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GIFT  OF 
Dean  Frank  H.  Probert 


Mining  Dept 


THE  FAMOUS  LAKEVIEW  GUSHER,  KERN  COUNTY,  CALIFORNIA 


OIL  PRODUCTION 
METHODS 


BY 

PAUL   M.  PAINE 

Assistant  Superintendent  Honolulu  Cons.  Oil  Co. 

AND 

B.  K.  STROUD 

Petroleum  Engineer,  formerly  Supt.  Monte  Cristo  Oil  &  Dev.  Co. 
Field  Supt.  Universal  Oil  Co. 


With  a  Chapter  on  ACCOUNTING  SYSTEMS 

BY 

W.  F.  and  W.  B.  SAMPSON 

Expert  Accountants  with  Klink,  Bean  &  Co. 


PUBLISHED   BY  THE 

WESTERN  ENGINEERING  PUBLISHING  CO. 

SAN  FRANCISCO 
1913 


TN$7o 


D£PT. 


3IFT  OF 

FRANK 


MIMING  DEPT. 


COPYRIGHT  BY 

WESTERN  ENGINEERING  PUBLISHING  Co. 
1913 


PREFACE 


The  'problems  associated  with  the  production  of  petroleum  lie  in 
that  middle  ground  where  the  geologist,  engineer  and  driller  meet. 
It  is  anticipated  that  the  latter  class,  the  men  who  have  come  up  'from 
the  derrick  floor/  will  find  little  that  is  new  in  this  book.  It  has  been 
prepared  in  response  to  the  demand  for  a  work  describing,  in  a  man- 
ner that  may  be  understood  by  the  layman,  how  wells  are  drilled  and 
oil  produced.  The  subject  is  too  exhaustive  to  be  covered  fully  in  a 
single  volume  of  this  size,  and  if  the  authors  have  described  more 
particularly  the  methods  of  the  Pacific  Coast  fields  they  feel  warranted 
in  so  doing  from  the  statements  of  travelers  that  California  practice 
embodies  the  most  advanced  methods  in  the  industry.  The  authors 
are  indebted  to  various  associates  for  prompt  responses  to  demands  for 
assistance  and  wish  to  express  their  thanks  to  all  of  these,  especially 
to  Mr.  H.  H.  Hillman,  of  the  California  National  Supply  Company, 
Mr.  W.  O.  Todd  and  Mr.  T.  S.  Kingston,  to  whom  is  due  much  of 
whatever  value  this  book  may  have. 


M127125 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I.  PAGE 

THE  DISTRIBUTION,  PROPERTIES  AND  USES  OF  PETROLEUM 15 

CHAPTER  II. 

GEOLOGY 28 

Classes  of  Sedimentary  Rocks    29 

Origin  of  Oil 33 

Relation  of  Rock  Structure  to  the  Occurrence  of  Petroleum 34 

Surface  Indications  of  Oil 46 

Location  and  Spacing  of  Wells 49 

Logs    50 

CHAPTER  III. 

RIGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  55 

Standard  Drilling  Rig 56 

Lumber  Lists  for  Derricks 59 

Rig   Iron   Lists 67 

Engines  and  Boilers    67 

Cordage   74 

Wire  Rope   75 

Casing    78 

CHAPTER  IV. 

DRILLING   METHODS 87 

Standard    Method    87 

Rotary    Method    113 

Circulating   System    127 

Combined  Rotary  and  Standard  Drilling 128 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  EXCLUSION  OF  WATER  FROM  OIL-SANDS   130 

Importance  of  Exclusion  of  Water  130 

Exclusion  of  Water  by  Landing  String  of  Casing 132 

Cementing  Water  off  by  Bailer    Methods     133 

Cementing  Water  off  by  Pumping   Methods    135 

Exclusion  of  Water  Below  the  Oil-sand 141 

CHAPTER  VI. 

PRODUCTION     143 

Flowing  Wells    143 

Intermittent  Flowing  Wells   146 


PAGE 

Artificial  Flowing  of  Oil  Wells   146 

Pumping    148 

Multiple  Pumping    158 

Compressed-Air  Pumping   158 

Perforations   160 

Shooting  Wells 163 

Dehydrating  Oil   163 

Handling    Oil 169 

Gas   Traps    171 

CHAPTER  VII. 

FISHING  TOOLS  AND  METHODS   175 

Fishing  for  Lost  Tools    175 

Fishing  for  Casing    189 

Accidents  to  Producing  Wells  199 

Rotary  Fishing  Tools 203 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

ACCOUNTING   SYSTEM  s    209 

Development    (Drilling)     209 

Production    ( Pumping)    210 

Pay-Roil    System 211 

Purchasing  and  Stores  System   219 

Machine    Shop    223 

Reports    225 

Financial    Statements    .  234 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  DISTRIBUTION,  PROPERTIES  AND  USES  OF 
PETROLEUM. 


MONG  the  first  historic  records  of  petroleum  is 
that  of  its  use  on  the  walls  of  Babylon  and 
Ninevah  about  2000  B.  C.  Pliny  describes 
the  burning  of  oil  in  lamps  in  the  time  of 
Nero,  and  for  ages  the  seepages  of  crude  oil 
have  been  drawn  on  and  used  by  the  people 
of  Persia,  Arabia,  China  and  India. 
•••""•"•"n™1*  In  the  United  States,  crude  oil  was  first 

secured  early  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  as  a  by-product  in 
connection  with  brine  wells,  but  it  was  not  until  1859  that 
Colonel  Drake  drilled  the  first  well  put  down  expressly  for 
oil,  near  Titusville,  Pennsylvania.  This  led  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Appalachian  field  and  since  then  the  search  for 
petroleum  and  the  development  of  new  fields  has  spread  over 
the  continent,  under  the  stimulus  of  the  growth  in  variety 
and  extent  of  internal  combustion  engines,  until  now  the  oil  and 
gas  production  of  the  United  States  is  greater  than  that  of  any 
other  country,  and  has  become  one  of  its  most  valuable  mineral  re- 
sources. The  more  important  fields  are  those  of  the  Appalachian 
district;  western  Ohio,  Indiana  and  Illinois;  southern  Kansas  and 
Oklahoma;  the  Gulf  fields  of  Texas;  and  the  California  fields  along 
the  coast  range.  Alaska,  Colorado,  Michigan,  Utah  and  Wyo- 
ming produce  small  quantities ;  and  Utah  and  Wyoming  especially 
give  promise  of  a  large  prospective  production. 

In  the  United  States  the  customary  unit  of  volume  for  measuring 
petroleum  is  the  barrel  of  42  gallons,  each  gallon  containing  231  cubic 
inches.  Other  countries  measure  it  more  commonly  by  weight,  the 
English  expressing  it  in  tons  and  the  Russians  in  poods,  of  approxi- 
mately 36  pounds.  The  following  conversion  table  gives  the  approxi- 
mate relative  values : 


e«-J  ^  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

^  61,0$  i>oods  ==  I  metric  ton  crude  =  7.1905  barrels 
'*8*33^°  "       crude  =  1  U.  S.  barrel  of  42  gallons 

8  "       illuminating   oil    =  1  U.  S. 

8.18      "      lubricating  oil      =  1  U.  S.      "        "     "        " 

9  "      residuum  =  1  U.  S.      "        "     " 

1  pood  =  36.112  pounds 

The  simplest  method  of  boring  a  well  has  been  that  of  turning 
an  auger  into  the  ground  and  this  has,  no  doubt,  been  extensively  used 

Production  of  Petroleum  in  the  United  States  from 


Year. 

Pennsyl- 
vania and 
New  York. 

Ohio. 

West 
Virginia. 

California. 

Kentucky 
and 
Tennessee. 

Colorado. 

Indiana. 

Illinois. 

1859 

2  000 

1860 

500  000 

1861 

2  113  609 

1802 

3  056  6<X) 

1863 

2,611,309 

18C4 

2,  116,  109 

1SG5 

2  497,700 

1866 

3,597,700 

1867 

3,347,300 

1868 

3  646  117 

1869 

4  215  000 

1870 

5,  260,  745 

1871... 

5,205,234 

1872 

6,293,194 

1873 

9,893,786 

1874... 

10,926,945 

1875...   . 

8,787,514 

1876 

8,968  906 

31  763 

120,000 

12,000 

1877 

13  135  475 

29  888 

172  000 

13  000 

1878 

15  163  462 

38  179 

180  000 

15  227 

1879 

19,  685,  176 

29,112 

185,000 

19,  858 

1880 

26  027,631 

38  940 

179,000 

40,552 

1881 

27,376,509 

33,867 

151,000 

99,862 

1882 

30  053  500 

39  761 

128  000 

128,636 

1883 

23  128  389 

47  632 

126  000 

142  857 

4  755 

1884.  .  . 

23,  772,  209 

90,081 

90,000 

262,000 

4,148 

1885 

20,  776,  041 

661,  580 

91,000 

325,000 

5,164 

1886 

25  798  000 

1  782  970 

102  000 

377  145 

4  726 

1887 

22  356  193 

5  022  632 

145  000 

678  572 

4  791 

76  295 

1888 

16'  488*  668 

10  010,868 

119,448 

690  333 

5  096 

297  612 

1889.  .  .  . 
1890  

1891  
1892  
1893  
1894  
1895  

1896.... 
1897  
1898.... 
1899  
1900  

1901... 
1902  
1903 

21,487,435 
28,458,208 

33,009,236 
28,422,377 
20,314,513 
19,019,990 
19,144,390 

20,584,421 
19,262,066 
15,948,464 
14,374,512 
14,559,127 

13,831,996 
13,183,610 
12  518  134 

12,471,466 
16,124,656 

17,740,301 
16,362,921 
16,  249,  769 
16,  792,  154 
19,545,233 

23,941,169 
21,560,515 
18,738,708 
21,142,108 
22,362,730 

21,648,083 
21,014,231 
20  480  286 

544,113 
492,578 

2,406,218 
3,810,086 
8,445,412 
8,577,624 
8,120,125 

10,019,770 
13,090,045 
13,615,101 
13,910,630 
16,195,675 

14,177,126 
13,513,345 
12  899  395 

303,220 
307,360 

323,600 
385,049 
470,  179 
705,969 
1,208,482 

1,252,777 
1,903,411 
2,257,207 
2,642,095 
4,324,484 

8,786,330 
13,984,268 
24  382  472 

5,400 
6,000 

9,000 
6,500 
3,000 
1,500 
1,500 

1,680 
322 
5,568 
18,280 
62,  259 

137,259 
185,331 
554  286 

316,476 
368,842 

665,482 
824,000 
594,  390 
515,  746 
438,232 

361,450 
384,934 
444,383 
390,  278 
317,385 

460,520 
396,901 
483  925 

33,375 
63,496 

136,634 
698,068 
2,335,293 
3,688,666 
4,  386,  132 

4,680,732 
4,122,356 
3,730,907 
3,848,182 
4,874,392 

5,757,086 
7,  480,  896 
9  186  411 

1,460 
000 

675 
621 
400 
300 
200 

250 
500 
360 
360 
200 

250 
200 

1904 

12,  239,  026 

18,  876,  631 

12,  644,  686 

29  649,434 

998  284 

501  763 

11  339  124 

1905  

1906.... 
1907  
1908.... 
1909  
1910.  .  .  . 
1911.... 

11,554,777 

11,500,410 
11,211,606 
10,584,453 
10,434,300 
9,848,500 
9,200,673 

16,346,660 

14,  787,  763 
12,207,448 
10,858,797 
10,632,793 
9,916,370 
8,817,112 

11,578,110 

10,120,935 
9,095,296 
9,523,176 
10,745,092 
11,753,071 
9,795,464 

33,427,473 

33,098,598 
39,748,375 
44,854,737 
55,471,601 
73,010,560 
81,134,391 

1,217,337 

1,213,548 
820,844 
o727,767 
a639,016 
0468,774 
o472,458 

376,238 

327,  582 
331,851 
379,653 
310,861 
239,  794 
226,926 

10,964  247 

7,  673,  477 
6,128,037 
3,283,629 
2,296,086 
2,159,725 
1,696,289 

181,084 

4*397,  050 
24.281,973 
33,686,238 
30,898,330 
33,143,363 
31,317,038 

Total 

727,493,335 

406,475,177 

226,856,521 

456,437,114 

7,584,593 

10,031,519 

99,  562,  240 

157,  911^600 

o  No  production  in  Tennessee  recorded. 


hFrom   U.  S.  Geological  Survey,   Mineral   Resources  of  U.   S.,  for   1911. 


PROPERTIES  AND  USES  OF  PETROLEUM 


17 


for  ages  for  obtaining  water,  and  is  still  occasionally  employed  in  some 
sections  for  this  purpose.  The  drilling  of  water-wells  preceded  that 
of  wells  expressly  for  oil,  and  in  an  old  Dominican  convent  garden  in 
France  a  deep  well  has  flowed  continuously  since  1126.  When  rigid 
iron  pipe  had  become  known,  driven  wells  were  put  down  by  pointing 
the  end  of  a  piece  of  pipe,  boring  small  holes  near  the  pointed  end  and 
then  driving  this  pipe  down  by  means  of  a  sledge  or  drop  hammer. 

1859  to   1911  Inclusive,  in  Barrels  of  42  Gallons.* 


Year. 

Kansas. 

Texas. 

Missouri. 

Oklahoma. 

Wyo- 
ming. 

Louisiana. 

United 

States. 

Total  value. 

1859 

2  000 

$32  000 

1S<30  

500,000 

4  800  000 

1861 

2  113  609 

1  035  668 

1862.... 

3,056,690 

3,209,525 

18C3... 

2,611,309 

8  225  663 

1864 

2  116  109 

20  896  576 

1865 

2  497  700 

16  459  853 

1866 

3  597,700 

13  455  398 

1867..., 

.... 

3,347,300 

«,  066,  993 

18C8.... 

3,646,117 

13,217.174 

1809.   . 

4,215,000 

23  730  450 

1870 

5  260  745 

20  503  754 

1871... 

5,205,234 

22  591  180 

1872 

6  293,194 

21  440  503 

1873 

9  893  786 

18  100  464 

1874.  .  . 

10,  926,  945 

12,647,527 

1875     . 

8,  787,  514 

7,368  133 

1876.  .  .  . 

9,132,669 

22,982,822 

1877:  . 

13,350,363 

31,788  566 

1878 

15  396  868 

18  044  520 

1879 



19  914  146 

17  210  708 

1880... 

26,  286,  123 

24  eoo'ess 

1881 

27  661  238 

23  512  051 

1882.  .  .  . 

:::::::::::: 

30,  349,  897 

23  631,165 

1883 

23,  449,  633 

25  740  252 

1884.,. 

:::::::::::: 

24,218,438 

20,476,924 

1885 

21  858  785 

19  193  694 

1886 

28  064  841 

20  028  457 

1887 

28  283  483 

18  856  606 

1888.... 

27,  612,  025 

17  950,353 

1889    . 

500 

4S 

20 

35  163,513 

26  963  340 

1890 

1,200 

54 

278 

45  823  572 

35  365  105 

1891.  . 

1,400 

54 

25 

30 

54,292,655 

30  526  553 

1892.  ... 

5,000 

45 

10 

80 

50,  514,  657 

25,906,463 

1893.  ... 

18,000 

50 

50 

10 

48,431,006 

28,932,326 

T894.   .. 

40,000 

60 

8 

130 

2  369 

49,  344,  516 

35  522  095 

1895.  ... 

44,430 

50 

10 

37 

3,455 

52,892,276 

57,691,279 

1896.  .. 
1897.  ... 

113,571 
81,098 

1,450 
65,975 

43 
19 

170 

625 

2,878 
3,650 

60,960.361 
60,475,516 

58,518,709 
40,929,611 

1898.  ... 

71.980 

546,070 

10 

5,475 

55,364,233 

44,193,359 

1899.   ... 
1900.   ... 

69,700 
74,714 

669,013 
836,039 

132 
al,602 

""6,~472 

5,560 
5,450 



57,070,850 
63,620,529 

64,603,904 
75,752,691 

1901.   . 

179,151 

4,393,658 

62,335 

10,000 

5,400 

69,389,194 

66,417,335 

1902.   ... 
1903.  ... 
1904.   ... 
1905.   ... 

1906.  .. 
1907.   ... 
1908.    .. 
1909.   ... 
1910.   ... 
1911.   ... 

331,749 
932,214 
4,250,779 
cl2,013,495 

c21,718,648 
2,409,521 
1,801,781 
1,263,764 
1,128,668 
1,278,819 

18,083,658 
17,955,572 
22,241,413 
28,136,189 

12,567,897 
12,322,696 
11,206,464 
9,534,467 
8,899,266 
9,526,474 

o757 
o3,000 
02,572 
03,100 

o3,500 
04,000 
015,246 
o5,750 
o3,615 
a7,995 

37,  100 
138,911 
1,366,748 
(<*) 

(<*) 
43,524,128 
45,798,765 
47,859,218 
52,028,718 
56,069,637 

6,253 
8,960 
11,542 
8,454 

«  7,000 
/9,339 
/  17,775 
/  20,  056 
/I  15;  430 
/186,695 

548,617 
917,771 
2,958,958 
8,910,416 

9,077,528 
5,000,221 
5,788,874 
3,059,531 
6,841,395 
10,720,420 

88,766,916 
100,461,337 
117,080,960 
134,717,580 

126,493,936 
166,095,335 
178,527,355 
183,170,874 
209,557,248 
220,449,391 

71,178,910 
94,694,050 
101,  175,  455 
84,157,399 

92,444,735 
120,106,749 
129,079,184 
128,328,487 
127,899,688 
134,044,752 

Total. 

47,830,182 

156,988,662 

54,077 

246,840,779 

425,741 

53,823,731. 

2,598,313,331 

2,174,229,796 

a  Includes  the  production  of  Michigan.  *• 
b  Includes  production  of  Michigan  and 

small  production  in  Oklahoma. 
c  Includes  production  of  Oklahoma. 


<l  Included   with  Kansas. 
e  Estimated. 
f  Includes  the  production  of  Utah. 


18 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


World's  production  of  crude  petroleum,  1906-1911,  by  countries,  in  barrels  and  metric  tons. 


Country. 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

Rank. 

Barrels. 

Metric 
tons. 

Per- 
cent 
of  total 
produc- 
tion. 

United  States  

166,095,335 
61,850,734 
1,000,000 
9,982,597 
8,118,207 
8,455,841 
4.344,162 
2,010,639 
756,226 
756,631 
788,872 
59,875 
030,000 

178,527,355 
62,186.447 
3,481,410 
10,283,357 
8,252,157 
12,612,295 
5,047,038 
2,070,145 
1,011,180 
1.009,278 
527,987 
50,966 
030,000 

183,170,874 
65,970,350 
2,488,742 
11,041,852 
9,327,278 
14,932,799 
6,676,517 
1,889,563 
1,316,118 
1,018,837 
420,755 
42,388 
030,000 

209,557,248 
70,336,574 
3,332,807 
11,030,620 
9,723,800 
12,673,688 
6,137,990 
1,930,661 
1,330,105 
1,032,522 
315,895 
42,388 
030,000 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 

220,449,391 
66,183,691 
14,051,643 
12,172,949 
11,101,878 
10,485,726 
6,451,203 
1,658,903 
1,398,036 
995,764 
291,096 
o71,905 
0200,000 

29,393,252 
9,066,259 
1,873,552 
1,670,668 
1,544,072 
1,458,275 
897,  184 
221,187 
186,405 
140,000 
38,813 
10,000 
26,667 

63.80 
19.16 
4.07 
3.52 
3.21 
3.04 
1.87 
.48 
.40 
.29 
.08 
.02 
.06 

Mexico  
Dutch  East  Indies  .  . 
Roumania  

Galicia    

India 

Japan  

Peru       

Germany 

Canada  

Italy 

Other 

Total  

264,249,119 

285,089,615 

298,326,073 

327,474,304 

345,512,185 

46,526,334 

100.00 

Such  wells  were  found  to  be  successful  only  for  comparatively  shal- 
low holes  and  loose  formations. 

The  churn,  or  free-falling  tool  method  is  thought  to  have  origi- 
nated with  the  Chinese  centuries  ago  in  their  search  for  water  in  the 
arid  districts.  In  this  system,  falling  tools,  suspended  from  the  sur- 
face, drill  the  hole  by  impact  and  churning  motion ;  and  adaptations 
and  improvements  of  this  method  are  used  in  drilling  the  large  pro- 
portion of  wells  sunk  today. 

The  first  American  churn  drill  made  use  of  a  spring  pole  sup- 
ported on  a  forked  upright.  Suspended  from  the  end  of  this  pole 
was  a  'string'  of  solid  wooden  rods  which  were  screwed  together, 
and  into  the  lowest  of  which  was  screwed  the  cutting  tool.  It  was 
operated  by  several  men  who  pulled  the  end  of  the  pole  down 
quickly  so  that  the  drill  would  strike  a  blow  at  the  bottom  of  the 
hole ;  the  spring  of  the  pole  would  then  lift  the  drill,  so  that  it 
might  be  pulled  down  again.  In  order  to  clean  out  the  cuttings, 
the  rods  would  be  raised  and  unscrewed  one  by  one,  the  drilling 
tool  removed,  and  a  sand  pump  put  in  its  place.  This  was  a  long 
tube  with  a  flapper  bottom  opening  inward,  which  allowed  the  sand 
to  work  up  into  the  tube,  when  the  latter  was  lowered  on  bottom, 
and  held  it  there  while  the  pump  was  being  pulled  from  the  well. 

This  led  to  the  Canadian  'pole-tool'  system  that  has  seen  exten- 
sive use  till  recent  years,  especially,  as  its  name  implies,  in  Canada. 
In  this  the  spring  pole  was  replaced  with  a  walking  beam.  Steam 
was  used  for  motive  power,  and  the  poles  suspended  from  a  50-ft. 
derrick  while  being  run  in  and  pulled  from  the  well.  The  poles, 
of  wood  and  from  1%  to  3  in.  diameter,  usually  consist  of  two  rods 


PROPERTIES    AND    USES    OF    PETROLEUM  19 

spliced  end-wise  with  iron  straps  and  rivets,  making  a  total  length 
of  35  feet.  At  one  end  a  band  is  riveted  to  the  wood  and  its  end 
is  a  threaded  pin;  the  other  end  has  a  box  into  which  the  pin  of 
the  next  lower  rod  is  screwed.  The  walking-beam  supplies  the 
drilling  motion  and  a  chisel-point  bit  on  the  end  of  a  'string'  of 
tools,  similar  to  those  in  common  use,  does  the  cutting.  While 
drilling,  the  string  of  poles  is  suspended  from  a  chain  which  winds 
several  times  around  a  pipe  that  projects  beyond  the  end  of  the 
walking  beam.  The  chain  runs  along  the  top  of  the  walking  beam 
to  a  ratcheting  device  known  as  the  'slipper  out'  by  means  of 
which  the  driller  is  enabled  to  let  out  the  chain  when  he  wishes  to 
lower  the  string  of  poles  a  few  inches  in  order  to  make  the  bit 
strike  solid  ground  on  bottom.  As  in  the  spring  pole  method, 
the  cuttings  in  the  hole  are  brought  out  by  means  of  a  sand  pump 
or  bailer,  run  in  and  out  of  the  hole  on  the  bottom  of  the  string  of 
poles.  This  method  has  been  quite  successful  in  drilling  some 
fairly  deep  wells,  but  is  seldom  used  now. 

The  necessity  for  reaching  greater  depths  than  could  be  drilled 
with  the  spring-pole  or  Canadian  pole-tools  called  for  heavier  tools 
and  improved  methods,  and  so  there  came  about  a  gradual  evolu- 
tion to  the  use  of  horse  power  and  steam ;  from  the  spring  pole  to 
the  walking  beam  with  its  rigidity  and  positive  motion ;  from  rods 
screwed  together  to  manila  rope  and  wire  cables.  At  the  same 
time  were  developed  many  special  drilling  and  fishing  tools,  and 
the  greatest  single  improvement  of  all,  the  use  of  casing  or  pipe  for 
holding  back  caving  ground  that  tends  to  fall  in  and  fill  the  hole, 
and  for  excluding  from  the  oil-sand  the  water  from  overlying 
strata. 

Much  of  this  growth  has  occurred  as  different  requirements  of 
the  various  new  fields  were  encountered,  so  that  while  the  basic 
methods  of  drilling  along  the  lines  either  of  the  standard  tools  or 
the  rotary  are  followed  everywhere,  yet  local  conditions  and  the 
inherent  inventive  ability  of  the  oil  operative  have  resulted  in  any 
number  of  special  applications  of  these  methods,  devised  to  over- 
come the  specific  obstacles  encountered. 

A  volume  of  this  kind  cannot  include  descriptions  of  all  the  in- 
genious schemes  at  the  command  of  the  old  driller  experienced  in 
many  fields.  At  best,  few  branches  of  engineering  carry  the  hazard 
and  chance  that  accompany  drilling  for  oil.  A  little  carelessness, 
an  unavoidable  accident  or  defect  in  tools  or 'equipment  may  result 


20 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


in  plugging  a  hole,  with  the  loss  of  months  of  work.  A  plugged 
hole  has  slight  salvage  value  and  the  need  for  keeping  out  of  trouble, 
rather  than  of  getting  out,  is  constantly  before  the  oil  man ;  and  while 


Hg    5.     STAR    PORTABLE    DRILLING    MACHINE    WITH    MAST    IN    PLACE 


1'ROl'ERTIES    AND    USES    OF    PETROLEUM 


21 


fishing  jobs  are   inevitable,  yet  care  and  proper  precautionary  steps 
are  features  of  exceptional  value  in  this  work. 

The   two   methods   of   drilling   most   commonly   employed    are 
known  as  the  standard,  or  cable-tool  method,  and  the  hydraulic,  or 


Fig.    6.     STAR    PORTABLE    DRILLING    MACHINE 

rotary  method.  The  former  employs  a  walking  beam  to  churn 
the  hole  by  an  up-and-down  motion  imparted  to  tools  suspended 
from  a  line  connected  with  the  end  of  the  beam.  When  the  hole 
has  been  advanced  several  feet,  the  cutting  tools  are  withdrawn 


22  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

and  a  bailer,  or  sand  pump,  is  run  in  on  the  end  of  another  line, 
for  the  purpose  of  removing  the  cuttings.  The  rotary  method  of 
drilling  is  a  cutting  process  by  which  a  suitable  bit,  attached  to  the 
end  of  a  column  of  pipe  that  is  turned  by  machinery  at  the  surface, 
is  made  to  scrape  away  the  bottom  of  the  hole.  Thin  mud  is 
pumped  down  inside  the  pipe  and  through  an  opening  at  the  bot- 
tom, from  where  it  returns  to  the  surface  on  the  outside  of  the 
pipe,  bringing  with  it  the  drill  cuttings.  The  process  is  practically 
continuous  except  for  the  necessity  of  pulling  the  pipe  from  the 
well  when  the  cutting-bit  has  become  dull  and  must  be  replaced 
with  a  sharp  one. 

Each  of  these  methods  is  successful  when  used  for  drilling  in 
ground  to  which  it  is  adapted.  In  general,  the  cable-tool  method 
5  preferred  where  the  series  of  strata  to  be  pierced  is  hard  and  the 
severe  impact  of  the  walking-beam  motion  is  needed  to  churn  the 
hole.  In  soft  and  loose  material,  the  rotary  method  is  usually  su- 
perior, and  while  it  entails  a  greater  expense  for  labor,  fuel,  and 
maintenance  of  machinery,  yet  the  speed  it  often  attains  and  other 
advantages  described  in  detail  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  drilling, 
often  warrant  the  added  expense  from  the  standpoint  of  commercial 
feasibility.  It  is  rarely,  however,  except  in  the  Gulf  Coast  districts, 
that  it  is  employed  in  drilling  wildcat  wells. 

It  should  be  noted  here  that  the  term  'wildcat'  does  not  possess 
the  unsavory  meaning  associated  with  it  in  the  mining  world, 
where  it  suggests  dubious  financial  operations  rather  than  progres- 
sive mining  activity.  In  the  oil  fields,  a  'wildcat'  well  is  a  prospect 
or  test  well,  drilled  sufficiently  far  from  proved  territory  to  raise 
the  question  as  to  whether  or  not  oil  will  be  found.  Much  wild- 
catting  is  carried  on  by  many  of  the  old  substantial  companies. 

Properties  and  Uses.  Petroleum  is  a  liquid  belonging  to  a 
series  of  hydro-carbon  compounds  of  complex  chemical  composition 
ranging  from  the  gaseous  to  the  solid  state,  namely,  natural  gas, 
petroleum,  mineral  tar,  and  asphalt.  These  pass  by  insensible 
gradations  from  one  to  the  other  with  no  strict  line  of  demarcation 
between  them ;  and  among  the  petroleums,  wells  only  a  short  dis- 
tance apart  will  frequently  show  remarkable  differences  in  compo- 
sition and  gravity.  In  the  United  States,  the  oil  which  has  a 
paraffin  base  generally  occurs  east  of  the  Mississippi  while  west  of 
it  usually  is  found  the  heavier  oils  with  an  asphalt  base. 

