Oceanus

ISSN 0029-8182

Oceanus

The International Magazine of Marine Science and Policy

Volume 31, Number 2, Summer 1988

Paul R. Ryan, Editor

James H. W. Main, Assistant Editor

T. M. Hawley, Editorial Assistant

Diane R. Bauer, Intern

Lucy W. Coan, Intern

Sara L. Ellis, Intern

Catherine M. Fellows, Intern

Editorial Advisory Board

Henry Charnock, Professor of Physical Oceanography, University of Southampton, England

Edward D. Goldberg, Professor of Chemistry, Scripps Institution of Oceanography

Gotthilf Hempel, Director of the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar Research, West Germany

Charles D. Hollister, Dean of Graduate Studies, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

John Imbrie, Henry L. Doherty Professor of Oceanography, Brown University

John A. Knauss, Professor of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island

Arthur E. Maxwell, Director of the Institute for Geophysics, University of Texas

Timothy R. Parsons, Professor, Institute of Oceanography, University of British Columbia, Canada

Allan R. Robinson, Gordon McKay Professor of Geophysical Fluid Dynamics, Harvard University

David A. Ross, Chairman, Department of Geology and Geophysics, and Sea Grant Coordinator,

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

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Guy W. Nichols, Chairman, Board of Trustees
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COVER: On 8 Dec ember 1911, the weather cleared, the sun appeared, and a position was taken. The expedi-
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Pole. (Photograph taken by one of Amundsen's companions, Olav B|aaland, who documented the people,
places, and events of the expedition using only his folding pocket Kodak. Reproduced from The Amundsen
Photographs, edited and introduced by Roland Huntford, c 1987. Reprinted by permission ot The AtLintu
Monthly Press)

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Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543. Telephone (617) 548-1400, ext. 2386.

Subscription correspondence, U.S. and Canada: All orders should be addressed to Oceanus

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2 A Reader's Guide to the Antarctic

by lames H. W. I lain

5 Introduction: The Challenge of Antarctic Science

by David j. Drewry

1 1 The Antarctic Treaty

1 4 The Antarctic Treaty System

by Lee A. Kimball

20 The Antarctic Mineral Resources Negotiations

by R, Tucker Scully

22 The Antarctic Legal Regime and the Law of the Sea

by Christopher C. joyner

32 Antarctica: Is There Any Oil and Natural Gas?

by David H. Elliot

39 The Southern Ocean and Global Climate

by Arnold L. Cordon

47 The Antarctic Ozone Hole

by Mario /. Molina

53 The Antarctic Circumpolar Current

by Thomas Whitworth III

59 Antarctic Marine Living Resources

by Kenneth Sherman, and Alan F. Ryan

64— Whales

by Douglas G. Chapman

71— Seals

by Donald B. Siniff

75— The BIOMASS Program
by Sayed Z. El-Sayed

80 Antarctic Logistics

by Alfred N. Fowler

87 The Soviet Antarctic Program

by Lawson W. Brigham

93 The Growth of Antarctic Tourism

by Paul Dudley Hart

101 Protecting the Antarctic Environment

by Gerald S. Schatz

1 04 Environmental Threats in Antarctica

by Paul S. Bogart

108 Qceftftcere

109 bcSXDDS FCgWDCgMg /Books Received

COVER: On 8 December 1411, the weather cleared, the sun appeared, and a position was taken. The expedi-
tion was 7 miles trom their goal. The Norwegian flag, attached to the lead sled, waved in a gentle southerly
breeze. A tew days later, on the 14th, Roald Amundsen was the first man to set foot at the geographical South
Pole. (Photograph taken by one of Amundsen's companions, Olav B|aaland, who documented the people,
places, and events of the expedition using only his folding pocket Kodak. Reproduced from The .Amundsen
Photograph',, edited and introduced by Roland Huntlord, <c 1987. Reprinted by permission of The Atlantic
Monthly Press)

Copyright^ 1988 by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Oceanus (ISSN 0029-8182) is published in
March, )une, September, and December by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 93 Water Street,
Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543. Second-class postage paid at Falmouth, Massachusetts; Windsor, Ontario;
and additional mailing points. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Oceanus Subscriber Service Center,
P.O. Box 6419, Syracuse, N.Y. 13217.

This unusual map shows the Earth as
a flat ellipse, and shows Antarctica in
relation to the other continents and
world's oceans. (After H. C. R. King,
7969, The Antarctic)

A Reader's Guide to the Antarctic

by James H. W. Main

/Antarctica is the least known of the seven
continents on Earth. It is high, cold, and dry; with
less precipitation than one might think. Antarctica
is an island continent — and opposite from the
Arctic in more ways than one. Whereas the Arctic
at the North Pole is an ocean surrounded by land,
Antarctica is land surrounded by ocean. However,
it is a land mass that is concealed; 99 percent of
the continent is buried under perpetual ice up to
4!/2 kilometers thick. If the ice were removed, a
smaller, rocky land mass of some 7 million square
kilometers (2.7 million square miles) would be
revealed (see map on page 21).

With its icecap, Antarctica is roughly circular
in shape — broken only by the lengthy Antarctic
Peninsula, some 800 miles from base to tip, which
points finger-like toward distant South America,
and by the two great extensions of the Southern
Ocean — the Ross and Weddell seas. The nearest
mainland to Antarctica is the southern tip of South
America, some 600 miles from the Antarctic
Peninsula — but separated from it by the Drake
Passage, one of the world's stormiest stretches of
ocean.

With a diameter of about 4,500 kilometers
(2,800 miles), and an area of 14 million square
kilometers (5.4 million square miles), it is the fifth
largest continent — larger than the United States,
but less than half the size of Africa.

Highest and Coldest

Antarctica is the highest continent; its average
height is three times that of other continents. At
4,900 meters, Vinson Massif is the highest
mountain. The mountains that span the continent,
the Transantarctic Mountains, are one of the
world's longest mountain chains (see map on page
33). This chain divides the continent into two
geologically contrasting parts — Lesser Antarctica
and Greater Antarctica. The smaller of the two,
Lesser Antarctica, would consist of a group of
islands if the ice were not present.

Temperature and light are major
environmental factors — in the extreme. Antarctica
is the coldest continent, with minimum
temperatures considerably lower than the Arctic. In
the vicinity of the South Pole, the average annual
temperature is minus 49 degrees Celsius, and the
coldest temperature ever recorded on Earth has
been recorded in Antarctica (see page 92). The
fierce winds characteristic of the area push the
already harsh temperatures down. For nearly
6 months a year, the Sun does not rise above the
horizon.

Despite the overwhelming abundance of ice
and snow, precipitation is slight. At the South Pole,
situated on a high plateau 3,000 meters (10,000

feet) above sea level, rain never falls, and less than
2 inches of snow is measured annually.

Ice

Because of the cold, the modest precipitation
rarely melts. Therefore, it accumulates, and more
than 90 perent of all the ice and snow in the world
is locked up in Antarctica. This ice sheet is virtually
one huge glacier of continental proportions-
comparable only with the one that covers much of
Greenland. The great ice sheet that covers the
continent gradually creeps outward and spills onto
the surrounding sea — to the extent that Antarctica
is fringed by vast floating ice shelves. These ice
shelves are distinctive features of Antarctica — and
they are sizable. The Ross Ice Shelf, for example,
covers an area larger than France. From these
shelves, massive tabular icebergs break off (see
page 41), and drift northward. While the ice
shelves are largely freshwater ice, saltwater ice, or
pack ice is also a feature of the surrounding
Southern Ocean. This frozen sea surrounding the
continent varies in area from about 2.7 million
square kilometers (1 million square miles) in
southern summer to more than 18 million square
kilometers (7 million square miles) in winter.

The influence of Antarctica and its
surrounding ocean on climate is substantial. The
barren, ice-clad island of South Georgia lies in
latitude 54 degrees South — 2,000 miles from the
South Pole. In the corresponding latitudes of the
Northern Hemisphere are population centers like
Liverpool and Belfast.

There are no permanent inhabitants in
Antarctica. What little exposed rock there is
supports only sparse vegetation (mostly algae,
lichens, and mosses), and, apart from microbial life
(bacteria and fungi), just a few hardy insects. While
a great variety of insects, birds, and land mammals
live in the high Arctic year round, only a handful of
tiny invertebrates, and not a single land vertebrate,
can survive the Antarctic winter.

In contrast to the paucity of life on land,
there is a richness of life in the sea; for it is in the
ocean that the region's abundant life is found.
Seabirds, seals, and whales are perhaps the best
known animals — consuming vast quantities of fish,
squid, and krill.

An Oceanic Boundary

What is considered the boundary of the Antarctic?
While the Antarctic continent is almost entirely
contained within the Antarctic Circle, at 66 degrees
33 minutes South latitude, the generally accepted
boundary is an oceanic one. The Antarctic
Convergence — a belt of water some 20 to 30 miles

wide girdling the Southern Ocean, roughly located
around 50 degrees South latitude — marks a change
in oceanic currents, water properties, and
biological characteristics (see map on page 23).
Therefore, the region north of the Antarctic
Convergence is referred to as the subantarctic, and
that to the south, the Antarctic. The Antarctic
region includes the continent, the southern part of
the Southern Ocean, and several islands — among
them the South Shetland Islands, the South Orkney
Islands, and South Georgia.

The Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)

The International Geophysical Year (ICY), 1 July
1957 to 31 December 1958, was a cooperative
endeavor by world scientists to improve their
understanding of the Earth and its environment.
Much of the field activity took place in the Antarctic,
where 12 nations established some 60 research
stations. The scale of the ICY focused national and
international planning, funding, and organization in a
way never before seen. As the end of the IGY
approached, many of the involved nations sought
continued Antarctic activity.

Proposals for continuing activity were
reviewed through the Special (now Scientific)
Committee on Antarctic Research — an international
nongovernmental body formed in 1957, and clearly
the most suitable body to coordinate post-IGY
programs. In May 1958, the United States proposed
a treaty that would set aside the continent for
scientific use only.

It took several meetings to establish a
common basis of agreement. Then, a formal treaty
conference was held in Washington, D.C., beginning
on 15 October 1959. On 1 December, the Antarctic
Treaty was signed. The 12 IGY countries were the
drafters of the treaty, and its original signatories. The
treaty was ratified, and entered into force on 23 June
1961.

Consultative and Non-consultative Parties

The continuing operation of the treaty is enacted by
means of Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings
(ATCMs), held on a biennial basis. Each meeting has
generated recommendations regarding operation of
the treaty, that, when ratified by participating
governments, become binding on them. (The
ratification of international law often involves the
enactment of corresponding domestic law. For
example, the Agreed Measures for the Conservation
of Antarctic Fauna and Flora was ratified by the
United States as Public Law 95-541, the Antarctic
Conservation Act of 1978.)

The "consultative" parties, or those with
voting rights at these meetings, originally were the 12
Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties (ATCPs). Since
that time, eight additional nations have achieved
consultative status (see page 14). Another 18 nations
have acceded to the treaty, and thereby agree to
abide by the treaty, but because they do not
conduct substantial scientific research in the
Antarctic, they attend meetings as observers, in a
non voting status. To date, 38 nations have signed
the treaty, representing more than 80 percent of the
world's population.

Claimants and Non-claimants

Among the complicating elements in Antarctic policy
is the issue of claims and sovereignty. Britain made
the first claim in 1 908. In 1 923, a portion of this
claim was awarded to New Zealand. Australia staked
a claim in 1933, and Norway and France made
subsequent claims. In the 1940s, Argentina and Chile
made claims that not only overlapped each other,
but also overlapped the 1908 British claim (refer to
map on page 23). Of the seven "claimant" nations,
only Australia, Britain, France, Norway, and New
Zealand reciprocally recognize their respective
claims.

Aside from these claimant nations are those
who are active in the Antarctic, but who have staked
no claim, do not recognize the claims of others, and
maintain a "general interest" in the area. Among
these non-claimant nations, the United States and
the Soviet Union, while making no claims, have
reserved the right to do so, and have argued that
they have strong historical grounds for claims.

Science and Politics

Science is usually held to be the reason for the
Antarctic Treaty — a treaty that establishes a
"continent for science." Indeed, early on, the
12 IGY nations saw scientific cooperation as a long-
term key to the Antarctic political dilemma. Science,
however, plays several roles in the Antarctic.

A principal role of science is in establishing
qualification for achieving consultative, or voting,
status to the Antarctic Treaty System for countries
that were not original signatories. Article IX of the
treaty states that during such time as [a]. . .
"Contracting Party demonstrates its interest in the
Antarctic by conducting substantial scientific
research activity there, such as the establishment of
a scientific station or the dispatch of a scientific
expedition". . . it enjoys consultative status.

There also is the matter of "presence." Under
international law, the key criterion for determining
territorial sovereignty, or the basis for any legal claim,
is effective occupation — demonstrated through
permanent settlement. In the Antarctic, the scientific
stations come closest to meeting this condition.
Claimants typically site their stations in their claimed
areas. The United States, which has occupied the
geographic South Pole continuously since November
1956, thus has one of its stations situated not only
directly at the South Pole, but also at the hub of
every claim. The Soviet Union, on the other hand,
has ringed the continent with its stations.

Antarctica was formerly a region for explorers,
whalers, and scientists. Now, lawyers, managers,
fishermen, commercial interests, and even tourists
are turning their attention toward the South Pole.
This issue of Oceanus, then, addresses several of the
timely and fascinating aspects of the history, science,
and policy of this remote seventh continent, and its
surrounding ocean.

yames H. W. Main is Assistant Editor of

Oceanus, published

by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

Introduction:

The Challenge

of Antarctic Science

by David J. Drewry

lor four decades, Antarctica — that south polar
fastness almost twice the size of Australia and
which so captured the imagination of early
explorers — has been considered "a continent for
science." Its remoteness, hostile environment, and
unusual political status maintained through the
Antarctic Treaty has held it in a delicate time warp
in which scientific endeavor (aimed at establishing
a basic knowledge of the continent and the
surrounding seas) has been its pre-eminent activity.
Since the late 1970s, however, the tempo of
international interest in Antarctica has accelerated,
spurred by the prospects of the region's potential
for future economic development, a desire by
some to ensure total environmental protection for
the continent in the face of such threats, and a
wish by some nations to involve themselves in the
intriguing juridical details of the treaty system,
which comes up for possible review in 1991. This
volume of Oceanus, which examines the
contemporary issues facing Antarctica, is, therefore,
both timely and informative.

The Rise of Science

The remarkable circumnavigation of Antarctica in
1 775 by Captain James Cook, and his reports of the
abundant wildlife of the peri-Antarctic Islands,
principally of seals, did not go unnoticed in Europe
and North America, and drew in commercial
enterprise with great swiftness. By 1820, however,
the fur seal industry on South Georgia (the
principal concentration of activity) was in decline—
the indiscriminate and rapacious harvesting could
not be sustained, and sealers sought new breeding
grounds, and, in this manner, actively extended
geographical exploration to the South Shetland and
South Orkney Islands, and to the Antarctic
Peninsula. This uneasy symbiosis of exploration and
exploitation of the early 19th Century was not
repeated, for by the latter part of the century,
when commercial attentions turned to the oil
products of elephant seals and, more importantly
(from 1904), to whales, the scientific investigation
of Antarctica, encouraged by the learned societies
of several nations, emerged as an independent and
influential undertaking. The Sixth International
Geographical Congress of 1895 identified
Antarctica as a target for new investigations, and

led directly to 20 years of intense exploration that
saw the names of de Gerlache, Nordenskjold,
Drygalski, and Scott indelibly printed on the face of
the Antarctic, marking the beginning of "The
Heroic Age" of geographic and scientific
exploration.

The diminuendo in widespread interest
between the two World Wars reflected concern
with domestic and economic issues. Interest re-
emerged during and immediately after World
War II, and led to the major involvement of 12
nations during the International Geophysical Year
(1957/58). In the decade that followed, much of
the reconnaissance knowledge that we possess of
the continent and its surrounding seas was
established. Science emerged as a significant policy
issue in providing the acceptable presence for
interested nations in Antarctica. Indeed, the
Antarctic Treaty of 1 959 (page 11), in establishing
the region solely for peaceful purposes,
underscored the crucial role of scientific
investigation on a free and collaborative basis.
Under Article IX (2), the accession of a country to
the treaty as a contracting party is by
demonstrating "... its interest in Antarctica by
conducting substantial scientific research activity
there, such as the establishment of a scientific
station or the dispatch of a scientific expedition."

Challenges to Antarctic Science

Science in Antarctica is now at a threshold. Behind
are the solid contributions of 40 to 50 years of
undisputed, basic research; ahead lies a period of
increased politicization and economic aspirations
woven through with legal, environmental, and
conservation issues. These issues have resulted
from the marked increase in the number and
diversity of nations with interests in Antarctica
(eastern and western bloc, developed and
developing countries).

Economic and Commercial Enterprise

A third epoch of exploitation of Antarctica,
following the sealing and whaling periods, has now
begun — with forays by fishing vessels from several
nations to assess the viability of Antarctic waters for
the harvesting of krill, fin fish, and squid. The
promise of new and major protein sources,

considered possibly equivalent to the present
annual world marine catch (70 to 80 million metric
tons), has attracted the attention of many countries
new to Antarctica. Their concern is not simply in
terms of direct exploitation by their fleets, but also
through consideration of the international
principles that should be applied to the utilization,
management, and conservation of these marine

resources.

At an early stage in the fishing for krill, which
occupies a crucial, central, but still not fully
understood niche in the food web of the Southern
Ocean, the Antarctic Treaty powers* assessed the
manner in which the disastrous fisheries
experiences of the past could be avoided. The
result was the 1980 Convention for the
Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
(CCAMLR). This convention seeks to maintain a
balance throughout the whole Southern Ocean
ecosystem by managing the various components,
rather than focusing on stocks of a species
attractive for harvesting.

For Antarctic science in general, and marine
biological research in particular, the message from
increased interest in economic factors is clear.
Within the limits of most national Antarctic
program budgets, policy decisions will have to be
made as to the relative level of support provided to
underpinning the strategic science needs of
CCAMLR under Article XV. The pressures from
national and international environmental lobbies
(for example, Greenpeace) on those countries that
have embraced CCAMLR may mean that such
redirection of financial and logistic resources for
science is likely to occur sooner rather than later.
This state of affairs need not be viewed with alarm
by the more academically oriented members of the
marine community, since there is a convergence of
scientific aims in understanding the details of the
Southern Ocean stemming explicitly from the
ecosystem approach to management. Indeed the
scientific community has responded to these
imperatives— the SCAR-SCOR BIOMASS** program
(see article page 75) stands as an important start to
coordinated, targeted research. It is the
redeployment of resources from other areas of
science into marine research that will be of
concern, as well as the more esoteric view that
such "directed" science may be considered

* The 12 original signatories to the Antarctic Treaty were:
Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Britain, Chile, France, Japan,
New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, and
the United States. Those countries having decision-making
or consultative status are the 12 original and 8 others:
Brazil, China, East Germany, India, Italy, Poland, Uruguay,
and West Germany. By mid-May of 1988, there were 18
countries that had joined the treaty in the observer, or
non-consultative status: Austria, Bulgaria, Canada, Cuba,
Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, Greece,
Hungary, the Netherlands, North Korea, Papua New
Guinea, Peru, Rumania, South Korea, Spain, and Sweden.

** Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR)—
Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR)—
Biological Investigations of Marine Antarctic Systems and
Stocks (BIOMASS)

another constraint on the strongly perceived, but
ill-defined, freedoms of intellectual pursuit.

Economic Studies

Turning to the issue of economic minerals, the
challenges to Antarctic science are more opaque,
but are based on the same premise that national
concerns over the likely abundance of hard-rock
and hydrocarbon wealth in the Antarctic may lead
to the redistribution of the science dollar, pound,
and yen (see also page 32). Already programs to
investigate the economic geology of regions of
Antarctica have begun. The Soviet Union, for
instance, has had such expeditions to the inner
regions of the Ronne and Filchner Ice Shelves, and
Chilean, Argentine, and British scientists are
conducting economic assessments of areas of the
Antarctic Peninsula.

The most recent forecasts on the likely
exploitation of such mineral resources, however,
are pessimistic, highlighting the considerable
technological problems likely to be encountered,
and stressing that Arctic success and experience
are not necessarily transferable to Antarctica.

The present and possibly final stages of
negotiations of an Antarctic Minerals Regime (see
page 20), and the expected signature of a
convention in late May of this year are laudable,
since experience elsewhere has shown such
agreements and regulations come about only after
serious environmental damage has been inflicted.
However, the legal instruments, when adopted, will
require flexibility against changed circumstances to
provide the necessary political and legal stability
for the investment of venture capital. Among those
nations with Antarctic sovereignty claims, there
may be a desire on the part of some to establish
the mineral potential of their "territory" or "sphere
of influence" as part of a long-term plan, valuable,
not only in its own right, but as a bargaining
element in future treaty negotiations.

For science, furthermore, there is the
worrying prospect that knowledge bearing on the
economic uses of Antarctica might become
proprietary, leading to a reduction in international
cooperation in certain research ventures. The
perceived proprietary rights and strategic value of
results from some geophysical cruises have already
been sufficient to cause concern over the
availability of data and records under Article III of
the treaty.

Conservation and Environmentalism

The rise of the environmental lobby, and
widespread concern over conservation of
Antarctica and its wildlife, may be seen as a further
issue that creates tension in the prosecution of
basic science. At one end of the spectrum, science
and conservation are drawn together. To practice
and implement sound conservation and
management policies, a firm knowledge of
environmental phenomena, stemming from pure
research, is required. At the other extreme, there
may be a conflict between the views of
conservationists and the perceived needs of

The South Pole surrounded by flags of all the Antarctic Treaty countries active in scientific research. In the background is the
Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station of the United States. (Photo by C.W.M. Swithinbank, courtesy British Antarctic Survey)

science — with regard to the destruction or
modification of small elements of the environment
(for example, killing seals and penguins in
biological research, causing explosions for
geophysical surveys, or the construction of logistic
facilities [bases, harbors, and airstrips] in the
support of science activity).

There will be an increasing requirement for
science projects, if they are likely to damage the
environment, to be the subject of Environmental
Impact Assessments (ElAs). In some instances,
inherent interest in conservation matters, or the
political lobby of environmental groups, may be
sufficient to redirect significant support into these
aspects ot Antarctic work away from basic scientific
research. Already the Scientific Committee on
Antarctic Research (SCAR) and the International
Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN) have discussed jointly how to
develop and support additional protective
measures to conserve the Antarctic environment in
the future. There is no doubt that more can be
achieved in the way of educating national programs
on good conservation practices. Also, more
resources will be required to carry out
conservation-related studies, whether for ElAs or
specific "applied" aspects of science. This may
detract from traditional scientific endeavors,
causing a shift in the overall balance of science
effort within a national program.

Antarctic Science: Shaping the Future

Faced with mounting challenges, can scientific
endeavor continue into the 21st Century as a valid
and dominant influence in Antarctica? The answer,
I believe, is a qualified, but definite, yes. My
reservations focus on the need for the judgments
which shape the science plans for Antarctica (both
national and international) to be more selective and
self-critical in search of excellence, to be cost-
effective, and, above all, to be responsive to the
global forces that act on international research and
development policy. Science policymakers must
exploit aggressively two principal themes in future
years: the scientific uniqueness of Antarctica and
Antarctica's global role.

Global Relevance

The perspective provided by almost half a century
of scientific investigation demonstrates clearly and
without ambiguity the integral role of Antarctica in
the natural systems of planet Earth.

In driving the global atmospheric regime,
Antarctica acts as a major heat sink. Continental ice
sheet volume and sea ice extent provide second
order modulating influences on radiation budgets
and circulation on a variety of timescales. The
effects of man-induced increases of radiatively
active gases (for example, carbon dioxide and
methane) may have profound effects in the south

Fragmentation of Condwana, the ancient supercontinent,
over the last 200 million years: a) 200 million years ago;
b) present-day continental distribution.

polar regions where models predict amplification of
temperature. Furthermore, the Southern Ocean
plays an influential role as a major sink, particularly
for carbon dioxide, for which the estimated uptake
is on the order of 30 percent of that discharged
into the atmosphere.

The geological history of the Southern
Hemisphere tells us there was once a super-
continent called Pangaea, which comprised most of
the land surface on Earth. Pangaea broke in two
about 220 million years ago, with the southern
section, called Gondwanaland, drifting south until
about 180 to 200 million years ago, when it too
split apart, forming what are now known as South
America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica. It
was not until 1912 that Alfred Wegener suggested
that these continents had once been joined

together. The geophysical and geological
communities did not take this suggestion seriously
until the mid-1960s, when the discovery of
magnetic anomalies across the mid-Atlantic Ridge
led to the concept of sea-floor spreading and the
theory of plate tectonics. It was now becoming
clear that Antarctica was a central piece in the
mosaic of Gondwana.

The Climate and Ozone Questions

It is too early to evaluate the long-term and global
impact of the discovery of the depletion of
Antarctic ozone in the austral spring and the likely
effects of the Montreal Protocol (1987) to limit
chlorofluorocarbon production. The ozone issue,
however, has thrust Antarctica onto the world stage
in a manner impossible to have predicted. Daily
newspapers, popular journals and magazines, and
learned scientific publications around the world
carry information and updates on the background
and implications of the depletion of ozone in the
Antarctic springtime stratosphere (see also page
47). From scientist to politician, from journalist to
cab driver, ozone is a matter for discussion and of
considerable concern. Antarctic scientists must take
hold of this opportunity to provide influential and
authoritative arguments for governments related to
ozone, and which underscore the relevance and
timeliness of their research: such opportunities
come only once in each generation.

The Antarctic Laboratory

If the above brief examples demonstrate the
growing recognition of the wide relevance of
Antarctic research, the formulation of future
science policy must concentrate on continuing to
support those elements of Antarctic investigation
which address questions of major regional and/or
global concern, and, second, direct resources
toward such areas of science, in which Antarctica
provides a unique "laboratory." It is senseless to
expend monetary and intellectual resources in
Antarctica if the problems can be better
investigated elsewhere. There are abundant
opportunities for exciting and relevant research in
Antarctica today.

The ice sheet, which comprises 90 percent
of the ice on planet Earth, presents unparalleled
scope for the study of past climate and
environmental conditions extending back to
possibly 1 million years before present. The 2,083
meter-long ice cores from Vostok station retrieved
by French and Soviet scientists have disclosed
climate details of the last 160,000 years. Isotopes of
oxygen and hydrogen are diagnostic of
palaeotemperatures; insoluble particulate matter
and acids indicate periods of volcanic activity; gas
bubble pressures assist in estimating the former
elevation of the ice sheet, while the included gas
can provide insight into the composition of ancient
atmospheres. The identification of carbon dioxide
in particular has demonstrated its role in changing
climate, and documented the inexorable rise of the
concentration of that greenhouse gas in the
atmosphere since pre-industrial times. The
important monitoring of changes in the global

8

Emperor penguins, the largest of the seven penguin species found in Antarctic waters. The males are the only warm-blooded
animals to spend the bitter winter on the Antarctic continent, while the females winter at sea. The male incubates his mate's
single egg by resting it on his feet, tucked under a flap of skin. Later, the newly hatched chick is kept warm in the same way.
(Photo by I. Somerton, courtesy of the British Antarctic Survey)

Minimum

Extent

Maximum
Extent

180°

The annual maximum and minimum sea ice extent in
Antarctica between 1973 and 7987.

background levels of a variety of materials cycled
through the atmosphere is possible from ice cores
(besides carbon dioxide, there are methane, nitrate
oxide, various nitrate oxide compounds, and sulfur
dioxide), and heavy metals (copper, lead, zinc,
cadmium) can be measured at picograms per gram
levels in recent snowfalls.

The onshore-offshore geological and
geophysical study of the narrow, continental-based
magmatic arc (where the underthrusting of a crustal
plate results in the formation of volcanic island
chains) along the Pacific margin of Antarctica and
principally in the Antarctic Peninsula, where the
geology is relatively simple, is forming an important
basis for interpreting destructive plate margins in
more complex domains of the Earth's crust. The
development of "geotraverse," or geological survey,
activities in this and other parts of Antarctica will
be relevant and timely.

In the study of geospace (the ionosphere
and magnetosphere), the polar regions, and
Antarctica in particular, are especially well-favored.
The supersonic flow of electrically charged
particles emanating from the sun (known as the
solar wind) streams past Earth and interacts in a
complex manner with the planet's magnetic field.
Protons and electrons are directed toward the
planet and its ionosphere along magnetic fieldlines,
leading to auroral displays and atmospheric
disturbances, which are of vital importance for
radio communication, and also allow deep-space
phenomena to be studied from the ground.

International Coordination of Science

It was recognized quite early in Antarctic science
that, in order to be effective, research had to be
coordinated to come to terms with the immense
size of the continent, the magnitude of the
scientific problems, and the logistic requirements —
all beyond the reach of a single nation. SCAR was
established in 1957 by the International Council of

Scientific Unions (ICSU), of which it is a
component body, to initiate, promote and
coordinate scientific activity in Antarctica, with a
view to framing and reviewing scientific programs
of circumpolar scope and significance. With 18 full
and 7 associate member countries, it meets
biennially, and acts through an executive
committee, permanent working groups, and more
temporary groups ot specialists to report on the
main Antarctic scientific disciplines. Increasingly
SCAR is being requested to advise and review
issues of concern to the Antarctic Treaty System
through these mechanisms. Such matters focus on
requirements for conservation of marine living
resources, waste disposal, and the potential
environmental impacts associated with a variety of
activities, such as minerals exploitation. SCAR will
need to be responsive to these and future
overtures if science is to continue to have a strong
voice in the wider development of Antarctic affairs.

Some nations have been criticized because
science is not foremost in their Antarctic policy. It
has been charged that a low-level science effort
often is used as a token to gain acceptance to
consultative status and hence political presence,
notwithstanding Article IX of the treaty, which calls
for "substantial" scientific activity. The minimalist
approach (as it may be termed) does not augur well
for healthy Antarctic science. SCAR must work
diligently to ensure wide and adequate
participation of nations in the research of the
continent and surrounding oceans. This process
can be assisted by new lines of scientific enquiry in
which Antarctica can play a leading role with
research contributions at a variety of levels.

One of these is the ICSU International
Geosphere-Biosphere Program, which has
identified two major themes: detailed
reconstruction of the past, and the accurate
determination of current changes on a global scale,
with the separation of natural and man-made
causes. SCAR will be able to foster coordinated
research on past environmental changes,
identification of anthropogenic pollutants in polar
snows, questions of ice sheet stability, extreme
environmental adaptions of living organisms and
their changes with time, the role of biological
activity in energy flux, and the coupling of the Sun-
Earth system through atmospheric investigations
focused on certain gases and ozone — all indeed
challenges for the future.

David I. Drewry is Director of the British Antarctic Survey
and formerly Director of the Scott Polar Research
Institute, Cambridge University, England.

Selected References

Farman, J. C, B. C. Gardiner, and J. D. Shanklin. 1985. Large
losses of total ozone in Antarctica reveal seasonal CIO«/NOX
interaction. Nature 315: 207-210.

Centhon, C., J. M. Barnola, D. Raynaud, C. Lorius, ). jouzel, N. I.
Barkov, Y. S. Korotkevich, and M. Kotlyakov. 1987. Vostok ice
core: Climatic response to CO2 and orbital forcing changes
over the last climatic cycle. Nature 329: 414-418.

Parsons, A. (Chairman) 1987. Antarctica: The Next Decade. 164 pp.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Walton, D. W. H. (Ed.) 1987. Antarctic Science. 280 pp.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

10

The Antarctic Treaty

(1959 Text— Ratified 1961)

The Governments of Argentina, Australia, Belgium,
Chile, the French Republic, Japan, New Zealand,
Norway, the Union of South Africa, the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United
States of America,

Recognizing that it is in the interest of all
mankind that Antarctica shall continue forever to be
used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not
become the scene or object of international discord;

Acknowledging the substantial contributions
to scientific knowledge resulting from international
cooperation in scientific investigation in Antarctica;

Convinced that the establishment of a firm
foundation for the continuation and development of
such cooperation on the basis of freedom of scien-
tific investigation in Antarctica as applied during the
International Geophysical Year accords with the in-
terests of science and the progress of all mankind;

Convinced also that a treaty ensuring the use
of Antarctica for peaceful purposes only and the
continuance of international harmony in Antarctica
will further the purposes and principles embodied
in the Charter of the United Nations;

Have agreed as follows:

Article I

1. Antarctica shall be used for peaceful
purposes only. There shall be prohibited, inter alia,
any measure of a military nature, such as the
establishment of military bases and fortifications,
the carrying out of military maneuvers, as well as
the testing of any type of weapon.

2. The present Treaty shall not prevent the
use of military personnel or equipment for
scientific research or for any other peaceful
purpose.

Article II

Freedom of scientific investigation in
Antarctica and cooperation toward that end, as
applied during the International Geophysical Year,
shall continue, subject to the provisions of the
present Treaty.

Article III

1. In order to promote international
cooperation in scientific investigation in Antarctica,
as provided for in Article II of the present Treaty,
the Contracting Parties agree that, to the greatest
extent feasible and practicable:

(a) information regarding plans for scientific
programs in Antarctica shall be exchanged to
permit maximum economy of and efficiency
of operations;

(b) scientific personnel shall be exchanged in
Antarctica between expeditions and stations;

(c) scientific observations and results from
Antarctica shall be exchanged and made
freely available.

2. In implementing this Article, every
encouragement shall be given to the establishment
of cooperative working relations with those
Specialized Agencies of the United Nations and
other international organizations having a scientific
or technical interest in Antarctica.

Article IV

1 . Nothing contained in the present Treaty
shall be interpreted as:

(a) a renunciation by any Contracting Party of
previously asserted rights of or claims to
territorial sovereignty in Antarctica;

(b) a renunciation or diminution by any
Contracting Party of any basis of ciaim to
territorial sovereignty in Antarctica which it
may have whether as a result of its activities
or those of its nationals in Antarctica, or
otherwise;

(c) prejudicing the position of any Contracting
Party as regards its recognition or non-
recognition of any other State's rights of or
claim or basis of claim to territorial
sovereignty in Antarctica.

2. No acts or activities taking place while the
present Treaty is in force shall constitute a basis for
asserting, supporting or denying a claim to
territorial sovereignty in Antarctica or create any
rights of sovereignty in Antarctica. No new claim,
or enlargement of any existing claim, to territorial
sovereignty in Antarctica shall be asserted while the
present Treaty is in force.

Article V

1. Any nuclear explosions in Antarctica and
the disposal there of radioactive waste material
shall be prohibited.

2. In the event of the conclusion of
international agreements concerning the use of
nuclear energy, including nuclear explosions and
the disposal of radioactive waste material, to which
all of the Contracting Parties whose representatives
are entitled to participate in the meetings provided
for under Article IX are parties, the rules
established under such agreements shall apply in
Antarctica.

Article VI

The provisions of the present Treaty shall
apply to the area south of 60° South Latitude,

11

including all ice shelves, but nothing in the present
Treaty shall prejudice or in any way affect the
rights, or the exercise of the rights, of any State
under international law with regard to the high seas
within that area.

Article VII

1. In order to promote the objectives and
ensure the observance of the provisions of the
present Treaty, each Contracting Party whose
representatives are entitled to participate in the
meetings referred to in Article IX of the Treaty shall
have the right to designate observers to carry out
any inspection provided for by the present Article.
Observers shall be nationals of the Contracting
Parties which designate them. The names of
observers shall be communicated to every other
Contracting Party having the right to designate
observers, and like notice shall be given of the
termination of their appointment.

2. Each observer designated in accordance
with the provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article
shall have complete freedom of access at any time
to any or all areas of Antarctica.

3. All areas of Antarctica, including all
stations, installations and equipment within those
areas, and all ships and aircraft at points of
discharging or embarking cargoes or personnel in
Antarctica, shall be open at all times to inspection
by any observers designated in accordance with
paragraph 1 of this Article.

4. Aerial observation may be carried out at
any time over any or all areas of Antarctica by any
of the Contracting Parties having the right to
designate observers.

5. Each Contracting Party shall, at the time
when the present Treaty enters into force for it,
inform the other Contracting Parties, and thereafter
shall give them notice in advance, of

(a) all expeditions to and within Antarctica,
on the part of its ships or nationals, and all
expeditions to Antarctica organized in or
proceeding from its territory.

(b) all stations in Antarctica occupied by its
nationals; and

(c) any military personnel or equipment
intended to be introduced by it into Antarctica
subject to the conditions prescribed in paragraph 2
of Article I of the present Treaty.

Article VIII

1 . In order to facilitate the exercise of their
functions under the present Treaty, and without
prejudice to the respective positions of the
Contracting Parties relating to jurisdiction over all
other persons in Antarctica, observers designated
under paragraph 1 of Article VII and scientific
personnel exchanged under sub-paragraph 1(b) of
Article III of the Treaty, and members of the staffs
accompanying any such persons, shall be subject
only to the jurisdiction of the Contracting Party of
which they are nationals in respect of all acts or
omissions occurring while they are in Antarctica for
the purpose of exercising their functions.

2. Without prejudice to the provisions of

paragraph 1 of this Article, and pending the
adoption of measures in pursuance of sub-
paragraph 1(e) of Article IX, the Contracting Parties
concerned in any case of dispute with regard to the
exercise of jurisdiction in Antarctica shall
immediately consult together with a view to
reaching a mutually acceptable solution.

Article IX

1. Representatives of the Contracting Parties
named in the preamble to the present Treaty shall
meet at the City of Canberra within two months
after the date of entry into force of the Treaty, and
thereafter at suitable intervals and places, for the
purpose of exchanging information, consulting
together on matters of common interest pertaining
to Antarctica, and formulating and considering, and
recommending to their Governments, measures in
furtherance of the principles and objectives of the
Treaty, including measures regarding:-

(a) use of Antarctica for peaceful purposes only;

(b) facilitation of scientific research in Antarctica;

(c) facilitation of international scientific
cooperation in Antarctica;

(d) facilitation of the exercise of the rights of
inspection provided for in Article VII of the
Treaty.

(e) questions relating to the exercise of
jurisdiction in Antarctica;

(f) preservation and conservation of living
resources in Antarctica.

2. Each Contracting Party which has become
a party to the present Treaty by accession under
Article XIII shall be entitled to appoint
representatives to participate in the meetings
referred to in paragraph 1 of the present Article,
during such times as that Contracting Party
demonstrates its interest in Antarctica by
conducting substantial scientific research activities
there, such as the establishment of a scientific
station or the dispatch of a scientific expedition.

3. Reports from the observers referred to in
Article VII of the present Treaty shall be transmitted
to the representatives of the Contracting Parties
participating in the meetings referred to in
paragraph 1 of the present Article.

4. The measures referred to in paragraph 1
of this Article shall become effective when
approved by all the Contracting Parties whose
representatives were entitled to participate in the
meetings held to consider those measures.

5. Any or all of the rights established in the
present Treaty may be exercised as from the date
of entry into force of the Treaty whether or not any
measures facilitating the exercise of such rights
have been proposed, considered or approved as
provided in this Article.

Article X

Each of the Contracting Parties undertakes to
exert appropriate efforts, consistent with the
Charter of the United Nations, to the end that no
one engages in any activity in Antarctica contrary to
the principles or purposes of the present Treaty.

12

Article XI

1. If any dispute arises between two or more
of the Contracting Parties concerning the
interpretation or application of the present Treaty,
those Contracting Parties shall consult among
themselves with a view to having the dispute
resolved by negotiation, inquiry, mediation,
conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement or other
peaceful means of their own choice.

2. Any dispute of this character not so
resolved shall, with the consent, in each case, of all
parties to the dispute, be referred to the
International Court of Justice for settlement; but
failure to reach agreement on reference to the
International Court shall not absolve parties to the
dispute from the responsibility of continuing to
seek to resolve it by any of the various peaceful
means referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article.

Article XII

1. (a) The present Treaty may be modified or
amended at any time by unanimous agreement of
the Contracting Parties whose representatives are
entitled to participate in the meetings provided for
under Article IX. Any such modification or
amendment shall enter into force when the
depositary Government has received notice from
all such Contracting Parties that they have ratified
it.

(b) Such modification or amendment shall
thereafter enter into force as to any other
Contracting Party when notice of ratification by it
has been received by the depositary Government.
Any such Contracting Party from which no notice
of ratification is received within a period of two
years from the date of entry into force of the
modification or amendment in accordance with the
provision of subparagraph 1(a) of this Article shall
be deemed to have withdrawn from the present
Treaty on the date of the expiration of such period.

2. (a) If after the expiration of thirty years
from the date of entry into force of the present
Treaty, any of the Contracting Parties whose
representatives are entitled to participate in the
meetings provided for under Article XI so requests
by a communication addressed to the depositary
Government, a Conference of all the Contracting
Parties shall be held as soon as practicable to
review the operation of the Treaty.

(b) Any modification or amendment to the
present Treaty which is approved at such a
Conference by a majority of the Contracting Parties
there represented, including a majority of those
whose representatives are entitled to participate in
the meetings provided for under Article IX, shall be
communicated by the depositary Government to
all Contracting Parties immediately after the

termination of the Conference and shall enter into
force in accordance with the provisions of
paragraph 1 of the present Article.

(c) If any such modification or amendment
has not entered into force in accordance with the
provisions of sub-paragraph 1(a) of this Article
within a period of two years after the date of its
communication to all the Contracting Parties, any
Contracting Party may at any time after the
expiration of the period give notice to the
depositary Government of its withdrawal from the
present Treaty; and such withdrawal shall take
effect two years after the receipt of the notice by
the depositary Government.

Article XIII

1. The present Treaty shall be subject to
ratification by the signatory States. It shall be open
for accession by any State which is a Member of
the United Nations, or by any other State which
may be invited to accede to the Treaty with the
consent of all the Contracting Parties whose
representatives are entitled to participate in the
meetings provided for under Article IX of the
Treaty.

2. Ratification of or accession to the present
Treaty shall be effected by each State in
accordance with its constitutional processes.

3. Instruments of ratification and instruments
of accession shall be deposited with the
Government of the United States of America,
hereby designated as the depositary Government.

4. The depositary Government shall inform
all signatory and acceding States of the date of
each deposit of an instrument of ratification or
accession, and the date of entry into force of the
Treaty and of any modification or amendment
thereto.

5. Upon the deposit of instruments of
ratification by all signatory States, the present
Treaty shall enter into force for those States and for
States which have deposited instruments of
accession. Thereafter the Treaty shall enter into
force for any acceding State upon the deposit of its
instruments of accession.

6. The present Treaty shall be registered by
the depositary Government pursuant to Article 102
of the Charter of the United Nations.

Article XIV

The present Treaty, done in the English,
French, Russian and Spanish languages, each
version being equally authentic, shall be deposited
in the archives of the Government of the United
States of America, which shall transmit duly
certified copies thereof to the Governments of the
signatory and acceding States.

13

The Antarctic Treaty System

by Lee A. Kimball

I he pace of science, law, and politics continues to
quicken in the Antarctic. The existing international
agreements and management programs are
responding to new pressures. Overfishing continues
to be a problem, now joined by the possibility of

Antarctic Treaty Signatories

Category/Country

Date of
Ratification

Ratification
Sequence

I. Original Consultative Parties
(12)

a. Claimant states (7)

Britain 31 May 1960 1

Norway 24 Aug 1960 6

France 16Sep1960 7

New Zealand 1 Nov 1960 8

Argentina 23|un1961 11

Australia 23|un1961 12

Chile 23Jun1961 13

b. Non-claimant states (5)

South Africa 21 Jun 1960 2

Belgium 26 ]ul 1960 3

Japan 4 Aug 1960 4

United States 18 Aug 1960 5

Soviet Union 2 Nov 1960 9

II. Later Consultative Parties (8)
(Date in parentheses is the
date Nation became a
Consultative Party)

Poland (29 |ul 1977) 8 |un 1961 10

Brazil (12 Sep 1983) 16 May 1975 19

West Germany (3 Mar 1981) 5 Feb 1979 21

Uruguay (7 Oct 1985) 1 1 Jan 1980 22

China (7 Oct 1985) 8 Jun 1983 27

India (12 Sep 1983) 19 Aug 1983 28

Italy (5 Oct 1987) 18 Mar 1981 24

East Germany (5 Oct 1987) 19 Nov 1974 18

III. Non-Consultative Parties (18)

Czechoslovakia 14 Jun 1962 14

Denmark 20 May 1965 15

Netherlands 30 Mar 1967 16

Rumania 15 Sep 1971 17

Bulgaria 11 Sep 1978 20

Papua New Guinea1 16 Mar 1981 23

Peru 10 Apr 1981 25

Spain 31 Mar 1982 26

Hungary 27 Jan 1984 29

Sweden 24 Apr 1984 30

Finland 15 May 1984 31

Cuba 16 Aug 1984 32

South Korea 28 Nov 1986 33

Greece 8 Jan 1987 34

North Korea 21 Jan 1987 35

Austria 25 Aug 1987 36

Ecuador 15 Sep 1987 37

Canada 4 May 1988 38

1 Papua New Guinea became a member of the treaty by
succession after it became independent of Australia.

minerals exploitation. Criticisms have been leveled at
pollution and environmental protection practices,
and on the "openness" of Antarctic decision-
making — with an increased role by the United
Nations (and Third-World countries) in the Antarctic
under discussion in the United Nations General
Assembly.

Then there is 1 991 . The language of the
original 1959 Antarctic Treaty allows that, after a
30-year period, any treaty party may call for a review
of the treaty. Despite some misperceptions, the
treaty does not expire in 1991, nor will it necessarily
be reviewed or changed. However, the option, and
perhaps some uncertainty, do exist.

The challenges of the future are to integrate
Antarctic science and policy to realize the global
benefits from Antarctic science, avoid environmental
damage to the area, and preserve widespread
international support for an agreed system of
governance in Antarctica.

Antarctica, 1959 to 1977

The Antarctic Treaty was concluded in 1959 to
preserve Antarctica and its surrounding area for
peaceful purposes only, and to promote cooperative
scientific investigation in the region. These relatively
modest aims conceal a mandate that has
demilitarized a tenth of the Earth's surface and
provided the conduit for any interested nation to
carry out scientific research in Antarctica. An
example of this research was most recently
demonstrated by multinational scientific
investigations of the causes of the Antarctic "ozone
hole" (see page 47).

For many years, until the mid- to late-1970s,
Antarctica remained a quiet backwater for
exploration and scientific research of primarily local
or regional significance. Every two years, the 12
original signatories to the Antarctic Treaty (see
adjacent table) met to consider pending issues and
problems. During this period, seven other countries
acceded to the Treaty, but they were not entitled to
attend the biennial Antarctic Treaty Consultative
Meetings (ATCMs). For the most part, the Antarctic
Treaty Consultative Parties (ATCPs) demonstrated
great foresight in their management of Antarctica:

• They took advantage of the vehicle of science
to side-step conflicting views about the
territorial status of Antarctica;

• They established an on-going "consultative"
mechanism to address new issues and
problems as they arose; and

• They took note of the special nature of the
Antarctic continent and its surroundings and

14

SOUTH ORKNEY
ISLANDS

Sanae (S.Afr.l

Syowa (Japan)

Molodezhnaya

RONDANE U ~W?.r~x iSovieti

MOUNTAINS

Argentine Islands
(Brit.)

90° W

Novolazarevskaya
(Soviet)

Bellingshausen (Soviet)
pitan Artur
(Chile)

Halley Bay
(Brit.)

