavour-
ing to difi^ufe itfelf into thofe parts of the medullary
fubltance which are afieded primarily by the vibra-
tion By in fome meafure modify and change By fo as
to make B a little different from what it would be, if
imprefled alone. For the fame reafons the vibration
A will be a little affefted, even in its primary feat,

F 2 bv

68 Of the DoHrwes of Vibrations "^

by the* cruleavour of B to difTufe itfclf all over the
nHcJDllaiy lubllanrc. Siippole now the vibrations
,'/ and B to be iniprcned at the fame inltant, for a
thouland times; it follows, from the ninth propo-
fition, that they will tirft over-come the difpofition to
the natural vibrations Nj and then leave a tendency
to themlc'lves, which will now occupy the place of
the original natural tendency to vibrations. When
therefore the vibration A is impreflcd alone, it cannot
be entirely fuch as the objeft would excite of itfelf, but
rourt lean, even in its primary feat, to the modifica-
tions and changes induced by i?, during their thou-
fand joint imprefTions ; and therefore much more, in
receding from this primary feat, will it lean that way ;
and when it comes lo the feat of By it will excite JS's
miniature a little modified and changed by itfelf.

Or thus; when // is imprelTed alone, fome vi-
bration murt take place in the primary feat of B^
both on account of the heat and puliation of the ar-
teries, and becaufe /I will endeavour to difi'ufc itfelf
over the whole medullary fubliance. This cannot
be th.it part of the natural vibrations N^ which be-
longs to this region, becaufe it is fuppofed to be over-
ruled already. It cannot be that which A imprefled
alone would have propagated into this region, be-
caufe that has always hitherto been over-ruled, and
converted into B ; and therefore cannot have begotten
a tendency to itfelf. It cannot be any full vivid
vibration, fuch as 5, C, I), &:c. belonging to this
region, becaufe all full vibrations require the actual
impreffion of an objetfl upon the correfponding
external organ. And of miniature vibrations be-
longing to this region, fuch as by <r, dy &c. it is
evident, that b has the preference, fmce A leans to
it a little, even in its own primary feat, more and
more, in receding from this, and almoft entirely, when
it comes to the primary feat of B. For the fame
reafons B impreffed alone will excite a ; and, in ge-
neral.

and Aflbciation in general. 69

neral, if Ay 5, C, &c. be vibrations fynchronically
imprefled on different regions of the medullary fub-
ftance, A imprefled alone will, at laft, excite b, c^
fire, according to the propofition.

If A and B be vibrations imprefled fiicceflively,
then will the latter part ofyf, viz. that part which,
according to the third and fourth propofitions, re-
mains, after the impreflion of the objedt ceafes, be
modified and altered by 5, at the fame time that it
will a litde n,odify and alter it,, till at laft it be quite
over- powered by it, and end in it. It follows there-
fore, by a like method of reafoning, that the fuc-
cefllve impreflion of A and B, fufficiently repeated,
will fo alter the medullary fubfl:ance, as that when
A is impreflTed alone, its latter part fhall not be
fuch as the fole imprefljon of A requires, bill lean
towards 5, and end in b at lafl:. But^ will not excite
« in a retrograde order, fince, by fuppofition, the
latter part of B was not modified and altered by
Ay but by fome other vibration, fuch as C or D.
And as By by being followed by C, may at laft raife
Cy fo b, when raifed by A, in the method here pro-
pofed, may be alfo fufficient to raife Cy inafmuch as
the miniature c being a feeble motion, not ftronger,
perhaps, than the natural vibrations iV, requires
only to have its kind, place, and line of diredlion,
determined by aflbciation, the heat and arterial pulfa-
tion conveying to it the requifite degree of ftrength.
And thus A imprefled alone, will raife by f, &c. in
fucceflive aflbciations, as well as in fynchronous one?,
according to the propofition.

It feems alfo, that the influence of A may, in
fbme degree, reach through 5 to Cj fo that A of
itfelf may have fome eff'cdl to raife f, as well as by
means of b. However, it is evident, that this chain
muft break off', at laft, in long fuccelfions, and that
fooner or later, according to the number and vigour
of the repeated imprefllons. The power of minia-

F 3 ture

]

70 Of the Doflrtnes of Vibrations

turf vibrations to railc other miniatures may, per-
lia[)s, be made clearer to mathematicians, by hint-
ing, that the efficacy of any vibration to raife any
other, is not in the fnnple ratio of its vividnefs, but
as fome power thereof lefs than unity; for thus b may
raife c, a weaker vibration than ^, c may raife dy &c.
with more flicility than if the efficacy was in the fim-
ple ratio of the vividnefs, and yet fo, that the feries
ffiall breakroffat laft.

If the ninth propofiiion be allowed, we may
prove this in fomewhat a ffiorter and eafier manner, j
as follows. Since the vibrations A and B are impref- J
fed together, they mull, from the diffufion ncceflary ^
to vibratory motions, run into one vibration j and
confequently, after a number of imprcffions fuffici-
ently repeated, will leave a trace, or miniature, of
themfelves, as one vibration, which will recur every
now and then, from flight caufes. Much rather,
therefore, may the part b of the compound miniature
a-\^b recur, when the part// of the compound original ^
vibration A-)rR is imprefled.

And as the ninth propofition may be thus made to
prove the prefent, fo it ought to be acknowledged and
remarked here, that, unlefs the ninth be allowed, the
prefent cannot be proved, or that the power of aflb-
ciation is founded upon, and necefTirily requires, the
previous power of forming ideas, and miniature vibra-
tions. For ideas, and miniature vibrations, muft firft
be generated, according to the eighth and ninth pro-
pofitions, before they can be aflbciated, according to
the tenth and this eleventh. But then (which is very
remarkable) this power of forming ideas, and their
correfponding miniature vibrations, does equally pre-
luppofe the power of aflbciation. For fince all {tn-
fations and vibrations are infinitely divifible, in refpeift
of time and place, they could not leave any traces
or images of themfelves, /. e. any ideas, or minia-
ture vibrations, unlefs their infinitefimal parts did

cohere

and Affociation in general. 71

cohere together through joint imprefTion i t. e, aflb-
ciation. Thus, to mention a grofs inftance, we could
have no proper idea of a horfe, unlefs the particular
ideas of the head, neck, body, legs, and tail, pecu-
liar to this animal, ftuck to each other in the fancy,
fronr) frequent joint impreflion. And, therefore, in
dreams, where complex aflbciations are much weak-
ened, and various parcels of vifible ideas, not joined
in nature, ftart up together in the fancy, con-
tiguous to each other, we often fee monfters, chi-
meras, and combinations, which have never been
actually prelented.

Affociation feems alfo neceffary to difpofe the me-
dullary fubftance to this or that miniature vibration,
in fucceffion, after the miniatures of a large number
of original vibrations have been generated.

Nor does there feem to be any precife limit which
can be fet to this mutual dependence of the powers of
generating miniatures, and of affociation upon each
other : however, they may both take place together,
as the heart and brain are fuppofed to do, or both de-
pend upon one fimple principle j for it feems impof-
fible, that they (hould imply one another, ad infinitttm.
There is no greater difficulty here than in many other
cafes of mutual indefinite implication, known and
allowed by all. Nay, one may almoft deduce fome
prefumption in favour of the hypothefis here pro-
duced, from this mutual indefinite implication of its
parts, fo agreeable to the tenor of nature in other
things. And it is certainly a prefumption in its fa-
vour, that a lefs power of generating miniatures will
be a foundation for a larger of affociation, and "dice
ver/dy till, at laft, the whole fuperftrufture of ideas and
affociations obfervable in human life, may by pro-
ceeding upwards according to analyfis, and down-
wards according to fynthefis, be built upon as fmall
a foundation as we plcafe. Thus we may obferve,
that" neither does this eleventh propofuion neceffarily

F 4 require

yi Of the Doi^rines of Vibrations

require the ninth, in its full extent, nor vice verfdy
for their deiDoiiftration. The leall miniatures, with
the fecblell cohelions of their parts, will, by degrees,
run into larger, with flionger cohefions, from the
fan>e principles ; nor are there any vifible limits to
the inllucncc and extent of thcfe powers, fuppofing
the natural faculties of the being under confidcration
furtkiently extended.

Let me add, that the generation of fenfible ideas
from fcnfations, and the power of raifing them from
allbciation, when confidered as faculties of the mind,
are evident and unqucftionable. Since therefore fen-
fations are conveyed to the mind, by the efficiency of
corporeal caufes upon the medullary fubflance, as
is acknowledged by all phyfiologifts and phyficians, it
feems to me, that the pov/ers of generating ideas,
and raifing them by aflbciation, muft alfo arile from
corporeal caufes, and confequently admit of an ex-
plication from the fubde influences of the fmall parts
of matter upon each other, as foon as thefe are fuffi-
ciently underftood, which is farther evinced from the
manifefl: influences of material caufes upon our ideas
and aflbciations, taken notice of under the fecond
propofition. And as a vibratory motion is more
fuitable to the nature of fenfation than any other fpe-
cies of motion, fo does it fir-em alfo more fuitable to
the powers of generating ideas, and raifing them by
aflfociation. However, thefCr powers are evident in-
dependently, as jufl: now obferved i fo that the doc-
trine of aflbciation may be laid down as a certain
foundation, and a clue to dire6l our future inquiries,
whatever becomes of that of vibrations.

^

PROP.

and Airoc\?Ltion in general. 73

«. PROP. XII.

Simple Ideas will run into complex ones, by Means

0/ Jjfociation.

In order to explain and prove this propofition, it
will be requifue to give fonne previous account of
the manner in which fimple ideas of fenfation may
be afibciated together. tp^

Cafe I. Let the fenfation A be often afibciated
with each of the fenfations By C, D, Sec. i. e. at cer-
tain times with 5, at certain other times with C, &c.
it is evident, from the tenth propofition, that A^ im-
prefled alone, will, at laft, raife b, Cy dy &c. all to-
gether i. e. aflbciatc them with one another, provided
they belong to different regions of the medullary
fubftance ; for if apy two, or more, belong to the
fame region, fince they cannot exift together in their
diftindl forms, A will raife fomething intermediate
between them.

Cafe 2. If the fenfations Ay B, C, D, &c. be
afibciated together, according to various combina-
tions of twos, or even threes, fours, &c. then will A
raife b, Cy dy &c. alfo B raife ^, f, dy &c. as in cafe
the firft.

It may happen, indeed, in both cafes, that A may
raife a particular miniature, as by preferably to any of
the refl:, from its being more afibciated with 5, from
the novelty of the imprefllon of By from a tendency
in the medullary fubfi:ance to favour by &c. and, in
like m.anner, that b may raife c or ^preferably to the
reft. However, all this will be over- ruled, at lafl:, by
the recurrency of the afiibciations ; fo that any one
of the fenfations will excite thfe ideas of the refi:, at
the fame inftant, /. e. afix)ciate them together.

Cafe 3. Let Ay By C, D, &c. reprefent fuccefiive
impreflions, it follows from, the tenth and eleventh

propofitions,^

74 ^f '^-"■' Do l1 vines of A''! brat ions

propofitions, that ./ wili, raifc /5', r, d, &lc. /? raife r,
^, &c. And thougli the ideas do not,, in this cafe,
rife prccifcly at the liime intlant, yet they come nearer
together th.ui ,the fenfations themfelves did in their
original imprefTion ; fo that thefe ideas arc alfociated
ahnoll lynchronically at lall, and luccefTively from the
firft. The ideas come nearer to one another than the
fenfations, on account of their diminutive nature,
by which all thic appertains to them is contra(5led.
And this fccms to be as agreeable to obfervation as to
theory.

Cafe 4. All compound imprefTions /!+ B + C-i-D,
&c. after futficient repetition leave compound minia-
tures a + if-i-c-^-dy &c. which recur every now and-
then from flight caufes, as well fuch as depend on
^ aflbciation, as fome which are different from it. Now,
in thele recurrences of compound miniatures, the
•^ parts are farther aflbciated, and approach perpetually
nearer to each other, agreeably to what was juft now
obferved ; /. e. the aflbciation becomes perpetually
more clofe and intimate.

Cafe 5. When the ideas ^, ^, c, dy &c. have been
fufficiently aflbciated in any one or more of the fore-
i* going ways, if we fuppofe any fingle idea of ihefe,

a for inftance, to be raifed by the tendency of the
medullary fubfl:ance that way, by the aflbciation of
u^ with a foreign fenfation or idea y\r or ;c, &c. this
idea ^, thus raifed, will frequently bring in all the
red, by Cy dy die. and fo aflbciate all of them together
dill farther.

And, upon the whole, it may appear to the reader,
that the Ample ideas of fenfation muft run into clufl:ers
and combinations, by aflfociation ; and that each of
thefe will, at lafl:, coalefce into one complex idea, by
the approach and commixture of the feveral com-
pounding parts.

It appears alfo from obfervation, that many of our
intelle(5tual ideas, fuch as thofe that belong to the

heads

and Aflbciation in general. 75

heads of beauty, honour, moral qualities, &c. are,
in fa(51:, thus compofed of parts, which, by degrees,
coalefce into one complex idea.

And as this coalefcence of fimple ideas into com-
plex ones is thus evinced, both by the foregoing
theory, and by obfervation, fo it may be illuftrated,
and farther confirmed, by the fimilar coalefcence of
letters into fyliables and words, in which aflbciation
is likewife a chief inftrument. 1 fhall mention fome
of the moft remarkable particulars, relating to this
coalefcence of fimple ideas into complex ones, in the
following corollaries.

Cor. I. If the number of fimple ideas which
compofe the complex one be very great, it may
happen, that the complex idea fhall not appear to
bear any relation to thefe its compounding parts, nor
to the external fenfes^'upon which the original fenfa-
tions, which gave birth to the compounding ideas,
were imprefl!ed. The reafon of thi^ is, that each
fingle idea is over-powered by the fum of all the
reft, as foon as they are all intimately united toge-
ther. Thus, in very compound medicines, the feve-
ral taftes and flavours of the feparate ingredients are
loft and over- powered by the complex one of the
who)e mafs : fo that this has a tafi:e and flavour of
its own, which appears to be fimple and original, and
like that of a natural body. Thus alfo, white is
vulgarly thought to be the fimpleft and moft uncom-
pounded of all colours, while yet it really arifes fom a
certain proportion of the feven primary colours, with
their fcveral fliades, or degrees. And, to refume
the illuftration above-mentioned, taken from lan-
guage, it does not at all appear to perfons ignorant
of the arts of reading an\l writing, that the great
variety of complex words of languages can be analy-
fed up to a few fimple founds.

Cor. 2. One may hope, therefore, that, by pur-
fuing and perfeding the doiflrine of afTociation, we

may

#»:

^6 Of the Dotlrincs of Vibrations

may fome time or other be enabled to analyfe all
that vaft variety of complex ideas, which pafs under
the n.imc of ideas of refleiflion, and intelle(5tual
ideas, into their fimple compounding parts, ;. e. into
the fimple ideas of fenfation, of which tliey confift.
This would be greatly analogous to the arts of wri-
ting, and refolving the colours of the fun's light, or
natural bodies, into their primaiy conftituent ones.
( The complex ideas which 1 here fpeak. of, are gene-
\ rally excited by words, or vifible objefls ; but they
are alfo connected with other external imprefiions, and
depend upon them, as upon iymbols. In whatever
way we confider them, the trains of them which are
prefented to the mind feem to depend upon the then
prefeni (lace of the body, the external impreffions and
I the remaining influence of prior impreffions and afToci •

ations, taken together. ^

^ CoR. 3. It would afford great light ^,t\(\ clearnefs

to the art of logic, thus to determine the precife
nature and compofition of the ideas affixed to thofe
words which have complex ideas, in a proper fenfe,
i. e. vvhich excite any combinations of fimple ideas
united intimately by aflbciation j alfo to explain,
upo.) this foundation, the proper ufe of thofe words,
which have no ideas. For there are many words
which are mere fubftitutes for other words, and many
which are only auxiliaries. Now it cannot be faid,
that either of thefe have ideas, properly fo called.
And though it may feem an infinite and impoffible
talk, thus to analyfe the fignifications and ufes of
words, yet, I fuppofe, this would not be more diffi-
cult, with the prefent philological, and philofophical
helps to fuch a work, than the firft making of dic-
tionaries and grammars, in the infancy of philology.
Eerhaps it may not beamifs juft to hint, in this place,
that the four following claffes comprife all the poffiblc
kinds into which words can be diftinguiffied, agreeably
to the plan here propofed :

I. Words

^A ♦ ^^^ Aflbciaiion in general 77

"**

1. Words which have ideas, but no definitions.

2. Words which have both ideas and definitions.

3. Words which have definitions, but no ideas.

• 4. Words which have neither ideas nor defini-
tions.

It is quite manifeft, that words feen or heard, can
raife no ideas in the mind, or vibrations in the brain, 1
diftind fi-om their vifible and audible imprefTions, j
except as far as they get new powers fronn aflbcia- \
tjons, either incidental ones, or arifing fronn exprefs '
defion, as in definitions j and therefore, that all other
^a'ys of confidering words, befides what is here fug-
everted, are either falfe or imperfed.

Cor. 4. As fimple ideas run into complex ones by
aflbciation, fo complex ideas run into decomplex ones
by the fame. But here the varieties of the afibcia-
tions, which increafe with the complexity, hinder
particular ones from being fo clofe and permanent,
.between the cornplex paits of decomplex ideas, as
between the fimple parts of complex ones : to which
it is analogous, in languages, that the letters of words
adhere clofer together than the words of leniences,
both in writing and fpeaking.

Co^i. 5. The fimple ideas of fenfation are not all
equally and uniformly concerned in forming complex
?.nd decomplex ideas, i. e. thefe do not refuk from
all the poffible combinations of twos, threes, fours,
&c. of all the fimple ideas ; but, on the contrary,
fome fim.ple ideas occur in the complex and decom-
plex ones much oftener than others : and the fame
holds of particular con-ibinations by twos, threes, &c.
and innumerable combinations never occur at all
in real life, and confequently are never aflfociated
into complex or decomplex ideas. All which cor-
refponds to what happens in real languages ; fome
letters, and combinations of letters, occur much more
frequently than others, and fome combinations never
occur at all.

Cor.

78 Of the DoSIrines of Vibrations ^ ^

Cor. 6. As pcrfons who Ipcak the Tame language
have, however, a dilTercnt ufe and extent of words^
lb, though mankind, in all ages and nations, agree, in
general, in thtir complex and decomplex ideas, yef
there are many particular dilTVrences in them ; and
thcfe differences are greater or lefs, according to the
difference, or rcfemblance, in age, conftitution, edu-
cation, profcll'ion, country, age of the world, &c.
;. e. in their impreflions and allociations.
^ Cor. 7. When a variety of ideas are afibciated
Together, the vifible idea, being more glaring and
diftinft than the reft, peifoims the office of a fymbol
to all the refl, fuggells then), and connedls them
together. In this it Ibmewhat relembles the firft let-
ter of a word, or firft word of a fentence, which are
often made ufe of to bring all the reft to mind.

Cor. 8. When objeds and ideas, with their moft
common combinations, have been often prefented to
the mind, a tiain of them, of a confiderable length,
may, by once occurring^ leave fuch a trace, as to
recur in imagination, and in miniature, in nearly the
iame order and proportion as in this Angle occur-
rence. For fince each of the particular imprelTions
and ideas is familiar, there will want little more for
their recurrency, than a few connecting links ; and
even thcfe may be, in fome meafure, fupplied by for-
mer fimilar inftances. Thefe confiderations, when
duly unfolded, fcem to me fufficient to explain the
chief phenomena of memory ; and it will be eafily
feen from them, that the memory of adults, and
mafters in any fcience, ought to be much more ready
and certain than that of children and novices, as it is
found to be in fa 61.

Cor. 9. When the pleafure or pain attending any
fenfations, and ideas, is great, all the aflbciations
belonging to them are much accelerated and ftrength-
ened. For the violent vibrations excited in fuch
cafes, foon over-rule the natural vibrations, and

leave

and Aflbciation in general. 79

leave in the brain a ftrong tendency to themfelvcs,
from a few infiprefiions. The aflbciations will there- i
fore be cemented Tooner and ftronger than in common II
•cafes J which is found agreeable to the faft.

CoR. 10. As many words have complex ideas an- \
nexed to them, fo fentences, which are colledions of '
words, have colledions of complex ideas, i. e. have
decomplex ideas. And it happens, in mofl: cafes,
that the decomplex idea belonging to any fentence, is
not compounded mierely of the complex ideas belong-
ing to the words of it ; but that there are alfo many
variations, fome oppofitions, and numberlefs addi-
tions. Thus propofitions, in particular, excite, as
foon as heard, alTent or diffent; which affent and
difient confiil chiefly of additional complex ideas, not
included in the terms of the propofition. And it
would be of the greateft ufe, both in the fciences
and in common life, thoroughly to analyfe this
matter, to fliew in what /manner, and by what fteps,
i. e. by what impreflfions and aflbciations, our aflfent
and diflent, both in fcientifical and moral fubjefts,
is formed.

PROP. XIII. V

JVben Jimple Ideas run into a complex one, according to

the foregoing Propofition^ we are to fuppoje, that the , >

ftntple miniature Vibrations correfponding to thofe fim-
ple Ideas run^ in i$ke Manner, into a complex minia-
ture Vibration^ correfponding to the refulting complex
Idea. ^y.

This propofition is analogous to the ninth and
eleventh, and may be deduced from the lafl:, as
they are from the eighth and tenth refpeftively. It
is alfo an evidence and illufl:ration of the fecond,
fliewing not only, that the fl:ate of the medullary fub-
ftance is changed, according to the feveral natures of ^

the

^.

8o Of the DoSlrines of Vibrations

the ideas which arc prdt-ntcd to the mind; but alio
Ihtwing, in general, ot what kind this change is, and
in what manner it is effedlcd.

PROP. XIV.

It is reafonable to think, that Jome of the complex

I'ibrations attending upon complex Ideas, according

to the lafl Prcpofuion, may ke as 'vivid, as any of the

fcnfoiy rihaltvns excited by the diretJ Atlion of

Objetis.

For ihele complex vibrations may confifl: of To
many parts co-cxiftcnt and ruccelTive, and thefc
parts may To alter and exalt one another, as that
the relulting agitations in the medullary fubftance
may no longer be miniatuie vibrations, but vivid
ones equal to thofe excited by obje(5ls imprefled on
the Itnles. This proccfs may be farther favoured
by a n^ixcure of vivid real imprefTions among the
ideas, by the irritability of the medullary fubitance,
by a previous difpofition to the vibrations to be
excited, &:c.

Cor, I. .When the complex miniature vibrations
are thus exalted in degree, we are to conceive, that
the corrcfponding complex ideas are proportionally
exalted, and fo pafs into intelle6lual afFcclions and
palTions. We are therefore to deduce the origin of
the intelledual pleafures and pains, which are the
objedls of thefe afFeftions and paflions, from the
fource here laid opeo-

Cor. 1. Since the preient propofition unfolds the
nature of the affections and will, in the fame man-
ner, and from the fame principles, as the twelfth
does that of ideas, intelledl, mcmiory, and fancy,
it follows, that all thefe are of the fame original and
confideration, and differ only in degree, or fome
accidental circumdances. They are all deducible from

the

and Aflbciation in general, 8i

the external irmprelTions made upon the fenfes, the
veftiges or ideas of thefe, and their nnutual connec-
tions by means of aflbciation, taken together and
operating on one another.

Cor. 3. It follows alfo from this propofition, that
the intelledliial pleasures and pains may be greater,
equal, or lefs, than the fenfibie ones, according as
each perfon unites more or fewer, more vivid or more
languid miniature vibrations, in the formation of his
intelleftual pleafures and pains, &c.

CoR. 4. It is evident, that all the vibrations which
belong to ideas, and intelledual afFedions, mull re-
fide in the brain, or even in the mod internal parts
of it, not in the fpinal marrow, or nerves. The
brain is therefore the feat of the rational foul, i. e. of
the foul, as far as it is influenced by reafons and moral
motives, even though we (hould admit, that the fpi-
'Aal marrow and nerves are, in part, the fenforium, or
the feat of the fenfitive foul ; which is fome argument,
that this ought not to be admitted, but that the fen-
forium, in men at leaft, ought to be placed in the in-
ternal parts of the brain.

Cor. 5. It is of the utmoft confequence to mo-
rality and religion, that the affeflions and paffionS
fhould be analyfed into their fimple compounding
parts, by reverfing the fteps of the aflbciations which
concur to form them. For thus we may learn how
to cherifh and improve good ones, check and root out
fuch as are mifchievous and immoral, and how to fuit
our manner of life, in fome tolerable meafure, to our
intelle6lual and religious wants. And as this holds,
in refpcfb of perfons of all ages, fo it is particularly
true, and worthy of confideration, in refpe<5l of chil-
dren and youth. The world is, indeed, fufficiently
flocked with general precepts for this purpofe,
grounded on experience j and whofoever will follow
thefe faithfully, may expeft good general fuccefs.
However, the doftrine of aflbciation, when traced

Vol. I. G up

82 Of the 'DoBrines of Vibrations

up to the firfl rudiments of underflanding and af-
fc(5lion, unfolds fuch a fccne as cannot fail both to
in(t:fU(5t and alarm all fuch as have any degree of
interclU'd concern for ihemfclves, or of a benevolent
one for others. It ought to be added here, that the
doftrine of allocintion explains alfo the rife and pro-
grcfs of thofc voluntary and fcmivoluntary powers,
which we exert over our ideas, aftedions, and bodily
motions (as 1 fhall ihew herealter, prop. 21.) i and,
by doing this, teaches us how to regulate and im-
prove thefe powers.

Cor. 6. \{ beings of the fame nature, but whofc
affcclions and p.ilTions are, at prefent, in different
proportions to each other, be expofed for an indefinite
time to the fame imprefllons and affociations, all
their particular differences will, at laft, be over-ruled,
and they will become perfedly fimilar, or even equal.
They may alfo be made perfectly fimilar, in a finite
time, by a proper adjuftment of the impieffions and
affociations.

CoR. 7. Our original bodily make, and the im-
preffions and affociations which affedt us in paffing
through life, are fo much alike, and yet not the fame,
that there mult be both a great general refemblance
amongrt mankin<d, in refpe6t of their intelledual
affedlions, and alfo many particular differences.

Cor. 8. Some degree of fpirituality is the necef-
fary confequcnce of pafllng through life. The fen-
fible pleafures and pains mull be transferred by affo-
ciation more and more every day, upon things that
afford neither fenfible pleafure nor fenfible pain in
themfelves, a^nd fo beget the inrelleclual pleafures
and pains.

Cor. 9. Let the letters ^, b^ c, d^ e^ &c. repre-
fent the fenfible pleafures ; a*, ^, and 2, the fenfible
pains, fuppofed to be only three in number ; and
let us fuppofe all thefe, both pleafures and pains, to
be equal to one another : if now the ideas of thefe

fenfible

/

and AlTociation tn general. 83

fenfible pleafures and pains be aflbciated together, ac-
cording to all the poffible varieties, in order to form
intelledual pleafures and pains, it is plain, that plea-
fure nnuft prevail in all the combinations of feven or
more letters j and alfo, that when the fcveral parts of
thefe complex pleafures are fufficiently united by af-
fociation, the pains which enter their compofition
will no longer be diftinguilhed fcparately, but the re-
fulting mixed and complex pleafures appear to be pure
and fimple ones, equal in quantity to the excels of
pleafure above pain, in each combination. Thus
. aflbciation would convert a ftate, in which pleafure
and pain were both perceived by turns, into one in
which pure pleafure alone would be perceived ; at
leaft, would caufe the beings who were under its in-
fluence to an indefinite degree, to approach to this
laft (late nearer than by any definite difi^erence. Or,
in other words, aflbciation, under the fuppofition of
this corollary, has a tendency to reduce the ftate of
thofe who have eaten of the tree of the knowledge of
good and evil, back again to a paradifiacal one.
Now, though the circumftances of mankind are not
the fame with thofe fuppofed in this corollary, yet they
bear a remarkable refemblance thereto, during that
part of our exiftence which is expofed to our ob-
fervation. For our fenfible pleafures are far more
numerous than our fenfible pains ; and though the
pains be, in general, greater than the pleafures, yet
the fum total of thefe feems to be greater than that of
thofe J whence the remainder, after the deftru6tion of
the pains by the oppofite and equal pleafures, will be
pure pleafure.

CoR. 10. The intelle<5lual pleafures and pains arc
as real as the fenfible ones, being, as we have feen,
nothing but the fenfible ones varioufly mixed and
compounded together. The intelleftual pleafures and
pains are alfo all equally of a fadlitious and acquired
nature. We muft therefore ellimate all our plea-

G 1 fures

84 Of the DoFiriucs of Vibrations

furcs equally, by their magnitude, permanency, and
tendency to procure others ; and our pains in hke
manner.

CoR. II. The fenfible pleafures and pains have a
greater tendency to dertroy the body, than the intel-
lc6lual ones ; for they are of a particular local nature,
and fo bear hard upon the organs which convey them.
But the deftrudlion of any one confiderable part of
the body is the dei\ru6tion of the whole, from the
fympathy of the parts ; whereas the intelledual plea-
fures and pains, being colle6tcd from all quarters, do
not much injure any oigan particularly, but rather '
bring on an equable gradual decay of the whole medul-
lary fubftance, and all the parts thereon depending.

Cor. 12. This propofition, and its corollaries,
afford fome pleafing prefumptions j fuch are, that
we have a power of fuiting our frame of mind to
our circumflances, of correding what is amifs, and
improving what is right : that our ultimate happi-
nefs appears to be of a fpiritual, not corporeal na-
ture ; and therefore that death, or the (haking off
the grofs body, may not ftop our progrefs, but ra- '
thcr render us more expedite in the purfuit of our
true end: that affbciation tends to make us all ulti-
mately fimilarj fo that if one be happy, all muft :
and, laftjy, that the fame affbciation may alfo be
fliewn to contribute to introduce pure ultimate fpi-
ritual happinefs, in all, by a direft argument, as
well as by the juft mentioned indired: one.

SECT

i

and AfTociation in general. 85

SECT. III.

OF MUSCULAR MOTION, AND ITS TWO KINDS,
AUTOMATIC AND VOLUNTARY ; AND OF THE
USE OF THE DOCTRINES OF VIBRATIONS AND
ASSOCIATION, FOR EXPLAINING THESE RE-
SPECTIVELY.

P R O P. XV.

// is probable J that mujcular Motion is -performed in the
fame general Manner as Senfation, and the Perception
of Ideas,

For, firft, fenfation, the perception of ideas, and
a locomotive faculty, i. e. mufcular motion, are the
three moft eminent marks of diftindion between the
animal and vegetable world : therefore fince it is
already found, that the two firft are performed by the
fame means, i. e. vibrations, there is fome prefump-
tion, that the lad will not require a different one.

Secondly, Of the two forts of motion, viz. auto-
matic and voluntary, the firit depends upon fenfation,
the laft upon ideas, as I fhall fhew particularly here-
after, and may appear, in general, to any one, upon
a (light attentions whence it follows, that fenfation,
and automatic motion, mud be performed in the fame
general manner, alfo the perception of ideas, and
voluntary motion : and therefore, fince fenfation and
perception, the two antecedents, agree in their caufes,
automatic and voluntary motion, the two confequents,
/. e. all the four, muft likewife.

Thirdly, It appears from the firft and fecond pro-
pofitions, that the white medullary fubftance is the

G "X common

36 Of the Donnnes of Vibrations

cornmon inftniment of fenfation, ideas, and motion j
and by the tiftli, iliat tliis rublUncc is uniform and
continuous every whfrt*. Hence it follows, that the
Ibbtle motions excited in the fenfory nerves, and me-
dullary lubllance of the brain, during fenfation and j
intelledual perception, mull, of whatever kind they
be, pafs into the motory nerves , and when they arc -
arrived there, it is probable, that they mud caufe the
contra<ftion of the mufcles, both becaufe otherwife
their arrival at the* motory nerves would be fuper-
fluous, and becaufe fome fuch fubtle motions are
required for this purpofe.

Cor. I. All arguments therefore which prove the
performance of fenfation and intelledual perception,-
by means of vibrations of the fmall medullary par-
ticles, mull infer, that mufcular motion is pei formed
by vibrations alfo. And converfely, if vibrations can
be Ihewn to take place in mufcular motion, they
mud: alfo be inftrumental in fenfation and intelle6lual
perception.

Cor. 2. There are certain experiments and ob-
fervations which favour the fuppofition of the per-
formance of mufcular motion by fubtle agitations in
the fmall particles of the mufcular fibres, /. e. by vi-
bratory motions. It follows therefore, that thefe ex-
periments and obfervations are fome additional evi-
dence for the exigence of fenfory and ideal vibrations,
as above explained. Such are, that the motion of the
heart, and of other mufcles, may be renewed in dy-
ing animals, and thofe that are newly dead, by heat,
injevftion of a fluid, and punftures, it being eafy to be
conceived, that the two laft caufes fhould put the
particles of the fibres into agitations for a fhort
tim.e, ■/'. e. till they can recover their equilibrium, by
altering their dillances, and mutual aflions : and the
firfl; caufc, /. e. hear, is, by the common confent
of all, judged to confift in, and to caufe, fubde vi-
bratory motions. It is alfo difficult to affign any other

adion.

and Aflbciation /;/ general. 87

aclion which thefe caufes can have. In like man-
ner the alternate contratflions and relaxations of the
hearts of frogs, vipers, and fome other animals,
which continue for long fpaces of time after thefe
have been entirely feparated from their bodies, feenri
utterly inexplicable upon any of the common fuppo-
fitions, but follow eafily from the dodrine of vibra-
tions, as it is applied to mufcular motion, in the two
next propofitions.

Cor. 3. Since the fame motion which occafions
fenfation, and intelledlual perception, pafles through
the feats of thefe into the motorv nerves, in order to'
excite there the automatic and voluntary motions,
thus pervading the whole medullary fubftance, in
various ways, according to the variety of the circum-
itances, but in all with the greateft precifion and ex-
adnefs, it follows, that this muft be a vibratory one,
and that of the moft fubtle kind. For the fame excefs
of foftnefs, which renders the medullary fubftance
totally inelaftic as to fenfe, and confeqiiently unfit for
the groiTer vibrations of the particles of the firft or
largeft order (by the vibrations of which, in fonorous
bodies, it feem.s, that found is excited in the air),
may render it more fufceptible of vibrations, in the
particles of the fecond, third, &c. orders; ..and if
we fuppofe a proper ultimate ftru6lure in the feveral
parts of the medullary fubftance, thefe vibrations may
be conveyed with all that precifion and variety which
the phsenomena require. And, unlefs we do fuppofe
fome fuch fubtle vibrations as thefe, it will be ex-
tremely difficult to conceive, how fo foft a pulp as the
. medullary fubftance is, fhould be the common inftru-
ment of fenfation, thought, and motion ; which yet
all phyficians and philofophers muft allow, according
to the firft and fecond propofitions. Ifwefetafide
fubtle vibratory motions, the impulfe of the objefts
of fenfe can communicate nothing, as it feems, to fo
foft a fubftance, but an uniform preflure, fufceptible

G 4 of

S8 Of the Do^ fines of Vibrations

of few or no modifications, and confequently highly
unfuitable to the great variety of the phajnomena
that are to be folved by it. This argument there-
fore tends to fhew, that fcnfation, thought, and
motion, muft all be performed by vibrations.

PROP. XVI.

^he Vhancmena of mufcular Contra5fion appear to be
fufficiently agreeable to the Do5frine of Vibrations.

In order to Ihevv this, let us make the following
fuppofitions :

Firfl, That vibrations defcend along the motory
nerves, /. e. the nerves which go to the mufcles, in
fome luch manner as found runs along the furfaces of
rivers, or an eleiftrical virtue along hempen firings.

Secondly, That thefe vibrations, when they arrive
at the mufcular fibres, are communicated to them,
fo that the fmall particles of thefe fibres fhall be
agitated with like vibrations.

Thirdly, That the vibrations thus excited in the
fibres, put into adlion an attraftive virtue, perhaps
of the cle<5lrical kind, which lies concealed in the par-
ticles of the fibres, or in the blood globules, or both.
That the blood globules of animals are eleflrical,
may be coniedured from the eleftricity of thofe of
the mufcle-fhell fifh, obferved by Dr. Hales -y and
that the red blood has a principal fhare in mufcular
contraiftion, is highly probable, from the red colour
of all the great mufcles of the body, and from the
weaknefs of all young animals, and of fuch as want
a due fhare of red blood. At the fame time, it
appears from exanguious and tranfparent animals,
that pale fibres, and colourlefs fluids, have all the
neceflary requifices for mufcular contra6lion, in cer-
tain degrees.

Fourthly,

and Affociation in general. 89

Fourthly, We muft now fuppofe, in confequence
of the three foregoing fuppofitions, that each muf-
cular fibre, and confequently the whole nnufcle, is
made fhorter by this increafe of attraftion in its par-
ticles ; whilft yet their approach to each other is fo
fmall, as that the whole bulk of the nnnfcle is but
little diminifhed ; for though the length of the mufcle
is leflened, its other dimenfions are increafcd.

Fifthly, If we fuppofe the fmall ultimate fibres of
the mufcles to bend alternately to the right and left,
as an eel does, at exceedingly , fliort intervals, agree-
ably to Dr. LoweVy this may fomewhat affift us to
conceive in what manner a mufcle may be fhortened,
and yet fo increafed in breadth and thicknefs, as to
remain of nearly the fame dimenfions. For if thefe
flexures be increafed by the increafe of the attradlion
of the parts, the whole mufcle will become fliorter
and thicker, as it is found to be in contraction ; and
converfely when the flexures are drawn out, the
mufcle will be longer and thinner, i. e. in a ftatc of
relaxation. The fmall wrinkles which have been
obferved in the mufcular fibres, by Leenwenhoek, and
others, the wavings and curls which frequently ap-
pear to the eye in mufcles, after boiling or roafl:ing,
and the rhomboidal pinnulae taken notice of by Dr.
Hales in the abdominal mufcles of a living frog,
when under contraction, all feem to favour this fifth
fuppofition.

Dr. Pemherton conjectures, that the caufe of the
contraction of mufcular fibres is no other than the
com.mon caufe of the cohefion of the fmall particles
of the mufcular fibres increafed. And this feems
very probable j for the mufcles are hard during con-
traction, foft during relaxation ; and hardnefs and
foftnefs are evidently nothing but variations in the
cohefion of the fmall particles of bodies. Neither is
this conjecture at all repugnant to the fuppofition of
an electrical attraction above made, or to the doc-
trine

qo Of the DoBrbtei of Vibrations

trine of vibrations ; for electricity may reach to fmall
dillanccs, without being excited by friction, and flow
from the fame principle as the cohefion of bodies, as
Sir Ifaac Newton has oblerved. It may tiiercfore be
the general caufe of cohefion, and may be excited in
the mulcular fibres in an extraordinary degree, when-
ever extraordinary vibrations are communicated to
them. Or, if we fuppofe the caufe of cohefion to be
fomethinp; diflind: from eledricity, in may, however,
be increafcd by vibrations of the fmall cohering par-
ticles.

PRO P. XVII.

^hat Tropenfily to alternate ContratVion and Relaxa-
tion, which is obferved in almojl all the Mufcles of
the Body J admits of a Solution from the Do3irine of
Vibrations.

For, when the fibres are in a flate of contraction,
they are hard ; and this hardnefs, if it be fuppofed to
extend to the fmall particles (which is no unreafon-
ablc fuppofition), mufl render the particles of thefe
particles, /. e. the particles fuppofed in thefe pro-
pofuions to be agitated with vibrations indifpofed to
receive thefe vibrations ; but the free admifllon of
thefe vibrations is by fuppofition the caufe which ex-
cites the attractions of the particles, and the confe-
quent contraction of the mufcle. It follows there-
fore, that the hardnefs which impedes thefe vibra-
tions, mufl: alfo lefl'en the attraction and contraction j
or, in other words, that the contraction of a mufcle,
■when carried to a certain degree, mufl: check itfelf, and
bring on a relaxation, after a time fuflicient for the
proper caufes to take efFeCt.

In like manner, when a mufcle is relaxed, the vi-
brations which defcend along the motory nerves, pafs
freely into the mufcular fibres, increafe the attractions

of

and AfTociation in general. 91

of the particles, and bring on the oppofite ftate, that
of contra<5tion ; and fo on alternately.

The fibres of the relaxed mufcle may alfo be con-
lidered as under a ftate of diftention to a certain de-
gree, and confequently as liable to an increafe of vi-
brations upon this account. To which we nnay far-
ther add, that fince vibrations are hindered frooi pair-
ing into the contrafted mufcle, in the manner juft
now explained, they will pafs with greater force into
the relaxed one, from the place of the common deri-
vation of their nerves, wherever there are antagonift
mufcles that derive nerves from the fame trunk, as in
the limbs, and mufcles of refpiration.

Cor. It appears from this method of confidering
the contraflions and relaxations of mufcles, that there
is a certain degree of hardnefs or contradlion in muf-
cular fibres, which may be fuppofed juft to balance
each degree of force with which vibrations defcend
into the mufcular fibres i and that, while this equili-
brium fubfifts, the contradion can neither be increafed
nor abated.

PROP. XVIII.

The Vibrations, of which an Account has been given in
this Chapter, may be fuppofed to afford a fufficient
Supply of motory Vibrations, for the Purpofe of con-
tracing the Mufcles.

In order to make this appear, it will be proper to
diflinguifh the motory vibrations, or thofe which de-
fcend along the nerves of the mufcles into their fibres,
into the five following clafTes :

Firft then, we are to conceive, that thofe fenlbry
vibrations which are excited in the external organs,
and afcend towards the brain, when they arrive, in
their afcent, at the origins of motory nerves, as they
arife from the fame common trunk, plexus, or gan-
glion,

iji Of the Dooirines of Vibrations

glion, with the knfory ones aftedtd, detach a part of
thcmlclvcs at each of thcfc origins down the inotory
nerves ; which part, by agitating the fmail particles
of the mufcuUr fibres, in tlie manner explained in
the fixtcenth propofition, excites them to contrac-
tion.

Secondly, The remainder of the fenfory vibrations,
which arrives at the brain, not being detached down
the motory nerves in its afcent thither, muft be dif-
fuled over the whole medullary lubflance. It will
therefore defcend from the brain into the whole fyftem
of motory nerves, and excite fome feeble vibrations,
at lead, in them. The fame may be obferved of
ideal vibrations generated in the brain by afTociation ;
thefe mull pervade the whole medullary fubftance,
and confequcnily affccfl all the motory nerves in fome
degree.

Thirdly, The heat of the blood, and pulfation of
the arteries, which pafs through the medullary fub-
ftance, muft always excite, or keep up, fome vibra-
tions in it; and thefe muft always defcend into the
whole fyftem of mufcles. And I apprehend, that
from thefe two laft fources, taken together, we may
account for that moderate degree of contraflion, or
tendency thereto, which is obfervable in all the
mufcles, at leaft in all thofe of healthy adults, du-
ring vigilance.

Fourthly, When vivid vibrations are excited in
membranes of an uniform texture, by a ftimulus of
any kind, they feem to run over the whole extent of
fuch membranes, and by this means to have a great
influence in contra6ling all the mufcles that lie near
any part of this membrane, though they be remote
from the place of the ftimulus. The manner in which
this is effefled, I conceive to be as follows : the re-
peated or cdntinued action of the ftimulus difFufes vi-
brations from the place of its aftion over the whole
membrane, which, by their reciprocal influences, be-
come

and Aflbciation in general. 93

come equal, or nearly fo, in every pare of it, and are,
at Jaft, fo exalted, as to contradt every part. As foon
as this contraflion takes place, the vibraiions in its
fmall particles inuft ceafe for reafons given above.
They will therefore be propagated almoft inftanta-
neoufly over the neighbouring mufcles, frooi the nerv-
ous connmunications between the membrane and the
neighbouring mufcles j by which all changes made in
the nerves of the membrane muft afFeft thofe of the
neighbouring mufcles. As therefore during the vi-
vid vibrations of the particles of the membrane, we
muft fuppofe fome to be propagated into the neigh-
bouring mufcles, agreeably to the firft article of this
propofition, fo, upon their fudden ceiTation, fuch a
change may reafonably be fuppofed, in the communi-,
eating nervous fibrils, as ftiali agitate the ^ther con-
tained in them with much more vivid vibrations than
before ; and thefe vibrations muft now pafs into the
mufcles alone, fince the contradlion of the membrane
hinders them from returning into it. I Ihall here-
after produce feveral examples of this procefs, in de-
tail. It may fuffice, at prcfent, juft to mention the
a6lion of fneezing, and to defire the reader to com-
pare this adion, in a curfory way, with the foregoing
account.

, Fifthly, I have, in the laft article, Ihewn how ^
cefTation of vibrations in the particles of a membrane,
may increafe thofe in the neighbouring mufcles.
But it feems alfo, that a cefTation of vibrations in
any other confiderable part of the body, from what-
ever caufe it proceeds, has a like tendency ; and
that this tendency is deducible fiom the change made
in the nerves of the part afFeded, and thence propa-
gated into the communicating branches, or even into
the whole medullary fubftance. The yawnings and
ftretchings of perfons difpofed to fleep, the convul-
five refpiration of thofe that are jufl fallen afleep,
and the convulfive motions which attend the extinc-
tion

(^4 • ^f f^^ DofJrines of Vibrations

tion of the fenfcs in epilej^tic fits, and the near np-
proaclies of ck-ath, may be derived, perhaps, in part,
from this Iburce, in jxirt from lome of ihe fore-
going.

PROP. XIX.

The automatic Motion feems to admit of a cotmnodious
Explanation, from the three lajl Vropofitions taken
together.

Tuc particular detail of tliis obfcure and intri-
cate matter will be attempted in the proper places
of the next chapter, which will contain the appli-
cation of the general pofitions concerning fenfation
and motion, in this, to each of the moll: remark-
able phjunomena conlidered feparately. 1 will, how-
ever, prefent the reader here with a fliort fketch, to
enable him to form fome notion of the manner and
plaufibility of the attempt.

The ordinary motions of the heart appear to arife
from the lecond and third claflTes of motory vibra-
tions, mentioned in the laft propofition i and it is -re-
markable, that its motions are found to be, in gene-
ral, and ceteris paribus, ftronger or v/eaker, as the
fum total of thefe two clafTes is greater or lefs^
The fyftole and diaftole fucceed each other, from
the caufes afllgned in the ieventeenth propofition.
We are to conceive, however, that both the influx of
the venal blood into the ventricles, and of the arte-
rial into the coronary veflels, have a confiderable
ihare in bringing on the fyftole, in the way of dif-
tention and irritation.

May we not conjedure, from that experiment of
Dr. Hook'Sj in which, he kept a dog alive, by a mere
continued ftream of frefh air pafTing through the
lung>^, without any fuch alternate motion of the
cheft as takes place in common refpiration, that one

principal

and Affociation in general. 95

principal ufe of the air, which is an eleflric per fe,
in refpiration, is to reftore to the blood, as it palTes
through the lungs, that eledlricity which it has loft in
circulating through the body ? For, upon this fuppo-
fition, the blood which arrives at the left ventricle,
will, in ccflations of refpiration, and alfo where foul
air is refpired, want its due eleftricity ; whence,
according to prop. 16. the nhufcles, and efpecially
the heart, will want one of the principal requifites
for contra<5lion. However, convuifive nnotions may
enfue after a fyncope, from the fifth clafs of motory
vibrations.

It is remarkable here, that the hearts of frogs, vi-
pers, and feveral other fuch animals, as can live in
crreat degrees of cold, and without refpiration, con-
tinue to beat, as has been taken notice of above, for
a long time after they are taken out of their bodies.
We muft therefore fuppofe, that the fibres of their
hearts, and the blood globules which remain in them,
are endued with an eledric, or other attraflive virtue,
of a more durable kind than the fibres and blood
globules of the more perfedl animals j alfo, that this
virtue may be put into adion by a lefs degree of
heat. All which is very agreeable to the other cir-
cumftances of their oeconomy.

Refpiration and crying are excited in the new-born
child from the cold, handling of the midwife, and
other vivid fenfations impreflfed immediately upon its
coming into the world. Thefe vivid fenfations put
the whole fyftem of mufcles, or at leaft thofe of the
trunk and larynx, into aftion at once, as far as
\their mutual anragonifm will permit, the ftronger fee
of confpiring mufcles over-powering the weaker for a
certain fliort time, and then after their force is
<?xhaufted, according to prop. 17. giving way for
a Ihorter time to the weaker. But this alternate
aftion of the mufcles of the trunk and larynx will
be an imperfe<5t kind of refpiration, with crying, as

may

96 Of the DoSlrines of Vibrations

may be eafily fft-n from the difpofition of the miifclcs.
Kcrpir.iiion is alttrwards kept up, partly by the pro-
pciiliiy of the murdes to alternate adion, explained
fro/). 17. partly, perhaps, by the power of habit,
/. <f. alVociation} paidy by the renewal of vivid im-
prcJTions; and partly, as it feems, by vibrations ex-
cited in the pleura and peritonjEum, and thence com-
municated to the diaphragm, and to the mulclcs of
the brealt and belly.

That the lall caufe has a real efficacy, may appear
f(om the following inllance. Let refpiration be fup^
pofed to be at a ft ind for a fmall lime, on account
of the perfon's running, or exerting an a6t of great
ftrength. It is evident, that the blood will both be
accumulated in the lungs and heated there, during
this interruption of refpiration, fince refpiration both
ventilates the blood, and promotes its motion through
the lun"S. The external membrane of the lunes will
therefore be both diftended and heated, i. e. will have
an increafe of vibrations communicated to it. But
this membrane is continuous to the jpleura, and, in-
deed, is the fam^e membrane with it. An increafe of
vibrations will therefore be communicated to the
pleura, and confequently to the diaphragm, and muf-
cies of the breaft, which it inverts.

The periftaltic motion of the inteftines is, in part,
to be deduced from the fecond and third claiTes of
motory vibrations, in the fame manner as the mo-
tion of the heart, fince that motion, like this, re-
turns at intervals inceflantly. And there is reafon to
believe, that vigorous vibrations, either of the fen-
fory or ideal kind, impart an extraordinary degree of
acflivity to the ftomach and bowels. However,
they derive alfo a great part of their motions, pro-
bably the major part, from the imprefTions which the
aliment, bile, and faeces, make upon the villous
coat, the vibrations excited by thefe imprefTions both
running diredtly into the mufcular coat, for the pur-

pofe

and AfTociation in general, 97

pofe of contrafting that part which adjoins to the
feat of impreflion, and aifo running upwards and
downwards along the villous coat, fo as to exert fome
efficacy at a diftance from this feat.

It is very remarkable that the pale fibres of the
inteftines, in men, and many other animals, pre-
ferve, their power of alternate contradion and relax-
ation for a confiderable time after death, whereas the
red fiefhy miifcles of the fame animals lofe theirs foon
after the effufion of their blood. It is a phsenomenon
of a like kind with this, that the whole mufciilar
fyfiem of fome anim.als, that are exanguioiis, or
nearly fo, retain their activity for a confiderable time
after thefe animals are cut into pieces. And both
may ferve to intimate, that the eledricity, or other
attradlive virtue, of pale fibres and fluids, at the
fame time that it is feebler than that of red ones, is,
however, of a more durable kind, and, as was ob-
ferved above of the hearts of frogs and vipers, ca-
pable of being put into aflion by a lefs degree of
heat.

The aftions *of fneezing, fwallovving, coughing,
hiccoughing, vomiting, and expelling the fseces and
urine, with othejs of a like nature, are to be de-
duced from the firll: and fourth clafTes of motory
vibrations, i. e. either from thofe vibrations which
firft afcend up the fenlbry nerves, and then are de-
tached down the motory nerves, which communicate
with thefe by fome common trunk, plexus, or
ganglion, or elfe from ihofe vibrations that run along
the furfaces of uniform membranes, and fo affed: all
the miufcles which lie contiguous to any part of thefe
membranes. It is a ftrong argument in favour of
the hypothefis here delivered, that ail the above-men-
tioned motions arife in the neighbourhood of vivid
fcnfations, increafe when they increafe,' and languifli
when they languiih.

Vol. I. H In

98 Of the Doclrines of Vibrations

In examining this hypotbefis by the aflions of
ineezing, Iwallowing, and coughing, regard muft
be had to the noU^ uvula, and epiglottis, rclpec-
tively, as being extreme and pointed parts, and con-
sequently liable to be affeded with extraordinary vi-
brations, agreeably to the ninth ph.tnomenon of the
fixth propofition.

In like manner, the numerous plexufes and gan-
glions of the eighth pair of nerves and intercoflal
nerve mult have great influence in the motions
and functions of the parts contained in the thorax
and belly.

As the motory vibrations of the fecond and third
clailes are of a gentle kind, for the moft part, and de-
fcend conftantly into the whole fyflem of the mufcles,
it may be expected, that young children fhould move
all their limbs at times, with fome irregular kind of
fuccefTion, from this caufe. And th^s feems to be
the fact. Strong contraftions of the limbs are often
excited by fridions, gripes, and other vivid fenfa-
tions ; but then the motory vibrations here are thofc
of the firfl: and fourth clafTes, General con''Lilfions,
from acidities, and other irritations in the bowels,
leem to be excited in the fame way, the intercoftal
nerve fcrving to communicate the vibrations with
more readinefs to the mufcles of the trunk and
limbs.

It appears to me alfo, that the intercoflial nerve, j
which makes thofe of each fide a feparate fyftcm, as
it were, has fome fhare in determining hemiplegias
to one fide. In like manner, the great brachial and
crural ganglions make all the nerves of the fame
limb fympathize with one another.

Whether the nerves of the fame names through-
out the body have not fome fympathet-.: influences
over each other, may be doubted. If thofe of the m
right fide arife from the left part of the brain, and ■
•■jice verjdj which feems to be the opinion of the bell

anatomifl:s.

and Aflbciation in general. 99

anatomifts, then one would innagine, that the homo-
nymous nerves of the right and left fides muft, in
croffing over, lie fomewhere contiguous to each other,
and fo impart vibrations to each other. And there
feem to be fome favfts from whence this may be in-
ferred; but we cannot expefl to be able to diftinguifli,
with certainty, fo feeble an influence, amidft fo many
others that are far fironger.

Yawning and ftretching may, perhaps, when con-
fidered in all their circumftances, take in all the five
clailes of motory vibrations. When they happen in
the attacks of fever- fits, and other morbid cafes, the
firft feems to be owing to pretty fudden and ftrong
contractions in the membrane of the mouth, fauces,
afpera arteria, and oefophagus; the laft to contrac-
tions in the whole fkin.

As the bowels derive their periftaltic motion, in
part, from the fecond and third clafles, fo it feems,
that the fecretory and excretory veiTels of the glands
muft be conftandy agitated with a like motion, from
the fame caufes, performing their ordinary fecretions
and excretions thereby. Their extraordinary ones
are generally owing to irritations in the membranes,
in which the mouths of their excretory veflTels lie.
And this agrees remarkably with the do<5Vrine of vibra-
tions. For the vivid vibrations excited in the mem-
branes by the irritating caufe muft difFufe themfelves
every way ; and when they come to the mouths of
the excretory veflels, penetrate them, and, by pafllng
up into the vefTcls, both excretory and fecretory,
greatly increafe their periftaltic motion, and, by con-
fequence, their fecretions and excretions. All this
feems equally to hold, in refpe<5l of the exhaling and
abforbing vefiels difperfed throughout the body.

The external motions of the eyes in young chil-
dren are probably owing, in part at leaft, to the im-
mediate ailion of light upon the tendinous expanfions
of the four ftraic mufcles, and particularly upon

H 2 thofe

lOO Of the Bo^t tines of Vibrations

thofe of the nddiicens and abducens. But the light
which palics thioui^h ilie pupil Iccms alio to have
ibinc fliarc, as will be fliewn hereafter. As to the in-
terna! motions, it appears, that the light which falls
\.\[>on the cornea and uvea mull excite the greater and
Icfler rings to contradion, in proportion to its ftrcngth,
and conlcquently prepare the eye to fee diltinitly,
«c dirtcrcnt dirtances, in the manner explained by
Dr. Jurin. The hypotiiefis of this propofition does
therefore give and receive light from his ingenious
theory of this matter,

The two mufcles which relax the membrana tym-
panij are mucli more cxpofed to the air than the mt'/-
culus internus^ or the mufculus Jiapcdis. When there-
fore the air is agitated with ftrong vibrations, as in
loud founds, it will excite the firrt named m-jfcles to
a(51:ion, and confequently relax the membrana tym-
panij as it ought to do. For what reafons the lafl;-
namcd mufcles are contrafled in feeble founds, is a
quellion of a more difficult nature, as is the parallel
one in the eye, viz. why the radiated fibres of the
uvea are contraded in fmall degrees of light, fo as
then to dilate the pupil.

The reader is defired to take notice, that, in all the
inflances of this propofition, I confider the motions
as merely automatic. Their voluntary and femivo-
luntary (late will be accounted for in the two next
propofitions.

PROP.

and Aflbciation in general. loi

PROP. XX.

All that has been delivered abovey concerning the Deri-
vation of ideal Fibraliuncles from Jenjory Vibrations
and concerning their AffcciationSy may be filly applied,
to moiory Vibrations and Vibratiuncles.

This propofition is the immediate confeqiience
of admitting the do6lrines of vibrations and ai-
fociation, in the manner in which they have been
afierted in the foregoing propofitions. It contains the
theory of the voluntary and femi voluntary motions;
to facilitate the application of which theory in the
next propofition, 1 fliail deliver the principal cafes of
this, in the following corollaries.

CoR. I. The motory vibrations of the five clafles
mentioned prop. i8. will generate a propenfity to
correfponding motory vibratiuncles.

Cor. 2. Thefe motory vibratiuncles will afFedt the
brain, as well as the motory nerves along which they
defcend; and, indeed, their defcenc along the mo-
tory nerves will be principally owing to their being
firft excited in the brain. This is fufficiently evident
in the m.otory vibratiuncles which are derived from
the motory vibrations of the fecond and third clalTes.
As to the motory vibrations of the other clafics, it
is evident, that the brain is ftrongly affefted by the
fenfory vibrations which give birth to them., and con-
fequently, that a proportional affection of the brain
mud take place in the motory vibratiuncles derived
from them.

Cor. 3. The motory vibratiuncles will cohere to
one another, by alTociations both fynchronous and
fucceiTive. Hence the fimple parts, of which com-
plex and decomplex motions are compouiided, may
cohere clofely, and fucceed readily to each other.

H 2 C^^'

102 Of the Do^r'nies c/" Vibrations

Cor. 4. The motory vibratiiincles will alfo cohere
to ideal ones by aflociation. Common ideas may
therefore excite motory vibratiuncles, ami conle-
qiiently be able to contraifl the mulcles, j^rovided the
aclive powers lodged in their fibres and blood glo-
bules be fufficiently exalted for this piirpofe.

Cor. 5. If we luppofe the ideal vibratiuncles to be
fo much increaled, fiom the caufes mentioned prop.
14. as to be equal in ftrength to the ufual fenfory vi-
brations, the motory vibratiuncles connedlcd with
them by aflociation muft be fuj^pofed to be increaled
proportionably. Hence ideas may occafion mufcnlar
motions of the lame Qrength with the automatic mo-
tions.

Cor. 6. The third and lafl: connecftion of the mo-
tory vibratiuncles is that with fenfory vibrations,
foreign to thein, /'. e. fuch as had no Hiare in gene-
lating the motory vibratiuncles under confideration.
Particular motions of the body may therefore by
aflociation be made to depend upon fenfations, with
which they have no natural and original connexion.

CoR. 7. As mufcular motion has three con-
nections deducible from affociation, viz. thofe men-
tioned in the third, fourth, and fixth corollaries, fo
the fenfations and ideas have the fame three con-
nections. Hence the whole doflrine of afl^bciation
may be comprifed in the following theorem, viz.

If any Jenfaiion A, idea B, or mufcular motion C,
he ajfociated for a fufficient number of times with any
other /enjation D, idea E, or mufcular motion F, it
Willi ^^ ^^fi excite d, the fimple idea belonging to the
Jenfalicn D, the very idea E, or the very mufcular
motion F.

The reader will obfcrve, that aflfociation cannot
excite the real fenfation D, becaufe the impreflion of
the fenfible object is neceflfary for this purpofe. How-
ever, in certain morbid cafes, the idea is magnified fo
2s to equal, or even over-power, fenfible impreffions.

PROP.

I

and Afibciation in general. 103

PROP. XXI.

fhe voluntary and femivohintary Motions are deducihk
from JJfociationj in the Manner laid down in the laji
Prcpofition,

In order to verify this propofition, it is neceflary
to inquire, what connections each automatic Fiiotion
has gained by affociation with other motions, with
ideas, or with foreign fenfations, according to the
third, fourth, and fixth corollaries of the lad pro-
pofition, fo as to depend upon them, i, e. fo as to be
excited no longer, in the automatic manner defcribed
in the nineteenth propofition, but merely by the
previous introdudion of the afibciated motion, idea,
or fenfation. If it follows that idea, or ftate of mind
(/. e. fet of compound vibratiuncles), which we term
the will, direftly, and without our perceiving the
intervention of any other idea, or of any fenfation or
motion, it may be called voluntary, in the highefl:
fenfe of this word. If the intervention of other
ideas, or of fenfations and motions (all which we arc
to fuppofe to follow the will direclly), be neceflary,
it is innperfeclly voluntary j yet ftill ic will be called
voluntary, in the language of mankind, if it follow
certainly and readily upon the intervention of a fingle
fenfation, idea, or m.otion, excited by the power of
the will : but if more than one of thefe be required,
or if the motion do not follow with certaintv and fa-
cility, it is to be efteemed lefs and lefs voluntary, fe-
mivohintary, or. fcurce voluntary at all, agreeably to
the eircumftances. Now, if it be found, upon a
careful and impartial inquiry, that the motions which
occur every day in conimon life, and which follow
the idea called the will, immediately or mediately,
perfedly or imperfedlly, do this, in proportion to the
number and degree of ftrength in the aflbciations,

H 4 this

104 Q/^ '^'* Docirines of Vibrations

Ahis will be fufficient authority for afcribing all which
wc call voiuncary in ai^lions to alTociation, agreeably
to the purport of this propofition. And tliis, 1 think,
may be verified from h6tsy as far as it is reafonable to
expert, in a fubjed of inquiry fo novel and intricate.

In the fame manner as any artion may be rendered
voluntary, the ceflation from any, or a forcible re-
ilraint upon any, may be alfo, viz. by proper af-
fociations wirii the feeble vibrations in which in-
adlivity confilb, or with the llrong adion of the an-
lagonill mufcles.

After the aflions, whicii are moft perfedlly volun-
tary, have been rendered fo by one fet of afTucia-
tions, they may, by another, be made to depend upon
the mod diminutive lenlations, ideas, and motions,
fuch as the mind fcarce /egards, or is confcious of;
and which therefore it can fcarce recoiled the moment
after the aclion is over. Hence it follows, that af-
fociation not only converts automatic adions into vo-
luntary, but voluntary ones into automatic. For thefe
ndions, of which the mind is fcarce confcious, and
which follow mechanically, as it were, fome precedent
diminutive fenfation, idea, or motion, and without
any effort of the mind, are rather to be afcribed to
the body than the mind, /'. e. are to be referred to
the head of automatic motions. I fliall call them au-
tomatic motions of the fecondary kind, to diftinguifh
them both from thofe which are originally automatic,
and from the voluntary ones ; and fhall now give a
few inllances of this double tranfmutation of motions,
viz. of autoinatic into voluntary, and of voluntary
into automatic.

The fingers of young children bend upon almoft
every im.preffion which is made upon the palm of the
hand, thus performing the adion of grafping, in the
original automatic manner. After a fufficient repe-
tition of the motory vibrations which concur in this
adion, their vibratiuncles are generated, and . a{fo-

ciated

and Aflbciation in general. 105

elated ftrongly with other vibrations or vibratiuncles,
the moft cominon of which, I fiippofe, are thofe ex-
cited by the fight of a favourite play-thing which the
child ufcs to grafp, and hold in his hand. He ought,
therefore, according to the dodlrine of affociation, to
perform and repeat the a6lion of grafping, upon
having fuch a play-thing prefented to his fight. But
it is a known (lid, that children do this. By pur-
fuing the fame method of rcafoning, we may fee
how, after a fufBcient repetition of the proper alTo-
ciations, the found of the words grajpy take holdy
&c. the fight of the niirfe's hand in a ftate of con-
tra6tion, the idea of a hand, and particularly of the
child's own hand, in that ftate, and innumerable
other alloc iated circumftances, i. e. fenfations; ideas,
and motions, will put the child upon grafping, till,
at laft, that idea, or ftate of mind which we may call
the will to grafp, is generated, and fufficiently affo-
ciated with the action to produce it inftantaneoufly.
It is therefore perfeftly voluntary in this cafe j and,
by the innumerable repetitions of it in this perfe6tly
voluntary Rate, it comes, at laft, to obtain a fufficient
connection with fo many diminutive fenfations, ideas,
and motions, as to follow them in the fame manner
as originally automatic aflions do the correfponding
fenfations, and confequently to be automatic fecon-
darily. And, in the fame manner, may all the ac-
tions performed with the hands be explained, all thofe
that are very familiar in life pafting forn the original
automatic ftate through the feveral degrees of volun-
tarinefs till they become perfstStly voluntary, and then
repafTing through the fame degrees in an inverted or-
der, till they become fecondarily automatic on many
occafions, though ftill perfeftiy voluntary on fome,
viz. vvhenfoever an exprefs aift of the will is exerted.

I will, in the next place, give a ftiort account of I
the manner in which we learn to fpeak, as it may be \
deduced from the foregoing propofition. The new- j

born

I

106 Of the Votlrines of Vibrations

born child is not able to produce a found at all, un-
Icls the mufcles of the trunk and larynx be ftimu-
I.util thereto by the itnprellion of pain on foTnt p^rrt'
of the body. As the child atlvances in a(j;e, the. fre-
quent returns of this adtion facilitate it j fo that it
recurs*from lefs and iefs pains, from pleafures, from \
mere fenfations, and lalUy, from (light ailociated
circumflances, in the manner already explained.
' About the fame tinie that this procefs is thus far
advanced, the mufcles of fpeech ad occafionally, in
various combinations, according to the allbciations of
the motory vibratiuncles with each other. Suppofe
now the mufcles of fpeech to aft in thefe combina- I
tions at the fame tiiTje that found is produced from |
fomc agreeable imprefTion, a mere fenfation, or a flight j
aflbciated caufe, which muft be fuppofcd to be often
the cafe, fince it is fo obfervable, that young children,
when in a flate of health and pleafure, exert a va-
riety of anions at the fame time. It is evident, that
an articulate found, or one approaching thereto, will
fometimes be produced by this conjoint a<5lion of the
mufcles of the trunk, larynx, tongue, and lips ;
and that both thefe articulate founds, and inarticulate
ones, will often recur, from the recurrence of the
fame accidental caufes. After they have recurred a
fufficient number of times, the imprefllon which
thefe founds, articulate and inarticulate, make upon
the ear, will become an aflbciated circumftance (for
the child always hears himfelf fpeak, at the fame time
that he exerts the a6lion) fufficient to produce a re-
petition of them. And thus it is^ that children re-
peat the fame founds over and over again, for many
iuccefllons, the imprefllon of the lafl found upon the
ear exciting a frefli one, and fo on, till the organs
be tired. It follows therefore, that if any of the at-
tendants make any of the founds familiar to the child>
he will be excited from this imprefllon, confidered as
an affociated circumfl:ance, to return ic. But the at-
tendants

and Afibciation in general. 107

tendants make articulate founds chiefly; there will
therefore be a confiderable balance in favour of fuch,
and that of a growing nature : fo that the child's ar-
ticulate founds will be more and more frequent every-
day— his inarticulate ones grow into difufe. Suppofe
now, that he compounds thefe fimple articulate founds,
making complex ones, which approach to familiar
words at fome times, at others fuch as are quite fo-
reign to the words of his native language, and that
the firft get an ever-growing balance in their favour,
from the caufe juft now taken notice of; alfo, that
they are afibciated with vifible objefls, adions, &c.
and it will be eafily feen, that the young child ought,
from the nature of aflbciation, to learn to fpeak much
in the fame manner as he is found in faft to do.
Speech will alfo become a perfectly voluntary aftion,
i. e. the child will be able to utter any word or fen-
tence propofed to him by others, or by himfelf, from
a mere exertion of the will, as much as to grafp :
only here the introduftory circumfl:ance, viz. the
imprefllon of the found on the ear, the idea of this
found, or the preceding motion in pronouncing the
preceding word, is evident; and therefore makes it
probable, that the fame thing takes place in other
cafes. In like manner, fpeech, after it has been vo-/
luntary for a due time, will become fecondarily auto-/
matic, /. e. will follow afibciated circumfl:ances, with!
out any exprefs exertion of the will.

From the account here given of the ' adions of
handling and fpeaking, we may underftand in what
manner the firft rudiments are laid of that faculty of
imitation, which is fo obfervable in young children.
They fee the actions of their own hands, and hear
themfelves pronounce. Hence the impreflions made
by themfelves on their own eyes and ears become af-
fociated circumftances, and confequently mud, 1n due
time, excite to the repetition of the aftions. Hence
like imprefiions made on . their eyes and ears by

others.

io8 Of the DoSf fines of Vibrations

others, will liavc the fame cfted ; or, in other words,
tliey will learn to imitate the adions which they leCi
aiicl the founds whicli tiiey hear.

In the lame manner may be explained the evident
powers which the will has over the aftions of fwal-
lowing, breathing, coughing, and expelling the urine
and fitces, as well as the tccble and impcrfedl ones
over fncezing, hiccoughing, and vomiting. As to tlie
motion of the heart, and perillaltic motion of the
bowels, fiDCC they are conftant, they muft be equally
alTociated with every thing, /'. e. peculiarly fo with
nt'thing, a few extraordinary cafes excepted. U'hey
will therefore continue to move folely in the original
automatic manner, during the whole courfe of our
lives. However, aflociation may, perhaps, liavc
Tome fhare in keeping thele motions, and that of re-
fpiration, up for a time, when the ufual automatic
caufes are deficient in any meafure ; and may thus
contribute to their equability and condancy. It
feems certain, at lead, that where unequable and irre-
gular motions of the heart and bowels are generated,
and made to recur for a fufficient number of times,
from their peculiar caufes, in full quantity, a lefi
degree of the fame caufes, or even an alfociated cir-
cumllance, will fuffice to introduce them afterwards.
And the fame thing may be obferved of hyfteric and
epileptic fits. Thefe recur from lefs and lefs caufes
perpetually, in the fame manner, and for the fame
reafons, as original automatic motions are converted
into voluntary ones.

I will add one inftance more of the tranfition of
voluntary actions into automatic ones of the fccondary
kind, in order to make that procefs clearer, by hav-
ing it fingly in view. Suppole a perfon who has a
perfeftly voluntary command over his finger.i, to be-
gin to learn to play upon the harpficord : the firft
ftep is to move his finger<s from key to key, with a
flow motion, looking at the notes, and exerting an

exprefs

ajjd Aflbciation in general, 109

xprefs aft of volition in every motion. By de-
rees the motions cling to one another, and to the
..nprefiions of the notes, in the way of aflbciation
fo often mentioned, the a6ls of volition growing Icfs
and lefs exprefs all the time, till at laft they become
evanefcent and imperceptible. For an expert per-
former will play from notes, or ideas laid up in the
memory, or from the connection of the feveral com-
plex parts of the' decomplex motions, fome or allj
and, at the fame time, carry on a quite different
train of thoughts in his mind, or even hold a con-
verfation with another. Whence we may conclude,
that the paflage from the fenfory, ideal, or motory
vibrations which precede, to thofe motory ones which
follow, is as ready and direct, as from the fenfory vi-
brations to the original automatic motions correfpond-
ing to them -, and confequently, that there is no inter-
vention of the idea, or ftate of mind, called will.
At leafc, the doftrine of affociation favours this, and
the fa6t (hews, that there is no perceptible interven-
tion, none of which we are confcious.

And thus, from the prefent propofition, and the
nineteenth taken together, we are enabled to account
for all the motions of the human body, upon prin-
ciples which, though they may be fidtitious, are, at
leaft, clear and intelligible. The dodrine of vibrations
explains all the original automatic motions, that of
aflbciation the voluntary and fecondarily automatic
ones. And, if the doftrine of affociation be founded
in, and deducible from, that of vibrations, in the
manner delivered above, then all the fenfations,
ideas, and motions, of all animals, will be conducted
according to the vibrations of the fmall medullary
particles. Let the reader examine this hypothefis
by the fads, and judge for himfelf. There are in-
numerable things, which, when properly difcuffed,
will be fufficicnt tefts of it. It v/ill be neceffary,
in examining the motions, carefully to diftinguilh

the

no Of the Doclrines of Vibrations

ilie automatic ftate from the voluntary one, and to
rrmcmbcr, that tiie firll is not to be found pure, ex-
cept in the motions of ihc new-born infant, or fuch as
are excited by fomc violent irritation or pain.

Cor. I. The brain, not the f{)inal marrow, or
nerves, is the leat of the foul, as far as it prcfidcs
over the voluntary motions. For, by Cor. 2. of the
lall: Propcjiiioiiy the efficacy of the motory vibra- >
tiuncles depends chiefly on that part of them which is •
excited within the brain.

CoR. 2. The hypothefi^ here propofed is dia-
metrically oppofite to that of Stably and his followers.
They fuppofe all animal motions to be voluntary in ^
their original ftate, whereas this hypothefis fuppofes
them all to be automatic at firft, i. e. involuntary, .
and to become voluntary afterwards by degrees, j
However, the Siabliaus agree with me concerning
the near relation of thefe two forts of motion to each
other, as alfo concerning the tranficion (or rather
return, according to my hypothefis) of voluntary
motions into involuntary ones, or into thofe which I
call fecondarily automatic. As to final caufes, which
are the chief fubjefl of inquiry amongft the S/ab-
liafiSj they are, without doubt, every where confult-
ed, in the ftrudure and functions of the parts;
they are alfo of great ufe for difcovering the efficient
ones. But then they ought not to be put in the place
of the efficient ones j nor fhould the fearch after the
efficient be baniflied from the ftudy of phyfic, fince
the power of the phyfician, fuch as it is, extends to
thefe alone. Not to mention, that the knowledge
of the efficient caufes is equally ufcful for difcovering
the final, as may appear from many parts of thefe-
obfervations.

Cor. 3. It may afibrd the reader fome entertain-
ment, to compare my hypothefis wiih what Des
Cartes and Leibni!z have advanced, concerning animal
motion, and the conneflion between the foul and

body.

and Aflbciation in general. iii

body. My general plan bears a near relation to
theirs. And ic feems not improbable to nne, that Des
Cartes nnight have had fuccefs in the execution of his,
as propofed in the beginning of his Treatife on Man,
had he been furnifhed with a proper aflennblage of
fadls fronrj anatonny, phyfiology, pathology, and
philofophy in general. Both Leibnitz's Pre-eftabli(hed
Harmony, and Malehranche\ Syftem of occafional
Caufes, are free from that great difficulty of fup-
pofing, according to the fcholaftic fyftem, that the
foul, an immaterial fubftance, exerts and receives a
real phyfical influence upon and from the body,
a material fubftance. And the reader may obferve,
that the hypothefis here propofed ftands clear alfo of
this difficulty. If he admits the fimple cafe of the
conniftion between the foul and body, in refped of
fenfation, as it is laid down in the firft propofition;
and only fuppofes, that there is a change made in the
medullary fubftance, proportional and correfpondent
to every change in the fenfations ; the do61:rine of
vibrations, as here delivered, undertakes to account
for all the reft, the origin of our ideas and motions,
and the manner in which both the fenfations and
thefe are performed.

CoR. 4. I will here add Sir IJaac Newton's words,
cohcerning fenfation and voluntary motion, as they
occur at the end of his Principia, both becaufe they
firft led me into this hypothefis, and becaufe they
flow from it as a corollary. He affirms then, " both
" that all fenfation is performed, and alfo the limbs
" of animals moved in a voluntary manner, by the
" power and a6lions of a certain very fubtle Ipirit,
•" i. e. by the vibrations of this fpirit, propagated
" through the folid capillam.enis of the nerves from
" the external organs of the fcnfes to the brain, and
•" from the brain into the mufcles."

Cor. *5. Ic follows from the account here given
of the voluntary and femivoluntary motions, that we

muft

112

Of the Doih'mes of Vibrations

mull get every day voluntary and femivoluntary
powers, in rclpctfl of our ideas and ;ilVe('tioiis. Now
this confcquence of the doctrine of allociation is alfo
agreeable to ihc fad. Thus we have a voluntary
power of atteniling to an idea for a lliort time, of
recalling one, of recoiled ing a name, a fadl, &:c. a
femivoluntary one of quickening or retraining affec-
tions already in motion, and a moll perfectly volun-
tary one of exciting moral motives, by reading, reHec-
tion, 6cc.

P R O P. XXII.

// foUowsj from the Uyfothcfis here propofedj concerning
the •voluntary Alotions, thut a Power of obtaining Plea-
ftirCy and removing Pain, will be generated early in
Children^ and increafc afterwards every Day.

For the motions which are previous and fubfervient
to the obtaining of pleafure, and the removal of pain,
will be much more frequent, from the very inftant of
birth, than thofe which occalion pain. The number
alfo of the firft will be perpetually increafing, of the
laft decreafing. Both which pofitions may be evin-^
ced by the following arguments.

Firll, The pleafures are much more numerous than
the pains. Hence the m.otions which are fubfervient
to them are much more numeious alfo.

Secondly, The aflbciated circumftanccs of the plea-
fures are many m-ore in number than the pleafures
themfelves. But thefe circumftanccs, after a fufficient
aflbciation, will be able to excite the motions fubfer-
vient to the pleafures, as well as thefe themfelves.
And this will greatly augment the methods of obtain-
ing pleafure*

Thirdly, It favours the pofition here advanced,
that the motions fubfervient to pleafure are of a mo-
derate nature j and therefore,, that they can be cxciced

with

/

and Allbciation in general 113

with the more eafe, both in an autonnatic and volun-
tary manner.

Fourthly, The pains, and confequently the mo-
tions fubfervient to them, are few, and of a violent
nature. Thefe motions are alfo various, and there-
fore cannot be united to objeds and ideas with con-
flancy and fteadinefs -, and, which is moll: to be re-
garded, they end, at laft, from the very make of the
body, in that fpecies of motion which contributes
moll to remove or affuage the pain. This fpecies
therefore, fince it recurs the moft frequently, and con-
tinues longeft, muft be confirmed by aflbciation, to
the exclufion of the reft.

Cor. I. Many changes in the aflions of young
children, very difficult to be explained, according to
the ufual methods of confidering human aflions, appear
to admit of a foiution from this ptopofition. Thefe
changes are fuch as tend to the eafe, convenience,
pleafure, of the young child ; and they are fufficiently
obfervable in the tranfition of the originally automatic
aflions into voluntary ones, as matters of fa£t, what-
ever be determined concerning their caufe. I (hall
therefore refer to them occafionally, in the courfe of
thefe papers, as allowed matters of fafl.

Cor. 2. It feems alfa, that many very complex
propenfities and purfuits in adults, by which they
feek their own pleafure and happinefs, both explicitly
and implicitly, may be accounted for, upon the fame,
or fuch-like principles.

CoR. 3. To fimilar caufes we muft alfo refer that
propenfity to excite and cherifh grateful ideas and
affedlions, and trains of thefe, which is fo obfervable
in all mankind. However, this does not hold in fo
lbi6l a manner, but that ungrateful trains will prefenc
ihemfelves, and recur on many occafions, and parti-
cularly whenever there is a morbid, and fomewhat
painful, ftate of the medullary fubftance.

Vol. I. I CoR.

1 14 Of the Doclrines of Vibrations, ^c.

Cor. 4. Since God is the fource of all good, and
conllquently mufl: at laft appear to be lb, /. e. be af-
fociatcd with all our plcalures, it fcems to follow, even
from this propofition, that the idea of God, and of
the ways by which his goodncfs and happinefs are
made manifeft, mufl, at laft, take place of, and ab-
Ibrb all other ideas, and he himfelf become, accord'
ing to the language of the fcripturcs, all in all.

CoR. 5. This propofition, and its corollaries, af-
ford fome very general, and perhaps new, inftances
of the coincidence of efficient and final caufes.

Cor. 6. The agreement of the dodrines of vi-
brations and aflbciation, both with each other, and
with lb great a variety of the phsenomena of the body
and mind, may be reckoned a ftrong argument for
their truth.

CHAP.

[ "5 ]

CHAP. II.

Containing the Application of the Doctrines of
Vibrations and Association to each of the
Sensations and Motions, in particular.

SECT. I.

OF THE SENSE OF FEELING,

PROP. XXIII.

'To dinftinguifh the fever al Kinds of Feeling from each
other, and to affign the general Caufes of the different
Degrees of Exquifitenefs in this Senfe.

Here we may firft diftinguifh feeling into the ge-
neral and particular.

The general feeling extends to all the parts of the
body, external and internal : for they are all fufcep-
tible of pain from wounds and infianinnations, of be-
ing put into a pleafurable ftate, of numbnefs, and
total want of fenfation, and of perceiving heat, cold,
and prefTure. Sonne writers confider all the fenfations
of all the fenfes as fo many kinds of feeling; but I do
not here ufe this word in fo extenfive an acceptation.

The particular feeling is that more exquifite de-
gree which refides in the infides of the hands, and
efpecially in the ends of the fingers s and by which

I 2 we

ii6 Of I be Senje of reeling.

we dirtinguifli the tangible qualities of bodies, viz.
hc.\t, cokl, moilUire, drynefs, foftnefs, hardnefs,
fmootlinefs, rouglinefs, alio their motion, reft, dif-
tance, and figure, with more accuracy than by any
other p.itt. Thcfc lenlations arc, fijr the mod parr,
adiaphorous ones.

The greater exquifitenefs of the particular feeling
arifes probably from the following caufes;

b'iift, 'J"he fentient papilLe rile higlifrom the fkin
(becoming extreme parts thereby), and receive a
large proportional quantity of nerves in the ends of
the fingers.

Secondly, The ends of the fingers are themfelves
extreme parts, and confequently receive ftronger agi-
tations in their infinitefimal medullary particles, from
the ftronger vibrations of the contiguous denfer JElher.
For we muft fuppofe, that the vibrations of tfie rarer
aether within the nerves extend themfelves a little
way into the denfer furrounding icther, and even b^
come ftronger to a certain diftance j after >vhich th*
become weaker again, and arc, at laft, quite fuppref-
fed by the increafe of denfity in the xther, and by
their own dififufion.

Tliirdly, It is cuftomary, in endeavouring to feel
exquifitely, to rub the ends of the fingers againft the
tangible objedl. Now this friftion may, by exciting
vibrations, and a confequent contraftion in certain
mufcular fibrils belonging to the papiiU^ dijlend and
eredl thefe, and thereby increafe their fenfibility.

Fourthly, There is much here to be afcribed to
pra6lice and habit, ;'. e. to aflbciation ; and it is
chiefly on this account, that the fenfations of the
ends of the fingers give us fo much more precife in-
formation concerning the tangible qualities of bodies,
than thofe of the ends of the toes, fince the ftrudure
of the nervous p^/);7/^ is alike in both. It ought to
be confidered as a part of this reafon, that, accord-
ing to the principles laid down in the laft chapter, we

may

Of the Senfe of Feeling. 117

may get a voluntary 'power of ereding the papilU
without fri(5lion, or of increafing and fixing the diften-
tion during friftion, in order to feel with greater ex-
quifitenefs and precifion.

The fenfe of feeling may alfo be diftinguifhed into
that of the external furface of the body, and that of
the cavities of the nofe, mouth, faucesy alimentary
du6t, felv0IM the kidneys, ureters, bladder of
urine, gall-bra^tler, follicles and du(^s of the glands,
&c. The^'t^ibility in the hft is much greater than
in the firfl, becaufe the impreffions can more eafily
penetrate through the foft epithelium, with which the
internal cavities are inverted, than through the hard
cuticle, becaufe the compaft fibrous membrane of the
true fldn does not fufFer the vibrations to pafs freely up
the ner*e through its own fubftance, but rather diffufes
them along its furface, and becaufe the moifture of
the epithelium diflblves, and thereby renders aftive,
^ the faline particles, which touch the internal cavities.
In the mc^th and nofe this fenfibility is ^o great, and
attended with fuch diftinguifliing circumftances, as to
have the names of tafte and fmell affigned refpec-
tively to the fenfations imprefied upon the/)^/)i//^ of
thefe two organs. And as the fenfations of the ali-
mentary du6l have a near relation to, and connexion
with, thbfe of the mouth, I (hall refer them to the
head of tafte. But the fenfations of the other internal
cavities may be comprehended more properly under
feeling.

It ought alfo to be obferved here, that the lips,
nipples, and external parts of generation, have a more
exquifite fenfibility, than the other external parts j
partly from the fi:ru6i:ure of their papilU, and partly
from the thinnefs of the cutis, and foftncfs and thinnefs
of the cuticle. The extreme fenfibility of the cornea
and tunica cor.jun^iva of the eye may arife from the
manner in which the nerves are here expofed, and the
tenfion of thefe parts.

I 3 PROP.

1 1 8 Of the Senfe of Feeling.

PROP. XXIV.

I'd eKominc how far the Scnjations of Heat and Cold are
agreeable to the T>o3rine of Vibrations,

A BODV is termed hoty when its heat exceeds that
ofihepait, witli which we touch it; cold, when its
heat is lels th.in this. The terms /'o/and cold z\z
therefore relative ones, and the quahties denoted by
them run into each other without any precile diftin-
guiOiing limits. We may conlVquently refer cold to
heaty and, if we admit the doflrine of vibrations, we
arc to fuppofe, that the fmall parts of all bodies are
agitated by fubtle vibrations ; and that when ^cfe vi-
brations exceed thole of the part with which we touch
tliem, they are called ijoarm or hot ; when they fall
fhort, cold. ^

This may be regarded as a grofs, general pofition,
which prefents iifelf upon the firft confideration of this
matter. But then, as, according to this definition
of heat, all thofe objccls of tafte and fmell, which
excite ftrong vibratory motions in the organs ought to
excite heat, we mull: inquire farther into the vibratory
motions of bodies termed hot in common language,
and into the difference between thefe and the vibra-
tions excited in the nerves of tafte and fmell by fapid
and odorous bodies.

I conieduie therefore, that the vibrations belong-
ing to heat are in general quicker and fliorter, than the
peculiar ones excited by taftes, fm.ells, and colours j
alfo that the laft, or the vibrations of the rays of light,
are quicker than thofe of taftes and fmells. We may
conceive farther, that all the vibrations of the fmall
p.u tides of the medullary fubftance, and interjacent
^ther, from whatever caufe they arife, grow quicker
as they grow fhorter, /. e. weaker ; or, according to

the

Of the Senje of Feeling. 119

the conje(5^ure juft made, that in declining they tend
to thofe which imprefs the fenfation of heat. For
vibratory motions of different lengths can be ifo-
chronoLis only according to one law, viz. that of the
accelerating force being in the fimple proportion of
the diftance from the middle point of the vibration,
as when a heavy body vibrates in a cycloid; where- v
as, if the accelerating force be in any lefs ratio than
this, (hort vibrations wil be quicker than long ones.
Laftly, we are to conceive, that when two vibrations
of different kinds, or frequences, are impreffed at the
fame time, they muft reduce one another to fome
fingle intermediate one, unlefs the quicker be fo much
more numerous than the flower, as to be comprehended
within them, fo that both may be performed together
without oppofition or confufion.

Let us now inquire how far the feveral effefbs of
heat and cold upon our bodies are agreeable either
to the notion of vibrations in general, or to the par-
ticular conjeftures of the laft paragraph.

Firft, then, We may expefl that heat will rarefy
the folids and fluids of the body, and the laft more
than the firft, which is agreeable to experience. For
the increafe of the agitations will make the fmall par-
ticles recede from one another, and that more in fluid
than in fblid parts, becaufe of their loofer texture.
There may be other reafons alfo, drawn from the
particular unknown compofition of each part, folid and
fluid, which may fubjecl them to greater or lefs rare-
fadlion. Thus I conjeflure, that the red blood is more
apt to be rarefied than the other fluids, and that it is
by this means made a chief inftrument in comprefllng
the white medullary fubftance of the brain, and fpinal
marrow, in natural and morbid fleep, to both which
heat contributes, as has been obferved already.

Secondly, If heat be caufed by vibrations, we may
expefi, that thofe propagated from the hot or cold body
Ihould diffufe themfelves freely and inftantaneoufly

I 4 over

120

Of the Seijje of Feeling,

over the whole nervous fyftcm, i. e. the whole
body ; however along the furface of the ll<.in, in an
clpccial manner. This follows from the uniformity
both of the whole medullary fubllance, and of the
fkin. The firll communicates the vibrations which
afccnd along the nerves affeded to the wliole body,
tiie lall thofc im[:rcfl*cd upon the part of the (kin, which
touches the hot or cold body, to the other paits of it.
Now this is agreeable to experience : for when the
whole body is too hot, or too cold, we find tiiat the
uiere touch of a cold or hot body will give general
relief immediately ; and in fome cafes a thrilling or
fliivering may be felt to run along the fkin.

Thirdly, If the ikin be coniradled by any caufe
different from the direft impreffion of cold, as by
the pain propagated from a wound, the colic, the
irritation of a ftone in the bladder, Stc. this con-
tradion, firft excited by an increafe of vibrations in the
mufcular variouQy interwoven fibrils of the ikin, may
be expe<5ted afterwards to check and diminifh the vi-
brations there, and thus to occafion the fenfation of
cold, agreeably to experience. The chillinefs arifing
from matter abforbed, and from the caufe of acute
difiempers, whatever that be, may admit of a like
explanation.

The tremors, /. e. fudden, fliort, alternate con-
tracflions of the antagonifi: mufcles, which happen in
the foregoing cafes, arife probably from an increafe
of vibrations, not fubjed: to ideas, and the volun-
tary power, defcending from the brain into the whole
fyftem of the mufcles j and feem to differ from the
ftronger and larger convulfive motions of hyfteric and
epileptic diforders, called convulfions emphatically,
rather in degree than kind. Thefe tremors generally
precede the fenfe of chillinefs, when the contraflion
of the fibrils of the fldn does not arife from the direft
imprefiion of cold.

We

V Of the Senje of Feeling. i2i

We may from hence pafs to the fenfation of chil-
linefs, and the tremors, which are fometimes occa-
fioned by the paffions, fear, anger, furprize, joy, &c.
Both the rednefs and the palenefs of the lips, face,
and neck, which are obfervable in thefe cafes, are
marks of a contraction in mufcular fibrils j in a lefs
degree in the firfl: cafe, fo as to check the return of
the venal blood ; in a greater in the laft, fo as to
prevent the influx of the arterial.

Fourthly, It is eafy to conceive, that heat may oc-
cafion pain, agreeably to the hypothefis concerning
pain, above propofed. For the ftrong vibrations ex-
cited by great heat mulVput the fmall parts beyond
the fpheres of each other's attraction, and fo produce
the folution of continuity. But neither does it feem
inconceivable, that cold may have a like eflrct, agree-
ably to the do6trine of vibrations, though the procefs
be difl^ercnt. For great cold, by checking the vibra-
tions in the external part, to which it is applied, will
alter the fituation and diftance of the fmall medullary
particles there, and fo m.uft excite vigorous vibrations
in the afcending nerves, and the correfponding region
of thex brain, which is juft the effect occafioned by
heat, applied to the fame external part. Hence, if
we are touched by a very hot, or a very cold body,
inadvertently, and without feeing it, it ought to be
difficult to diftinguifh which it is, agreeably to the
fa6t. The conflict between the diminifhed vibrations,
in the external part to which cold is applied, and
the previous ones fubfifting in the correfponding part
of the brain, may exalt thefe previous ones, as much
as heat does, fo as to render the firft Ample impref-
fion of cold fimilar to that of heat.

Fifthly, The continued im.prefllon of heat makes
us more fenfible of cold. For when heat has ra-
refied the parts, and adapted them to a peculiar
ftrength and frequency of vibrations, differing from
the ufual ftandard, the cold, whofe difference from.

the

122

Of the Senfe of Feeling.

the nfual flanchird lies on the other fide, muft raifc
a greater conllid, and produce a greater change, than
if the parts had rem.iined at the iifiial ftandard.
The continued imptclfion of cold niuft: for the fame
reafons make us more fenfible of heat. This expli-
cation will perhaps fuit witii other theories of fenfa-
tion, as wtll as with that drawn from vibrations.
However, the mere confiftcncy of any phrenomena
with the doflrine of vibrations is worthy of fome at-
tention in this inquiry.