Within  the  limits  of  individual  fields,  the  value  of  petroleum  is 
generally  rated  according  to  its  weight,  or  specific  gravity,  the 


PROPERTIES    AND    USES    OF    PETROLEUM 


23 


if  ;,.?    '"v. 


24  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

greater  value  going  with  the  lighter  oils  that  contain  a  higher  per- 
centage of  the  more  valuable  products.  By  specific  gravity  is 
meant  the  relation  in  weight  between  any  given  volume  of  oil  at 
60°  F.  and  that  of  an  equal  volume  of  pure  water  at 
39.2°  F.  This  is  generally  designated  in  oil  field 
practice  according  to  the  Beaume  scale,  in  which  the 
weight  is  represented  by  degrees,  the  higher  num- 
bers being  those  of  the  lighter  oils,  and  10°  Beaume 
the  equivalent  of  water.  The  gravity  is  determined 
by  the  use  of  a  Beaume  hydrometer  (Fig.  8),  a 
glass  column  which,  when  immersed  in  oil,  sinks 
to  a  depth  dependent  on  the  density  of  the  oil.  A 
scale  on  the  glass  shows  the  depth  of  immersion 
and  gives  a  direct  reading  of  the  gravity,  except 
for  a  correction  that  must  be  applied  if  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  oil  is  greater  or  less  than  60°  F.  A 
thermometer  is  generally  combined  with,  and  made 
a  part  of,  the  hydrometer.  The  temperature  cor- 
rection varies  with  oils  of  different  gravities  and 
published  tables  of  correction  must  be  used  when 
precision  is  desired,  but  for  ordinary  oil  field  work 
a  reduction  of  1°  in  gravity  for  every  20°  of  tem- 
perature above  60°  F.  is  sufficiently  close  for  oils 
around  18°  Beaume.  With  25°  Beaume  oil  the  cor- 

Fig.  8 

HYDROMETER    Action  is   1°    Beaume  for  every   16°    above  60°    F., 
AND  with   corresponding    additions    of    course    when    the 

THERMOMETER     ,  r     i  -1    •      -u    1  sr\°    T-  ' 

COMBINED       temperature  of  the  oil  is  below  60    F. 

Degrees  Beaume  may  be  converted  to  specific 
gravity  by  adding  130  to  the  Beaume  degrees  and  dividing  this 
by  140.  Thus,  if  the  hydrometer  reading,  when  corrected  for 
temperature,  is  28.2°  Beaume  the  specific  gravity  is  obtained  by 
adding  130,  making  158.2,  and  dividing  this  sum  by  140,  or  0.885 
as  the  specific  gravity. 

Specific  Gravities  of  Typical  Oils. 

State.                                              Specific  Gravity.  Gravity  Beaume. 

Pennsylvania    0.801  —  0.817  46.2  —  42.6 

Ohio    0.816  —  0.860  42.8  —  32.5 

Kansas    0.835  —  1.000  38.8  —  10.0 

West  Virginia   0.841  —  0.873  37.6  —  30.0 

Beaumont,  Texas    0.904  —  0.925  24.8  —  31.1 

Wyoming  0.912  —  0.945  23.3  —  11.9 

California                                      , .  0.920  —  0.873  30.0  —  12.3 


PROPERTIES    AND    USES    OF    PETROLEUM 


25 


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Fig.     9.     TABLE     SHOWING    RELATIVE     BEAUME    AND     SPECIFIC     GRAVITY 

OF   CRUDE   OILS* 

*\\'cstern    Engineering,    April,    1913. 


26 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


The  physical  qualities  of  petroleum  have  a  wide  range.  It 
varies  in  color  from  colorless  to  yellow,  green  and  black,  dark 
brown  and  greenish  brown  predominating.  Its  consistency  may 
be  very  thin  and  flowing,  or  thick  and  viscous  to  the  point  where 
it  must  be  heated  to  make  it  flow.  It  solidifies  at  from  82°  F.  in 


Fig. 


OIL   WELLS   AT   KATALLA,   ALASKA 


some  Burmah  oils  to  zero  in  some  Italian  oils.  The  flash  point, 
which  is  the  lowest  temperature  at  which  inflammable  vapors  are 
given  off,  ranges  with  different  oils  from  zero  to  370°  F.  The  boil- 
ing point  also  has  a  wide  range,  from  180°  F.  to  338°  F. 

The  more  important  oils  that  go  to  make  up  its  complex  mix- 
ture, and  which  are  separated  by  distillation,  are  gasoline,  benzine, 


PROPERTIES    AND    USES    OF    PETROLEUM  27 

distillates  and  kerosene,  heavy  naphthas  and  residuum.  Paraffin 
base  petroleums  contain  greater  quantities  of  the  lighter  oils,  illumi- 
nants  and  lubricants,  and  are  accordingly  more  valuable  than  those 
with  an  asphalt  base.  The  latter  are  chiefly  used  for  heavy  fuel 
after  such  lighter  constituents  as  they  contain  have  been  recovered. 

While  of  course  the  greater  portion  of  petroleum  produced  finds 
its  way  into  use  either  for  fuel  or  lubrication,  the  fact  should  not  be 
overlooked  that  the  uses  to  which  it  and  its  products  can  be  ap- 
plied are  constantly  extending.  Several  ingenious  lamps  are  made 
in  which  the  vapors  of  either  gasoline  or  ordinary  kerosene  are 
burned  in  incandescent  mantles.  Oil  supplies  the  illuminating  ele- 
ment in  the  manufacture  of  water  gas.  Paraffin  wax,  vaseline,  fur- 
niture polish  and  many  other  by-products  from  different  pe- 
troleums, obtained  by  various  methods  of  refining,  are  used  com- 
mercially and  in  the  arts.  Its  use  for  water-proofing,  mosquito 
prevention  and  as  an  insecticide  are  well  known. 

The  Elmore  process  of  ore  treatment  makes  use  of  the  affinity 
of  oil  for  metals  to  treat  finely  crushed  ore  in  an  emulsion  of  water 
and  oil  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  the  oil  to  form  a  film  about  the 
metallic  particles,  bringing  these  to  the  surface  while  the  non- 
metallic  waste  is  drawn  off  below.  The  commercial  development 
of  the  Diesel  engine  during  the  past  few  years,  by  which  crude  oil 
may  be  applied  directly  in  internal  combustion  engines,  gives  prom- 
ise of  extensive  use  for  petroleum  for  that  purpose  in  the  near 
future.  An  idea  of  the  wide  range  of  uses  to  which  it  is  applied 
may  be  obtained  from  the  statement  that  no  less  than  312  sep- 
arate products  are  marketed  from  eastern  crude  oil,  and  the  num- 
ber derived  from  California  crude  oil  is  said  now  to  be  over  two 
hundred. 


CHAPTER  II. 
GEOLOGY. 

Geology,  as  it  finds  application  in  the  petroleum  industry,  con- 
cerns itself  chiefly  with  the  study  of  sedimentary  rocks  and  their 
structure,  or  that  branch  known  as  stratigraphy.  Igneous  rocks, 
which  are  of  volcanic  origin,  and  metamorphic  rocks,  formed  by 
the  action  of  pressure  and  heat  on  either  igneous  or  sedimentary 
rocks,  are  never  the  primary  source  of  oil,  and  such  oil  as  has  in 
rare  instances  been  found  in  them  has  escaped  thereto  from  the 
sedimentary  formations. 

In  the  study  of  the  earth's  form  we  find  many  agencies  at  work 
on  it,  constantly  altering  its  configuration.  Rains,  winds,  and  frost 
are  changing  the  surface  by  tearing  down  material  at  one  point 
and  transporting  it  to  another,  doing  this  slowly  but  with  a  great 
cumulative  effect  throughout  the  centuries  in  which  geological 
time  is  measured.  Rivers  bring  down  immense  quantities  of  sand 
and  silt,  depositing  these  in  lakes,  lagoons,  and  the  sea.  Waves 
are  breaking  into  the  shore  line  and  washing  material  back  under 
the  water,  to  be  deposited  there  again.  Through  these  and  the 
many  other  influences  at  work  new  bodies  of  slightly  consolidated 
sediments  are  constantly  being  deposited  under  water,  and  in  this 
way  are  formed  the  stratified  rocks,  as  differentiated  from  the 
igneous,  which  are  of  volcanic  origin  and  have  been  fused.  In  the 
latter  class  are  the  granites,  porphyries,  and  other  crystallines  more 
generally  associated  with  metallic  ore  deposits.  Heat,  and  often 
great  pressure,  have  been  important  factors  in  the  process  of  their 
formation  and  they  are  most  readily  recognized  by  their  compact- 
ness and  crystalline  structure. 

The  stratified  rocks,  which  include  the  sandstones,  limestones, 
shales,  and  clays  are  more  apt  to  be  loose  and  friable  and  are 
characterized  by  their  division  into  parallel  sheet-like  masses  known 
as  strata.  About  nine-tenths  of  the  surface,  as  well  as  the  entire 
sea-bottom  of  course,  consist  of  stratified  rocks,  the  former  having 
been  brought  to  their  present  position  through  the  elevation  of 


GEOLOGY  29 

what  at  one  time  lay  under  water.  Much  of  the  history  of  the 
surface  of  the  earth  in  past  ages  has  been  learned  from  the  study 
of  the  stratified  rocks.  Fossils,  which  are  the  remains  of  either 
animal  or  vegetable  matter  existing  at  the  time  the  sedimentary 
strata  were  deposited,  throw  light  on  the  life  of  the  time  and  are 
valuable  aids  in  correlating  and  identifying  measures  in  the  field. 
These  measures  are  found  to  have  an  historical  sequence  in 
the  order  of  their  deposition,  and  in  some  districts  their  chronologi- 
cal relations  have  been  worked  out  in  great  detail.  The  greater 
periods  of  geologic  time  are  known  as  Eras;  these  are  divided  into 
a  number  of  Periods,  the  Periods  into  Epochs  and  the  latter  further 
subdivided  into  stages  represented  in  the  rocks  by  Formations.  It 
should  be  noted  that  the  kind  of  rock  and  its  appearance,  whether 
sandstone,  shale  or  limestone,  has  no  direct  connection  with  the 
age,  inasmuch  as  different  combinations  of  these  are  repeated  in 
all  Epochs ;  and  oil  has  been  found  in  the  rocks  of  nearly  every 
Period.  In  the  United  States,  the  eastern  oils  are  obtained  from  the 
geologically  older  measures  and  those  of  the  southern  and  western 
fields  from  the  more  recent.  Gas  shows  an  equally  wide  geological 
distribution. 

Classes  of  Sedimentary  Rocks. 

The  stratified  rocks  are  classed  according  to  the  material  of 
which  they  are  chiefly  composed  such  as  sand,  lime,  etc.  These 
classes  are  then  further  divided  and  identified  by  other  character- 
istics such  as  color,  compactness,  size  of  the  individual  grains  com- 
prising them,  and  the  cementing  material  occupying  the  interstices 
between  the  grains.  The  latter  is  an  especially  important  feature 
in  its  effect  on  the  stone  as  a  whole.  Sandstone,  colored  red  by  a 
cement  of  iron  oxide  which  is  not  soluble  in  water,  is  often  valuable 
for  building  stone,  while  sandstone  with  a  lime  cement  would  have 
no  value  for  this  purpose  because  of  its  eventual  disintegration  due 
to  the  ease  with  which  the  limestone  washes  out.  If  lime  is  the 
cementing  material  the  rock  is  known  as  calcareous;  it  is  ferrugi- 
nous if  the  cement  is  one  of  the  iron  oxides;  siliceous  if  it  is  silica; 
and  argillaceous  if  it  is  clayey. 

Often  in  the  same  locality  a  measure  will  pass  from  one  class 
to  another  by  insensible  gradations.  A  shale  may  be  traced  along 
and  found  to  begin  to  show  particles  of  sand,  then  gradually  a 
greater  and  greater  sand  content  until  it  finally  merges  into  a  sand- 
stone, with  only  a  trace,  if  any,  shale  remaining  in  it. 


30  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

Sands  and  Sandstones.  Sands  are  the  partly  imconsolidated 
bodies  while  sandstone  is  the  term  applied  to  the  same  material  when 
in  a  more  compact,  solid  and  hard  condition.  Both  are  shallow 
water  deposits  and  the  grains  of  quartz  comprising  them  vary  in 
size  from  extremely  fine  particles  to  the  coarser  varieties  and  to  gravel. 
Since  most  of  the  oil  produced  is  obtained  from  beds  of  sand,  where 
the  oil  has  accumulated  in  the  space  between  the  grains,  it  is  evident 
that  the  porosity  of  the  sand  and  its  capacity  for  containing  oil  will  have 
an  important  bearing  on  the  production  to  be  obtained  from  a  well 
drilled  into  it.  The  amount  of  oil  that  comparatively  dense  sandstones 
can  hold  is  often  surprising;  it  is  estimated  that  loose  sands  frequently 


Fig.     11.     SANDSTONE    ENCOUNTERED    IN    CALIFORNIA    OIL    FIELDS 

contain  over  20%  by  volume  of  oil,  although  probably  not  over  three- 
fourths  of  this  is  recoverable. 

The  variation  in  texture  and  porosity  of  sand  beds  within  short 
distances  no  doubt  accounts  for  the  noticeable  differences  in  production 
capacity  of  wells  closely  situated,  and  which  to  all  outward  appear- 
ances should  yield  equal  amounts  of  oil.  With  all  other  factors  equal, 
it  is  generally  accepted  as  true  that  the  relative  thickness  of  sands 
will  have  a  bearing  on  their  productivity,  and  while  this  point  fails 
to  hold  in  very  many  cases,  yet  it  is  usually  considered  distinctly 
encouraging  when  a  wide  body  of  sand  is  found  to  hold  the  oil  rather 
than  a  narrow  one. 

The  ideal  sand  is  that  in  which  the  grains  adhere  sufficiently  to 
prevent  their  loosening  and  moving,  and  which,  at  the  same  time, 
is  porous  enough  to  permit  ready  passage  of  the  oil  to  the  opening 


GEOLOGY 


31 


through  which  it  is  brought  to  the  surface.  Too  compact  a  sand 
may  retard  the  flow  of  oil  towards  the  opening  and  so  allow  only 
a  small  amount  to  reach  the  point  from  which  it  may  be  recovered. 
A  sand  that  is  too  porous  is  apt  to  be  loose  and  fall  against  the  pipe, 
collapsing  it.  It  may  fill  the  inside  of  the  pipe,  'sanding  it  up',  re- 
quiring that  it  be  cleaned  out  and  with  the  disadvantage  of  increased 
labor  costs  in  its  maintenance  as  well  as  the  loss  of  production  while 
it  is  being  cleaned. 

In  this,  as  seems  to  be  the  case  in  all  matters  associated  with  the 
development  of  petroleum,  conditions  differ  in  various  fields  and  in 


Fig.    12.     WELL    THROWING    OUT    SAND 

some  localities  the  results  of  experience  have  shown  that,  as  ex- 
pressed by  the  driller,  "The  well  must  make  the  sand  in  order  to 
make  the  oil."  Wells,  in  which  the  flow  of  gas  and  oil  has  been 
great  enough  to  keep  the  loose  sand  moving  along  to  the  surface 
with  the  fluids  as  fast  as  it  reached  the  pipe,  have  often  developed 
into  immense  gushers,  in  the  course  of  which  they  would  bring  up 
surprising  quantities  of  sand.  There  is  no  question  but  that,  under 
such  circumstances,  the  area  from  which  the  oil  supply  is  derived 
becomes  greatly  widened,  many  tributary  channels  are  opened  and 


32  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

the  well  continues  a  good  producer  for  a  long  time,  while  nearby 
wells  that  are  sunk  later  and  after  the  sand  has  been  relieved  of  its 
great  initial  gas-pressure,  do  not  get  the  benefit  of  such  a  strong  flow 
of  gas  and  sand  and  remain  only  fair  producers. 

Beds  of  sandstone  are  also  the  principal  type  of  reservoir  for  the 
storage  of  underground  waters,  and  it  should  be  particularly  noted 
in  this  connection  that,  except  within  narrow  limits  of  local  fields, 
sands  have  no  marked  physical  characteristics  by  which  they  can  be 
described  as  oil  sand,  gas  sand,  or  water  sand.  Much  harm  has  been 
done  and  much  money  needlessly  squandered  through  the  belief  that 
a  certain  form  of  sand  surely  contains  oil  and  that  some  other  form 


Fig.  13.  ACCUMULATION  OF  SAND  AFTER  FLOW 

of  sand  may  hold  only  water.  Sands  are  sands,  and  the  only  oil 
sand  is  a  sand  containing  oil  and  the  only  water  sand  is  one  holding 
water.  Careful  microscopic  study  of  sands  is  often  useful  in  the 
detailed  study  of  a  local  district  but  the  application  of  data  obtained 
in  this  way  to  a  wider  area  cannot  be  depended  upon  and  is  more 
apt  to  be  misleading  and  harmful. 

Heaving,  or  running  sands,  encountered  when  drilling,  are  bodies 
of  loose  sand  usually  carrying  water,  which  often  give  much  trouble 
by  reason  of  their  not  'standing  up'  on  the  side  of  the  hole  but  con- 
tinually falling  in  and  filling  it.  Tar  sands  are  those  containing 
variable  quantities  of  heavy  oil  and  the  term  is  generally  applied  to 
non-productive  measures. 

Shales  and  Clays.  Shales  and  clays  indicate  deep  water  deposi- 
tion. They  have  a  finer  texture  than  sand,  are  more  dense  and 


GEOLOGY  33 

compact,  and  are  so  nearly  impervious  to  the  passage  of  oil  that 
only  rarely  are  they  a  source  of  it.  However,  as  will  be  shown  later, 
they  do  play  an  important  role  in  the  accumulation  of  bodies  of 
oil  and  it  is  seldom  that  wells  are  drilled  without  penetrating  wide 
bodies  of  these  materials.  When  subjected  to  the  influence  of  heat 
and  pressure  they  may  be  altered  to  the  form  of  slate,  which  is  also 
frequently  met  in  drilling.  Soft  shale  and  clay  are  often  designated 
as  'gumbo'  by  drillers  while  slate,  or  any  other  hard  substance  that 
impedes  the  progress  of  the  drill  is  known  by  the  broad  term  of 
'shell.'  In  the  various  oil  fields,  different  clays  and  shales  become 
known  to  have  certain  features  by  which  they  may  be  distinguished,  and 
the  knowledge  of  these  beds  and  their  relation  to  each  other  and  to  the 
productive  measures  is  often  of  value  as  a  guide  in  drilling  a  new  well. 

Limestone.  Beds  of  limestone  consist  of  calcium  carbonate  par- 
ticles with  usually  a  cement  of  the  same  material,  although  the  term 
limestone  is  generally  applied  as  well  to  dolomite,  a  form  in  which 
part  of  the  calcium  carbonate  is  replaced  with  magnesium  carbonate. 
It  occurs  often  in  exceedingly  wide  bodies,  and  is  the  source  of 
petroleum  in  the  Canadian  fields  of  Ontario,  in  Ohio  and  Indiana, 
and  is  the  main  productive  body  at  the  Spindle  Top  fields  in  Texas. 
Wells  drilled  in  these  fields  are  frequently  dynamited  with  nitro- 
glycerine in  order  to  loosen  the  formation  and  extend  the  zone  from 
which  the  oil  is  drawn. 

Gravels  and  Conglomerates.  These  are  composed  of  rounded 
pebbles  of  all  sizes  with  collections  of  finer  material  occupying  the 
voids  between.  Like  the  sands,  they  have  a  shallow  water  origin 
and  their  properties  of  texture  and  porosity  bear  similar  relations  to 
the  collection  and  retention  of  bodies  of  oil. 

Origin  of  Oil. 

The  invariable  association  of  gas  with  oil,  although  the  lat- 
ter may  sometimes  form  alone,  seems  to  establish  the  fact 
that  they  have  the  same  or  a  similar  origin.  Two  general  classes 
of  theories  as  to  the  origin  of  petroleum  have  been  developed,  known 
as  the  inorganic  theory  and  the  organic  theory,  and  while  these  have 
in  turn  been  subjected  to  many  interpretations,  by  as  many  theorists, 
the  fundamentals  only  of  each  will  be  given  below.  The  inorganic 
theory  has  been  put  forward  by  chemists  and  is,  in  a  general  sense, 
that  surface  waters  pass  to  the  heated  interior  portions  of  the  earth, 
where  they  are  converted  into  steam  and  combine  with  carbide  of 
iron  to  form  the  hydro-carbon  products;  these  are  then  forced  back 


34  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

to  or  near  the  surface  by  the  force  of  the  steam  generated.  Geological 
developments,  however,  fail  to  substantiate  this  theory. 

The  organic  theory  ascribes  animal  and  vegetable  matter  as  the 
source  of  petroleum,  and  holds  that  this  matter  has  been  subjected  to 
a  slow  distillation  while  covered  so  that  no  air  was  present.  It 
accords  more  nearly  with  the  facts  of  the  occurrence  of  crude  oil 
and  is  the  generally  accepted  theory.  The  scattered  distribution  of 
oil,  its  almost  invariable  association  with  sedimentary  rocks  either 
containing  or,  closely  situated  to,  fossils,  and  the  fact  that  ordinary 
fish  oil  may  be  distilled  so  as  to  yield  a  number  of  the  petroleum 
products,  all  seem  to  point  towards  petroleum  having  originated 
from  some  form  of  life  the  remains  of  which  have  been  subsequently 
heated  without  access  to  aif  and  thereby  distilled. 

The  trend  in  the  more  recent  discussion  of  this  subject  has  been 
in  the  direction  of  placing  vegetable  rather  than  animal  remains  as 
the  principal  source  of  the  oil.*  The  immense  amount  of  animal 
matter  that  would  be  required  to  supply  the  material  and  the  present 
day  conditions  that  may  be  noted  in  many  parts  of  the  world  where 
vegetation  accumulates  in  huge  quantities  in  marshes,  lagoons,  and 
bwamps  are  cited  as  evidence  pointing  in  this  direction.  This  accords 
also  with  the  fact  that  oil  is  usually  found  in  sands  and  that  these 
are  shallow  water  deposits. 

Relation  of  Rock  Structure  to  the  Occurrence  of  Petroleum. 

It  is  evident  that  when  material  has  been  eroded  and  transported 
to  where  it  is  to  be  deposited,  the  deposition  will  not  be  uniform 
but  that  the  coarser  and  heavier  bodies  will  sink  first,  leaving  the 
finer  particles  in  a  longer  period  of  suspension.  For  this  reason 
sands  and  gravels  imply  shallow  water  deposition  while  the  more 
comminuted  materials  that  form  the  shales  and  clays  remain  in 
suspension  and  are  transported  farther  from  shore  so  that  they  are 
deposited  at  greater  depths  and  in  more  quiet  waters.  In  the  course 
of  time  these  become  covered  with  further  depositions,  the  weight 
of  the  overlying  strata  causes  the  lower  measures  to  become  more 
compact  and  rock-like,  and  there  are  built  up  wide  bodies  of  strata 
horizontally  placed,  or  with  only  a  slight  inclination.  During  this 
period  the  shore  line  may  advance  and  retreat  many  times,  so  that 
what  was  deep  water  becomes  shallow,  resulting  in  a  bed  of  sand 
being  deposited  on  top  of  a  layer  of  clay,  and  vice  versa  (Figure  14). 
Eventually  the  constant  effort  of  the  internal  forces  at  work  in  the 

*E.    H.    C.    Craig;    'Oil    Finding.' 


GEOLOGY 


35 


earth's  interior  may  alter  the  position  of  the  entire  mass,  or  portions 
of  it,  and  tangential  stresses  may  distort  it  by  causing  it  to  crinkle 
and  bend  into  arch-like  folds. 

The  stratified  rocks  as  found  exposed  on  the  surface  of  the  earth 
are  rarely  horizontal  and  uniformly  continuous,  but  instead  may  be 
tilted,  folded,  or  have  portions  thrown  off  and  their  continuity  broken 
to  such  an  extent  that  their  exact  interrelation  may  be  established 
only  by  a  careful  survey  over  an  extended  area.  Such  work  becomes 
more  complex  through  the  fact  that  as  soon  as  strata  are  elevated 
above  sea  level  their  degradation  begins  and,  as  they  stand  now,  only 
small  portions  of  some  remain,  the  rest  having  been  eroded  and 
carried  away. 


Fig.     14.     SAND    STRATA    OF    DIMINISHING    THICKNESS 

The  dip  of  a  stratum  is  the  angle  between  its  inclination  and  a 
horizontal  plane.  This  is  expressed  in  degrees  and  in  direction — 
thus  15°  N42W.  For  measuring  the  dip,  several  forms  of  clinometers 
are  used,  the  simplest  of  which  is  similar  in  appearance  to  an  ordinary 
pocket  folding  rule  with  two  legs  working  on  a  hinge.  One  leg  is 
placed  on  the  stratum  in  the  direction  of  its  greatest  inclination,  and 
the  other  is  swung  upwards  until  it  is  horizontal  as  indicated  by  the 
bubble  in  a  level  which  it  holds.  The  angle  is  then  read  on  a  circular 
scale  attached  to  it.  The  direction  it  takes  when  placed  at  the 
maximum  inclination  is  the  direction  of  the  dip.  Other  forms  of 
clinometers,  with  which  compasses  are  combined,  give  direct  readings 
of  the  dip  and  direction  at  the  same  time.  As  strata  often  contain 
minor  small  waves  it  is  better  when  taking  the  dip  and  a  sufficiently 
wide  exposure  can  be  found,  to  place  a  board  or  stick  on  it,  conform- 
ing to  the  general  direction  and  to  place  the  clinometer  on  the  board. 

The  strike  is  the  line  of  direction  taken  by  strata,  or  the  line  that 
would  be  formed  by  the  intersection  of  the  strata  and  a  horizontal 


36 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


plane.  This  is  represented  by  the  line  ad  in  Fig.  15.  Obviously  this 
is  at  right  angles  with  the  direction  of  the  dip,  and  when  the  strata 
are  not  bent,  it  will  be  a  straight  line.  Should  the  strata  not  only 
dip  but  bend  also,  then  the  strike  will  be  a  curve  and  when  the 
measures  have  been  upturned  into  a  dome-like  structure,  so  that 


Fig.    15.     DIP    AND    STRIKE    OF    STRATA 

each   stratum  occupies   the  position  of  an   inverted  bowl,  the  strike 
takes  the  form  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle. 

Anticline  is  the  name  given  to  the  arch-like  position  taken  by 
strata  when  they  have  been  folded.  The  corresponding  position  of 
strata  when  they  are  bent  down  and  then  up  is  known  -as  a  synclinc, 
and  frequently  the  crinkling  in  the  earth's  crust  that  has  brought 
about  the  folding  structure  has  resulted  in  a  series  of  wave-like 
alternating  anticlines  and  synclines  (Fig.  16). 


jSyncline  j  Anticline 


Fig.   16.     SYNCLINE  AND  ANTICLINE 


GEOLOGY  37 

Where  a  series  of  strata  is  in  an  inclined  position  without  the 
development  of  folding  apparent  or  nearby,  the  structural  form  is 
known  as  a  monocline.  A  monocline  is  really  only  one  portion  of 
a  broad  general  fold.  The  line  along  the  top  of  an  anticline  is  the 
anticlinal  axis;  that  along  the  bottom  of  the  syncline  is  the  synclinal 
axis. 

The  anticlinal  theory,  of  I.  C.  White,  relating  to  oil  formation 
was  first  brought  out  in.  connection  with  the  development  of  the 
Appalachian  fields  and  has  had  a  wide  application  since  then  in 
many  districts.  It  holds  that,  where  strata  are  horizontal  the  oil 
and  gas  are  irregularly  scattered  through  the  measure  containing 
them,  while  in  folded  districts  the  oil  and  gas  collect  at  the  sum- 
mits of  the  anticlines,  and  the  synclines  between  are  apt  to  be  bar- 
ren or  to  hold  water.  Another  theory,  that  of  Lesley  and  Ash- 
burner,  assumes  porous  areas  of  rock  in  which  the  oil  has  gath- 
ered, and  is  also  applicable  in  some  fields. 

Aside  from  theories,  however,  it  is  now  a  well-established  fact 
that  practically  all  petroleum  is  obtained  from  sedimentaries  and 
that  the  major  portion  is  derived  from  the  sands  and  sandstones, 
and  that  these  productive  measures  are  usually  overlain  with  a 
so-called  cap  rock.  The  cap  rock  is  an  impervious  layer,  of  clay, 
shale,  or  some  other  compact  material,  which  prevents  ascension 
on  the  part  of  the  gas  and  oil  into  higher  strata  and  is  especially 
important  in  connection  with  the  anticlinal  theory. 