General

Belgrano

Mawsonf Aus.
• Plateau (USA;closed)

SHACKLETON
RANGE

Amundsen - Scott
South Pole (USA)

SENTINEL RANGE

V? Siple
(USA)

QUEEN MAUD
'MOUNTAINS

(USA)
summer )

• Vostok
(Soviet)

QUEEN ALEXANDRA
RANGE

ROSS
ICE SHELF

Scott Base(NZ)
McMurdo (USA)

ROSS ISLAND

ROSS SEA

VICTORIA LAND

Hallett

(USA and NZ)
(closed

Casey

(Aus.)

kilometers

Leningradskaya
I Soviet)

Dumonl d Urville
Fr.)

180°

Selected stations and physical features of Antarctica.

declared all of Antarctica a "special
conservation area" (ATCM Recommendation
111-8, Agreed Measures for the Conservation of
Antarctic Fauna and Flora, adopted in 1964).

As human activities in Antarctica have grown
and intensified, the ATCPs have responded within
the mandate of the Antarctic Treaty to produce
additional measures and treaties to regulate these
new activities. However, every time they seek
agreement on a new measure, they must once again
find a balance that preserves the positions of both
countries claiming territory in Antarctica and those
that do not recognize any claims (see map page 23).
On this basis, the ATCPs have adopted 164
recommendations at the 14 biennial meetings held
to date.

These recommendations deal with such
matters as safety of operations and logistics in
Antarctica; environmental protection (to avoid
undermining the continent's relatively pristine value
for the conduct of scientific research); regulation of
tourism; and procedures to ensure advance notice of
national research plans and public availability of the
results.

In addition, the ATCPs have concluded three
more treaties: the 1972 Convention for the
Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS), which
entered into force in 1978; the 1980 Convention on
the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living
Resources (CCAMLR), which entered into force in
1982; and the Antarctic Minerals Convention,
adopted in May 1988, and open for signature later
this year (see page 20).

All of these forums draw on the technical and
scientific expertise of the Scientific Committee on
Antarctic Research (SCAR), whose members set in
motion the 1957-58 International Geophysical Year
(ICY) that laid the groundwork for agreement on the
Antarctic Treaty. SCAR, headquartered in
Cambridge, England, is a component of the
International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), a
nongovernmental planning and coordinating body
with its main offices in Paris, France. The SCAR
membership comes from countries interested and
active in Antarctic affairs, and its national committees
represent a vast storehouse of experience in
Antarctic science and logistics. SCAR meets every
other year, in alternative years to ATCMs.

The Antarctic agreements identified
previously, together with SCAR, constitute the

15

Antarctic Treaty System (ATS). Where ATCMs and
the meetings of the institutions established pursuant
to the other Antarctic treaties handle legal and
political matters of interest to governments, SCAR's
purpose is to serve as the crucible for identification
and coordination of scientific research programs in
Antarctica.

The Onset of Change

The last decade has witnessed a surge of activity in
Antarctica. Several countries have launched
commercial fishing operations in the Southern
Ocean. The discovery of traces of hydrocarbons in
1972-73 aroused interest in the possibility of
offshore minerals development. Tourism has grown
substantially, especially during the last two years,
and the number of countries conducting scientific
research in Antarctica has virtually doubled.
Antarctica's resources potential focused world
attention on the region, both from countries
interested in the resources and from scientists and
environmentalists bent on protecting Antarctica from
spoilage.

By mid-May of 1988, 26 additional nations
had joined the treaty, 8 of which have achieved
"consultative" status. In 1983 — at the request of
Malaysia and Antigua and Barbuda — and in every
subsequent year, the United Nations General
Assembly has considered the question of Antarctica.
Several countries that are not party to the Antarctic
Treaty have challenged the rights of the ATCPs to
assume the governance of Antarctic affairs and
advocated that the United Nations take over.

Last but not least, the type of scientific
research carried out in Antarctica has turned more
and more toward large-scale, interdisciplinary
programs exploring phenomena of global
significance, such as plate tectonics, oceanic
circulation, and the formation of world climate and
weather patterns.

Antarctica in the limelight has for the most
part produced good results. The ATCPs have been
forced to confront the record of how well they have
lived up to the foresight demonstrated by those who
conceived of and executed the ICY and the
structuring of the ATS. They have been challenged
primarily on two fronts: conservation and
environmental protection in Antarctica, and the
"openness of the ATS." As progress is made in
addressing these issues, however, new challenges
are emerging.

The Environmental Challenge

Whether from external criticism or from internal
assessment, it became clear in the early 1980s that
the Antarctic Treaty mechanism should address in a
systematic, comprehensive manner questions of
pollution and environmental protection.

In 1983, the Antarctic Treaty Consultative
Meeting, ATCM XII, initiated consideration of
environmental impact assessment procedures for
science and logistics activities in Antarctica and
called for revision of the code governing waste
disposal in Antarctica (ATCM Recommendation
VIII-1 1, Code of Conduct for Antarctic Expeditions
and Station Activities). At the next meeting, in 1985,

ATCM XIII launched discussion of a long-term
conservation strategy for Antarctica, and in 1987,
ATCM XIV examined ideas for developing a Code of
Conduct for Tourism in Antarctica, and on the
development and application of sophisticated
land-use planning and zoning techniques to deal
with multiple uses of Antarctic continental and
marine spaces.

In 1987, after four years, the environmental
impact assessment procedures were finally adopted
(when all parties will actually implement them is
unknown). The waste disposal code has yet to be
updated, although it is expected that this will occur
at ATCM XV in 1989.

Nevertheless, ATCM XIV crossed a major
threshold in acknowledging that new, more
comprehensive arrangements are required to
manage and protect Antarctica, and that protective
measures must be extended to marine areas. By
encouraging a review of the effectiveness of existing
waste disposal and protective arrangements, it also
recognized the need to document present practices
and their effects as a basis for seeking improvements.

These protective approaches long have been
advocated by environmentalists and some Antarctic
scientists. They also are being addressed in the
preparation of a long-term plan for Antarctic
conservation, which is being drawn up under the
auspices of the International Union for the
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (a
nongovernmental conservation organization with
headquarters in Gland, Switzerland), in collaboration
with SCAR. As these initiatives come to fruition, they
would permit the ATCPs to regain the high ground in
giving effect to Antarctica's status as a special
conservation area.

Coordinated Science

A coordinated approach to Antarctic conservation
and management requires the collection,
organization, and accessibility of scientific data that
can meet the needs of Antarctica's managers. If
managers are to better anticipate and plan for
expanding activities in Antarctica, they will have to
have available time-series monitoring data 1)
identifying the effects of human activities in
Antarctica, and 2) distinguishing the effects of these
activities from natural variability in the Antarctic
environment. This information will ultimately
promote the development of predictive capabilities.

The ATCPs are taking fledgling steps in the
direction of improving the comparability and
accessibility of scientific data on Antarctica, in
consultation with SCAR. As in many other fields of
science today, however, the advent of satellite data-
collection and computer modeling techniques are
opening new vistas in these areas that human
capabilities have yet to apprehend fully. These
efforts could be greatly enhanced through effective
international coordination, and collaborative
ventures could increase the cost-effectiveness of
individual national programs.

Questions of data collection and
management, and the design of scientific research
programs responsive to the needs of managers are
also at the top of the agenda of the annual meetings

16

Two mature elephant seals during a territorial dispute. Their inflated noses help produce a resonating roar to ward off rivals.
Elephant seals are one of the species protected under the CCAMLR treaty. (Photo courtesy British Antarctic Survey)

that take place under CCAMLR. The 1987 meeting
honed in on defining a detailed strategy to
implement the far-sighted "ecosystem standard"* for
conservation of marine living resources, with
particular emphasis on the need to accelerate the
articulation of monitoring and conservation strategies
for krill. Although data collection and handling
procedures are more advanced under CCAMLR than
those related to Antarctica generally, implementation
of CCAMLR would still benefit from continuing
cooperation in utilizing existing data sets and future
collaborative programs.

Lastly, countries active in Antarctica will have
to develop and fund scientific research and data
collection programs that can supplement and verify
the information submitted by countries with a vested
interest in resources exploitation.

* The "ecosystem standard" contained in the 1980
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living
Resources (CCAMLR) states that harvesting is not supposed
to decrease a population to levels below those that allow
stable replenishment. If populations are already depleted,
they are supposed to be restored. In addition, signatories
must maintain ecological relationships among species, and
prevent changes in the marine ecosystem that are not
potentially reversible over two or three decades. The
scientists involved, however, are still struggling to
determine how best to give effect to this standard.

The Openness Challenge

As ATCM policies have evolved, so too have debates
in the United Nations General Assembly undergone
subtle shifts since 1983. Initially, nontreaty countries
criticized the ATS for the "secrecy" with which
meetings are conducted, the "exclusivity" of the
group of countries active in Antarctica that could
afford to carry out "substantial" research activities
and thus qualify for decision-making status, and the
presence in ATS forums of the apartheid regime of
South Africa.

As more information has been made available
on ATS meetings and activities in Antarctica, there
has been less complaint about the lack of
information on Antarctica except in relation to the
negotiation of the Antarctic Minerals Convention. In
1986 and 1987, the UN General Assembly
resolutions on Antarctica drew more attention to the
minerals issue by calling for a moratorium on these
negotiations until all members of the international
community could participate fully in them.

Second, many nations that were initially
demanding that Antarctica be declared the
"common heritage of mankind," and administered
under United Nations auspices, today seem more
willing to consider alternative arrangements. These
alternatives would be consistent with common
heritage principles, without calling for actual
internationalization of the area — which would
undermine the careful balance struck by the treaty in

17

preserving the positions of both claimant and
nonclaimant states.

Instead, the nations "outside" the existing
decision-making structure have advocated that more
extensive relationships between existing
international organizations in the United Nations
system and the ATS would allow the views of the
wider international community to be expressed in
ATS forums, and establish accountability to the
broader international membership of UN
organizations. In this regard, the initiative in the
General Assembly in 1986 to have the United
Nations act as a central repository for information on
ATS meetings and activities, and the attempt in 1987
to have the ATCPs invite the UN Secretary-General
to attend ATCMs and the minerals regime
negotiations and report back to the General
Assembly, may succeed if they are developed on a
cooperative basis among all nations concerned. As
indicated by the Malaysian representative in 1987,
"in this way the international community could be
involved, even if indirectly, in Antarctica, and it
would also be able to judge if its interests and
concerns are being accommodated."

Third, there has been a bit of a reversal
among critics in the UN on the role of the Non-
consultative Parties within ATCMs. Where in
1983-84 the critics were willing to wait and see how
the influence of these nonvoting parties in their new
observer role evolved, in 1986-87 the critics
attacked the mere existence of the ATS' restricted
decision-making system in today's era of
international "democratization."

The Response

In 1 983, ATCM XII took the first important step in
responding to these criticisms, voiced later that fall in
the UN General Assembly debates. It invited the
Nonconsultative Parties to attend meetings as
observers; provided for the possibility that observers
from international organizations, such as the United
Nations specialized agencies or SCAR, could be
invited to ATCMs to contribute to discussions within
their areas of expertise; began to declassify
documentation from prior ATCMs; and agreed in
general to provide a more ample public record of
ATCMs, and circulate this to the United Nations and
other interested organizations and individuals.

Major additional strides were taken by ATCM
XIII in 1985, and ATCM XIV in 1987. The ATCPs
continued to expand the public record of ATCMs
and created national centers for dissemination of
information. ATCM XIV finally acted on the 1983
mandate to invite representatives of international
organizations to attend meetings as observers, and
provided for the further development of
relationships with them. ATCM XIV also instituted a
procedure where other elements of the ATS — SCAR
and CCAMLR — report to the consultative meeting
on relevant developments to help identify, among
other things, issues requiring coordination among
different ATS institutions.

Compliance

Compliance with measures adopted by the ATS is an
issue related to both environmental concerns and

the international community's desire to be informed
about the workings of the ATS. Few countries active
in Antarctica carry out inspections as provided for
under the Antarctic Treaty, and fewer still make their
inspection reports public. Moreover, parties to the
treaty have traditionally been reluctant to "rock the
boat" by asking too many questions about each
other's activities in Antarctica.

ATCM XIV represented a significant departure
in this regard, as countries began to exchange
information on a variety of national practices — the
planning and conduct of inspections; approval of
ATCM Recommendations; waste disposal,
environmental impact assessments, and dealings
with tour groups; and on the review of protective
arrangements.

Reports on national practice in Antarctica can
serve as a basis for evaluating and improving the
effectiveness of how ATCM measures are
implemented in Antarctica, and whether they are
being complied with. National reporting
requirements are now commonplace in international
agreements, including under CCAMLR and the
Antarctic Minerals Convention, so it is an anomaly
that the older Antarctic Treaty does not require this
of its signatory countries. Also, carrying out the
reporting requirement will improve communication
within each government between the program
managers responsible for science and logistics
activities in Antarctica and the policymakers who
approve standards and regulations applicable to
them.

Another means to ensure compliance with
Antarctic measures is to provide for outside scrutiny
of actions contemplated and taken. The increasing
public availability of records of meetings and
activities in Antarctica is helpful in this regard, as are
procedures for observer participation in meetings, by
both nonvoting nations and international
organizations. Observers in meetings should have
the option to review and comment on issues and
documentation under discussion. However, the
observer role in this area has yet to be developed
fully.

The Challenges of the Future

Although its time has not yet come, the possibility of
establishing a permanent secretariat under the
Antarctic Treaty was discussed extensively at ATCM
XIV.

At the moment, the Antarctic Treaty has no
permanent secretariat, although a secretariat has
been established under CCAMLR. The SCAR
secretariat, consisting of a part-time executive
secretary and a full-time assistant, and devoted only
to the coordination of Antarctic scientific activity, has
been severely strained at times by requests from the
Consultative Parties. Even though an Antarctic Treaty
secretariat might have value, some ATCPs are fearful
of "bureaucratizing" the Antarctic Treaty, and some
claimant nations are fearful that further
"internationalization" of the ATS could detract from
the special circumstances of Antarctica, which
require a delicate balancing of claimant and
nonclaimant interests.

18

Yet, a secretariat could serve as an important
source of continuity and expedite communication of
information and documentation on the more varied
and complicated issues facing ATCMs today. As the
Antarctic family grows and the Antarctic agenda
expands, it may no longer be appropriate for ATCMs
to move as slowly as they have been in adopting,
approving, and enforcing measures applicable in
Antarctica.

A secretariat also could enhance the liaison
within and beyond the ATS. This becomes
particularly important in realizing the benefits of
international collaboration in basic scientific research
programs, and in the more applied monitoring
programs.

Coordination must occur among the
policymakers responsible for articulating and
enforcing measures applicable in Antarctica, the
scientific community represented by SCAR, and
those responsible within national governments for
managing Antarctic research programs and logistics
facilities.

The type and balance of science done in the
Antarctic also presents a challenge. Antarctic
scientists must be prepared to devote some of their
skills and resources to analyses tailored to
management needs. Otherwise, they may be forced
to contemplate a more active form of management
by policymakers and program managers of the
directions taken and funded. SCAR has already
nodded in this direction with the creation of the
Group of Specialists on Southern Ocean Ecology,
which among other things, is to respond to requests
for scientific advice from the Antarctic Treaty and
CCAMLR, and the new Group of Specialists on
Antarctic Environmental Affairs and Conservation,
whose terms of reference are to be developed and
approved this year.

Scientists and science program managers
could usefully devote more attention to facilitating
broader international participation in Antarctic
research programs among interested individuals and
nations. Some participants in the UN General
Assembly debate have suggested the establishment
of international stations for scientific research where
interested scientists from developing nations unable
to afford their own research programs would be
welcome. (This idea has been supported by the
Polar Research Board, the U.S. National Committee
for SCAR. Its publication U.S. Research in Antarctica
in 2000 A.D. and Beyond: A Preliminary Assessment,
1986, suggests internationalizing access and
cooperation at some of the U.S. facilities in
Antarctica.)

Lastly, program managers and policymakers
may have to combine forces to focus on another
impending and interrelated set of issues: the
"activities criterion" for decision-making status in
ATS forums, and problems arising from increasing
concentration of research stations and logistics
facilities in Antarctica. As long as the ATCPs interpret
the activities criterion to mean establishment of a
permanent research station in Antarctica, countries
seeking ATCP status for political reasons will increase
the potential for interference among stations and
logistics, increase the possibility of adverse

cumulative impacts on the Antarctic environment,
diminish opportunities to conduct research in
undisturbed areas, and perhaps foster unproductive
duplication of research.

While it is unlikely that the criterion itself will
change, the manner in which it is interpreted
warrants re-examination by the ATCPs. International
research programs that employ facilities shared by
scientists from several countries, and reduce the
need for separate national facilities, could ease the
problem of concentration of activities (and demands
on the environment) caused by the location of
several stations in a small area, and reduce criticisms
of the ATS on the basis of its "exclusivity."

As the possibility of review of the Antarctic
Treaty approaches in 1991, three key issues should
form the core of the ATCM agenda: establishment of
an Antarctic Treaty System secretariat; addressing the
interpretation of requirements for consultative status;
and the related questions of increased collaboration
and coordination among research and monitoring
programs — drawing on the combined expertise of
policymakers, scientists, and science program
managers.

Lee A. Kimball is an Associate, International Institute for
Environment and Development, Washington, D.C.
Ms. Kimball is also the Executive Director of the Council
on Ocean Law, Washington, D.C.

Selected Readings

Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. 1987. International

Research in Antarctica. Cambridge, England: Oxford University

Press.
Mitchell, B. 1988. Undermining Antarctica. Technology Review 91(2):

48-57.
Orrego-Vicuna, F. 1987. Antarctic Bibliography (with particular

reference to the legal and political issues of cooperation and the

regime on mineral resources). Santiago, Chile: Institute of

International Studies, University of Chile.
Polar Research Board. 1986. /Antarctic Treaty System: An Assessment,

Proceedings of a Workshop held at Beardmore South Field

Camp, Antarctica, January 7-13, 1985. Washington, D.C.:

National Academy Press.
Triggs, C. 1987. The Antarctic Treaty regime: Law, Environment and

Resources. 239 pp. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University

Press.

19

The Antarctic Mineral

by R. Tucker Scully

EDITOR'S NOTE: The 20 consultative nations
adopted the Antarctic Minerals Convention on 2
June 1988, the U.S. State Department reported.
The convention, it added, would be signed and
ratified at a later date.

I he 20 Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties*
(ATCPs) met in Wellington, New Zealand, from
May 2 to June 2, 1988, in an effort to complete
negotiation of a treaty to deal with possible mineral
resource activities in Antarctica. (The 17 other parties
to the Antarctic Treaty that are not Consultative
Parties were invited as observers.) Talks on such an
agreement began six years ago, also in Wellington.
At that time, the ATCPs committed themselves to
reach an agreed system for determining the
acceptability of possible mineral resource activities in
Antarctica, and for governing any such activities
judged acceptable.

Resource Potential Unknown

Though speculative estimates have been made, the
mineral resource potential of Antarctica is unknown.
It is, therefore, impossible to predict if, or when,
commercial interest in mineral resource exploration
or development in Antarctica might emerge. The
ATCPs, however, have agreed that it is important to
have in place an effective mechanism for the
decisions that would be necessary if such interest
arises. The objective is to ensure that the possibility
of mineral resource activities does not become a
source of discord or conflict in Antarctica, and that
rigorous environmental criteria are applied to any
decisions about such activities. Negotiation of an
effective mechanism to achieve these purposes is
best undertaken prior to, rather than after,
coalescence of resource appetites.

The agreement on the table was of necessity
of a framework character, setting forth the
obligations and machinery necessary to establish the
legal basis for mineral resource activities in
Antarctica, and the means for determining if, when,
and under what conditions, mineral resource
exploration and development may occur. For this
reason, the negotiating instrument did not set forth
detailed provisions regarding mining activities, but
established the process of how detailed terms and

* Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Britain, Chile, China,
East Germany, West Germany, France, India, Italy, Japan,
New Zealand, Norway, Poland, South Africa, the Soviet
Union, the United States, and Uruguay.

conditions would be developed when the need
arises. In this regard, the agreement differs from the
approach taken in the deep seabed mining
provisions of the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea, which sought to address in detail
possible manganese nodule mining.

The agreement offers the means for
development of a wide range of possible resources,
from hydrocarbons to hard rock ores, and in various
possible areas — onshore or offshore. Under its
provisions, the initial stage of mineral resource
activity — prospecting — would be permitted without
prior authorization by the institutions, although it
would be subject to generally applicable
environmental and safety standards.

Exploration and development would require
prior authorization by the institutions, which would
grant exclusive rights to individual operators. The
agreement negotiating draft did not contain detailed
regulations governing exploration and development.
Rather, it incorporated general standards for judging
whether, and under what conditions, mineral
resource exploration and/or development would be
permitted in general areas, and, if permitted, for
judging specific applications of such activities. These
standards included provisions that no mineral
resource activities take place until there exists
sufficient information to judge their possible impacts,
and until it is judged, based on assessment of those
impacts, that there would not be adverse
environmental impacts.

Regulatory Committee Proposed

The system envisaged in the agreement rests on the
assumption that there are areas of Antarctica that
form coherent units for resource management
purposes. The process would be initiated by the
identification of a general area for a particular
resource or resources. Any party could propose that
the principal institution, the commission, identify an
area. In determining to identify an area, the
commission would be required to satisfy itself that
such activities would be consistent with the general
standards of the agreement, and to configure the
area in such fashion, that in view of its physical,
geological, and environmental characteristics, it
represented a logical resource management unit.
The identification of a general area would not
constitute a decision to authorize a particular
exploration and development project in the area
concerned. Rather, it would be a threshold decision,
triggering the elaboration of specific requirements
for exploration and development, and subsequently,
consideration of any specific exploration and
development proposals.

20

Resources Negotiations

A limited membership institution — a
regulatory committee — would be established for
each area identified. The regulatory committee
would be composed of approximately 10 members,
comprising parties most directly interested in the
area concerned, and, subject to review by the
commission, would set forth the requirements to
which any applicants for exploration and
development in the area must conform. Following
establishment of the requirements, the regulatory
committee would be responsible for judging specific
application for rights to specific sites. It also would
monitor the conduct of any activities undertaken
pursuant to an approved application, including
review of any proposals to proceed from exploration
to development.

Fulfillment by the ATCPs of their commitment
to achieve an agreement on this basis is a
challenging task. The agreement will have to be
acceptable to socialist and nonsocialist countries; to
developed and developing countries; and, most
particularly, to those claiming territorial sovereignty
in Antarctica; and finally, those, like the United
States, that neither assert nor recognize such
claims — all of whom are represented among the
ATCPs. The agreement also will need to
accommodate the interests of the international
community as a whole. It must be open and
balanced, not only to respond to those who have
challenged the Antarctic Treaty system in the United
Nations and elsewhere, but, more importantly, to
achieve its purposes of maintaining Antarctica as the
only area of the planet set aside exclusively for
peaceful purposes.

Important issues were on the agenda in
Wellington. These included the decision-making
provisions of the institutions to be established. A
balance is required between those who wish to
apply the principle of consensus, and those who fear
that such provisions could be used to block
operation of the system. The issues included the
question as to whether the agreement should
incorporate provisions to encourage joint
participation in future mineral resource activities,

should they occur. They also included the complex
task of ensuring that effective provisions relating to
liability apply to any permitted mineral resource
activities, and that there are effective procedures for
settlement of disputes over such activities.

The United States, for its part, participated in
the Wellington session with the objective of
achieving an acceptable agreement — based on the
existing framework approach — one that will not only
satisfy its environmental and resource concerns, but
also the full range of its interests in Antarctica,
including a commitment to maintain the world's
southernmost region as a zone of peace.

R. Tucker Scully is Director, Office of Oceans and Polar
Affairs, U.S. State Department, Washington, D.C. He is a U.S.
representative to Antarctic Treaty negotiations.

If the ice sheets were removed and the bedrock allowed to
adjust, to compensate for the change in weight, the Antarctic
coastline would probably look like this.

21

The Antarctic Legal Regime
and the Law of the Sea

by Christopher C. Joyner

/Applying international ocean law often hinges on
the legal status of the adjoining land. For example,
the commonly used definitions — territorial sea,
Exclusive Economic Zone, and high seas — denote
varying amounts of sovereignty accorded to the
coastal state/country, and similarly varying freedoms
accorded to the balance of the international
community.

But, Antarctica is the only continent without
recognized sovereign countries. Because aspects of
the international law relating to the continent are
therefore ambiguous, the application of ocean law to
its surrounding waters also is ambiguous.

Taken by themselves, the legal systems
governing primarily the continent (the Antarctic
Treaty System) and the surrounding waters (the
United Nations Law of the Sea Convention) are open
to considerable debate. Taken together, they present
a tangle of legal questions.

Although the multinational regime
administering the region clearly accepts the
proposition that the Law of the Sea applies to the
circumpolar waters of the Southern Ocean,
fundamental questions turn on which aspects of
contemporary ocean law are relevant to the
Antarctic, and what maritime rights and duties are
applicable to which countries over what parts of the
region. The 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the
Sea (UNCLOS) did little to resolve these issues. In
fact, certain aspects of this "new" Law of the Sea
have actually presented more pressing legal
concerns over jurisdictional responsibilities and uses
of Antarctic waters.

As a result, the late 1980s are an interesting
period for Antarctic law — as diverse national views
and international legal agreements are being tested
and blended, and as nations seek new levels of
international cooperation on the lands and waters
surrounding the South Pole.

The Antarctic Treaty System

The regime presently governing activities on and
around the continent was created in 1959 by the
Antarctic Treaty. The Antarctic Treaty applies to the
area south of 60 degrees South latitude, including all
ice shelves. This agreement provides for
demilitarization, denuclearization, and peaceful uses
only of the region (see page 1 1); freedom of
scientific research and cooperation; open,
unannounced onsite inspection; and the obligation
to settle disputes peacefully.

Twenty states today comprise the "Antarctic
Treaty Consultative Parties" (ATCPs), who under the

treaty are responsible for making policy in the treaty
area (page 14). To supplement the Antarctic Treaty,
over the last two decades the ATCPs have
negotiated other agreements directly related to
resource management and ocean law.

First, the Convention for the Conservation of
Antarctic Seals was promulgated in 1972, with the
express purpose of limiting the vulnerability of seals
to commercial exploitation in the region. Second, in
1980 the Convention on the Conservation of
Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) was
negotiated. This treaty, which entered into force in
1982, is designed primarily to foster conservation
and prudent management of krill fisheries in the
Southern Ocean. Third, since 1982 the ATCPs have
been involved in a series of negotiations aimed at
establishing a treaty-based minerals regime. The
jurisdictional scope of this Antarctic Minerals
Convention will cover mineral-related activities on,
in, and around the continent south of 60 degrees
South latitude. These activities might include mineral
exploitation of the ice shelves, and the seabed and
subsoil of adjacent offshore areas. Collectively, these
multinational agreements comprise the Antarctic
Treaty System, which has administered policy in the
region since 1961.

Confusing the Antarctic legal situation is the
fact that earlier during this century seven countries
made sovereign claims to pie-shaped portions of the
continent (page 23). Political complications among
the Antarctic countries have been avoided by a
provision in the Antarctic Treaty that essentially
freezes the status quo of the claims prior to the
treaty without accepting, denying, qualifying or
clarifying their legal character under international
law. Therefore, the treaty can function smoothly by
allowing parties to agree to disagree over the status
of the claims.

The "New" Law of the Sea

The UN Law of the Sea Treaty, or UNCLOS, contains
several important innovations for ocean law. It
establishes a 12-nautical-mile maximum limit that
coastal nations may set for their territorial sea. It
defines the continental shelf's limit as the outer edge
of the continental margin or 200 nautical miles from
the coast, whichever is further seaward. It permits
the coastal nation to establish Exclusive Economic
Zones (EEZs) beyond the territorial sea, extending up
to 200 nautical miles from the coast. While no
definition of "high seas" is specified, the UNCLOS
provides that all rules regarding the high seas should
apply seaward of the FEZ.

Special regimes also are created for marine

22

Antarctica: Claims and Jurisdictions in the Southern Ocean

— « T

NORWAY 7
(UNDEFINED)

/

90° E

Legend:

200 Nautical Mile Zones

Ice Shelves

« Christopher C. Joyner
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1967

scientific research, environmental protection,
resource management and conservation, and islands.
Perhaps most controversial, provision is made for an
International Seabed Authority to regulate
exploration and exploitation of the ocean floor
"beyond the limits of national jurisdiction."

While neither Antarctica nor the Southern
Ocean were of particular concern to the negotiators
at the time, provisions in the UNCLOS plainly hold
important implications for the contemporary

situation in the Antarctic, and the multinational
regime currently overseeing affairs in the region.
There is, however, a weak link in connecting the
newer Law of the Sea to the previously existing
Antarctic Treaty System.

Territorial Limits

The Antarctic Treaty makes no mention of zones of
offshore jurisdiction. The relevance of applying

23

certain aspects of the new Law of the Sea to the
Antarctic thus hinges on the legal status of the
continent. No sovereign country exists on the
continent, and claims made to Antarctic territory are
not the equivalent of independent statehood.
Moreover, the Antarctic Treaty does not purport to
set up sovereign supervision of the continent and its
circumpolar waters. As a consequence, it seems
highly doubtful whether Antarctica today could
qualify as a condominium,* or a continent of
sovereign states. Assuming no coastal nations exist in
Antarctica, it is not possible to project the principle
of territoriality seaward from the continent. As a
result, no territorial seas or Exclusive Economic
Zones contiguous to Antarctica would seem
permissible.

The continental shelf regime in Antarctica also
presents a problematic legal situation. The 1958
Convention on the Continental Shelf maintains that
"[t]he coastal state exercises over the continental
shelf sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring it
and exploiting its resources." Similarly, the UNCLOS
allows the coastal nation to obtain sovereign rights
over natural resources of the seabed and subsoil of
the continental shelf, as well as the exclusive right to
undertake or authorize exploration or exploitation
ventures. The coastal nation also is mandated to set
environmental standards for all activities and
installations within its continental shelf jurisdiction.

But, what happens in the event that a coastal
nation legally does not exist in the territory? Given
the situation in Antarctica, who should have
jurisdiction over, and thereby profit from, the use of
living and nonliving resources on and in the
continental shelf? Who should be responsible for
insuring the environmental integrity of the shelf? The
new Law of the Sea fails to provide satisfactory
answers for the Antarctic situation.

A partial solution may be in a new treaty for
managing minerals activities on and around the
continent — presently being negotiated (page 20).
Included within this draft minerals convention's
scope is the Antarctic continental shelf, which lies
wholly within the proposed area of application.

If mineral mining is to take place on the
Antarctic continental shelf, however, who will profit?
Even the Antarctic Treaty fosters ambiguity. Article
IV of the treaty froze the existing claims (thus, at least
allowing for "ownership" of portions of the shelf),
while Article VI allows for the exercising of "high
seas" rights by any country.

The claimant countries argue that the right to
extend their territorial jurisdiction seaward, like the
claims themselves, is protected by the treaty.
Nothing in the treaty impugns the claimants' right to
assert jurisdiction offshore. The sector lines used to
delimit various Antarctic claims do not stop at the
continent's edge. Instead, they extend far out into
the ocean, and, with the exception of Norway's, end
at the 50 degree and 60 degree South latitude line
(see map on page 23). Importantly, no legal
significance pertaining to jurisdiction has ever been

* In the geopolitical context, joint sovereignty or rule by two
or more nations over a colony or politically dependent
territory, as in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.

attached to, or publicly suggested about, the sector
lines by claimant states.

Nonclaimants, on the contrary, do not
recognize these claims. They contend that the
absence of a coastal nation means that no
jurisdictional zones exist offshore of the continent.
Under this argument, under international law,
Antarctica's circumpolar waters should be regarded
as high seas areas that extend right up to the ice
shelves and the continent's shoreline. All states
would then possess traditional high seas freedoms in
the Southern Ocean, including rights of free
navigation, overflight, laying of pipelines and cables,
fishing, and scientific research. The chief
qualifications on these rights would be the duty to
conserve and protect living resources in the region.

Environmental Protection

The Antarctic marine ecosystem is both relatively
simple and delicate. It is directly dependent on krill
(the shrimp-like animal characteristic of the Southern
Ocean) for sustaining the balance of nature in the
local food chains. Consequently, preservation and
protection of the Southern Ocean's environment is a
prominent concern among the ATCP states, and the
new Law of the Sea serves that end well. The
UNCLOS obligates countries to restrain and control
use of pollution-causing technologies in the marine
environment, which of course would include
Antarctic seas. Countries moreover are enjoined by
the UNCLOS to prevent, reduce, and control
maritime pollution, regardless of whether it is
land-based, seabed-based, vessel-source,
dumping-source, or atmospheric in its origin.

The primary responsibility for monitoring and
assessing pollution in Antarctic waters presumably
would accrue to the International Maritime
Organization, referred to in the UNCLOS as the
"competent international organization." Other
relevant ocean law measures for protecting the
Antarctic marine environment are the various
international conventions designed to prevent
pollution of the high seas by oil. Their scope of
application clearly includes the Southern Ocean.

Concern over harm to the marine
environment associated with possible minerals
development on and offshore Antarctica prompted
the ATCPs to include various procedural safeguards
in the new minerals treaty. These protective
measures have not satisfied environmental groups,
however. Greenpeace and the Antarctic and
Southern Ocean Coalition (a coalition of
environmental groups based in Sydney, Australia) are
still quick to criticize the relatively narrow scope and
limited application of environmental provisions
when compared to the perceived priority given
exploration and exploitation opportunities in the
treaty. No doubt international legal measures for
protecting the Antarctic marine environment will
continue to evolve as particular needs become more
apparent.

Resource Management and Conservation

The Antarctic continent is practically devoid of
indigenous (native to the region) life. By contrast, its
circumpolar waters teem with abundant living

24

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ANTARM'IS

Antarctic Treaty

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ANTARCTIC

resources. Seals, whales, finfish, squid, and seabirds
(particularly penguins) are found in significant
numbers. Most attention in recent years has been
focused on krill, which swarm along the southeastern
waters of Antarctica, as well as around several
archipelagoes to the north (see also page 75).
Though prospects for a commercial harvest of krill
presently are not bright, the huge quantity of krill
believed available in the Southern Ocean implicitly
holds promise for supplementing the world's
growing protein needs. This realization was an
important stimulus for the ATCPs to negotiate the
CCAMLR.

The basic intent of CCAMLR is to manage and
monitor fishing by nations in the region. An
"ecosystemic approach" serves as the harvesting
guideline for fishermen, and a special institution, the
CCAMLR Commission, was created to coordinate
scientific advice with resource management policies
in the Antarctic. CCAMLR does not restrict the high
seas right contained in the UNCLOS to fish in the
region. Rather, it reinforces the duty to conserve
living resources in the course of exercising that right.
UNCLOS obligates fishing states in the Southern
Ocean to use the "best scientific evidence available"
to ensure that a maximum sustainable yield be
maintained for all harvested species.

Regarding nonliving resources, the mineral
wealth of Antarctica is unknown. Trace amounts of
many metals (for example, gold, silver, tin, cobalt,
uranium, and platinum) have been found, but none
in any notable quantity. Some interest has been
expressed in the potential of oil and gas resources on
the Antarctic continental shelf (see also page 32).
Yet, no appreciable evidence has been made public
so far to suggest that substantial hydrocarbon
deposits are present on or offshore the continent.
Nevertheless, should continental shelf exploitation of
oil and gas in the Antarctic ever come about, it very
likely will be regulated by the new minerals regime,
rather than the provisions in the UNCLOS. The lack
of a sovereign coastal nation on Antarctica would
seem to preclude the relevance of UNCLOS, unless
the circumpolar continental shelf came to be
regarded as a legal projection of the deep seabed
under the high seas. In that case, it would fall under
the regulatory scope of the International Seabed
Authority set out in the UNCLOS.

Deep Seabed Mining

In the UNCLOS, the "international seabed area"
comprises the seabed and subsoil beyond the limits
of national jurisdiction. This means the area beyond
the limits of the continental shelf subject to coastal
nation jurisdiction. This deep seabed area under the
UNCLOS is declared to be "the common heritage of
mankind." No claim, appropriation, or exercise of
national sovereignty is permitted over the seabed
area or its resources, the principal one of which is
polymetallic nodules.

To regulate and manage exploration and
exploitation activities in the area, the UNCLOS
created the International Seabed Authority (the
Authority). The leading question here is, where do
the international rights and duties of the Authority
end, and those of the Antarctic Treaty System for

exploiting minerals on the deep seabed plains
around the continent of Antarctica begin?

Though not yet fully resolved, the ATCPs
(operating under the Antarctic Treaty System) have
attempted to offset potential jurisdictional conflict
with the Authority (operating under UNCLOS) over
the deep seabed. The new Antarctic Minerals
Convention "will apply to Antarctic mineral resource
activities which take place on the continent of
Antarctica and all Antarctic islands, including all ice
shelves, south of 60 degrees South latitude, and the
seabed and sub-soil of adjacent offshore areas; . . .
[S]uch areas do not include the deep seabed . . .
seaward of the [continental] margin adjacent to the
relevant land area, or more than 200 nautical miles
from its coast. . . ." The clear intent by the ATCPs in
fashioning this provision was to establish limits of
jurisdiction over the circumpolar seabed similar to
those limits set out in the UNCLOS for coastal states
over their continental shelves.

At this time, neither the minerals treaty nor
UNCLOS is in force, and the issue of conflict
remains academic. Should both treaties eventually
come into force, however, jurisdictional questions
over the rights of parties to mine minerals on the
ocean floor seem more likely to become pressing
international juridical concerns.

Marine Scientific Research

The Antarctic Treaty is conspicuously noteworthy for
promoting international cooperation in free scientific
investigation among the "contracting parties" (that is,
the ATCPs). Under UNCLOS, the language is similar,
but has broader applicability. Here, for parties and
nonparties alike, legal restrictions for conducting
marine scientific research in Antarctic waters are
supplied by Part XIII of the UNCLOS. Countries and
"other competent international organizations" are
permitted to conduct such scientific research, so
long as it is carried out for peaceful purposes and
does not interfere with "other legitimate uses of the
sea." The UNCLOS also gives all countries the legal
right to conduct scientific research on the local deep
seabed and in the water column beyond the limits of
national jurisdiction.

Because EEZs cannot exist in the absence of a
sovereign coastal nation, the logical inference would
permit scientific research without consent up to the
edge of Antarctica's continental land (ice) mass.
Research installations and related facilities in
Antarctic waters are allowed. They cannot, however,
generate territorial jurisdictional limits, be construed
legally as islands, or obstruct international shipping
lanes in Antarctic waters.

Islands

A number of islands in the Southern Ocean hold
particular significance for Antarctica and the law of
the sea — and may serve as tests for sovereignty
versus high seas claims. Included among these island
groups are Macquarie Island (Australia); Peter I Island
(Norway); the South Shetlands (Argentina, Chile, and
Britain); South Georgia Island (Argentina and Britain);
the South Orkneys (Argentina and Britain); the South
Sandwich group (Argentina and Britain); Bouvet
Island (Norway); Prince Edward Island (South Africa);

26

Crozet Island (France); Kerguelen Island (France);
and Heard and McDonald Islands (Australia).

While titles to some are disputed, all these
land formations qualify as islands under the
UNCLOS. Accordingly, each is legally capable of
generating a territorial sea, contiguous zone,
Exclusive Economic Zone, and continental shelf
delimitation. Around some of these island groups, in
particular the South Shetlands, South Orkneys, South
Sandwich group, South Georgia Island, and Bouvet
Island, are impressive krill concentrations.
Declaration of 200-nautical-mile EEZs around these
islands consequently envelops substantial krill
resources, in effect nationalizing them for
appropriation by the islands' respective claimant/
possessor country. Perhaps because of the resources
involved, as well as the legal precedent, declarations
by France in 1978 of EEZs around Crozet and
Kerguelen Islands, and by Australia in 1979 of 200-
nautical-mile fishery zones around Heard and
McDonald Islands have been largely ignored by the
international community, albeit the lawfulness of
these zones has not yet been formally challenged.

Accommodation by Two Systems

The oceans adjacent to the Antarctic continent fall
under two distinct international legal systems.
Accommodation will not always be easy, and there
has been some criticism.

The Antarctic Treaty System presently
administering activities in the Southern Ocean takes
Law of the Sea considerations into account when
negotiating policies affecting national activities in the
region. The relatively confined ATCP process,
however, especially as it regards resource
management in the Antarctic, has not escaped
international criticism. Primarily because only a
select few countries have gained ATCP status thus
far, nonparty states, such as Malaysia, Antigua and
Barbuda, and Sierra Leone, have been quick to find
fault in the system. Not surprisingly, these
governments have exclaimed their preference for
creating a "common heritage of mankind" regime to
govern the Antarctic.

The likelihood of such a new regime coming
about in the foreseeable future seems dim,
especially considering the ATCPs' opposition to the
proposal on grounds of the substantial financial,
scientific, and legal commitments already invested
by ATCPs in Antarctic activities during the last three
decades.

The Antarctic Treaty System and the UN
Convention on the Law of the Sea together supply
an appropriate legal framework for prudent resource
management, conservation, and protection of the
Antarctic marine environment. Nonetheless, both
these legal regimes must continue to evolve in scope
and content so as to permit ocean law in the
Antarctic to keep pace with new demands imposed
by technology and global resource needs.

For international interests to be best served in
the Antarctic, the current Antarctic Treaty System
must become suitably accommodated with the new
Law of the Sea. This need is especially apparent as
ocean law emerges through national practice during
the coming decades.

The prospects for the Law of the Sea
becoming even more integral to the management of
Antarctic maritime activities look good. This trend
plainly is encouraging. In the contemporary era of
increasing competition for scarce resources and
exaggerated ideological priorities, such an
opportunity for international cooperation certainly
should not be lost.

Christopher C. loyner is Associate Professor of Political
Science and a Member of the School of International Affairs
at George Washington University, Washington, D.C. During
1986-87, he was a Senior Research Fellow with the Marine
Policy Center at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

Selected Readings

Auburn, F. M. 1982. Antarctic Law and Politics. Bloomington: Indiana

University Press.
Joyner, C. 1988. The evolving Antarctic minerals regime. Ocean

Development and International Law 19(1): 73-96.
Joyner, C. 1987. The Antarctic minerals negotiating process.

American lournal of International Law 81(4): 888-905.
Joyner, C. 1984. Ocean pollution and the Southern Ocean:

Rethinking the international legal implications for Antarctica.

Natural Resources journal 24: 1 -40.
Joyner, C., and S. Chopra, eds. 1988. The Antarctic Legal Regime.

The Hague, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff.
Oxman, B. 1986. Antarctica and the new law of the sea. Cornell

International Law lournal 1 9(2): 2 1 1 -248.
Triggs, C., ed. 1987. The Antarctic Treaty Regime. Cambridge,

England: Cambridge University Press.

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27

A Brief History of Antarctica

500 BC Greek philosophers argue that the Earth is a sphere: geographers fill this new

world with imaginary lands and seas; their belief in symmetry leads to concept of
a southern landmass, Terra Australis Incognita, to balance the known northern
lands.

1772

Yves Joseph de Kerguelen-Tremarec (French): discovers a group of ice-bound
islands in southern Indian Ocean, but unable to land because of fog and ice
conditions; fabricates reports of rich land where ". . . wood, minerals, diamonds,
[and] rubies will be found"; is sent back in 1774 to colonize and establish trade
with natives, but finds land inhospitable; court-martialled on return to France.

1772-75

1790

1820

ANTARCTIC TERRITORY

1838-42

Captain James Cook (British): is first to cross Antarctic Circle; goes as far south as
71 degrees 10 minutes South latitude, but never sees continent; dispels myth of
rich and temperate Terra Australis; reports abundance of seals and whales.

Fur sealers (British and American) begin hunting in Antarctic waters: fur seal
population decimated by 1830.

Three countries claim to be first to sight continent: Britain — Edward Bransfield,
naval officer; Russia — Thaddeus von Bellingshausen (though he does not claim to
have seen it himself); United States — Nathaniel Palmer, a sealing captain.

1819-21 Bellingshausen expedition (Russian): circumnavigates
continent in two seasons; discovers Peter I Island and
Alexander Island; ship reinforced with copper-plated
bottom.

1821 Captain John Davis (American): first to set foot on

continent, on Antarctic Peninsula.

1823 James Weddell (British sealer): penetrates far into pack ice

and discovers Weddell Sea; sets record of 74 degrees
15 minutes South latitude.

1837-40 Jules-Sebastien C. Dumont d'Urville (French): claims part of
continent for France (names it Adelie Land for his wife);
takes back thousands of natural history specimens.

Charles Wilkes (American): leads large, poorly organized expedition; upon his
return, he is court-martialled by U.S. Navy for poor conduct as Commander, but
awarded gold medal by the Royal Geographic Society for exploration.

28

ANTARCTIC TERRITORY

1839-43 James C. Ross (British): leads expedition to find South
Magnetic Pole (had discovered North Magnetic Pole in
1831); discovers Ross Sea, Ross Ice Shelf, Transantarctic
Mountains, and two volcanoes (one active); sets new
southward record, going past 78 degrees South latitude;
Joseph Hooker, a scientist signed onto expedition as a
surgeon, makes vast plant collection.

1874 Captain George S. Nare (British): commands HMS

Challenger; first steam vessel to cross Antarctic Circle;
collects rocks dredged from ocean bed, which were later
shown to be of continental, not island, origin.

1892 Carl A. Larsen (Norwegian) (see 1904): lands on island near tip of Antarctic

Peninsula; discovers first fossils — petrified wood — pointing toward a warmer
past.

1894 Bull-Kristensen expedition (Norwegian): first to set foot on mainland, outside of
Antarctic Peninsula; find lichen, first sign of plant life.

1895 Sixth International Geographical Congress in London: resolves that "the
exploration of the Antarctic region is the greatest piece of geographical
exploration still to be undertaken"; launches era of government-sponsored
national expeditions.

1898 Adrien de Gerlache de Gomery (Belgian): ship drifts in pack ice for 12 months,

making it first ship to winter in the Antarctic; Roald Amundsen (see 1910) is a
member of the expedition.

1898-1900 Carsten E. Borchgrevink (Norwegian): first expedition to winter on land; zoologist,
Nicolai Hanson, dies; first Antarctic burial.

1901-03 Erich von Drygaiski (German): leads official German expedition; meteorologists
on board observe the abrupt sinking of "ice water" below water along the line
now called the Antarctic Convergence; ship held in ice for 12 months, crew had
to stoke ship's furnace with penguins (penguin blubber burns well!).

1901-03 Otto G. Nordenskjold (Swedish): ship crushed in ice in Weddell Sea; crew
winters in three separate parties until rescued by Argentine Navy.

1901-03 Robert F. Scott (British) (see 1910-12): leads the Discovery Expedition; the ship,
Discovery, is built expressly for navigation in sea ice; first extensive scientific
expedition to continent; makes first serious attempt to reach South Pole, reaching
82 degrees 15 minutes South latitude; performs aerial surveys from captive
balloon, from which Ernest Shackleton (see 1908 and 1914) takes photographs.

1902-04 William S. Bruce (Scottish): first oceanographic exploration of Weddell Sea; sets
up meteorological observatory in South Orkney Islands.

1904 Birth of modern Antarctic whaling: Carl A. Larsen (Norwegian) establishes shore-

based station on South Georgia.