Sixthly, When the calf of the leg is affcded with
the cramp, fetting the foot upon a cold marble will
afford immediate relief. For the cold may check
xhe violent vibrations in the fibres of the gaflrocnemii
and fokusy directly and immediately ^ or it may do
it by exciting vigorous vibrations of a different
kind, which extend to their anlagonift mufcles, as
well as to the fore-mentioned ones. But I judge the
firft account to be more probable.

Seventhly, If a limb, that has been much chil-
led with cold, be brought to a fire fuddenly, it will
firft be much pained, and then mortify. For the
vibrations excited by the fire, though moderate in
refpeft of the ufual ftandard, are yet exceffive in re-
fpeft of thofe which the cold has introduced, alfo
in refped of that fphere of attraction, which it has
now fixed upon the parts : there will arife there-
fore a violent confli6t, folution of continuity, and
confequent pain ; and the parts will be agitated fo
much more than their prcfent fpheres of attradtion
will permit, that they cannot return to it any more,
but muft be entirely difunited, and run into dif-
ferent combinations, /. e. the limb muft mortify.
But, if the limb be put into cold water, rubbed,
and gradually exalted to the ufual ftandard of heat, it
may be perferved. Where it is to be obferved, that
the heat of water, while fluid, is above the freez-
ing point, and, confequently, greater than that of a
frozen limb. It

Of the Senfe of Feeling. 123

It may fomewhat confirm this reafoning, to give a
iimilar explication of fome of the phsenomena of
glafs bubbles, nnade by dropping nnelted glafs into
water. We may fuppofe then, that thefe fall at once
into powder, when broken at their points, becaufe
the cold water has fo far reduced the fphere of at-
traftion, that all the parts of the bubbles are agitated
eyond this, by breaking their points. But if a bubble
: heated, and its parts brought to a larger fphere of
.ttradtion by the agitations from heat, it will no
■ jnger fall to powder when broken at its point. It
ij liiay alfo haye its parts ground away at pleafure, with-
out falling to powder, becaufe grinding agitates all
the contiguous parts with ilrong vibrations, like heat,
and enlarges the fphere of their attradions.

Eighthly, When the parts contiguous to a morti-
fied flough have a fufficient heat in them, excited by
the vis vitay or warm applications, the vibrations
attending this life and heat of the parts ought to help
to Ihake ofF and feparate the mortified flough, i. e. to
flop the mortification ; which is agreeable to the fadV.
Hence mortifications from external cold, in bodies
otherwife healthy, will come to feparate fooncft, and
mofl: perfedly, as it is frequently feen in cold climates.
Hence alfo mortifications happening in the acute
diftempers of young perfons, if they ftop at all,
flop fooner than thofe in the extreme parts of old
perfons.

Ninthly, It is faid, that cold water, fprinkled upon
the diftended limbs of malefaflors upon the rack,
renews and augments their pains. Now, we may
here fuppofe, that the parts had, in fome meafure,
begun to accommodate themfelves to their diftended
flate, by getting new and enlarged fpheres of adion :
when therefore the cold water endeavours to contract
the parts again, and to narrow the fpheres of adion,
the limbs ftill continuing diftended by the rack, it is

evident.

124 ^f ^'^''•* ^^^I'^ Pf Feeling'

cviclenr, that a llrong conlTufl, with violent vibra-
tions, and the lolution of continuity, murt enlbe.
Was the limb relcalctl liifl, and then cold water
applied, it migiit contribute, as in fprains, to reftorc
the parts to their foimL-r Hate, without exciting any
I'uch violent conrtid:. The good cffecfls of vinegar,
verjuice, fpirit of wine, and other contrading liquids,
in iprains, are to be explained upon the lame prin-
ciples.

Tenlhly, Mot or cold water feels hotter or colder,
refpedively, when the hand is moved in it, than
when it is kept at reft. For the hand, when at reft,
has time, a little to check or exalt the vibrations in
the contiguous hot or cold water.

Eleventhly, When a perfon goes into cold water
leilurely, he is apt to fob, and to refpire in a convul-
(we manner, for a fliort time. For the imprefllon
of the cold upon the lower limbs excites fuch vigo-
rous vibrations in the abdominal, and other mufcles
of expiration, as being nearer to tlie feat of the im-
prelTion than the mufcles of infpiration, that a con-
vulfive continued expiration is firft produced, then a
fob, or deep infpiration j and laftly, (Irong convulfive
expirations and infpirations for fome fuccefllons.

The good effects of cold bathing arife perhaps, in
part, from its narrowing the fphere of attra6tion in
the fmall parts of the mufcular fibres, and at the
fame time making this attradion ftronger. Hence
it may be prejudicial in fome paralytical affeftions, as
it is found to be. For, if the fmall velTcls of the
nerves be obftruded, it may, by contrafting the
folids, increafe the obftrudion, and, confequently, the
impediment to the free vibrations necefiary to fenfe
and motion.

Twelfthly, Bathing in warm water, impregnated
with aclive mineral particles, may, by exciting and
incrcafing vibrations in the white medullary fubftance,
as well as by other means, remove obftruclions in its

fmall

OJ the Senfe of Feeling, 125

fmali veflels, and thus be fcrviceable in many para-
lytica! diforders, as ic is found to be in faft. The
fame reafoning is applicable to the ftiffnefs, infenfibi-
lity, and ioipotency, of motion, which the rheumatifm
often leaves in the limbs.

Cold bathing may in like manner be ferviceable in
paralytic and rheumatic diforders, by exciting and in-
creafing vibrations ; provided the ill efFed from the
immediate cpntraftion does not preclude this good one.

Thirteenthly, Since fridlions, and other impref-
fions upon the Ikin, increafe the vibrations there, it
may be expected, that they fhould increafe the heat.
And tliis is the fad. Ifaperfon rubs his hands to-
gether in cold weather, the fenfation of heat will be
felt to arife in a moment, and to go off again in a mo-
ment after he ceafes to rubj for thqrvibrations exci-
ted by rubbing may be expcfled to languifh imme-
diately, if not kept up by continuing the friflion.

Fourteenthly, Strong taftes may, according to the
dodrine of vibrations, be expedled to leave a heat
upon the tongue, mouth, and fauces^ as they are
found to do. And, in general, all vivid imprefllons
upon every part of our bodies ought to increafe the
heat generally or particularly; which perhaps is the
cafe, though we are feldom able to determine this
by obfervation.

Fifteenthly, All ftrong emotions of mind ought
alfo to increafe the heat of the bodv. This is a mat-
ter of common obfervation, if we except the chillinefs
of the f!<;in, and coldnefs of the extremities, which
have been explained above, agreeably to the do6lrine
of vibrations.

The three lad articles favour the above delivered
conjeftures concerning the peculiar nature of the vibra-
tions belonging to heat. The ph^nom.ena enumerated
in all the fifteen may admit of other explanations, at
leaft in part, but of none, as far as I can judge, that
are inconfiftent with the dodrine of vibrations.

PROP.

1 26 Of the Seujc of Feeling.

PROP. XXV.

To ixam'me hoiv far the Phenomena of Wounds ^ Burns y
BruifeSy Lacerations^ Inflammations^ and Ulcers^ are
agreeable to the Dotirine of Vibrations.

The nianifcft folution of continuity, whicli is the
very efTcnce of a wound, may occafion pain, agree-
ably-to the doiftrine of vibrations, in the manner that
ha^ bfcn explained already. This is the immediate
pain that attends a wound. The fubfequent one is to
be referred either to the head of inflammation, or to
that of ulcer.

The immediate pain from burns has likewife been
explained agreeably to the dodlrine of vibrations, alfo
the fcparation of the dead or mortified efchar, under
the lafl propofition. The fubfequent pain is to be
referred to the heads of inflammation and ulcer, as
before.

A bruife is fuppofed, and with the appearance of
reafon, to be an infinite number of infinitely fmall
wounds. It ought therefore to be attended with a
pain rcfembling that of a large wound, and yet not
exadly the fame, which is the faft. As large wounds
are fometimes healed by the firft intention, without
any fubfequent ulcer, fo may bruifes. If otherwife,
the fubfequent pain mufl: again be referred to the heads
of inflammation and ulcer.

Lacerations are great wounds attended with bruifes,
i. e. with an infinite number of infinitely fmall ones.
Thefe are never cured without coming to digeftion,
i. e. an ulcer, and the requifite previous inflamma-
tion.

The heat and diflention of the foiall veflels in in-
flammations are fufficient to account for the pain at-
tending them, upon principles already laid down.

In

Of the Senfe of Feeling. 127

In ulcers the nerves are expofed defencelefs, and
therefore are fufceptible of the nioft violent vibra-
tions, and confequent pain from flight imprefljonsj to
which it is to be added, that the moifture of ul-
cers, by diflTolving the faline parts of bodies applied,
greatly augments their atflions upon the naked nerves.

Fomentations and cataplafms feem to aftoid relief
in the foregoing cafes, partly by diffufing an equal
warmth all around, partly by their aqueous or oily
moifture. For the diifufion of warmth prevents that
conflift, which would arife between neighbouring
parts of different heats j and the moifture, which
infinuates itfelf among the fmall particles, fets them
at greater diftances, and confequently lefl^ns their
mutual ailions. The violent vibrations will there-
fore be moderated on both accounts. The friftion
attending embrocations does in like manner diffule
vibrations all around, and the liniment or liquid,
with which the embrocation is made, may contri-
bute according to its particular qualities. Hence
embrocations are alfo of ufe in refolvingobftruftions.

In all thefe cafes the violent vibrations, which afcend
along the nerves of the injured part, muft be com-
municated in a particular manner to the neighbouring
branches, and occafion a flight inflammation, i, e. 3.
Ibrenefs, there. This forenefs is not perceived while
the original inflammation fubfifts, being obfcured by
it. The vibrations in- the neighbouring nerves may
alfo be increafed by the cefiTation of violent ones in
the place of original inflammation. Hence the fore-
nefs of the neighbouring parts after colics, head-achs,
&c. The pain in the external parts of the head,
which follows a debauch, i. e. an inflammation of the
brain, and its membranes, may be of the fame kind.

Thefe hints may ferve to fliew, that the dodtrine
of vibrations is as agreeable to the phsenomena of
wounds, burns, &c. as any other yet propofed, of
even more fo. But much farther inquiry is requifite.

P R O P.

128

Of the Senfe of Feeling.

r R O P. XXVI.

To examine hozv far the Plhowncna of Itching and Titil-
latiou are agreeable to the Do£irinc of Vibrations.

Itching ofren attends the beginning and ending
of inlUminations, and particularly the eruption of in-
Hammatory pnibiles. We may conclude therefore,
according to the foregoing account of inflammations,
that itching is cauled by a moderate increafe of vi-
brations, in a part of fmail extent.

It is agreeable to this, that the lodgment of the
perfpirablc matter, or other cutaneous fecretion,
when hardened, occafions itcliing ; for it is eafy to
conceive, that, in thcle c^ik^y an obllrudlion and flight
inflamm.ation in the fmall veflels of the flvin may arife.

Prtfllire, which allays itching, may be fuppofed to
do this by checking the vibrations.

Scratching may convert it into a pleafure, by com-
municating the increafcd vibrations to the neighbour-
ing parts, in fuch a degree as falls within the limits
of pleafure. And as this freer communication caufed
by fcratching may increafe the vibrations in the neigh-
bouring parts, fo it may Icflien thofe which fubfllted
before in the point that itched, thus reducing all to
an equality, or nearly fo. Ac the fame time if ap-
pears, that rude or long-continued fcratching mufl:,
by the increafe of vibrations, which it. occafions, alfo
by laceration, increafe the heat, inflaaimation, and
itching, and even end in pain.

Fridtion of the fkin, without previous itching, ex-
cites a pleafurable fenfation ; and alfo ends in inflam-
mation and pain, when carried too far, for the like
reafons.

Since extreme parts are more apt to receive an in-
creafe of vibrations than others, as has been o&ferved;

it

Of the Senfe of Feeling. 129

.it appears, that the itching of the nofe and anus may
be expefted to attend v.orms in the ftomach or in-
teftines, and the itching of the glans penis and anus a
flight inflammation at the neck of the bladder from
a ftone. Thefe inflances fliew, that vibrations run
freely along the furfaces of uniform membranes ;
and this is farther confirmed in the laft cafe, by the
check which a prefl'ure made in perin^o, or any where
upon the urelbraj will give to the itching in the
glans.

Titillation is nearly related to itching. It is ex-
cited by flight impreffions uyon the more fenfible
parts, frequently renewed; and this may fliew, that it
arifes from an increafe of vibrations. The impref-
fions muft be fo flight as not to excite a contraflion in
the neighbouring mufcular fibrils, and alfo frequently
renewed, that the increafe of vibrations may diffufe it-
felf farther and farther perpetually; and thus the whole
nervous fyfrem may, in fome cafes, be at laft put into
a pleafurable ftate, approaching to the limits of pain,
and pafling within them at times.

Hence it appears, that as foon as children have
learnt to cry, or yield a found, from nafcent pains,
and from pieafures juft paffing into pains, titillation
may excite fliort, alternate, nafcent cries in them, /'. e.
laughter, but not before. If the impreflions be made
upon the cheft, the effedt will be quicker and (Ironger,
becaufe thefe impreffions have a dire(5l influence upon
the mufcles concerned in laughter.

Ifa feather be paflfed flightly to and fro between
the lips, it will excite a titillation there, which will
dilfufe itfelf into the neighbouring parts of the upper
lip and chin, and pafs into an itching in them. The
original titillation between the lips may be allayed by
preifing them together, and the confequent itching by
prefl'ure and fridion, as in other cafes. All thele
things fuit with the hypothefis of vibrations, and of
their free difi^ufion.

Vol. I. K In

ijo Of the Seii/e of Feeling.

In like manner, the free tliniifion of vibrations,
and their intlucnce in conira6ling the neighbouring
mulclcs, may be inferred from the vomitings, which
are excited by tickling x.\\c fauces with a feather.

P R O P. XXVII.

To examine bozv far the Senfations attcndwg Vreffiirey and
mufcular Contra^iont are agreeable to th Botlrine of
Vibrations.

As ffidl:ion and titillation agree with heat in in- j
creafing vibrations, fo prelllire agrees with cold in ;
checking them. Thus predure abates the unea- \
finefs from itching, as mentioned above; and bind-
ing, or othcrwife gently compieffing, parts in pain,
or inflamed, /'. e. parts in which the vibrations arc i
exceffive, will, for the mofl: parr, afford relief;
whereas friclion would increafe the pain to a great
degree. But the pain ufually becomes more violent
the inftant the comprefljon is removed. For the
mere elafticity of the parts alters their figure, i. e.
produces internal motions, with an increafe of
vibrations. Preffure may alfo increafe vibrations in
the internal parts, contiguous to ihofe where it checks
them ; or even in the external ones, if it be fo great
as to occafion any confiderable diflention there. ,
And thus there may be a variety of vibrations occa- \
fioned by the feveral kinds and degrees of preffure,
fufficient to correfpond to all the variety of fenfations
excited thereby.

Mufcular contraflion moft commonly attends and
is attended by preffure, as in the common motions
of handling and walking, whereby v/e overcome
the vis inertia of our own bodies, and of thofe which
we have occafion to move or (lop. Hence all the
fenfations, which we receive from the vis inertia of

matter

Of the Senfe of Feeling. 131

atter, muft be derived from thefe two fources of
liiiufcular contraftion and preffure.

Now it has been obfcrved already, that miifcular
contra6tion checks the vibrations in the contracted
fibres, and increafes them in the neighbouring parts.
And it is eafy to conceive, that the fenfation corre-
fponding to this alteration of vibrations may fome-
times fail within the limits of pleafure, fometiriies go
beyond them. In young animals, alfo after fleep
and reft, in all, it is ufually pleafant ; after much
labour, or fprains, and in inflammations, painful ;
and this, whether the difordered mufcle itfelf, or
its antagonift, be contradled. For there muft be an
increafe of vibrations in the difordered mufcle both
before it can be itfelf contrafted, and alfo in con-
fequence of the contradtion of its antagonift ; as has
been fhewn before.

PROP. XXVIII.

to examine hoiju far the Phenomena of NumhneJJes, and
faralytical hifenfibilitieSy are agreeable to the Doffrine
of Vibrations,

Numbness, being a diminution of fenfibility,
3ughr, according to the doftrine of vibrations, to
proceed from fuch caufes^ as either indifpofe the parts
"or the reception of vivid vibrations, or hinder their
Tee afcent to the brain. Agreeably to this, a com-
Dreflion made upon the nerve, which leads to any
Dart, will occafion a numbnefs in that part, the
lerve below the compreffion' being unfitted thereby
o receive vibrations freely, and the nerve above in-
rapable of tranfmitting freely fuch as are excited.

!\ comprefllon of a blood veffel may have a like ef-
'e6b, becaufe it muft leflfen that heat, and inteftine
notion, which a free circulation would communicate
o the part. The compreflion ufually made upon the
kin, when we prefs a nerve or blood yeflel, will

K 2 alfo

132 Of the Scn/e of Feeling.

alio contribute. And external cold will haftcn the ef-
feft, when joined to the jull named caufes'j or pro- j
duce it alone, if intenfe, or long continued. In like
manner, niimbnefs, from a comprefTion made upon
the nerves or blood veirds, is much favoured by fleep,
becauf'e the parts are then indilpofed both to receive
and to tranfmit vibrations.

The benumbed limb feels larger, becaufe any grofs
body, which encompafles and prefles upon a limb
by its weight or ftritfture, deadens the vibrations in
iti and therefore converfcly, when the vibrations are |
fo deadened from a different caufe, the idea of a grofs
encompafTing body, or, which is almofl the fame
thing, of the enlargement of the limb, will be fug-
gefted to the mind. But this circumftance muft be
referred to the head of affociation.

When the benumbed part begins to recover its
feeling, violent prickings are often perceived. Now
thefe feem to take place in the points where the na-
tural vibrations firfl; return, fuppofe at the ends of
the nervous papilU-^ and to arife from the conflift
between the natural vibrations in thefe points, and
the languid ones in the neighbouring parts. Plow-
ever, they come to an equality at laft, by their mu-
tual influences, as well as by the return of the natu-
ral vibrations to all the parts ; which may ferve to
fhew how itchino; ceafes at laft of itfelf. Fridlion
helps to difperfe and remove thefe prickings, and to
reftore the loft fenfibility, which is very fuitable to
the notion of vibrations, and to the effect which it
has in itchings.

If the hand be held down, and ftiaken, its mufcles
being firft relaxed by a voluntary power, a numbnels
will be occafioned, in which the fingers feel large,
for the reafon given above. This numbnefs feems
to arife from the irregular agitations, or vibrations,
excited in the fmall parts; which, being different
from the natural ones, or thofe in which fenfibility

confifts/.

Of the Senje of Feeling. 133

confifts, muft check them ; juft as the agitations
of water from the wind hinder the free propagation
of regular undulations from a (lone caft into iti or
as any commotion of the air checks the free and
diftin<5t communication of a found. It feems alfo,
that thofe irregular and dilTonant vibrations, which
fhaking the hand caufes in the fmall medullary par-
ticles of its nerves, may pafs on from part to part,
though not fo freely as regular ones.

From hence we may proceed to confider the numb-
nefs occafioned by the ftroke of the torpedo. For
the ofciliations of this fidi's back may neither be
ifochronous in themfelves, nor fuitable to thofe which
exifted previoufly in the hand ; and yet they may be
fo ftrong, as not only to check and overpower thofe
in the part which touches the fifh, but alfo to
propagate themfelves along the fkin, and up the
nerves, to the brachial ganglion, and even to the
fpinal marrow and brain; whence the perfon would
firft feel the ftupefa6lion afcend along the arm to the
(houlder, and then fall into a giddinefs, and general
confufion, as is affirmed to happen fometimes. Some
cffefts of concufTions of the brain, and perhaps of
the fpinal marrow, alfo of being toffed in a fhip, of
riding backwards in a coach, and of other violent
and unufual agitations of the body, feem to bear a
relation to the prefent fubjeft.' But it would be too
minute to purfue thefe things.

When a palfy arifes from an internal caufe, we may
fuppofe, that the medullary part of the brain, or of
the fpinal marrow, or the nerve itfelf, in all which
the vefiels are extretnely fine, and therefore liable to
obftrudions, efpecially in old age, become opaque,
and unqualified to receive and tranfmit vibrations
freely, according to Sir IJaac Newton's opinion.
Hence a diminution or entire lofs of fenfe or motion,
or both, may follow, according to the degree and
extent of the obftrudion and opacity. The voluntary

K 3 power

JJ4 Of the Senfe of Feeling.

power of motion is foon loft, as being an acquired
faculty, and depending upon aflbciaied circumflances,
and memory. But if there be any degree of inflam-
mation in the fine vcfTels of the motory nerves, or
of the corrcfponding parts of the brain, this may oc-
cafion convulfivc motions ; and for the fame reafon,
an inllammation in tlie fenfory nerves, or their origins
in the brain, may occafion pain. Now it is reafonable
to expert fuch inflammations in many cafes as a confe-
qoence of the obftruftions, and both convulfive motions
and pains are often found to attend paralytic afi^edions.

PRO P. XXIX.

To examine how far the Phcemmena attending on venoms
ous Bites and Stings are agreeable to the Doctrine of
Vibrations.

That the aflive liquors, infufed by venomous
animals after they bite or fting, operate, in part,
by the violent vibrations which they excite in the
living parts immediately affefted, and which are
thence propagated along the nerves up to the brain,
and alfo along the furface of the body, by means of
the continuity and uniformity of the fkin, may appear
from the following reafons.

Firft, As the folids and fluids, fcem in general,
equally concerned in all the natural fundtions, and
morbid deviations from them, it is moft reafonable
to refer part of the effcds of venomous bites and
(lings to each. But it is difficult to conceive how thefe
poifons fliould have any immediate efi^ert upon the
folid nervous capillaments, but by agitating their parts.

Secondly, The active particles of thefe poifons,
which are able, in fo fmall a quantity, to produce
fuch violent diforders, and fom.etimes in a very fhort
fpace of time, may well be conceived able alfo to
agitate the nervous parts with ftrong vibrations.

Thirdly,

Of the Senje of Feeling. 135

Thirdly, If we fuppofe their firft and nnofl: imme-
diate effeft to be upon the fluids, yet this may, or
muft, be agitations, that will afterwards be communi-
cated to the folids.

Fourthly, The vibrations of the medullary par-
ticles, mentioned in this theory, feem peculiarly
fuited to anfwer the fevcral quick and furprizing efFedls
of thefe poifons. The pain, fwelling, rednefs, and
lividnefs, all around the part aff^e6led, may eafily be
derived from the vibrations propagated all around.
Oils and fats, rubbed upon the part, may, by damp-
ing thefe, prevent the ill eflfecfls. Vibrations propaga-
ted either along the (kin, through the mouth and nofe,
or up to the brain, and thence along the eighth pair
of nerves, or, which is moft probable, both ways, to
that very fenfible part the ftomach, may produce
ficknefs and vomitings. And if the gall-dud be
contrafted from the fame caufe during the vomitings,
a fudden jaundice will follow from the violence with
which the gall is forced back into the blood by the
aftion of vomiting. Joy, forrow, fear, melan-
choly, may eafily follow according to the refpeftive
natures of the poifons, becaufe thefe, according to
this theory, all arife from and are attended by corre-
fponding vibrations in the white medullary fubflance
of the brain. And a like account may be given of
the averfion to black, and the delight in glaring
objefts, and ftrong colours. The correfponding
nerves of different animals have probably a general
refemblance to each other, juft as the correfponding
vijcera and fluids have. And thus the poifon of rabid
animals may have a peculiar power of affedting the
nerves of the fauces, and mufcles of deglutition, fo
as to produce the hydrophobia. Cold bathing alfo,
and mufic, whofe immediate effeds feem confined to
the folids, to the exciting vibrations in them, may
cure refpedively in the bite of a mad dog, and of the
tarantula.

K 4 However,

136 Of the Senfe of Feeling.

However, what is here nllcged is not at all to be fo
undeidood, as if the immediate effcfls of poifons upon
the Huids were not alfo very confuierable. In fome
caffs they may be greater, in others, leCs than thofe
exrrted upon the folids. It feems probable, that the
poifon is communicated from the fluids immediately
aflt^lcd to thofe at a dilbnce, chiefly by means of the
lerous veflcls. For thefe, having numerous immedi-
ate communications with each other, will tranfmit it
freely, and yet io as that all the neighbouring parts
may be affeded fomewhat in proportion to their near-
nefs to the feat of the injury, as they are found in fafl
to be ; whereas, were the diffufion of the poifon to be
made by the circulation of the fluidii alone, all the parts
would have an equal chance. But the propagation of
the poifon along the folid capillaments of the nerves is
alfo a principal reafon why the neighbouring parts arc
more affedled than the difbant ones. The efFefts of
inoculation bear a great refemblance to thofe of ve-
nomous bites and llings ; and the fame may be faid of
venereal and other infedions.

PROP. XXX.

T/? examine how far the tangible ^aliiies of Bodies
admt! of an Explanation agreeable to the Do^rine of
Vibrations.

Hitherto we have confidered only the more vigo-
rous fenfations of feeling, luch as may be called the
pleafures and pains of this fenfe. We come now
to the feeble and adiaphorous fenfations. Thefe are
moifture, drynefs, foftnefs, with fluidity, hardnefs,
fmoothnefs, roughnefs, motion, reft, difl:ance, and
figure. Now it feem.s very eafy to conceive, that
thefe, with their feveral varieties, may imprefs cor-
refponding varieties of vibrations upon the nerves

of

Of the Senje cf Feeling. 137

of feeling; alfo, that thefe laft varieties will be chiefly
compoficions of the vibrations arifing from preflure,
and mufcular contradlion, i, e. from the vis inertia of
matter.

ThuSj fince moid bodies adhere to the fingers, and
fo leave a fmoothnefs with their own degree of cold
or heat upon them, moifture may be judged of by
the touch from this peculiar alteration of vibrations j
and drynefs from the abfence of it. Liquid bodies
make no alteration of figure in our fingers, and
yield eafily to their motions : foft ones do the fame
in a lefs degree ; hard ones the contrary. Smooth
bodies make an equable preffure, and give no refin-
ance to a motion along their furfaces ; rough ones
the contrary. The motions of our own bodies are
attended by the vibrations peculiar to preflure, and
mufcular contraflion; of other bodies, which touch
our own, by thofe from preflure. We judge of
reft by the abfence of thefe. Diftance is judged of by
the quantity of motion, and figure by the relative
quantity of diftance. And thus it appears, that all
degrees and kinds of thefe tangible qualities may
imprefs correfponding vibrations upon thofe regions
of white medullary fubftance of the brain, and fpinal
marrow, which correfpond to the fkin and mufcles.

The fame qualities are made alfo by means of
light to imprefs vibrations upon our eyes, which cor-
refpond in great meafure to thofe made on the fenfe
of feeling, fo as to vary with their varieties. And
as the fenfe of fight is much more extenfive and
expedite than feeling, we judge of tangible quali-
ties chiefly by fight ; which therefore may be con-
fidered, agreeably to Bifhop Berkley's remark, as
a philofophical language for the ideas of feeling; be-
ing, for the moft parr, an adequate reprefentative of
them, and a language common to all mankind, and
in which they all agree very nearly, after a moderate
degree of experience.

However,

138 Of the Scnjc of Feeling.

However, if the informations from touch and fight
difagrce at any time, we are always to depend upon
touch, as that which, according to the ufual ways of
ipcaking on thefe fubjcifls, is the true reprelentation
of the elfential properties, i. e. as the earneft and pre-
fage what other tangible impreflions the body under
confideration will make upon our feeling" in other cir-
cumftances; alfo what changes ic will produce in other
bodies; of which again we are to determine by our
feeling, if the vifual language fliould not happen to
coirefpond to it exactly. And it is from this difference
that we call the touch the reality, light the reprefen-
tative: alfo that a perfon born blind uiay foretcl with
certainty, from his prefent tangible impreflions, what
others would follow upon varying the circumftances;
whereas if we could fuppofe a perfon to be born with-
out feeling, and to arrive at man's eftate, he could not
from his prefent vifible impreflions judge what others
would follow upon varying the circumfl:ances. Thus
the pi6lure of a knife, drawn fo well as to deceive his
eye, would not when applied to another body, pro-
duce the fame change of vifible impreflions, as a real
knife does, when it feparates the parts of the body
through which it paffes. But the touch is not liable to
thefe deceptions. As it is therefore the fundamental
fource of information in refpeft of the effential pro-
perties of matter, it may be confidered as our firft and
principal key to the knowledge of the external world.

PROP. XXXI.

'To ex-plain in zvhat Manner we are enabled to judge of
the Seat of Imprejfions made on the external Surface of
our Bodies,

When we apply the parts of our bodies to each
other, particularly our hands to the feveral parts of
the furface of our bodies, we excite vibrations in

both

Of the Senje of Feeling. 139

both parts, viz. both in the hands, and in that part
of the furface which we touch. Suppofe the hand
to pafs over the furface gradually, and the firft im-
prefllon will remain the fanne, while the lad alters
perpetually, becaufe the vibrations belonging to the
lall are excited in different nerves, and by confe-
quence enter the brain, or fpinal marrow, at different
parts. And this difference in the laft impreffion,
or its vibrations, correfponding always to the part
on which the impreffion is made, will at laft enable
us to determine immediately what pa^t of our bodies
we touch ; i. e. what is the diftance of the part
touched from the mouth, nofe, (boulder, elbow, or
other remarkable part, confidered as a fixed point.

For by paffing frequently from the mouth, nofe, &c.
to the part under confideration, children learn this very
early, even without attending to it at all explicitly, •

Sight alfo helps us to judge of this diftance in the
parts, which are frequently expofed to view, and this
in proportion to that frequency.

Let us fuppofe then, that we are able to determine
at once what external part of our bodies we touch, i. e.
to determine how it is fituated in refpe6l of the other
parts, and to fnew the correfponding part in the body
of another perfon j it will follow, that if a like impref-
fion be made not by our own hand, but by that of
another, or by any foreign body, we ftiall know at
once the part on which it is made. We ftiall alfo, fup-
pofing us arrived at a fufficient degree of voluntary
power over the mufcles, be able at once to put our
hand upon the part on which the impreffion is made.

By degrees we ftiall learn to diftinguifh the part,
not only when an impreffion like the gende ones of our
hands is made upon it, but alfo when a vivid, rude,
or painful one is. For, firft, all impreffions made
upon the fame part agree in this, whatever be their
differences as to kind and degree, that they enter by
the fame nerves, and at the fame part of the brain, and

fpinal

140 Of the Scnje of Feeling.

fpinal marrow. Secondly, we iirprefs a great variety
of li^nfations ourrdves by our hands, according as
they arc hot or cold, by fridion, fcratching, &:c. and
moll imjircfnons from foreign bodies will bear fomc
reicmblance to fome of thefe. Thirdly, we often
fee upon what part imprcflions from foreign bodies
are made. FourLJily, when they leave permanent ef-
fe(ft.s, as in wounds, burns, &.c. we always examine
by feeling, where the impreffion was made.

Now from ail ihefe things laid together it follows,
that in itchings from an internal caufe, and in im-
prefilons where neither our hand nor eye give us any
information, we fliall, however, be able to determine at
once with tolerable accuracy what external part is af-
fecfled, and to put our hand upon it, fo as to confirm
our prefent judgment, and render our future judg-
ment, and voluntary power, more certain and ready.
We fliall alfo do this moft readily in thofe parts which
we fee and feel moft frequently, the hands for in-
ftance ; lefs fo, co'teris ■paribus, in thofe we feldoin
fee or feel ; and leaft fo, where we never fee the part,
and feldom touch it. At leaft this feems to refult
from the theory. But it is to be obfcrved, that the
fa6l ouglit to be tried chiefly in children. For in
adults the fevcral degrees approach more to perfec-
tion, ;". e. to an equality among themfelves.

PROP. XXXII.

^0 explain in what Manner^ and to what Degree^ we
are enabled to judge of the Seat of internal Pains.

Here we may obferve, firft, that as we never fee
or feel the internal parts, fuch as the lungs, heart,
ftomach, inteftines, liver, kidneys, bladder, &:c. we
can have no direct information in the manner ex-
plained under the foregoing propofition.

Secondly,

Of the Senfe of Feeling. 141

Secondly, Since all pains difFufe an increafe of
vibrations into the neighbouring parts, the increafed
vibrations in the external parts, arifing from internal
Dains, will be a grofs general direftion, fo as to de-
tern?.ine the feat of the pain within grofs limits, in
refpeft of fuperior and inferior, anterior and pofterior,
right and lefc.

Thirdly, Prefling the external parts, fo as to aug-
ment or'alleviate the internal pain, muft contribute alfo.
Fourthly, Since all the internal parts in the thorax
and abdomen receive branches from the intercoftal
nerve, which communicates with each vertebral pair,
it follows that the internal pains will fend vibrations
up to the fpinal marrow, which will enter in at the fame
parts of it, as the vibrations from external pains in
the neighbourhood. At the fame time it appears from
the many ganglions, plexufes, and communications of
nerves in the thorax and abdomen^ alfo from the
origin and diftribution of the nerves of the cauda
equina, that this can be no inore than a grofs general
ditedbon ; and that the great number of fy mpathetic
influences from thcfe caufes, alfo from the running of
vibrations along membranes, and from their fixing par-
ticularly in nervous parts, or extreme ones, will give
occafion to many deceptions here, and in certain cafes
make the pain be felt, i. e. appear to be, in parts at
a confiderablc diftance from the feat of the diforder.

Fifthly, Suppofc the patient to fhew by the exter-
nal parts whereabouts his pain is felt internally, then
;he phyfician may, from his knov/ledge of the fituation
of the internal parts in refpect of the external, guefs
pretty nearly, what internal part is affcfted.

Sixthly, The fymptoms attending the pain, its
caufe and confequences, compared with the natural
fundions of the parts, with the hiftory of difeafes,
and morbid diffe<5i:ions, will enable the phyfician to
determine with great prccifion in fom.e cafes, and
help a little in moft.

Seventhly,

142 Of the Senje of Feeling.

Seventhly, Wlun the patient has had long experi-
ence of the fame kind of internal pains, or of differ-
ent ones, he dcfcribes more exadlly, and alfo gets
certain fixed points, to which he refers liis pains.

Kighrhly, Anatomills and phyficians may fomctimes
judge with great exadncfs in their own cafes, liaving
both a knowledge of the parts, and their funftions,
and alfo their own feelings, to guide them.

This fubjeft defer vts a particular and accurate
examination, it being of great confc^quence to be able
to difcover the feat and cauja proxima of the dif-
teiv.per, from the complaints of the patient, and from
the previous concomitant, and confequent circum-
ftances. I hope thefe two proportions may caft fomc
light upon it.

Here we may add an obfervation deducible from
the doftrine of aflbciation, viz. as we learn by de-
grees, from impreffions iiiade on the furfaces of our
bodies, to attend particularly to the fenfations im-
prtrffed on, or exifting in each part, at pleafure, i. e.
to magnify the vibrations which take place in it;
ioy after diforders in the internal parts, the aflbciated
circumflances feem often to renew the painful vibra-
tions,there, and to occafion either the return of the like
diforder, or fome other ; at leaft to have a confider-
able fliare in thefe effeds, when produced by their
caufes in an inferior degree. Thus diforders in the
bowels, caufed at firft by acrid impreffions, lay the
foundation for a return of like diforders on" lefs oc-
cafions. Thus women that have often mifcarried,
feem to irritate the mufcular fibres of the uterus by
the recollection of the affociated circumftances, and fo
to difpofe thcmfclves to mifcarry more than accord-
ing to the mere bodily tendency ; fear and concern
having alfo a great influence here. All this will be
farther illuftrated by what follows under the next
propofition.

PROP.

Of the Senfe of Feeling. 143

PROP. XXXIII.

To explain in what Manner, and to what Degree, the
Pleafu'/es and Pains of Feeling contribute, according
to the Do^rine of JJfociation, to the Formation of our
intelMlual Pleajures and Pains,

It follows from the foregoing account of the power
of leaving traces, and of aflbciation, that all the
pains from intenfe heat and cold, wounds, inflam-
mations, &c. will leave a difpofition in the nervous
fyftem to run into miniature vibrations of the fame
kind, and that thefe miniature vibrations will be exci-
ted chiefly by the afiTociated circumftances. That is
to fay. The appearance of the fire, or of a knife, efpe-
cially in circumfl:ances like to thofe in which the child
was burnt or cut, will raife up in the child's nervous
fyftem painful vibrations of the fame kind with, but
lefs in degree than, thofe which the adual burn or
wound occafioned.

By degrees thefe miniature pains will be transferred j
upon the words, and other fymbols, which denote thefe '
and fuch-like obje(5ts and circumftances : however, as
the diffufion is greater, the pain transferred from a fingle ,
caufe muft become lefs. But then, fince a great variety !
of particular miniatures are transferred upon each
word, fince alfo the words exprelTing the feveral pains
of feeling affed each other by various aflbciations,
and each of them transfers a miniature of its own minia-
ture upon more general words, &c. it comes to pafs
^c laft, that the various verbal and other fymbols of
the pains of feeling, alfo of other pains bodily and
mental, excite a compound vibration formed from a
variety of miniatures, which exceeds ordinary aflual
pains in ftrength. Thefe compound vibrations will
alfo have a general refemblance, and particular differ-
ences in refpedl of each other.

It

144 W ^^^ ^^^J^ °f Reeling.

It follows therefore a priori^ as one may fay, and by
a fynilu'tic kind of demonllration, that, admitting the
powers of leaving traces, and of alfociation, compound
or mental pains will arife from fimple bodily ones by
means of words fymbols, and aHbciated circumftances.
And [hey fcem to me to anfwrr in kind and degree to
the facfls in general. If, farther, we admit the doftrine
of vibrations, then thcfe compound mental pains will
arifc fiom, or be attended by, violent vibrations in
the nervous fyftem, and particularly in the brain.

Agreeably to this account, we may obferve, that the
mere words denocing bodily pains, though not formed
into pro[)ofitions or threatcnings, affcft children. How-
ever, fince thtrre happen daily afibciations of the mere
words with freedom and fccuriry, and of propofitions
and threatenings with fiiffcriDgs children learn by de-
grees to confine their fear, forrow, &c. to thofe things
which are efteemed the genuine figns, reafons, caufcs,
&c. of fuf^erings. This is the cafe in general ; but
there are great particular differences both in children
and adujtsj which yet, if accurately purfued, would
probably not only be confiftent with, but even con-
firm and illuftrate, the do6l;ine of affociation.

And we may conclude upon the whole, fince the
pains of feeling are far more numerous and violent
than thofe of all the other fenfes put together, that
the greateft pait of our intelledlual pains are deducible
from, them.

In like manner the pleafures of an agreeable warmth,
and refrclhing coolnefs, when we are cold or hot rc-
fpedtivcly, of gentle fricftion and tftillation, leave
traces of themfelves, which by affociation are made
to depend upon words, and other fymbols. But thefe
pleafures, being faint and rare in comparifon of
others, particularly of thofe of tafte, have but a fmall
fhare in forming the intelleflual pleafures. Titillation
may perhaps be excepted. For laughter, which arifes
f/om it, is a principal pleafure in young children,

and

Of the Senje of Feeling. 145

and a principal foiirce of the other pleafures, parti-
cularly of thofe of fociality, and benevolence. Far-
ther, fince the miniatures left by the pains of feeling
muft in fome cafes be faint originally, in others decline
fronn the diffufion, the faintnefs of the afibciation,
&c. thefe miniature pains will often fall within the
limits of pleafiire, and confequendy become fources
of intellectual pleafure ; as in recollecting certain
pains, in feeing batdes, ftorms, wild beads, or their
pi6lufcs, or reading defcriptions of them.

PROP. XXXIV.

'To give an Accourd of the Ideas generated by tangible

Imprejfions.

Here it may be obferved, firft, that the^ very
words, buruy zvound, &c. feem even in adults, though
not formed into propofitions, or heightened by a
conjunction of circumftances, to excite, for the mofi:
part, a perception of the diliigreeable kind j how-
ever, fo faint in degree, that it may be reckoned
amongft the number of ideas, agreeably to the de-
finitions given in the introduction.

Secondly, The words expreffing the pleafures of
this fenfe are probably attended with perceptions, though
ftill fainter in degree. Thefe perceptions may there-
fore be called the ideas belonging to thofe v^^ords.

Thirdly, the words moijiy dry, Joft, hard, Jmooih,
rough, can fcarce be attended with any diftinguifh-
able vibrations ' in the fingers, or parts of the brain
correfponding thereto, on account of the faintneli
of the original impreffions, and the great varieties
of them J however, analogy leads us to think, that
fomething of this kind muft happen in a low degree.
But when the qualities themfelves are felr, and the
appropriated vibrations raifed, they lead by aiTociation
to the words expreffing themj and thus we can diftin-

Vof.. I L , guifh

146 Of the Senje of Feeling.

guilli the feveral tangible qualities from each other
by the diflcrenccs of their vibrations, and declare in
words what each is.

Fourthly, The vibrations excited in the {en(t of
feeling by motion, diltance, and figure, are fo faint,
and fo various, that neither thefe words, nor any rela-
ted exprellions, can be fuppolcd to excite any mini-
ature vibrations in this fenle. Yet ftill, upon feeling
motions and figures, and pafTing over diftances, the
dilTerences of vibrations from prellure and mufcular
contraction, /. e. fiom the vis inerti.e of our own
bodies, or of foreign matter, fuggefi: to us the words
expreffing tiicfc, with their varieties, by aflbciation.

Fifthly, The great extent of the fenfe of feeling
tends to make tlie miniatures fainter, efpecialiy as far
as the external parts are concerned ; and would pro-
bably have fo powerful an effedt upon the miniatures
raifed in the internal parts, as to make them by oppo-
fing deflroy one another, did not all the imprefiions of
the fame nature, viz. all thofe from heat, from cold,
from friction, &c. by whatever external part they enter,
produce nearly the fame effe(5l upon the brain. Whence
the feveral miniatures left by particular imprefllons of
the fame kind muft ftrengthen one another in the
internal parts, at the fame time that they obliterate one
another in the external ones. However, where a per-
fon has fufTcred much by a particular wound, ulcer,
<kc. it feems according to the theory, that an idea of
it fhould be left in the part afFedled, or correfponding
region of the brain, or fpinal marrow.

Sixthly, The vifible ideas of the bodies which im-
prefs the feveral fenfations of feeling upon us, are, like
all other vifible ones, fo vivid and definite, that they
mix themfelvcs with, and fomewhat obfcuie, the moft
vivid ideas of feeling, and quite overpower the faint
ones. Sight communicates to us at once the fize,
fhape, and colour of objefls ; feeling cannot do the
lad at all, and the two firfl: only in a tedious way ; and

is

Of the Senfe of Feeling. 147

is fcarce ever employed for that purpofe by thofe who
fee. Hence perfons born blind mud have far more
vivid and definite ideas of feeling than others. An
inquiry into their real experiences would greatly
contribute to correfb, illuftrate, and improve, the
theory of ideas, and their affociations.

PROP. XXXV.

^'0 explain the automatic Motions^ which arife from

tangible hnfreffions.

The principal of thefe is the aflion of crying,
which is in all animals, but efpecially young ones,
the natural and neceffary confequence of pain. I
have already given fome account of this a6lion ; but
will here enter into a more particular detail of the
circumftances, and their agreement with the foregoing
theory.

Let us fuppofe then a young child to have a very
painful impreffion made upon the fkin, as by a burn.
It is plain that the violent vibrations excited in the
injured part, will pafs up to the brain, and over the
whole mufcular fyftem, immediately ; putting all the
mufcles into a ftate of contraction, as much as may
be, /. e. making the ftrongeft fet of mufcles every
where overpower the weaker, for a certain time, and
then give place to them for a certain other time, and
fo on alternately. Since therefore the mufcles of ex-
piration are ftronger than thofe of infpiration, the
air will be forced ftrongly out of the thorax through
the larynx^ and, by confequence, yield a found. It
contributes to this, that the mufcles of the os hyoides
and larynx^ afting all together, and drawing different
ways, muft fufpend the cartilages of the larynx^ fo as
,both to narrow the paffage of the air, and alfo render
thefe cartilages more fufceptible of vibrations. As
to the mufcles which contradt and dilate the larynx:,

L 1 they

148 Of the Setife of Feeling.

they arc pciliaps about equal in ftrcugth to each other,
and therefore may, by oppofing each other, keep
the chink in a (late intermediate between its lead and
grcateft dilatation.

That the (boiigefl: (ct of antagonifl: mufcles over-
power the weaker, during the great effort in crying,
may faitlicr appear from the a6lion of the extenfors
of the neck, and flexors of the liand (both which fets
are llronger than their antagoniAs), at that time.

If it be objctfled here, that the elevators of the
lower jaw, being Qronger than the depreffors, ought
to keep the mouth fluit during the adion of crying,
according to the foregoing reafoning, whereas the
contraiy alvvay happens j I anfwer, firfl:, that when
both thcfe fets of mufcles a6l at the fame time, in
proportion to their natural flrengrh, the m.outh ought
to be a little opened , fecondJy, that the vibrations
which take place in the cartilages of the larynx feem
to impart a peculiar degree of force to all the neigh-
bouring mufcles, ;. e. to the depreflbrs ^ the lower
jaw 3 and, thirdly, that the mufcles which pafs from
the larynx and os hyoides to the lower jaw a6l to an
advant.ige in drawing it down, in the prefent cafe,
becaufe the os hyoides is at this time fixed by its other
mufcles.

The diftortions of the face, which happen pre-
vioufly to crying, and during the courfe of it, ieem
to be fufficiently agreeable to the notions here ad-
vanced ; the mufcles, which draw the lips from each
other, being much (Ironger, than thole which clofc
them.

The manner in which titillation occafions laughter
in its automatic ftate, has been already explained.
We may add here, that touching the cheeks of young
children gently will excite fmiling.

Frid:ion alio occafions many automatic motions
in young children, as may be obferved when their
naked bodies, or hairy fcaips, are rubbed by the

nurle's

Of the Senje of Feeling. 14^

nurfe's hand ; the motion being determined in the(e
cafes, as appears, by the ftrengch and vicinity of the
mufcles.

The contraftion of the hand in young children,
which has been taken notice of already, may be
excited by titillation, fridlion, and almofl: any impref-
fion on the palm ; and is to be deduced partly from
the fuperior ftrength of the flexors here, partly from
the exquifite fenfibility of the palm. The contradion
of the foot from impreffions made on the fole is ana-
logous to that of the hand.

It may not perhaps be amifs to add here, that the
cellular fubftance intervenes lefs between the fkin and
fubjacent mufcles in the fcalp, palm, and fole, than
in other parts, as appears both from anatomical in~
fpeflion and emphyfemas; and that this may increafe
the influence of the impreffions on thefe parts over
the fubjacent mufcles.

PROP. XXXVI.

^0 explain the Manner^ in which the automatic Motions^
mentioned in the la(l Proyofitionj are converted into
voluntary and Jemivoluntary ones.

Tins has been done, in fom,e meafure, already,
in refpetSt of the actions of crying, and contrafting
the hand, and their derivatives, fpeaking and hand-
ling ; and will be done more completely hereafter
in a propofiiion appropriated to the diflinil con-
fideration of the motions that are perfeclly voluntary.
1 have therefore inlerted the prefent propofition chiefly
for the fake of regularity, and that the reader might
have in one fliort view, from the propofitions of this
fedlion, all the principal heads of inquiry relating to
the fenfe of feeling.

L 3 Ir

150 Of the Senje of Feeling.

It may not, however, be improper here to oblerve,
that the great variety of fridlionii, flexures, and po-
fitions, whicli nurfes give to young children, n ake
a proportional variety of combinations of mufcles
which art together ; and that ihefe, by oppofing the
natural ones from juxtapofition, derivation of nerves,
bcc. to a certain degree, prepare the way for fuch
voluntary combinailoub;, as are requifite in the future
incidents of life.

SECT.

Of the Senfi of Tafte. 151

SE CT. II.

OF THE SENSE OF TASTE,

PROP. XXXVII.

fo affign the Extent of the Organ of Tafle. and to
explain^ in general^ the different Powers lodged in the
different Parts of it.

The tafte may be diftinguifhed into two kinds, as.
before obferved of feeling, viz. the particular ex-
quifite one, which rcfides in the tongue, and efpeci-
aily in the tip of it ; and the general one, which
extends itfelf to the infides of the lips and cheeks,
to the palate, fauces^ oefophagus^ ftonnach, and whole
alioientary dud, quite down to the anus ; the fenfi-
bility growing perhaps lefs and lefs, perpetually, in
going from the ftomach to die return. The ien-
libility of the alimentary du6t is probably of the
lame kind with, and not much greater in degree
:han, that of the internal furfaces of the gall-bladder,
urinary-bladder, pehisj ureters, and, in general,
)f the ftcretory and excretory veffels, and of the
receptacles belonging to the glands. But I refer
the fcnfations of this du£l to the tafte, on account of
-heir connedion with thofe of the tongue, in refpeft
of iheir caufes, ufes, and effects.

As to the particular and luperior powers of the

tongue, they may, in part, be deduced from the,

.umber and largenefs of its fapUiej and from their

ifing above the furface in living perfons more re-

viarkably than any other fentient -papiiU in the whole

body, fo as to be extreme parts in an em.inent degree.

To which we ought perhaps to add, that the tip and

fides, in which the tafte is moft exquifice, are alfo

L A extremq

151 Of the Sevje <?/ TalU*.

extreme pares. But tlu-re may be likewile a different
peculiar dillribution, and other caufes of an cxquifite
Icnfibility, in ilie nerves of the tongue.

It deferves notice here, that the fiidlion of the
tongue againll the palate is neceflary, in order to ex-
cite the talks of the aliments, which we malVicate, in
perfef^ion. This pradlice is analogous to that of
rubbing the ends of the fingers upon fuch bodies as
we examine accurately by feeling; and both appear
fuitable to the notion of vibrations; alfo to that of
the diflention and ereflion of the fentient papilla :
which may even be feen in the papilLe of the tongue.

It has been obferved, that bitters and acids ap-
plied to fungulcs of the brain, and even to iflues upon
the vertexy have fometimes occafioned the fenfations
of the tades refpe(51ively arifing from the fame bitters
and acids, when applied to the tongue. This may
perhaps be folved by fuppofing, that the bitters and
acids, when applied to the nerves of the fifth pair,
in the fungufes of the brain, and to thofc of the
feventh, or perhaps of the fifth alfo, in the iffues (for
the fifth pair may tranfmit fome branches to the ex-
ternal integuments from the dura matery at the vertex),
fend up their own fpecific vibrations into thofe regions
of the brain, which are the peculiar refidence of taftes,
;. e. to the regions which correfpond to the fifth pair,
according to fome anaromifts. And thefe fenfations
may even afford fome evidence, that the fifth pair,
not the ninth, fupplies the tongue with fenfory nerves.

I^ROP.

Of tht Sen/e of Tafte. 153

PROP. XXXVIII.

'/(? examine how far the Phenomena of Ta^eSy and
their fpecific Differ ences^ are f nit able to the DoBrine
of [Vibrations .

Here I obftrve, firfl, fhat heating any fapid liquid
increafes its tafte, efpecially if it be of the bitter, fpi-
rituous, or acrid kind; and, converfely, that the im-
prefl'ion of fuch taftes generates a heat in the organ,
which remains after the -peculiar tafte ceafes. Now
this connexion of certain tallies with heat is fome
prefunnption, that they arife from vibrations, provided
we allow heat to arife from them, according to the
common opinion.

Secondly, Since difagreeable taftes muft, accord-
ing to the account of pain given above, arife from
fuch a violence in the vibrations excited, as produce
the folution of continuity, and pleafant taftes, from
more moderate degrees of vibrations, which, though
they approach to the folution of continuity, yet fall
fhort of it; the pains of tafte muft proceed from
ftronger vibrations than the pleafures. And, agree-
ably to this, bodies which imprefs very adive and
difagreeable taftes, manifeft great activity in other
trials, for the moft part.

Thirdly, It is very difficult to give any plaufible
account of the great variety of pleafant and unpleafant
taftes from the dodrine of vibrations. FJowever, the
different frequency of vibrations, which belongs to
the. fmall particles of different fapid bodies, may be,
in a good meafure, the fource of this great variety.
For if the particles of the body A ofcillate twice,
while thofe of the body B ofcillate only once,
the fenfations excited by them may be different,
though both fall within the limits of pleafure, or
both pafs into thofe of pain. The differences of

degree

^54

Of the Senje of Tafte.

degree may alio contribute; for it is obfdrvable, than
different dilagreeable tartes, in declining, leave agiec- fi
able ones, wliicli apjjioach to each other. Thjs I
have cxpcricnccil in aloes, lime, and green tea not
iwcctened. It may therefore be, that the different
difagreeable talles were Inch rather on account of
degree than kind. And, upon the whole, it may be,
that the feveral combinations of the differences of
kind with thofe of degree may be fufficient in number
to account for all the varieties and fpecific differenc;?s
of taffes.

Fourthly, Tafles appear to be more different than
they are from -the odours which accoiDpany lome
of them. And this obfervation, by reducing the
number of taffes properly fo called, does fomewhat
leffen the difficulty of accounting for their num-
ber. But then it is alfo to be obferved, that part of
this difficulty is to be transferred to the head of odours.

Fifthly, the power of diftinguiOiing talles feems
to depend upon fight, to a certain degree. And this
confideration alfo leffens the number of taftes pro-
perly fo called.

Sixthly, If we fuppofe the fapid body to connft of
particles, that excite vibrations of different frequen-
cies, which may be the cafe of many bodies in their
natural flate, and probably muft be with fuch as
are compounded by art, compound medicines for
inftance, a great variety of taffes may arife, fome re-
iembling the taffes of fimple bodies, others totally
unlike thele : juft as fome of the colours reflected by
natural and artificial bodies refemble one or other of the
fimple primary ones, whilft others are colours that
can fcarce be referred to any of thefe. And we may
farther fuppofe, in both cafes, that where the vibra-
tions approach fo near, in frequency as to over-rule
each other, and produce one fpecics only, there
refults a tafte, or a colour, that refembles a primary
one; whereas, if the vibrations differ ia much in fre-
quency,

Of the Senfe of Tafte. 155

quency, as that two or more principal fpeciefes keep
their own frequency, the talte, or colour, generated
from thenn, cannot be likened to any primary one.

Seventhly, That there are different fpeciefes of vi-
brations, which yet all constitute fweet or bitter, I
conjefture not only from the foregoing general reafon-
ing, but alfo becaufe there are both fweets and bit-
ters in all the three kingdoms, animal, vegetable,
and mineral. Thus milk, fugar, and faccharum fa-
turniy all yield a fweet tafte i gall, aloes, and cryftals
of filver, all a bitter one.

Eighthly, Some differences of tafte may arife
from the different time required for the folution,
and confequent activity, of the fapid particles, alfo
from the different local effedl which they may have
upon the papilUy when abforbed by their venous
veffejs, &c.

Ninthly, Very naufeous and ftupefacient taftes may
perhaps arife from violent and irregular vibrations,
and bear fome analogy to the fenfation, or want of
it, impreffed by the ftroke of the torpedo.

Tenthly, It feems to deferve particular confidera-
tion here, that milk, and the flefti of certain domef-
tic animals, yield taftes, which are naturally and
originally pleafant, to a confiderable degree, and yet
not in excefs, as fugar, and other very fweet bodies,
are. For it is reafonable to conclude, that the par-
ticles of milk, and common flefli-meats, muft agree
very much in the ftrength and frequency of vibrations
with the particles of our own folids and fluids. They
may therefore juft moderately increafe the natural
vibrations of the organ, when applied thereto, and
enforced by fudion, maftication, and friftion of the
tongue againft the palate. For the fame reafons
we may guefs, that the common diet of animals does
not undergo very great changes, in refped of the
vibratory motions of its particles, from its cir-
culation, and confequent afllmilation. However,

there

156 Of the Senfe of Tafle.

there arc fome eminent inftances to the contrary,
clpecially in poifons. Thcfc lalt oblervations may
be extended to vegetables, falutary and poifonousj
relpccftively.

Eleventhly, Sonne acrid taftes, that of muftard
for inllance, alFcift the tip of the uvula^ and the
eds^e of the loft palate, in a particular manner.
Now this may a little confirm the conjedtiires above
made concerning the fenfibility and irritability of
extreme parts.

Twelfthly, it is cafy to conceive, upon the prin-
ciples of thefe papers, how fwcets and bitters of an
inferior degree Ihould render thofe of a fuperior one
lefs affe<5ling, refpe^tively, as they are found to do.

The foregoing articles are only imperfedl con-
jeflures, and do not even approach to a fatisfa61:ory
folurion. They may juft ferve to fhew, that the
do6lrine of vibrations is as fuitable to the phenomena
of taftes, as any other hypochefis yet propofed. The
following methods may perhaps be of fome ufe for the
analyfis of taftes.

Firft, To make trials upon bodies whofe particles
feem fimilar to each other. Such are perhaps diftilled
fpirits, acid, alkaline, and fermented ; alfo falts, and
oils ; but they muft all be fuiliciently purified by rcn
peated diftillations, folutions, and fuch-like chemical
operations ; elfe we are fure, that their component
particles a;e heterogeneous.

Secondly, To note the changes of tafte in chemi-
cal operations, and compare them with the changes
of colour J which laft, by difcovering the fizes of
the particles, may determine many things relating to
their mutual atSlions. The folutions of metals in
acids, by affording many fingular and vivid taftes,
and fometimes colours, feem to deferve efpecial
notice here.

Thirdly, There are many regular changes in na-
tural bodies, which, by comparifon with other phas-

nomenaj

Of the Senfe of Tafte. 157

nomena, may be of ufe. Thus it is remarkable,
that the juice of many or moft fruits is firft acid, i, e.
whilft unripe, then fweet, then vinous, after the
firfl: fermentation, then acid again, after the fecond
fermentation.

This inquiry is of great importance in medicine
and philofophy. And the theory of taftes appears
capable of becoming a principal guide in difcovering
the mutual aftions of the fmall particles of bodies.
The difficulty is to make a beginning. This theory
may not perhaps be more complex than that of
colours i one may, at lead, affirm, that the theory
of colours appeared as complex and intricate before
Sir I/aac Newlons time, as that of taftes does nowj
which is fome encouragement to make an attempt.

PROP. XXXIX.

To examine how far the fever al SenfationSj which affe5i
the Stomach and Bowels^ may he explained agreeably
to the Do5lrine of Vibrations.

It will eafily be conceived, that if taftes, properly
'o called (of which under the laft propofition),
avour, or fuit with, the doctrine of vibrations, the
.--nfations of the ftomach and bowels may likewife.
>ut a particular examination of thefe fenfations, and
:omparifon of them v/ith taftes, will make this more
vident.

Firft, then, we may obfcrve, that the ftomach is
efs fenfible than the tongue, the bowels in general
rhan the ftomach, and the inferior bowels than the
uiperior. Thus opium, and bitters, and fomctimes
pifituous liquors are difagreeable to tiie tongue,
'Ut fall within the limits of pleafure in the ftomach.
Thus bile is extremely naufeous in the month, and
offends even the ftomach ; but k cannot be difagree-
able to the diiodemmy which it firft enters, or the

bowels.

158 Of the Senje of Tafte.

bowels, through which it pafles. Thus alfo \.\\t frees
Teem 10 be equally fuitcd to the fcveral bowels alon^^
which they dcfcend, though they giow perpetually
more putrid and acrimoniouji in their defccnt ; /. c.
there is an abatement of fenfibility in tlic bowels,
which correfponds to the increafc of acrimony in
feces.

If it be objected here, that honey, tnenunus dulcisy
!czc. offend the ftomach and bowels often, though
pleafant or infipid in the mouth, I anfwer, that fuch
bodies require time, heat, lolution, &c. before the
whole of thcMr qualities can be exerted.

Secondly, The particular manner in whi^h opiates,
fermented liquors, grateful aliments, and narcotics,
may a6l rtrll upon the ftomach and bowels, and after-
wards upon the whole body, agreeably to the dodrine
of vibrations, has been given above in treating of
fleep.

Thirdly, The a6lion of vomits, purges, and acrid
poifons, fuch as corrofive fublimate, is very reconcile-
able to this dodtrine, by only fuppofing, that they ex-
cite very vigorous vibrations, and that thefe are com-
municated to the mufcular coats of the ftomach and
bowels, to the mufcles of the abdomen^ and, in
violent cafes, to the whole mufcular and nervous
fyftem. I fhall confider the automatic motions,
which arife from thefe caufes, below, under a particu-
lar propofition. It may ferve to fliew the analogy of
the fenfations, and the general nature of aflive
medicines, to obferve, that thefe will often operate
in feveral ways, viz. as vomits, purges, diuretics,
diaphoretics, fternutatories, vcficatories, and cor-
rofives, by a change of application and circum-
flances.

Fourthly, Since the meats, to which particular
perfons have an antipathy, and from which they re-
ceive violent ill effcfts, are, in general, highly grate-
ful to others, one may perhaps conjetlure, that the

vibrations

Of the Senje of Tafte. 159

vibrations excited by thefe meats in the flomachs of
thofe who have an antipathy to them, do but juft
pafs the linnits of pleafure ; fo as to difFufe thennfelves -
much farther, and more powerfully, than if the firft
impreffion was very painful.

Laftly, The connexion between the fenfations of
the tongue and ftomach, and confequently between
the manners of explaining them, may be inferred from
the office of the tafte, as a guide and guard to the or-
gans of digeftion ; which is very evident, in general,
in all animals, notwithftanding a few exceptions, more
cfpecially in men.

PROP. XL.

To examine how far the Phenomena of Hunger are
agreeable to the Docirine of Vibrations.

' Natural hunger may be reckoned a pleafure in its
Irft rife, and to pafs into a pain only by increafe and
continuance. We may fuppofe therefore, that during
hunger the nerves of the ftomach are fo irritable, as
that the common motions of the mufcular coat, and
the impreffions made by its contents, in confequence
of thefe motions, excite fuch vigorous vibrations, as
nrft lie within the limits of pleafure, and afterwards
pafs into the limits of pain. And when the fight of
bod, or any other affociated circumftance, increafcs
rhe fenfe of hunger inftantaneoufly, it may be conjec-
rured to do fo, in great meafure, by incrcafing the
rontraclions of the mufcular coat of the ftomach.

But the fenfibility and irritability of the nerves of
the tongue are alfo increafed by hunger; for common
aliments yield a very different tafte, according as the
perfon is fatiated or hungry. And it is probable far-
ther, that the nerves of the upper part of the bowels
fympathize with thofe of the ftomach in hunger ; and
increafe the uneafy fenlation, in violent degrees of it.

Let

i6o Of the 6cnje of Tafle.

Let us now conridcr in what way food may be fup-
pofcil to IcHcn this fcnfibility and irritability of the
nerves of the tongue, llomach and bowels ; and how
abllinence, bitters, wines, &c. inay incrcafe them,
upon the principles of thcfe p-ipers.

Firlt, then, As the fiiiall abforbing veflels in the
mouth, llomach, and bowels, mull, after eating for
foine time, be faturated with alimentary particles, thofe
that are now applied will fcarce make any imprefTion
for want of a fufficient attraftion.

Secondly, Such as are attracted cannot make any
confiderabie difference of vibrations, becaufe the vi-
brations which they are qualified to excite, do already
take place. And thcfe tv\o remarks put together,
fliew, that a perlbn may relifh a fecond kind of food
after being fatiated wit!) a full.

Thirdly, 'I'he adions of maftication, deglutition,
and digeition, exhaufl: the neighbouring glands and
glandular receptacles of their liquids, and the neigh-
bouring mufcular fibres, of their ready power of con-
tramline;: thefe parts arc therefore no longer fiifcep-
tible of a pleafurable ftate, or only in a low degree.

Fourthly, Abllinence reverfes all thele fteps j in
which, however, the perpttual affufion, dilution, and
ablution of the faliva has a confiderable fhare. And
thus after a proper interval the organs return to a Hate
of great fenfibility and irritability.

Fifthlv, Bitters and acids exhibited in a moderate
degree feem gently to increafe the vibratory motions,
and raife them before the <^\.\ti. time to the degree that
correfponds to hunger. A fmall quantity of food
has the fame effed, alfo agreeable emotions of mind,
frefli air, exercife, and many other things. But if
the bitters, acids, &:c. be carried beyond a certain de-
gree, they occafion pain or ficknefs, which is very
agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations, as laid down
in theie papers.

Sixthly,

I

Of the Senje of Tafte. i6i

Sixthly, In fevers the mouth, fauces cejophagusy
and ftomach, are hot, dry, inflamed, and incruiled.
They are therefore preoccupied by vibrations of a
kind quite different from thofe which attend hunger,
and therefore exclude this ftate.

It may not be amifs to obferve here, that the fen-
fation of hunger is a guide and guard to the organs of
digeftion in a ftill more eminent degree, than the
taftes of the feveral aliments.

PROP. XLI.

To examine how for the Phenomena of Thirfi are
agreeable to the Docfrine of Vibrations.

Thirst is oppofite to hunger, and is a general
attendant upon fevers. It follows, alfo, in an evident
manner from all confiderable degrees of heat in the
fauces. The nerves therefore of the mouth, fauces y
eofophagusy and ftomach, are, during third, preoccu-
pied by difagreeable vibrations of the inflammatory
kind, as above obferved. And as the pleafures of
tafte may be faid to refemble thofe of titillation, fo
third feems allied to itching.

It is agreeable to this account of thirft, that liquors
aftuaily cold afford immediate relief j alfo that warm
diluents, which foften the parts, and wafli off acrimo-
nious particles, do it after fome time. As the caufe
of thirft is of a permanent nature in fevers, it muft
return again and again, till the fever be removed.
Gentle acids yield a pleafure in thirft, which feems to
correfpond to that which fcratching excites in parts,
that itch previoufly.

Vol. I. M PROP.

1 62 Of the Senje of Tallc.

PRO P. XLII.

'To examine how far the Chmigcs generally made in the
Tajle^ in faffing from Infancy to old Age ^ are agreeable
to the Dodrwes of Vibrations and /tffociation.

Some of thefe changes are,

That fwcets generally grow lefs and lefs agreeable,
and fometimes even dilagrecable, or naufeous at lad.

That aftringent, acid, and fpirituous liquids, which
dilpleafe at firft:, afterwards become highly grateful.

That even bitters and aciids firft lofe tfieir offcnfive
qualities, and after a fufficient repetition give a relifh
to our aliment.

And that many particular foods and medicines be-
come either extremely pleafant or difgufting, from
afibciations with falhion, joy, hope of advantage,
hunger, the pleafures of cheerful converfation, &:c. or
with ficknt-fi-, vomitings, gripings, fear, forrow, ^c.

Now, in order ro account for thefe changes, v/e
may confider the following things.

Firft, That the organs become lefs and lefs fenfible
by age, from the growing callofity and rigidity of all
the parts of animal bodies. The pleafant favours may
therefore be expeded to become lefs pleafant, and the
moderately difagreeable ones to fall down within the
limits of pleafure, upon this account.

Secondly, The difpofuion to vibrations in the or-
gan and correfponding part of the brain mull: alfo
receive fome alteration by the frequent repetition of
impreffions. For though this returns, at a proper dif-
tance from each meal, to its former (late, within an
indefinite diftance, as one may fay, yet fome differ-
ence there probably is, upon the whole, which in a
fufficient length of time amounts to a perceptible

one.

Of the Scnje of Tafte. 163

one. However, we mud alfo fuppofe on the other-
hand, that the make of the nervous fyftem fets Tonne
bounds to this gradual alteration in the dilpofition
to vibrate J elfe the tafte would be much more varia-
ble than it is, and continue to change more after
adult age, than it is found to do in facl. It may
perhaps change fafter in the life of a high diet than
of a low one J which would be an evidence of the
reality of the caufe here alTigned.

Thirdly, The pleafant and painful impreflions which
particular foods and medicines make upon the fto-
mach, always either accompany the tafte, or follow it
in a fliort time j and by this means an aflbciation is
formed, whereby the dirtft pleafantnefs or naufeouf-
nefs of the tafte is enhanced, if the impreflions upon
the tongue and ftomach be of the fame kind ; or di-
minifticrd, and perhaps overpowered, and even con-
verted into its oppofite, if they be of different kinds.
For if the two impreffions A and By made upon the
tongue and ftomach refpedively, be repeated together
for a fufficient number 'of times, b will always attend
A upon the firft moment of its being made. If there-
fore B be of fuch a magnitude as to leave a trace b
fufficiendy great, the addition of this trace b to A^
the imprefiion made upon the tongue, may produce
all the changes in it above-mentioned, according to
their feveral natures and proportions. This follows
from the dodl:rine of aflbciation, as it takes place in
general j but here the free propagation of vibrations
from the ftomach to the mouth, along the furface of
:he membranes, adds a particular force. In like man-
ler a difagreeable tafte, by being often mixed with
1 pleafant one, may at laft become pleafant alone, and
mce verja: hunger and fatiety may alfo, by being
oined with particular taftes, contribute greatly to aug-
iient or abace their relifti. And I believe it is by the
nethods of this third kind, that the chief and moft
ifual changes in the tafte are made.

M 2 Fourthly,

164 Of the Senje of Taftc.

Fourthly, The changes which are made by aflb-
ciations with mental plcafures and pains, or bodily
ones not belonging to this organ, as with line colours,
mufic, &:c. receive a like explication as the laft-men-
tioncd inflances of alVuciations. Here tiic pleafurc
excited in the eye or ear over-rules the tade at firft:
afterwards we may fuppofe the organ to be fo altered
by degrees, in refpeft of the difagreeable tafte, from
its frequent impreffion, or other caufe, as to have the
folution of continuity no longer occafioned by its
aftion. It is probable alfo, that evanefcent pleafures
of fight and hearing, at lead pleafant vibrations in
the parts of the brain correfponding to thefe two or-
gans, accompany thefe taftes ever afterwards

It may be obfcrved here, that the defire of par-
ticular foods and liquors is much more influenced
by the aiTociated circumftances, than their taftes,
it being very common for thefe circumftances, parti-
cularly the fjght or fmell of the food or liquor, to
prevail againft men's better judgment, dire6ling them
to forbear, and warning them of the mifchiefs likely
to arife from felf-indulgence.

PROP. XLIII.

^0 examine bow far the Longings of pregnant Women
are agreeable to the DodJrines of Vibrations and
AJJociation,

Here we muft lay down previoufly, that the uterus
is in a ftate of diftention during pregnancy ; and that
it propagates fympathetic influences by means of ner-
vous communications to the ftomach, fo as to put it
into a ftate of great fenfibility and irritability. All
this will be eafily acknowledged.

It follows therefore, fince the limits of pkafure
and pain are contiguous, that the ftom.ach during
pregnancy may at fome times have an eager appetite

for

Of the Senfe of Tafte. 165

for food, as well as a nauftra at others; that this ap-
petite may be the more eager, becaufe it borders upon
a naufea; and that it wiJl no more anfwer to the ufual
exigencies and circumftances of the body, than the
naufea does. The fame eager appetite will bring up
the ideas of various aliments from prior affociations ;
and if a new aflbciation of it, when particularly eager,
happens to be made with this or that food or liquor,
the fympathetic eager appetite will ever after bring
in the idea of that food or liquor, and adhere infe-
parably to it. The fame eager appetite may alfo be
transferred upon fomething that is not properly a food,
from its exorbitant nature, prior naufeas in refpeft of
common food, and accidental joint appearance. And,
upon the whole, the ufual circumftances attending the
longings of pregnant women are deducible from
aflbciation, and aie as agreeable to the doftrine of
vibrations, as to any other yet propofed ; or even
more fo.

It may illuftrate this account to obferve, that, in
the ufual cafes of melancholy madnefs, an uneafy ftate
feems to be introduced into the white medullary fub-
ftance of the brain by the degeneration of the hu-
mours, or other fuch like mechanical caufe, which
carries the vibrations within the limits of pain, and
raifes an inflammation Jui generis in the infinitefimal
Veflfels of the medullary fubftance; that ideas of ob-
jefts of fear, forrow, &c. are raifed, in confequence
of this, by means of prior aflbciations ; and that, after
fome time, fome one of thefe, by happening to be pre-
fented oftener than the reft, by falling m^ore in with
the bodily indifpofition, &c. overpowers all the reft:,
excites and is excited by the bodily fl:ate of fear, for-
row, &:c. till at lafl: the perfon becomes quite irrational
in refpeft of this one idea, and its immediate and
clofe afibciates, however rational he may be in other
refpedls. And a like account may be given of the
violent particular deflre towards a perfon of a different

M 3 fc>:.

i66

Of the Senjc of Taftc.

Tex, where this dcfire rcfts chiclly in the fenfual gra-
tification, and the beauty of the pcrlbn. And all
thcle three inilances feem to me to favour the dodiine
of vibrations a litde, as well as that of aflTociation very
much.

PROP. XLIV.

To explain in what Manner and to what De^ree^ plea-
[ant and nnpleajant Tafics contribute^ according to the
DoHrine of y/Jfociationy to form our intellectual Plea-
fures and Pains.

The pleafures of the Tafte, confidered as extending
itfelf from the mouth through the whole alimentary
du»5l, are very confiderable, and frequently repeated ;
they mull therefore be one chief means, by which-
pleafurable dates are introduced into the brain, and
nervous fyftem. Thefe pleafurable ftates murt, afier
fome time, leave miniatures of themftrlves, fufficiently
ftrong to be called up upon flight occafions, viz. from
a variety of alTociations with the common vifible and
audible obie(5ls, and to illuminate thefe, and their
ideas. When groups of thefe miniatures have been
long and clofely conneftcd with particular objects,
they coalefce into one complex idea, appearing, how-
ever, to be a fimple one; and fo begin to be trans-
ferred upon other objeds, and even upon taftes back
again, and fo on without limits. And from this way
of reifoning it may now appear, that a great part of
our intellectual pleafures are ultimately deducible
from ihofe of tafte ; and that one principal final caufe
of the greatnefs and conftant recurrency of thefe plea-
fures, from our firft infancy to the extremity of old
age, is to introduce and keep up pleafurable ftates in
the brain, and to connefl them with foreign objeds.

The

Of the Senje of Tafte. 167

The focial pleafures feem, in a particular manner,
:o be derived from this fource i fince it has been cuf-
onnary in all ages and nations, and is, in a manner,
neceffary, that we fhould enjoy the pleafures of tafte
in conjun6tion with our relatives, friends, and neigh-
bours.

In like manner, naufeous taftes, and painful im-
jreffions upon the alimentary duft, give rile and
Irength to mental pains. The moft common of thefe
;:)ainful impreffions is that from excefs, and the con-
sequent indigeftion. This excites and fupports thofe
ineafy ftates, which attend upon melancholy, fear,
and forrow.

It appears alfo to me, that thefe ftates^are introduced,
n a great degree, during fleep, during the frightful
dreams, agitations, and opprefllons, that excefs in
diet occafions in the night. Thefe dreams and dif-
^^rders are often forgotten \ but the uneafy ftates of
body, which then happen, leave veftiges of them-
felves, which increafe in number and ftrength every
day from the continuance of the caufe, till at laffc
they are ready to be called up in crowds upon flight
occafions, and the unhappy perfon is unexpededly,
and at once, as it were, feized with a great degree of
the hypochondriac diftemper, the obvious caufe ap-
pearing no ways proportionable to the effefl. And
thus it may appear, that there ought to be a great re-
ciprocal influence between the mind and alimentary
dud, agreeably to common obfervation; which is
farther confirmed by the very large number of nerves
diftributed there.

PROP. XLV.

'To give an Account of the Ideas generated hy the fever al

'Tajies,

As the pleafures of tafte are in general greater than
thofe of feeling, and the pains in general lefs, it

M 4 follows

1 63 Of the Senje of Talk.

follows that the ideas which are affixed to the feveral
words exfirefllng the feveral pleafant and unpleafant
talks, will be of a tniddle nature in refpedl of the ideas
generated by tanfTible iniprclfions ; and lie between
the ideas of the pains of feeling, and thofe of its plea-
lures.

Agreeably to this, it feems very difficult, or even
impolFible, to excite a genuine vivid miniature of an
acid, I'wcct, fair, or bitter tafte, by the mere force
of imagination. However, the vibrations peculiar to
each of thefe leave fuch vclliges of theinfclves, fuch
an effedl in the tongue, and correfponding parts of
the brain, as, upon tailing the qualities themfelves,
at once to bring up tiie names whereby they are ex-
prelll'd, with many other allbciated circumftances,
particularly the vifible appearances of the bodies en-
dued with thefe qualities. And thefe veftiges may
be called ideas. Analogy leads us alfo to conclude,
as before obferved under feeling, that fome faint ve-
ftiges or ideas muft be raifed in the parts of the brain
correfponding to the tongue, upon the mere paffage
oftachwoid, that exprefles a remarkable tafte, over
the ear. And, when the imagination is affifted by
the a(5tual fight or fmell of a highly grateful food, we
leem able to raife an idea of a perceptible magnitude.
This is confirmed by the manifeft effect exerted upon
the mouth, and its glands, in luch cafes.

The fight of what we eat or drink feem.s alfo, in
feveral inrtances, to enable us to judge more accurately
of the tafte and flavour; which ought to be effedted,
according to this theory, by raifing Tmall ideas of the
tafte and flavour, and magnifying the real impref-
fions in confequence thereof. For an a6lual impreffion
muft excite vibrations confiderably different, according
to the difference in the previous ones; and v/here
the previous ones are of the fame kind with thofe im-
prefled, the laft muft be magnified.

PROP.

Of the Senje of Tafte. 169

PROP. XLVI.

To explain the autcmatic Motions y which arife from the
Impreffions made on the Organ of Tafle.

The motions dependent on the fenilitions of the
tongue, and alinnentaiy du6l, may be thus enu-
merated : fu(^ion, maftication, deglutition, the diftor-
tion of the mouth and face in confequence of naufe-
ous taftes, the periftaltic motion of the ftoinach and
bowels, vomiting, ruclusy hiccough, fpafms, and
violent motions in the bowels, the m.otions which
empty the neighbouring glands, and the expulfion of
iht feces.

Firft, then, Suflion in new-born children appears to
depend chiefly on the fenfations of the lips and
tongue. I fay chiefly, becaufe fome predifpofition
thereto may be generated in uiero, or otherwife im-
preffed, and the great aptnefs of new-born children
in fuckino; feems to favour this. However, when
we confider, that the imprefTions of the cold air up-
on the lips and mouth in its paffage to the lungs,
of the nipple upon the lips, and of the milk upon
the tongue, ought to excite motions in the neigh-
bouring mufcles of the lips, and lower jaw ; that the
motions which concur to the adtion of fudion, are
fuch as might be expedled from thefe caufcs ; and
even that the motions of the head and neck, by
which the child indicates the want of a breafl:, may
flow from the great fenfibility and irritability of thefe
parts, when the child is hungry j a prefumption
arifcs, that the whole a6lion of fu6tion, with all its
circumftances, is excited by the impreffions mechni-
cally or automatically j and that by the running .of vi-
brations from the fenfory nerves into the neighbouring
motory ones.

Secondly,

lyo Of the Scnfe 0/ Tafte.

Secoinlly, The firft rudiments of the acflion of
mallication arc ilcrivcd from that of fuftion, /. e.
from the alternate motion of the lower jaw neceffary
to fquceze out the milk. After tliis adion has been
excited for fome time by the talle of the milk, it
will return with lufHcient facility from the impref-
fions made by foiid food; and the farDe impreflions
may excite other motions in the mufcles of the tongue
and checks, viz. thofe which concur to mike the
aftion of martication in its impeifedt and automatic
ftate.

Thirdly, It may appear in like manner, that the
pleafurable imprefTions of the milk upon the tongue,
moutli, and fauces ^ of new-born children, may ex-
cite thofe niotions of the mufcles of the tongue, os
hyoidcs, foft palate, diudfauccsj which make the adlion
of deglutition ; and confequently, that this is dedu-
cible from fenfation automatically.

It confirms this pofition, that, according to the
theory of thefe papers, the foft palate ought to be
drawn down by the imprefTions made on the tongue
and mouth, not drawn up ; fince this laft would be
to fuppofe the fenfory vibrations to pafs over mufcles
that are near, and run to thofe at a diftance, which
is abfurd. For Albintis has proved, both from ana-
tomy, and the obfervation of the fa(51, that the foft
palate is drawn down in fwallowingj not up, accord-
ing to the opinion of Boerhaave.

It confirms it alfo, that naufeous liquids are imme-
diately and mechanically rejeded by young children i
the imprefTions arifing from them producing fuch
a contra6lion as fhuts the pafTage.

It confirms it ftill farther, that young children do
not fwallow their Jaliva. For this makes no impref-
fion fufficient to generate the aflion of desjlutition in
an automatic way.

We may conjecture here, that the common vi-
brations, excited in the membrane of the mouth and

faucesy

Of the Senje of Tafte. 171

faucesy grow particularly ftrong at the tip of the
uvula \ and that a greater power of contraflion is
\ tranfmitted to the neighbouring nnufcles upon this
account.

Fourthly, It may be obfcrved, that naufeous taftes
diftort the mouth and face automatically, not only in
young children, but even in adults. And for the
fame reafon, pleafant ones ought to have a lefs
effeil, of the fime kind; as they feem to have.
And I conjedure, that the diftortions of the face,
which attend grief, alfo the gentle, fmiling motions,
which attend joy, are, in part, deducible from this
fource.

I conjefture alfo, that the rijus Jardonius^ and the
tendency to laughter, which fomej)erfons obferve in
themfelves in going to fleep, have a relation to the
forementioned motions of the face. As the mufcles
here confidered are, in great meafure, cutaneous, they
will on this account, be more fubjed to vibrations
excited in the mouth, or which run up to it fiom the
ftomach.

Fifthly, It may eafily be conceived, that the im-
prefTions, which the aliment and f^ces make Cipon
the ftomiach and bowels, may excite the periftaltic
motion in their mufcular coats. It only remains to
fhew, why this Ihould tend downwards. Now, for
this, we may affign the following reafons. Firfl-,
That the adlion of fwallowing determines that of
the ftomach to move the fame way with itfelf, i. e,
downwards; and that this determination may, in
common cafes, carry its influence as far as the great
guts. Secondly, That the contra6lion of the upper
orifice of the ftomach may (lop the waves that fome-
times come upwards in the ftomach, and return them
back, fo as to force open the pylorus where that is
lefs contrafted ; as on tiie other hand, where the fy-
lorus is more contradled than the upper orifice, the
motion of the ftomach is inverted, and there arifes a

difpofition

172 Of the Senje of TalK\

difpofition to ruHus or vomiting. Thirdly, 'J'h;u,
when waves alcchd in the lower bowels, a gentle con-
tradlion in the 'pylorus may be fufficicnt to flop and
return them. Fourthly, Ihnt one piincipal ufe of
the cecum and appcndicula vermiformis, which laft is
an extreme and pointed part, Teems to be, to return
the waves, which the conftridion of the anus may
Tend upwards. And the cffefts of glyflers and fup-
pofitones in procuring ilools, i. e. in putting the
^vhole colon into motion, agree wtU with this ufe of
the c.rcum and appendicnia vermiformis. It agrees
alio with all the realoning of this paragraph, that
when a rtoppjge is made any where in the bowels
by an inflammation, fpafm, (Irangulation from a rup-
ture, 6i:c. the perjllaltic motion is inverted.

I have been intcwrned, that in a perfon who had
fome inches of the ilium hanging out of his body,
fo that the periftaltic motion might be viewed, the
leafl: touch of a foreign body would fbop this motion
at once. It agrees with this, that when rabbits are
opened alive, the periftaltic motion does not take
place till after fome time, viz. becaufc the handling
of the bowels has checked it. May we not hence
fufpecV, that the fibres of the mufcular coac of the
bowels are contra6Ved by an eleflrical virtue, which
paflVi ofi^, and difappears for a time, upon the touch
of non-eledlrics ? Or may we fuppofe that fuch
touches ftop fubtle vibrations in the fmall parts of
the fibres ?

Sixthly, Since vomiting is excited by difagreeablc
and painful imprefllons in the ftomach, and requires
the contradlion of the diaphragm, and abdominal
mufcles, it agrees well with the notion, that fenfory
vibrations run into the neighbouring mufcles for con-
tracting them. 1 fuppofe aifo, that both orifices of
the ftomach are ftrongly contracted, previoufly to
vomiting; and that the upper orifice, being moft
fenfible, is contrafted molt ftrongly. Hence its

power

Of the Sen/e of Tafte. 173

power of contradion may be foon exhaufted, and
confequently it may open of itfelf in the adion of
vomiting. However, it may, in Tome cafes, re-
quire to be forced open by .the fnperior aftion of
the diaphragm, and abdominal mufcles. Almoft all
great pains and diforders in the lower belly occafion
vomiting J which is very agreeable to the foregoing
notion.

The nofe itches, the mouth flows with water, the
lower lip trembles, both are pale, and the perfon
yawns, previoufly to vomiting, in many cafes ; all
which things favour the notion of vibrations running
freely along the fuifaces of membranes.

RvMus, or the expulfion of wind from the fto-
mach, is nearly related to vomiting, differing rather
in degree than kind; Its fuitablenefs therefore to the
theory of thefe papers muft be judged of from what
has been advanced concerning vomiting.

The hiccough is alfo related to vomiting. It is
fuppofed to proceed from an irritation at the upper
orifice of the ftomach, caufmg a fudden contradlion
of the diaphragm, fo as to pull down the pharynx
and larynx after it. May it not rather be a fudden
contra(5tion of the inferior or fmall mufcle of the
diaphragm only ^ This is particularly near the fup-
pofed feat of irritation; and upon this fuppoficion,
fneezing, furprize, and ail other methods of making
the v/hole diaphragm a6t together ftrongly, would
remove it, as is oblerved in fad.

Seventhly, Permanent fpafms, and violent mo-
tions, in the bowels, arife in confequence of uneafy
and painful imprelTions, there from indigefted aliment,
acrid /^i-^j, irritating purges, poifons, &c. They are
2;enerailv atrtnded with the fermentation of the con-
tents of the bowels, and the confequent generation of
air ; which, when confined by a fpafm on each hand,
diftends the intermediate part of the bowel often to an
exceiTive degree,- caufmg a proportional degree of

painful

pjinful vibrations. If wc fiippofc tlicfe vibrations to
check themrdves all at once, by occafioning a fuddcn
contraction in the affc«fled membrane, they aiay be
propagated over the whole nervous fyftem inllan-
taneoully, and give rile to the convuifion tits, which
happen to young chiklien fiom gripes, and dillen-
tion of the Itomach and bowels, and to adults,
from poifon";, ^.tc. This is upon fuppofition, that
neither fpafm gives way ; for, if either does, the
pain goes off, for a time at Icaft, without farther ill
fymptoms. Such pains in the bowels refemble thofe
in the bladder, wlien the detrujor and Jph'mbler are
both contraded violently at the fame time, by the
irritation of a ftone. The flomach, the gall bladder,
and re^iu/iiy all feem capable of like contradions in
mufcular fibres, that have oppofite anions. The
caufes of all thefe fpalms and motions are evidently
the impreffions in the neighbourhood, and their cir-
cumftances are, at firft fight, agreeable to the theory
of thefe papers.

Eighthly, The glands belonging to the mouth,
and alimentary dud, appear to me to be emptied, not
only by the comprefllon, which the neighbouring
mufcles and mufcular fibres make upon them, but
alfo by the fenfory vibrations which run up their ex-
cretory duds, into iht follicidiy and receptacles where
there are fuch, and ev^n into the fecretory duds j by
which the pcriflakic motion of all thefe is increafed,
fo as bo:h to receive more freely from the blood
during their ftate of relaxation, and to fqueeze more
ftrongly through the excretory duds during their flate
of contradion. Thus tobacco, -pyrethrumy and
other acrids, folicit a profufe difcharge from the
falival glands, by being barely kept in the rnouth,
i. e. though the neighbouring mufcles do not fqueeze
the glands by the adion of maftication. Thus like-
wife vomits and purges increafe both the fecretions
of all the glands of the inteftines, and thofe of the

liver

Of the Senje of Tafte. 17^

liver and -pancreas. It may be alfo, that the vibra-
tions which run up the gall-dudl are fometimes fo
ftrong as to occafion a fpafm there j in which cafe, if
the patient vomits at the fame time, a fymptomatic
and temporary jaundice may follow.

Ninthly, The expulfion of the faces in new-born
children is perfe6lly automatic, and feems to follow
even from very gentle compreffions of the abdom.inal
mufcles, when the re£fum is full, inafmuch as the
fphin£fer ani has in them fcarce any force. The
fame may be faid of the expulfion of the urine, the
fphin5fer vefic^e being alfo very weak in new-born
children. To which we may add, that the leaft
irritation from fulnefs or acrimony in the return or
bladder throws the abdominal mufcles into contrac-
tion in young children, both on account of the ex-
treme fenfibility and irritability of their whole ner-
vous fyftcms, and becaufe they have, as yet, no
alTociated influences over the mufcles of the abdomen,
whereby to reftrain their contraflions.

As the fphinfters of the re5lum and bladder gain
flrength, more force is required to expel the faces
and urine. However, it appears, that thefe mufcles
ufually exhauft themfelves, previoufly to the inftant
of expulfion, thus giving free fcope to their anta-
gonifts. .For, according to theory, they ought to be
contradled fooner and ftronger than their antagonifts,
as being nearer to the feat of irritation.

The adbons of vomiting, and expulfion of the
faces^ are very nearly related to one another in their
automatic ftate. However, it feems to me, that an
irritation in the ftomach produces only a gentle con-
tradion in the Jphinoier ani^ viz. fuch .1 one as does
not exhauft its power, and which therefore tends to
confine the faces. In like manner, an irritation in
the re£lum may gently contrad the upper orifice of
the llomach. It defer ves notice here, that the
fphin^er ani lies out of the pritonaum ; and confe-

quently.

1^6 Of the Senjc of Taftc.

quently, that vibrations cannot run liom it to the
orifice of tlie Oomach along tlie periion<cumy nor vice
verfa. 'I'he lame ohfcrvation holds in rcJpcfl of the
fpi?vUJer of the blatkler.

The cticumftnnccs attending the exclulion of the
fcetus^ which continues automatic peifcdly or nearly,
may be mucli illuftrated by what is here delivered
concerning the expulfion ot \\\\: f.eces.

V R O P. XLVII.

To explain the Manner and Degree in which the automa-
tic AElionSy mentimicd under the lafl Propofuion, arc
influenced by voluntary andjemivoluntary Powers.

"When young children continue to fuck, or maf-
ticate a taftelcfs body put between their lips, or
into their mouths, we may conceive, that the adtions
of fudion and maftication brgin to pafs from their
automatic towards their voluntary ftate. Driii!'-ng
out of a velTcl, fo as to draw up the liquid, is learnt,
in part, from fucking the bread, in moft cafes j but
it may be learnt without, as is evident in thofe chil-
dren that are dry-nurfed. Maftication, when it ap-
proaches to a perfect ftate in children, is chiefly vo-
luntary, the fir ft rudiments receiving perpetual
changes, fo as to fall in more and more with pleafurc
and convenience. See Prop. 11. Ccr. i. In aduhs,
both fuction and maftication follow the command of
the will with entire readinefs and facility. The man-
ner in which this is cfTcded has been already explained
in treating of the voluntary power of grafping.

Deglutition of infipid liquors becomes voluntary
early. But it is difficult, even for fom.e adults, to
fwallow pills and bolufes, though taftclefs ; and very
naufeous liquids are fometimes rejeded by them au-
tomaticallv, as well a^ by young children. The

action

Of the S,enfe of Tafte. 177

a6lion of deglutition affords manifefl: evidences of
the gradual tranfition of automatic motions into vo-
luntary ones, as well as of voluntary ones into fuch
as are fecondarily automatic. For, in common cafes,
we fwallow without the lead exprefs intention.

When the face of a child or adult is diftorted upon
the fight of a naufeous medicine, which has before
produced diftortions automatically, /, e. from the
impreflions mdAt on the mouth and fauces^ we fee an
evident inftance of the power of aflbciated circum*-
ftances j and may have the conception of voluntary
powers, derived from a fucceflion of fuch aflbciations,
made eafy to the imagination.