In  connection  with  the  latter,  the  evidence  developed  in  many 
fields  shows  that  the  fluids  confined  in  a  sedimentary  measure  tend 
in  the  course  of  time  to  separate  according  to  their  respective  spe- 
cific gravities.  The  gas  rises  to  the  topmost  point  available  while 
the  water,  if  such  be  present  (and  salt  water  is  almost  invariably 
associated  with  petroleum)  displaces  the  oil  by  reason  of  its 
greater  weight.  Thus  there  are  three  fairly  well-marked  zones, 
first  the  gas,  then  the  oil,  and  finally  at  the  bottom  the  water. 
(Fig.  17.)  The  transition  from  gas  to  oil  is  not  as  definite  and 
may  not  be  so  clearly  shown  as  that  from  oil  to  water.  In  the 
latter  it  is  not  uncommon  to  trace  out  within  a  short  distance, 
along  a  line  of  wells  which  penetrates  the  oil  at  greater  and  greater 
depths,  a  gradual  change  from  oil  with  no  water  content  to  that 
containing  a  slight  and  then  increasing  percentage  till  finally  a 
well  far  enough  out  on  the  trough  of  the  syncline  will  be  drilled 
which  yields  water  only  and  no  oil. 


38 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


Fig.    17.     ANTICLINAL    THEORY,    GAS,    OIL    AND    WATER       . 

The  application  of  this  principle  should  be  remembered  when 
development  work  is  being  carried  on  in  districts  where  folding 
obtains  and  where  prospecting  wells  are  being  sunk  to  the  deeper 
portions  of  known  productive  measures.  In  such  cases,  water 
sands  containing  traces  of  oil  and  gas  may  be  encountered  at  the 
depth  at  which  oil  was  to  be  expected  and  the  futility  of  further 
prospecting  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  becomes  thereby 
demonstrated. 

When  strata  have  been  disturbed  and  dislocated  so  that  they  are 
no  longer  completely  continuous,  they  are  said  tp  be  faulted.  The 
plane  of  fracture,  known  as  the  fault  plane,  is  rarely  vertical  but 
will  incline,  thus  leaving  one  side  above  the  other.  Normal  faults 
(Fig.  18a)  are  those  in  which  the  upper  side,  or  hanging  wall,  has 


(a)    NORMAL   FAULT 


Fig.    18. 


fb)    THRUST   FAULT 


fallen  to  a  relatively  lower  position  than  the  foot-wall ;  thrust  faults 
(Fig.  18b)  are  those  in  which  the  reverse  is  the  case  and  the  hanging 
wall  has  been  thrust  forward  and  pushed  upward  against  the 
sloping  fault  plane  surface  of  the  foot-wall ;  these  are  more 
common  than  the  former.  Folding  seldom  exists  without  the 
presence  of  faults,  varying  in  size  from  fractures  of  a  few  inches 


GEOLOGY  39 

to  displacements  of  thousands  of  feet.  Their  influence  on  the 
accumulation  of  petroleum  is  discovered  in  the  field  only  with  great 
difficulty  in  many  localities,  and  seems  to  follow  no  set  rule. 

A  popular  misconception  seems  to  be  that  faults  are  inimical 
to  structure  associated  with  the  presence  of  oil  and  that  where 
faults  may  be  observed,  the  prospects  of  finding  oil  are  remote. 
While  it  is  quite  true  that  where  the  country  is  much  'broken  up/ 
that  is  to  say,  faulted  to  an  extreme  degree,  the  conditions  are 
not  favorable  and  the  discovery  of  oil  in  a  well  drilled  in  such  a 
locality  may  prove  the  presence  of  petroleum  for  only  a  small 
surrounding  area,  yet  it  must  be  remembered  that  folding  and 
faulting  are  the  results  of  the  same  kinds  of  earth  movements,  and 
the  two  are  usually  associated. 

The  fractures  or  open  spaces  formed  at  the  summits  of  anti- 
clinal folds  by  faulting  have  in  many  cases,  no  doubt,  provided 
space  for  the  accumulation  of  vast  quantities  of  oil.  In  other 
cases  they  have  disturbed  the  measures  to  such  an  extent  that 
they  have  lost  such  petroleum  as  may  at  one  time  have  been 
contained  therein.  Such  irregularities  also  tend  to  increase  greatly 
the  mechanical  difficulty  of  drilling.  Several  well  known  examples 
exist  where  definite  fault  planes  have  been  the  sources  of 
immense  production.  In  such  cases,  as  in  the  Ventura  field,  the 
direction  of  the  fault  plane  when  once  ascertained  determines  the 
situation  of  the  wells,  which  extend  across  the  country  in  a  narrow 
straight  line.  A  frequent  cause  of  monoclinal  structure  is  the 
faulting  that  occurs  at  the  time  folding  is  going  on,  because  the 
strata  lack  the  necessary  flexibility  to  lend  themselves  to  bending 
into  the  anticlinal  form  and  become  broken. 

In  the  brief  review  that  has  been  given  of  the  development  of 
structural  forms,  it  should  not  be  imagined  that  folds  have  the 
beautiful  symmetry  usually  ascribed  to  them  in  sketches,  or  that 
they  are  always  easily  deciphered  in  the  field.  They  usually  have 
one  side  steeper  than  the  other,  the  side  having  the  greater  dip 
being  in  the  direction  from  which  the  pressure  was  applied  that 
caused  the  folding.  It  will  be  seen  (Fig.  19)  that  under  such  a 
condition  a  marked  difference  obtains  as  far  as  the  petroleum 
development  is  concerned  and  that  the  gently  sloping  side  will 
offer  room  for  more  wells  at  shallow  depths  than  does  the  more 
steeply  inclined  flank  of  the  anticline. 

Folds  may  turn  under  and  back  again  as  shown  in  Fig.  20, 
in  which  case  they  are  known  as  overturns ;  they  may,  and  usually 
do  bend,  and  when  the  forces  that  have  brought  about  the  deforma- 


40 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


Fig.    19.     ANTICLINE    WITH    ONE    SIDE    STEEPER    THAN    THE    OTHER 


Fig.    20.     OVERTURN    FOLD 

tion  of  the  strata  have  been  applied  from  several  different  direc- 
tions at  different  times  the  resulting  structure  and  shapes  may 
become  exceedingly  involved. 

Frequently  they  will  tend  to  flatten  or  broaden  out  in  the 
direction  of  their  strike.  Or  they  may  retain  their  folded  structure 
but  will  dip  as  an  entirety  in  the  direction  of  the  strike,  in  which 
case  they  are  said  to  plunge.  Either  of  the  latter  two  examples 
may  bring  about  the  dome  structure  in  which  the  measures  dip  away 
in  all  directions  from  some  central  point.  Both  from  a  theoretical 
standpoint,  and  from  the  results  of  actual  developments  of  oil  fields, 
the  dome  structure  is  seen  to  be  the  most  favorable  for  the  accumu- 
lation of  bodies  of  petroleum.  When  the  oil  measures  are  overlain 
by  an  impervious  stratum,  namely,  the  cap  rock,  that  prevents  further 
upward  migration  of  the  oil  and  gas,  the  conditions  are  ideal  for 
their  gathering  towards  the  summit  of  the  measures,  and  this  type 
is  found  in  some  of  the  most  famous  and  productive  districts.  Perfect 
domes,  however,  are  rare  and  they  are  more  often  found  with  one 
axis  longer  than  the  other,  with  the  axes  bent,  and  frequently  with  no 


GEOLOGY 


41 


symmetry  whatever  as  far  as  the  relation  of  the  dips  to  the  axes  is 
concerned. 

It  not  infrequently  happens  in  studying  the  geology  of  stratified 
rocks  in  the  field  that  a  form  of  structure  similar  to  that  indicated  in 
Fig.  21  is  found.  This  type,  in  which  one  series  of  strata  is  seen  to 


Fig.    21.     UNCONFORMITY 

lie  unconformably  on  a  lower  series  is  known  as  an  unconformity, 
and  has  its  origin  in  conditions  which  were  essentially  that  after  the 
strata  a  had  been  deposited  they  were  elevated,  eroded,  then  sub- 
merged, and  became  the  sea-bottom  on  which  were  deposited  the 
strata  b.  Subsequently  the  entire  mass  has  been  elevated  and  tilted. 
It  is  evident  that  such  forms  indicate  the  elapse  of  long  time  intervals 
between  the  deposition  of  the  two  series  and  the  determination  of 
unconformities  are  important  features  in  establishing  the  time  relations 
of  different  strata.  Sometimes  the  strata  may  be  parallel  (Fig.  22) 


Fig.    22.     UNCONFORMITY 


42  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

and  the  only  indication  of  the  unconformity  will  be  the  uneven  nature 
of  the  top  of  the  older  and  lower  series.  More  often,  however,  the 
dips  take  different  directions. 

The  detection  of  the  necessary  evidence  by  which  the  structure 
may  be  learned  is  not  always  easily  accomplished.  The  forces  of  ero- 
sion have  been  cutting  and  wearing  away  the  surface,  exposing  outcrops 
at  some  points  and  obliterating  the  'bed-rock'  with  detrital  material 
at  others,  so  that  one  learns  to  take  advantage  of  every  possible  piece 
of  evidence  to  be  found.  All  dips  are  measured,  faulting  is  closely 
studied  and  the  distance  of  throw  measured  wherever  possible,  and 
all  the  data  entered  on  as  complete  a  topographic  map  as  may  be 
obtained. 

Topographic  maps  show  the  relief  or  surface  of  the  ground  as  it 
is  today  by  means  of  contour  lines,  which  are  the  lines  drawn  through 
all  points  having  a  common  altitude.  If  one  were  to  walk  along  the 
ground  following  the  course  indicated  by  a  contour  line  on  the  map 
he  would  go  neither  up  nor  down  but  would  remain  constantly  at  the 
same  elevation.  Contour  lines  are  arbitrarily  spaced  so  as  to  represent 
equal  successive  vertical  distances.  Thus  the  50- ft.  contour  along  the 
coast  would  be  the  line  made  by  the  edge  of  the  sea  if  it  were  to 
raise  50  ft. ;  the  100-ft.  contour  is  50  ft.  above  this,  and  so  on.  Many 
do  not  know  the  value  of  such  maps,  and  the  ease  with  which  the 
topographic  maps  of  the  United  States  may  be  obtained  for  a  small 
sum  from  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  at  Washington.  An 
inquiry  to  the  director  thereof  will  bring  an  index  map  showing 
which  portions  of  any  state  have  been  mapped  and  where  these  sheets 
may  be  purchased  locally.  In  geological  maps  the  underground 
position  of  oil-bearing  measures  is  also  shown  by  contour  lines  referred 
to  sea  level  as  a  base,  and  designated  with  a  minus  sign  prefixed 
when  they  signify  depths  below  sea  level,  Fig.  23. 

While  it  is  of  course  unsafe  to  predicate  the  geological  structure 
from  map  contours  without  field  examination,  yet  these  maps  are  a 
valuable  help  in  the  field  and  the  topography  frequently  reflects  the 
nature  of  the  geology.  Faults  may  be  indicated  by  steep  sharp  scarps, 
and  folding  from  hills  and  irregularities  conforming  in  a  general  way 
to  the  underground  structure,  although  as  often  as  not  the  axis  of 
an  anticline  will  not  be  found  at  the  summit  of  a  hill  but  on  one  of 
the  sides. 

As  a  simple  example  of  the  determination  of  structure  it  will  be 
seen  (Fig.  24)  that  in  going  over  the  hill  from  north  to  south  the 
dip  at  a  would  be  found  to  be  21°  N.  and  the  measure  noted  as  a 
brown  shale;  going  further  up  the  hill  one  passes  over  a  body  of 


GEOLOGY 


43 


Surface  Contours 

Oi'J . 


Fig.  23.  TOPOGRAPHIC  MAP  SHOWING  BOTH  SURFACE  AND  UNDERGROUND 

CONTOURS 


\ 


A/orth 


South 


Fig.    24.     DETERMINATION    OF    STRUCTURE    BY    OBSERVING    DIPS 


44 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


light  sandstone  with  a  steeper  dip,  say  48°  N.  at  b,  and  beyond  this 
at  c  a  measure  of  brown  sandstone  with  dips  increasing  from  60°  N. 
up  to  80°  and  more.  When  the  crest  of  the  hill  has 'been  passed  the 
same  measures  are  traversed  again  in  reverse  order  and  with  approxi- 
mately the  same  dips  at  d,  c  and  f,  except  that  now  they  point  south. 
Such  evidence  indicates  clearly  that  the  structure  is  a  simple  fold 
and  that  as  far  as  the  section  represented  by  the  line  of  the  walk  is 
concerned,  the  fold  is  symmetrical. 

Suppose,  however,  that  faulting  has  taken  place  along  the  lines 
indicated  in  Fig.  25.  Casual  observation  might  ascribe  a  greater 
thickness  to  the  measure  than  it  really  has  and  often  it  is  only  by 
the  most  painstaking  care  in  differentiating  between  minor  charac- 
teristics in  exposures  that  one  is  able  to  detect  such  repetitions  and 


Fig.    25.     ILLUSTRATING    HOW    THICKNESS    OF    STRATA    MAY    APPEAR 
GREATER,   DUE  TO   FAULTING 

establish  the  presence  of  faults.  Or  it  may  be  that  the  structure  is 
that  shown  in  Fig.  20  and  the  dips  all  appear  to  have  a  single  general 
direction.  In  this  case  the  relative  positions  of  the  measures  supply 
the  key  to  the  situation. 

From  the  sketches  shown  of  typical  folds  it  is  apparent  that  in 
nearly  all  cases  where  rolling  hills  represent  anticlinal  structure  the 
dip  of  the  strata  is  greater  than  the  grade  of  the  land  surface,  and 
that  any  single  stratum  approaches  the  surface  as  it  rises,  reaching 
the  nearest  point  to  the  surface  at  the  anticlinal  axis.  This  rule 
obtains  generally  for  monoclinal  structure  as  well,  and  explains  the 
well-known  fact  that  holes  sunk  on  the  crest  of  hills  are  usually 
the  shallowest,  with  the  depths  to  the  productive  measure  increasing 
in  those  further  down  on  the  slopes  (Fig.  26).  It  should  not  be 
accepted  as  a  rule  that  the  anticlinal  axis  or  summit  conforms  to 
the  crest  of  a  hill,  as  differential  weathering  and  erosion  may  wear 


GEOLOGY 


45 


SHOWING  WHY  THE  SHALLOWEST  WELLS  ARE  NEAREST  THE 
CREST    OF   A   HILL 


away  the  softer  strata  under  some  conditions  so  that  the  highest 
point  topographically  lies  off  to  one  side  and  over  one  flank  of  the 
anticline  (Fig.  27). 


Fig.    27.     DIAGRAM    SHOWING    THAT    APEX    OF    FOLD    IS    NOT    ALWAYS 

TOP    OF    HILL 

The  dip  of  a  measure  is  of  course  not  a  constant  factor,  and  as 
it  falls  away  from  the  summit  it  tends  to  approach  a  horizontal 
position.  When  sufficient  wells  have  been  drilled  along  a  line  to 
establish  the  relation  between  the  dip  and  the  surface  gradient,  it  is 
an  easy  matter  to  plat  them  to  scale  and  to  predict  within  narrow 
limits  the  depth  of  a  well  at  any  given  point  (Fig.  28).  Such  platting 
when  carefully  done  helps  to  bring  out  the  presence  of  minor  folds 
or  waves  and  irregularities  in  the  measure,  if  such  be  present. 


46 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


-  .   Underground  Oil  C's  f   *no"" 

•  *  I  /1f»proxi m+f« 

•        A/*// 

Fig.    28.     SURFACE   AND   UNDERGROUND    CONTOUR    MAP    FOR    GRAPHIC 
REPRESENTATION    OF    OILFIELD    STRUCTURE 

Surface  Indications  of  Oil. 

Aside  from  the  study  of  geological  structure  and  the  applica- 
tion of  such  information  to  the  question  as  to  whether  or  not  oil 
may  be  found  in  underlying  strata,  there  are  certain  occurrences 
of  surface  phenomena  which  often  suggest  the  presence  of  oil  and 
which,  in  fact,  are  what  usually  lead  to  the  first  hope  or  belief  that 
oil  may  be  present. 

The  first,  and  most  commonly  observed,  of  these  are  the  seep- 
ages of  oil  found  in  districts  all  over  the  world.  They  are  usually 
detected  by  the  light  iridescent  film  or  play  of  colors  on  top  of  the 
water  emerging  from  springs  in  ravines.  Although  the  actual 
amount  of  oil  present  is  apt  to  be  very  slight,  occasionally  it  is 
present  in  greater  quantities,  but  in  any  case  the  characteristic 


GEOLOGY 


47 


odor  of  petroleum  readily  identifies  it  and  distinguishes  it  from 
some  of  the  compounds  of  iron  that  also  form  the  colors  on  water 
and  are  often  mistaken  for  oil  indications.  It  may  also  be  dis- 
criminated by  breaking  the  film. 

Seepages  may  result  from  fracture  planes  in  the  earth  supplying 
a  passage  way  for  the  oil  from  the  point  of  origin  to  the  surface,  or 


Fig.    29.     OIL    SEEPAGE    NEAR    KATALLA,    ALASKA 

by  direct  mixing  at  or  near  the  surface  of  water  with  the  oil  from 
measures  outcropping  nearby.  The  nature  of  the  oil  may  fre- 
quently be  learned  by  observing  it  carefully.  Asphalt  oil  tends  to 
dry  and  form  small  deposits  of  solid  asphalt,  while  that  with  a 
paraffin  base  will  flow  for  a  longer  period,  eventually  forming  small 
particles  of  a  brown  substance  that  often  takes  a  reddish  tinge. 


48  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

In  other  occurrences  the  oil  in  its  upward  migration  has  been  sub- 
jected to  filtering  processes  which  have  removed  from  it  the  greater 
portion  of  its  heavier  constituents,  leaving  it  light  and  clear,  and  it 
is  evident  that  samples  of  such  will  be  misleading  if  accepted  as 
indications  of  the  quality  of  petroleum  that  will  be  encountered  with 
drilling.  In  any  case,  when  oils  have  reached  the  surface  the  more 
volatile  varieties  will  tend  to  disseminate  more  readily  while  the 
heavier  ones  will  thicken  and  gather  locally.  Often  a  seepage  of 
gas  will  lead  to  the  discovery  of  petroleum  when  no  signs  of  the 
oil  itself  may  be  found. 

Other  indications  of  the  presence  of  oil,  commonly  observed,  are 
the  outcrops  of  oil-bearing  strata.  These  may  be  detected  by  their 
appearance  and  discoloration,  their  odor,  and  by  the  test  of  placing 
a  few  grains  in  a  test-tube  containing  chloroform  and  watching  for 
the  brown  color  that  will  appear  if  these  hydro-carbons  are  present. 
Slight  showings  of  sulphur  flakes  may  be  found  in  them  also,  and 
their  effect  on  vegetation  is  often  so  pronounced  in  contrast  with 
that  supported  by  the  neighboring  non-petroliferous  measures,  that, 
at  some  seasons  of  the  year,  such  an  outcrop  may  be  traced  across 
the  country  for  considerable  distances  by  observing  only  the 
marked  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  grass  or  other  growths. 
All  these  indications,  however,  are  much  more  apparent  with  out- 
crops bearing  an  asphalt  oil  than  when  the  oil  is  the  lighter  and 
more  volatile  variety  with  a  paraffin  base.  In  the  latter  case,  the 
faint  odor  of  vaseline  may  be  the  only  means  of  its  identification. 
Outcrops  of  measures  heavily  impregnated  with  asphalt  oil  make 
excellent  road-building  material  and  are  frequently  quarried  for 
this  purpose. 

A  third  form  of  Indication  occurs  when  neither  oil  nor  gas 
may  be  definitely  found  but  when  the  evidence  of  their  action  on 
other  materials  may  be  observed,  as  in  the  case  of  the  presence  of 
small  flakes  of  sulphur  and  the  foul-smelling  gas  hydrogen  sul- 
phide, associated  with  the  fields  where  limestone  is  the  source  of 
the  oil.  In  these  districts  the  outcrops  of  the  oil-bearing  strata 
rarely  carry  direct  indications,  but  the  sulphur  deposited  along 
small  stream  courses  and  the  hydrogen  sulphide,  detected  particu- 
larly in  damp  weather,  are  suggestive  guides. 

It  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that  every  petroleum  seepage 
or  outcrop  of  an  oil  sand  is  indicative  of  the  presence  of  oil  in 
abundant  quantities.  Many  seepages  are  found  but  few  develop 
into  oil  fields,  because  the  oil  may  never  have  been  present  in  the 


GEOLOGY  49 

strata  except  in  minute  quantities,  or,  if  there  at  one  time,  it  may 
have  escaped  because  of  any  one  of  a  number  of  geological  changes 
and  the  resulting  alterations  in  underground  conditions  and 
structure. 

Location  and  Spacing  of  Wells. 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  evident  that,  as  far  as  is  possible,  the 
geological  conditions  should  determine  the  locations  of  wells,  es- 
pecially in  a  new  field  where  the  first  test,  or  'wildcat/  well  is  to 
be  drilled  without  positive  knowledge  of  the  presence  of  oil.  When 
the  structure  is  found  to  be  anticlinal  or  that  of  a  dome,  and  topog- 
raphy, ownership,  etc.,  permit,  the  well  should  be  placed  on  the 
summit  of  the  fold  where  the  prospects  are  that  the  best  showing 
will  be  obtained  at  the  shallowest  depth,  thereby  minimizing  the 
expense.  .  When  the  well  is  to  be  drilled  to  reach  a  measure  that  is 
exposed  at  the  surface,  its  dips  and  surrounding  strata  should  be 
learned.  Faults,  if  any,  should  be  determined,  and,  from  the  data 
thus  obtained  and  the  knowledge  as  to  the  approximate  depth  at 
which  it  is  desired  to  penetrate  the  oil  sand,  a  rough  idea  may  be 
reached  as  to  the  distance  from  the  outcrop  the  well  should  be 
placed. 

Thus  if  the  surface  exposure  dips  30°  and  it  is  believed  from 
local  evidence  that  the  lessening  in  dip  is  such  that  the  average  dip 
to  where  the  measure  is  800  feet  deep  is  5°  less,  or  25°,  then  the 
determination  of  the  horizontal  distance  to  a  point  800  ft.  above 
the  measure  becomes  a  simple  problem,  in  this  case  working  out 
to  be  1715  ft.  If  in  this  distance  the  elevation  falls  off,  say  70  ft., 
below  that  of  the  outcrop,  then  the  actual  distance  to  be  drilled 
becomes  lessened  to  that  extent.  Such  computations,  due  to  the 
variable  factor  of  the  change  in  dip,  are  necessarily  of  indefinite 
value  and  can  be  used  only  in  a  very  broad  way.  They  do,  how- 
ever, bring  out  the  point  that  where  measures  are  steeply  in- 
clined it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  field  will  be  narrow  and  a  pros- 
pect well  should  be  situated  nearer  the  outcrop  than  where  the 
dip  is  known  to  be  more  gently  sloping.  Such  freedom  as  out- 
lined above  does  not  of  course  hold  true  where  property  lines  pre- 
scribe limits  within  which  wells  must  be  situated. 

Since  a  well  when  once  drilled  derives  its  oil  from  a  zone  ex- 
tending in  all  directions  about  it,  the  natural  tendency  is  to  place 
it  as  near  to  the  neighbor's  property  as  possible  in  order  that  a 
portion  of  his  oil  may  be  drawn  on  and  contribute  to  the  supply. 
For  this  reason  mutual  agreements  are  usually  adopted  by  adjoin- 


50  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

ing  owners,  to  the  effect  that  neither  will  drill  within  a  certain  dis- 
tance of  the  line,  say  100  or  150  feet.  For  this  reason  also  the  out- 
side locations,  that  is,  the  locations  along-  the  line  at  this  stated 
distance,  known  as  the  'line  wells,'  are  usually  drilled  first  and 
the  inside  locations  later. 

The  spacing  of  wells  is  a  matter  that  must  depend  entirely  on 
local  conditions,  particularly  those  relating  to  the  nature  of  the 
sand  or  other  productive  measure,  and  the  gravity  of  the  oil.  If 
the  oil  is  heavy  and  viscous  or  the  source  is  tight,  they  may  be 
situated  much  more  closely  together  than  where  the  oil  is  light 
and  flows  readily  and  the  containing  measure  is  open  and  porous. 
It  is  seldom  advantageous  to  distance  them  less  than  100  ft.,  while 
300  ft.  is  more  often  good  practice,  and  even  500  ft.  or  greater 
where  gas  pressures  are  high  and  the  oil  very  mobile.  The  close 
crowding  of  wells  that  has  resulted  in  some  fields  from  the  land 
being  owned  or  leased  in  small  parcels  has  meant  a  distinct  eco- 
nomic waste  where  half  the  number  would  have  sufficed  to  pro- 
duce an  equivalent  amount  of  oil. 

When  the  outside  wells  have  been  finished,  the  inside  locations 
are  then  drilled,  usually  according  to  some  definite  plan  or  system 
worked  out  by  which  it  is  designed  to  secure  all  the  recoverable 
oil  with  a  minimum  number  of  wells  and  without  interfering  with 
surface  improvements  such  as  tanks,  buildings,  or  sumps. 

Logs. 

The  log  is  a  record  of  the  well  from  the  time  of 'its  beginning 
until  its  completion  and  shows  the  depths  and  thicknesses  of  strata 
drilled,  points  at  which  water,  gas,  and  oil  are  found  as  well  as 
other  data  relative  to  its  history.  To  this  end  the  log  should  also 
contain  not  only  the  record  of  casing  inserted  but  also  any  other 
features  that  may  be  of  importance  at  some  later  time,  such  as 
unusual  fishing  jobs,  tools,  or  casing  left  in  the  hole  and  side- 
tracked. Such  items,  while  apparently  of  little  moment  at  the 
time  as  far  as  the  log  is  concerned,  may  have  an  important  bearing 
on  work  being  carried  on  with  the  well  possibly  several  years  later 
when  the  knowledge  as  to  just  where  different  troubles  had  hap- 
pened in  the  first  drilling  may  prove  of  considerable  value. 

The  nomenclature  of  the  oil  fields  has  many  unique  names  and 
strange  uses  for  old  words.  Drillers  from  different  parts  of  the 
country  meeting  on  the  same  ground  find  themselves  using  differ- 
ent expressions  for  the  same  thing,  as  the  Texan's  use  of  'gumbo' 


GEOLOGY  5 1 

for  the  Pennsylvanian's  'sticky  clay,'  and  the  latter's  'shell'^  for 
the  Texan's  'rock,'  both  meaning  any  hard  substance.  Such  lo- 
calisms have  resulted  in  there  being  no  common  tongue  in  the 
description  of  material  drilled,  and  the  knowledge  of  what  these 
expressions  may  mean  is  rather  necessary  to  a  complete  interpre- 
tation of  the  usual  log. 

Logs  may  be  compiled  from  daily  drilling  reports  where  they 
are  in  use.  Where  they  are  not,  the  log  is  usually  kept  in  a  note- 
book by  the  drillers  or  the  foreman.  The  use  of  drilling  reports, 
however,  is  far  more  satisfactory,  especially  if  supplemented  by  a 
diary  kept  by  the  superintendent.  The  usual  shift  in  oil  field 
work  is  twelve  hours,  from  noon  till  midnight,  and  from  midnight 
till  noon ;  two  reports,  one  for  each  crew,  show  the  advance  made 
during  the  day  and  such  other  information  as  is  desired.  These 
blanks  are  printed  in  triplicate  and  bound  into  books  of  50  or  100 
sets;  two  copies  are  torn  from  the  book  and  turned  in  at  the  end 
of  the  'tower/  the  oil  field  term  for  shift.  One  copy  goes  to  the 
main  office,  the  other  remains  at  field  headquarters,  the  third  stays 
with  the  book  at  the  well. 

Drilling  Report. 

Well  No.  .  Date.. 


Came  on  tower  at.. |  Anight 

Began  tower  at  ft. 

During  tower  made  ft. 

Depth  at  end  of  tower  ft. 

Formation. 

From  to  ft 

From to  ft 

From  to  ft 

Struck  water  at    

Struck  gas  at 

Struck  oil   at    

Size  of  casing   

Casing  in  hole  at  beginning 

Casing  put  in  during  tower 

Casing  now  in  hole ? 

Remarks    


Driller    

Tool  Dresser   . 


Note  all  changes  in  formation,  examine  all  machinery 
and  tools  carefully  before  using  and  report  all  accidents 
promptly  to  office. 


52 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


W  EL  L.       NO 

Situation 


Elevation 

Started Finished 


Drilled  by. 


Wester  shut  off  at. 
Oil  at 


*r 

13"  440 


6   -1360 


Surface  sand 
G  grarel 

42.0 

Blue  sha/e 


as 


69O 


san 


». 