1908 Ernest Shackleton (British) sleds to 88 degrees 23 minutes
South, 97 miles from the South Pole.

1909 T. W. Edgeworth David (Australian): reaches South Magnetic
Pole, which was then at 72 degrees 25 minutes South, 1 15
degrees 16 minutes East.

29

1909 Robert Peary (American): reaches North Pole (90 degrees North), leaving South

Pole (90 degrees South) as the Earth's "last geographical prize."

1910-12 Robert F. Scott (British) and Roald Amundsen (Norwegian) race to be first at the
South Pole; Scott sets out for Antarctica intending scientific studies as well as first
trek to South Pole; while enroute, Scott receives telegram from Amundsen, "Beg
to inform you proceeding to Antarctica"; Amundsen's team of five men has 4
sleds and 52 dogs, which can be killed and used for food; has good trip with fairly
good weather; Scott has no faith in dog teams, chooses to ski to pole; Scott's
party of 14 men moves slowly because of bad weather, rough terrain, and
exhaustion; 14 December 1911, Amundsen reaches pole; Scott reaches pole
18 January 1912, finding Norwegian tent, flag, and letters; on trip back, weather
very foul, supplies dwindling, all four men in Scott's party die by March 1912;
bodies not found until November 1912, as well as diary left by Scott. Last entry:

BRITISH
ANTARCTIC TERRITORY

1914 Shackleton aims to cross Antarctic by land; ship is crushed in ice; crew camps on

floating ice until it drifts to an island; eventually rescued by Chilean vessel in
1916.

1917-40 Countries start laying claims to various regions on Antarctic mainland and
adjacent islands: 1908, Britain; 1923, New Zealand; 1924, France; 1925,
Argentina; 1931, Australia; 1939, Norway; 1940, Chile.

1923 British Discovery Committee founded: first real effort at sustained research in the

Antarctic; 13 separate cruises made between 1925 and 1939.

1928 Sir Hubert Wilkins (British): introduces first aircraft, allowing aerial surveys; fails in
two attempts to fly across continent, but takes remarkable aerial photos.

1928-38 Norwegian ships and aircraft explore coastline and interior of Enderby Land and
Dronning Maud Land: later planes from Hitler's Germany survey area and
symbolically stake claim to Antarctica by dropping thousands of metal darts
engraved with swastikas.

1929 Richard E. Byrd (American): first flight over the South Pole (see also 1946-47
entry).

1935 Mrs. Mikkelson (Norwegian), wife of whaling captain: first woman to land on

continent.

1935 Lincoln Ellsworth (American): first successful trans-Antarctic flight.

1946-47 Byrd leads Operation Highjump: organized by U.S. Navy, is most ambitious
exploratory venture; 13 ships, 23 aircraft, 4,700 men.

30

1949-52 Norwegian-British-Swedish Expedition: first truly international Antarctic

expedition; first seismic traverse of inland ice-sheet.
1950 Third Polar Year recommended for period 1957-58: will be called the

International Geophysical Year (ICY): Antarctica will be main area of study.

1954 Australian Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE) establishes Mawson base:
first, large, permanent scientific base.

1955 Four U.S. Navy heavy cargo airplanes fly from New Zealand to Antarctica, thus
linking Antarctica directly to rest of world for the first time.

1957 United States builds Amundsen-Scott Station at South Pole.

1957 International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) establishes the Scientific

Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR): SCAR to organize international
research after the ICY.

1957 ICY begins: more than 33,000 scientists from 67 nations manning more than

1,000 stations (not only in Antarctica, but around the world); the research
includes stratospheric studies, transcontinental traverses, and seismic studies.

1958-59 Soviets set up observation stations at the South
Geomagnetic Pole and the Pole of Inaccessibility
(the furthest point from all Antarctic coasts).

1959 Antarctic Treaty signed: ratified in 1961.

1973 David Lewis (New Zealand): completes first solo

voyage to Antarctica in 33-foot steel sloop, Ice Bird.

1978 Emilio de Palma (Argentine): first person to be born in Antarctica.

1979 An Air New Zealand DC-10 carrying 257 tourists over Antarctica crashes into Mt.
Erebus: no survivors.

1980 Signing of the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living
Resources (CCAMLR).

1980 Biological Investigations of Marine Antarctic Systems and Stocks (BIOMASS)

created by SCAR: three international biological oceanographic expeditions
between 1980 and 1985.

1982 As part of the Falkland Islands War, an Argentine ship arrives at South Georgia,

reviving a territorial feud begun in 1925; after short battle, they take the island
from a British garrison; a British force recaptures it 3 weeks later.

1988 U.S. successfully restores and flies LC-130 cargo plane buried in ice for 16 years,

but loses another aircraft, with loss of life, in the process.

1988 Minerals regime adopted.

— SLE

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Traineou a cfoens

31

Antarctica:

Is There Any
Oil and
Natural Gas?

by David H. Elliot

H,

leavy hydrocarbon residues have been found in a
sediment core recovered in McMurdo Sound. This
event was reported last year by geologist Peter
Barrett, Director of the Antarctic Research Centre at
Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand.

These residues show that liquid hydrocarbons
have migrated up and laterally through the rock
sequence, and have probably escaped to the ocean
floor. There they are dispersed by wind, waves and
currents, and degraded by biological activity, in the
same way as oil seeps are dispersed and degraded
elsewhere in the world, for example in offshore
southern California. The residues may suggest to
some that hydrocarbon accumulations are present,
although they by no means indicate the size of any
accumulation. What hard evidence can be brought
to bear on this question?

Antarctic Geology

The continent of Antarctica is 98 percent covered by
snow and ice, nevertheless, the broad outlines of the
geology are well established. Geologically, the
Antarctic continent is composed of two distinct
provinces — the older, more quiescent, and larger
East Antarctica; and the younger, more active West
Antarctica, which includes the Antarctic Peninsula
(Figure 1).

From the scattered rock outcrops along the
periphery of the continent, and the intracontinental
mountain ranges like the Transantarctic Mountains,
geologists have concluded that East Antarctica is
made up of ancient crustal rocks like those found in
western Australia, peninsular India, and southern
Africa. Along the Transantarctic Mountains, these
ancient rocks merge into a belt of younger and
less-intensely deformed and heated sedimentary and
volcanic rocks, together with granite intrusions.
During the Early Paleozoic, about 450 million years
ago, this belt was eroded down to a surface of low

Coal seams discovered in the Transantarctic Mountains
during ICY. (Photo courtesy of the British Antarctic Survey)

relief on which sedimentary rocks were deposited
for much of the following 300 million years.

West Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula,
with few exceptions, lack the ancient rocks that
characterize East Antarctica. Instead, their geology is
dominated by granites, sedimentary, and volcanic
rocks that are younger than about 500 million years.
Late Cenozoic (less than 25 million year old) volcanic
activity is widespread on the Antarctic Peninsula,
West Antarctica, and the Ross Sea sector of the
Transantarctic Mountains; and active or recently
active volcanoes occur in all those areas. Except for
the Antarctic Peninsula, none of the exposed rock
provides direct evidence for the existence of marine
sedimentary basins. Indirect evidence, however,
points to their presence.

32

Bransfield Trough

Queen
Maud Land

Weddell Sea

Shetland
Island

F^ntarctic

Peninsula

Amery Basin
East Antarctica

Bellingshausen
Sea

Antarctica

(— Aurora Basin

H Haag Nunataks

EM Ellsworth Mtns.
• Drill sites

Edge of shelf ice

2000m isobath

C-V-Basin

v Wilkes

Areas with multichannel seismic coverage

HHi Generalized area of rock outcrop

Generalized area of possible and
proven thick sedimentary sequences

Figure 1 . Sedimentary basins are located on the continental margin of Antarctica and in the interior of West Antarctica.
Sediments also probably occur other places inland of the East Antarctic ice margin, and certainly are present seaward of the
2,000-meter bathymetric contour. The only regions for which adequate seismic data exist to establish sediment thicknesses and
the broad outlines of the basins are the Ross Sea, part of the Wilkes Land coast, Prydz Bay, the western margin of Queen Maud
Land and along the immediate front of the Ronne and Filchner Ice Shelves, and parts of the continental shelf west of the
Antarctic Peninsula. Information is sparse for interior West Antarctica, very poor for the Wilkes and Aurora Basins, and
nonexistent for much of the continental margin — including the Amundsen and Bellingshausen Seas. The sediments recovered at
the drill sites on the continental shelf provide some age control for the stratigraphy developed on the basis of seismic data.

For petroleum geologists, these marine
sedimentary basins are of primary interest. The major
Antarctic basins lie on the continental shelves, and in
the Ross and Weddell embayments of West
Antarctica. These basins all postdate the breakup of
Gondwanaland (see page 8), the ancient
supercontinent formed of all the southern continents
and peninsular India. Antarctica formed the hub of
the supercontinent for the hundreds of millions of
years that it existed. For much of that time,
Antarctica enjoyed a more agreeable climate;
vegetation was abundant and reptiles roamed the
landscape. The fragmentation of Gondwanaland
began about 150 to 160 million years ago. The
youngest and final split was initiated about 28 million
years ago, and completed the physical isolation of
the Antarctic continent.

Except for the Antarctic Peninsula, most of the
geologic history of the continent for the last 1 50
million years is held in the marine sedimentary

basins. To understand the history and evolution of
the basins, seismic surveys and drilling projects have
been conducted. The academic interest in the basins
is paralleled by interest in their potential for
hydrocarbon resources.

Sources and Traps for Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are generated from marine and
terrestrial organic debris — in general, the marine
debris yields oil, and the terrestrial debris yields gas.
The amount of organic matter in sediments tends to
decrease with increasing grain size, so that
mudstones and claystones will be better source
rocks for hydrocarbons than sandstones.

The organic matter is broken down to yield oil
and gas by a combination of temperature and time.
With increasing depth of burial of the source rocks
by younger sediments, the temperature rises; the
actual temperature attained at any particular time,
however, depends on the heat flow from the Earth's

33

interior, and this is altered by such things as the rate
of burial and magmatic activity, in other words,
volcanism.

Assuming the source rocks pass through the
time-temperature window for hydrocarbon
generation, oil and gas will be produced and will
migrate away, both laterally and vertically. The
hydrocarbons may accumulate in those rocks that
contain voids, such as some limestones, or more
commonly, porous sandstones. The reservoirs in
which the hydrocarbons accumulate must be sealed
by a "cap rock" so that oil and gas do not escape.
The seals are commonly impermeable clay-rich
beds, but in addition, the form of the reservoir and its
seal has to be such that the hydrocarbons can
accumulate as pools. Various geologic structures can
provide a suitable setting. One example would be a
reservoir and its cap in the form of a low dome.
Another example would be an anticline, an elongate
structure with an arch-like form — the prolific
producing fields in Saudi Arabia are like this
(Figure 2).

Many marine sediments contain organic
matter at the time of deposition, and methane is
commonly generated both at the sea floor and with
subsequent burial. However, the presence of
methane in a drill core cannot be taken as an
automatic indicator of oil and natural gas. Oil seeps,
on the other hand, provide a sure indication that
hydrocarbon generation has occurred, but they do

B

Unconformity

C a p r o c k ^.^

Figure 2. O/7 and natural gas collect in porous sandstones and
other rocks with voids. But (or their accumulation, there must
be an impermeable cap rock to prevent their escape, and a
suitable structure to contain the pool of hydrocarbons. An
anticline, or arch-like structure, is illustrated in A. B illustrates
an unconformity, which in this case would be the result of
deformation and tilting of rocks, their erosion to a near
horizontal surface, and the subsequent deposition of
sedimentary rocks on top of the erosion surface. Both of the
illustrated settings are referred to as structural traps. Other
types of traps occur.

not necessarily mean large accumulations are
present.

The assessment of the nature and sequence
of sedimentary rocks in a basin is best done by
seismic exploration, particularly when linked to rock
outcrops and regional geology. The succession of
beds distinguished by seismic properties is
commonly referred to as acoustic stratigraphy. The
seismic data can also delineate structures that may
be favorable for hydrocarbon accumulation. The
Prudhoe Bay field on the north slope of Alaska, a
super-giant field with more than 9 billion barrels of
oil, measures only a few tens of kilometers on a side,
and points to the need for close spacing of seismic
lines to identify possible structures for trapping
hydrocarbons. Only drilling and core recovery can
establish ages for the acoustic stratigraphy, and, as a
final test, prove the existence of any accumulations.

The many factors involved in the generation,
migration, and accumulation of hydrocarbons make
oil and gas fields the exception rather than the rule.
Nevertheless, the only continent without any known
major hydrocarbon accumulations is Antarctica.
Any potential for oil and natural gas lies in the
sedimentary basins.

The Ross Embayment

The Ross Sea region is divided into the Victoria Land
Basin and two less well-defined basins lying east of
about 170 degrees East (Figure 3). The structure and
sediment thickness in the Victoria Land Basin are
comparatively well known, largely as a result of
recent work by Alan K. Cooper of the U.S.
Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California, and
others. As much as 14 kilometers of sediment are
present. Marine microfossils (from small single-celled
organisms), principally diatoms and foraminifera,
reworked into glacial and other deposits found in the
McMurdo Sound region demonstrate that marine
beds as old as late Cretaceous (80 million years ago)
are present somewhere beneath the ice in the Ross
embayment. The geology of the basin was formed
by alternating periods of rifting and basin filling.

The site from which the heavy hydrocarbon
residues were recovered lies on the western margin
of the Victoria Land Basin. The residues occur near
the base of a 700-meter-thick sequence of glacial
and nonglacial marine sediments that range in age
from 38 million years to modern time. The source of
the hydrocarbons is unknown. It also is unknown
whether any hydrocarbons are trapped anywhere in
the basin.

Two basins, the Central Trough and the
Eastern Basin, lie to the east of the Victoria Land
Basin. Both have as much as 6 kilometers of
sediment fill. The Central Trough is about 50
kilometers wide and is probably rift-related, whereas
the Eastern Basin is broad and mainly the result of
simple subsidence.

The western margin of the Eastern Basin was
sampled at three sites that were drilled by the
now-retired Glomar Challenger, the drilling vessel
operated by the old Deep Sea Drilling Project
(DSDP). Gaseous hydrocarbons were detected in
cores from DSDP Sites 271, 272, and 273. Most

34

Edge of shelf ice and glaciers
270* DSDP drill site

Region with sediment
thickness greater than 2km

Region with sediment
thickness greater than 5km

Active volcano

Upper Cenozoic volcanic rocks

0 km 200

Mt. Melbourne

Ross .
McMurdo Stn.

Ross Ice Shelf

F/gure 3. The sedimentary basins on the Ross Sea continental she/fare the best defined of all basins in Antarctica. Multichannel
seismic lines have been run by the U.S. Geological Survey, the West German Geological Survey, the French National Petroleum
Institute, the Japanese National Oil Company, the Soviet Antarctic Expedition, and the Italian Experimental Geophysical
Observatory. Drilling also has been conducted by the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) and the New Zealand Antarctic Research
Program (MSSTS- 7; GIROS I and II). The Terror Rift in the Victoria Land Basin is the central part of the deep basin. It contains a
thick sedimentary sequence and is the site of many submarine volcanoes. The basins extend beneath the Ross Ice Shelf, but data
to define them subglacially is lacking.

were methane, but traces of ethane and higher forms
also were present. However, they are probably of
biological origin and not related to petroleum
generation. Calculations by Frederick J. Davey, Chief
Geophysicist with the Department of Scientific and
Industrial Research, New Zealand, suggest that only
the deepest parts of the Eastern Basin and Central
Trough could have been in the appropriate time-
temperature regime for hydrocarbon generation.

The Weddell Embayment

The Filchner and Ronne Ice Shelf region of the
Weddell embayment, like the Ross embayment,
possibly contains as much as 14 kilometers of
sediment, but the age and nature of the sequence is
not known. West Antarctica is regarded as the Early
Mesozoic "Pacific" margin of Gondwanaland, which
was disrupted by breakup and subsequently thinned
by crustal extension. The sediment filling this post-
breakup basin is therefore likely to be no older than
late Jurassic (about 150 million years ago), and to
consist of terrigenous and pelagic sediment overlain
by glacial deposits laid down in the last 30 million
years.

The Weddell embayment is part of a much
larger region of interest that includes the continental
margins lying east of the Antarctic Peninsula and
west of Queen Maud Land, and together with the
Falkland Plateau, share an origin related to
Gondwanaland break-up. Claystones and muds with
total organic carbon contents of up to 8.6 percent
are known from the Falkland Plateau and western
Queen Maud Land, and lower contents, up to 3.5
percent, in outcrops on the northern Antarctic
Peninsula. Beds rich in organic carbon, often
referred to as sapropelic beds, are potential
hydrocarbon source rocks.

The presence of such sapropelic beds in the
Ronne Ice Shelf region of the Weddell embayment
seems probable, and with up to several kilometers of
younger strata overlying them, the possibility of
hydrocarbon generation seems likely. Whether
hydrocarbons were indeed generated, and whether
other conditions were suitable for their entrapment,
is another matter.

David I. M. Macdonald, a geologist with the
British Antarctic Survey, and his colleagues have
evaluated the hydrocarbon potential of the Larsen
Basin on the east flank of the Antarctic Peninsula,

35

1

South
km

is

^,•697
•695

^696

30°W

•694

Weddell Sea

Queen
Maud

eo°s-

Generalized areas of rock outcrop
1=1 Generalized areas of proven or inferred thick sediments

- 2000m isobath
• Ocean Drilling Program Leg 113 drill sites

Figure 4. The sapropelic (organic carbon-rich) claystones and
mudstones in the northern Antarctic Peninsula, near James
Ross Island, and on the western Queen Maud Land margin at
OOP sites 692 and 693, could be source rocks for
hydrocarbons. Other than for the northwestern margin of the
Larsen Basin and the Queen Maud Land margin, information
on the sedimentary sequences is extremely sparse.

and speculate that there is moderate potential for
hydrocarbons derived from Upper Jurassic and
Lower Cretaceous source rocks. The hydrocarbons
would be held in reservoirs of Cretaceous and
Cenozoic sandstone and conglomerate, and in large
structural or stratigraphic traps.

On the other margin of the Weddell Sea, off
Queen Maud Land, information about the sequence
of sedimentary beds was obtained last year by the
Ocean Drilling Program. (The Ocean Drilling
Program is the successor to the Deep Sea Drilling
Project but uses a newer vessel, the JOIDES
Resolution.) The drilling recovered mid-Cretaceous
(110-100 million-year-old) sapropelic claystones and
mudstones (Figure 4). Stratigraphic thicknesses are in
excess of 4 kilometers on the continental shelf and in
a possible rift basin just off the continental slope.
The oil "window" is estimated to lie in the deepest
part of the rift basin, and to lie well below the
organic-rich beds on the continental shelf. The
likelihood of hydrocarbons is slim.

The Antarctic Margin

A number of other basins and sites of interest have
been surveyed around the Antarctic margin. A
substantial sediment thickness, as much as 14
kilometers, is inferred for the rift in which the
Lambert Glacier is situated. This rift, identified on the

basis of geophysical data, opens out into Prydz Bay
and constitutes the Amery Basin. During January
1988, five sites were drilled in Prydz Bay by Leg 119
of the Ocean Drilling Program. John A. Barron of the
U.S. Geological Survey in Menlo Park, California,
reports that traces of gas were found at one of the
sites. However, it is uncertain whether any
significance can be attached to this occurrence
because of the relatively shallow depth at which the
gas was encountered, and the lack of knowledge of
the regional geology.

The Wilkes Land margin is of particular
interest because of the probability that an extensive
marine basin, the Wilkes Basin, exists inland beneath
the ice. Sedimentary beds in the Wilkes Basin are
possibly as old as 80 million years, but thicknesses
are unknown. On the outer continental shelf, as
much as 6 kilometers of sediment are present.
Pebbles of organic-rich siltstone of Early Cretaceous
age (1 20-1 1 5 million years old) have been found on
the seaward flank of a fjord cut into the continental
shelf; these pebbles indicate possible hydrocarbon
source rocks in the Wilkes Land coastal region.

Other possible sedimentary basins exist along
the East Antarctic margin, the west coast of the
Antarctic Peninsula, and particularly on the broad
continental shelves of the Amundsen and
Bellingshausen Seas. Because of their geologic or
tectonic setting, these areas offer much less promise
than those already discussed.

Finally, hydrocarbons have been reported
from the Bransfield Trough adjacent to the South
Shetland Islands. These hydrocarbons were found in
surface cores taken from a thin sedimentary
sequence no older than about 2 million years. The
high thermal gradients needed to generate
hydrocarbons at such shallow depths and in such
young sediments, are a consequence of the tectonic
setting, which is a rift regime with associated thin
continental crust and active volcanism. The
sediments can be considered a present day source
rock, but it is unlikely that any stratigraphic or

Table 1. The Geologic Time Scale

Era

Period

Age(m.y.

Quaternary

1.6
25
65
145
210
245
285
360
410
440
505
570

Cenozoic

Neogene

Paleogene

Cretaceous

Mesozoic

Jurassic

Triassic

Permian

Carboniferous

i

Devonian

Paleozoic

Silurian

Ordovician

Cambrian

Precambrian

m.y. = million years

36

S. merica/7

Early Cretaceous
120m.y.

Krishna R.

: '•:•:'• :i: : '•: Godavari R.

Mahanadi R.

m^MM'M^^^} Perth yV^Sv ' \

^urorVi/v^ Great

Antarctica ^^^^it Australian

Bight
Eucla

Magallanes |-.«

Australia

Ot way
Bass

Edge of continental shelf

Sedimentary basins
Producing fields

Sapropelic beds
K-Cretaceous
J-Jurassic

Taranaki .

.. Gippsland -J

New Zealand

Figure 5. Reconstruction of Condwanaland in Early Cretaceous time (120 million years ago) shows the proximity of Antarctic
basins to basins on formerly adjacent continents, some of which are oil and gas producers. The basins were formed either during
the process of rifting of Condwanaland, or subsequent to that event. The Bass and Otway basins, and that in Mossel Bay, are
minor hydrocarbon producers. Subeconomic quantities are present in the Great South Basin and off peninsular India. No
hydrocarbons have been reported from the Great Australian Bight, Eucla, or Duntroon basins. It is not clear how many, if any, of
the basins on the conjugate margins are analogs for the Antarctic sedimentary basins because of differences in time of formation,
sediment thickness, history of deformation, and other factors.

structural traps exist that would retain the
hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbons, therefore, are
most likely to seep onto the sea floor and be
dispersed and degraded by normal marine
processes.

Hydrocarbon Assessments

The scale of Antarctic maps commonly over
emphasizes the true extent of seismic coverage of
the basins. The coverage so far only permits the
delineation of the major features of the basins, and
with line spacings typically between 50 and 100
kilometers, can at best be considered a
reconnaissance of the continental shelf. The lack of
detailed information about the sedimentary basins,
including the absence of stratigraphic drilling that
could provide data on the older parts of the
sequences, makes estimates of hydrocarbon
potential totally speculative.

Despite these shortcomings in the knowledge
of the geology, estimates of the hydrocarbon

potential of the Antarctic sedimentary basins have
been made. At the optimistic end of the speculation
spectrum, Bill St. John, a consultant with Primary
Fuels, Inc. in Houston, Texas, has suggested that as
much as 203 billion barrels of oil might be present. A
conservative estimate by Charles Masters of the U.S.
Geological Survey, Washington, D.C., and others, is
19 billion barrels, with only a 5 percent probability of
occurrence. (By way of comparison, total domestic
U.S. production to date is about 145 billion barrels,
and identified reserves amount to 47 billion barrels.)
Models based on averages and probabilities,
such as used by St. John, have limitations, and are
particularly misleading when taken out of context
and divorced from the caveats that are stated by the
authors or implicitly understood by geologists. The
experience of the search for oil on the Atlantic
coastal shelf of the United States, for which orders of
magnitude more information was available at the
start of exploration, is a cautionary tale. For the
billions of dollars spent on exploration and drilling,
the only result so far has been the discovery of non-

37

A frond of the tree fern, Cladophlebis, preserved in the
Cretaceous sandstone of Alexander Island (on the west coast
of the Antarctic Peninsula) — a clear indication of Antarctica's
location in a much warmer climate 100 million years ago.
(Photo courtesy of the British Antarctic Survey)

commercial amounts of gas in the Baltimore Canyon
region.

Analogs on Other Margins

Assessment of hydrocarbon resources includes
drawing analogies with hydrocarbon-bearing
sedimentary basins, and actual producing fields. In
the case of Antarctica, analogies also have been
drawn with basins on the formerly adjacent or
conjugate margins of the other Gondwanaland
continents. Like other methods used to predict the
presence of oil and gas, this procedure has its pitfalls.
Basins, and even producing basins, on related
continental margins are no guarantee of basin and
resource sites in the Antarctic. Figure 5 shows
several of these sites.

The conjugate margin to the Ross Sea region
is the continental shelf around New Zealand. The
Taranaki Basin off the North Island is mainly a gas
producer, although a major oil discovery has
recently been reported. The Taranaki Basin is
sometimes cited as an analog, but its development
bears only a distant relationship to the evolution of
the Antarctic margin.

The Gippsland Basin, in the Bass Strait
between Tasmania and Victoria, is a major producer.
However, the tectonism controlling the formation of
the structures in which the hydrocarbons are
trapped has no known parallels in Antarctica — and

would not be expected, since at the time of
deformation the two continents were geographically
separated. The Cooper Basin in central Australia lies
in a broad geologic province which possibly
extended southward into Wilkes Land prior to
breakup 80 million years ago. Hydrocarbons in the
Cooper Basin are found in two sedimentary
sequences, both of which might possibly occur
subglacially in Antarctica.

In southern South America, the San Jorge and
Magallanes Basins contain producing fields. Although
significant parallels exist with the Larsen Basin of the
Antarctic Peninsula, the deformational and thermal
histories are likely to differ, and hence the thermal
maturation of any organic matter and the subsequent
migration of any hydrocarbons.

Much additional information is needed before
the significance of any parallels and differences
between Antarctica and the conjugate margins can
be adequately evaluated.

Doubt

The organic carbon-rich siltstones, mudstones, and
claystones known from the Wilkes Land margin, the
Queen Maud Land coast, and the Antarctic
Peninsula demonstrate the presence of suitable
source rocks. Suitable sandstone reservoir rocks
seem likely just from general considerations of the
known and inferred geologic history. Whether
suitable traps are present is more speculative.
Furthermore, knowledge of the thermal and tectonic
histories of these basins is limited. The
reconnaissance nature of most studies, at least in
terms of hydrocarbon resource evaluation, makes
any assessment subject to great uncertainty.
Nevertheless, it would be surprising indeed, if all the
Antarctic basins lacked hydrocarbons, and if a few
would not be producers — if they were located in
more favorable geographic, environmental, and
economic settings.

It is difficult to see how anything less than a
super-giant field — one with 10 billion barrels of
recoverable hydrocarbons — would ever be
exploited economically in Antarctica. In their time,
however, such reservations were, no doubt,
expressed about other frontier areas, including
Prudhoe Bay, and the McKenzie River delta on the
edge of the Arctic Ocean.

David H. Elliot is Director of the Byrd Polar Research Center,
and a Professor in the Department of Geology and
Mineralogy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.

Selected References

Behrendt, J. C. Scientific studies relevant to the question of
Antarctica's petroleum resource potential. In, Geology of
Antarctica, ed. R. ). Tingey. Oxford England: Oxford University
Press. In Press.

Davey, F. ). 1985. The Antarctic margin and its possible hydrocarbon
potential. Jectonophysics 1 19: 443-470.

Elliot, D. H. 1985. Physical geography — geological evolution.
In, Key Environments — Antarctica, eds. W. N. Bonner and
D. W. H. Walton, pp. 39-61. Oxford England: Pergamon Press.

Hinz, K., and Y. Kristoffersen. 1987. Antarctica: Recent advances in
the understanding of the continental shelf. Ceologisches
jahrbuch, Reihe E, Heft 27: 54 pp.

Macdonald, D. I. M., P. F. Barker, S. W. Garrett, ). R. Ineson,
D. Pirrie, B. C. Storey, A. C. Whitham, R. R. F. Kinghorn, and
). E. A. Marshall. 1988. A preliminary assessment of the
hydrocarbon potential of the Larsen Basin, Antarctica. Marine and
Petroleum Geology 5: 34-53.

38

The Southern Ocean
and Global Climate

by Arnold L Gordon

If you think of the sea ice around Antarctica as a
large insulating blanket covering the Southern
Ocean and then visualize a few holes in that
blanket, you have some idea of an important
process that affects global climate. Scientists call
the holes in the blanket polynyas — bodies of open
water, both large and small, in the sea ice, where
sizeable quantities of heat escape to the
atmosphere.

The heat that has escaped through these
holes, or polynyas, has entered the world's oceans
at more temperate latitudes, and has been
transported to the Southern Ocean by oceanic
currents located at various depths. It is then
brought to the surface through complex upwelling
and surface wind mechanisms. In many cases, the
heat exchange with the atmosphere is restricted by
the ice cover. Sometimes, however, large patches
of open water — the polynyas — allow heat to cross
the ocean/atmosphere boundary.

Thus, we believe that these polynyas, about
which relatively little is known, play a principal role
from year to year in providing lesser or greater heat
exchanges to the atmosphere — depending on the
extent of their occurrence. Measurements of the
heat lost to the atmosphere through polynyas has
proved elusive because of the difficulty of reaching
these areas by an icebreaking ship, and because
the drift buoys needed to monitor the heat flux
without a ship present have yet to be satisfactorily
designed.

Some Background

The Earth is heated at low latitudes, and cooled at
high latitudes. The efficiency of the atmosphere
and ocean, working together, in carrying excess
heat across latitudes, determines the mean
meridional* temperature gradient of the
atmosphere, and hence the vigor of global wind
patterns. Since the wind is in itself part of the
meridional heat flux process, the whole climate
system becomes a complex network of
feedbacks — negative feedbacks inducing stability,
positive feedbacks nudging the system to ever
increasing changes.

The meridional heat transfer mechanisms, as
well as characteristics of the radiational balance,
depend on the Earth's ocean/continent
configuration, which is continuously changing over
long geological time scales of tens of millions of

years. Of greater concern to civilization are the
variations in the global climate at time scales far too
short to be associated with the drifting
continents — scales of decades to thousands of
years. These are forced entirely within the ocean/
atmosphere system, with a little help at the tens-of-
thousands-year-scale from the Earth's orbital
parameters, which alter the distribution of solar
radiation over the globe (see also Oceanus Vol. 29,
No. 4, p. 43). The Southern Ocean, it would seem,
plays a key role in governing these swings in
climate, including the very significant oscillations
between glacial and inter-glacial climate that have
been plaguing the Earth for the last million years.

Antarctica and its surrounding ocean are in a
unique position in regard to the global climate
system. The ocean encircles Antarctica. This not
only establishes the major conduit between the
three ocean basins, but also isolates the polar
continent of Antarctica from exposure to the warm
surface waters of the subtropics. It has been doing
this for the last 20 to 25 million years, allowing
build-up of a massive glacial ice cap resting on the
Antarctic continent. The layer of fresh water glacial
ice with an average thickness of 3,000 meters,
covering an area of 14 million square kilometers,
comprises 91 percent of Earth's continental ice. It
reaches out to the coast of Antarctica, and along
44 percent of the coastline, forms glacial ice
overhangs or ice shelves, floating on the ocean.

The position of Antarctica influences the
atmospheric circulation, as great masses of cold air
spread away from the dome of polar air over
Antarctica, imposing temperature and salinity
alterations on the surrounding surface ocean water
as sea ice forms and oceanic heat is drawn into the
atmosphere. These winds have the additional effect
of inducing regional upwelling of subsurface,
somewhat warmer, saltier water, as the surface
layer is continuously removed by a divergent
Ekman transport pattern.* The combination of
regional Ekman upwelling and intense
thermohaline circulation, or buoyancy forcing by
the atmosphere, sets up the Southern Ocean to
play a major role in the global climate system.

The sea and glacial ice of the cold regions
complicates water mass modification in two ways:
the highly spatially and temporally variable sea-ice
cover strongly influences the coupling of the ocean
and atmosphere in regard to momentum, heat,

* Referring to movement or gradients along lines of
longitude; in a north-south direction.

* A wind-induced movement of water in the surface
layers of the ocean.

39

water, and gas exchange; and the ocean interaction
with glacial ice influences the characteristics of
water masses, and may be a significant factor in
glacial ice budgets and global sea level. This ocean/
glacial-ice interaction was presented by Stanley
Jacobs in an earlier issue of Oceanus (Vol. 29, No.
4, p. 50).

While there are many factors within the
atmosphere and ocean that might play a role in
climate variations, it is exceedingly difficult to
isolate specific features in the complex coupled
system. There has been much attention devoted to
the tropical end of the heat engine, but less
attention has been directed toward the polar end.
Certainly part of this imbalance stems from the
very nature of the environment — it is difficult to
obtain information about the harsh, remote, and
ice-cluttered polar oceans. Yet, it is in the polar
regions of both hemispheres, where the ocean
loses great amounts of heat to the cold
atmosphere, that a counterbalance to the tropics is
formed. How, where, and to what efficiency the
polar oceans accomplish this task influences the
global climate patterns.

The Southern Ocean and Climate

The global role of the Southern Ocean in terms of
the climate system is well recognized, at least in a
qualitative sense. The deep-water circumpolar belt
permits the establishment of the Antarctic
Circumpolar Current. This major current carries
ocean water between the three primary ocean
basins within an "endless current" as discussed by
Thomas Whitworth of Texas A&M (page 53), at a
rate of 130 million cubic meters a second. In this
way, the three oceans tend to blend their
characteristics via the Antarctic Circumpolar
Current "conveyor belt."

Poleward of the circumpolar current lies 30
million square kilometers of ocean exposed to the
harsh polar atmosphere. Cold water masses form as
the warmer deep water, drawn from the north, is
chilled as it upwells to the surface layer. These cold
Antarctic water masses sink into the ocean interior
and spread to the north. The Southern Ocean's
influence depresses the temperature of at least 55
to 60 percent of the Earth's ocean volume to below
2 degrees Celsius.

The influence of the Southern Ocean on the
rest of the world ocean ultimately depends on the
ability of water properties to mix across the
Antarctic Circumpolar Current. In the lower 2 or 3
kilometers, this can be accomplished by deep
boundary currents supported by submarine ridges
that breach the Antarctic Circumpolar Current belt.
In the upper 2 or 3 kilometers, this task seems to
fall primarily on large eddies, and on the wind-
induced northward surface water movement. The
difficulty of carrying large amounts of heat by these
means attests to the thermal isolation of Antarctica.

Associated with the water mass exchanges
between the Southern Ocean and the rest of the
global ocean is significant poleward heat flux across
60 degrees South, estimated as 5.4 x 1014 Watts.
This ocean heat withdrawn in the Southern Ocean

is derived from the heat introduced into the deep
water of the world ocean by downward diffusion,
and by deep convection of relatively warm salt
water in the North Atlantic Ocean (North Atlantic
Deep Water).

Southern Ocean Upwelling

The upwelling region between the Antarctic
Circumpolar Current and Antarctica has an
interesting effect on the ocean: the cold, relatively
fresh surface water layer is continuously replaced
by upwelling warmer, more saline, deep water.
Surface water is removed as about two thirds of it
is transported northward to the circumpolar belt,
and the remainder to the margins of Antarctica.
The total upwelling may be as large as 45 million
cubic meters per second. A typical water particle
resides in the surface layer only two years. There is
not much of a "memory" of the past. Any
anomalies in salinity or temperature are quickly
washed away.

The deep water upwelling is 2 to 3 degrees
Celsius warmer and somewhat saltier than the
winter surface water, which is near the freezing
point. It is cooled on exposure to the atmosphere
and would sink were it not for some freshening of
the water by excess precipitation. This
compensation is marginal, in that the introduction
of fresh water is barely able to maintain a stable
stratification. Slight variability in the salinity balance
of the surface water could lead to unstable
stratification and accelerate deepening of the
surface layer, which carries up more heat and salt.
This encourages more instability and a still deeper
mixed layer; it is a positive feedback. In the
extreme, the mixed layer could deepen
catastrophically, forming deep-reaching convective
cells. We now believe that this condition does
indeed happen.

Thus, the newly formed surface water is
vulnerable to rather dramatic change — slight
alterations in the fresh water balance would spell
the difference between floating and sinking. While
the net balance of precipitation and evaporation is
slightly on the side of stability, the largest factor is
the wind-driven divergence of the sea ice. The sea
ice moves in response to the wind field. Some
areas may experience divergences with net annual
production of ice; others exhibit convergence, with
net annual melting. Small changes of sea-ice
divergences may tip the balance, and deep-
reaching convection ensues.

Sea Ice and Polynyas

With the advent of observations from an Earth-
orbiting satellite in the early 1970s, a new twist has
been added — the extensive winter sea-ice cover
apparently is not very stable, as large, ice-free
areas, or what we call polynyas, form in the dead
of winter. The polynya features are most
interesting, since virtually nothing was known
about them before the satellite era. Their potential
impact on deep ocean overturning is great, in that
they greatly alter the nature of the ocean/
atmosphere heat and fresh water exchange, and

40

Icebergs

The B-9 iceberg, 83 miles in length by 19 miles wide (making it larger than the state of Rhode Island), that broke
off from the Ross Ice Shelf in October 1987. Reports of a slowed drift in early 1988 led U. S. Navy analysts to
suggest that the large iceberg may have been grounded. (Photo courtesy Earth Observation Satellite Company,
Lanham, Maryland)

I he formation of icebergs in Antarctic waters is
an erratic, fluctuating process. After years of
build-up, large and small icebergs suddenly
"calve," or break off, from glacial ice shelves
that extend out over the Southern Ocean from
the continent proper. The last two years have
seen "some extreme events," according to
Stanley S. Jacobs, a previous contributor to
Oceanus, and an oceanographer at Columbia
University's Lamont-Doherty Geological
Observatory.

The formation of icebergs is of interest to
oceanographers and glaciologists for the role
they play in maintaining the mass balance of the
ice sheets, and modifying sea-floor sediment
patterns. Jacobs has been queried several times
about the surprising surge in the number and
size of Antarctic icebergs as recorded in 1986
and 1987. The question often is whether the
calving events signal a general warming of the
Earth. Jacobs replies that there is no cause for
alarm. "We are merely seeing a correction in
the position of an ice sheet that has been

advancing for a few decades, and now has
broken off. The extension of ice sheets, and
subsequent calving, is a cyclical event, and
quite normal. A few decades ago, icebergs like
these may have gone unnoticed. But, with
frequent satellite observations, and more people
in the region, we are more aware of these
occurrences."

One large iceberg, called B-9 by the
Navy/National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration joint Ice Center, broke off from
the Ross Ice Shelf last October. It was
approximately 83 miles long and took the Bay
of Whales site, where Admiral Richard E. Byrd
established his first scientific base in 1928, with
it. Two or three even larger icebergs split off the
Filchner Ice Shelf in 1986, along with another
huge one off the Larsen Ice Shelf. These
icebergs, monitored by satellite, do not, as is
commonly thought, contribute to a global sea
level rise — because they actually float on water
before the calving events. — PRR

hence are of interest to climate studies.

We know from many years of ship reports
that the Southern Ocean sea-ice cover undergoes
enormous seasonal pulsations, from approximately
4 million square kilometers in early February
(summer) to 20 million by September (end of

winter). The satellite data obtained by microwave
radiometer during the last two decades, provides a
view of the complete sea-ice cover on a daily to
weekly time frame.

We now know that the ice does not form a
continuous blanket. It has many random patterns of

41

NORTH
ATLANTIC
DEEP
WATER

Large-scale meridional circulation of the ocean. The deep water receives heat from the downward diffusion of heat within
the main thermocline and by deep convection of relatively warm/salty water in the North Atlantic, associated with formation
of North Atlantic Deep Water. The deep water heat is then lost to the atmosphere over the Southern Ocean. This heat loss
is associated with formation of the cold Antarctic Bottom Water, which spreads throughout the world ocean. The intensity of
the ocean/atmosphere heat exchange is strongly dependent on the nature of the sea-ice cover and existence of persistent
open water regions, known as polynyas.

breaks, from the 1- to 10-kilometer scale leads
(elongate channels of open water) to the 100-
kilometer scale, more persistent, ice-free polynyas.

As sea water freezes, salt is injected into the
underlying ocean, encouraging deepening of the
mixed layer. The salinity of the sea ice initially is
about 30 percent of that of sea water; with aging,
more salt is lost to the ocean; toward the end of
winter, ice may have a salinity of 15 percent of sea
water. Thus, sea ice removes fresh water from the
ocean during the formation periods, and releases it
on melting.

During the ice-waning period, the melt
water is buoyant and floats on top of the ocean; it
does not necessarily recombine with the salt
released during formation. The winter period salt
release boosts the density of the underlying ocean,
making it more prone to deep convective events.
The sea ice acts to segregate salt from the fresh
water — making some ocean areas denser, others
less dense.

Sea ice influences the energy exchange
between ocean and atmosphere, as it damps out
the exchange processes of heat, water vapor, and
momentum across the sea/air interface. Sea ice
insulates the ocean, inhibiting the venting of
oceanic heat in winter, and warming of the ocean
in summer. This insulation is breached where there
are breaks in the ice cover, such as occurs during a
polynya event.

There are two types of polynyas — those
forming along the coast of Antarctica, over the
continental shelf, and those forming over the
deeper ocean to the north. The deep-ocean
polynyas occur in regions where the relatively
warm subsurface deep water approaches to within
100 meters of the ocean surface, whereas the
coastal features are over much colder water
columns of the continental shelf.

Coastal Latent Heat Polynyas

The water over the continental shelf is exposed to
the harshest form of the Antarctic atmosphere, as
very cold, dry air flows off the continent. Strong
winter winds often remove the insulating cover of
sea ice adjacent to the coast. Coastal polynyas are
produced as newly formed sea ice is continuously
blown offshore. This polynya type can be referred
to as latent heat polynyas, in that the heat flux into
the atmosphere is supported by heat released
during ice formation, about 80 calories per gram of
ice. These coastal latent heat polynyas become
potential sea-ice factories, in which massive
amounts of sea ice can form and be quickly
transported northward.

Latent heat polynyas do not do much to
alter the ocean temperature since the water is
close to freezing to begin with, but they do
increase the salinity, and therefore density, of the

42

Computer-enhanced images
obtained (mm the microwave
radiometer aboard Nimbus
satellites. These images are
composed ot pixels
approximately 30 by 30
kilometers, the resolution of
the microwave sensors aboard
the satellite. The microwave
radiation is emitted naturally
from the surface ocean and
sea-ice cover. The sea ice
emits more radiation in the
microwave frequency than
does the ocean, hence it has a
"warmer" or "brighter"
radiation temperature. This
"brightness temperature" is
converted to an approximate
sea-ice concentration.
(Microwave Radiometer
Images supplied by Dr. /.
Comiso, NASA)

* AU,G fe$EPT

G 30-SEPT 1

9

The Weddell Polynya (gray-green area at center — representing open water) on
September 1 in 1974, 1975, and 1976 (light blue is the boundary between ice cover and
open ocean, pink and purple regions are almost completely ice-covered). The Weddell
Polynya slowly drifted westward during its 3-year life-time; this is a consequence of the
westward mean circulation of the region, which advects the anomalous weak
stratification feature associated with the polynya.

5ea-/'ce cover for February 1984. This represents the
minimum ice cover month.

Sea-ice cover for September 1984. This represents the
maximum ice cover month.

FORMATION
I

COLD, LOW SALINITY

SALTY, VERY COLD
WATER

PYCNOCLINE

WARM , HIGH SALINITY

CONTINENTAL
SHELF

Latent heat, coastal polynya. Strong wind blowing off Antarctica removes the sea ice of the coastal region. The open water
now exposed to the cold atmosphere, results in formation of new ice. As this ice also is removed by the wind, a persistent
coastal polynya forms. These polynyas are maintained by the wind, with the heat flux from ocean to atmosphere supplied by
the latent heat of fusion. Massive amounts of sea ice may form within the coastal features.

shelf water as salt is rejected by the forming sea
ice. The build-up of salty, dense shelf water drains
into the adjacent deep ocean — forming Antarctic
Bottom Water.

Latent heat polynyas form along much of the
coastline of Antarctica. Antarctic Bottom Water also
seems to be produced along much of the coast,
though survey of the continental margins is not
complete enough to resolve fully all of the
production. The coldest, and probably the most,
Antarctic Bottom Water is formed in the southwest
corner of the Weddell Gyre. A salty variety of
bottom water forms in the Ross Sea, and there is
evidence of bottom water formation at many other
sites around Antarctica. Estimates of circumpolar
production rates of Antarctic Bottom Water is in
excess of 13 Sverdups (millions of cubic meters per
second).

Open-Ocean Sensible Heat Polynyas

Polynyas within the open deep ocean are believed
to be maintained by upward flux of massive
amounts of the warm deep water balancing
downward flux of cold surface water in a
convective mode of overturning. The temperature
difference supplies the oceanic heat loss to the
atmosphere. These polynyas can be thought of as
sensible heat polynyas — "sensible," in that oceanic
heat maintains the ice free conditions. The
convective cells are constrained by ocean

dynamics to have horizontal scale of only 10s of
kilometers. Many cells, standing "shoulder-to-
shoulder" are required for the maintenance of
sensible polynya features that have characteristic
horizontal scales of 100s of kilometers.

A most spectacular open-ocean sensible
heat polynya was observed by the microwave
satellite during the mid-1970s near the Greenwich
Meridian and 65 degrees South — referred to as the
Weddell Polynya. During the austral winters of
1974, 1975, and 1976, this large, ice-free region of
300,000 square kilometers drifted westward at
1 kilometer per day, averaged over the 3-year
occurrence.

There has not been another occurrence of
the Weddell Polynya since 1976, though the
microwave data frequently reveal intermittent
reduced sea-ice concentration at the Weddell
Polynya site, as well as at the Cosmonaut Polynya
feature, farther to the east near 66 degrees South
and 45 degrees East. These features, which last for
1 to 3 weeks, are believed to result from deep
convection, which is not vigorous or extensive
enough to maintain a large ice-free region.

Why do some convective cells form large,
lasting polynyas, while others do not? The answer
may have to do with spatial scale. When
convection is triggered under a sea-ice cover, the
initial burst of heat melts most, if not all, of the ice
immediately above the cell. This creates a stable

44

COLD ATMOSPHERE

AS

,^

SEA /icT

COLD

LOW SALINITY

HEAT, SALINITY FLUX

WARM

HIGH SALINITY

Sensible heat, open-ocean polynya. The weak stratification separating the cold surface water from the warmer deep water is
destroyed when the surface layer salinity becomes anomalously high. This may be induced by greater sea-ice formation due
to surface winds, or perhaps by upwelling of anomalously salty deep water. Once the density of the two layers is the same,
further ice formation would force convection. These convective cells are probably 10 to 30 kilometers wide. Individual
convective cells may be quite common, but they do not last long enough to melt a "hole" in the sea-ice cover, as the initial
melting caps the cell with a buoyant surface layer damping out further convection. When a number of these cells form
within a region, a persistent open water feature, a sensible heat polynya, forms. The heat that maintains the polynya is
derived from the deep water.

surface film of fresher water, damping out the
convection. Each cell would have a characteristic
diameter of about 10 to 30 kilometers. In the event
of a greater number of cells, standing "shoulder-to-
shoulder," the melt region is larger, and more sea
ice must be introduced from the surrounding area.
The area of convection grows at a rate of the
square of its characteristic radius, while the
perimeter grows at a linear rate to the same
radius. Therefore, as the field of convective cells
becomes large, it is possible that the movement of
ice into the region cannot occur at a rate fast
enough to stop the convection. In this way, a
threshold size may occur, above which the
convective region can persist, forming a large,
enduring polynya. However, what controls the area
of convective cells is not known.