The periftakic motion of the ftomach and bowels
remains automatic to the laft, depending pardy on
the vibrations defcending from the brain, partly on the
imprefTions made on the villous coat. It cannot de-
pend on aflbciated circumftances in its common ftate,
becaufe, being perpetual, it is equally aflbciated with
every thing, i. e. particularly fo with nothing.
However, as grateful aliments increafe it, the fight
of them may do the fame by aflbciation. Could we
fee our ftomachs and bowels, it is probable, that
we fliould get fome degree of voluntary power over
jhem.

Vomiting is fometimes, and a naufea often, excited
by affociated circumftances j and there have been
inftances of perfons who could vomit at pleafure, by
firft introducing fome of thefe. But, 1 fuppofe, this
aftion never follows the mere commjand of the will,
without the intervention of fome ftrong aflbciated
circumftance. We have, in like manner, a femi-
voluntary power of reftraining voiniting, for a time
at leaft, by means of ideas of decency, fhame,
fear, &c.

Some perfons have a power of expelling flatulen-
cies from the ftomach in a manner which is almoft
voluntary j and many imitate an automatic hiccough
Vol. I. N verv

f

178 0/ (be Soi/e 0/ Tadc. tl

very cxaflly. It facilitates thefe powers, that both
tlic motions here confidertd are very frequent, ef-
pccially ciuVing childhood. 'I'hofe who can hic-
cough voluntarily, attain to it by repeated trials, as
in other cafes of voluntary adions.

The fpafms, and violent nnotions of the bowels,
cannot be expeiflcd to become voluntary. They do,
however, feein to return, in many cafes, from leis
and Icfs bodily caufes perpetually, on account of aflb-
ciated circumftances, as has been already remarked.

In like manner, the vibrations which run up the a.
excretory du«5ls of the glands, mull be fuppofed to^s
remain totally under the influence of their original
caufes J unlefs we except the contraftion of the
gall-du6l, which happens fometimes in violent fits
of angei". This may perhaps arife from vibrations
excited by airociated circumftances.

Both the power of exptlling the faeces and urine,
and that of checking this expulfion, are under the
influence of many alFociated ci'cumftances, and vo-
luntary to a confiderable degree. And it will eafily
appear, from the principles of this theory, that they
ought to be fo. The filling the cheft with air by the
contra(ftion of the mufcles of infpiration, is a cir-
cumftance which never atrends thcfe adions in their
purely automatic ftate. Young children learn it by
the fame fleps as they do other methods of exerting
the greateft force, and to the greatelt advantage.
See Prop. 22. Co?: i.

It deferves notice here, that the aftion of the
mufcular coat of the ftomach and inteftines is far lefs
fubjed to the power of the will, than that of the great
fiefhy mufcles of the trunk and limbs. The efficient
caufe of this is the "great and immediate dependence
which the adion of the mufcular coat has upon th»
fenfations of the villous, on account of the exquifite-'
nefs of thefe fenfations, their conftant recurrency, and
the contiguity of the coats. 'And there is a perfeft

i?

i

agreement

Of the Senfe of Tafte. 179

agreement of the final caufe with the efficient 4

here, as in other cafes. For any great degree

, of voluntary power over the inufcuiar coat of

,^ the bowels would much difturb the digeftion of

f the aliment as thofe nervous perfons experience,

who are fo unhappy as to be exceptions to the
' general rule, through the influence of aflbciated cir--

eumftances.

.jjm^

i ^*

N a SECT,

iSo OJ the St'ft/e of Smell.

SECT. III.

Ol- THE SENSE OF SMELL.

P R O r. XLVIII.

To ajftgn the Extent of the Organ of Smelly antl to
explain in general the different Powers of which it ii
f>o(TeiTcd,

Smell may be diftinguiflied into two forts :
firft, that exquifite fenfation, which odoriferous
bodies imprefs upon the nofe by means of alternate
infpiration. This is fmcll, in the peculiar and moft
proper fenfe of the word j and it refides chiefly,
or perhaps entirely, in that part of the pituitary mem- ,
brane which inverts the cells of the ojfa Jpongiofa.
Secondly, That fenfation or flavour, which mofl: kinds
of aliment and medicines imprefs upon the whole
pituitary membrane during mailication, and juft after
deglutition. And this lad makes a principal part of
the pleafures and pains which are ufually referred to the
tafte. For when a perfon has a cold, i. e. when the
pituitary membrane is obfl:ru(fled and loaded with
mucusy meats lofe their agreeable flavours j and the
fame thing happens in a polypus Jiarium.

Befides this, it is to be obferved, that the pituitary
membrane has an exquifite fenfibility, which may be
referred to the head of feeling. For aftive powders,
/. e. fternutatories, feem to irritate the membrane of
the nofe in the fame way, as they do a part of the
(kin deprived of the cuticle, only in a greater degree, y
and more iinmediately. And thus fmells thcmfelves*"
may be referred to the head of feeling; fince ftrong
fmells are often obferved to occafion fneezing.

It may alfo be remarked, that as the organ of
feeling paflcs infenfibly into that of tafte, fo the organ

of

c

Of the Senje of Smell. i8i

of tafte does into that of fmell. And thefe three
fenfes have a much greater rt- femblance to one ano-
ther, than any of them has to the fight, or to the
hearings or than the fight and hearing have to each
other. However, the organ of feeling is diftinguifhed
froni that of tafte by its being covered with the hard
cuticle, and the organ of tafte from that of fmcU
by the laft's being extended upon bones ; fo as to be
much more fenfible and irritable upon that account.
To which we may add, that as a watery fluid is the
proper menjlruum for the diflblution of fapid par-
ticles, and conveyance of their taftes, fo fmells feem
to make their imprefllons by means of air-particles.

PROP. XLIX.

To examine how far the general Phcenomena of Smell
are agreeable to the Do^rine of Vibrations,

Here we may obferve, firft, that, fince the fmells
of bodies diffufe themlelves in general to great dis-
tances, and in fome cafes to immenfe ones, the odo-
riferous particles muft repel each other ; and con-
fequently be eafily fufceptible of vibratory motions,
'for the fame reafons as the particles of common air,
or thofe of the asther. We may even fuppofe, that
odoriferous particles are thrown off by vibratory mo-
tions in the body that-emits them.

May not, however, the odoriferous particles be
attracted by the body which emits them, after they
thave receded from it to a certain diftance, and io
follow it, in fome meafure, like an atm.ofphere ? It
is hard to account for the fmall or no diminution of
weight in odoriferous bodies, after they have con-
tinued to emit fmells for a long time, but upon fome
fuch fuppofition.

N 3 Secondly,

i8i Of the Senje of Smell.

Secondly, Ht-ar, friflion, and tffervefcence, are
all very apt to excicc and incTcafe iniells ; and have
all a connc(5tion with vibratory motions in the judg- ^\
mcntofmolt philofophcrs.

Thirdly, Since lieat and fridion excite and increafe
fmells, thefe may have iome conntrdion vvith elec-
tricity j which is fuppoled by many philofophers to
depend u[>on vibratory motions. And as air-particles
are elccJrics per fe^ they may have, on this account,
a peculiar tkncfs for conveying and imprelTing fmells.
May not air-particles, and odoriferous ones, repel
each other ?

Fourthly, It is ufual, when we defire to receive a
fmell in full ilrength and perfedion, to make quick,
fhorr, alternate infpirations and expirations. This
corrcfponds to the rubbing the ends of the fingers
upon the body to be examined by feeling, and the
tongue againll the palate in tailing. And all thefc
three adions appear to be fome prefumption in favour
of the doctrine of vibrations.

Fifthly, The greatnefs and quicknefs of the efFeft
of odours upon the whole nervous fyftem feem very
fuitable to the dodrine of vibrations. For this mud
be owing to the mere imprellion of fome motion,
thrre not being time for the abforption of particles
fufficient for the cffcd produced. When fweet fmells
caufe a fudden faintnefs, and deliquium animiy they
may perhaps agitate the whole fyftem of fmall me-
dullary particles fo much, as to make them attrad each
other with fufficient force to flop all vibratory mo-
tions ^ juft as has been obferved of the particles of
mufcular and membranous fibres. And the fmells to
which a perfon has an antipathy, may have been ori-
ginally fweet, or lie fo near the confines of pleafure,
as to propagate their vibrations much farther than
original fctids can. For thefe feem to revive from
fainting by making a vigorous impreffion on the nofe,
which yet is not propagated freely over the whole

• fyftem i

Of the Senje of Smell,. 183

iyftem; or, if it be, will occafion immediate fick-
nefs and fainting. Fetids in this refemble other pains,
which, if moderate, excite; if very violent, over-
power.

If it be objedled to this, that fuch fragrant fmells,
as a perfon has an antipathy to, are difagreeable to
him in the higheft degree, and that upon the firfi:
perception; alfo that the fmdl of thofe fetids, which
revive, as of aja fceiida, fpirit of harcfhorn, &c. is
agreeable to many ; 1 anfwer, that thefe two oppo-
.fite changes feem to arife merely from aflbciation.
The faintncfs and revival, attending thefe fmells
refpedlively, muft, by aflTociation, transfer the vefti-
ges and miniatures of themfclves upon the firft per-
ception of the fm.eils, whofc aflbciates they are.

Sixthly, It is agreeable to the notion of vibrations,
that fpirituous liquors, and opium, fhould produce
their appropriated effeds by Imeli, as well as by
being taken into the ftomach, as they are found to do
in fadt. For, if thefe effects arife fi-om fpecific vi-
brations, the mere impreffion of fmall adive particles
may be fufficient for the purpofe of producing them.
We muft, however, fuppofe that the exhalations of
odoriferous bodies are imbibed in fome fmall degree
'Ky^ the abforbing vefTels of the membrana Jclmeidenana.
We might fliew by parity of reafon, that the great
fubtlety of odoriferous effluvia favours the dodrine
of vibrations.

Though odoriferous particles are more fubtle than
the fapid ones, yet they are perhaps groffer than the
rays of light. For the fmoke of a tallow candle ceafes'
to fmell, when it begins to fhine, i. e. when it is more
attenuated by heat. Since therefore the vibrations
from heat are probably fmaller than thofe from light,
we may range the vibrations of the medullary fubftanc^
in the following order, in refpecl of fubtlety ; heat,
light, fmell, taftes, tangible imprefiions, and the vibra-
tions of the air, from which found arifes. But it is to

N 4 b^t

1 84 Of the Senjd of Smell.

be obfcrvcd, that ihcfc lall may excite much more
frequent vibrations in the auditory nerve, than thofe
of the founding body, to which they correfpond :
iuft as the vibrations from fricflion are much more
numerous, than the ftiokes of fricflion j and the tre-
mors of liic particles of an anvil much more numer-
ous, than the (Irokes of the hainmcr.

PRO P. 1..

I'd examine bow fay the Jpccific Differences of Odours
are agreeable to the Do^lrine of Fibralions,

This propofition is analogous to the thirty-eighth,
in which the agreement of the fpecific differences
of tatles with the do(5lrine of vibrations is confidercd ;
and may be illuftrated by it. One may fay indeed,
that tafte and fmell are fo nearly allied to each other,
that, if one be performed by vibrations, the other
muft alfo. I will repeat two principal obfervations.

Firft, If the varieties of kind in vibrations be com-
bined with thofe of degree, we fhall have a large fund
for explaining the various fragrant and fetid fmells,
notwithftanding that the firft always agree in falling
Ihort of the folution of continuity, the laft in going
beyond it.

Secondly, The differences of kind in fmells are
not fo many as may appear at firft fight, a difference
in degree often putting on the appearance of one in
kind. Thus an onion cut frefti, and held clofe to'
the nofe, fmells very like afa fcetida j and afa fcetiday
in an evanefcent degree, like onion or garlic. Thus
a dunghill at a diftance has fmelt like mufk, and a
dead dog like elder-fiowers. And fetids are faid to
enhance the flavour of fragrants. The three laft in-
ftances ftiew, that pleafure and pain are very nearly
allied to one another in this fcnfe alfo.

PROP.

Of the Senje of Smell. 185

PROP. LI.

^0 explain in what Manner^ ^nd to what Degree^
fleajant and unpleajant Odours contribute^ in the
Way of Affodation^ to form our intelle^ual Pleafures
and Pains,

It will be evident, upon a nnoderate attention, that
the grateful fcnells, with which natural produdlions
abound, have a great (hare in enlivening nnany of our
ideas, and in the generation of our intelledlual plea-
fures j which holds particularly in refpeft of thofe that
arife from the view of rural objeds and fcenes, and
from the reprefentations of them by poetry and paint-
ing. This fource of thefe pleafures may not indeed
be eafy to be traced up in all the particular cafes ; but
that it is a fource, follows neceffarily from the power
of aflbciation.

In like manner, the mental uneafintfs, which at-
tends (hame, ideas of indecency, &c. arifes in a con-
fidcrable degree, from the offenfive fmells of the ex-
crementitious difcharges of animal bodies. And it
is remarkable in this view, that the pudenda are fitu-
ated near the palTages of the urine and faces, the
two mod offenfive of our excrements.

We may fuppofe the intellectual pleafures and pains,
which are deducible from the flavours, grateful and
ungrateful, that afcend behind the wvula into .the nofe
during maftication, and juft ar'ter deglutition, to have
been confidered in the lad fedlion under the head of
tafte, fince thefe flavours are always efteemed a part
of the talles of aliments and medicines. And in-
deed the olfaftory nerves feem to have as great a fliare
in conveying to us both the original and derivative
pleafures, which are referred to the tafte, as the nerves
of the tongue ; which may help us to account for the
largenefs of thofe nerves in men, to whom fmell,

properly

1 86 Of the Senje c/ Smell.

properly fo called, is of far lefs confcquence than any
other of the fcnfcs, and tafte of the grcatcft, while
yet tiie nerves of tafte are comparatively fmall.

We may add here, that the fmcll is a guide and
guard placed Ix-fore the tafte, as that is before the
llomacli, in a great degree in men, but much more
fo in brutes, who have Icarce any other means, than
that of fmcll, whereby to diftinguilh what foods are
proper for them. It is jikewife probable, that the
fmell is a guard to the lungs ; and that the grateful
odours of flowers, fruits, and vegetable produdions,
in general, are an indication of the wholefomenefs
of country air ; as the offenfivenefs of putrefadion,
fulphureous fumes, &c. warn us beforehand of their
mifchievous effedls upon the lungs. However, the
rule is not univerfal in either cafe.

PROP. LII.

yb give an Account of the Ideas generated by the fever al

Odours.

What has been delivered concerning the ideas
of feeling and tafte, may be applied to the fmell.
We cannot, by the power of our will or fancy, raile
up any miniatures or ideas of particular fmelK, fo as
to perceive them evidently. However, the aflfociated
circumftances feem to have fome power of afteding
the organ of fmell, and the correfponding part of
the brain, in a particular manner j whence we are
prepared to receive and diftinguifti the feveral fmells
more readiJy, and more accurately, on account of the
previous influence of thefe aflTociated circumftances.
And, converfejy, the aftual fmelis of natural bodies *
enable us to determine them, though wc do not fee
them, always negatively, and often pofitively, i. e,
^y ^^Jggtft'ng their names, and viflble appearances.
And, when we are at a lofs in the laft refped, the

name %

Of the Senje of Smell. 187

name or vifible appearance of the body will immedi-
ately revive the connediorir

PROP. LIII.

'To explain the automatic Motions j which arije from the
ImpreJJions made on the Organ of Smell.

THESE-automatic motions are of three kinds, viz.
the infpiration, by which young brute animals, efpe-
cially quadrupeds, iinprefs and increafe the odours
of their refpeftive foods ; the contradlion oi i\\t fauces y
and upper part of the gullet, which arifes from thofe
agreeable flavours, which afccnd behind the uvula
into the nofcj and the adion of fneezing.

As to the firftj it is peculiar to brutes, children
not iifing any methods of improving odours, till they
are arrived at two or three years of age. The reafons
of this difference may be, that the fmell in many
brutes is the leading fenfe ; that their nofes are long
and large, and the ojfa fpongioja hollowed by innumer-
able cells i whereas in young children the nole is
depreffed ; the pituitary membrane loaded with mu-
cus ; and, when they grow up, the acutenefs of their
fmell is far inferior to that of quadrupeds.

If it be faid, that this action is not automatic in
brutes, but an inftind, which they bring into the
world with them; 1 anfwer, that the nearnefs of the
mufcles affefted, viz. thofe which dilate the nofe,
larynxy and lungs, to the feat of the impreflion,
makes it probable, that the motion depends upon
the fenfation, as in other inftances mentioned in thefe
papers, fome of which are allowed by all.

It may be, that fomething of the fame kind takes
place in young children-, as foon as their fmell begins
to be fufficienily acute. But it is fo mixed with,
and modelled by, voluntary motions, as to be fepa-
rately indifcernible.

The

I Si) Of the Senje of Smell.

The li-Tond irjotion, or tlie coniradion of the
fauccsy ami upper part of the oefopha^usy from the
gi;iceful tl.ivours which afcend up into the nollnis be-
hind the uvuhiy is part of the a(51ion of deglutition;
but it could not propeily be mentioned in the laft fee-
lion, becaufc it arifes from a fenfation rcfencd to this.

Llngrateful llavours have often a contrary efledl,
and extend their influence fo far as to pieclude the
pallige through the gullet, and even throw Jjack the
ungrateful liquid or morfcl with violence. And we
may obferve, that, in many other cafes alfo, whert
the pleafure palfes into pain, the automatic motion
thereon depending pafies into one of an oppofite na-
ture; jull as in algebra, when an affirmative quan-
tity in the Jala is changed into a negative one, a
like change is to be made fomctimes, and yet not
always, in the conclufion.

It deferves notice here, that pinching the nofe
prevents the perception of thefe flavours, as it fecms,
by checking the vibrations, which would run along
the pituitary membrane. When the flavours are
very pungent, they fix in the tip of the nofe ; or, if
this be hindered by pinching the nofe, they fly to
the uvula, which is the neareft extreme part to this.

In like manner, pinching the nofe, or prefllng the
lacrymal bag, whofe membrane is continuous to the
pituitary one, checks the fenfation that gives rife to
fneezing. And when looking at a ftrong light ex-
cites this adion, or acrid vapours make the eyes
water, we may conjeflure, that vibrations pafs through
the lacrymal dudt from the eye to the nofe in the
firft cafe, and from the nofe to the eye in the laft.
The watering of the eyes from drinking haftily,
efpecially pungent liquors, from plucking a hair out
of the noftrils, and from fternutatories, admit of a
like explication.

And thefe inftances may help to explain the fenfa-
rions in the fauces, uvula^ and tip of the nofe, alfo

the

Of the Senfe cf Smell. 189

ihe flowing of tears from the eyes, which attend
orief. I conjedure that the ftomach is particularly
affefted in grief; and that it fends up vibrations,
along the common membrane, to the fauces, uvu/a,
tip of the nofe, and eyes. However, the diforder
of the medullary fubltance is great and general in
great mental uneafinefles..

As to fneezing j no one can doubt its being au-
tomatic. ^ And ic is reafonable to exped, that the
rrufcies actually concerned in ic, viz. thofe of in-
fpiration, and the ere<5lors of the head and neck,
fhould be affcfted by vivid fenfations in the pituitary
membrane. It feems alfo to me, that the mufcles
which ftop the paflage through the nofc, ought to be
contracted firft, /. e. during the infpiration, as being
nearer to the feat of irritation -, and afterwards re-
laxed during expiration, partly by their having ex-
haufted their own power, partly by the contraction of
their antagonifts, which are irritated alfo. The con-
trary happens, but for the fame general reafons, in
the adion of deglutition as has been already ob-
ferved. And there is a remarkable coincidence of
the efficient and final caufes in both thefe inftances.

In fpeaking of the fources of motory vibrations
above, Pr&p. 18. I fuppofed, that, juft before the
motory vibrations excited by the irritation of mem-
branes took place, the fenfory ones in them were
checked by the general contraction of their fibres,
in all their diredtions. And 1 mentioned fneezing,
as affording an inftance of this. For the fenfation,
which caufes it, difappears the inftant before the
infpiration ; and, if this be not ftrong enough, ;. e.
if the mufcles do not receive the vibrations from the
pituitary membrane with fufficient freedom, it re-
turns again and again, being increafed by this reci-
procation, till at laft it caufes fneezing. It feems
agreeable to this account, that the paflage of ai^
cold abfolutely or relatively, through the nofe, will

often

#

190 ^/ the Setjfe of Smell.

often occafion fncezing; and through the mouth,
yawning. For cold air muft contrad the mem-
branes, along whofe furfaces it pades.

When fneczing roulVs fiom a ftiipor, it may be ^
fiippofed to cxciie the nfual degree and kind of vi- i
^ brations in the medullary luhllance of the brain, by
Inch a moderate concufTion of it, as lies within tlic
limits of nature and health.

P R O P. LIV.

To explain the Manner and Decree, in which the au-
tomatic /l5Jio)t5y 7ncntioncd in the lajl Propofition^ an
influenced by voluntary and Jemivoluntary Powers.

The Hiort, cjuick, alte/nate infpirations and ex-
pirations, by which we diftinguifh fmells in perfec-
tion, are in men, totally or nearly, a voluntary
/ adtion, derived partly from common refpiration,
/ partly from fneezing, the profpedl of plealure and
/ convenience concurring to it, and modelling it, as
/ in other cafes. It feems alfo, that in brutes this
adtion muft pafs from its pure automatic ftate to
Tome degree of a voluntary one.

In what manner and degree deglutition is volun-
tary, has been confidered already.

Sneezing is checked for a time by attention, lur-
prize, and all ftrong mental emotions. It may alfo
be perform^ed voluntarily ; but then the force is much
inferior to that of automatic fneezing. The fame
may be obferved of hiccough, coughing, yawning,
ftretching, &c. and is very agreeable to the deri-
vative nature of thefe motions, when voluntary, i. e.
when performed by motory vibratiuncles. The ac-
tion of fneezing is differently modelled by voluntary
^nd femivoluntary powers in different perfons.

' - # • ^ SECT.

"^ Jl|h ty the Senfe of Sight; 191

SECT. IV.

OF THE SENSE OF SIGHT.

PROP. LV.

•f To determine the immediate Organ of Sight, and explain

its Powers in general.

Since the retina is an expanfion of the optic
nerve, we may conclude, from the analogy of the
other fenfes, that it is the immediate organ of fight.
Nor is the want of fenfibility in the button of the
optic nerve, a fufficient objeftion to this ; as the
minute ftru(5lure and difpofition of the parts of this

^ button are not known.

I We may alfo reafon thus to the fame purpofe. It
may be expe<flcd, that the immediate organ of fight
(hould be either black or white, that fo it may bear a
relation of indifference to all the colours.-' But if

t we admit the doftrine of vibrations, black, by ab-
forbing all kinds of rays, woL/]d make a confufion
of vibrations, whereas white, by reflecting all, might
retain thfe imprcfled vibrations diftinclly. The re-
tina is therefore peculiarly fitted for the im.mediate
organ of fight, and the choroides the contrary. We
may add farther, that the retina, by reflecting rays
copioufly, prevt;nts their arrival at the choroides.

For the accurate diftindlion of the feveral vifible
points of obje6ts, it is neceffary, that thefe be placed
within the limits of diftinft vifion ^ and alfo, that
the coats and humours of the eye be fo circum-
ftanced, as to bring the feveral pencils of rays,
which proceed from each vifible point, accurately or
nearly, to a correfponding point upon the retina.^
This is difl:ind: vifion. But colours alone may be

diftinguiflied

* ^

'■>■

192

^*^/ the Soijc of Sight. JtF^

diftinc^Liinit'd fiom each other without any exaft con- ji
formation of the eye. Thus vifion may be reckoned «
of two kinds, as fechng, taftc, and fmell, h.ive been.

PROP. LVI.

To examine bow far the rbanomena of Colours are
agreeable to the DoSlrine of Vibratious.

Here I will make two fuppofuions.

Firll, That the extreme red lays at F M^ OpticSy
book 1. part II. tig. 4. excite vibrations in the re-
tina^ which are to thofe excited by the extreme violet
rays at A Gy as 1 to 2, in rcfpefl of frequency.

Secondly, That, in going from the extreme red
to the extreme violet, the exceG of vibrations ex-
cited by each colour, above thofe of the extreme red,
will be proportional to its diftance from the extreme
red.

If we admit thefe two fuppofitions, then the vi-
brations excited by the extreme red, by the limit of
red and orange, of orange and yellow, yellow and
green, green and blue, blue and indigo, indigo and
violet, and by the extreme violet, as thefe colours
are fixed by Sir Jfaac Newtony will be to one another
in frequency, refpedlively, as the eight numbers 100,
ii2|, 120, 1 334-, 150, i66p i77v> ^nd 200 i the
diftances of thefe feveral limits, and of the extreme
violet, from the extreme red, being to one another
refpedively, as the feven nuiiibers 12A, 20, ^^t^ 50,
66|, 77I, and 100.

Now the firft fuppofition may be rendered pro-
bable thus. The intervals of the fits of eafy re-
flexion and tranfmifllon of the red and violet in
the fame medium, and fame angle of refraftion,
are nearly as 5 to 3. See OpticSy book 11. obf. 13,
14, and prop. 16. But the red is Icfs refraded by
the coats and humours of the eye than the violet,

and

Of the Senfe of Sight. - 193

and conlVqucntly will not have its intervals ib much'
diminiflied in proportion ; whence they may be to
thofe of the violet as 6 to 3, or 2 to i, at their ar-
rival on the retina. But it is probable, that the vi-
brations of the rays themfelves, and confcquently
thofe which they excite in the retina, are recipio-
cally as the intervals of their fits. Tlie frequency
therefore of the vibrations excited by the exueme
red may be to that of the vibrations excited by the
extreme violet as i to 2, according to the firft fup-
pofition.

The fecond fuppofition is an eafy ftep after thefirfl:.

For it is natural to fuppofe, that in paffing from F
to Ay in the figure above referred to, equal diftances
Ihould produce an equal increafe of vibrations, Vv'hich
is the fecond fuppofition.

Upon this foundation we may now reafon in the
following manner,

Firft, The feven primary <!:olours, eitimated both
from their limits, and their middle points, excite
vibrations, which are to each oiher in the fimpleft
ratios that a^e confiftent with each other, and all
comprehended within the firft and moft fimple of
all ratios, viz. that exprtffcd by the two fiift num-
bers I and 2.

Secondly, The fame ratios are alfo thofe of the
five tones, and two femitones, "comprehended within
the o6tave ; as might well be expcdled. For mufic
muft take thofe which are moft fimple, and moft
confiflent with each other.

Thirdly, Since the greens are refpeflively to the
yellows, on one hand, as 9 to 8, and to the blues,
on the other, as*^ to 10, /. e. in the proportion of
a tone; alfo to the reds, on one hand, as 4 to 3,
and to the violets, on the orher, as 3 to 4, i. e. in
the proportion of a fourth; fince farther, the yellows
are as 6 to; 5, ;. e. thirds minor, to the reds, as 4 to

Vol. I. O , 5> ^' ^•

*

I ■

194 Of the Senje of Sight.

5, ;. e. thirds major, to the blues, and as 1 to 3,
i. c. fifths, to the violets ; the blues as 5 to 6, ;. f.
thirds minor, to the violets, and as 3 to 2, i. e. fifths,
to the reds; and the reds as 9 to 16, i.e. Hat levenths,
to the violets ; the difference of vibrations here exhi-
bited may make the five foregoing colours appear dif-
tincft from each other to the mind, for the fame reafons,
whatever they be, as take place in founds. 1^'or natural
bodies reflci^t all thcfe colours in great abundance, and
in iufficient purity for this purpofe. We may begin
from green, as the mod common of all. When this,
as refleded by grafs, fuppofe, has been fufficiently
familiarized to the eye of a child, it is reafonable to
think, that it may be diftinguifhed from yellow and
blue, and much more from red and violet, as
reflecled by Howers ; alfo that thefe may be diflin-
guifhcd from each other. And it feems to me, that
our fixed point ought to be placed in green, from
the commonneis and purity of the green of the third
order, /. e. of grafs and vegetables in general. For
the fame reafons one may exped, that the feverai
fhades of red, orange, green, blue, and violet, fhoold
be confidered as feverai degrees of the fame colour,
viz. on account of the fmall difference of vibrations.
At lead this correfponds to the ufual method of
proceeding in other things. We diftinguifh great
differences in our fenfations by new names; but
refer all fuch as are nearly related to the fame»
And thus the two foregoing fup[)ofitions furnifh us
with a natural reafon for diftinguifhing the primary
colours into five, viz. red, yellow, green, blue, and
violet ; which, agreeably to this, were all that Sir
IJaac Newton himfelf diftinguiflied the oblong folar
image into for fome time, as may appear by his
Optical Ledures.

Fourthly, Since, if we proceed from the green to
the yellow and red, on one hand, and to the blue and
violet, on the other, the ratios are^the fame, only in-
verted ;

Of the Senfe of Sight. 195

verted j and fince there is a larger interval or ratio
between the yellow and red, alfo between the blue
and violet, than between the green and yellow, or
green and blue ; we may expeft to have two more
diftin6l primary colours correfponding to each other,
and to the two femitones in an oftave. And thus it
is. Orange, and indigo, are fufficiently diftind from
their contiguous ones^ viz. orange from red and
yellow, and indigo from blue and violet; and yet
approach to them. And thefe feven colours thus
fixed, feem to be all that we can well call diftinft
colours amongft the primary ones, the intermediate
degrees being referred to fome of thefe feven, and
called (hades. Of compound colours, diftind from
all the primary ones, I fhall fpeak below.

Fifthly, It is remarkable here, that the order of the
five tones and two femitones of an oftave, which
correfponds to the order of the feven primary colours,
is the fecond in abfolute perfeftion (which I have
from a M S. paper of Sir Ifaac Newton's on mufic,
not yet publidied), and the firft in relative, i. e. of
thofe, in which the femitones are at equal diftances
from the middle or extremes ; which circumftance is
evidently neceffary in the order of the colours. For
if diftind; colours arife from ratios, and a half-note
colour arife next after the red, if you begin at one
end, a correfponding one ought to appear next after
the violet, if you begin at the other. The famenefs
of the ratios, that muft arife, makes this neceffary,
on fuppofition, that the diftindlion of colours is
founded on ratios.

Sixthly, If the diftindlion of colours arife from
the ratios of vibrations, the colours may be expe(5l:ed
to be broader where the vibrations are more numer-
ous, becaufc a greater addition muft be made to a
greater number, in order to make an equal ratio.
And there is a certain breadth for each of the colours
refpeftively, which fuits each fet of ratios of vibra-

O 2 tion=i

196 Of the Setije cf Sight.

tions that they can be fiippofcd to bear to one another,
according to any liippolld law of incrcafe of the vibra-
tions in pafling from one end of the fohu image to
the other. Since therefore the breadth of the feven
primary colours, as determined by Sir Ifaac Newtorty
fiiits the fimplcll ratios pofhble, according to the
rimplcd law of increafe {ioflible, as has been ex-
plained above, we I'eem to have from thence an
argument both for the doftrine of vibrations in
general,' and for the particular ratios of vibrations
here alleged. And there are two things in this
matter which dclervc pariicular notice. Fir ft, that
Sir IJaac Neivloris Jpetlrum was about ten inches
long } and confequently, the breadths of the feven pri-v
mary colours, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo^
violet, in inche.s, 1, 25; o, 75; i, 23^ ^j ^^ > ^
66 i 1, II i 2, 22; which magnitudes are fo con-
fiderable, that a fmall error in fixing the limit of a
colour does not much affedt their mutual ratios.
Secondly, That the limits of the colouis were deter-
mined in a way, that had no dependence on any
hypothcTis, and the operation repeated feveral times.
However, it may peihaps be worth the time and
pains of lome curious experimenter, to examine the
breadths of the feven primary colours afrt-fh,
and compare them with the hypothefis here
propofed.

Seventhly, When all the rays reflcfled from ariy
natural body are near to each other, as in the yellows
of the fecond order, and in the blues and greens of
the third, we may fup} ofe, that the flower vibrations
are accelerated by the quicker, and the quicker
retarded by the flower, fo as to compofe an interme-
diate colour, fcarce differing ffom homogeneal light
in appearance of purity j juft as in a bell, the flower
vibrations of the wider part, and the quicker of the
narrower, over-rule each other mutually,' {o as to
compofe one tone. But when the vibrations of the

extreme

Of the Senfe of Siglit. 1 97

extreme rays are greatly different from each other,
it feems that each ought to keep the power of ex-
citing its proper vibrations, fo as to make the colour
of the middle rays j which may be confidered as a
kind of centre of gravity, a dilute one, verging to
white. And white itfelf, when in perfedtion, arifes
from a due proportion of all the forts of rays, each
primary colour, perhaps, keepings its own peculiar
vibrations, and the feveral fhades of each primary
colour vibrating in the fame time as the middle point.
When two colours confiderably different, as red and
blue, yellow and violet, red and violet, are com-
pounded, they neither refemble the intermediate ho-
mogeneal one, nor make a white. Not the fiift, be-
caufe they are at fo great a diftance, that each can
keep its own vibrations, contrary to what happens in
colours refembling homogencal ones; not a white,
becaufe there is not a fufficient number of differing
vibrations. By fuch con->poficions it is, that purples,
and other colours, different from all the homogeneai
ones, are formed ; and whoever confiders the feveral
Ihades of each colour, with the mutual proportions
which may be combined in any compound, may
eafily conceive how all the colours of namral bodies
fhould arife from mere combinations of the primary-
colours, agreeably to the fixth and fevendi propo-
fitions of the fecond part of the firft book of Sir IJaac
Nezvtons Optics. What is here delivered may ferve
to fuit the dodrine of vibrations to thofe propofitions,
and, perhaps, affift the reader to fee the reafons of
the fixth. '^

CoR. If the difflsrences of the primary colours arife
from the fpecific differences of vibrations, it is eafy
"0 fee, that the diff^erences of taftes and fmells mav
lave a like origin ; and vice verja.

O 3 PROP.

4

193 Of thf Sojfc of Sight. |

PRO P. LVJI.

'To examine bow far lumhious Appearance^y mt oc-
eaftoned by tite Imprefjion of the Rays of Light, with
fom: other Phxnomena of a related Kind, are agree- k\
able to the Doilrine of Vibrations. i

Flashes of light, and other luminous appearances,
arc occafioncd by (Irokfs upon the eye, rubbing it,
fainiings, &c. Now it is very eafy to conceive,
that violent agitations in the fmall particles of the
optic nerve fliould arife from thefe caufes; and con-
fequently that fucii deceptions of the fight, as one
may call them, fliould be produced, if we admit the
dodrine of vibrations. And 1 do not fee how they
follow from the common hypothefis concerning the
manner of fenfation.

The moft remarkable of thefe luminous appear-
ances is that which refembles the eye of a peacock's
feather, and which offers itfelf upon fluitting and
rubbing the eye in a morning. There is a diftinftion
in it between the central parts and the edges. The firft
feem to anfwer to that part of the retina, which is oppo-
fite to the pupil, and of about the fame fizewith it, in
its ordinary dimenfions. The laft, or the edges, may
anfwer to thofe parts of the retina, which are only
fometimes expofed to the aflion of light, viz. in dila-
tations of the pupil. It is obfervable, that the cen-
tral parts are often dark, while the edges are lumi-
nous ; and z'ice rerfa. It happens alfo frequently,
that in the whole appearance a blue, a dilute yellow,
and a red, fucceed each other in the order of the
colours. Perhaps, by farther obfervations, a perfon
might be able, in fome meafure, to predict the varia-
tions of this phjEnomenon. It generally moves,
which may be perhaps from the motion of the pecu-
liar vibrations along the furface of the retina.

Upoa

Of the Senfe of Sight. 199

Upon fhutting one's eyes after they have been
fixed upon a luminous objeft, as a candle, a fire, a
window, ic is connmon to have a faint image of the
objeft remain in the eye for a few moments. This
follows from the gradual declenfion of the vibrations
excited.

Sometimes, inftead of a luminous image, a dark
one, correfponding in fhape and iize to the luminous
objed:, prefents itfelf. In this cafe we muft fuppofe,
that the vivid vibrations excited by the luminous
objedl pafs immediately into very feeble ones, abfo-
lutely or relatively, upon the cefiTation of the impreffion.

Boerhaave fays, that he had a luminous circle in
his eye for a long time after having viewed too intenfely
the moon's light colle6ted to a focus. And looking
at the fun makes other objeds appear red and lumi-
nous. It does alfo occafion dark fpots to appear
upon common objeds afterwards. This laft effeft
may perhaps fucceed the firft. While extraordinary
vibrations, or a difpofition to them, continue in the
retina^ and optic nerve (which may be for a long
time, if a flight inflammation, with the confequent
irritability, be produced in the fmall vefl^els of the '
nervous capillaments), the common objefls may
appear luminous. When thefe go off^, a contrary
ftate may take place, and caufe the dark fpots to ap-
pear. Dark fpots of continuance argue, that an
injury is done to the retina, and optic nerve. The
permanent dark fpots, which are fometimes previous
to a guttajerena, feem to be of this kind.

It is as;reeable to fome of the foregoing infl:ances,
that being kept much in the dark fliould enable the
perfons to fee with a very obfcure light. In fome
other cafes of a nyflalcpia there may perhaps be the
firfl: and loweft deo-rce of inflammation in the infini-
tefimal veflfels of the retina, fo as to increafe the fen-
fibility of the organ without making the exercife of
its fundions painful.

O 4 Giddinefs,

200

Of the Senje of Sight.

.-f?

Giddinef';, or an appaient irregular motion in the
obje6ls ot fight, aliiioft always goes before any
general confufion and privation of fcnfe and motion j
which ^ very agreeable to the doiflrine of vibrations.
For the general .dilbider in the vibrations in the
niedull.iry lubllance may be expelled to be perceived
in die optic nerve, and coriclponding part of the
brain, full and chielly, on account of the acuteneis
and precifion of the fenfe of fight. Upon the fame
principles it is eafy to fee, how great and iinufual agi-
tations of the body, imp.efTions on the (lomach, on
the olfa6lory nerves,,, on the eye, by the quick tran-
fition of obje»5ls, on the eye and fancy together, by
looking down a precipice, &c. fhould occafion a
temporary giddinefs.

PRO P. LVIII.

To examine hoiv far the Judgments which we make by
Sight concerning Magnitude^ Difance^ Motion^ Figure,
and Pofition, are agreeable to the Do^lrine of ylffoci-
alion.

I HAVE already obferved, Vrop. 30. that thefe judg-
ments are to be erteemed true or falfe, according as
they agree or difagree with thofe made by touch.

Now the allbciates of greater tangible magnitude
are a larger pi(5tuie on the retina, the difkance being
the fame j and a larger diftance, the piflure being
the fame. The aflbciates of a lefs tangible magni-
tude are the oppofites to thefe. And the aflbciates
of the famenefs of tangible magnitude are the increafe
or diminution of the picture on the retina, while the
diflance is diminifhed or increafcd fuitably thereto.,
All this appears from optical confiderations. Hence
it follows, that where the pi(5lure on the retina is of a
juft fize, and alfo the previous judgment concerning
the diftance jufl:, our tftimate of tangible magnitude
by fight v.'ili be juft likewife. But if the picture on

the

Of the Senje of Sight. 201

the retina be magnified or diminiflied by glaffes, or
our previous judgment concerning the diilance be
erroneous, our eftimate of tangible magnitude will
be erroneous in like manner. And, whether it be jufl:
or erroneous, it is entirely founded on aflbciation.

The following inftances, among many others, con-
firm thefe pofitions. Young children judge righdy
of magnitude only in familiar places, or at fmall dif- :\j
tances. At great diftances they always judge the ob-
jects to be lefs than the truth, not having learnt to
judge rightly of thefe diftances, and make allowance
for them. The generality of adults judge far better
of magnitude at great diftances on level ground, than
from above, or from below, on accountof their greater
experience in the former cafe. The horizontal
moon appears larger than the meridional, becaufe
the pidure on the retina is of nearly the fame fize, and
the diftance efteemed to be greater. And yet the
horizontal moon appears far lefs than the truth, becaufe
we can form no conception of its vaft diftance. A
tree referred to the horizon in "the dufk of the even-
ing, or a fly to the ground at a diftance, through the
indiftinctnefs of vifion, appears much bigger than
the truth. In looking through glafies, which
magnify or diminifti the picture on the retina, the
objeds themfelves feem to be magnified or dimi-
niflied, becaufe our judgment concerning the diftance
is not altered proportionally, &c. &c.

There are, befides thefe, fome other aflbciated cir-
cumftances, which occafionally impofe upon us in efti-
mating magnitudes. Thus a pcrfon of an ordinary
height ftanding near a very tall one, or coming in at
a very high door, appears fhorter than the truth ;
lean perfons feem tall, fat perfona fhort, &c.

The principal criterion of diftance is the magnitude
of the pi6lure, which fome known obje(5l makes on
the retina. But the five following aflbciated circum-
ftances feem to have alfo fome influence on our judg-
ments

f

202 0/ ibe Senje of Sight.

ments concerning dirtance, in certain cafes, and
under certain limitations : the number of objects
which intervene, the degree of diftin^lnefs in which
the minute parts are feen, the degree of brightnefs,
the inchnation of the optic axes, and the conforma-
tion of the eye. It will appear from the fixty-fecond
and fixty-tliird propofitions that the two laft are aflb-
ciaies to each other in their proptr degrees, fince each
depends on the diftance of the objcdt. The influ-
ence of the three rtrlt, as well as that of the mag-
nitude of the pidlure on tlie retina^ is evident from
the methods of exprefling di(\ance in pictures.

From the principles laid down in the laft paragraph,
we may explain the following fallacies in vifion. An
objedl viewed thiough a perfpedive appears to be
nearer than it is, becaufe the pi6lure on the relina is
thereby rendered both larger, and more diftinft ; but
if we invert the perfpeftive, and fo diminiOi the pic-
ture, the objedl will appear farther off. At fea, and
on plains, where few or no objefls intervene, we
judge the diftances to be lefs than the truth j and the
.contrary happens in fcenes diverfified with a proper
variety of objefls. A large objeft, when appre-
hended to be one of a common fize, appears nearer
than the truth j and the fame happens, when we view
objedts in rural fcenes, fuch as hoiifes, towns, hills,
&c. in a bright light, or through a very clear at-
mofphere. In trying to judge of fmall diftances by
one eye, it is ufual to be' miftaken for want of the
criterion from the inclination of the optic axes.

Since our judgment concerning the magnitude of
an unknown obje6t depends upon the diftance, and our
judgment concerning the diftance of every object
chiefly upon that concerning its magnitude, the con-
je(5tures of different perfons, concerning the magni-
tudes and diftances of unknown remote objefts, both
as {i:Qn through telefcopes, and with the naked eye,
may vary confiderably from each other according to

their

)

Of the Senje of Sight. 203

their refpeflive affociated prejudices. If the diftance ^
be fixed previoiifly by a known obje6l, we may after-
wards judge of the magnitude of an unknown obje6t
thereby. The number of intervening objefls, and ^^
the inclination of the optic axes, feem to afford con- j^P,
fiderable affiftance in determining diftances, where
known objc<5ls are wanting j the firft in large dif-
tances, the lafl. in fmall ones : but the other three
inferior criterions above-mentioned, viz. the degree
of dillindnefs, the degree of brightnefs, and the
conformation of the eye, when fingly taken, are of
fmall fignification.

We judge of motion by the motion of the piflures
on the retina, or of our eyes in following the objefts.
After fome time, we learn to make allowance for
the line of diredlion, our own motions, &:c. If we
fail to make the due allowance through affociated
circumftances of any kind, we mud, in confequence
of this, make a difproportionate eftimate of mo-
tion, or place it in an undue objed:.

We judge of the figure or Ihape of bodies, chiefly
by the variations of light and fhade; and our affo-
ciations taken thence are fo ftrong, as that we are
eafily impofed upon by a juft im.itation of the light
and Ihades belonging to each fhape and figure, in
their feveral fituations with refpedt to the quarter
from which the illumination proceeds.

It is from the affociations, confidered under this
propofition, and particularly in the laft paragraph,
that painting conveys fuch exa<5l ideas of fhapes,
figures, magnitudes, and diftances, and the camera
ohjcura of motions alfo, by means of impreffions that
proceed from a plane furface.

The pofition of objedts is judged of entirely by the
part of the rei'ma on which the rays fall, if we be in
an eredl pofture ourfelves. If we be not, we allow
for our deviation from it, or make a reference to
fomething judged to be in an ereft pofture. If we

fail

204 Of the Senje of Sight.

fail in tliclc, errors concerning the pofirion of vifible
objc(fl:si mull hap|)en. Our calling bodies crc^^ when
the lays proceeding fioin their tops fall upon tlie
lower parrs of the retina^ and vice verfa^ is merely
from an allociation of the fame kind with thole by
which the lenfes of other words are determined.

Thofe who are difpofcd tu examine the fubjeds
of this and the following propofition with accuracy,
may fee a large variety of proper inllances well
explained by Dr. Smithy and Dr. Juriny in Dr. Simth's
Optics. Thefe gentlemen infill: chiefly on optical
confiderations ; but they every where admit the
prevalence of aflbciation, though it is not always to
their puipofe to take expicfs notice of it.

I will juft remind the reader, that in all the call's
of magnitude, dillance, motion, figure, and pofi-
rion, the vifible idea is lb much more vivid and ready
than the tangible one, as to prevail over it, notwith-
ftanding that our information from feeling is more
precife than that from fight, and the teft of its truth.
However, if we could fuppofe a perfon to be endued
with the fenfes of feeing and hearing, and yet to be
dellitute of that of feeling, and of the power of mov-
ing himfclf, he might have all the words exprefTing
dillances, magnitudes, &c. fo much, and fo pro-
perly, aflbciated with the vifible appearances of theie,
as that, by pafilng over his ear, they would raife
up ail the fame trains of vifible ideas, as in us.

PROP. LIX.

To examine how far the Circumfiances of fingle and dou-
bk Vifion are agreeable to the DoBrine of AJfociation,

When we have attained a voluntary power over
the external motions of our eyes, fo as to direft them .
to objecls at plealure, we always do it in fuch a-'
manner, as that the lame points of objeds fall upon

correfpondtfnt

I

Of the Senje of Sight. 205

■**

correfpondent points of the two retinas. And this
correfpondence between the refpe^tive points of the
-etinas is permanent and invariable. Thus the cen-
tral points, or thofe where the optic axes terminate,
always correfpond ; a certain point on the right fide
of the right retina always correfponds (whatever ob-
je6t we view) to another certain point on the right fide
of the left retina^ equally diftant fronD the centre with
;t, &c. Hence, if the optic axes be direded to the
objetfl Ai the piflure made by it on the right re-
tina correfponds to that made on the left; whereas the
5mpreflions made by two fimilar objects, A and 5,
upon the two retinas^ do not correfpond. The im-
ptefTions therefore, that are made upon portions of
the r(f//«<3j, which do or do not correfpond, are the
affociated criterions of fingle and double vifion.
For I here fuppofe, that the common appearances of
3 fingle obje<5l, and two fimilar ones, are refpec-
tively called fingle and double vifion.

Let us now inquire into the fallacies whfch thefe
aflfociated criterions may occafion.

Firfl:, then, When a perfon diredts his eyes by a
voluntary power to a point nearer or farther off than
the obje(5l which h^ views, fo as to make the pic-
tures of the objedt fall upon the points of the two
retinaSy that do not correfpond, this obje6b will
appear double. The fame thing happens when one
eye is diftorted by a fpafm, when perfons lofe the
voluntary power of direding their optic axes to ob-
jects, and in general whenever the pidlures, which
the objeft imprints on the two retinas, fall upon
points that do not correfpond.

It refembles this, and illufirates it, that if we crofs
the fingers, and roll a pea between two fides, which
are not contiguous naturally, it feels like two
peas.

Secondly, After a perfon, whofe eye is diftorted
by a fpafii), has fcen double for a certain time, this

ccales,

C^A^

206 C^ ffje Senfe of Sight.

ceafes, and he gains the power of feeing fingle
agjin, provided the diftoriion remains fixed to a
certain degree. For the aflbciation between the
jxjints of the two retimsy which correfponded for-
merly, grows weaker by degrees; a new one alfo
between points, that now correfpond, takes place,
ami grows Ihonger perpetually.

Thirdly, if two lighted candles, of equal height,
be viewed at ihe diftance of two or three feet from
the eyes, fo that the pidure of the right-hand candle
on the left retina iliail correfpond to that of the left-
hand candle on the right retinay only one image will
be produced by thefc two coirefponding piftures.
But the two pidures which do not correfpond, viz.
that of the right-hand candle on the right retina^
and that of the lef't-hand candle on the left retina,
will each produce its proper image. See Smith's
OpticSy Rem. 526.

But here two queftions may be afked : Firft, Why
fingle objrds appear the fame to one as to both
eyes, allowing for the diminution of brightnefs,
fince, in the firft cafe, there is one pidure only, in
the laft two. Ought not every fingle objeft to appear
fingle to one eye, and double to both ?

Secondly, How can one objeft appear like two to
both eyes, fince, however the eyes be direfted or
diftorted, it can make but two pictures, whereas two
objeds make four, viz. two in each eye ?

It is evident, that the difficulty is the fame in both
thefe queftions. And it feems to be a fufficient an-
fwer to allege, that'-imprefllons fo much alike, and
which are fo conftantly made together, as thofe upon
the correfponding portions of the two retinaSy mufl
unite into one entirely in the brain, and produce the
fame effect in kind, though fomewhat different in
degree, as one alone. And thus, whether we fee
with one eye or both, hear with one ear or both, the
impreflion on the common fenfory in the brain is the

fame

Of the Senje of Sight. ^ao;

fame in kind ; and therefore, if the firft be called
(ingle, the other nnuft alfo.

But it deferves particular attention here, that the
optic nerves of nnen, and fuch other animals as
look the fame way with both eyes, unite in the
fella turcica^ in a ganglion., or little brain, as one
may call it, peculiar to themfelves j and that the af-
fociations between fynchronous impreffions on the two
retinas muft be made fooner, and cemiCnted ftronger,
on this account; alfo, that they ought to have a
much greater power over one another's images, than
in any other part of the body. And thus an im-
preffion made on the right eye alone by a fingle
objeft, may propagate itfelf into the left, and there
raife up an image almoft equal in vividnefs to itfelf:
and confequently, when we fee with one eye only, we
may, however, have pidlures in both eyes -, and when
we fee a fingle objeft, with our eyes directed to one
at a different dillance, we may have four pictures,
viz. two from dire6t impreflion in parts that do not
correfpond, and two others from affociation in parts
that do. And thus both the foregoing queftions
may be anfwered, in,. a manner that leaves no doubt
or hefitation.

PROP. LX.

jf 71? explain in what Manner y and to what Degree^
agreeable and dif agreeable Impreffions on the Eye
cmtributei in the Way of Affociation, to form our
intelle5lual Pleafures and Pains.

It is evident, that gay colours, of all kinds, are
a principal fource of pleafure to young children ;
and they feem to ftrike them more particularly, when
mixed together in various ways. Whether there be
any thing in colours, which correfponds to the har-
mony between founds, may be doubted. If there be,

it

>^ Of /fg

zofr Of tWe Scnfe £ Sight.

4

it iinid, liowevcr, admit of much greatrr latitude
than (ht* harmony between founds, fincc all mixtures
and degrees of colours, unlefs where ihe quantity of
light overpowers the eye, are plearmt; however,
one cohair may be more lo originally than another.
Bhick ap}>ears to be originally dif.igreeablc to the eyes
ol childicn ; it becomes dif.igrceable alfo very early
from alVocrued inHiiences. In adultSj the pleafures
of mcic colours arc very languid in comparifon of
their prefent aggregate, of plcalure, formed by af-
fociation. And thus tlie eye approaches more and
moic, as we advance in fpirituality and perfedtion,
to an inlet for mental pleafure, and an oi'gan fuited
to the exigencies of a being, whofe happinefs con-
fills in the improvement of his underftanding and
affe^ftions. However, ihe original pleafures of mere
colours remain," in a fmall degree, to the lad, and
hofe transferred upon them by uflbciation with other
picahires (for the influence is in thefe things reci-
piocal, without limits) in a confiderable one. So
that our intclleftual pleafures are not only at firft
generated, but afterwards fupported and recruited,
in part from the pleafures affctfting the eye; which
holds particularly in refpedt of the pleafures afforded
fcy the beauties of nature, and by the imitations of
them, which the arts of poetry and painting furnirt^i g
us with. And for the fame reafons the difagreeable %
imprcffions on the eye, have feme fmall ihare in *
generating and feeding intelledluai pains.

It deferves notice here, that gieen, which is the
colour that^abounds far more than any other, is the
middle one among the primary colours, and the mod
univerfally and permanently agreeable to the eye of
any other; alfo, that as the common juice of ve^e-
tables is in general green, fo that of animals is in
general red ; the (irft beiag, perhaps, of the third
order, the lafl: of the ftcond. It appears to be ex-
tremely worth the time ar.d pains of philofophers to

inquire

Of the Senfe of Sight. 209

inquire into the orders of the colours of natural bodies,
in the manner propofed and begun by Sir IJaac
Newton \ and particularly to compare the changes of
colour, which turn up in chemical operations, with
the other changes which happen to the fubjei^ls of
the operations at the fame time. Nothing feems
more likely than this 10 be a key to the philofophy
of the fmall parts of natural bodies, and of their
mutual influences.

PROP. LXI.

'to give an Account of the Ideas generated by vifihle

Imprejfions.

Here we may make the following obfervations :

Firft, That the ideas of this fenfe are far more \
vivid and definite than thofe of any other; agreeably \
CO which, the word idea denoted thefe alone in its"
original and moft peculiar fenfe. Hence it is proper
to make the ftridleft examination into the ideas of
this fenfe, and their properties, fince it is probable,
from the analogies every where confpicuous in
natural things, that thefe are patterns of all the
reft. Their peculiar vividnefs and precifion may
therefore be confidered as ferving like a microfcope
in refped of other ideas, /*. e. as magnifying their
properties.

Secondly, The vividnefs and precifion here fpoken
of relate chiefly to diftance, magnitude, motion,
figure, and pofition, /. e. to the things confidered
in the fifty-eighth propofiiion. However, colours
leave diftinft ideas of ihemfelves ; but then thry
require an exertion of our voluntary powers for the
moft part, whereas the ideas of diftances, magnitudes,
&c. recur inceffantly in the trains which pafs over
the fancy.

Thirdly, The peculiar vividnefs and precifion of j
vifiblc ideas may probably be owing to the following '

Vol. I, P caufes,

2IO Of the Senje of Sight.

caufes, as well as to fomc peculiar unknown ftruc-
turc of the optic nerve, and corrcfponding region
of the brain ; viz. the perpetual recurrency of vifible
objefts, cither the Tame, or fimilar ones, during the
^vholc time tliat we are awake; the diftind manner
in which tlicy are imprelTed by means of the fevcral
proper conformations of the eye; and their being re-
ceived in general upon the fame part of the retina^
precifcly or nearly. For, when we view any objedt
with attention, we make the central point of it fall
upon the central part of the retina. Farther, as the
optic nerve fends off no branches, but is fpent wholly
upon Uie retina^ this may perhaps contribute in fomc
degree. And thefe confidcrations may a little help
us to conceive how the optic nerve, and corre-
fponding region of the brain, may be the repofitory
of fuch an immenfe variety of vifible ideas, as they
are in fad:.

Fourthly, The idea of every familiar objedl has,
for the moft part, fome particular magnitude, pofi-
tion, and aggregate of aflbciates, in its recurrencies
to the mind. And this fomewhat leflens the diffi-
culty mentioned in the lad paragraph. The reafon
of this fourth obfcrvation is, that though every vi-
fible object appears under different magnitudes, in
different pofnions, and with different affociates, yet
thefe differences deftroy one another, fo that the
ftrongeft particularity only remains. However, %
changes are made from time to time, each fubfifting
for a ihort period, and then giving way to the next
in fucccffion.

Fifthly, We have fi6litious vifible ideas of places
and pcrfons that we have never feen, as well as of
thofe which we have. Thefe are derived from affo- ■
ciation evidently, and they often undergo fucceffive
changes, like thofe fpoken of in the lad paragraph.

Sixthly, Our vifible ideas are fubjed to the volun-
tary power in a high degree, and may be called up

by

Of the Senfe of Sight. 211

by the flighteft affociated circumftance, at the fame
time that they have very numerous connexions with
other ideas, and with aftual impreffions. The name,
or its idea in the region of the brain correfponding
to the ear, are the circumftances mofl: commonly
made ufe of for calling up vifible ideas. But there
are many ideas, y. e. internal feelings, which have no
names, and which yet, by attending our feveral vifible
ideas, get this power of introducing them.

Here it is to be obferved, that an idea cannot be
faid to be voluntarily introduced, till it be previoufly
determined by fome of its affociates. If I defire to
introduce a vifible idea of any kind, an individuum
vaguniy and that of an horfe offers itfelf, it was not
owing to the command of my will, that it was an
horfe, and nothing elfe, but to the connexion which
the idea of an horfe had with fome other idea or im-
prelTion, which then happened to take place. But if
1 defire to recollect the features of a perfon's face,
whom I faw yefterday, I make ufe of his name, his
drefs, the place in which 1 faw him, or fome other
affociated circumftance, for this purpofe. And this
may be called a voluntary introdudlion of an idea.
However, the introdudlion of the idea of an horfe,
in the circumftances juft defcribed, might be termed
voluntary in a different fenfe, if any perfon thought
fit to denominate it fo, on account of the command
of the will to introduce fome idea. My defign
here is, only to fuggeft to the reader the proceffes
generally made ufe of in thefe things. It is to be ob-
ferved farther, that the affociated circumftance, which
determines what idea fliall be called up voluntarily,
does, for the moft part, raife it. Thus, if a perfon
defires me to call up the idea of an horfe, the very
found of the word proceeding from his mouth will
do it, for moft part, immediately. If not, I go
back, by my memory, to the trace left by the
word, and thence to the idea, or to fome common

P 1 affociate

f

212 Of the 6enje ^ Sight.

allbciaic of both the word and idea, capable of
railing tlie laft.

Seventhly, When wc have converfed much with
the fame vifible objedts, as after having been in a'
crowd, travelling, &c. for many hours without in-
termilfion, we may find the ideas of thefc objeds
pcciiliaily ftrong, fo as to intrude upon our fancies,
and interfere with all our other ideas. This may
fervc to flievv, that the permanence of the fcnfations
imprelTed, mentioned in the third propofition, and
which fhews itfelf particularly in vifible impreffions,
as there remarked, is of the nature of an idea. And
it coincides remarkably with this, that the ideas
fhould be peculiarly vivid and precife in the fame
^cw'i^^ where the permanency of the fenfation im-
prefled is mofl: confpicuous.

Eighthly, The ideas of fight and hearing, and
the imprefilons from whence they proceed, have a
peculiar connexion with each other. For as woids
pronounced call up vifible ideas, fo vifible ideas and
objeds call up the ideas of words, and the adioiis by
which they are pronounced.

Ninthly, The trains of vifible ideas are in a par-
ticular manner affeded by the general ftates of the
brain, as may appear from the trains which prefcnt
themfclves in madneis, frenzies, and common de-
liriums. This agrees remarkably with what has been
already obferved concerning the ideas of thib fcnfej
and we may infer from all together, that the regions
of the brain correfponding -to the optic nerve are
comparatively large, or peculiarly fufctptive of im-
prefilons, or both.

Tenthly, The imagery of the eye fympathizes
alfo remarkably with the affcdions of the (tomach.
Thus the grateful imprefllons of opium upon the
ftomach raife up the ideas of gay colours, and tranf-
porting fcenes, in the eye; and fpafms, and indi-
geftions, have often a contrary cffed. The ghaftly

faces

Of the Senje of Sight. 213

faces which fometimes appear in idea, particularly
after drinking tea, feem 10 be an cffeft of this
kind, or perhaps of the laft-mentioned one ; for
they are common to pcrfons of irritable nervous
fyftems. Ghaftly faces may take place preferably
to other difagreeable ideas, perhaps becaufe charac-
ters, affedions, paffions, are principally denoted and
expreffcd by the countenance ; becaufe faces are the
mod common of vifible objefts, and attended to
with the greateft eafneftnefs ^ becaufe we criticife
much upon the beauty of faces, and upon the pro-
portion of the feveral features to each other j and
becaufe evil fpirits (the notions of which generally
take ftrong and early pofleffion of our fiincies) are
painted with ghaftly faces. This mixture of reafons
hinders each particular one from being fo obvious, as
might othcrwife be expefted ; hov;ever, the fame
I thing is common in many other cafes. The trains
of vifible ideas, which occur in dreams, are dcducible,
partly from the fympachy here mentioned, partly
from that of the la(t paragraph.

Eleventhly, Our ftock of vifible ideas may be
confidered as' a key to a great part of our knowledge,
and a principal fource of invention ia poetry, paint-
ing, mathematics, mechanics, and almoft every
other branch of the arts and fciences. In mathe-
atics and mechanics the invention of the diagram
; , in effect, the fokition of the problem. Our
memories are alfo much affifted by our vifible ideas
in refped of paft fadls, and the prefervation of the
order of time depends in a particular manner upon
our vifible trains fuggefting each other in due fuc-
ccffion. Hence eye-witnefles generally relate in order
of time, without any exprefs defign of doing fo.
This recolleftion of vifible ideas, in the order in
which they were impreflTed, gives rife to the loci
wemonalesy in which miatters principally worthy of
remembrance are to be repoficed, and to the artifi-

P 3 cial

214 Of the Senfe c/ Sight. *

cial memory, that is borrowed from the eye; juft
as the facility of remembering wortls formed into
verfes does to the artificial memory borrowed from
the ear. It may dcfervc notice here, that fomc
pcrfons have imaginary places for the natural num-
bers, as far as one hundred, or farther.

Tuelfthly, The ideas which different perfons have
of the fame perfons' faces, though they be very like
one another, cannot yet be prccifely the fimie, on
account of the addition and omifTjon of little cir-
cumllances, and a variety of afTociated ones, which
intermix themfelves here. Hence the fame pidurc
may appear much more like to one perfon than to
another, viz. according as it refembles his idea more
or lefs.

Thirteenthly, Painters, ftatuaries, anatomifts, ar-
chireds, &c. fee at once what is intended by a
pidlure, draught, &c. from the perfeflion of their
vifible ideas j and carry off the fcene, plan, &c. in
their memories, with quicknefs and facility. All
which is ftill owing to affociation. But it would be
endlefs to enumerate the inftances of afljiciations,
which this fenfe afi^brds.

Fourteenthly, It is probable, that fables, parables,
fimiles, allegory, &c. pleafe, (Irike and inftrudl,
chiefly on account of the vifible imagery, which
they raife up in the fancy. They are alfo much
more eafily remembered on the fame account. We
may add, that idolatry, heathenifh and popifh, has
made a much quicker and more extenfive progrefs in
the world on account of the (lability and vividnefs
of vifible imprcflions and ideas, and the difficulty,
obfcurity, and changeable nature, of abftraft no-
tions. And image-worfhip fecms even to have been
derived in great meafure from this fource.

Fifteenthly, It would be a matter of great curiofity
and ufe (as far as thefe fpeculations can be of any
ufe) to inquire carefully into the progrefs. of the

mind.

Of the Senje of Sight. 215

smind, and particularly of the fancy, in perfons born
blind, and connpare the refult with what is advanced
under this propofition, and with other parts of thcfe
papers, in order to correA and innprove the theory
of affociation thereby. It is probable, that they are
confiderable lofers, upon the whole, in refpedt of
knowledge j though their greater degree of attention,
and the fuperior acutenefs of the fenfes of feeling
and hearing, and confequently, perfedlion of the
ideas of thefe fenfes, muft give thenfi fome particular
advantages.

PROP. LXII.

'Co explain the automatic Motions^ which are excited
by Impreffions made on the Eye,

These motions are of two kinds, external and
internal. The external are the nnotions of the
globe of the eye, thofe of the eye-lids, and the
contradlions of the lacrymal, and other neighbour-
ing glands, whereby they are evacuated. The inter-
nal ar* the contra<5lions of the greater and lefier
mufcular rings of the iris^ of the radiated fibres of
the iris^ and of the ciliar ligaments. I will fpeak of
each of thefe in order.

I begin with the motions of the globe of the eye.
And here I obferve, Firft, That the white tendinous
expanfions of the four ftrait mufcles reach as far as
the cornea -y and confequently, that they are thereby
expofed in a particular manner to the aftion of light,
when the eye is open, being covered by nothing but
a thin membrane. However, the tendinous expan-
fions of the adducens and abducens are much more
expofed than thofe of the attollens and deprimens j and,
if the eye be but a little open, the light cannot fall
upon thefe laft at all.

Secondly, If a luminous obje<5l be placed upon the
right fide, fo as that the light fhall fall in a particu-

P 4 l?,r

i\6 Of the Senje of Sight.

lar manner upon the rendinoiis expanfion of the ahdu'
U)is of the right eye, and of the adduccns of the left, it
tnay by contracting thcle mulclcs make the eyes move
in a congruous manner, turning them towards itfclf ;
and the tendency of the eyes to move towards the
right fide ought not to ceafe, till the adducens and ab-
duccns in each eye have an equal quantity of light
fall upon thcin from the luminous ohje(ft, /'. e. till the
optic axes ht dueled to it. In which cafe the eyes
\v()uld be in aquilihio, as far as they are under the
influence of the light which falls upon the tendinous
cxpanfions of the ftrait mufcles.

Tiiirdly, It agrees remarkably with the two lafl
paragraphs, that new-born children move their eyes
in a congruous manner ; that the motions are chiefly
to the right and lefr, fcarce upwards and downwards
at all, the eye- lids being fcldom fo much opened as
to expoff the tendinous expanfions of the attollens and
deprimens ; and that their eyes are frequently turned
towards luminous obje(5ls, fuch as a candle, or a
window.

Fourthly, But it is not ncceffary, that the eyes of
new-born children fhould always turn to the luminous
objedl, or remain fixed upon it. For every mufcle,
'\vhen it has exhauffed icfeU by contradfion, gives place
to its antagonifl of courfe. If therefore the luminous
objecl: be much on one fide, the eyes ought to turn
back from it almoft immediately. To which we may
add, that various luminous ob]e£ls generally affedt
the eyes at the fame time; that the four ftrait mufcles
do naturally balance each other, and keep jhe eyes
in a right forward pofition ; and that the oblique
mufcles fcarce favour any particular oblique pofition,
though they do prepare the eye to turn with greater
facility, in compliance vvith the contradlion of any one
of the four firait m.ufcle?. There are therefore fufii-
cient fources for a variety of motions in the globes of
the eyes, without deftroying their congruity.

Fifthly,

Of the Senje of Sight. 217

Fifchly, It is worthy of attention here, that tbe at-
tollentes and deprimentes do not want the fame external
influence of light to make them move in a congruous
manner, as the adducenles and abducentes\ in as much
as one addiicensy and one abducens, muft aft to-
gether to make the eyes move congruoufly to the
right and left; whereas the two attoUenleSy and two
deprimentes^ a6l together in the congruous motions
upwards and downwards. As far therefore as the
nerves of one fide fympathize with the correfponding
nerves of the other in the influences which defcend
from the brain, there will be a natural tendency in
the eyes to move upwards and downwards in a con-
gruous manner, and to the right and left in an incon-
gruous one. And this fuits well with the greater ex-
pofition of the tendinous expanfions of the adducentes
and ahducentes before taken notice of. For what
reafon fo many pairs of nerves are concerned in the
motions of the globe of the eye, and of the eye-lid,
remains to be inquired.

Sixthly, It may perhaps be, that the light which
pafies in at the pupil has fome efficacy in m-oving the
globe of the eye, either by unknown communica-
tions in the brain between the optic nerve, and the
third, fourth, and fixth pairs, or perhaps by pene-
trating in a fmall degree through the retina^ choroideSy
zv\d fclerotka^ to the four fl:rait mufcles. If this laft
influence could be allowed, it would oppofe that
exerted upon the tendinous expanfions -, but would,
however, join with it in preferving the congruity of
the motions.

Seventhly, As the two oblique mufcles neither have
tendinous expanfions expofed to the light, nor adhere
to the globe of the eye, except juft at their infertion,
they cannot be under either of the influences here fup-
poftd to afled the ftrait mufcles, but mufl: be fubjed
chiefly to thofe v/hich defcend from the brain ; thus
adling almoft uniformlv, unlels in particular agitations

of

2i8 Of the Scnfe of Sight.

of the wliole nervous ryHcm. And this agrees well-
with the h€ty and with the iifes generally alfigned to
ihele mulcles, viz. thole of keeping the eye in a
moderate lulpenlion always, and drawing it out on
eminent occafions.

Kighthly, The circunillances which occafion
fquinting in young children, agree well with the the-
ory here propoied. Tiius, if a child be laid To into
his cradle, as that one eye Ihall be covered, the external
influences of light cannot operate upon it. And if this
be often repeated, efpecially while the aflbciation
■which confirms the congruity of the motions is weak,
the eye which is covered will obey the influences
which defcend fiom the brain, and turn upwards
and inwards for the moft part. What turns the fcale
in favour of this pofition, renrains to be inquired.

The fecond of the external motions is that of the
eye-lids, or the a(flions of the elevator, and orbicu-
laris palpebrarum. What excites the firft to conftant
adlion during the whole time that the new-born
child is awake, is difficult to fay. Perhaps the
a(5lion of light upon the white of the eye, fending
vibrations under the upper eye-lid, and thence into
the fibres of the elevator : or the diredl a6lion of light
through the fkin ; for it is a cutaneous mufde: or
influences which defcend into the third pair from the
fecond, i. e. the optic nerve : or the fridlion from
the globe of the eye in its motions, which may alfo
make the eye-lid fympathize in monon with the eye:
or the aggregate of all thefe. As to the orbicularis, it
is evidently put into aflion by irritations afi^efting the
eye, as from dufl:, flies, &c. even in adults.

The third of the external motions, or the contrac-
tion of the lacrymal, and other neighbouring glands,
arifes from irritations in the eye, nofe, fauces, and
fcalp of the head. The manner in which thefe irri-
tations operate, has been fufficiently explained under
Prop. S3'

Of

Of the Senje of Sight. 219

Of the internal motions I will confider the con-
traftion of the greater and leffer rings together, as
proceeding from the fame caufes, and being cotem-
poraneous j and, for the fame reafons, the contrac-
tion of the radiated fibres, and ciliar ligament, to-
gether alfo. By the firft the eye is fitted for diftinft
vifion at fmall diftances, by the other at great ones.
Thus let us fuppofe a candle to be brought nearer
and nearer to the child's eye. It is evident, that the
quantity of light which falls upon the eye will grow
greater and greater. It will therefore agitate all the
circular fibres of the iris more powerfully, and par-
ticularly the greater and lefler rings; i. e. it will
bend the cornea into a greater convexity, bring the
origin of the ciliar ligament nearer to its infertion in
the capjula of the cryftalline, /. e. fufFer the capjula to
become more convex alfo, and narrow the pupil, /. e.
leflen the radius of diffipation. The image of the
candle upon the retina may therefore continue to be
diftinft, as it approaches, by this mechanical influence
of light upon the eye. And, for the fame reafons,
it may continue diftindt, as it recedes. But there are
limits on both hands. And thus the conformations
of the eye neceflary for diftin6l vifion, according to
Dr. Jurin\ moft accurate account of this matter, are
brought about automatically, and fuitably to the
general theory of thefe papers.

However, it is alio probable, that the light which
paffes in at the pupil, has great efficacy in contrading
both the greater and leffer rings, as may be con-
cluded from the immobility of the pupil in a gutta
Jerena ; alfo becaufe, on this fuppofition, the light,
which paffes in at the pupil m.uft, by contracting the
leffer ring, become a check and guard againff its own
too free admiffion, which is agreeable to the tenor
of nature in like inftances. The retina extends to
the greater ring, and may fend fome nervous fibres
to it, and even to the iris.

One

2 20 Of the Scu/e of Sighr.

One or both of thcfc a61ions of light fecm fo in-
crcafc the lecretion and circulation of the aqueous
humour in new-born children, fo as to fit the eye
for vifion, which it is not, through the deficiency and
nuiddinels of the aqueous humour, till fome time
after birth. This again may be confidered as a
circumilance, that favours our prefent conjccftures.

As to the radiated fibres of the /m, and the ciliar
ligament, they do not feem fo much to be excited
to adion by any external influence, as to be kept
in a ftate of conlbnt fmall adtivity by the vibrations
which defcend from the brain. When therefore the
rings are relaxed, the radiated fibres will open the
pupil, and the ciliar ligament draw out the capfula
of the cryflalline to a flatter fliape, and thus fuit the
eye to obfcure and diftant objefls.

PROP. Lxrii.

To explain the Manner and Degree, in which the
automatic MotionSy mentioned in the lafi Propcfttion,
are influenced by "joluntary andfemivoluntary Powers.

Since the motions of the eyes are in every in-
ftance congruous, from the inftant of birth, an aflR)-
ciated tendency diereto is generated fooner, and
more firmly ellabliflicd, than perhaps in any other
cafe. As therefore the external influence of licrhc
by growing languid, comes to have lefs and Jefs
effe(5t perpetually for this purpofe, fo the aflbciated
tendency grows ftronger and ftrongerj and the fum
total of both may perhaps be always about equal.

However, this congruity does not feem to be fo
great in children as in adults, who can direfl their
optic axes by a perfectly voluntary power to the ob-
je6l which they intend to view with attention. We
mufl: examine therefore, how the almoft perfed
congruity becomes an entirely perfect one.

Now

Of the Senje of Sight. 22 1

Now here we are to obferve, that the almoft perfeft
congruity begets an almoft perfeft correfpondency in
the points of the retina ; and that hence it will follow
by degrees, that the leaft deviation fronti perfe<5t con-
gruity will occafion double vifion, and confufion.
But thefe are unpleafant and inconvenient, whereas
fingle and diftind vilion is pleafant and convenient.
Whence every recurrency of the laft will tend to
confirm it, of the firft to exclude it, from principles
already laid down, Frof. 11. Cor. i. The child will
therefore come to a perfect congruity at laft, i. e. to
dire6t his optic axes precifely to the point which he
intends to view. The voluntary power of fuiting
the internal motions to the diftance muft be fuppofed
to grow perfect about the fame time.

It agrees with this method of reafoning, that per-
fpns who lofe the fight of one eye in their childhood
or youth, though long after the external aflion of light
has loft its efficacy for making the motions congruous,
generally fquint a little with that eye.

The perfons who fquint, preferving the fight of
the fquinting eye, are obliged to move their eyes in
a congruous manner, for the fame reafon as others,
viz. to avoid double vifion, though the pofition be
incongruous.

The conftant a6lion of the elevator palpehra fufe-
rioris in adults feems to be entirely from cuftom, /. e.
aflfociation, being kept up in a more particular man-
ner by the variety of vifible objedis, which engage
our attention during the courfe of the day.

It is generally Tome tim.e before children get the
voluntary power of (hutting the eyes gently, or of
fliutting one and not the other. They can fiiut them
with force foon, this adion recurrincj often from
motes in the eyes, pain of any kind, &c. The pro-
cedure here is of the fame kind as in other voluntary
adions.

The

■121

Of the Senfe of Sight.

The internal motions depend originally upon the
greater or Icfs quantity of light which falls upon the
cornea and irts^ as has been obferved already. But
the nearncl's and remotencls of the luininous obje6t
aie the rci'pedive aflbciates of thefc. 1 he mufcular
rings therefore, which at firil contrafted only when
very luminous objeds ap|)ioached, will afterwards
contra6t when moderately luminous ones do. And
thus vifion will be made dilliniTc in general. But dif-
tinfl vifion, by recurring, will perpetuate and .perfe(5t
itfelf, and indiftinct check and abolirti itfelf, from the
agreeablenefs and difagrceablenefs accompanying
them refpe<5lively, by Fro'p. ■I'l. Cor. i. till at lafb
the child gets a perfectly voluntary power of fuiting
his eyes to the diftance. Adults feem to have a
power of preparing the eyes previoufly to fee at a
propofed dillance ; and fome to have a femivoluntary
power of conirading and dilating the pupil, viz.
by fancying a bright objed near, and a dark one far
off; though the quantity of light which falls upon the
eye remain the fame.

SECT.

vq

Of the Senfe of Hearing. 223

SECT. V.

OF THE SENSE OF HEARING.

PROP. LXIV.

To ajftgn the immediate Organ of Hearing, and to explain
in general the UJes of the feveral Parts of the
external and internal Ear,

The immediate organ of hearing appears to be the
foft portion of the feventh pair of nerves dillributed
in the cochlea, and femicircular canals. What the
particular ufes of thefe cavities are, is not known.
They hear fome obfcure likenefs to the inftruments
commonly made ufe of for increafing either the
loudnefs of founds, or the effeds of them upon the
ear ; juft as the coats and humours of the eye re-
femble lenfes. The auditory nerve is alfo like the
optic in detaching no branches off to the neigh-
bouring parts; and there are many other inftances
of refemblance between thefe two mod refined and
fpiritual, if one may fo fay, of our fenfes j fome of
which I (hall mention in the coorfc of this feftion.

The auricle and meatus auditorius are cartilaginous,
and feem by this means to be peculiarly fitted for
receiving and retaining the vibrations of the air,
and for communicating them to the tnembrana tym-
pani.

This membrane appears to be kept in a ftate of
conftant tenfion by mufcles, that a6t upon the fmall
bones in different ways, and thus to be fitted for vi-
brating fynchronoufly to the feveral founds, which
affefl it. Agreeably to which, the degree of tenfion
varies, fo as to be lefs when the muf cuius externus
and obliqiius ad, greater when thefe are relaxed, and

the

2 24 Of the Senja of Hearing.

the intcrnus aifts. Ihe degrfe of Icnfibility both in
the Micmbrane itfclf, and in the whole organ, is pro-
bably greater when the tenfion is greater.

The vibrations of the air Teem to fhake off the mu-
cus which lodges upon the membraua tympaui in tlie
new-born child jult as the acftion of light fits the
cornea^ and aqueous humour, for vifion.

The eijrtachian tube lerves to fupply the cavity of
the tympmium with air, to carry olT the vapour which
exhales into it, and perhaps to increafe the tffedts of
founds by the tremors in its cartilaginous extiemity,
and particularly thofe of the perfon's own voice.

ThcJlafeSt its mufclc, and iht foramen ovale^ feem
dcfigned to convey the vibrations of the mcmhrana
iympani to the auditory nerve in a piecife manner.
But the vibrations exciced in its aether nuy be much
more frequent than thofe of die membrana tympanic as
has been already obferved.

There docs not appear to be any method for con-
veying air into the cavities of the veflibulum^ cochlea^
and femicircular canals, nor any necefTicy or ufe for
it there. The great hardnefs of the bony part of the
organ of hearing may make it more eafily fufceptible
of vibrations. Agreeably to which, it may be ob-
ferved, that we can hear imperfectly, though the ears,
nofe, and mouth, be all ftoj pcd, and confequently all
accefs to the membrana tympani by the vibrations of
the air denied. The vibrations are here excited pro-
bably in the cartilages of the auricle and 'meatus,
and in the bones of the f!>;ull, and thus communi-
cated to the cochlea, and femicircular canals. It
feems to agree with this, that fome partially deaf per-
fons can hear befl, when driven in a coach over flones
or gravel -, i. e. when all the parts of their bodies,
and particularly thofe of the bones, are put into a
vibrating motion.

The bony part of the organ of hearing feems to
come to its full fize early in life. I; not the final

caufe

I

Of the Senje of Hearing. 2.25

caule of this, that one part may, on account of its
fize, be moll diipofcd to vibrate with one tone, ano-
ther with another ? And does not this hold particu-
larly in refpecfl of the lamina fpiralis ? . For thus the
fame tone would be affixed and affociated to the fame
nerves, To as to af/ed them peculiarly, from child-
hood or youth to old age,

p R a P. lIcv.

To examine ho-w far /he Phenomena of mufical and
ether inarticulate Sounds are agreeable to the DoSirine

cf Vibrations. _ '

Here we may confider, firfl:, the different ftrength
cf founds. Now, as this arifes from thS different
condenfation of the air in the pulfes, fo the effeft
which it has upon the menibrana tynipaniy the mem-
brane of the foramen ovaky and the nerves of hear-
ing, mull: be different likewife, and afford the mind
a fufficient foundation for diftinguifhing founds in
refpeft of ftrength and feeblencfs.

Secondly, 1 he gravity and acutenefs of founds
arifc from the flowiftl's or frequency of the vibrations.
Now, as the vibrations of the mernbrana tympani are
fynchronous to thofe of the air, they may either ex-
cite fynchronous ones in the particles of the auditory
nerves, and thus be diftinguilhed from each other in
rcfpeft of frequency by x\\*i mind; or if every pulfe
of the air, and oicillation of the menibrana /ympa-iij
t'xcite innumerable infinirelimal vibrations in the au-
ditory nerves, the renewal of thefe at different in-
tervals according'co the different gravity or acute-
r.efs of the found will, however, afford a like criterion.

It may be remarked, that grave founds are in
general ftrong, acute ones feeble. For the bodies
which yield grave founds are in general large, and
confequer.tly will make an impreffion upon the air by
a large number of trembling particles.

Vol. I. Q^ Thirdly,

f

226 Of the Senfe of Hearing.

Thirdly, All very luiiil noilcs are difagreeable.
Now it is cafy to conceive, that very violent agita-
tions of the membrana lympam nnay produce the fo-
limon of contininry in the finall mcduljjiy pai tides
of the auditory nerve. An inflammation in the
fmall vtHVls of the auditory nerve may render it fo
iulceptible of violent vibiaiions, as to be hurt by
gentle founds, as foiretirnes h.ippens in dirtemj^ers;
and 10 piodurc th.it acutenefs in the fenfe of hear-
ing, Nvhich anivvcib to the ny^alopia in ihe eye.

Fouithly, Single mufical, /. e. uniform founds, ^
whether vocal or inflrumental, arc pleafant in pro-i;
portion to their loudnefs, provided this be not ex-
cefTive. We muft therefoie fuppofe here, that the
repeated impulfes of the air, ac equal didances,
make the vibrations approach to the folution of
continuity j yet (bll fo as to fall fhort of it.

Fifthly, Two n ufical notes founded together,
fuppofe upon an organ or violin, afford a gi eater
original pieafuie than one, piovided the ratios of
their vibrations be fufticiently fimple. Thus any
note founded with its eighth, fifth, fourth, third major ,
or minor, fixth major or minor, affords pleafure, '";
the ratios being here, refpe6tivcly, thofe of i to 2, ||
1 to 3, 3 to 4, 4 to 5, 5 to 6, 3 to 5, and 5 to 8,
which are all very fimple ones. But a note with its
flat or fliarp, fecond, or feventh, or flat fifth, is
^^^^riginally difigreeable. It may be obferved alfo, that
' "^^oncords feem to be originally pleafant in proportion
to the fur.plicity of the ratios by which they are
expreffcd, /. e. in the order above fet down. Hence
we may perhups fufpe61:, that everi the concords were
originally un;ileafant to the ear of the child, fiom the
irregularity of the vibrations which they imprefs upon
the membrana tympaniy and confcquent folution of
continuity'jTind that they fell at laft within the limits
of pleafure,' as many other pains do, by repetition.
For thus thofe concords in which the ratios are

fimpleft

I

\

^30

Of the Senfe of Hearing. 227

fimpleft would become pleafant firft, and the others
would continue to excite pain, or to. border upon it.
It is agreeable to this, that difcords become at laft
pleafant to the ears of thofe that are much conver-
jfant in mufic, and that the too frequent recurrency of
concords cloys.

Sixthly, Concords founded in fucceflion feem to
have the fame effedl:, in kind, upon the ear, as
when founded together, only lefs in degree. But
difcords in fuccefTion do not offend, unlefs the
chromatic fucceflion of half notes, or fome fuch re-
markable ones, and even thefe pleafe at laft. All
this follows eafily from the laft paragraph i and the
prefent paragraph, with the two laft, taken together,
contain the principal grounds of the natural and ori-
ginal pleafures of mufic. The pleafures which it de-
rives from afibciation will be confidered hereafter.

PROP. LXVL

Ti? examine how far the Judgments which we make con-
cerning the Dijiance and Pojition of the founding Bodyy
are agreeable to the Do6irine of Affociation.

Sounds ought to decreafe in the reciprocal duplicate
ratio of the diftance, did they not receive fome
fupport from the refleftion of the bodies over which
|they pafs. This makes them decreafe in a lefs ratio j
however, they do decieafe in general with the diftance^
and this decreafe, being an affociate of the increafe
of diftance, ought to fuggeft it to the imagination.
And, agreeably to this, we may obferve, that, when
the wind oppofcs the found of bells, they appear
Cirther off; when a perfon calls through a fpeaking
rumpet, he appears nearer, than at the true diftance.

Ah to the poficion of the founding body, we have
10 clear or certain criterion, unlefs it be very near

0^2 us

a

22^ Of the Senfi cf Hearing.

us ; io as that the pulfcs may ftrikc one car, or one
pare of the licaci, confuicfrably Itrongcr than another.
Htrnce we judge of the polition of the r[)cakcr, or
i'ouniiing body, by the eye, or by fonie other method
indrprndent on the ear. And thus, if fron^ fomc
miftakcn piefumption a voice, or fountl, fhall be
deemed to come from a quarter different from the
true plate of it, we fl"i?\)li^ontinue in that error fnjm
the ftrrngth of that miliaken prefumption. ,■

By laying thcfe tWin|| toocther, and alfo confider- -
ing farther, tliai inditlin^efs in articulate founds is
an af^bciatcd maik of dillanre, we may fee hoVr
ventrihquij or perfons that fpieak in their throats,
without moving their lips, im[>ofe upon the audi-
ence. Their voice is faint and indiflinft, and there-
■%t fore appears to coire from a more diflant quarter
than the fpeaker. The hearers look about therc-
foie, and, bring furpiized, tbtir imagination fixes
ftrongly upon that corner, or cavity, which appears
moft plaufiblc ; and afttrwardb they continue to im-
pofe upon theiT^clves by the flrcngch of this pre-
judice.

PROP. Lxvif:

'To examwe hozv far the Poiver of dijli)i2,uijhing articulate^
Sounds depends itpoti the Power of /ijjociatiou.

One may fuppofe the external and internal ear to
be fo formed, as that all the differences in the
vibrations of the air, which arrive at the ear, may
affedt the auditory nerves with correfponding dif-
ferences. Let us therefore fit ft confider in whdt man-
ner different founds imprcls different vibrations upon
the air.

Firft, then, Since not only the parts about the
throat, but ihofe of the mouth, checks, and even
of the whole body, efpecially of the bones, vibrate

in

1

Of the Senfe of Hearing. 229

m fpeaking, the figure of the vibrations imprefied
jpon the air by the human voice will be different
I om that of the vibrations prdceeding from a violin,
fiute, &c. provided the diltance be not too gieat.
This therefore may be confidered as one help for
iiftinfruifliine articulate founds from ail others.

Secondly, Articulation confifts in breaking out
''rom a whifper into found, or clcfing the found in
different q-i.snnerSj the organs of fpeech being put
aifo into different fhapes, fo 2^8 to join the difFctrences
mentioned in the laft paragraph with various erup-
tions; qnd interruptions, afcents and defcents of
found. And thus each letter may be diftinguiflied
from every other by hearing.

Thirdly, It is agreeable to all this, that It is difB-
cuk at great diftances to diRinguifh the tone of
one mufical inftrument from another, or of any from
the tone of a human voice, ceteris paribus j or to
diflinguifh articulate Tounds from one another. For
at great d'iftances the vibrations of the air are cir-
cular to fenfe, and all the afcents, defcents, erup-
tions and interruptions of found, which diflinguifh
one compound found from another, are confounded
by oMmberlefs refledions from the intermediate
bodies.

Fourthly, We may obferve, that as the prefer ving
the diftinflion of place is the chief end of the coats
and humours in the organ of fight, fo the diftinc-
rion of time is of the greatefl importance in hear-
ing. It feems probable therefore, that the membrana
'tympani, fmall bones, and their imufcles, are fo con-
trived, as by their actions to preferve the diftin6tion
of time, i. e. to extinsuifli llrono; founds, and to
keep up weak ones, fo as that the laft n)ay not be too
much oveipowered by the continuance of the firfl j
juft as the tteble notes of a harpfichord would be
by the bafs ones, did not the bits of cloth affixed to

0^3 the

230 Of the Senje of Hearing.

the jacks check the vibrations of ihc firings in clue
time.

Having now fhewn how articulate founds may be
dlflinguiflied from one another, and from all other
Ibunds } 1 next oblerve, thar, in fjft, the fpe.ikers
do not pronounce \':i articulatt-iy and diflindly in com-
mon converfation, as to furnifh the hearers with the
rcquifite criterions accoiding to the foregoing theory ;
but that wf arrive at a facility of underftanding one
another's difcourfe, chiefly by the power of aflo-
ciation.

And, firft, It is needlef-; to pronounce every letter
fo as to diftinguilli it from all others. For then
words, which are compofed of letters, would each
have as many criterions as they have letters, and even
more ; for the order of the letters is a criterion, as
well as the found of each letter. In like manner,
fentences would have as many compound criterions
as they have words, befides the criterion arifing from
the particular order of the words.
\ Secondly, Since words are formed from combina-
j \tions, not according to any rule, which brings up '•
( all the combinations of twos, threes, &c. in order, •
I but by particular afTociaiions, agreeably to the na-
\ .ture of each language, fince alfo fentences are j
formed in the fame way, the feveral component parts .
ofwoids and fentences fuggeit each other, and alfo
the whole words and fentences by the power of
affociation. Thus the beginning is commonly ob-
ferved to fugged the whole, both in words and
i fentences; and the fame is true, in a lefs degree, of
the middles and ends.

Thirdly, The . fubje<5\ matter of the difcourfe,
the gedures ufed in fpeaking, a familiar acquaint- j
ance with the particular voice, pronunciation, gef-
tures, &:r. of the fpeaker, and other affociated cir-
cumftances contribute greatly alfo. And therefore,
on the other hand, we find it difficult to diflinguifh

proper , '

fi

III

Of^the Strife of Hearing. 231

proper names, and the words of an unknown
Janguage, and to underftand a perfon that is
a (Iranger, or that ufes no a6tion.

We may fee alfo, that it is chiefly by the means of
affbciated circuml^lances, that the founds uttered by
ventriloqui fugged to us the woids, which they are
fuppofed to pronounce j for their articulations mud
be very incomplete, as they do not move their lips
at all.

It is by a like fet of aflbciated circumftances that
we are enabled to read with fo much facility the
irregular hand-writing of various perfons, and of
fome more than others, in proportion as we are better
acquainted with the fubjeifl, language, hand-wri-

ting, &c.

PROP. LXVIII.

^he Do5lrine of Sounds illuflrates and favours that of
the Vibrations of the fmall medullary Particles of the
Brain^ and nervous Syftem.

For the theory of founds deduced from the na-
ture of an elaftic fluid, and the tremors of the
particles of founding bodies, and afterwards verified,
as it has been, by numerous ejjperiments, becomes
a guide to us in all inquiries into the vibrationb of
other elaftic mediums, fuch as the sether, and into
the efFeifts, which fuch vibrations muft impart to and
receive from the fmall particles, that are furrounded
by the elaftic medium. And the general tendency
which is found in natural bodies, either to yield a
found upon percufllon, or at leaft to fupport and
convey founds by receiving ifochronous vibrations,
and reflefting them, fliews, that there are latent aftive
powers, in the fmall paits of bodies, which difpofe
them to vibrate. Now, if there be fuch powers in
the biggeft component particles, analogy inclines one
to expedl them in the feveral defcending orders.