O//    sand 


Fig.   30.     GRAPHIC  LOG 


GEOLOGY 


53 


When  wells  have  been  completed,  the  best  manner  of  compil- 
ing the  logs  for  future  reference  is  some  form  of  graphic  represen- 
tation. This  may  be  an  elaborately  colored  drawing,  or  a  more 
simple  sketch,  prepared  on  tracing  cloth  so  that  blue  prints  may  be 
taken  from  it,  along  the  lines  of  the  typical  log  shown  in  Fig.  30, 
which  embodies  all  the  information  necessary  for  ordinary  reference. 

When  several  wells  have  been  drilled  in  a  neighborhood,  the 
use  of  models,  very  similar  to  those  prepared  at  mines  to  show 
the  positions  of  orebodies,  will  bring  out  the  features  of  the  under- 
ground geology,  particularly  the  dip  and  strike  of  oil  sands.  One 
may  easily  be  made  by  letting  a  horizontal  board  represent  any 


Fig. 


31.     DIAGRAMMATIC    REPRESENTATION    OF    A    GROUP    OF    WELLS 
SHOWING    POSITION    OF    OIL-SAND 


54 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


datum  plane  higher  than  the  highest  point  on  the  property;  the 
positions  of  the  wells  are  then  platted  to  scale  on  the  board,  holes 
drilled  through  it  at  these  points  and  long  round  wooden  pegs,  rep- 
resenting the  wells,  slipped  into- the  holes  (Fig.  31).  On  the  pegs 
are  painted  in  various  colors  the  data  to  be  shown,  such  as  eleva- 
tion of  land  surface  at  well,  depths  of  water  sands,  tar  and  oil  sands, 
etc.,  at  a  scale  of  either  one  or  two  inches  to  the  hundred  feet. 
The  same  may  be  shown  pictorially,  if  desired,  in  a  stereographic 
projection  similar  to  that  in  Fig.  32,  which  is  a  record  of  the  same 
data  shown  in  the  model  in  Fig.  31  ;  this  latter  method  is  one  fol- 
lowed by  many  of  the  larger  companies. 

/GOO  ft  abovf  ^ 


Fig.    32.     STEREOGRAPHIC    PROJECTION    SHOWING    CONTOURS    OF    SURFACE 
AND   OIL-BEARING    STRATUM 


CHAPTER  III. 
RIGS  AND  EQUIPMENT. 

The  marvelous  growth  of  the  petroleum  industry  in  a  few  years 
has  brought  out  all  the  ingenuity  of  the  men  connected  with  it  to 
meet  the  drilling  conditions  encountered  in  the  different  fields. 
This  rapid  development  and  the  curious  nature  of  the  work,  in 
which  conditions  are  unlike  almost  any  other  branch  of  engineering, 
have  resulted  in  wide  divergences  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  meth- 
ods to  follow,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  quite  different  outfits 
and  methods  in  the  same  field  and  working  under  similar  drilling 
conditions.  Each  will  have  its  votaries  and  each  will  get  the  hole 
down,  but  the  natural  hazard  of  the  work  is  such  a  factor,  and  so 
often  the  unforseen  happens,  that  unless  the  merits  of  one  method 
are  sweepingly  greater  than  the  other  it  is  .often  impossible  to 
choose  between  them.  The  normal  duty  of  materials  used  in  drill- 
ing is  not  unduly  severe ;  the  trouble  arises  with  the  occasional  in- 
cidents that  are  bound  to  occur  and  which  suddenly  throw  a  great 
strain  on  some  one  part  of  the  equipment.  An  example  of  this  is 
seen  when  a  bailer  sticks  in  the  hole,  through  the  crumbling  ma- 
terial in  the  sides  falling  in  about  and  over  the  bailer  so  that  it  is 
held  tight.  The  wire  line  that  sustains  the  bailer  ordinarily  may 
never  have  to  hold  up  a  weight  greater  than  a  ton,  yet  in  the  pull 
that  comes  with  trying  to  free  the  bailer  it  may  be  required  to  with- 
stand a  strain  of  many  tons  before  it  is  either  loosened  or  the  line 
broken. 

The  application  of  engineering  data  to  the  problems  of  drilling, 
except  in  a  cut-and-slash  way,  is  almost  impossible  as  far  as  satis- 
factory results  are  concerned.  One  man  may  build  a  certain  type 
of  derrick  and  find  it  well  suited  to  his  work ;  his  neighbor  may 
build  one  exactly  like  it,  and  be  drilling  in  the  same  kind  of  ground, 
but  'freezes'  the  casing  through  caving  material  falling  in  and  bind- 
ing the  pipe.  When  he  tries  to  pull  the  pipe  up  he  pulls  in  the  der- 
rick instead.  The  same  difficulty  was  just  as  liable  to  happen  with 
the  first  operator,  and  illustrates  the  constant  danger  of  mishaps  in 
drilling  wells.  It  also  accounts,  with  the  increasing  depths  and 
heavier  tools  used,  for  the  increase  in  weight  of  almost  everything 


56 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


in  the  way  of  equipment  connected  with  drilling,  and  nowhere  is 
this  more  apparent  than  in  the  rigs  themselves.  The  term  'rig'  is 
meant  ordinarily  to  apply  to  the  derrick,  timbers  and  wheels,  and 
does  not  include  the  boiler,  engine,  and  other  equipment. 

Standard  Drilling  Rig.  Except  in  rotary  wells,  which  use 
the  bare  derrick  only,  the  rig  has  two  principal  parts ;  first,  the 
derrick  itself  directly  over  the  well;  and  second,  the  belt-house, 
which  is  .the  long,  narrow  building  serving  as  a  housing  for  the  belt 
and  band  wheel  and  connecting  the  derrick  with  the  engine  house, 
covering  the  engine  or  motor.  These  rest  on  suitable  foundations 


Fig.    33.     STEEL    DERRICK 

of  heavy  timber  which,  with  the  heavier  posts  and  walking  beam, 
are  known  as  the  'rig  timbers.' 

With  the  exception  of  a  comparatively  small  number  of  steel 
structures,  derricks  are  built  of  timber.  The  former  have  not 
proved  unsatisfactory,  but  their  cost  has  been  against  them,  as  well 
as  the  difficulty  in  securing  men  understanding  their  erection.  The 
itinerant  rig-builder  is  found  in  all  the  fields  and  usually  builds  the 
rig  by  contract  instead  of  day  wages. 

Where  hard  woods,  such  as  oak  or  chestnut  are  found,  they 
make  excellent  derricks,  but  more  often  some  of  the  many  forms  of 
pine  or  other  soft  wood  are  the  only  available  timber  and  the  differ- 
ence in  their  relative  strengths  govern  somewhat  the  dimensions  of 
the  lumber  in  any  particular  rig. 

The  derrick  is  supported  on  posts  which  rest  in  turn  on  a  suit- 
able foundation  of  either  timber  or  concrete,  known  as  the  'derrick 


RIGS   AND   EQUIPMENT  57 

footing.'  Light  rigs  need  no  concrete  and  often  but  little  timber 
for  the  footing,  while  heavy  ones  may  use  a  considerable  quantity, 
as  is  seen  by  reference  to  the  rig  list  on  page  61,  which  provides  for 
1410  board  feet  of  redwood  for  each  of  the  four  corners.  This  cor- 
ner, in  which  the  redwood  boards  are  3  in.  thick,  has  a  base  of  two 
layers  10  ft.  square  with  succeeding  pyramidal  layers  9  ft.  square, 
then  8,  7,  6  and  5  feet,  the  layers  alternating  in  the  direction  of  lay 
of  the  boards.  Such  a  corner  is  very  good  for  heavy  work,  as  it  is 
firm  and  yet  has  the  slight  'give'  to  it  that  is  desired.  It  is,  how- 
ever, very  expensive  and  for  this  reason  should  be  dispensed  with 
where  lighter  and  more  simple  timbers,  or  concrete,  will  serve  as 
well.  The  latter  is  being  used  more  and  more  and  may  be  easily 
made  of  a  1 :3 :6  mix,  5  ft.  high  with  a  5-ft.  base  and  3-ft.  top. 
Loose  surface  material  should  be  removed  and  the  bottom  of  the 
forms  placed  below  the  surface  so  that  the  top  of  the  concrete  is  a 
foot  or  two  above  it.  Above  the  corners  are  placed  the  side  sills 
(17),  and  the  derrick  sills  (18),  the  latter  supporting  the  floor  of  the 
derrick.  .(These  numbers  and  similar  ones  following  refer  to  Fig. 
34  on  page  58.) 

The  other  principal  foundation  timbers  are  the  mud  sills  (28), 
the  main  sill  (27),  the  pony  sill  (36),  the  sub  sill  (45),  the  nose  sill 
(46),  engine  sills  (51),  and  engine  block  (41). 

The  derrick  itself  consists  of  four  uprights  (8),  known  as  'legs,' 
braced  by  horizontal  girts  (10)  and  diagonally-placed  braces  (11). 
Its  size  is  designated  by  the  size  of  the  floor  and  the  height,  a  20  by 
74  derrick  having  a  floor  20  ft.  square  and  being  74  ft.  high,  and  this 
size  has  been  used  probably  more  than  any  other.  It  is  rarely  that 
the  floor  is  made  less  than  20  ft.  square,  and  the  heavier  types  are 
22  and  24-ft. ;  while  the  heights  in  recent  practice  are  going  more 
towards  84  ft.  for  wells  using  standard  tools  and  106,  114,  and  even 
124  ft.  with  those  using  the  rotary  method. 

The  legs  are  built  up  by  placing  2  by  10  and  2  by  12  planks 
trough-shaped,  with  each  side  taking  the  direction  of  one  side  of  the 
derrick.  Ordinarily  one  set  of  these,  with  an  extra  set  for  the  first 
18  ft.,  give  enough  strength ;  heavier  derricks  are  supplied  with  two 
sets  known  as  doublers,  the  entire  length  with  a  third  set  at  the 
lower  18  feet.  Besides  the  usual  braces  shown  in  Fig.  34,  derricks 
requiring  additional  strength  are  'sway-braced'  by  adding  another 
set  of  girts  on  the  outside  of  the  legs  opposite  every  other  set  of 
inside  girts,  and  placing  long  braces  between  the  outside  girts  (49) 


58 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


Fig.     34.     PLAN    AND    ELEVATION    OF    STANDARD    DRILLING    RIG 

SCHEDULE  OF  PARTS,   STANDARD  DRILLING  RIG 

1. — Sand  line  pulley.  2. — Casing  pulley.  3. — Crown  pulley.  4. — Crown  block.  5.— 
Bumpers.  6. — Water  table.  7. — Crown.  8. — Derrick  legs.  9. — Doubler.  10. — Girt.  11.— 
Brace.  12.— Bull  wheels.  13.— Bull  rope  14.— Bull  wheel  brake  band.  15.— Bull  wheel 
post  brace.  16. — Derrick  foundation  post.  17. — Side  sills  18. — Derrick"  sills.  19. — Head- 
ache post.  20.— Calf  wheel  brake  lever.  21.— Calf  wheel  brake  band.  22.— Sand  reel  lever. 
23. — Bull  wheel  post.  24. — Walking  beam.  25. — Sampson  post.  26. — Pitman.  27. — Main 
sill.  28.— Mud  sills.  29.— Calf  wheel  post.  30.— Calf  wheel  sprocket  chain.  31.— Band 
wheel.  32. — Sand  reel  reach.  33. — Sand  reel  swing  lever.  34. — Reverse  lever  rod.  35. — 
Back  brake.  36.— Tail  sill  or  pony  sill.  37.— Sand  reel  post.  38.— Jack  post.  39.— Calf 
wheel.  40. — Throttle  valve  and  wheel.  41. — Engine  block.  42. — Telegraph  cord.  43. — 
Sand  reel.  44.— Sand  reel  friction  pulley.  45.— Sub  sill.  46.— Nose  sill.  47.— Engine 
block  brace  or  bunting  pole.  48. — Bull  wheel  shaft.  49. — Sway  brace.  50. — Knuckle  post. 
51.— Engine  block  mud  sills.  52.— Tail  board. 

The  construction  of  the  rig  starts  with  placing  the  mud-sills  (28) 
and  the  main-sill  (27)  (Fig.  35),  and  the  derrick  foundations  are 
then  set  so  that  the  derrick  floor  is  even  with  these,  except  when  a 
rotary  derrick  is  being  fitted  for  standard  tool  work,  when  of  course 
the  mud-sill  and  main-sill  are  placed  to  conform  with  the  position 
of  the  derrick  as  it  was  erected  for  the  rotary  work.  The  derrick 
is  next  run  up,  heavily  nailed  and  surmounted  with  the  crown  (7), 
the  water  table  (6),  the  bumpers  (5)  and  the  crown  block  (4),  and 
the  latter  faced  with  hard  wood  bearings  for  the  sheave-wheels  on 
which  run  the  various  ropes. 


RIGS   AND   EQUIPMENT  59 

Next  are  put  up  the  jack-post  (38),  the  bull-wheel  posts  (23), 
the  bull-wheels  (12),  the  calf-wheel  (39),  and  engine  foundation 
(41).  The  sampson-post  (25),  walking-beam  (24)  and  band-wheel 
(31)  are  not  erected  until  the  bull-wheels  may  be  used  for  pulling 
them  into  place.  Finally  the  sand  reel  (43)  and  friction  pulley 
(44)  are  built  in,  having  been  left  till  the  last  because  they  must  be 
placed  so  that  the  friction  pulley  runs  true  with  the  band  wheel. 
Rough  1  by  12  lumber  is  used  for  the  engine  and  belt  houses  and 
for  the  lower  portion  of  the  derrick  if  it  also  is  to  be  housed.  Cor- 
rugated iron  for  this  purpose  is  a  trifle  more  expensive,  but  the 
lessened  construction  cost,  the  diminished  danger  of  fire  and  the 
better  protection  of  the  belt  make  the  added  expense  well  worth 


Fig.    35.     MUD    AND    MAIN    SILLS    IN    PLACE 

while  and  it  is  finding  an  increased  use.  A  plank-walk  connects  the 
engine  house  with  the  derrick  and  a  casing  rack,  of  6  by  6  or  8  by  8 
timbers,  is  built  beside  the  walk  for  the  purpose  of  holding  casing, 
tubing  and  such  equipment  as  cement  tanks  at  the  time  the  well  is 
being  cemented. 

The  well  is  not  drilled  exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  square  floor- 
space,  but  is  started  either  8  or  9  ft.  from  the  front  side,  towards  the 
engine  house,  leaving  either  11  or  12  ft.  between  it  and  the  opposite 
side  in  a  20-ft.  floor. 

Derrick  Lumber  List. 

The  following  lumber  lists  are  typical  of  the  lumber 
required  for  derricks  using  the  different  methods  and  for  drill- 
ing shallow  or  deep  wells.  The  details  of  construction  vary 


60  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

greatly  in  minor  particulars  but  those  cited  here  are  in  common  use 
and  well  suited  to  the  class  of  drilling  for  which  they  are  designed. 
The  wheels  for  use  when  the  cable-tool  method  is  being  fol- 
lowed are  about  the  same  size  in  all  the  styles  of  derricks.  The 
material  for  a  10-ft.  band-wheel  is  as  follows : 

24-2/12  x  16  Soft  pine   (preferably  surfaced) 

64- 1/  8  x  10  ft.  circle  cants 

24-1  /  8  x  7  ft.  circle  cants 

8-3  /  8  x  7  ft.  circle  cants 

16-3/  8  x  7  ft.  circle  grooved  cants  (8  only  for  single  Tug) 

Material  for  bull  wheels   (double  tug)  :  Material  for  calf  wheel: 

80-1/8  x  8  ft.  circle  cants  40- 1/  8  x  7' 6"  circle  cants 

8-3/8  x  8  ft.  circle  cants  8-3/  8  x  7' 6"  circle  canls 

16-3/8  x  8  ft.  circle  grooved  cants  2-2/12  x  16  pine 

32-1^x9  hard  wood  pins  2-3/  8x16  pine 

4-2/12  x  18  pine 

Lumber  List  for  Light  20  x  74-ft.  Derrick  for  Cable  Tools. 

1-12x12x12x26  1-6/6x24  36-2/10x16 

1-22/24  x   9  S-6/  6  x  18  3-2  /  8  x  20 

1-14/14  x  30  2-6  /  6  x  14  22-2  /  8  x  16 

1-14/14  x  20  2-6 /  6  x  16  12-2/  6  x  20 

1-16/16  x  14  2-5/16  x  16  12-2 /  6  x  18 

1-16/16  x  16  1-6/14  x  12  4-2 /  6  x  26 

8-14/14  x  16  1-5/14  x  12  5-2  /  6  x  12 

1-12/12x16  3-4/6x14  5-2/4x20 

1-12/12x20  48-2/12x20  9-2/3x16 

1-10/12  x  26  12-2/12  x  18  56-1  /  6  x  16 

2-  8/  8  x  22  8-2/10  x  26  85-1  /12  x  16 

1-8/8x20  7-2/10x24  30-1/12x18 

8-  6/  6  x  20  9-2/10  x  18  95-1  /12  x  20 

1-  6x6x6x16-9  1-6x6x6x16-16  60-1/12x14 

Lumber  List  for  Medium  Weight  20x84-ft.  Derrick  for  Cable  Tools. 

1-16/16  x  30  3-6  /  6  x  16  6-  2/  6  x  28 

1-16/16  x  16  1-6/18  x  18  45-  2/12  x  20 

1-22/22  x   9  1-6/18  x  14  30-  2/  4  x  16 

2-16/16  x  18  1-5/16  x  14  10-  I/  3  x  16 

6-16/16  x  16  1-6/  6/6/16  x   9  80-  I/  6 x  18 

2-16/16  x  18  1-6 /  6/6/16  x  14  30-  1  /  6  x  16 

2-14/14  x  20  8-4/  6  x  18  30-  1  /  6  x  14 

1-16/16x20  8-2/12x36  125-  1/12x20 

2-12/14x24  4-2/12x32  115-1/12x18 

1-12/12x20  8-2/12x28  70-1/12x16 

4-10/12  x  20  12-2/12  x  24  36-  1  /12  x  14 

10-  8/  8  x  20  20-2/12  x  16  1-16/16  x  14  Oak 

40-3/12x20  20-2/10x16  1-16/16x6  Oak 

1-14/30x26  6-2/10x20  1-3/12x6  Oak 

2-  3/18  x  18  12-2 /  8  x  20  2-  6/  6  x  14  Oak 

2-  3/  8  x  14  12-2/  6  x  20  1-14/14/14/30  x  26 

1-  6/6x30  12-2/  6x18 

2-  6/  8  x  18  12-2/  6  x  16  u  ,    .     ,     . 


RIGS   AND   EQUIPMENT 


61 


Lumber  List  for  Heavy  20  x  84-ft.  Derrick  for  Cable  Tools.* 


6-16/16x18 

1-16/16x16 

2-16/16x16 

1-16/16x20 

1-16/16x32 

3-14/14  x  14 

1-24/24x10 

1-14/14/30x26 

1-12/12x26 

1-12/12x22 

3-14/14x14 

1-12/12x16 

3-12/12x24 

2-12/12x30 

2-10/12x22 
13-10/10x20 

1-  6/6x18 
40-  3/12x20  Redwood 
36-  3/12x24  Redwood 
12-  3/12x18  Redwood 

1-  6/  8x30 


1-6/  8x16 

1-6  /  8x12 

2-6  /  8x16 

1-6/  6x20 

2-4  /  6x20 

6-4  /  6x16 
50-2/12x20 

8-2/12  x  18 

8-2/12  x  16 

6-2/10x26 

6-2/10  x  18 
50-2/10  x  16 

8-2/  8x16 

1-6/6/6/16x12  Oak 

1-3/12  x   6  Oak 

2-2  /  6x28 

2-2 /  6  x  26 

2-2  /  6x22 
10-2  /  8x20 
10-2  /  6x18 
10-2/  6  x  16 


2-3/16x20 
12-1  /  3x14 

2-6  /  8  x  18 

1-5/16x14 

2-2  /  4  x  16 

2-2  /  4x18 
10-2  /  4x20 

2-5/16x14 
16-2  /  6  x  14 
12-2  /  4x16 
65-1  /  6x16 
10- 1/  6x20 
65-1/12x16 
30-1/12x14 
40-1/12x18 
60-1/12x20 
34-2/12  x  24 
16-2/12x34 

2-6  /  6  x  14  Oak 


Lumber  List  for  24  x  106-ft.  Derrick  for  Rotary  Drilling. 


l-22/24x  9 
2-14/14  x  16 
2-14/14x24 
2-12/12x20 
2-10/10x26 
8-10/10x24 
10-  8/8x20 

1-  8/8x24 
4-  6/6x20 

2-  6/16x14 

2-  6/  6x12  Oak 
1-4/6x20 
6-  4/  4x14 


84-2/12x24 

20-2/12x22 

40-2/12  x  20 

24-2/12x18 

58-2/12x16 

6-2/10x18 

4-2/10  x  20 

56-2/10x16 

8-2/  8x28 

26-2  /  8x24 

10-2/  8  x  22 

8-2/  8  x  20 

8-2  /  8x18 


8-2  /  8x16 

8-2/  6x22 

8-2  /  6x20 

8-2  /  6x18 

16-2  /  6x16 

20-2/  6x24 

30-2  /  6x14 

60- 1/  6x16 

225-1/12x16 

125-1/12x20 

24-2/  4x16 


Lumber  List  for  24  x  106-ft.  Combination  Rig,  Medium  Weight, 
for  Both  Rotary  and  Cable  Tool  Drilling. 

5-  4/6x16  16-2 /  8x24 
2-  6/16x14  8-2  /  8x22 
1-  5/16x12  8-2 /  8x20 

1-  6/16x12  8-2/  8x18 
1-16/16x14  Oak  10-2 /  8x16 
1-16/16  x   6  Oak  18-2 /  8x20 

2-  6/  6x12  Oak  8-2  /  8x18 
1-  3/12  x   6  Oak  16-2/  8x16 

60-  2/12x24  6-2  /  4x26 

10-  2/12x22  20-2  /  4x16 

50-  2/12x20  60-1  /  6x16 

30-  2/12x18  150-1/12x20 

66-  2-12x16  30-1/12x18 

6-  2/10x18  30-1/12x24 
4-  2/10x20  15-2/12x20 

56-  2/10x16  6-3/12x20 
8-  2/  8  x  28 

as  a   'combination  rig,'  foi    both   rotary  and  cable-tool  drilling  by  the 
of  engine-sills  and  block. 


1-16/16x30 
2-16/16x20 
6-16/16x16 
2-14/14x16 
3-14/14x12 
2-14/14x24 
1-14/14/14/30  x  26 
1-12/12x26 
1-12/12x24 
1-12/12x22 
-12/12x20 
2-10/10x26 
8-10/10x24 
10-  6/6x16 
4-8/8x20 
1-6/6x20 
1-  6/6x26 

*This  may  be  used 
addition   of  another  set 


62 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


Fig.    37.     SHAFT   WITH   CRANK,   BOXES,   FLANGES,    SPROCKET   AND    CLUTCH 


RIGS   AND   EQUIPMENT 


63 


Motive  power  passes  by  belt  from  tbe  engine-pulley  to  the  band- 
wheel,  and  from  the  band-wheel  it  is  transmitted  to  the  various 
moving  parts.  This  wheel  is  10  ft.  diameter,  built  of  lumber  and 
runs  on  a  crank-shaft,  supported  by  boxes  on  the  jack-posts.  Fig- 
ure 37  illustrates  the  crank-shaft  carrying,  from  left  to  right,  the 
crank  used  for  actuating  the  walking-beam,  a  jack-post  box,  the 
band-wheel  flanges,  the  second  jack-post  box,  the  clutch-sprocket 
and  clutch.  The  sprocket  carries  the  chain  which  drives  the  calf- 


Fig.    38.     SAND-REEL 

wheel  and  is  not  fastened  to  the  shaft  but  turns  only  when  the 
clutch,  which  is  keyed  to  the  shaft,  has  been  thrown  over  so  that 
it  meshes  with  an  opening1  in  the  sprocket.  On  the  clutch  side  of 
the  band-wheel,  there  is  built  either  one  or  two  6l/>  or  7  ft.  grooved 
wood  tug-pulley  circles,  on  which  run  the  bull-ropes  that  drive 
the  bull-wheels. 

The  sand-reel  is  a  drum  on  which  is  wound  the  sand-line  that 
carries  the  sand-pump,  or  bailer,  in  and   out  of  the  hole.     It  is 


64 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


turned  by  means  of  a  friction  pulley  (44)  pressed  against 
the  band-wheel  by  pulling  the  reach-rod  (32)  and  the  swing-lever 
(33)  ;  its  speed  is  retarded  by  swinging  the  friction-pulley  back 
and  forcing  it  to  bear  against  the  back-brake  (35).  The  reels  are 
made  with  either  single  or  double  drums.  For  deep-hole  work  the 
latter  are  now  almost  universally  used,  one  drum  serving  to  hold 
that  portion  of  the  line  not  being  used.  It  passes  from  the  sand- 


Fig.  39.     RELATIVE  POSITION  OF  CALF-WHEEL,   BAND-WHEEL  AND  SAND-REEL 

reel  up  on  the  outside  of  the  derrick,  over  the  sand-line  sheave  (1) 
and  down  inside  the  derrick. 

The  bull-wheels  (Fig.  40)  are  built  on  a  16-in.  bull-wheel  shaft  (48) 
supported  at  each  end  by  the  bull-wheel  posts  (23).  The  line  car- 
rying the  tools  used  for  drilling  is  wound  on  this  shaft  and  passes 
up  inside  the  derrick  and  over  the  crown-pulley  (3).  The  wheels 
are  of  wood,  8  ft.  diameter,  and  the  one  in  line  with  the  grooved 
circle  on  the  band-wheel  (Fig.  36)  is  similarly  grooved  in  order  to 
carry  the  bull-rope  for  power  transmission.  This  wheel  is  known 
as  the  bull-wheel  tug-pulley  and  has  two  such  circles  when  two 
bull-ropes  are  used.  The  rim  of  the  wheel  at  the  other  end  of  the 
shaft  is  surrounded  with  an  iron  brake-band,  to  retard  the  speed  of 
the  tools  when  being  lowered  into  the  hole  and  at  other  times  to 
prevent  the  wheels  from  moving. 


RIGS   AND   EQUIPMENT 


65 


Fig.    40.     BULL   WHEELS 


The  calf-wheel  (Fig.  41)  is  a  comparatively  recent  innovation 
for  handling  casing  without  having  to  disengage  the  drilling-line 
from  the  tools  for  that  purpose.  It  has  a  single  wheel,  placed  at 
one  end  of  a  shaft  that  is  supported  by  two  posts  (29),  and,  like  the 


Fig.   41.     CALF   WHEEL 

bull-wheel,  is  controlled  by  a  brake-band.  When  first  used  it  was 
driven  from  the  band-wheel  by  ropes,  as  is  still  done  with  the  bull- 
wheels,  but  this  has  now  been  almost  entirely  discarded  in  favor  of 
the  more  positive  chain  drive,  the  chain  running  from  the  clutch 


66 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


sprocket  on  the  band^wheel  shaft  to  an  iron  sprocket  rim  attached 
to  the  calf-wheel  (Fig.  42).  The  calf-line  passes  from  the  calf- 
wheel  shaft  over  one  of  the  casing-pulleys  (2),  and  thence  back  and 
forth  between  these  and  a  snatch-block.  Ordinarily  there  are 
seven  lines  between  the  latter  and  the  casing-pulleys,  but  when  the 
weight  to  be  sustained  in  taking  heavy  pulls  on  casing  demands 
nine  lines  instead  of  seven,  a  fifth  casing-pulley  is  inserted  between 


Fig.  42.  ELEVATION  AND  PLAN  OF  IDEAL  RIG  IRONS  WITH  CLUTCH 
\  SPROCKET  ATTACHMENT 

the  usual  crown-block  'and  an  additional  parallel  piece  of  timber 
placed  on  the  bumpers. 

The  crank  shown  at  the  left  end  of  the  main  shaft  in  Fig.  37 
turns  with  the  band-wheel  and  by  its  off-set  imparts  the  up-and- 
down  motion  to  the  walking-beam  by  means  of  a  wrist-pin  passed 
through  one  of  the  holes  and  the  opening  in  the  pitman  (26).  The 
length  of  the  movement  or  sweep  of  the  beam  depends  upon  which 
of  these  holes  is  used,  within  limits  of  about  2  to  5  feet.  The  one 


RIGS   AND  EQUIPMENT  67 

nearest  the  shaft  is  known  as  the  first  hole,  the  next  succeeding  as 
the  second  hole,  and  so  on.  The  first  hole  is  rarely  used  in  drilling 
but  is  the  principal  one  employed  in  pumping. 