The Weddell Polynya clearly left an imprint
on ocean characteristics to a depth of 2,700
meters. Comparison of the water column
temperature in the area of the Weddell Polynya
before and after the polynya event reveals some
dramatic changes in the deep water characteristics,
noting that the deep waters of the world ocean are
considered to be very stable on short time scales.
In 1973, the temperature was near +0.5 degrees
Celsius just below the cold surface layer. In 1977,

the temperature was lower, by as much as 0.8
degrees Celsius, down to a depth of 2,700 meters.
The heat removal during this period matched what
would be expected for an ice-free polynya
situation during the winter period. This heat was
thus lost to the atmosphere as convection carried
ocean heat to the surface, inhibiting ice formation,
and maintaining the polynya condition.

Without more thorough observations of the
entire area before, after, and during a polynya
event, it is uncertain as to how much water was
actually cooled; however, reasonable estimates
based on summer field observations suggest that
the rate of overturning may have been as large as 6
million cubic meters per second during the winter-
active polynya phase, or 3 million cubic meters per
second for an annual average. This number would
represent a significant percentage, perhaps half, of
the total production of Antarctic Bottom Water
within the Weddell Sea, a major bottom-water
production area to the south.

Sensible heat polynyas result in cooling of
the ocean, with perhaps some freshening as ice
from the polynya edges migrates into the polynya
convective region and melts, though without
enough fresh water introduction to shut down the
convective overturning. The convection would not

45

induce a drastic change of the ocean density,
though the vigorous vertical displacement of water
would remove stratification. The main conse-
quence is enhancement of ocean heat venting—
compared to the nonpolynya situation.

Thus we ask questions such as: what
initiated, maintained, and terminated the Weddell
Polynya? How often does it form? What is its
impact on the larger-scale climate system? What
effect does it have on the carbon dioxide budget?
And, how might the Polynya frequency be altered
with the "greenhouse" induced climate change—
for example, will there be a positive or negative
feedback?

The maintenance seems to be controlled by
deep convective overturning. The initiation must
have something to do with the salinity balance of
the winter surface water. The stability of the
surface water "floating" over the deeper warm layer
is so slight that deep convective or catastrophic
deepening of the mixed layer is possible with only
minor increase of surface water density. The
delicate marginal stability would be upset if there
were a larger upwelling of deep water into the
surface mixed layer, a reduction in net
precipitation, or a larger divergence of sea ice.
Once convection sets in, it would continue — as the
upwelling warm deep water is rapidly cooled on
exposure to the atmosphere and sinks. The
convection would cease only when enough fresh
water, presumably from melting sea ice from the
surrounding regions, or when summer period
warming re-establishes a buoyant surface layer. The
reoccurrence of the Weddell Polynya for three
consecutive winters, with intervening summers,
indicates some "memory." This most likely is
related to a surplus of salinity within the surface
water from the previous winter, making a repeat
performance likely during the following winter.

Why then did the polynya not form in 1977?
It is likely that the general circulation carried the
oceanic memory of a salty surface layer westward
into a region of sea-ice convergence, which
essentially flooded the area with fresh water-
damping out convection.

Will the Weddell Polynya return? Did it
occur before the mid-1970s? In view of the
marginal stability of the water column in the
Weddell region, it is likely the Weddell Polynya
occurred before and will again. Inspection of deep-
water temperatures from the available data does
indeed suggest that a Weddell Polynya formed in
the early 1960s. This was before the satellite era,
and so cannot be substantiated with direct
observation.

Concluding Thoughts

The remoteness, the environment, and special
requirements for observations all have hindered

further development of quantitative understanding
of the Southern Ocean, particularly within the
regions covered by sea ice. Improved prediction of
climate trends will be based on improved
assessment of the dominant processes and their
rates within the Southern Ocean. A well-
coordinated attack to answer the many questions is
clearly needed. Such an attack is planned during
the 1990s as part of the World Ocean Circulation
Experiment (WOCE). Discussions are now under
way to set out an effective research approach.

The response of the Antarctic ice sheet to
the carbon dioxide-induced global warming, a
change that is expected to be amplified in the
polar regions, is a matter of great concern in regard
to sea-level changes. It is important that we fully
understand the vertical exchange processes within
the Southern Ocean so that they can be
incorporated within the global climate models, and
their potential negative and positive feedback
properties assessed.

Coupled with the ocean/atmosphere heat
exchange may be alterations in gas exchange, such
as oxygen and carbon dioxide. Gas exchange rates
are not even known for the normal sea-ice covered
condition, let alone for the polynya condition.
However, changes are expected as the winter
snow-covered sea ice is removed, with potential
impact on the carbon dioxide global budget and
"greenhouse" climate change.

Arnold L. Cordon is a Professor of Physical Oceanography
at Columbia University, Department of Ceological
Sciences, and on the Senior Staff at the Lamont-Doherty
Ceological Observatory, Palisades, N.Y.

Selected Readings

Comiso, J. C, and A. L. Gordon. 1987. Recurring polynyas over
the Cosmonaut Sea and the Maud Rise. /. Ceophys. Res.
92(C3):2819-2833.

Carsey, F. 1980. Microwave observations of the Weddell Polynya.
Monthly Weather Review 108:2032-2044.

Cordon, A. L. 1982. Weddell deep water variability. /. Mar. Res.
40(supplement):199-217.

Gordon, A. L., and B. A. Huber. 1984. Thermohaline stratification
below the Southern Ocean sea ice. /. Ceophys. Res.
89(C1):641-648.

Jacobs, S. S. 1986. The polar ice sheets: A wild card in the deck?
Oceanus 29(4):50-54.

Toggweiler, J. R., and J. L. Sarmiento. 1985. Glacial to interglacial
changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide: The critical role of
ocean surface water at high latitudes. In: The Carbon Cycle
and Atmospheric CO2 Natural Variations Archean to Present,
Sundquist and Broecker, eds. Geophysical Monograph 32,
pps. 163-184. Washington, D.C.: Am. Geophys. Union.

Zwally, H. )., ]. C. Comiso, and A. L. Gordon. 1985. Antarctic
offshore leads and polynyas and oceanographic effects. In:
Oceanology of the Antarctic Continental Shelf, Antarctic
Research Series, Vol. 43, ed. S. S. Jacobs, pp. 203-226.
Washington, D.C.: Am Geophys. Union.

46

II * ' *r\l I

OZONE LEVEL"?

WlfBKNB
II WOT NEW?

The

Antarctic
Ozone
Hole

by Mario J. Molina

Last October, the ozone concentration over
Antarctica dropped to the lowest level ever
observed anywhere in the atmosphere. This level
was less than half of what it had been a decade
ago, during the austral spring. Recent findings have
shown conclusively that this "ozone hole" is largely
of man-made origin.

Atmospheric Ozone

Ozone is a type of oxygen molecule, with the
formula O3. It accounts for only about 0.0001
percent of all the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere.
The rest is in the form we breathe, O2. Ozone,
created by the action of sunlight on O2, is an
extremely important trace constituent of the
atmosphere, as it protects us from the sun's
harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Most of it is
found at altitudes of between 12 and 25
kilometers. But even there, at its greatest
concentration, it is present at only a few parts per
million. On the average, ozone is more plentiful
near the poles than at the equatorial regions, and
more abundant in winter than in summer.

At ground level, ozone is produced locally
by the action of sunlight on automobile exhaust

47

and other industrial emissions; it is a chemical toxic
to plants and animals. While concentrations of
ozone in polluted urban air can reach levels
dangerous to life, industrially produced ozone does
not significantly contribute to the concentrations
found in the stratospheric "ozone layer." At higher
altitudes, however, rather than posing a threat to
life, ozone absorbs most of the sun's UV radiation
that reaches Earth, preventing the radiation from
reaching the Earth's surface, where it could cause
serious damage to many biological systems. While
absorbing this radiation, ozone heats the
atmosphere, creating a global "inversion layer,"
where the temperature increases with altitude; this
gives rise to the stratosphere — the atmospheric
shell between altitudes of 10 and 50 kilometers.
The layer below the stratosphere — the first shell, or
troposphere — contains only about 10 percent of
the Earth's total ozone.

Antarctic Ozone Measurements

In 1985, a team led by Joseph C. Farman of the
British Antarctic Survey published an article in
Nature, reporting a dramatic decrease in ozone
levels during springtime over Halley Bay (Figure 1).
Their observations were confirmed by other groups
using different methods, including the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA's)
Nimbus-7 satellite. This satellite provides
continuous worldwide coverage of the atmospheric
ozone abundance. The Nimbus-7 data showed that

350

O
to

CD

O
Q

300

250

O
O

DC
LU
CD

O

O
O

z
<

LU

200

150

j L

J I L

1960

1970

1980

1990

Figure 1 . The total amount of ozone measured in October
since 7956, directly over Halley Bay by /. Farman and co-
workers of the British Antarctic Survey (open circles), and
from NASA satellite measurements (solid triangles). The
universally accepted measure for total ozone, a "Dobson
unit" — equal to one hundredth of a millimeter-
corresponds to the thickness of the layer that would result
if all the atmospheric ozone above were to be brought to
ground level, at standard temperature and pressure.

the region of ozone depletion was somewhat wider
than Antarctica, and that it was more or less
restricted to the lower stratosphere (altitudes of 12
to 25 kilometers). This unusual "hole" opens in
September, with the first light of the Antarctic
sunrise, and closes in mid-October. It has been
deepening since the late 1970s.

The discovery of this mysterious hole was
not expected by atmospheric scientists in
particular, and disturbed the scientific community
in general. A change in ozone concentration of this
magnitude suggested to scientists that the ozone
layer is influenced by processes they had not
previously recognized. Researchers all over the
world raced to develop plausible explanations.
Eventually, two sets of theories dominated the
field — redistribution theories, and chemical
destruction theories. It was possible that the hole
was the flip side of a compensating increase in
ozone concentrations elsewhere, caused by
dynamic meteorological processes. On the other
hand, proponents of chemical destruction theories
believed that unforeseen chemical processes were
causing the Antarctic ozone to vanish.

The Role of Chlorofluorocarbons

In a 1974 Nature article, the author and F.
Sherwood Rowland of the University of California,
Irvine, alerted the world about a potential
depletion of stratospheric ozone because of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) released into the
atmosphere. CFC molecules consist of chlorine,
fluorine, and carbon atoms. Because of their
unusual stability and low toxicity, CFCs were
regarded as ideal industrial chemicals, and are used
widely in refrigeration, foam insulation, aerosol
sprays, and solvents in the microelectronic
industry. Ironically, it is this chemical inertness that
allows CFCs to survive for so long in the
environment, and eventually to diffuse above the
ozone layer, where they are broken apart by solar
UV radiation. The decomposition products include
chlorine atoms, which speed up the destruction of
ozone through a catalytic cycle.*

In the 14 years since the CFC ozone
depletion theory was first proposed, scientists
around the world have studied it in the laboratory,
by field measurements, and by computer
simulations. All methods have essentially confirmed
its validity. The presence of CFCs in the
stratosphere was proven by measurements. Their
concentrations were found to decrease rapidly with
increasing altitude, as expected, because of
destruction by solar UV radiation. Both atomic
chlorine and chlorine monoxide were detected in
the stratosphere, supporting the notion that a
chlorine-catalyzed chain reaction is actually
occurring there.

According to very conservative calculations
widely reported in the research literature, the total
amount of ozone in the atmosphere will decrease
by several percent by the end of the century,

* A catalytic reaction often involves an increase in the rate
of a chemical reaction, induced by a "third-party" agent
that is unaltered by the reaction.

48

CATALYTIC
CYCLES

Figure 2. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are industrial chemicals released at ground level. They are unaffected by rain and by
the chemical reactions that cleanse most other gases in the troposphere. The CFC's slowly rise into the upper stratosphere,
above the ozone layer, where ultraviolet radiation is strong enough to break the molecules apart, releasing chlorine atoms
that react very rapidly with ozone. Occasionally, these chlorine atoms combine with other chemicals to form relatively
stable "chlorine reservoirs," which in turn decompose, periodically returning the free chlorine atom to the stratosphere. Each
chlorine atom released by the decomposition of a CFC molecule is capable of destroying tens of thousands of ozone
molecules before it returns to the Earth's surface.

assuming (probably incorrectly) the emission of
CFCs continues at present rates. This decrease
would barely be discernible among the large
natural ozone fluctuations, but the depletion is
predicted to occur mostly in the upper
stratosphere, where most of the ozone is produced
(this depletion has been recently confirmed by
observations). In the lower stratosphere, ozone
levels could actually increase somewhat, partially
compensating the losses higher up.

Even if the total amount of ozone were to
remain the same, a substantial redistribution could
have a serious impact on climate, by changing the
temperature profile of the atmosphere. One of the
worrisome aspects of the problem is the long time
scale involved; the effect of a release of CFCs at
any given time is only felt about a decade later,
and then it persists for more than a century. Levels
of chlorine in the stratosphere are expected to
continue increasing for many decades, even if
production and release of CFCs were to level off.

In response to public concern over the
effects of CFCs on stratospheric ozone, the United
States banned the use of CFCs as propellants in
aerosol sprays in 1978; Canada, Sweden, Denmark,
and Norway subsequently imposed similar
regulations. In September 1987, 24 nations-
including the United States and nearly all the major
industrial countries — signed an agreement to
freeze their annual use of CFCs at 1986 levels, and
to cut these levels by a half by 1999. This historic
agreement, known as the "Montreal Protocol,"
must be ratified by at least 1 1 countries to become
official in 1989.

Stratospheric Chemistry over Antarctica

Conditions in the stratosphere over Antarctica are
different in many respects from those in the
temperate and equatorial latitudes. High-energy
solar UV radiation is scarce over the poles; and the
temperatures are the lowest of any in the
atmosphere. Normally, the catalytic cycles
responsible for ozone creation and breakdown
(Figures 2, 3, and 4) are active only at higher
temperatures, and in the presence of abundant
solar UV radiation. This explains why ozone is
neither generated over the poles nor normally
destroyed there, so a chemical explanation of the
ozone hole requires a different mechanism.

One such explanation assumes that high
solar activity — correlated to the 1 1-year sunspot
cycle — produces large amounts of ozone-
destroying nitric oxide. This so-called "solar-cycle"
theory predicts that high concentrations of oxides
of nitrogen should be present in the Antarctic
stratosphere. The solar-cycle theory is the only
plausible "natural" chemical destruction
mechanism proposed. All other chemical
explanations involve chlorine compounds which
are, for the most part, man-made.

Some of the chlorine in the stratosphere
comes from the methyl chloride (CH3CI) that is a
by-product of marine life. However, the
contribution from industrially derived CFCs clearly
dominates at present; this source has more than
doubled its contribution during the last 15 years.

Atmospheric scientists have identified
several chlorine-based processes that could explain

49

the ozone hole. They suggest that polar
stratospheric clouds (PSCs) could play a major role
in such processes. These high-altitude clouds were
discovered many years ago, and are peculiar to
Antarctica. Worldwide, the stratosphere is very dry
and normally cloud free, although it has a thin
haze, or "aerosol layer," that consists
predominantly of tiny, wet, sulfuric acid droplets.
The abundance of these droplets increases
markedly after large volcanic eruptions. Over
Antarctica, however, stratospheric temperatures
drop to below -85 degrees Celsius during the
winter, cold enough for the scarce water vapor to
condense and form thin ice clouds. It is
conceivable that these clouds could facilitate the
conversion of chemically bound, and relatively
inert forms of chlorine — the chlorine "reservoirs"-
into active chlorine.

The work of the author and others at the
California Institute of Technology's Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (JPL) showed that the reaction between
chlorine nitrate and hydrogen chloride — the two
most abundant chlorine reservoirs — occurs very
slowly in the gas phase. It occurs so slowly that, in
the context of observable ozone depletion, it does
not occur at all. But in the presence of various solid
substrates, about one out of every 10 collisions
between chlorine nitrate and hydrogen chloride
molecules results in molecular chlorine and nitric
acid (HNO3). This is an example of a
"heterogeneous" chemical reaction, which is a
reaction occurring on a solid or liquid surface.
Further experiments carried out at JPL showed
conclusively that the ice-particle-mediated reaction
goes to completion often enough to generate
quantities of molecular chlorine sufficient to cause
the ozone hole.

This particular reaction on the ice surface
could explain how chlorine can rapidly be released
from the inactive reservoirs to its most active form,
free atomic chlorine, since even the faint radiation
available over Antarctica in the spring can break
chlorine molecules apart into their constituent
chlorine atoms. Another important characteristic of
the PSC-mediated reaction is that the other
product, nitric acid, remains frozen in the ice. In
this way, the nitrogen oxides are kept out of the
gas phase and so cannot interfere with the chlorine
cycles. These experimental results have been
supported by other, independent, studies — for
example, by David Golden and his co-workers at
SRI International in Palo Alto, California.

This still leaves unexplained how a catalytic
cycle of ozone destruction might be maintained.
Such a cycle is necessary to account for the high
rate of Antarctic ozone destruction that has been
observed. Chlorine atoms react very rapidly with
ozone, even at the low temperatures prevailing
over Antarctica, producing oxygen molecules and
chlorine monoxide. However, the second step in
the ozone destruction cycle (Figure 4) operating at
mid-latitudes does not occur over the poles.
Oxygen atoms are too scarce to react at any
appreciable rate with chlorine monoxide. Three
catalytic cycles that regenerate chlorine atoms, and

that do not require oxygen atoms, have been
proposed as being at work over Antarctica.

First of all, the author's earlier work at JPL
led to the idea that chlorine monoxide could react
with itself, producing the "dimer" molecule, CI2O2.
The dimer could decompose by several pathways,
regenerating free chlorine atoms. Secondly,
Michael McElroy and co-workers at Harvard
University proposed a bromine cycle, involving the
reaction of chlorine monoxide with bromine
monoxide (BrO). The product of this reaction
would be atoms of bromine and chlorine. The third
cycle, suggested by Susan Solomon of the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, F. S.
Rowland, and others, involves the hydroperoxy

OZONE FORMATION

HIGH ENERGY
UV RADIATION

8

OXYGEN
MOLECULE

O + O

OXYGEN
ATOMS

O

OXYGEN
ATOM

OXYGEN
MOLECULE

ADDITION
REACTION

UV
RADIATION

OZONE
MOLECULE

Figure 3. Highly energetic solar UV radiation breaks apart
an oxygen molecule into its constituent oxygen atoms,
which combine rapidly with other oxygen molecules to
form ozone. In the process of shielding the Earth from solar
UV radiation, ozone breaks apart, but is quickly
regenerated.

CATALYTIC OZONE DESTRUCTION

8

CHLORINE
ATOM

CHLORINE
MONOXIDE

OZONE
MOLECULE

O

OXYGEN
ATOM

CHLORINE
MONOXIDE

OXYGEN
MOLECULE

CHLORINE
ATOM

OXYGEN
MOLECULE

O

- 8

8

NET OZONE DESTRUCTION PROCESS

Figure 4. In a catalytic destruction cycle at mid-latitudes,
the reactive chlorine atoms and chlorine monoxide are
recycled. An ozone molecule and an oxygen atom
disappear, forming two oxygen molecules. Natural control
of ozone occurs mainly through a catalytic cycle involving
nitric oxide (NO) instead of atomic chlorine, and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2) instead of chlorine monoxide, yielding the
same "net" ozone destruction reaction.

50

radical (HO2), produced by the decomposition of
water vapor, reacting with chlorine monoxide,
eventually releasing free chlorine atoms.

The net effect of these three cycles is to
destroy two ozone molecules and produce three
oxygen molecules, while returning all the other
reactants to their original chemical form.

Measurements Over Antarctica

Field measurements over Antarctica now comprise
a wealth of information, helping to support or
refute the various theories for ozone depletion.
During the austral spring of 1986, the first National
Ozone Expedition (NOZE I) followed the formation
of the hole from the National Science Foundation's
(NSF's) research station at McMurdo Sound.
Scientific reports resulting from the expedition
suggested a chemical process involving CFCs as the
most likely cause for the ozone hole, although
natural causes were not entirely ruled out.

A second expedition (NOZE II) to McMurdo
station in 1987 gathered additional data. At the
same time, another ambitious expedition was
coordinated by NASA, probing the Antarctic
stratosphere with an ER-2 aircraft — a modified
version of the military U2 spy plane — and a DC-8
as platforms for sophisticated measurements. This
expedition, known as the Airborne Antarctic
Ozone Experiment, was able to range more widely
in terms of both area and altitude.

Preliminary results from the aircraft
expedition are consistent with the observations
made the previous year from McMurdo. The
combination of those results and observations
show that the chemical composition of Antarctic
stratosphere is highly perturbed, compared to
predictions based on "natural" chemical and
dynamical theories. One of the key experiments,
conducted by James Anderson's team from
Harvard University, monitored chlorine monoxide
levels. The levels were found to increase sharply,
as soon as the airplane penetrated the so-called
"chemically perturbed" region, reaching a
maximum of 100 times the level normally
measured at mid-latitudes. At the same time,
ozone levels dropped just as sharply. The
concentrations of the two species were highly
anticorrelated, that is, behaving like mirror images
of each other.

Measurements carried out by other teams
also supported the theory of CFCs being
responsible for Antarctic ozone destruction.
Nitrogen dioxide was present at extremely low
levels, whereas nitric acid (measured as nitrate) was
present in the ice particles. The hydrogen chloride
levels were low during the early stages of the
ozone hole formation, returning slowly to normal
levels as the hole disappeared with the breakdown
of the polar vortex.* There were low concentrations

* The polar vortex is a stream of air maintained in the
Antarctic stratosphere. It exists for several months each
year, and does not mix with the surrounding air. As a
consequence of this isolation, the air of the polar vortex
becomes very cold.

of CFCs and nitrous oxide in the regions of
diminished ozone, indicating that the air in those
regions was not coming from the troposphere
below, but was "aged" stratospheric air. This air
would have come from higher altitudes at
equatorial or temperate latitudes, according to
conventional views about the large-scale circulation
in the stratosphere.

These findings rule out the natural, or solar-
cycle, theory that requires high levels of nitrogen
dioxide. They also are incompatible with the
"dynamics only" theory, postulating an upward
movement of tropospheric air as the sole cause of
the hole. In contrast, the observed abundance of
key chemicals in the ozone hole fits well with the
prediction of the chlorine-based theory. The low
values of nitrogen oxides observed are consistent
with laboratory results showing the chlorine
reservoirs to react on the surface of polar
stratospheric clouds (PSCs), enhancing the
abundance of active chlorine, and at the same time
tying up the nitrogen oxides in ice crystals as
frozen nitric acid.

The ozone-destroying catalytic cycle that is
most likely to occur over Antarctica involves the
chlorine monoxide dimer (Figure 5). However,
resolving the details of this mechanism depends on
further laboratory work on dimer chemistry. The
observed concentration of bromine monoxide was
too low for the bromine cycle to be the dominant
mechanism in ozone destruction. It is clear that
meteorology sets up the special conditions
required for the perturbed chemistry. As the polar
vortex cools, it permits the formation of PSCs.

A wealth of information is still coming out of
the expeditions and important results will continue
to be announced throughout 1988, as the data is
scrutinized further. Much remains to be learned,
and many questions need to be answered about
the detailed interpretation of the results, but the
overall picture of the chemical origin of the ozone
hole as due to CFCs is emerging convincingly.

Antarctic Implications

The 1987 Antarctic ozone hole was the deepest
ever; less than a half of the ozone present on
August 15 remained by October 7, with more than
97 percent vanishing at certain altitudes. A very
worrisome aspect of last year's hole was that the
breakdown of the polar vortex occurred about a
month later than usual. This implies that the
stratospheric meteorology in the Southern
Hemisphere can be seriously perturbed by the
presence of the hole. Lower temperatures, caused
by less solar UV radiation absorption by the
diminished ozone, favor the formation of a more
stable polar vortex. Hence, the hole might last
longer, growing outward from Antarctica; it cannot
get much deeper than it is.

The NSF is funding two research groups to
help assess the effect of the ozone hole on
ecology. Because the sun is always very low in the
horizon over Antarctica, the amount of UV
radiation screened by the ozone layer is greater
than in temperate zones. Nevertheless, the amount

51

of UV light reaching Antarctica's surface is certainly
greater beneath the ozone hole than elsewhere, or
before the hole opens. The consequences for living
creatures are unclear. For example, marine
phytoplankton and krill might be adversely
affected. These organisms are at the base of the
Antarctic food chain.

Global Implications

Another aspect worthy of consideration, beyond
the large, local ozone depletion effects, is the net
ozone depletion in the atmosphere. Half of the
ozone is removed over Antarctica, which covers
about 10 percent of the area of the Southern
Hemisphere. Hence, ozone will be reduced by
about five percent throughout that hemisphere as
the polar vortex breaks down, and its air mixes
with the lower latitude air.

We now recognize that chemical reactions
on solid particles suspended in the stratosphere
might be more important than previously thought.
This could be particularly important in the future,
as chlorine levels increase.

A large ozone hole is not likely to form over
the Arctic, because a strong vortex does not
develop there. The Arctic ice sheet is flat, in
contrast to the Antarctic continent, so it is less
likely to induce the characteristic upward spinning
motion in the atmosphere. As a consequence, PSCs
are not as prevalent over the Arctic, but they
certainly also occur there, and so can induce
chlorine chemistry similar to that occurring over
Antarctica.

There are indications that the chlorine
monoxide levels in the Arctic stratosphere are
higher than expected. Recently, a panel of experts
assembled by NASA established that there is a
decrease of more than 5 percent in ozone levels
during the boreal winter at latitudes above 50
degrees North, with less depletion toward the
equator. This drop is much larger than expected
from "conventional" chemistry alone.

If the furor over the Antarctic ozone hole
has shown us one thing, it is that mankind has the
potential to seriously perturb the atmosphere. It is
important for society to learn more about
worldwide pollution events — such as the ozone
hole — to better prevent the uncontrolled
deterioration of its environment.

Mar/o /. Molina is a Senior Research Scientist at the let
Propulsion Laboratory of the California Institute of
Technology in Pasadena, California.

Acknowledgment

The author acknowledges the assistance of Luisa T.
Molina in the preparation of this article.

CATALYTIC OZONE DESTRUCTION
OVER ANTARCTICA

CHLORINE
ATOM

OZONE

CHLORINE
MONOXIDE

CHLORINE
MONOXIDE

DIMER

OXYGEN
MOLECULE

NEAR UV
RADIATION

8

DIMER

CHLORINE
ATOMS

OXYGEN
MOLECULE

Figure 5. Catalytic cycles over Antarctica do not involve
oxygen atoms, which are too scarce. One of the proposed
mechanisms involves the dimer of chlorine monoxide. The
net reaction is equivalent to two ozone molecules reacting
with each other to produce three oxygen molecules.

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Selected References

Farman, J. C., B. C. Gardiner, and ). D. Shanklin. 1985. Large
losses of total ozone in Antarctica reveal seasonal CIOX/NOX
interaction. Nature 315: 207-210.

McElroy, M. B., R. ). Salawitch, S. C. Wofsy, and ). A. Logan. 1986.
Reductions of Antarctic ozone due to synergistic interactions
of chlorine and bromine. Nature 321: 759-762.

Molina, M. )., and F. S. Rowland. 1974. Stratospheric sink for

chlorofluoromethanes: Chlorine atom catalyzed destruction of
ozone. Nature 249: 810-812.

Molina, M. J., T.-L. Tso, L. T. Molina, and F. C.-Y. Wang. 1987.
Antarctic stratospheric chemistry of chlorine nitrate, hydrogen
chloride and ice: Release of active chlorine. Science 238:
1253-1257.

Solomon, S., R. R. Garcia, F. S. Rowland, and D. ). Wuebbles.
1986. On the depletion of Antarctic ozone. Nature 321: 755-
758.

World Meteorological Organization. 1986. Global ozone research
and monitoring project, Report No. 16. Atmospheric ozone
1 985: Assessment of our understanding of the processes
controlling its present distribution and change. Geneva,
Switzerland: World Meteorological Organization.

52

The Antarctic

Circumpolar Current

I he Earth's only global current flows east around
Antarctica without beginning or end, its 24,000

30W

by Thomas Whitworth III

kilometer length unobstructed by continents. In the
middle of the South Pacific, it passes just south of

30E

150 180 150

Figure 1 . The path of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current is shown by the two single lines, which trace the two major current
jets. Heavy lines show the locations of two of the subpolar gyres of the Southern Ocean. Water depths shallower than 3,000
meters are shaded. (Contours are based on data from the Southern Ocean Atlas by A. L. Cordon and E. /. Molinelli, and
from other sources)

53

the world's most distant point from land. Even in
austral summer (December, January, and February),
air and water temperatures along its route remain
close to the freezing point, and 40-knot winds and
10-meter seas are not uncommon. It is of little
consolation to the scientists who endure these
conditions to study the Antarctic Circumpolar
Current that in some sectors of the Southern
Hemisphere, the current is closer to the equator
than Paris is.

The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is
usually considered the northernmost section of the
Southern Ocean, a sea not separate physically from
the three oceans to the north, but separate in its
biological and hydrographic environment. The
frigid air and ice of the Southern Ocean, and the
salt left behind during sea-ice formation, combine
to produce the densest water on Earth. The cold,
nutrient-rich surface water supports an abundance
of marine life, and the current sharply delineates
the cold waters and distinctive biota of the
Antarctic from the warmer waters of the
subtropical South Atlantic, South Pacific, and
Indian oceans.

Although the ACC does delineate two
oceanic environments, it is not an impermeable
barrier between the Antarctic and subantarctic.
More importantly, perhaps, along lines of latitude,
it actually acts as a conduit that connects the
world's oceans. Most of the waters carried in the
Circumpolar current do not acquire their
temperature and chemical characteristics locally in
the Southern Ocean, but from a mixture of waters
formed in other parts of the world. For example, in
the North Atlantic, Arctic waters combine with
those of the Mediterranean Sea, flow south across
the equator, and join the Circumpolar current.
Over the centuries, this constant trickle of North
Atlantic water, and contributions from other
sources, have formed the predominant water mass
in the current. From the ACC, this water spreads
both to the north (becoming the bottom water of
the equatorial Pacific, for instance) and to the
south (where it is a primary ingredient of dense
Antarctic Bottom Water). The Circumpolar conduit
also has the potential for widespread distribution of
less desirable products, such as pollutants.

Current Structure

Unlike other currents, the Circumpolar current is
not a single broad flow, but consists of two or more
relatively narrow jets. Figure 1 shows the
approximate locations of the two most prominent
current cores. Throughout much of the Southern
Ocean, the two jets run parallel to the mid-ocean
ridge system that rings the Antarctic continent.
South of the Circumpolar current are the clockwise
flows of at least two subpolar gyres, the Weddell
and Ross Sea gyres. We are not sure of the extent
of the subpolar gyres, or even their number — a
third gyre may exist in the Indian Ocean sector.

Surface speeds within the jets are about 1 '/2
knots, considerably less than in the Gulf Stream,
where average speeds are greater, and may reach 5
knots. But, unlike the Gulf Stream, the eastward

flow of the jets in the ACC extends all the way to
the ocean bottom. Current records from a depth of
3,000 meters south of South America reveal 1-year
average speeds of more than a V* knot, with
occasional bursts to almost 1 knot. The enormous
volume of water that is transported in the
Circumpolar current is accounted for by the great
vertical extent of the ACC jets.

The current does not flow strictly along lines
of latitude, but tracks both to the north and south.
The most poleward excursions of the ACC are
south of New Zealand, where the current is forced
between the continental shelf and the mid-ocean
ridge, and in the Drake Passage, between South
America and Antarctica. East of these two places,
the ACC turns to the north, and, off the east coast
of South America, a branch of the Circumpolar
current reaches far enough north to collide with
the warm, southward-flowing Brazil Current.

Within this general path, the jets are not
always found at the same latitude, and may
meander hundreds of kilometers north or south of
the locations in Figure 1. As in the Gulf Stream, the
current cores occasionally wrap back on
themselves to produce isolated current rings that
can carry a miniature Antarctic marine environment
north of the ACC, or a subantarctic environment to
the south. Rings and eddies represent one way that
the Circumpolar current exchanges water
properties with the adjacent oceans.

Zones and Fronts

Despite its great length, the Circumpolar current
appears to be quite uniform, and has similar
characteristics no matter where it is observed. A
good place to look at the current is at the Drake
Passage, between South America and the islands
that lie just north of the Antarctic Peninsula. Figures
2a and 2b show oceanic characteristics across the
passage.

Ocean fronts are narrow regions (50 to 100
kilometers wide) where there is an abrupt
horizontal change in the properties of the water. In
Figure 2, the fronts of the ACC appear as sharp
depth changes in the contours of equal
temperature and salinity (isotherms and isohalines).
Since these two properties of seawater are the
ones that determine density, lines of constant
density (isopycnals) would parallel those of
temperature and salinity. An abrupt change in the
depth of an isopycnal implies a strong current, and
in the Southern Hemisphere, denser water to the
south signals a current toward the east (into the
page on Figure 2). The current cores in Figure 1 are
thus easily identifiable in cross-sections of
temperature or salinity.

There is nothing subtle about fronts in the
Southern Ocean. Antarctic waters are so dense that
lighter waters from the north undergo huge depth
changes in overriding them. The 1 -degree-Celsius
isotherm is deeper than 3,500 meters on the
northern side of Drake Passage, and shallower than
1,000 meters on the southern side, just 600
kilometers away. (Although this slope is dramatic
by oceanographic standards, it amounts to an angle

54

of only about a quarter of a degree. If Figure 2
were wide enough to use the same scale in the
horizontal as is used in the vertical, the 1 -degree
isotherm would be almost horizontal.)

The late Sir George Deacon, former director
of Britain's National Institute of Oceanography, and
a pioneer of modern Antarctic oceanography (see
profile, Oceanus Vol. 28, No. 1, p. 90), was the first
to notice, in 1939, that isotherms rose to the south
across the current in a series of steps, implying the
presence of more than one front. The Polar Front
(earlier called the Antarctic Convergence) was
recognized as early as 1901, because its location is
often marked by a rapid change in surface
temperature. From his work on the British research
ship Discovery, Deacon showed that the Polar
Front (the southernmost contour on Figure 1) was
circumpolar in extent.

In subsequent years, the northern contour in
Figure 1, representing the Subantarctic Front, also
has been shown to be circumpolar. Although
vertical sections through the ACC in other parts of
the Southern Ocean show a feature similar to the
Continental Water Boundary, the southernmost
front in Drake Passage, it is not yet known whether
this front is part of the current.

The fronts separate distinctive "zones," each
characterized by a particular vertical stratification in
temperature and salinity. South of the Polar Front
in the Antarctic Zone is a layer of water colder than
0 degrees Celsius just below the surface. During
winter, this cold water is formed at the sea surface
and is about 100 meters thick. (The data in Figure 2
were collected in austral summer, however, and
seasonal heating of the surface had isolated the
"winter water" below the surface.)

As one moves away from the Antarctic
continent, and into the Polar Frontal Zone — a
transition between the Antarctic and subantarctic
zones — this cold, fresh water sinks to a depth of
about 500 meters, and, north of the ACC,
continuing to move equatorward, it sinks to a
depth of 1,000 meters. This characteristic water
mass, known as Antarctic Intermediate Water,
spreads throughout the Southern Hemisphere, and
its Antarctic characteristics can still be recognized
as far north as the equator, and beyond.

The most voluminous water mass in the ACC
is called Circumpolar Deep Water, and is not of
Antarctic origin. In Figure 2b, water with salinity
greater than about 34.7 parts per thousand (of salt
to water) is Circumpolar Deep Water, and it
constitutes more than half the water in Drake
Passage. Its high salinity can be traced directly back
to the outflow from the Mediterranean Sea.

In the movement, rising, sinking, and
layering of water masses in the region, temperature
and salinity play complex and interchanging roles.
While the winter water formed in place during the
Antarctic winter is cold, it is relatively fresh. The
warmer, but saltier water that has some of its origin
in the Mediterranean, takes on a greater density,
and is located beneath the winter water.

In the Antarctic Zone, therefore,
Circumpolar Deep Water lies beneath the winter
water, so that between 200 and 500 meters, water

Subantatctic Front Polar Fronl Continental Water Boundary

Subantarctic Zone T Polar Frontal Zone ' Antarctic Zone

26 27 28 29 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 43 44 45 46 4748 49

5OOO

300

400

500

600

':•

4OOO

4500

5000
800km

Figure 2a. Vertical section of temperature through the
Antarctic Circumpolar Current at Drake Passage, off the
southern tip of South America. The three fronts (shaded)
that comprise the current are relatively narrow compared
to the zones they separate. The dots represent the positions
of hydrographic stations and locations of samples collected.
The view is looking eastward, from the Pacific toward the
Atlantic, or downstream along the current.

SAP PF CWB

26 27 28 29 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 43 44 45 46 4748 49

4000

45OO

5OOO

5000
IOO 20O 300 400 600 700 800 km

Figure 26. Vertical section of salinity in parts per thousand
(salt to water) through the Drake Passage.

55

Weddell Sea
Deep Water

North

South

The zonation of the Antarctic
Circumpolar Current at the
Drake Passage, and the
principal water masses.

temperature increases with depth. This unusual
situation was first documented in the 1770s during
Captain James Cook's circumnavigation of the
Southern Ocean.

The ACC nearly fills the Drake Passage as it
squeezes through it. The only water in Drake
Passage that is not part of the ACC is at the
southern margin. Cold and relatively fresh water
from the Weddell Sea leaks around the Antarctic
Peninsula and flows to the west through the Drake
Passage, in the direction opposite to that of the
ACC.

Transport

The average transport of the circumpolar current is
130 million cubic meters per second — about four
times that of the Florida Current portion of the Gulf
Stream system, and about 400 times greater than
the transport of the Mississippi River. Even though
it represents only 2 months production of a leading
cola manufacturer, a million cubic meters of water
is a large volume, and may be difficult to visualize.
A railroad tank car holds about 100,000 liters
(30,000 gallons), and it would take almost 9,000 of
them in a train 200 kilometers long to carry a
million cubic meters. To carry the amount of water
passing through Drake Passage each second would
require four trains, each stretching from Miami to
Seattle.

The volume transport of the ACC is an
important number to oceanographers. If all the
pertinent dynamics are included in numerical
models of global ocean circulation, a realistic
transport estimate for the ACC must result. As we
will discuss later, the present models do not pass
the transport test.

The first calculation of the transport of the
ACC was made in the early 1930s. It differed from
today's best estimate by only 15 percent. All of the
early estimates were made without sophisticated
instruments or electronics, using an indirect
calculation based on the slope of isopycnals across
the current. When reliable current meters were
developed and first deployed in the ACC, transport
estimates actually got worse — because of
undersampling or oversampling of the fronts, which
transport most of the water. For example, at Drake
Passage about three-fourths of the transport occurs
in the three frontal regions shaded in Figure 2,
even though they occupy only about one-fourth of
the cross-sectional area of Drake Passage.

A comprehensive study of the ACC at Drake
Passage was started in 1975 as part of the
International Southern Ocean Studies program. The
program involved scientists and technicians from
Texas A&M University, Oregon State University,
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Lamont-
Doherty Geological Observatory of Columbia
University, the University of Washington, Scripps
Institution of Oceanography, and colleagues from
Chile and Argentina. During the 6-year study, 1 1
cruises on 7 different research ships were made,
and some of the huge amount of data collected is
still being analyzed. An important personal
observation made by the author was that, during
the program the weather at Drake Passage
underwent constant improvement — at least, the
fifth cruise did not seem nearly as bad as the first.

One of the major goals of the International
Southern Ocean Studies program was to make a
dependable estimate of the transport of the ACC
and its variability. As the final experiment of the
program, an array of 91 instruments on 24

56

160

i

90

Jan
1977

Figure 3. Time series of water transport through the Drake Passage. The light line shows fluctuations in transport that occur
at periods longer than 10 days. The heavy line is a smoothed version of the data to illustrate the longer-term changes in
transport. The inset shows the smoothed data as four 1-year segments, and demonstrates that year-to-year differences in
transport are larger than any seasonal similarities. The units of transport are in millions of cubic meters per second.

moorings was deployed in Drake Passage for
1 year. Moorings were placed about 50 kilometers
apart so that the fronts could be sampled
adequately, even as they meandered back and
forth through the passage. Even though the average
transport for the year was quite close to the 50-
year-old estimate, it was now a reliable estimate,
and we had our first look at how the transport
changed with time.

The 1-year transport estimate was later
extended in time — using the relationship between
volume transport and the pressure difference
across Drake Passage as measured by bottom-
mounted precision pressure gauges. Figure 3 shows
the transport between 1977 and 1979, and during
1 981 . Most surprising are the rapid increases and
decreases in transport (amounting to nearly
40 percent of the average) in time spans of just a
few weeks. The inset shows 1-year segments of the
volume transport, and although there is some
suggestion of a seasonal pattern in the transport
variability, differences from year-to-year are very
large. Much of the small-scale variability can be
explained by 2-week solar and lunar tides. The
larger, longer-period fluctuations remain
unexplained. But, describing the variability is a first
step toward understanding what causes it.

Forcing and Braking

The "Roaring Forties" of the Southern Hemisphere
are the result of atmospheric high-pressure cells
near 30 degrees South, and low-pressure cells near

the coast of Antarctica. The strong winds from the
west pushing on the sea surface are what drive the
circumpolar current. Curiously, the winds are
stronger than they need to be to produce a current
the size of the ACC. Numerical models of wind-
driven ocean circulation that work well in other
oceans fail when applied to the Southern Ocean.

One reason for the failure of the models (the
models produce a current that is about 10 times
too strong) is that the ACC never flows near a
coastline where its momentum can be reduced
through frictional dissipation. To create a realistic
ACC, modelers must increase the internal frictional
parameters of the models so that the water is
unrealistically "sticky." The real problem in
understanding the ACC is not what drives the
current, but what keeps it from being even stronger
than it is.

There are two leading candidates for
applying the brakes to the ACC. The first is the
force applied to the current by the extensive
system of bottom ridges in the Southern Ocean.
The second theory relies on the observation that
the ACC does not flow due east everywhere, but in
two places (east of both New Zealand and South
America), the current actually turns to the north. In
these places, the ACC can be thought of as a short
western boundary current — a mini-Gulf Stream.
Such boundary currents can dissipate large
amounts of energy in small-scale eddies,
turbulence, and other unpleasantries collectively
known to modellers as nonlinearities.

57

Shuffleboard Aboard the Melville

C

.urrent meter mooring deployments in
rough seas and on wet decks are dangerous
operations. Each part of the procedure is
carefully orchestrated to minimize the danger
of moving heavy pieces of equipment close
to the edge of the deck. But at least once,
the excellent safety record of the Oregon
State University Buoy Group was maintained
only through divine intervention.

Preparations were underway to deploy
a mooring, and the R/V Melville was
maintaining slight headway into a heavy
swell to minimize the ship's motion. A stack
of railroad-wheel anchors was about to be
moved astern and secured near the site from
where it would be dropped into the water-
after the rest of the mooring had been
deployed and was floating behind the ship.
Somehow, the ship turned into the "trough,"
parallel to the seas, and began rolling wildly.
The stack of wheels broke loose from the
one remaining bolt holding it to the deck,
and began to lumber toward the low side of

the ship. On the next roll, it seemed inclined
to return to its original position, but instead
rammed into another stack, shearing off the
restraining bolts of a second anchor. Very
soon, the stern of the Melville was a huge
shuffleboard court, but with disks more
appropriate for a curling match among
giants. With cries to the bridge to resume
their heading, the deck crew scrambled for
ladders, cranes, poles, or anything above
deck level.

Once the Melville was back on
course, the anchors, some weighing more
than a ton and a half, littered the deck in
precarious motionlessness, some half
overboard, held tenuously by a filament of
dacron line. Ever so cautiously, they were
coaxed back to their homes and re-secured.
Apart from jangled nerves, there were no
injuries, but the Melville probably still has
some mysterious indentations in her rails.

— TW III

Neither theory can be easily tested through
field work, and the answer to this question will
have to await more sophisticated models on larger
computers. The fundamental question of how the
ACC works remains a major research challenge for
the future.

A Vital Link

The world's longest current plays a vital role in
global ocean circulation by serving as a pathway for
interocean exchange of water. Despite years of
study, we remain ignorant of many important
aspects of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current — why
it looks the way it does, goes where it goes, and
why it is not even stronger than it is.

Thomas Whitworth III is an Associate Research Scientist in
the Department of Oceanography at Texas A&M University,
College Station, Texas.

Selected References

Deacon, C. 1984. The Antarctic Circumpolar Ocean. 180 pp.

Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Cordon, A. L, and E. ). Molinelli. 1982. Thermohaline and

chemical distributions and the atlas data set. In, Southern

Ocean Atlas. 1 1 pp., 233 plates. New York: Columbia

University Press.
Nowlin, W. D. Jr., and J. M. Klinck. 1986. The physics of the

Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Reviews of Geophysics and

Space Physics, 24(3): 469-491.
Sievers, H. A., and W. D. Nowlin, Jr. 1984. The stratification and

water masses at Drake Passage, lournal of Geophysical

Research 89(11): 489-5 14.
Whitworth, T., Ill, and R. C. Peterson. 1985. Volume transport of

the Antarctic Circumpolar Current from bottom pressure

measurements, journal of Physical Oceanography 15(6): 810-

816.

58

Antarctic
Marine
Living
Resources

; — ;

by Kenneth Sherman,
and Alan F. Ryan

IERRES AUSTRAIES ET AXTARCU

v-Jne most often thinks of whales as the biological
resource of the Antarctic. Since the cessation of
commercial whaling, however, finfish and krill are
the targets of the fishery. Like whales, these
resources have been subjected to poorly regulated
or unregulated fishing pressures — sometimes to the
point of stock reduction and depletion.

Fishing for krill (the dominant species) and
finfish began in Antarctic waters in the 1960s, and
has continued to the present. Fish catches in the
waters of the Southern Ocean increased from
approximately 4,000 metric tons in the 1972-73
season to a peak of 500,000 metric tons in the
1979-80 season. The targets included species like
the Antarctic cod, Notothenia rossii, and the ice
fish, Champsocephalus gunnari, both of which are
now depleted. Krill have been fished in the
Antarctic since 1973, when 20,000 metric tons
were landed. Since then, the catch has been highly
variable, increasing to 446,000 metric tons in 1986.

For the most part, the major interest in these
Antarctic marine living resources (krill and finfish)
developed after the 1959 Antarctic Treaty. Since
mechanisms for governing resource activities were
not addressed adequately in the treaty itself, the
parties to the Antarctic Treaty decided to pursue a
new international agreement specifically tailored to
address the resource issues.

An Ecosystems Approach

Since the turn of the century, and on through the
mid-1970s, studies concerned with the natural
production of living marine resources have been
focused on the population dynamics of single
species, often without consideration of the
influence of environmental change on populations.
Traditionally, studies on the birth, growth, feeding,
reproduction, and death of fish have looked for
links to water characteristics (such as temperature
and salinity), circulation, water depth, and the like.