0^4 The

132

Of the Senje of Fkaring.

i

The do(5lrinc of founds does alfo furnifh ns widi
an anfwcr to one of the principal and mod obvious
difficulties attending the fuppofuion, that all rrnfa-
tion, thought, and motion, is performed by vibra-
tions in the medullary fubflc^nce. For it may be
objr6led, that fuch a number of different vibrations,
as feems to be required in certain cafes, can fcarce
cxill together in the medullary fubltance. Thus it
is not uncommon for a perfon to receive a ferics of
fenfations, carry on a train of thought, and per-
form a courfe of externri atlions, which have little
conneflion with each other, at the fame time. Now
to this we may anfwer, that vibrations as different
from each other do, in h6Xy exifl: together in common
air, in fuch a manner as to be perceived diftin(5\ly.
'1 hus a perfon may liften to what part he pleafes in a
concert of mufic, and maflers in th"^ art can liften
to more than one. They can alfo at the fame time
receive, attend to, and underfland the vibrations of
the air, arifing from the difcourfe of other perfons.
But in whatever manner thefe different vibrations can
exifl together precifely at the fame inftant, or rather
fucceed each other at infinitefimal intervals, without
confufion; in the fame manner may vibrations and
vibratiuncles exift together, or fucceed each other,
without confufion alfo, in the medullary fubftance :
and by whatever power the foul is qualified to attend
to, and diftinguifh from each other, thefe feveral vibra-
tions of the air, by the fame power may it corre-
fpond to the vibrations in the medullary fubffance,
fo that each fhall have its peculiar effe6t of producing
the appropriated fenfation, thought, and motion.
It is to be obferved farther, that there is a difficulty
in performing both the things here mentioned ; that
confufion does often arife; and that where any perfon
is remarkable for doing more than one thing at once,
it is in confequence of gieat practice, and alfo of
cxquifite mental powers, i. e. of an exquifite make

of .

\

^.

Of the Senje of Hearing. 233

of the medullary fubftance, according to the theory
of tliefe papers.

.•7/ Mft'

PROP. LXIX.

To explain in what Manner^ and to what Degree,
agreeable and di/agreeable Sounds contributey in the
IVay of AJfcciaiion^ to the Formation of our inteU
le5iual Pleafures and Pains.

As all moderate and tolerably uniform founds
pkafe young children, and the original pleafures
from concords founded together, from the fucceffion
of both concords and difcords, and even from clear,
mufical founds, confidered feparately, remain wi[h us
through the whole progrefs of life, it is evident, that
many of our intel!e6tual pleafures mud be illuminated
and augmented by them. And, on the contrary,
harfh, irregular, and violently loud noifes muft add
fomething to the difagreeablenefs of the objedls and
ideas, with which they are often afibciated.

The pleafures of mufic are compofed, as has been
already obferved, partly of the original, corporeal
pleafures of found, and partly of afibciated ones.
When thefe pleafures are arrived at tolerable per-
fecSbion, and the feveral compounding parts cemented
fufficiently by afibciation, they are transferred back
again upon a great variety of objeds and ideas, and
diffufe joy, good- will, anger, compafiion, Ibrrow,
melancholy, &c. upon the various fcenes and events
of life J and fo on reciprocally without perceptible
limits.

The corporeal pleafures from articulate founds are
either evanefcent from the firfb, or, however, become
fo very early in life. By this means we are much
better qualified to receive information, with mental
pleafure and improvement, from them ; and the ear

brrnjTie':

234

Of the Senfe of Hearing.

I

I

becomes, like the eye, a method of perception fuited
to ihc wants of a fpiritnal bting. And indeed when
wc compare the imperfedions of fuch as have never
heard, with thofe of perfons that have never feen, it
appears, that the ear is of much more importance to
us, confidered as fpiriiual beings, than the eye.
This is chiefly owing to the great ufe and necefTity
of words for the improvement of our knowledge,
and enlargement of our affeflions ; of which I fliall
have particular occafion to treat hereafter. An ac-
curate inquiry into the mental progrefs of peifons
deprived of the advantages of language, by being
born deaf, would be a flill better tefh of the theoiy of
thefe papers, than a like inquiry concerning peilbns
born blind.

PROP. LXX.

^0 gi'Vi an Account of the Ideas generated by audible

Impreffions,

The ideas which audible imprefTions leave in the
region of the brain, that correlponds to the auditory
nerves, are, next to the ideas of fight, the inoft
vivid and definite of anyj and all the obfervations
above made upon the ideas of fight may be applied
to thofe of hearing, proper changes and allowances
being made. Thus, after hearing mufic, converfing
much with the fame peifon, in general diforders of
the brain, or particular ones of the nervous fpaf-
modic kind in the ftomach, after taking opium, in
dreams, in madnefs, trains of audible ideas force
themfelves upon the fancy, in nearly the fame
manner, as trains of vifible ideas do in like cafes.
And ic may be, that in pafilng over words with
our eye, in viewing objeds, in thinking, and
particularly in writing and fpeaking, faint miniatures
of the founds of words pafs over the ear. I even
fufpect, that, in fpeaking, thefe miniatures are the
aflbciated circumftances which excite the aftion,

be

Of the Senfe of Hearing. 235

.1-

bb it voluntary, or fecondarily automatic. For chil-
dren learn to fpeak chiefly by repeating the founds
which they hear, /'. e. thefe founds are the affociaicd
circumftancesj which excite to adion. But if the
found does this, the idea of it muft get the fame
power by degrees. I grant indeed, that the pitlures
of words in the eye, and their ideas, may be like
alTociated circumftances, exciting to fpeak ; and fince
it is neceffary, according to the theory of thefe
papers, that every femivoluntary, voluntary, and fe-
condarily automatic aflion, fhould be excited by an
aff)ciated circumftance, one may reckon words feen,
and their vifible ideas, amongft the number of fuch
cir"cumftanc^s. But words heard, and their audible
ideas, have a prior claim ; and, in perfons that can-
not read or write, almoft the only one. It confirms
this, that in writing one is often apt to mif-fpell in
conformity with the pronunciation, as in writing hear
for here ; for this may proceed from the audible idea,
which is the fame in both cafes ; cannot from the
vifible one. Where a perfon mif-fpells fuitable to a
mifpronunciation, which fometimes happens, it can
fcarce be accounted for upon other principles.
However, in writing, the affociated circumftance,
which excites the action of the hand, is moft probably
the vifible idea of the word, not the audible one.

If it be obie(5led to the fuppofition of thefe audible
trains, that we ought to be confcious of them, 1
anfwer, that we are in fome cafes ; which is an argu-
ment, that they take place in all, in a lefs degree j
that the greater vividnefs of the vifible trains makes
us not attend to, or recollecfl them, till the confciouf-
nefs or memory be variiihed ; and that even vifible
trains do not appear as obje6ls of confcioufnefs and
memory, till we begin to attend to them, and watch
the evanefcent perceptions of our minds.
\ The ideas of fight and hearing together are the
\ principal ftorehoufe of the fancy or imagination;

and

13^

Of the Sct}je of Hearing.

and the inMginativc arts of painting and mufic ftand
in tlir lame relation to them refpcrtflivclv. Poetry
comprehends both by taking in language, which
is the general rcprcfintative of all our ideas , and
a(Tc<ftions.

As there is an artificial memory relative to the
eye, by which trains of vifible ideas, laid up in the
ipemorv in a certain order, are made to fuggcft both
things thcmfclves, and the order in which we defne
to remember tliem ; To compendious trains of tech-
nical words formed into verfes may be made to fug-
gelt other words, alfo the numeral figures in a cer-
tain order J and, by this means, to biing to view, at
pleafure, the principles and materials of knowledge
for meditation, inquiry, and more pt-rfed digeliion
by the mind, as appears from Dr. Gr^^y's Memoria
Tcchiiia. The vifible loci make a ftronge-r iii>pref-
fion on the fancy, and therefore excel the audible
ones in that view; but the audible ones have a m.uch
mpre ready and definite connection with the things to
be remembered ; and therefore feem m.oft proper,
upon the whole, in mofl. branches of literature. And
as Dr. Grey\ method is highly ufeful in general, fo it
is particularly excellent in refpefl of all mem.oiables
that are reprefented by numeral figures. For, when
the numeral figures are denoted by letters, collec-
tions of them, fuch as date?, and quantities of all
kinds, make fhort and definite imprefllons upon the
ear j which are not only eafy to be remembert-d, but
allb preferve the order of the figures without dan-
ger of error : whereas neither the impreffions which
collections of figures make upon the eye, nor thofe
which their enunciations in words at length make
lipon the ear, csin be remembered Vvith facility or
precifionj becaufe neither figures, nor their names,
cohere together, fo as that the precedent fliall fugj
ged the fubfequent; as the letters do in colledlions
of them, capable of being pronounced. When the

technical

Of the Senje cf Hearing. '.^ 237

cecht^ical word coincides with, or approaches to, '^ w
familiar one, it is remembered with greater facility.
AlTociation is every where confpicuous in thefe things.

^
PROP. LXXI.

To explain the automatic Mot mis y which are excited by
Imfrejfions made on the Ear,

It does not appear at all improbable, that the vi-
brations, which are excited by founds in the car-
tildgi^ of the auricle and meatus auditoriuSj fliould
pafs into the fmail mufcles of the auricle, and there
occafion automatic riiOtions. And 1 gucfs in par-
ticular, that in very loud founds, the cartilages
would be made to lie clofer to the head. But the
fmallnefs of thefe mufcles, and the pracftice of bind-
ing down the ears of new-boin children clofe to
the head, which relirains the natural aflion of thefe
mufcles, whatever it be, prevent our making any
certain judgment.

As 10 the four mufcles which belong to the fmall
bones, it appears to me, that fince the exfernus and
chiiquus lie out of the tympanumy expofed to the
common air, and are alfo fo fituated, that the ex^
termis may receive vibrations from the cartilage of
the meatus audi/orius, the obiiquus from_the carti-
lage of the frccejfus ra-jianus, into which it is in-
fertcd, they mult be much more afFeded by loud
founds, than the internus or mujcidus Jlapedis. ^It
follows therefore, that the membrana tympani will be
relaxed automatically by loud founds. Here there-
fore is another remarkable coincidence between effi-
cient and final caufcs.

For what reafons the mufculus infernusy and muf~
cuius JlapediSy may a6t peculiarly in weak founds, is
difficult to fay. They may perhaps, as was above
conjeftured cf the radiated fibres of the irisy de-
pend

'«•

238 ^ 0/ f be Sen/e of Hearing,

pcm\ ciiiflly on the influtrnccs whicli dcfccnd from
the brain, and therefore a6l: always, when the other
two will give them leave. It is moll probable,
ih It the four iiiulclcs a6l in various proportions and
combinations, lo as to anfwer a variety of purpofes.
liut there is very little, that is fatisfaftoty, to be met
wirh in books of anatomy and phyfiology hitherto,
concerning the peculiar minuie ufcs and fundlions
of the leveral parts of the organ of hearing.

P R O P. Lxxn.

T'o explain the Marnier and Degree^ in ivhich the auto-
matic Motions^ mentioned in the lajl Propofitiony are
^ influenced by "joluntary andjemivoluntary Powers.

Since grave founds are in general loud, acute
ones Weak, the relaxation of the memhrana tympanic
which firrt attends upon loud founds automatically,
will afterwards by aflbciation, be made to attend
upon grave ones, even though they are not loud ;
and, in like manner, the membrane will be tenle
from acute founds, though they fhould be fbong ;
/', c. the membrane will, by afTociation, be fitted
to vibrate ifochronoufly with the feveral tones; juft
as the convexity of the cornea is made by aflbciation
to fuit itfelf to the feveral diftanccs. The accom-
modation is at firft grofs in both cafes; but is per-
fected afterwards from the vitw of pleafure and
convenience, by means of the frequent recurrency
of the a(ftions. See Prop. 2.2. Cor. i.
j We feem alfo to have a voluntary power of pre-
J paring the ear previoufly for very ftrong, or very
J weak founds, which we expetSt to hear, juft as it was
I before obferved of the eye, that we can fuit it pre-
/ vioufly to fee at an expe6ted diftance. The generation
ii of thcfe powers is the fame, as that of the other
I voluntary ones. ^

SECT.

Of the Defires, Cfff. 239

SECT. VI.

OF THE DESIRES OF THE SEXES TOWARDS

EACH OTHER.

PROP. LXXIII.

'To examine how far the Defires of the Sexes towards
each other are of a fa£iitious Nature^ and deducible
from the Theory of thefe Papers.

Here we are to obferve, firft, That when a ge-
neral pleafuiable flate is introduced into the body,
either by direct innpreffions, or by aflfociated influ-
ences, the organs of generation muft fynnpathize with
this general (late, for the fame reafons as the^' other
parts do. They muft therefore be affcftcd with vi-
brations in their nerves, which rife above indifference
into the limits of pleafure from youth, health, grate-
ful aliment, the pleafures of imagination, ambition,
and fympathy, or any other caufe, which diffufes
grateful vibrations over the whole fyftem.

Secondly, As thefe organs are endued with**a
greater degree of fcnfibility than the other parts, from
their make, and the peculiar ftr^yflure and difpofitiori
of their nerves, whatever thefe be, we may expect,
that they fhould be more affedled by thefe general
pleafurable ftates of the nervous fyrttm than the
other parts.

Thirdly, The diftention of the cells of the veficula
feminaleSy and of the finufes of the iiterusy which take
place about the time of puberty, mud make thefe
organs nijOre particularly irritable then. It may
perhaps be, that the acrimony of the urine 2,nd faces ^
which make vivid impreffions on the neighbouring
parts., have alfo a fhare in increafing the irritability
of the organs of generation. <?■

Fourthly,

240 Of the Dcfircs of the

Fourthly, Young pcrfons hear and read nuiTibcrlefb
things in this degenerate and corrupt il.ite of human
lift', which carry nervous inHuenccs of the pleafurublc
kind (he they vibrations, or any orhcr ipecies of
motion) to the organs of generation. This will
be better underftood, if the reader pleafes to recoiled
what was delivered aiiovc concerning the methods,
by which we learn to diftingiiifh the fenfations of
the parts external and int,'rnal from each oth«T. For
ir\v!ll be eafy to fee, that when we are once arrived at
this power, the alTociated circumllances of any
fc-niations, fuch as the language that ' rcFates to
fhem^ will ||cal the ideas of thefe fenfations.

Firthly, The particular fhame vtbich regards the
organs of generation, may, when confidered as an
aflbciatcd circumfbance, like other pains, be fo far
diniiniflicd as to fall within the lirnics of pleafure, and
add confiderably to the fuiTi total.

Sixthly, The fources here pointed out feem fuffi-
cient to account for the general defires, which arc
obfervable in young perfonsj and which, when not
allov/ed and indulged, may be confidered as within*
tjje confin^ of viriiie.

Scventi^, It is ufual for thefe defires, after fome
lime, to fix upon a particular objeifl, on account of
the apprehended bejiipty of the perfon, or perfedion
of the mind, alfo from miutual obligations, or maiks
of afFedljan, from more frequen: intercourfcs, &:c.
after which thefe defires fuggefi:, and are fuo^efted
by, the idea of the beloved perlbn, and all its alTo-
ciates, reciprocally and indefinitely, fo as in fome cafes
to engrofs the whole fancy and mind>. However,
this particular attachment, when under proper reftric-
tions and regulations, is not only within fhe confines
of virtue, but ofcen the parent of the mod difin:ere(.lcd, u
and pure, and exalted kinds of it. '\

Eighthly, When thefe defires are gratified, the
id^ of the beloved ^erfon, and its ailbciatcs, mud

now

Sexes towards each other. 241

now be aflbciated with the ftate of neutrality and indif-
ference, that fucceeds after gratification. Whence it
appears, that that part of the afFedion towards the
beloved perfon, which arifes from giofs aninnal
caufes, cannot remain long at its height, and may
fall very faft. However, if the other fources of affec-
tion grow ftronger, the fum total may continue the
fame, or even increafe.

Ninthly, When impure defires are allowed, in-
dulged, and heightened voluntarily, it is evident from
the dodlrine of affociation, that they will draw to
themfelves all the other pleafures of our nature, and
even by adhering to many neutral circumftances,
convert them into incentives and temptations. So
that all the defires, defigns, and ideas of fuch per-
fons are tainted with luft. However, the dileafes
and fufferings, bodily and mental, which this vice
brings upon men, do, after fome time, often check
the exorbitancy of it, ftill in the way of affociation.
But impure defires fubfift, like vicious ones of other
kinds, long after the pains outweigh the pleafures,
inafmuch as they mud be fuppofed not to begin to
decline till the pains apprehended to arife from them,
and thus aflbciated with them, become equal to the
pleafures.

Tenthly, It appears from the courfe of reafoning
here ufed, that impure and vicious defires, indulged
and heightened voluntarily, can by no means confifi:
with a particular attachment and coimnement; alfo
that they muft not only end frequently in indifference
but even in hatred and abhorrence. For the proper
mental fources of affeftion are not only wanting in
thefe cafes, but many difpleafing and odious qualities
and difpofitions of mind mufi: offer themfelves to view
by degrees.

Eleventhly, As the defires and pleafures of this
kind are thus increafed by affociated influences from
other parts of our natures, fo they are refleded back

Vol. 1. R by

242 Of the Defires, i^c.

by innumerable aflbciatcd methods, dirc(5l and in-
dirc(5t, upon the various incidents and events of life,
fo as to alfecfl in ffconclary ways even [hofe who have
never expeticnced the grofs corporeal gratification.
And, notvvithflanding the great and public niifchicfs,
which arilc from the ungovernable defircs of the vi-
cious, there is great rcafon, even fiom this theory,
to apprehend, that, if this fource of the benevolent
affe«5lions was cut off, all other circumftances remain-
ing the fame, mankind would become much more
felfifli and malicious, much more wicked and miler-
able upon the whole, than they now are.

Twelfchly, I have hitherto chiefly confidered how
far the prefcnt fubjr6l is agreeable to the do6lrine of
aflbciation, but, if phyficians and anatomids will
compaie the circumftances of the fcnfations and mo- ,
tions of thefe organs with the general theory deli- » j
vered in the firlt chapter, they may fee confiderable
evidences for fenfory vibrations, for their running
along membranes, and affcdling the neighbouring
mufcles in a particular manner : they may fee aUo, ,
that mufcular contractions, which are nearly automa-
tic at fiift, become afterwards fubjedt to the influence
of ideas. j

Thirteenthly, The theory here propofed for ex- ^
plaining the natui'e and growth of thefe defires fhews
in every flep, how watchful every perfon, who de-
fines true chaftity and purity of heart, ought to be
over his thoughts, his difcourfes, his ftudies, and
his intercourfes with the world in general, and with
the other fex in particular. There is no fccurity but
in flight, in turning our minds from all the aflTociated
circumftances, and begetting a new train of thoughts
and defires, by an honcft, virtuous, religious atten-
tion to the duty of the time and place. To which
muft be added great abftinence in diet, and bodily
labour, if required.

SECT.

Of the Motions of the Heart. 243

SECT. VII.

OF OTHER MOTIONS, AUTOMATIC AND VOLUN-
TARY, NOT CONSIDERED IN THE FOREGOING
SECTIONS OF THIS CHAPTER.

PROP. LXXIV.

7<7 examine how far the Motions of the Heart , ordinary
and extraordinary y are agreeable to the 'Theory of
thefe Papers.

Here I obferve,

Firft, That the motion of the heart is conftant,
more equable than any other in the body, and
cannot be fuppofed to proceed from impreffions made
on the neighbouring parts ; which things agree well
together upon the fuppofition of the dodrine of
vibrations : for thus it cannot proceed from the firft
or fourth fource of motoiy vibrations; and if it
proceeds from the fecond and third, it ought to be
conftant, and nearly equable.

Secondly, We are not to inquire, how the heart
is firft put into motion in the foetus, but only how
its ordinary motions may be continued, by means of
vibrations defcending from the brain, after they are
once begun.

Now, for this purpofe, let us fuppofe, that the
auricles, with the beginnings of the pulmonary ar-
tery and aorta, have finiftied their contra6tions ; and
that the ventricles and coronary veflels are full. It
follows, that the ventricles will now be excited to
contra6lion by three caufes, viz. by the vibrations
which have continued to defcend freely into their
fibres, ever fince their laft contraftion was finiftied,
by their diftention from fuinefs, and by the motion
and impulfe of the blood in the coronary veflels : but

R 2 from

244 ^f '^' Mofienis of the Heart.

from the moment that the ventricles begin to con-
iraifl, the auricles and arteries will begin to fill, and
will be fulled at the inltant when their contraftion is
finiflicd. 1 he auricles and arteries miift therefore
beoin to contraft at this inftant, from defcending
vibrations and diftention, and the vrntricles to be
relaxed and filled, the vibrations in their fibres being
checked by their part coniradion. Let thelc actions
be completed, and the heait will be in the circum-
ftances firil fiippofcd, /. e. the ventriclt-s will be
ready for a (vc{\\ contradion, and fo on alternately,
as long as life continues.

Ihirdly, The vibrations which keep up the heart's
motion, are nearly allied to thofe arifing from heat;
for the fecond fource of motory vibrations is the re-
fidue of all the vibrations excited in the various parts
of the body ; and the third arifes chiefly from ihc
heat of the blood. We may expefl therefore, that
the heart fliould contra<5i: either more frequently, or
more ftrongly, or both, when the body is heated.
And thus it is, as may appear from obfervations upon
the pulfe in fevers, in fleep, after eating, in pains
or dillempers attended with an increafe of heat, &c.
in which the motion of the blood isincreafed; whereas
in nervous pains attended with coldnefs of the extre-
mities, the pulfe is low and flow.

Fourthly, In the declenfion of fevers the pulfe is
quick and feeble. It is feeble, becaufe the whole *
body is fo ; and quick, partly from the new habit \
fuperinduced by the heat in the beginning of the
fever ; partly, becaufe in fevers the heart is always
kf'pt nearly full, i. e. nearly at fuch a degree of dif-
tencion as incites it to contra6lion, the principal caufes
of which afe the weaknefs and inaftivity of the body :
hence in general the pulfe is quick and feeble in
perfons of relaxed habits ; the contrary in ftrong ones.

Fifthly, The pulfe is quick in young and fmall
animals ; flow in old and large ones. For this, va-
rious

Of the Motions of the Heart. 245

rious reafons may be afllgned; as firft, that if the
velocity wherewith the fides of the heart move to-
wards each other be the fame, the contradion muft
be fooner accomplifhed in fmall hearts than in large
ones. Secondly, that the fibres in young animals
are irritable, and foon excited to contra6lion, by
diftention, &c. Thirdly, that the contraction is per-
formed flowly in old animals; and, fourthly, that
fliort fibres are perhaps fooner excited to contraction
than long ones, it being necefiary perhaps, that the
vibrations fhould be reverberated from each end
of the fibres, for many fucceffions before they can
rife to a certain pitch. It agrees with this, that re-
ciprocal motions are more frequent in general, and
ceteris manentibusy as the anisnal is lefs ; that the
limbs have both long and fhort flexors and extenfors,
the firft for great degiees of motion, the laft for making
a quick beginning; that the capfuiar ligaments of the
joints have (hort mufcular fibres inferred into them,
in order to keep them from being pinched between
the bones in the motions of the joints, as IVinJlow
has obferved; which they could not do, had not their
contradlion the ftart'of the contractjons which move
the joint; and, laftly, that the fibres which compofe
the heart, are all of equal lengths, according to Dr.
Stewart's, analyfis of them. See Phil. Tranf. n. 460.

Sixthly, The heart may move inceffantly without
fatigue, if we only fuppofc the recruits to be fuffi-
:ienr, and the degree of motion to be within due li-
mits. And it may be, that in labouring men the
mufcles of the limbs are as much exerted upon the
■/hole as the heart. The warmth in which the heart
is kept, and its receiving nerves from the eighth pair
and intercodal, which feem to be particularly ex-
empted from venal compreflion, dcferve notice here:
but the conftant motion of the blood is principally to
be confidered, being the caufc as well as the effecft
of the conftant motion of the heart.

R 3 Seventhly,

246 0/ the Motions of the Heart.

Sfventhly, Since lying down prevents or alleviates
the f'amliMg which fometiines ha[)})cns iluring bleed-
ing, one may kippole that this fainting, and the con-
fequcnt abatement or cefTation of the motion of thq
lieart arife, becaufc a quantity of blood, fufficient to
keep up the vibrations in the brain, could not afcend
thither in an ere(fc pollure.

Eighthly, Sudden and violent pain?;, fuch as thofe
from wounds increafe the motion of the heart. This
may be accounted for from the violent vibrations which
afcend to the brain, and are thence propagated to the
heart. But may not vibrations afcend alfo diredtly
from the wounded part, along the courfc of the ar-
teries and veins, to the heart ?

Ninthly, All the pafTions of the mind increafe the
motion of the heart, as might be expected: but
melanciioly, when it makes men inactive, and un-
influenced by the imprefllons of objefts, has a con-
trary tftccl:, which is equally fuitable to the foregoing
theory.

Tenthly, In mortifications, alfo in the languid ftate
that fuccceds acute diftempers, &c. the pulfe fome- |
times intermits, fuppofe once in 5, 10, 20, &c. times,
the interval being about double, and the ftrength of
the pulfe which fucceeds the intermiffion about double
alio. Here the force of the heart fcems to languifh,
and the time of contradion of the ventricle to be
protraded, till a fecond contradlion of the auricle in-
tervenes, and protrads the ventricle's contradion
ftill farther, viz. to nearly twice the interval. The
heart muft therefore be furcharged, and contrafling
flronger from this rtfpite, muft fend, as it were, a
double quantity of blood into the aorta, i. e. make
the pulfe that fucceeds much ftrongcr. And this in-
termiifion may return at greater or lefs intervals, ac-
cording to the circumftances, while this weaknefs of
the heart continues : it may alfo remain, when once
eftabliflied, from habit, or afTociation.

This

Of the Motions of the Heart. 247

This intermiffion may perhaps rather be accounted
for thus: in languid ftates the blood is accumulated
in the beginning of rhe aorta. The aorta will not
therefore receive much blood from the heart, though it
dofs contra6l, /. e. no pulfe will be felt, /. e. the in-
terval will be double: the fucceeding pulfe will be
ftrong, fiom the now greater emptinels of the aorta,
and fuinefs of the heart: the intermiffion will alio
return when the accumulation in the aotta does. Ic
agrees with this account, that thcfe intermifTions are
ufually felt in the region of the heart by the patients.
May not intermifTions arife from both caufes in dif-
ferent circumftances ?

Eleventhly, When the pulfe flutters from flatu-
lencies and fpafms in the ftomach and bowels, it ap-
pears that a fudden ftop is put to the blood of the
aorta, which by furcharging the left ventricle at
once, makes it contraft at a difl^erent time from the
right, and not at a due interval from the contrac-
tion of the auricles: for this fluttering of the pulfe
attacks generally in an inftant, and often upon a fruit-
lefs efibrt to expel wind from the ftomach. When
the contra6tions of the ventricles are once become
afynchronous and inharmonious to thofe of the auri-
cles, it may require fome time to reftify this, and
efpecially while there is an impediment to the blood's
motion through the aorta. This diforder may like-
wife continue through habit and afTociation, and recur
perpetually from lefs and lefs caufes. The intermif-
fion of the pulfe, confidered in the two preceding pa-
ragraphs, is often caufed by flatulencies, as well as
the fluttering of it, mentioned in this.

Twelfthly, The motions of the heart remain in
their original automatic ftate more than any other in
the body ; the reafons of which are, that the com-
mon motions are equally aflociaied with every thing,
i.e. peculiarly fo with nothing; and that very few
ionprefllons make changes in the motions of the
heart fo great iand fudden, as to fu bjefl it to the

R 4 ideag

L43

Of the /itJion of He fpi ration.

ideas of thefc imprcffions: however, as great and
fuddcn changes arc foineiimes brought on by pain,
fear, furprize, joy, ike. wc leeiii to have a Icmi-
voluntary power to alter the motion of the heart im-
mediately, by introducing ftiong itieas, our power of
introducing thefe being feiiiivoluntary : nay, it may
be polliblc for perfons in very paiticular circum-
Ilances to acquire ftill greater degrees of power over
the motion of the heart.

PROP. LXXV.

To examine how far the Atlion of Rejpirationy ordinary
and extraordinary J alfo the particular Anions of
Sighing^ Coughing^ Laughter ^ Sobbings and jhedding
Tears from Griefs are agreeable to the foregoing
Theory.

The firft obfervation to be made here is, that
common refpiration is performed very feebly in
new-born children. A flight difpofuion therefore
to alternate aftion in the diaphragm, and other
mufcles of refpiration, may be lufficient to account
for that degree of refpiration which takes place in
new-born children. It is natural to exped, that re-
fpiration in them fhould be feeble, fince they mud
lean in this, as well as in other things, to their pre-
ceding ftate in utero.

Secondly, Tiiat the vigorous impreflions from the
cold air, the hands of the midwife, &c. may excite
the ftrong refpiration and crying which take place
upon birth oidinarily, appears from the methods
ufed to make the new-born child refpire freely, where
it fails to do this in extraordinary cafes j fuch as ap-
plying volatiles to the nofe, pouring wine into the
mouth, fwinging it to and fro, &c. All thefe me-
thods excite the mufcles to contradion, by making
ftrong impreflions on the neighbouring fenfory nerves.

They

Of the A£iion of Refpiration. 249

They are alfo very agreeable to the notion of
vibrations.

Thirdly, If we fuppofe the diaphragm to have
hnifhfd its contraftion, and confeqiiently the thorax
to be raifed, and the abdomen to be dirtended, ex-
piration mud fucceed, for three reafons, viz. becaufe
the contraflion of the diaphragm has checked the
vibrations in its fibres, and therefore has difpofcd
them to relaxation j becaufe the elafticitv of the carii-
lages of the ribs tends to reftore the thorax to' a more
deprefled ftate; and becaufe the fibres of the ab-
dominal mufcles are excited to vibrations and con-
tradlion by their diftention. Suppofe now expiration
to be completed, and the vibrations, which defcend
into the diaphragm from the fecond and third fource
of motory vibrations, will renew its contradlion, and
confequently the adlion of infpiration i and fo on
alternately.

Fourthly, The diaphragm is the more difpofed
to receive vivid vibrations in its fibres, from its near-
nefs to the heart, and the warmth in which it is al-
ways kept. It defcrves notice here, that the dia-
phragm receives its nerves from the cervical pairs,
not from the eighth pair and intercoftal, as the neigh-
bouring parts, the heart, ftomach, &c. do. Per-
haps it was requifite, that it fhould derive its nerves
from the fpinal marrow, fince the other mufcles of
refpiration do. The nerves of the diaphragm are
elongated during its contradlion, the contrary to
which happens in the nerves of other mufcles. They
are alfo kept in conftant motion by the conftant mo-
tion of the thorax, through which they pafs j and this
perhaps may contribute to the perpetual aflivity of
the diaphragm.

Fifthly, The intercoftal mufcles are difpofed to
alternate contradlions for the fame reafons as the dia-
phragm, though thefe reafons do not hold in the fame
degree : However, fince the' contradion of the dia-
phragm, and confequent diftention of the abdomen,

mud

250 Of the AiJ'ton of Refpiratlon.

mud raile the thorax, the contraftion of the inter-
collal mufclcs nuifl: from the fiirt be fyiichronous to
that of the diaphragm ; and aflbciation will foon ge-
nerate a permanent difpofition to this fynchroniiir).
It follows according to this theory from the vicinity
of the internal intercoftal mufcles to the external ones,
that they ought to have the fame action. And the
fame conclufion appears to rcfult from anatomical
confiderations.

Sixthly, It may however be fuppofed, that the
diaphragm and inter collal mufcles are, as it were,
fatigued by conflant action ; and that they incline to
fympathize in inactivity with the reft of the mufcles,
efpecially during fleep. But then the accumulation
of blood in the lungs, which the intermilTion of re-
fpiration mufl: occafion, after it has once had a free
palFagc through the lungs, by means of refpiration,
will produce fo much uneafincfs, ;'. e. fuch vigorous
vibrations, in the lungs, and particularly in their ex-
ternal membrane, which is continuous to the pleura,
as will renew refpiration.

It is agreeable to this, that if very young children
flecp upon a bed, they often fall into a great uneafi-
ncfs from the ftoppage of refpiration, and recover
from it by crying; and that locking, or any other
gentle motion, will prevent this. The laft circum-
ftance is particularly favourable to the notion of
vibrations.

The night-mare in adults appears to be a dif-
order of the fame kind. A full fupper, and lying up-
on the back, difpofe to it, by hindering the free motion
of the diaphragm. Motion, and efpecially when at-
tended with quick refpiration, laughter, &c. pre-
vent it by giving acflivity to the diaphragm. Shaking
the perfon afFei5ted, calling to hiiu, &c. roufe from
ir, by exciting vibrations. The uneafinefs from ac-
cumulated blood does the fame thing ac laft.

Ir is eafy to fee, that if a like difpofition to ina(5tion
fhould arife in the hearts of new-born children, or

adults.

t

Of the A5lion of Refpiration. 251

adults, the motion and diftending force of the ve-
nal blood nrjufi: renew their adlion for fimilar rea-
fons. It is reinarkably coincident with this, that
forcing the venal blood upon the heart has in fome cafes
been found to renew its adion even after death.

Seventhly, The adions of fighing, crying, cough-
ing, fneezing, &c. by recurring frequently, and mak-
ing all the mufcles, which can in any degree contribute
to refpiration, unite therein, enlarge the range of
refpiration by degrees, and make this aflion be
performed with gi eater ftrength perpetually in the
young child. The increafe of ftrength in the whole
mufcular fyftem mud however be confidered likewife.
Eighthly, The fame aflions have alfo a great fhare
in begetting voluntary refpiration. For more muf-
cles are put into a6tion in voluntary refpiration, than
in that which is ordinary.

Ninthly, it is agreeable to the foregoing theory,
and to parallel obfervations on the heart, that re-
fpiration fliould be llronger in fevers, in fleep, and in
general wherever the heat of the blood is increafed,
than in ordinary cafes. For refpiration depends
chiefly on the fecond and third fources of motory vi-
brations. By this means the force of the refpira-
tions anfvvers in a general way, as it ought to do, to
the force with which the blood is moved, or to the
force of the heart. '

1 now come to the particular confideration of the
a6tions of fighing, coughing, laughter, and fobbing,
and fhedding tears from grief.

Sighing is an extraordinary contradlion of the dia-
phragm. It arifes not only from all caufes, which ac-
cumulate the blood in the lungs, and thus excite the
diaphragm to an extraordinary contraction ; but alfb
from fuch compreffions of the abdomen as hinder the
free motion of the diaphragm for a time. For thus
a difpofition to vibrate is accumulated in the fibres of
the diaphragm. It is however to be obferved, that

this

252

Of the Aclion of Rcfpiration.

this comprcfl'ion of the abdomen docs alio accumulate
blood in the lungs. The abdomen iVems to be coin-
prcflcd in a Hate of forrow, attention, &c. 1 he fre-
quent rccurrency of figliing makes it voluntary early
in youth. But it is not performed voluntarily with
the fame force, as when fiom a prcffing uneufincfs in
the lungs.

Coughing arifes fiom an uneafy fenfation in the
wind- pipe fixing in the point of the epi^lottisy as the
fenlation which caules Ineezing does in the tip of
the nofe. Tliis ought alio to become voluntary, and
to be weaker when voluntary, than when excited by
a ftrong irritation.

Hawking is a voluntary aflion, derived from
coughing, as blowing the nofe is from fntezing.
Spitting is nearly related to thefe adions. It tallies
perfe(fliy with the foregoing theory, that children
cannot hawk, fpit, or blow the nofe, for fome
years.

Laughter is a nafcent cry, recurring again and
again, as has been obferved before, Prop. 16. By
degrees it puts on a certain typy, and recurs again
and again according to that type, juft as other ac-
tions. And it is excited in young children not only
by the fenfation of tickling, which lies, as it were,
between pleafure and pain, but by the apprehenfion
of this, or any other apprehenfion fufficicntly mo-
derate, by every furprize, and every mental emotion
th^t lies between pleafure and pain, and by all the
aflbciates of thefc, as particularly by feting others
laugh. And thus child; en laugh more and more, and
get a power of performing the adion of laughter
at pleafure, though with lefs force than when it is
excited by its proper caufe in full vigour.

It is remarkable, that young brute creatures, in
their fportings with each other, make fuch noifes, as
bear the fame analogy to their violent cries^ which
laughter in us bears to crying from pain.

Bodily

i1

Of the Action of Refpi ration. 253

Bodily pain is attended with violent and irregular
refpi ration on account of the violent and irregular
vibrations, which, in this cafe, firft afcend to the
brain, and then defcend into the diaphragm. Hence
mental pain, which is the offspring of bodily pain,
is attended alfo with violent and irregular rcfpiration,
i.e. with fobbing. The crying which ufed to at-
tend bodily pain in childhood is often checked in the
mental pains of adults by fear, fhame, &c. /. e,
by a voluntary or femivoluntary power ; and this
fccms to make the rcfpiration fo much the more
irregular.

It is more difficult to account for the (bedding
tears from grief; for very young children are not
apt to filed tears when they cry. It feems to me,
that fo great and general a diforder in the brain, as
that which takes place in violent grief, muft affed
the fifth pair of nerves in a particular manner, fo
as to influence the lachrymal glands both diredly, and
alfo indiredly, viz. by the ftrong convulfions pro-
duced in the mufcles of the eyes and face. The
membrane of the fauces and nofe are likewife af-
fefted in grief, as is evident from the fenfations in
the fauces^ and tip of the nofe; and thus vibrations
may run to the lachrymal glands through the du5lu.s
adnafum, and lachrymal points, as obferved before in
irritations from fternutatories, &c. Young children
may not (bed tears freely, becaufe very great and
general difordcrs of the brain, and its influence over
the fifth pair of nerves, do not take place till intellec-
tual aCTorrePates are formed. And the like reafon may
hold in refpe6t of brutes.

The aftions of fobbing and weeping are there-
fore, in part, deducible from aflbciation, /. e, are
not merely automatic, in the firfi: k\\{t of that word.
Ao^reeably to which, they are in certain cafes mani-
feftly fubjedl to the voluntary power. Thus, fome
perfons can, by introducing imaginary fcenes of com-

paffion

^54

Of convulfive Motions.

palTion and forrow, fo far agitate the brain, as to
bring on the actions of lobbing and weeping,
thougli not in the fame degree, as when they arile
from a ftrong real mental caufe. 1 hey may hke--
wife be caught by infeftion, from odiers, as lauLih-
ter, and moll of our other femivoUintary and volun-
tary a6lion-, arc; which is another argument of
their dependence on aflbciation.

PRO P. LXXVI.

To examine hozu far convulfive Motions of various
Kindsy and the Anions of Tawning and Stretching
in particular J are agreeable to the foregoing "Theory.

Since (Irong vibrations mud, according to
the foregoing theory, defcend at once into the whole
mufcular fyftem in general convulfions, we mull feek
for a caufe of fufficient extent for this purpofe.
Now there feem to be three kinds of vibrations,
which may anfwer this condition : firft, violent vi-
brations in the brain. -^ Secondly, violent ones at the
fkin, fuddenly checked. Thirdly, violent ones in
the bowels or uterus^ fuddenly checked alfo, and
thence running inftantaneouQy over the whole nervous
fyftem by means of the intercoftal, or as Winflow
juftly calls it, the great fympathetic nerve.

Convulfions fiom comprefiions and inflammations
of the brain, and moft of thofe which are termed epilep-
tic, feem to be of the firft kind. In epilepfies the
irregular vibrations, excited in the medullary fub-
ftance of the brain are perhaps fo violent, as
firft to make the fmall particles attraft each other,
and thus, by checking themfelves, to extinguifti
all fenfe and motion. However, they may return
after a fliort time, and defcend into the whole muf-
cular fyftem.

The

Of convulfive Motions. 255

The flretchings and yawnings which happen in
ague-fits, in going to fleep and waking, the (tart-
ings to which fome perfons are fubjcdl in going to
Qeep, and the convulfive tremors, and rigidity in
ague- fits, feem to be of the fecond kind, or to arife
from a fudden check of vibrations at the fkin.
For in agues the furface is chilled, as it is alfo by
xhe leaft motions in going to fleep, or waking.
Agreeably to this, it may be obferved, that, upon
ftepping into a cold bed, one is difpofed to general
convulfions, like thofc of ftretching. Yawning may
alfo depend in part upon a like check of violent vi-
brations in the mouth and fauces-, for it is a motion
excited in the neighbourhood, and is obferved to
accompany ficknefs.

The ttai tings and convulfions which happen to
children from gripes, to women from diforders of
the uterust and to all perfons in general from certain
poifons, feem to be of the third kind, or to arife
from vigorous vibrations in the abdomen, fuddenly
checked, and running into the whole fyftem by
means of the intercoftal nerve.

It has been obferved already, that convulfive mo-
tions are apt to return from lefs and lefs caufes per-
petually, on account of the veltiges which they leave
of thcmfelves, and the power of aflfociated circum-
ftances. I will add here, that feeing a perfon in con-
vulfions is apt to occafion them in fuch as are of
nervous and irritable frames ; and that there is reafon
to believe, that fome perfons, who have been enthu-
fiafts or impoftors, have been able to throw them-
felves into convulfions by a femivoluntary power,
and particularly, as it feems, by introducing ftrong
ideas, and internal feelings.

It is commonly obferved, that yawning is apt to
infeft a whole company, after one perfon in it has
fet the example; which is a manifcfl: infl:ance of the
influence of aflbciation over motions originally au-
tomatic. PROP.

256 OJ the Motions that are

PRO P. LXXVII.

7*0 examine how far the Alotions^ that are mojl ferfeEily
vdluntaryy fuch as tho/e of yValking^ Handling, and
Speakiugf "jvith the voluntary Power of f (/pending
tbemy and tbeir being formed according to Patterns
fet by thoje with whom we conver/e, are agreeable
to the foregoing Theory.

It was neceflary to deliver many things which pro-
perly relate to this propofition under the twenty-
fiirt, in order to make the derivation of voluntary
motion from automatic, by means of aflbciation,
in fome mcafure intelligible to the reader. 1 will
now refume the fubjedt, and add what I am able for
the full explication and eftabliflimcnt of the theory-
pro pofcd.

Walking is the moft fimple of the three kinds of
voluntary motion here mentioned, being common to
the brute creation with man, whereas handling and
fpeaking are, in a manner peculiar to him. His fupe-
riority in this refpecl, when compared with the fuperi- ^
ority of his mental faculties agrees well with the hypo-
thcfis here advanced concerning handling and fpeak- j
ing, viz. their dependence on ideas, and the power
of aflbciation.

The nev.'-born child is unable to walk on account of
the want of ftrength to fupport his body, as well as of |
complex and decomplex motory vibratiuncles, gene-
rated by alTociation, and depending upon fenfations ^
and ideas by aflbciation alfo. As he gets fl:rength,
he advances likewife in the number and variety of
compound motions of the limbs, their fpecies being
determined by the nature of the articulations, the
Dofition of the mufcles, the automatic rrotions ex-
cited by fridtion, accidental flexures and extenfions

made

k

mojl perfe5ily voluntary. 257

made by the nurfe, &c. When he is tolerably per-
fedl in thefe rudiments of walking, the view of a favour-
ite plaything will excite various motions in the limbs j
and thus if he be fet upon his legs, and his body car-
ried forward by the nurfe, an imperfed attempt to
walk follows of courfe. It is made more perfect gra-
dually by his improvement in the rudiments, by the
nurfe's moving his legs alternately in the proper
manner, by his defire of going up to perfons, play-
things, &c. and thence repeating the procefs which
has fucceeded (for he makes innumerable trials, both
fuccefsful and unfuccefsful) ; and by his feeing others
walk, and endeavouring to imitate them.

It deferves notice here, that in the limbs, where
the motions are moil perfedlly voluntary, all the
mufcles have antagonifts, and often fuch as are of
nearly equal ftrength with themfelves s alfo, that the
mufcles of the limbs are not much influenced at firft by
com>mon imprefilons made on the fkin, and fcarce
at all when the child is fo far advanced as to gee a
voluntary power over them. For thefe things fa-
cilitate the generation of the voluntary power, by
making the mufcles of the limbs chiefly dependenc
on the vibrations which defcend from the -brain, and
alfo difpoflng them to aft from a fmall balance in fa-
vour of this or that fet of antagonifts.

When the child can walk up to an objed that he
dcflres to walk up to, the action may be termed vo-
luntary, i. e. the ufe of language will then juftify
this appellation. But it appears from the realbning
here uled, that this kind and degree of voluntary
power over his motions is generated by proper com-
binations and aflfociations of the automatic motions,
agreeably to the corollaries of the twentieth propo-
fition. Voluntary powers may therefore refuk from,
aflTociation, as is aflferted in thefe papers.

When he is arrived at fuch a perfeftion in walk-
ing, as to walk readily upon being defired by ano-

Vol. I. S ther

•ijS Of the Motions that are

ihcr perfon, the a(5\ion is eOeemed ftill more volun-»
tary. One rcafon of which is, that the child, in
feme cafes, docs not walk when dcfired, whilft yet
the circunilldnces arc apparently the fame as when
he does. For here the iinapparent caufe of walk-
ing, or not walking, is will. However, it follows
from this theory, that all this is ftill owing to aflfo-
ciation, or to fomcthing equally fuitable to the fore-
going theory ; e. g. to the then prefent flrength or
weaknefs of the alTociation of the words of the com-
mand with the adion of walking, to its proceeding
from this or that perfon, in this or that manner, to
the child's being in an adive or ina6tive fbate, at-
tentive or inattentive, difpofed by other circum-
ftances to move as dirtfted, or to move in a different
way, &c. A careful obfervation of the fact will always
fhew, as far as is reafonable to be expecfled in fo nice
a matter, that when children do different thmgs, the A.
real circumftances, natural or affociated, are propor- W^
tionably different, and that the ftate of mind called
will depends upon this difference. This degree of t
voluntary power is therefore, in like manner, of an
acquired nature.

Suppofe an adult to walk, in order to fhew his
perfectly voluntary power; ftill his feleifling this in- i,
fiance is owing to one aflbciation, and his per-
forming the a<5tion to another, viz. to the introduc-
tion of the audible idea of the word, the vifible one
of the aflion, &c.

Walking pafles into the fecondarily automatic ftate
more perfcdly perhaps, than any other action ; for
adults fcldom exert any degree of volition here,
fufficient to affeft the power of confcioufnefs or
memory for the leaft perceptible nrioment of time.
Now this tranfition of walking, from its voluntary to
its fecondarily automatic ftate, muft be acknowledged
by all to proceed merely from affociation. And it
icems to follow by parity of realbn, that the tranfi-
tion

i

moji ■perfectly voluntary, 259

tion of primarily automatic aflions into voluntary
ones may be merely from aflbciation alfo, fince it
is evident, that aflbciation has at leaft a very great
and extenflve influence there.

The complex artificial motions of the lower limbs,
ufed in the levcral kinds of dancing, bear nearly the
lame relation to the common motions ufed in walking
forwards, backwards, upwards, downwards, and fide-
ways, as thefe common motions do to the fimple
rudiments above-mentioned, fuch as the fleflion and
extenfion of the ancle or knee. Since therefore the
voluntary and fecondarily automatic power of dan-
cing are plainly che refult of aflbciation, why may
we not fuppofe the fame of the common motions in
walking, both in their voluntary and fecondarily auto-
matic flate? In learning to dance, the fcholar deflres
to look at his feet and legs, in order to judge by fee-
ing, when they are in a proper pofition. By degrees
he learns to judge of this by feeling; but the viflble
idea left partly by the view of his mafter's motions,
partly by that of his own, feems to be the chief
afibciated circumftance, that introduces the proper
motions. By farther degrees thefe are conncded
with each other, with the rnufic, and with other more
and more remote circumftances.

I have already fhewn, in what manner children
learn the voluntary and fecondarily automatic power
of grafping. How they learn the various complex
motions, by which they feed and drefs ihemfelves, &c,
alfo how children and adults learn to write, to prac-
tife manual arts, &c. and in what fenfes and degrees
all thefe adions are voluntary, and fecondarily auto-
matic, and yet ftill remain as purely mechanical, as
the primarily automatic adions are, may now be un*
derflood from what has been already delivered under
this propofition. The method of playing upon mu-
fical inftruments has alfo been explained, io as to con-
cur in cftablilhing the fame concluflons,

S 2 In

26o Of the Motions tbaf are

In like manner, the account given of the aflion
of fpe.iking might now be completeil, and extended
to all the modes of ir, vulgar and aifificiali and to fing-
ing, with its modes. I will add a few words con-
cerning Hammering, and the lols of fpccch by palfies.

Stammering feems generally to atile from fear,
eagernefs, or fome violent palTion, which prevents
the child's articulating righrly, by the confufion
which it makes in the vibrations that defcend
into the miifcular fyflem j fo that, finding himfelf
wrong, he attempts again and again, till he hits upon
the true found. It does not begin therefore in general,
till children are of an age to diftinguifh right from
wrong in refpc6l of pronunciation, and to articulate
with tolerable propriety. A nervous diforder of the
mufcles of fpeech may have a like effeft. When
the trick of Hammering has once begun to lake
place in a few words, it will extend itfelf to more
and more from very flight relcmblances, and particu-
larly to all the firft words of fcntences, becaufe
there the organs pafs in an inftant from inadivity to
aflion ; whereas the fubfequent parts of words and
fentences may follow the foregoing from affociation ;
juft as, in repeating memoritery one is moft apt to
heficjte at the firft word in each fentence.

A defedl: of memory from pafllon, natural weak-
nefs, &c. lo that the proper word does not occur
readily, occafions Hammering alfo. And, like all
other modes of fpeaking, it is caught, in fom.e cafes,
by imitation.

A palfy of the organs of fpeech may be occafion-
ed in the fame manner as any other palfy ; and yet
the mufcles of the lips, cheeks, tongue, and fau-
ces, may Hill continue to perform the aftions of
maftication and deglutition fufficiently well, becaufe
thefc , a(5lions are fimpler than that of fpeech, and
are alfo excited by fenfations, which have an original
influence over them.

A defcd

moji perfeflly voluntary. 261

A defefl of memory may alfo dcftroy the power
offpeaking, in great meafure, though the organs be
not much aflfeded in a paralytica! way. Thus a per-
ion who plays well upon a harpfichord, may by fome
years difule become unable to play at all, though the
inufcles of his hands be in a perfect ftate, merely
becaufe his memory, and the alTociations of the mo-
tions of his fingers with the fight of notes, with the
ideas of founds, or with one another, are obliterated
by diftance of time, and difufe.

The fufpenfion of an aflion may be performed
two ways, as before-mentioned, viz. eithrr by put-
ting the mufcies concerned in it into a languid in-
active ftate, or by making the antagonifts a6t with
vigour.. In the firft cafe, the whole limb is put into
a ftate of relaxation, and extreme flexibility j in
j the laft, into a ftate of rigidity. The voluntary
power of the firft kind is obtained by aflTociations
with the languor that arifes from fatigue, heat,
fleepinefs, Sec. that of the laft from the general
tenfion of the mufcies, which happens in pain, and
violent emotions of mind. Children improve in
both thefe kinds of voluntary power by repeated
trials, as occafion requires, by imitation, defire, &c.
But they are both difficult for fome time. Thus we
may obferve, that children cannot let their heads or
eye-lids fall from their mere weight, nor ftop them-
felves in running or ftriking, till a confiderable time
after they ran raife the head, or bend it, open the
eyes, or ftiut them, run or ftrike by a voluntary
power.

Imitation is a great fource of the voluntary power,
and makes all the feveral modes of walking hand-
ling, and fpeaking, conformable to thofe of th;? age
and nation in which a perfon lives in general, and to
thofe of the perfons with whom he converfes in par-
ticular. Befides the two fources already mentioned.
Prop. 21. viz. the fight of the child's own aflions,

S 3 and

iSl Of the Motions that are

and the found of his own words, it has mnny others*
Some of thcle are the reltmblanre \Vhich cliildren
obfervc between their own bodies, with all the func-
tions of their, and thofe of others \ the pleafures
which they experience in and by means of all nrio-
tions, r. e. imitations ; the dircftions and encourage-
ments given to them upon this head ; the high
opinions wliich they form, of the power and happi-
nefs of adults ; and their confcquent defire to refemblc
them in thcfe, and in all their afTociates. Imitation
begins in the feveral kinds of voluntary a<5tions about
the fame time, and increafes not only by the fources
alleged, but alio by the mutual influences of every
inflance of it over every other, fo that the velocity
of its growth is greatly accelerated for fome time.
It is of the highell ufe to children in their attain-
ment of nccomplilhiTients, bodily and mental. And „
thus every thing, to which mankind have a natural |
tendency, is learnt much fooner in fociety, than the j^j
mere natural tendency would beget it ; and many
things are learnt fo early, and fixed fo deeply, as to-
appear parts of our nature, though they be mere
derivatives and acquifitions.

It is remarkable, that apes, whofe bodies refemblc
the human body, more than thofe of any other brute
creature, and whofe intelle<5ls alfo approach nearer
to ours, which lad circumffance may, I fuppofe, have
fome connexion with the firft, fhould likewife re-
femblc us fo much in the faculty of imitation. Their
aptnefs in handling is plainly the refult of the
fhape and make of their fore legs, and their intel-
k6bs together, as in us. Their peculiar chattering
may perhaps be fome attempt towards fpeech, to
which they cannot attain, partly from the defefb in'
the organs, partly, and that chiefly, from the nar-j
rowncfs of their m.emories, apprehenfions, and alTo-i
ciations ; for they feem not to underftand words to]

any'

moft perfectly voluntary. 263

any confiderable degree. Or may not their chat-
tering be an imitation of laughter ?

Parrots appear to have far lefs intellefl than apes,
but a more diftinguifhing ear, and, like other birds,
a much greater command of the mufcles of the
ihroat. Their talk feems to be almoft devoid of
all proper conne6tion with ideas. However, in re-
fpeft of founds, they imitate as much as children, or as
apes in refpeft of other a(5lions. And indeed the
talk of children, by out-running their underftand-
ings in many things, very much refembles that of
parrots.

As we exprefs our inward fentiments by words, fo
we do alfo by geftures, and particularly by the muf-
cles of the face. Here, again, affociation and imi-
tation difplay themfelves. This dumb fhew prevails
more in the hotter climates, where the pafiions are
more impetuous, than in thefe northern ones. It is
alfo probable, that the narrownefs and imperfedlion
of the ancient languages made it more neceffary and
prevalent in ancient times. Deaf perfons have an
extraordinary aptnefs both in learning and decypher-
ing this, as might well be expeded. The imitation
of manners and charaders by dumb fhew is often
more ftriking, than any verbal defcription of them.

S 4 SECT.

Id4 Of the Relation of this Theory

SECT. VIII.

OF THE RELAI'lON WHICH THE FOREGOING
THEORY BEARS TO THE AR T OF PHYSIC.

PROP. LXXVIII.

The Art cf Phyfic affords many proper Tejls of the
Do^rines of Fibralions and /JJfociation ; and may
receive confuierabk Improvement from thcm^ if they
he true.

This propofitioii may appear from feveral hints
to that j^urpofe, which have been already given.

But it will be nnore fully manifcft, if I give a
iliort view of the data and qutcfita in the art of
phyfic.

Now the general problem, which comprehends the
whole art, is.

Having the Jymptoms given y to find the remedy.

This problem may be folved in fome cafes empiri-
cally and direftly by the hiftories of diflempers, and
of their cures. But then there are other cafes, and
thofe not a few, to which the learning and experi-
ence of the mod able phyficians either cannot find
hiftories fufficiently fimilar, or none where the event
Avas fuccefsful. Htnce it is neceflary to attempt the
folution of the general problem rationally and in-
dire^ly, by dividing it into the two following left
comprehenfive and confequently more manageable
problems, viz.

Firft, Having the Jymptoms given^ to find the de-
viation of the body from its natural flate.

Secondly, Having this deviation given, to find the
remedy.

It

to the Art of Phyfic. 265

It is proper alio to invert thefe two problems, and
to inquire, firft. Having the deviation giveny what the
Jymptoms mufi he.

Secondly, Having the manner of operation of a Juc-.
cefsful remedy given, what the deviation miifl be.

I here iiie the v^ordsjymptomsy deviation, and remedy,
in the nnoft general fenfe pofllble, for the fake of
brevity.

Now it is very evident, that the doflrine of vi-
brations, or fome other better doftrine, which teaches
the law of aftion of the nervous fyftenn, has a clofe
conne6lion with all thefe lafl: four problems. For
the nerves enter every part, as well as the blood
veffels ; and the brain has as great a fhare in all the
natural functions of the parts, and its difoiders, in all
their diforders, as the heart, and its diforders, can
have } and much more than any other part, befides
the heart.

Farther, If the do6lrine of afibciation be the ne-
ceflary confequence of the doflrine of vibrations, in
any fuch manner as I have propofed above. Prop. 9.
and 1 1, it mufi: have a moft intimate connexion with
the theory of nervous diftempers, and fome with
that of others, on account of the juft mentioned de-
pendence of all the parts on the brain. Or, if we
feparate thefe doctrines, dill, if that of afibciation be
true, of v/hich 1 fuppofe there is no doubt, it cannot
but be of great ufe for explaining thofe diftempers in
which the mind is afFefted.

And it feems to me, that, agreeably to this, the
diftempers of the head, fpafm.odic ones, the effeds
of poifonous bites and ftings, which, as Dr. Mead
iuftly obferves, are more exerted upon the nerves
than on the blood, receive much light from the
doftrine of vibrations, and, in return, confirm itj
and that ail the diforders of the memory, fancy,
and mind, do the fame in refped of the doflrine of
afibciation.

I do

166 Of the Relation of this theory

I do not mean to intinnatc here, that the rational fi
and indiie(5l I'olution of the general problem, which
compichends the art of phyfic, is preferable to the
empirical and dircdl one, where this is to be had j
but only, fince this cannot be had always, that we
ought to piocccd in an explicit and fcientifical man-
ner, rather than in a confuled and popular one. For
where pradice is filent, phyficians mull and will
have jecouifc to fome theory, good or bad. And
if they do not acquaint ihcinftlves with the real
ftrudure and fundions of the parts, with the ien-
fible qualities and operations of medicines, and with
the mod probable method of explaining both the
iymptoms of diilempers, and the operations of me-
dicines, they muft fancy fomething in rhe place of
thefe, and rcafon from fuch falfe im.aginations, or
perhaps from, the mere agreements, oppofitions, and
Secondary ideas, of Words. The hiftory of dif-
cafes, and their cures, is the bafis of all ; after this
come anatomical examinations of the body, both in
its natural and morbid dates; and, laft of all, phar-
macy; thefe three anfwering refpe6tively to the
general problem, and the two fubordinace ones above-
mentioned. And if we reafon at all upon the func-
tions and diforders of the parts, and the effedls of
medicines upon the body, fo important an organ as
the brain mufi: not be h ft out entirely.

It may not be amifs to add here, that as all the na-
tural funilions tend to the welfare of the body, fo
there is a remarkable tendency in all the diforders of ^
the body to reftify themfelves. Thefe two tenden- ?
cies, taken together, make what is called nature by ' '
phvficians; and the feveral inftances of them, with ;^
their limits, dangers, ill confequences, and devia- -^
tions in particular cafes, deferve the higheft attention ^^
from phyficians, that fo they may neither interrupt a
favourable crifis, nor concur with a fatal one. Stahl
and his followers fuppofe, that thefe tendencies arife

from

to the An of Phyfic. 267

from a rational agent prefiding over the fabric of
the body, and producing efFeds, that are not fub-
je(5t to the laws of mechanifm. But this is grath
diSlum ; and the plain traces of mechanifnn, which
appear in fo many inftances, natural and morbid,
are highly unfavourable to it. And ail the evidences
for the mechanical nature of the body or mind are
fo many encouragements to ftudy them faithfully and
diligently, fince what is mechanical may both be
underftood and remedied.

CHAP.

l68

Of IVordsy and the Ideas

CHAP. III.

Containing a particular Application of the fore-'
going Theory to the Ph.«nomena of Ideas, or
of Understanding, Affection, Memory, and
Imagination.

SECT. I.

i

OF WORDS AND THE IDEAS ASSOCIATED

WITH THEM.

PROP. LXXIX.

IFords and Fhrajes mufl excite ideas in us by yljjo-
ciationy and they excite Ideas in us by no other
Means, •

Words may be confidered in four lights.

Firft, As imprefTions made upon the ear.

Secondly, As the adtions of the organs of fpeech.

Thirdly, As ImprefTions made upon the eye by
charadlers.

Fourthly, As the aflions of the hand in writing.

We learn the ufc of them in the order here fet
down. For children firft get an imperfed know-
ledge of the meaning of the words of others ; then
learn to fpeak themfelves i then to read ; and, laftly,
to write.

Now

ajfo dated with them, 16^

Now it is evident, that in the firll of thefe ways
many fenfible innpreffions, and internal feelings, are
affociated with particular words and phrafes, fo as
to give thefe the power of raifmg the correfponding
ideas ; and that the three following ways increafe and
innprove this power, with fome additions to and va-
riations of the ideas. The fecond is the reverfe of
the firfl:, and the fourth of the third. The firft
afcertains the ideas belonging to words and phrafes
in a grofs manner, according to their ufage in com-
mon life. The fecond fixes this, and makes ic
ready and accurate ; having the fame ufe here as the
Iblution of the inverfe problem has in other cafes in
refpect of the dired one. The third has the fame
ffcft as the fecond ; and alfo extends the ideas and
fignifications of words and phrafes, by new aflfocia-
lons ; and particularly by aflbciations with other
vords, as in definitions, defcriptions, &c. The
advancement of the arts and fciences is chiefly car-
ried on by the new fignifications given to words in
diis third way. The fourth, by converting the
/eader into a writer, helps him to be expert in dif-
tinguifhing, quick in recollecting, and faithful in re-
aining, thefe new fignifications of words being the
inverfe of the third method, as juft now remarked.
The reader will eafily fee, that the aflion of the
hand is not an elTeniial in this fourth method.
Compofition by perfons born blind has nearly the
fame efFeft. I mention it as being the common at-
tendant upon compofition, as having a confidcrable
Life deducible from afic)ciation, and as making the
analogy between the four methods more confpicuous
and complete.

This may fufHce for the prefent, to prove the firft
part of the propofition, viz. that words and phrafes
muft excite ideas in us by aflbciation. The fecond
parr, or that they excite ideas in us by no other means,
may appear at the fame time, as it may be found upon

reflexion

270 Of Wordsy and the Ideas

rcflciftion and examination, that all the Ideas which
any word does excite arc dcducible from fomc of
the four fources above- mentioned, moll commonly
from the firft or third.

It may appear alio from the inftahces of the words
of unknown languages, terms of art not yet ex-
plained, barbarous words. &c. of which we either
have no ideas, or only fuch as fomc fancied refcm-
blance, or prior allociation, fuggefls.

It is highly worthy of remark here, that articulate
founds are by their variety, number, and ready
ufe, particularly fuited to fignify and fuggeft, by aflb-
ciation, both our fimple ideas, and the complex
ones formed from them, according to the twelfth
propofition.

CoR. It follows from this propofition that the
arts of logic, and rational grammar, depend entirely
on the dodrine of alTociation. For logic, confidcred
as the art of thinking or reafoning, treats only of
fuch ideas as are annexed to words ; and, as the arc
of difcourfing, it teaches the proper ufe of words in
a general way, as grammar does in a more minute
and particular one.

PROP. LXXX.

l!o dejcrihe the Manner in zuhich Ideas are ajfociated with
Words y beginning from Childhood.

This may be done by applying the doftrine o?
aflbciation, as laid down in the firft chapter, to
words confidered in the four lights mentioned under
the laft propofition.

Firft, then. The afibciation of the names ofvifible
objecfli:, with the imprelTions which thefe objecfts
make upon the eye, feems to take place more early
than any other, and to be cffcded in the following

manner:

ajjbciated with them» lyt

manner : the nanne of the vifible objed, the nurfe,
j for inftance, is pronounced and repeated by the at-
tendants to the child, more frequently when his eye
is fixed upon the nurfe, than when upon other
j objedts, and much more fo than when upon any par-
ticular one. The word nurfe is alfo founded in an
emphatical manner, when the child's eye is directed
to the nurfe with earneftnefs and defire. The af-
fociation therefore of the found nurjd; with the pic-
ture of the nurfe upon the retina^ will be far ftronger
than that with any other vifible impreffion, and thus
overpower all the other accidental aflbciations, which
will alfo themfeives contribute to the fame end by
oppofing one another. And when the child has gain-
ed fo much voluntary power over his motions, as to
direct his head and eyes towards the nurfe upon
hearing her name, this procefs will go on with an
accelerated velocity. And thus, at laft, the word
will excite the vifible idea readily and certainly.

The fame afibciation of the pidture of the nurie
in the eye with the found nurfe will, by degrees,
overpower all the accidental aflbciations of this pic-
ture with other words, and be fo firmly cemented at
laft, that the picture will excite the audible idea of
the word. But this is not to our prefent purpofe.
I mention it here as raking place at the fame time
with the foregoing procefs, and contributing to illu-
ftrate and confirm it. Both together afford a complete
inftance for the tenth and eleventh propofitions,
j. e. they fhew, that when the impreflions A and B
are fufficiently affociated, A imprefi'cd alone will ex-
cite by B imprefl^ed alone will excite a.

Secondly, This aflfociation of words with vifible
appearances, being made under any particular cir-
cumftances, muft affe6l the vifible ideas with a like
particularity. Thus the nurfe's drefs, and the fitu-
ation of the fire in the child's nurfery, make
part of the child's ideas of his nuife and fire. But

then

371 OJ WordSi and tbc Ideas

then as the nurfc often chungcs Irt drefs, and the
child often iees a fire in a dift'erent place, and fiir-
rouncird by diflerenc vilible objedt.s, thele oppolite
airociations iiuill be lels (liong, than the part which
is common to them all ; and conleciucntly we may
liippole, that while his idea of that part which is
common, and which we may call eHcntial, continues
the lame, that of the j)ariiculaiities, circumftances,
and adjunds, varies. For he cannot have any idea,
but with fome paiticularities in the non-eflentials.

Thirdly, When the vifible objects imprcfs other
vivid leniations befides ihofe of ffght, fuch as grate-
ful or unf]^rateful taftes, fmells, warmth or cold-
neb, with fufiicient frequency, it follqws from the
foregoing theory, that thcfe fenfations muft leave
trace-s or ideas, which will be aflbciatcd with the
names of the objeds, lb as to depend upon them.
1 luis an idea, or nafcent perception, of the fwett-
nefs of the nurfe's milk will rife up in that part of
the child's brain which correfponds to the nerves of
talle, upon his hearing her name. And hence the
whole idea belonging to the word riurfe now begins
to be complex, as confifting of a vifible idea, and
an idea of tafte. And thele two ideas will be aflb-
ciated together, not only becaufe the word laifes
them both, but alio becaufe the original fenfations
are. The llrongeft may therefore alTift in raifing the
weakeft. Now, in comm.on cafes, the vifible idea
is ftrongefl, or occurs mofl: readily at leafl: ; bur, in
the prelent inftance, it feems to be otherwife. We
might proceed in like manner to fliew the generation
of ideas m.ore and more comiplex, and the various
ways by which their parts are cemented together,
and all made to d-pend on the refpe6live names of
the vifible objedls. But what has been faid may fuf-
fice to fhew what ideas the names of vifible objeds,
proper and appellative, raife in us.

Fourthly,

ajfociated with tkem. 273

Fourthly, We mud, however, obfcrve, in rcfpeft
of appellatives, that lometimes the idea is the common
eompound refult of all the fenfible impreffions re-
ceived from the fcveral objefls comprifed under the
' general appellation } fometimes the particular idea of
fome one of thefe, in great meafure at leaR, viz.
when the impreflions arifing from fome one are more
novel, frequent, and vivid, than thofe from the reft.

Fifthly, The words denoting fenfible qualities,
whether fubftantive or adjedive, fuch as tvhitene/Sy
while, &c. get their ideas in a manner which will
be eafily underftood fiom what has been already
delivered. Thus the word white, being aflbciated
with the vifible appearances of milk, linen, paper,
^gets a ftable power of exciting the idea of wiiat is
common to all, and a variable one in rcfpecSl of the
particularities, circumftances, and adjunds. And fo
of other fenfible qualities.

Sixthly, The names of vifible actions, as walk-
ing, ftriking, &c. raife the proper vifible ideas by
a like procefs. Other ideas may likewife adhere in
certain cafes, as in thofe of tafting, feeling, fpeaking,
&c. Senfible perceptions, in which no vifible adilion
is concerned, as hearing, may alfo leave ideas depen-
dent on words. However, fome vifible ideas gene-
rally intermix themfelves here. Thefe adions and
perceptions are generally denoted by verbs, though
fometimes by fubftantives.

And Vv'e may now fee in what manner ideas are
, aflbciated with nouns, proper and appellative, fub-
ftantive and adjeftive, and with verbs, fuppofing that
they denote fenfible things only. Pronouns and par-
ticles remain to be confidered. Now, in order to
know their ideas and ufes, we muft obferve,

Sevendily, That as children may learn to read
words not only in an elementary way, viz. by learn-
ing the letters and fyllables of which they are com-
pofcd, but alfo in a fummary one, viz. by affociating
Vol. I. • T the

^74 ^f Words, and the Ideas

the found of entire words, with their pidlures, in the
eye ; and mull, in fome cafes, be taught in the laft
way, /. e, wherefoever the found of the word de-
viates from that of its elements; fo both childreo >
and adults leain the ideas belonging to whole fen-
tences many times in a fummary way, and not by
adding: tOi:;ether the ideas of the feveral words in the
fentence. And wherever words occur, which, fepa-
rately taken, have no proper ideas, their ufe can be
learnt in no other way but this. Now pronouns and
particles, and many other words, are of this kind.
They anfwer, in fome meafure, to x^ jy, and z, or
the unknown quantities in algebra, being determinable
and decypherable, as one may fay, only by means of
the known words with which they are joined.

Thus / isjalk is aflbciated at different times with
the fame vifible impreffion as nurje walks^ brother
walks y &c. and therefore can fugged nothing per-
manently for a long time but the a6tion of walk-
ing. However the pronoun /, in this and innumer-
able other fhort fentences, being always affociated
with the perfon fpeaking, as thou is with the perfon
fpoken to, and he with the perfon fpoken of, the fre-
quent recurrency of this teaches the child the ufe of
the pronoun^, /. e. teaches him what difference he
is to expeft in his fcnfible impreffions according as
this or that pronoun is ufed; the infinite number of
inftances, as one may fay, making up for the infi-
nitely fmall quantity of information, which each,
fingly taken, conveys.

In like manner, different particles, /. e, adverbs,
conjundions, and prepofitions, being ufed in fen-
tences, where the fubftantives, adjecftives, and verbs,
are the fame, and the iame particles, where thefe are
different, in an endlefs recurrency, teach children
the ufe of the particles in a grofs general way. For
it may be obferved, that children are much at a
lofs for the true ufe of the pronouns and particles

for

ajjbciated with them. 275

for fome years, and that they often repeat the proper
name of the perfon inftead of the pronoun ; which
confirms the foregoing reafoning. Some of the in-
ferior parts or particles of fpeech make fcarce any
alteration in the fenfe of the fentence, and therefore
are called expletives. The feveral terminations of
the Greek and Latin nouns and verbs are of the nature
of pronouns and particles.

Eighthly, The attempts which children make to
exprefs their own wants, perceptions, pains, &c. in
words, and the corrediions and fuggeftions of the
attendants, are of the grcateft ufe in all the fteps that
we have hitherto confidered, and efpecially in the
laft, regarding the prohouns and particles.

Ninthly, Learning to read helps children much in
the fame refpedlsj efpecially as it teaches them to
feparate fentences into the feveral words which com-
pound them ; which thofe who cannot read are fcarce
able to do, even when arrived at adult age.

Thus we may fee, how children and others are
enabled to underfland a continued difcourfe relating
to fenfible impieflions only, and how the words in
pafling over the ear muft raife up trains of vifible
and other ideas by the power of aflbciation. Our
next inquiry muft be concerning the words that de-
note either intelleflual things, or colledions of other
words.

Tenthly, The words, that relate to the feveral
paffions of love, hatred, hope, fear, anger, &c. being
applied to the child at the times when he is under
the influence of thefe paffions, get the power of raifing
the miniature* or ideas of thefe paffions, and alfo of
the ufual afTociated circumftances. The application
of the fame words to others helps alfo to annex the

A.

ideas of the afibciatcd circumftances to thf.n, and
even of the paffions themfclves, both from the in-
feftioufnefs of our natures, and from the power of
afibciated circumftances to raife the paffions. How-

T 2 ever.

276 Of Words, and the Ideas

. ever, it is to be noted, that the words denoting

I the panions do not, for the moll part, raife up in us
any degree of the pafTions ihemlelves, but only the

I idea? of the afibciated circumftances. We are fup- .

i pofed to undeiftand the continued difcourfes into
which thefe woids enter lufficiently, when we fornr)
true notions of the aflions, particularly the vifiblc ,
ones attending them.

Eleventhly, Ihe names of intelleftual and moral
qualities and operations, fuch as fancy, memory,
wit, dulnefs, virtue, vice, confcience, approbation,
difapprobation, &c. Hand for a defcription of thefc
qualities and operations; and therefore, if dwelt upon,
excite fuch ideas as thefe defcriptions in all their
particular ciicumftances do. But the common {tT\-
tences, which thefe words enter, pafs over the mind
too quick, for the mod part, to allow of fuch a
delay. They are acknowledged as familiar and true,
and fuggeft certain aflbciated vifible ideas, and nafcent
internal feelings, taken from the defcriptions of thefe
names, or from the words, which are ufually joined
with them in difcourfes or writings.

Twelfthly, There are many terms of art in all
the branches of learning, which aie defined by other
word<:, and which therefore are only compendious
fubftitutcs for them. The fame holds in common
life in numberlefs inflances. Thus riches, honours,
pleafures, are put for the feveral kinds of each.
Such woids fometimes fuggeft the words of their
definitions, fometimes the ideas of thefe words,
fometimes a particular fpecies comprehended under
the general term, &;c. But, whatever they fuggeft, it
may be eafily fcen, that they derive the pov^er of do-
ing this fiom aflbciation.

Thirteenthly, There are many words ufcd in ab- \
ftradl fciences, which can fcarce be defined or defcri-/
bed by any other words ; and yet, by their gram-
matical form, fcem to be excluded from the clafs of

particles.

ajfociated wilb them. 277

particles. Such are identity, exiftence, &c. The
ufe of thefe muft therefore be learnt as that of the
particles is. And indeed children learn their firft
innperfe6l notions of all the words confidered in this
and the three lad paragraphs chiefly in this way;
and come to precife and explicit ones only by
means of books, as they advance to adult age, or
by endeavouring to ufe them properly in their own
deliberate compofitions.

This is by no means a full or fatiifa(5Vory account
of the ideas which adhere to words by afTociation.
For the author perceives himfelf to be ftill a mere
novice in thefe fpeculations; and it is difficult to ex-
plain words to the bottom by words j perhaps im-
poITible. The reader will receive fome addition of
light and evidence in the courfe of this fedionj
alfo in the next, in which I fliall treat of propofitions
and affent. For our affent to propofitions, and the
influence which they have over our affeftions and
aftions, make part of the ideas that adhere to words
by aflbciation ; which part, however, could not pro-
perly be confidered in this fection.

Cor. I. It follows from this propofition, that
words may be difl:inguiflied into the four claflfes
mentioned under the twelfth propofition.

1. Such as have ideas only.

2. Such as have both ideas and definition^.

3. Such as have definitions only.

4. Such as have neither ideas nor definitions.
Under definition I here include defcription, or any

other way of explaining a word by other words,
excepting that by a mere fynonymous term ; and I
exclude from the number of ideas the vifibie idea of
the character of a word, and the audible one of its
found ; it being evident, that every word heard
may thus excite a vifibie idea, and every word ktn
an audible one. I exclude alfo all ideas that are
either extremely faint, or extremely variable.

T 3 It

278 0/ Words, and the Ideas

It is difficult to fix precilV limits to thefe four
claflVs, To as to determine accurately where each
cnd^, and the next begins ; and, if we confider thefii
things in the moft general way, there is perhaps
no word which has not both an idea and a defini-
tion, /. e. which is not attended by Tome one or more
internal feelings occafionaily, and which may not
be explained, in fome imperfe(ft manner at leaft, by
odier woids. I will give Tome inftances of words
which have the faireft right to each clafs.

The names of fimple fenfibJe qualities are of the
fir rt clafs. li\\\i?i whiley Jzueet^ &c. excite ideas j but
cannot be defined. It is to be obferved here, that
this clafs of words (lands only for the ftable part of
the ideas refpedively, not for the feveral variable
particularities, circumftances, and adjun61:s, which •
intermix ihemfelves here.

The names of natural bodies, animal, vegetable,
mineral, are of the fecond clafs ; for they excite ag-
gregates of fenfible ideas, and at the fame time may
be defined (as appears from the writings of natural
hiftorians) by an enumeration of their properties
and charadleriftics. Thus likewife geometrical figures
have both ideas and definitions. The definitions in
both cafes are fo contrived as to leave out all the va-
riable particularities of the ideas, and to be alfo more
full and precife, than the ideas generally are in the
parts that are of a permanent nature.

Algebraic quantities, fuch as roots, powers, furds,
&c. belong to the third clafs, and have defini-
tions only. The fame may be faid of fcientifical
terms of art, and of moft abftraft general terms,
moral, metaphyfical, vulgar : however, mental emo-
tions are apt to attend fome of thefe even in pafllng
nightly over the ear; and thefe emotions may be
confidered as ideas belonging to the terms refpec-
tivelv. Thus the very words, gratitude, mercy, cruelty,
treachery, &c, feparately taken, affedl the mind -, and

yet.

ajjbciated with them. I79

yetj fince all reafoning upon them is to be founded
on their definitions, as will be feen hereafter, it feems
beft to refer them to this third clafs.

Laftly, the particles the^ of, to, for, but, &c. have
neither definitions nor ideas.

Cor. 1. This matter may be illuftrated by com-
paring language to geometry and algebra, the two
general methods of expounding quantity, and invef-
tigating all its varieties from previous data.

Words of the firft clafs anfwer to propofitions
purely geometrical, i. e. to fuch as are too fimple to
admit of algebra; of which kind we m.ay reckon
that concerning the equality of the angles at the
bafis of an Ifofceles triangle.

Words of the fecond clafs anfwer to that part of
geometry, which may be demontlrated either fynthe-
tically or analytically ; either fo that the learner's
imagination (hall go along \m\.\\ every ftep of the
procefs painting out each line, angle, &:c. according
to the method of demonftration ufed by the ancient
mathematicians ; or fo that he fhall operate entirely
by algebraic quantities and methods, and only repre-
fent the conclufion to his imagination, when he is
arrived at it, by examining then what geometrical
quantities the ultimately refuking algebraical ones
denote. The firft method is in both cafes the mod
fatisfaftory and aff^efting, the laft the moft expedi-
tious, and not lefs certain, where due care is taken.
A blind mathematician muft ufe words in the laft of
thefe methods, when he reafons upon colours.

Words of the third clafs anfwer to fuch problems
concerning quadratures, and rectifications of curves,
chances, equations of the higher orders, &c. as are
too perplexed to be treated geometrically,

Laftly, Words of the fourth clafs anf>ver to the
algebraic figns for addition, fubtraclion, &c. to
indexes, coefficients, &c. Thefe are not algebraic
quantities themfelvesj but they alter the import of

T 4 the

23o Of W6rds, and the Ideas

the letters ih.it arc; jiift as particles vary the fenie
of tlie piincipai words of a fcntcncc, and yet fig-
nify nothing of thcmfelves.

Geometiical lic^urcs may be confidered as repre-
fenting all the modes of extenfion in the fame manner,
as vifiblc ideas do vifibie objeifts ; and confequently ,
the names of geometrical figures anfwcr to the names
of thcfe ideas. Now as all kinds of problems
relating to quantity might be expounded by modes
of excenfion, and folvcd thereby, were our faculties
I'ulliciently exalted, fo it appears pofiible to reprefent
(■jiort kinds of ideas by vifible ones, and to purfue
them in this way through all their varieties and
combinations. But as it feems bed: in the ftrfl: cafe
to confine geometry to problem?, where extenfion,
and motion, which implies extenfion, are concerned,
iifiiig algebraic methods for invcftigating all other
kinds of quantity, fo it feems beft alfo to ul'e vifible
ideas only for vifible objects and qualities, of which
they are the natural reprefentativcs, and to denote all
other qualities by words confidered as arbitrary figns.
And yet the reprefentation of other quantities by
geometrical ones, and of other ideas by vifible ones,
is apt to make a more vivid imprefTion upon the
fancy, and a more lading one upon the memory.
In fimilcs, fables, parables, allegories, vifible ideas
are ulVd for this reafon to denote general and intel-
ledludl ones.

Since Vv-ords may be compared to the letters ufed
in algebra, language itfelf may be termed one fpecies
of algebra ; and, converfely, algcrbra is nothing more
than the language which is peculiarly fitted to ex-
plain quantity of all kinds. As the letters, which
in algebra (land immediately for quantities, anfwer to
the words which are immediate reprefentativcs of
ideas, and the algebraic figns for addition, &c. to
the particles ; fo the fingle letters, which are fome-
timcs ufed by algebraifts to denote fums or differ-
ences,

ajfociated -iZH/h them. 281

ences, powers or roots imiverfal of other letters,
for brevity and convenience, anfwer to fuch words
as have long definitions, to terms of art, &c. v/hich
are introduced into the fciences for the fake of
compendioufnefs. Now, if every thing relating to
language had fomething analogous to it in algebra,
one might hope to explain the difficulties and per-
plexities attending the theory of language by the
correfponding particulars in algebra, where every
thing is clear, and acknowledged by all that have made
it their ftudy. However, we have here no independ-
ent point whereon to ftand, fince, if a perfon be dif-
pofed to call the rules of algebra in queftion, we
have no way of demonftrating them to him, but by
Tjfing words, the things to be explained by algebra,
for that purpofe. If we fuppofe indeed the fceptical
perfon to allow only that fimple language, which is
neceflary for demonftrating the rules of algebra, the
thing would be done; and, as I obferved juft now, it
feems impoflible to become acquainted with this,
and at the fame time to difallow it.

Cor. 3. It will eafily appear from the obfervations
here made upon words, and the afTociations which
adhere to them, that the languages of different ages
and nations muft bear a great general refemblance

' to each other, and yet have confiderable particular
differences ; whence any one may be tranflated into
any ocher, fo as to convey the fame ideas in general,

. and yet not with perfe6l precifion and exadlnefs.

T' They muft refemble one another, becaufe the phee^,
nomena of nature, which they are all intended to ex-
prefs, and the ufes and exigencies of human life, to
which they minifter, have a general refemblance.
But then, as the bodily make and genius of each
people, the air, foil, and climate, commerce, arts,
fciences, religion, &c. make confiderable differen-
ces in different ages and nations, it is natural to ex-

pea,

iSl Of Words, and the Ideas

pe(5l, that the languages Ihould have proportionable
differences in refpcft of each other.

Where languages have rules of etymology and
fyntax, that differ greatly, which is the cafe of the
Hebrew compared with Greek or LatWy this will
become a new lource of difformity. For the rules
of etymology and fyntax determine the application
and purport of words in many cafes. Agreeably to
which we fee, that children, while yet unacquainted
with that propriety of words and phrafes, which
cu(\om ellablilhes, often make new words and con-
llrudions, which, though improper according to com-
mon iifage, are yet very analogous to the tenor of
the language, in which they fpcak.

The modern languages of this weftern part of
the world anfwer better to the Latiuy than according
to their original Gothic plans, on this account ; inaf-
much as not only great numbers of words are
adopted by all of them from the Latin, but alfo be-
caufe the reading Latin authors, and learning the
Laiin grammar, have difpofed learned men and
writers to mould their own languages in fome mea-
fure after the Latin. And, converfely, each nation
moulds the Latin after the idiom of its own lan-
guage, the effeft being reciprocal in all fuch cafes.

In learning a new language the words of it are at
firft fubftitutes for thofe of our native language, i. e.
they are affociated, by means of thefe, with the proper
objefls and ideas. When this aflbciation is fuffici-
cntly ftrong, the middle bond is dropped, and the
words of the new lan-guage become fubftitutes for,
and fuggeft diredtly and immediately objefts and ideas;
alfo clufters of other words in the fame language.

In learning a new language it is much eafier to
tranflate from it into the native one, than back again ;
juft as young children are much better able to under-
ftand the expreffions of others, than to exprefs their
own conceptions. And the reafon is the fame in

both

affociated with them, 2.83

both cafes. Young children learn at firft to go
from the words of others j and thofe who learn a
new language, from the words of that language, to
the things lignified. And the reverfe of this, viz.
to go from the things fignified to the words, miift
be difficult for a time, from what is delivered con-
cerning fucceflive aflbciations under the tenth and
eleventh propofitions. It is to be added here, that
the nature and conne6tions of the things fignified
often determine the import of fentences, though
their grammatical analyfis is not underftood ; and that
we fuppofe the perfon who attempts to tranQate from
a new language is fufficiently expert in the inverfe
problem of paffing from the things fignified to the
correfponding words of his own language. The
power of affociation is every where confpicuous in
thefe remarks.

Cor. 4. It follows alfo from the reafoning of this
propofition, that perfons who fpeak the fame lan-
guage cannot always mean the fame things by the
fame words ; but muft miftake each other's meaning.
This confufion and uncertainty arifes from the dif-
ferent aflbciations transferred upon the fame words
by the difference in the accidents and events of our
lives. It is, however, much more common in dif-
courfes concerning abftraft matters, where the terms
ftand. for collec-tions of other terms, fometimes at
„ the pleafure of the fpeaker or writer, than in the
|// common and neceflary afi^airs of life. For here
P^'frequent ufe, and the conftancy of the phjcnomena
of nature, intended to be expiefTed by words, have
rendered their fenfe determinate and certain. How-
i ever, it feems poffible, and even not very difficult, for
two truly candid and intelligent perfons to underfland
each other upon any fubjeft.

That we may enter more particularly into the
caufes of this confufion, and confequently be the

better

X

2S4 Of Words, md the Ideas

better enabled to prevent it, let us confider words
according to the four claircs above-mentioned.

Now nurtakes will happen in the words of the
firrt ciafs, viz. luch as have ideas only, where the
pcrfons have alTociatcd ihcle words with different
imprcflions. And the method to recfbify any niidake
of this kind is for each perfon to fhew with whac
adual iinprefTions he has aflbciatcd the word in
queftion. But miftakes here are not common.

In words of the fecond ciafs, viz. fuch as have
both ideas and definitions, it ofcen happens, that
one perfon's knowledge is much more full than an-
other's, and confequently his idea and definition much
more extenfive. 1 his mull: caufe a milapprehenfion
on one fide, which yet may be eafily redified by re-
curring to the definition. It happens alio fometimes
in words of this ciafs, that a man's ideas, i.e. the
miniatures excited in his nervous fyftem by the
word, are not always fuitable to his definition, /. e.
arc not the fame with thofe which the words of the
definition would excite. If then this perfon fbould
pietend, or even defign, to reafon from his definition,
and yet reafon from his idea, a mifapprehenfion will
aiife in the hearer, who fuppofes him to reafon from
his definition merely.

In words of the third claf«;, which have defini-
tions only, and no immediate ideas, miftakes gene-
rally ^rife through want of fixed definitions niutu-
ally acknowledged and kept to. However, as imper-
fed: fluduating ideas, that have little relation to the
definitions, are often apt to adhere to the words of
this ciafs, miftakes mult arife from this caule alfo.

As to the words of the fourth ciafs, or thofe
which have neither ideas nor definitions, it is eafy to
afcertain their ufe by inferting them in fentences,
whofe import is known and acknowledged ; this being
the method in which children learn to dccypher them:
fo that miftakes could not arife in the words of this

ciafs.

ajfc dated with them. 285

clafs, did we ufe moderate care and candour. And
indeed fince children learn the ufes of words mod
evidently without having any data^ any fixed point at
ail, it is to be hoped, that philofophers, and candid
perrons7lTiay learh at laft to under (land one another
with facility and certainty j and get to the very bottonn
of the~cbnne6iion between words and ideas.

It feems practicable to make a diftionary of any
language, in which the words of that language fhall
all be explained with precifion by words of the fame
lancruage, to perfons who have no more than a grofs
knowledge of that language. Now this alfo fliews,
chat with care and candour we might come to under-
ftand one another perfedly. Thus fenfible qualities
mit^ht be fixed by the bodies, in which they are moft
eminent and diltinft j the names of a fufficient num- •
ber of thefe bodies being very well known. After
this thefe very bodies, and all others, might be defi-
ned by their fenfible properties j and thefe two pro-
cefles would help each other indefinitely. Aflions
a/ight be dcfcribed from animals already defined,
alfo from the modes of extenfion, abftraft terms
defined, and the peculiar ufe of particles afcertained-
And fuch a didlionary would, in fome meafure, be
a real as well as a nominal one, and extend to
things themfclves. The writer of every new and dif-
ficult work may execute that part of fuch a didionary
which belongs to his fubjedt ; at leart in the in-
ftances where he apprehends the reader is likely to
want it.

CoR. 5. When words have acquired any confider-
able power of exciting pleafant or painful vibrations
in tKe nervous fyftem, by being often aflbciated with
flich things as do this, they may transfer a part of
thefe pleafures and pains upon indiff^erent things,
by being at other times often afibciaied with fuch.
This is one of the principal fources of the feveral fic-
titious pleafures and pains of human life. Thus, to

give

a86 Of Words, t^nd the Ideas

give an inflancc from childhood, the words fweety
goodf preltyy fiitCy &c. on the one hand, and the
words, bad, ttQ/y, frightfuly &c. on ihe other, being
applied by the niirfe and attendants in the young
cliild's hearing aliiiofl: promilcuoufly, and without
thole relliidions that are oblerved in cone(5t fpeak-
ing, the one to all the pleafutes, the other to all
the pains of the feveral fenfes, miift by aflbciation
raifc up general pleafant and painful vibrations, in
whicii no one part can be dillinguifhed above the
left ; and, when applied by farther afibciations to
obje(5ts of a neutral kind, they mufl: transfer a general
pleafure or pain upon them.
I All the words affociated with pleafures mufl: alfo
' afFedt each other by this promifcuous application.
And the fame holds in refped: of the words ailbciated
with pains. However, fince both the original and
the transferred pleafures and pains heaped upon dif-
ferent words are different, and in fome cafes widely
fo, every remarkable word will have a peculiar in-!
ternal feeling, or fentiment, belonging to it 5 and
there will be the fame relations of affinity, difparity,
and oppofition, between thele internal fentiments, ;. £,
ideas, belonging to words, as between the feveral
'genera and Jpecies of natural bodies, between taftes,
fmells, colours, &c. Many of thefe ideas, though
affording confiderable pleafure at firfl:, mufl: fink into
the limits of indifference i and fome of thofe which
affi)rded pain at firfl:, into the limits of pleafure.
What is here faid of words, belongs to clufters of
them, as well as to feparate words. And the ideas
of all may flill retain their peculiarities, by which
they are diftinguiflicd from each other, after they
have fallen below the limits of pleafure into indiffer-
ence, juft: as obfcure colours, or faint taftes, do.

It is obfervable, that the mere tranfit of words
expreffing ftrong ideas over the ears of children
affcfts them j and the fame thing is true of adults, in

a lefs

ajfociated with them, 287

a lefs degree. However the laft have learnt from
experience and habit to regard them chiefly, as they
afford a rational expedation of pleafure and pain.
This cannot be difcuffed fully, till we come to con-
fider the nature of aflent ; but it may give fome light
and evidence to the reafoning of this corollary, juft
to have mentioned the manner, in which we are
at firft affecled by words.

Cor. 6. Since words thus colle6l ideas from va-
rious quarters, unite them together and transfer them
ijoth upon other words, and upon foreign objeds,
it is evident, that the ufe of words adds much to
:he number and complexnefs of our ideas, and is the
principal means by which we make intelleftual
and moral improvements. This is verified abun-
dantly by the obfervations that are made upon per-
ibns born deaf, and continuing fo. It is probable,
however, that ihefe perfons make ufe of fome fym-
bolb to aflift the memory, and fix the fancy : and they
mutt have a great variety of pleafures and pains
transferred upon vifible objeds from their alToci-
ations with one another, and with fenfible pleafures
of all the kinds j but they are very deficient in this,
upon the whole, through the want of the afTociations
of vifible objefts, and ftates of mind, &c. with words.
Learning to read mufl: add greatly to their mental
improvement ; yet ftill their intelledual capacities
cannot but remain very narrow.

Perfons blind from birth muft proceed in a man-
ner different from that defcribed in this propofition,
in the firft ideas, which they afiix to words. As the
vifible ones are wanting, the others, particularly the
tangible and audible ones, muft compofe the ag-
gregates which are annexed to vvords. However,
as they are capable of learning and retaining as great
a variety of words as others, or perhaps a greater,
ceteris paribuSy and can affociate with them pleafures
and pains from the four remaining fenfes, alfo ufe

them

2S8 Of Words, and the Ideas

thctn as alc;cbraifts do the letters that repiefcnt
quantities, they fall little or nothing (hort of others
in intclledual accompli 111 mcnts, and may arrive even
at a greater degree of fpiritiiality, and abrtradion in
their complex ideas.