All  the  metal  parts  used  in  the  construction  6,f  a  derrick  with 
the  exception  of  the  nails,  bolts,  sand-reel,  and*  guy  wire,  are 
known  collectively  as  the  'rig  irons,'  and  designate^  by  the  size  of 
the  crank-shaft  that  carries  the  band-wheel:  Rig  irons  of  the  4-in. 
and  5-in.  sizes  are  used  only  for ;  fairly  light  work  and  the  6-in. 
commonly  employed  for  heavier  duty.  Recently  7^-in.  irons  have 
been  tried  with  marked  success  where  the  conditions  are  such  as  to 
require  unusually  heavy  tools  and  equipment. 

Rig  .Iron  List. 

1,  7l/2-h.  Shaft  with  crank,  wrist  pin,  set  of  36-in.  band  wheel  flanges  and 

bolts,  collars  and  keys,  and  clutch  sprocket. 
1,  Sprocket  tug-rim  for  calf-wheel. 
1,  Jack-post  box  and  cap. 

1,  Calf-wheel  box  and  cap. 
4,  Turnbuckle  rods. 

2,  Jack-post  rods. 
1,  Jack-post  plate. 
4,  Eye-bolts. 

4,  Double-end  bolts. 

1,  Set  center  irons  and  bolts,  for  walking-beam. 
1,  Set  bull-wheel-gudgeon,  and  brake-band. 
1,  Set  calf-wheel  gudgeons. 
1,  Brake-band  for  calf-wheel. 
1,  Walking-beam  stirrup. 
1,  Crown  pulley. 
1,  Sand-line  sheave. 
4,  Casing-line  pulleys. 
55,  feet  of  sprocket  chain,  for  calf-wheel  drive. 

With  the  increase  in  the  size  and  weight  of  equipment  has 
come  the  introduction  of  iron  and  steel  for  many  parts  formerly 
made  exclusively  of  wood.  The  wood  pitman,  bu:U^wheel  shaft, 
calf-wheel,  and  crown-block  may  all  be  replaced  with  metal  forms 
of  greater  strength  and  durability.  Usually  when  the  severe  duty 
of  drilling  a  well  is  over,  and  it  has  been  'put  to  pumping,  the  metal 
parts  are  replaced  with  the  cheaper  wood  construction  and  moved 
to  a  new  drilling-well. 

Engines  and  Boilers.  The  well-drilling  engine  is  a  remarkably 
efficient  piece  of  machinery  when  its  low  cost,  the  service  required 
of  it  and  the  treatment  it  receives  are  taken  into  account.  The 


68 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


Fig.   43.     IRON   CROWN   BLOCK 


Fig.  44.     R.  &  S.  CALF-WHEEL  SHAFT 


Fig.    45.     METAL    BOX    FOR 
SUPPORTED    ENDS    OF 
IRON  BULL-WHEEL 
SHAFT 


Fig.  46.     BULL  WHEELS  BUILT  ON  R.  &  S.   IRON  SHAFT 


RIGS   AND   EQUIPMENT 


69 


construction  is  simple.  It  has  a  single  cylinder,  a  simple  slide  valve, 
and  link  reversing  gear  of  the  locomotive  type.  The  length  of  stroke 
is  almost  invariably  12  in.,  the  cylinder  diameters  ranging  from  8 
to  12  inches.  In  the  eastern  United  States  9  by  12  and  in  the  west 
10^/2  by  12  where  the  duty  is  heavier,  are  the  sizes  most  commonly 
used  for  cable-tool  work.  The  12  by  12  size  is  frequently  required 


Fig.    47.     IDEAL    DRILLING    ENGINE    WITH    OUTBOARD    BEARING 

for  rotary  equipments.  The  engine  is  installed  so  that  the  pulley- 
wheel  lines  with  the  band-wheel,  and  while  the  crank-shaft  carries  a 
fly-wheel  at  the  other  end,  yet  the  constant  pull  on  the  belt  pulley 
tending  to  work  the  shaft  out  of  alignment  has  led  to  the  introduction 
of  an  outboard-bearing  (Fig.  47)  that  provides  an  outside  supporting- 
box  for  the  shaft.  The  weight  of  the  flywheel  may  be  varied  by  the 
use  of  removable  rings  or  balances  fastened  to  it  with  bolts  to  suit 


70 


OIL   PRODUCTION    METHODS 


the  duty  on  the  engine.  Balances  are  usually  added  to  steady  the 
motion  as  the  depth  of  a  drilling-well  increases.  Pumping  wells  run 
at  a  low  speed  and  the  balances  tend  to  maintain  it  at  a  uniform  rate 
and  prevent  the  engine  from  stalling  on  centre. 


Fig.    48.     IDEAL    DRILLING    ENGINE    WITH    OUTBOARD    BEARING 

The  engine  is  operated  from  the  derrick  by  pulling  back  and 
forth  the  'telegraph  cord'  (42,  Fig.  34),  which  runs  from  a  wheel 
attached  to  the  headache-post  to  the  throttle-wheel  (40).  The 
reverse-lever  is  handled  in  a  like  manner  by  moving  a  %  or  ^2-in. 
pipe  (34)  connecting  it  with  a  handle  at  the  derrick.  Usually  a 


RIGS   AND    EQUIPMENT 


71 


simple  heater  is  attached  to  the  pulley  side  of  the  engine  for  utilizing 
the  exhaust  steam  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  boiler  feed  water. 
A  barrel-pump,  directly  connected  to  the  engine  crosshead,  pumps 
the  water  into  the  boiler.  Engines  are  bought  either  stripped  or 
complete,  the  former  being  without  crosshead-pump,  heater  or  extra 
flywheel  balances. 

As  might  be  expected  where  fuel  is  cheap,  little  attention  is  given 
in  the  oil  fields  to  steam  economy  or  highly  efficient  boiler  installations, 
except  at  the  pipe-line  pump-stations  and  the  larger  central  station 
plants.  These  frequently  have  large  water-tube  boilers,  feed  water 
heaters,  superheaters,  etc.,  but  the  boilers  scattered  about  at  drilling 
and  pumping  wells  are  more  often  of  simple  design  and  installation. 


Fig.   49.     BOILER  MOUNTED   BY  HANGING  FROM  PIPE  AND   ENCASING  IN 

OIL-SAND 

For  shallow  drilling  in  some  fields,  light  portable  boilers  on  wheels 
are  used.  With  deeper  work  the  common  horizontal  fire-tube  boilers 
of  rated  capacities  from  30  to  45  horsepower  are  employed  in  the  West 
for  standard-tool  drilling.  Wells  using  the  rotary  system  require 
larger  boilers,  of  70  or  80  horsepower.  A  simple  and  efficient  method 
for  setting  up  such  a  boiler  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  49.  This  is  rated 
at  40  horsepower,  has  42  3-in.  by  12-ft.  tubes  and  is  hung  from  two 
overhead  stands  of  old  6-in.  pipe  and  enclosed  with  3000  common 
red  brick.  Corrugated  iron  sheets  are  then  placed  so  that  a  space 
of  18  in.  is  left  between  these  and  the  brick  work.  This  space  is 
filled  and  the  top  covered  with  heavy  oil-sand  that  soon  cakes  when 
the  boiler  has  been  heated  and  assists  materially  in  reducing  the  loss 
by  radiation. 


72 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


The  locomotive  type  of  firebox  boilers  is  used  extensively  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  where  good  boiler-water  may 
usually  be  obtained.  They  possess  the  advantage  that  they  may  be 
quickly  installed  and  fired,  and,  for  this  reason,  find  occasional  use 
in  the  West,  when  gushers  or  breakdowns  of  regular  plants  bring  about 
an  urgent  need  for  quick  service;  but  aside  from  such  conditions 
their  cost  and  the  difficulty  encountered  in  cleaning  them  have  pre- 
vented a  more  extensive  use  in  the  West,  where  alkaline  waters  cause 
scaling  and  render  it  necessary  that  boilers  be  frequently  cleaned. 

Of  course  the  fuels  used  are  nearly  always  either  oil  or  gas,  except 
with  wildcat  wells  remote  from  a  field.  In  burning  oil,  efficiency  is 
largely  a  matter  of  proper  atomization,  accomplished  by  the  use  of 
live  steam.  Fig.  50  illustrates  a  form  of  burner  in  common  use  that 


Fig. 


OIL    BURNER    FOR    STEAM    BOILERS 


may  be  made  of  ordinary  materials.  The  live  steam  coming  from  the 
pointed  end  of  the  j/2-in.  steam-line  inside  the  1-in.  oil-line  atomizes 
the  oil  and  the  two  together  pass  out  of  the  burner  through  a  long, 
narrow  slot,  deflected  downwards  in  order  to  keep  the  direct  flame 
from  impinging  on  the  boiler  sheet.  The  exact  position  of  the 
pointed  end  of  the  steam-line  inside  that  carrying  the  oil  is  found 
experimentally,  and  so  adjusted  that  it  serves  to  regulate  the  fire 
automatically.  As  the  pressure  in  the  boiler  increases  a  greater  volume 
of  steam  is  forced  from  the  end  of  this  pipe,  retarding  the  flow  of 
oil  and  decreasing  the  heat  applied  under  the  boiler.  When  the 
pressure  has  fallen  off,  as  a  result  of  the  lessened  heat,  more  oil  finds 
its  way  to  the  burner  and  the  heat  increases. 

When  gas  is  used    instead    of    oil    its    maximum    fuel    value  is 
obtained  only  by  securing  the  proper  mixture  of  gas  and  air,  so  that 


RIGS   AND   EQUIPMENT 


73 


the  flame  is  a  clear  blue  in  color  with  as  little  yellow  as  possible. 
Several  types  of  burners  are  manufactured  that  may  be  regulated  so 
as  to  obtain  a  perfect  mixture.  A  simple  burner  may  be  made  by 
placing  the  gas-line  inside  of  a  larger  pipe,  as  is  done  with  the  steam 
pipe  in  the  oil  burner.  The  larger  pipe  has  a  number  of  holes  drilled 
in  it  through  which  the  air  for  mixing  with  the  gas  is  admitted. 
Still  another  burner  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  51,  by  which  the  gas  and 
air  before  igniting  mix  in  the  larger  pipe,  set  in  brick  work. 


Fig.   51.     GAS   BURNER  FOR   STEAM   BOILERS 

For  carrying  steam  from  the  boiler  to  the  engine  a  2-in.  line  usually 
suffices  for  standard  tool  work,  but  where  the  drilling  is  being  carried 
on  by  the  rotary  or  circulating  methods,  this  is  increased  to  3  inches. 
Lubrication  of  steam  cylinders  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  some 
of  the  various   forms   of   pressure-lubricators,   either   directly   at  the 
rig  or,  when  a  central  plant  supplies  steam  for 
a   number   of   wells,    from   a   lubricator   at   the 
plant.     The  latter  method  is  unquestionably  the 
more  economical  and  efficient  as  it  insures  com- 
plete  atomization    of    the    heavy    cylinder   oil. 
When  smaller  lubricators  at  each  well  are  used, 
a  considerably  smaller  amount  of  oil  is  required 
if  the  small  pipe  carrying  the  oil  from  the  lubri- 
cator into  the  steam-line  is  not  merely  tapped 
into  the  steam-line  but  is  carried  half  the  dis- 
tance across  the  inside,  and  then  turned  up,  as 
in   Fig.    52,    so    that    it    becomes    heated    and 
atomizes   more   readilv  before  passing1  into  the 

Fig.  52.     METHOD  OF  STEAM 

LINE  LUBRICATION        steam  cylinder. 


• 

.3 

1" 

-i 

fc 

' 

£ 

t   i  — 

Of/  feed  pipe 

<b 
c; 

HV 

]|  from  /vbrtcoTo 

<; 

1 

ft* 

•=r 

T> 

^ 

«: 

< 

1 

74  OIL   PRODUCTION    METHODS 

Cordage.  Two  classes  of  lines  find  use  in  drilling  operations, 
ordinary  rope  made  from  either  sisal  or  manila  hemp,  and  wire  rope 
which  is  built  up  of  many  small  steel  wires  about  a  hemp  core  or 
centre.  In  the  former  class,  which  passes  under  the  general  term 
of  'cordage,'  the  cheaper  rope  made  from  sisal  is  employed  only  for 
general  purposes  about  the  well,  while  the  drilling-cables  and  bull- 
ropes  are  of  good  qualities  of  manila  hemp.  Hemp  rope  deteriorates 
rapidly  in  very  dry  districts  due  to  the  fact  that  the  hemp  fibre  grows 
only  in  warm  and  exceedingly  moist  climates  and  the  moist  cellular 
structure  soon  loses  this  moisture  when  brought  into  an  arid  district. 
It  then  becomes  dry  and  brittle,  loses  its  strength  and  pliability,  and 
for  this  reason  when  not  in  use  should  be  stored  in  as  cool  and 
moist  a  spot  as  can  be  found. 

The  individual  fibers  of  hemp  are  from  6  to  10  ft.  long.  When 
manufactured  into  rope  they  are  first  oiled  and  woven  into  threads 
with  a  left  lay,  those  of  a  lighter  color  and  more  silky  texture  going 
into  the  drilling  cables  and  the  more  brittle,  coarse  and  red  varieties 
into  bull-ropes.  With  a  2^ -in.  drilling  cable,  31  of  such  threads, 
each  composed  of  many  fibers,  make  a  strand ;  three  strands  are 
wound  with  a  right  lay  to  make  a  rope,  and  three  ropes,  also  with 
a  right  lay,  compose  the  cable.  The  left  lay  of  the  fibers  and  the 
right  lay  of  the  strands  and  ropes,  known  as  'hawser'  or  'cable'  lay, 
are  so  made  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  cable  from  kinking. 
The  sizes  usually  employed  for  drilling  are  from  2  to  2]/2 -in.  diameter, 
with  lengths  from  1000  to  2500feet. 

Weights  and  Lengths  of  Manila  Cable. 

Diameter.  Weight  per  Foot.  Breaking  Strain  in  Pounds. 
2     in.                                            1.58  35,430 

2Y8  "  1.65  41,088 

2Y4  "  1.79  47,170 

2*/2  "  2.33  53,665 

Manila  cables  for  drilling  are  used  chiefly  in  so-called  'dry'  holes, 
where  the  nature  of  the  ground  is  such  that  it  does  not  cave  readily 
and  the  only  water  in  the  well  is  that  which  is  placed  there  to  assist 
the  bit  in  cutting  the  hole,  and  the  bailer  in  bringing  out  the  cuttings. 
'Wet'  holes,  which  are  filled  with  water  to  prevent  the  sides  from 
crumbling,  interfere  with  the  motion  of  the  cable  and  are  usually 
drilled  more  advantageously  with  wire  drilling-lines.  The  chief 
merits  of  the  Manila  line  arise  from  its  great  stretch,  or  spring, 
through  which,  by  giving  the  walking-beam  the  proper  motion,  a 


RIGS  AND   EQUIPMENT 


75 


much  heavier  blow  may  be  delivered  by  the  drilling-tools  on  the  end 
of  the  line.  The  same  quality  in  the  line  causes  the  tools  to  spring 
back  quickly  when  the  blow  has  been  struck,  thus  dislodging  the 
bit  from  the  cuttings  that  tend  to  stick  and  hold  it  fast. 

Manila  lines  are  used  almost  exclusively  where  drilling  is  carried 
on  by  means  of  spudding,  as  spudding  with  a  wire  line  places  too 
severe  a  strain  on  the  derrick. 

Bull  ropes  are  made  with  a  diameter  of  2^  in.  and  length  of 
90  ft.  They  are  known  as  soft  lay  rope  and  consist  of  three  strands, 
each  strand  built  up  of  many  fibers. 

Wire  Rope.  The  wire  ropes  in  general  use  for  drilling  wells 
are  (1)  the  drilling-line,  wound  on  the  bull- wheel  shaft,  to  carry 
the  drilling  tools;  (2)  the  casing  line,  wound  on  the  calf-wheel,  and 
used  for  handling  casing;  (3)  the  sand-line,  which  runs  on  the  sand- 
reel  and  carries  the  bailer  in  and  out  of  the  hole.  The  introduction 
of  wire  rope  for  drilling  purposes  is  comparatively  recent  but  its  use 
has  spread  rapidly  and  it  is  now  generally  employed  for  work  at 


Fig.    53.     SAND    AND    LIGHT    DRILL- 
ING LINES.     6  STRAND  7  WIRE 


Fig.    54.     DRILLING   AND    CASING 
LINES.      6    STRAND    19    WIRE 


depths  greater  than  1200  feet.  Unlike  much  of  the  material  employed 
for  well  drilling,  these  lines  have  practically  no  salvage  value  when 
they  have  become  unfitted  for  further  service  at  the  well. 

The  line  used  for  carrying  the  drilling  tools  encounters  the  most 
severe  service  of  the  three  classes,  and  its  cost  is  no  small  factor  in 
drilling  a  deep  well.  These  are  in  nearly  all  cases  made  of  extra 
strong  cast  steel  wire,  of  a  grade  intermediate  in  strength,  hardness, 
and  other  characteristics  between  the  regular  cast  steel  ordinarily  used 
in  hoisting-ropes  and  the  plow  steel  used  where  great  abrasion  is 
met.  The  construction  of  the  line  varies  with  the  drilling  conditions. 

In  the  eastern  fields,  where  the  duty  is  light,  the  ropes  are  com- 
posed of  six  strands  of  seven  wires  each,  with  a  hemp  centre  (Fig. 
53).  In  other  fields  various  combinations  of  six  strands  of  12  wires, 
4  strands  of  5  wires,  6  by  25,  6  by  15,  etc.,  have  been  .tried  with 
varying  results,  mostly  unfavorable,  and  for  heavy  work,  the  general 
construction  has  apparently  settled  down  to  the  use  of  the  standard 
hoisting-rope  construction  of  6  strands  of  19  wires  each,  with  a  hemp 


76  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

centre  of  approximately  the  same  diameter  as  each  of  the  strands, 
or  increased  only  enough  over  this  to  afford  a  proper  cushion  to  the 
wire  strands  and  prevent  them  from  bruising  or  abrading  each 
other  (Fig.  54).  They  are  put  up  almost  invariably  with  a  left 
lay,  although  there  appears  no  particular  reason  for  this,  and  some 
operators  use  right  lay  with  good  success. 

Sizes  and  Strengths  of  Drilling  Lines. 

3/4  in 20.2  tons 

7/8    "     26.0     " 

1          "    34.0     " 

1  1/8   "    43.0     " 

1  1/4   "     ..53.0     " 

In  standard  engineering  practice  a  factor  of  safety  of  5  to  1 
is  used  to  obtain  the  working  load  of  a  wire  rope,  but  in  drilling 
service  the  tensile  strength  of  a  line  means  little,  for  every  drilling 
line  is  almost  certain  to  be  subjected  at  more  or  less  frequent  intervals  to 
a  load  closely  approximating  its  ultimate  strength ;  and  since  the  elastic 
limit  of  steel  is  about  60%  of  its  total  strength  the  application  of 
loads  beyond  this  critical  point,  even  though  infrequent  and  of  short 
duration,  will  tend  to  change  the  character  of  the  steel  and  shorten 
its  life,  which  would  otherwise  be  determined  by  the  normal  condi- 
tions of  abrasion,  etc. 

No  set  rule  obtains  for  deciding  the  proper  size  of  line  for  any 
particular  well  or  drilling  conditions  and  operators  follow  individ- 
ual tastes  as  to  the  one  best  suited  to  their  needs.  For  fairly  light 
work  the  24  m-  and  %  in.  are  in  common  use.  Deeper  drilling  and 
heavier  tools  require  a  1-in.  line,  and  recently  considerable  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  a  study  of  the  economic  advantage  of  using 
extremely  heavy  tools  and  a  1^-in.  line,  under  drilling  conditions 
of  such  a  nature  that  the  time-factor  and  saving  in  labor-cost  war- 
rant the  added  expense  of  these  heavier  materials.  Neither  is  it 
possible  to  state,  except  within  very  broad  limits,  the  amount  of 
drilling  that  may  be  expected  of  a  line.  Under  favorable  condi- 
tions a  light  line  may  serve  for  the  drilling  of  several  1000-ft.  holes, 
while  a  heavier  line  in  ground  that  is  more  severe  on  it  may  be- 
come worn  out  in  a  few  hundred  feet  of  drilling.  Fishing  for  lost 
tools  and  jarring  on  casing  with  a  spear  are  especially  trying,  and 
a  line  deteriorates  rapidly  in  such  work. 

Lines  are  shipped  from  the  mills  on  heavy  reels  and  when  re- 
ceived at  the  well  are  prepared  for  unwinding  by  placing  a  pipe 
through  a  centre  opening  in  the  reel  and  blocking  up  the  end  of 


RIGS   AND   EQUIPMENT 

this  pipe  so  that  the  reel  may  turn  on  it.  One  end  of  the  line  is 
pulled  up  over  its  pulley  in  the  crown  block,  then  down  and  fas- 
tened to  the  bull-wheel  shaft  and  the  line  wound  on  the  shaft  by 
engine  power.  A  space  about  30  in.  long  at  the  centre  of  the  shaft, 
with  a  frame  built  up  at  each  end,  is  used  to  spool  that  part  of  the 
line  in  immediate  use,  the  remainder  being  carried  at  one  end  of 
the  shaft,  with  left-lay  lines  preferably  at  the  end  opposite  the 
brake-band. 

The  practice  of  uncoiling  a  line  from  the  shipping  reel  by  plac- 
ing the  latter  on  its  side  and  driving  a  stake  in  the  ground  to  hold 
it  in  place  while  being  turned  places  an  undue  strain  on  the  line 
by  reason  of  the  tendency  to  kink,  and  should  not  be  permitted. 
Particular  care  should  be  taken  when  handling  lines  to  prevent 
kinks  by  using  as  large  snatch  blocks  as  possible.  Frequently 
lines  are  moved  from  one  rig  to  another,  not  by  coiling  on  reels 
and  hauling  them,  but  by  pulling  one  end  of  the  line  to  the  new 
rig  and  coiling  it  directly  from  one  shaft  to  the  other.  Unless  pains 
are  taken  to  prevent  it  the  line  may  not  kink  but  will  'dog-leg/ 
that  is,  suffer  a  small  sharp  bend.  In  such  a  case  the  line  at  this 
point  never  becomes  absolutely  straight ;  and  it  soon  weakens  from 
wearing  on  the  side  of  the  casing  or  hole  and  must  be  cut  and 
spliced.  The  splice  usually  employed  with  drilling  lines  is  that 
known  as  the  'blind'  splice,  in  which  the  strands  of  each  end  of  the 
line  are  opened  for  about  15  ft.,  the  hemp  core  extracted  and  the 
strands  woven  together  again,  with  one  of  the  strands  taking  the 
place  of  the  core. 

In  some  fields  a  unique  combination  of  wire  and  manila  lines 
has  been  found  very  successful  for  drilling.  It  is  known  as  the 
'cracker'  line  and  consists  of  about  100  ft.  of  manila  rope  spliced 
on  the  end  of  a  wire  line  nearest  the  drilling  tools.  In  this  way 
the  benefit  of  the  spring  and  stretch  in  the  manila  rope  is  obtained 
without  the  expense  of  running  a  line  composed  wholly  of  such 
rope,  with  the  further  advantage  that  it  may  be  used  in  a  'wet'  hole. 

Casing-lines  in  almost  all  cases  are  standard  hoisting  ropes  of 
cast  steel  wire,  composed  of  6  strands  of  19  wires,  right  lay,  with 
a  hemp  centre. 

Tensile  Strengths  of  Casing  Lines. 

5/8  in 12.5  tons 

3/4   "    17.5     " 

7/8   " 23.0     " 

1    '       "  ..30.0     " 


78  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

All  the  above  sizes  find  use  in  different  districts  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  factor  of  safety  of  5  to  1  is  rarely  exceeded.  The 
7/%  and  1-in.  sizes  of  this  type  are  also  used  as  hoisting  ropes  at 
rotary  wells.  After  they  have  become  worn  so  that  they  are  unsafe 
for  pulling  casing  they  are  used  for  tubing  lines,  for  handling  tubing 
and  sucker-rods  in  producing  wells. 

Sand  lines  are  identical  with  the  standard  coarse  laid,  transmis- 
sion, or  haulage  rope.  Like  casing  lines  they  are  of  cast  steel  wire, 
right  lay,  but  differ  from  them  in  being  composed  of  6  strands  of  7 
wires  each.  They  differ  in  construction  because  they  are  not  sub- 
jected to  short  bends,  but  do  meet  considerable  abrasion  while  trav- 
eling in  and  out  of  the  hole,  and  the  smaller  number  of  coarser  wires 
gives  a  longer  life  to  the  line  and  a  lower  first  cost. 

Tensile  Strengths  of  Sand  Lines. 

3/  8  in : 4.6  tons 

I/  2   "      7.7     " 

9/16   "     : 10.0     " 

5/  8  "     13.0     " 

Casing.  In  drilling  where  the  ground  is  rocky  and  firm  or 
where  the  materials  in  the  series  of  strata  are  bound  together  so 
that  fragments  do  not  cave  in  from  the  walls  of  the  hole,  the  drill- 
ing may  frequently  be  carried  for  hundreds  of  feet  in  'open  hole/ 
More  often,  however,  the  beds  of  clay,  shale  and  sands,  with  some 
of  them  containing  water,  are  so  fragile  and  loose  that  they  crumble 
and  fall  in  to  such  an  extent  that  drilling  operations  must  be  discon- 
tinued unless  they  can  be  held  back.  In  such  ground  there  is  al- 
ways the  further  danger  of  the  cavings  burying  the  drilling  tools. 
These  conditions  have  led  to  the  adoption  of  various  forms  of  tubes 
for  lining  the  hole.  A  second  and  very  important  feature  of  the 
value  of  such  linings  is  their  use  for  excluding  from  the  oil-sands 
the  water  held  in  strata  nearer  the  surface  and  which,  if  not  pre- 
vented from  entering  the  oil  sand,  will  displace  the  oil  by  reason 
of  its  greater  specific  gravity  and  eventually  ruin  the  well. 

Casing  as  now  used  in  the  oil  fields  is  made  of  either  iron  or 
steel  and  the  kinds  and  sizes  differ  considerably  with  the  conditions 
obtaining  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  The  complete  column  of 
pipe  as  placed  in  the  well  is  known  as  the  'string'  of  casing  and  in 
some  fields  one  string  suffices  to  finish  the  well.  More  often,  if  any 
considerable  depth  is  attained,  the  pressure  (commonly  known  as 
the  'friction')  of  the  crumbling  materials  against  the  pipe  becomes 


RIGS   AND   EQUIPMENT  79 

so  great  that  the  pipe  is  bound  tight  and  cannot  be  moved  farther 
either  up  or  down.  A  second  string,  small  enough  to  go  inside  the 
first,  must  then  be  put  in  before  drilling  is  continued ;  and  fre- 
quently four  or  five,  or  even  more,  may  be  necessary  in  reaching 
depths  of  over  2000  ft.  in  difficult  ground. 

For  the  first  well  drilled  in  unproved  ground,  the  number  of 
strings  of  pipe  that  will  be  required  in  reaching  a  certain  depth  is 
unknown ;  but  in  a  field  that  has  been  drilled  and  the  drilling  condi- 
tions learned,  the  starting-size  becomes  merely  a  question  of  the 
size  with  which  it  is  desired  to  finish  the  well.  Strings  of  10-in. 
and  8j4-in.  pipe  are  sufficient  in  some  American  fields,  while  with 
others  the  well  will  be  begun  with  18-in.  casing.  In  Russia,  where 
the  sands  cave  badly,  holes  are  started  with  a  diameter  of  36  in. 
in  order  to  finish  them  16  inches.* 


Fig.    55.     RIVETED    STEEL    DOUBLE    WELL    CASING '., 

Two  general  classes  of  casing  are  in  common  use  for  oil-well 
service — riveted  steel  pipe  and  screw  casing.  Riveted,  or  Stove- 
pipe,' casing  is  made  of  steel  or  iron  sheets,  riveted  at  the  seams, 
and  is  used  especially  for  the  first  string  to  be  inserted  in  a  well. 
It  is  made  by  cutting  the  sheets  into  the  proper  size,  punching  and 
countersinking  the  rivet-holes,  then  rolling  to  shape  and  fastening 
with  rivets.  The  pipe  most  commonly  used  in  the  United  States 
has  two  thicknesses  of  sheets,  so  placed  with  respect  to  each  other 
that  the  end  of  one  sheet  is  set  opposite  the  centre  of  the  other,  so 
that  at  the  end  of  a  joint  the  inside  sheet  projects  for  half  its  length 
beyond  the  outside  sheet,  leaving  a  corresponding  recess  at  the 
other  end  (Fig.  55).  This  double-riveted  casing  is  made  in  joints 
2  or  3  ft.  in  length,  and,  for  ease  in  handling,  several  of  these  joints 
are  riveted  together  into  sections  of  from  10  to  21  ft.  before  placing 
in  the  well. 