<CCCP

§

MOPCKOM O

BRITISH ANTARCTIC TERRITORY

E"R

25'

CONVENTION FOR CONSERVATION Of ANTARCTIC SEALS 1972

59

CCAMLR CONVENTION
Secretariat

Standing Committee

on Administration

and Finance

Working Group

on Development of

a Conservation Strategy

Standing Committee
on Observation
and Inspection

• coordinate national and international
research programs

• provide best scientific information on
changes in status of the living
resources of the ecosystem

• provide management advice

• review effectiveness of the
conservation measures

provide conservation strategy and
conservation measures

adopt conservation measures

provide information on steps taken to
implement measures

provide data on harvesting, including
catch and effort statistics

SCIENTIFIC
COMMITTEE

Informal Group on the
Long-term Program of

Work of the
Scientific Committee

Ad hoc Working

Group on Fish

Stock Assessment

Working Group for

the CCAMLR Ecosystem

Monitoring Program

Ad hoc Working
Group on Knll

MEMBER NATIONS OF CCAMLR

• provide data on harvesting, including
catch and effort statistics

• provide statistical and biological data
from national research programs

Figure 7. Organizational structure of the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR).

Predator/prey relationships have likewise been
considered.

However, with new sampling techniques
and the capabilities of more powerful computers,
understanding the dynamics of any one fish species
will more fully take into account the complex
interactions of environmental characteristics with
other species sharing that environment — providing
an ecosystem perspective that includes
multispecies interactions.

CCAMLR

The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic
Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) is an
international agreement that supports an ecosystem
approach to the conservation and management of
living resources found in ocean areas surrounding
Antarctica. The convention mandates a
management regime committed to applying
measures to ensure that harvesting of Antarctic
species, such as finfish and krill, is conducted in a
manner that considers ecological relationships
among dependent and related species. The
implementation of CCAMLR is carried out against a
background of enlightened international activities
in Antarctica, that in recent decades have been
concerned with scientific research and
cooperation, demilitarization, denuclearization,
resource utilization, and environmental protection.
The parties to the convention have conducted their
activities under the system of legal, political, and
scientific relationships established by the Antarctic
Treaty of 1959.

The CCAMLR was negotiated from 1977 to

1980, entering into force in 1982. The CCAMLR
Convention Area includes the marine area south of
the Antarctic Convergence, the boundary between
48 and 60 degrees South separating the cold
Antarctic waters and the warmer subantarctic
waters. South of this boundary is defined as the
Antarctic marine ecosystem. The convention
applies to "the populations of finfish, mollusks,
crustaceans, and all other species of living
organisms, including birds, found south of the
Antarctic Convergence."

Member countries of the CCAMLR have
established an organizational structure (Figure 1) to
assist them in the conservation and management of
the Antarctic marine ecosystem. The major
operational units of the CCAMLR system are the
Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic
Marine Living Resources (the "Commission"), and
the Scientific Committee for the Conservation of
Antarctic Marine Living Resources (the "Scientific
Committee"). A secretariat resides at CCAMLR
headquarters in Hobart, Tasmania, Australia. Its
function is to serve the commission and the
scientific committee of the CCAMLR, including
organizing the annual meetings and acting as a
clearing-house for communication with member
countries.

The CCAMLR Commission

Members of the Commission for the Conservation
of Antarctic Marine Living Resources are:
Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Britain, Chile,
the European Community, East Germany, France,
India, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, South

60

Africa, South Korea, the Soviet Union, Spain, the
United States, and West Germany.

The functions of the commission are to:

• facilitate study of Antarctic marine living
resources and the ecosystem of which they
are a part;

• compile data on the status of, and changes in
the distribution, abundance, and productivity
of harvested and dependent or related species
and populations of Antarctic marine living
resources;

• ensure the acquisition of catch and effort
statistics; and

• formulate, adopt, and revise conservation
measures on the basis of the best scientific
information available.

The commission has met six times. The first
and second meetings were largely organizational.
The third meeting, in September 1984, produced
the first conservation measures for depleted stocks
of finfish, and a program of data gathering and
consideration of conservation options was initiated.
The fourth meeting, convened in September 1985,
followed initial mesh-regulation measures for aiding
the recovery of fish stocks with the adoption of
more stringent regulations prohibiting all directed
fisheries for the bottom-living species of Antarctic
cod, Notothenia rossii, in the waters of South
Georgia, the South Orkneys, and the Antarctic
Peninsula. The fifth meeting in 1986 adopted
conservation measures prohibiting fishing for the
severely depleted Antarctic cod, and permitting the
commission to fix catch limitations as a
management technique.

The sixth meeting in 1987 established new
conservation measures to address the serious
depletion of fish stocks. Three measures of
significance were taken for the first time — an
overall total allowable catch, a reporting system,
and a closed season. In addition, a new working
group was established to implement, coordinate,
and evaluate research on the distribution and
abundance of krill.

The Scientific Committee

The Scientific Committee for the Conservation of
Antarctic Marine Living Resources, which has the
same national membership as the commission, has
also held six meetings. It has initiated a substantial
program to implement its obligations under Article
XV of the convention. They are to:

• establish criteria and methods for determining
needed conservation measures;

• regularly assess the direct and indirect effects
of harvesting on the status and trends of
Antarctic marine living resources; and

• formulate proposals for the conduct of
national and international research programs
related to Antarctic marine living resources.

Because the status of Antarctic stocks and
knowledge of species interactions are limited, the
scientific committee is coordinating a program of
commercial fisheries data collection and analysis,
as well as directed ecological research, to obtain
the necessary information. Ongoing basic research
also will make contributions to the scientific
committee effort.

The CCAMLR Working Groups on Krill
Catch-Per-Unit-Effort, Fish Stock Assessment, and
Ecosystem Monitoring have begun to address the
data and analysis needs, and the directed research
activities required to meet the objectives of
ecosystem conservation.

Conservation Objectives

Most living resources of the world ocean are
subjected to intensive fisheries. Total annual
catches of global fisheries reached a level of 98.5
million metric tons in 1986. According to at least
one member nation of CCAMLR, the annual yield
expected from a less traditional species — Antarctic
krill, Euphausia superba — could contribute an
additional 25 to 30 million metric tons a year to the
global fisheries catch. The consequences of a 30-
million-metric-ton annual krill fishery to the
balance of populations in the Antarctic ecosystem
and the objectives of CCAMLR are not clear.
However, it appears that lead time is sufficient in
relation to present krill catches so that a systematic
and enlightened approach to the management of
this resource can be implemented.

As nations move from single species
management to multispecies fisheries management,
it will become necessary to provide greater
consideration of the resources and the impacts of
natural and human perturbations on the resources
within marine ecosystems. The management
regime presently in place in CCAMLR reflects this
trend, and has adopted a conservation approach
that seeks to:

• prevent any harvested population from falling
below the level that ensures the greatest net
annual increment to stable recruitment;

• maintain the ecological relationships between
harvested, dependent, and related
populations of Antarctic marine living
resources;

• restore depleted populations; and

• prevent or minimize the risk of changes in the
marine ecosystem that are not potentially
reversible over two or three decades.

Although krill catches have not as yet
reached critical levels, fish catches have depleted
stocks to levels where the objective to ". . . prevent
any harvested population from falling below the
level which ensures the greatest net annual incre-
ment" has been violated.

Fish Stock Depletion

Reports to CCAMLR in 1986 and 1987 warned that
the fish stocks of the ocean waters around South
Georgia were reduced in abundance. (The Soviet

61

Union is the primary fishing nation in the region.
East Germany and Poland also conduct fishing
operations.) The results of a survey conducted
during the 1986-87 season by the United States
and Poland on the R/V Professor Siedlecki indicate
that fish stocks are at levels far below their capacity
for rapid recovery.

Fish catches in the waters of the Southern
Ocean peaked at 500,000 metric tons in the 1979-
80 season. During the initial phases of the fishery,
the targets included species of the cod-like
Notothenia. Toward the end of the 1970s, catches
of the ice fish, Champsocephalus gunnari,
increased. The recent survey found that both these
stocks are in a depleted condition.

Initial conservation steps were taken by
CCAMLR to eliminate the target fishery for
Nototheniids. Mesh size of the trawl nets was
limited to 80 millimeters to allow the spawning-size
fishes to escape through the trawls. Also, area
closures were made to protect spawning fish.
Because of cold water temperatures, Antarctic
fishes are slow in reaching maturity, growing at
about half the rate of Atlantic haddock and cod.
Therefore, fishing pressure must be eased if
depleted populations of Antarctic fish are to
recover. Fishery scientists from the United States
have been modeling management options for
accelerating recovery of the depleted fish stocks,
and will present their findings at the 1988 meeting
of CCAMLR.

Krill Variability

Joint U.S. -Polish biomass assessments of krill also
were made during the 1986-87 research season.
Operations were conducted in the vicinity of
Elephant Island and within the Bransfield Strait,
where large superswarms of krill were detected in
1981 . One of the swarms covered several square
kilometers to a maximum depth of 200 meters;
none of these superswarms were observed from
the Professor Siedlecki in 1986.

The annual catches of krill have been
variable since 1973. In 1980, the catch was 400,000
metric tons; dropping to 128,000 metric tons in
1984, and increasing to 446,000 metric tons in
1986. As with Antarctic fish, the Soviet Union is the
principal krill-fishing country, reporting a catch of
379,000 metric tons during the 1985-86 season.
Japan is second in krill landings, with annual
landings at the 50,000-metric ton level during the
same period. Other countries that have
participated in krill fishing, but at a very low level
(less than 5,000 metric tons annually), include
Chile, East Germany, Poland, and South Korea.
Japanese trawlers fishing for krill within the U.S.-
Polish survey area in January 1987, indicated that
commercial concentrations were present in the
water column. This was confirmed from acoustic
records on Professor Siedlecki. NOAA scientists
estimated the abundance of krill in the area
surveyed at about a half million metric tons.

The U.S. scientists concluded that annual,
highly variable, krill abundance in the Scotia Sea
area is dependent on the presence of
oceanographic features (eddies and fronts) that

build up concentrations of the planktonic krill. The
actual annual abundance levels of krill in the ocean
areas of Antarctica remain uncertain.

Although the Scientific Committee of
CCAMLR has indicated that the present catch
levels of approximately a half million metric tons
annually pose no direct problem to recovery of
depleted populations of whales, the scientific
committee is encouraging member nations of
CCAMLR to improve assessments of annual krill
production. This would ensure that commercial
catches remain at levels that will minimize any
adverse effects on dependent populations of
whales, seals, fish, and other natural predators of
krill.

Ecosystem Monitoring

Monitoring the Antarctic marine ecosystem is an
important function of the Scientific Committee of
CCAMLR. The objectives of the CCAMLR
ecosystem monitoring program are to detect and
record significant changes in critical components of
the ecosystem; and to distinguish between changes
to Antarctic marine populations caused by
harvesting of species, and changes due to
environmental variability — both physical and
biological.

Because the Antarctic marine ecosystem
encompasses such an enormous geographical area,
it would be unrealistic to attempt studying all areas
at once. Hence, the CCAMLR Working Group on
Ecosystem Monitoring has identified priority study
areas where it has encouraged nations to undertake

CATEGORIES OF MONITORING SITES & AREAS:

1. | 1 INTEGRATED STUDY AREAS

2. NETWORK OF SITES & AREAS:

• LAND- BASED SITES
^PACK ICE AREAS

3. O SITES OF SPECIAL INTEREST FOR DIRECTED RESEARCH

Sites and areas designated by CCAMLR for Antarctic
ecosystem monitoring programs. Locations are identified
according to three research and monitoring categories.

62

research. The ecosystem research and monitoring
program includes time-series monitoring of krill and
early life stages of fish along with the measurement
of vital parameters of selected predatory species,
including fur seals; crabeater seals; minke whales;
Adelie, chinstrap, macaroni, and royal penguins;
Antarctic and Cape petrels; and black-browed
albatrosses. This group of species is the focus of
baseline characterization and monitoring studies.
Research efforts are designed to detect and
quantify changes in behavior, reproduction,
growth, condition, and population characteristics of
these krill predators in relation to changes in their
biological and physical environment.

Planning to Meet CCAMLR Objectives

It was recently agreed that the scientific
committee's ability to successfully achieve its goals
would be enhanced by periodically updating a
long-term program of work. A long-term agenda
will be updated in 5-year segments — to ensure the
orderly development of the data bases and
analyses required to meet obligations specified in
the convention. The scientific information will be
used to evaluate the effectiveness of management
and conservation measures.

Among the measures to be evaluated are
those to enhance the recovery of fish stocks; and a
system for continuously monitoring the sources,
fates, and effects of potentially hazardous marine
debris. Progress made in enhancing the recovery of
depleted whale stocks also will be evaluated in
close collaboration with the International Whaling
Commission, the agency responsible for the
conservation and management of global whale
populations.

A New Approach

The CCAMLR represents a significant milestone in
the evolution of a more holistic approach to the
conservation and management of living marine
resources. The importance of the CCAMLR
ecosystems approach is underscored by its
membership. Among the countries that are
signatories and acceding states are the principal
fishing nations of the world, including Chile, China,
Japan, the Soviet Union, and the United States. The
U.S. fisheries catch in 1985 was equal to Chile's,
and represented 6 percent of the world landings.
Japan was the leading fishing nation with 13
percent of the catch, followed by the Soviet Union
(12 percent), and China (8 percent). Whether these
countries will adopt a more holistic ecosystem
approach to management of fisheries and other
living marine resources following the CCAMLR
model remains an open question. The U.S. Under
Secretary of Commerce for the Oceans and
Atmosphere, William E. Evans, recently stated that
he ". . . will persist in urging the ecosystems
approach to fisheries management" (Ocean Science
News, March 1988). Qisheng Tang, Deputy
Director of the Yellow Sea Fisheries Research
Institute in China, also has recently endorsed the
ecosystems approach to fisheries management
(AAAS Selected Symposium on Large Marine
Ecosystems, Westview Press 1988).

A fur seal with a nototheniid fish. This predator/prey
relationship highlights one of the complex interactions in
the Southern Ocean ecosystem. (Photo by T. S. McCann,
courtesy British Antarctic Survey).

CCAMLR is ushering in a new approach to
ecosystems management at a crucial time — a time
that is highlighted by a growing awareness of global
fragility and concerns with the status of living
marine resources.

Kenneth Sherman is Chief Scientist of the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration/National Marine Fisheries
Service Antarctic Marine Living Resources Program, and
Chief of the Ecosystems Dynamics Branch of the Northeast
Fisheries Center, Narragansett, Rhode Island. Alan Ryan is a
Foreign Affairs Policy Analyst with the National Marine
Fisheries Service. He has participated in the negotiation of
numerous fisheries conservation and management treaties
and has participated in the negotiation of the CCAMLR
Convention.

Selected References

Alexander, L. M., and L. C. Hanson. 1984. Antarctic politics and
marine resources: critical choices for the 1980s. In Proceedings
from the Eighth Annual Conference, held June 17-20, 1984,
Kingston, Rhode Island: Center for Ocean Management
Studies, The University of Rhode Island.

Laws, R. M. 1984. Antarctic Ecology, Vol. II. London: Academic
Press.

May, R. M., ed. 1984. Exploitation of Marine Communities. Berlin:
Springer-Verlag.

Sherman, K., and L. M. Alexander, eds. 1986. Variability and Man-
agement of Large Marine Ecosystems. AAAS Selected Sympo-
sium 99, 319 pp. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.

Sutinen, J. G., and L. C. Hanson. 1986. Rethinking Fisheries
Management. In Proceedings from the Tenth Annual
Conference, held June 1-4, 1986, Kingston, Rhode Island:
Center for Ocean Management Studies, The University of
Rhode Island.

63

Living Resources:

Whales

by Douglas G. Chapman

Blue wha/e,Balaenoptera
musculus, to 37 m. (98 h.)

Heavy exploitation has greatly reduced Antarctic
whale stocks. An important concern is whether
these stocks have been reduced below recovery
levels. This concern is somewhat difficult to
address because of problems associated with
estimating whale populations, both at present and
pre-exploitation levels.

The world's largest whale stocks are found in
the Southern Hemisphere. In the austral summer
(December through February), these whales
migrate to the Antarctic to feed. In the remote
Antarctic waters, whales were mostly exempt from
exploitation until the advent of several
technological innovations in the late 19th and early
20th Century. These innovations — the
development of the explosive harpoon, and the
factory ship with its associated fleet of catchers-
led to a major attack on Antarctic whales.

The general pattern followed by whalers in
the Antarctic was to hunt the larger, more valuable
species to depletion, then switch to progressively
smaller species. The first focus of exploitation was
the blue whale, followed by a switch to the fin
whale, then the sei whale, and finally the minke
whale (see Figure 1).

This last switch came just about the time
that attention in the western world was being
directed to environmental concerns. The obvious
depletion of the great whales became a point of
focus at the United Nations Environmental
Conference held in Stockholm in 1972. Here there
was a nearly unanimous vote to seek a moratorium
on commercial whaling. Now that such a
moratorium is in effect, it is useful to examine the
status of these Southern Hemisphere whale
stocks — stocks that were heavily exploited for just
over half a century. It is also timely to identify the
remaining concerns.

Principal Issues

First, as mentioned previously, there is a fear that
some stocks may have been harvested to below
recovery levels. Second, while there is a
moratorium on commercial whaling, this does not
necessarily mean that whaling has stopped. Under
the provisions of the International Convention for
the Regulation of Whaling, member governments

Sei whale, Balaenoptera
borealis, about 76 m. (50 ft.)

of the International Whaling Commission (IWC)
may take whales for scientific purposes, and some
countries have elected to do so. In particular, Japan
is taking minke whales in the Antarctic (see box,
page 68). A third point of issue is over the number
of whales remaining in any of the stocks, and what
numbers might be safely taken, if commercial
whaling were to resume. A key to addressing any
of these concerns is accurate estimation of whale
stocks.

Species of Antarctic Whales

The stocks of whales to be estimated in the
Antarctic consist of five major species: blue, fin,
humpback, sei, and minke whales. These baleen

64

Fin whale, Balaenoptera physalus,
about 22 m. (70 ft.)

Drawings by Bonnie Dal/ell and Betty
Osborne under the direction of Edward
Mitchell. (Courtesy of the Canadian
Nature Foundation)

Minke whale, Balaenoptera acutorostrata,
about 8 m. (25 ft.)

whales migrate to Antarctic waters to feed during
the southern summer.

For the most part, the whales feed on small
organisms such as krill (shrimp-like crustaceans) by
filtering them through their baleen plates. During
the balance of the year, these whales return to
more temperate or even subtropical waters to
breed and give birth to their young.

Baleen whales feed in several different
ranges of Antarctic waters. Blue and minke whales
feed furthest south, often concentrating close to, or
even among, the pack ice. The second largest
whale, the fin whale, generally feeds farther
north — the largest catches having been taken
between 50 and 60 degrees South latitude, though
substantial catches have been taken both north and
south of this ring. Humpback whales also feed in
this broad range; as they move north to wintering

areas, they are most likely to be very close to land.
A still more northerly feeder is the sei whale, which
was thought to be found mostly in the area of 40 to
50 degrees South latitude. After heavy exploitation
of this species began, catches were more widely
scattered.

Two other great whales found south of 40
degrees South latitude are the southern right whale
and the sperm whale. Right whales were
decimated worldwide before the era of Antarctic
whaling; though they are occasionally sighted in
the Antarctic, such sightings are rare (see also box
on page 70). What is known about right whales in
modern times comes largely from coastal sightings
in temperate waters. The sperm whale — not a
baleen whale, but a toothed whale — is even less
"Antarctic" than the baleen whales. Only the large
males move south of 40 degrees South latitude: the

65

30 p-

1922 27 32 37 42

47 52 57 62

YEAR

67 72 77

Figure 1 . Antarctic baleen
whale kill by species, shown
as 5-year averages.

females and younger males remain year-around in
temperate or subtropical waters. To determine the
status of Antarctic whales and subsequently predict
their future, their present population size is
estimated using several techniques.

Methods of Estimating Whale Stocks

It is difficult to study most wild animal stocks and
to determine their numbers. This is particularly true
of marine mammals, which are often in remote
oceans, and spend much of their time submerged.

Four methods have been used to estimate
whale stocks and describe aspects of their
population structure and biology: catch-per-unit-
effort, mark-recapture analysis, earplug aging, and
whale sighting. There are unique problems and
uncertainties associated with each method that
make it very difficult to compare numbers obtained
by the different methods. A further complication is
that certain methods work better for certain
species, thus levels of accuracy are not even
consistent within methods, let alone between
them. It is important to look briefly at each of these
methods and to be aware of their limitations.

Catch-per-unit-effort. The principle behind catch-
per-unit-effort is that as whale populations
decrease, the time spent finding a whale should
increase. Using this concept, estimates of past
whale stocks were extrapolated in the 1960s from
existing whaling statistics. The main problems with
this method are a lack of consistent data through

the years, and the fact that catch per searching
hour is not directly proportional to whale density.

Mark-recapture analysis. In mark-recapture
analysis, whales are marked with tags, such as the
metal cylinders, or "Discovery Marks," initiated by
scientists on cruises of the British research vessel,
Discovery. Assuming that the marked animals mix
with the unmarked population, the total population
size is estimated from the fraction of marked
animals in subsequent samples. The main problems
that cause uncertainty in whale marking
experiments are the difficulty of shooting a tag
from the bow of a ship in the commonly rough
ocean waters, and hence the uncertainty whether
the placement has been unsuccessful or worse,
lethal. In addition, some marks fall out before the
animal is captured, while others go unnoticed.

Age data. Two important population characteristics,
mortality rate and recruitment rate (the number of
whales reaching exploitable size per year), can be
estimated from age composition of the population,
provided that the population size is stable — which
is not always the case. These population
characteristics are useful in whale management.
Age composition is derived by counting layers in
the waxy earplugs that are found in baleen whales.
It has been shown, at least for fin whales, that
these layers are laid down annually. Earplugs are
easiest to read in large animals, making this method
accurate only for the larger species. If earplugs are
unreadable, or are read with errors, there will be

66

Table 1. Population estimates of Antarctic baleen whale stocks, with total Antarctic catches, from 1920 to the end of commercial
whaling.

Date to
which

Common

Species

Population

Estimate

Total Catcha

Name

Name

Estimates

Applies

Method of Estimation

since 1920

Blue

Balaenoptera

8,000

1965-78b

Sighting

307,638C

musculus

(Total)

(Japanese scout boats)

Fin

Balaenoptera

70,000

1965-78

Sighting

664,248

physalus

(Total)

(Japanese scout boats)

Sei

Balaenoptera

15,000

1979

Analysis using several

177,811

borealis

(Exploitable)

methods

Right"

Eubalaena

3,000

1965-78

Sighting

Not known

glacialis

(Total)

(Japanese scout boats)

Minke

Balaenoptera

436,000

1978-84

Sighting

106,188

acutorostrata

(Total)

(IDCR research cruises)

Humpback

Megaptera

40,000

1965-78

Sighting

36,504

novangliae

(Total)

(Japanese scout boats)

a Some catches have been taken from these stocks at land stations north of 40 degrees South and by pelagic factories operating outside

IWC. These have numbered in the low thousands in total, and represent only a small fraction of the total catches listed. The listed catches

do include those taken at South Georgia, a land station. Commercial catches terminated in the 1960s for blue and humpback whales, in

the 1970s for fin and sei whales, but continued until 1986/87 for minke whales.

b The sighting data for any single season are very limited or incomplete, thus it is only possible to average the results over several seasons.

' Including a small number of a separate stock of pigmy blue whales.

'' From aerial surveys and/or land based studies there is evidence of increases in right whale stocks off South Africa and Argentina. Each

of these stocks numbers in a few hundreds.

biases in the age determinations, and in any
statistics derived therefrom.

Whale sighting. Since whales surface regularly to
breathe, it is possible to make estimates based on
sighting data. This method was first used by
scientists on the Discovery in the 1930s, and then
from 1965 to 1979, by Japanese scouting boats
assisting in whale-catching operations. The
subsequent development of line-transect sighting
theory (by which rigorous statistical methods are
applied to census data collected along lines
transecting a given area) has made whale sighting
the most accurate estimation method.

Line transect sighting has been used in a
series of annual Antarctic cruises since 1977/78,
carried out under a program known as the
International Decade of Cetacean Research (IDCR).
Japan and the Soviet Union have provided the
platforms, but the scientists have been drawn from
many countries. Each year's operations have been
confined to one Antarctic sector of about 60
degrees longitude, so that in 6 years the whole area
has been covered from 60 degrees South latitude
to the ice edge. While this method has provided
the best estimates of whale stocks to date, even
these data are not completely accurate because of
difficulties in sighting whales and assumptions
required for statistical purposes.

Status of the Stocks

Despite the uncertainties associated with the
various methods of estimating whale populations,
methodical analyses of whale stocks were
performed in the 1960s to try to set safe catch
limits. These analyses resulted in total protection
for blue and humpback whales, and major
reductions for other species. Early in the 1970s,

total protection was declared for fin and sei whales,
leaving minke whales as the only baleen resource
open to exploitation.

Table 1 provides the best present estimates
of Antarctic whale stocks. In discussing and
comparing whale population estimates, it is
important to distinguish estimates of the total
population, usually obtained from sighting data,
and estimates of the exploitable population, usually
based on catch statistics. The exploitable
population, consisting of whales large enough to
warrant being caught, is usually two-thirds of the
total population.

Stock estimates, such as those shown in
Table 1, are important figures. They can be
compared with other estimates, both past and
present, to establish and predict population trends
(as long as the greater uncertainties of past
estimates are taken into account).

Future of Antarctic Baleen Whales

One concern of environmentalists and scientists
alike has been whether the depletion of the great
whales in the Southern Hemisphere (and
elsewhere) has been so great that several of the
species might become completely extinct. The
verdict on this possibility is not yet in, and will
require careful monitoring of population trends.
Recent right whale increases documented by
careful studies give some basis for guarded
optimism. Right whales have been mostly
protected, at least under regulations of the IWC,
and under some earlier agreements, since the
1930s. Yet, until the 1970s, evidence of any
rebuilding was nonexistent. Furthermore, even
where there have been local increases, as noted in
the footnote to Table 1, the stocks in question still
number only in the hundreds.

67

Japanese Whaling in the Antarctic:

Japan sent an expedition to the Antarctic
late last year, declaring that they intended to
catch 300 minke whales for scientific
purposes. Many environmentalists and
member nations of the International Whaling
Commission (IWC) accused Japan of using
scientific intent as a thin disguise for purely
commercial purposes. The IWC had imposed
a moratorium on commercial whaling in
1985/86 in the Antarctic, and elsewhere in
1986.

The IWC is a regulatory body, but
without real means of enforcing its
regulations. However, two domestic United
States laws, the Packwood-Magnuson
Amendment and the Pelly Amendment can
be used to supply coercive power. Both of
these laws call for economic sanctions
against nations that "diminish the
effectiveness" of international fisheries
agreements in which the United States
participates.

If a nation is "certified" to be
undermining an international fisheries treaty,
then, under the Pelly Amendment, the
United States may embargo marine products
from the nation in question. Under the
Packwood-Magnuson Amendment, the
Commerce Department may reduce fishing
quotas in American territorial waters by at
least 50 percent for any nation certified to be
diminishing the effectiveness of the IWC.
While these measures have been available,
and threatened, in the past, there has been a
reluctance to implement them. Recent
events may be changing this practice.

The resolution for a moratorium on
commercial whaling was passed by the IWC
in July 1982. Included was an important
provision that the IWC make a
comprehensive assessment by 1990 to assess
the effects of zero catch limits on whale
stocks. Japan was one of four countries to

lodge formal objections to the moratorium
resolution*

In November 1984, the Japanese and
United States governments reached a
bilateral agreement. Japan would withdraw
its objection to the moratorium providing
they be allowed to take whales until the end
of the pelagic 1986/1987 Antarctic season
and the coastal 1987 season, without the
imposition of economic sanctions by the
American government. In July 1986, after the
U.S. Supreme Court upheld the U.S.
government's decision not to impose
sanctions, Japan withdrew its objection and
notified the IWC that all commercial whaling
would cease after the 1987 coastal season.

Days after the final commercial
Antarctic whaling expedition had returned to
Japan, the Japanese submitted to the IWC a
proposal for scientific whaling for the 1987/
1988 Antarctic season. The study, in which
Japan proposed to take 825 minke and 50
sperm whales as part of a 12-year program,
was to contribute to the IWC's mandated
"comprehensive assessment" of the world's
whale stocks.

According to the August/September
1987 issue of Marine Mammal News, a
newsletter published by Nautilus Press in
Washington, D.C., Japan intended to collect
such data as sex ratios, migratory factors,
pregnancy rates, and age composition of the
stocks — to estimate stock size and growth,
and to predict trends. Upon completion of
the study, whales would be sold to help

* The Soviet Union, Norway, and Peru also formally
objected to the commercial whaling moratorium,
although Peru withdrew its objection in 1983.
Having lodged their objections within 90 days, these
countries are allowed, by rules of the IWC, to set
their own quotas and continue whaling.

A second concern is the difficulty scientists
have had in understanding whale population
dynamics, particularly their response to
exploitation. These difficulties have been due in
part to the extreme problems in making
observations on whales. Much of what is known
about whales, particularly in the Antarctic, comes
from dead whales on commercial whaling vessels;
this must give a distorted picture of the true
situation.

Contained within the question of population
dynamics is the knowledge that human exploitation
is, on an evolutionary time scale, very recent
indeed. Thus, it has not been determined what
population mechanisms, if any, have been

developed by the whales in response to this
population reduction.

Even more difficult is the fact that we do not
know what mechanisms keep whale stocks in
balance with their resources. If food is a limiting
factor, then any rebuilding of the great whale
stocks is further complicated by interactions
between whale species and other species that feed
on the same organisms. While it appears that as
blue and fin whales were depleted, sei and minke
whales increased in numbers, the evidence for this
remains unclear. However, there is clear evidence
that there have been increases in other krill-eating
species, such as crabeater seals and penguins. In
fact, the crabeater seals are now the largest krill

68

Science or Subterfuge?

finance the expedition. According to Alan
Macnow, spokesman for the lapan Whaling
Association, "not a penny of profits from the
sales" would go to commercial interests.

Although the Scientific Committee
was unable to reach a consensus on the
scientific merit of the Japanese proposal, the
/WC recommended that the lapanese
government not issue whaling permits, lapan
later submitted a revised research proposal,
in which only 300 minke whales would be
taken in 1987/1988, as part of a feasibility
study.

At a special meeting of the Scientific
Committee in mid-December 1987, it was
agreed that the taking of 300 minke whales
would not deplete the population. The
majority of the committee, however, found
that there was no compelling need to take
the whales, and proposed instead that
nonlethal methods would provide the
information sought by the Japanese.

Despite these and other findings,
japan announced that the committee had
"no substantive opposition" to the research
plan. The lapanese fleet set sail for the
Antarctic on 23 December, 1987.

On the same day, Britain proposed a
resolution, stating that "in light of scientific
uncertainties" the Japanese should not be
allowed to go ahead with its research plans.
This resolution was sent out to /WC
members as a mail ballot, due back on
14 February, 1988.

The first minke whale was reported to
have been taken by the Japanese in early
February 1988, before the results of the
ballot were collected* On 9 February, the
United States Secretary of Commerce
certified lapan, invoking the Packwood-
Magnuson and Pelly Amendments. By law,
President Reagan had 60 days to decide

what action to take. Before he could reach a
decision, however, lapan had finished its
collection of the 300 minke whales.

Largely because of reduced fish stocks
in 1987/1988, Japan had no 1988 fishery
allocations in American waters, almost
rendering the Packwood-Magnuson
ineffective. The only way the amendment
could be used as a punitive measure was to
deny requests for future quotas. On 6 April
1988, the President denied a Japanese
request to harvest 3,000 metric tons of
Alaskan sea snails and 5,000 metric tons of
Pacific whiting in American waters. Further
requests for fishery allocations including
Pacific cod, also would be denied "until the
Secretary of Commerce determines that the
situation has been corrected."

Embargoes were not imposed against
Japanese marine products via the Pelly
Amendment. This is not surprising since the
United States exports twice the dollar
volume of marine products to the lapanese
as it imports from them ($ 1 billion versus
$500 million); the United States would
therefore not be expected to invite trade
retaliation by Japan. The President, however,
has asked the Secretary of Commerce and
the Secretary of State to monitor Japan's
whaling practices and report by 1 December
1 988. At this time, which should precede the
1988/89 Antarctic research whaling season,
the need for trade embargoes would be
reconsidered.

Sara L. Ellis
Oceanus Intern

* Tallied on February 13, 1988, the results of the mail
ballot requested by the British were: 19 in favor; 6
against; 2 abstentions. Argentina's vote arrived after
the tally, bringing the total numbers of votes in favor
of the resolution to 20.

consumers in total (page 71). What the impact of
such changes will be on whale stock rebuilding
remains uncertain.

A Slow Return

In earlier studies, scientists of the International
Whaling Commission attempted to estimate
recruitment since the beginning of exploitation,
and used such estimates to reconstruct estimates of
pre-exploitation levels. It is now clear that such
reconstructions are dubious at best. It is, however,
agreed that recruitment rates are much lower than
were assumed or estimated in the earliest analyses
of whale stocks. There also is a consensus among
whale scientists that the return of the great whale

stocks to their pre-exploitation status will be an
extremely slow process — to be measured in
decades or perhaps even centuries.

Douglas C. Chapman is former Chairman of the Marine
Mammal Commission and Dean Emeritus of the College of
Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.

Selected Readings

Brownell, R. L., P. B. Best, and J. H. Prescott, eds. 1986. Right

Whales: Past and Present Status. 289 pp. Cambridge, U.K.

Reports of the International Whaling Commission. Special

Issue 10.
Norwood, ). W. 1987. The Sei Whale: Population Biology, Ecology,

and Management. 375 pp. London: Croom Helm Ltd.

69

Humpback and Right Whales

Humpback whales are probably more
abundant than previous estimates predicted,
and right whales are regular members of the
whale species in waters along the western
Antarctic Peninsula. These results are based
on a 1986 cruise of the R/V Polar Duke,
reported in the January 1988 issue of Polar
Record by Gregory S. Stone of the College of
the Atlantic, and William M. Hamner of the
University of California at Los Angeles.

Heavy whaling in the 20th Century
may have reduced the Antarctic humpback
whale population by as much as 90 percent,
while right whales were already considered
to be commercially extinct by the time
Antarctic whaling began. Presently,
humpback whales are seen fairly regularly in
Antarctic waters, but there have been very
few sightings of right whales. Recent status
reports have estimated both Antarctic
humpback and right whale populations to be
as low as 3,000, or less; in fact, a United
Nations Fisheries and Agriculture
Organization 1985 report did not consider
right whales to be part of the Antarctic
cetacean fauna.

The 1986 cruise of the Polar Duke is
one of the few attempts to estimate present
populations of Antarctic whales. Whale
sighting surveys were performed in the
Gerlache Strait and the surrounding bays.
From 2 April to 20 April, 1986, 455 nautical
miles were surveyed. Two observers were
stationed on the bridge of the research
vessel. On sighting a whale, small inflatable
boats were launched to approach the whale
closely while the crew photographed it for
individual identification. Humpback whales
can be identified by their distinctive
pigmentation on the undersides of their
flukes and/or distinctive body scars; while
right whales have distinctive callosity (areas
of hardening or thickening of the skin)
patterns on the head and jaws.

In total, there were 103 humpback
and 8 right whale sightings. Using the
photographs, 23 individual humpback and 4
individual right whales were identified.
Previously, no right whales had been
recorded south of 63 degrees South, yet on
this cruise they were sighted almost as far
south as 65 degrees South. Highest densities
for both humpback and right whales were
recorded inside bays, probably in response to
higher food densities, rather than in relatively
open water. Both whale species were seen
feeding on krill.

When the photographs of the
individually identified humpback and right
whales were compared with 3,800
photographs of North Atlantic humpbacks,
and 623 photographs of right whales near
Valdez Peninsula, Argentina, no matches
were found. While these results imply that
humpback and right whales of the Antarctic
Peninsula do not migrate to the North
Atlantic, or the Valdez Peninsula,
respectively, further photo-identification
studies will be needed to determine where
these stocks do migrate. It is likely that these
stocks winter off the coast of South America,
but it is unknown whether they go to the
east or west coast.

The waters that were surveyed by the
Polar Duke have been proposed as a primary
site for a krill fishery. Since baleen whales
prey heavily on krill, they will be a key
component in ecosystem models for krill
fisheries. The results of this study — (hat the
abundance of both humpback and right
whales on the west side of the Antarctic
Peninsula are higher than expected — are
therefore crucial to an ecosystem model for
the area.

— SLE

Laws, R. M. 1977. The significance of vertebrates in the Antarctic
marine ecosystem, pp. 41 1-38. In Adaptations within Antarctic
Ecosystems: Proceedings of the Third SCAR Symposium on
Antarctic Biology, C. A. Llano, ed. 1252 pp. Smithsonian

Institution: Washington, D.C.

Tonnessen, ). N., and A. O. lohnsen. 1982. The History of Modern
Whaling. 798 pp. Berkley and Los Angeles: University of
California Press.

70

Living Resources:

Seals

by Donald B. Siniff

Jix seal species live in Antarctic waters — waters
generally considered to be those south of 60
degrees South latitude. Along with whales, seals are
the most significant food consumers, with summer
bird populations coming next, but at a level much
below the marine mammals.

Of the six seal species, five are true, or
earless, seals. These are the Weddell, leopard,
crabeater, Ross (considered true Antarctic seals),
and the elephant seal (considered to be mostly
subantarctic in distribution). The sixth is the
southern fur seal, which belongs to the sea lion
family — the group of seals that have external ears.

Open jaws of a leopard seal.
The teeth are well adapted (or
seizing and tearing flesh.
(Photo by S. Stone)

71

These seals contribute a significant part of
the Antarctic vertebrate biomass, particularly since
the great whales have declined so dramatically in
numbers. R.M. Laws, former director of the British
Antarctic Survey, compared the relative biomass of
different vertebrate groups in the Antarctic marine
ecosystem, estimating the seal species at about 2.8
million metric tons, and the whale stocks at about
6.6 million metric tons.

The four species of true Antarctic seals (the
Weddell, leopard, crabeater, and Ross) which
occupy the pack ice regions around the Antarctic
continent are quite different in their habits and
habitats occupied, and none of these species have
been exploited to any degree for either their skins
or animal products.

Of all the seals, the crabeater seal is the
most abundant — and is a specialist in its foraging
practices, since it feeds almost entirely on Antarctic
krill. If the commercial harvest of Antarctic krill
increases, the crabeater seal is the most likely
species to be directly affected.

After an initial Norwegian seal venture in
1964, many nations believed world pressure to
harvest Antarctic seals would increase. In the late
1960s and early 1970s, several discussions among
the Antarctic nations concerned with the potential
exploitation of Antarctic seal species led to the
Convention of the Conservation of Antarctic Seals,
which was signed in 1972, and entered into force
in 1978. This convention was unusual because it
was adopted at a time when there was no
commercial harvest of seals, but only with the
thought that sealing might begin. This convention
set quotas for the various seal species, and
procedures to control the take, if an industry
developed.

In the late 1970s, it became apparent that
commercial ventures would probably focus on
Antarctic krill. Again, there was pressure to develop
a conservation convention to protect this important
species. The result was the Convention for the
Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
(CCAMLR). This convention covers all marine living
resources in the Antarctic. It has provisions
requiring that the taking of one biological species
must not interfere with the normal life history
patterns of other species (see also page 59). Both
krill and seals, and their interactions, are monitored
and studied under CCAMLR.

Crabeater Seal

The crabeater seal occupies the pack-ice region
that surrounds the Antarctic continent. Its
population size has been estimated to be between
15 and 30 million — it is considered the most
abundant seal in the world. At the present time,
the crabeater seal is considered to be increasing in
abundance — thought to be a reflection of
increased food abundance brought about by the
decline of whales in the southern oceans.

The crabeater seal forms family groups in the
spring, in the pack-ice regions. The groups are
composed of a male, female, and pup — occupying
a drifting ice flow. The length of time the family
group remains together is uncertain, but it is

thought to be about 4 weeks, following which time
the pup is weaned and breeding takes place.

The crabeater seal feeds almost exclusively
on Antarctic krill — also the major food of many of
the large baleen whales. This seal species has
special lobed teeth which assist it in sifting the krill,
small shrimp-like organisms, from the water.

Two predators have played a significant role
in the evolution of the crabeater's life history; the
killer whale and leopard seal. The killer whale
actively seeks crabeaters of all ages, while the
leopard seal preys primarily upon newly-weaned
pups or animals in their first year of life. This
predator pressure is thought to play a major
evolutionary role in the crabeater seal's life history
patterns, particularly during the mating and
pupping season.

The crabeater seal has received recent
attention because it would be one of the first
species impacted by a significant harvest of
Antarctic krill. Measures of feeding activity, general
body condition, and other biological parameters
have been suggested as measures that could be
used to indicate whether commercial harvest was
having a significant impact upon the crabeater seal,
and in turn, the ecosystem. This seal has therefore
been targeted as a species that should be studied
and monitored over the long term, so as to predict
changes that might be brought about by man's
harvest of krill.

Weddell Seal

The Weddell seal occupies fast-ice environments
close to the Antarctic continent, often close to
Antarctic scientific bases. Pregnant females begin to
come onto the surface of the ice, along predictable
annual tide cracks, in late October and November
to give birth. The length of the pup's dependency
period is between 5 and 6 weeks. Toward the end
of this period, females come into estrus and
breeding occurs. The adult males occupy
underwater territories beneath the cracks in the ice
that have provided access to the surface for the
females. Breeding occurs under the ice in these
regions.

Weddell seals feed primarily on fish,
particularly the Antarctic cod and the Antarctic
silverfish. Long-term studies have indicated that the
Weddell, once it is an adult, returns to the pupping
colonies with a high degree of predictability.
However, the young animals disperse away from
the colony where they are born, and seem to
spend the first 4 to 5 years of their life out in the
pack ice regions. As they approach maturity, they
come ashore into the fast-ice areas where the
colonies occur. Once they have moved into a
colony as adults, they remain in these areas for
annual pupping and breeding.

The population has been estimated at
around 800,000, and is basically stable except for
some colonies that occur close to Antarctic bases,
where killing has occurred in order to feed dog
teams.

Since the Weddell seal habitat primarily
occurs close to the Antarctic continent, it seems

72

12

12

Time of Day

o 12

22 Sept. 1978
12 o

-200

-400

A portion of a dive record obtained by the research team of Gerald L. Kooyman from a free-ranging Weddell seal. The last
day of the record is indicated as 22 September 1 978. The original tick marks are equal to 1 hour, and 0 and 12 equal
midnight and noon, respectively. (After C. L. Kooyman and co-authors, 1980, J. Comp. Physiol. 138)

unlikely that commercial ventures exploiting krill or
other biological resources will have significant
impact on this species. Future exploitation of krill,
however, may influence young VVeddell seals
because of their dispersal characteristics.

The adult Weddell is not impacted by
predators — since they remain close to shore in
heavy pack ice regions, where access by killer
whales and leopard seals is severely limited. Some
are taken by killer whales as the ice breaks up in
the spring and summer, but this impact on Weddell
seal numbers is thought to be small.

Leopard Seal

The leopard seal is the largest of the four Antarctic
seal species. They have become rather well known
because of their often rather spectacular predatory
activities. These seals regularly kill warm-blooded
animals — but feed as well on fish, cephalopods,
and Antarctic krill. They are well known for their
activity around penguin colonies where, in late
summer, they prey heavily on young penguins as
they go to sea for the first time. Leopard seals often
lie along the shoreline waiting for these young,
naive birds to enter the water on their way out to
sea. They also take young crabeater seals shortly
after weaning.

A Weddell seal with an instrument package to monitor the
time, duration, and depth of each dive. The data from such
instruments have proved invaluable in determining the
patterns of seal activity whilst at sea. (Photo by Gerald L.
Kooyman)

By nature, the leopard seal is a solitary
animal. Little is known about its movement patterns
in the Antarctic pack-ice regions. Immature leopard
seals are known to congregate regularly on certain

Killer whales surfacing in the Antarctic. Killer whales are major predators of crabeater seals. (Photo by T. G. Smith)

73

subantarctic islands as they migrate north during
the late autumn and winter.

The food of the leopard seal is varied,
depending on the season of the year. In the spring
(September, October, and November), Antarctic
krill seem to be very important. During the mid-
summer period of December and January, newly-
weaned crabeater seals become important. Then,
in late January and February, young penguins
become available and are taken extensively. Fish
and cephalopods are also taken periodically, and
compose about 5 to 20 percent of their diet.

Ross Seal

The Ross seal is the least known of the four
Antarctic species. For unknown reasons, it is
relatively rare in Antarctic pack-ice waters—
although it has been sighted in all pack ice regions
around the Antarctic continent, and apparently has
a wide distribution. The population has been
estimated to be around 220,000. Recent studies by
the South African Antarctic Program have indicated
that the Ross seal composes up to 15 percent of
the seals in a region of the eastern Weddell Sca-
the area of highest concentrations of Ross seals.

The reproductive period of this species
appears to be in November and December. They
feed primarily on squid, and probably have deep-
diving capabilities to capture this prey. The reason
for this species being rare is simply unknown. The
Ross seal has never been harvested by man, and
changes in the ecosystem brought about by the
past exploitation of whales should have enhanced
its food resources. Because of its solitary nature, it
would likely not be affected greatly by competition
with the other seal species. In future studies, it may
be important to consider the Ross seal, because
environmental changes causing an increase in
numbers would readily be noticed.

Recent Research

Research on Antarctic seal species has mostly
focused on the Weddell and crabeater. For the
Weddell, the physiology and population ecology
have received the most emphasis. The Weddell is
particularly good for physiological studies, since
they can be instrumented and easily recaptured.
Gerald L. Kooyman of the Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, and others have done a great deal
of research on the physiology of the Weddell seal,
using advanced instrumentation to measure
physiological parameters associated with the diving
abilities of this species. The author and others have
described the population ecology of the Weddell
seal, using a long-term data base containing records
of tagged Weddell seals in the McMurdo Sound
area. Immigration, survival, and reproductive
characteristics for this population were among the
results.

Other nations in the Antarctic scientific
community also study seals. These include Britain,
South Africa, Australia, Argentina, and Japan.
Britain also has an excellent program studying the
population status of the southern fur seal. The
Argentine program concentrates on the southern
elephant seal and southern fur seal in the region of

the Antarctic Peninsula. Measurements of pup
survival, as well as behavior during the period of
lactation, have provided new insights into the
status of these species. The Japanese Antarctic
program has done work on the Weddell seal off
their Syowa Station. This work has concentrated on
census and diving characteristics, using depth-of-
dive recorders.

No Direct Impacts Predicted

The four true Antarctic seal species have not been
impacted directly by activities of man in the
Southern Ocean. If indirect effects do occur, it is
anticipated that harvest of Antarctic krill will have
the most significant influence on the crabeater seal.

Because the true Antarctic seals historically
have occupied the pack-ice region, they simply
have not been available, to any large degree, for
commercial harvest. It seems unlikely that the
economics of this situation will change in the near
future. It is very probable that the four species of
true Antarctic seals will remain relatively
untouched, at least directly, by human activities.