CoR. 7. It follows from this propofition, that,
when children or others Hrfl: learn to read, the view
of the words excites ideas only by the mediation of
their founds, with which alone their ideas have
hi[lierto been allociated. And thus it is that chil-
dren and illiterate perfons iindcrftand what they
read beft by reading aloud. By degrees, the inter-
nnediare link, being left out, the written or printed
charadlers fugged the ideas direcftly and inftantane-
oufly i io that learned men underftand more readily
by pafTing over the words with the eye only, fince
this method, by being inorc expeditious, brings
the ideas clofer together. However, all men, both
learned and unlearned, are peculiarly affeded by
words pronounced in a manner fuitable to their fcnfe
and defign; vvliich is flill an aflbciated influence.

Cor. 8. As perfons, before they learn to lead, muft
have very imperfefb notions of the diflindtion of
words, and can only underftand language in a grofs
general way, taking whole clufters of words for on^
undivided found, fo much lefs can they be fuppofed
to have any conceptions concerning the nature or
ufe of letters. Now all mankind muft have been
in this ftate before the invention of letters. Nay,
they mufl: have been farther removed from all con-
ceptions of letters, than the moft unlearned perfons
amongfl: us, fince thefe have at lead heaid of letters, and
know that words may be written and read by means of
them. And this makes it difficult to trace out by what
fteps alphabetical writing was invented ; or is even
fome prefumption, that it is not a human invention.
To which ic is to be added, that theanalyfing complex
articulate founds into their fimple coirjponent parts
appears to be a problem of too difficult and perplexed

a nature

ajfociated with them. 289

a nature for the rude early ages, occupied in getting
neceflaries, and defending themfelves fronn external
injuries, and not aware of the great ufe of it, even
though they had known the folution to be poflible and
praAicable. However, I iTiall mention fome prefunnp-
;ions of a contrary nature under the next propofition. .

PROP. LXXXI.

'io explain the Nature of CharaFlers intended to reprefent
OhjeSls and Ideas immediately ^ and without the Inter--
vention of Words,

Since charafters made by the hand are capable
of the greatell: varieties, they might be fitted by
proper affociations to fugged objects and ideas im-
mediately, in the fame manner as articulate founds
do. And there are fome inftances of it in common
ufe, which may ferve to verify this, and to lead us
into the nature of charaders (landing immediately
for objefts and ideas. Thus the numeral figures,
and the letters in algebra, reprefent objeds, ideas,
words, and clufters of words, diredly and immedi-
ately; the pronunciation of them being of no ufe,
or necefTity, in the operations to be performed by
them. Thus alfo mufical charaders reprefent founds
and combinations of founds, without the interven-
tion of words, and are a much more compendious
and ready reprefentation, than any words can be.

Charaders feem to have an advantage over articu-
late founds in the reprefentation of viGble ohjeds,
inafmuch as they might by their refemblance, even
though only a grofs one, become rather natural, than
mere arbitrary reprefentatives.

They had alfo an advantage as reprefentatives
in general, before the invention of alphabetical wri-
ting, fince perfons could by this means convey their
, thoughts to eacfi other at a diftance.

• Vol. I. U If

igo Of Words, and the Ideas

If we fiippofe charaders to be iiTprovcd to all
that variety and nuiltiplicity, which is neccflary for
reprcfenting objcfls, ideas, and clufters of charac-
ters, in the lame manner as words rcprefcnt objedls,
ideas, and clufters of words, rtill they might be rc-
folvtrd into fimplc component parts j and rendered
pronLinciable by affixing fome fimple or fhort found
to each of ihcle fimplc component parts; jiill as arti-
culate founds are painted by being firll rclblvcd into
tlieir fimple component parts, and then having each
of thcfc reprefenttd by a fiinple mark or chatadter.
If we fuppofe the moft common vifibie objedls to
11 be denoted both by fliort articulate founds, and by
;| ibort characters bearing fome real, or fancied, im-
perfect refemblance to them, it is evident, that the
found and mark, by being both affociated with the
vifible objeft, would alfo be affociated with one an-
other; and confequenily that the found would be the
name of the mark^ and the mark the picture of
the found. And this laft circumftance feems to lead
to the denoting all founds by marks, and therefore
perhaps to alphabetical writing.

At the fame time it muft be obferved, that the
marks would bear different relations of fimilarity
and diffimilarity to one another from ihofe which the
correfponding founds did.

This would happen according to whatever law the
marks were made, but efpecially if they were re-
femblances of vifible objefls. And this, as it feems,
would occafion fome difficulty and perplexity in re-
prcfenting founds by marks, or marks by founds.

PROP.

affociated with them. 291

PROP. LXXXII.

To explain the Nature of figurative Words and Phrafes,
and of Analogy^ from the foregoing Theory.

A FIGURE is a word, which, firft reprefenting the
obje(5l or idea A^ is afterwards made to reprefent
5, on account of the relation, which thefe bear to
each other.

The principal relation, which gives rife to figures,
is that of likenefs ; and this may be either a
likenefs in fhape, and vifible appearance, or one in
application, ufe, &c. Now it is very evident fronf,
the nature of aflbciation, that objedls which are like
to a given one in vifible appearance, will draw to
themfelves the word by which this is expreffed.
And indeed this is the foundation upon which ap-
pellatives are made to (land for fo great a number of
particulars. Let the word man be applied to the
particular perfons A^ By Q &c. till it be fufficiently
aflbciaied with them, and it will follow, that the ap-
pearance of the new particular perfon D will fuggeft
the word, and be denoted by it. But here there is
no figure, becaufe the word man is affociated with
different particular perfons from the firft, and that
equally or nearly fo.

In like manner, the correfponding parts of differ-
ent animals, /. e. the eyes, mouth, breaft, belly,
legs, lungs, heart, &c. have the fame names applied
in a literal fenfe, partly from the likenefs of
fliape, partly from that of ufe and application.
And it is evident, that if we fuppofe a people fo rude
in language and knowledge, as to have names only
for the parts of the human body, and not to have
attended to the parts of the brute creatures, affoci-
ation would lead them to apply the fame names to
the parts of the brute creatures, as foon as they be-

U 2 came

2^2 Of Words, and the Ideas

came acquainted with them. Now here this appli-
cation would at firrt have the nature of a figure;
but when by degrees any of thefe words, the eye
for inllance, became equally applied from the firft to
the eyes of men and brutes, it would ceafe to be a
figure, and become an appellative name, as Jult now
remarked.

But when tiic original application of the word is
obvious, and remains dillindt from the Iccondary one,
as when we fay the mouth or ear of a vclTel, or the
foot of a chair or table, the expreflion is figura-
tive.

Hence it is plain, that the various refemblancea
which nature and art afford are the principal fources
of figures. PTowever, many figures are alfo derived
from other relations, fuch as thofe of caufe, effed,
oppofition, derivation, generality, particularity ; and
language itfclf, by its refemblances, oppofitions,
&c. becomes a new fource of figures, diftindl from
the relations of things.

Moft metaphors, /. e. figures taken from like-
nefs, imply a likenefs in more particulars than one,
clfc they would not be fufficiently definite, nor affedt
the imagination in a due manner. If the likenef^
extend to many particulars, the figure becomes im-.
plicitly a fimile, fable, parable, or allegory.

Many, or moft common figures, pafs fo far into,
literal expreffions by ufe, ;. e, affociation, that we
do not attend at all to their figurative nature. An4
thus by degrees figurative fenfes become a founda-
tion for fucceffive figures, in the fame manner, ajs
originally literal fenfes.

It is evident, that if a language be narrow, and
much confined to fenfible things, it will have great
occafion for figures : thefe will naturally occur in the
common intcrcourfes of life, and will in their turn,
as they become literal exprefilons in the fecondary
fenfes, much augment and improve the language,

and

ajfocialed with them. 293

: and afllfl: the invention. All this is manifeft: from the
fgrowth of modern languages, in thofe parts where
they were heretofore particularly defeflive.

We come now to the confideration of analogy.
Now things are faid to be analogous to one another,
in the ftrid mathematical fenfe of the word analogy^
when the correfponding parts are all in the fame
ratio to each other. Thus if the feveral parts of the
body in different perforis be Ibppoled exa6lly pro-
portional to the whole bodies, they might be faid to
be analogous in the original mathematical fenfe of
that word. But as this reftrained fenfe is not appli- '
cable to things, as they really exift, another of a
moi'e enlarged and pradlical nature has been adopted,
which may be thus defined. Analogy is that re-
. femblance, and in fome cafes famenefs, of the parts,
properties, fundlions, ufes, &c. any or all, of A
to Bj whereby our knowledge conoerning Ay and the
language expiefling this knowledge, may be applied
in the whole, or in part, to 5, without any fenfible,
or, at leaft, any important practical error. Now
analogies, in this fenfe of the word, fome more
^exa<5t and exten five, fome lefs fo,- prefent themfelves
to us every where in natural and artificial things ; and
thus whole groups of figurative phrafes, which feem
at firft only to anfwer the purpofes of convenience
in affording names for new objeds, and of pleafing
the fancy in the way to be hereafter mentioned, pafs
into analogical reafoning, and become a guide in the
ftarch after truth, and an evidence for it in fome
degree. I will here fet down fome inllances of
analogies of various decrees and kinds.

The bodies of men, women, and children, are

highly analogous to each other. This holds equally

in refpeft of every other fpecies of animals ; alfo

of the feveral correfponding parts of animals of the

I fame fpecies, as their flefh, blood, bones, fat, &c.

i and their properties. Here the words applied to

! U 3 • the

294 ^ Words, ^nd the Ideas

the feveral analogous things are iifed in a fenfe equally
literal in refpect of all. And the analogy is in moft
cafes fo clofc, as rather to be clhemed a coincidence,
or fdmenefs.

In comparing animals of different kinds the ana-
logy grows perpetually leis and Icfs, as we take in a
greater compafs ; and confec]ucntly our language
more and more hailli, when confidered as literal,
whilfl: yet it cannot well be Hgurative in fome things,
and literal in others ; fo that new words are generally
affigned to thofe parts, which do not fufficiently re-
feniblc the correfponding ones. Thus the fore-legs
of men and fowls, as we might call them in a harfh,
literal, or a highly figurative way, are termed hands
and wings relpedlively. However, in fome cafes,
the Hime word is ufed, and confidered as a figure;
as when the cries of birds and bealls are termed their
language. We rway alio obferve, that every part in
every animal may, from, its rcfemblance in Ihape and
ufe to the correfponding fiarts in feveral other animals
have a juft right to a name, which fhall be common
to it and them.

What has been faid of animals of the fame and
different kinds holds equally in refpedt of vegetables.
Thofe of the fame kind have the fame names ap-
plied to the coirefponding parts in a literal fenfe.
Thofe of different kinds have many names common
to all ufed in a literal fenfe, fome new ones peculiar
to certain kinds, and fome that may be confidered as
fo harfh in a literal fenfe, that we may rather call
them figurative terms.

The fame may be faid of the mineral kingdom,
confidered alfo according to its genera aud/pecies.

Animals are alfo analogous to vegetables in many
things, and vegetables to minerals: fo that there
feems to be a perpetual thread of analogy continued
from the moft perfeft animal to the moft imperfed
mineral, even till we come to elementary bodies them-
felves. Suppofe

ajjociated with them. 295

Suppofe the feveral particulars of the three king-
doms to be reprefenred by the letters of an alpha-
bet fufficiently large for that purpofe. Then we are
to conceive, that any two contiguous fpecies, as A
and By M and N^ are nnore analogous than A and C,
M and O, which have one between them. However,
fince A and 5, M and A^, are not perfeftly analogous,
this deficiency may be fupplied in fome things from
C and O, in others from D and P, &c. fo that M can
have no part, property, &c. but . what (hall have
fomething quite analogous to it in fome fpecies, near
or remote, above it or below it, and even in feveral
fpecies. And in cafes where the parts, properties,
&c» are not rigoroufly exa6l in refemblance, there
is, however, an imperfect one, which juftifies the ap-
plication of the fame word to both ; if it approach
to perfe6lion, the word may be faid to be ufed in a
literal fenfe ; if it be very imperfe6t, in a figurative
one. Thus v;hen the names of parts, properties,
&c. are taken from the animal kingdom, and ap-
plied to the vegetable, or vice verfaj they are more
frequently confidered as figurative, than when tranf-
ferred from one part of the animal kingdom to
another.

In like manner, there feems to be a gradation of
analogies refpe(5ling the earth, moon, planets,
comets, fun, and fixed ftars, compared with one
another. Or if we defcend to the feveral parts of
individuals, animals, vegetables, or minerals, the
feveral organs of fenfation are evidently analogous
to each other ; alfo the glands, the mufcles, the parts
of generation in the difi^erent fexes of the fame
kind, &c. &c. without limits. For the more any
one looks into the external natural world, the more
analogies, general or particular, perfed or imperfeft,
will he find every where.

Numbers, geometrical figures, and algebraic quan-
tities, are alfo mutually analogous without lirn.its.

U 4 And

296 Of Words, and the Ideas

And liere there is the cxadleft uniformity, joined
with an cndlcls variety, fo th;u it is always ceitain
and evident how far the an.ilogy holds, and where il
becomes a difparity or oppofiiion on one hand, or a
coincidence on the other. Ihere is no room for
figures here; but the terms mu(t be difparate, oppo-
litc, or the fame, in a (Iridly literal fenle refpe6lively.

The feveral words of each particular language,
the languages themfelves, the idioms, figures, &;c.
abound alfo with numerous analogies of various
kinds and degrees.

Analogies are likewife introduced into artificial
things, houfes, gardens, furniture, drefs, arts,
&:c.

The body politic, the body natural, the world

natural, the univerfe ; The human mind, the

minds of brutes on one hand, and of fuperior beings

on the other, and even the infinite mind himfelf ;

the appellations of father, governor, judge, king,
archited, &c. referred to God ; — the ages of man,
the ages of the world, the feafons of the year, the
times of the day; — the offices, profeffions, and
trades, of different perfons, ftatefmen, generals,
divines, lawyers, phyficians, merchants ; — the
terms night, fleep, death, chabs, darknefs, &€.
alfo light, life, happlnefs, &c. compared with each
other refpeflively ; life and death, as applied in
different fenfes to animials, vegetables, liquors, &:c.
— earthquakes, ftorms, battles, tumults, fermen-
tations of liquors, law-fuits, games, &c. families,
bodies politic lefler and greater, their laws, natural
religion, revealed religion, Sec. &c. afford endlefs
inftances of analogies natural and artificial. For the
mind being; once initiated into the method of dif-
covering analogies, and expreffing them, does by
affociation perfevere in this method, and even force
things into its fyltem by concealing difparities, mag-
nifying refemblances, and accommodating language

thereto.

ajfociated with them. 2gy

thereto. It is eafy to fee, that in the inftances laft
alleged the terms ufed are for the moft part literal
only in one fenfe, and figurative in all their other
applications. They are literal in the fenfe which
wa-s their primary one, and figurative in many or moft
of the reft. Similes, fibres, parables, allegories, &c.
are all inftances of natural analogies improved and
iet off by art. And they have this in common to
them all, that the properties, beauties, perfections,
defires, or defe6ls and averfions, which adhere by
aftbciation to the fimile, parable of emblem of any
kind, are infenfibly, as it were, transferred upon the
thing rcprefented. Hence the paffions are moved to
good or to evil, fpeculation is turned into pradlice,
and either fome important truth felt and realized, or
fome error and vice gilded over and recommended.

PROP. LXXXIII.

To apply the foregoing Account of Words and CharaSlers
to the Languages and Method of Writing of the firfi
Ages of the World.

Here there is a great difficulty through the want
of fufficient data. I will aflume a few of thofe
that appear to me moft probable, and juft fhew the
method of applying the doftrine of affociation to
them ; leaving it to learned men, as they become
poiTefied of more and more certain data, to make
farther advances.

I fuppofe then, that Adam had fome language,
with fome inftiodive knowledge concerning the ufe of
it, as well as concerning divine and natural things,
imparted to him by God at his creation. It feems
indeed, that God made ufe of tiie vifible appearances
or aflions, or perhaps of the feveral cries of the
brute creatures, as the means whereby he taught
Adam their names. But whether this was fo, aifo

whether.

C98 Of Words, and the Ideas

whether, if it was, any analogous method was taken
in rcfpcj^t of the names of other objefts, or of ideas,
;»nd internal feriings, is an inquiry, in which nothing
that yet a[)pears can afford fatisfadion.

1 luppofe alio, that the language, which Adam and
Hve were pollclied of in paradile was very narrow,
and confined in great meafure to vifible things ; God
himlelf contlelcending to appear in a vifible, perhaps
in a human (linpe, to them, in his revelations of him-
felf. It might alfo be monolVllabic in great meafure.
They who luppofe Adam to be capable of deep
fpeculations, and to have exceeded all his poflerity
in the lubtilty and extent of his intellectual faculties,,
and confequently in the number and variety of his
words, and tiie ideas belonging to them, have no
foundation for this ojiinion in fciipture; nor do they
fcem to confider, that innocence, and pure unmixed
happinels, may exift without any great degrees of
knowledge ; or that to fet a value upon knowledge
confidered in itfelf, and exclufively of its tendency
to carry us to God, is a mofi: pernicious error, de-
rived originally from Adam's having eaten of the
tree of knowledge.

After the fall we may fuppofe, that Adam and Eve
extended their language to new objefts and ideas,
and efpecially to thofe which were attended with
pain ; and this they might do fometimes by inventing
new words, fometimes by giving new fenfes to old
ones. However, their language would flill continue
narrow, becaufe they had only one another to converfe
with, and could not extend their knowledge to any
great variety of things; alfo becaufe their founda-
tion was narrow. For the growth and variations of
a language fomev.'hat refcmble the increafe of money
at intereft: upon intereft.

If to thefe reafons we add the long lives of the
antediluvian patria'-chs, the want of arts and fciences
in the antediluvian world, and the want of leifure

through

ajjociated wilh them. 299

through the great labour and fatigue ncceffary to
provide food, clothing, &c. we fhall have reafon to
conjedlure, that the whole antediluvian world would
fpeak the fame language with Adam^ and that with-
out any great additions or alterations. After a hundred
or two hundred years, afTociation would fix the
language of each perfon, fo that he could not well
make any alterations ; but he muft fpeak the
language of his forefathers till that time, becaufe
thole to the fixth or feventh generation above him
■were dill living; and confequently he would con-
tinue to fpeak the fame language, i. e. the AdamiCy
with few variations, to the. laft. The narrownefs
of the languages of barbarous nations may add fome
light and evidence here.

If we fuppofe fome kind of pidure-writing to
have been imparted to Adam by God, or to have
been invented by him, or by any of his pofterity,
this might receive more alterations and improve-
ments than language, from the fucceffive genera-
tions of the antediluvians. For the variety of figures
in vifible objedts would fuggeft a fufficient variety
in their charadlers j the hand could eafily execute this;
and their permanency would both give the antedilu-
vians diftindt ideas of all the original characters, and
all their variations, and alfo fix them in their memory.
We may fuppofe therefore, that though their words
and marks would be fo aflbciated together (agreeably
to what was before obferved), as that the word
would be the name of the correfponding mark, and
the mark the picture of the word in many cafes, yet
their marks would in fome inftances extend farther
■ than their words j and confequently, that on this
account, as well as becaufe the marks would be
fimilar and different, where the words were not,
there would be no alphabetical writing in the ante-
diluvian world.

They

300 Of Words, and the Ideas

They might, however, liand down a liiftory of
the creation, fall, and principal events, in this pi(5liire-
writing, attended with a traditional explanation^
\vhicli might remiiin uncorrupted and invariable till
the deluge. And indeed, if we llippofe pidiire-
writing to be of divine original, it will be mod prp-
bable, that they received a divine diredion to do
tliis, and that they would nut apply their pidure-
writing to any other piirpofe for fome time: ju(t as
the Ifraelitcs afterwards feem to have employed alpha-
betical writing chiefly for recording the divine difpcii-
fitions and interpofitions.

After the flood the great change made in the face
of things, and in natural bodies, with the appear-
ance perhaps of fome entirely new ones, would make
fome parrs of the antediluvian language fuperfluous,
at the fame time that it would be gready defective
upon the whole. Hence we may fuppofe, that the
antediluvian language mufl: receive much greater
alterations and additions juft: after the flood, than
at any time before. But Noah and his wife, having
thfir words and ideas more firmly aflbciated to-
gether, than Shenii HarUi and Japhet, and their
wives, on account of their fuperior age, would be
far lefs able to make the requifite changes in their
language. Something like this mufl: alfo take place
in rcfpect of their pidure-writing, if we fuppofe
there was any fuch thing in the antediluvian world.

Let us fuppofe this, and alfo with Mr. Whijlon and
Mr. Shuckford, that Noah^ his wife, and their pofl:-
diluvian pofterity, fettled early in China, fo as to be
cut off^ from Shem, Ham, and Japhef, and their
pofl:erity. Here then we may fuppofe farther, that
they would alter and improve their pi6ture-writing,
or character, fo as to fuit it to the new face of
things in the pofl:diluvian world, and to make it
grow with the growth of knowledge, more than they
would their language, from the greater facility of

doing

ajjbciated with ihem, 301

doing this : for I prefume, that the antediluvian
language contained but few of the articulate founds
which are now known, and that they could not in-
vent more. Thus their charader and language
would both of them be the immediate reprefentatives
of objedls and ideas j only the ufe and application
of the chara6ter would be much more extenfive than
that of the language. After fome time, fome cen-
turies, or even chiliads, fuppofe, both the charadter
and language would begin to be fixed, to have fewer
new marks and words added, and fewer alterations
made in the old ones in any given interval of time.
The words would alio be fo firmly aflbciated with the
correfponding maiks, as to be the names of them, i. e,
to reprefent them as well as the objedls or ideas, to
which they were originally affixed. But then there
would be many marks, to which there would be no
fuch names, taken from the names of objefbs and
ideas, on account of the poverty of the language
here fuppolcd. They would, however, endeavour to
give them fome names ^ and hence a diverfity would
^rife in their language. We may conceive alfo, that
as they feparated farther from one another in multiply-
ing, particular clans would deviate even in the pro-
nunciation of the monofyllabic words of the original
language, as in the fcveral dialedls of other languages;
and confequently deviate ftill more in the compound
r names of the marks : but the marks, being per-
manent things, capable of being handed down ac-
curately to the fucceffive generations, and of being
conveyed to diftant' countries, would continue intel-
ligible to all. And thus we may conceive, that the
poftdiluvian pofterity of Noah might all write the
.fame characters, and yet fpeak different languages; 1
alfo that their character would be very extenfive, and
I always the immediate reprefentative of objects and
lideas^ whereas their language would be narrow, and
lin fome cafes the immediate reprefentative of the
/' chara<5ter,

joa Of Words, and the Ideas ^

charafVer, and only denote objeifbs and ideas by
means of this. And this 1 take to be the cafe with the
people of ChinOy and the neighbouring countries of
Japatiy TonquiiJiy Siam, 3^c. But I only prefume to'j^
offer conjei!:hircs, not having any knowledge of the
charafler or languages of thefe countries.

Since the Cbinefe marks are very numerous, and
their fimple words very few, whereas our words af-e
very numerous, and our fimple marks, or the letters .
of our alphabet, very few; alio fince our words
are the fole immediate reprefentatives of objefls and
ideas, our written and printed marks being merely
artificial pictures of words; one might fufpefl, that
the Chinefe words are, in correfpondence to this, merely
an artificial enunciation of their charadter. But I
think this not fo probable, as the mixed fuppofition
mentioned in the lad paragraph. For it cannot be
fuppofed, that any nation fliould be fo far deftitute of
language, as not to have words for common ob-
jects, and internal feelings ; or, having thefe, that they
fliould lay them entirely afide, and adopt the artificial
names of the marks reprefenting thofe objeds and
ideas in their fteads. But they might eafily adopt
names, fimple or compound, at firft afcribed arti-
ficially to marks, whofe objeds and ideas had before
this adoption no names.

That in affixing names artificially to marks a great
diverficy might arife, appears from the great diver-
fity of alphabetical charafters exprefTing the fame
words. Thus the HebreiJOy Samaritan and Syriac
languages, agree nearly in found and fenfe, but
differ entirely in charaders. Thus alfo, amongfl:
modern lan<2:ua2es, feveral are written in different
charaders, as Engliflo in the common round-hand
in various law hands, and various fhor: hands.

Let us now return to Sheniy Haniy and Japhety and
their pofterity. They muft be fuppofed to proceed
in the fame manner, in general, as Noah, and his im-
mediate

ajjbciated with them, 30 J'

mediate pofterity, till the confufion of tongues at
Baheli excepting that bhem. Ham, and Japhet, with
tlieir wives, would be more apt to alter their cha-
rader and language, and fuit them to their prefent
exigencies, than Noah and his wife, on account of
their being all young perfons i alfo that, being all
as it were equal to each other they might each of them
be the authors of certain diverfities in the common
character and language and eftablifh them in their
refpeftive pofterities. However, if Noah be fuppofed
to have continued with them till the divifion of the
earth by God's command, and then only to have
departed with his poftdiluvian pofterity for Chinas the
country afligned to him, whilll Shem, Ham, and Ja-
fhelj with their pofterity, began to build the tower
of Babel in oppofition to God's command, then
Noahy and all his fons, &c. muft: be fuppofed to
have fuited their charafter and language to the new
.vorld in nearly the fame manner.

The confufion of tongues at Babel appears to me
to be miraculous for the following reafons.

Firft, This appears to be the moft natural interpre-
tation of the text.

Secondly, Thus the confufion of tongues will
orrefpond to the gift of language imparted to
Adam at his creation, which muft be fuppofed j alfo
to the gift of tongues at Pentecoji.

Thirdly, Learned men feem to have (hewn, that
the diverfity of ancient languages does by no means
favour the fuppofition of a natural derivation of
them all from one original form.

Fourthly, The original plan of the Greek and
I Latin languages (which 1 confider as fifter languages
I derived from the fame mother or original plan), ap-
pears to have been very uniform, yet with a confider-
able variety. Now I think this uniformity and va-
riety could fcarce be invented and eftablilhed by rude
multitudes, almoft entirely occupied in providing

neceflaries

JP4 Of Words, and the Ideas

neccflaries for theiTifclves, and much lefs an alphabe-
tical writing Teems to be of later date than the di-
vcrfity of languages. And in faft v^c do not find,
tliat barbarous nations do by length of time im|)rovc
their languages lb as in any incafuie to approach to
the pcrrc<tlion of the Greek or Latiu^ or of their
common mother. It adds (Irengih to tiiis argument,
that the original plan of the Greek and Latiu^ i. e,
the rules of etymology and fyntax, as grammarians
call them, is entirely different from that of the He-
brew and yhabic (whofe original plans agree), though
the firlt colonics, which came by fea into Greece and
Italy, came from Fale/line and Egypt^ i. e, from the
neighbouriiood of countries where Hebrew and Arabic
were fpoken.

Fiftliiy, The natural deviation of languages fince
hidory has been clear and certain, does by no means
correfpond to a fuppofed natural derivation of all
languages from one mother-tongue, efpecially in fo-
fliort a time as the interval between the flood and
the rife of many different ancient languages. Lee.
the reader here only reflefl upon the great difference
of the Biblical Hebrew from the ancienteft Greek ex-
tant, and the fmall difference of this from modern
Creeky or of the Biblical Hebrew from the Rabbinical.

if now the confuTion of tongues was mii-aculous,
we may conje6ture from the agreements and difagrce-
ments of mother-languages from each other, that it,'
was of the following kind.

Firff, That the original monofyllabic words of
the antediluvian language were incorporated into each
new language.

Secondly, That as thefe words included only few
of the articulate founds of which the human voice is
capable, the feveral families were put upon making
new articulations, fome having one fet. Tome another,
imparted to them.

Thirdly,

\

ajjocialed with them. 305

Thirdly, That each family had a new (lock of
words given them, confifting partly of old, partly
of new articulations ; and that this new fcock far
exceeded the old one in number and variety.

Fourthly, That a new and different etymology and
fyntax were alfo communicated to each family.

Fifthly, That there v;ere as many new languages
<jriven as there are heads of families mentioned Gen. x;
[he confufion of tongues, by which the divifion
of the earth was effedted, not happening till Joktari^
fons were old enough to be heads of families, though
it had been determined and declared by God before.
Thofe families, however, v^hich were derived from
the fame ftock, or had contiguous countries afligned
to them, might be infpircd with languages, that had
I proportionable affinity.

Whatever may become of thefe particular conjec-
tures, I think it highly probable, that the new lan-
guages far exceeded the old common one in the num-
i>er and variety of words ; and that the confufion of
tongues was by this means a beneficial gift and
blefling to mankind, as all God's other challifcments
jfe to be.

We may alfo fee reafons to make us judge, that a
iiverfity of languages is fuited to the other circum-
ilances of mankind. For this muft pi event the in-
fcftion of vice from fpreading with fuch rapidity,
as it would otherwife have done, had mankind lived
together in one large body, and had a free commu-
nication with each other by means of the fame lan-
guage.

Diverfity of languages does alfo both help the
invention, and correct falfe judgments. For we
think in words, as appears by the foregoing theory,
and invent chiefly by means of their analogies ; at
the fame time that a fervile adherence to thofe of any
one language, or the putting words for things,
would lead us into many errors. Now diverfity of

Vol. I. X languages

jo6 Of Words, and the Ideas

languages does both enlarge the field of invention,
and by oppofing analogy to analogy prelerve us
from the prejudices derived from mere verbal agree-
ments. Let me add here, that the abftrad: terms of
logicians, metaphyficians, and fchool-men, which
may be confidercd as a diftinft language, have
. fpiritualized men's underflandings, and taught them
to ufe words in reafoning, as algebraifts do lym-
bols.

Different languages do likewife improve one ano-
ther, and help one another to grow in fome propor-
tion to the advancement in the knowledge of things.

Let us now examine the probable confequences of
fuppofing different languages, and fuch as were far
more copious than the old one, to be given at once
miraculoufly.

Firft, then, The character, which fuited the old
language very imperfedly, would be ftill lefs fuited
to the new one.

Secondly, The new language might be more co-
pious, and better adjufted to exprefs objefts and ideas,
than the character. And this I think can fcarce be
doubted, if we fuppofe the new languages given mi-
raculoufly.

Thirdly, The agreement between many of the
marks of the character, and the words of the old
language, may be fuppofed likely to put lome per-
fons upon denoting the words of the new language
by marks. But whether this would neceffarily lead to
alphabetical writing, is very doubtful. I think not.
The firft attempts at leaft would not be alphabetical
writing.

Fourthly, Perfons of different families, who could
not underftand one another's language, might yet
correfpond by the character. However, one may
guefs from the circumftances of things in ancient
times, that this would feldom take place in fad.

Fifthly,

ajfociaied with them. 307

Fifthly, This and the convenience of correfpond-
ing with perfons of the fame family at a diftance,
alfo the dcfire of preferving memorials of remark-
able events and tranfadtions, might make them con-
tinue the ufc of the character, and improve it, con-
fidered as a method of conveying ideas, diftin6t from
that of language. And the character thus feparated
from the language might give rife to hieroglyphicai
writing in all its varieties.

Sixthly, The patriarchs after the flood in the line "
of Shew might convey in fucceffion the hiftory of
the creation, fall, deluge, calling of Abrahmn, &c.
either in the original pidture-writing improved, or
in the mixed character, which according to the third
of thefe confequences, denoted in fome imperfed grofs
way the words of the new language. And fome
of the difficulties of the book of Genejis may be
owing to its confiding of patriarchal records of one
of thefe kinds, tranflated by Mojes into the Hebrew
of his own times, and then written alphabetically,

I do not think it necejfary to have recourfe to any
fuch hypothefis as this, in order to vindicate the truth
and authority of the book of Genejis. The lensth
of life, even after the flood, to the time of MoJeSy
appears fufficient for the prefervation of fuch impor-
tant traditional hiftories uncorrupted in the religious
iine of Shern^ by natural means. Or God niighc
interpofe miraculoufly, as in fo many other inftances
in patriarchal times.

If it be objeded, that we have not the leafl intima-
tion of writing of any kind in GenefiSy I anfwer,
that this is a difficulty. However, one cannot draw-
any certain conclufions from an omiffion. The
original of writing is not likely to be one of the
firfl: things, -which would be committed to writing.
And if it was ufed only for the conveyance of im-
portant fads to the fuccceding generations, we have
no reafon to exped the incidental mention of it. It

X 2 was

3o8 Of Words, and the Ideas

was probably To tedious and difRcult a thing to exprefs
themfelves accurately in it, and vcibal mtfl'ages and
contracts fo eafy and n.uural in thofc finipie ages,
when the veracity of the mefTenoer or contraftor
was not fufpedled, as tliat wiiting was never iifed
after the confufion of tongues, when language be-
came copious, unlcfs in aftjirs of great confequence. ,

Pit^lure-writintj is alluded to in the fecond com-
mantlnrient, and mull have been in ufe for foine time
before, fince a fyftem of idolatry had been founded
upon it. And this may incline one to think, that it
had been chiefly employed in facred affairs, and
therefore perhaps communicated originally to Adam
bv God. However, if we fuppofe, that it did not
take place till after the flood, this will not totally vi-.
tiate the foregoing conjeftures. The main purport
of them may ftand with due alterations and allow-
ances. But it would be tedious to Hate all the varie-
ties in thinsis of fo uncertain a nature.

I come now to the art of alphabetical writing.
This I conie6lure to have been communicated mira-
culoufly by God to Mofes at Sinai., for the following
reafons, which, however, I do not judge to be deci-
five ones.

Firfl:, then, God is faid to have written with his
own finger upon the tables of ftone. And I think
it would be harfh to fuppofe this done in conformity
to, and, as one may fay, imitation of, any mere im-
perfeft human invention.

Secondly, The Ifraelites are the only people in the
whole world that have preferved any regular account
of their own original. This is eafily accounted for
upon fuppofition, that alphabetical writing was firfl
given to them in per feci ion ; and afterwards, fuppole
in the time of £//', borrowed by other nations, and
accommodated in an imperfe<ft manner to their
languages. But if we fuppofe any other nation, the
Egyptians or Arabians for inftance, to have invented

writing

cijfociated ivith them. 30$

writing before the time of MoJeSy it will be fome-
what difficult to afllgn a reafon, why other perfons
lliould not have borrowed this invention as well as
Mo/es, and, like him, have given feme account of
their own nation, and their anceftors ; and more dif-
ficult to affign a reafon why the people, who invented
alphabetical writing, (hould not do this.

As to the Egyptians in particular, their continuing
to \.^^G hieroglyphical writing, and excelling in it,
fhews, that they could not have invented alphabetical;
/or this, if we fuppofe it invented fo early as before
the time of Mofes, would have abolifhed that, juft
as the ufe of the ten cyphers has ail the other im-
perfe£t methods of notation of numbers. Nor does
it feem very likely, that hieroglyphical writing fliould
)■ Jead to alphabetical, but rather from it, fince hiero-
glyphical charadlers are the immediate reprefentatives
of objecfls and ideas, and the mediate reprefentatives
jnot of letters, or fimple articulate founds, but of
vwords, and even of cluflers of words. It feems
probable alfo, that the Egyptians would even be back-
ward in receiving alphabtrtical writing from the
IJraelites at the time that the Philijiines or Ph^eni-
dans d\d; as being then greatly advanced in the ufe
.of their own hieroglyphical writing, and prejudiced
jn its favour. And thus we may folve that very
•difficult queftion, why the F.gyptianSy who feem to
iaave ered'ted a kingdom early (however, I judge Nimr-
rod's to have been the firft by the manner in which
Mofes has mentioned it), and to have brought it to
confiderable perfeftion before Jojeph's time, and to
very great perfetftion afterwards, chiefly by his means,
ihould yet have left no hiftory of their affairs, not
(even of the great empire under Sejac or SeJoJiriSy and
!his fuccelTors. For they had no public calamities
^fufficient in any miCafure to deftroy all their records,
■till the time of Canibyjes; and the defolation under
him being lefs in degree, fhorter in duration, in a

X 3 kingdom

310 Of Words, and the Ideas

kingdom of greater extent, and two generations
Jaier in time, than that of the Jewijb itate under
Ncbuchadnezznr^ which yet did not deflroy the Jeivijh
records, could not have totally deftroyed the J\^yp(ian
records had they been more early, and hiperior
to the JcwSi in the ufe of alphabetical writing,
Kven the Greeks^ who had no alphabetical writing
till fix hundred years after the time o'i IVlqfcSy have given
a better account of their aftairs, than the Egyptians,
It ought, however, to be remarked in this place,
that if we fuppofe the Jewijh hiftory to have been re-
corded by the divine appointment and direction,
which is iiighly probable, this will lefl'en the force of
the prefent argument, but not quite deflroy it.

Thirdly, The late reception of writing amongft
the Greeks^ is both an argument, that it did not exift
in any other neighbouring nation before the time of
Mofes., and alfo is confident with its being miraculoufly
communicated to hwiy to be made ufc of for facred
purpofes, and for the prcfcrvation of the hiftory
of the world, and true religion, amongil God's pecu- '
liar people the IJraelites. 1 here fuppofe, that the art
of writing was not known to the Greeks^ till the
time q{ Cadmus \ and that he came into Greece, agree-
ably to Sir JJaac Neivton's, opinion, about the middle
of David's reign. And indeed, unlefs the principal
points of his chronology be admitted, it does not ap-
pear to me, that any rationale can be given of ancient
times, the inventions that rofe up in them, the
eftablifhment and duration of kingdoms, their mu-
tual intercourfcs, &c.

For, Firft, If alphabetical writing was known up-
on the continent oi Afia and Africa fix hundred years
before Cadmus., how could it be kept from the Greeks
till his arrival amongfl: them, and then accommodated
to the Greek tongue only very imperfectly ? For the
Greeks received but fixtcen letters from him. The
Greek tongue came itfelf perhaps from Egypt, in fome

meafurci

affbciated with them. 3 1 1

meafure; and they who brought the language two
generations before Cadmus^ would have brought an
exad method of writing it alphabetically, had they
been poITefled of any fuch. For it is not probable,
that Inachus, and the colonies of Egyptians that came
with him, and after him, fhould change their lan-
guage entirely for that of the poor wandering Cmme-
riansy whom they found in Greece, fince we fee in fadt,
that the colonies of Europeans do fometimes teach the
barbarous natives, where they go, an European lan-
guage ; but never change it for theirs.

Secondly, If alphabetical writing was given to
Mo/es miraculoufly, it is eafy to be conceived, that it
fhould not arrive at Greece fooner than the time of
Cadmus. For the Jews were a feparate people, their
priefts kept the writings of Mojes in the ark, i. e.
the only alphabetical writings in the world ; and mull
be fome time before they could be ready and experr
either in reading or writing : in their attempts to
copy, it is probable they would make fome miftakes
fo as to fall fhort of the purity and perfedion of the
art, as communicated by God j the neighbouring
nations feared and hated the Jfraelites, their religion,
and their God j they had probably a pidure-writing,
or perhaps fom>e imperfedl method of denoting
words, agreeably to what has been remarked above,
■which anfwered all purpofes that feemed neceflary to
them ; and thus the art of alphabetical writing might
not tranfpire to any of the neighbouring nations till
the time of Eli, when the ark, with the writings
oi MoJes in it, was taken by the Philijlines. For fince
the writings of MoJes were not in the ark, when it
was put into the temple by Solomon, it may be, that
the Philijlines kept them, and learnt from them the
art of writing alphabetically, being now fufficiently
prepared for it by fuch notions concerning it, as had
tranfpired to them previoufly in their former inter-
courfes with the IJraelites. And thus the Phmicians,

X 4 or

312 O/" Words, and the Ideas

or Pbiiijlinesy will have appeared the inventors of
letters to llic Greeks -J and Cadmus mny well be Tup-
pofed to have been able to accommodate the Phamcian
method of writing, in an impcrfcd manner, to the
Creek language, about two generations after the
taking of the ark. Thus alfo, when Samuel put the
writings of Mo/es together, as they had been copied
by the priefts, or others, in the oider in which they
now ftand in the. Pentateuch, there would be fomc
deviations from the original method of writing com-
municated to Mojes by God ; and thefe, with fuch as
happened in after-time^;, particularly upon the return
from tiie Babyiomjh captivity (when it is fuppofed by
ibme, that even the original letters were changed),
may have n^ade the ancient method of writing the
IlebreWy as the Jezvs pra(ftifc it in their Bibles for the
Synagogues without points, fo imperfe(5l as not to
nppear to be of divine original. For the llime rea-
fons, the corruptions of the Hebrew language, or the
language given to Heber or Peleg, at the confufion
of tongues before Mofes's time, may incline us to
think the Hebrew of the Pentateuch not fufficiently
regular for a divine communication. Much is alfo to
be afcribed to our own ignorance in both thefe cafes.
Plowever, there is a wonderful finiplicity and uni-
formity Hill left, both in the Biblical Hebrew, and in
the manner of writing it without points j fo great,
as to appear to me fuperior to the invention of rude
ancient times.

Fourthly, The order of the Greek and Latin alpha-
bets, by being taken from that of the Hebrew^ as we have
it in the alphabetical pfalms, bears teftimony to the
great antiquity of the Hebrew alphabet. It is to be
obferved here, that both the Greek and Latin alpha-
bets coincide with the Hebrew alphabet, as much as
with each other, or more ; and that there is no other
ancient alphabet remaining to be a competitor to the
Hebrew.

Fifthly,

J fijfociated with them. 313

Fifthly, The refolution of the complex articulate
founds of ancient languages into fimple elements or
letters, and then rccompofing thefe complex founds
in writing them down alphabetically, feems to me, as
obferved above, too difficult a problem for ancient
times; efpecially as they neither could fee the ufe
of it, nor conceive the practicability. It would have
appeared to them a tafk of an infinite extent ; they
would never conceive, that fb fmall a number of ele-
ments would be fufficienr, even fuppofing they could
firft hit upon the defign. It confirms this, that no
barbarous nation has ever invented alphabetical writing
for themfclves. They continue ignorant of it till
taught. However, let it be obferved, on the other
hand, that as the ancient languages were fimple and
narrow, the difficulty of analyfing their complex
founds would be the lefs on that account.

Sixthly, Since the method of making and ereCling
the tabernacle was communicated by God to Mojes,
Bezaleely and Aholiab, in a fupernatural manner, we
may more eafily fuppofe the art of writing alphabe-
tically to be a divine gift. But then it is fome ob-
iedlion to this, that Mojes has not mentioned it as a
divine gift, at lead not exprefsly.

Seventhly, The time ol Mofes appears to be a fuit-
able one for fuch a gift, as human life was then, per-
haps, jufl: brought down to the prefent degree of
fhortnefs. Till Mofes's timiC, the length of life had
preferved the facred traditions uncorrupted, either with
or without the helps above-m.entioned, at leaft in the
line of Abraham ; but then tradition began to be
mixed with fables, and to lead to idolatry.

Eighthly, Alphabetical writing, by being intro-
duced among the IJraelites in the wildernefs, would
abolifh hieroglyphical, and confequently cut off one
fource of idolatry. It would likewife make them
fuperior to the Egyptians^ their enemies, in the art
of writing ; who, perhaps, prided themfelves much

upon

3 14 Of Words, and the Iiltri^s

iijion account of their perfedion in hieroglyphical
writing, as they miglit alfo in ilieir river, the vvif-
dom of their pohcy, the comparative greatnefs of
their kingdom, ilieir magical arts, religious cere-
monies, iVc. For this would tend to the glory of the
God of the JfraelUes^ anil the cllablifliment of the
true religion amongd them.

It may be objecfted here, that alphabetical writing
was in ufe before the giving of the law at Sinai, fince
Mofes was dire(fted before this to write an account
of the battle with Amalek in a book , alfo to write
the names of the children of Ifrael upon the high
priefl's breaft- plate, like tlic engravings of a fignet.
1 anfwer, that both thefe may refer to a pidture-
writing, or to fome improvement of it, whereby entire
words were denoted, without being refolved into
their fimple founds. The firft might alfo be a pro-
phetic intimation to Mofes, however not underftood
by him when it was given, that he fhould be foon en-
abled to write in a much more complete manner than
he, or his enemies the Egytians, could at prefent.

The Edomites feem alio to have had fome kind of
writing early, from the account which we have of
their dukes in Genefts. But this might be only
pidure or verbal writing, explained to Samuel by
fome Edomite, at the time when he put together the
writings of Moj'es : or they might learn writing
from the Jfraelites, fooner than any other nation, as
being nearly related in blood, and contiguous to them
in fituation.

The fimplicity and uniformity of the Arabic
tonsue would alfo incline one to think that the in-
habitants of Arabia had alphabetical writing early,
this having a great tendency to preferve a fixed
ftandard in a language. But the IfJimaelites, or Midi-
aniteSy who were nearly related to the Ifraehtes, or
the Keniies, who lived amongft them, might learn it
from them, perhaps even during their abode in the
wildcrncfb. We may obfeive alfo, that the Arabic

tongue

, affbciated with them. 315

tongue was nor only fixed, but perhaps rendered
more regular, foon after the time of Mahomety by
means of the Alcoran^ and of the grammars that
were made for this language fome time afterwards;
and that, before Mahomet''^, time the Arabians had
little communication with their neighbours, and
therefore would preferve their language more pure
and fimple.

■ The changes which have happened to languages,
and to the methods of writing them fince the in-
vention of letters, and which are treated of with
great copioufnefs in the writings of grammarians and
critics, afford innumerable atteftations to the doftrine
of afibciation, and may, converfely, be much illuftra-
ted by it. But the full detail of this mull be left to
thofe, who are well fkilled in the feveral ancient and
modern languages.

PROP. LXXXIV.

T!o explain the general Nature of a philo/ophical Lan-
guage, and hint Jome Methods^ in which it might he
conjiru^ed, upon the foregoing Principles.

If we fuppofe mankind poflfefled of fuch a lan-
guage, as that they could at pleafure denote all
their conceptions adequately, /. e. without any defi-
ciency, fuperfluity, or equivocation; if, moreover,
this language depended upon a few principles alTumed,
not arbitrarily, but becaufe they were the fhorteft and
beft pofiible, and grew on from the fame principles
indefinitely, fo as to correfpond to every advancement
in the knowledge of things, this language might be
termed a philofophical one, and would as much exceed
any of the prefent languages, as a paradifiacal ftate
does the mixture of happinefs and mifery, which has
been our portion ever fince the fall. And it is

no

31 6 Of Words, and the KitMs

no improbable ruppofuion, that the language given
by God to /Idam and livcy before the fall, was of this
kind ; and, ihout/Ji it nii^iu be narrow, anlwcred all
their exigencies pcrfedly well.

Now ijiere are feveral methods, in which it docs
not recm impolliblc for mankind in future ages to
accomplilh fo great a dcfign.

Thus, Firfl, They may examine all the pofllblc
fimplc articulations of which their organs are capable,
with all the combinations, or complex articulate founds,
that refult from them, and the relations which ihefe
bear one to another, and affign to each refpeflively
fuch fimple and complex ideas, and fuch variations
of the lall, as a deep infight into the nature of things,
obje^ls, ideas, the powers of the human mind, &c.
Ihall demand by a natural claim, fo as to make every
exprefTion the fliortert and befl: poflible. And though
this, in our prefent flate of ignorance, cannot but
feem an impra6licable projedV, yet the fame ignorance
fhould teach us, that we can form no notions at all
of the great increafe of knowledge, which may corrje
in future ages, and which feems promifed to come in
the latter happy times preditled by the prophecies.
However, the great, and to former times inconceiv-
able, advancement of knowledge, which has been
made in the two laft centuries, may help a little to
qualify our prejudices.

Secondly, If all the fimple articulate founds, with
all the radical words, which are found in the prefent
languages, were appropriated to objeds and ideas
agreeably to the prefent fenfes of words, and their
fiinefs to reprefent obi'e<5ls and ideas, fo as to make
all confiftent with itfelf; if, farther, the bell: rules of
etymology and fyntax were feledted from the prefent
languages, and applied to the radical words here
fpoken of, fo as to render them capable of cxprclTing
all the variations in objedls and ideas, as far as pof-
fible, i, €. fo as to grow proportionably to the growth

of

ajjbciated with them. 317

of knowledge, this might alfo be termed a philofo-
phical language ; and, though more imperfe<5t and
narrow than the laft, yet feems more pofTible to be
brought to execution and praflice.

Thirdly, If fuch fimple articulations as are now
wanting in the Hebrezu alphabet were added to it,
and its radical words, compofed of all the combi-
nations of twos and threes completed, proper fimple
fenfes being afligned to them, from other languages
fuppofe, and particularly from the Arabic^ Chaldecy
SyriaCy and Samariiayiy as in Caftellus\ Lexicon, and
other books of a like kind j if, farther, fuch new
rules of etymology and fyntax were added to thofc
which take place at prefent in the Biblical HebreWy as
this increafe of the radicals, and application of the
language to the whole aggregate of objeds and ideas
requires j we fhould have a much more fimple, precile
and extenfive language, than any now in being. It
would alio be eafy to be underftood by the Jews in
all quarters of the world. For moft of them have
fome knowledge of the Biblical HebreWy and many
iinderftand the Rabbinical, which feems to be formed
upon a plan not very unlike that here propofed, though
without any exprefs defign j and to which, therefore,
a due regard ought to be had by any one, who fhould
attempt to execute this plan. Many eallern nations,
and the Alabometans every where, would alfo be expert
in learning this language, from the relation and
refemblance which it v/ould bear to languages already
known by them ; and it would be eafier to be learnt
by perfed novices than any other, on account of its
greater firnplicity and regularity. A didlionary might
be made for it in itfelf ; the Biblical HebrezVy where
its fenfe is determinate and known, being the bafis,
or thing given.

In the mean time, vt'here the writer endeavours to
exprefs himfclf with plainnefi*, fincerity, and pre-

ciiion,

ji8 OJ Words, and the Ideas

cifion, bfir\g fi'lt duly qualified by the knowledge of
his rulijtifl:, and the rcatler pays a due regard to
him, as his teacher, for the then prcfent time, by
uling fufficient induftry and candour, the ill eflcdtg
of the confufion of tongues become evanefcent in
refpeft of them. But it would be happy to take away
all occalion of midake from the bulk of mankind,
and to give them an oppoitunity of learning import
tant truths with more eafc and certainty, and in a
Ihorter time, than they can at prefent.

It may not l">e amifs to add here, that Mr. 'Byrom\
method of Ihort-hand affords an accurate and ele-
gant inftance of the polTibility of proceeding in fuch
matters upon fimple and philofophical principles;
his fhort-hand being a real and adequate reprefen-
tation of the founds of the EngliJJj tongue, as far as
is necefiary for determining the fenfe, and that in the
fhorteft manner polTible. If we were poflcfled of a
philofophical language, it ought to be denoted by
this charader, mutatis mutandis,

PROP. LXXXV.

'^'o illujlrate and confirm the general Do^rine of Ajjocia-
tion by the particular yljfociations, that take Place in
rejpe£l of Language,

This has been done, in great meafure, already, in
the corollaries to the twelfth propofition. I will
here infert fome obfervations of a like kind, which
would have interrupted the reader too much in that
place, but may properly follow the account of language
given in this fedliorL

Let ^, hi r, d^ &c. the feveral letters of an al-

, phabct fuppofed to be fufficiently extenfive for the

I pufpofe, reprefent refpedively the feveral fimple

ienfible pleafures and pains, to which a child becomes

' fubje6t upon its firfl: entrance into the world. Then

will

ajjociated with them, 319

mU the various combinations of thefe letters repre-
ent the various combinations of pleafures and pains,
qrmed by the events and incidents of human Hfe ;
nd, if we fuppofe them to be alfo the words of a
anguage, this language will be an emblem or
adumbration of our paflage through the prefent life ;
the feveral particulars in this being reprefentcd by
analogous ones in that.

Thus the reiterated imprefiions of the fimple fcn-
fible pleafures and pains made upon the child, fo as
to leave their miniatures, or ideas, are denoted by
his learning the alphabet; and his various aflbciations
of ihefe ideas, and of the pleafures and pains them-
fclves, by his putting letters and fyllables together,
in order to make words : and when affociation has
fo far cemented the component parts of any aggre-
^p.te of ideas, pleafures and pains, together, as that
...icy appear one indivifible idea, pleafure or pain, the
child muft be fuppofed by an analogous affociation
to have learnt to read without fpclling.

As the child's words become more and more
polyfyllabic by compofition and decompofition, till at
length vv'hole clufters run together into phrafes and
fentences, all whofe parts occur at once, as it were,
to the memory, fo his pleafures and pains become
more and more complex by the combining of combi-
nations ; and in many cafes numerous combinations
concur to form one apparently fimple pleafure.

The feveral relations of words, as derived from
the fame root, as having the fame prepofitions and
terminations, &c. reprefent correfponding relations
in the compound ideas, pleafures and pains.

When the complex pleafures and pains, formed
fjom miniatures of the fenfible ones, become the
means of gaining other and greater pleafures, viz. by
fading from frequent repetition, and fo becoming
mere ideas, or by any other method, we muft fuppofe,

that

jdo Of Words, and the Ideas

that (Hir prtd-'Mt knowkd^e in language is ufed as a
iiicjns of attaining farther knowledge in it.

As the fight and found of words, imprcflcd upon
us on coninion occafions, do not at all fuggcft the
original of ihefc words from finiplc letters, this
being a light in which grammarians and linguifts
alone confider words, fo the complex pleafures and
pains may pafs over men's minds, and be felt daily,
and yet not be confidered by them as mere combina-
tions, unk'fs they be peculiarly attentive and inquifi-
live in tliis rcf^Hrdft.

This comparifon may ierve as a method of anifl:»
ing tlie reader's C()ncepiions, in refpeft of the man-
ner in which combinations of n^iniatures are formed.
It is alfo a confiderable evidence in favour of the ge-
neral dotflrine of aObciation, fince language is not
only a type of thefe aflbciated combinations, but
one part of the thing typified. Was human life
perfect, our happinefb in it would be proj^erly repre-
fcnted by that accurate knowledge of things which
a truly philofophical language -would give us. And
if wc fuppofc a nuiYibcr of peifons thus making a
progrefs in puie unmixed happinefs, and capable
bvHh of expreffing their own feelings, and of undcr-
flanding thofe of others, by means of a p'erfe6l and
adequate language, they might be like new fenles
and powers of perception to each other, and both
give to and receive from each other happinefs indefi-
nitely. But as human life is, in fad, a mixture of
happinefs and mifery, fo all our languages muft,
from the difi^crence of our afibciations, convey falfe-
hood as well as truth, as above noted. And yet, fincc
/our imperfect languages improve, purify, and correct
themfelvcs perpetually by themfelvcs, and by other
■ means, fo that we may hope at lall to obtain a Ian- '
guage, which fhall -be an adequate reprefentation of
ideab; and a pui-e channel of conveyance for truth,-

alone,

ajjociated zvilh them, 321

alone, analogy feems to fuggeft, that the mixture of
pleaibres and pains, which we now experience, will
gradually tend to a colledion of pure pleafures only,
and that aflbciation may be the means of effecting
this, as remarked in the ninth corollary of the four-
teenth propofuion.

SCHOLIUM.

Mufical founds afford, like articulate ones, various
inftances of the power of aflbciation. It ought to
be remarked here alfo, that the concords formed from
the twelve femitones in the oftave, are more in
number than the difcords j and that the harfhnefs of
thefe laft: pafles by degrees into the limits of pleafure,
partly from frequent repetition, partly from their
aflbciations with concords.

The do6lrine of aflbciation may likewife be illuf-
trated by that of colours. Thus, let the feven pri-
mary colours, with their (hades, reprefent the ori-
ginal fenfible pleafures ; then will the various aflbci-
ated pleafures of human life, fuppoflng that we en-
joyed a ftate of unmixed happinefs, be reprefented
by the compound vivid colours, which natural bo-
dies, of regular makes, and ftrong powers of re-
fledion, exhibit to the eye. White, which is com-
pounded of all the colours reflcfted copioufly, and
which yet, as far as the eye can difcern, bears no re-
femblance to any of them, would reprefent a ftate of
great mental happinefs, ultimately deduced from all
the fenfible pleafures, and in which notwithftanding>
the perfon himfelf diftinguiflies no traces of any of
thefe. And, agreeably to this, light, brightnefs, and
whiteneG, are often put for perfeflion, purity, and
happinefs, as obfcurity, blacknefs, and darknefs, are
for impcrfedlion and mifery. Befides white, there
are other compound colours, which bear little or no
refemblance to any of the primary ones, as well as

Vol. I. Y many

322 Of Words, and the Ideas

many in which fomc primary colour is evidently pre-
dominant. Thefc rtpreknt the levcral kinds and de-
grees of inferior compound pleafures, fome of which
are, according to common ellimation, quite foreign
to the fcnfes, whilfl: others are manifeftly tinged with
pleafant fcnfations, and their miniatures.

If the moderate agitations which light caufes in
bodies, when it is by tliem reflcftcd back upon, or
tranfmitted to other bodies, be fuppofed to correfpond
to pleafant vibrations in tlie nervous fyftcm i and the
greater agitations, which it excites in thofe that ab-
loibir, to the violent vibrations in which pain confiftsi
then the colours of natural bodies, iome of which in-
cline to light, and fome to darknefs, and that with
all the poflible varieties and mixtures of the primary
colours, may be confidered as the language by which
they exprefs that mixture of pleafures and pains in
human life, to which their agitations are luppofed
to correfpond. And htre again we may obferve, that
thougli there are fome natural bodies, which abforb
and ftifle within ihemfelves almoft all the light which
they receive, and which accordingly are dark, black,
and unpleafant to the beholders, yet the greatcft part
of natural bodies either refleft lively colours, or re-
fle6t fome, and tranfmit others, or tranfmit all the
colours freely. And this type is alfo, in part, the
thing typified, inafmuch as agreeable and difagree-
able colours make part of the original pleafures and
pains of human life.

Compound taftes may likewifc illuflrate affoci-
ation ; as above noted under the twelfth propofition :
for where the number of ingredients is very great,
as in Venice treacle, no one can be tailed didinflly ;
whence the compound appears to bear no relation to
its component parts, it is to be obferved farther,
that ingredients which are feparately difagreeable, of-
ten enter compounds, whofe taftes are highly agree-
able. Now in thefe cafes either the oppofite taftes

nr>ufl:

iijfociated with them, 323

murt coalefce into one, which pleafes from the propol-
lence of agreeable taftes upon the whole, as foon
as the aflbciation is cemented fufficiently, or elfe the
difasreeable taftes muft, by frequent repetition, fall
within the limits of pleafure an laft; which feems
rather to be the truth.

The fimilarity of the three inftances of this fcho-

"iuni arifes from the analogy of our fenfes to each

other, and to our frame in general; wliich is the

'Sum total of all our fenfes. And, converfely, they

onfirm this analogy.

t

Y 2 SECT.

324 Q/^ Propofitions, and

SECT. II.

OF PROPOSITIONS. AND THE NATURE
OF ASSENT.

PROP. LXXXVI.

To explain the Nature of JJJ'cni and Dijfent, and to
JJjew from what Caujes they arije.

It appears from the whole tenor of the laft: fec-
tion, that afi'ent and diflcnt, whatever their pre-
cife and particular nature may be, muft come under
the notion of ideas, being only thofe very complex
internal feelings, which adhere by aflbciation to fuch
clufters of words as are called propofitions in gene-
ral, or affirmations and negations in particular. The
fame thing is remarked in the tenth corollary to the
twelfth propofition.

But in order to penetrate farther into this difficult
and important point, I will diftinguifh affent (and
by confeciuence its oppofite, difient) into two kinds,
rational and pra6tical ; and define each of thefe.

Rational aflfent then to any propofition may be
defined a readinefs to affirm it to be tiue, proceeding
from a clofe aflbciation of the ideas fuggefted by the
propofition, with the idea, or internal feeling, be-
longing to the word truth ; or of the terms of the
propofition with the word truth. Rational diflent
is the oppofite to this. This aflent might be
called verbal ; but as every perfon fuppoles himfelf
always to have fufficient reafon for fuch readinefs to
affirm or deny, 1 rather choofe to call it rational.

Prafticai aflent is a readinefs to a6t in fuch man-
ner as the frequent vivid recurrency of the rational

aflent

the Nature of Aflent. 325

afTent^difpofes us to aftj and praflical difient the con-
trary.

Praftical aflent is therefore the natural and necef-
fary confcquence of rational, when fufficiently ini-
preflTcd. There are, however, two cautions to be
fubjoined here, viz. Firft, That fome propofitions,
mathematical ones for inftance, admit only of a ra-
tional aflent, the pra6tical not being applied to them
in common cafes. Secondly, That the pradical af-
fent is fometimes generated, and arrives at a high de-
gree of fl:rength, without any previous rational af-
fent, and by methods that have little or no connexion
with it. Yet fliill it is in general, much influenced
by it, and, converfely, exerts a great influence upon it.

; All this will appear more clearly when we come to the

( inftances.

\ Let us next inquire into the caules of rational and
praftical aflent, beginning with that given to mar
tbeiTiatical conclufions.

Now the caufe that a perfon affirms the truth of
the propofition, twice two is fouVj is the entire coin-
cidence of the vifible or tangible idea'of twice two
with that of four, as irnprefled upon the mind by va-
rious objeds. We fee every where, that twice two
and four are only diff'ercnt names for the fame im-
preflion. A''nd it is mere aflfociation which appro-
priates the word truth, its definition, or its internal
feeling, to this coincidence.

Where the numbers are fo large, that we are not
able to form any diftinft viflble ideas of them, as

H when we fay, that 12 times 12 is equal to 144; a
coincidence of the words arifing from fome method
of reckoning up 12 times 12, fo as to conclude with
144, and rcfembling the coincidence of words which
attends the juft-mentioned coincidence of ideas in the
Ampler numerical propofltions, is. the foundation
of our rational aflent. For we often do, and might
always verify the fimpleft: numerical propofltions by

Y 3 reckoning

326 Of Propofitions, and

reckoning up the numbcis. The operations of ad-
dition, Jubtradion, multijilicntion, divifion, and ex-
tiadion of roots, with all the moft coipplex ones
relating to algebraic quantities, confidered as the ex-
ponents of nuiTiberSj are no more tiian methods of
producing this coincidence of words, founded upon
and rifing above one another. And it is mere aflb-
ciation again, which appropriates the word truth to
the coincidence of the words, or lymbols, that de-
note the numbers.

It is to be remarked, however, that this coinci-
dence of words is, by thofe who look deeper into
things, fuppofed to be a certain argument, that the
vifible ideas of the numbers under confideration,
as of 12 times 12, and 144, would coincide, as much
as the vifible ideas of twice two and four, were they
as clear and diflincV. And thus the real and abfolute
truth is faid by kich perfons to be as great in complex
numerical propofitions, as in the fimplcft. All this
agrees with what Mr. Locke has obferved concerning
numbers, viz. that their names are neceflary in or-
der to our obtaining diftinft ideas of them j for by
dillincl ideas he muft be underftood to mean proper
methods of diftinguifhing them from one another, fo
as to reafon juftiy upon them. He cannot mean
didindt vifible ideas.

In geometry there is a like coincidence of lines,
angles, fpaces, and folid contents, in order to prove
them equal in fimple cafes. Afterwards, in complex
cafes, we fubditute the terms whereby equal things
are denoted for each other, alfo the coincidence of
the ternns, for that of the vifible ideas, except in
the new itep advanced in the propofition ; and thus
get a new equality, denoted by a new coincidence of
terms. This refembles the addition of unity to any
num,ber, in order to make the next, as of 1 to 20,
in order to make 21. We have no diftincl vifible
idea, either of 20 or 21 j but we have of the differ-
ence

)he Nature of Aiknt, 327

?nce between them, by fancying to ourfelves a con-
fufed heap of things fuppofed or called 2.0 in num-
ber i and then farther fancying i to be added to ic.
By a like procefs in geometry we arrive at the de~
monftration of the moft complex propofitions.

The properties of numbers are applied to geome-
try in many cafes, as when we demonftrate a line
or fpace to be half or double of any other, or in
any other rational proportion to it.

And as in arithmetic words (land for indiflinil
ideas, in order to help us to realbn upon them as
accurately as if they were diftind ; alfo cyphers for
words, and letters for cyphers, both for the fame
purpofe J fo letters are put for geometrical quan-
tities alfo, and the agreerr.ents of the firft for thofe
of the lafl. And thus we fee the foundation upon
which the whole doflrine of quantity is built ; for all
quantity is expounded either by number or exten-
Hon, and their common and fole exponent is alge-
bra. The coincidence of ideas is the foundation of
the rational aflent in fimple cafes j and that of ideas
and terms together, or of terms alone, in complex
V ones. This is upon fuppofition that the quantities
under confideration are to be proved equal. But, if
they are to be proved unequal, the want of coinci-
dence anfwers the fame purpofe. If they are in any
numeral ratio, this is only the introdu6lion of a new
coincidence. Thus, if, inftead of proving /I to be
equal to i?, we are to prove it equal to half 5, the
two parts of B muft coincide with each other, either
in idea or terms, and yf with one.

And thus it appears, that the ufe of words is ne-
cefiary for geometrical and algebraical reafonings,
as well as for arithmetical.

We may fee alfo, that aflbciation prevails in every
part of the procefles hitherto defcribed.

But thefe are not the only caufes of giving rational
ftflent to mathematical propofitions, as this is defined

Y 4 above.

323 Of Propofitions, ami

above. The memory of having once examined and
afll'iUfd to each (iep of a demonftration, the autho-
rity of an approved writer, &:c. are fufficient to gain
our aflcnt, though we undcrftand no more than the
import of the propolition ; nay, even though we do
not proceed fo far as this. Now this is mere affoci-
ation again \ this mcmoiy, authority, &c. being, in
innumerable inlUnccs, afibciated with the before-
mentioned coincidence of ideas and terms.

But here a new circumllance arifcs. For memory
and authority are fomeiimes found to miflcad ; and
this oppofite coincidence of terms puts the mind into
a (late of doubt, fo that fometimes truth may recur,
and unite itfelf with the propofition under confidcr-
ation, fometimes falfehood, according as the memo-
ry, authority, &c. in all their peculiar circumflances,
have been alVociated with truth or falfehood. How-
ever, the foundation of aflent is ftill the fame. I
here dcfcribe the facfl only. And yet, fince this fadl
mull: always follow from the fixed immutable laws
of our frame, the obligation to aflent (whatever be
meant by this phrafe) muft coincide with the faft.

And thus a mathematical propofition, with the ra-
tional afix^nt or diflient arifing in the mind, as foon as
it is prelented to it, is nothing more than a group of
ideas, united by aflbciation, ;'. e. than a very com-
plex idea, as was affirmed above of propofitions in
general. And this idea is not merely the j^m of
the ideas belonging to the terms of the propofi-
tion, but alfo includes the ideas, or internal feelings,
whatever they be, which belong to equality, coin-
cidence, truth, and, in fome cafes, thofe of utility,
importance, &:c.

For mathematical propofitions are, in fome cafes,
attended with a practical afiTcnt, in the proper fenfe
of thefe words j as when a perfon takes this or that
method of executing a projecfled defign, in confe-
cjuence of fome matiiemacical propofition aflfcnted to

from

the Nature of AflTent. 329

from his own examination, or on the authority of
others. Now, that which produces the train of vo-
luntary adions, here denoting the praftical aflent, is
the frequent recurrency of ideas of utility and im-
portance. Thefe operate according to the method laid
down in the twentieth propofition, i. e. by aflbciaiion ;
and though the rational affcnt be a previous requi-
fice, yet the degree of the pra6lical affenc is propor-
tional to the vividnefs of thefe ideas ; and in mofl
cafes they ftrengthen the rational affent by a reflex
operation.

Propofitions concerning natural bodies are of two
kinds, vulgar and fcientifical. Of the firft kind arc,
that milk is white, gold yellow y that a dog barksy
&c. Thefe are evidently nothing but forming the
prefent complex idea belonging to material objedls
into a propofition, or adding fome of its common
afibciates, fo as to make it more complex. There
is fcarce room for diffent in fuch propofitions, they
being all taken from common appearances. Or if
any doubt fhould arife, the matter muft be con-
fidered fcientifically. The affent given to thefe pro-
pofitions arifes from the affociations of the terms, as
well as of the ideas denoted by them.

In fcientifical propofitions concerning natural bo-
dies a definition is made, as of gold from its pro-
perties, fuppofe its colour, and fpecific gravity, and
another property or power joined to them, as a con-
ilant or common affociate. Thus gold is faid to be
du6lile, fixed, or foluble in aqua regia. Now to
perfons, who have made the proper experiments a
fufficient num^ber of times, thefe words fugged the
ideas which occur in ihofe experiments, and, con-
vcrefely, are fuggefted by them, in the fame manner
as the vulgar propofitions above-mentioned fuggeft
and are fuggefted by common appearances. But
then, if the^ be fcientifical perfons, their readinefs to
affirm, that gold is foluble in aqua regia univerfally,

arifes

220 Of Propofitions, mid

arifcs alfo fiom the experiments of others, and from
their own and other's obfervations on tlic conftancy
and tenor of nature. 'I'hcy know, that the colour,
and fpecific gravity, or almoll any two or three re-
markable qualities of any natural body, infer the reft,
being never found without them. This is a general
truth ; and as thefe general terms are obferved to coin-
cide, in fadl, in a great variety of inftances. To they
coincide at once in the imagination, when applied
to gold, or any other natural body, in particular.
The coincidence of general terms is alfo obferved
to infer that of the particular cafes in many inftances,
be files thofe of natural bodies; and this unites the
fubjecl and predicate of the propofition, goU is Joluble
in aqua regia^ farther in thofe who penetrate ftill
deeper into abftradt fpeculations. And hence we
may fee, as before, Firft, That terms or words arc
abfolutely necciiary to the art of reafoning : Secondly,
That our aflenc is here alio, in every ftep of the
procelb, deducible from afibciation.

The propofitions formed concerning natural bodies
are often attended with a high degree of pradical
aflent, arifing chiefly from fome fuppofcd utility
and importance, and which is no ways proportional
to the foregoing, or other fuch like allowed caufes of
rational aflent. And in fome cafes the pradical af-
fent takes place before the rational. But then, after
fome time, the i^aiional alfcnt is generated and cemented
moft firmly by the prevalence of the praflical. This
procefs is particularly obfervable in the regards paid
to medicines, /. e. in the rational and pra6lical aflfcnt
to rhe propofitions concerning their virtues.

It is to be obferved, that children, novices, un-
learned perfons, &c. give, in many cafes, a practical
aflent upon a fingle inftancej and that this arifes from
the fir ft and fimplcfl of the affociations here confi-
dered. The influence of the pradlical afl^ent over
the rational arifes plainly from their being joined toge-
ther

ihe Nature of AfTent. 331

ther in fo many cafes. The vividnefs of the ideas
arifing from the fuppofed utility, importance, &c.
does alfo unite the fubjed and predicate fooner and
clofcr, agreeably to what has been obferved in the
general account of aflbciation.

The evidences for paft fafls are a man's own me-
cnory, and the authority of others. Thefe are the
ufuaj affociates of true paft fafls, under proper
reftiictions, and therefore beget the readinefs to
affirm a paft fa6t to be true, i. e. the rational afient.
The integrity and knowledge of the witnefles, being
the principal reftiiftion, or requifite, in the accounts
of paft fads, become principal affociates to the affent
to them j and the contrary qualities to diffent.

If it be afked, how a narration of an event,
fuppofed to be certainly true, fuppofed doubtful, or
fuppofed entirely fiftitious, differs in its effedt upon
the mind, in the three circumftances here alleged,
the words being the fame in each, I anfwer, firft,
in having the terms true, doubtful, and fiSiitious,
with a variety of ufual affociates to thefe, and the
correfponding internal feelings of refpe(5l, anxiety,
diflike, &c. conneded with them refpe(5lively; whence
the whole effefts, exerted by^jeach upon the mind,
will differ confiderably from one 'another. Secondly,
If the event be of an interefting nature, as a great
advantage accruing, the death of a near friend, the
affefcing related ideas will recur ofccner, and, by fo
recurring agitate the mind more, in proportion to the
fuppofed truth of the event. And it confirms this,
that the frequent recurrency of an interefting event,
fuppofed doubtful, or even fictitious, does, by de-
grees, make it appear like a real one, as in reveries,
reading romances, feeing plays, &c. The affeftion
of mind may be called the pradlical affent to paft
faftsj and it frequently draws after it the rational, as

in the other inftances above alleged.

The

33^ Of Propoficions, and-

The evidence for future fa(5ls is of the fame kind
with that for the propofitions concerning natural bo-
dies, being like ir, taken from indu(5tion and ana-
logy. I'his is the caufe of the rational aflent. The
pra6lic3l de{)ends upon the iccurrency of the ideas,
and the degree of agitation produced by them in the
mind. Hence refle(5lion makes the pra6lical aflent
grow for a long time after the rational is arifen to
its height J or if the practical arifes without the ra-
tional, in any confiderable degree, which is often the
cafe, it will generate the rational. Thu^ the lan-
guine are apt to believe and aflcrt what they hope,
and the timorous what they fear.

There are many fpeculative, abftrafled propofitions
in logic, metaphyfics, ethics, controverfial divinity,
Sec. the evidence for which is the coincidence or
analogy of the abftra^l terms, in certain particular
applications of them, or as confidcred in their gram-
matical relations. This caufcs the rational aflTent.
As to the praftical aflcnt or dilfent, it arifes from the
ideas of importance, reverence, piety, duty, ambi-
tion, jealoufy, envy, felf-intereft, &:c. which inter-
mix themfelves in thefe fubjedls, and, by doing fo,
in fome cafes add'gVeat flrength to the rational af-
fcnt i in others dellroy it, and convert it into its
oppofite.

And thus it appears, that rational aflent has dif-
ferent caufes in propofitions of different kinds, and
priftical likewife; that the caufes of rational are alfo
ditfcreat from thofe of pradical ; that there is how-
ever, a great affinity, and general refemblance, in
all the caufes j that rational and pradical afiient exert
a perpetual reciprocal efFeft upon one another; and
confequentiy, that the ideas belonging to aflent and
difTent, and their equivalents and relatives, are
highly complex ones, unlefs in the cafes of very fim-
ple propofitions, fuch as mathematical ones. For,

be fides

the Nature of AfTent. 23i

befides the coincidence of ideas and terms, they in-
clude in other cafes, ideas of utility, importance,
refpeft, difrefpedt, ridicule, religious afFcdions, hope,
fear, &c. and bear fome grofs general proportion
CO the vividnefs of thefe ideas.

Cor. I. When a perfon fays video meliora pro-
iioque, deteriora Jequor ; it fhews that the rational and
pradlical aflent are at variance, that they have oppo-
fite caufes, and that neither of thefe has yet deftroyed
the other.

CoR. 1. The rational and pra6lical faith in reli-
gious matters are excellent means of begetting each
other.

, CoR. 3. Vicious men, i. e. all perfons who wane
pradical faith, muft be prejudiced againft the hifto-
rical and other rational evidences in favour of revealed
religion.

Cor. 4. It is impoffible any perfon fliould be (o
fceptical, as not to have the complex ideas denoted by
aflent and diflent aflbciated with a great variety of
propofitions, in the fame manner, as in other perfons j
juft as he muft have the fame ideas in general affixed
to the words of his native language, as other men
have. A pretended fceptic is therefore no more than
a perfon who varies from the common ufagc in his
application of a certain fet of words, viz. truth, cer-
tainty, aflent, diflent, &c.

Cor. 5. As there is a foundation for unity amongft
mankind in the ufe and application of words, (o
t^here is for a unity in the aflent, or complex ideas
belonging to propofitions ; and a philofophicaJ lan-
guage, or any other method of bringing about the
firft unity, would much conduce to this. A careful
examination of things, of the world natural, the hu-
man mind, the fcriptures, would conduce much alfo.
But candour, fimplicity, and an humble lenfe of our
own ignorance, which may be called a religious or
chriftian fcepricifm, is the principal requifite, and

that

334 ^f Piopofitions, and

that without wliich this part of the confufion at Bahet
can never be remedied. When religion has equally
and fully nbforbed difl'erent perfons, fo that God is, in
relpert of them, all in allj as far as the prefent con-
dition of mortality will permit, their practical aflent
mu(t be the fame ; and tlierefore their rational cannot
difter long or widely.

The ideas and internal feeling*; which arifc in the
mind, from words and projx)fitions, may be com-
pared to, and illulb.ited by, thofe which the ap-
pearances of ditVerent perfons excite. Suppofc two
perfons, A and i?, to go together into a crowd, and
there each of them to fee a variety of perfons whom
he knew in different dcgiees, as well as many utter
ftrangers. // would not have the fame ideas, and
affociations railed in him from viewing the feveral
faces, •dreires, &^c. of the perfons in the crowd, as
jB, partly from his having a different knowledge
of, and acquaintance with them ; partly from dif-
ferent predifpofitions to approve and difapprove. But
let A and B become equally acquainted with them
and acquire, by education and affociation, the fame
predifpofitions of mind, and then they will at laft
make the fame judgment of each of the perfons
whom they fee.

Cor. 6. Religious controverfies concerning ab-
(Iraft propofitions arife generally from the different
degrees of refpedl paid to terms and phrafes, which
conduce little or nothing to the generation of pradli-
cal faith, or of love to God, and trull in him through
Chriff.

PROP.

ihe Nature of Affent. 335

PROP. LXXXVII.

Wo deduce Rules for the Afcertainment of Truth, and
Advancement of Knowledge, from the mathematical
Methods of confidering ^antity.

This is done in the doftrine of chances, with re-
ped to the events there confidered. And though
we feldom have fuch precife data, in mixed fciences
as are there aiTuncied, yet there are two remarks of
very general ufe and application, deducible from
the doftrine of chances.

Thus, Fird, If the evidences brought for any pro-
pofition, fail, &:c. be dependent on each other, fo
that the firft is required to fupport the fecond, the
fecond to fupport the third, bcc, i. e. if a failure of
any one of the evidences renders all the reft of no
value, the feparate probability of each evidence muft
be very great, in order to make the propofition cre-
dible j and this holds fo much the more, as the de-
'pendent evidences are more numerous. For in-

ftance, if the value of each evidence be — , and the

a

number of evidences be n, then will the refulting
probability be — -. I here fuppofe abfolute certainty
to be denoted by i ; and confequentiy, that a can ne-
ver be lefs than I. Now it is evident, that de-

creafes with e^ery increafe both of ^ and n.

Secondly, If the evidences brought for any pro-
pofition, fa6l, &c. be independent on each other, i, e,
if they be not neceflary to fupport each other, but
concur, and can, each of them, when eftablifhed upon
its own proper evidences, be applied direftly to cfta-
blifh the propofition, fa6t, &c. in queftion, the de-
ficiency in the probability of each muft be very great,

in

33^ QA Propofitions, and

in order to render the propofition perceptibly doubt-
ful ; and this holds fo much the more, as the evi-
dences are more numerous. For inftance, if the evi-
dences be all equaj, and the common deficiency ir\

each be — , if alio the number of evidences be n as

a

before, the deficiency of the refulting probability will be

no more than , which is pra6lically nothing, where

a and ;; are confiderable. Thus if a and n be each
equal to lo, will be -, or only i in

^ a" 10,000,000,000 •'

ten thoufand millions; a deficiency from certainty,
which is utterly imperceptible to the human mind.

It is indeed evident, without having recourfe to
the dodrine of chances that the dependency of
evidences makes the refuliing probability weak, their
independency firong. Thus a report pafTing from one
original author through a variety of fucceltive hands
lofes much of its credibility, and one attefted by a
variety of original wirnefies gains, in both cafes,
according to the number of fuccefiive reporters, and
original witnefTes, though by no means proportion-*
ably thereto. This is the common judgment of man-
kind, verified by obfervation and experience. But
the mathematical method of confideringr thefe thinos
is much more precife and fatisfadlory, and differs
from the common one, juft as the judgment made of
the degrees of heat by the thermometer does from
that made by the hand.

We may thus alfo fee in a (horter and fimpler way,
that the refulting probability may be fufffcienrly ftrong
in dependent evidences, and of little value in inde-
pendent ones, according as the feparate probability of
each evidence is greater or lefs. Thus the principal
fa6ls of ancient hiftory are not lefs probable practi-
cally now, than ten or fifteen centuries ago, nor lefs ^o

then,

the Nature of Afient. 337

then, than in the times immediately fucceeding j
becaule the diminution of evidence in each century is

imperceptible. For, if— be equal to i, will be

equal to i alfoj and if the deficiency of — from i
I">eextremelvfmall, thatof will be extremely fmall

an J

iifo, unlcfs n be extremely great. And for the fame
reafon a large number of weak arguments proves

ittle; for — the deficiency of each argument, being

:xtremely great, — -, the refulting deficiency of inde-
pendent evidences, will be extremelv "reat alfo.

It appears likewife, that the inequality of the fepa-
rate evidences does not much affedt this reafoning.
In like manner, if the number of evidences, depen-
dent or independent, be great, we may make great
concefiions as to the feparate values of each. Again,
a ftrong evidence in dependent ones can add nothing,
but muil weaken a little ; and, after a point is well
fettled by a number of independent ones, all that come
afterwards are ufclef», becaufe they can do no more
than remove the imperceptible remaining defici-
ency, &c. And it will be of great ufe to purfue thefe,
and fuch like deductions, both mathematically, and
by applying them to proper in (lances feleded from the
fciences, end from com.mon life, in order to remove
certain prejudices, which the ufe of general ter^ins,
and ways of fpeaking, with the various afibciations
adhering to them, is apt to introduce and fix upon
the mind. It cannot but affift us in the art of reafon-
'ing, thus to take to pieces, recompofe and afcertain
our evidences.

If it be afked, upon what authority abfolute cer-
tainty is reprefcnted by unity, and the feveral degrees

Vol. I. Z of

338 Of Propofitions, and

of probability by fraflions Icfs than unity, in the
do<^rine of chances ? Alfo, upon what authority the
reafoning ufed in that dodrine is transferred to other
fubjcjfis, and made general, as licrc propofed ? I
anlwcr, that no perfon who weighs thefe matters
carefully, can avoid giving his aflent ; and that
this precludes all objeftions. No fceptic would,
in fa-l^, be fo abfurd as to lay 2 to i, where the
do(flrinc of chances determines the probability to be
equal on each fide; and therefore we may be fure,
that he gives a practical affent at lead to the doftrinc
of chances.

Mr. de Moivre has (hewn, that where the caufes
of the happening of an event bear a fixed ratio to thole
of its failure, the happenings mufl bear nearly the
fame ratio to the failures, if the #umber of trials
be fufficient -, and that the laft ratio approaches to
the firft indefinitely, as the number of trials in-
creafes. 1 his may be confidered as an elegant^
method of accounting for that order and proportion,
which we every where fee in the phasnomena of na-
ture. The determinate fliapes, fizes, and mutual
actions of the conftituent particles of matter, fix the
ratios between the caufes for the happenings, and
the failures ; and therefore it is highly probable, and
even neceflary, as one may fay, that the happenings
and failures (hould perpetually recur in the fame ra-
tio to each other nearly, while the circumftances
are the- fame. When the circumftances are altered,
then new caufes take place ; and confcquently there
muft be a new, but fixed ratio, between the happen-
ings and the failures. Let the firft circumftances be
called Ay the new ones B. If now the fuppofition be
made fo general, as equally to take in both A and
By the ratio of the happenings and failures will not
be fuch as either A or B required. But ftill it will
tend to a precifenefs, juft as they did, fince the fum

of

the Nature of A (Tent. 339

of the caiifes of the happenings nnuft bear a fixed
ratio to the fum of the caufes of the failures.

An ingenious friend has communicated to me a
folution of the inverfe problem, in which he has fhewn
what the expe6lation is, when an event has happened
■p times, and failed q times, that the original ratio of
the caufes for the happening or failing of an event
fhould deviate in any given degree from that of /> to
2. And it appears from this folution, that where the
number of trials is very great, the deviation muft be
inconfiderable : which fhews that we may hope to
determine the proportions, and, by degrees, the
whole nature, of unknown caufes, by a fufficient ob-
fervaiion of their effedts.

The inferences here drawn from thefe two pro-
blems are evident to attentive perfons, in a grofs ge-
neral way, from common methods of reafoning.

Let us, in the next place, confider the Newtonian
differential method, and compare it with that of argu-
ing from experiments and obfervations, by induction
and analogy. This differential method teaches,
having a certain number of the ordinates of any un-
known curve given with the points of the abfcifs on
which they {land, to find out fuch a general law for
this curve, /. e. fuch an equation expreffing the re-
lation of an ordinate and abfcifs in all magnitudes of
the abfcifs, as will fuit the ordinates and points of
the abfcifs given, in the unknown curve under con-
fideration. Now here we may fuppofe the given
ordinates (landing upon given points to be analogous
to effeds, or the refults of various experiments in
given circumftances, the abfcifs analogous to all pof-
fible circumftances, and the equation afforded by the
differential method to that law of adion, which, be-
ing fuppofed to take place in the given circumftances,
produces the given effefls. And as the ufe of the
differential method is to find the lengths of ordinates
not given, ftanding upon points of the abfcifs that

Z 2 are

340 ^I Propofitions, ar,d

arc given, by means of the tquation, fo the ufc of
attempts to make general conrlufions by intlii(5tion
and analogy, from particular eflfe<5ls or phnciiomena,
is to enable us to predid other phrcnomena in differ-
ent given circiimrtances, by applying tiie general
Jaw or concliifion to thefc circumltanccs.

This parallel is -the more pertinent and inftriiflive,
inafmiich as the mathematical conclufion drawn by
the differential method, though formed in a way that
is ftridlly juO, and fo as to have thegreatcfl poffiblc
probability in its flwour, is, however liable to the J
iamc uncertainties, both in kind and degree, as the
general maxims of natural philofophy drawn from
natural hiftory, experiments, &c.

If many ordinates be given ; if the diftances of
the points of the abfcifs, on which they ftand, be equal
and fmall ; if the ordinate required lie amongfl them,
or near them ; and if there be realbn to think, that
the curve itfclf is formed according to fome fimple,
though unknown Tawj then may we conclude, that
the new ordinate, determined by the equation, docs
not vary far from the truth. And if the refulting
equation be fimple, and always the fame, from what-
ever given ordinates it be extrafted, there is the greateit
reafon to think this to be the real original law or
equation of the curve; and confequently that all its
points and properties may be determined with pej-fcft
exadlnefs by means of it: whereas, if the given ordi-
nates be few, their diftances great or unequal, the
ordinate required confiderably diftant from mjny or
moft of them, the unknown curve be a line drawn
at hazard, and the refulting equation very different
where different ordinates are given, though their num.-
ber be the fame, there will be little probability of de-
termining the new ordinate with exadlnefs ; however,
ilill the differential method affords us the greateft pro-
bability which the data permit in fuch cafes.

In

the Nature of Allent. 341

In like manner, if the experiments or obfervations

be many» their circumftances nearly related to each

other, and in a regular feries, the circnmftances of

the efFedl to be inveftigated nearly related to them ;

jjfo, if the real caufe n:ay be fiippofed to produce

thefe efFeds, by the varieties of fome fimple law,

the method of indudion and analogy will carry great

probability with it. And if the general conclufioa

)r law be fimple, and always the fame, from what-

ver phienomena it be deduced, fuch as the three

aws of nature, the do6lrines of gravitation, and

of the different refrangibiliiy of light; or, to go

ill higher, by taking a mathematical indance, the

iaw for finding the coefficients of the integral powers

rif a binomial, deduced from mere trials in various

powers; there can fcarce rem.ain any doubt, but that

we are in polTefTion of the true law inquired after,

lb as to be able to predi6t with certainty, in all cafes

where we are mafters of the method of computation,

or applying it; and have no reafon to fufped, that

odier unknown laws Interfere. Bur, if the given

Dhajnomena be few, their circumftances very dif-

-lent from each other, and from thofc of the effect

to be predicted; if there be reafon to fuppoie, that

;any caufes concur in the producing thefe phnsno-

rr.ena, fo that the law of their production mufl be

very complex ; if a new hypothefis be required to

ccount for every new combination of thefe ph?£no-

ena ; or, at Icafl:, one that differs confiderably from

lelf; the beft hypothefis which we can form, i. e.

iS hypothefis which is moft conformable to all the

iisenomeqa, will amount to no m.ore than an uncertain

-.njedure; and yet ftill it ought to be preferred to all

ethers, as being the bed that we can form.

That inflanraneous and necefTary coalefcence of
J leas, which makes intuitive evidence, may be con-
fidered as the hijrhefl kind of induction, and as amount-
ing to a pel fee:!; coincidence of the efFeCl cpncludeJ

Z 3 wicli

34i Of Propofuions, and

with thofe from which it is concluded. This takes
place only in mathematics. Thus wc infer that 2 '
and 1 make 4, only from prior inftances of having
adually perceived this, and from the neceflary coin-
cidence of all thcfe inftances with all other pofTiblc"
ones of 1 and 2. Mathematical demonftrations arc
made up of a number of thefe, as was oblerved ,
above. *^

Where the inflances from whence the indudlion is
made are alike, as far as we know, to that under
confiderarion, at lead in all things that affe6l the
prcfent inquiry, it affords the higheft probability, and
may be termed indu6lion, in the proper fcnfe of the
word. Thus we infer, that the bread before us is
nutritive and wholefome, becaufe its fmell, tafte,
ingredients, manner of compofition, &c. are the
fame as thofe of other bread, which has often before
been experienced to be fo.

But, if the inftance under confideration be in fomc |
refpedis like the foregoing ones, in others not, this
kind of proof is generally termed one taken from
analogy. Thus, if we argue from the ufe and action
of the ftomach in one animal to thofe in another,
fuppofed to be unknown, there will be a probable
hazard of being miftaken, proportional in general to
the known difference of the two animals as well as
a probable evidence for the tiuth of part, at leaft,
of what is advanced, proportional to the general re-
femblance of the two animals. But if, upon exami-
nation, the ftomach, way of feeding, &c. of the fe-
cond animal fhould be found, to fenfe, the fame as in
the firfl, the analogy might be confidered as an in-
duflion properly fo called, at leaft as approaching to
it J for precife limits cannot be fixed here. If the
fecond animal be of the fame fpecies, alfo of the
fame age, fex, &c. with the firft, the indu6tion be-
comes perpetually of a higher and a higher order,
approaching more and more to the coincidence, which

obtains

the Nature of Aflent. 343

pbtains in mathematical evidences, and yet never be-
'ing able entirely to arrive at it. But then the differ-
ence, being only an infinitefimal fraftion, as it were,
becomes nothing to all practical purpofes vvhatfoever.
JAnd if a man confiders farther, that it would be hard
to find a demonft.ation, that he does not miftake the
plaineft truths i this leflens the difference theoretically
aifo.

It is often in' our power to obtain an analogy where
we cannot have an inducflion; in which cafe reafon-
ing from analogy ought to be admitted ; however,
with all that uncertainty which properly belongs to
'C confidered as more or lefs diftant from indu6lion,

built upon more or fewer dependent or indepen-

-nt evidences, &c. analogy may alfo in all cafes,

t made ufe of as a guide to the invention. But

coincidence in mathematical matters, and induftion

others, wherever they can be had, muff be fought
tor as the only certain tefts of truth. However, ixi-
dudlion feems to be a very fufficienc evidence in fome
mathematical points, affording at leaft as much evi-
dence there as in natural philofophy ; and may be
fafely relied on in perplexed cafes, fuch as complex
ferieles, till fatisfaftory demonftrations can be had.

The analogous natures of all the things about us,
are a great affiftance in decyphering their properties,
powers, laws, &c. inafmuch as what is minute or ob-
fcure in one may be explained and illuftrated by the
analogous particular in anocher, where it is large and
clear. And thus all things become comments on
each other in an endlefs reciprocation.