*.\.    Beeby    Thompson,    Petroleum    Mining,    p.    238. 


80  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

Sizes  and  Gauges  of  Double-Riveted  Pipe. 

Thickness  in 
Gauge  No.        Inches.        Diameter  12     13     14     15     16    18    20 

8  0.172          Wt.  Ibs.  per  foot  54    57    62    70    76 

10  0.141  "  41     44    46    48    51     57    60 

12  0.109  30    32    34    36    39    43    47 

Frequently  the  pipe  is  'picked'  before  inserting  it  in  the  well. 
This  consists  in  denting  the  outside  with  a  heavy  sharp-pointed 
pick,  and  is  done  to  take  up  any  slack  between  the  outside  and  in- 
side sheets  and  assist  the  rivets  to  prevent  it  from  pulling  apart. 
Since  nearly  all  casing  is  driven  from  the  surface  before  reaching 
its  final  depth,  it  is  advisable  to  place  on  the  bottom  of  the  first, 
or  'starter'  joint,  a  steel  shoe  of  slightly  greater  diameter  than  the 
outside  of  the  pipe  itself  (Fig.  56).  This  cuts  away  any  irregu- 
larities projecting  from  the  side  of  the  hole  and  clears  a  passage 


Fig.  56.     RIVETED  STARTER-JOINT  WITH   DRIVE-SHOE 

for  the  casing.  Stovepipe  casing  shoes  are  made  from  3  to  14  in. 
in  length  and  are  riveted  directly  to  the  starter  joint.  The  latter  is 
usually  made  of  three  thicknesses  for  the  first  18  ft.,  and  when  a 
steel  shoe  is  not  used,  the  innermost  sheet  is  lapped  back  over  the 
outside  for  6  or  8  in.  and  riveted  there.  This  is  known  as  the  'turn- 
back' starter  and  while  it  is  not  as  rigid  as  the  solid  steel  shoe  and 
does  not  contribute  as  well  to  the  strength  of  the  starter-joint  it 
has  the  advantage  of  a  smaller  outside  diameter,  thus  reducing  the 
size  of  hole  to  be  drilled  by  the  cutting  tools. 

The  merits  of  riveted  pipe  are  mainly  that  its  smooth,  uniform 
outside  surface  is  a  great  aid  in  carrying  the  casing  down  through 
loose  and  sandy  materials  which  tend  to  fall  in  and  bind  against 
the  couplings  on  screw  casing.  Screw  casing,  however  is  more 
easily  handled  and  may  be  raised  and  lowered  at  will,  while  the 
riveted  pipe,  when  once  started  in  the  hole,  is  not  raised  and  can 
be  lifted  out  only  by  the  use  of  a  spear. 


RIGS   AND   EQUIPMENT 


81 


Screw  casing  is  made  of  either  iron  or  steel  plates,  welded  at 
the  seam,  and  takes  its  name  from  the  threads  that  are  cut  at  each 
end  of  the  joint.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  types,  a  threaded 
sleeve,  or  coupling,  connects  two  joints  by  screwing  over  the 
threads  at  the  ends.  Couplings  are  invariably  made  of  iron,  but  the 
pipe  itself  may  be  obtained  of  either  iron  or  steel  and  individual 
tastes  or  ideas  of  operators  rather  than  any  specific  drilling  condi- 


Fig.   57.     DRIVING  STOVE-PIPE,   SHOWING   DRIVE-CLAMPS 
FASTENED   TO   THE   STEM 

tions  usually  govern  which  is  used.  Steel  has  the  advantage  of  a 
slightly  lower  cost  and  is  said  to  be  stronger  than  iron.  It  is,  how- 
ever, more  subject  to  weakness  with  age  from  the  chemical  and 
electrolytic  action  of  alkaline  and  sulphur  waters. 

Screwed  pipe  is  manufactured  by  rolling  the  ingots  of  metal  into 
slabs  and  rolling  the  slabs  again  into  plates  of  the  proper  length, 
thickness  and  width  according  to  the  size  of  pipe  desired.  The 
plates,  known  as  'skelp/  are  then  bent  to  circular  form  and  welded. 


82  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

In  the  latter  stage,  two  different  processes  are  followed  by  which 
are  made  either  the  lap-weld  or.  the  butt-weld  pipe.  The  butt-weld 
is  made  by  placing  the  two  edges  together  as  shown  in  Fig.  58 ;  in 
the  lap  weld,  before  the  skelp  is  bent  the  edges  are  scarfed  so  that 
when  they  are  overlapped  a  much  larger  welding  surface  is  obtained 
than  with  the  butt-weld  and  a  stronger  bond  insured  at  the  weld. 
For  this  reason  little  butt-weld  pipe  is  used  for  casing,  although  all 
ordinary  low-pressure  line-pipe  for  surface  lines  is  made  by  this 
process. 

Each  size  of  pipe  has  an  accepted  standard  weight,  and  when 
stronger  and  thicker  pipe  of  this  size  is  made  for  heavier  duty,  the 
additional  metal  is  placed  on  the  inside,  reducing  the  actual  inside 
diameter  but  retaining  the  same  outside  measurements.  Thus  the 
so-called  6%-in.  casings  weighing  20,  24,  26  and  28  Ib.  per  ft.  all 
have  the  same  outside  diameter  of  6.625  in.,  but  internal  diameters 


Fig.  58.     BUTT  WELD  LAP  WELD 

of  6.049,  5.921,  5.855  and  5.79.1  respectively.  Permissible  variations 
are  5%  above  and  below  the  rated  dimensions.  The  casing  comes 
from  the  mills  in  random  lengths  ranging  around  20  ft.,  and  one 
make  may  also  be  obtained  in  lengths  of  35  and  40  feet.  These  long 
joints  are  thought  to  be  an  advantage  in  reducing  the  friction  of 
cavings  against  the  collars,  but  the  inconvenience  in  handling  them 
has  rather  retarded  their  adoption. 

Since  it  is  desired,  when  more  than  one  string  of  casing  is  neces- 
sary to  finish  a  well,  to  reduce  the  bore  of  the  hole  as  little  as  pos- 
sible, a  sequence  of  sizes  is  used  so  that  one  string  will  barely  pass 
inside  the  next  larger  without  unnecessary  friction.  The  usual 
practice  with  both  riveted  pipe  and  screw  casing  is  to  use  sizes  that 
result  in  a'loss  of  approximately  2  in.  with  each  succeeding  string. 
Wells  using  the  larger  sizes  of  riveted  pipe  may  contain  strings  of 
24,  22,  20  in.,  etc.,  and  those  with  screw  casing  may  have  10,  8^4, 
6l/\.  in.,  etc.  In  many  cases  a  combination  of  the  two  may  be  em- 
ployed so  that  a  casing  record  shows  18  and  16-in.  stovepipe,  with 
12^,  10  and  S^-in.  screw  casing;  or  15^2-in.  screw  casing;  13-in. 
stovepipe,  and  10  and  8j4~m-  screw-pipe,  all  depending  on  the  drill- 
ing conditions  and  personal  preferences  of  the  operators. 


RIGS   AND   EQUIPMENT 


83 


An  idea  of  the  range  of  sizes  and  weights  of  screw  casing  made 
may  be  obtained  from  the  following  table  showing  those  manufac- 
tured by  one  firm.* 

Dimensions  of  Screw  Casing. 


Size 

Diameters 

Thickness 

Weight  per  foot 

Couplings 

External 

Internal 

Plain 
ends 

Threads 
and 
Couplings 

Diameter 

Length 

Weight 

674 
674 

6.000 
6.625 
6.625 
6.625 

5.352 
6.049 
5.921 
5.855 

.324 

.288 
.352 
.385 

19.641 
19.491 

23.582 
25.658 

20.000 
20.000 
24  .  000 
26.000 

6.765 
7.390 
7.390 
7.390 

7^8 

15.748 
18.559 
18.559 
18.559 

1 

6.625 
7.000 

7  :ooo 

7.000 

5.791 
6.456 
6.276 
6.214 

.417 
.272 
.362 
.393 

27.648 
19.544 
25.663 
27.731 

28  .  000 
20.000 
26.000 
28.000 

7.390 
7.698 
7.698 
7.698 

1 

18.559 
17.943 
17.943 
17.943 

8M 

7.000 
8.000 
8.625 
8.625 

6.154 
7.386 
8.017 
7.921 

.423 
.307 
.304 
.352 

29.712 
25.223 
27.016 
31.101 

30.000 
26.000 
28  .  000 
32.000 

7.698 
8.888 
9.627 
9.627 

1 

17.943 
27.410 
33.096 
33.096 

8M 

95! 

8.625 
8.625 
8.625 
10.000 

7.825 
7.775 
7.651 
9.384 

.400 
.425 
.487 
.308 

35.137 
37.220 
42.327 
31.881 

36.000 
38.000 
43  .  000 
33.000 

9.627 
9.627 
9.627 
11.002 

1 

33.096 
33.096 
33.096 
38.162 

10 
10 
10 
10 

10.750 
10.750 
10.750 
10.750 

10.054 
9.960 
9.902 
9.784 

.348 
.395 
.424 
.483 

38.661 
43  .  684 
46.760 
52.962 

40.000 
45  .  000 
48.000 
54.000 

11.866 
11.866 
11.866 
11.866 

1 

45.365 
45.365 
45  .  365 
45.365 

1 

12.000 
13.000 
13.000 
13.00.0 

11.384 
12.438 
12.360 
12.282 

.308 
.281 
.320 
.359 

38.460 
38.171 
43.335 
48.467 

40.000 
40.000 
45.000 
50.000 

13.116 
14.116 
14.116 
14.116 

1 

50.445 
54.508 
54.508 
54.508 

is* 

14.000 
16.000 

13.344 
15.198 

.328 
.401 

47.894 
66.806 

50.000 
70.000 

15.151 
17.477 

9^8 
9//J3 

67.912 
98.140 

Several  different  kinds  of  screw  casing  are  made  for  well  work 
and  the  various  forms  differ  somewhat  in  the  sizes  of  collars,  num- 
ber of  threads  to  the  inch,  etc.  While  the  threads  on  ordinary  line- 
pipe  in  the  sizes  over  2l/2  in.  nearly  always  number  eight  to  the 
inch,  this  number  has  been  found  to  take  too  much  stock  from  the 
pipe  at  the  threads  to  sustain  the  enormous  weights  of  long  strings 
of  heavy  casing,  and  9,  10,  \\l/2  and  14  threads  have  all  been  tried. 
The  11^2  and  14  thread  cuts  have  been  found  to  be  so  small  that 
they  permit  the  pipe  to  pull  apart  quite  easily  and  present  practice 

*Book   of    Standards,    National    Tube    Company,    page   29. 


S4  OIL   PRODUCTION    METHODS 

seems  to  have  dropped  back  to  the  10  thread  for  the  greater  portion 
of  casing  now  made. 

As  a  rule,  the  collar  thread  does  not  start  at  the  end  of  the  col- 
lar, but  begins  from  the  end  of  a  recess  cut  so  that  when  the  pipe 
has  been  screwed  together  the  end  of  the  collar  fits  snugly  over  the 
pipe  and  increases  the  rigidity  of  the  completed  string.  The  length 
of  thread  is  usually  from  3  to  3^2  in.,  with  sufficient  taper  to  insure 
a  tight  bond  with  the  collar.  The  space  inside  the  collar  between 
the  two  ends  is  customarily  from  J4  to  J^  in.  after  the  joints  have 
been  screwed  together.  Pipe  that  is  to  be  subjected  to  exception- 
ally heavy  driving  is  made  so  that  the  ends  of  the  joints  meet,  and 
is  known  as  'drive  pipe'  (Fig.  59).  Usually  these  threads  have  no 
taper  and  are  cut  coarser  than  the  10  thread  of  ordinary  casing  since 
butting  the  ends  relieves  the  couplings  of  much  of  the  strain. 
Drive  pipe  has  small  value  for  use  where  the  ground  caves  into  the 
hole  to  any  extent,  as  after  it  has  been  driven  severely  it  becomes 


Fig.    59.     DRIVE-PIPE  Fig.    60.     INSERTED-JOINT    CASING 

weakened  at  the  threads  and  pulls  apart  readily  when  a  strong  pull 
is  applied. 

Inserted-joint  casing  (Fig.  60)  is  sometimes  placed  in  a  hole 
where  a  small  reduction  of  bore  is  desired  rather  than  the  greater 
strength  of  coupled  pipe.  It  is  made  by  swelling  out  one  end  of 
the  joint  and  cutting  this  with  an  inside  thread  so  that  it  screws 
over  the  outside  thread  end.  The  threads  are  usually  l\l/2  to  the 
inch. 

As  with  riveted  pipe,  a  steel  shoe  is  placed  on  the  lower  end  of 
the  first  joint  in  a  string  of  casing  (Fig.  61),  and  having  an  outside 
diameter  slightly  greater  than  that  of  the  couplings  so  that  the 
beveled  cutting-edge  insures  a  path  large  enough  for  the  passage  of 
the  pipe  and  couplings  (Fig.  62).  The  Baker  shoe  (Fig.  63)  is 
made  with  a  number  of  open  spaces  in  the  cutting  end,  and  is  a 
material  improvement  where  conditions  are  such  that  the  pipe  is 
to  be  worked  down  through  hard  ground.  When  strings  of  casing 
are  to  be  inserted  in  holes  already  drilled  by  the  rotary  method,  a 
type  of  shoe  having  a  saw-toothed  end  is  frequently  used.  Any 


RIGS    AM)    KOUIl'MENT 


85 


slight  projections  from  the  side  of  the  hole  encountered  while  low- 
ering it  are  cut  away  by  turning  the  pipe  and  milling  off  the  irregu- 
larities with  the  shoe. 

All  casing  is  presumably  tested  at  the  mill  before  shipping  and 
is  supposed  to  stand  the  internal  test-pressure  marked  on  the  pipe. 
It  is  rarely,  however,  that  pressure  from  the  inside  is  at  all  im- 
portant in  well  drilling  operations,  although  the  external  or  col- 
lapsing pressure  is  often  of  vital  importance.  The  most  severe 
strain  of  this  nature  comes,  after  the  water  has  been  excluded  by 
cementing  or  otherwise,  when  the  well  is  bailed  dry  on  the  inside 


Fig.  61.     PLAIN  CASING-SHOE 


Fig.    63.     BAKER    SHOE 


Fig.   62.     SCREW   CASING    WITH   CASING-SHOE 

for  the  purpose  of  learning  whether  or  not  the  attempt  to  shut  off 
the  superficial  water  was  successful.  The  collapsing  pressure  ex- 
erted against  the  pipe  at  this  time  is  represented  by  the  difference 
between  the  heights  at  which  the  fluids  stand  on  the  outside  and  the 
inside. 

The  following  table*  has  been  computed,  from  data  determined 
by  a  great  number  of  artificial  tests  on  the  collapsing  pressure  of 
casing,  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  an  approximate  idea  as  to  the 
limit  of  depths  to  which  casing  may  safely  be  carried  under  a  factor 
of  safety  of  2,  which  while  small  yet  seems  to  be  warranted  by  the 
results  of  actual  experience  in  the  fields. 

*Collapsing  Pressure  of  Steel  Tubes,  R.  S.  Ha/ehine,   Western  Engineering,  July,   1912. 


86 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


TABLE  SHOWING  COLLAPSING  PRESSURES  OF  LAP-WELDED  STEEL  CASING 
FOR  SIZES  COMMONLY  USED  IN   CALIFORNIA. 


Size, 

inches 

Weight 
per  Foot, 
pounds 

Inside 
Diameter, 
Inches 

Outside 
Diameter, 
inches 

Thickness, 
inches 

Collapsing 
Pressure, 
pounds  per 
square 
inch 

Equiva- 
lent Water 
Column, 
feet 

Water 
Column 
Factor  of 
Safety  2, 
feet 

±Yi 

15.0 

4.500 

5.000 

0.250 

2944 

6790 

3395 

55/8 

20.0 

5.370 

6.000 

0.315 

3160 

7280 

3640 

6% 

20.0 

6.000 

6.625 

0.312 

2704 

6230 

3115 

26.0 

5.845 

6.625 

0.390 

3717 

8560 

4280 

28.0 

5.775 

6.625 

0.425 

4167 

9600 

4800 

65/8 

20.0 

6.437 

7.000 

0.281 

2096 

4830 

2415 

26.0 

6.312 

7.000 

0.344 

2867 

6600 

3300 

28.0 

6.220 

7.000 

0.390 

3440 

7930 

3965 

75/8 

26.0 

7.390 

8.000 

0.305 

1914 

4410 

2205 

VA 

28.0 

8.015 

8.625 

0.305 

1680 

3870 

1935 

32.0 

7.935 

8.625 

0.345 

2080 

4790 

2395 

36.0 

7.875 

8.625 

0.375 

2383 

5490 

2745 

38.0 

7.765 

8.625 

0.430 

2928 

6750 

3375 

43.0 

7.625 

8.625 

0.500 

3638 

8380 

4190 

¥A 

33.0 

9.500 

10.000 

0.250 

780 

1800 

900 

10 

40.0 

10.000 

10.750 

0.375 

1638 

3770 

1885 

48.0 

9.850 

10.750 

0.450 

2234 

5150 

2575 

54.0 

9.750 

10.750 

0.500 

2643 

6090 

3045 

n% 

40.0 

11.437 

12.000 

0.281 

641 

1475 

737 

im 

40.0 

12.500 

13.000 

0.250 

402 

927 

463 

45.0 

12.360 

13.000 

0.320 

745 

1717 

858 

50.0   . 

12.250 

13.000 

0.375 

1109 

2560 

1280 

uy2 

50.0 

13.250 

14.000 

0.375 

936 

2160 

1080 

15H 

51.3 

15.416 

16.000 

0.292 

314 

724 

362 

Fig.    64.     A    GUSHER 


CHAPTER  IV. 
DRILLING  METHODS. 

The  two  principal  modern  methods  of  drilling  oil  wells  are  (1) 
by  the  standard  or  percussion  method,  and  (2)  by  the  rotary  flush 
system.  There  are  several  modifications  and  combinations  of  the 
two,  but  nearly  all  drilling  is  done  by  one  or  the  others  .The  prin- 
ciple of  the  percussion  system  is  that  of  raising  and  dropping  a 
heavy  stem  and  bit  on  bottom,  afterwards  removing  the  drill- 
ings, which  have  been  mixed  with  water  by  a  bailer.  The  rotary 
has  been  described  as  an  auger  with  water  connections  which  wash 
the  debris  from  bottom  by  the  action  of  a  pump. 

The  rotary  cannot  be  successfully  used  in  hard  strata  of  lime- 
stone, sandstone  or  slate,  and  for  this  reason  its  use  is  confined  to 
those  localities  in  which  the  principal  formation  includes  shales, 
clays  and  sand  interspersed  with  occasional  shells  of  Harder  ma- 
terial. On  the  other  hand,  the  standard  rig  does  not  wafk  satisfac- 
torily in  running  or  heaving  sand,  or  in  heavy  gas  pressures,  and  is 
therefore  used  in  such  formation  only  in  connection  with  the  rotary. 
For  any  particular  locality,  however,  one  or  the  other  systems  or 
their  combination  will  be  found  to  perform  the  drilling  in  a  capable 
manner. 

Standard  Method.  When  the  derrick  has  been  erected  by  the 
rig  builders,  the  drilling  crew  of  four  men  (two  .drillers  and  their 
tool-dressers)  take  possession  and  prepare  to  start  drilling  or  'rig 
up'  as  it  is  called.  It  is  usual  to  excavate  a  cellar  8  by  10  by  20  ft. 
directly  under  the  derrick  floor  in  order  to  facilitate  the  handling  of 
the  casing  as  well  as  to  give  freedom  of  action  to  the  temper-screw. 
The  cellar  can  be  sunk  by  hand  or,  when  desired,  a  hole  from  100  to 
200  ft.  deep  is  drilled  and  the  earth  thrown  into  it  and  there  re- 
drilled  and  bailed  out,  thus  providing  a  means  of  its  removal.  A 
sump  is  excavated  by  scrapers  near  the  derrick  and  a  dump-box  in- 
stalled under  the  floor  for  conveying  the  drillings  from  bailer  to 
sump.  The  sump  is  often  used  for  an  oil  reservoir  later  on  when 
the  well  is  producing  quantities  of  oil  and  sand.  A  forge  is  placH 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


Fig.  65.     BALL-BEARING  DERRICK   CRANE  WITH  T   IRON   ARM 


on  the  right  side  of  the  derrick  floor  for  heating  the  bits  to  draw 
them  out  to  guage,  while  a  crane  (Fig.  65)  with  a  chain  hoist  is  so 
placed  as  to  swing  a  bit  into  the  forge  or  to  suspend  the  bit  or 


Fig. 


66.      TRIPLE   SNATCH   BLOCK 
FOR   CASING-LINE 


Fig.  67.     TUBING  AND  CASING 
HOOK  WITH   CLEVIS 


DRILLING    METHODS 


89 


other  equipment  for  connection  to  the  drilling-tools.  A  lagging  of 
manila  cable  is  wound  tightly  around  the  band-wheel  and  spiked 
every  8  or  10  in.  to  prevent  its  being  torn  off.  The  band-wheel  has 
been  previously  machined  on  the  face,  if  necessary,  with  a  turning- 
bar.  A  12-in.  6-ply  stitched  belt  transmits  power  to  the  band-wheel 


Fig.  68.     LIFTING  CASING,  SHOWING  ELEVATOR,  CASING-HOOK  AND  BLOCK 

from  the  drilling-engine,  and  provision  is  made  to  align  the  two  by 
shifting  the  engine  upon  its  foundation.  The  shaft  of  the  calf-wheel 
is  also  lagged  to  prevent  its  being  cut  by  the  wire-line  as  well  as 
to  provide  a  larger  diameter  for  the  casing-line  to  wind  upon. 

The  sprocket  chain  which  turns  the  calf-wheel  from  the  band- 
wheel  is  put  on  and  a  clutch  fitted  for  convenient  manipulation  by 
the  driller  when  standing  near  the  throttle  at  the  headache-post. 
The  casing-line  is  passed  over  the  four  casing-sheaves  on  top  of 
the  derrick  and  threaded  through  the  32-in.  triple  casing-block  (Fig. 
66),  from  which  hangs  a  heavy  casing-hook  (Fig.  67),  5  to  7^  in. 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

diameter.  In  moving  casing,  the  links  of  the  elevator 
are  placed  over  the  casing-hook,  the  body  of  the  ele- 
vator taking  hold  under  the  top  coupling  of  the  pipe. 
The  clutch  is  thrown  in  and  the  pipe  raised  or  lowered 
by  the  calf-wheel.  The  sand-reel  lever  is  placed  near 
enough  to  the  throttle-wheel  on  the  headache-post  to 
permit  of  the  driller  handling  both  at  the  same  time, 
while  powerful  brakes  are  placed  on  the  calf  and  bull- 
wheels.  The  sand-line  is  drawn  on  the  double-drum 
sand-reel,  the  manila  cable  is  wound  on  the  bull- 
wheel,  after  which  the  drilling  tools  are  pulled  into 
the  derrick  and  coupled  together. 
'  A  complete  string  of  drilling  tools  consists  (Fig. 
69)  of  a  rope-socket,  jars,  stem,  and  bit,  in  the  order 


Fig.    70.     BARRETT   JACK   AND   CIRCLE 

named.  They  are  screwed  together  by  means  of  a 
powerful  jack  operated  on  a  circular  track  (Fig.  70), 
and  two  men  are  required  to  tighten  the  larger  joints. 
The  latter,  which  are  tapered  to  make  coupling  easier 
and  to  protect  threads,  are  made  of  soft  annealed  steel 
and  have  a  shoulder  about  1  in.  wide  which  prevents, 
them  from  unscrewing  when  in  the  well.  When  the 
joints  are  new,  they  come  within  Y10-in.  shouldering 
by  hand,  and  should  be  set  up  by  the  jack  and  un- 
screwed several  times  before  put  to  actual  use,  to 
prevent  any  danger  of  unscrewing.  They  should  at 
all  times  be  thoroughly  cleaned  to  remove  grease  or 
rust,  and  the  shoulders  should  be  free  from  rough  or 
broken  places.  The  threads  often  become  cupped 


DRILLING    METHODS 


91 


r.   71.     TIGHTENING  A  ROPE-SOCKET  ON  A  STRING  OF   STANDARD   CABLE 
DRILLING    TOOLS 


from  faulty  joints  or  excessive  tightening,  in  which  case  they 
should  be  sent  to  the  shop  for  re-threading.  In  the  larger  sizes  of  tools, 
the  joints  are  4  in.  at  the  base,  3  in.  at  the  top,  with  7  threads  to  the 
inch,  and  are  called  3  by  4-7  joints.  They  are  6  in.  outside  diameter, 
and  the  wrench-squares  for  tightening  are  placed  close  to  them. 
Similarly  4  by  5-7,  2%  by  3^4-7,  2  by  3-7,  1%  by  2^-8,  are  the  sizes 
used,  depending  upon  the  diameter  of  the  casing  and  the  formation 
being  drilled.  Care  should  be  exercised  in  setting  up  the  smaller 
joints,  as  the  pins  are  sometimes  twisted  off.  The  rope-socket  for 
manila  cable  has  a  2}^ -in.  hole  bored  through  the  top  and  tapering 
at  the  side  about  12  in.  below  (Fig.  72)  ;  the  end  of  the  cable  is 
pulled  through  the  bore  and  interlaid  with  short  pieces  of  manila 
rope.  When  pulled  tightly  into  place,  by  weight  of  the  tools,  a 
wedge  is  formed  making  an  effective  connection.  The  wire-line  socket 
(Fig.73)  has  a  1^-in.  hole  bored  through  to  the  box,  with  a  recess 
above  the  latter;  the  line  is  thrust  through  this  hole  from  the  top, 
the  ends  are  turned  back  and  pulled  into  the  recess  and  hot 
babbitt  poured  in,  preventing  the  line  from  pulling  out  of  the 
socket. 


92 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


The  drilling-jars  (Fig.  74)  are  generally  not  used  until  the  hole 
is  150  ft.  deep  or  more.  They  resemble  two  great  links  of  a  chain 
with  about  16-in.  stroke  for  ordinary  drilling.  When  the  tools  be- 
come fast  from  cavings  or  any  other  cause,  the  jars,  by  lowering  the 
temper-screw,  are'  slacked  sufficiently  to  deliver  a  sharp  upward 
blow,  eliminating  the  strain  on  the  drilling-line,  which  would  occur 


Fig.  72.    ROPE-SOCKETS 
Babcock  for       New  Era  or       Babcock  Sub 
Wire  Cable      'Wood-pecker'         for  Wire 
for  Manila  Cable         Cable 


Fig.  73.    UNION  RATCHET 
ROPE-SOCKET  FOR 
WIRE-LINE 


if  pulling  were  resorted  to.  In  ordinary  drilling,  the  jars  are  not 
brought  into  action,  but  remain  extended  to  their  full  stroke.  The 
stem  (Fig.  76)  with  3  by  4-7  joints  is  usually  4j^  in.  by  28  ft.  long, 
and  a  complete  string  of  tools  of  this  size  weighs  about  4000  pounds. 
In  districts  where  the  formation  is  slate,  limestone  or  sandstone, 
it  is  usual  to  dress  the  cutting-edge  of  the  bit  more  or  less  to  a 
chisel  point  in  order  to  make  faster  headway  in  the  hard  rock, 
while  in  soft  formations  of  clay,  shale  or  sand,  the  centre  of  the  bit 
is  cut  out,  making  a  concave  surface  with  the  outer  edges  from  1  to 
3  in.  longer  than  the  centre.  In  either  case,  all  four  corners  are 
drawn  out  to  gauge  and  the  cutting-edges  properly  rounded  off  to 
conform  to  the  size  of  the  casing  used.  In  California,  the  shank 


DRILLING    METHODS 

of  a  drilling  bit  should  be  smaller  than  the  cutting 
edge  by  1  or  2  in.,  thus  affording  an  offset  by  which 
a  larger  hole  can  be  cut  than  with  a  straight  bit.  In 
soft  formations,  a  chisel-bottom  bit  will  dig  faster  than 
the  drillings  can  be  mixed  with  the  water,  making  it 
necessary  to  re-drill  the  debris  in  order  entirely  to  re- 


93 


Fig.   74.  Fig.  75.     DRILLING  WITH  WIRE-LINE 

DRILLING  SHOWING    TEMPER-SCREW 

JAR 

move  it  from  the  hole,  while  a  concave  bit  is  totally 
unsuited  to  hard  formation,  as  a  sharp,  cutting  edge  is 
desired.  Bits  are  dressed,  therefore,  to  suit  the  forma- 
tion. Large  water-courses  are  provided  in  the  Cali- 
fornia style  of  bit  (Fig.  77),  which  mixes  the  water  Fig.  76 
more  freely  with  the  drillings ;  some  operators  prefer  STEM 


94 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


the  'Mother  Hubbard'  pattern  (Fig.  78),  as  the  square  shoulders 
help  in  mixing  the  mud,  and  when  this  bit  unscrews  or  is  lost, 
usually  stands  straighter  in  the  hole  than  those  with  a  rounded 
shoulder,  making  its  withdrawal  much  easier.  The  occasion  often 
arises  where  the  use  of  the  tinder-reamer  is  impossible  for  reaming 


Fit?.  77 

DRILLING  BIT 

Ordinary  California 

Pattern 


Fig.  78 
DRILLING  BIT 

'Mother  Hubbard' 
Pattern 


DOUBLE  UNDER 

REAMER 

Showing  Cutters  Con- 
tracted to  Enter  Casing 


Fig.   79.     DOUBLE  UNDER-REAMER 
Expanded  as  in  Operation 

a  hard  formation  or  shell,  in  which  case  a  bit  can  be  dressed 
'sidehill/  that  is,  with  one  lug  or  cutting  edge  drawn  out  1  to  2 
in.  larger  than  gauge,  while  the  other  edge  is  beaten  in  somewhat, 
making  a  one-sided  tool  which  cuts  a  larger  hole  than  would  the 
ordinary  bit.  Sidehill  bits  are  often  used  when  drilling  in  stove- 
pipe casing  where  the  tinder-reamer  cannot  be  used. 