Donald B. Siniff is a Professor in the Department of Ecology
and Behavioral Biology at the University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Selected Readings

Bengtson, ). L., and R. M. Laws. 1985. Trends in crabeater seal age
at maturity: an insight into Antarctic marine interactions In
Antarctic Nutrient Cycles and Food Webs, W. R. Siegfried, P. R.
Condy, and R. M. Laws, eds., pp. 669-675. Berlin: Springer
Verlag.

Croxall, J. P., and L. Hiby. 1983. Fecundity, survival and site

fidelity in Weddell seals, Leptonychotes weddelli. /. Appl. Ecol.
20:19-32.

Hill, R. D., R. C. Schneider, C. C. Liggins, A. H. Schuette, R. L.
Elliott, M. Guppy, P. W. Hochachka, ). Quist, K. J. Falke, and
W. M. Zapol. 1987. Heart rate and body temperature during
free diving of the Weddell seal. Amer. ]. Physiol. 253:R344-
351.

Kooyman, G. L. 1981. Weddell Seal — consummate diver. 135 pp.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Laws, R. M. 1977. The significance of vertebrates in the Antarctic
marine ecosystem. In Adaptations Within Antarctic Ecosystems,
ed. by G. A. Llano, pp. 41 1 -438. Proceedings of the 3rd SCAR
Symposium on Antarctic Biology. Washington, D.C.:
Smithsonian Institution.

Laws, R. M. 1984. Seals. In Antarctic Ecology. Vol. 2, R. M. Laws,
ed., pp. 621-715. London: Academic Press.

Siniff, D. B., I. Stirling, ). L. Bengtson, and R. A. Reichle. 1979.
Social and reproductive behaviour of crabeater seals, Lobodon
carcinophagus, during the austral spring. Can. /. Zoo/.
57:2243-2255.

Testa, J. W., and D. B. Siniff. 1987. Population dynamics of
Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddelli) in McMurdo Sound,
Antarctica. Ecological Monographs 57:149-165.

74

Living Resources:

The

BIOMASS

Program

by Sayed Z. El-Sayed

While the news of the depletion of ozone levels
over Antarctica has recently captured global
headlines, news coverage of the impending
depletion of marine living resources in the
Antarctic is pale by comparison. Yet, both kinds of
depletion have far-reaching ecological and
economic implications.

This year is the 10th anniversary of the
beginning of the international BIOMASS program.
An initial report on BIOMASS, an acronym for
Biological Investigations of Marine Antarctic
Systems and Stocks, appeared in the Spring 1979
issue of Oceanus. It is, therefore, appropriate in
1988 to examine the accomplishments of the
BIOMASS program; and to discuss its impact on the
conservation of marine living resources of
Antarctica in general, and future biological research
in the Southern Ocean in particular.

History of BIOMASS

In the early 1970s, as the world seemed poised to
begin large-scale harvesting of the rich Antarctic
marine living resources, concern over the proper
management and conservation of these resources
was expressed by members of the scientific
community and international agencies and
organizations. The concern for the conservation of
Antarctic marine resources, and in particular the
shrimp-like organism, krill (Euphausia superba),
stemmed from the fact that several fishing nations
were gearing up to harvest these resources. The
dwindling stocks of conventional fishes because of
excessive fishing, together with the establishment
of 200-nautical-mile Exclusive Economic Zones,
forced long-distance fishing fleets to hunt for
harvest outside national jurisdictions. These factors,
together with the human population explosion and
an increased demand for more animal protein, led
to a search for new sources of marine food, and in
particular, the virtually untouched krill stocks.

Recognizing that unwise and unregulated

past exploitation had decimated the southern fur
seal and baleen whale populations, and recognizing
krill's key position in the Southern Ocean food web
and its impending exploitation, the Scientific
Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), a
committee of the International Council of Scientific
Unions (ICSU), foresaw a need for substantial
expansion of scientific research on Antarctic marine
ecosystems. SCAR, which has had the
responsibility of initiating, facilitating, and
coordinating international scientific programs from
its inception in 1958, established a group of experts
in 1972 to address this need.

By 1976, a proposal had been developed for
international cooperative studies on the living
resources of the Southern Ocean. The proposal
became known by its acronym, BIOMASS.

The primary goal of the BIOMASS program
has been to build a sound scientific foundation on
which to base future management decisions.
Because of the pivotal role of krill in the Antarctic
food web, and because of its potentially significant
contribution to world protein supplies, krill studies
have played a key role in the BIOMASS program
(although organisms at higher food-chain levels,
such as fish and birds, were also included).

The austral summer (December, January,
February) of 1980/81 was chosen for the First
International BIOMASS Experiment (FIBEX), in
which 13 ships from 1 1 nations participated in the
largest biological oceanographic expedition ever
mounted in the Southern Ocean. The Second
International BIOMASS Experiment (SIBEX), Phase I
(1983/84) and Phase II (1984/85), was the final
collaborative field effort of this ambitious 10-year
program.

Seasonal and annual variations in the
distribution and production of krill were studied in
three relatively small areas that are noted for their
high krill concentrations: Bransfield Strait/Elephant
Island (Atlantic sector), Prydz Bay (Indian sector),
and 60 degrees East (Pacific sector) (Figure 1).

75

Lateral view of adult Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba.

Krill Research

In Antarctic krill research, as in most science, the
work often has been fraught with unexpected turns
and complexities, yet has sometimes produced
surprising results. This was true for each of the four
types of work we pursued.

Estimation of stock size. One of the most
vexing problems that faced krill investigators was
the determination of the size of krill standing
stocks. Such stock assessment lies at the heart of
any meaningful management practice.

Past attempts to estimate total krill standing
stocks indirectly (from the decline in large baleen
whale stocks) or directly (by plankton-net sampling)
were proven to be unsatisfactory. Great
discontinuities in the distribution and swarming
behavior of krill, the relatively small areas in which
sampling was conducted, and the diverse methods
used in estimating standing stocks were responsible
for the high variance of krill stock estimates.
According to these estimates, krill stocks could
have ranged between 200 million to 3.5 billion
metric tons!

In recent years, the introduction of
quantitative acoustic techniques for stock
assessment have shown great promise, although
not without problems. Because of the differences
in the density of krill tissue and sea water, and in
the speed of sound through these two media, krill
reflect sound. The proportion of incident sound
energy reflected (known as target strength)
depends primarily on the acoustic properties of
krill tissue, the ratio of the animal's length to the
acoustic wavelength, and the orientation of the
animal with respect to the incident beam. The
target strength of krill is sufficiently high to allow
them to be generally detectable by conventional
ultrasonic echosounders when aggregated in the
upper few hundred meters. Detectability problems
arise when krill are shallower than about 10 meters
(above the transducer or lost in the surface clutter).

Other problems are due to the difficulty in
distinguishing between echoes from krill and other

organisms frequenting the same depth range. To
solve this problem, acoustic targets need to be
identified periodically by aimed fishing.
Fortunately, the dominance of E. superba in the
near-surface waters of the Southern Ocean, the
homogeneity of krill concentration, and the
species' characteristic aggregation behavior all
serve to make identification less of a problem than
for pelagic species in lower latitudes.

Despite these problems, acoustic surveys
offer the greatest potential for improving estimates
on E. superba standing stock. Between January and
March 1981, joint krill hydroacoustic surveys
during FIBEX produced an estimated krill biomass
of 250 to 600 million metric tons. Other
independent estimates of overall krill biomass
amounted to 500 to 700 million metric tons or
even more — an estimate that generally supported
the FIBEX numbers. The FIBEX survey represents
by far the most concerted attempt to assess krill
acoustically to date, and provided an insight into
the methodological problems involved in the
collection and joint analysis of acoustic data.

Stock identification. As a result of the
observations on krill distribution made during
FIBEX and SIBEX, we next examined whether local
krill concentrations are essentially isolated from
one another, or whether substantial intermixing
occurs. These inferences have profound
implications, as they will ultimately determine to
what extent local and/or regional concentrations
can be treated as separate stocks for management
purposes.

The conventional methods of tagging and of
relying on morphometric measurements,
successfully used by fishery biologists in identifying
other discrete management stocks, are not
applicable to krill. Realizing this, investigators have
resorted to alternative methods of separating krill
stocks.

A useful and widely-used method to look at
the local population of a species has been
electrophoretic analysis of the variations in the

76

30°

150

I5rf

Figure 1 . The three study sites
(shaded areas) for research on
seasonal and annual variations
in the distribution and
production of krill. Sites were
chosen because of high krill
concentrations.

structure of enzymatic protein. Where populations
of an animal are isolated for generations, processes
may have caused differences in the gene structure
at locations that are responsible for the coding of
certain proteins.

The electrophoresis technique has provided
valuable information about genetic variation in
natural populations in a way that would have
seemed impossible only a few years ago. A tissue
sample is first prepared from each of a series of
individual organisms. Each sample is then applied
to a uniform, porous gel, often one made of starch,
and an electric potential is applied across the gel.
Within the gel the many proteins from the tissue
sample migrate along the electric field for different
distances, depending on their individual electric
charges. When the proteins are separated and
arranged in this fashion, the portions thought to
exhibit important differences between different
populations can be examined.

Early electrophoretic analysis of krill
suggested the existence of at least two discrete krill

populations in the Antarctic Peninsula region. More
recently, samples of krill collected from locations in
the Weddell Sea, Scotia Sea, around the Antarctic
Peninsula, and near Prydz Bay (in the Indian sector
of the Southern Ocean) indicated that they were all
from a single breeding population. Contradictions
remained. Despite the considerable progress made
in recent years, the successful separation of
individual krill stocks (by genetic or other means)
remains elusive and requires further research.

Age determination. It is now well
established that the traditional method of
determining krill age (by examining the length
frequency distribution of catches, regarding the
peaks in the histogram as year-classes) is fraught
with error. This is largely due to the observations
made by the late Mary Alice McWhinnie, who
showed that mature krill may shrink in body size as
an over-wintering strategy. This could result in the
overlapping of successive year classes of mature
krill. It also has been suggested that there is a

77

regression of external sexual characteristics during
winter. Drawing on his background in entomology,
where for years he has been studying aging in the
fleshfly (Sarcophaga bullata), George Ettershank of
Monash University (Australia) succeeded in using
lipofuscin (also called age pigment) to estimate krill
age. Lipofuscin accumulates as a consequence of
metabolic activity, and its assay is thus a measure
of the cumulative metabolic activity of an
organism. Although there appears to be a
reasonable agreement between physiological and
chronological age, and results of the lipofuscin
assay independently confirm that krill may live as
long as 7 years, the technique, although more
reliable than traditional methods, still requires
refinement.

Food chain studies. Research results in the
last 2 decades have caused an almost complete
revision of our concept of the Antarctic food chain.
Much of this revision concerns the lower end of
the food chain — the species forming the food base
for krill.

The relation of krill to its food base has
occupied much of the attention of krill biologists.
Until the early 1970s, the herbivorous nature and
food selectivity of krill seemed well established.
Later, it was demonstrated that krill are
omnivorous; and using electron micrographs of krill
filtering appendages, researchers showed that the
krill filtering basket is capable of retaining
nanoplankton (organisms between 2 and 20
microns — 1 micron = .0001 centimeter) with 30 to
40 percent efficiency. This changed the concept of
E. superba as an omnivore feeding mainly on large
diatoms, and substantially expanded the food
resources available to krill.

Interest in the role played by the
nanoplankton in krill feeding stimulated research in
another even more important direction — in
assessing the role of the nanoplankton and the
picoplankton (smaller than 2 microns) in the
Antarctic food web. In contrast to net
phytoplankton (organisms larger than 35 microns),
which in the past have received considerable
attention and form the basis of the classic food
chain (diatom — > krill — » whale), the contribution of
the nanoplankton and picoplankton to the standing
crop and primary production have, until recently,
been overlooked. It was not until USNS Ekanin
Cruise 51 (early 1972) that one of my former
students, Roger Fay, was the first to show that
nanoplankton contribute about 70 percent of the
biomass and primary productivity of the Ross Sea.
More recently, our research effort in the Atlantic
and Indian sectors of the Southern Ocean has
convincingly demonstrated that these nano- and
picoplankton could be responsible for 70 percent
of the standing crop and about 90 percent of the
primary production of the Antarctic waters.
Although the larger cells are taken more efficiently,
in addition to the classic food chain, a complex
food web, consisting of pico-, nano-, and micro-
plankton-sized components, is now emerging as
the new paradigm.

What Lies Ahead?

The BIOMASS program was the first major
international collaborative effort to study the
Antarctic marine ecosystem, and to provide the
necessary information for the wise management of
Antarctic marine living resources. BIOMASS
marked the end of individual national expeditions,
and began the era of well-coordinated, multi-ship,
multi-national expeditions. As a result of BIOMASS,
a high degree of scientific cooperation and
camaraderie has developed among the Antarctic
community. This is best exemplified by the data-
analysis workshops (15 so far), where scientists
from varied backgrounds have agreed to pool their
unpublished data for communal analysis and joint
publication of the results. With the successful
completion of FIBEX and SIBEX, and the
establishment of the BIOMASS Data Center
(housed within the British Antarctic Survey in
Cambridge, England), the program has now entered
a new phase of data analysis and data
interpretation.

Like all working groups within SCAR,
however, the BIOMASS program has a definite
charge and a finite lifespan. Following the final
analysis and evaluation meeting in 1990 in
Bremerhaven, West Germany, BIOMASS will end.
Other groups and programs will assume
responsibility for the stewardship of the marine
resources in the Southern Ocean.

The nongovernmental SCAR will continue to
play a major role in facilitating international
cooperation in the Southern Ocean ecology and
related fields. This has led SCAR, with its long
experience of coordination of such research, to
establish (jointly with SCOR) the SCAR Group of
Specialists on Southern Ocean Ecology, and charge
it with identifying important fields of research in
Antarctic marine ecology and proposing
cooperative studies. Another SCAR group is the
Group of Specialists on Antarctic Sea-Ice Zone,
whose 10-year program for an international
collaborative study includes a biological
component.

The third group is the governmental
organization, CCAMLR, which has the mandate to
conserve the living resources of the Antarctic
within the context of the ecosystem (see also page
59). CCAMLR has implemented a monitoring study,
and has adopted several conservation measures. It
has also established a working group on krill to
review and evaluate new research applications to
krill abundance and distribution assessment.

There is, however, a need for cooperation
between SCAR and its subsidiary bodies and
CCAMLR on key research activities. The SCAR/
BIOMASS community has developed a level of
competence and expertise capable of advancing
basic scientific understanding of the Antarctic
marine ecosystem and can make a valuable
contribution to CCAMLR.

It is only through such cooperation that the
international scientific community is able to
improve man's understanding of the world ocean

78

120kHz

FIBEX 1981

23MARCH

SO"

A patch of krill northwest of Elephant Island, as shown on the 1 20 kiloHertz system. Depth marks are at 20-meter intervals,
time scale at lower left indicates ship's speed. (Macau/ay and Mathisen, 1981).

and, at the same time, develop a sound ecological
strategy for the exploitation and conservation of its
resources. The impending large-scale harvesting of
the Antarctic marine living resources, coupled with
the urgent need for accurate knowledge about the
Southern Ocean ecosystem, are compelling
reasons for the heirs of BIOMASS to forge ahead
with similar worthy programs.

Sayed Z. El-Sayed is Professor of Biological Oceanography
at Texas A&M University. He is a veteran Antarctic
researcher and has been the Convenor of the 5CAR/SCOR
Croup of Specialists on Southern Ocean Ecosystems and
Their Living Resources. He is the Chairman of the BIOMASS
Executive, Editor of the BIOMASS newsletter, and a
frequent contributor to Oceanus.

References

El-Sayed, S. Z., ed. 1977. Biological Investigations of Marine

Antarctic Systems and Stocks. (Vol. I), 79 pp. Cambridge,

England: Scott Polar Research Institute.
George, R. Y., Convenor 1986. The biology of Antarctic krill

(Euphausia superba). Journal of Crustacean Biology 4: 1 -337.
Laws, R. M., ed. 1984. Antarctic Ecology (Vol. 2), 505 pp. London:

Academic Press.
Walton, D. W. H., ed. 1987. Antarctic Science. 280 pp.

Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

SUNLIGHT
AND NUTRIENTS

KRILL

DIATOMS

BLUE WHALE

/ ADELIE PENGUI

WINGED BIRDS

S^\4 SMALL FISHES

SKUA',, SQUID ^
EMPEROR ,± * C

PENGUIN /|

\ 1 "

** LARGE FISHES /

WE DP ELL SEAL
P^BQ

ROSS SEAL

j^^i

LEOPARD SEAL

ILLER WHALE

At right, a representation of the Antarctic food chain.

79

Antarctic Logistics

by Alfred N. Fowler

In the world of science support, the term logistics
usually refers to transport and supply functions. In
Antarctica, the term is more broadly defined. It
includes not only getting there and back, but also
transporting everything needed to live and work in
a remote area of 14 million square kilometers—
twice the size of Australia — where there is no
indigenous human population.

The potential user or provider of Antarctic
logistics must be dedicated to the principles of
environmental protection. Antarctic research is no
longer a matter of exploring unknown territory, or
of conquering nature by extraordinary human
endeavor and grit. Today, the principles of society,
such as industrial codes and community behavior
that prevail in lower latitudes, also prevail in
Antarctica. When planning Antarctic activities on
this remote continent, all of society's standards of
occupational health and safety, prudent risk
management, order and discipline, and of course,
environmental protection, must be taken into
consideration.

Logistics and the Antarctic Treaty

The Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) has made
science and support in Antarctica international. The

system has evolved as the original treaty (see page
1 1) has been overlaid by recommendations of
consultative meetings, implementing actions (such
as the U.S. Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978)
taken by the treaty nations, and two spin-off
conventions — the Conservation of Antarctic Seals,
and the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living
Resources. As 1991, the 30th anniversary of its
ratification, approaches, the ATS is alive and well.
Consequently, the prospective user or provider of
logistics enjoys freedom of access to the continent,
and an absence of national boundaries — assured
by the treaty.

Questions concerning Antarctic logistics
have been formally addressed at biennial meetings
of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research

Above, LC-130 ski-equipped airplane off-loading
equipment and supplies for a United States field camp. The
LC-130 is a four-engine turboprop transport plane that
provides the backbone of U.S. transportation within
Antarctica. Introduced to the Antarctic program in 1960,
the LC-130 runs the bulk of the United States' air service
between McMurdo Station and New Zealand. (U.S. Navy
photo by lamie Leitzel)

80

(SCAR), an international forum. Dating from
activities during the International Geophysical Year
(ICY) in the late 1950s, SCAR is a standing scientific
committee of the International Council of Scientific
Unions (ICSU). The SCAR Working Group on
Logistics has met about 20 times and has
sponsored two symposia on Antarctic logistics,
covering virtually every aspect of facilities, utilities,
vehicles, communications, energy and fuel,
transport, equipment, shelter, clothing, health care,
supply, provisioning, and safety in Antarctica.

The presence of permanent Antarctic
stations today is an expansion of the original IGY
installations of 30 years ago. The treaty nations are
identified on page 14. Note that nations with
consultative (voting) status are generally those with
active programs "on the ice," including stations
occupied year-round. Table 1 (page 85) is a list of
the wintering stations; the locations of several are
shown on page 15.

Governments and government-operated
programs have performed fairly well in the area of
Antarctic logistics. The track record reflects a good
measure of international cooperation and
coordination. But times are changing. As we
approach the 1990s, several more nations are
expressing interest in becoming part of the treaty
system. There are places, particularly off the north
end of the Antarctic Peninsula, that are starting to
get crowded. For example, on King George Island,
there are now seven wintering stations within a
radius of 25 kilometers.

Recently, there has been a large increase in
tourism, private expeditions, and other so-called
"non-governmental activities." Tour ships operating
out of South America take a few thousand tourists

to see and visit the stations in the peninsula area
each summer, up from a hundred or so just a few
years ago. Commercial operators are flying groups
of mountaineers and adventurers to the interior,
and large, long-range commercial sightseeing
overflights may resume. Environmental
organizations have begun operating wintering
camps and ship expeditions to Antarctica.

Environmental Protection

Environmental protection, the first commandment
of Antarctic logistics, is an extension of the
principles of the Antarctic Treaty, and the
recommendations adopted as a result of the
consultative meetings. The pertinent body of these
recommendations appeared in 1964 and is known
as the Agreed Measures for the Conservation of
Antarctic Fauna and Flora. The United States
ratified these in the form of Public Law 95-541, the
Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978. The law
provides that the Director of the National Science
Foundation (NSF) shall prescribe regulations,
designate specially protected areas, and issue
permits authorizing acts otherwise prohibited by
the law. Any U.S. citizen in Antarctica, and any
person in Antarctica as a participant in U.S.
government activities, is subject to the regulations.
The law prohibits taking native animals or birds,
entering into special areas, or introducing
nonindigenous species into the Antarctic. In the
United States, it also is unlawful to have, sell,
import, or export Antarctic mammals or birds. For
each of these otherwise unlawful acts, the phrase
"unless authorized by regulation or permit" applies.
In 1979, the National Science Foundation

McMurdo Station, lit up for the austral winter. (U.S. Navy photo, courtesy of NSF)

81

published a booklet presenting the law and its
implementing regulations. It provides 46 pages of
fine print, maps of special areas, and permit
application forms. Experience has shown that
problems persist in educating people about
environmental protection in general, and the
provisions of the U.S. law in particular, as well as
the resulting difficulties in enforcement. For
example, the law prohibits taking native animals or
birds. "Take" means to harass, molest, harm,
pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, or capture,
or to attempt to engage in any of these. Therein
lies the rub. Tourists are curious about penguins,
and often have the urge to see them up close.
Similarly, they are attracted to seals, although to a
somewhat lesser extent. These species seem to
have no natural fear of humans. They can be easily
approached and sometimes their behavior,
especially in the case of penguins which exhibit
curiosity of their own, contributes to situations that
evolve into an unlawful "taking."

Possible conflicts are enhanced by the
geography. The vastness of Antarctica is dominated
by ice sheets, the surface of which comprise a
huge cold desert. Only 2 percent of the continent,
primarily along or near the coastal areas, presents
exposed rock and soil. As a result, human activity
competes directly with the native flora and fauna
for these few ice-free sites. Moreover, the conduct
of scientific research, which (before the recent
surge of tourism) has been the principal activity in
Antarctica for 30 years, necessarily focuses on the
same 2 percent of the continent. Therefore, even
though the magnitude of man's activity in
Antarctica is minute with respect to the size of the
continent, these factors magnify and concentrate
the risk of environmental impact.

The provider or user of logistics in Antarctica
often uses boats, over-the-ice vehicles, helicopters,
or airplanes. The use of a helicopter, for example,
in the close support of a science field party or even
as a reconnaissance or survey platform, may disturb
birds or mammals. Boating and diving operations,
or the preparation and maintenance of runways or
skiways, present a similar risk.

Supporting Science in Antarctica

The policy of the United States is to maintain and
strengthen the Antarctic Treaty System, and to
continue support of the U.S. Antarctic Program at a
level providing an active and influential presence.
This policy supports a range of U.S. national
scientific, political, and environmental interests in
that area.

In terms of logistics, the U.S. national
program operates permanent stations in the interior
at the geographic South Pole, and at coastal sites at
McMurdo Station on Ross Island in the southwest
corner of the Ross Sea, and at Palmer Station on
Anvers Island off the west coast of the Antarctic
Peninsula. McMurdo Station is the U.S. logistics
hub, the terminal for both airlift and sealift, and the
bulk fuel and supply storage site that make possible
our operation of the station at South Pole. Also,
from McMurdo temporary stations and major field
camps have been operated in various locations—

from the peaks, glaciers, and dry valleys of the
Transantarctic Mountains and the high-cold plateau
of East Antarctica, to the Ross Ice Shelf and high
snow accumulation areas of West Antarctica.

The total U.S. summer population is about
1,400, including at various times nearly 300
scientists, 700 U.S. Navy, and 500 contractor and
other support personnel. Presently the U.S.
Antarctic Program spends about $13.5 million on
science grants, and $111.3 million for procurement,
construction, and logistics. Of the latter amount,
$21 million is for ship and aircraft time, and other
activities directly in support of science projects.
Thus, the total amount spent for science is about
$34.5 million, or about 28 percent of the cost of
the total program.

In the most recent presidential directive, the
policy of the U.S. national program — including
logistic support activities — was reaffirmed. It
continues to be funded and managed as a single
package by the National Science Foundation.
Through interagency agreements with NSF, the
Department of Defense, (primarily the U.S. Navy),
and the Department of Transportation (U.S. Coast
Guard) provide reimbursable logistic support, such
as air and ship operations as requested by NSF.

The foundation is charged with managing
the program in a manner that maximizes cost
effectiveness and return on investment, and to this
end is encouraged to use commercial support. A
contractor provides facilities construction,
operation, and maintenance, plus operation of a
research vessel, laboratories, and so on. The U.S.
Navy continues its important support role,
especially in the operation and maintenance of
both fixed-wing and helicopter aircraft. Similarly,
the annual resupply of McMurdo Station by cargo
ships depends on the opening of a channel through
the sea ice by one of the U.S. Coast Guard polar
icebreakers.

Emphasis on Air Support

When one compares the scope of U.S. operations
and logistics in Antarctica with that of other
nations, the striking impression is the large extent
of the interior of the continent that can be reached
by Americans. Several countries have more stations
(with the Soviet Union leading both in total number
and in geographic spread), but no other country is
better able to reach a greater extent of the interior,
or to better support projects at interior sites.
Others in Antarctica, again the Soviets are an
example, have a superior shipborne research
capability. NSF via its contractor leases a 4,500-
horsepower, 219-foot ice-strengthened research
vessel, Polar Duke, that also is used for logistic
support of its Palmer Station just off the Antarctic
Peninsula. Polar Duke provides a research platform
that cruises in the vicinity of the Peninsula. Looking
to the future, the foundation is seeking a research
vessel with icebreaking capability for year-round
research in Antarctic waters not readily accessible
to Polar Duke.

The long-range capabilities of the ski-
equipped LC-130 airplane have given the United
States the advantage in support of projects in the

82

Plane Restored, Plane Lost

The U.S. Antarctic logistics program had hoped to
have eight LC-130s in service this year for science
and cargo missions, but lost one plane while
trying to retrieve another that was buried under
30 feet of snow after crashing more than 16 years
ago.

On 8 December 1987, an LC-130 with 1 1 U.S.
Navy crewmen aboard crashed while carrying
parts for use in repairing the plane lost 16 years
before. Two crewmen were killed in the crash as
the plane burned on impact. Several of the nine
other crewmen received major injuries.

The National Science Foundation, describing
the ruined LC-130 as "our only science airplane,"
said air logistics for the rest of the season would
be constrained. Photography missions were
cancelled, and various data gathering efforts
rescheduled.

The loss of the plane overshadowed a
tremendous engineering accomplishment. On 10
January 1988, the LC-130 that was dugout of the
snow at a site in East Antarctica — refitted with
overhauled engines and propellers — made a
flight of nearly 800 nautical miles (some 5 hours)
to touch down on the ice "skiway" at McMurdo
Station.

After inspection and further work, it flew on to
Christchurch, New Zealand, on 16 January for
further repairs. It was estimated that the cost to
recover and to restore the plane will run in the
neighborhood of $10 million. A new LC-130 costs
approximately $35 million.

— PRR

-

<

"Juliet Delta 32 1 " being dug out of the snow after having crashed more than 16 years ago. (U.S. Navy photo,
courtesy of NSF)

interior. Seven of these remarkable machines (see
also box on this page) are dedicated to the U.S.
Antarctic Program, and are operated for the
National Science Foundation by the Navy's
Antarctic Development Squadron Six (VXE-6).
The LC-130 is a four-engine, turboprop
plane permanently configured with selectable ski
or wheel landing gear. The LC-1 30 can carry
12,200 kilograms (27,000 pounds) of cargo,
including passengers, from McMurdo to the South
Pole Station (728 nautical miles), offload, and then
return to McMurdo without refueling. For another
example, the 2,100-nautical-mile trip between

Christchurch, New Zealand, and McMurdo Station
is completed in about 8 hours with a payload of
about 6,800 kilograms (15,000 pounds). In 1987,
one of the NSF-owned LC-1 30s flew a rescue
mission from McMurdo to Sanae Station on the
opposite side of the continent and back — a 4,200-
mile trip that was made in 17 hours with one
refueling stop at the South Pole on the return leg.
To support science near McMurdo Station
and in the ice-free valleys of southern Victoria
Land, UH-1 N helicopters are used. VXE-6 operates
six of these twin turbine UH-1 N helicopters. They
can carry a payload of 730 kilograms (1,600

83

pounds), including up to five passengers over an
operating radius of 185 kilometers (100 nautical
miles). These aircraft have recently been
augmented by Twin Otters on skis operated by
commercial contractors. Surface-effect vehicles
also have been successfully tested for Antarctic
use. All of these developments, together with the
use of a variety of modern tracked vehicles, have
long since rendered obsolete the use of dog
sledding in Antarctic logistics.

Field Camps

Using the LC-130 and the helicopters, the United
States has established and supported many remote
field camps. The largest of these sustained a
population of about 70 science and support
personnel for a summer operating season of about
100 days. Helicopters operated at such a camp
greatly increase the mobility and range of the field
work. The helicopters are either ferried to sites
close to Ross Island or are loaded aboard the
LC-1 30s for positioning at more distant camps.
For these camps, thousands of gallons of
aviation fuel are needed at the camp site — together
with pumps, filtering equipment, and other
materiels required to efficiently operate and service
the aircraft. Operational weather analysis and
forecasting, telecommunications, health care, and
aircraft maintenance and supply support must also
be provided at such camps — along with shelter,
power and heat generation, food service, and
enough water to supply indoor plumbing, showers,
and a laundry.

Fuel

Fuel! If you contemplate being in Antarctica, and
can satisfy transportation needs to and from the
area, then the next most critical need is fuel. For
example, 70 percent of all the fresh water on Earth
is in Antarctica, but none of it is available to drink
without the fuel to melt it. If one wants more water
than just barely enough to sustain life, one must
think in terms of fuel needed to melt snow-
roughly 1 gallon of fuel produces 35 gallons of
water, depending on the efficiency of the system.
Desalination water plants using waste heat from
power generation are, of course, used at coastal
stations.

The fuel supply systems for the U.S.
Antarctic Program improved markedly after the
acquisition of the turboprop LC-1 30 airplanes and
the disappearance of airplanes that were powered
by internal combustion engines. Consequently, the
United States no longer needs to store or handle
high octane aviation gasoline at its facilities.
Considering the abnormal extremes in fire hazards
on the ice, this is a significant change in program
logistics.

The fuels used in large quantities for power
generation; heating; and vehicle, equipment, and
aircraft operation, are all diesel- or kerosene-type
distillates. Presently, there are two basic fuels:
Diesel Fuel-Arctic (DFA) and JP-4, the aircraft fuel.
These products are virtually identical. Studies are
underway to establish the specifications for a

single, multi-use fuel, and to determine what
adjustments will be needed in the various engines
so that the more than 9-million-gallon-capacity
system can be managed without segregation of
products. Another feature of modern fuel handling
is the near elimination of the need to use 55-gallon
steel drums. A full drum of fuel weighs 450
pounds; handling one in the snow and the cold can
be a real drain on the human spirit. We can thank
the LC-130 once again for the ability to transport
and pump bulk quantities of fuel. The integral wing
tanks of the aircraft can be used, or a large 3,500-
gallon fuselage tank can be installed in the cargo
compartment. Large bladders of 10,000- and
25,000-gallon capacity can be rolled and folded up
when empty and airlifted to a remote site,
deployed, and filled with fuel hauled and pumped
by the LC-130. In addition, 500-gallon drums
mounted on pallets can be moved as cargo.

Safety and Antarctic Logistics

The extreme fire hazard in Antarctica has been
mentioned. Humidity is naturally very low and the
use of heat in life support drives it even lower.
Shelters, buildings, tents, bedding, and all
flammable materials tend to be tinder dry.
Everything seems to be charged with static
electricity, while the provision of effective
grounding in a snow and ice environment is nearly
impossible. The ability to fight a fire with water is
almost always out of the question. The prevalence
of high winds adds to the danger. If that is not
enough, consider also the likelihood that drifted
snow may block windows or other emergency exits
from shelters when disaster strikes.

Logistics Lessons Learned

The following are a few comments about logistics
lessons learned in the U.S. Antarctic Program,
and the author's perception of some of the
fundamental ways we should think about Antarctic
logistics:

• Potential users and providers of logistics in
Antarctica should not undertake the testing
and evaluation of new or prototype
equipment on the ice. In the interest of
efficiency, safety, and economy, only proven
off-the-shelf equipment should go south.

• In a similar way, experience has taught us
that the practice of logistics in Antarctica
should not be used for training of apprentice
workers. The unit cost of carrying on any
activity in Antarctica is very high. Each
activity center, camp, or station has its own
life-support system that requires a staff for
operation and maintenance. Growth of a
station tends to be accompanied by a loss in
net productivity and return on investment.
Therefore, only the best qualified,
experienced practitioners should be assigned
to each logistical job.

• Science and support projects that are part of

84

Table 1. Stations Operating in The Antarctic, Winter 1987.

Argentina

Belgrano II, 77°52'S, 34°37'W

Orcadas, 60°44'S, 44°44' W

Esperanza, 63°24'S, 56°59'W

Marambio, 64°14'S, 56°38'W

San Martin, 68°08'S, 67°04'W

Jubany, 62°14'S, 58°40'W

Australia

*Macquarie Island, 54°30'S, 158°56'E

Mawson, 67°36'S, 62°52'E

Davis, 68°35'S,77°58'E

Casey, 66°17'S, 110°32'E

Brazil

Comandante Ferraz, 62°05'S, 58°23'W

Chile

Capitan Arturo Prat, 62°30'S, 59°41'W

General Bernardo O'Higgms, 63° 19'S, 57°54'W

Teniente Rodolfo Marsh, 62°12'S, 58°54'W

Wesf Germany

Georg von Neumayer, 70°37'S, 8°22'W

France

Dumont d'Urville, 66°40'S, 140°01 'E

*Alfred-Faure, 46°26'S, 51° 52'E

*Martin-de-Vivies, 37°50'S, 77°34'E

*Port-aux-Fran<;ais, 49°21'S, 70°12'E

India

Dakshin Gangotri 70°05'S, 12°00'E

Japan

Syowa, 69°00'S, 39°35'E

Asuka, 71°32'S, 24°08'E

Mew Zealand

Scott Base, 77°51'S, 166°45'E

'Campbell Island, 52°33'S, 169°09'E

China

Great Wall, 62° 13'S, 58°58'W

Poland

Arctowski, 62°09'S, 58°28'W

South Africa

Sanae, 70°18'S, 02°25'W

•Marion Island, 46°52'S, 37°51 'E

•Cough Island, 40°21 'S, 09°52' W

Britain

•Bird Island, 54°00'S, 38°03'W

Faraday, 65° 15'S, 64° 16' W

Halley, 75°35'S, 26°40'W

Rothera, 67°34'S, 68°07'W

Signy, 60°43'S, 45°36'W

United States

Amundsen-Scott, 90°S

McMurdo, 77°51'S, 166°40'E

Palmer, 64°46'S, 64°03'W

Soviet Union

Mirnyy, 66°33'S, 93°01'E

Novolazarevskaya, 70°46'S, 1 1 °50'E

Molodezhnaya, 67°40'S, 45°50'E

Vostok, 78°27'S, 106°51'E

Bellingshausen, 62°12'S, 58°58'W

Leningradskaya, 69°30'S, 159°23'E

Russkaya, 74°46'S, 136°51'W

Uruguay

Artigas, 62°11'S, 58°51'W

Stations north ot 60°S

the U.S. Antarctic Program enjoy an
important advantage that many other
national programs in Antarctica lack: the
opportunity to use the entire summer
season, without spending the winter. This is
possible because of a reliable air link. There
are no conventional airfields with hard
surface runways for wheeled long-range
aircraft on the continent. The use of the LC-
130 on skis makes it possible for passengers
to be airlifted to McMurdo during the
morning twilight of late winter (in August). In
1986 and 1987, this capability was used to
position scientists and their equipment at
McMurdo for observations and analysis of
the seasonal stratospheric ozone depletion
phenomenon. For most of the scientific
stations in the Antarctic, including Palmer
Station, there is no such air link. Ship access
to these stations is possible only during the
second half of the summer. Field work at or
near such stations must either be
compressed into the ship-access season or
else be designed to include wintering. For
many key personnel, such as research
scientists with obligations at academic
institutions, this presents an intolerable
situation. To make matters worse, even
when a project can be designed to fit the
compressed ship-access season, the
participants also must be burdened with the
lengthy sea voyages to get there and back.
Today's observer of the Antarctic scene may
notice that the tourism industry may be providing
the stimulus to establish additional air links to

Antarctica where the science programs of various
nations have not. So be it. Under the principles of
the treaty, tourism is recognized as a legitimate
peaceful purpose.

Even with access to reliable air links, it is still
essential that Antarctic projects be planned
18 months to 3 years in advance. The way to
position substantial supplies and cargo, large
equipment, or construction material
necessary during a given summer season is
to deliver it by ship during the previous
summer. This means the material must be
procured in time to be positioned for the
annual cargo ship loading in November,
1 year earlier than the start of the project in
Antarctica. This then describes the flip-side
of the beneficial availability of an
intercontinental air link: there is a tendency
to abuse the air link because it is easy and
appealing for the science or support project
organizer to have cargo moved only by air.
The penalty in dollars can be great — since
the cost of moving a pound of cargo from
the United States to McMurdo by ship is less
than 10 cents, and by air is about $10.

For the Antarctic logistician there are
important changes underway. Antarctic
telecommunications have always been in a
dismal state. Long-range high-frequency
radio propagation in the high magnetic
latitudes and the auroral zone around the
pole has proven unreliable to the point of

85

The Amundsen-Scott South Pole research facility, most of which is under the snow. (Photo courtesy of NSF)

frequent and extended blackout. But no
more. Satellite communications have finally
arrived. Virtually all the national programs
use the International Marine Satellite
(INMARSAT) for stations and ships in the
Antarctic. In a similar way, we are at the
threshold of dramatic increases in the use of
remote sensing. Space-based
instrumentation and data relay for
automated observations of Antarctic
phenomena may soon get a dramatic boost
as dedicated satellites are put in orbits with
optimum coverage — either as
instrumentation platforms or as data links for
the south polar regions.

Some Last Words

The very appearance of this issue of Oceanus
illustrates the increasing level of interest in
Antarctica. The expansion of human activity in
recent years will undoubtedly continue, yet the
exploitation of mineral resources will not
necessarily occur as a result. Commercial activity
—tourism — is already a rapidly growing reality.
Scientific research also will continue to grow in
sophistication, interdisciplinary complexity, and
international cooperation.

In the realm of logistics, profound changes
are taking place: computerized data processing and
satellite communications, for example, have
become vital not only to supply and support
functions, but also to science. The realm of

commercial and general aviation is being extended
south of the 60th parallel. However, to
complement airlift growth to and within Antarctica,
there also must be an increase in sealift — to
position the fuel, if for no other reason.
Tomorrow's scientists, tourists, and essential
support people may very well reach Antarctica and
move about by air, but supplies and equipment,
construction materials, waste, and above all, fuel,
will be positioned by ship.

The survival beyond 1991, the continued
effectiveness of the Antarctic Treaty System, and
the orderly evolution in logistics and environmental
protection, may well lead to a bright new day in
Antarctic science. Because of the significant role of
the great polar ice-covered continent to the world
environment in an era of global change, this may
prove vitally important to all of us.

Alfred N. Fowler is Deputy Director of the Division of Polar
Programs at the National Science Foundation, Washington,
D.C.

Selected References

Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research International Council
of Scientific Unions. 1985. Man's impact on the Antarctic
Environment. Cambridge, England: SCAR, Scott Polar Research
Institute.

Spletstoesser, J. 1985. Remote camps for U.S. field projects in
Antarctica. An(arct/c lournal of the United States, 20(2): 1 -7.

National Science Foundation. 1979. Antarctic Conservation Act of
1978. Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation.

86

The Soviet

.,-

Antarctic Program

by Lawson W. Brigham

I he Soviet Union's programs in Antarctica are
highly orchestrated, long-term in nature, and of
significant scientific merit. The Soviets have been an
active and influential research participant in
Antarctica since the International Geophysical Year
(ICY) in 1957-58. Soviet ICY observations in
meteorology, glaciology, and coastal oceanography
were particularly important to the development of
future research objectives and methodologies of
many projects. Today, approximately 15 percent of
the Antarctic scientific papers contributed by treaty
nations come from Soviet researchers. The Soviet
Union also has a significant voice in the Scientific
Committee for Antarctic Research (SCAR) — an active
player in the decisions on international exchanges,
the pooling of data, and the coordination of various
scientific programs.

Role of the Scientific Research Institute

The Soviet Antarctic program is coordinated by the
Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research Institute in
Leningrad. The institute was formed on 4 March
1920. It held several different names under various
government bodies during its first two decades of
existence. Nearly 300 expeditions were sent to the
Arctic by the institute during 1920-1945. The
institute has been associated closely with all recent
Soviet Arctic expeditions (including many pioneering
drift stations in the central Arctic), and the
development of viable marine transportation in the
Soviet north.

/Above, the Soviet station Leningradskaya. (Photo courtesy
Rauma-Repola, Finland)

87

Within the Soviet system, the institute is
considered a central research institute for organizing
and directing all disciplines of polar research.
Although other institutions of the Soviet Academy of
Sciences, ministries, and universities (for example,
the Ministry of Geology, the Institute of
Oceanography of the Academy of Sciences, the
Ministry of Fisheries, the Institute of Geography of
the Academy of Sciences, and Moscow and
Leningrad Universities) conduct research in the polar
regions, the Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research
Institute enjoys a pre-eminent position. Most leading
Soviet polar scientists deal with the institute because
of its extensive polar archives, experienced staff
(several thousand researchers), and important
contacts with government bodies responsible for air
and sea logistics.

Central organization of the Soviet Antarctic
program occurred in 1958, when the then-named
Arctic Scientific Research institute was given control
of coordinating both the science and logistics of the
program. Although influenced by the Academy of
Sciences and dependent on other government
departments, the institute has smoothly coordinated
the annual Soviet Antarctic Expedition for the last 30
years. The natural integration of science and logistics
for both the Arctic and Antarctic has made the
institute a highly effective organization.

Recent Research

One of the most intriguing Soviet Antarctic projects
has been the deep drilling program at Vostok Station.
During 1972-83, a thermoelectric drill was used to
reach a depth of 2,083 meters in glacial ice that is
3,700 meters thick. Ice cores taken from depths of
less than a kilometer have been determined to be
50,000 years old. The deepest ice core taken from
Vostok in 1986-87 had an age of approximately
1 50,000 years. Analyses of the variations in oxygen
isotopes, dust, and carbon dioxide have yielded
important information about past climates on the
continent.

Geologists and glaciologists with the Vostok
drilling program also are attempting to reach several
large lakes that are believed to lie beneath the ice
cap. Radar surveys have indicated the presence of
these "pockets." It is possible these areas at the
bottom of the Antarctic ice sheet are at the pressure
melting point.

The Vostok program also has a
microbiological component. Soviet scientists at the
Institute of Microbiology have found simple life
forms in the Vostok ice cores from 200 meters that
are approximately 8,000 years old. Several species of
the microorganisms have been revived after their
long dormant period in the Antarctic ice sheet!

Since 1975, the Soviet Antarctic program has
devoted considerable research time and logistics
efforts to studies of the Weddell Basin and Weddell
Sea region. One of the principal objectives is to
establish the geological formations of the mountain
systems that fringe the Weddell Sea — the Shackleton
Range, the Pensacola Mountains, and the Ellsworth
Mountains. Keen interest in such a remote region of
the globe is understandable — there may be
similarities in the geological structures of this area to

southern Africa, which is a leading region for
minerals production (see also article on page 32).
Intensive geophysical surveys of the Weddell Sea by
the Soviet Union and other nations are directly
related to understanding an offshore region that
holds the promise of oil and gas resources.

Seasonal Soviet stations have been
established on the Filchner Ice Shelf (Druzhnaya
Station), and in other locations around the basin.
These have been temporary support bases for
geological, geophysical, geodetic, and topographic
work along the coast. Geophysical surveys have
covered more than 200,000 square kilometers of the
Weddell Sea and its surrounding ice shelves. Seismic
probes and coring into the sedimentary deposits of
the seabed beneath the ice cover have been
extensive. Systematic aerogravity and aeromagnetic
surveys have helped to integrate information on
both offshore and inland areas. Soviet geologists
have collected extensive rock and mineral samples
from the surrounding mountains. One of their
significant findings was an accumulation of fossil
trilobites, primitive animals (related to spiders and
insects) that lived millions of years ago.

Glaciological traverses across the Antarctic ice
cap by tractor train have been a common element in
each of the Soviet Antarctic Expeditions. In the
1950s, Soviet tractor-sled expeditions conducted
trips into the heart of East Antarctica, primarily to
establish remote stations, such as Vostok. However,
in recent years, many have been continued for
scientific purposes. In the mid-1970s, as part of
the International Antarctic Glaciological Project
(a decade-long investigation of the East Antarctic ice
sheet), Soviet research traverses collected
gravimetric and magnetic observations, and drilled
hundreds of bore holes for glaciological
measurements. In cooperation with Australian
glaciologists, geoceivers were positioned to obtain
precise position and elevation measurements.
During several field seasons of Soviet traverses,
remeasurements of these positions yielded valuable
flow velocities of the East Antarctic ice sheet.

Soviet Oceanographic Research

Ships and oceanographic research have played
prominent roles since the inception of the Soviet
Antarctic program. A. F. Treshnikov, a noted Soviet
polar scientist, has outlined the basic objectives of
these early efforts as:

• study of (he thermal and dynamic regime of
the south polar waters, and water/heat
exchange with the bordering oceans;

• study of the circulation of surface and deep
waters;

• study of the hydrological regime of Antarctic
shelf seas; and

• study of the ice regime, features of iceberg
distribution, and the physical properties of
Antarctic sea ice.

Although almost entirely descriptive in nature, the

88

Table 1. Permanent Soviet Antarctic stations.1 (See also map on page 15)

Name

Location2

National Claim
or Sector3

Date
Established

Number of
Winter
Personnel4

Primary Research and Observations

Mirnyy

66'33'S, 93°01'E
Coastal
Queen Mary Coast

Australia

13 February 1956

61

Meteorology, actinometry5, seismology,
cosmic ray studies, auroral studies,
geomagnetism, ionospheric studies,
radio wave propagation, medicine,
physical geography, glaciology (past).

Vostok

78°27'S, 106°51'E
Inland
Polar Plateau near
the South
Geomagnetic Pole

Australia

16 December 1957

26

Deep drilling of the continental ice,
microbiological studies, meteorology,
actinometry, geomagnetism, cosmic
ray studies, glaciology, medicine,
auroral studies, radio wave
propagation, ionospheric physics.

Novolazarevskaya

70°46'S, 11°50'E
Coastal
Queen Maud Land

Norway

18|anuary 1961

34

Meteorology, actinometry,
geomagnetism, seismology (deep
seismic soundings), auroral studies,
physical geography, glaciology,
medicine, sea-level studies.