When there are various arguments for the fame
thing taken from induction or analogy, they may
all be confidered as fupporting one another in the
fame manner as independent evidences. Thus, if ic
could be (hewed, that the human underftanding is
entirely dependent on affociation (as is remarked in
this and the lall fedion), the many analogies and

Z 4 connedlions

344 Q/* Propofitions, and

connciftions between the iindcrflanding and affcflions,
as thclc terms are commonly iindcrflood and contra-
didinguifhcd by writers, would make it very pron
bable, that aflbciatlon prelides in the fame manner ini
the generation of the alfc^lions ; and via verja^
And the more analogies, and mutual conneflions, be-»
twecn the underftanding and affedlions, were pro-s-
duced, fo many more independent or concurrent evi-
dences wouUl tlicre be for this prevalence of afibcia-
tion in one, admitting it \\\ the other. But, if now it
be fliewn farther, that the underflanding and affec-
tions are not really diflinft things, but only different
names, which we give to the fame kind of motions,
in the nervous fyllem, on account of a difference in.
degree, and other differences which it would be te-
dious here to enumerate, but which make no differ-
ence in refpedl of the power of affociation, then ali
the arguments from analogy are transformed intcj^
one of indu<ftion ; which, iiowever, is (Ironger ihat^
the united force of them all. For now it may be,
fhewedj that affociation muft prevail in each motion,
in the brain, by which affeftion is expounded, fronv
a large indu6tion of particulars, in which it prevails
in the generation of ideas, or of the motions by
which they are expounded, and which we fuppofe to
be proved to be of the fame kind with thofe that ex-
pound the affections. Thus alfo induftions may be
taken from the fmell and tafte of bread, to prove ic
wholefome; which would both be transformed into
one fimple argument ftronger than both, could we fee
the internal conftitution of the fmall parts, of the
bread, from whence its fmell, and tafte, and whole-
fomenefs, are all derived. Thus, again, all the argu-
ments of indudion for the manner of extrading the
fquare root in numbers vanifh into the fingle de-
monftrative proof, as foon as this is produced. And
the great bufinefs in all branches of knowledge is thus
to reduce, unite, and fimplify our evidences ; {o as

that

the Nature of Afltnt. 345

that the one refulcing proof, by being of a higher
order, fhall be more than equal in force to all the
concurrent ones of the inferior orders.

] Having now confidered in what manner the doc-
trine of chances, and the Newtohian differential me-
thod, may ferve to fhew in general the value of de-
pendent and independent or concurrent evidences,
and the probability of general conclufions formed by
induction and analogy i let us next inquire by what
means we are to form thefe general conclufions, and
(lifcover their evidences. Now the different me-
thods of doing this may be faid to refemble refpec-

I lively the rule of falfe in common arithmetic ; the
algebraic methods of bringing the unknown quantity
into an equation, under a form capable of all the
algebraic operations, addition, fijbtradlion, &c. the
algebraic methods of finding the roots of equations
of the higher orders by approximation ; and the art
of decyphering : all which four methods bear alfo a
confiderable refemblance to each other. I will con-
fider them in order, and endeavour to fhew how ana-
logous m.ethods may be introduced into the fciences
in general, to advantage.

Firfl, then. As, according to the rule of falfe, the
arithmetician fuppofes a certain number to be that
which is fought forj treats it as if it was that; and
finding the deficiency or overplus in the conclufion,
rediftes the error of his firft pofition by a propor-
tional addition or fubtraftion, and thus folves the
problem ; fo it is ufeful in inquiries of all kinds, to
try all fuch fuppofitions as occur with any appear-
i ance of probability, to endeavour to deduce the real
phenomena from them; and if , they do not anfwer
in fome tolerable meafure, to rejecft them at once ; or
if they do, to add, expunge, correfl, and improve,
till we have brought the hypothefis as near as we
can to an agreement with nature. After this ic
muft be left to be farther correfled and im.proved,

or

34^ Of Propofitions, and

or entirely difproved, by the light and evidence re-
flciflcd upon it froin the contiguous, and even, in fomc
meafure, from the remote branches of other fcicnccs.

Were this method commonly \.\{t^y we might foon
cxpedt a great advancement in the fcienccs. It would
much ab.ite that unrcafonable fondnefs, which thofc
who make few or no di(bn6t hypothefes, have for
fuch confufed ones as occur accidentally to their ima-
ginations, and recur afterwards by afTociation. For
the ideas, words, and reafonings, belonging to the
favourite hypothefis, by recurring, and being mucli
agitated in the brain, heat it, unite with each other,
and fo coalefce in the fame manner, as genuine trutlis
do from induction and analogy. Verbal and gram-
matical analogies and coincidences are advanced into
real ones j and the words which pafs often over the
car, in the form of fubjeft and predicate, are from
the influence of other aflbciations made to adhere to-
gether infenfibly, like fubjefts and predicates, that
have a natural conne(5lion. It is in vain to bid an in-
quirer form no hypothefis. Every phaenomenon will
fugsreft fomethins; of this kind : and, if he does not
take care to ftate fuch as occur fully and fairly, ar.d
adjuft them one to another, he may entertain a con-
fulcd inconfiftent mixture of all, of fi6litious and real,
poffible and impofTible ; and become fo perfuaded of
it, as that counter afTociations fhall not be able (o
break the unnatural bond. But he that forms hypothefes
from the firft, and tries them by the fids, foon rejedls
the mofl: unlikely ones ; and, being freed from thefe,
is better qualified for the examination of thofe that are
probable. He -will alfo confute his own pofitions fo
often, as to fluduate in equilibrio, in refped of pre-
judices, and fo be at perfeft liberty to follow the
ft/ongcrft evidences.

In like manner, the frequent attempts to make an
hypothefis that (hail fuit the phfenomena, mud im-
prove a man in the method of doing this \ and be-
get

the Nature of Aflent. 347

get in him by degrees an imperfeft; praftical art, juft
as algebraifts and decypherers, that are much verfed
in pradice, are poffefled of innumerable fubordinate
artifices, befidcs the principal general ones, that are
taught by the eftablifhcd rules of their artsj and thefe,
though of the greateft ufe to themfelves, can fcarce
be explained or communicated to others. Thefe ar-
tifices may properly be referred to the head of fadli-
tious fagacity, being the refult of experience, and of
imprefTions often repeated, with fmall variations from
the general refemblance.

Laftly, The frequent making of hypothefes, and
.irguing frorh them fynthetically, according to the fe-
veral variations and combinations of v^'hich they arc
capable, would fuggeft numerous phaenomena, that
otherwife efcape notice, and lead to experimenta
crucisy not only in refpe6l of the hypothefis under
confideration, but of many others. The variations
and combinations juft mentioned fuggeft things to
the invention which the imagination unaflifted is far
unequal toj juft as it would be impoflible for a man
CO write down all the changes upon eight bells, unlefs
he had fome method to direft him.

But this nhethod of making indefinite hypothefes,
ind trying them, is far too laborious and mortifying
for us to hope, that inquirers will in general purfue
it. It would be of great ufe to fuch as intend to pur-
fue it, to make hypothefes for the phenomena, whofe
theories are well afcertained ; fuch as thofe of the
circulation of the blood, of the prefTure of the air,
of the different refrangibility of the rays of light,
&c. and fee how they are gradually compelled into
the right road, even from wrong fuppofiiions fairly
compared with the phsenomena. This would habi-
tuate the mind to a right method, and beget the
factitious fagacity above-mentioned.

The fecond of the four methods propofed is, that
of bringing the unknown quantity to an equation,
and putting it into a form fufceptible of all the al-

" gebraic

^4^ Of Propofitions, and

gcbraic o|>eratIons, Now to this anlwcrs in philo-
Ibjihy, the art of giving names, expieiring nothing
definite, as to manner, quantity, &:c. and then infert-
ing thcfe names, or indefinite terms, in all the enun-
ciations of the ph;i:nomena, to fee whether, fron) a
comparifon of thefe enunciations with each other,
where the terms are ufed in the greatelT: latitude,
foine reltri<5lions, fomething definite in manner, de-
gree or mutual relation, will not refult. Things,
that are quite unknown have often fixed relations to
one another, and fomctimes relations to thintrs
known, which, though not determinable with cer-
tainty and precifion, may yet be determined in fome
probable manner, or within certain limits. Now,
as in algebra it is impofTible to exprefs the relation
of the unknown quantity to other quantities known
or unknown, till it has a fymbol afTigned to it of
the fame kind with thofe that denote the others ; fo in
phiiofophy we muft give names to unknown quan-
tities, qualities, caufes, &c. not in order to reft in
them, as the Ariftotelians did, but to have a fixed ex-
preffion, under which to treafure up all that can be
known of the unknown caufe, &c. in the imagina-
tion and memory, or in writing for future inquirers.

But then it is neceflary for the fame reafons, that
thefe terms (hould have no more of fecondary ideas
from prior aflociations, than the terms x and y in
algebra. Whence, if we ufe old terms excluding
the old aflociations, the reader fhould be made aware
of this at firft, and incidentally reminded of it after-
wards. Sir IJaac Newton has ufed the words athei'y
attra5iion, and fome others, in this v.'ay, not refling •
in them, but enumerating a great variety of phaeno-
mena i from the due comparifon of which with eacli
other, and with fuch as farther obfervation and ex-
periments fhall fuggeft, their laws of adion will,
perhaps, be dilcovcred hereafter j fo that we may be
able to predict the phenomena. There is alfo an

inftance

the Nature of A (Tent. 349

Inftance of the proper manner of rcafoning concern-
ing the knowable relations of unknown things in
Mr. Medes Clavis Apocalyptka.

The third method is that of approximating to the
roots of equations. Here a firft pofition is obtained,
which, though not accurate, approaches, however,
to the truth. Frort) this, applied to the equation, a
fecond pofitiOn is deduced, which approaches nearer
to the truth than the firfl; from the fecond, a third, &c,
till the analyft obtains the true root, or fuch an ap-
proximation as is pradlically equivalent, every pre-
ceding difcovery being made the foundation for a
fubfequent one, and the equation refolving itfelf, as it
were, gradually. Now this is indeed the way, in
which all advances in fcience are carried on j and fci-
cntiftc perfons are in general aware, that it is and muft
be fo. However, I thought it not improper to illuf-
trate this general procefs by a parallel taken from
algebra, in which there is great exaftnefs and beauty.
Befides, writers do not often difpofe their argu-
ments and approximations in this way, though for
want of it they lofe much of their clearnefs and
force ; and, where the writer does this, the reader
is frequently apt to Overlook the order of proofs and
pofitions.

Sir Ifaac Newlon''s Optics, Chronology, and Com-
ment on Danidi abound with inftanccs to this pur-
pofe ; and it is probable, that his great abilities and
praflice in algebraic invefbigations led him to it in-
fenfibly. In his chronology he firft fhews in grofs,
that the technical chronology of the ancient Greeks
led them to carry their authorities higher than the
truth J and then, that the time of the Sejofiris men-
tioned by the Gr^-d-;^ hiftorians was near that of Sejac
mentioned in the Old Tcfiam.ent; whence it follows,
that thefe two perfons were the fame j and confe-
quently, that the exaft time of SeJoJlris\ expedition
may now be fixed by the Old Teftament, And now,

having

350 Of Propofitions, and

having two points ablblutely fixec], vv&, the expedi-
tions of Sefojlris and Xerxes, he fixes all the mofl: re-
mnrkable intermediate events ; and thefe being alfo
fixed, he goes on to the lefs remarkable ones in the
Greek hiflory. And the chronology of the Creeks
being re6f khed, lie makes i)fe of it to ie<5tify the cotem-
poraiy affairs of the Egypt ianSy /IJfyrianSy Babylonians y
MedeSy and PerfianSy making ufe of the preceding
ftep every where, for the determination of the fub-
fequent one. He does alfo, in many cafes, call light
and evidence back from the fubfequent ones upon the
precedent. But the other is his own order of proof,
and ought to be that in which thofe who call his chro-
nology in queflion fliould proceed to inquire into it.

The fourth and laft method is that ufed by decy-
pherers, in invertigacing words written in unknown
charadteis, or in known ones fubflituted for one ano-
ther, according to fecret and complex law?. The
paiticular methods by which this is done are only
known to thofe who ftudy and praftice this art : how-
ever, it is manifeft in general, that it is an algebra
of its own kind ; and that it bears a great refem-
blance to the three foregoing methods ; alfo, that ic
may be faid with juftnefs and propriety in general,
that philofophy is the art of decypliering the myfle-
ries of nature ; that criticifm bears an obvious rela-
tion to decypbering ; and that every theory which
can explain all the pha^nomena, has all the fame evi-
dence in its favour, that it is pofTible the key of a
cypher can have from its explaining that cypher.
And if the caufe affigned by the theory have alfo its
real exiftence proved, it may h^ compared to the ex-
planation of a cypher ; which may be verified by the
evidence of the perfon who writes in that cypher.

Thefe fpeculations may feem uncouth to thofe who
are not converfant in mathematical inquiries; but to
me they appear to caft light and evidence upon the
methods of purfuing knowledge in other matters, to

fharpen

the Nature of Aflent. 351

ihafpen the natural fagacity, and to furnifh Loci for
invention. It appears alfo not impoflible, that future
generations (hould put all kinds of evidences, and in-
quiries into mathematical forms j and, as it were, re-
duce AriJiotle\ ten Categories, and bilhop Wilkins'%
forty Summa Generay to the head of quantity alone,
fo as to make mathematics and logic, natural hiftory,
and civil hiftory, natural philofophy, and philofophy
of all other kinds, coincide omni ex parte.

I will add two more remarks relating to the pre-
fent fubje(5t.

Firft, then. As in many mechanical problems,
which fall ftriftly under the confideration of mathe-
maticians, the quantities confidered depend on feve-
ral others, fo as to increafe in the fimple or com-
pound, direfl or inverfe ratio of feveral others, and
not to be greateft or leaft, when one or two of thefc
are fo, but when the faSum of the proper powers of
all is foj fo throughout natural philofophy, in phyfic,
in the analyfis of the mind, &c. it is neceffary to in-
quire as carefully as we can, upon how many confi-

. derable caufes each effe6l: depends j alfo, whether the
ratios be fimple or compound, diredl or inverfe.
For though it will feldom happen, that one can bring
the practical problems, that occur in real life, to an
exadt eftimate in this way, yet one may avoid part

. of that uncertainty and confufion, to which perfons
who take things merely in the grofs, are liable. Or
in other words, it is better in every thing to have

' probable or tolerable limits for the datay with a regu-
lar method of computation, or even an approxima-
tion thereto, than to have only fuch grofs and gene-
ral conceptions, as refult from the more or lefs fre-
quent recurrency of impreffions j even though they
be fomewhat improved by natural or acquired faga-

,city, arifing, in a kind of implicit indefinite way,
from experience.

Secondly,

35- ^^f l^ropofitions, and

Stcondly, It feems to me, that tire ;ays of light
rnay be confidered as a kind of fluxions in rcfptrdl
of the biggcft component particles of matter j I
mean thofc upon which Sir JJaac Nnvton fuppofes the
colours of natural bodies, and the changes ctFcdcd
in chemical procclles, to depend. For, as the incre-
ments of variable quantities, when diminifhed fo as
to bear no finite ratio to the quantities of which
they are the increments, Ihew in a limple way the
velocities with which thefe quantities are increafed ;
and fo give rife to the determination of fluxions
from fluents, and fluents from fluxions, and to all
the applications of thefc determ.inations to real quan-
tities, all which is entirely grounded upon the fuppofi-
tion, that the fluxions are not increments, but relative
nothing-;; fo, fmce the rays of light are fo fmall in
rerpc(5l of the biggefl: component particles, as to be
relatively and pradically nothing in relpeft of them,
to bear no relation to any of them, all the dift^crences
obfervable in the anions of light upon thefe parti-
cles, and of thefe particles upon light, will depend
purely upon the differences of thefe particles in
refpedl of one another ; it not being poffible, that
any 'part of them fhould arife from the comparative
magnitude of light, which is equally nothing in
refpecl of them all. And thus it feems, that optics
and chemiflry will, at laft, become a mafl:er-kt^y
for uniockinfT the mvfteries in the conftitution of
natural bodies, according to the method recom-
mended by Sir TJaac Newton.

Let /^, By C, be three particles, whofe magni-
tudes are 3, 2, and i, refpedively. It is evident,
that the mutual influences between A and C, B arfd
C, cannot correfpond entirely to the ratio which yf
and B bear to each other, becaufe C bears a differ-
ent ratio r.0 A from that which it bears to B -, and
this difference of ratios mull have its (hare in the eff^e(fl:s

of

the Nature of Alien t. 2S2

of yf and B upon C: whereas had C been a particle
of light, it would have been equally nothing in refped:
both of A and B i and fo the mutual influences be-
tween A and C, B and C, would entirely correfpond
to the difference between A and 5, and decypher it.
Thus the particles of light, by being infinitely fmaller
than the biggeft component ones of natural bodies,
may become a kind of communis norma y whereby to
meafure their adlive powers.

PROP. LXXXVIII.

'to make a general Application of the 'Theory of this
and the foregoing Se^ionj to the fever al Branches of
Science.

All the fciences, knowledge of all kinds, may
be reduced to the {tvtn general heads following,
when they are underftood in the latitude here ex-
prelTed.

Firft, Philology, or the knowledge of words, and
their fignificacions. It comprehends under it the
arts of grammar and criticifm. Rhetoric and poetry
may be referred to it.

Secondly, Mathematics, or the dodrine of quan-
tity. It may be divided into three branches, viz.
Arithmetic, which makes ufe of numbers as the ex-
ponents of quantity ; geometry, which ufes figures
for the fame purpofej and algebra, which compre-
hends both thefe, and whofe fymbols are accordingly
fo general, as to reprefent the fymbols of the two
foregoing parts;

Thirdly, Logic, or the art of ufing words, con-
fidered as fymbols, for making difcoveries in all the
branches of knowledge. It prefuppofes philology to
a certain degree; and muft evidently, in the view
here given of it, receive great illuftration from ma-

VoL. I. A a thematics.

354 0/ Propofitions, and

thematics, which is the art of making difcoveries in
the fingle category of quantity, by means of the
fimplell kind of fymbols.

Fourthly, Natural hiftory, or regular and well-
digelled accounts of tlie pha^nomena of the natural,
world. It may be dillributed into fix parts, ;. e. into
the natural hillorics of animals, plants, minerals, the
earch confidered as a terraqueous globe, the atmo-
fphere, and the heavenly bodies.

Fifthly, Civil hiflory, or regular accounts of the
tranfadions of the world politic. To this head muft
be referred that part of geography which treats of
the prefent manners, cuftoms, laws, religion, &c,
of the feveral nations of the world.

Sixthly, Natural philofophy, or the application of
the arts of mathematics and logic to the phasno-
mcna of natural and civil hiftory, communicated
to us by means of our previous Ikill in philology,
in order to decypher the laws by which the external
world is governed, and thereby to predict or pro-
duce fuch phjenomena, as we are interefted in. Its
parts are mechanics, hydroftatics, pneumatics, op-
tics, artronomy, chemiftry, the theories of the fe-
veral manual arts and trades, medicine and pfycho-
logy, or the theory of the human mind, with that of
the intelledual principles of brute animals.

Seventhly, Religion, which might alfo be called
divine philofophy. This requires the application of
all the foregoing branches of knowledge to each other
in an endlefs reciprocation, in order to difcover the
nature of the invifible world, of God, of good and
evil fpirits, and of the future Hate, which commences
at death, with all the duties tha: refult from thefe
confiderations. The arts of ethics, and politics are
to be referred to this head. For, though thefe arts
are fuppofed to teach individuals, and bodies politic,
how to arrive at their Jumnmm bonum in the prefent
world, yet, fince the rules given for this purpofe:

either

the Nature of AlTent, 355

<t"ither are or ought to be the fame with thofe which
teach mankind how to fecure a happy futurity, it is
plain, that thefe arts are included within the precepts
of religion.

All thefe branches of knowledge are very much
•nvolved in each other; fo that it is impoflible to make
any -eonfiderable progrefs in any one, without the af-
Tiftance of moft or all the reft. However, each has
ilfo an independent parr, which being laid down as a
foundation, we may proceed to improve it by the
light afforded from the independent parts of the other
tranches. I will here fubjoin a few hints concerning
^he proper manner of proceeding in each branch,

OF PHILOI.OGY.

The rudiments of the native language arc learnt
■n infancy, by the repeated impreffions of the founds,
at the fame time that the things fignified are prefented
to the fenfes, as has been already explained. Words
ftanding for intelledual things, particles, &c. are de-
cyphered by their connexion with other words, by
their making parts of fentences, whofe whole import
is known. Grammatical analogy and derivation do
alio, in many cafes, difcover the import of words.
And many words m.ay be explained by definitions.
Where thefe feveral- ways concur, the fenfe is foon
learnt, and fteadily fixed; where they oppofc each
other, confufion arifes for a time, but the ftrongell
authority prevails at laft. Tranflations and didion-
aries explain the words of unknown languages by
thofe of known ones. Afterwards we decypher by
the context, deduce the fenfe from analogy, &c.
Thefe laft methods refledl authority upon the tranf-
lations and didionaries, where they agree with them.
In living languages the import of the principal
.ivords may be alcertained v/ith eafe and certainty j
«nd thefe being fixed, the reft become determinable

A a 2 and

356 Of Propoficions, and

and decyplierable by proper care and caution, fo that
no pradtical errors can remain. In dead languages
the difficiiky is greater ; but the certainty that ulti-
mately refulcs, is not Icfs |^>radically in refpedl of the
bulk of the language, on account of the number of
coincidences. But much remains undone yet, parti-
cularly in refpeft of the Hebrew language, l^ogic,
natural and civil hiftory, philofophical and leligions
knowledge, may all, in their fevcral ways, contribute
to fix the true fenfe of words. And the fixing the
fenfes of words, by all the methods here enumerated,
may be called the art of making diftionaries. It
receives great afTiftance from the art of grammar j
and is at the fame time the main foundation of it. I
This lafl art has alfo the fame connexions with the
other branches of knowledge; as that of fixing the
fenfes of words. The fame may be faid of criticifm j
which may be defined the art of reitoring the cor- ,
rupted pafiages of authors, and afcertaining their ge-
nuine fenfe, and method of reafoning.

In all thefe things there feems to be a fufficient
faundation for unity of opinion amongft thofe that
are truly learned and candid ; at leaft in all important
points. And, in fad, the differences here amongft
the literati^ are plainly owing, in great meafure, to
ambition, envy, affedation of fingularity and no-
velty, &c. All thefe things magnify the ideas and
coalefcence?, which a man calls his own, ihofe of his
party, &c. aQbciate ideas of truth, excellence, genius,
&c. to them, and oppofite ones to all that the
fuppofed adverfary delivers.

No fceptic can proceed fo far as to difclaim the
fenfe of the words of his native tongue, or of a.
foreign one, which he undcrftands/ The things figni-
fied thereby muft and will be fuggefted by, and
coalefce with, the founds; fo that he cannot but under-
ftand what he hears and reads. And this is all the

trutb

the Nature ^ xVflenr. ^57

truth that belongs to philology as fuch. The truth
of t!ie things exprefled in words is a confideration
belonging to the feveral other branches of knowledge
refpedively.

As the plain dida6lic ftyle is intended merely to
inform the underftanding, fo the rhetorical and poe-
tical ftyles are intended to excite the paflions by the
aflbciations, which figurative terms and forms of
expreffion, flowing periods, numbers, rhymes, fimi-
les, fables, fiftions, &c. draw after them.

Painting and mufic produce a like effe(fl upon the
pafTions as rhetoric and poetry, and by means that
are not very unlike. But I Ihall have occafion here-
after to fay fomething more concerning all thefe ima-
ginative arts.

OF MATHEMATICS."

Mathematics are that branch of knowledge which is
the moft independent of any, and the leaft liable to
uncertainty, difference of opinion, and fceptical
doubts. However, uncertainties, differences, and
doubts, have arifen here ; but then they have been
chiefly about fuch parts of mathematics as fall under
the confideration of the logician. For, it feems
impoffible that a man who has qualified himfelf duly,
fhould doubt about the juftnefs of an arithmetical,
algebraical, or fiuxional operation, or the conclufive-
nefs of a geom.etrical demonftration.

The words point, line, furface. infinitely great,
infinitely little, are all capable of definitions, at
leaft of being explained by other words. But then
thefe words cannot fuggeft any vifible ideas to
the imagination, but what are inconfiftent with the
very words themfelves. Plowever, this inconfift-
ency has no effeft upon the reafoning. It is evident,
that all that can be meant by the three angles of a
triangle being equal to two right ones, or the para-
bolic area to t of the circumfcribing parallelogram,

A a 3 or

3i^ Of Propofitions, and

or deduced from thefe pofitions, miift always hold in
future fadt ; and this, as obfcrvcd above, is all the
truth that any thing can liavc. In ikixional conclu-
fions it is demonflrativcly evident, that the quantity
under confidcration cannot be greater or Icfs by any
thing afTignablc, than according to the fluxional con-
clufion ; and this frems to nie entirely the fame
thing as proving it to be equal.

I cannot j)rerumc to fuggeft any particular me-
thods by which faither difcoveries may be made in
^ m.uhematical matters, which are fo far advanced,
that few perfons are able to comprehend even what
is difcovered and unfolded already. However, it may
not be amifs to obferve, that all the operations of
arithmetic, geometry, and algebra, fliould be ap-
plieil to each other in every polTible way, fo as to find
out in each fomething analogous to what is already
known and eftablifhed in the other two. The appli-
cation of the arithmetical ojierations of divifion and
extraction of roots to algebraic quantities, and of the
method of obtaining the roots of numeral equations
by approximation to fpecious ones, as taught by Sir
JJaac NewtoHy have been the fources of the greateft.
fluxional difcoveries.

OF LOGIC.

It is the purport of this and the foregoing fetlion,
to give imperfc6l rudiments of fuch an art of logic,
as is defined above, i. e. as fliould make ufe of words
in the way of mathematical fymbols, and proceed
by mathematical methods of invefligation and com-
putation in inquiries of Jfll forts. Not that the data
in the fciences are as yet, in general, ripe for fuch
methods j but they feem to tend to this, more and
more per[.^etually, in particular branches, fo that it
cannot be amifs to prepare ourfelves, in fome mea-

fure, previoufly.

Logic,

the Nature z/ A (Tent. ^59

Logic, and metaphyfics, which are nearly allied
to logic, feem more involved in obfcurity and per-
plexity, than any other part of fcience. This has
probably been the chief fource of fcepticilm, fince it
appears necelTary, that that part of knowledge, which
is the bafis of all others, which is to fhew whereia
certainty, probability, poffibility, improbability, and
impoffibiiity, confift, Ihould itfelf be free from all
doubt and uncertainty.

It feems alio, that as logic is required for the bafis
of the other fciences, fo a logic of a fecond order is
required for a bafis to that of the fiift, of a third for
that of the fecond, and (o on fine limit e : which, if ic
were true, v/ould, from the nature of dependent evi-
dences, prove that logic is either abfolutely certain,
or abfolutely void of all probability. For, if the
evidence for it be ever fo little inferior to unity, ic
will, by the continual infi^nite multiplication required
in dependent evidences infinitely continued, bring
itfelf down to nothing. Therefore, e converjo^ fince
no one can fay, that the rules of logic are void of all
probability, the Jummum genus of them mufl: be cer-
tain. This/ummum genus is the neceiTary coalefcence
of the fubjedt with the predicate. But the argument
here alleged is merely one ad homineiiij and not the
natural way of treating the lubje6t. The necelTary
coalefcence jull fpoken of carries its own evidence
with it. It is neceffary from the nature of the brain,
and that in the mod confirmed fceotic, as well
as in any other perfon. And we need oniy inquire
nto the hiftory of the brain, and the phyfiological
nfluences of words and fymbols upon it by affociation,
n order to fee this. I am alfo inclined to believe,
that the method here propofed of confidering words
and fentences as impreifions, whofe influence upon
tht mind is entirely to be determined by the affo-
ciations heaped upon them in the intercourfes of
life, and endeavouring to determine thefe aiTociations,

A a 4 both

360 0/ Propofitions, ^«^

both analytically and fynthetically, will caft much
light upon logical fubjedts, and cut off the lources
of many doubts and differences.

As the theories of all other arts and fcicnces muft
be extra£led from ihein, fo logic, which contains
the theory of all ihefe theories, muft be extradcd
from thefe theories; and yet this is not to reafon
in a circle in either cafe, fince the theory is firft
cxtrafled from felf-cvident or allowed particulars,
and then applied to particulars not yet known, in
Older to difcovcr and prove thtm.

It may not be amifs here to take notice how far
the theory of thefe papers has led me to differ, in re-
fpeift of logic, from Mr. ljocke% excellent EJJay on
Human Under ft anding, to which the world are fo
much indeb:ed for removing prejudices and incum-
brances, and advancing real and uleful knowledge.

Firft, then, It appears to me, that all the moft
complex ideas arife from fenfation ; and that re-
fleftion is not a diftind fource, as Mr, Locke makes
iti

Secondly, Mr. Locke afcribes ideas to many words,
which, as I have defined idea, cannot be faid to have
any immediate and precife onesj but only to admit
of definitions. However, lee definition be fubfti-
tuted iuftead of idea, in thefe cafes, and then all Mr.
Locke's excellent rules concerning words, delivered
in his third book, will fuit the theory of thefe papers.

As to the firft difference, which I think may be

\ called an error in Mr. Locke, it is, however, of little

Iconfequence. We may conceive, that he called

fuch ideas as he could analyfe up to fenfation, ideas

of fenfation j the reft ideas of reflexion, ufing re-

• flcftion as a term of art, denoting an unknown

quantity. Befides which it may be remarked, that

the words which, according to him, ftand for ideas

of rtfledtion, are, in general, words, that, according

to the theory of thefe papers, have no ideas, but

defi-

the Nature of Afient. 361

definitions only. And thus the firft differcncf, is as
\z were, taken away by the fecond j for, if ihefe
words have no immediate ideas, there will be no oc-
cafion to have recourfe to reflefbion as a foiirce of
ideas j and, upon the whole, there is no material re-
pugnancy between the confequcnces of this theory,
and any thing advanced by Mr. Locke.

The ingenious bifhop Berkeley has juftly obferved
againft Mr. Lockcy that there can be no fuch thing
IS abftradt ideas, in the proper fenfe of the word idea.
However, this does not feem to vitiate any confider-
able part of Mr. Locke's reafoning. Subftitute defi-
nition for idea in the proper places, and his conclufions
will hold good in general.

OF NATURAL HISTORY.

Natural hiftory is a branch of knowledge, which,
3t the firlt view, appears to have a boundlefs extent,
and to be capable of the utmoft pradical precifion
and certainty, if fufficient care and induftry be em-
ployed. And, in fa6l:, the doubts and differences here
are not very confiderable j they do alfo grow lefs and
lefs every day, by the great quantity of knowledge
of this kind, which is poured in from all quarters, as
learning and inquifitivenefs diffufe them.felves more
and more amongft all nations, and all orders of
men.

The materials for natural hiftory, which any fingle
perfon can colled from his own obfervation, being
very inconfiderable, in refpeft of thofe which he wants,
he is obliged to have recourfe to others j and there-
fore muft depend upon their teftimony, juft as in civil
hiftory. And our aflent in each cafe, being excited
by a variety of concurrent proofs, and o{ coincident
circumftances, transfers part of its authority upon the
other. We believe teftimony in natural hiftory, be-

caufe

362 Of Propofitions, and

caufe do we in civil, and vice vcrja ; and have a vari-
ety of concurrent conliimations in both cafes.

1 lowever, as the general fails are thus practically
certain, fo the fubordinate ones are, in many cafes,
liable to doubts. And it is evident, that for the re-,
foUition of thtle doubts in natural hiftory, \vc inufl:
borrow the affillance of all the other branches of fci-
ence< and that fome Ikill in philology mu(l be attain-
ed, before we can hope to arrive at any tolerable per-
fcdion in natural or civil hillory. Natural hiftory
is the only fure bafis of natural philofophy, and has
fome influence upon all the other fciences.

OF CIVIL HISTORY.

The general evidences upon which civil hillory
is grounded, have been juft hinted at. It is manifeft,
that the difcoveries of natural hiftorians, aftrono-
mers, linguifts, antiquaries, and philofophers of all
kinds, have brought great light and evidence upon
this branch of knowledge within the laft two cen-
turies J and are likely to do fo more and more.

The ancient hiftory of the kingdoms oi Afia Minor^
Kgypt, and Greece., will probably be much better
underftood, when the inhabitants of thofe countries
become learned.

He that would fearch into the firft ages of the
world, muft take the fcriptures for his guide, lay
down the truth of thefe as unqueftionable, and force
all other evidences into that pofition. This feems to
have been the method taken by Sir IJaac Newton in
his Chronology, and which at laft unfolded to him
the proper method of detecting and corredling the
miftakes in the ancient technical chronology of the
Creeks by icfelf.

The concurrent independent evidences in the grand
points of hiftory are fo much more numerous than

the

j;i

the Nature of Aflent. 2^3

the dependent ones, and mod of thenn fo ftrong,

fingly taken, that the deficiency from certainty in

thefe grand points cannot be diftinguifhed by the

jiuman mind. And therefore it is a pradlical error

of great importance to fuppofe, that fuch kind of

^iftorical evidences are inferior to mathematical ones.

They are equal, as far as we have any thing to do

ith them, i. e, can judge of them, or be influenced

'/ them. All future facts depending on them have

s good a bafis, as thofe depending on mathematical

vidences. I fpeak here of principal matters, fuch

as the conquefts of Alexander and Julius Cajar, and

the main hiflory, common and miraculous, of the

Old and New Teftaments. Till our knowledge be

applied to the prediding or producing future fafts,

a fort of it is of ufe or importance to usj and the

pplication of mathematical knowledge is juft as

nuch expofed to the feveral kinds and degrees of

JHcertainty, as that of any other. That the evidence

■IT principal hiftorical fads is not, in general, con-

iidered as equal to mathematical certainty, arifes partly

/rom the juft-m.entioned ill-grounded affirmations

of learned mjen ; partly from the complexnefs of the

Oiflorical proofs, which require time and confideration

o digefl them j and partly becaule the uncertainty

attending fubordinate fads has diluted the evidence

of the principal and unqueftionable ones, fince the

ame general forms of exprefTion are, and muft be,

.ifed in both cafes.

OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

It may be obferved of natural philofophy, that
in ihe parts where the ideas are fimple, clear, and of
the vifible kind, or adequately expounded by fuch,
and the method of inveftigation and computation
mathematical, as in mechanics, hydroftatics, pneu-
matics, optica, and aflronomy, the doubts and di-

verficies

364 Of Propofuions, and

verficifs of opinion which arife, arc inconfidcrable.
But in the theories of chemilhy, of manunl arts and
trades, of medicine, and, in general, of the powers
and mutual adions of the fmall parts of matter, the
uncertainties and perplexities are as great, as in any
part of fcience. For the fmall parts of matter, with
their aftions, are ' too minute to be the objedls of
fight; and we are as yet neither poflcflcd of a detail
of the phjcnomena fufficiently copious and regular,
whereon to ground an invclligation ; nor of a method
of inveftigaiion fubtle enough to arrive at the fubtleiy
of nature, even in the biggeft component particles,
much lefs in the particles of the fmaller orders j and
how far the number of orders may go, is impolTible
to fay. I fee no contradi6lion in fuppofing it in-
finite, and a great difficulty in flopping at any par-
ticular fize.

Suppole the number of orders of particles infinite,
or at leaft very great ; and that particles of all orders
are perpetually flying off" from all bodies with great .1
velocity. Firft, This may occafion the gravitation '
of the great bodies of the univerfe to each other, by "',
the impulfe of the fmaller corpufcles upon particles \
of fizes equal to each other in the greater bodies, the
impulfes of the larger corpufcles, and upon particles,
of unequal fize, being evanefcent in refpe6t of the
foregoing impuifes. But where particles approach
near to one another, and the corpufcles bear fomc
finite ratio to the particles. To as not to pervade them
freely, before they come to particles of equal fize to
each other, but affeft them in proportion to their
furfaces, not folid content, and I fuppole from many
other caufcs, attraflions of other kinds may arife:
and if one or both of the contiguous particles fend out
many co'pufcles with great force; alfo, if ihcfe cor-
pufcles effcrvefce together in the intermediate fpace,
and gain new forces thence, &c. repulfive powers
may rife. If it be reafonable to fuppofe many orders

of

the Nature of Afient. 2^^

of particles, it is alfo reafonable to fuppofe, that
their powers and properties are fomcwhat analogous
to one another J and that thofe of the larger particles
arife from, and are compounded of, thofe of the
next lefs in fize, and fo onj juft as the whole
gravity of the moon is compounded of the gravity
of all its parts. But thefe are all very grofs and
uncertain conjedures.

In the mean time, it feems proper to ufe the words
magnctifm, eleftricity, attradion of cohefion, j(p/n7«j
.eflovj acrimony of the animal juices, &:c. as
terms of art, as unknown caufes of known efFeds.
But then they ought always to be defined, the dcfini-
dons rigorouOy kept to, and all fecondary ideas from
'3rior affociations excluded. Were this done in che-
niftry and medicine, it would produce a great re-
formation, and at once cut off many incumbrances,
perplexities and obfcurities. The vis inertia of
bodies, and the equivalent ternfts, were once terms
of this kind, (landing for the unknown caufe of known
phaenomena. By degrees thefe phenomena were
digefted into order, the terms contributing thereto,
and the three feveral kinds of them, claffed refpec-
tively under the three laws of nature, which have
been applied fynthetically fince, and given rife to
the greateft mechanical difcoveries. The fame may
be obferved of gravity. And if the laws of magnc-
tifm, ele6lricity, and the attraction of cohefion,
could be afcertained in the fame manner as the laws
of the vis inertia and gravity, we fhould be enabled
to predict and produce many effedls of great impor-
tance to us.

It is of the higheft ufe to us in pra6tical matters,
that the properties of bodies are fo clofely conneded
with each other. Thus the colour and fpecific gra-
vity of a metal, the vifible idea of a plant, alfo its
tafte or fmell, give us a praftical certainty in refpedt
of all the other properties. This clofe connexion of

the

j66 Of Propofitions, and "

the properties follows undoubtedly from the powers
and muiual adions of the iVnall parts; lb that, if wc
could arrive at the knowledge of ihcfe laft, we Ihould
immediately fee not only the reafon of all the proper-
ties of bodies, which are known at prefent, but be
able to difcover innumerable other rchitive ones. In
the mean time wc mult endeavour to difcover, digeft,
and legirtcr, the various proj^erties of natural bodies, J
as they rife to view from fuitable experiments ; and *
thus j)repare the way for thofe who fliail heieafter
decyphcr tiicir internal confticution.

OK RELIGION.

All the foregoing branches of knowledge ought to

be confidcred as mere preparatories and preliminaries

to the knowledge of religion, natural and revealed.

They all, in their feveral orders and degrees, concur

to eltablilh the principal dodlrines and duties of it;

and thefe, when eftabliflied, become the beft means ^

for attaining knowledge. The benevolence of the

Deitv, and the do6lrine of final caufes, are the beft !

clue for guiding us through the labyrinths of natural ,

phasnomena, and particularly of thofe which relate to

animals. The fcriptures are the only book which /

can give us any juft idea of ancient times, of the ■'

original of mankind, their difperfion, &:c. or of what

will befal them in future generations. As to future

things, predidted in the fcriptures, we can as yet

colled nothing more than general intimations ; but

thf re is reafon to believe, that fucceeding generations .

may arrive at a far more prccife interpretation of

prophecy. It may alfo be, that much philofophical

knowledge is concealed in the fcriptures ; and that it

-will be revealed in its due time. The analogy between

the word and works of God, which is a confideration

of the religious kind, f;ems to comprehend the

mofr

■is

-» the Nature of Aflent. ^67

moft important truths. To all this it muft be added,
that the temper of mind prefcribed by religion, viz.
jr.odefty, impartiality, fobriety, and diligence, are
• he bell qualifications for fucceeding in all inquiries.
iMius religion comprehends, as it were, all other

lowledge, advances, and is advanced by all j at the
iame time that where there is a morally good difpofition,
a very fmall portion of other knowledge is fufficient
for the attainment of all that is neceflary for virtue

id comfort here, and eternal happinefs hereafter.
The great differences of opinion, and contentions

hich happen in religious matters, are plainly owing
to the violence of men's paflions, more than to
any other caufe. Where religion has its due effecft
in reftraining thefe, and begetting true candour, we
may expedt a unity of opinion, both in religious

id other matters, as far as is neceflary for ufeful

adical purpofes.

SECT.

';68 Of the Affcdions in general.

SECT. III.

OF THE AFFECTIONS IN GENERAL.

PRO P. l.XXXIX.

'To explain the Origin and Nature of the Paffwns in

general.

Here we may obfcrve, >

Fir ft, Thac our pafTions or affe(5lions can be no
more than aggregates of fimple ideas united by aiTo-
ciation. For they are excited by objedls, and by
the incidents of life. But thcfe, if we except the
imprefled fenfations, can have no power of affeding
us, but what they derive from affociation j juft as
was obferved above of words and fcntences.

Secondly, Since therefore the pafTions are ftates
of confiderable pleafure or pain, they muft be aggre-\
gates of the ideas, or traces of the fenfible pleafures
and pains, which ideas make up by their number,
and mutual influence upon one another, for the faint-
nefs and tranfitory nature of each fingly taken. This
may be called a proof a priori. The proof a pofie-
riori will be given, when I come to analyfe the fix
claflfcs of intelleftual affedlions, viz. imagination,
ambition, felf-intereft, fympathy, theopathy, and the
moral fenfe.

Thirdly, As fcnfation is the common foundation
of all thefe, lb each in its turn, when fufficiently
generated, contributes to generate and model all the
reft. We may conceive this to be done in the follow-
ing manner. Let fenfation generate imagination j
then will fenfation and imagination together generate
ambition j fenfation, imagination, and ambition,

fdf-

Of the Affeflions in general, ^^^

lelT-intereft ; fenfation, imagination, ambition, and
felf-intercft, fympathy j fenfation, imagination, am-
bition, fclf-interell, and fympathy, theopatiiy j fen-
fation, imagination, ambition, felf-intereft, fympa-
thy, and theopachy, the moral fenfe : and, in an
inverted order, imagination will new-model fenfa-
tion ; ambition, fenfation and imagination j felf-
intereft, fenfation, imagination, and ambition j fym-
patliy, fenfation, imagination, ambition, and felf-
intereO: J theopathy, fenfation, imagination, ambi-
tion, felf-intereft, and fympathy ; and the moral
fenfe, fenfation, imagination, ambition, felf-intereft,
fympathy, and theopathy : till at laft, by the nu-
merous reciprocal influences of all thefe upon each
other, the pafllons arrive at that degree of complex-
nefs, which is obferved in fad, and which makes
them fo difficult to be analyfed.

Fourthly, As all the paffions arife thus from plea-
fure and pain, their firft and moft general diftribution
may be into the two clafTes of love and hatred, /. e.
we may term all thofe affe6tions of the pleafurable
kind, which objedls and incidents raifc in us, love;
all thofe of the painful kind, hatred. Thus we
are faid to love not only intelligent agents of morally
good difpofitions, but alfo fenfual pleafures, riches,
and honours ; and to hate poverty, difgracc, and
pain, bodily and mental.

Fifthly, When our love and hatred are excited to
a certain degree, they put us upon a variety of
actions, and may be termed defire and averfion ;
by which laft word I underftand an adlive hatred.
Now the adions which flow from defire and averfion,
are entirely the refuk of alfociatcd powers and cir- \
cumftances, agreeably to the twentieth, tvventy-firft,
ij and twenty-fecond propofitions, with their corollaries, ,',
The young child learns to grafp, and go up to the
play-thing that pleafes him, and to withdraw his hand
from the fire that burns him, at firft from the me-
VoL. 1. B b chanifm

370 Of the AilVcflions in general.

chanifm of his n.icure, .ind witliout any deliberate pur-
pole oi obtaining pleafure, and avoiding pain, or any
explicit reafoning about them. By degrees he learns,
) partly from the recurrency of ihefe mechanical ten-
dencies, infpired by God, as one may fay, by means
of the nature which he has given us j and partly from
the inftrucftion and imitation of others ; to purfue
every thing which he loves and defires ; fly from every
thing which lie hates ; and to'reafon about the method
of doing this, jull as he does upon other matters. And,
becaufc mankind are for the moft part purfuing or
avoiding fomething or other, the defnc of hapj)inefs,
and the averfion to mifery, are fuppofed to be infepa*
rable from, and efl'tntial to, all intelligent natures.
But this does not feem to be an exadt or corred way
of fpeaking. The moft general of our defires and
aveifions aie faiflitions, r. e. generated by aftbcia-
tion ; and therefore admit of intervals, augmenta-
tions, and diminutions. And, whoever will be fuffi-
ciently attentive to the workings of his own mind,
and the adlions refulting therefrom, or to the actions
of others, and the afFedlions which may be fuppofed
to occafion them, will find fuch differences and fin-
gularities in different perfons, and in the fame perfon
at different times, as no way agree to the notion of
an effential, original, perpetual defire of happinefs,
and endeavour to attain it ; but much rather to
the faftitious affociated defires and endeavours her£
affrrted. And a due regard to this will, as it feems
to me, folve many difficulties and perplexities found
in treatifes upon the pafllons. The writers upon this
fubjeft have begun in the fynthetical method prema-
turely, and without having prcmifed the analytical
one. For it is very true, that, after general defires
and endeavours are generated, they give rife in their
turn to a variety of particular ones. But the origi-
nal fource is in the particular ones, and the general
ones never alter and new-model the particular ones lb

much,

Of the AfFeftions in general. -371

much, as that there are not many traces and veftiges
of their oiiginal mechanical nature and proportions

remainins;.

Sixthly, The will appears to be nothing but a de-
fire or averfion fufficiently ftrong to produce an aflioii
that is not automatic primarily or fecondarily. An
leaft it appears to me, that the fubllitution of thefe
words for the word iv'iU may be juftified by the
common ufage of language. The will is therefore
that defire or averfion, which is ftrongeft for the
then prcfent time. For if any other defue was
flronger, the mufcular motion conneded with it by
aflbciation would take place, and not that which pro-
ceeds from the will, or the voluntary one, which is
contrary to the fuppofition. Since therefore all love
and hatred, all defire and averfion, are faditious,
and generated by aflfociation, u e. mechanically ; it
follows that the will is mechanical alfo.

Seventhly, Since the things which we purfue do,
when obtained, generally afford pleafure, and thofe
which we fly from affe6t us with pain, if they over-
take us, it follows that the gratification of the will
is generally attended or ailociiiCed with pleafure, the
difappointment of it with pain. I Tence a mere alTo-
ciated pleafure is transferred upon the gratification of
the will ; a mere allociated pain upon the difappoint-
ment of it. And if the will was always gratified,
this mere afibciated pleafure would, according to the
prefent frame of our natures, abforb, as it were, all
our other pleafures ; and thus by drying up the fource
from whence it fprung, be itfelf dried up at lafi: : and
the fiift difappointments, after a long courfe of gra-
tification, would be intolerable. Both which things
■are fufficiently obfervable, in an inferior degree, in chil-
dren that are much indulged, and in adults, after a
ferieb of fuccefsful events. Gratifications of the will
without the confequent expected pleafure, and difap-
pointments of it without the confequent expelled

B b 2 pain.

372 Of the Afl'c6lions in general.

pain, arc pnrticiilarly ulVful to us here. And it is
by this, amon<^ll other means, that the human will is
brought to a conformity with the divine; which is
tiie only radical cure for all our evils and difappoint-
ments, and the only earneft and medium for obtain-
ing lafting happincfs.

Eiglithly, We often dcfire and purfue things wjiicli
give pain rather than pleafure. Here it is to be fup-
pofed, that at firft they afforded pleafure, and that
they now give pain on account of a change in our
nature and circumftances. Now, as the continuance
to defire and purfue fuch objecfbs, notwithftanding the
pain arifing from them, is the effeft of the power of
alFociation, fo the fame power will at laft reveife its
own fteps, and free us from fuch hurtful defires and
purfuits. The recurrency of pain will at laft render
the objed undcfirable and hateful. And the experi-
ence of this painful procefs, in a few particular in-
flances, will at laft, as in other cafes of the fame
kind, beget a habit of ceafing to purfue things, which
we perceive by a few trials, or by rational argu-
ments, to be hurtful to us upon the whole.

Ninthly, A (late of defire ought to be pleafant at
firft from the near relation of defire to love, and
of love to pleafure and happinefs. But in the courfe
of a long purfuit, fo many fears and difappointments,
apparent or real, in refpecft of the fubordinate means,
and fo many ftrong agitations of mind pafling the
limits of pleafure, intervene, as greatly to chequer a
ftate of defire v;ith mifery. For the fame reafons
ftates of averfion are chequered with hope and
comfort.

Tenthiy, Hope and fear are, as juft now ob-
ferved, the attendants upon defire and averfion. Thefe
affc<El us more or lefs, according to the more or lefs
frequent recurrency of the pleafing and painful ideas,
according to the greater or lefs probability of the ex-
pelled event, according to the greater or lefs diftance

of

Of the Affc;(5lions in general. 373

of time, &c. the power of afibciation diTplaying
itfelf every where in the agitations of nnind excited
by thefe pafl^ons. It is particularly remarkable here
that our hopes and fears rife and fall with certain
bodily difpofitions, according as thefe favour or op-
pofe them.

* Eleventhly, Joy and grief take place when the
defire and averfion, hope and fear, are at an endj
and are love and hatred, exerted towards an objcft
which is prefenr, either in a ftnfible manner, or in a
rational one, /. e. fo as to occupy the whole powers
of the mind, as fenfible obje(51:s, when prefenr, and
attended to, do the external fenfes. It is very evi-
dent, that the objeds of the intelleftual pleafures and
pains derive their power of thus afFefting the mind
from afibciation.

Twelfthly, After the aclual joy and grief are over,
and the objeft withdrawn, there generally remains a
pleafing or difpleafing recolled:ion or refentment,
which recurs with every recurrency of the idea of the
obje6l, or of the afibciated ones. This recol]e(5tion
keeps up the love or hatred. In like manner the five
grateful pafTions, love, defire, hope, joy, and plea- t
fing recolleftion, all enhance one another; as do the/
five ungrateful ones, hatred, averfion, fear, grief, andl
difpleafing recolledion. And the whole ten, theni
together, comprehend, as appears to me, all the'
general paflions of human nature.

B b 3 SECT.

374 0/ Memory.

SECT. IV.

OF MEMORY.

PROP. XC.

To csamim how far ike Pbcenomena of Memory arc
agreeable to the foregoing Theory,

Memory was defined in the introdudlion to be
that faculty by which traces of fenfations and
ideas recur, or are recallc-d, in the fame order and
proportion, accurately or nearly, as they were once
prefented.

Now here we may obferve,

Firft, That memory depends entirely or chiefly on
the ftate of the brain. For difeafes, concufTions of
the brain, fpirituous liquors, and fome poifons, im-
pair or deftroy it ; and it generally returns again with
tiie return of health, from the ufe of proper medi-
cines and methods. And all this is peculiarly fuit-
able to the notion of vibrations. If fenfations and
ideas arife from peculiar vibrations, and difpofitions
to vibrate, in the medullary fubfl:ance of the brain, it
is eafy to conceive, that the caufes above alleged may
fo confound the fenfations and ideas, as that the ufual
order and proportion of the ideas fliall be deftroyed.

Secondly, The rudiments of memory are laid in
the perpetual recurrency of the fame imprefllons, and'
clufters of imprt-fTions. How thefe leave traces, in
which the order is preferved, may be underfliood from
the eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh propofitions.
The traces which letters, and words, i. e. clufters of
letters, leave, afford an inftance and example of this.
And, as in lan^uao-es the letters are fewer than the
fyllables, the fyllables than the words, and the words

than

Of Memory. 375

fhan the fentences, fo the fingle fenfible impreffions,
and the fmall clufters qF them, are comparatively few
in refpedt of the large clufters j and, being fo, they
muft recur more frequently, fo as the fooner to beget
thofe traces which I call the rudiments or elements
of memory. When thefe traces or ideas begin to
recur frequently, this alfo contributes to fix them, and
their order, in the memory, in the fame manner as the
frequent imprefllon of the objects themfelves.

Thirdly, Suppofe now a perfon fo far advanced in
life, as that he has learnt all thefe rudiments, i. e. that
he has ideas of the common appearances and occur-
rences of life, under a confiderable variety of fubor-
dinate circumftances, which recur to his imagination
from the flighteft caufes, and with the moft perfe^l:
facility; and let us afk, how he can be able tore-
member or rccollc6l a part fad:, confiding of one thou-
fand fingle particulars, or of one hundred fuch clufters
as are called the rudiments of memory; ten fingle par-
ticulars being fuppofed to conftitute a rudiment ? Firft,
then, we may obferve, that there are only one hun-
dred links wanting in the chain ; for he has already
learnt confiderable exaftnefs in the fubordinate cir-
cumftances of the one hundred clufters ; and perfect
exa(ftnefs is not to be fuppofed or required. — Secondly,
The one hundred clufters recur again and again to the
imagination for fomc time after the faift, in a quick
and tranfient manner, as thofe who attend fumciently
to what paflfes in their own minds may perceive; and
this both makes the impreflion a little deeper, and
alfo ferves to preferve the order. If the perfon
attempts to recollect foon after the imprcftion,
the effect remaining in the brain is fufficient to
enable him to do this with the accuracy required
and experienced ; if a longer time intervenes, before
he attempts to recollect, ftill the number of invo-
luntary recurrencies makes up in fome meafure for
the want of this voluntary recolle6tion. However,
the power of recollection declines in general, and is

B b 4 entirel;>

37^ Of Memory.

entirely lofl by degrees. It confiims tliis reafoning,
that a new let of ftrong impreflions clellroys this
power of recolledion. For this mult boili obhte-
rate the cffeds of the foregoing impreflions, and pre-
vent the rccurrency of the ideas. — Thirdly, As the
fmgle imprefTions, which nnake the fmall clufters, are
not combined together at hazard, but according to a
general tenor in nature, lb the clufters which make
fadls fucceed each other according to fome general
tenor likewife. Now this both lellens the number
of varieties, and Ihews that the afibciation between
many of the clufters, or rudiments, or one hundred
links, fuppofcd to be wanting, is cemented already.
This may be both illuftrated and exemplified by the
obfervation, that it is difficult to remember even well-
known words that have no connection with each other,
and more fo to remember collections of barbarous
terms ; wlicrcas adepts in any fcience remember the
things of that fcience with a furprizing exatftnefs and
facility. — Fourthly, Some clufters are excluded from
fucceeding others, by ideas of inconfiftency, impofti-
bility, and by the methods of reafoning, of which we
become mafters as we advance in life. — Fifthly, The
vifible impreffions which concur in the paft fa6t, by
being vivid, and preferving the order of place, often
contribute greatly to preferve the order of lime,
and to fuggeft the clufters which may be wanting. —
Sixthly, It is to be obferved, that as we think in words
both the impreflions and the recurrencies of ideas
will be attended with words; and thefe words, from
the great ufe and familiarity of language, will fix
themfelves ftrongly in the fancy, and by fo doing
bring up the affociated trains of ideas in the proper
order, accurately or nearly. And thus, when a perfon
relates a paft fad:, the ideas do in fome cafes
fuggeft the words, whilft in others the words fug-
geft the ideas. Hence illiterate perfons do not
remember nearly fo well as others, ceteris 'paribus. And

I fuppofe

Of Memory. 577

i fuppofe the fame is true of deaf perfons in a dill
i-^reater degree. But it arifes hence alfo, that many
^niftakcs in the fubordinace circumftances are com-
mitted in the relations of pad fads, if the relater
defcends to minute particulars. For the fame reafons
thefe miftakes will be fo aflbciated with the true fa6ts
after a few relations, that the relater himfelf fhall be-
lievCj that he remembers them diftinftly. — Seventhly,
The miftakes which are committed both on the fore-
going account and others, make confiderable abate-
ments in the difficulty here to be folved.

Fourthly, Let it now be afked, in what the recol-
le<5tion of a paft fa6l, confifting of one hundred clufters,
as above, differs from the tranfic of the fame one
bundled clufters over the fancy, in the way of a re-
verie ? 1 anfwer, partly in the vividnefs of the cluf-p;
ters, pardy and principally in the readinefs and ftrength
of the afibciations, by which they are cemented to-
gether. This follows from what has been already de-
livered J but it may be confirmed alfo by many other
obfervations. — Thus, firft many perfons are known
by relating the fame falfe ftory over and over again,
i. e. by magnifying the ideas, and their aflTociations, at
laft to believe that they remember it. It makes as vi-
vid an impreffion upon them, and hangs as clofely to-
gether, as an afl^emblage of paft fads recollefted by
memory. — Secondly, Ail men are fometimes at a
lofs to know whether clufters of ideas that ftrike
the fancy ftrongly, and fucceed each other readily
and immediately, be recolleflions, or mere reveries.
And the more they agitate the matter in the mind,
the more does the reverie appear like a recolledion.
It refembles this, that if in endeavouring to recoiled a
verfe, a wrong word, fuiting the place, firft occurs,
and afterwards the right one, it is difficult during the
then prefent agitation to diftinguifh the right one.
But afterwards, when this agitation is fubfided, the
right word eafily regains its place. Perfons of irri-
table

\

37 8 Of Memory;

table nervous fyftems are more fubjed to fuch falla-
cies than others. And miKlinen often impule upon
'» tiiemfclves in this way, viz. from the vividneis of
their ideas and alfociations, produced by bodily
caufes. The lame thing often happens in dreams.
The vividnefs of the new fcene often makes it appear
like one that we remember, and are well acquainted
with. Thirdly if the fpecijic nature of memory
confid in the great vigour of the ideas, and their
allbciations, then, as this vigour abates, it ought to
fuggeft to us a length of time elapfed ; and ince
'uerja., if it be kept up, the diftance of time ought
to appear contradcd. Now this laft is the cafe : for
the death of a friend, or any intercfling event, often
recolleded and related, appears to have happened but
yefterday, as we term it, viz. on account of the vi-
vidnefs of the clulters, and their affociations, corre-
fponding to the nature of a recent event. — Fourthly,
It is not, however, to be here fuppofed, that we
have not many other ways of diftinguiHiing real recol-
leftions from mere reveries. For the fiift are fup-
poried by their conne6lion with known and allowed
fa6ls, by various methods of reafoning, and having
been related as real recolleflions, &c.

Fifthly, In like manner we diftinguifli a new place,
book, peifon, &c. from one which we remember,
fuppofing both to be prefcnted in like circurnftances.
The parts, afibciates, &c. of that which we remem-
ber, ftrike us more ftrongly, are fuggefted by each
other, and hang together, which does not hold of the
new. The old does alfo fuggeft many aflbciates,
which a new one in like circumftances would not.
And if from the then (late of fancy, the diftance of
time, &c. there be any doubt of thefe things, eithrr
with refped to the old or new, a like doubt arifes in
refpecl of the memory. An attentive perfon may
obierve, that he determines of fuch things, whether
they be old or new, by ihc vividnefs of the ideas, and

their

Of Memory. 379

their power of fuggefting each other, and foreign
alTociates.

Some perfons feem to fuppofe, that the foul fur-
veys one objecl, the old for inftance, and comparing
ir with the impreflions which a fimilar new one woiiid
excite, calls the old one an objedl remembered. But
,-his is like fuppofing an eye within the eye to view
le pi6tures miade by objects upon the retina. Not
LO mention, that the foul cannot in the fame inftant,
during the fame to vwv, furvey both the old and new,
and compare them together; nor is there any evi-
dence, that this is done in fa6t. A perfon who
inquires into the nature of memory, may indeed
endeavour to ftate the difference between the impref-
fions of old and new, as I have done here ; but this
is a fpeculation that few perfons concern themfelves
with, whereas all rememiber and apply the words
relative to memory, juft as they do other words. We
may conclude therefore, that the difference of vivid-
nefs and conne(5lion in the ideas, with the other
affociates of recolledionsi, are a' fufficient foundation
for the proper ufe of the words relative to the
memory, juft as in other like cafes.

Sixthly, The peculiar imperfedion of the memory
in children tallies with the foregoing account of this
faculty ; and indeed this account may be confidered
as a grofs general hiftory of the fuccefllve growth
of the memory, in paffing from childhood to adult
' age. Children muft learn by degrees the ideas of
fingle impreffions, the clufters which I call rudi-
ments, and the moft ufual connexions and combi- j
nations of thefe. l"hey have alfo the ufe of words, |
and of objefls and incidents, as figns and fymbols, 1
with the proper method of reafoning upon them, to
learn ; and during their novitiate in thefe things their
memories muft labour under great imperfe6tions. It
appears alfo, that the imperfeftions peculiar to chil-
dren correfpond in kind as well as degree to the rea-

fons

j8o Of Memory.

fons here afllgncd for them. Their not being able to
diged paft fads in order of time is, in great mea-
fure, owing to their not having the proper ufc of the
fymbols, whereby time is denoted.

Seventhly, The peculiar imperfedion of the me*
mory in aged perfons tallies allb with the foregoing
account. The vibrations and difpofitions to vibrate,
in the fmall medullary particles, and their alfociations,
are all lb fixed by the callofity of the medullary fub
fiance, and by repeated imprefTions and rccurrencies,
that new imprefTions can fcarce enter, that they recur
fcldom, and that the parts which do recur bring in
old trains from eilabliOied aflociations, inftead of
continuing thofe which were lately imprefTed. Hence
one may almoft predid what very old perfons will
fay or do upon common occuirences. Which is alfo
the cafe frequently with perfons of ftrong pafTions,
for reafons that are not very unlike. When old
perfons relate the incidents of their youth with great
precifion, it is rather owing to the memory of many
preceding memories, recolleflions, and relations than
to the memory of the thing itfelf.

Eighthly, In recovering from concufTions, and
ether diforders of the brain, it is ufual for the patient
to recover the power of remembering the then pre-
fent common incidents for minutes, hours, and days,
by degrees; alfo the power of recalling the events
of his life preceding his illnefs. At length he reco-
vers this lad power perfedlly, and at the fame time
forgets almoft all that paft in his illnefs, even thofe
things which he remembered, at firft, for a day or
two. Now the reafon of this 1 take to be, that upon
a perfe6l recovery the brain recovers its natural ftate,
i, e. all its former difpofitions to vibrate ; but that
fuch as took place during the preternatural ftate of
the brain, /. e. during his illnefs, are all obliterated
by the return of the natural ftate. In like manner
dreanns, which happen in a peculiar ftate of the brain,

i. e. in

0/ Memory. 381

f. e, in fleep, vanifh, as foon as vigilance, a different
ftate, takes place. But if they be coUeded innme-
diately upon waking, and thus connefted with the
ftate of vigilance, they may be remembered. But
I (hall have occafion to be more explicit on this head
in the next fetflion.

Ninthly, It is very difficult to make any plaufible
conjeftures why fome perfons of very weak judg- »
ments, not much below idiots, are endued with a *
peculiar extraordinary memory. This memory is ,
generally the power of recolle6ling a large group of -i
words, fuppofe, as thofe of a fermon, in a fhort '
time after they are heard, with Vv'onderful exaftnefs
and readinefs j but then the whole is obliterated,
after a longer time, much more completely than ia
perfons of common memories and judgments. One
inay perhaps conjecture, that the brain receives all
difpofitions to vibrate fooner in thefe perfons, and
lets them go fooner, than in others. And the laft
may contribute to the firft : for, new impreffions may
take place more deeply and precifely, if there be few
old ones to oppofe them. The mod perfed memory
is that which can both receive moft readily, and retain
moft durably. But we may fuppofe, that there are
limits, beyond which thefe two different powers
cannot confift with each other.

Tenlhly, When a perfon defires to recoiled a thing
that has efcaped him, fuppofe the name of a perfon,
or vifible objed, he recalls the vifible idea, or fome
other aflbciate, again and again, by a voluntary power,
the defire generally magnifying all the ideas and
affociationsi and thus bringing in the affociation and
idea wanted, at laft. However, if the defire be great,
it changes the ftate of the brain, and has an oppofite
effed ; fo that the defired idea doe,s not recur,
till all has fubfided ; perhaps not even then.

Eleventhly, All our voluntary powers are of the
nature of iremory ; as may be eafily (^tn from the

foregoin

382 Of Memory.

foregoing account of it, compared with the account
of the voluntary powers given in the fiift chapter.
And it agrees remarkably with this, that, in morbid
affe6lions of the memory, the voluntary adion^ fufFer
a like change and imperfc6lion.

Twelfihly, For the i^xs^ reafons the whole pow-
ers of the foul may be referred to the memory, when
taken in a large fenfe. Hence, though fome perfons
m.iy have Ibong memories with weak judgments,
yet no man can have a ftrong judgment with a weak
original power of retaining and remembering.

SECT.

Of Dreams. 383

SECT. V.

OF IMAGINATION, REVERIES, AND DREAMS.

PROP. XCI.

^0 examine how far the Phenomena of Imagination,
Reveries^ and t)r earns-, are agreeable to the^ foregoing
'Theory.

The recurrence of ideas, efpccially vifible and
audible ones, in a vivid manner, but without any
regard to the order obferved in paft fadls, is afcribed
to the power of imagination or fancy. Now here
we may obferve, that every fucceeding thought is the
refult either of fome new impreffion, or of an aflb-
ciation with the preceding. And this is the com-
mon opinion. . It is impoffible indeed to attend To
minutely to the fucccfiion of our ideas, as to diflin-
guifli and remember for a fufficient time the very,
impreffion or aflbciation which- gave birth to each
thought ; but we can do this as far as it can be
expeded to be done, and in fo great a variety of
inftances, that our argument for the prevalence of
the foregoing principle of afTociation in ail inftances,
except thofe of new impreflions, may be efteemcd
a complete indudtion.

A reverie difi^ers from imagination only in that the
perfon being more attentive to his own thoughts,
and lefs difturbed by foreign objedls, m.ore o\ his
ideas are deducible from aflbciation, and fewer from
new impreffions.

It is to be obferved, however, that' in all the cafes
of imagination and reverie the thoughts depend, in
part, upon the then ftate of body or miind. A
plcafurable or painful Itace of the ftomach or brain,

384 Q/^ Dreams.

joy or gritf, will make all the thoughts warp their
own way, little or much. But this exception is as
agreeable to the foregoing theory, as the general
prevalence of aflbciation jull laid down.

We come next to dreams. I fay then, that dreams
are nothing but the imaginations, fancies, or reve-
ries of a lleeping man; and that they are deducible
from the three following caufcs, viz. Firft, The im-
prefTions and ideas lately received, and particularly
thofe of the preceding day. Secondly, The ftate of
the body, particularly of the ftomach and brain.
And, Thirdly, AlTociation.

That dreams are, in part, deducible from the Im-
predlons and ideas of the preceding day, appears from
the frequent recurrence of thefe in greater or lelTer
clutters, and efpecially of the vifible ones, in our
dreams. We fometimes take in ideas of longer date,
in part, on account of their recency ; however, in
general, ideas that have not afFedled the mind for
fome days, recur in dreams only from the fecond or
third caufe here affigned.

That the flate of the body affevEts our dreams, is
evident from the dreams of fick perfons, and of
thofe who labour under indigeftions, fpafms, and
flatulencies.

Laftly, We may perceive ourfelves to be carried
on from one thing to another in our dreams partly
by aflbciation.

It is alfo highly agreeable to the foregoing theory
to exped, that each of the three foregoing caufes
fliould have an influence upon the trains of ideas,
that are prefented in dream.s.

Let us now fee. how we can folve the mofl: ufual
ph^enomena of dreams upon thefe principles.

Fird, then, The icenes which prefent themfelves
are taken to be real. We do not confider them as
the work of the fancy ; but fuppofe ourfelves pre-
fent, and actually feeing and hearing what paflTes.

Now

Of Dreams. 385

Now this happens, Firft, Becaufe we have no other
reality to oppofe to the ideas which offer themfelves,
whereas in the common ti(5lions of the fancy, while
we are awake, there is always a fet of real external
objefts ftriking fome of our fenfes, and precluding
a like mitlake there : or, if we become quite inatten-
tive to external objefls, the reverie does fo far
put on the nature of a dream, as to appear a reality.
— Secondly, The trains of vifible ideas, which occur
in dreams, are far more vivid than common vifible
ideas ; and therefore may the more eafily be taken for
adual impreffions. For what reafons thefe ideas
fhould be fo much more vivid, 1 cannot prefume to
iay. I guefs, that the exclufion of real imprefllons
has fome Ihare, and the increafed heat of the brain
may have fome likewife. The fa6l is mod obferva-
ble in the firft approaches of fleepj all the vifible
ideas beginning then to be more than ufually' glaring.

Secondly, There is a great wildnels and incon-
fiftency in our dreams. For the brain, during deep,
is in a ftate fo different from that in which the ufuai
affociations were forn>ed, that they can by no means
take place as they do during vigilance. On the con-
trary, the ftate of the body fuggefts fuch ideas,
amongft thofe that have been lately impreffed, as are
moft fuitable to the various kinds and degrees of
pleafant and painful vibrations excited in the ftomach,
brain, or fome other part. Thus a perfon who has
taken opium, fees either gay fcenes, or ghaftly ones,
according as the opium excites pleafant or painful
vibrations in the ftomach. Hence it will follow, that
ideas will rife fucccffivcly in dreams, which have no
fuch conneflion as takes place in nature, '"n ^dual
impreffions, nor any fuch as is deducible from aflb-
ciation. And yet, if they rife up quick and vividly
one after another, as fubjefts, predicates, and other
affociates, ufe to do, they will be affirmed of each
other, and appear to hang together. Thus the fame

Vol. I. C c perfon

f

336 Of Dreams.

pcrfon appears in two places at the fame time ; two
perlons appearing lucceflively in tlie fame place coa-
lefce into one ; a brute is Ibppoled to fpeak (when
the idea of a voice comes from that quarter) or to han-
dle ; any idea, qualification, office, &c. coinciding in
the inftant of time with the idea of one's felf, or of
another perfon, adheres immediately, &c. &c.

Thirdly, We do not take notice of, or are offended
at, thele inconfiftencies ; but pafs on from one to
another. For the afibciations, which fhould lead us
thus to take notice, and be offended, are, as it were,
afleep ; the bodily caufes alfo hurrying us on to new
and new trains fucceffively. But if the bodily ftatc
be fuch as favours ideas of anxiety and perplexity,
then the inconfiftency, and apparent impoffibility,
occurring in dreams, are apt to give great difturbance
and uneafinefs. It is to be obferved likewife, that
we forget the feveral parts of our dreams, very faft
in paffing from one to another ; and that this leffens
the apparent inconfiftencies, and their influences.

Fourthly, It is common in dreams for perfons to
appear to themfclves to be trani,ferred from one place
to another, by a kind of failing or flying motion.
This arifes from the change of the apparent magni-
tude and pofition of the images excited in the brain,
this change being fuch as a change of diftance and
pofition in Qurfelves would have occafioned. What-
ever the reafons be, for which vifible images are ex-
cited in fleep, like to the objects with which we con-
verfe when awake, the fame reafons will hold for
changes of apparent magnitude and pofition alfoj
and thefe changes in fixed objefls, being confl:antly
affociated with motions in ourfelves when awake,
will infer thefe motions when afleep. But then
we cannot have the idea of the vis inerli^e of our
own bodies, anfwering to die impreffions in walking;
becaufe the nerves of the mufcles either do not admit
of fuch miniature vibrations in fleep j or do not tranf-

mit

Of Dreams. 387

mic ideas to the mind in confequence thereof; whence
we appear to fail, fly, or ride. Yet fometimes a
pcrfon feems to walk, and even to ftrike, juft as in
other cafes he feems to feel the impreflion of a foreign
body on his fkin.

Thofe who walk and talk in their fleep, have evi-
dently the nerves of the mufcles concerned fo {:t^y as
that vibrations can defcend from the internal' parts of
the brain, the peculiar refidence of ideas, into them.
At the fame time the brain itfelf is fo opprelTed, that
they have fcarce any memory. Perfons who read in-
attentively, /. e. fee and fpeak almoft without remem-
bering, alio thofe who labour under fuch a morbid
lofs of memory, as that though they fee, hear, fpeak,
and ad, pro re nata., from moment to moment, yet
they forget all immediately, fomewhat refemble the
perfons who walk and talk in fleep.

Fifthly, Dreams confift chiefly of vifible imagery.
This agrees remarkably with the perpetual impref-
fions made upon the optic nerves and correfponding
parts of the brain during vigilance, and with the dif-
tindlnefs and vividnefs of the images irnpreflled.

We m.ay obferve alfo, that the vifible imagery in
dreams is compofed, in a confiderable degree, of
fragments of vifible appearances lately impreflTed. Foi'
the difpofition to thefe vibrations muft be greater
than to others, ceteris paribus y zt the fame time that
by the imperfection and interruption of the aflt)cia.-
tions, only fragments, not whole images, will gene-
rally appear. The fragments are fo fmail, and fo
intermixed with other fragments and appearances,
that it is difficult to trace them up to the preceding
day; the fliortnefs of our memory contributing alfo
not a little thereto.

It happens in dreams, that the fame fiditious
places are prefented again and again at the difl:ancc
of weeks and months, perhaps during the whole courfe
of life. Thefe places are, I fuppofe^ compounded

C c 2 at

388 Of Dreams.

at firft, probably early in youth, of fragments of real
places, which we have leen. They afterwards recur
in dreams, becaufe the fame ftatc of brain recurs;
and when this has happened for fome fucccfllons,
they may be expe6led to recur at intervals during
life. But they may alfo admit of variations, cfpe-
cially before frequent rccurrency has eftablifhed and
fixed them.

Sixthly, It has been obferved already, that many
of the things which are prefented in dreams, appear
to be rememl)ered by us, or, at leaft, as familiar to
usi and that this may be folved by the readinefs
with which they ftart up, and fucceed one another,
in the fancy.

Seventhly, It has alfo been remarked, that dreams
ought to be foon forgotten, as they are in faft ; be-
caufe the ftate of the brain fuffcrs great changes in
pairing from fleep to vigilance. The wildnefs and
inconfirtency of our dreams render them ftill more
liable to be forgotten. It is faid that a man may re-
member his dreams beft by continuing in the fame
pofture in which he dreamt j which, if true, would
be a remarkable confirmation of the dodlrine of vibra-
tions ; fince thofe which take place in the medullary
fubftance of the brain would be leaft difturbed and
obliterated by this m.eans.

Eighthly, The dreams which are prefented in the
firft part of the night are, for the mod part, much
more confufed, irregular, and difficult to be remem-
bered, than thofe which we dream towards the morn-
ing ; and thefe laft are often rational to a confiderable
degree, and regulated according to the ufual courfe
of our affociations. For the brain begins then to ap
proach to the (late of vigilance, or that in which the
ufual airociations were formed and cemented. How
ever, afibciation has fome power even in wild and
inconfiftent dreams.

CoR.

le

Of Dreams. 38^

Cor. I. As the proph^ies were, many of them,
communicated in the way of divine vifions, trances,
or dreams, fo tliey bear many of the foregoing
marks of dreams. Thus they deal chiefly in vifible
imagery; they abound with apparent impofllbilities,
and deviations from cpmmon life, of which ye-t the
prophets take not the lead notice : they fpeak of new
things as of familiar ones ; they are carried in the
fpirit from place to place ; things requiring a long
feries of time in real life, are tranfafled in the pro-
phetical vifions, as foon as feen ; th^ry afcribe to
themfelves and others new names, ofBces, &c. every
thing has a real exiftence conferred upon itj there
are fingular combinations of fragments of vifible
appearances ; and God himfelf is reprefented in
a vifible fliape, which of all other things muft be
iXioH: offenfive to a pious Jew. And it feems to me,
that thefe, and fuch like criterions might eftablifii
the genuinenefs of the prophecies, exclufively of all
other evidences.

Cor. 2. The wildnels of our dreams feems to be
of fingular ufe to us, by interrupting and breaking the
courfe of our aflbciations. For, if we werp always
awake, fome accidental alTociations would be (o
much cemented by continuance, as that nothing could
afterwards disjoin them; which would be madnefs.

Cor. 3.. A perfon may form a judgment of the
(late of his bodily health, and of his temperance, by
the general pleafantnefs or unpleafantnefs of his
dreams. There alfo many ufeful hints relating to
the ftrength of our pafljons deducible from them.

Cc3 SECT.

3^o Of Imperfcaions

SECT. VI.

01' IMPERFECTIONS JN THE RATIONAL

FACULTY.

PROP. XCII.

To examine how far Deviations from found Reajony and
Alienations of Mindy are agreeable to the foregoing
Theory.

Mad pcrfons differ from others in that they judge
wrong of pa(t or future fa<5ts of a common nature;
that their affedions and aflions are violent and dif-
ferent from, or even oppofite to, thofe of others
upon the like occafions, and fuch as are contrary to
their true happinefs ; that their memory is fdllarious,
and their difcourfe incoherent j and that they lofe, in
great mcafure, that confcioufnefs which accompanies
our thoughts and aftions, and by which we conned
ourfelves with ourfclves from time to time. Thefc
circumllances are varioufly combined in the various
kinds and degrees of madnefs ; and fome of them
take place in perfons of found minds, in certain de-
grees, and for certain fpaces of timej fo that here,
as in other cafes, it is impoffible to fix precife limits,
and to determine where foundnefs of mind ends, and
madnefs begins. I will make fome fhort remarks,
deduced from the theory of thefe papers, upon thc',
following dates of mind, which all bear fome rela-
tion to one another, and all differ from the perfedion
of reafoning natural to adults, according to the ordi-'
nary courfc of things, viz.

1. The erroneoufnefs of the judgment in children
and idiots.

2. The dotage of old perfons.

3. Drunkennefs.

4. The

in the rational Faculty. 391

4. The deliriums attending acute or otiier diftem-
j-ers.

5. The frequent recurrency of the fame ideas in a
ourfe of ftudy, or otherwife.

6. Violent paffions.

7. Melancholy.

8. Madnefs.

OF THE ERRONEOUSNESS OF THE JUDGMENT
IN CHILDREN AND IDIOTS.

Children often mifreprefenc paft and future fads i
their memories are fallacious ;. their difcourfe incohe-
!nt; their affe6tions and adions difproportionate to
the value of the things defired and purfued j and
le connefting confcioufnefs is in them as yet imper-
idi. But all this follows naturally from the obfer-
vations made above concerning the methods in which
we learn to remember and relate paft fadis, to judge
of future ones, to reafon, and to exprefs ouifelves
fuitably to each occafion j alfo in which our hopes
and fears are made to depend upon fymbols. No
particular account is therefore required for thefe phse-
nomena ; they are ftriftly natural ; and many of the
chief reafons for the imperfeftion of the memory
and judgment in children occurring perpetually, and
being very obvious, it is not ufuaily fuppofed, that
any particular account is required. However, if an
adult fhould become fubjeft to a like erroneoufnefs,
it would evidently be one fpecies of madnefs ; as
fatuity or idiotifm is. Here the brain labours under
fuch an original diforder, as either not to receive a
difpofition to the miniature vibraiionc; in which ideas
confift, and whence voluntary motions are derived,
but with great difficulty j or, if it receives fuch dif-
pofitions readily, they have not the ufual permanency;
in both which cafes it is evident, that the memory,
with all the faculcies thereon depending, muft

C^ c 4 con-

391 O/'ImperfefVions

continue in an imperfoft ftate, fuch as is obferved in
idiots. The want of the connetfting conrciournfls in
children and idiots, and indeed in nnaniacs of various
kinds, excites our pity in a peculiar manner, this con-
neding confcioulnefs being elleemed a principal
fourcc and requifite of happinefs. Their heipiefs-
ncfs, and the dangers to which they are expofed
without forefeeing tliem, contribute alfo to enhance
our compafTion.

OF DOTAGE.

I

Tlie dotage of old perfons is oftentimes ibmc-
thing more than a mere decay of memory. For
they miftake things prefent for others, and their
difcourfe is often foreign to the objeds that are pre-
fented to them. However, the irnperfedlion of their
memories in refpecl of impreirions but juft made,
or at lliort intervals of paft time, is one principal fource
of their miftakes. One-»may fuppofe here, that the .
parts of the brain, in which the miniature vibrations
belonging to ideas have taken place, are decayed in
a peculiar manner, perhaps from too great ufe, while
the parts appropriated to the natural, vital, and anim.al
motions, remain tolerably perfe6t. The finufes of the
brain are p'obably confiderably diftended in thefe
cafes, and the brain itfelf in a languifhing ftate j for
there feems to be a confiderable refemblance be-
tween the inconfiftencies of fome kinds of dotage, and
thofe of dreams. Befides which it may be obferved,
that in dotage the perfon is often fluggifli and lethargicj
and that as a defeft of the nutritive faculty in the
brain will permit the finufes to be more eafily dif-
tended, fo a diftcntion of the finufes, from this or
any other caufe, may impede the due nutrition of
the brain. We fee that, in old perfons, all the
parts, even the bones themfelves, wafte, and grow
lefs. Why may not this happen to the brain, the

oiigin

in the rational Faculty. 393

rigin of all, and arife from an obrtruftion of the
.nhnitefimal vefTels of the nervous fyftem, this ob-
ftruftion caufeth fuch a degree of opacity, as greatly
to abate, or even to deftroy the powers of aflbciation

nd memory ? At the fame time vibrations, fo*
reign to the prefent objeds, may be excited from
caufes refiding in the brain, ftomach, &c. juft as in
ileep.

OF DRUNKENNESS.

The common and immediate effeft of wine is to
difpofe to joy, i' e. to introduce fuch kinds and de-
grees of vibrations into the whole nervous fyftem, or
.nto the feparate parts thereof, as are attended with
a moderate continued plcafure. This it feems to do
chiefly by imprefllng agreeable fenfatlons upon the
ftomach and bowels, which are thence propagated
into the brain, continue there, and alfo call up the
feveral afTociated pleafures that hav? been formed
from pleafant impreflions made upon the alimentary
duifl, or even upon any of the external fenfes. But
wine has alfo probably a confiderable effe<fl of the
fame kind, after it is abforbed by the veins and lac-
teals, viz. by the impreftions which it makes on the
folids, confidered as produftions of the nerves, while
it circulates with the fluids in an unafllmilated ftate,
in the fame manner, as has been already obfsrved
of opium ; which refembles wine in this refped
alio, that it produces one fpecies of temporary mad-
nefs. And we may fuppofe, that analogous obfer-
vations hold with regard to all the medicinal and poi-
fonous bodies, which are found to produce confider-
able diforders in the mind -, their greateft and moft
immediate eflefl arifes from the iriipreflions made on
the ftomach, and the diforderly vibrations propa-
gated thence into the brain ; and yet it feems pro-
bable, that fuch particles as are abforbed, produce/a
fimiiar efFed in circulating with the blood.

Wine,

394 ' ^f ImperfccSlioiis

Wine, afcer it is abfoibed, mud rarefy the blood,
and conl'cqucntly dillcnd the veins and (inufcs, fo as
to make thenti comprefs the medullary llibltance, and
the nerves themklves, both in their origin and pro-
grefs i it mull therefore dilpofe to Tome degree of a
palfy of the feniations and motions j to which there
will be a farther difpofition from the great exhauftioii
of the nervous capillaments, and medullary fubftance,
which a continued (late of gaiety and mirth, with the
various exprelTions of it, has occafioncd.

It is moreover to be noted, that the pleafant vi-
brations producing this gaiety, by rifing higher and
higher perpetually, as more wine is takeji into the
ftomach and blood vcfl'cls, come at la(l to border upon,
and even to pafs into, the difagreeable vibrations be-
longing to the palfions of anger, jealoufy, envy, &c.
more efpccially if any of the mental caufes of thefe be
prefented at the fame time.

Now it feems, that, from a comparifbn of thefe and
fuch like things witji each other, and with what is
delivered in other parts of thefe papers, the peculiar
temporary madnefs of drunken perfons might receive
a general explanation. Particularly it feems natural
to expedl, that they fhould at firfl: be much difpofed
to mirth and laughter, with a mixture of fmall in-
confiftencies and abfurdities j that thefe laft (hould in-
creafe from the vivid trains which force themfelves
upon the brain, in oppofition to the prefent reality ;
that they fhould lofe the command and {lability of the
voluntary motions from the prevalence of confufed
vibrations in the brain, fo that thofe appropriated
to voluntary mdtion cannot dcfcend regularly as ufual;
but that they fhould (lagger, and fee double : that
quarrels and contentions fliould arife after fome time ;
and all end at lafl in a temporary apoplexy. And it is
very obfervable, that the free ufe of fermented li-
quors difpofes to pafTionatenefs, to diftempers of

the

I

in the rational Faculty, 395

the head, to melancholy, and to downright mad-
nefs ; all which things have alfo great conneftions
with each other.

The ficknefs and head-ach which drunkennefs
occafions the fucceeding morning, feem to arife, the
firfl: from the immediate impreflions made on the
nerves of the ftomach ; the fecond from the peculiar
fympathy which the parts of the head, external as
well as internal, have with the brain, the pare princi-
pally affefted in drunkennefs, by deriving their nerves
immediately from it,

OF DELIRIUMS.

I come next to confider the deliriums which Ibme-
times attend diftempers, efpecially acute ones. In
thefe a difagreeable ftate is introduced into the ner-
vous fyftem by the bodily diforder, which checks the
rife of pleafant affociations, and gives force and
quicknefs to difguftful ones ; and which confcquently
would of itfelf alone, if fufficient in' degree, vitiate
and diftort all the reafonings of the fick perfon. But
befides this, it feems, that, in the deliriums attend-
ing diftempers, a vivid train of vifible images forces
itfelf upon the patient's eye, and that either from a
diforder in the nerves and blood veflels of the eye
itfelf, or from one in the brain, or one in the alimen-
tary dud, or, which is moft probable, from a con-
currence of all thefe. It feems alfo that the wild dif-
courfe of delirious perfons is accommodated to this
train in fome imperfed manner; and that it becomes
fo wild, partly from the incoherence of the parts
of this train, partly from its not expreffing even this
incoherent train adequately, but deviating into fuch
phrafes as the vibrations excited by the diftemper
in the parts of the brain correfponding to the auditory
nerves, or in parts ftill more internal, and confe-
quently the feats of ideas purely intelledual, pro-
duce

^

396 Of Imperfc(fbions

doce by their a(Toci.ncd influence over the organs of
fpccch.

That delirious pcrfons have fuch trains forced upon ^
the eye from internal caufcs, appears probable from t
hence, that when they firll begin to be delirious,
and talk wildly, it is generally at fuch times only as
jhey are in tlie dark, fo as to have all vifible objeAs
pxclwdedj for, upon bringing a candle to them, and
prefenting common objetfts, they recover themfelves,
and talk rationally, till the candle be removed again.
For hence we may conclude, that the real objfds
overpower the vifible train from internal caufes, while
the delirium is in its infancy; and that the pitient
relaples, as foon as he is fliut up in the dark, becaufe
the vifible train from internal caufes overpowers that
which would rife up, was the perfon's nervous fyftem
in a natural flate, according to the ufual cou>fe of
alFociation, and the recurrent recollecftion of the
place and circumftances in which he is fituaied. By
degrees the vifible train, from internal caufes, grows
fo vivid, by the increafe of the di.ftemper, as even
to overpower the imprefTions from real objefts, at
lead frequently, and in a great degree, and fo as to
intermix itfelf with them, and to make an inconfift-
€ncy in the words and adions; and thus the patient
becomes quite delirious,

Perfons inclining to be delirious in diftempers are
mod apt to be fo in going to fleep, and in waking from
fleep J in which circumflaaces the vifible trains are
more vivid, than when we are quite awake, as has
been obferved above.

It cafts alfo fome light upon this fubje61, that tea
and coffee will fometimcs occafion fuch trains; and
that they arife in our firfl: attempts to fleep after thefe
liquors.

As death approaches, the deliriums attending dif-
tempers abound with far more incoherences and in-
confiftencies, than any other fpecies of alienations of

the

in the rational Faculty, 397

the mind ; which may eafily be conceived to be the
natural refult of the entire confufion and diforder
which then take place in the nervous fyftem. How-
ever, there are fome cafes of death, where the ner-
vous fyftem continues free from this confufion to the
laft, as far as the by-ftanders can judge.

OF THE FREQUENT RECURRENCY OF
THE SAME IDEAS.

When a peifon applies himfelf to any particular
(tudy, fo as to fix his attention deeply on the ideas
and terms belonging to it, and to be very little con-
verfant in thofc of other branches of knowledge, it is
commonly obfcrved, that he becomes narrow-minded,
ftrongly perfuaded of the truth and value of many
things in his own particular ftudy, v.hich others
think doubtful or falfe, or of little importance, and
after fome time fubjeft to low fpirits, and the hypo-
chondriacal diftemper. Now all this follows from
obfervations already made. The perpetual recur-
rency of particular ideas and terms makes the vi-
brations belonging thereto become more than ordina-
rily vivid, converts feeble aflbciations into ftrong ones,
and enhances the fecondary ideas of dignity and
cfteem, which adhere to them, at the fame time that
all thefe things are diminifhed in refpe6t of other ideas
and terms, that aje kept out of view ; and which,,
if they weie to recur in due proportion, would op-
pofe and correct many aifociations in the particular
ftudy, which are made not according to the reality
of things, and keep down our exorbitant opinions
of its importance. The fame perpetual lecurrency
of vibrations, affecting one and the fame part of the
brain, in nearly one and the fame manner, muft irri-
tate it at laft, fo as to enter the linnits of pain, and
approach to the ftates peculiar to fear, anxiety,
defpondency, peevifhnefs, jealoufy, and the reft of
the tribe of hypochondriacal paftions.

Sleep,

Dl

1

i

2c^^ Of Imperfci^tions

Sleep, which prefents ideas at hazard, as one may
fay, and with Uttld regard to prior ciflbciarions, ft-ems
to be of the greatdt life in keeping ofi' the hypo-
chondriacal diltemper in fuch perfons : however,
without a change of ftudies, this, with great narrow-
mindcdncfs, will probably conrie at lad.

It follows from the fair.e method of reafoning,
that fince the concerns of religion are infinite, fo that
we can never over-rate them, we ought to make the
ideas, motives, and alFcdtions, of this kind, recur
as often as polTible. And if this be done in a truly
cniholic fpirir, with all that variety of actions which
our duty to God, our neighbour, and ourfelves, re-
quires, there will be no danger of introducing either
narrow-mi ndednefs or hypochondriacifm. And it
ought to be edeemed the fame kind and degree of ali-
enation of mind to undervalue a thing of great
importance, as to overvalue one of fmall.

OF VIOLENT PASSIONS^ Ic

Perfons that are under the influence of ftrong paf-
fions, fuch as anger, fear, ambition, difappointment,
have the vibrations attending the principal ideas
j fo much increafed, that thefe ideas cling together,
\ i. e. are aflbciated in an unnatural mai;^ner; at the
fame time that the eagernefs and violence of the
pafilon prevent the formation of fuch afibciations,
or obfcurc them, if already formed, as are requifite for
the right apprehenfion of the paft and future fa6ls,
which are the objedts of this- padiOn. Violent paf-
fions mud therefore diforder the underftanding and
judgment, while they laftj and if the fame paffion
returns frequently, it may have fo great an effed upon
the aflx)ciations, as that the intervention of foreign
ideas fhall not be able to fet things to rights, and
break the unnatural bond. The fame increafe of vi-
brations makes all the principal ideas appear to affecl

in the rational Faculty, ;399

felfj with the peculiar interefting concern fuppofed to
flow from perfonal identity ; fo that thefe vibrations
exert a refle6ted influence upon themfelves by this
means. And thus it appears, that all violent pafTions
mufl: be temporary madneires, and all habits of them
permanent ones, agreeably to the judgment of the
wife and good in thefe things. It appears alfo, that vio-
lent fits of pafllon, and frequent recurrencies of them,
muft, from the nature of the body, often tranfport
perfons, fo that they fhall not be able to recover them-
felves, but fall within the limits, of the diftemper called
niadnefs emphatically.

OF MELANCHOLY.

The next fpecies of alienations of the mind is

-lelancholy. Vapours, hypochondriacal and hyfte-

:';cal diforders, are comprehended under this clafs.

The caufes of it arc felf-indulgence in eating and

drinking, and particularly in fermented liquors, want

of due bodily labour, injuries done to the brain by

fevers, concuflTions, &c. too much application of

the mind, efpecially to the fame objefls and ideas,

V iolent and long-continued pafllons, profufe evacua-

)ns, and an hereditary difpofitionj which lafl we

ay fuppofe to confift chiefly in an undue make of

r'le brain.