DRILLING    METHODS 


95 


The  tinder-reamer  (Figs.  79,  80,  81,  82)  is  a  specially  designed 
tool  which,  as  its  name  implies,  is  used  to  ream  or  enlarge  the  hole 
below  the  casing  and  is  employed  constantly  in  wells  where  it  is 
desired  to  carry  the  strings  of  pipe  for  long  distances.  The  Cali- 
fornia tinder-reamers  are  reliable 
in  construction  and  action ;  they 
have  two  lugs  or  cutters,  which, 
when  fully  expanded,  will  cut  a 
larger  hole  than  would  the  casing- 
shoe,  giving  the  casing  ample 
room  between  the  walls.  A  10- 
in.  tinder-reamer,  for  instance, 
will  cut  a  13^-in.  hole,  while  the 
10-in.  shoe  is  12  in.  diameter, 
leaving  a  space  of  \l/2  in.  These 
cutters  are  held  in  place  by  a  power- 


Fig.  81.     LOWER  END  OF  WILSON 
UNDER-REAMER 


Fig.    82.     WILSON    UNDER-REAMER 


ful  spring  and  can  be  pulled  down  to  a  smaller  diameter  than  the 
inside  of  the  pipe.  When  its  use  is  required,  the  bit  is  removed  and 
the  tinder-reamer  attached  to  the  stem,  the  cutters  are  pulled  to- 
gether on  the  derrick  floor  by  the  driller,  and  the  string  of  tools 
lowered  in  the  well.  Upon  emerging  from  the  shoe,  the  spring  ex- 


96 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


pands  the  cutters  back  to  a  shoulder  on  the  body  of  the  under- 
reamer.  Then  they  are  ready  for  work.  Upon  being  withdrawn, 
the  cutters  strike  the  shoe  and  are  pulled  together,  after  which  the 


Fig.  83.     PARTS  FOR   WILSON   UNDER-REAMER 

tools  can  be  raised  to  the  surface.  The  wrenches  (Fig.  84)  for  set- 
ting up  the  joints  are  massive,  weighing  from  250  to  450  Ibs.  each, 
and  are  usually  counterbalanced  by  weights  suspended  outside  of 
the  derrick.  The  swivel  wrench  (Fig.  85),  which  hangs  from  the 
traveling  hoist  running  on  the  crane,  is  used  for  holding  the  tools 
in  place  when  being  screwed  together. 


N.S.Co. 


Fig.  84.     TOOL  WRENCH 


DRILLING    METHODS 


Fig.   85.     BARRETT  SWIVEL  WRENCH 

For  removing  drillings  from  the  hole  different  designs  of  bailers 
are  used,  the  working  principle  being  the  same  in  -all,  that  is,  a 
valve  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of  a  smaller  size  of  pipe  than  the  casing 
being  drilled  and  a  bail  is  riveted  at  the  top.  The  valve  opens  when 
it  strikes  the  mud  or  water  and  closes  when  the  bailer  is  lifted  from 
the  well.  In  the  flat-bottom  bailer,  a  hinged  valve  upon  a  flat  seat 


Fig.    86.     BAILER    ENTERING    HOLE 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

is  used,  while  in  the  dart-bailer  (Fig.  87),  a 
ball  with  a  dart  for  a  guide  and  a  seat  answers 
the  purpose.  In  the  Morahan  (Fig.  88),  or 
other  special  forms,  suction  is  provided  by 
means  of  a  long  plunger  with  a  valve  at  the 
bottom  to  remove  sand  or  broken  particles 
of  iron  from  the  hole. 

When  the  drilling-tools  have  been  'strung 
up,'  the  crown-block  is  moved  if  necessary  to 
allow  the  bit  to  strike  bottom  in  the  same 
vertical  line  as  the  slot  in  the  walking-beam 
for  the  reason  that  the  latter  supports  the 
tools  later  on.  As  the  stem  and  bit  are  over 


Fip.  87. 
DART-BOT- 
TOM 
BAILER 


Fig.   89.     SPUDDING-SHOE 

30  ft.  long  and  extend  above  the  beam,  it  will 
be  seen  that  other  means  must  be  provided  to 
deepen  the   well  to  a  point  where  the  temper- 
screw  can  be  used.    This  method  is  called  'spud- 
ding-in'   and   is   carried  out  as  follows:     The 
bull-rope     is     placed     on     the     bull-wheel,     the 
tools  lowered  to  the  cellar-bottom   and   enough 
slack      run      out      from      the      bull-wheel 
to  permit  connection  to  the  crank-shaft 
by   a   nlanila  jerk-line.       A   spudding-shoe 
(Fig.  89),  which  is  anchored  by  a  bridle 
fastened  to  the  back  derrick-sill,  is  placed 
over     the     drilling-cable     and     a     clevis 
passed  through  an  eye  in  the  jerk-line  to   Fig.  88.     MORAHAN 
the    lugs    of    the    spudding-shoe.     The   BOTTOM^OWING 


spudding  ring  is  put  on  over  the  wrist-     ENcLHEcf- VALVE  °F 


DRILLING    METHODS  99 

pin,  which  has  been  previously  placed  in  the  second  hole  of  the 
crank-shaft  and  the  outside  eye  of  the  jerk-line  over  the  spudding- 
ring.  All  slack  in  the  cable  is  then  taken  up  by  the  engine  until  the 
tools  are  lifted  from  the  bottom,  when  the  bull-rope  is  thrown  off 
and  the  engine  allowed  to  run,  raising  and  lowering  the  tools  by 
the  off-set  in  the  crank-shaft.  As  the  bit  digs  away,  it  can  be  kept 
striking  at  bottom  by  raising  the  bull-wheel  brake  and  slacking  the 
cable  from  time  to  time.  Enough  water  should  be  used  to  thor- 
oughly mix  with  the  cavings,  but  too  much  water  should  be  avoided 
as  caving  of  the  walls  might  result.  Guides  of  wood  are  usually 
nailed  around  the  stem  at  the  floor  to  keep  the  stem  dropping  in  a 
vertical  line  while  the  helper,  or  tool-dresser,  turns  it  to  avoid  dig- 
ging a  flat  hole.  Turning  the  tools  by  hand  usually  continues  until 
a  depth  of  from  75  to  100  ft.  has  been  attained,  when  the  spring 
in  the  line  will  turn  them  without  further  aid. 

When  the  hole  becomes  so  muddy  that  the  bit  no  longer  drops 
freely,  the  bull-rope  is  put  on,  the  spudding-shoe  disconnected  from 
the  cable  and  the  tools  withdrawn  above  the  hole  and  swung  aside ; 
the  bailer  is  pulled  from  its  resting  place  and  lowered  to  bottom, 
where  it  is  'spudded,'  that  is,  raised  and  lowered  to  bottom  several 
times  to  pick  up  as  much  mud  as  possible.  The  bailer  is  then 
raised  and  its  contents  discharged  into  the  dump-box.  The  opera- 
tion is  repeated  until  the  drillings  have  been  removed,  when  the 
tools  are  again  run  to  bottom  and  spudding  resumed.  In  drilling 
at  any  depth,  it  is  always  important  to  keep  the  hole  as  clean  of 
drillings  as  possible  to  allow  a  free  drop  to  the  tools.  In  this  way, 
5  to  8  feet  is  made  at  a  time.  Should  the  walls  begin  caving  at  the 
surface,  it  is  usual  to  place  a  wooden  conductor  in  a  well  to  a  suffi- 
cient depth  to  exclude  all  cavings.  When  the  stem  is  deep  enough 
to  be  covered  by  the  walls,  the  wrist-pin^  is  placed  in  the  third  hole 
of  the  crank-shaft  to  permit  of  a  longer  stroke  and  a  harder  blow, 
and  when  a  depth  of  from  130  to  150  ft.  has  been  attained  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  substitute  the  walking-beam  for  the  jerk-line.  This  is 
called  'hitching  on'.  The  temper-screw  is  placed  in  the  slot  on  the 
beam  and  a  counterweight  rigged  back  of  the  sampson-post  to  aid 
in  pulling  back  the  screw  after  it  has  been  let  out.  The  temper- 
screw  (Fig.  91)  consists  of  a  2-in.  by  5  or  6-ft.  screw  with  coarse, 
square  threads  which  run  through  a  box  having  wings  at  the 
lower  end,  where  a  split  clamp  held  together  by  a  set  screw,  is 
placed.  A  tee  rests  upon  the  nose  of  the  beam,  and  two  guides  or 
reins  run  the  length  of  the  screw  to  the  box.  Attached  to  the 


100 


OIL   PRODUCTION    METHODS 


latter  in  notches  at  the  top  edge  are  the  1-in.  links,  by  which  the 
wire  or  manila  line  is  suspended.  The  manila  clamps  (Fig.  92) 
are  larger  at  the  top  than  the  bottom  to  permit  of  a  wrapper  oi 
soft  rope,  usually  about  5  ft.  long,  being  applied  to  the  cable  on 
the  line  just  above  the  clamps.  When  the  bull-wheel  brake  is 
raised,  the  line  pulls  the  wrapper  tightly  into  the  clamp,  forming  a 


Fig.     90.     DRILLING    CREW    'AT    WORK'    WITH    ELECTRICALLY    OPERATED 
STANDARD   DRILLING   TOOLS 

tight  wedge  with  the  latter.  The  wire-line  clamps  (Fig.  93)  are 
composed  of  two  straight  pieces  of  steel  with  grooves  running 
through  the  centres  to  fit  the  size  of  the  line  being  used.  In  each 
case  a  heavy  iron  'C'  having  a  set  screw  is  used  to  tighten  the 
clamps. 

When  lowering  the  tools  into  the  well,  the  driller  does  not  run 
them  to  bottom  at  once  but  applies  the  bull-wheel  brake  at  inter- 


DRILLING    METHODS 


vals  of  a  few  feet  when  nearing  the  bottom  in  order  to  get  the  full 
stretch  of  the  cable.  In  other  words,  the  tools  strike  bottom  on 
the  spring  of  the  line  when  drilling  and  the  rebound  is  probably 


Fig.  92.     MANILA-LINE  CLAMPS 


Fig.  91.     LONG-FRAME  TEMPER- 
SCREW    WITH    MANILA    DRILLING 
CLAMPS    ATTACHED 


Fig. 


93.  SHRYOCK  CLAMPS 
FOR  WIRE  ROPE 


several  feet.  This  action  materially  aids  in  mixing  the  cuttings 
with  the  water.  In  ordinary  drilling,  due  to  the  spring  in  the  line, 
the  beam  is  returning  on  the  up-stroke  when  the  tools  are  striking, 


'l        L  .OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

creating  a  distinct  jar  on  the  rig,  which  grows  more  pronounced  in 
a  hard  formation,  especially  when  the  wire-line  is  in  use.  Drilling 
usually  proceeds  in  the  open  hole  until  the  walls  begin  caving  or 
until  a  sufficient  depth  has  been  obtained  to  insert  the  casing. 
Where  stove-pipe  is  used,  from  200  to  500  ft.  is  the  ordinary  depth, 
depending  upon  the  method  of  lowering  it.  The  stove-pipe  used 
for  casing  in  California  is  held  together  by  dents  made  by  picking, 
and  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  pulling  the  column  apart.  A 
depth  of  200  ft.  is  ample  when  the  string  is  being  lowered  without 
support,  but  some  operators  prefer  putting  it  in  on  a  smaller  string 
of  casing,  in  which  case  it  rests  upon  a  casing-spear  or  upon  a  cast- 
iron  bushing  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  screw-pipe.  The  bush- 
ing has  a  left-hand  thread  and  can  be  detached  from  the  screw 
casing  and  left  in  the  well  where  it  is  easily  drilled  up.  Five  hun- 
dred feet  or  more  of  stove-pipe  can  be  lowered  in  the  well  in  this 
way  without  injury.  For  lifting  and  handling  this  class  of  casing, 
wooden  friction  blocks  16  by  16  in.  by  5  ft.  are  securely  bolted 
around  the  pipe  by  four  1-in.  bolts ;  a  wire-line  sling  is  placed  on  the 
casing  hook  and  under  each  side  of  the  friction  blocks,  so  that  the 
column  can  be  moved  by  the  calf- wheel.'  The  stove-pipe  in  lengths 
of  10  or  20  ft.  is  coupled  together  by  placing  a  drive-head  on  the 
top  joint  and  dropping  the  tools  on  the  column,  by  'bull-roping;1 
that  is,  raising  and  lowering  the  tools  on  the  drive-head  (Fig.  94) 
by  the  bull-wheel.  Should  the  coupling  be  too  tight  for  bull-roping, 
the  jerk-line  and  spudding-shoe  are  used  as  in  spudding-in,  and 
the  casing  driven  together.  The  latter  method  is  also  used  in  driv- 
ing or  forcing  the  whole  column  of  pipe  when  it  does  not  follow 
or  sink  by  its  own  weight.  By  placing  the  wrist-pin  in  the  fifth 
hole  of  the  crank-shaft  to  lengthen  the  stroke  or  drop  of  the  stem, 
an  unusually  hard  blow  can  be  delivered.  Hydraulic  jacks  are 
sometimes  used  to  force  the  column  down  but  are  not  as  effective 
as  driving  with  the  stem.  For  this  work,  two  6  by  6  by  16-in. 
pieces  of  iron  are  securely  bolted  by  2l/2  by  14  in.  bolts 
to  the  upper  tool- wrench  square  shank  of  the  stem.  These  are 
called  drive-clamps  (Fig.  95),  and  strike  upon  the  drive-head,  which 
sets  inside  of  the  casing  upon  the  main  column,  at  the  same  time 
projecting  over  and  resting  upon  the  top  coupling  or  section. 
These  heads,  which  are  bored  to  admit  passing  over  the  stem,  are 
used  for  all  sizes  of  screw  casing  to  protect  the  threads  of  the  top 
coupling  as  well  as  for  driving  to  loosen  the  casing  should  the 
latter  become  fast  from  cavings. 


MR1I  LING     Ml-'  I'll  OPS 

The     cellar,     \\hen     StOVe-pipe     ts     being     used,     demonstrates     HS 
\alnc.   for   a   20-ft     length   can   he   inserted   and   dulled   over   \\ithont 

intending  \\itli  the  operations  oi   the  temper-screy      \c.ni\    all 

Casing  is  inserted  in  the  da\  h\  the  combined  CfCW,  ami  \\hcn  h  >l 
toin  has  been  reached,  each  driller  ami  helpci  inns  his  slnli  01 
'  i  o\\  ef'  of  t  \\  el  ve  hours. 

In  some  localities,  whore  ilu-  t'onnation  is  solid,  the  StOVC-pipe  is 
held  suspended  on  a  friction  hlock.  the  \\alU  of  tho  \\ell  creating 
resistance  to  ho1<l  (he  string  lo^rtluT.  However,  \\lu-n  a 
sufficient  strain,  hy  reason  of  the  weight  of  tlu-  casing,  has  boon 
attained  !<>  CaUSC  the  joints  to  Open,  the  pipe  shnnld  he  set  on  hi'ttoin. 
The  reason  for  holding  the  casing  np  is  to  enahle  the  hit  to  swing 
freely  Mow  the  shor,  ihrn-lu  cntlins;  a  larger  hole  than  if  the  String 


Kitf.  o.|.     DROP 
DRIVE-HEAD 

were  following.  In  drilling  through  any  casing,  it  is  always  well, 
wherever  possible,  to  keep  the  bit  working  lioin  15  to  M  ft.  ahead 
of  the  shoe  for  this  reason.  Should  it  be  found  necessary  to  drive 
the  stove-pipe,  because  of  th"  caving  nind  or  'friction'  hohind  it. 
clamping  at  the  surface  is  not  necessary.  Stove  pipe  is  designed, 
primarily,  to  C&S€  ont  running  sands,  which  would  fall  aronnd  the 

projecting  couplings  of  a  screv  casing  and  freeze  or  stick  the  string. 

but    to   reach    the   sands,   beds   of  clay,   shale,   shells   and   honldei      an 
nearly  always  encountered.     As  the  clav  is  nsn.ilK    i,.ngb  and  n 
the  bit  bores  a   small  hole,  leaving  the  stove  pipe  shoe  to  cut    its  way 
through   the   walls,   necessitating   hard   driving    with   the   stem   to    I'mce 
the  string  down.    I -'or  tin    pea*  n,  many  operators  prefer  the  turnback 

joint    \\luch   has   no   shoe,   as   it    follows  the  bit    more   readily    by 


104  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

reason  of  its  smaller  clearance.  For  drilling  through  blue  clay,  a 
short  stem  8  to  10  ft.  long,  called  a  sinker-bar,  is  used  above  the 
jars  to  knock  the  tools  loose  when  they  stick  or  become  fast,  as  often 
happens.  The  jars  in  such  cases  are  loosened  sufficiently  to  deliver 
a  short,  upward  blow  keeping  the  tools  loose  and  saving  considerable 
time  which  would  otherwise  be  spent  in  'switching.'  This  term  is 
used  to  designate  the  high  rate  of  speed  at  which  the  engine  is  run 
to  jar  the  bit  loose  when  no  sinker-bar  is  carried.  Short  pieces  of 
wire-line,  when  thrown  into  the  well,  are  helpful  in  holding  up  the 
tools  and  enlarging  the  hole. 

Gray  or  blue  shale  is  usually  easily  drilled  and  ordinarily  gives 
no  trouble  to  stove-pipe,  while  hard  strata  of  limestone,  sandstone,  etc., 
if  carefully  reamed  with  a  sidehill  bit  and  enlarged  with  small  pieces 
of  cast  iron  or  short  lengths  of  wire-line,  should  not  interfere  with 
the  passage  of  the  casing.  Boulders  are  often  troublesome,  both  to 
stove-pipe  and  screw-casing,  particularly  when  small  enough  to  roll 
behind  the  pipe  and  dent  or  mash  it.  Running  sands  are  best  handled 
by  letting  the  stove-pipe  follow  through,  or  driving  it  ahead  and 
bailing  as  little  as  possible.  It  will  be  found  that  the  shoe  of  the 
stove-pipe  is  often  several  feet  ahead  of  actual  bottom  until  the  sand 
stratum  has  been  penetrated. 

Aside  from  any  fishing  jobs  that  might  occur  from  the  use  of 
stove-pipe,  the  principal  troubles  encountered  are  parting,  collapsing, 
or  freezing.  Parting  is  caused  by  drilling  out  a  sand  plug  or  bridge 
near  the  bottom  when  the  upper  portion  is  frozen,  suspending  the 
whole  column  from  the  surface  when  the  pipe  may  part  from  excessive 
weight,  neglect  of  the  driller  to  properly  join  the  sections,  tearing 
out  an  inside  section  with  the  bit  when  drilling,  starting  the  walls  to 
caving  to  such  an  extent  that  the  in-rushing  material  forces  the  string 
apart,  and  driving  the  column  together  at  some  point.  If  the  part 
comes  near  the  surface,  the  hole  can  be  continued  by  hand  from  the 
cellar  down  outside  the  column  and  the  pipe  properly  connected. 
Should  the  part  be  deep,  however,  a  swage  can  be  run  to  bottom  on 
a  string  of  6  or  8-in.  screw-casing  and  slips  or  wedges  lowered  by 
the  sand-line  over  the  top  of  the  swage  when  the  smaller  casing  can 
be  pulled,  with  the  result  that  the  swage  pulls  up  against  the  slips 
and  engages  with  the  stove-pipe.  A  stem  and  fishing-jars  are  used 
above  the  swage  and  are  coupled  to  the  casing  by  a  substitute  con- 
nection, the  latter  having  a  mandrel  at  the  top.  When  the  stove- 
pipe cannot  be  loosened  by  an  ordinary  pull,  a  string  of  tools  with 
a  socket  attached  can  bejowered  inside  the  screw-casing  and  a  hold 
taken  on  the  mandrel.  Jarring  then  proceeds,  a  strain  being  kept 


DRILLING   METHODS  105 

on  the  inside  string.  Instead  of  using  a  second  string  of  tools,  the 
dead-line  is  often  taken  from  the  casing-block  and  attached  to  the 
back-sill  of  the  derrick,  the  spudding-shoe  and  jerk-line  are  put  on 
and  an  upward  blow  delivered  by  the  inside  column  of  casing  to  the 
stove-pipe.  The  latter,  when  freed,  is  withdrawn  to  the  point  where 
it  parted  and  lowered  again  after  repairs. 

A  swage  can  be  used  to  remove  dents  made  by  boulders  or  to 
drive  out  collapsed  portions.  This  work  may  be  only  of  a  temporary 
nature  and  should  the  pipe  collapse  a  second  time,  as  often  happens, 
the  swage  again  may  be  called  into  use  and  the  pipe  kept  in  fairly 
good  condition  until  landed.  In  driving  the  shoe  through  a  tight 
hole  or  tough  stratum  of  clay,  the  shoe  often  becomes  pinched  or 
oblongated.  In  such  a  case  the  bit  may  be  used  to  detach  the  lower 
portion  and  drive  it  to  bottom  where  it  can  be  drilled  up — in 
fact  8  or  10  ft.  is  sometimes  drilled  off  the  bottom  of  a  string  a 
section  or  two  at  a  time  and  disposed  of  in  this  way.  When  a  string 
of  stove-pipe  cannot  be  forced  by  hard  driving,  it  is  usually  aban- 
doned and  the  next  smaller  size  of  casing  run  to  bottom,  for  stove- 
pipe is  much  more  difficult  to  handle  than  screw  casing  for  the  reason 
that  it  cannot  be  readily  pulled  back.  One  string  is  generally  used  in 
California,  the  average  depth  of  landing  in  the  deeper  territory  being 
about  750  ft.  There  are  single  16-in.  columns,  however,  over  1000 
ft.  long,  the  object  being  to  shut  out  all  sand-strata.  The  pipe  is 
cut  off  flush  after  landing  with  the  casing-sills  in  the  cellar,  in  order 
not  to  interfere  later  on  with  the  screw-pipe. 

For  convenience  in  handling  all  screw  casing,  a  large  iron  ring 
called  a  'spider'  is  placed  at  the  cellar  bottom.  The  spider  has  two 
projecting  lugs  for  its  support.  The  casing  is  run  through  a  beveled 
hole  and  can  be  suspended  at  any  depth  by  inserting  four  curved 
steel  slips  (Figs.  96  and  97)  having  serrated  edges  which  act  as 
wedges  between  the  body  of  the  spider  and  casing.  The  advantage 
of  being  able  to  lower  the  latter  only  a  few  inches  at  a  time  is  often 
helpful  in  shutting  out  a  caving  formation,  allowing  the  tools  to 
work  on  bottom  without  interruption.  Several  makes  of  elevators  are 
used,  the  Wilson  (Fig.  100),  Fair-Mannington  (Fig.  98),  Scott  (Fig. 
99) ,  and  Fisher  being  generally  employed.  The  Wilson  is  easily  manipu- 
lated, a  door  on  the  side  opening  wide  enough  to  admit  the  casing 
instead  of  being  hinged  at  the  back  as  in  the  Fair,  while  the  Fisher 
is  especially  reliable  for  extreme  tension.  With  one  exception 
elevators  are  made  upon  practically  the  same  principle,  that  of  two 
links  by  which  the  casing  is  raised,  the  body  having  a  hinge  at  the 
side  or  back,  to  allow  of  its  being  placed  around  the  casing.  A 


106 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


Fig.    96.     SPIDER    AND    SLIPS 


Fig.    97.     LINER    AND    SLIPS    FOR    SPIDER    USED    FOR   HANDLING    SMALL 

SIZES   OF  PIPE 


Fig.  98. 
FAIR  ELEVATOR 


Fig.  99. 
SCOTT  ELEVATOR 


Fig.  100. 
WILSON  ELEVATOR 


DRILLING    METHODS  107 

device  known  as  the  latch  holds  the  body  together  when  in  use.  The 
Union  single-link  elevator  (Fig.  101)  possesses  advantages  in  handling 
the  larger  sizes  of  casing.  It  has  no  hinge,  but  grasps  the  pipe  by 
the  insertion  of  two  bushings  (Fig.  102),  after  the  body  of  the 
elevator  has  been  lowered  below  the  coupling. 

The  casing-shoe  is  placed  upon  a  joint  and  tightened  until  it 
butts  with  the  latter  upon  the  shoulder,  after  which,  hot  babbitt  is 
poured  into  the  recess  between  the  sleeve  of  the  shoe  and  the  pipe. 
This  is  done  to  prevent  the  shoe  from  unscrewing  as  well  as  to 
strengthen  it.  Casing  is  inserted  one  length  after  the  other  until 


Fig.    102.      BUSHING 
FOR    SINGLE-LINK 
ELEVATOR 


Fig.    101.     SINGLE-LINK   ELEVATOR 

bottom  is  reached,  care  being  taken  to  see  that  the  threads  are 
properly  lubricated  and  the  joints  screwed  straight.  Each  is  started 
and  screwed  by  hand  after  which  a  jerk-line  is  run  to  the  crank- 
shaft, and  the  engine  used  to  securely  tighten  the  coupling',  both 
at  the  'mill'  end  and  the  'well'  end  of  the  latter.  Heavy  pipe  tongs 
are  required  for  this  work  and  are  counterweighted  at  the 
swinging  end  so  that  no  help  is  required  to  pull  them  back  for  a  fresh 
hold.  Casing  \2l/2-m.  diameter  is  generally  used  inside  a  string  of 
16-in.  stove-pipe  and  is  carried  as  far  as  possible,  the  average  string 
in  California  being  about  1500  ft.  in  deep-well  drilling.  After  being 
landed,  the  \2l/2-m.  casing  can  be  cut  off  50  or  60  ft.  up  inside  the 


108 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


'  Casing 


SO 


<5aaino  Head 

16-in.  stove-pipe,  effecting  a  saving  in  pipe. 
An  adapter  (Fig.  103),  which  acts  as  a  guide 
for  the  10-in.  is  placed  upon  the  top  of  the 
cut  portion  of  the  12^2-in.  to  permit  the 
smaller  size  pipe  being  lowered  without  dan- 
••  jrwe  p/pe  ger  of  hanging  up.  If  the  10-in.,  when 
landed,  has  not  been  used  to  shut  out  water, 
it  can  also  be  cut  a  few  feet  from  the  shoe 
of  the  \2l/2-\n.  The  water-string,  however, 
should  extend  to  the  surface,  where  it  is  sus- 
pended on  landing-clamps  which  are  placed 
under  the  top  collar.  A  short  string  called 
a  'liner'  can  be  used  to  run  into  the  oil-sand, 
thus  effecting  a  saving  in  pipe. 

The  blue  shale  in  one  locality  may  be  firm 
and  cause  no  trouble,  while  the  blue  shale  in 
an  adjoining  district  may  cause  considerable 
trouble  because  of  its  caving  and  unstable 
character.  It  is  therefore  impossible  to  fore- 
see or  to  judge  conditions  until  they  are 
actually  met,  and  for  this  reason  no  set  rule 
obtains  for  the  handling  of  pipe  or  the  drilling 
of  wells. 