Molodezhnaya

67°40'S,45°50'E
Coastal
Enderby Land

Australia

23 February 1962

117

Main Soviet Antarctic base (Soviet
Antarctic Meteorological Center),
tracking of geodetic satellites, rocket
sounding of the atmosphere,
meteorology, actinometry,
geomagnetism, auroral studies,
glaciology, medicine, radio wave
propagation, artificial satellite
photography, ice shelf drilling,
biology, geology.

Bellingshausen

62'12'S, 58°58'W
King George Island
South Shetland
Islands

UK/Argentina/
Chile
(Overlapping
Claims)

22 February 1968

29

Meteorology, glaciology, hydrology,
actinometry, geomagnetism,
medicine, ice-cover and iceberg
studies, physical geography.

Leningradskaya

69°30'S, 159°23'E
Coastal
Gates Coast

Australia

27 January 1970

12

Meteorology, geology, geomorphology,
gravity, geomagnetism, astrogeology.

Russkaya

74°46'S, 136"51 'W
Coastal
Hobbs Coast Marie
Byrd Land

Unclaimed

10 March 1980

9

Meteorology, glaciology, ionospheric
studies, atmospheric pollution (snow
analyses).

Notes:

1 Year-round stations only; the Soviet Union operates seasonal stations occasionally for special projects.

2 Coordinates from Polar Record, 23(147): p. 751 (1987).

3 Claims held in abeyance by the Antarctic Treaty; Molodezhnaya located near the sector line between Norwegian and Australian claims in
Queen Maud Land; Leningradskaya located near the sector line between New Zealand and Australian claims oi\,the Oates Coast.

4 1980 data f rom Antarctic Journal of the United States, 16(1): p. 5 (1981).

5 Measuring the direct heating power of the Sun's rays.

early Soviet Antarctic oceanographic effort produced
valuable results. Meridional (running in a north-south
direction) oceanographic sections were taken from
the coast of Antarctica to the subtropic convergence
zone (40 degrees South). Annual observations were
taken along standard sections from Antarctica to
Australia, and Antarctica to Africa; the sections
revealed annual shifts in the position of the Antarctic
Convergence Zone.

During this period, the general circulation
patterns and basic water masses of the Southern
Ocean were catalogued in an Atlas of the Antarctic.
The first estimates of water through Drake Passage
also were made, and detailed sea-ice maps were
prepared for the entire continent. Hydrographic
stations were taken in shelf areas, such as Prydz Bay
off the Amery Ice Shelf, that had never before been
investigated.

During 1956-70, the research vessel Ob'
conducted extensive operations in the Southern
Ocean; more than 1,000 oceanographic casts and
264,000 nautical miles of echo-sounding profiles

were accomplished. Of primary importance were
the comprehensive biological investigations
conducted by the Ob', studies primarily concerned
with oceanic plankton, sea-floor invertebrates, and
fish populations. The early expeditions allowed
Soviet investigators an opportunity to compare
plankton from the Southern Ocean with collections
taken from the Arctic Ocean. These initial Soviet
ecological investigations paved the way for further
scientific and commercial studies regarding
utilization of fish and krill resources in Antarctic
waters.

Beginning in the early 1970s, the Soviet
Union averaged three to four research vessels in the
Southern Ocean during austral summer. The Soviets
implemented POLEX-South (South Polar
Experiment), a long-term, large-scale study of air/sea
interaction around the Antarctic continent. Extensive
investigations were conducted on the structure and
variability of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current
(ACC). For the first time, instrumentation was used to
measure mesoscale and seasonal oscillations of the

89

The Akademik Fedorov, new Soviet research flagship, in
Antarctica in March 1988. (Photo courtesy of Rauma-Repola)

current. At depths of 3,000 meters, near the ocean
floor, current velocities of 50 to 70 centimeters a
second were recorded.

During the 1976-77 expedition, the
Professor Zubov, while investigating the East Wind
Drift along stations between Australia and Antarctica,
identified a countercurrent beneath the Antarctic
Circumpolar Current (ACC). The countercurrent
ranged in thickness between 1,500 and 2,500
meters, and had a measured velocity of up to a
nautical mile an hour. Soviet-American collaboration
on studies of the ACC during these years established
that this current is stable, broadly developed, and
actually a "multi-jet" system of currents (see
page 53). Its volume transport was found to be
several times larger than any other known current
system. Clearly, the circumpolar current was
confirmed as the dominant circulation system in the
Southern Ocean.

An unusual joint oceanographic expedition
in the Southern Ocean was carried out aboard the
Soviet Antarctic flagship Mikhail Somov during
October and November 1981. The U.S. -Soviet
Weddell Polynya Expedition was planned to
investigate a polynya (an area of open water in sea
ice, and a word coined by the Russians) that had
been observed on satellite imagery within the
Weddell Sea since 1973. The polynya, originally
located near the Greenwich Meridian and 65
degrees South, appeared and disappeared in
subsequent winters, growing at one time to nearly
300,000 square kilometers. Such a feature is
believed to have important climatic and
oceanographic implications (see also page 39).
Upwelling warmer waters lose heat through
polynyas, thereby causing cooling of the deeper
waters below.

For the first time, oceanographic data also
were collected in late winter within the Weddell Sea.
While there was no clear indication of the polynya in
1981, observations (sea water, ice, and air) were
taken from the ice edge to a point 300 nautical miles
within the Weddell Sea ice cover. The data yielded
significant clues regarding the end of the seasonal
growth period of sea ice. The cumulative effects of
sea-ice formation cause a seasonal maximum in sea-

water density (just below the ice cover), which
ultimately influences the formation of deeper waters.
Oceanographic investigations under POLEX-
South have continued in recent years. Work in the
Weddell Sea and near Maud Rise has concentrated
on the mechanics of formation of intermediate and
bottom waters, and their role in global ocean
circulation. During the 1985-86 season, two
research vessels investigated the western Pacific
sector of the Antarctic for the first time.
Comprehensive studies of the shelf waters (formed
in the Weddell Sea, Ross Sea, Davis Sea, Prydz Bay,
and other coastal areas), and the mechanisms by
which they mix with warmer, deep waters will be
continued by Soviet oceanographers in the future.

Future Trends

The future of the Soviet Antarctic program appears
bright. Improved air logistics, using compacted snow
runways, will allow routine flights of heavy aircraft to
the Antarctic directly from the Soviet Union. One
objective is to airlift all Antarctic personnel to their
stations by the end of the current 5-year plan in
1990. Thus, winter personnel changes will be more
efficient and timely, and more cargo may be airlifted,
reducing the number of support ships. The Soviets
will have new mobility, flexibility, and reach with
which to support field research around the
continent.

In late 1987, the Soviet Union enhanced its
maritime presence around Antarctica with the arrival
of a new flagship, the Akademik Fedorov. Built by the
Finnish shipbuilder Rauma-Repola OY, the 140-
meter vessel is capable of resupplying Soviet stations
and transporting 160 personnel. The ship also is a
floating research station equipped with 10
laboratories designed for a wide spectrum of
atmospheric, marine, and polar sciences. A 20,000
horsepower diesel-electric power plant, more than
twice the power of the Mikhail Somov, will allow the
ship to proceed continuously in 1 -meter level ice.

This improved ice-breaking capability will
allow marine scientific research to be conducted in
continental shelf areas yet to be fully explored, and
will improve the reliability of coastal resupply efforts.
The Akademik Fedorov also is fitted with modern
polar navigation equipment, research computers,
bow and stern thrusters for positioning, extensive
cargo handling gear, and associated equipment for
flight control, maintenance, and operation of Soviet
MI-8 and KA-32 helicopters.

The Soviet Antarctic program thus can
support a greater number of field stations on ice
shelves and at remote land sites some distances from
the major Soviet bases. On 19 January 1987, a new
seasonal station, Druzhnaya 3, was established near
the Quar Ice Shelf on the coast of Queen Maud
Land. This would appear to be an extension of past,
intensive geophysical survey efforts conducted in the
vicinity of the Weddell Basin.

Three Soviet summer stations operated last
year near Lambert Glacier and Amery Ice Shelf in
East Antarctica. Soyuz Station reopened on Beaver
Lake in the Prince Charles Mountains, and two new
summer stations were established — Progress on the
southeast coast of Prydz Bay, and Druzhnaya 4 on

90

Significant Events in the Soviet Antarctic Program

13 July 1955

First Soviet Antarctic Expedition (SAE) organized by the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences to

coordinate Soviet work during the International Geophysical Year.
13 February 1956

First Soviet Antarctic station, Mirnyy Geophysical Observatory, established on the Davis Sea.
16 December 1957

Soviet flag hoisted at the inland station Vostok at the South Geomagnetic Pole, 1,410

kilometers from Mirnyy Station.
1958

Arctic Scientific Research Institute in Leningrad entrusted with the organization and

coordination of all Soviet research in Antarctica; henceforth called the Arctic and Antarctic

Scientific Research Institute.
2 November 1960

Soviet Union ratifies the Antarctic Treaty.
December 1961

First long-distance flight of Soviet aircraft from Moscow to Antarctica.
January-March 1964

Seventy-eight-day, 3,323-kilometer scientific tractor-sled traverse (Vostok Station to the Pole

of Inaccessibility to a turning point at 78° 03' S, 19° 59' E to Molodezhnaya Station);

observations included seismic, gravimetric, glaciological, meteorological, geomagnetic, and

actinometric.
1966-69

Soviet Union publishes first large-scale, comprehensive Antarctic Atlas (2 volumes),

incorporating data obtained by scientists from various nations, particularly the USSR.
1968

Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research Institute extends its oceanographic investigations to

the Southern Ocean after receiving several research vessels, including Professor Vize,

Professor Zubov, and Okianograf.
1971

Functions of the Antarctic meteorological center transferred from Mirnyy Station to

Molodezhnaya Station, which becomes the main Soviet Antarctic base.
1974-75

Drilling begins at Vostok Station during the 20th SAE for microorganisms in the Antarctic ice

sheet, using a mobile drilling rig that preserves sterile conditions.
1976-82

Extensive Soviet geophysical studies in the Weddell Sea basin coordinated from a seasonal

base (Druzhnaya) on the Filchner Ice Shelf.
February 1980

First IL-18 aircraft from the Soviet Union arrives at a new permanent, compressed snow

runway (2,645 meter length) near Molodezhnaya Station; trial route flown by way of

Moscow, Odessa, Aden (Yemen) and Maputo (Mozambique).
1981

joint U.S.S.R. /U.S. oceanographic investigations in the Weddell Sea aboard the Soviet

Antarctic ship Mikhail Somov.
February 1986

First landing of wide-body cargo aircraft (IL-76) from the Soviet Union to the Molodezhnaya

Station snow runway.
1987

New Soviet Antarctic research and supply icebreaker Akademik Fedorov deploys on first

cruise to the Southern Ocean.

Sources: Antarctic, Polar Geography and Geology, Pravda, Problemy Arktiki i Antarktiki, Soviet Antarctic Expedition Information
Bulletin, and Vodnyy Transport.

91

4

SK

...... . „ .-^-T^jnirt

sly* SiEK.

The Mikhail Somov, a Soviet icebreaker, during the 1981
Weddell Polynya Expedition. (Photo courtesy National Science
Foundation)

the Amery Ice Shelf. Scientific programs at these
locations emphasize the study of metallic minerals
and extend geophysical investigations, including
multi-channel seismic surveys, conducted
throughout Prydz Bay during the last decade. The
ability to support these outposts by air and sea
reflects an improving and confident logistical system
of the Soviet Antarctic program.

One of the hallmarks of Soviet Antarctic
research has been an extensive meteorological
program. Molodezhnaya Station, the meteorological
center, continues to be upgraded with modern
equipment, including the capability of receiving
enhanced satellite imagery, such as that of Cosmos-
1,500 with its side-scan radar. The ring of Soviet
Antarctic stations around the continent also provides
retrieval of an important set of surface and upper
atmospheric observations. These data are analyzed
at Molodezhnaya, where weather services are
provided to all Soviet Antarctic operations. The
30-year record of weather data is critical to studying
climatic variations, and central to Soviet research on
applying numerical models to long-term forecasting.
Future global atmospheric research programs will
likely make extensive use of this important Antarctic
data base.

Soviet Antarctic activities will continue to
apply lessons learned from their vast knowledge
base regarding the Arctic. In a symbiotic way, the
Soviet Antarctic research program will return the
favor by providing data that are applicable to the
extreme climates and difficult living environments of
the Soviet north. Some future Antarctic research,
particularly medical studies, will have utility within
the Soviet space program.

The presence of the Soviet Union in
Antarctica is secure. An improved and efficient
logistics system, effective maritime presence, a
highly coordinated research program, and the

location of stations rimming the continent place the
Soviets in a position of strength as they look forward
to the increasingly complex polar politics that seem
ordained for the 1990s.

Lawson W. Brigham is a Commander in the U.S. Coast
Guard, and a Guest Investigator with the Marine Policy
Center of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

The views expressed in this article are solely those of the
author and do not necessarily reflect the position of the
the U.S. Coast Guard or the U.S. Government.

Acknowledgments

The author gratefully acknowledges support from the John
D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation to the Marine
Policy and Ocean Management Center, Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution. The libraries and staffs of the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Cold Regions Research and
Engineering Laboratory, and Ohio State University's Byrd
Polar Research Center provided invaluable assistance to the
author. This is contribution No. 6778 from the Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution.

Coldest Place on Earth

I he highest (3,488 meters above sea level) and
most remote manned station in Antarctica was
established by the Second Soviet Antarctic
Expedition in 7957. Known as Vostok Station, it is
located on the Polar Plateau near the South
Geomagnetic Pole in East Antarctica. Here the
polar ice thickness is 3,700 meters.

Except for a year of mothballing (2 1
January 7962-25 January 1963), this inland
station has remained manned throughout the
winters by approximately 25 people, including
American exchange scientists. Each year Vostok is
supplied by air and by a tractor-sledge traverse
from the Soviet coastal station Mirnyy, 1,500
kilometers away.

Vostok Station is perhaps best known for a
record low temperature of -89.6 degrees Celsius
(-128.6 degrees Fahrenheit) recorded 21 luly
1983. The annual mean air temperature at Vostok
is —55.6 degrees Celsius compared to a mean of
-50 degrees Celsius at the U.S. Amundsen-Scott
South Pole Station. This Soviet scientific outpost
has appropriately earned the dubious distinction
of "coldest place on Earth" — the coldest
inhabited location on the planet!

— LWB

92

Bound For 60 South —

Taxes, Tips, and Transfers Included:

The Growth

of Antarctic Tourism

by Paul Dudley Hart

Kecent growth of tourism in Antarctica poses a
thorny problem for treaty nations in the not-too-
distant future. On the one hand, continued growth
will pose a threat to the pristine nature of the
continent and the science conducted there, while,
on the other, treaty regulations recognize the right
of tourists to visit the area. It has been estimated
that 3,000 tourists visited the region in the 1987/88
season — either by boat or air. It is time to prepare,
if not implement, measures to monitor, and, where
necessary, regulate tourism.

Mention of Antarctica often elicits a
response from people that displays profound
ignorance — "Now, is that the North or South Pole?"
On rare occasions, a response will display an
equally profound fascination, sometimes purely
romantic, or else stemming from a specific personal
interest, such as the history of the continent's
exploration, or its flora or fauna. Antarctic tourism,
a concept as alien as space tourism little more than
two decades ago, was originally created to profit
from those people who wanted to experience the
source of their fascination first hand. Certain
regions of Antarctica have become regular, though
not yet commonplace, tourist destinations.

The majority of Antarctic tourism is
concentrated in the Antarctic Peninsula, the closest
to regular transportation networks in South
America. Dubbed the "Antarctic Riviera," the
peninsula has the largest concentration of national
research stations, partly as a geopolitical
consequence of overlapping national boundary
claims, and partly because of the same logistical
considerations — cost and travel time — that make it
the primary destination of tourists.

Visitors, Problems, and Rights

Despite some oscillation, the general trend of
increasing Antarctic tourism is a subject of concern
among signatory nations to the Antarctic Treaty.
Although the numbers of tourists in absolute terms
seem insignificant when compared to the numbers
of passengers regularly disgorged from ships and
planes at more commonplace destinations — such
as islands in the Caribbean — some fundamental
differences separate the Antarctic from
conventional tourist destinations. In most countries,
conscious decisions have been made to trade
different degrees of environmental damage for
improved economic conditions. In most locations,
there also is some organization with the task of
protecting the local environment. Although the
results of such measures range from successful
environmental conservation linked with significant
economic benefit, to abject failure on both counts,
there is some community responsibility and
consequence. In Antarctica, there is no local
populace to reap the economic benefits of tourism,
nor is there an effective means beyond the
boundaries of national research stations to properly
monitor its impact.

Proponents of unregulated tourism argue
that the tourists who now visit Antarctica annually
have no significant detrimental impact on the area,
which covers almost 10 percent of the Earth's land
surface. This is partially true. Antarctica is being
more profoundly affected by changes in the global
atmosphere caused by fossil-fuel burning and
fluorocarbon emissions than by tourism. But in
specific places, tourism does pose a threat. First, by
its focus on one particular area, the Antarctic

93

\

The M/V Society Explorer, a tourist cruise ship, in Antarctic pack ice. (Photos by Paul Dudley Hart)

Peninsula, and second, by further concentration on
the relatively few locations that afford safe landing
sites — both snow and ice free in the austral
summer — for seaborne and airborne tourists.
Seaborne landing sites also tend to be the principal
locations of plant and animal life, thus adding to
their attraction.

Man is the most recent and least adapted
addition to life in Antarctica. Through whaling and
sealing, he already has been the most destructive.
In present times, inadequately briefed or
supervised, a very small number of visitors can
wreak havoc on a seal colony or seabird rookery,
and the best supervised visits to any one
particularly favored site, if too frequent, can be
destructive.

Although the Antarctic ecosystem is
extraordinarily robust, it is so only within the
parameters of its own evolution. Expanding on an
example drawn from I. Everson in Antarctic Science,
edited by D.W.H. Walton, an average human foot
exerts 2 1/z pounds per square inch, a greater
pressure than an Antarctic plant, such as moss, has
had to withstand in its natural evolution from
indigenous animals. Its broken surface, once
exposed to wind, will erode far faster than its slow
regenerative capacity. Thus, tour operators must
assure that their passengers consistently adhere to

well-defined procedures that safeguard the
Antarctic ecosystem, and be fully cognizant of
activities that disrupt or disturb life in the region.

Antarctica is the natural equivalent of a
"clean laboratory." By its pristine nature, it serves
as a benchmark against which other ecosystems
around the world can be compared. Long-term
experiments regularly take samples from the
Antarctic continent, ocean, and atmosphere to
define the rate at which natural and man-made
elements are assimilated into the Antarctic
ecosystem, thus providing information on their
abundance, environmental fate, and circulation
pathways and rates.

Ocean circulation measurements (see pages
39 and 53), taken in Antarctica are vital to
understanding the dynamics and interrelation of
global processes. It is essential that tourism
activities do not disrupt research by excessive
demands for research station visits by regular tour
operators, incursions into areas of special scientific
interest, or causing the diversion of treaty nation
research assets to assist or rescue tourist
expeditions.

Despite the complex management and
monitoring problems imposed collectively, but not
equally, on treaty nations by tourism and
occasional, but significant, disruptions to national

94

research programs caused by rescue missions to
private expeditions, the basic right of the tourist to
visit Antarctica is not questioned by treaty nations.
Tourism is a legitimate, peaceful use of the
Antarctic. Freedom of access is granted in the
Antarctic Treaty (see page 1 1).

Seaborne Tourism

Seaborne tourism generally falls into three
categories — expedition/educational cruising,
traditional "fun-in-the-sun" cruising, and passenger-
carrying government shipping.

Expedition/educational cruising is the most
popular form of Antarctic tourism. While tourists
have visited Antarctica each year since 1958, the
concept of "expedition tourism" was pioneered
both in Antarctica and elsewhere by Eric Lars
Lindblad. Lindblad perceived that a certain section
of the traveling public sought challenge and
education as the principal ingredient of their
vacations — rather than rest and relaxation. Acting
on this perception, he organized the first
expedition cruises to Antarctica in 1966. With the
collaboration of the Argentine government, tourists
visited the Antarctic Peninsula on the ARA Bahia
Aguirre, an Argentine Naval transport adapted to
accommodate a limited number of passengers.
Lindblad utilized this ship and other government
vessels until 1969.

The first privately owned passenger ship
specifically built for Antarctic cruising — the M/V
Lindblad Explorer, a 2,500-ton, 100-passenger, ice-
strengthened vessel — was built in Finland and
launched in 1969. With this ship, Lindblad, despite
grounding incidents in 1972 and 1980, developed a
successful model for Antarctic passenger cruising,
establishing the standard against which other
similar operations are compared. In 1984, the
Lindblad Explorer was acquired by Discoverer
Reederei, a shipping company based in Bremen,
Germany. In 1978, this company had introduced
another slightly larger Antarctic cruise ship, the M/V
World Discoverer, a 3,200-ton, 140-passenger ice-
strengthened vessel. The World Discoverer, and the
Lindblad Explorer, renamed Society Explorer since
its acquisition by Discoverer Reederei, have been
under exclusive charter to Society Expeditions,
Inc., an "expedition tour" company based in
Seattle, Washington, under the same ownership as
Discoverer Reederei, that books the passengers
and organizes the content and itinerary of the
cruises. Lindblad Tours re-entered the Antarctic
"expedition cruise" arena in the 1987/88 season by
chartering the M/V Illiria, a 140-passenger Greek
ship of comparable size to the World Discoverer,
though not ice-strengthened, for her first Antarctic
season.

The philosophy of the cruise model initiated
by Lindblad and further refined by both his
organization and Society Expeditions is one of
"leave only footprints." To their great credit, this is
largely the case.

The most successful tour operator, Society
Expeditions, schedules cruises of 15 or 25 days
duration. Usually their cruises sail from the port of
Punta Arenas on the Strait of Magellan, or Puerto

Williams on the Beagle Channel, both in Chile. All
cruises include the Antarctic Peninsula, with some
also stopping at the Falkland and South Orkney
Islands, South Georgia, or the Chile Canals to as far
north as Puerto Montt. "Circumnavigation" cruises
to New Zealand via McMurdo Sound in the Ross
Sea and the Antarctic Peninsula from South
America also have been undertaken, although less
regularly.

A lecture staff of individuals experienced in
specific aspects of Antarctica, such as ornithology,
history, zoology, botany, geology, or political
science, sails with the ship. The task of these
lecturers is to educate passengers through lectures
and conversation, and to act as guides ashore.
Sometimes three or four landings are made by
outboard powered inflatable boats in a single day.
Some landings are made at research stations, others
at uninhabited areas. At locations where landing
the full complement of passengers is disruptive
either to workings of a particular research station,
or to animal communities at an uninhabited site,
passengers are disembarked in shifts of small
groups.

Author's Tour Experience

During February of 1988, the author embarked for
the first time on a tourist cruise to the Antarctic
Peninsula on the M/V Society Explorer. Aboard for
three weeks, he observed excellent standards of
seamanship and safety, quite comparable to those
viewed aboard U.S. government vessels operating
in Antarctica and superior to those viewed aboard
some government vessels of other nations. At no
time during the cruise was any trash jettisoned
from the ship or discarded ashore. All trash was
compacted and unloaded at South American ports.
Lectures generally were very good, presenting
information about Antarctica that was both
understandable and accurate. Pre-landing briefings
given by the "expedition leader" informed
passengers of the conditions that they were to
encounter, and particular safeguards necessary at
each site. The passengers also were told of any
site-specific environmental preservation measures.

Ashore, passengers were shepherded by
lecturers who firmly, but politely, corrected any
passenger who, usually through inattention, did
anything to endanger their own safety or the local
environment. Passengers usually cooperated
wholeheartedly.

The only criticism the author would offer is
that too much time was spent on visiting national
research stations. A visit to one or two stations is
warranted to allow passengers to view an important
aspect of contemporary Antarctica and to speak to
people actually conducting research. More visits
tend to become repetitive for passengers, and
disruptive to research at the stations. As a
consequence, some nations, including the United
States and Britain, have restricted the number of
tour visits permitted at their stations. The United
States has further restricted the visits to the exterior
areas of its bases. From the author's observations,
passengers appear more content not being able to
visit a station at all, rather than being able to visit,

95

Tourists coming ashore from
the M/V Society Explorer in
Antarctica.

but kept at arm's length while at the station. It is
the author's personal view that fewer visits, with a
more wholehearted welcome, including entry into
some representative areas of the station, would be
a better policy.

Each nation has two principal reasons for
maintaining its stations in Antarctica — geopolitics
and science. It can be argued that the degree of
welcome afforded to tourists at each station is
indicative of the relative importance a nation
places on each reason.

The "leave only footprints" philosophy of the
Society Expeditions/Lindblad cruise model appears
to be taken very seriously. Through
professionalism, and adherence to a degree of
environmental awareness rare in a for-profit
venture, these expedition cruises have achieved
the best of all solutions in Antarctic tourism — self-
policing. As a global solution, unfortunately, it is
the least reliable.

'Fun-in-the-Sun' Cruising

Conventional "fun-in-the-sun" cruising has not
fared nearly as well in Antarctica. Sporadic
attempts to introduce it have failed because of
problems that have, as yet, no apparent solution.
Passengers are drawn to such cruises for social and
entertainment reasons.

Relaxation on deck, frequent port stops for
shopping, wining and dining, and nightlife
entertainment are the principal draw for most
traditional cruise ship passengers. Being on deck in
the Antarctic means being dressed from head to
foot, and even then often experiencing discomfort.
There are no port stops, and shopping is limited to
emblematic patches at the few stations capable of
accommodating large ships and their passengers.
Wining and dining ashore is nonexistent, and
shipboard nightlife is frequently disrupted by the

ship's reaction to the gales and sea conditions
prevalent in the area — an obvious marketing
problem.

The Society Explorer and World Discoverer,
though comfortable, are small ships designed for
the maneuverability and the relatively shallow draft
necessary to safely navigate in waters restricted by
ice and shoals. These same qualities, shared, other
than ice-strengthening, by Illiria, grant such ships
access to landing sites that larger passenger ships
cannot safely approach.

Landings present other safety, logistical, and
supervisory problems. Conventional cruise ships
carry anywhere from 500 to 1,000 passengers at a
time. Such numbers, even at an accessible site,
cannot be put ashore at one time at any location
with plant and animal life. Cycling passengers
ashore in similar numbers to the "expedition"
cruise ships is too time consuming. Very few
stations are willing to accept such numbers either,
unless a particular nation with adequate base
facilities is involved with the operation and has
some specific motive for having the tourists there.
During the 1987/88 season, plans were made to
utilize the Mediterranean Sky, a large cruise vessel,
to transport tourists to the Peninsula 600 at a time.
To the relief of many, this project either has been
postponed or abandoned, apparently because of a
lack of bookings.

Since 1958, the Argentine government,
principally through its Sport and Tourism
Department, has organized "traditional" cruises,
first with relatively small, and then with larger
numbers of passengers utilizing ships such as M/5
Les Eclaireurs, Lapataia, Libertad, Rio Tunuyan,
Regina Prima, ARA Bahia Buen Sucesso, and ARA
Bahia Para/so (the last two again being naval
auxiliary transports). Chilean government vessels,
since 1959, also have been transporting tourists to

96

Antarctica, though in smaller numbers, aboard the
Navarino, Yapeyu, and Aguiles. In 1973/74 and
1974/75, Ybarra Lines of Spain transported
passengers to the Antarctic aboard the A/7/5 Cabo
San Roque, and Cabo 5an Vincente, as did Costa
Lines with the Enrico C in 1976/77. But each of
these activities was discontinued. In recent years,
both Argentina and Chile have continued to
convey tourists aboard their Antarctic vessels. On
these government ships, landings are made
principally at the station or stations of the nation in
question, only on some occasions at those of other
nations. As official treaty nation ships, they have
the right to call at the stations of other nations, but
they do not necessarily have the right to land
uninvited tourists.

In summary, tourism aboard official treaty
nations vessels is the responsibility of the nation
conveying them. Large, conventional cruise ship
tourism to the Antarctic presents a major safety,
environmental, and station disruption threat. To
date, however, the use of large cruise ships does
not appear to be economically or practically viable.

Expedition cruise ships, on the other hand,
thus far appear to be doing a good job of policing
themselves. But, this may not be sustainable. The
expedition cruise concept's success and the high
degree of passenger satisfaction to date is likely to
cause more rapid growth and bring new players,
such as the Illiria into the arena. It is unlikely that
any new players will be as responsible as Lindblad
and Society Expeditions have been. Consequently,
this issue could be forced out of the discussion
stage among the treaty nations and into some form
of, hopefully enlightened, direct monitoring and
regulation.

Airborne Tourism

In 1977, frequent air tourism was introduced when
a chartered aircraft belonging to Qantas, the
Australian airline, overflew Antarctica in the Ross
Sea area for sightseeing purposes. This means of
tourism, which proved to be popular and
economically viable, was continued by irregular
flights by Qantas and Air New Zealand, primarily
over the Ross Sea area, carrying as many as 300
passengers on each flight.

In November 1979, this form of tourism
ceased after an Air New Zealand flight crashed into
the slope of Mount Erebus, close to the U.S.
McMurdo and New Zealand Scott stations on Ross
Island. All 257 persons aboard the plane were
killed — the single largest loss of human life in
Antarctica. The toll exceeded this century's deaths
in Antarctica from all other expeditions.

Airborne tourism since has taken place
primarily in the western sector, the Antarctic
Peninsula, for the same logistical reasons as
seaborne tourism. Flights in recent years using
Twin-Otter or similar aircraft have flown from
airfields in Chile to the Peninsula area, principally
the Chileno Teniente Marsh and Presidente Frei
Stations on King George Island in the South
Shetland group. Teniente Marsh Station now has a
100-bed hotel and bank for visitors. Spending a few
days at the station, visitors can view a variety of
wildlife sites on the island.

On January 12 of this year, tourism reached
the South Pole itself. Tourists, transported from
Chile via peninsular and continental airfields,
landed at the U.S. Amundsen-Scott South Pole
Station aboard Twin-Otter ski-equipped aircraft.
The tour, organized by Adventure Network, a
Canadian organization, was comprised of eight
passengers, mostly American, who had paid up to
$35,000 each, and two crew. They spent 2 hours
and 35 minutes at the station. During this period,
they entered the station, were given a cup of
coffee, allowed to buy two souvenirs each, and
permitted to walk about outside.

Many of the passengers were relatively
elderly. Some had to have oxygen administered to
them on the flight (oxygen is normally used in
aircraft above a ceiling of 10,000 feet) and,
according to The New York Times of February 7,
1988, some had difficulty breathing and moving
around while at the station, which is at 9,200 feet,
but equivalent in oxygen content to an altitude of
1 1,000 feet. While reactions by station personnel
were varied, the visitors were generally viewed as
being poorly prepared for the excursion. Four
visitors were unable to walk the 100 yards back to
the plane and had to be driven in a station vehicle.
The station manager also had to explain to the
pilots the importance of the aircraft remaining
outside the station's Clean Air Research Sector to
prevent impact on ongoing atmospheric research.
Two other flights have followed, each with 6
passengers and 4 crew.

As indicated by the Air New Zealand
disaster, and another fatal crash in January, 1986, at
Nelson's Island that killed 8 tourists and 2 crew in a
Cessna 404 aircraft, airborne tourism in Antarctica
is particularly perilous. The Antarctic has no
international air traffic control and virtually no
navigational aids. The blizzards, white-outs,* and
other phenomena that routinely occur in
Antarctica, are not within the experience of most
pilots. The United States, for example, selects for
Antarctic service fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft
pilots from the best available in the military.

Adventurers

There always have been those who seek to test
their mettle against harsh and dangerous
environments and this desire has most certainly
been an important factor in the history of Antarctic
exploration. What has changed in the last 20 years
is that more people have the money to pursue
their desire for adventure.

For many modern adventurers, Antarctica
represents the ultimate challenge, whether they be
yachtsmen, mountaineers, private pilots, or
individuals pursuing some personal quest. Some

* A surface weather condition in polar regions in which no
object casts a shadow, the horizon cannot be seen, and
only dark objects are discernable. The phenomenon is
caused by a heavy cloud cover over a snow surface, so
that light coming through the clouds is essentially equal to
the light reflected off the snow.

97

The author in a penguin suit,
celebrating Christmas 1987 in
Antarctica.

•

private "adventure" expeditions have been
thoughtfully planned, and courageously, but safely,
executed. More have been ill-advised and have
placed the lives of expedition members, and
sometimes others, in jeopardy.

Whether by plane or sea, private "adventure
expeditions" to Antarctica raise the same safety
question as commercial tourism, but, usually, with
an even higher level of risk. Few, if any, vehicles,
boats, or planes, available or affordable to the
private consumer, are suitable for use in the
Antarctic. Private expeditions also tend to fail to
estimate adequately the quantity of supplies
necessary. This results in their calling at research
stations to request food, medication, spare parts, or
other supplies. Since many of these requests could
result in some threat to the safety of the expedition
if refused, such items are usually granted despite
limited availability.

While the responsibility for the safety and
execution of private expeditions rests on their
organizers, they cannot humanely be ignored by
treaty nations in the event of life-threatening
emergencies. This assurance is certainly a factor in
the planning of such expeditions, and of concern to
treaty nations. Private expeditions, especially
yachts, do not always seek the advice of treaty
nations, nor notify them of their precise intentions.
So their whereabouts at any point in time are
frequently unknown.

Ignorance of the true conditions that will be
faced can lead to an "it won't happen to me"
mindset among adventure expedition organizers.
This factor is hard to correct, and it is one that
leads to expedition organizers who are more willing
to risk their lives, through ignorance, than their
personal financial assets. A concerted effort
through the media, and any other means available,

may be of some help. It must be made known that
there are not only serious personal risks involved in
independent travel to Antarctica, but also that the
individuals involved are liable to the extent of their
assets for the cost of rescue or assistance.

Summary and Conclusions

Most people who have visited or worked in
Antarctica agree that it is one of the most
remarkable and profoundly beautiful places on
Earth. It is the highest, driest, coldest, sunniest, and
most unspoiled continent. It is virtually
unpopulated by man and has never had an
indigenous human population. Few people
returning from Antarctica fail to be untouched by it
in some personal way. Many return almost as
missionaries, not only for Antarctica's conservation,
but also to encourage others to visit and share their
enthusiasm.

The investment of time and money involved
in traveling to Antarctica as a tourist will continue
to limit the growth of tourism. It is certain though,
that present levels of Antarctic tourism fall well
below the full potential. Thus, appropriate
measures must be prepared, if not implemented, in
the near future to closely monitor, and, where
necessary, regulate tourism.

While this is a single and straightforward
statement to make, it will be a very complex task to
address effectively. First, while all nations signatory
to the Antarctic Treaty are obliged to abide by its
terms, national agendas for Antarctica vary,
including aspects pertinent to tourism.
Furthermore, since some forms of tourism give rise
to significantly more concern, and present a greater
potential liability in terms of emergency assistance

continued on page 100

98

Treaty Rules Pertaining to Tourism

I he Antarctic Treaty and subsequent
approved recommendations have the effect of
law for U.S. citizens. The following are articles
and recommendations that pertain to tourism.

• Article VII, paragraph 5 of the treaty
provides the basis for the monitoring of all
travel to Antarctica. It requires that all
governments inform the governments of
other treaty parties of all expeditions to
and within Antarctica, on the part of its
ships or nationals, and of all expeditions
organized in or proceeding from the
United States. By extension, U.S. citizens
or permanent residents have an obligation
to inform the U.S. government of
expeditions to Antarctica.

• The several relevant recommendations,
agreed on at various Antarctic Treaty
Consultative Meetings, which bear on the
issue of tourism are as follows (roman
numerals indicate the meeting number,
arabic the recommendation number):

111-8: Agreed Measures for the
Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and
Flora, establishing Antarctica as a special
conservation area and declaring guidelines
regarding Antarctic fauna and flora. The
recommendation does not address the
issue of tourism, per se, but rather
proscribes certain activities for all visitors
to the Antarctic.

IV-27: Effects of Antarctic Tourism,
concerning the need for early notification
of tourist visits to Antarctic stations and the
possibility that permission might be
withheld.

VI-7: Effects of Tourists and Non-
Government Expeditions to the Antarctic
Treaty Area, urging governments to ensure
that tourists observe the principles and
purposes of the Antarctic Treaty and
Recommendations, including the necessity
to inform a station 24 to 72 hours in
advance of expected arrival, that all
tourists comply with any restrictions
imposed by the station manager, that
visitors not enter Specially Protected Areas,
and that they respect historic monuments.

VII-4: Effects of Tourists and Non-
Governmental Expeditions in the

Antarctic Treaty Area, urging governments
to ensure that the provisions of the Treaty
and subsequent recommendations relating
to the conservation of Antarctic fauna and
flora are applied to all visitors to the Treaty
area.

VIII-9: Effects of Tourists and Non-
Governmental Expeditions in the
Antarctic Treaty Area, urging governments
to ensure that tourists are aware of the
"Statement of Accepted Principles and the
Relevant Provisions of the Antarctic
Treaty," urging governments to ensure that
tour groups report their activities within
the Treaty area and requesting tour
operators, except in an emergency, only to
visit stations for which they have
permission and only to land within Areas
of Special Tourist Interest.

The "Statement of Accepted Principles"
includes the following:

• The killing, wounding, capturing or
molesting of any mammal or bird is
prohibited except in an emergency;

• Every effort shall be made to minimize
harmful interference with the normal
living conditions of any native mammal
or bird;

• Fur Seals and Ross Seals are Specially
Protected Species;

• Certain areas of outstanding scientific
interests have been designated as
Specially Protected Areas to preserve
their unique natural ecological system.
No person may enter such an Area
except by special permit;

• No species of animal or plant not
indigenous to the Antarctic Treaty Area
may be brought into the Area except
by permit;

• Every effort should be made to prevent
damage or destruction to any historic
monument;

• Permission should be sought in
advance to visit Sites of Special
Scientific Interest, which have been set
aside to allow for scientific

continued on page 100

99

investigations free from accidental
interference;

• Organizers of tourist or

nongovernmental expeditions should
furnish notice as soon as possible,
through diplomatic channels, to any
government whose station the
expedition plans to visit. Any
government may refuse to accept a visit
to its station or may lay down
conditions upon which it would grant
permission.

Recommendation VIII-9 also includes the
following "Guidance for Visitors to the
Antarctic":

• Avoid disturbing wildlife, in particular
do not:

• walk on vegetation;

• touch or handle birds or seals;

• startle or chase any bird from its
nest;

• wander indiscriminately through
penguin or other bird colonies.

• Litter of all types must be kept to a
minimum. Retain all litter (film
wrappers, tissue, food scraps, tins,
lotion bottles, etc.) in a bag or pocket
to be disposed of on board your ship.
Avoid throwing tin cans and other
trash off the ship near land.

• Do not use sporting guns.

• Do not introduce plants or animals
into the Antarctic.

Do not collect eggs or fossils.

Do not enter any of the Specially

Protected Areas and avoid Sites of

Special Scientific Interest.

In the vicinity of scientific stations,

avoid interference with scientific work

and do not enter unoccupied

buildings or refuges except in an

emergency.

Do not paint names or graffiti on

rocks or buildings.

Jake care of Antarctic historic

monuments.

When ashore, keep together with

your party.

X-8: Effects of Tourists and Non-
Governmental Expeditions in the Antarctic
Treaty Area, urging that non-governmental
expeditions carry adequate insurance; that
commercial tour operators, to the extent
practicable, carry tour guides with experience in
Antarctic conditions who are aware of the
Agreed Measures for the Conservation of
Antarctic Fauna and Flora and for the protection
of the Antarctic environment; that commercial
aircraft operators be informed that overflight
activity exceeds existing capabilities for air traffic
control, communications and search and rescue
and such overflight activity exceeds the capacity
of governments' Antarctic operations to respond
adequately to an unplanned emergency
landing.

or environmental damage, than others, a global
regulatory solution is unlikely to be practical.

It would be hard to view the pertinent parts
of the Antarctic treaty and subsequent
recommendations (see box page 99) as anything
but liberal and reasonable. What remains to be
seen is what evolves in the future, and whether the
reasonable nature of these terms and
recommendations will still be appropriate if
Antarctic tourism grows substantially.

Some have argued that Antarctica should be
made a wilderness sanctuary barred to both
scientist and tourist. It is this author's opinion that
this is both impractical and runs contrary to the
basic principal that man should be free to travel as

he pleases, providing he does not infringe on the
privacy, rights, or safety of others.

In seeking to monitor or regulate tourism in
Antarctica, it is hoped that the right of the
individual to visit Antarctica will continue to be
respected. Furthermore, it is to be hoped that any
future regulations encourage those forms of
tourism that are the safest and most protective of
the Antarctic environment.

Paul Dudley Hart is Director of Development at the Woods
Hole Oceanographic Institution, a post he has held since
1981 . Prior to 1981 , he was involved for 10 years in marine
research in Antarctica.

100

Protecting

the Antarctic

Environment

by Gerald S. Schatz

/Vlajestic, forbidding, fabled, and (depending on
your point of view) little touched by human
presence, Antarctica invites environmental
controversy. The evocative symbols are there:
grandeur; strikingly beautiful bird life; seal and
whale populations recovering from depredations of
many years ago; stratospheric ozone depletion; an
expanding fishery; rumors (no more than that) of
mineral wealth; and the occasional detritus of
scientific stations.

Too often lacking in discussions of Antarctic
environmental protection are fact, a sense of scale,
a sense of what is significant, and, most surprising,
a sense of environmental values — what is to be
safeguarded in the Antarctic, why, and then how?

Restating the obvious sometimes restores
valuable perspective: war dwarfs normal
environmental offenses. Accordingly, from the
standpoint of environmental protection, the
overarching value to be safeguarded in the
Antarctic is the Antarctic Treaty — by which nations
representing most of the world's population have
agreed, however they may disagree on their other
Antarctic interests, to keep the area south of 60
degrees South latitude free of military conflict and
nuclear explosions. The treaty's consultative
procedures have given rise to collateral
environmental protection measures; and to
additional, separate conventions for protection of
seals, and for managing the Antarctic fishery
(chiefly, but not exclusively, the krill fishery).

An important part of the Antarctic Treaty's
political glue is the understanding that, while
ultimate Antarctic rights of claimant nations are not
acknowledged and not acted upon, they are
nevertheless not foreclosed. Such mutual
forbearance is not easily renegotiated. So nurturing
the Antarctic Treaty System is far more likely to be

environmentally protective than is the advocacy of
ostensibly stronger substitute regimes (for example,
a world park, or United Nations administration).

A principal environmental value of the
Antarctic is the region's roles in planetary geologic,
oceanic, atmospheric, and climatic processes.
Responsible human stewardship of the planet
requires far more understanding of these
processes. Investment in this kind of science, and
in the logistics to support it (see article page 80)
fostered four decades of international scientific
cooperation, improved the understanding of
climate dynamics, and made possible the detection
and intensive study of the Antarctic ozone hole. A
major value is basic understanding of the region
itself, including its relatively few ecosystems.

Against this background, the requisite
elements of Antarctic environmental protection
policy are evident: sustain the treaty, maintain the
science (at no unnecessary risk to personnel),
protect the place, and do not compromise the
science. The first and second of these are clear
enough, the third and fourth not quite clear-cut.

These were not big issues in the
expeditionary days of the Antarctic. The science
did not depend on fine point, parts-per-billion
measurements; little harm was seen in local trash
dumping; the areas of human impact were few and
small; and the principal problems were those of
access and survival.

Shift of Emphasis

As Antarctic science evolved, and emphasis shifted
from reconnaissance to far more formal and
detailed research, environmental issues drew
increasing attention. The Scientific Committee on

101

Antarctic Research (SCAR), of the International
Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), began in the
1960s to recommend environmental safeguards,
subsequently adopted by the Antarctic Treaty's
consultative parties.

The United States had backed the work of a
large community of Antarctic environmental
scientists. In 1971, the U.S. National Science
Foundation (NSF), which had recently become the
lead agency for the U.S. Antarctic Program,
sponsored a major colloquium on problems of
conservation in Antarctica. Among the concerns:
litter and waste-disposal, as might be expected,
and, as was not expected, interference with
science itself. By this time, Antarctic science had
become precise enough to be vulnerable to air
pollution and contamination of study sites. From
these perceptions grew the establishment of
protected sites of special scientific interest.

Antarctic logistical engineering evolved, and
there were efforts to minimize human impact.
What was protective was not always a matter of
certainty, and there were false starts. A wastewater-
treatment plant was brought to the Antarctic, but
plans for its use were cancelled when it was found
that chemicals that would be released by the plant
would do more environmental damage than the
small amount of human sewage released to the
ocean, and that the chemical release would
contaminate scientific studies as well. An
incinerator turned out to be a voracious oil-burner.
Still, a good deal has been done:

• The NSF undertook a comprehensive study of
the environmental impact of its entire
Antarctic program. Impacts were found to be
transient and limited — the presence of a few
stations and temporary camps.

• The United States passed and rigorously
enforces its Antarctic Conservation Act,
prohibiting U.S. citizens from touching or
even getting close to Antarctic birds,
mammals, and plants, except for scientific
purposes, and then only under a very
restrictive permit system.

• The United States has begun seeking ways to
limit adverse environmental impacts of
Antarctic tourism [see article page 93].

• What otherwise would be waste heat from
diesel generators is used at McMurdo Station
to distill fresh water from seawater; at the
Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station to supply
fresh water from ice; and at Palmer Station to
heat buildings. Less fuel is used, and
atmospheric emissions are cut.

• Where possible, solar power and wind power
are used for automated observatories. These
technologies have not been found adequate
for support of whole stations.

102

• A new oil separator at McMurdo prevents
garage lubricants from entering the sewage
system, and waste lubricants are shipped back
to the United States.

• Sewage at McMurdo is diluted with brine to
minimize impact.

• Old bases and stations are being cleaned.
Marble Point Camp was rehabilitated
completely. McMurdo utility lines are being
consolidated, sprawl is being reduced, and a
general site cleanup has been in progress for
several years. The most visible problem at
McMurdo is the metal dump at Winter
Quarters Bay, where steel scrap was put on
the ice many years ago and was expected to
drift out to sea. The ice did not drift. The
scrap froze in place and is being cut apart and
staged for shipment back to the United States.
Work on that ice is slow and dangerous, but it
proceeds.

• Metal scrap from McMurdo formerly was
dumped in the ocean. Now it is shipped back
to the United States.

• Solid wastes from field camps are taken back
to main bases. If, as in the Dry Valleys* liquid
waste cannot be deposited in deep snow
trenches, it, too, is hauled back to main
bases.

• Each year, hundreds of tons of materials-
waste lubricants, metal drums, packing, scrap
metal construction waste, broken tools,
rubber tires, vehicle parts, supplies, and
scientific equipment no longer needed in
Antarctica — are shipped back to the United
States. In the 1986-1987 season, the cargo
ship M/V Green Wave took 1,700 metric tons
of retrograde cargo out of Antarctica. At the
end of the 1987-1988 season, the shipments
of retrograde cargo included 16 flat racks,
each carrying more than 9 metric tons of
scrap metal; more than 500 drums of waste
oil and other petroleum products; and 60
large cargo containers of other materials no
longer needed there.

Environmental Protection Plan

Largely ad hoc in earlier days, the U.S. Antarctic
Program's environmental protection work is
becoming more focused. The program has begun
the development of an Environmental Protection
Plan, not as a one-shot exercise, but as the
framework for continuing effort. As of this writing,
the plan is in revision, following external review by
environmental specialists. It will include:

* Unglaciated areas west of McMurdo Sound known as
the "Dry Valleys" offer spectacular landscapes of layered
mountains rising above barren ground that is often
patterned into giant frost polygons.