In women the uneafy ftates of the uterus are

propagated to the brain, both immediately and

i mediately, /. e. by firft affecfting the ftomach, and

j thence the brain. In men the original diforder

' ften begins, and continues for a long time, chiefly

a.) the organs of digeftion,

I The cau/a froxima of melancholy is an irritability
iof the medullary fubftance of the brain, difpofing it
upon flight occafions to fuch vibrations as enter the
!:mits of pain j and particularly to fuch kinds and
degrees, as belong to the uneafy pafTions of fear, for-
row, anger, iealoufy, &c. And as thefe vibrations,

when

400 Of Impcrkdftions

when the pafTionsarcnot in gttac excels, do not nnuch
trangrcfs the liiiiits of plcaluie, it will often happen
that hvpochoniliiac and hyltcric pcrfonb lli.ili be apt
to be tranlpoited with joy from t/ifiing caufes, and
be, at times, difpofed to mirth and laughter. They
are alio very fickle and changeable, as having liieir
dcfirts, hopes, and fears, increafed far beyond their
natural magnitude, when they happen to fall in with
fuch a llatc of brain as favours them.

it often hnj^pens to thelif perfons to have very abfurd
defires, hopes, and fears ; and yet, at the fame time,
to know them to be abfurd ; and, in conicquencc
thereof, to refift them* While they do this, we may
reckon the dillempcr within the bounds of melan-
choly; but when they endeavour to gratify very abfurd
defires, or are permanently perfuaded of the reality of
very groundlefs hopes and fears, and efpecially if they
lofe the conneding confcioufnefs in any great dcgree>
and violate the rules of decency and virtue (the afib-
ciations of this kind being overpowered, as it were, in
the fame manner as they are fometimes in dreams), we
iTiay reckon the diftemper to have pafied into mad-
nefs, Itridly fo called; of which I now come to fpeak
in a general brief way.

OF MADNESS.

The caufes of madnefs are of two kinds, bodily
and mental. That which arifes from bodily caufes
is nearly related to drunkennefs, and to the deliriums
attending diftempers. That from mental caufes is
of the fame kind with temporary alienation^j of the
mind during violent pafiions, and witii the prejudices
and opinionativencfs, which much application to one
fet of ideas only occafions.

We may thus diflinguifh the caufes for the more
cafy conception and analyfis of the fubjeft ; but, in
fact, they are both united for the molt part. The

bodilyi

in the rational Faculty, 401

bodily caufe lays hold of that paflion or affeflion, which
is moft difproportionate; and the mental caufe, when
that is primary, generally waits till Ibme bodily dif-
temper gives it full fcope to exert itfelf. Agreeably
to this, the prevention and cure of all kinds of mad-
nefs require an attention both to the body and mind i
Avhich coincides in a particular manner with the gene-
ral doflrine of thefe papers.

It is obferved, that mad perlbns often fpeak ration-
ally and confidently upon the fubjed:s that occur,
provided that finglc one which moft afFefts them, be
kept out of view. And the reafon of this may be,
that whether they firft became mad, becaufe a parti-
cular, original, mental uneafinefs falls in with an ac-
cidental, bodily diforder j or becaufe an original,
bodily diforder falls in with an accidental mental
one ; it muft follow, that a particular fet of ideas
fhall be extremely magnified, and, confequently, an
unnatural aflbciation of famenefs or repugnancy "be-
tween them generated, all ether ideas and afibciations
remaining nearly the fame. Thus, fuppofe a perfon,
whofe nervous fyftem is difordercd, to turn his
thoughts accidentally to fome barely pofiible good or
evil. If the nervous diforder falls in with this, it in-
creafes the vibrations belonging to its idea fo much,
as to give it a reality, a connexion with /elf. For
we diftinguifh the recolleftion and anticipation of
things relating to ourfelves, from thofe of things re-
lating to other perfons, chiefly by the difi^erence of
ftrength in the vibrations, and in their coalefcences
with each other. When one falfe pofition of this kind
is admitted, it begets more ofcourfe, the fame bodily
and mental caufes alfo continuing ; but then this pro-
ccfs ftops after a certain number of falfe pofitions
are adopted from their mutual incpnfiftency (unlefs
I the whole nervous fyftem be deranged) i and it is
often confined to a certain kind, as the irafcible, the
terrifying, &c.

Vol. 1. D d The

402 Of Imperfciftions

The memory is ofcen much impaired in madnefs,
whicli is both a fign of the grcatiiefs of the bodily
diforder, and a hindrance to mental redilication ;
and therefore a bad prognollic. If an oppofite Hate
of body and mind can be introduced early, before
the unnatural ailociations are too much cemented,
the madnefs is cured ; if otherwife, it will remain,
tliough both tlie bodily and mental caufe fliould be
at la(t removed.

Inquiries after the philofopher's flone, the longi-
tude, &c. to wliich men are prompted by ftrong
ambitious, or covetous defires, are often both caufe
and cfTed, in refped of madnefs. ExcelTive fits of
anger and fear are alfo found often to hurry perfons
into madnefs.

In dilTeftions after madnefs the brain is often found
dry, and the blood veiTcls much diftended ; which arc
arguments, that violent vibrations took place in the
internal parts of the brain, the peculiar refidence of
ideas and paffions ; and that it was much compreiled,
fo as to obftru6l the natural courfe of aflbciation.

As in mad perfons the vibrations in the internal
parts of the brain are preternaturally increafed, fo they
are defective in the external organs, in the glands, &:c.
Hence, maniacs eat little, arc coflive, make little tva-
ter, and take fcarre any notice of external impredions.
The violence of the ideas and pafTions may give therr
great mufcnlar ftrength upon particular occafionS;
when the violent vibrations deicend from the interna
parts of the brain into the mufcles, according tc
former affociations of thefe with the voluntary mo-
tions (the fame increafe of vibrations in the interna
parts of the brain which hinders the afcending vibra-
tions of fenfation, augmenting the defcending one;
of motion). But maniacs are often very fluggifli, a!
well as infenfible, from the great prevalence of th<
ideal vibrations i juft as perfons in a (late of deej
attention arc. An accurate hillory of the fevera

kind

in the rational Faculty. 403

kinds of madnefs from thofe phyficians, who are
much converfant with this diftemper, is greatly
wanted, and it would probably receive confiderablc
light from this theory.

Religious confiderations are the beft prefcrvative
in hereditary or other tendencies to madnefs j as be-
ing the only fure means of reftraining violent paffions,
at the fame time that they afford a conftant indefi-
nite hope, mixed with a filial awe and fear ; which
things are eminently qualified to keep up a fteadinefs
and fobriety of mind, and to incite us to fuch a courfe
of a<5lion, as adds inceffantly to the hope, and dimi-
nifhes the fear. However, bodily labour, with a
variety of mental occupations, and a confiderable
abftemioufnefs in the quantity and quality of diet,
ought always to be joined.

D d 2 SECT.

404 Of the Intellcaual

SECT. VII.

OF THE INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES
OF BRUTES.

P R O P. XCIII.

'to examine how far the Inferiority of Brutes to Man-
kind in intelletlual Capacities is agreeable to the fore-
going theory.

If the doftrines of vibrations and aflbciation be
found fufficient to folve the ph.x'4piTiena of fenfa-
tion, motion, ideas, and affeftions, in men, it tvill
be rcafonable to fuppofe, that they will alfo be fuffi-
cient to folve the analogous phzenomena in brutes.
And, converfely, it feems probable, that an endeavour
to apply and adapt ihefe doctrines to brutes will caft
Tome light and evidence upon them, as they take
place in men. And thus the laws of vibrations and
aflbciation may be as univcrfal in refpedt of the ner-
vous fyftems of animals of all kinds, as the law of
circulation is with refpedl to the fyftem of the heart
and blood veflels ; and their powers of fenfation and
motion be the refult of thefe three laws, viz. circu-
lation, vibrations, and aflbciation, taken together.
Thefe three laws may alfo be mofl; clofely united ia
their ultimate caufe and fource, and flow in ail their
varieties from very fimple principles. At leaft this is
the tenor of nature in many fimilar cafes.

As the whole brute creation diff^ers much from,
and is far inferior to man, in intellediual capacities;
fo the feveral kinds of animals diff'er much from
each other in the fame refpe-£t. But I fliall, in this
fedion, confine myfelf chiefly to the confideration

of

Faculties of Brutes. 405

of the firft difference, viz. of that between mankind
and the brute creation in general \ and endeavour to
affjgn fuch reafons for if, as flow from, or are
agreeable to, the theory of thefe papers. We may
fuppofe then, that brutes in general differ from, and
are inferior to man, in intelledlual capacities, on the
following accounts :

Firfl, the fmall proportional (ize of their brains.

Secondly, The imperfeftiop of the matter of
their brains, whereby it is lefs fitted for retaining a
large number of miniatures, and combining them
by affociation, than man's.

Thirdly, Their wane of words, and fuch like
fymbols.

Fourthly, The inftindive powers which they bring
into the world with them, or which rife up from in-
ternal caufes, as they advance towards adult age.

Fifthly, The difference between the external im-
preffions made on the brute creation, and on man-
kind.

Firft, then, As the brains of brutes are lefs in
proportion to the bulk of the other parts, than thofe
of men j and as the internal parts of the brain ap-
pear from thefe papers to be the peculiar ieat of ideas,
and intelleftual affedions ; it feems very natural to
expert, that brutes lliould have a far lefs variety of
thefe than men. The parts which intervene between
the optic and auditory nerves, being proportionably
lefs for inftance, in brutes, will not admit of fo great
a variety of affociations between the feveral ideas of
thefe fenfcs, becaufe the optic and auditory nerves
cannot have fo great a variety of connexions and
communications with each other.

To this it is to be added, that the internal parts
belonging to the olfadory nerves, and, perhaps, thofe
belonging to the nerves of tafte, take up, probably,
a greater proportional part of the medullary fub-
ftance of the brain than in us, fince moft brutes

D d 3 have

4o6 Of the Intelleaual

have the fenfc of fmell, and perhaps that of tafte
in greater perfeiflion than we have. There will there-
fore be ftill iefs roonn left for the variety of inter-
courfes between tlie optic and auditory nerves in the
medullary fubftance of the brain. And yet it is evi-
dent, from obvious obfervations, as well as from the
whole tenor of thefe papers, that the eye and ear,
with their afibciations, are the chief fources of intel-
le<5t ; and that the gr^ ateft part of tlie pleafures and
pains of human life aiife from vifible and audible
imprcfTions, which in themfelves afford neither plea-
fure nor pain.

Thus it is natural to expeft, that the happinefs and
inifery of brutes fhould depend principally, and in a
direfb manner, on the impreffions made upon their
grofs fenfes, whilft that of mankind arifes, in great
ineafure, from long trains of aflbciated ideas and emo-
tions, which enter chiefly by the eye and ear. And
it feems to me a very ftriking coincidence, that man-
kind fhould at the fame time exceed the brute crea-
tion in the variety of their ideas, arxl in the pro-
portional largenefs of that part of the body which is
the peculiar feat of thefe.

The fame proportional largenefs may, as it were,
detain the vibrations which afccnd from external im-
preffions up to the brain, and fo prevent that freedom
of defcent into the mufcuJar fyftem which takes place
in brutes ; and which difpofes them to move more
early, and more readily, in confequence of diredl im-
preffions, than men, at the fame time that they have
a far Iefs command, in refpeft of voluntary motion.
But this difference depends, in great meafure, upon
the confideracions that follow, as will be fcen.

Secondly, That the very conflitution and texture
of the nervous fyftem, in its infinitefimal veffels,
fliould differ in brutes from that of men, appears
highly reafonable to be expected. And fince the
lives of brutes fall, in general, far fhort of that of

man

Faeukies of Brutes. 407

man, alio fince the quadrupeds (which refemble man
iTJore than other animals) are far more hairy, and
fowls have feathers, it appears probable, that the
texture of the nervous fyftem in brutes fhoiild tend
more to callofity, and fixednefs, in its difpofitions to
vibrate, than in men. The brains of young brute
animals will therefore be fooner able to retain minia-
tures than thofe of chifdren, as tending more to firm-
nefs and fixednefs in their ultimate texture and con-
llitution ; at the fame time that this texture will unfit
them for receiving a variety. To which, if we
add the (hortnefs of their lives, and confequently of
their afcent to the fummit of adult age; which afcent
is the proper time for receiving inftructionj it is
j eafy to fee, that on this double account, as well as
\ that mentioned under the foregoing head, they muft
fail far fliort of mankind in the number of their
intelle6tual ideas, pleafures, and pains.

Ic foUov/s from the fame method of reafoning, that
the few difpofitions to miniature vibrations, which
are generated in brutes, may be as perfeiSt in their
kinds J and confequently the memory, and fiioit,
dire(5l ratiocination depending thereon, as perfect
alfo, as the analogous things in man. Nay, they
may be more fo, if the particular animal under con-
fideration excel man in the acutenefs and precifior.
of thofe fenfes, whofe ideas make a principal part of
this ratiocination. Now it appears, that moft qua-
<4rupeds exceed us in the acutenefs of the fmell, and
in the power of diftinguifhing a variety of fmells.
And many birds feem to be able to fee difiindly -w.
much greater diftances. However, our audirorv
nerves, and the regions of the brain correfponding
thereto appear far better fitted for retaining a va-
riety of miniatures of articulate founds ; and our op-
tic nerves, and the regions of the brain correfpond-
ing thereto, for retaining a variety of miniatures of
ftiapes and colours. And, next to man, quadru-

D d. 4 peds.

4o8 Of the Intellectual :

pedsi and particularly monkeys, dogs, and horfes,
i'cem to have thcfe regions of tiic brain in the greateft
jxrfeiftion.

If the texture of the brains of animals here con-
fidered be alfo, in part, the caufe of their being co-
vered witli hair, wool, bridles, feathers, &c. it may,
from ihis its effedl, difpofe them ro greater ftrength
and expertnefs in their motions, and that more
early, than happens to men. For all thefe are ele^rics
per Ji\ and confequently may fuft have a confider-
ablc degree of this power communicated to them
by the Iieat of the circulating blood ; and then, not
being able to tranfmit it to the air, which is alfo an
cletlvic -per Jcy may refled it upon the rnufcles, and
thereby difpofe them to fomewhat greater a6livity.
It is well known, that the manes of horfes, and backs
of cats, arc made ele6lric by their vital powers. It
may farther be obferved, that the hoofs of animals
are ele^Irics per jc, and that the feathers of water- fowl
repel the water ; whence the eleftric virtue may be
kept from running off to the earth and water re-
fpefVivcly. However, we ought not to lay much
ftrefs upon this eledric virtue in the mufcular fibres
of brutes (if there be any fuch virtue) in order to
account for the fuperior and more early power of
animals, in refpefl of ordinary motions.^ The texture
of the fibres of the mufcles, and that of the brain,
mull have the principal fhare in this effe(5l.

It is alfo to be confidered, that as they have far
fewer voluntary motions, on account of having far
fewer ideas, ^o they may arrive at a greater perfec-
tion in the automatic ones, and the fmall number of
voluntary ones which they do perform, on this account.
Man is diftrafced, as it were, by the endlefs variety
of his ideas, and voluntary motions : and it is notori-
ous, that none befides extraordinary geniufes arrive
at perf'eclion in any confidcrable variety ; whereas a
perfon of fmall natural capacity, by fclefling fome

one

Faculties of Brutei. 409

one branch of fcience, or manual art, and applying
himfelf to this alone, may perform wonders. Nay,
there have been inftances of perfons not much removed
from idiocifm, who could perform the arithmetical
operations by memory, far better than men of good
underftandings, well verfed in thofc operations; which
is a thing lomewhat analogous to the extraordinary
fagacity in inveftigating and concluding, which brutes
difcover, in refpedt of fome particular things.

Thirdly, The next circumftance, which renders I
brutes far inferior to man in intellectual acquifitions, '
is their want' of fymbols, fuch as words, whereby ,
to denote objedls, fenfations, ideas, and combina- 1
tions of ideas. This may appear from feveral confi- 1
derations. Thofe men who happen to be born in a !
country where the mother-tongue is copious and 1
precife, who apply themfelves to the ftudy of their \
mother-tongue, who, befides this, learn one or
more foreign tongues, &c. get, by thefe means, a
confiderable fliare of the knowledge of things them-
felves, learn to remark, prove, difprove, and invent,
and ceteris paribus^ make a quicker progrefs in men-
tal accomplilhments, than others. On the contrary
the mental improvement of perfons born deaf is ex-
tremely retarded by their incapacity of having things
fuggefted by articulate founds, or the pictures of
thefe, and aifo by their not being able to folve the
inverfe problem, and denote their own trains of
thought by adequate fymbols. Words are the fame
kind of helps in the inveftigation of qualities, as
algebraical fymbols, and methods are in refpeft of
quantity, as has been already remarked. Perfons
born deaf cannot therefore make any great progrefs
in the knowledge of caufes r.nd effefts, in abftraded
and philofophical matters ; but muft approach, as it
were, to the ftate of the brute creation. On the
contrary, brute creatures, that have much intercourfe
with mankind, fuch as dogs and horfes, by learning

the

4»o Of the Intelleduai

the ufe of words and fymbols of other kinds, be-
come more lagacioiis than they -.vould otherwife be.

And if particular pains be taken with them, their
docihty and fagacity, by means of fymbois, fome-
timcs arife to a very furprizing degree.

Parrots might be thought, according to diis view
of tlie prefent fubjcdl, to have fome particular ad-
vantages over quadrupeds by their being able to pro-
nounce words; fince, as has been obferved before,
the attempts which children make to apply words
to things, afljft them very much in underftanding the
applications made by others. But parrots do not
fcem to fpeak from any particular acutenefs and pre-
cifion in the auditory nerves, and parts of the brain
correfponding thereto, having no cochlea, but from
the perfcdlion and pliablenefs of their vocal organs,
in which they exceed other birds j as birds in gene-
ral do beafts. And it is reafonable to think, that qua-
drupeds, which refemble man fo nearly in the make
of rhe organ of hearing, ns well as in other parts,
and which alfo have naturally much more intercourfe
with man (being fellow-inhabitants of the earth) than
birds (which inhabit the air), (hould likewife have a
gieater faculty of diftingu idling the articulate founds
of man's voice, retaining their miniatures, and ap-
plying them to the things fignified, than birds ;
which feems evidently to be the cafe. Sagacious
quadrupeds may therefore be faid to refemble dumb
perfons arrived at adult age, who are poffefled of
much knowledge, which yet they cannot exprefs, ex-
cept by geftures, by dumb fhew : whereas parrots,
as before remarked, refemble children; thefe having
many words with very little knowledge annexed to
them.

Apes and monkeys, of the feveral kinds, feem to
approach neareft to man, in the general faculty of
reafoning, and drawing conclufions ; but in parti-
cular things, efpecially v/here inllinft prevails, fome

other

Faculties of Brutes, 411

jther brutes far exceed them ; as indeed fuch brutes
do. man himfelf in a few, on account of the peculiar
acutenefs of the fenfe of fmell, and the fame in-

ftina.

I reckon the want of articulate founds to be one of
the reafons why brutes are fo much inferior to men
in intellectual capacities; becaufe it appears, from the
foreeoincT and other confiderations of the fame kind,
that it is fo. But this is no imperfeftion upon the
whole. The proportional fmallnefs of their brains,
the texture of thefe, their inftinds, and their external
circumftances, are fuch, that they do not want lan-
guage much ; that they could make no great ufe of
it, had they proper organs for fpeakingj and that
tKey would probably be lofers, upon the whole, by
having it. The efficient and final caufes are here
fuited to each other, as in all other cafes j fo that
no circuiTiftance can be changed for the better, ceteris
manentibus.

Fourthly, Let us come to the inftinftive powers
of animals. Thefe are a point of a very difficult
confideration. They are evidently not the refult of
external impreffions by means of the miniatures of
thefe, their aflbciations and combinations, in the
manner according to which I have endeavoured to
Ihew, that the rational faculties of mankind are
formed and improved; and yet, in the inftances to
which they extend, they very much refemble the ra-
tional faculties of mankind. Animals, in preparing and
providing for themfelves and their young, in future
exigencies, proceed in the fame manner as a perfon
of good underftanding, who forefaw the event, 'would
do ; and this, even though they be a litde put out of
their way. And in this they much refemble perfons
of narrow capacities and acquificions, who yet excel
greatly in fome particukr art or fcience ; of which
there are many inftances. Such perfons fiiew great
ingenuity in the things to which they are accuftomed,

and

412 Of the Intellectual

and in fomc others that border upon them within
certain limits, lb as to fhew great ingenuity Hill,
thoiigl; put a little out of their way ; but if they be
put much out of their way, or queftioned abcuit things
that are entirely foreign to the art or fcience in which
they excel, they are quite loft and confounded,

Let us fuppofe this to be the cafe, and then the
Inquiry concerning inHind in brutes will be reduced
to this, viz. By what means the nervous fyftems of
brutes arc made to put on difpofitions to miniature
vibrations, analogous to thofc which take place in
the perfons here confidercd ; and which are in them
the refult of foregoing imprelfions, if we admit the
theory of thefe papers. Nov/, to me, there feems
no difficulty in afcribing this to the mere bodily make
in brutes, fo that miniature vibrations, fuch as anfwer
in us to ideas, and voluntary motions, fliall fpring
up in them at certain ages and feafons of the year,
and mix themfelves with impreffions, and acquired
ideas, fo as to be, in general, fuitable to them ;
and, in general, to dired the brute creatures in what
manner to provide for, and preferve themfelves and
iheir young.

This would be a kind of infpiration to brutes,
mixing itfelf with, and helping out, that part of
their faculties which correfponds to reafon in us, and
which is extremely imperfedl in them. Only this in-
fpiration might be called natural, as proceeding from
the fame ftated laws of matter and motion as the
other phaenomena of nature; whereas the infpiration
of the facred writers appears to be of a much higher
fource, fo as to be termed fupernatural properly, in
contradiftinftion to all knowledge refulting from the
common laws of nature. And yet it may refult from
fome higher laws of nature. For facred infpi-
ration would lofe nothing of its authority, though
it fh )uld appear to be within fuch laws, as by their
fixcdnefs might be termed HiAture : and indeed all

differences

Faculties of Bruits. 413

differences in thefe things, after the fafts are once
fettled, wili be found, upon due inquiry, to be
merely verbal.

Fifthly, The laft caufe here afligned for the great
difference and inferiority of brutes, in refpe6l of in-
tellectual capacities, is the difference in the events
and incidents of their lives. They converfe with far
fewer objedls than nnen, and both the obje<5is and
pieafures of feeling, tafte, and fmell, have a far
greater proportional fliare in the fum total, than in
us. Now, as in men, the common events and in-
cidents of life give a turn to the whole frame of
mind, and either enlarge the intelleftual capacities, if
they be various, or narrow them, if the fame occur-
rences return again and again perpetually ; fo, inde-
pendently of all the foregoing confiderations, the
lamenefs, paucity, and relation to mere fenfe, of the
impreffions made on brutes, mull infer a great nar-
rownefs of undei Handing.

From all thefe things put together, it appears very
conceivable, how the mental faculties of brutes fhould,
confillendy with the dodtrines of vibrations and af-
fociation, be what they are, in faft, found to be. And
though I fuppofe with Dejcartes^ that all their mo-
tions are conducted with mere mechanilm j yet I do
not fuppofe them to be deftitute of perception, but
that they have this in a manner analogous to that
which takes place in us ; and that it is fubjected to
the fam.e mechanical laws as the motions. Whether
the ideal vibrations, which take place in the medullary
fubftances of their brains, be the refult of former im-
prefiions, or the mere offspring of their vital and
natural powers, agreeably to the foregoing hypothefii
concerning inftinft, or the compound effect of both,
which we may prefume to be generally the cafe, I al-
ways fuppofe, that correfponding feeling?, and af-
fedions of m.ind, attend upon them, juft as in us.
And the brute creatuies prove their near relation to

us,

414 Q/" ^^c Intelkdlual

us, not only by the general lefemblance of the body,
but by that of the mind alfo; inafmuch as many of
them have moll of the eminent pafllons in fome im-
pel fe«5t degree, and as there is, perhaps, no pafllon
belonging to human nature, which rii^y not be found
in fome brute creature in a confiderable degree.

The brutes fecm fcarce ever able to arrive at any
proper felf-inteiell of the abttrad: and refined kind,
at confcioufncfs, fo as to compare and connedl them-
fclves wich themfelves in ditrcrent fituations, or at
any idea and adoration of God j and this from the
narrownefs of their capacities and opportunities in ge-
neral, but particularly from their want of fymbols.

The fame want of fymbols muft make all their
reafonings and afFedlions, which refemble ours in the
general, be, however, confiderably different in par-
ticulars, and far lefs complex j but it is fufficient to
entitle them to the names of lagacity, cunning, fear,
love, &:a by which ours are denoted, that the trains
of ideal vibrations in their brains bear^ a general re-
femblance to the correfponding ones in ours, fpring
from like caufes, and produce like effcds.

The power of nffociation over brutes is very evi-
dent in ail the tricks which they are taught; and the
whole nature of each brute, which has been brought
up amongft others of the fame fpecies, is a com-
pound of inftincr, his own obfervation and experi-
ence, and imitation of thofe of his own fpecies. In-
ftind feems to have exerted its whole influence when
the creature is arrived at maturity, and has brought
up young ; fo that nothing new can be expeded
from it afterwards. But their intellectual acquifitions
from obfervation and imitation continue ; whence old
brutes are far more cunning, and can aft far better,
pro re nata, than young ones.

It ought always to be remembered in fpeaking on
this fubje(5b, that brutes have more reafon than they
can Ihew, from their want of words, from our in-
attention.

{•"acuities of Brutes, 415

attention, and from our ignorance of the import of
thofe fymbols, which they do ufe in giving intima-
tions to one another, and to us.

We feem to be in the place of God to them, to
be his vicegerents, and empowered to receive homage
from them in his name. And we are obliged by the
fame tenure to be their guardians and benefactors.

CHAP.

41^ Of the Pleafures atnl

CHAP. IV.

Of the SIX Classes^ ^ intellectual Pleasures

and Paii^s.

I have now difpatched the hiftory and analyfis of
the fenfations, motions, and ideas j and endeavoured
to fuic them, as well as I could, to the principles
laid down in the firft chapter. My next bufinefs,
is to inquire particularly into the rife and gradual
incrcafe of the plealures and pains of imagination,
ambition, felf-intereft, iympathy, theopathy, and
the moral fenfe j and to fee how far thefe can be
deduced, in the particular forms and degrees that
arc found to prevail, in faft, from the fcnfible
plcafures and pains, by means of the general law
of aflbciation. As to that of vibrations, it feems
of little importance in this part of the work, whether
it be adopted or not. If any other law can be made
the foundation of aflbciation, or confident with it,
it may alfo be made confident with the analyfis of
the intellectual plealures and pains, which I fhall
here give. I do not think there is any other law
that can , on the contrary, there feems to be fo pe-
culiar an aptnefs in the doftrine of vibrations, for
explaining many of the phcTnomena of the pafTions,
as almofl: excludes all others.

Now it will be a fufficient proof, that all the in-
tellectual pleafures and pains are deduciblc ultimately

from

Of the Plea/ures, &c. 417

from the fenfible ones, if we can (hew of each in-
tellf(5lual pleafure and pain in particular, that it takes
' its rife from other pleafures and pains, cither fenfible
or intellc(5tual. For thus none of the intelledual
pleafures and pains can be original. But the fl-nfibie
pleafures and pains arc evidently originals. They
are therefore the only ones, /. e. they are the com-
mon fourcc fiom whence all the intelleftual pleafures
and pains are ultimately derived.

When I fay, that the intclle6lual pleafures J and
5 are deducible from one another, I do not mean,
that ^ receives back again from B that luftre which
it had conferred upon it ; for this would be to argue
in a circle; but that whereas both yf and B borrow
from a variety of fources, as well as from each
other, they may, and indeed mufl:, transfer by aflb-
ciation part of the luftre borrowed from foreign
fources upon each other.

If we admit the power of aflbciation, and can alfo
Ihew, that aflfociations, fufficient in kind and degree,
concur, in faft, in the feveral inftances of our iniel-
Jedlual pleafures and pains, this will, of itfelf, exclude
all other caufes for thefe pleafures and pains, fuch as
inftind: for inftance. If we cannot trace out aflbci-
ations fufficient in kind and degree, ftill it will not
be neceflary to have recourfe to other caufes, becaufe
great allowances are to be made for the novelty,
complexnefs, and intricacy of the fubjedl. However,
on the other hand, analogy may perhaps lead us to
conclude, that as inftind: prevails much, and reafon a
little in brutes, fo inftinft ought to prevail a little in
us. Let the fadls fpeak for themfclves.

Vol. I. Ee SECT.

41 8 Of the Tknjures and

SECT. I.

OF THE PLEASURES AND PAINS OF
IMAGINATION.

I BEGIN with the pleafures and pains of imagina-
tion i and fliall endeavour to derive each fpecies of
them by aflbciation, either from thofe of fenfation,
ambition, fclf-intereft, fympathy, theopathy, and the
moral fcnfc, or from foreign ones of imagination.
They may be diftinguifhed into the feven kinds that
follow.

Firft, The pleafures arifing from the beauty of the
natural world.

Secondly, Thofe from the works of art.

Thirdly, From the liberal arts of mufic, painting,
and poetry.

Fourthly, from the fciences.

Fifthly, From the beauty of the perfon.

Sixthly, From wit and humour.

Seventhly, The pains which arife from grofs ab-
furdity, inconfiftency, or deformity.

PROP. XCIV.

^0 examine how far the juji -mentioned Pleafures and
Pains of Imagination are agreeable to the Do^rine of
^Jfociation.

Of the Pleasures arifing from the Beauty of the
NATURAL World.

The pleafures arifing from the contemplation of
the beauties of the natural world feem to admit of
the following analyfis.

The

Pains of Imagination. ' 419

The pleafant taftes, and fnnells, and the fine co-
lours of fruits and flowers, the melody of birds, and
the grateful warmth or coolnefs of the air, in the
proper feafons, transfer miniatures of thefe pleafures
upon rural fcenes, which ftart up inftantaneoufly fo
mixed with each ocher, and with fuch as will be
immediately enumerated, as to be feparately in-
difcernible.

If there be a precipice, a catarafb, a mountain of
fnow, &c. in one part of the fcene, the nafcent ideas
of fear and horror magnify and enliven all the other
ideas, and by degrees pafs into pleafures, by fug-
gefting the fecurity from pain.

In like manner the grandeur of fome fcenes, and
the novelty of others, by exciting furprize and won-
der, i. e. by making a great difference in the pre-
ceding and fubfequent dates of mind, fo as to border
upon, or even enter the limits of pain, may greatly
enhance the pleafure.

Uniformity and variety in conjunftion are alfo prin-
cipal fources of the pleafures of beauty, being made
fo partly by their affociation with the beauties of
nature; partly by that with the works of art; and
with the many conveniences which we receive from
the uniformity and variety of the works of nature
and art. They mud therefore transfer part of the
luftre borrowed from the works of art, and from
the head of convenience, upon the works of na-
ture.

Poetry and painting are much employed in fetting
forth the beauties of the natural world, at the fame
time that they afford us a high degree of pleafure
from many other fources. Hence the beauties of
nature delight poets and painters, and fuch as are
addidled to the ftudy of their works, more than
others. Part of this effed is indeed owing to the
greater attention of fuch perfons to the other fources ;
but this comes to the fame thing, as far as the general

E e 2 theory

4 20 Of the rUafures and

theory of the factitious, aflbciatcd nature of thcfc
pleakircs is concerned.

The many fpotts and paftinnes, which are peculiar
to the country, and whole ideas and pleafures arc re-
vived by the view of rural fcenes, in an evancfcent
ftate, and fo mixed together as to be leparately indif-
cernible, do farther augment the pleafures fuggclled
by the beauties of nature.

To thefe we may add, the oppofition between the
offenfivenefs, dangers, and corruption of populous
cities, and the health, tranquillity, and innocence,
which the adual view, or the mental tonten.plarion,
of rural Icenes introduces j alfo the pleafures of foci-
ality and mirih, which are often found in the greateft
perfedion in country retirements, the amorous plea-
fures, which have many connexions wirh rural fcenes,
and thofe which the opinions and encomiums of others
beget in us, in this, as in other cafes, by means of
the contagioufnefs obfervable in mental difpofuions,
as well as bodily ones.

Thofe perfons who have already formed high ideas
of the power, knowledge, and goodnefs of the au-
thor of nature, with fuitable affcdions, generally
feel the exalted pleafures of devotion upon every
view and contemplation of his woiks, either in an
explicit and diftindt manner, or in a more fecret and
implicit one. Hence, part of the general indetermi-
nate pleafures, here confidercd, is deducible from
the pleafures of theopaihy.

We jr.ufl: not omit in this place to remind the
reader of a remaik m.ade above, viz. that green,
which is the middle colour of the feven primuiy ones,
and confequently the mod agreeable to the organ of
fight, is alfo the general colour of the vegetable
kingdom, i. e. of external nature.

Thefe may be confidered as fome of the principal
fources of the beauties of nature to mankind in ge-
neral.

\ Pains of Imagination, 421

neral. Inqiiifitive and philofophical perfons have fome
, others, arifing from their peculiar knowledge and ftudy
\ of natural hiftory, aftrononny, and philofophy, in
\ general. For the profufion of beauties, ufes, fic-
I nefies, elegance in minute things, and magnificence
\ m great ones, exceed all bounds of conception, fur-
i' prize, and aftonifliment j new fcenes, and thofe
\ of unbounded extent, feparately confidered, ever
\ prefenring themfelves to view, the more any one
I ftudies and contemplates the works of God.

And, upon the whole, the reader may fee, that
i there are fufficient fources for all thofe pleafures
of imagination, which the beauties of nature excite
in different perfons; and that the differences which
are found in different perfons in this refped, are
fufficiently analogous to the differences of their fitua-
tions in life, and of the confcquent affociations form-
ed in them.

An attentive perfon may alfo, in viewing or con-
templating the beauties of nature, lay hold, as it
were, of the remainders and miniatures of many of
the paiticular pleafures here enumerated, while they
recur in a feparate fbate, and before they coalefce
with the general indeterm.inate aggregate, and thus
verify the hiftory now propofed.

It is a confirmation of this hiftory, that an atten-
tive perfon may alfo obferve g.eat differences in the
kind and degree of the relifh which he has for the
beauties of nature in different periods of his life;
cfpecially as the kind and degree may be found to
agree in the main with this hiftory.

To the fame purpofe we may remark, that thefe
pleafures do not cloy very foon, but are of a lafting
nature, if compared with the fenGble ones; fince
this follows naturally from the great variety of their
fources, and the cvanefcent nature of their con-
ftituent parts.

E c 3 When

422 Of the PUaJures and

When a beautiful fcene is firft prefentrd, there is
generally great plcafurc fiom furprize, from being
lliuck with objcdls and circunollanccs which we did
not expedl. This prtfently declines} but is abun-
dantly compenfated afterwards by the gradual alter-
nate exaltation of the leveral conftitucnt patts of the
complex pltafurcs, which alfo do probably enhance
one another. And thus we may take feveral reviews
of the fame fcene, before the pleafure, which it af-
fords, comes to its maximum. After this the pleafure
mufl: decline, if we review it often : but if at con-
fiderablc intervals; fo as that many foreign ftates of
mind intervene, alfo fo as that new fources of the
pleafures of this kind be broken up, the pleafure may
recur for many fucceflions of nearly the fame mag-
nitude.

The fame obfervations hold in refpe<5l of the plea-
fures from the beauties of nature in general, and in-
deed from all the other fources, works of art, liberal
aits, fciences, &c. Thefe all ftrike and furprife the
young mind at firft, but require a confiderable tinie
before they come to their maximum j after which
fome or other will always be at its maximum for a
confiderable time. However, the pleafures of ima-
gination in general, as well as each particular fet and
individual, mufl: decline at laft from the nature of
our frame. In what manner they ought to decline,
fo as to be confident with our Jummum hnum, by
yielding, in due time, to more exalted and pure
pleafures, whofe compofition they enter, I will en-
deavour to fhcw hereafter.

Thefe plealures are a principal fource of thofe
which are annexed to the view of uniformity with
variety, as above noted, i. e. of analogies of various
orders ; and confequently are a principal incitement
to our tracing out real analogies, and forming artificial
ones.

The

Pains of Imagination. 423

The novel, the grand, and the marvellous, are
alfo moft confpicuous in the works of nature ; and
the laft ftrikes us particularly in many of the phse-
nomena of nature, by feeming to exceed ail bounds
of credibility, at the fame time that we are certified
by irrefragable evidences of the truth of the fafls.
The fatiety which every pleafure begets in us, after
fome continuance, makes us third perpetually after
the grand and novel ; and, as it were, grafp at infi-
nity in number and extent: there being a kind of
tacit expedation, that the pleafure will be in pro-
portion to the magnitude and variety of the caufes,
in the fame manner as we obferve, in other cafes,
the effefts to be in fome degree proportional to
their caufes.

The pleafures of novelty decline not only in this
clafs, but alfo in all the others fenfible and intel-
ledlual, partly from our bodily fiame, partly from
the intermixture, and confrquent afTociation of neu-
tral circumftances (z. e. fuch as afford neither pleafure
nor pain) in their fucceffive recurrences.

A difpofition to a pleafurable ftate is a general at-
tendant upon health, and the integrity of our bodily
faculties ; and that in fuch a df gree, as that aftual
pleafure will fpring up from moderate incitements,
from the tranfient introduction of the aflbciated cir-
cumftances of former pleafurable ftates. If the body
be indifpofcd in fome degree, it is, however, pofTible
to force it into a ftate of pleafure by the vivid intro-
duction of various and powerful circumftances j but
this unnatural ftate cannot laft Ion? : and, if the in-
difpofition to pleafure be great, it cannot be intro-
duced at all. On the contrary, where the difpofition
to pleafure is preternaturally prevalent, as after v^ine
and opium, and in certain morbid cafes, the leaft
hint will excite profufe joy, leaning chiefly to the
pleafures of imagination, ambition, fympathy, or
devotion, according to the circumftances.

E c 4 It

4^4 0/ ^^^ Plea/uns and

It is cnfy to fee how the doifliinc of vibrations,
which apptars to be the only one that admits of
periii.inent ftates of motion, and difpofition to mo-
tion, in the brain, fuits thefc laft remarks in a
peculiar manner.

OF THE BllAUTJES OF THE WORKS OF ART.

The works of art, which afford us the pleafures
of beauty, are chiefly buildings, public and private,
religious, civil, and military, with their appendages
and ornainents, and machmes of the feveral kinds,
from the great ones employed in war, commerce,
and public affairs, fuch as fhips, military engines,
machines for manufacturing; metals, &c. down to
clocks, watches, and domeftic furniture. The fur-
vey of thefc things, when perfect in their kinds,
affords great pleafures to the curious; and thefe plea-
fures increafe for a certain time, by being cultivated
and gratified, till at laft they come to their height,
decline, and give way to others, as has been already
obferved of the pleafures arifing from the beauties
of nature.

The chief fources of the pleafures, which the fore-
mentioned woiks of art afford, appear to be the fol-
lowing : the beautiful illuminations from gay co-
lours j the refcmblancc which the play-things, that
pleafed us when we were children, bear to them j the
great regularity and variety obfervable in them; the
grandeur and magnificence of fome, and the neat-
nefs and elegance of others, and that efpecially if they
be fmall ; the fitnefs to anfwer ufeful ends ; their
anfwering a multiplicity of thefe by fimple means, or
by analogous complex ones, not exceeding certain
limits in complexnefs ; the knowledge conveyed in
many cafes j the ftrong affociations with religion,
death, war, juftice, power, riches, titles, high
birth, entertainirents, mirth, &c. fafhion, with the
opinions and encomiums of perfons fuppofed to be

judges ;

Paws of Imagination. 425

judges ; the vain dcfire of having a rafte, and of be-
ing thought connoiffcurs and judges, &c. &c.

In architedure there are certain proportions of
breadths, lengths, depths, and entire magnitudes, to
each other, which are by fotne fuppofed to be naturally
beautiful, juft as the finnple ratios of 1 to 2, 2 to 3,
3 to 4, &c. in mufic, yield founds, which are natu-
rally plcafant to the ear. But it rather feems to me,
that ceconomical convenience fi'ft determined the
ratios of doors, windows, pillars, &c. in a grofs
way; and thtn that the convtriience of the artifts
fixed this de-teimination to fome few exadl ratios, as
in the proportion between the lengths and breadths
of the pillars of the feveral orders. Afterwards thefe
proportions became aflbciated fo often with a variety
of beauties in coftiy buildings, that they could not
but be thought naturally beautiful at laft. In merely
ornamental parts the beauty of the proportions feems
to arife entirely either from fafhion, or from a fuppofed
refemblance to fomething already fixed as a beautiful
proportion. It is eafy from thefe principles to account
for the prevalency of different proportions, and ge-
neral taftes, in different ages and countries.

0/ the Pleasures arijing from Music, Painting,

and Poetry.

Let us next confider the three liberal and fifter
arts of mufic, painting and poetry.

OF MUSIC.

Now, in refped of mufic, it is to be obferved, that
the fimple founds of all uniform fonorous bodies, and
particularly the fingle notes of the feveral mufical
kiftfuments, aifo all the concords, or notes, whofe
vibrations bear to each other the fimple ratios of i to
2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, &c. founded together, or near to

each

4^6 Of the PUaJures and

each other, may, be confidered as originally pleafant
to the ear. Difcords are originally unpleafant, and
therefore, as in other like cafes, may be made ufe of
to heighten our pleafures, by being properly and
fparingly introduced, fo as to make a ftrong contrail.
To which if we add the uniformity and variety ob-
fervable in all good mufic, we fhall have the chief
pleafures affeding children, and young perfons, upon
their being firft accuftomed to hear mufic.

By degrees the difcords become lefs and lefs harfh
to the ear, and at laft even pleafant, at leaft by their
affociations with the concords, that go before, or
follow them ; fo that more, and alfo more harfh dif-
cords, are perpetually required to give a relilh, and
keep the fweetnefs of the concords from cloying.
Particular kinds of air and harmony are aflbcjated
with particular words affcdlions, and paffions, and
fo are made to exprefs thefe; bcfides which there is
often a natural aptitude in the mufic to reprefent the
afFeftion, as in quick mufic, and concords, to repre-
fent mirth. Mufic in general is conneflcd with gai-
ety, public rejoicings, the amorous pleafures, riches,
high rank, ^c. or with battles, forrow, death, and
religious contemplations. There is an ambition to
excel in tafte, in performance, and in compofition,
and a difficulty which enhances the pleafure, i^c. ^c.
till, by thefe and fuch-like ways, the judgments and
taftes of different perfons, in refpedt of mufic, be-
come as different, as we find them to be in fad.

OF PAINTING.

Our pleafures from piflures arc very nearly related
to thofe of imitation, which, as was obferved above,
take up a confiderable part of our childhood i and the
feveral play things reprefenting men, houfcs, horfes,
i^c. with which children are fo much delighted, arc

to

Paim of Imagination, 427

to be confidered, both as augmenting and gratifying'
this tafte in them.

To this it is to added, that as the ideas of fight
are the mod: vivid of all our ideas, and thofe which
are chiefly laid up in the memory as keys and repo-
ficories to the reft, pidures, which are fomeihing in-
termediate between the real object and the idea, and
therefore in cafes of fufficient likenefs more vivid
than the idea, cannot but plcafe us by thus gratifying
our defire of raifing up a complete idea of an abfent
objefl. This an attentive perfon may obferve in
himfclf in viewing pidlures.

The furprize and contraft which arife in children,
upon their feeing pcrfons and obje<5ts prefent in their
piftures, which yet they know to be abfent by ftrik-
ing the mind with the impoffible conception of the
fame thing in two places, are probably the fources
of confiderable plcafure to ihem.

To thefe caufes let us add the gay colours, and
fine ornament^, which generally go along with pic-
tures J and we (hall have the chief fources of the plea-
fures which painting affords to young perfons, and to
thofe who have not yet been much affedled with the
various incidents of life, and their reprefentations,
or acquired a tafte and fkill in thefe things.

For, after this the pleafures arifing from pictures
are quite of another kind, being derived from the
fame fources as thofe that belong to the fcenes,
affedlions and pafTions reprefented, from the poetical
defcriptions of thefe, from the precife juftncfs of
the imitation, from ambition, fafhion, the extrava-
gant prices of the works of certain mafters, from
affociation with the villas and cabinets of the noble,
the rich, and the curious, &c. &c.

The nature of the caricatura, burlefque, grotefque,
pifturefque, &c. may be underftood from what ii, de-
livered in other parts of this feftion, concerning

laughter.

428 Of the Pleafures and

laughter, wit, humour, the mavellous, abfurd, &c.
to which they correfpond.

Painting has a great adv.intnge over verbal de-
fcription, in rclped of the vividncfs and number of
ideas to be at once excited in the fancy ; but its
compafs is, upon the whole, much narrovvci j and
it is alfo confined to one point of time.

The rcprefentations of battles, ftorms, wild beafls,
and other objefts of horror, in pidores, plcafe us
peculiarly, partly from the near alliance which the
ideas fuggefted bear to pain, partly fom the fccret
confcioulnefs of our own fecutity, and partly becaufe
they awaken and agitate the mind fufficiently to be
ftrongly affcded with the other pleafures, which may
then be offered to it.

OF POETRY.

The beauties and excellencies of good poetry are
deducible from three fources. Firft, The harmony,
regularity, and variety of the numbers or iinetre,
and of the rhyme. Secondly, The fitnefs and
ftrength of the words and phrafes. Thirdly, The
fubjeft matter of the poem, and the invention and
judgment exerted by the poet, in regard to his
fubjcdt. And the beauties arifing from each o"
ihele are much transferred upon the other two by
affociation.

That the verfification has of itfelf a confiderable
influence, may be feen by putting good poetical
pafTages into the order of profe. And it may be
accounted for from what has been already obferved
of uniformity and variety, from the fmoothnefs and
facility with which verfes run over the tongue, from
the frequent coincidence of the end of the fentence,
and that of the v^rk, at the fame time that this rule
is violated at proper intervals in all varieties, left the

ear

Pains of Imagination. 429

car ihould be tired with too much famenefs, from the
affiftance which verfification affords to the memory,
from fome faint refcmblance which it bears to mufic,
and its frequent alTociaticns with it, &c. &c.

The beauties of the didlion arife chiefly from the
figures ; and therefore it will be neceflary here to
inquire into the fources of their beauties.

Now figurative words feem to ftrike and pleafe us
chiefly from that impropriety which appears at firft
fight, upon their application to the things denoted
by them, and from the confcquent heightening of the
propriety, as foon as it is duly perceived. For when
figurative words have recurred fo often as to excite
the fecondary idea inftantaneoufly, and without any
previous harfhnefs to the imagination, they lofe their
peculiar beauty and force; and, in order to recover
this, and make ourfclves fenfible of it, we are obliged
to recall the literal fenfe, and to place the literal and
figurative fenfes clofe together, that fo we may firft
be fenfible of the inconfiftency, and then be more
afFcdled with the union and coalefcence.

Bcfides this, figurative exprefllons illuminate our
difcourfes and writings by transferring the proper-
ties, aflbciations, and emotions, belonging to one
thing upon another, by augmenting, diminifhing, &c.
and thu«, according as the fubje^l is ludicrous or
grave, they either increafe our rnirth and laughter,
or excite in us love, tendernefs, compaflJion, admi-
ration, indignation, terror, devotion, &c.

When figures aie too diftant, or too obfcure,
when they augment or diminifh too much, we are
difpleafed ; and the principal art in the ufc of figures
is, to heighten, as far as the imagination will permit,
the greateft beauty lying upon the confines of what
difgufts by being too remote or bombaft. And
this extreme limit for figurative expreflions (hews
evidently, that the pleafure arifing from them is

nearly

430 Of the Pknfurcs and

nearly allied to pain ; and their beauty owing to a
ccitain kind and degree of intonfiftency.

However, as the various figures ufcd in fpeaking
and writing have great ir.fluences over each other,
alter, and are much altered, as to their relative ener-
gy, by our p.ilTions, cufloms, opinions, conflitulions,
educations, &c. there can be no fixed ftandard for
determining what is beaury here, or what is the de-
gree of it. Every perfon may find, that his tafte in
thcfe things receives confiderable changes in his pro-
grels tliioiigh life; and may, ' by careful obfcrvation,
trace up thcfe changes to the aflbciations that have
caufed them. And yet, fince mankind have a gene-
ral refemblance to each other, both in their internal
make, and external circumflances, there will be fome
general agreements about thefe things common to all
mankind. The agreements will alfo become per-
petually greater, as the pcifons under confideration
are fuppofed to agree more in their genius, ftudies,
external circuirllances, &c. Hence may be feen, in
part, the foundation of the general agreements obfer-
vable in critics, concerning the beauties of poetry, as
well at. that of their paiiicular difputes and differ-
ences.

It may alfo be proper to remark here, that the
cuftom of introducing figures in a copious manner
into poetry, together with the tranfpofitions, ellipfes,
fupeifluities, and high ftrained exprefTions, which
the laws of the verfification have forced the beft
poets upon, in fom.e cafes, have given a fandtion to
certain othervvife unallowable liberties of exprefTion,
and to a moderate degree of obfcurity, and even con-
veited them into beauties. To which it may be
added, that a momentary obfcurity is like a difcord
in mufic properly introduced.

The pleafure which we receive from the matter of
the poem, and the invention and judgment of the

poet.

Pains of Imagination. 431

poet, in this refpedt, arifcs from the things them-
felves defcribed or reprefented. It is neceffary there-
fore, that the poet (hould choofe fuch fcenes as are
beautiful, terrible, or otherwife ftrongly afFeding,
and fuch charadlers as excite love, pity, juft indig-
nation, &c. or rather, that he fhould prefent us with
a proper mixture of all thefe. For, as they will all
pleafe fingly, fo a well ordered fuccefTion of them
will much enhance thefe feparate pleafures, by the
contrails, analogies, and coincidences, which this
may be made to introduce. In all thefe things the
chief art is to copy nature fo well, and to be fo j

^ exa6l in all the principal circumftances relating to I
actions, paffions, &c. /. e. to real life, that the reader '
may be infenfibly betrayed into a half belief of thell
truth and reality of the fcene.

Verfes well pronounced affedt us much more, than
when they merely pafs over the eye, from the imita-
tion of the afFedions and paffions reprefented, by the
human voice j and ftill much more, when adled
well, and heightened by the proper conjundlion of
realizing circumftances.

Since poetry makes ufe of words, which are the I
principal channel of mutual communication for our
thoughts and afFcflions, and has by this means an
unlimited compafs in rcfpe£t of time, place, &c. it
muft, upon the whole, harve great advantages over
painting.

As the pleafures of imagination are very prevalent,-
and much cultivated, during youthj fo, if we confider
mankind as one great individual, advancing in age
perpetually, it fcerns natural to expedl, that in the-

j infancy of knowledge, in the early ages of the world,
^he tafte of mankind would turn m.uch upon the
pleafures of this clafs. And agreeably to this it may
Be obferved, that mufic, painting, and poetry, were
much admired in ancient times; and the two laft
brought to great perfedion. What was the real per-
fection

432 Of thi Pkafures and

fcdion of the ancient Grecian mufic, alfo how far
the modetn very arcirtcial connpofuions ought lo be
allowed to excel thcdi, muft be left to thole who are
judges of thele matteis.

l he beauties of oratory are very nearly allied to
thofe of poetry, arifing partly fiom an harmonious
flow and cadence of the periods, fo that uniformity
and variety may be properly mixed, partly fronn
the juftnefs and neivoufnefs of the exprefllons, and
partly from the force of the arguments and motives
brought together by the invention of the orator, and
fo difpofed as to convince the judgi ent, excite and
gain thr affections. In both cafes it i^ very necef-
lary, that the reader or hearer fhould conceive fa-
vourably of the defign and author, in a moial light.
Poetry has the advantage of oratory, in refpedl of the
fweeinefs of the numbers, and boidnefs of the
figuies; but oratory, being a real thing, and one
which has great influence in many the mofl im-
portant tranfadions, does, by this reality, aflfetfk
fome perfons more than poetry ; I mean perfons
that are mere readers or hearers ; for, as to thofe
that are interefted in the debate, to whom it is a
reality, there can be no doubt.

The beauties of hiftory will eafily be underfl^ood
froin what is faid of poetry and oratory.

It is to be obfeived, that poetry, and all fiflirious

/ hiftory, borrow one chief part of their influence from

' their being imitations of real hiftory, as this again

does from the ftrong afi^eftions and pafllons excited

by the events of life, and from the contagioufnefs of

our tempers and difpoficions.

The fame kind of contrafts and coincidences,
which, in low and comic things, would be wit or
humour, become the brilliant paflages that afi^efb and
ftrike us moft eminently in giave poetry, in oratory,
and hiftory.

OF

1

Pains of imagination. 433

OF THE PLEASURES ARISING FROM THE
STUDY OF THE SCIENCES.

The ftudy of the Icienres has a great conncflion
with the natural and artificial beauties already confi-
dered, and receives great luftrc from them in confe-
quence thereof.

But befides this, there are many original fources
of pleafure in the ftudy of the fcienccs : as, Firft,
From the many inftanccs of uniformity with varie-
ty : Secondly, From the marvellous and feemingly
impofTibie, which occur in all parts of knowledge:
Thirdly, From the great advantages refpcfting hu-
man life, which accrue to mankind in general from
the purfuit t>f knowledge, alfo fiotn the honours,
riches, &c. which are the rewards conferred upon
particular perfons that are eminent: Laftly, From
the numerous connections of truth of ail kinds with
thofe moil amiable and important doctrines, which
religion, natural and revealed, teaches us. And when
thele pleafures, in their feveral fubordinate kinds and
degrees, have been fufficiently , aflbciated with the
favouite ftudy, they render it at laft: pleafant in itfelf,
as we ufuaily term it, i. e. thefe feveral particular
pleafures coalefce into a fingle general one, in which
the compounding parts cannot be difcerned feparately
from each other, and which confequently appears
to have no relation to its feveral compounding parts;
unlcfs when by a particular attention to, and exami-
nation of, what pafles in our minds, we lay hold of
the laft compounding parts before their entire coa-
lefcence, or reafon upon the caufes of thefe pleafures,
by comparing their growth, and the changes made
in them, with the concomitant circum.ftances. Thus,
if it be obferved as a general faft, that perfons grow
fond of particular ftudies, remarkably after having
received fome great prefent advantage, or hope of a
future one from them, we may reafonable prefume,

Vol. I. F f . that

434 ^f '^-'^ Pleajures and

that the pleafiire which they take in thefe ftudies, is
in pait derived from this foiirce, even though it can-
not be felt to arilt: from it explicitly.

OF INVENTION.

The copioufnefs and quicknefs of the invention
being principal requifites for the cultivation of the
arts and fciences with fuccefs, 1 will fay fomething
concerning invention here, nny fubjcft being now
fufficiently opened for that purpofe.

Invention then may be defined the art of produ-
cing new beauties in works of imagination, and new
truths in matters of fcience. And it feems to depend,
in both cafes, chiefly upon thefe three things. Firft,
A ft'ong and quick memory: Secondly, An exten-
five knowledge in the arts and fciences j and parti-
cularly in thofe that are contiguous to, or not far
diftant from, that under confideration : And, Thirdly,
The habit of forming and purfuing analogies, the
deviations from thefe, and the fubordinate analogies
vifible in many of thefe firft deviations, &c. &c.

Firft, A ftrong and quick memory is necefTary,
that fo the ideas of the poet or philofopher may de-
pend upon, and be readily fuggefted by, each other.

Secondly, He mufl have a large (lock of ideas
for the purpofes of figures, illuftrations, comparifons,
arguments, motives, criterions, &c. And it is evi-
dent that the ideas taken from fuch parts of know-
ledge, as are pretty nearly allied to his particular ftudy,
will be of moft ufe to him in it.

Thiidly, Analogy will lead him by degrees, in
works of fancy, from the beauties of celebrated
mafters to others lefs and lefs refetrjbling thefe, till at
laft he arrives at fuch as bear no vifible refem-
blance. Deviations, and the fubordinate analogies
contained within them, will do this in a much greater
degree ; and all analogies will inftru6t him how to

model

Pains of Imagination. 435

model properly fuch entirely new thoughts, as his
memory and acquaintance with things have fuggefted
to him. In fcience analogy leads on prrpetually to
new propofitions i and, being itfelf fome prefumption
of truth, is a guide much preferable to mere imagi-
nation.

It may be obferved, that the trains of vifible ideas,
which accompany our thoughts, are the principal
fund for invention, both in matters of fancy, and in
fcience.

As invention requires the three things here fpoken
of, fo, converfcly, no perfon v^ho is poffefled of them,
and who applies himfelf to any particular ftudy either
of the imaginative or abftiatl kind, with fufficienc
affiduity, can fail for want of invention. And the
nature of this faculty feems as reconcileable with,
and deducible from, the power of alTociation, and
the mechanifm of the mind here explained, as that
of any other.

OF THE BEAUTY OF THE PERSON.

The word heauty is applied to the perfon, parti-
cularly in the female fex, in an eminent manner ; and
the defiies and pleafures arifing from beauty, in this
fenfe, may be confidered as an intermediate ftep be-
tween the grofs fenfual ones, and thofe of pure crteem
and benevolence j for they are, in part, deduced from
both thefe extremes j they moderate, fpiritualize, and
improve the firft, and, in the virtuous, are ultimately
converted into the lad.

But they'arife alfo from many other fources in their
intermediate (late, particularly from aflbciations with
the feveral beauties of nature and art already
mentioned, as of gay colours, rural fcenes, mufic,
painting, and poetry j from aflbciations with fafhion,
the opinions and encomiums of others, riches,
honours, high birth, &c. from vanity and am-

F f 2 bition.

t

436 0/ the Pleafures and

bition, &c. Befuics which, the pleafuic of gratifying
a ftrong dcfirc, and the pain of difappoiiuinent, arc
to be confidered here, as being evidently diflinguifh-
able from all the lell in fome cafes.

That part of beauty which arifes from fynnmetry,
may perhaps be faid to confifl: in fuch proportions of
the features of the face, and of the head, trunk,
and limbs, to each other, as are intermediate in rc-
fpedl of all other proportions, /. e. fuch proportions
as would refult from an eftimation by an average :
one may fay at lead, that thefe proportions would
not differ much from perfefl fymmetry.

The defires excited by the beauty of the perfon
increafe for fome tinie, efpecially if the fenfible ones
are not gratified, and there be alfo a mixture of hope
and fear, in relation to the attainment of the affec-
tions of the beloved perfon. But they fometimes
decreafe, like other defires, from mere want of
novelty, after the afFcdions are gained ; and muft
always do fo after gratification. Neverthelefs, if there
be the proper foundation for efleem and religious
affedion in each party, mutual love, with the plea-
fures arifing from it, may increafe upon the whole,
the real circumflances of life affording more than
fufficient opportunity for gaining in one refpedt, what
is loft in another.

The beauty of the air, gefture, motions, and
drefs, has a great connexion with the beauty of the
perfon, or rather makes a confiderable part of it,
contributing much to the fum total ; and when con-
fidered feparately, receiving much from the other part
of the beauties of the perfon. The feparate beauty
of thefe things arifes from fome imitation of a natural
or artificial beauty already eftablifhed, from falhion,
high birth, riches, &c. or from their being expref-
five of fome agreeable or amiable quality of mind.
The reciprocal influences of our ideas upon each other,
and the endlefs variety of their combinations, are

eminently

Pahis of Imagination. 437

en^inently confpicuous in this article ; the ftrength
of defire here rendering the afTociations, with the
feveral fteps previous to the perfeft coalefcence of
the ideas aflbciated, more vifible than in moft other
cafes.

OF WIT AND HUMOUR.

I come now to examine the pleafures of mirth;
wit, and humour.

But, Firfl, it will be neceffiry to confider the caufes
of laughter, and particularly the mental ones.

Now it may be obferved, that young children do
not laugh aloud for fome months. The firft occafion
of doing this feems to be a furprize, which brings on
a momentary fear firft, and then a momentary joy
in confequence of the removal of that fear, agree-
ably to what may be obferved of the pleafures that
follow the removal of pain. This may appear pro-
bable, inafmuch as laughter is a nafcent crVj flopped
of a fudden ; alfo becaufe if the fame furprize, which
makes young children laugh, be a very little increaf-
ed, they will cry. It is ufual, by way of diverting
young children, and exciting them to laughter, to
repeat the furprize, as by clapping the hands fre-
quently, reitering a fudden motion, &c.

This is the original of laughter in children, in
general ; but the progrefs in each particular is much
accelerated, and the occafions multiplied, by imita-
tion. They learn to laugh, as they learn to talk and
■walk ; and are moft apt to laugh profufely, when
they fee others laugh ; the common caufe contribu-
ting alfo in a great degree to produce this eftefl.
The fame thing is evident even in adults ; and fhews
■us one of the fources of the fympathctic affecftions.

To thefe things it is to be added, that the alter-
nate motions of the cheft follow the fame degrees of
mental emotion with miOre and more facility perpe-
tually, fo that at laft children (who are likewife more

F f 3 exquifitely

438 Of the rieafures and

exquifitely ftnfible and irritable than adults) laugh
upon every trifling occafion.

By degrees they learn the power of fufpending the
actions both of laughing and crying, and afTociate
thiJ power with a variety of ideas, fuch as thole of
decency, refpetf):, fear, and fhame : the incidents
and objecTts, which before occafioned emotion fuffi-
cient to produce laughter, now occafion little or
none, from the tranfmutation of their aflbciations :
their new aflbciated pleafures and pains are of a
more fedate kind, and do not affcd them fo much
by furprize; and, which is a principal caufe in re-
fpe6l of individuals, their equals laugh kfs, and, by
formino; them to the fame model with themfelves,
make the difpofition to laughter decreafe ftill fader.
For whatever can be fhewn to take place at all in
human nature, miift take place in a much higher
degree, than according to the original caufes, from
our great difpofition to imitate one another, which
has been already explained.

It confirms this account of laughter, that it fol-
lows tickling, as noted above, i. e. a momentary
pain and apprehenfion of pain, with an immediately
fucceeding removal of ihefe, and their alternate re-
currency ; alfo that the fofter fex, and all nervous
pei fons, are much difpofed both to laugh and cry pro-
fufely, and to pafs quickly from one ftate to the
other. And it may deferve to be inquired, how far
the profufe, continued laughter and mirth on one
hand, forrow, hanging the lip, and crying, on the
other, which occur in madnefs, agree with it.

As children learn the ufe of language, they
learn alfo to laugh at fentences or (lories, by which
fudden alarming emotions and expt6lations are raifed
in them, and again diffipated inftantaneoufly. And
as they learnt before by degrees to laugh at fudden
. unexpecSted noifes, or motions, where there was no
fear, or no diftinguifhable one, fo it is after fome

time

Pains of Imagination. 439

time in refpeft of words. Children, and young per-
fons, are diverted by every little jingle, pun, contraft,
or coincidence, which is level to their capacities, even
though the harflinefs and inconfiftency, with which
it firft ftrikes the fancy, be fo minute as fcarce to
be perceived. And this is the origin of that laughter,
which is excited by wit, humour, buffoonery, &c.

But this fpecies of laughter abates alfo by degrees,
as the other before confidered did, and, in general,
for the fame caufes ; fo that adults, and efpecially
thofe that are judges of politenefs and propriety, laugh
only at fuch ftrokes of wit and humour, as furprize by
fome more than ordinary degree of contrail or coinci-
dence j and have at the fame time a due connexion
with pleafure and pain, and their feveral afibciations
of fitnefs, decency, inconfiftency, abfurdity, ho-
nour, fhame, virtue, and vice j fo as neither to be
too glaring on the one hand, nor too faint on the
other. In the firft cafe, the reprefentation raifes
diflike and abhorrence j in the lail, it becomes in-
fipid.

From hence may be feen, that in different perfons
the occafions of laughter muft be as different as their
opinions and difpofitions j that low fimilitudes, al-
lufions, contrafts, and coincidences, applied to grave
and ferious fubjefts, muft occafion the moft profufe
laughter in perfons of light minds ; and, converfely,
increafe this levity of mind, and weaken the regard
due to things facredj that the vices of gluttony,
lewdnefs, vain glory, felf-conceit, and covetoufnefs,
with the concomitant pleafures and pains, hopes,
fears, dangers, &c. when reprefented by indirect
circumftances, and the reprefentation heightened by
contrafts and coincidences, muft be the moft frequent
fubjed of mirth, wit, and humour, in this mixed
degenerate ftate, where they are cenfured upon the
whole j and yet not looked upon with a due degree
of fe verity, diftance, and abhorrence -, that com-

F f 4 pany.

440 Of the Pkajures and

p;iny, fc-aOing, and wine, by parting fhe body into
a plrafurable ftate, mull difpofe to laughter upon
finall occafionsj and that perfons who give them-
felves much to mirth, wit, and humour, mufl there-
by greatly difqualify their undei (landings for the
learch after tiuth; inafmuch as by the pe/petual
luinring after apparent and partial agreements and
dilagreements, as in words, and indircfb accidental
CMCumftancts, whilft the true natures of the things
themfclvfs afford real agreements and difagreements,
that are very diffrrent, or quite oppofite, a man mud
by degrees pervert all his notions of things them-
fclves, and become unable to fee them as they really
are, and as they appear to confiderate fober-minded
inquirers. He mufl lofe all his aflbciations of the
vifible ideas of things, their names, fymbols, &c.
with their ufeful pradlical relations and properties ;
and get, in their ftead, accidental, indirefl:, and un-
natural conjunflions of circumftances, tiiat are really
foreign to each other, or oppbfitions of thofe that
are united ; and, after fome time, habit and cuftom
will fix thefe upon him.

The mofl: natural occafions of mirth and laughter
in adults feem to be the little miftakes and follies of
children, and the fmaller inconfiftencies and impro-
prieties, which happen in converfation, and the daily
occuirences of life; inafmuch as thefe pleafures are,
in great meafure, occafioned, or at lead fupported,
by the general pleafurable ftate, which our love and
affcdion to our friends in general, and to children in
particular, put the body and mind into. For this
kind of miith is always checked where we have a dif-
like; alfo where the miftake or inconfiftency rifes
beyond a certain limit ; for then it produces con-
cern, confufion, and uneafjnefs. And it is ufeful not
only in refpefc of the good effefts which it has upon
the bndy, and the prefent amufement and relaxa-
tion that it affords to the mind; but alfo, becaufe it

pots

Paim of Imagination. 44^

puts us upon reftifying what is fo amlf-, or any other
fmiilar error, in one another, or in children ; and has
a tendency to remove many prejudices from cuftom
and education. Thus we often laugh at children,
ruftics, and foreigners, when yet they a6t right, ac-
cording to the truly natural, fimplc, and uncorrupted
diftates of reafon and propriety, and are guilty of
no other inconfillency, than what arifes from the
ufurpatinns of cuftom over nature ; and we often
take notice of this, and correcft ourfeives, in confe-
quence of being diverted by it.

OF INCONSISTENCY, DEFORMITY, AND
ABSURDITY.

Having now confidered, in a fhort and general way,
all the pleafures that feem properly to belong to the
head of imagination, I will fay fomething concern-
ing the pains of this clafs, viz. thofe which aiife fronti
the view of grofs inconfiftency, abfurdity, and de-
formity. Here we may obferve,

Firft, That thefe pains are the root and fource
of many of the fore-mentioned pleafuies, particularly
thofe arifing from figurative expreffions, and of wit
and humour, as has been fhewn in treating of thefe
things.

Secondly, That the difguft and uneafinefs here
confidered never rife to any very great height, unlefs
fomeof the pains of fympathy, or of the moral fenfe,
mix themfelves with them. From whence it feems to
follow, that the mere pleafures of imagination and
beauty are alfo of a kind much inferior to thofe of
fympathy, and the moral fenfe.

The perplexity, confufion, and uneafinefs, which
we labour under in abftrufe inquiries, philofophical,
moral, and reiigiou-, ought, perhaps, to be referred
to this head. Alio the fecondary perplexity which
arifes from our being fubjefl to this perplexity, con-
fufion and uneafinefs. However, all this is to be

accounted

44^ Q/* ^^^ Pleqfuvcs, Sec.

accounted for as any other evil, and does not feem
to be attended either with greater or lefs diHiculties.
No perplexity can give us more than a limited degree
of paini and all our perplexities have probably both
the fame general good efFeds as our other pains j
and alio, like each of thefe, fome good effedls pecu-
liar to themfelves.

We may now obferve upon the whole, that ac-
cording to the foregoing hiftory of the pleafures of
imagination, there muft be great differences in the
taftes and judgments of different perlbns ; and that
no age, nation, clafs of men, &c. ought to be made
the teft of what is moft excellent in artificial beauty ;
nor confequently of what is abfurd. The only things
that can be fet up as natural criterions here feem to be
uniformity with variety, ufcfulnefs in general, and
the particular fubferviency of this or that artificial
beauty to improve the mind, fo as to make it fuit
beft: with our prefent circumfiances, and future ex-
peftations. How all thefe criterions confill with each
other, and unite in the fingle criterion of rehgion,
or the love of God, and of our neighbour, under-
ftood in the comprehenfive fenfe of thefe words, I
Ihall endeavour to Ihevv hereafter.

SECT.

Pains of Ambition. 443

SECT. II.

OF THE PLEASURES AND PAINS OF AMBITION.

PROP. XCV.

To examine how far the Pleajures and Pains of Ambition
are agreeable to the foregoing 'Theory.

The opinions of others concerning us, when ex-
preflcd by correfponding words or adlions, arc
principal fources of happinefs or nnifery. The plea-
fures of this kind are ufually referred to the head of
honour ; the pains to that of fhame ; but as it is
mod convenient to have a fingle word, to which to
refer both the pleafures and pains of this clafs, I have
made choice of ambition for that purpofe. It will
therefore be our bufinefs, under this propofition, to
inquire by what aflbciations it is brought about,
that men are fo folicitous to have certain particulars
concerning themfelves made known to the circle of
their friends and acquaintance, or to the world in
general ; and certain others concealed from them ;
alfo, why all marks and evidences, that thefe twc^
feveral kinds of particulars are made known, fo as to
beget approbation, efteem, praife, high opinion, &c.
or diflike, cenfure, contempt, &c. occafion fuch
exquifite pleafures and pains, as thofe of honour and
Iharne, i. e. of ambition.

The particulars which we defire to have made
known to, or concealed from, others, in order to ob-
tain praife, or avoid difpraife, may be clafled under
the four following heads.

Firft,

444 Q/" ^^^ Vkajurei and

Firfl, External advantages or difadynhtigcs.

Secondly, Bodily pcrfecflions and imperfecftions.

Thirdly, Inrellcdtual accomplilhmcnts or defeds.-

Fourihly, Mot a! ones, ;. e. virtue or vice.

1 will now endeavour to (hew what pleafuies and
pains, bodily and intcilcchial, are afTociated with the
opinions which oiiiers fonrj of us, in thefe four re-
fpc6ls, /. e. either with the fevcral methods by which
they receive their information ; or with thofe by
which they fignify their having received it, and
their confequent approbation or difapprobation, re-
fpe(5t or contempt.

OF EXTERNAL ADVANTAGES AND DISAD-
VANTAGES.

I begin with the confideration of external advan-
tages or difadvantages. The principal of thefe arc
fine clothes, riches, titles, and high birth, with their
oppofites, rags, poverty, obfcuiity, and low birth.

Now it is evident, that thefe exter/ial advantages
and difadvantages become fuch by being made known
to others; that the fiift gain men certain privileges
and ))leafures j and the laft fubjrcSt them to inconve-
niencies and evils only, or chiefly, when they are dif-
covered to the world. It follows therefore that every
difcovery of this kind to others, aifo every mark and
aflbciate of fuch difcovery, will, by aflbciation, raife
up the miniatures of the privileges and plealures, in-
conveniencies, and evils, refpetlively j and thus afford,
in each inftance, a peculiar compound pleafure or
pain, which, by the ufe of language, has the word
honour ov Jhame refpe^lively annexed to it.

This is the grofs account of the generation of
thefe pleafures and pains j but the fubordinate parti-
culars contain many things worthy of obfervation.

Thus fine clothes pleafe both children and adults,
by their natural or artificial beauty j they enhance

the

Pains of Ambition. 445

the beauty of the perfon ; they excite the compli-
ments and careffes of the attendants in a peculiarly
vivid manner; they arc the common aflbciates of
riches, titles, and high birth j they have vaft en-
comiums bellowed upon them j and are fomctimes
the rewards of mental accomplifhments and virtue.
Rags, on the contrary, arc often attended with the
moft loathfome and offenfive ideas, with bodily infir-
mity, poverty, contempt, and vice. It is eafy there-
fore to fee, that in our progrefs through life, a com-
pound affociated defire of line clothes, and abhor-
rence of rags, will fpring up fo early as to be deemed
a natural one. And if a perfon palTes of a fudden
from rags to fine clothes, or vice verfay the pleafure
or pain will be enhanced accordingly, by the juxta-
pofition of the oppofites.

Now thc-fe pleafurcs and pains, which thus attend
a perfon's being actually dreffed in fine clothes, or
in rags, will, by farther afTociations, be transferred •
upon all the concomitant circumftances, the polTeffion
of fine clothes, the hopes of them, or the fear of
rags J and particularly upon all narrations and fym-
bols, whereby others are firft informed of the perfon's
drefs, or difcover their prior knowledge of it ; fo that
the perfon fhall have his vanity gratified, or his fhame
excited, by all fuch narrations, and by all the conco-
mitant circumftances and fymbols.

Riches, titles, and high birth, are attended with
afTocidtes of the fame kind as fine clothes j with
this difference, however, that it requires a farther
progrefs in life to be fulHciently alfccSted with the
compound pleafure refulting f;om the afibciaces of
theft-, and confcquently for acquiring a tafte for thofe
pleafures of honour, which tiches, titles, and high
birth afibrd. Agreeably to which it may be obferved,
that the firft inftance of pride and vanity in children
is that which arifes fjom fine clothes.

In

44^ Of ^^^ PUafures and

• In the piogrefs through life, efpeclally in the vir-
tuous, it okcn happens, that oppofite airociations are
gcncfatcd, /'. e. luch as bieak the connc6tion between
the ideas of happinefs and fine clothes, riches,
titles, high birth ; alfo between milery and rags,
poverty, oblcurity, and low birth ; nay, there are
forne inilances in which ihrfe lall are connected with ]
fome kinds and degrees of happinefs. Now in all
thefe cafes the pride and vanity, or fhame, by which
we hope or fear to have our circumflances, in thefe
refpedls, known to t!ie world, leflen, ceafe entirely, or
even turn about to the oppofite quarter accordingly;
fo that when a perfon has loft his defire of being
rich, or high born, he alfo lofes his defire of being
thought fo; and when he gains an oppofite defire
of becoming poor, on a religious account, for in-
ilance, or a complacence in being low born, on ac-
count of his prefent high ftation, bcc. he dcfires alfo
to have this known to the world And yet there
may, in mofl cafes, be perceived fome diflance in
time between the defire of beingy and the fubfequenc
afibciated defire of being thought^ viz. fuch a diftance
of time as may fuffice for the aflbciations to produce
their efTecfl in.

Riches are attended with many conveniencies, whe-
ther a perfon be known to poflefs them, or no ; and {
there are inconveniencies, as well as conveniencies,
attending the reputation of being rich ; but titles
and high birth are then only produ6live of privi- ^:
leges and pleafures, when made known to the %
world i whence it is eafy to fee that pride and va-
nity may fhew themfelves much more commonly in '
refpeft of titles and high birth, than in refpedt of -^
riches, which is agreeable to the fa6t. |

The fhamefacednefs of ruftics, poor perfons, and ;'
inferiors, in general, in the prefence of their fupe- " |
riors, with the great confufion and uneafinefs that
often attend it, arifes from the fources of honour and

fhame

Pains of Ambition. 447

fhame here laid open, and particularly from the ftrong
contraft between their own circumftances and thofe
of their fuperiors.

OF BODILY PERFECTIONS AND IMPER-

FECTIONS.

The chief bodily circumftances, which are the
fources of the pleafures of honour, or of the pains
of fhame, are beauty, ftrength, and health, on the
one hand ; and their oppofites, deformity, imbeci-
lity, unfitting a perfon for the funftions of life, and
difeafe, on the other. I will make fome fhort re-
marks upon each.

Beauty has an intimate conneflion with one of the
moft violent of our defires j affords a great pleafure,
even where this defire is not felt explicitly ; has the
higheft encomiums beftowed upon it in books, efpe-
cially in fuch as are too much in the hands of young
pcrfons, and the higheft compliments paid to it in
difcourfej and is often the occafion of fuccefs in
life ; all which holds more particularly in refpeft of
women, than of men. No wonder therefore, that
both fexes, but efpecially women, fliould defire both
to be and he thought beautiful, and be pleafed with all
the affociated circumftances of thefe things ; and
that the fear of being or being thought deformed,
fhould be a thing to which the imagination has the
greateft relu6lance. And the reputation of beauty,
with the fcandal of deformity, influences fo much
the more, as beauty and deformity are not attended
with their refpedive pleafing or difpleafing aflbciates,
except when they are made apparent to, and taken
notice of by the world. So that here the original
defire is rather to be thought beautiful than to be fo ;
and this laft is chiefly a confequential one arifing in
our minds, from the clofe connexion of being with
being thought.

In

44l ^f '*" Pleajures and

. Ill (Irtngth it is othervvilc. This is the fource of
many convenicncies, and imhecihty, its oppofitc,
of many inconveiuciicie^, whether they be taken no-
tice of or no ; as well as of fomc which depend en
their being thus taken notice of. It is lejlunable there-
fore here to fuppofe, thjt our firll and greatell de- i
flic fhould be after the thing itfelf; and fo it is in faft.
However, finCG fevcral advantages arife fiom fhew-
ing our (licngth ; fince alfo the oftentation of hap-
pincfs of any kind belonging to ourfclves, or the
notice which others take of ir, bring in the pleafing
idea with great vigour; ic is evident that there rr.uft
be eager dcfues of peing thought ftrong, agile, &c.
as well as of being fo. And, by parity of reafon,
men will be much afhamed of being thought weak and
feeble, as well as afraid of being fo. And as women
glory chiefly in beauty, fo men do in ftrength ; this
being chiefly a fource of advantages and plcafurcs to
men, as that is to women. Nay, one may even ob-
ferve, that any great degree of beauty in men, or
ftrength in women, by being oppofite to that per-
fection, which is peculiar to each fcx, is thought ra-
ther undcfirable than dcfirable.

tlealth and ficknefs have many connexions with
beauty and ftrength, deformity and imbecility, re-
Ipedively ; and therefore may eafiiy be conceived to
become rcfpcclively the fouices of the pleafures of \
honour, or of the pains of Pname, agreeably to the
fa(ft. But, in difeafe^, ^o many greater pains and i
evils, fears, anxieties, &c. wirh fome pleafures, fuch \
as thofe of friendlhip, occur iikewile, that there is, %
in m.oft cafes, little rotmi for fhame to exe/t itfelf: k
however, if the difcafe be the conlequence either of 1
a viituous, or a vicious, courfc of aclion, the ho- ,
nour or Ihame, belonging to virtue or vice refpcc- I
lively, will be transferred upon it. |

There is an high degree of fhame, which attend^ the '
natural evacuations, particularly thofe of the faeces ;-'

and ii

r;

Pains of Ambition. 449

and urine, which is in part deduced fiom the offen-
fivenefs of the excrements of the body, and is nearly
related to the fhamc attending bodily infirmities and
difeafes. But this fliame, as it refpe£ls the fasces and
urine, has alfo a particular connexion v;ith that which
relates to the pudenda, arifmg from the vicinity of
the organs j and thus they give and receive mutually.
They are alfo both of them much increafed by edu-
cation, cuftom, and the precepts and epithets of pa-
rents and governors. The original fources of the
fhame relating to the pudenda are probably the pri-
vacy requifite (which is both caufe and cfFeft), the
greatnefs of the pleafure, and the fenfe of guilt which
often attends j and there may be perhaps Something of
inftinft, which operates here quite indcpendcndy of
affociation.

OF INTELLECTUAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS
AND DEFECTS.

The intelleflual accomplifhments and defeds
which occafion honour and fhame, are fagacity,
memory, invention, wit, learning ; and their op-
pofites, folly, dulnefs, and ignorance. Here we may
deduce a confiderable part from the many advan-
tages arifmg from the accomplifhmient?, difadvaa-
tages from the defeAs, in the fame manner as has been
done already in the two foregoing articles. But a
great part, perhaps the greateft, is deduced from the
high-ftrained encomiums, aj)pl3ufes, and fljtteries,
paid to parts and learning, and the outrageous ridi-
cule and contempt thrown upon folly and ignorance,
in all the difcourfes and writings of men of genius
and learning j thefe perfons being extremely partial
to their own excellencies, and carrying the world
with them by the force of their parts and eloquence.
It is alfo to beobferved, that in the education of young
perfons, and efpecially of boys and young men, great
rewards are conferred in confequence of intelledual

Vol. I. G g attain-

1

45^ Of the Vlcajures and

attainments and parts ; and great puniflinnents fol- \
low negligence and ignorance ; which rewards and \
punifliments, being rclpcdivtrly aflbciated with the \
^vvords^xprefTing praife and ccnfure, and with all their
other circuhiflances, transfer upon praife and ccnfure
compound vivid miniatures, pleafani and painful. | (

In like manner all the kinds of lionour and fhame,
by being exprelfed in words and lymbols, that are
nearly related to each other, enhance each other :
thus, for inflance, the carcfies given to a child when
he is diefled in fine clothes prepare him to be much
more affected with the careiTcs and encomiums be-
llowed upon him when he has been diligent in getting
his Icfibn, and indeed it ought to be remarked,
that the words and phrafes of the parents, governors,
fuperiors, and attendants, have fo great an influence
over children, when they fiift come to the ufe of
language, as inftantly to generate an implicit belief,
a ftrong defire, or a high degree of pleafure. They
have no fufpicions, jealoufies, memories, or expecta-
tions of being deceived or difappointed ; and there-
fore a fet of words exprefllng plcafures of any kind,
which they have experienced, put together in almoft
any manner, will raife up in them, a pleafurable (late,
and oppofite words a painful one. Whence it is eafy
to fee, that the fine language exprefTing praife, and
the harfh one exprefTing difpraife, muft inftantly, from
the mere afifociations heaped upon the feparate words,
put them into a ftate of hope and joy, fear and
forrow, refpeflively. And when the foundation is
thus laid, praife and difpraife will keep their influ-
ences from the advantages and difadvantages attend-
ing them, though the feparate words fhould lofe their Jj
particular influences, as they manifeftly do in our 1
progrefs through life.

The honour and fliame arifing from intelledlual
accomplifliments do often, in learned men, after fome
time, deftroy, in great meafure, their fenfibility, in

refpe(5t

I

Pains of Ambition. 451

refpeft of every other kind of honour and (hanne;
which feems chiefly to arife from their converfing
much with books, and learned men, fo as to have a
great part of the pleafures, which they receive from
this their convcrfation, clofely connected with the
encomiums upon parts and learning; alfo to have
all terms of honour applied to them, and the keeneft
reproach, and moft infolent contempt, cad upon the
contrary defeats. And, as the pleafures which rail-
lery, ridicule, and fatire, afford to the by-ftanders,
are very confiderable, fo the perfon who is the obje(5b
of them, and who begins to be in pain upon the firft
flight marks of contempt, has this pain much enhan-
ced by the contrail, the exquifltenefs of his uneafi-
nefs and confufion rifing in proportion to the degree
of mirth, and infolent laughter in the by-ftanders :
whence it comes to pafs, that extremely few perfons
have courage to ftand the force of ridicule j buc
rather fubjett themifelves to confiderable bodily pains,
to loffes, and to the anxiety of a guilty mind, than
appear foolifh, abfurd, fmgular, or contemptible to the
world, or even to perfons of whofe judgment and
abilities they have a low opinion.

All this is, in general, more applicable to men
than to women, juft as the honour and fhame be-
longing to beauty and deformity is more applicable
to women than men ; both which obfervations are
eafily deducible from the different talents and fitua-
tions in life of the two fexes.

OF VIRTUE AND VICE.

We come, in the laft place, to confider moral ac-
complifhments and defe6ls, or virtue and vice. Now
it is very evident, that the many advantages, public
and private, which arife from the firft, will engage
the world to beftow upon it much honour and ap-
plaufe, in the fame manner as the evil confequences

G g 2 of

45- Q/" l^^ Pkafurcs and

of vice mult make it the objc6l of cenkirc and re-
proach. Since therefore the child is affedled with
the words cxprcfling honour and cenfiue, both
from the fcpaiate influences of thefe words, and from
the application of phrafcs of this kind to other fub-
jcfks of praile and difpraife, he muft be affedted by
the commendations bcftowed upon him when he has
done weil^ and by the cenfures paflTcd on him when
he has done ill.

Thefe commendations and cenfures are alfo attend-
ed with great immediate rewards and punifhments,
likewife with the hopes and fears relating to another
world; and when the moral fenfe is fufficiently ge-
nerated, with great fecret indeterminate pleafure or
pain of this kind j and thefe affociations add a par-
ticular force to the honour and fhame belonging re-
fpcflively to virtue and vice. At the fame time it is
cafy to fee, that fome confiderable progrefs in life is
ordinarily required before men come to be deeply and
laftingly affeded by thefe things ; alfo that this kind
of honour and fhame may, at laft, from the fuperior
force of the aflbciated pleafures and pains, abforb, as
it were, all the other kinds. A religious man be-
comes at laft infenfible, in great mcafure, to every
encomium and reproach, excepting fuch as he ap-
prehends will reft upon him at the laft day, from him
whofe judgment cannot err.

This is the general account of the honour and
fname paid to virtue and vice refpedively. I will
now make a few fliort ftridtures upon fome of the
principal virtues and vices.

Firft, then. Piety is not in general, and amongft the
bulk of mankind, had in great honour. This pro-
ceeds from fcveral caufes ; as that in the order of our
progrefs it is the laft of the virtues, and therefore,
having few votaries, it muft have few advocates; that
in the firft attempts to attain it, men often fall into
great degrees of enthufiafm and fuperftition, and fo

cxpofe

I

I

y.

Pains of Ambition. 453

cxpofe themfelves to the charges of folly, madnefs,
and felf-conceic ; and that pretences to it are often
made ufe of by hypocrites to cover the worft defigns.
Now from thefe and fuch like caufes it hap-pens, that
men are much afhamed to be thought devout, fear-
ing that exquifite uneafinefs, which being ridiculed
and contemned as fools, madmen, and hypocrites,
occafions. At the fame time it appears, that amongft
thofe who have made confiderable advances in reli-
gion, piety will be had in the greateft honour: thefe
fee evidently how it may be diftinguifhed from en-
thufiafm, fuperftition, and hypocrify ; and are very
little folicitous concerning the opinions of the profane
world, who are apt to confound themj and there-
fore as far as their piety will permit any foreign defire
to arife, they have an exquifice relifli for the honour
and efteem proceeding from the reputation of piety.

Benevolence fprings up more early in life than
piety, and has at fird view a more immediate good
influence upon fociety. There are alfo greater num-
bers who arrive at fome imperfeft degrees of it, than
who arrive at like degrees of piety ; neither are the
degenerations and counterfeits of benevolence fo
common as thofe of piety. On thefe accounts much
greater and more frequent encomiums are bellowed
upon it by the bulk of mankind, than upon piety j and
thefe with the many advantages refulting from the
reputation of being benevolent, make mofl: perfons
eagerly defire this reputation ; fo that they perform
many adions from mere ambition, or from a mix-
ture of this with benevolence, which they defne the
world Ihould think to proceed from m.ere benevo-
lence.

Military glory, and the high applaufes beftowed
upon perfonal courage, feem, in a confiderable de-
gree, deducible from this fource, from the benevolent
defign of proteding the innocent, the helplefs, one's
friends and country, from invafions, robberies, wild

G g 3 beafls.

I

454 0/ f^^e rieafures and

bead?, Sec. The connc(5>ion of thefc with bodily
fliength, and the chaiaftcrifticnl peife6lions of men
as dillinguifhed from women and children, the ra-
rity and difficulty of them, the vaft encomiums be-
llowed upon them by poets, orators and hiltonans,
cfpecially in ancient times, i. e. by thofe authors
which are read in fchools, and lay hold of our pliant
imaginations when young, the ridicule caft upon
timoroufnefs of boys and men, as not being a com- |
mon imperfection amongft them, and the conneflion
of the fear of death with the fenfe of guilt, all
concur likewife, and have carried mankind fo far as
make them confer the higheft honours upon the moft
cruel, lawlefs, and abominable anions, and confe-
quencly incite one another to perform fuch aflions
from an^bitious views. However, this falfe glare
feems to fade in theory, amongft writers ; and one
may hope that the praftice of mankind will be,
in Ibme meafure, agreeable to the corre<^ions made
in their theory.

Temperance and chaftity have confiderable ho-
nours beftowed upon them -, but the fhame and fcan-
dal attending the oppofite vices, and which arife from
the loathfome difeafes, and the many miferies, which
men bring upon themfelves and others by thefe vices,
are much more remarkable. The detail of thefe
things might eafily be delivered from parallel ob-
fervations already made. It happens fometimes, that
fome degrees of thefe vices are looked upon by young
and ignorant perfons, as honourable, from certain
connexions with manlinefs, fafhion, high life :
however, this is ftill in conformity with the doflrine
of aflbciation, and the derivation of all the pleafures
of honour from happinefs under fome form or other ; \
and, when the fame perfons become better inftruded
in the real confcquences and conneflions of things,
their opinions change accordingly.

Negative

Paws of Ambition. 455

Negative humility, or the not thinking better, or
more highly, of ourfelves than we ought, in refpedt
jf external advantages, bodily, intelleftual, or moral
accomplifliments, and being content with fuch re-
gards as are our due, which is the firft ftep ; and then
pofitive humility, or a deep fenfe of our own mifery
and imperfe6lions of all kinds, and an acquiefcence
in the treatment which we receive from others, what-
ever it bej being virtues which are mod commodious
to ourfelves and others, and highly amiable in the
light of all thofe who have made a due proficiency in
religion, and the moral fenfe, come at laft to be ho-
noured and efteemed in an eminent manner, and con-
fequently to incite men from mere vanity and am-
bition to feek the praife of humility. And the ri-
dicule and fhame which attend vanity, pride, and
felf-conceit, concur to the fame purpofe; which is a
remarkable inftance of the inconfiftency of one part
of our frame with itfelf, as the cafe now (lands, and
of the tendency of vice to check and dettroy itfelf.

From the whole of what has been delivered upon
this clafs of pleafures and pains, one may draw the
following corollaries.

Cor. I, All the things in which men pride them-
felves, and for which they defire to be taken notice of
by others, are either means of happinefs, or have
fome near relation to it. And indeed it is not at all
uncommon to lee pcrfons take pains to make others
believe, that they are happy, by affirming it in exprefs
terms. Nov/ this, confidered as a mere matter of
faft, occurring to attentive obfervation, might lead
one to conclude, that the pleafures of honour and
ambition are not of an original, inftindlive, implanted
nature, but derived from the other pleafures of hu-
man life, by the aflbciation of thefe into various par-
cels, where the feveral ingredients are fo mixed amongft
one another, as hardly to be difcernible feparately.

G g 4 The

45 6 Of the Pleafures and

The young, the gay, and the polite, are ambitious
of being thought beautiful, rich, high born, witty, &c.
The grave, the learned, the afflidlcd, the religious,
&:€. feck, the praifc of wifdom and knowledge, or to
be elleeined for piety and charity; every one ac-
cording to his opinions of thefe things, as the
Iburces, marks, or offsprings of happinefs. And
when men boafl: of their poverty, low birth, igno-
rance, or vice, it is always in fuch circumflances,
with fuch additions and contrafts, or under fuch
reftrictions, as that the balance, upon the whole,
may, fome way or other, be the more in their fa-
vour on that account.

Cor. 1. Praife and fliame are made ufe of by
parents and governors, as chief motives and fprings
of aflion j and it becomes matter of praife to a j
child, to be influenced by praife, and deterred by
fhame ; and matter of reproach, to be infenfible in
thcl'e refpecfts. And thus it comes to pafs, that
praife and fhame have a ftrong reflected influence
upon themfelves ; and that praife begets the love of
praife, and fhame increafes the fear of fhame. Now,
though the original praife, commendation, blame,
cenfure, &c. of good parents and preceptors, ex-
tend only, for the moft part, to acquired accom-
plifhments and defeds, and particularly to virtue
and vice J yet the fecondary influence will affedt
men in refpetSl of all forts of encomiums and cen-
fures, of every thing that comes under the fame de-
nomination, that is aflbciated with, or tied up by, the
fame words. I'hough the preceptor direfl his
pupil only to regard the judgment of the wife and
good, flUl there are fo many like circumftances at-
tending the judgment of others, that it will be re-
garded fomething the more from the leffons re-
ceived, in refpe6t of the wife and good, exclufively
of others,

CoR.