• Environmental management planning:
periodic, program-wide review is needed to
consider the implications of site planning and
other support developments that might
impinge on science and the environment, to
consider the adequacy and implications of
environmental studies and monitoring, and to
update its environmental protection planning.

• Legal review: international environmental law,
Antarctic Treaty law, and related domestic
law inevitably are "soft law," to
accommodate international differences, and
cannot be absolute in the manner of traffic
ordinances. The U.S. Antarctic Program must
respond to an amalgam of Antarctic Treaty
obligations, other international commitments,
the Antarctic Conservation Act, the National
Environmental Policy Act, executive orders,
regulations, and other statutes, not the least
of which deal with funding and federal
agency operations generally. The program is
seeking a clear picture of its legal
responsibilities.

• Environmental assessments and impact
studies: anticipating the consequences of
decisions is at the core of environmental
protection. The law provides for
environmental assessments to determine
whether proposed major actions will be of
significant environmental impact, in which
cases impact studies are required. Such
studies have been conducted for scientific
drilling programs on the Ross Ice Shelf and in
the Dry Valleys, and for the U.S. Antarctic
Program as a whole. The program is reviewing
its procedures to ensure that assessments and
impact studies are conducted as required.
Additionally, opinions were sought from
conservation organizations and other agencies
on points to be considered if new information
warrants supplementing the current
programmatic environmental impact
statement.

• Environmental awareness: informational and
administrative efforts will be increased to
ensure that U.S. Antarctic Program
participants and visitors understand and meet
their environmental responsibilities.

• Facilities and logistics: the program must
review the adequacy of its facilities and
logistics to meet its needs within the
overriding criteria of protection of the
Antarctic Treaty, the people, the science, and
the place. Initially, the emphasis is on waste-
management at McMurdo Station, the United
States' largest Antarctic support facility.
Assessment of McMurdo solid-waste
production and alternatives for its
management has begun, with the objective of
developing an environmentally protective
waste-management system.

Choices for impact mitigation are far from
clear. Cutting U.S. Antarctic operations is not an

option. It would leave the world without a major
capacity for support of vital Antarctic
environmental science, and it would cut the U.S.
role in maintaining the Antarctic Treaty.

Optimal waste-management technology is
subject to question. Several other countries have
begun to clean up their Antarctic operations,
impressively, but those stations are very small, and
their technology is not necessarily suited to year-
around operations at McMurdo and at Pole Station.
Incinerators and compactors do not always work,
and incinerators can pollute.

Carrying all wastes from U.S. Antarctic
stations back to the United States would require
storage facilities in Antarctica, impose a pollution
load from ships in Antarctica, and transfer the
disposal problem to the United States. Carrying all
wastes from Pole Station to McMurdo would
necessitate additional costly airplane flights into
and out of the station, where sensitive atmospheric
measurements are in progress and will be for many
years to come.

Carelessness many years ago left pollutants
trapped in a few isolated spots in nearshore
sediments at McMurdo; trying to clean them out
would only release them to the environment.

In short, engineers can be very good, but
cannot work miracles. The U.S. Antarctic Program
can do no more and no less than try to be careful,
keeping its act as clean as possible, sometimes
having to make the best choice from among several
not completely satisfactory alternatives.

All that said, it is a lot of effort to deal with
what in fact are very small places. Save for its ice
runway, nearly all of McMurdo Station, Antarctica's
largest scientific station and logistical facility, takes
up an area of no more than three or four times the
size of an ordinary schoolyard. That sense of scale
should temper judgments about environmental
impacts. Trash is not pretty, and what has not been
cleaned up ought to be cleaned up— in the least
harmful way. The presence of an old junk dump
does not in itself warrant casting doubt on the
efficacy of the Antarctic Treaty. Antarctic
environmental protection has to proceed from an
understanding of the place and its values.
Sentiment alone does not suffice.

Gerald S. Schatz is a research policy analyst on a
temporary appointment with ITT Antarctic Services, Inc.,
Paramus, New Jersey, as environmental policy advisor to
the U.S. Antarctic Program. The author is solely
responsible for opinions expressed herein.

Selected Readings

Bonner, W. N., and D. W. H. Walton, eds. 1985. Key

Environments: Antarctica. 381 pp. New York: Pergamon Press.
Parker, B. C., ed. 1978. Environmental Impact in Antarctica: Select

Papers by Scientists Addressing Impact Assessment, Monitoring,

and Potential Impact of Man's Activities in the Antarctic.

Blacksburg, Virginia.: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State

University.
Quigg, P. W. 1983. A Pole Apart: The Emerging Issue of Antarctica.

A Twentieth Century Fund Report. 299 pp. New York: New

Press, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
U.S. National Science Foundation. 1980. U.S. Antarctic Program

Final Environmental Impact Statement. Washington, D.C.:

National Science Foundation.

103

Environmental Threats

in Antarctica

by Paul S. Bogart

/\s you approach the hut from where Robert Scott
launched his fateful attempt to reach the South
Pole in 191 1, reminders of the expedition's
presence are everywhere. Nails lie scattered about
the beach, wooden crates full with tins of cocoa
and biscuits are stacked around the hut. Preserved
in an environment in which the processes of
biodegradation can take centuries, it is easy to
forget that it has been more than 75 years since
Scott's tragic death.

Eighteen miles across the sea ice of

104

Barrels in dump area at U. 5. McMurdo Base,
photographed in late December, 1987. Water run-off
enroute to McMurdo Sound passes under these bar-
rels, which are sometimes used to store waste oil.
(Photo courtesy of Greenpeace)

McMurdo Sound, there are other traces of the
human presence: truck tires, sections of pipe, and
drums of oil are scattered haphazardly about-
some are punctured and leaking into the porous
Antarctic soil. Pieces of discarded trucks and other
metal materials lie along the shoreline which
surrounds an ocean floor littered with the refuse of
30 years of ocean dumping. These are not the
remnants of the age of Antarctic exploration,
however, but rather the result of the United States
Antarctic Program (USAP).

Waste disposal methods like these are not
unique to the United States. Since 1959, the
Antarctic Treaty nations have dedicated themselves
to increased understanding of the fragile Antarctic
environment, but if many of the current practices
continue, they may provide one of its greatest
threats.

The focus of man's interest in the Antarctic
has changed dramatically since explorers like Scott
and Amundsen stood on the continent at the turn
of the century. Man has come to appreciate the
opportunity Antarctica offers for scientific study.
Antarctica is a fascinating storehouse of information
about the world's geological history. It has unique
wildlife, whose habitat is relatively free of human
interference, and as close to its original state as any
on the planet. The continent's purity, and its
freedom from most of the pollution that pervades
the rest of the world, makes it a valuable site from
which to monitor other global variables — a baseline
for monitoring how humans are damaging their
environment.

It is important for science and scientists that
the Antarctic remains the pure environment that it
is at the present. However, there are challenges
presently facing the Antarctic that are bound to
have a dramatic adverse effect on the quality and
orientation of science conducted there.

The reality of environmental protection in
the Antarctic has not always matched up to the
claims which the Antarctic Treaty nations have
made for it. The treaty states have frequently
proclaimed their concern for the protection of the
environment. It may be true that their rules have
been instrumental in preventing some severe
abuses to the Antarctic environment. It is also true,
however, that the measures established under the
treaty system have not always worked as they were
intended, and that, in some cases, there have been
deliberate and knowing breaches, if not of the
letter of the regulations, then certainly of their
spirit.

In this respect, it is constructive to look at
several examples where protection of the Antarctic
environment has clearly been a matter of
secondary importance. These examples constitute
grave cause for concern about the future, when the
Antarctic will face increasing human pressures.

Waste Disposal

The effects of 30 years of ocean dumping in
McMurdo Sound would not be apparent to a visitor
at McMurdo, or even to personnel on the base. Dr.
Paul K. Dayton dove in the Winter Quarters Bay
section of the Sound throughout the 1960s and
early 1970s, however, and reported that, "In 1964,
Cordy and I made several dives there and found
great piles of trash (old vehicles, hose, and so on)
and what appeared to be frozen organic material
. . . then, in 1974, we found Winter Quarters Bay
to be essentially dead, the sediment so full of DFA
(diesel fuel additive) it almost appeared
combustible! Clearly there was a massive spill of

some sort and I doubt if that amount of DFA will
be broken down in the near future."1

Although the dumping of solid waste into
McMurdo Sound has been discontinued, the
attitude behind the policy remains. Practices like
open burning of combustible waste and the
discharge of liquid waste into the sea continue.
These practices simply transfer the impacts of the
human presence, but do nothing to minimize
them.

The new maceration equipment recently put
into operation at McMurdo grinds liquid waste so
that it is more easily dispersed in the water, but
does nothing to treat it. Open burning may provide
a quick fix to reduce the total volume of
combustible waste present on site, but it is
anything but a solution. Particulate matter from the
burn is spread throughout the area, and could
compromise air quality. Additionally, the practice
of separating plastics, rubber, batteries, and other
materials that present hazards when incinerated is
either not encouraged, or simply not enforced.
Several site visits conducted by Greenpeace
throughout 1987 and 1988 documented the
presence of such materials in the dump.

The Antarctic Code of Conduct provides
recommendations for minimizing man's impact on
the Antarctic environment. The practice of open
burning, as well as the presence of batteries,
plastics, and truck tires all violate this code. The
National Science Foundation (NSF) administers the
United States Antarctic Program. It is often difficult
to determine official policies of NSF. Repeated
attempts by Greenpeace to obtain written policy
regarding waste disposal practices have been
unsuccessful. Officials at NSF headquarters in
Washington, D.C., have explained that the policy is
kept at McMurdo, while McMurdo officials
suggested we try Washington.

Communication between USAP
administrators and employees may be just as
inconsistent and account for much of the problem.
There are no signs prohibiting the disposal of
plastics and other hazardous wastes in the dump,
and, until this year, the absence of a fence
permitted access by anyone, and caused wind
scatter of materials.

The United States Research Program is by no
means the only nation with waste disposal
problems. Tourists visiting the Argentine Esperanza
base have documented the dumping of waste
along the shoreline, a practice which degrades the
marine environment and forces penguins in the
nearby rookery to traverse the dump on their way
to and from the water.

An English biologist, Dr. Ron Lewis-Smith,
began a 10-week visit to Australia's Casey station
and the nearby abandoned Wilkes station, in
February 1986. The report he wrote as a result of
that visit casts Australia's waste management in a
very unfavorable light.2

The report notes that Wilkes appears as it
was in 1969, when it was abandoned in favor of
Casey — "tinned and bottled food, machine parts,
building materials, chemicals (including more than
200 boxes of tinned caustic soda spilling their

105

contents onto the snow), metal drums, flares, and
even explosives were scattered over at least a
square kilometer.

"At Casey station, rubbish was collected in
an open trailer and dumped in the station's tip
twice daily, irrespective of wind force and with no
separation of non-combustible, toxic, or hazardous
materials, including petrol. Skuas had been found
dead around the tip, and scavenging birds had
removed food scraps and dropped parts over a
wide area — including unburnt poultry bones,
which could transmit viral infections to nearby
penguin colonies. During burning of rubbish at the
dump, scraps of paper and soot regularly
descended on the nearby Site of Special Scientific
Interest (SSSI)."

It would be unfair to imply that Casey and
McMurdo are the only bases at which such
problems exist. However, it does indicate that
there is, at least in these cases, a wide gap between
the standards expected by the treaty system, and
the standards actually maintained in Antarctica.

The French Airstrip at Pointe Geologic

The French government decided in the 1970s to
construct an airstrip at their Dumont d'Urville base.
The plan eventually adopted, when construction
began in the early 1980s, was to level a chain of
islands in the Pointe Geologic Archipelago, using
the spoil to fill in the shallow channels between
them, constructing a hard-rock airstrip along the
alignment thus created.

The plan aroused considerable opposition
from the international environmental community,
and also from within the French scientific
community, primarily because of the potential
damage to the fauna of the area, considered to be
among the richest of any area in the Antarctic. In
addition to concern expressed about inadequacies
in the assessment of the environmental impact of
the airstrip, the international environmental
community brought to public notice a breach of
the Agreed Measures, which they alleged had
occurred during the construction program.3

The response of the Antarctic Treaty
Consultative Parties (ATCPs) to the allegations was
fairly muted. At a treaty meeting in Brussels in
April, 1985, however, no country was willing to
have the matter formally discussed. Some delegates
to the meeting argued that it was important for the
unity of the treaty nations to be demonstrated, and
that they could not afford a debate on such a
potentially divisive issue. Environmentalists fear
that this argument could be used, and probably will
be used, in future circumstances where such
breaches are alleged. When, with clear evidence of
a breach, there is an almost unanimous desire on
the part of the ATCPs to avoid discussion of it, the
value of the Agreed Measures as a mechanism for
environmental protection must be called into
question.

The Failure of Specially Protected Areas

The Agreed Measures, Article VIII, designate
"Specially Protected Areas" (SPAs) in order to
protect the "unique natural ecosystems" of areas of
outstanding scientific interest. This article
specifically prohibits the collection of native plants
and the driving of vehicles in SPAs. At a treaty
meeting in 1970, entry into an SPA without a
permit was prohibited, and this condition was
consolidated into the Agreed Measures in 1975.
While this process was occurring, both the Soviet
Union and Chile were planning on building a base
in the Fildes Peninsula SPA, on King George Island
in the Antarctic Peninsula.

Once again, rather than raise what might
become a contentious issue, the ATCPs responded
by amending the area of the SPA to accommodate
the area required for the bases. The designation of
the Fildes Peninsula as a SPA was, in part, due to
the presence of a series of biologically important
melt-lakes in the area. When Greenpeace visited
the Chilean Teneiente Marsh/Presidente Frei
station in April of this year, it was discovered that
Chile had been using one of the lakes as a rubbish
dump. Greenpeace expedition Coordinator Dr. Maj
De Poorter commented, "this is an outrageous use
for a lake that was once considered worthy of the
highest level of protection."

It would be impossible in an article of this
scope to completely cover all the issues that face
the Antarctic at present. Unregulated tourism,
overfishing, and minerals exploitation all must be
addressed in order to effectively protect this last
great wilderness (ozone depletion is a separate,
world-wide problem). I have attempted, through
the use of examples, to underscore the general
unwillingness of the ATCPs to criticize each other.
Within the current context of waste disposal
practices that threaten local habitats, construction
and logistic considerations that take precedent over
a fragile and unique ecosystem, and nations unable
or unwilling to confront other treaty nations when
violations are apparent or documented, the
prospect of minerals development becomes
especially frightening.

The habitat destruction and degradation that
have occurred so far has been at bases dedicated
solely to understanding this continent. The
performance of the treaty states in other areas of
environmental protection does not give
environmentalists confidence that mineral activity
will be regulated any more stringently, nor is it
guaranteed that a minerals agreement will be able
to weather possible conflicts over resources in
other parts of the world. This underlies the
Greenpeace position that mineral exploitation
should not be permitted to occur.

Greenpeace holds a different view for the
future of the Antarctic. We advocate the
establishment of a World Park to more completely
ensure the protection of this last unspoiled
wilderness. Under the World Park proposal, the
Antarctic would be a zone of peace, free from
militarization, and dedicated to the complete
protection of wildlife and peaceful scientific

106

Antarctic Strategic Concerns

/Although there has been much argument over the
significance or insignificance of Antarctica in
strategic terms, this discussion has been largely
theoretical. The fact is that Antarctica has been used
in the past for strategic purposes and the conduct of
warfare. German submarines operated in Antarctic
waters during World War II, inflicting heavy damage
on the merchant fleets and fishing vessels of a number
of countries.

The German and lapanese interests in
Antarctica during the war were enormously influential
in the development of territorial claims to that
continent. The Norvveg/an claim materialized at the
moment when it was felt that a potential German
claim had to be stopped. Germany and ]apan had
been following U.S. policy toward Antarctica very
closely, with particular regard to whether the United
States was planning to make a claim of its own, an
idea that in fact was actively considered at the time.
The Soviet Union had occasionally looked into a
similar alternative.

It is also interesting to remember that the
Chilean decree of 1940, which specified the limits of
Chile's Antarctic claim, was directly prompted by a
diplomatic initiative of President Roosevelt, who was
looking for additional ways to prevent a German claim
or the establishment of a German base in Antarctica.

It is not an exaggeration to conclude,
therefore, that, as a consequence of growing interest
in the issue of the strategic uses of Antarctica, greater
emphasis was placed on sovereign claims. Nor is it
mere chance that the provisions of the Antarctic
Treaty that freeze the question of sovereignty have
been coupled with provisions on demilitarization and
peaceful uses. The attainment of one objective
necessarily requires the achievement of the other. . . .

The geographical distribution of Antarctic
stations by the two [super] powers was also to some
extent an expression of the interest in establishing a
presence throughout the continent, a policy that was
not unrelated to strategic interest or to the eventual
territorial claims that such powers could ultimately
decide to put forward. Both the United States and the
Soviet Union actively considered in the past the policy
of making territorial claims in Antarctica, and this
position has been safeguarded by the Antarctic Treaty
in describing the two countries as those having "a
basis of claim."

It is not difficult to foresee that if for any
reason the Antarctic Treaty arrangements were to
collapse, and the strategic interests of the major
powers revived, a likely consequence might be that
these potential territorial claims would be made
effective, thereby introducing additional complications
in the already complex Antarctic scenario.

The possibility of conducting nuclear
explosions in Antarctica had never been explicitly
ruled out by either of the major powers, nor had the
eventual disposal of nuclear wastes in the continent.
While there were continued references to peaceful
uses, it is well known that such uses have been
interpreted by the major powers as being compatible
with the conducting of peaceful nuclear explosions. It
was only through an active diplomatic effort
undertaken during the negotiation of the Antarctic
Treaty that such steps in the domain of nuclear policy
were specifically prohibited and remain so until this
day.

—from Franciso Orrego Vicuna, Antarctic
conflict and international cooperation. In Antarctic
Treaty System: An Assessment. The National
Academy Press, 1986.

cooperation. The principles of a World Park are, in
tact, much closer to the original intent of the
Antarctic Treaty than some nations' current
practices.

Paul 5. Bogart is U.S. Antarctic campaign coordinator,
Greenpeace, Washington, D.C.

The views expressed are those of the author, and do not
necessarily reflect those of the Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution.

Endnotes

1 Letter from Dr. Paul K. Dayton to Dr. Richard Williams, National
Science Foundation. Nov. 21, 1983, Comments on Raytheon Water
Quality Report.

2 Sydney Morning Herald, 12 and 13 February 1986.

3 ECO Vol. 22, No. 1 and 3, )anuary, 1983, Wellington, New
Zealand; ECO Vol. 23, No. 3 and 4, July, 1983, Bonn Federal
Republic of Germany; ECO Vol. 26, No. 1 and 2, January, 1984,
Washington D.C. USA; ECO Vol. 30, No. 1, April, 1985, Brussels,
Belgium.

Errata

Oceanus Vol. 31, No. 1, Spring 1988
U. S. Marine Sanctuaries issue

Because of a printer's error, the title and author's name

were omitted from the top of the article that begins on

page 82. It should have read:

International Networking of Marine Sanctuaries
by Douglas B. Yurick

At right center of map on page 7, Gray Reef NMS should
have read: Gray's Reef NMS.

The title at the top of page 14, National Oceanographic and
Atmospheric Administration . . ., should have read The Na-
tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ....

107

"Partnership of Marine Interests"

October 31 - November 2, 1988
Baltimore Convention Center, Baltimore, Maryland

Honorary Chairman
Donald Schaefer, Governor of Maryland

General Chairman

Admiral Paul A. Yost

Commandant United States Coast Guard

For General Information . . .
OCEANS '88

C/oCOMMANDANT (G-GB/4224)
Governmental Affairs Staff
U.S. Coast Guard
2 100 Second Street, SW
Washington, DC 25093-0001
Telephone: (202) 267-0970

For Exhibit Space and

Registration Information . . .

OCEANS '88

J. Spargo & Associates, Inc.

4400 Fair Lakes Court

Fairfax, VA 22033

(703) 631-6200/(703) 631-4693-Fax

90-1114-Telex

For Program and Panel Participation .

OCEANS '88

Program Committee

Marine Technology Society

1825 K Street, NW, Suite 203

Washington, DC 20006

(202) 775-5966

To the Editor:

Considerable concern has been expressed in recent years
at the indiscriminate and unregulated naming of undersea
features that often get into print in articles submitted to
professional journals, or on ocean maps and charts,
without any close scrutiny being made concerning their
suitability, or even whether the feature has already been
discovered and named, albeit in another country and
possibly language.

The Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission (IOC) at its 14th Assembly in March 1987,
and the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) at
its 13th Conference in May 1987, adopted motions in
which they "strongly encourage marine scientists and
other persons in the member states wishing to name
undersea features, to check their proposals with
published Gazetteers of Undersea Feature Names, taking
into account the guidelines contained in the IHO-IOC
publication, Standardization of Undersea Feature Names,
to submit all proposed new names for clearance, either to
their appropriate national authority or, where no such
national authority exists, to the IOC or IHO, for
consideration by the General Bathymetric Chart of the
Oceans (GEBCO) Sub-Committee on Geographical
Names and Nomenclature of Ocean Bottom Features,
which may advise on any potentially confusing
duplication of names."

Copies of the IHO-IOC publication
Standardization of Undersea Feature Names can be
obtained free-of-charge from the International
Hydrographic Bureau, B.P.445, MC 9801 1, Monaco
Cedex.

The most comprehensive world Gazetteer of
Undersea Features is published by the United States
Defense Mapping Agency, on behalf of the U.S. Board on
Geographic Names (BGN) Advisory Committee on
Undersea Features (ACUF). This advisory committee
meets regularly to deliberate on proposed, contested, or
already-published-but-unreviewed names, and to update
the Gazetteer.

The anarchy that presently prevails in the naming
of undersea features would not be permitted in the fields
of biological or geological systematics, in both of which
disciplines great care is taken to maintain order and
eliminate duplication in the selection of names.

In our opinion, great care should be taken by
detailed checking of appropriate reference books, and by
enquiry to ensure that a feature has not already been
named in the technical literature of any country (or in any
language). Only then should a new name be chosen, and
the dictates of any such choice should be historical
courtesy, significant commemoration, and good taste (in
that order).

The acceptance of this suggestion would help to
reduce some of the existing confusion in the proliferating
wealth of names that continue to appear in the scientific
literature.

Sir Anthony Laughton
Chairman

Joint IOC-IHO Guiding Committee
for the GEBCO

Institute of Oceanographic Sciences
Wormley, England

108

ANTARCTIC-SCIENCE

r~

I IMTI 1) BY D.W.H. \YM ION

Antarctic Science, D. W. H. Walton, ed. 1987. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, England. 280 pp. $39.50.

This extremely informative book, written by scientists
from the British Antarctic Survey in Cambridge, England,
reviews the major international developments in Antarctic
science from its early beginnings in the age of Captain
Cook (middle 1700s) to the present. In the preface,
written by the editor D. W. H. Walton, note is made of
the recent upsurge in public interest in the continent
fueled by expectations that rich and untapped
resources — in the form of krill, fish, oil, gas, and metallic
ores — exist in the region.

Walton states that "many of the present economic
assumptions (concerning Antarctica) are based on little or
no data. . . ." He asks, "Why then, after more than 25
years of research, are the data necessary for considered
and accurate judgements lacking? Have any substantial
contributions to science been made by research in
Antarctica?" Indeed, the answer to the latter question is a
resounding yes. The book describes some of the
difficulties of conducting science in the inhospitable
climate of the region as partial answer to the first. The
editor notes that the major outcome of conducting this
science "has been the exceptional degree of international
collaboration in programmes and a willingness to help
others. This has transcended the political difficulties that
have characterised world history during the period."

The book's authors examine individually the three
major areas of science — biology, the earth sciences, and
atmospheric science. They highlight the principal
achievements of the last 25 years, thus providing an up-
to-date account of both the continent, which comprises
almost 10 percent of the land surface of the globe, and
the vast extent of the Southern Ocean surrounding it.
Following an introduction by Sir Vivian Fuchs, David
Walton examines the history, geography, politics, and
science of the continent. In Part II, Inigo Everson
considers lite in a cold environment; in Part III,

Chistopher Doake looks at Antarctic ice and rocks; and
John Dudeney discusses the Antarctic atmosphere in Part
IV. Richard Laws concludes with a discussion of the
Antarctic Treaty, which was ratified in 1961 and comes up
for possible review in 1991.

The historical section abounds with interesting
items. For example, in 1840 the United States Exploring
Expedition led by Charles Wilkes was "successful despite
itself. Badly organized, poorly equipped and with rotten
ships, Wilkes still managed to follow the Antarctic coast
for nearly 2,400 kilometers. On his return, he was court-
martialled by the United States for his conduct as
Commander, whilst the Royal Geographic Society
awarded him a gold medal for his achievement! Congress
was niggardly in voting funds for the writing-up of the
scientific data and much of great importance was lost."

The text of Antarctic Science is complemented
throughout with many fine illustrations, including
fascinating archival photographs of the early days of
exploration and many beautiful color photographs of the
region. There are three appendices: one, The Antarctic
Treaty; two, major symposia and conferences with which
the Scientific Council for Antarctic Research (SCAR) is
associated; and three, further information on Antarctic
science. There is a select bibliography and an index. I
found the volume extremely useful as a reference source
in putting together this issue of Oceanus. The book will
appeal not only to scientists, but to all interested in the
further development of Antarctica.

Paul R. Ryan
Editor, Oceanus

World Symposium on
Fishing Gear and
Fishing Vessel Design

To Be Hosted By:

The Marine Institute

Nov. 21-24, 1988

For More Information Contact:

Dr. C. Campbell, Steering Committee Chairman
P.O. Box 4920, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
A1C 5R3

Telephone (709) 778-0387 Telex: 016-4721 FAX
(709) 778-0346

109

The Amundsen Photographs. Edited and Introduced by
Roland Huntford. 1987. The Atlantic Monthly Press, New
York. 199 pp. $35.00.

The great Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen is
described by Roland Huntford in his introduction as "one
of those driven souls who have shaped our century."
Amundsen disappeared in 1928 while attempting to
recover an Italian expedition in the Arctic. His estate was
left in confusion and his many hand-colored lantern
slides, which he had used on his extensive lecture tours,
were thought to have been lost. Nearly 60 years later, in
1986, the widow of Amundsen's nephew discovered a
packing crate marked "Horlick's Malted Milk" stowed in
the attic of her Oslo home. Inside were more than 200 of
Amundsen's original slides (see cover photo for an
example).

More than 150 of these images are reproduced in
The Amundsen Photographs, an illustrated chronological
tour of Amundsen's unrivaled achievements in polar
exploration. His first major feat was the successful
navigation through the North West Passage — the
legendary shortcut across the top of North America — in
1903. Perhaps the accomplishment for which he is most
recognized is as the first man to reach the South Pole in
1911. In 1918, Amundsen became the second man to sail
through the North East Passage — the long-sought seaway
along the northeast coast of Russia, known also as the
Maud Expedition. With these three major voyages,
Amundsen became the first, and to this day, the only,
man to have circumnavigated the Arctic.

Roland Huntford's extensive introduction, which
is divided into three parts, chronicles each of Amundsen's
voyages. The simple, yet beautiful and unique images are
set in the context of Amundsen's life and explorations.
Much more than a mere description of the expeditions,
the book explores Amundsen's own tales of life and travel
in the Arctic. The captions are drawn from the explorer's

notes and journals, and reveal a great deal about
Amundsen's character and motivation. For example,
Amundsen was always intrigued with the highly
specialized lifestyle of Arctic peoples; he studied
extensively the adaptations of the Eskimos to their harsh,
unforgiving environment. Amundsen did not consider the
Eskimos as savages; rather, he was intrigued with their
abilities to survive and develop a unique culture in the
formidable Arctic conditions. His own words reveal a
keen insight, a fervent energy, and a passion for learning.
They reflect, too, the ideas of a true anthropologist.

Amundsen's lantern slides themselves are a
curious study of early 20th Century photography. Many
were hand-colored, as 35mm color film was still
experimental in Amundsen's day. The slides were bulky,
yet fragile; the cameras, too, were cumbersome. Yet,
Amundsen and his companions carried their equipment
for countless miles across the ice. They took the pictures
themselves, spontaneously — the quality of their work was
not professional, but "undoubtedly that of the snapshot."
Nonetheless, the photographs are valuable testimony to
the events that took place; the explorers registered details
of their travels as they saw them. The outcome is a
poignant blend of immediacy, authenticity, and humility,
all of which are representative of Amundsen's own
personal style.

Four years after his completion of the North West
Passage, Amundsen was determined to reach the North
Pole. Both the American and Danish explorers, Robert
Peary and Dr. F. A. Cook, claimed to have achieved that
goal as Amundsen was preparing to launch his journey.
Huntford relates Amundsen's dismay, and his ultimate
decision to aim for the South Pole instead. There were
additional complications, however, for at the same time,
Captain Robert Falcon Scott, an officer in the British
Navy, was preparing to lead the English attempt on the
South Pole. For Amundsen and his Norwegian party, it
was a race from the start. Their expedition was
undertaken completely unbeknownst to the British.

After sailing from Norway on the newly refitted
vessel, Fram, Amundsen's real test came when he and his
men reached the edge of the Antarctic continent. They
had to survive the long, dark polar winter before setting
out for the Pole. When they got underway in October,
1911, they forged their way on skis across completely
unexplored, uncharted terrain. They encountered
mountains, ice, crevasses, fog, and blizzards; but their
preparation had been meticulous — Amundsen had
learned his lessons in polar survival well. He was plagued
by the thought of Scott, and determined to reach the Pole
first. With his company of 4 men and 54 dogs, Amundsen
claimed the South Pole on December 1 5th, 1911.

Fame was bestowed on Amundsen when he
returned to civilization. But in one of his later journals, he
expressed his bitter disappointment in never reaching the
North Pole, at the opposite end of the globe.

/ cannot say . , . that I stood at my life's goal. I believe
no human being has stood so diametrically opposed to
the goal of his desires as I did. . . . The North Pole had
attracted me since the days of my childhood, and so I
found myself at the South Pole. Can anything more
perverse be conceived?

Whatever Amundsen's disappointment, he
nevertheless won the "longest ski race in history." His
journey was not only one of exploration, it was "a
triumph of forethought, technical preparation, and

110

learning what the Eskimos had to teach about survival in a
polar environment."

Most of Amundsen's film from the South Pole
expedition was damaged or destroyed. The photographs
reproduced in this volume were taken by one of his
companions, Olav Bjaaland, who documented the
people, places, and events of the expedition using only
his folding pocket Kodak. His photographs capture the
simple essence of the journey — the true grit of the men,
the starkness of the polar ice, the dogs (who were so
important to the success of the expedition), and the final
arrival at the Pole. They are the only visual record of this
last great exploration into the unknown corners of the
Earth.

Huntford sums up Amundsen's achievements
well:

Amundsen was no prosaic investigator. He was a
dreamer and a man of action. He was pre-eminent in a

generation that saw the shrinking of the empty spaces
on the map. His lantern slides encapsulate the
achievements of a remarkable man. They summarize
the end of the classic age of terrestrial discovery, when
the polar regions were the last great blanks on the
surface of the globe, and men moved under their own
power, with ski, sleds, and dogs. Afterwards came the
leap into space. It is a new aspect to a famous story.

The Amundsen Photographs is a beautiful and
unique tribute to the inspiring accomplishments of
Amundsen the voyager, the seeker, the humanitarian. It
also is a fitting testament to native cultures of old and to
the classic age of exploration.

Lucy W. Coan
Oceanus Intern

Books Received

Biology

Advances in Marine Biology, Volume

24 edited by J. H. S. Blaxter and A. J.
Southward. 1987. Academic Press, San
Diego, CA 92101. 473 pp. + xii.
$48.00.

Approaches to Marine Mammal
Energetics edited by A. C. Huntley, D.
P. Costa, C. A. J. Worthy and M. A.
Castellini. 1987. The Society for Marine
Mammalogy, Lawrence, KS 66044. 253
pp. + xviii. $15.00.

The Biology of Fish Growth by A. H.

Weatherley and H. S. Gill. 1987.
Academic Press, San Diego, CA 92101.
443 pp. + xii. $65.00.

Marine Organisms as Indicators edited
by Dorothy F. Soule and G. S. Kleppel.
1988. Springer-Verlag, Secaucus, N)
07094. 342 pp. + xii. $98.00.

Martinique Revisited: The Changing
Plant Geographies of a West Indian
Island by Clarissa Therese Kimber.
1988. Texas A&M University Press,
College Station, TX 77843. 458 pp. +
xx. $74.50.

The Natural History of Nautilus by

Peter D. Ward. 1987. Allen & Unwin,
Winchester, MA 01890. 267 pp. + xiii.
$34.95.

Reproduction of Marine Invertebrates
Volume IX: General Aspects: Seeking
Unity in Diversity edited by Arthur
Giese, John Pearse, and Vicki B. Pearse.
1988. Blackwell Scientific Publications,
Palo Alto, CA 94301. 712 pp. + xxii.
$50.00.

Seabirds: Feeding Ecology and Role in
Marine Ecosystems edited by ). P.
Croxall. 1987. Cambridge University
Press, New Rochelle, NY 10801. 408
pp. + viii. $59.50.

Toward a New Philosophy of Biology:
Observations of an Evolutionist by

Ernst Mayr. 1988. Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, MA 02138. 564 pp.
$35.00.

Earth Science

Antarctica: Soils, Weathering Processes
and Environment by I. B. Campbell and
G. G. C. Claridge. 1987. Developments
in Soil Science 16, Elsevier Scientific
Publishing Company, New York, NY
10017. 368 pp. + xxxviii. $116.00.

Introduction to Oceanography, Fourth
Edition by David A. Ross. 1988.
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N)
07632. 478 pp. + xii. $35.33.

Theories of the Earth and Universe: A
History of Dogma in the Earth Sciences

by S. Warren Carey. 1988. Stanford
University Press, Stanford, CA 94305.
413 pp. + xviii. $45.00.

Thermodynamics of the Carbon
Dioxide System in Seawater, Report by
the carbon dioxide sub-panel of the
joint panel on oceanographic tables
and standards. 1987. Unesco technical
papers in marine science number 51,
UNESCO, Paris, France. 55 pp. + v.
Free.

Environment

The Cassandra Conference: Resources
and the Human Predicament edited by
Paul R. Ehrlich and John P. Holdren.
1988. Texas A&M University Press,
College Station, TX 77843. 330 pp. +
xi. $14.95.

Chesapeake Bay Environmental Data
Directory compiled by Dan Jacobs,
Daniel Haberman, David Smith, David
Swartz, Elizabeth Sigel, and Michael
Adams. 1987. Maryland Sea Grant
Program, College Park, MD 20742.
Free.

Comparison Between Atlantic and
Pacific Tropical Marine Coastal
Ecosystems: Community Structure,
Ecological Processes, and Productivity

edited by Charles Birkeland. 1988.
Unesco reports in marine science
number 46, UNESCO, Paris, France.
262 pp. Free.

Integrated Agriculture-Aquae ulture in
South China: The Dike-Pond System of
the Zhujiang Delta by Kenneth Ruddle
and Gongfu Zhong. 1988. Cambridge
University Press, New Rochelle, NY
10801. 173 pp. + xiii. $49.50.

State of the World 1988: A
Worldwatch Institute Report on
Progress Toward a Sustainable Society

edited by Linda Starke. 1988. W. W.
Norton, New York, NY 101 10. 237 pp.
+ xvii. $9.95.

World Resources 1987: A Report by
The International Institute for
Environment and Development and
The World Resources Institute. 1987.
Basic Books, New York, NY 369 pp. +
xiii. $16.95.

111

Field Guides

Fishes of the Pacific Coast: Alaska to
Peru, Including the Gulf of California
and the Galapagos Islands by Gar

Goodson. 1988. Stanford University
Press, Stanford, CA 94305. 267 pp. +
viii. $7.95.

Stars and Planets, Second Edition by

Donald H. Menzel and Jay M.
Pasachoff. 1987. The Peterson Field
Guide Series, No. 15, Houghton Mittlin
Company, Boston, MA 02108. 473 pp.
+ x. $12.95.

Microcosmos by Jeremy Burgess,
Michael Marten and Rosemary Taylor.
1987. Cambridge University Press, New
Rochelle, NY 10801. 208 pp. $29.95.

The Sea by John Crompton. 1957, with
new 1988 introduction by Robert F.
Jones. Nick Lyons Books, New York,
NY 10010. 233 pp. + x. $8.95.

Somewheres East of Suez by Tristan
Jones. 1988. Hearst Marine Books, New
York, NY 10016. 252 pp. $17.95.

History

General Reading

Alaska's Seward Peninsula edited by
Penny Rennick. 1987. The Alaska
Geographic Society, Anchorage, AK
99509. 109 pp. $14.95.

The Flood Myth edited by Alan
Dundes. 1988. University of California
Press, Berkeley, CA 94720. 452 pp. +
vi. $15.95, paper.

Infinite in All Directions by Freeman
Dyson. 1988. Harper & Row, New
York, NY 10022. 321 pp. + viii. $19.95.

The Correspondence of Charles
Darwin: Volume 3, 1844-1846 edited
by Frederick Burkhardt and Sydney
Smith. 1987. Cambridge University
Press, New Rochelle, NY 10801. 523
pp. + xxix. $37.50.

The Cuvier-Geoffroy Debate: French
Biology in the Decades before Darwin

by Toby A. Appel. 1987. Oxford
University Press, New York, NY 10016.
305 pp. $35.00.

Essays on the History of North
American Discovery and Exploration

edited by Stanley H. Palmer and
Dennis Reinhartz. 1988. Texas A&M
University Press, College Station, TX
77843. 140 pp. + xiii. $17.50.

PERSONAL
CTD

convenience, portability, performance, value

Fast, accurate profiles of salinity, temperature, density, sound velocity,
dissolved oxygen, pH, ORP, light transmission, PAR. Proven sen-
sors, computer-less field operation, semiconductor memory, RS-232
data download, powerful software.

The SEA-BIRD SEACAT PROFILER. Your Personal CTD.

SBE Sea-Bird Electronics, Inc 1808-136th Place NE

fr Bellevue, WA 98005 USA, Telephone: (206) 643-9866
Telex: 292915 SBEI UR • Telefax: (206) 643-9954

Tsunami! by Walter C. Dudley and Min
Lee. 1988. University of Hawaii Press.
132 pp. + xii. $10.95.

Marine Policy

Antarctica: the Next Decade Report of
a study group chaired by Sir Anthony
Parsons. 1987. Studies in Polar
Research, Cambridge University Press,
New Rochelle, NY 10801. 164 pp. +
$44.50.

x.

Managing the Frozen South: The
Creation and Evolution of the Antarctic
Treaty System by M. J. Peterson. 1988.
University of California Press, Berkeley,
CA 94720. 283 pp. + xi. $35.00.

Marshes of the Ocean Shore:
Development of an Ecological Ethic by

Joseph V. Siry. Texas A&M University
Press, College Station, TX 77843. 216
pp. + xii. $12.95.

Seapower in Global Politics, 1494-
1993 by George Modelski & William R.
Thompson. 1988. University of
Washington Press, Seattle, WA 98145.
380 pp. + xii. $35.00.

Ships and Sailing

The Arming and Fitting of English Ships
of War 1600-1815 by Brian Lavery.

1987. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis,
MD 21402. 319 pp. $37.95.

Boatman's Handbook by Tom

Bottomly. 1988. Hearst Marine Books,
New York, NY 10016. 320 pp. $10.95.

Mariner's Atlas: Long Island Sound &
South Shore by A. P. Balder. Updated
to 1987-88. Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston, TX 77252. 80 pp. $34.95.

Mariner's Atlas: Maine by A. P. Balder.
Updated to 1987-88. Gulf Publishing
Company, Houston, TX 77252. 72 pp.
$34.95.

Mariner's Atlas: New England by A. P.
Balder. Updated to 1987-88. Gulf
Publishing Company, Houston, TX
77252. 112 pp. $34.95.

Nautical Quarterly: Number 41, Spring

1988. Nautical Quarterly Co., Essex, CT
06426. 120 pp. $16.00.

Psychology of Sailing: The Sea's Effects
on Mind and Body by Michael Stadler.
1987. International Marine Publishing
Company, Camden, ME 04843. 120 pp.
$9.95.

Small Boat Sails by Jeremy Howard-
Williams. 1987. International Marine
Publishing Company, Camden, ME
04843. 248 pp. $14.95.

The Splicing Handbook by Barbara
Merry. 1987. International Marine
Publishing Company, Camden, ME
04843. 100 pp. + xi. $9.95.

112

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• Marine Archaeology,

Vol. 28:1, Spring 1985 — History and science beneath the waves.

• The Exclusive Economic Zone,

Vol. 27:4, Winter 1984/85— Options tor the U.S. EEZ.

• Deep-Sea Hot Springs and Cold Seeps,

Vol. 27:3, Fall 1984 — A full report on vent science.

• El Nino,

Vol. 27:2, Summer 1984 — An atmospheric phenomenon analyzed.

• General Issue,

Vol. 24:2, Summer 1981 — Aquatic plants, seabirds, oil and gas.

• The Oceans as Waste Space,

Vol. 24:1, Spring 1981.

• Senses of the Sea,

Vol 23:3, Fall 1980.

• General Issue,

Vol 23:2, Summer 1980 — Plankton, El Nino and African fisheries, hot springs,
Georges Bank, and more.

Issues not listed here, including those published prior to 1977, are out of print
They are available on microfilm through University Microfilm International,
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convenience, portability, performance, value

Fast, accurate profiles of salinity, temperature, density, sound velocity,
dissolved oxygen, pH, ORP, light transmission, PAR Proven sen-
sors, computer-less field operation, semiconductor memory, RS-232
data download, powerful software.

The SEA-BIRD SEACAT PROFILER. Your Personal CTD.

SBE Sea-Bird Electronics, Inc 1808-136th Place NE

fr Bellevue, WA 98005 USA, Telephone: (206) 643-9866
Telex: 292915 SBEI UR • Telefax: (206) 643-9954

06426. 120 pp. $16.00.

Psychology of Sailing: The Sea's Effects
on Mind and Body by Michael Stadler.
1987. International Marine Publishing
Company, Camden, ME 04843. 120 pp.
$9.95.

Small Boat Sails by Jeremy Howard-
Williams. 1987. International Marine
Publishing Company, Camden, ME
04843. 248 pp. $14.95.

The Splicing Handbook by Barbara
Merry. 1987. International Marine
Publishing Company, Camden, ME
04843. 100 pp. + xi. $9.95.

112

1V1BL VVtlUl L1BMAK1

Oceanus

U.S. Marine
Sanctuaries

Vol. 31:1, Spring 1988-
There are seven U.S. Na-
tional Marine Sanctuaries
protecting whales and sea-
birds, coral reefs, a Samoan
bay, and a historic ship-
wreck— the U.S.S. Monitor.
Additional sites have been
proposed. Sanctuary sci-
ence, policy, and education
are addressed. A valuable
reference for those inter-
ested in management of nat-
ural areas.

Oceanus

,)„ Caribbean
Marine Science

Vol. 30:4, Winter 1987/88-
A broad and inclusive view
of the Caribbean Sea — its bi-
ology, mangrove ecology,
and geology. Specific top-
ics— climatic change, avail-
ability of marine resources,
petroleum pollution, and
new developments in fishing
technology — are explored,
and their impact on Carib-
bean coastal and island com-
munities is examined.

Oceanus

f-

---,

Columbus, Plastics,
Sea-Level Rise, TBT

Vol. 30:3, Fall 1987— A col-
lection of topics of current
interest, including new infor-
mation on Columbus' land-
fall, loss of coastal upland
because of sea-level rise, a
new generation of submers-
ibles for science, Chernobyl
fallout in the Black Sea, mass
extinctions, plastics in the
ocean, and the TBT di-
lemma.

Galapagos Marine
Resources Reserve

Vol. 30:2, Summer 1987— In
1986, Ecuador declared the
waters and seabed sur-
rounding the Galapagos Is-
lands a marine reserve. The
legal, political, management,
and scientific aspects are de-
scribed. Includes descrip-
tion of 1982-83 El Nino, and
historical articles on Darwin,
and on the taking of whales
and tortoises in the 1800s.

1 o o o

• Japan and the Sea,

Vol. 30:1, Spring 1987 —Japanese ocean science, fishing, submersibles, space.

• The Titanic Revisited,

Vol. 29:3, Fall 1986— Radioactivity of the Irish Sea, ocean architecture, more.

• The Great Barrier Reef: Science & Management,

Vol. 29:2, Summer 1986 — Describes the world's largest coral reef system.

• The Arctic Ocean,

Vol. 29:1, Spring 1986 — An important issue on an active frontier.

• The Oceans and National Security,

Vol 28:2, Summer 1985 — The oceans from the viewpoint of the modern navy,
strategy, technology, weapons systems, and science.

• Marine Archaeology,

Vol. 28:1, Spring 1985 — History and science beneath the waves.

• The Exclusive Economic Zone,

Vol 27:4, Winter 1984/85— Options for the U.S. FEZ

• Deep-Sea Hot Springs and Cold Seeps,

Vol. 27:3, Fall 1984 — A full report on vent science.

• El Nino,

Vol. 27:2, Summer 1984 — An atmospheric phenomenon analyzed.

Special
Titanic Reprint

Includes all Oceanus
material from
1985 and 1986
expeditions. $9.00

• Industry and the Oceans,

Vol. 27:1, Spring 1984

• Oceanography in China,

Vol. 26:4, Winter 1983/84

• Offshore Oil and Gas,

Vol 26:3, Fall 1983

• General Issue,

Vol 26:2, Summer 1983 — Bivalves as pollution indicators. Gulf Stream rings

• General Issue,

Vol. 25:2, Summer 1982 — Coastal resource management, acoustic tomogra-
phy, aquaculture, radioactive waste.

• General Issue,

Vol. 24:2, Summer 1981 — Aquatic plants, seabirds, oil and gas.

• The Oceans as Waste Space,

Vol 24:1, Spring 1981.

• Senses of the Sea,

Vol 23:3, Fall 1980.

• General Issue,

Vol 23:2, Summer 1980 — Plankton, El Nino and African fisheries, hot springs,
Georges Bank, and more.

Issues not listed here, including those published prior to 1977, are out of print.
They are available on microfilm through University Microfilm International,
300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106.

Back issues cost $4.00 each (Reprinted Caribbean Marine Science issue. Vol.
30:4, is $6.50). There is a discount of 25 percent on orders of five or more.
Orders must be prepaid, please make checks payable to Woods Hole Ocean-
ographu Institution. Foreign orders must be accompanied by a check payable
to Oceanus for £5.00 per issue (or equivalent).

Send orders to:

Oceanus back issues
Subscriber Service Center
P.O. Box 6419
Syracuse, NY 13217

A grotto in the Antarctic ice, formed by the
bridging-over of a crevasse. The date: 5 Janu-
ary, 1911. The location: Cape Evans, at the
edge of the Ross Sea, base camp for English-
man Robert Falcon Scott's fatal journey to the
pole. The ship in the background is Scott's
Terra Nova. (Photo by Herbert G. Ponting,
Popperfoto, London)