Pains of Ambition, 457

Cor. 3. In confidering the fources of honour and
ftiame it will appear, that they are by no means con-
fiftent with one another j and, by a farther inquiry,
that the maximum of the pleafures of this clafs ulti-
mately coincides, omni ex parte^ wjth moral recti-
tude.

SECT.

45 iJ Of the PUafures and

SECT. III.

OF THE PLEASURES AND PAINS OF SELF-
INTEREST.

PROP. XCVI.

To examine bow far the Pleafures and Pains of Self-
inter ejl are agreeable to the foregoing Theory.

Self-interest may be diftinguiflied into three
kinds, viz.

Firft, Grofs felf-interefl:, or the cool purfuit of the
means whereby the pleafures of fenfation, imagina-
tion, and ambition, are to be obtained, and their
pains avoided.

Secondly, Refined felf-intereft, or a like purfuit
of the means that relate to the pleafures and pains of
fympathy, theopathy, and the moral fenfe.

And, Thirdly, Rational felf-intereft, or the pur-
fuit of a man's greateft pofTible happinefs, without
any partiality to this or that kind of happinefs,
means of happinefs, means of a means, &c.

OF GROSS SELF-INTEREST.

The love of money may be confidered as the
chief fpecies of grofs felf-intereft, and will help us,
in an eminent manner, to unfold the mutual influ-
ences of our pleafures and pains, with the factitious
nature of the intellectual ones, and the dodrine of
aflbciation in general, as well as the particular pro-
grefs, windings, and endlefs redoublings of felf-love.
For it is evident at firft fight, that money cannot

naturally

Pains of Self-Intercft. 459

naturally and originally be the objed of our facul-
ties i no child can be fuppofed born with the love
of it. Yet we fee, that fome fmall degrees of this
love rife early in infancy j that it generally increafes
during youth and manhood ; and that at laft, in
fome old perfons, it fo engrofles and abforbs all their
pafiions and purfuits, as that from being confidt-red
as the reprefentativc, ftandard, common meafure
and means of obtaining the commodities which oc-
cur in common life, it fliall be efteemed the adequate
exponent and means of happinefs in general, and
the thing itfelf, the fum total of all that is defi-
rable in life. Now the monftrous and gigantic fize
of this palTion, in fuch cafes, fupported evidently by
aflbciation alone, will render its progrefs and growth
more confpicuous and ftriking ; and confequently
greatly contribute to explain the correfponding parti-
culars in other paffions, where they are lefs obvious.

Let us inquire therefore, for what reafons it is that
children firft begin to love money. Now they ob-
ferve, that money procures for them the pleafures
of fenfation, with fuch of imagination as they have
acquired a relifh for. They fee that it is highly va-
lued by others j that thofe who poflcfs it are much re-
garded and carefled : that the poflefTion of it is ge-
nerally attended by fine clothes, titles, magnificent
buildings, &c. Imitation, and the common conta-
gion of human life, having great power here, as in
other cafes. Since therefore ideas exciting defire are
thus heaped upon money by fucceffive afibciations
perpetually recurring, the delire of it in certain fums
and manners, viz. fuch as have often recurred with
the concomitant pleafures, muft at laft grow ftronger
than the fainter fenfible and intelleftual pleafures j fo
that a child fhall prefer a piece of money to many
aflual gratifications to be enjoyed immediately.

And as all the fore-mentioned afibciations, or fuch
as are analogous to them, continue during life, it

feems

460 Of the Plea/ures and

fcems probable, that the love of money would at I
laft: devour all the particular dcfires, upon which it is \
grounded, was it not rcllrained by counter-aflbcia-
tions ; jull as it was obferved above, that the pleafurc
of gratifying the will would devour all the particular
pleafures, to which it is a conllant aflbciate, did not
repeated dilappointments preferve us from this enor-
mous incieale of wilfulnefs.

Let us next examine how the love of money is
checked.

Firrt, then, It is checked by the flrong defires of
young perfons, and others, after particular gratifica-
tions ; for thefe defires, by overpowering their ac-
quired averfion to part with money, weaken it gra-
dually, and confequently weaken the pleafurc of keep-
ing, and the defirc of obtaining, all which arc clofely
linked together in this view; notwithftanding that
the lad, viz. the defire of obtaining, and by confe-
quencc (in an inverted order) the pleafure of keep-
ing, and the averfion to part with, are (lengthened by
the defires of particular pleafures to be purchafed by
money, in another view. And this contrariety of our
aflbciations is not only the means of limiting certain
paffions, but is a mark fet upon them by the author
of nature, to fhew that they ought to be limited,
even in our progrefs through this life ; and that they
muft ultimately be annihilated, every one in its pro-
per order.

Secondly, The infignificancy of riches in v/arding
off death and difeafcs, alfo Ihame and contempt in
many cafes, and in obtaining the pleafures of reli-
gion, and the moral fcnfe, and even thofe of fympa-
ihy, ambition, imaginacion, and fenfation, firft lefTen
their value in the eyes of thofe who make juft ob-
fervacions upon things in their progrefs through
life, and afterwards fix a pofitive nothingnefs and
worthleffnefs upon them.

Thirdly,

Pains of Self-Intereft. 461

Thirdly, The eager purfuit of any particular end,
as fame, learning, the pleafures of the imagination,
&c. leaves little room in the mind either for ava-
rice, or any other foreign end.

Now by thefe and Inch like confiderations we may
account not only for the limitation put to the love
of money, but alfo for certain mixtures of tempers
and difpofitions, which are often found in fa6l, and
yet feem at firft fight inconfiftent ones. Thus pro-
fufcnefs in refpeft of fcnfual and felfilh pleafures is
often joined with avarice. Covetous perfons are
often rigidly juft in paying, as well as exafling ; and
fomeiimes generous, where money is not immediately
and apparently concerned. They have alfo moderate
pafllons in other refpe<5ls; for the moft part, are fufpi-
cious, timorous, and complaifant. And the moft
truly generous, charitable, and pious perfons, are
highly frugal, fo as to put on the appearance of co-
vetoufnefs, and even fometimes, and in fome things,
to border upon it.

We may fee alfo, why the love of money muft
in general, grow ftronger with age; and efpecially
if the particular gratifications, to which the perfon
was moft inclined, become infipid or unattainable —
Why frequent reflexions upon money in poflefllon,
and the adual viewing large fums, ftrengthen the
aflbciations by which covetoufnefs is generated —
Why children, perfons in private and low life, and
indeed moft others, are differently affeded towards
the fame fum of money, in different forms, gold,
(ilvcr, notes, &c.

Let us next inquire, for what realbns it is that the
love of money has the idea of felfifiinefs attached
to it in a peculiar manner, much more fo than the
purfuit of the pleafures of honour, imagination, or
fympathy ; whereas all are equally generated by af-
fociation, from fenfible and lelfifli plealures, all in
their feveral degrees promote private happinefs, and

are

462 Of the PUiifures and

I

arc all purlucd, in fome cafes, coolly and deliberately
irom the piolpedl of obtaining private happinefs
thereby. - Now tiie rcafons of this feem to be,

Firlt, That whatever riches one man obtains, ano-
ther muft lofci fo that rhe circulation of money
by trades, profclTjons, oflices, &c. is a kind of
gaming ; and has molt of the fame difguflful ideas
annexed to it, when confideied witli fome attention,
and exclufively of private felfifli feelings ; whereas
the pleafuies of lympatliy confifl: in doing good to
others ; thoie of ambition are Icarce attainable in any
great degree without thib, or at leafl: the appearance
of it i and the plealures of imagination are both capa-
ble of a very extcnfive communication, and moft
perfedl when enjoyed in company.

Secondly, A regard to Jelf frequently recurring
muft denominate a pleafure y*"^' ; fo that if any of
the moft generous pleafiires, and fuch as at firft view
have no immediate i elation to felf-intereft, be pur-
fued in a cool, deliberate way, not from the influence
of a piefent inclination, but the preconceived opi-
nion, that it will afford pleafure, this is referred to
felf-intereft. Now money has fcarce any other re-
lation to pleafure than that of an evident means ; fo
that even after it has gained the power of pleafing in-
ftantaneoufly, the intermediate deliberate fteps and
affociations muft, however, frequently appear. It
procures the other pleafures for us every day, after
it has become pleafant in itfclf; and therefore muft
always be confidered as a principal means. The other
pleafures have, in general, a far greater fhare of in-
diretl aflociations with previous pleafures, and ac-
quire the power of gratifying, not fo much from being Jj
manifcft caufes of other gratifications, as their moft ^
comjmon adjuncts ; whereas money is generally the
moft vifible of all the caufes. But honour, power,
learning, and many other things;, are purfucd, in
part, after the fame manner, and for the fame reafons,

as

Pains of Self-Intereft. 463

as riches, viz. from a tacit fuppofition, that the ac-
quifition of every degree of thefe is treafuring up a
proportional degree of happinefs, to be produced
and enjoyed at pleafure. And the defires of each of
thefe would in like manner increafe perpetually during
life, did they not curb one another by many mutual
inconfiftencies, or were not all damped by the fre-
quent experience and recolieflion, that all the means
of happinefs ceafe to be fo, when the body or mind
ceafe to be difpofed in a manner proper for the
reception of happinefs.

It is alfo worthy of obfervation, that riches, ho-
nours, power, learning, and ail other things, that
are confidered as means of happinefs, becom.e
means and ends to each other in a great variety of
ways, thus transferring upon each other all the affo-
ciated pleafures which they colled from different
quarters, and approaching nearer and nearer perpe-
tually to a perfe6l fimilarity and famenefs with each
other, in the inftantaneous pleafures which they afford
when purfued and obtained as ends.

It appears likewife, that all aggregates of pleafure,
thus collefted by them all, mulf, from the mechanifm
and neceflTity of our natures, and of the world which
furrounds us, be made at lafl: to centre and reft upon
him who is the inexhauftible fountain of all power,
knowledge, goodnefs, majefty, glory, property, &c.
So that even avarice and ambition are, in their re-
fpeftive ways, carrying on the benevolent defigns of
him who is ail in all. And the fame thing may
be hoped of every other paffion and purfuit. One
may hope, that they all agree and unite in leading to
ultimate happinefs and perfeftion. However, they
differ gready in their prefent confequences, and in
their future ones, reaching to certain intervals of time
indefinite and unknown to us, thus becoming good
or evil, both naturally and morally, in refpeft of us,
and our limited apprehenfions, judgments, and an-
ticipations.

464 Of the Pkajiires and

ticipations. And yet one may humbly hope, as was
faid above, that every thing muft be ultimately good,
both naturally and morally.

OF REFINED SELF-INTEREST.

The fecond fpecies of felf-intereft is that which I
call refined lelf-intereft. As the foregoing Ipecies is
generated by an attention to, and frequent refleftion
upon, the things which piocure us the pleafures of
fenfition, imagination, and ambition ; and therefore
cannot prevail in any great degree, till thefc pleafures
have been generated, and prevailed for fome time ;
fo this fpecies, or refined felf-intereft, which is a cooJ,
deliberate fceking for ourfelves the pleafures of fym-
pathy, religion, and the moral fenfe, prefuppofes
the generation of thefe pleafures, and the enjoyment
of them for a fufficient time. And as fome degree
of grofs felf-intereft is the natural and neceflary con-
fequence of the three firft clafles of pleafures, fo is
fome degree of refined felf-intereft of the three laft.
A perfon who has had a fufficient experience of the
pleafures of friendfhip, generofity, devotion, and
felf-approbation, cannot but defire to have a return
of them, when he is not under the particular influ-
ence of any one of them, but merely on account of
the pleafure which they have afforded ; and will feek
to excite thefe pleafures by the ufual means, to trea-
fure up to himifelf fuch means, keep himfelf always
in a difpofition to ufe them, bcc. not at all from any
particular vivid love of his neighbour, or of God,
or from a fenfe of duty to him, but entirely from
the view of private happinefs. At It-aft, there will be
a great mixture of this refined felf-inteteft in all the
pleafures and duties of benevolence, piety, and the
moral fenfe.

But then this refined felf-intereft is neither fo com-
mon, nor fo confpicuous in real life, as the grofs

one.

Pains of Self-Intereft. 465

one, fince it rifes late, is never of any great magni-
tude in the bulk of nnankind, through their want of
the previous pleafures of fympathy, religion, and
the moral fenfe, in a fufficient degree, and in fome
ic fcarce prevails at all ; whereas grofs felf-intereft
rifes early in infancy, and arrives at a confiderabie
magnitude before adult age. The detail of this fe-
cond fpecies of felf-intereft may be feen in books of
practical religion.

OF RATIONAL SELF-INTEREST.

The third fpecies of felf-intereft is the rational
This is the fame thing with the abftrad defire of
appinefs, and averfion to mifery, which is fuppofed
CO attend every intelligent being during the whole
courfe of his exiftence. I have already endeavoured
r.o Ihew, that this fuppofition is not true in the
proper fenfe of the words ; and yet that very
general defires do frequently recur to the mind,
and may be excited by words and fymbols of general
i mport.

The hopes and fears relating to a future ftate, or
) death, which is our entrance into it, are of this
1 kind, and may be confidered as proceeding from ra-
j tional felf-intereft, in the higheft and moft abttraded
! fenfe that the terms admit of pradically, fince we
I have no definite knowledge of the nature and
j kind of the happinefs or mifery of another world.
\ Thefe hopes and fears are alfo the ftrongeft of our
i't^lfifli affedions, and yet at the fame time the chief
foundation of the pure difintereftcd love of God,
and of our neighbour, and the principal means of
transferring our aflbciations, fo as that we may love
and hate, purfue and fly, in the manner the beft fuited
to our attainment of our greateft poITible happincfs.
For hope, being itfelf a pleafure, may, by aflbcia-
tion, render indifferent, and even difagreeable, ob-
VoL. I. H h jefts

4-66 Of the Pleajurcs and \

iefls and aftions, pleafant j and fear may make
agreeable ones painful : hence we can neither increafe
defires and avcrfions, that are fuitable to our ftate,
or obliterate and convert them into their contraries,
if they be unfuitable, by means of their connexion
with the hopes and fears of death, and a future
rtate. 1 will therefore briefly rtate the rife and pro-
grefh of thefe hopes and fears.

All our full affociations with the idea of death

are of the difguftful and alarming kind; and they

are colle<5led from all quarters, from the fenfible

pains of every fort, from the imperfeflion, weak-

nefs, loathfomenefs, corruption, and diforder, where

difeafe, old age, death animal or vegetable, prevail,

in oppofition to the beauty, order, and luftre of life,

youth, and health ; from the fliame and contempt

attending the fiilt in many inftances j whereas the

laft are honourable, as being fources of power and

happinefs, the reward of virtue, &c. and from

the fympathetic pafTions in general. And it is

neceffary, that the heedleflhefs and inexperience

of infancy and youth fhould be guarded by fuch

terrors, and their headftrong appetites and pafTions

curbed, that they may not be hurried into danger

and deftrudlion before they are aware. It is proper

alfo, that they fhould form fome expedations with

refped to, and fet fome value upon, their future life

in this world, that fo they may be better qualified

to a6l their parts in it, and make the quicker pro-

grefs to perfedion during their paflTage through it.

When children begin to have a fenfe of religion
and duty formed in them, thefe do ftill farther
heighten and increafe the fear of death for the moft
part. For though there are rewards on the one hand,
as well as punifhments on the other i yet fear has got
the ftart from the natural caufes of it before-men-
tioned: and as pain is in general greater than pleafure,
as was fliewn above, from its confiding in ftronger

vibrations i

Pains of Self-Intereft. 467

vibrations ; fo fear is in gcnerial more vivid than hope,'

efpecially in children.

Moreover, the fenfual and felfifli appetites are the-

original of ail the reft i yet thefe are finfiil, and in-

confiftcnt with our own and other's happinefs ; they
muft therefore be reftrained, and at laft eradicated/
But parents and governors, are, in this cafe, more^
apt to have recourfe to fear, than to hope (in general,
I fuppofe with reafon; becaufe hope is too feeble to
wichftand the violence of the natural appetites and
pallions). And it is to be added to all, that adults,
by difcovering, in general, much more of fear and
forrow in the apprehenfions or profpe<5l of death,

.than of hope and eomforr, from the continuance of
the c^ufes juft mentioned, propagate and increafe the
fear ftill farther in one another, and in children, in^
fefling all around them, as is ufual in other cafes of
the like kind. And by this means it comes to pafs,

] that the fear of death does in fome circumftances,
particularly where the nervous fyftem is, through a
bodily dlforder, reduced to an aptnefs to receive un-
eafy and difguftful vibrations, only or chiefly, being
m a ftate of irritability approaching to pain, grow to
a moft enormous fize, colIe6ling and uniting every
difagreeable idea and impreflion under the aflTocia-
tions belonging to death ; fo that fuch perfons live in
perpetual' anxiety and flavery to the fear of death.
And where there is the confcioufnefs of paft guilr^
or the want of an upright intention." for the future,
it rages with ftill greater fiercenefs, till thefe be
removed entirely, or in part, by repentance and
amendment.

It is farther to be obferved, that the fear of death
is much increafed by the exquifitenefs of the punifti-
ments threatened in a future ftate, and by the variety
of the emblems, reprefentations, analogies, and
evidences, of natural and revealed religion, where-
by all the terrors of all oriier things are transferred

H h 2 upon

I

468 Of the PUafures Mid

upon thcfe piinifhments ; alfo by that peculiar cir-
cumlUncc of the eternity of them, which fcems to
have been a general tradition previous to the appear-
ance of chrillianity, amongft both Jews and Pagans^
and which has been the dodrine and oj)inion of the
chriftian world ever fince, fome very few perfons
excepted. The confideration of any thing that is
infinite, fpace, time, power, knowledge, goodnefs,
perfeiflion, &:c. quite overpowers the faculties of the
foul with wonder and aftonifliment : and when the
peculiar feeling and concern belonging to Jelf are
applied here, and excited by the word wfinite^ by
meditation, reading, &c. we muft, and we ought
to be alarmed to the full extent of our capacities.
And the fame conclufion follows, though we ftiould
fuppofe the punifhments of a future ftate not to be
abfolutely and metaphyfically infinite. For their great
exquifitenefs, and long duration, which are moft
clearly and plainly declared in the fcriptures, make
them pradically fo.

This is a brief fketch of the origin and progrefs
of the fears attending the confideration of death, and
a future ftate. We now come to inquire, how the
hopes are generated.

Firft, then, We are to obferve, that repentance,
amendment, the confcioufnefs of part virtue, and of
good intentions for the future, give a title to the
hopes and rewards of a future ftate j and that though
while there are perpetual alternations of oppofite con-
fcioufnefies, /. e. recoUedions and judgments on our
own adliens, the fear may prevail in general, both
from the additional weight of the natural fear, and
from the previous poffeffion which the religious fear
has obtained;- yet by degrees the agreeable confciouf-
nefs muft prevail in ihofe who are fincere (and fome-
. times it is to be feared a dclufive one of the fame kind
in others), moderate the religious fear by little and
little, and, ifl great meafure, overcome the natural

one i

Pmns of Self-Intereft:. 469

one ; for which the way has been prepared from the
fuperior ftrength of the religious fear, which has
already obfcured it in ferious perfons. And thus by
iegrees hope will begin to take place, as the general
late of the mind, and the confideration of death,
nnd a future (tare, become, for the moft part, matter
of joy and comfort.

Secondly, The deliverance from the fear of death
adds greatly to this joy, in the fame way as the re^
moval of other pains is made the fource of pleafure.
And the returns of the fear of death at certain inter-
vals, according to the ftate of our bodies or minds,
and the moral qualities of our adtions, will, if they
be not too frequent, keep up this fource of pleafure
n the hope of futurity.

Thirdly, When the flavifh fear of God is thus re-
moved by faith and hope, all the pleafing fympa-
thetic affcdlions, fuch as love, gratitude, confidence,
begin to exert themfclves with refped to God, in a
manner analogous, but a degree far i'upeiior to that in
which they are exerted towards men. And it is eafy
to fee how thefe, and fuch like caufes concurring,
:nay, in many cafes, quite overcome the natural
and religious fears of death and pain, and even make
;hem acceptable.

Cor. From hence we may pafs to the fervours of
devotion; thefe being chiefly the hopes, and pleaf-
ing affeftions, juft fpoken of, coalefcing together fo
intimately by repeated affociations, as that the fepa-
rate parts there mentioned cannot be diftinguifhed
from each other in the compound. And as thefe
fervours are thcmfelves often efteemed a fign of ho-
linefs, and confequently a foundation of farther hope,
hey perpetuate and increafe themfelves for a certain
time, /. e. till the new convert finds the reiterated
appearance of the fame ideas give Icfs and lefs emo-
tion and pleafure, jufl: as in the other pleafures, fenfible
and intelledlual; looks upon this as a mark of fpiricual

H h 3 defertion i

h

o Of the Pleajtiresy Sec.

47

deft-rtion; finds numberlefs, unexpeAed, unthought-
of, fins and iiiiperfcdions, not yet i'libdued ; falls into
bodily dilordtfis, fronn unfeafonable fevciiiies, or fpi-
ritual intemperance, &c. and thus becomes deje(5ted,
fcriipulous, and fearful.

By degrees the fears taken from death, and a future
Hate, are confined to tiic nnere apprehenfion of
tranfgrelTion, v/ithout any regard had to thofe, and
even where they, when confidered and expeded, raife
no fears.

However, all thefe things mortify pride, and the
refined fclf-intercrt ; lead, or even compel, men to
refign all to Godj and fo advance them to a more
pure, difintcrefted, and permanent love of God, and
of their neighbour, than they could have arrived at
(all other things remaining the fame), had they not
undergone thefe anxieties; and therefore are to be
efteemed the kind corrections of an infinitely merci-
ful Father.

SECT.

Of the Pleafurei, &c, 47 1

SECT. IV.

OF THE PLEASURES AND ?AINS OF
SYMPATHY.

PROP. XCVII.

7(3 examine how far the Plea/ures and Pains of Sympathy
are agreeable to the foregoing theory.

The fympathetic affeclions may be diftinguifhed
into four claffes, viz.

Firft, Thofe by which we rejoice at the happinefs
of others.

Secondly, Thofe by which we giieve for their mi-
fery.

Thirdly, Thofe by which we rejoice at their
mifery.

And, Fourthly, Thofe by which we grieve for their
happinefs.

Of the firft kind are fociality, good-will, genero-
fity and gratitude. Of the fecond, compalTion and
mercy. Of the third, morofenefs, anger, revenge,
jealoufy, cruelty, and malice. And of the fourth,
emulation and envy.

It is eafy to be conceived, that aflbciation fliould
produce affe6lions of all thefe four kinds, fince in
the intercourfes of life the pleafures and pains of one
are, in various ways, intermixed with, and dependent
upon, thofe of others, fo as to have clufters of their
miniatures excited, in all the pofTible ways in which
the happinefs or mifery of one can be combined with
the happinefs or mifery of another i. e. in the four
above-mentioned. 1 will now enter upon the detail
of the rife and progrefs of each of them.

H h 4 OF

472 Of the Tltajurei and

OF THE AFFFXTIONS BY WHICH WE REJOICE
AT THE HAPPINESS OF OTHERS.

The firft of thefe is fociality, or the pleafiire which
we take in the mere company and converration of
others, particularly of our friends and acquaintance,
and whicii is attended with mutual affability, com-
plaifance, and candour. Now mod of the pleafures
which children receive are conferred upon them by
otlicrs, their parents, attendants, or play-fellows.
And the number of the pleafures which they receive
in this way, is far greater than that of the pains
brought upon them by others. Indeed the hurts,
and bodily injuries, which they meet with, are chiefly
from themfelvesj and the denials of gratifications are
either very few in number, or, if they be more fre-
quent, give little uneafinefs. It appears therefore,
that, according to the do6lrine of aflbciation, chil-
dren ought to be pleafed, in general, with the fight
and company of all their acquaintance. And the
fame things, with fome alterations hold in refpeft
of adults, through the whole courfe, and general
tenour of human life.

Befides the pleafures for which we are indebted to
others, there are many which we enjoy in common
with others, and in their company and converfation,
and which therefore both enhance and are enhanced
by, the gaiety and happinefs that appear in the
countenances, geftures, words, and adtions of the
whole company. Of this kind are the pleafures of
feafting, fports and paftimes, rural fcenes, polite
arts, mirth, raillery, and ridicule, public fliews,
public rejoicings, &c. And in general it may be
obfcrved, that the caufes of joy and grief are com-
mon to great numbers, afiVfting n^ankind according
to the feveral divifions and fubdivifions thereof into
nations, ranks, offices, ages, fexes, families, &c.

And

Pains of Syrnpathy. 473

And by all thefe things it connes to pafs, that the
face of an old acquaintance brings to view, as it
were, the indifl:in6l mixed recolle(5lion, the rennaining
veftiges of all the good and evil which we have felt,
while his idea has been prefent with us.

The fame obfervation may be made upon places;
and particularly u} on thofe where a man has fpent
his infancy and youth.

To all this it is to be added, that the rules of pru-
dence, good manners, and religion, by reftraining
all rufticity, morofenefs, and infolcnce, and obliging
us to a(5lions of a contrary nature, even though we
have not the proper internal feelings, do by degrees
contribute to beget ihefe in us, i. e. to beget foci-
ality and complaifance j juft in the fame manner,
as a perfon in a paflion becomes much more in-
flamed from his own angry expiefllons, gellures,
and adlions.

Good-will, or benevolence, when underftood in
a limited fenfe, may be termed that plcafing affec-
tion which engages us to promote the welfare of
others to the beft of our power. If it carry us {o
far as to forego great pleafures, or endure great
pains it is called generofity. But good-will and be-
nevolence, in a general fenfe, are put for all the
fympathetic affe<5lions of the fir ft and fecond clafs,
viz. thofe by which we either rejoice in, and pro-
mote, the happinefs of others, or grieve for, and
endeavour to remove, their mifery ; as ill-will and
malevolence, underftood in a general fenfe alfo, are
put for the contrary affedions, viz. thofe of the third
and fourth clafs.

Benevolence, in the limited fenfe, is nearly con-
nected with fociality, and has the fame fources. It
has alfo a high degree of honour and efteem annexed
to it, procures us many advantages, and returns of
kindnefs, both from the perfon obliged and others j
and is moft clofely conneded'^ with the hope of

reward

474 ^f t^^ Plea/ures and

reward in a future llate, and with the pleafures of
religion, and of rdf-approbation, or the moral fenfe.
Anil the fame things hold with refpeft to generofity
in a much higher degree. It is eafy therefore to
lee, how fuch affociations may be formed in us,
as to engage us to forego great pleafure, or endure
n great pain, for the lake of others j how thefe allo-
h ciations may be attended with fo great a degree of
pleafure as to over-rule the pofitive p'.Mn endured,
j^ or the negative one from the foregoing of a pleafure ;
and yet how there may be no dire6l, explicit ex-
ped.ition of reward, either from God or man, by
natural confcquence, or exprt-fs appointment, not
even of the concomitant pleafure which engages the
agent to undertake the benevolent or generous
aAion. And this I take to be a proof from the
dodrine of aflbciation, that there is, and muft be,
fuch a thing as pure difinterefted benevolence 3 alfo
ajuft account of the origin and nature of it.

Gratitude includes benevolence, and therefore has
the fame fources with fome additional ones j thefe
laft are the explicit or implicit recolledion of the bene-
fits and pleafures received, the hope of future ones,
the approbation of the moral character of the bene-
factor, and the pleafures from the honour and efteem
attending gratitude, much enhanced by the peculiar
bafcnefs and fhamefulnefs of ingratitude.

OF THE AFFECTIONS BY A^TilCH WE GRIEVE
FOR THE MISERY OF OTHERS.

Companion is the uneafinefs which a man feels at
the mifery of another. Now this in children feems to
, be grounded upon fuch afTociations as thefe that fol-
low : the very appearance and idea of any kind of
mifery which they have experienced, or of any figns
of diftrefs which they underftand, raife up in their
nervous fyftems a fbate of mifery from mere me-
mory.

Pains of Sympathy. 475

mory, on account of the ftrength of their imagina-
tions ; and becaufe the connexion between the ad-
jun6ls of pain, and the adual inflidion of it, has not
yet been fufficiently broken by experience, as in adults.
— When feveral children are educated together, the
pains, the denials of pleafures, and the forrows, which
affc6t one, generally extend to all in fome degree,
Of'^ten in an equal one. — When their parents, attend-
ants &c. are fick or afflided, it is ufual to raife in
their minds the nafcent ideas of pains and miferies, by
fuch words and figns as are fuited to their capacities ;
they alio find themfelves laid under many reftraints
on this account. — And when thefe and fuch like cir-
cumftances have raifed the defires and endeavours to
remove the caufes of .thefe their own internal uneafy
feelings, or, which is the fame thing, of thefe mife-
ries of others (in all which they are much influen-
ced, as in other like cafes, by the great difpofition to
imitate, before fpoken of) i and a variety of internal
feelings and defires of this kind are fo blended and
aflbciated together, as that no part can be diftinguifhed
feparately from the reft ; the child may properly be
faid to have compafTion.

The fame fources of compafTion remain, though
with fome alterations, during our whole progrefs
through life; and an attentive perfon may plainly
difcern the conftituent parts of his com.pafilon, while
they are yet the mere internal, and, as one may fay,
felfifli feelings above-mentioned ; and before they
have put on the nature of compaflion by coalefcence
with the reft.

Agreeably to this method of reafoning, it may be
obferved, that perfons whofe nerves are eafily irrita-
ble, and thofe who have experienced great trials and
afflidions, are, in general, more difpofed to compaf-
fion than others ; and that we are moft apt to pity
in thofe difeafes and calamities, which we either have

felt

47 6 ^f '^<? Plea/ures and

felt already, or apprehend ourfclvcs in danger of
feeling iiereafter.

But adults have alfo many other foiirccs of com-
panion, bcfidcs thofe already mentioned, and which
differ according to' their educations and fituations in
life. When love, natural affedtion, and friendfliip,
have taught men to take a peculiar delight in certain
objeds, in mutual endearments, and familiar inter-
courfcs, thofe mifeiies affedling the beloved objedts,
which either totally deftroy, or greatly interrupt,
thcfe intercourfes, mult give an exquifite uneafineis ;
and this uneafinefs, by mixing itfelf with the other
parts of our companionate affedions, will greatly
increafe the fum total in refpeft of thcfe beloved
objedts. — A compalfionate temper being great mat-
ter of praife to thofe who are endued with it, and the
adtions which flow from it being a duty incumbent
on all, men are led to pradlife thefe aftions, and to
inculcate upon themfelves the motives of compaffion,
by attending to diftrefs aftually prefent, or delcribed
in hillory, real or fiftitious. — The peculiar love and
cfteem which we bear to morally good charafleis,
make us more fenfibly touched with their miferies j
which is farther augmented by our indignation, and
want of compafTion for morally ill charafters, fuffer-
ing the juft punilhment of their crimes. In like
manner, the fimplicity, the ignorance, the helplefs-
nefs, and the many innocent diverting follies of young
children, and of Ibme brutes, lead men to pity them
in a peculiar manner.

Mercy has the fame general nature and fources as
companion, and feems to differ from it only in this,
that the objeifl of it has forfeited his title to happi-
nefs, or the removal of mifery, by fome demerit,
particularly againfl: ourfclves. Here, therefore, re-
fentment for an injury done to ourfclves, or what is
called a juft indignation againft vice in general, in-
terferes, and checks the otherwife natural courfe of

our

I

Pains of Sympathy. 477

our compafTion, fo as, in the unmerciful, entirely to
put a ilop to it. But, in the merciful, the fources
of companion prevail over thofe of refcntment and
indignation j whence it appears, that the compafTion
required in afts of mercy, is greater than that in com-
mon a61:s of mere companion : agreeably to which,
it is obfervable, that mercy is held in higher efteem,
than mere compafiion.

OF THE AFFECTIONS BY WHICH WE REJOICE
AT THE MISERY OF OTHERS.

We come now to the affedlions of the third claf^
viz. morofenefs, anger, revenge, jealoufy, cruelty,
and malice. Now morofenefs, peevifhnefs, feverity,
&c. are moft apt to arife in thofe perfons who have
fome real or imaginary fuperiority ovei* others, from
their rank, years, office, accompiifhments, &c.
which either magnifies the failures of duty in inferiors
with refpe(5t to them, or engages them to be very
attentive to thefe. — Bodily infirmities, and frequent
difappoiniments, by making the common inter-
courfes of life infipid, and enhancing fmall injuries ;
delicacy and effeminacy, by increafing the fenfibility
both of body and mind, with refpedt to pain and
uneafinefs ; luxury, by begetting unnatural cravings,
which dafh not only with the like cravings of others,
but alfo with the common courfe and conveniencies
of human life; and, in fhort, all kinds of felfifh-
nefs J have the fame ill efFeft upon the temper. —
The fevere fcrutiny which earneft penitents make
into their own lives, during their noviciate, and
liie rigid cenfures which they pafs upon their own
aflions, are often found, in proud and pafTionate
tempers, to raife fuch indignation againft vice, as
breaks out into an undue feverity of language and
behaviour, in refpeft of others ; and this efpecially,
if they feem to themfelves to have overcome all great

vices.

47 S Of the VUaJuns and %

vices, and are not yet arrived at a jufl: lenfc of the
many latent corruptions (till remaining in them.
And this is much increafed by all opinions which
icprelent the Deity as implicable towards a part of
mankind, and this* part as reprobate towards him.
By all which we may fee, that every thing which
makes dilagrceable imprefllons upon our minds at
the fame time that our feilow-creatuies, or their ideas,
are prefent with us ; and cfpecially if thefe be linked
together in the way of caufe and ellc'cft, or by any
i'uch relation ; will, in fafl:, beget in us morofencls
and peeviflinefs. 'IMiis follows from the dodlrine
of afibciation ; and ia alfo an evident fadl. It is like-
wife a (Irong argument for chcerfulnefs, and the
pleafures of innocei»t moderate mirth.

Anger and cruelty are the oppofites to mercy
and compaflTion ; the firft, as a fudden ftart of
pafllon, by which men wifh and endeavour harm
to others, and rejoice in it when done ; which is
revenge : the latter as a mote fettled habit of mind,
difpofing men to take a delight -in infliifling mifery
and pnnifliment, and in fatiating their thirfl: after
thefe, by beholding the tortures and anguifh of the
fufTerers.

Anger and revenge may be analyfed as follows.
The appearance, idea, approach, actual attack, &c.
of any thing from which a child has received harm,
mud raife in his m.ind, by the law of afibciation, a
miniature trace of that harnn. The fame harm
often arifes from different caufes, and difi^erent harms
from the fame ca'ule : thefe harms and caufes have an
affinity with each other : and thus they are varioufly
mixed and connected together j fo as that a general
confufed idea of harm, with the uneafy ftate of the
nervous fyftem, and the confequent activity of the
parts, are raifed up in young children upon certain
appearances and circumftances. By degrees the
denial of gratifications, and many intelleflual aggre-

gatesj

Pains of Sympathy. 479

gates, with all the figns and tokens of thefe, raife up
a like uneafinefs, in the manner before explained.
And thus it happens, that when any harm has been
received, any gratification denied, or other mental
uneafinefs occafioned, a long train of aflbciated
remainders of painful impreffions enhance the dif-
pleafure, and continue it much beyond its natural
period. This is the nafcent ftate of the pafiion of
anger, in which it is nearly allied to fear, being the
continuance of the fame internal feelings, quickened,
on one hand, by the adual, painful, or uneafy
imprefilon, but moderated on the other by the
abfence of the apprehenfion of future danger.

By degrees the child learns, from obfervation and
imitation, to ufe various mufcular exertions, words,
geftures, &c. in order to ward off or remove the
caufes of uneafinefs or pain, fo as to flrike, talk loud,
threaten, &c. and fo goes on multiplying perpetually,
by farther and farther aflbciations, both the occa-
(ions of anger, and the exprefiions of it; and parti-
cularly affociates a defire of hurting another with
the apprehenfion, or the aflual receiving, of harm
from that other.

As men grow up to adult age, and diftinguifh
living creatures from things inanimate, rational and
moral agents from irrational ones, they learn to refer
effects to their ultimate caufes ; and to confider all
the intermediate ones as being themfelves effects,
depending on the ultimate caufe. And thus their
refcntment paffes from the inanimate inftrument to the
living agent; and more efpecially, if the living agent
be a rational and moral one. For, Firft, Living ra-
tional agents are alone capable of being reftrained by
threatenings and punifliments from committing the
injurious aiflion. All our exprefiions of anger muii
therefore be direded againft them. — Secondly, In-
animate things are incapable of feeling the harms
which anger wifhes : the defire of revenge m.ufl:

therefore

480 Of the PUafures aud

therefore be entirely confined to animals. And thefc
two things have great inllutnce on each other. Our
threatening harm merely ffom a motive of fecurity,
leiids us to Willi It really ; wilhing it leads us to
threaten and inflidl it, where it can atford no fecu-
rity or advantjge to us. — Thirdly, As we improve
in obfervation and experience, and in the faculty of
analyfing the adions of animals, we perceive that
brutes and children, and even adults in certain cir-
cumrtances, have little or no fhare in the afbions re-
ferred to them ; but are themfelves under the influ-
ence of other caufes, which therefore are to be deemed
the ultimate ones. Hence, our refentment againfl:
them muft be much abated in thefc cafes, and tranf-
ferred to the ultimate living cauie, ufually called the
free agent, if fo be that we are able to difcover him. —
Lartly, When the moral ideas of jufl and unjud,
right and wrong, merit and demerir, have been
acquired, and applied to the actions and circum-
ftances of human life in the manner to be hereafter
defcribed, the internal feelings of this clafs, /. e. the
complacency and approbation attending the firil, the
difguft, disapprobation, and even abhorrence, at-
tending the lafl, have great influence in moderating
or increafing our refentment. The aflTociations of
the firft kind are at utter variance with thofe fuggefted
by the fenfe of pain ; of the lafl:, coincide with and
ftrengthen it. And as the reditude of the moral
fenfe is the highefl. matter of encomium, men are
afliamed not to be thought to fubmit all their private
feelings to its fuperior authority, and acquiefce in
its determinations. And thus, by degrees, all anger
and refentment in theory, all that even ill men will
attempt to jufliify, is confined to injury, to fufferings
which are not deferved, or which are inflifled by a
perfon who has no right to do it. And this at laft
makes it fo in fa6l, to a great degree, amongft thofe
who are much influenced by their own moral fenfe,

or

I

Pains ^Sympathy. 481

or by that of others. Yetftill, as a confirmation of the
foregoing dodliine, it is eafy to obferve, that many
perfons are apt to be offended even with Itocks and
flones, with brutes, with hurts merely accidental
and undcfigned, and with punifhments acknowledged
to be juftly infiided; and this in various degrees, ac-
cording to the various natural and acquired difpofi-
tions of ihcir minds.

Cruelty and malice are confidered, not as paffions
of the mind, but as habits, as the deliberate wifliing
of mifery to others, delighting in the view and actual
inflidion of it, and this without the confideration of
injury received or intended. However, it will eafily
appear, that they are the genuine and neceffary off-
fpring of anger indulged and gratified. They are
mod apt to arifc in proud, felfifh, and timorous per>
fons, thofe who conceive highly of their own merits,
and of the confequent injuftice of all offences againft
them J and who have an exquifite feeling and appre-
henfion, in refpeft of private gratifications and un-
eafineffes. The low and unhappy condition of thofe
around a man gives a dignity to his own ; and the
infliflion of punifhment, or mere fuffering, ftrikes a
terror, and fo affords fecurity and authority. Add
to thefe, the pleafures aiifing from gratifying the will
before explained, and perhaps Ibme from mere curio-
fity, and the roufing an obdurate callous mind to a
ftate of fenfibility. Thus we may perceive how
nearly one ill paffion is related to another ; and that
it is poffible for men to arrive at lad at fome degree
of pure difinterefted cruelty and malice.

The jealoufy againft a rival in the affe£tions of
a beloved perfon of the other fex ; alfo that peculiar
refentment againft this beloved perfon, when fufpeded
to be unfaithful, which goes by the fame name;
are eafily deducible from their fources, in the manner
fo often repeated. And it is owing to the extraordi-
nary magnitude of the paffions and pleafures between

Vol. I. I i the

4^2 of the Pleafures ami

the Icxes, and tlie fingular contempt and ridicule
thrown upon ilic perfon dcfpiled and deceived (the
lafl: of which iprings from the fiift), that thefe two
forts of jealoufy rife to fuch a height. This is more
peculiarly remarkable in the ibuthern climates, where
the pafTions between the fexes are more violent than
amongit us. Tiie nature and origin of jealoufics
and fufpicions of other kinds, with the affedtions at-
tending them, may cafily be underftood from what
has been already advanced.

OF THE AFFECTIONS BY WHICH WE GRIEVE FOR
THE HAPPINESS OF OTHERS.

Emulation and envy make the fourth clafs of the
fympathetic affe»5lions. Thefe are founded in the
defire of pleafures, honours, riches, power, &:c.
and the confequent engrolTing what others defire,
lofing what they obtain, in a comparifon of our own
acquifitions with thofe of others, &c. by which the
happinefs of others is connefted with our mifcry ;
fo that at laft we become uneafy at their happinefs,
even where there is no fuch connection, i. e. emulate
and envy where our own intereft is no ways concerned.

Having now feen, in fom.e meafure, the nature
and origin of the principal fympathetic affeftions,
pleafing and tormenting, moral and immoral, let us
confidcr the feveral objeCts upon which thefe various
and contrary affedions are exerted.

I begin with the moft intimate of all the relations
of life ; that of hufband and wife. Where this
union is cemented by the feveral pleafures of fenfa-
tion and imagination before- mentioned, alfo by thofe
of the moral and religious kinds hereafter to be de-
fcribed, love, generofity, gratitude, companion,
and all the affedions of the firft and fecond clafs,
prevail in the highefl degree pofllble, to the exclu-
fion of all thofe of the third and fourth clafs ; fo that the
marriage-ftate, in thefe cafes, affords the moft perfect

earnefl

Pains of Sympathy. 483

earneft and pattern, of which our imperfecSt condi-
tion here admits, of the future happinefs of the good
• in another world. And it is remarkable, that this
ftate is in fcripture made the emblem of future hap-
pinefs, and of the union of Chrift with the church.

Where the ties of affeftion are weaker, and par-
ticularly where there is a great deficiency in the
moral or religious difpofitions of either or both the
parties, the paflions of the third clafs intermix them-
iclvcs with thofe of the firft and fecond ; and, in many
cafes, the oppofite affedions prevail in great degrees
alternately, and even at fliort and frequent intervals.
And indeed each kind often becomes more violent
from fucceeding its oppofite.

In very immoral and wicked perfons the pafTions
of the third clafs prevail almoft entirely, and that efpe-
cially where the peculiar affe6tion, called love by
young perfons, and which fprings from the pleafures
of lenfation, imagination, and ambition, in the
manner above explained, was originally weak.

The affe<5lion of parents towards children feems to
begin from the pain which the mother feels in biing-
ing them into the world, and the fympathetic fears
and cares of the father in confequence thereof, and
in fome degree from children's being fuppofed to be-
long to their parents in a very peculiar fenfe, and be-
ing parts of their own bodies. It is increafed, efpe-
cially in niothers, by all the figns of life, lenfe, and
diftrefij, which the helplefs tender infant fhews -, many
religious and moral confiderations, with the language
in which thefe are exprefied, adding alfo great force
thereto. The giving fuck in the mother, with all
the fears and cares in both parents, increafes it ftili far-
ther; and as the child advances in age and under-
ftanding, diverts by his little follies, pleafes by his na-
tural beauty, draws on the encomiums of others, fur-
prizes by his agility or wit, &c. the affeftions con-
tinue to rife. When the time comes for the culci-

I i 2 vation

484 Of the Plea/urcs and

vation of the moral and religious powers of the mind,
thefe cither increafe the affedlion by their proper ap-
pearance and growth, or check it by being dcHcient,
and by giving occafion to cenfures and corredions.
Yet even thefe laft, when jullly proportioned, and fol-
lowed by mental impiovement, add greatly to the
warmth of affedion by raifing compafTion. And
thus the remainders of former affcdions, and the
accefllons of new ones, feem to make a fum total,
which grows perpetually greater in tender and reli-
gious parents.

The little affe(5lion commonly fhewn to baftards
agrees very well with the foregoing hiftory of parental
affecftion.

The affection towards grand-children is, in gene-
ral, the fame as that towards children, differing
chiefly in this, that it is more fond and tender, and
lefs mixed with feverity, and the neceflTary correftions.
This may be, perhaps, becaufe the appearance of
the helplefs infant, after fo long an interval, raifes
up all the old traces of parental affe6lion with new
vigour, from their not having been exerted for fome
years, and by recalling many of the moft moving
fcenes of the foregoing life j fo that thefe old
traces, increafed by the addition of new fimiliar
ones, make together a greater fum total than before :
or, perhaps, becaufe old perfons have miore expe-
rience, of pain, forrow, and infirmity j and fo are
more difpofed to compafTion, in the fame manner
as they are more apt to weep ; and becaufe they
excufe themfelves from the uneafy tafk of cenfuring
and reproving.

' The affc6tions of children towards their parents
are founded in the many pleafures which they receive
from them, or in their company. Thefe affeflions
are afterwards increafed by their improvement in
morality and religion, and by the feveral common
caufes of good-will, gratitude, compafTion, &c. pre-
vailing

Pains of Sympathy. 485

vailing here with peculiar force. It feems, however,
that the fources of this afFedion are fewer and weaker
than the fources of that towards children ; and it is
obferved in fad, that the affedion of children is in
general weaker than that of parents. For which alfo
an evident final caufe may be afllgned. It is to be
added farther, that the many engagements and dif-
tra<5tions, which lay hold of the opening faculties of
young perfons, upon their entrance into life, have
a principal fliare in this effe6t.

Friendfhip, with the bitter enmities that fometimes
fucceed the breaches of it, and the emulation and
envy that are apt to arife in friends, from the equa-
lity and fimilarity of their circumftances, may be
eafily underftood from what has been delivered already.

In like manner we may explain the affedions be-
tween perfons of the fame family, brothers, cou-
fins, &c. of the fame age, fex, diftrid, education,
temper, profefTion, &c.

By all thefe artificial ties our good-will and com-
panion are perpetually extended more and more,
growing alfo perpetually weaker and vv'eaker, in pro-
portion to their diff^ufion. Yet (till the common bleff-
ings and calamities, which fall upon whole nations
and communities; the general refemblance of the
circumftances of all mankind to each other, in their
palTage through life ; their common relation to
God as their creator, governor, and father ; their
common concern in a future life, and in the reli-
gion of Chrift, tec. are capable of raifing ftrong
fympathetic affedions towards all mankind, and the
feveral larger divifions of it, in perfons of religious
difpofitions, who duly attend to thefe things. In
like manner the opinions of favagenefs, barbarity,
and cruelty, which ignorant and unexperienced per-
fons are apt to entertain, concerning fome diftant
nations, raife up in tlieir minds fom.e degrees of
general diflike, averfion, and hatred.

I i 3 SECT.

486 Of the Plcafures and

SECT. V.

OF THE PLEASURES AND PAINS OF THEOPATHY

P R O P. XCVIII.

'To examine bow far the Plcajures and Pains of Theopa-
tby are agreeable to the foregoing 'Theory.

Under this clafs I compreliend all thofc pica-
lures and pains, which the contemplation of God,
and his attributes, and of our relation to him raifes
up in the minds of different perfons, or in that of
the fame perfon at different times. And in order
to fpeak with more precifion concerning this clafs of
affeSions, and to deduce them more readily from
the theory of thefe papers, it will be proper firft to
inquire into tlie idea of God, as it is found in fad
amongft men, particularly amongfl; Jews and ChriJ-
tians, i. e. to inquire what affociations may be obferved
in fa6b to be heaped upon, and concur in this word,
and the equivalent and related terms and phrafes.

Firft, then, It is probable, that, fince many aflions
and attributes belonging to men are, and indeed muft
be, in common language, applied to God, chil-
dren, in their firft attempts to decypher the word
God, will fuppofe it to ftand for a man, whom they
have never feen, and of whom confequently they
form a compound fi<5litious idea, confifting of parts
before generated by men, whom they have feen.

Secondly, when they hear or read, that God re-
fides in heaven (/. e, according to their conceptions,

in

Paim of Theopathy. 487

in the fky, amongft the ftars), that he made all things,
that he fees, hears, and knows all things, can do all
things, &c. with the many particular modes of
expreflion that are comprehended under thefe general
ones, vivid ideas, which furprize and agitate the mind
(lying upon the confines of pain), are raifed in it; and
if they be fo far advanced in underftanding, as to be
affefled with apparent inconfiftencies and impofTibili-
ties in their ideas, they mud feel great perplexity of
imagination, when they endeavour to conceive and
form definite ideas agreeable to the language of this
kind, which they hear and read. Now this perplexity
will add to the vividnefs of the ideas, and all toge-
ther will transfer upon the word God, and its equiva-
lents, fuch fecondary ideas, as may be referred to
the heads of magnificence, aftonifiiment, and reve-
rence.

Thirdly, When children hear that God cannot be
feen, having no vifible Oiape, no parts j but that he
is a fpiritual infinite being; this adds much to their
perplexity and aftoniflimenr, and by degrees deftroys
the affociation of the fiditious vifible idea before-
mentioned with the word God. However, it is
probable, that fome vifible ideas, fuch as thofe of
the heavens, a fifcitious throne placed there, a multi-
tude of angels, &c. ftill continue to be excited by
the word God, and its equivalents, when dwelt upon
in the mind.

Fourthly, When the child hears, that God is the
rewarder of good adlions, and the punifiier of evil
ones, and that the mofl: exquifite future happinefs or
mifery (defcribed by a great variety of particulars
and emblems) are prepared by him for the good
and bad refpedlively ; he feels ftrong hopes and fears
rife alternately in his mind, according to the judg-
ment which he paflies upon his own aftions, founded
partly upon the previous judgment of others, partly

1 i 4 upon

4B8 Of the Pleajures and

upon an imperfect moral fcnfe begun to be generated
in hint.

And laying all thefe things together it will appear,
that amongft Jews and Cbrijiiamy children begin
probably wiih a definite vifible idea of God j but that
by degrees this is quite obliterated, without any thing
of a liable precife nature fucceeding in its room i
and that, by farther degrees, a great variety of ftrong
Secondary ideas, /. e. mental affedions (attended indeed
by vifible ideas, to which proper words are affixed,
as of angels, the general judgment, &c.) recur in
their turns, when they think upon God, /. e. when
this word, or any of its equivalents, or any equiva-
lent phrafe or fym.bol, ftrike the mind ftrongly, fo
that it dwells upon them for a fufficient time, and
is affed:ed by them in a fufficient degree.

Amongfl heathen nations, where idolatry and
polytheifm prevail, the cafe is different ; but this dif-
ference may eafily be underftood by applying the
foregoing method of reafoning to the circumftances
of the heathen world.

I will now inquire more particularly into the
nature and origin of the affedions exerted towards
God. They may be ranked under two general
heads, love and fear j agreeably to the general di-
vifion of the fympathetic affetlions into benevolence
and malevolence. However, the analogy here is
not a complete one, as will be feen prefently.

To the love of God may be referred gratitude,
confidence and refignation j alfo enthufiafm, which
may be confidered as a degeneration of it. To the
fear, reverence (which is a mixture of love and
fear) ; alfo fuperrtition and atheifm , which are de-
generations of the fear of God.

OF

Pains of Theopathy. 4S9

OF THE LOVE OF GOD.

The love of God, with its aflbciates, gratitude,
confidence and refignation, is generated by the con-
templation of his bounty and benignity to us, and to
all his creatures, as thefc appear from the view of
the natural world, the declarations of the fcriptures,
or a man's own obfcrvation and experience in refpedt
of the events of life. It is fupported, and much
increafed, by the confcioufnefs of upright intentions,
and fincere endeavours, with the confequent hope of
a future reward, and by piayer, vocal and mental,
public and private, inafmuch as this gives a reality
and force to all the fecondary ideas before fpoken of.
Frequent converfation with devout perfons, and fre-
quent reading of devout books, have great efficacy
alfo, from the infedioufnefs of our tempers and dif-
pofitions, and from the perpetual recurrency of the
proper words, and of their fecondary ideas j firft in
a faint ftate, afterwards in a ftronger and ftronger per-
petually. The contemplation of the reft of the di-
vine attributes, his omnipotence, omnifcience, eter-
nity, ubiquity, &c. have alfo a tendency to fupport
and augment the love of God, when this is fo far ad-
vanced, as to be fuperior to the fear j till that time
thefe wondetful attributes enhance the fear fo much,
as to check the rife and growth of the love for a
time. Even the fear itfelf contributes to the gene-
ration and augmentation of the love in an eminent
degree, and in a manner greatly analogous to the
produdion of other pleafures from pains. And in-
deed it feems, that, notwithftanding the variety of
ways above-mentioned, in which the love of God
is generated, and the confequent variety of the in-
telledlual aggregates, and fecondary ideas, there muft
be fo great a refemblance amongft them, that they
cannot but languifii by frequent recurrency, till fuch

time

490 0/ the Pknjures and

time as ideas of an oppofite nature, by intervening
at certain feafons, give thenn new life.

The love of God is, according to this theory,
evidently deduced in part from interefted motives
dire(ftly, viz. from the hopes of a future reward ;
and ihofe motives to it, or fourccs of it, in which di-
recfl explicit lelf-interefl: does not appear, may yet be
analyled up to it ultimately. However, after all the
feveral fources of the love of God have coalefced
together, this affedion becomes as difiiuerefted as
any other; as the pleafure we take in any natural or
artificial beauty, in the efteem of others, or even in
fenfual gratifications.

It appears alfo, that this pure difinterefled love
of God may, by the concurrence of a fufficient num-
ber of fufficiently ftrong affociations, arife to fuch a
height, as to prevail over any of the other defires
interefted or difintereftedi for all, except the fenfual
ones, are of a faflitious nature, as well as the love
of God J and the fenfual ones are, in our progrefs
through life, overpowered by them all in their re-
ipeflive turns.

Enthufiafm may be defined a miftaken perfuafion
in any perfon, that he is a peculiar favourite with
God ; and that he receives fupernatural marks there-
of. The vividnefs of the ideas of this clafs eafily gene-
rates this falfe perfuafion in perfons of ftrong fancies,
little experience in divine things, and narrow under-
ftandings (and efpecially where the moral fenfe,
and the fcrupulofity attending its growth and im-
provement, are but imperfeftly formed), by giving
a reality and certainty to all the reveries of a man's
own mind, and cementing the aftbciations in a pre-
ternatural manner. It may alfo be eafily contradled
by contagion, as daily experience fhews ; and in-
deed more eafily than moft other difpofitions from
the glaring language ufed by enthufiafts, and from

the

Pai?fs of Theopathy. 491

the great flattery and fupport, which enthufiafm
affords to pride and felf-conceit.

OF THE FEAR OF GOD.

The fear of God arifcs from a view of the evils of
life, from the threateiiings of the fcriptiires, from
the fenfe of guilty from the infinity of all God's at-
tributes, from prayer, meditation, reading, and con-
verfation upon thefe and fuch like fubjefls, in a man-
ner analogous to the love of God. When confined
within certain limits, and efpecially when tempered
with love, fo as to become awe, veneration and reve-
rence, it remains in a natural ftate, i. e. fuits our
other circumftances ; and, as before obferved, has
a confiderable fhare in generating the love of God.
When excefTive, or not duly regarded, it degenerates
either into fuperftition or atheifm,

Superftition may be defined a miftaken opinion
concerning the feverity and punifhments of God,
magnifying thefe in refpedl of ourfelves or others. It
ir.ay arife from a fenfe of guilt, from bodily indif-
pofition, from erroneous reafoning, &c. That which
arifes from the firft caufe has a tendency to remove
itfelf by regulating the perfon's behaviour, and con-
fequently leflening his fenfe of guilt. The other
kinds often increafe for a time, come to their height
at laft, and then decline again. They do alfo, in
fome cafes, increafe without limits during life. All
kinds of fuperftition have been produftive of great
abfurdicies in divine worfhip, both amongft Pagans,
and amongft Jews and Chrijiians ; and they have all
a great tendency to four the mind, to check natural
benevolence and compaftion, and to generate a bitter
perfecuting fpirit. All which is much, augmented
where fuperftition and enthufiafm pafs alternately
into each other at intervals ; v/hich is no uncommon
cafe.

Under

49- Q/" f^^ PUafitres, &c.

Under atheifm I here comprehend not only the
fpeciilative kind, but the practical, or that negledl
of God, Nvhere tlie j^erfon thinks of him fcklom, and
with rcluiflancc, and pays little or no regard to him
in his acftions, thougli he does not deny him in
words. Both kinds feem in chriflian countries,
where reafonable fatisfaftion in religious matters is
cafy to be had by all wcU-dirpoft'd minds, and
grofs ignorance uncommon except in ill-difpofed
ones, to proceed from an explicit or implicit fcnfe
of guilt, and a confcquent fear of God, fufficicnt
to generate an averfion to the thoughts of him, and
to the methods by which the love might be gene-
rated, and yet too feeble to reftrain from guilty fo
that they may propeily be confidered as degenera- »
tions of the fear of God. What has been delivered
already in thefe papers, concerning the connexion
of fear, averfion, and the other uneafy pafTions, with
each other, and alfo of the tendency of all pain to
prevent the recurrency of the circumftances, by •
which it is introduced, may afford fome light here. ?

It appears upon the whole, that the theopathetic
affeftions are, in fome things, analogous to the fym-
pathetic ones, as well as different in others j and that
this difference arifes chiefly from the infinity and ab-
folute perfeftion of the divine nature.

Affeflions of an intermediate kind are generated in '^
refpedt of good and evil beings of an invifible nature,
and of an order fuperior to us (fuch as angels and
devils); whofe origin and growth will eafily be under-
ilood from what is here delivered.

SECT.

Of the PleafureSi &c, 495

SECT. VI.

OF THE PLEASURES AND PAINS OF THE
MORAL SENSE.

PROP. XCIX.

To examine how far the Pleafures and Pains of the
moral Senje are agreeable to the foregoing 'Theory.

There are certain tempers of mind, with the
actions flowing from them, as of piety, humility,
refignation, gratitude, &c. towards God ; of bene-
volence, charity, generofity, compafTion, humility,
gratitude, &c. towards men ; of temperance, pati-
ence, contentment, &c. in refped: of a pcrfon's own
private enjoyments or fufferings j which when he
believes himfelf to be pofleiled of, and reflects upon,
a pleafing confcioufnefs and felf-approbation rife up
in his mind, exclufively of any dired: explicit confl-
deration of advantage likely to accrue to himfelf,
from his poflTcfllon of thefe good qualities. In like
manner the view of them in others raifes up a difin-
terefted love and efteem for thofe others. And the
oppofite qualities of impiety, profanenefs, unchari-
tablenefs, refcntment, cruelty, envy, ingratitude, in-
temperance, lewdnefs, felfifhnefs, &c. are attended
with the condemnation both of ourfelves and others.
This is, in general, the (late of the cafe ; but there
are many particular difi^erences, according to the
particular education, temper, profelTion, fex, &c. of
each perfon.

Or,

494 ^f ''^'^ Plenfitres and

Or, which is the fame thing, the lecoiidary ideas
belonging to virtue and vice, duty and fin, inno-
cence and guilt, merit and deiiieiit, right and wrong,
moral good and moral evil, jull; and iinjutl, ftt
and untir, obligation anil prohibition, &c. in one
man, bear a great relemblance to thofe belonging to
the fiime words in another, or to the correfponding
words, if they have different languages; and yet do
not exaflly coincide, but differ more or lefs accord-
ing to the difference in education, temper, &c.

Now both this general reiemblance, and thefe
paiticular differences, in our ideas, and confequent
approbation or difapprobation, feem to admit of an
analyfis and explanation from the following parti-
culars.

Firft, Children are, for the mod part, infl:ru61ed
in the difference and oppofition between virtue and
vice, duty and fin, &c. and have fome general
defcriptions of the virtues and vices inculcated upon
them. They are told, that the fir ft are good, plea-
fant, beautiful, noble, fit, worthy of praife and re-
ward, &c. the laft odious, painful, fhameful, worthy
of puniiliment, &c. fo that the pleafing and difplea-
fing afibciations, previoufly annexed to thefe words in
their minds, are, by means of that confidence which
they place in their fuperiors, transferred upon the
virtues and vices refpedlively. And the mutual in-
tercourfes of life have the fame effe6t in a lefs de-
gree, with refpedl to adults, and thofe children who
receive little or no in(lru(5lion from their parents or
fuperiors. Virtue is in general approved, and fet off
by all the encomiums, and honourable appellations,
that any other thing admits of, and vice loaded with
cenfures and reproaches of all kinds, in all good con-
verfation and books. And this happens oftener than
the contrary, even in bad ones ; fo that as far as men
are influenced in their judgments by thofe of others,
the balance is, upon the whole, on the fide of virtue.

Secondly,

Pains of the Moral Senfe. 495

Secondly, There are many immediate good confe-
quences, which attend upon virtue, as many ill ones
do upon vice, and that during our whole progrefs
through life. Senfuality and intemperance fubjedt
men to difeafes and pain, to fhame, deformity, fil-
thinefs, terrors, and anxieties; whereas temperance
is attended with eafe of body, freedom of fpirits, the
capacity of being pleafcd with the objefls of
pleafure, the good opinion of others, the perfeftion
of the fenfes, and of the faculties bodily and men-
tal, long life, plenty, &c. Anger, malice, envy,
bring upon us the returns of anger, malice, envy,
from others, with injuries, reproaches, fears, and per-
petual difquietude ; and in like manner good-will,
generofity, compafTion, are rewarded with returns
of the fame, with the pleafures of fociality and friend-
(hip, with good offices, and with the higheft enco-
rpiums. And when a perfons becomes properly qua-
lified by the previous love of his neighbour to love
God, to hope and truft in him, and to worfliip him
in any meafure as he ought to do, this affords the
fincerefl" joy and comfort; as, on the contrary, the
negledt of God, or practical atheifm, the murmur-
ing againft the courfe of Providence, fceptical un-
fettlednefs, and fool-hardy impiety, are evidently
attended with great anxieties, gloominefs, and dif-
traflion, as long as there are any traces of morality
or religion left upon men's minds. Now thefe plea-
fures and pains, by often recurring in various combi-
nations, and by being varioufly transferred upon each
other, from the great affinity between the feveral
virtues and their rewards, with each other; alfo be-
tween the feveral vices, and their punifhm-ents, with
each other; will at lafl beget in us a general, mixed,
pleaiing idea and confcioufnef?, when we refiefl upon
our own virtuous affeclions or adions ; a fcnfc of
guilt, and an anxiety, when we refle(5l on the con-
trary }

496 Of the Pleafures and

trary j and alio raife in us the love and efteem of
virtue, and the hatred of vice in others.

'1 hirdly, The many benefits which we receive im-
mediately from, or which have Tome evident, though
dillant, connc(5tion with the piety, bencvoleiiccj and
temperance of others; alfo the contiary milchicfs
from their vices; lead us fiift to the love and hatred
of the perfons themfclves by allociation, as explained
under the head of fympathy, and then by farther
aflbci.Ttions to the love and hatred of the virtues
and vices, confidered abflractedly, and without any
regard to our own interefl: ; and that whether we view
them in ourfelves or others. As our love and efteem
for virtue in others is much increafed by the pleafing
confcioufntris, which our own pra6lice of it affords to
ourfelves, fo the pleafute of this confcioufnefs is much
increafed by our love of virtue in others.

Fourthly, The great fuitablenefs of all the virtues
to each other, and to the beaury, order, and per-
fe6lion of the world, animate and inanimate, imprefTes
a very lovely chara6ler upon virtue ; and the contrary
lei f- con trad id ion, deformity, and mifchievous ten-
dency of vice, render it odious, and matter of ab-
horrence to all perfons. that refledl upon thefe things;
and beget a language of this kind, which is borrov/-
cd, in great meafure, from the pleafures and pains of
imagination, and applied with a peculiar force and
fitnefs to this fubjed from its great importance.

Fifthly, The iiopes and fears which arife from
the confideration of a future (late, are themfelves
pleafures and pains of a high nature. When there-
fore a fufficient foundation has been laid by a pra6li-
cal belief of religion, natural and revealed, by the
frequent view of, and meditation upon, death, by
the lofs of departed friends, by bodily pains, by
worldly difappointments and affliiflions, for forming
flrong alTociations 'of the pleafures of thefe hopes
with duty, and the pains of thefe fears with fin, the

reiterated

Pains of the Moral Senfe. 497

reiterated imprefllons of thofe affociations will at laft
make duty itfelf a pleafure, and convert fm into a
pain, giving a luftre and defornnity refpeftively to
all their appellations; and that without any cxprefs
recolleftion of the hopes and fears of another world,
jufl; as in other cafes of affociation.

Sixthly, All meditations upon God, who is the
inexhauftible fountain, and infinite abyfs, of all per-
fedtion, both natural and moral ; alfo all the kinds
of prayer, i. e, all the ways of exprefling our love,
hope, truft, refignation, gratitude, reverence, fear,
defire, &c. towards him ; transfer by aflbciation, all
the perfedion, greatnei's, and glorioufnefs of his
natural attributes upon his moral ones, /. e. upon
moral reftitude. We fliall by this means learn to
be merciful, holy, and perfed, becaufe God is fo ;
and to love mercy, holinefs, and perfection, where-
ever we fee them.

And thus we may perceive, that all the pleafures
and pains of fenfation, imagination, ambition, felf-
intereft", fympathy, and theopathy, as far as they
are confident with one another, with the frame of our
natures, and with the courfe of the world, beget in
us a moral fenfe, and lead us to the love and appro-
bation of virtue, and to the fear, hatred, and abhor-
rence of vice. This moral fenfe therefore carries
its own authority with it, inafmuch as it is the fum
total of all the reft, and the ultimate refult from
them i and employs the force and authority of the
whole nature of man againft any particular part of
it, that rebels againft the determinations and com-
mands of the confcience or moral judgment.

It appears alfo, that the moral fenfe carries us
perpetually to the pure love of God, as our bigheft
and ultimate perfetflion, our end, centre, and only
rcfting-place, to which yet ue can never attain.

When the moral fenfe is advanced to confiderable
perfc(5lion, a perfon may be made to love and hate,

Vol. I. K k merely

49 8 Of the Plcajutcs and

merely becaufe he ought, i. e. the pleafures of
moral beauty and recflitude, and the pains of moral
deformity anci unHtnef?, may be transferred, and
made to coalefce almolt inftantaneoufly.

Scrupulofity may be confidered as a degeneration
of the moral fenfe, refembling that by which the
fear of God pafles into Ibperftition -, for it arifes like
this, from a confcioufncfs of guilt, explicit or impli-
cit, from bodily indifpofition, and from an erroneous
method of reafoning. It has alfo a mod intimate
conne6lion with fuperftition (juft as moral rectitude
has with th.e true love and fear of God) ; and, like
iuperftition, it is, in many cafes, obferved to work
its''own cure by rectifying what is amifs; and fo by
degrees removing both the explicit and implicit con-
fcioufnefs of guilt. It feems alfo, that in this im-
perfeft ftate men feldom arrive at any great degree
of correflnefs in their actions without fome previous
fcrupulofity, by which they may be led to eftimate
the nature and confequences of affeftions and aftions
with care, impartiality and exaclnefs.

The moral fenfe or judgment here fpoken of, is
fometim.es confidered as an inftinft, fometimes as de-
terminations of the mind, grounded on the eternal
reafons and relations of things. Thofe who main-
tain either of ihefe opinions may, perhaps, explain
them fo as to be confident with the foregoing ana-
lyfis of the moral fenfe from aflbciation. But if by
inftincft be meant a difpofition communicated to the
brain, and in confequence of this, to the mwnd, or to
the mind alone, fo as to be quite independent of
afibciation; and by a moral inftinft, fuch a difpofition
producing in us moral judgments concerning affec-
tions and adions ; it will be neceffary, in order to
fupport the opinion of a moral inftindl, to produce
inftances, where moral judgments arife in us in-
dependently of prior aflbciations determining thereto.

In

Pains of the Moral Senfe. 499

In like manner, if by founding the morality of
aftions, and our judgment concerning this mora-
lity, on the eternal reafons and relations of things be
meant, that the reafons drawn from the relations of
things, by which the morality or imm.orality of
certain adtions is commonly proved, and which,
with the relations, are called eternal, from their
appearing the fame, or nearly the fame, to the mind
at all times, would determine the mind to form the
correfponding moral judgment independently of prior
afTociations, this ought alfo to be proved by the
allegation of proper inftances. To me it appears,
that the inftances are, as far as we can judge of
them, of an oppofite nature, and favour the deduc-
tion of all our moral judgments, approbations, and
difapprobations, from aflbciation alo«e. However,
fome afTociations are formed fo early, repeated fo'
often, riveted fo ftrong, and have fo clofe a connec-
tion with the common nature of man, and the events
of life which happen to all, as in a popular way of
fpeaking, to claim the appellation of original and
natural difpofitions ; and to appear like inftinfts,
when compared with difpofitions evidently factitious ;
alfo like . axioms, and intuitive propofitions, eter-
nally true according to the ufual phrafe, when com-
pared with moral reafonings of a compound kind.
But I have endeavoured to fhew in thefe papers,
that all reafoning, as well as affedion, is the mere
refult of aflbciadon.

K k 2 CONCLUSION J

( 500 )

CONCLUSION;

CONTAINING SOME RBMARKS ON THE

MECHANISM OF THE HUMAN MIND,

Besides the confequences flowing from the
doiftrine of aflbciation, which are ddivered in the
Corollaries to the fourteenth Propofition, there is
another, which is thought by many to have a per-
nicious tendency in refpefl of morality and reli-
gion i and which therefore it will be proper that 1
Ihould confider particularly.

The confequence I mean is that of the mechanifm
or necefllty of human actions, in oppofition to what
is generally termed free-will. Here then I will,

Firft, State my notion of the mechanifm or ne-
cefllty of human aflions.

Secondly, Give fuch reafons as induce me to em-
brace the opinion of the mechanifm of human aftions.

Thirdly, Confider the objections and difficulties
attending this opinion.

And, laftly. Allege fome prefumptions in favour
of it from its confequences.

By the mechanifm of human adlions I mean, that
each aftion refults from the previous circumfl;ances
of body and mind, in the fame manner, and with
the fame certainty, as other effefls do from their
mechanical caufes ; fo that a perfon cannot do indif-
ferently either of the adions yf, and its contrary a,
while the previous circumflances are the fame; but is
under an abfolute necefllty of doing one of them,
and that only. Agreeably to this 1 fuppofe, that by
free-will is meant a power of doing either the aiflion,

Jy or

Of the Mechanijmy &c. 501

.^^rjts contrary a\ while the previous circumftances
rernain the fame.

If by free-will be meant a power of beginning
nrjotion, this will come to the fame thing; fince, ac-
cording to the opinion of mechanifm, as here ex-
plained, man has no fuch power ; but every aftion,
or bodily motion, arifes from previous circumftan-
ces, or bodily motions, already exifting in the brain,
i. e. from vibrations, which are either the immediate
effed of impreffions then made, or the remote com-
pound effeft of former impreffions, or both.

But if by free-will be meant any thing different
from thefe two definitions of it, it may not perhaps
be inconfiftent with the mechanifm of the mind here
laid down. Thus, if free-will be defined the power
of doing v.'hat a perfon defires or wills to do, of deli-
berating, fufpending, choofing, &c. or of refitting
the motives, of fenfuality, ambition, refentment, &c.
free-will, under certain limitations, is not only con-
fident with the do6lrine of mechanifm, but even
flows from it ; fince it appears from the foregoing
theory, that voluntary and femivoluntary powers of
calling up ideas, of exciting and refl:raining affections,
and of performing and fufpending anions arife from
the mechanifm of our natures. This may be called
free-will in the popular and praftical fenfe, in contra-
diftinftion to that, which is oppofed to mechanifm,
and which may be called free-will in the philofophical
fenfe.

I proceed now to the arguments which favour the
opinion of mechanifm.

Firfl:, then, It is evident to, and allowed by all,
that the adions of mankind proceed, in many cafes,
from motives, /. e. from the influence which the plea-
fures and pains of fenfation, imagination, ambition,
felf-interefl:, fympathy, theopathy, and the moral
fenfe, have over them. And thefe motives feem to
ad like all other caufes. When the motive is flrong,
the action is performed with vigour i when weak,

K k 3 feebly.

502 Of the Mecbanijm

feebly. When a control y niotive intervenr?, it checks
or over-rules, in proportion to its relative (bength, as
far as one can juilge. So that wiiere the motives are
the fan-.e, the adions cannot be different ; where
the motives are different, tlie a6lions cannot be the
fame. And it is matter of common obfervation, that
this is the cafe in faft, in the principal anions of life,
and fiich where the motives arc of a magnitude fuf-
ficient to be evident. It is reafonable therefore to in-
terpret the obfcure cafes by the evident ones 3 and to
infer, that there are in all inflances motives of a proper
kind and degree, which generate each action ; though
they are fometimes not feen through their minutenefs,
or through the inattention or ignorance of the ob-
ferver. Agreeably to which thofe pcrfons, who ftudy
the caufes and motives of human anions, may de-
cypher them much more completely, both in them-
fclves, and thofe with whom they converfe, than
others can.

Suppofe now a perfon able to decypher all his own
aclions in this way, fo as to ffjew that they corre-
fponded in kind and degree to the motives arifing
from the feven dalles of pleafures and pains confi-
dered in this theory ; alfo able to decypher the prin-
cipal adions of others in the fame way : this would
be as good evidence, that motives were the mechani-
cal caufes of actions, as natural phaenomena are for
the mechanical operation of heat, diet, or medi-
cines. Or if he could not proceed fo far, but was
able only to decypher mod of his own adlions, and
many of the principal ones of others, ftill the evi-
dence would fcarce be diminifhed thereby, if the de-
ficiency was no more than is reafonably to be expefled
from our ignorance and inattention, in refped of our-
felves and others. Let the reader make the trial,
efpetially upon himfelf, Tince fuch a felf-examination
cannot but be profitable, and may perhaps be plea-
fant; and that either according to the feven claffes of
pleafures and pains here laid down, or any other

divifion,

of the Human Mind. 50J

divifion, and judge as he thinks fit upon mature
dehberation.

It may be of ufe in fuch an inquiry into a man's
lelf, as I here propofe, for him to confider in a fliort
timiC after any material ad:ion is paft, whether, if he
was once more put into the fame rigidly exa6t cir-
cumftances, he could poffibly do otherwife than as he
did. Here the power of imagination will intervene,-
and be apt to deceive the inquirer, unlefs he be cau-
tious. For in this review other motives, befides
thofe which did actually influence him, will ftart up ;
and that efpecially if the a6tion be fuch as he vvifhes
to have been performed with more vigour or lefs, or
not to have been performed at all. But when thefe
foreign motives are fet afide, and the imagination
confined to thofe which did in facfl take place, it will
appear impofllble, as it fcems to me, that the perfon"
fhould have done otherwife than the very thing which "
he did.

Secondly, According to the theory here laid down,
all human adlions proceed from vibrations in the
nerves of the mufcles, and thefe from others,- which
are either evidently of a mechanical nature, ^ in the
automatic motions ; or elfe have been fliewn to be fo
rn the account given of the voluntary motions.

And if the docftrine of vibrations be rejcded, and
fenfation and mufcular motion be fuppofed to be per-
formed by fom.e other kind of motion in the nervous
parts, ftill it feems probable, that the fanne method
of reafoning might be applied to this other kind of.
motion.

Laftly, To fuppofe, that the adlion ^, or its con-
trary tty can equally follow previous circumftances,
that are exactly the fame, appears to me the fame
thing, as affirming that one or both of them might
ftart up into being without any caufe j which, if ad-
mitted, appears to me to deftroy the foundation of
all general abftrafl reafoning; and particularly of
that whereby the exiftence of the firft caufe is proved,-

K k 4 On^

504 Of the Mechamjm

One of the principal objedions to the opinion of
mechanifm is that dediicetl liom the exiftence of the
moral fenfe, whofe hiftory I have juft given. But it
appears from that hillory, that God has fo foinicd the
world, and peihaps (with reverence be it fpoken) was
obliged by his moral perfedions fo to form it, as that
virtue mufl: have amiable and pleafing ideas affij^ed to
it J vice, odious ones. The moral fenfe is therefore
generated neceflarily and mechanically. And it remains
to be inquired, whether the amiable and odious ideas
above fliewed to be neccflarily affixed to virtue and
vice refptdively, though differently according to the
different events, of each perfon's life, do not anfwer
all tiie purpofes of making us ultimately happy in the
love of God, and of our neighbour ; and whether
they are not, ceteris paribus^ the fame entirely,
or at leaft in all material refpedls, in thofe who
believe mechanifm, who believe free-will, and who
have not entered into the difcuffion of the queftion
at all : or if there be a difference, whether the affo-
ciations aiifing from the opinion of neceffity, do not
tend more to accelerate us in our progrefs to the love
of God, our only true happinefs. It appears to me,
that the difference is in general very fmall; alfo that
this difference, whatever it be, is of fuch a nature as
to be a prefumption, in favour of the dodrine of
neceffity, all things being duly confidered.

When a perfon firft changes his opinion from free-
will to mechanifm, or more properly firft fees part
of the mechanifm of the mind, and believes the reft
from analogy, he is juft as much affeded by his
Wonted pleafures and pains, hopes and fears, as before,
jby the moral and religious ones, as by others. And
the being perfuaded, that certain things have a ne-
ceffary influence to change his mind for the better or
the worfe, i. e. fo as to receive more fenfible, fym-
pathetic, religious pleafures, or otherwife, will force
him ftill more ftrongly upon the right method, /. e.
put him upon inquiring after and purfuing this method, t

1

of the Human Mind. 505

If it be objefted, That the nnoral fenfe fuppofes^ that
we refer actions to ourfelves and others, whereas the
opinion of mechanifm annihilates all thofe affocia-
tions, by which we refer actions to ourfelves or others;
I anfwer, that it does this juft as the belief of the
reality and infinite value of the things of another
world annihilates all the regards to this world.
Both have a tendency to thefe refpeftive ends,
which are indeed one and the fanne at the bottonn ;
but both require time, in order to produce their full
effedls. When religion has made any one indif-
ferent to this world, its pleafures and pains, then the
kingdom of God, or pure unmixed happinefs, comes
in refpeifl of him j fo that he may then well refer all
to God. However, a man may be thoroughly fatis-
fied in a cool deliberate way, that honours, riches,
&c. can afford no folid happinefs; and yet defire
them at certain times, eagerly, perhaps, from former
aflbciations. But fuch a thorough general conviflion,
applied previoufly to the particular inftances, is a great
help in time of temptation, and will gradually de-
ftroy the wrong alTociations. In like manner, the
opinion that God is the one only caufe of all things,
has a tendency to beget the moft abfolute refigna-
tion, and muft be a great fupport in grievous trials
and fufferings.

We may fhew by a like method of reafoning, that
the affeflions of gratitude and refentment, which
are intimately connefted with the moral fenfe, remain
notwithitandine the doftrine of mechanifm. For it
appears from the account of refentment above deli-
vered, that this, and by confequence gratitude, in their
nafcent ftate, are equally exerted towards all things,
animate and inanimate, that are equally conncded with
pleafure and pain. By degrees all fucceeding circum-
ftances are left out, and our love and hatred confined
to preceding ones, which we confider as the only
caufes. We then leave out inanimate objefts entirc-
' ly, brutes and children in moft circumftances, and

adults

5o6 Of the Mcchanifm

adults in fome. All which is chiefly done, becaufe
acknowiaigmt:nts, rewards, threatenings, and pii-
niHiinenrs, wjth the other alfociated ciiciii-nfl:ances of
giatiti)de and rerentmcnt, can have no ufe but with
ielpe(5l to living intelligent beings. By farther degrees
we learn fuch a ufe of the woids, caufe, and effeft, as
to call nothing a caufe, whofe caufe, or preceding
circumdance, we can fee, denominating all fuch
things mere cfte6ls, all others caufes. And thus,
becaufe the fecret fprings of ndion in men are fre-
quently concealed, bodi fronn tiie by-llander, and even
from the agent himfelf, or not attended to, we con-
fider men in certain circumftances as real caufes j and
intelligent beings, ^ the only ones that can be real
caufes ; and tiius confine our gratitude and refent-
r; enc to them : whence it feems to follow, that as
foon as we difcover created intelligent beings not to be
real caufes, we fhould ceafe to make them the objeds
either of gratitude or refentmenr. But this is in
great meafure, fpeculation ,- for it will appear to every
attentive perfon, that benevolence, compafTion, &:c.
are ainiable, and the objects of gratitude, envy and
malice the contrary, from whatever caufes they pro-
ceed, /. e. he will find his mind fo formed already
by aflfocj^ation, that he cannot withhold his gratitude
or refentment : and it has been ' my bufinefs in the
foregoing analyfis of the affections, to point out the
feveral methods by which this and fuch like thinss
are brought about. And, for the fame reafons, a
perfon mud afcribe merit and demerit, which are alfo
intimately connefted with the moral itw^^^ to created
intelligent beings, though he may have a full perfua-
fion, that they are not real caufes.

It does indeed appear, that this is owing to our
prefent imperfedl ftate, in which v/e begin with the
idolatry of the creature, with the worfliip of every
affociated circurnflance j and that as we advance in
perfection, the afTociations relating to the one only,
ultimate, infinite caufe, mull at laft overpower all the

refti

Of the Human' Mind. 507

reft ; that we Ihall pay no regards but to God alone j
and that all refentment, demerit, fin and mifery,
will be utterly annihilated and abforbed by his infinite
happinefs and perfections. For our aflociaiions be-
ing in this, as in many other cafes, inconfiftent with
each other, our firft grofs and tranfuory ones muft
yield to thofe which fucceed and remain.

While any degree of relentmenr, or unpleafing
affeftion, is left, it may be fhewn, that the fame aflb-
ciations which keep it op, will turn it upon the
creatures, and particularly upon ourfelves. And, on
the other h-md, when the confideration of the ultimate
caufe feems ready to turn it from ourfelves, it will
alfo fhew that it ought to be annihilated.

Thcfe may be confidered as general remarks, tend-
ing to remove the difficulties arifing from the confi-
deration of the moral fenfe. I will now ftate the
principal objeflions to the opinion of mechanifm, in'
a direft, but (hort way, adding fuch hints as appear
to me to aiTord a folution of them.

Firft, then. It may be faid, that a man may prove
his own free-will by internal feeling. This is true,
if by free-will be meant the power of doing what a
man wills or defires ; or of refifting the motives of
fenfuality, ambition, &c. i. e. free-will in the popular
and praflical fenfe. Every perfon may eafily recol-
le6l inftances, where he has done chefe feveral things.
But then rhefe are entirely foreign to the prefent
qucftion.. To prove that a man has free-will in the
fenfe oppofne to mechanifm, he ought to feel, that
he can do different things, while the motives remain
preciftly the fame : and here I apprehend the internal
feelings are entirely againft free-will, where the mo-
tives are of a fufficient magnitude to be evident;
where they are not, nothing can be proved.

Secondly, It may be faid, that unlefs a man have
free-will, he is not an agent. I anfwer, that this is
true, if agency be fo defined as to include free-will.
But if agency have its {tw^c determined, like other

words,

5oB Of the Mechanifm

words, from the affociatcd appearances, the obje^lion
falls at once. A man may ipeak, handle, love, fear,
&c. entirely by mcchaniim.

Thirdly, It may be faid, that the denial of free-
will in man is the denial of it in God alfo. But to
this it may be anlwered, that one does not know how
to put the queftion in refpe£t of God, fuppofing free-
will to mean the power of doing different things,
the previous circumftances remaining the fame, with-
out grofs anthropomorphitifm. It does not at all
follow, however, becaufe man is fubjeft to a
necefTity ordained by God, that God is fubjefl to a
prior neceffity. On the contrary, according to the
dodlrine of mechanifm, God is the caufe of caufes,
the one only iource of all power.

Fourthly, It may be faid, that men are perpetually
impofed upon, unlefs they have free-will, fince they
think they have. But here again free-will is put for
the power of doing what a man wills or defires, &c.
for, in the fenfe oppofite to mechanifm, few perfons
have ever entered into the difcuffion of the point at
all i and thofe who do with fufficient attention, can-
not but determine againft free-will, as it feems to me.

Fifthly, It may be faid. That the doflrine of me-
chanifm deftroys the notion of a particular Provi-
dence altering the courfe of nature fo as to fuit it to
the aftions of men. I anfwer, That laying down
philofophical free-will, fuch an alteration in the
courfe of nature may perhaps be neceffary. But if
man's actions, and the courfe of nature, be both fix-
ed, they may be fuited to each other in the beft poffible
manner; which is all that can be required, in order
to vindicate God's attributes, as v/ell as all that man
can defire.

Sixthly, It may be faid, that all motives to good
aftions, and particularly to prayer, are taken away
by denying free-will. I anfwer, that according to
the mechanical fyftem, prayer and good a6tions are
the means for obtaining happinefs j and that the be-
lief

of the Human Mind, 509

lief of this is the ftrongeft of motives to impel men
to prayer and good works.

Seventhly, It may be faid, that the denial of free-
will deftroys the diftin6lion between virtue and vice.
I anfwer, that this is according as thefe words are
defined. If free-will be included in the definition of
virtue, then there can be no virtue without free-will.
But if virtue be defined obedience to the will of
God, a courfe of adtion proceeding from the love
of God, or from benevolence, &c. free-will is not
at all neceflary ; fince thefe affedions and adions
may be brought about mechanically.

A folution analogous to this may be given to the
objedtion taken from the notions of merit and
demerit. Let the words be defined, and they will
either include free-will, or, not including it, will not
require it ; fo that the propofition, merit implies free-
willy will either be identical, or falfe.

Eighthly, It may be faid, that the doftrine of
mechanifm makes God the author of fin. I anfwer,
that till we arrive at felf-annihilation, fin always will,
and ought to appear to arife from ourfelves ; and
that, when we are arrived thither, fin and evil of
every kind vanifli. I anfwer alfo, that the do6trine of
philofophical free-will does not remove our difficul-
ties and perplexities, in refpecl of the moral attri-
butes of God, unlefs by transferring them upon the
natural ones, i. e. by our fuppofing that fome prior
necelfity compelled God to btftow free-will on his.
creatures. It feems equally difficult, in every way,
to account for the oi'igin of evil, natural or moral,
confidently with the infinity of the power, knowledge,
and goodnefs of God. If we fuppofe, that all tends
to happinefs ultimately, this removes the difficulty
fo far as to produce aCquiefcence in the will of God,
and thankfulnefs to him j and that juft as much upon
the fyftem of mechanifm as that of free-will. Moral
evil has no difficulty in it, befides what aiifes from

the natural evil attending it.

Ninthly,

510 Of the Mechiimjm

Ninthly, It may be faicl, th.it the exhortations of
the fcripturcs prcfiippofe ficc-wiil. 1 anrvvt-r, That
they aic to be rcnfulered as motives impelling the
will, and contributinrr, as far as they are attended
to, to re(5>iry it. A parent who believes the doftrine of
mechanifm may, confidently with it, or rather muft
neceffarily, in conlequence of this belief, exhort his
child. Therefore God, who is pleafed to call himfelf
our heavenly Father, may do the fame. And if we
embrace the opinion of univerfal lefloration, then
all the exhortations contained both in the word and
works of God, will produce their genuine effeft, and
concur to woik in us difpofitions fie to receive hap-
pinefs ultimately.

I come now to hint fome confequences of the doc-
trine of mechanifm, which feem to me to be ftrong
prefumptions in its favour.

Firft, then. It entirely removes the great difficulty
of reconciling the prefcience o( God with the free-
will of man. For it takes away philofophical free-
will, and the practical is confident with God's prefci-
ence.

Secondly, It has a tendency to beget the mod
profound humility and felf-annihiiation s fince, ac-
cording to this, we are entirely deditute of all power
and perfedlion in ourfelves, and are what we are en-
tirely by the grace and goodnefs of God.

Thirdly, It has a tendency to abate all refentment
againd men. Since all that they do againd: us is by
the appointment of God, it is rebellion againd him
to be offended with them.

Fourthly, It greatly favours the dotflrine of uni-
verfal redoration. Since all that is done is by the
appointment of God, It cannot but end v/cll at lad.

Fifthly, It has a tendency to make us labour
more earnedly with ourfelves and others, particularly
children, from the greater certainty attending all endea-
vours that operate in a m.echanical way.

Ladly,

of the Human Mind. 511

Laftly, There are many well-known pafTages of
fcripture, which cannot be reconciled to the do(5lrine
of philofophical free-will, without the greateft harfli-
nefs of interpretation.

U may alfo be objedled to the whole foregoing theo-
ry, as well as to the doftrine of vibrations in particular,
that it is unfavourable to the immateriality of the foul;
and, by confcquence, to its immortality. But to this
i anfwer, that I am reduced to the necefTity of making
a fojlulatum at the entrance of my inquiries ; which
precludes all pofTibility of proving the materiality of
the foul from this theory afterwards. Thus I fup-
pofe, or poftulate, in my firft propofition, that fen-
fatioHS arife in the foul from motions excited in the
medullary fubltance of the brain. I do indeed bring
fome arguments from phyfiology and pathology, to
fhevv this to be a reafonable ■pojiulattimy when under-
llood in a general fenfe; for it is all one to the pur-
pofe of the foregoing theory, whether the motions
in the medullary fubftance be the phyfical caufe of
the fenfations, according to the fyftem of the fchoolsj
or the occafional caufe, according to Malbranche ;
or only an adjunft, according to Leihmtz. However,
this is not fuppofing matter to be endued with fenfa- .
tion, or any way explaining what the foul is ; but.
only taking its exiftence, and connection with the
bodily organs in the moft fimple cafe, for granted,
in order to make farther inquiries. Agreeably to which
I immediately proceed to determine the fpecies of the
motion, and by determining it, to calt light on fome
important and obfcure points relating to the connection
between the body and the foul in complex cafes.

It does indeed follow from this theory, that mat-
ter, if it could be endued with the moft fimple kinds
«f fenfation, might alfo arrive at all that intelligence
of which the human mind is poflefled : whence this
theory muft be allowed to overturn all the argu-
ments v/hich are ufually brought for the immateriality
of the foul from the fubtlety of the internal fenfes,

and

512 Of the Mccbani/mi Sec.

and of the rational faculty. But I no ways prefume
to determine whether matter can be endued with fen-
fation or no. This is a point foreign to the purpofe
of my inquiries. It is fufficient for me, that there is a
certain connection, of one kind or other, between the
lenlations of the foul, and [lie motions excited in the
medullary fuhlldtice of the brain ; which is what all
phyficians and philofophers allow.

I would not therefore be any way interpreted fo as
to oppofe the immateriality of the foul. On the con-
trary, I fee clearly, and acknowledge readily, that mat-
ter and motion, however fubtly divided, or reafoned
upon, yield nothing more than matter and motion
ftill. But then neither would 1 affirm, that this con-
fideration affords a proof of the foul's immateriality.
In like manner the unity of confcioufnefs feems to
me an inconclufive argum.ent. For confcioufnefs is
a mental perception } and if perception be a monad,
then every infeparable adjunft of it muft be fo too,
i. e. vibrations, according to this theoiy, which is
evidently falfe. Not to mention, that it is difficult to
know what is meant by the unity of confcioufnefs.

But it is mod worthy of notice, that the immate-
riality of the foul has little or no connexion with its
immortality; and that we ought to depend upon him
who firfl: breathed into man the breath of the prefent
life, for our refurreflion to a better. All live unto
him. And if we depend upon any thing elfe befides
him, for any bleffing, we may be faid fo far to re-
nounce our allegiance to him, and to idolize that
upon which we depend.

l4ND OF THE FIRST PART.

WARRINGTON,
W. Eyres, Printer, Horfe-Market.

^

aiNDINQ LIST FLJ 1 1949

1

University of Toronti
Library

DO NOT

REMOVE

THE

CARD

FROM

THIS

POCKET

; ' ! .. I ' ' ; > I . ' f 1 'i (■. (V llr; I (| 1 f- 1 '' I *