As  before  stated,  the  tools  work  more 
satisfactorily  when  10  to  25  ft.  below  the 
shoe,  the  bit  having  more  latitude  for  cutting 
a  maximum  hole.  The  casing  should  be  kept 
low  enough,  however,  to  prevent  the  rope- 
socket  from  going  below  it,  for  should  the 
drilling-line  part,  a  difficult  fishing  job  may 
be  caused  when  the  tools  have  a  chance  to 
lean  against  the  wall  of  the  hole  instead  of  stand- 
ing upright  in  the  casing.  When  under-reaming, 
casing  should  be  at  least  5  or  6  ft.  above 
where  the  under-reamer  is  working,  to  pre- 
vent its  striking  the  shoe.  It  is  not  always 
necessary  to  under-ream  shale,  but  the  hole 
through  clay  and  all  hard  formations  should 
be  enlarged  to  permit  free  passage  of  all 
103.  RECOVERY  OF  debris  which  might  otherwise  wedge  in  be- 
PORTIONS  OF  THE  12%  tween  the  collar  and  the  wall  and  stick  the 

AND    10-IN.    STRINGS  ,,M  ... 

OF  CASING  casing.     Where  boulders  occur,  the  use  of  the 


~  </*Jinf 


6  * 


Fig. 


DRILLING    METHODS  109 

under-reamer  is  advisable  to  pull  them  into  the  hole  where 
they  can  be  drilled  up  and  a  source  of  danger  to  the 
casing  be  eliminated.  The  formation  in  many  oil  fields  is  sharply 
inclined,  and  the  tools  must  be  held  up  or  'tight-hitched'  to 
prevent  following  the  dip  of  the  strata  and  getting  a  crooked  hole. 
To  correct  the  latter,  hard  material  such  as  cast  iron,  rock,  etc.,  is 
thrown  into  the  well  and  the  hole  plugged  back  to  a  vertical  line, 
when  drilling  ahead  is  resumed.  This  often  has  to  be  repeated  many 
times  before  a  straight  hole  is  obtained.  Tight-hitching  applies  to 
practically  all  oil-well  drilling,  for  there  is  liability  of  the  hole  going 
crooked  at  any  time  when  the  tools  are  allowed  to  run  loose.  Under 
the  latter  condition,  there  is  also  danger  of  twisting  the  drilling-line 
off,  sticking  the  tools,  or  digging  a  flat  hole  when  the  bit  is  not  free 
to  turn.  If  the  formation  be  caving,  the  casing  should  be  alternately 
lowered  and  raised  sufficiently  often  to  insure  its  being  entirely  free. 
If  the  mud  falls  in  against  it,  or,  in  oil  fields  phraseology,  "The  casing 
becomes  logy,"  is  should  be  pulled  back  far  enough  to  free  when 
the  mud,  which  falls  in,  can  be  cleaned  out.  Brown  shale  usually 
makes  good  drilling  and  does  not  cave  badly,  while  blue  clay  when 
once  drilled  usually  gives  no  further  trouble.  Boulders  may  freeze 
or  mash  the  casing.  If  not  too  severe,  the  dented  portion  may  be 
swaged  out,  but  if  it  be  the  water-string,  the  pipe  should  be  with- 
drawn, the  damaged  portion  removed  and  the  string  replaced.  Water- 
sand  is  generally  severe  on  screw-casing,  and,  in  passing  through  it, 
freezing  may  be  expected.  In  drilling  sand  out  of  the  casing,  the 
sand  often  packs  so  hard  that  there  is  some  danger  of  splitting  the 
joints,  driving  the  bit  through  the  pipe.  Sand  can  often  be  held  in 
check  by  dropping  quantities  of  clay  in  the  hole  and  mudding  the 
walls,  thus  protecting  the  pipe  from  freezing  as  well  as  from  the 
heaving  sand. 

When  a  string  of  pipe  is  frozen  and  cannot  be  moved  by  pulling, 
driving  is  usually  resorted  to.  It  should  be  remembered  that  ordinary 
casing  is  not  intended  for  such  usage  because  of  the  fact  that  the 
ends  of  the  joints  do  not  butt.  In  other  words,  the  blow  is  delivered 
upon  the  threads  themselves  and  for  this  reason  driving  should  be 
avoided  as  far  as  is  possible.  After  driving,  the  casing-tongs  should 
be  applied  and  the  string  tightened  again.  Water,  when  not  present 
in  the  well  can  be  run  in,  materially  aiding  in  holding  back  the 
cavings  from  the  pipe.  In  case  of  a  frozen  string,  the  water  can  be 
bailed  down,  the  mud  started  around  the  shoe  and  the  pipe  thus 
relieved.  Should  these  means  fail,  the  shoe- joint  is  sometimes  slitted 
or  perforated  and  pump-pressure  applied  to  try  to  obtain  circulation 


110  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

of  the  material  behind  the  casing.  This  often  proves  effective  and 
can  be  done  cheaply.  The  use  of  a  casing-spear  for  freeing  pipe 
is  not  always  advisable,  for  at  best  it  is  a  dangerous  tool,  often 
'bull-dogging'  and  sometimes  plugging  the  hole.  They  are  generally 
called  into  requisition  as  a  last  resort.  In  place  of  this  dynamite  is 
used  to  blow  off  the  casing  above  the  point  of  friction,  and  the  top 
portion  can  be  pulled  out,  a  new  shoe  put  on,  and  the  pipe  which  is 
left  in  the  hole  side-tracked.  Blasting,  however,  often  does  damage 
where  none  is  intended,  particularly  to  the  water-string,  if  there  be 
one  in  the  well.  The  dynamite  should  be  used  in  small  quantities ; 
10  to  15  Ibs.  of  a  40%  strength  of  nitro-glycerine  makes  a  fair  charge 
for  parting  pipe.  The  casing-cutter  often  answers  this  purpose  and 
eliminates  the  danger  due  to  explosives,  but  the  shock  caused  by  the 
latter  results  in  loosening  the  pipe  more  readily  and  is  used  oftener 
for  this  reason.  Ripping  the  pipe  will  often  free  it,  as  the  mud  is 
then  admitted  to  the  hole  and  bailed  out. 

Side-tracking  the  casing  left  in  the  hole  is  not  difficult  when,  the 
formation  is  soft ;  the  bit  will  probably  strike  the  pipe  at  first,  but 
by  continued  work  will  finally  slide  past.  The  reamer  can  then  be 
run,  if  necessary,  to  clear  the  hole  for  the  casing  to  follow,  and 
when  once  it  passes  the  top  of  the  shot  portion,  an  ordinary  rate  of 
drilling  can  be  maintained.  When  shooting  or  cutting,  enough  pipe 
should  be  left  in  the  hole  to  insure  its  remaining  in  a  vertical  position, 
making  side-tracking  much  easier  than  would  be  the  case  in  which 
only  one  length  remained.  It  will  usually  be  found  that  the  casing 
is  more  easily  kept  free  when  protected  on  one  side  by  the  lost 
pipe,  and  that  a  second  freezing  is  not  so  likely  to  occur.  It  frequently 
happens,  however,  that  two  or  even  three  lost  strings  are  left  in  one 
well  and  while  harder  to  avoid,  they  do  not  interfere  seriously  with 
drilling  operations.  Considerable  quantities  of  iron  have  to  be  drilled 
through  in  such  work  and  often  follow  down  the  hole  for  several 
hundred  feet.  Such  a  task  may  take  a  period  of  several  days  or  even 
a  week,  but  this  is  generally  cheaper  than  moving  the  rig  and  drilling 
a  new  well.  As  it  is  necessary  for  the  casing  to  make  a  bend  in 
passing  lost  pipe,  there  should  be  a  space  of  at  least  from  60  to  75  ft. 
between  the  latter  and  the  string  previously  .  landed,  to  permit  an 
easy  curve.  Considerable  pipe  has  to  be  drilled  through  when  the 
two  are  closer,  especially  in  the  larger  sizes,  and  occasionally  it 
becomes  necessary  to  abandon  the  well  and  move  the  rig  away  20  ft. 
or  more  for  a  fresh  start.  In  this  case,  pipe  is  either  blasted  or  cut 
where  it  can  be  moved  and  used  in  the  new  well.  The  casing-splitter 
can  also  be  used  to  part  casing  by  driving  it  through  a  coupling  once 


DRILLING    METHODS  111 

or  twice,  after  which  the  pipe  can  be  pulled  apart.  Where  the  latter 
parts  at  a  defective  coupling,  a  die-nipple  (Fig.  104)  can  be  run  in 
and  new  threads  cut  by  turning  the  string  at  the  surface.  After 
a  good  hold  is  obtained,  a  pull  may  be  exerted  and  the  whole  column 
withdrawn. 

Water  in  large  quantities  is  often  encountered  near  the  surface 
and  stands  within  a  hundred  feet  or  more  from  the  top ;  it  usually  gives 
no  trouble  in  freezing  pipe,  maintaining  its  level  when  heavily  bailed. 
Where  the  flow  is  small,  the  level  should  be  kept  constant  by  adding 
water  when  necessary  in  order  to  hold  back  the  cavings  and  protect 
the  casing.  Where  the  source  is  deep  and  the  flow  strong,  the  hole 
should  be  previously  filled  to  prevent  freezing  or  collapsing  the 
casing  when  the  new  stratum  is  encountered.  A  constant  circulation 
of  water  from  the  inside  is  helpful  in  holding  back  the  cavings  of 


Fig.    104.     DIE-NIPPLE    (MALE   AND   FEMALE) 

water-sand  and  mud  and  when  once  begun  should  be  continued  until 
the  string  is  landed.  While  cementing  the  water-string  is  now 
recognized  as  being  the  safest  means  of  protection  to  the  oil  sand, 
many  operators  shut  off  the  water  by  landing  on  a  shell  of  limestone, 
sandstone,  etc.,  or  by  driving  the  casing  into  a  stiff  bed  of  clay.  In 
the  former  case,  pipe  is  previously  spudded  as  far  as  it  will  go  into 
the  shell  and  left  to  stand,  when  bailing  follows  to  test  for  leakage. 
In  making  a  landing  in  clay,  a  smaller  bit  is  put  on  and  25  or  30  ft. 
drilled  and  the  casing  driven  into  the  small  hole  after  which  the 
water  is  bailed.  Additional  clay  is  sometimes  dumped  into  the  well, 
thoroughly  mixed  and  forced  behind  the  casing  by  screwing  a  plug 
w^ith  a  small  valve  into  the  top  coupling  of  the  latter  after  which  it 
is  raised,  the  valve  closed,  and  the  string  lowered,  forcing  the  clay 
•behind  the  pipe.  The  clay  gradually  settles  around  the  shoe,  forming 
an  impervious  plug  through  which  the  water  cannot  penetrate. 


112  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

For  bailing  water,  the  dart-bailer  is  used,  usually  40  ft.  in  length 
for  6  and  8-in.  casing,  and  a  2000- ft.  hole  can  be  bailed  dry  in  12 
to  16  hours,  occasional  intermissions  being  taken  to  keep  the  sand- 
reel  bearings  from  running  hot. 

In  new  territory  where  the  character  of  the  underlying  strata 
is  unknown,  the  standard-tool  equipment  is  best  for  making  tests  of 
probable  oil-bearing  formation.  Where  a  shell  occurs  over  the 
stratum  to  be  tried,  the  pipe  can  be  landed  temporarily  upon  it  and 
the  water  bailed.  Should  there  be  a  good  showing  of  oil,  the  casing 
can  be  left  permanently  providing  the  water  has  been  bailed  out. 
When  the  showing  is  not  sufficient,  however,  the  casing  can  be 
loosened  with  a  spear,  blasting,  cutting,  etc.,  and  carried  on.  In 
prospecting  it  is  necessary  at  times  to  sacrifice  a  string  of  casing, 
good  judgment  being  necessary  to  determine  this.  The  drillers  too 
should  be  especially  reliable  for  this  character  of  work,  as  a  valuable 
deposit  of  oil  may  be  overlooked  in  having  the  hole  muddy  or  through 
lack  of  attention  to  changes  of  formation.  A  sand  carrying  a  high- 
gravity  oil  may  be  so  washed  as  to  give  the  appearance  of  water- 
sand  and  it  is  often  only  by  careful  tests  that  the  presence  of  oil  is 
detected.  In  many  oil  fields  the  formation  is  so  irregular  that  each 
oil-sand  has  to  be  tested  separately  for  water,  and  while  expensive, 
it  is  necessary,  as  the  future  success  or  failure  of  the  property  depends 
upon  the  initial  tests  made.  The  proper  time  for  testing  is  when 
the  measures  are  first  penetrated.  Later  on,  if  water  should  make 
its  appearance,  its  definite  source  cannot  always  be  located  except 
by  long  and  tedious  trial,  pumping,  bailing,  etc.  In  going  into  a 
known  source  of  oil,  a  high  water-level  is  usually '  maintained  to 
prevent  the  sand  from  heaving  and  sticking  the  drilling  tools.  When 
a  sufficient  depth  into  the  sand  has  been  obtained,  bailing  can  proceed 
and  the  water  be  exhausted.  Added  knowledge  of  the  strata,  however, 
may  be  had  by  carrying  no  more  water  than  is  necessary  to  hold  the 
sand  down,  for  the  presence  of  water  in  the  sand  is  then  more  readily 
detected.  Each  sand  in  the  well,  if  there  be  more  than  one,  should 
be  given  a  separate  bailing,  and  where  there  is  danger  of  encounter- 
ing bottom-water,  tests  should  be  made  at  frequent  intervals.  After 
having  reached  the  oil-sand,  casing  can  then  be  released  at  the 
surface  and  often  made  to  follow  by  bailing  ahead  instead  of  drilling 
with  the  tools;  if  it  stops  on  a  shell,  a  trial  by  pumping  can  be  made 
to  test  the  productivity  of  the  sand  before  deepening.  This  character 
of  work  is  often  tedious,  but  its  importance  as  a  means  of  protecting 
the  oil  measures  can  hardly  be  over-estimated.  A  well  should  not 
always  be  judged  by  its  first  showing,  for  the  initial  gas  pressure  is 


DRILLING    METHODS  113 

often  heavy,  subsiding  in  a  few  days,  while  other  wells  apparently 
'dead'  often  become  good  producers. 

If  the  casing  has  not  been  landed  upon  a  shell,  or  in  a  body  of 
shale  or  clay  below  the  sand,  a  wooden  plug  having  a  wedge  at  the 
top  should  be  lowered  to  bottom  and  the  wedge  driven  by  the  tools 
to  expand  the  plug  to  the  diameter  of  the  casing.  After  this  an  iron 
heaving-plug  should  be  placed  on  top  of  the  wooden  plug  to  prevent 
the  latter  from  being  dislodged  and  coming  up  the  hole.  The  iron 
heaving-plug  (Fig.  105)  has  four  slips  which  wedge  to  the  side  of 
the  casing  and  keep  it  in  place. 

Rotary  Method.  The  use  of  the  rotary  is  becoming  more  gen- 
eral in  all  oil  fields,  particularly  in  California,  where,  until  a  few  years 


Fig.    105.     NATIONAL   HEAVING-PLUG 

ago,  it  was  considered  by  many  operators  a  failure.  Its  recent  success 
is  due  to  improved  tools  and  methods  as  well  as  having  attracted  a 
better  class  of  drillers,  until,  at  the  present  time,  there  is  little 
territory  in  that  State  which  cannot  be  successfully  drilled  with  the 
rotary.  While  the  number  of  men  required  (10  to  11)  is  greater 
than  that  for  the  standard  tools  and  the  equipment  more  expensive, 
yet  the  time  and  casing  saved  far  more  than  offset  any  additional 
labor.  The  rotary  was  originally  made  by  the  American  Well  Works 
and  used  in  North  Carolina.  The  working  parts  were  crude  and  it 
met  with  indifferent  success.  The  first  oil-well  rotary  was  used 
at  Corsicana,  Texas,  and  became  widely  used  in  the  Beaumont  field 
at  Spindle  Top,  Texas.  Improvements  in  rotary  machinery  have 


114 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


Fig.    106.     NATIONAL    ROTARY    TAF.LE 


Fig.   107.     ROTARY   DRILLING  RIG  AND  CREW 


DRILLING   METHODS  115 

gradually  been  made  until  at  the  present  time  all  the  working  parts 
are  capable  of  meeting  the  severest  conditions. 

The  practical  operation  consists  in  rapidly  rotating  a  column  of 
pipe,  at  the  lower  end  of  which  is  a  cutting-bit,  the  pipe  being 
lowered  as  drilling  progresses  and  the  drillings  washed  out  by  the 
action  of  a  pump.  The  walls  of  the  hole  are  'mudded  up'  with  clay 
to  prevent  caving,  at  the  same  time  causing  the  pipe  to  turn  more 
easily,  while  the  mud  can  be  used  over  again  by  running  it  back  to 


Fig.    108.     LIGHT-WEIGHT   DRAW   WORKS 

the  pump-suction.  The  equipment  consists  of  a  turntable,  draw- 
works  and  line-shaft,  drill-stem,  engine  and  boiler,  two  pumps, 
swivels  and  hose  and  the  bits  besides  other  special  apparatus.  A 
12  by  12-in.  engine  is  generally  installed  and  transmits  power  to 
the  line-shaft  by  sprockets  and  chains.  On  the  line-shaft  is  a  sprocket 
by  which  the  draw-works  (Figs.  108  and  110)  are  revolved,  the 
larger  pipes  having  sprockets  for  a  low  and  high-speed  gear.  In 
line  with  the  sprocket  wheel  on  the  rotary  table  is  a  larger  sprocket 


116 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


wheel  on  the  line-shaft,  while  a  chain  furnishes  the  motive  power. 
Two  powerful  brakes  are  placed  on  each  side  of  the  drum  for  control 
by  the  driller.  The  throttle-wheel  brakes  and  clutch  are  so  placed 
that  each  can  be  manipulated  by  the  driller  without  moving.  The 
turntable  (Figs.  106  and  109),  consisting  of  a  heavy  rotating  device 
running  upon  steel  rollers,  controls  the  drill-stem  by  grip-rings 
which  are  set  up  sufficiently  tight  to  turn  the  pipe  without  mashing 
it.  A  patented  drill-stem  is  now  in  use  which  takes  the  place  of  the 
grip-rings.  A  special  head  sets  in  the  open  space  of  the  table,  and 
the  drill-stem,  which  is  30  ft.  long,  can  be  run  through  it  and  at 


Fig.     109.     IDEAL    ROTARY    TABLE 


the  same  time  rotated  by  wings  which  project  from  the  stem  into 
the  head.  This  stem  is  never  lowered  below  the  table,  a  joint  of 
pipe  being  installed  below  it  each  time  instead,  so  that  it  always 
works  through  the  rotary  table.  This  effects  a  saving  in  pipe, 
grip-rings  being1  unusually  severe  on  the  drill-stem.  When  pulling 
or  lowering  the  latter  into  the  hole,  a  spider  is  substituted  for  the 
special  head  and  slips  are  used  as  in  the  standard-tool  drilling.  The 
pumps  are  10  by  6  by  12-in.  and  are  so  connected  as  to  run  singly 
or  doubly.  Each  is  provided  with  a  screen  in  the  discharge-line  to 
prevent  packing  or  debris  from  the  pit  getting  into  the  drill-stem 


DRILLING    MHT 


117 


118 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


and  plugging  the  bit.  Connected  with  the  discharge-line  are  two 
30-ft.  lengths  of  heavy  wire-wound  hose  and  when  rotating,  one 
is  attached  to  the  swivel  (Figs.  Ill  and  112).  The  latter  is  screwed 
into  the  top  cotipling  of  the  drill-stem  and  has  a  long  bail  or  link 
by  which  the  drill-stem  can  be  raised  or  lowered.  Roller  bearings 
are  used  in  the  swivel  to  support  the  weight  of  the  drill-stem  at  the 
same  time  allowing  it  to  turn  around  without  twisting  the  lines. 


Fig.    111. 
IDEAL  HYDRAULIC    SWIVEL 


Fig.    112. 
IDEAL   HYDRAULIC    SWIVEL 


The  mud  coming  from  the  well  is  conveyed  by  a  box-ditch 
running  from  the  outlet  around  the  derrick  to  the  slush  pit,  where 
it  is  again  taken  up  by  the  pump  suction.  In  some  of  the  deeper 
fields,  a  hole  4  by  4  by  10  ft.  is  excavated  under  the  derrick  floor, 
a  joint  of  16-in.  stove-pipe  set  into  it  vertically,  and  the  outside  space 
filled  with  concrete.  This  prevents  the  walls  at  the  surface  from 
caving  and  provides  a  good  base  for  anchoring  the  casing.  A  heavy 


DRILLING    METHODS 


119 


120 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


4-sheave  block  (Fig.  114)  is  used  for  handling  both  pipe  and  drill- 
stem  tools,  the  larger  sizes  weighing  2700  Ibs.,  while  a  6-in.  casing- 
hook  is  suspended  from  it  by  a  heavy  'C  link  (Fig.  115).  Nine  lines 
can  be  threaded  on  the  deeper  wells,  five  being  the  usual  number 
at  the  surface.  The  fish-tail  bit  (Fig.  116)  is  commonly  used,  14 
to  15  in.  being  the  usual  sizes  for  starting  the  well.  The  ends  are  dressed 


Fig.    115. 
STRAPPED    'C'    LINK 


Fig.    117.     CHISEL    OR 
DIAMOND-POINT  BIT 


Fig.    114. 

QUADRUPLE   SNATCH 

BLOCK  FOR  WIRE 

ROPE 


Fig.     116. 
FISH-TAIL    ROTARY    BIT 


Fig.    118.     DRAG    HIT 


with  a  taper  and  turned  back  slightly  to  form  a  cutting-edge  while 
the  later  types  have  a  long  shank  which  tends  to  ream  the  hole  and 
keep  it  straight.  Through  each  side  is  bored  a  fain,  hole,  through 
which  the  water  under  pressure  enters,  strikes  bottom  and  returns 
between  the  wall  and  drill-stem  carrying  with  it  the  drillings.  Other 
rotary  bits  for  special  uses  are  the  chisel-point  (Fig.  117)  for  drilling 
past  pipe  or  drilling  out  wash-rings.  The  drag-bit  (Fig.  118)  is 


DRILLING    METHODS 


121 


similar  to  the  regular  fish-tail  pattern,  except  that  the  cutting 
edges  are  reversed  so  that  they  drag.  This  form  of  bit  is 
used  in  drilling  through  hard  rock,  adamantine  being  dropped  into 
the  well  to  make  the  cutting  faster.  The  drag-shoe  is  also  used  in 
the  same  way,  leaving  a  core  to  be  extracted  later.  The  core-barrel 


HOU  fOR  MATE* 
PRESSURE  FROM  PUMP 
TO  ACT  ON  OIL  PVUMCEfc 


Fig.    119.     SHARP  &  HUGHES   ROTARY   BIT 

is  also  made  to  drill  hard  formations  with  about  the  same  result 
as  the  drag-shoe,  the  core  being  removed  in  either  case  by  throwing 
in  small  pieces  of  cast  iron  which  wedge  between  the  shoe  or  barrel 
and  the  core,  when  the  latter  can  be  broken  off  and  extracted. 
Adamantine  should  be  sparingly  used  and  the  couplings  be  kept  free 


122  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

from  it,  else  the  threads  become  badly  damaged.  When  possible, 
adamantine  does  better  work  without  circulation,  as  the  water 
washes  it  away  from  the  bottom.  To  extract  more  than  2  ft.  of 
core  at  a  time  is  dangerous,  for  breaking  it  off  becomes  a  difficult 
matter,  the  drill-stem  often  parting  in  the  attempt. 

In  California,  a  disc-bit  has  been  invented  which  cuts  through 
shells  with  greater  rapidity  than  does  the  ordinary  fish-tail  bit.  Two 
heavy  arms  extend  from  the  body,  and  at  the  lower  ends  are  two 
saucer-shaped  steel  discs  which  revolve  on  pins,  a  water  connection 
in  the  bit  providing  for  circulation.  This  bit  is  rotated  on  bottom, 
the  discs  turning  and  cutting  at  the  same  time.  The  Sharp  and 
Hughes  bit  (Fig.  119),  however,  is  practically  the  only  rotary  bit 
invented  which  will  cut  the  hard  limestone  and  sandstone  shells  as 
quickly  as  the  same  work  could  be  done  by  the  standard  drilling- 
tools.  In  fact,  this  bit  will  cut  hard  rock  at  the  rate  of  about  1  ft. 
per  hour,  which  is  fully  as  fast  or  faster  than  can  be  done  with  the 
cable  tools.  Its  use  is  confined  only  to  hard  formations,  but  in  these 
it  excels  any  rotary  cutting-tool  yet  made.  Two  heavy  lugs  are 
held  together  by  a  collar,  and  the  cones  of  specially-made  steel  with 
60  or  more  rows  of  cutting-teeth  revolve  on  pins  on  the  inside  of 
each  lug.  The  lubricator  pipe,  12  ft.  long,  is  filled  with  a  special 
bit-oil  which  is  forced  down  into  the  bit  by  the  pressure  of  circulating 
water  above  the  plunger.  The  lubricator,  when  filled,  will  carry 
a  supply  for  24  hours.  The  cones  act  as  a  milling  tool,  and  upon 
being  rapidly  revolved,  cut  their  way  through  the  shell.  For  reaming 
the  hole  preparatory  to  inserting  casing,  a  four-way  bit  with  water 
connection  is  used  to  remove  any  projecting  boulders  or  shells  on 
the  walls  which  might  interfere  with  the  passage  of  the  casing. 

For  the  larger  size  holes,  a  6-in.  drill-stem  does  the  boring.  Many 
"  operators  prefer  a  heavy  pipe,  28  Ibs.  per  foot  being  the  usual  weight, 
while  others  use  a  20-lb.  upset  pipe,  the  ends  of  the  joints  being 
heavily  reinforced  at  the  couplings  for  about  6  inches.  This  pipe, 
while  light  in  weight,  gives  excellent  service  and  the  danger  of 
twisting  it  off  is  not  so  great  as  with  a  heavier  pipe,  clue  to  the  fact 
that  it  is  elastic  enough  to  permit  the  bit  turning  over  a  projecting 
boulder  instead  of  throwing  a  severe  torsional  strain  upon  the  drill- 
stem.  Tool  joints  (Fig.  120)  are  placed  at  every  third  or  fourth 
joint,  depending  upon  whether  the  drill-stem  is  pulled  in  three  or 
four-length  stands.  The  joints  are  tapered  (Fig.  121)  as  in  those  of 
the  standard  drilling  tools,  with  a  hole  through  the  centre  to  allow 
passage  of  the  drilling  water.  A  shoulder  1  in.  wide  holds. the  joints 


DRILLING    METHODS 


123 


together  when  once  screwed  up.  These  joints  save  considerable 
time  when  pulling  or  lowering  the  drill-stem,  as  they  are  easily 
coupled  or  loosened,  while  the  wear  on  pipe  joints  and  collars  is 


Fig.  120.    TOOL  JOINT 

eliminated.  For  drilling  through  8  or  10-in.  casing,  a  4-in.  drill- 
stem  can  be  used  while  a  2^-in.  drill-stem  is  run  in  a  smaller 
sized  hole. 

The  drill-collar  (Figs.  122  and  123)  into  which  the  bit  is  screwed 
has  a  pipe  connection  at  the  upper  end  and  a  tool- joint  connection 
at  the  lower  end;  these  collars  are  often  made  of  solid  billets  and 


Fig.    122.     DRILL    COLLAR 


Fig.     123.     DRILL    COLLAR 


are  36  in.  in  length  with  1^/2 -in.  stock.  They  are  sometimes  both 
babbitted  and  riveted  to  the  lower  joint  of  the  drill-stem,  making 
a  stiff  connection  that  is  not  readily  twisted  off. 


124  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

On  beginning  to  drill,  the  first  joint  of  the  drill-stem  is  plumbed 
and  securely  anchored  in  the  derrick  by  braces  until  the  hole  is  well 
started.  When  four  or  five  joints  have  been  added,  the  grip-ring 
attachment  is  laid  aside  and  the  patent  drill-stem  before  described  is 
substituted.  The  pumps  are  run  fast  enough  to  carry  the  drillings 
to  the  surface,  at  the  same  time  keeping  the  hole  clean.  Where 
there  is  not  enough  clay  present  in  the  formation  to  'mud  up'  the 
walls,  this  material  can  be  hauled  from  a  nearby  well  or  bank,  mixed 
and  pumped  into  the  hole  until  the  caving  ceases.  The  drill-stem 
is  not  forced,  but  a  part  of  the  weight  is  carried  on  a  swivel  to 
prevent  a  crooked  hole  and  to  'mud  up'  the  wall  properly  as  well  as 
to  allow  a  free  flow  of  water  through  the  bit.  Quite  often  the 
water  does  not  return,  by  reason  of  the  presence  of  a  porous  stratum, 
in  which  case  enough  clay  is  pumped  into  the  well  to  get  a  complete 
circulation.  This  may  take  several  days  to  accomplish,  but  it  is 
necessary  before  drilling  ahead  can  be  resumed.  When  the  bit  becomes 
so  dull  that  it  does  not  readily  cut  the  formation,  the  drill-stem  is 
pulled  and  placed  back  in  the  derrick  in  'stands.'  Under  severe  con- 
ditions, where  no  other  form  of  bit  is  procurable,  it  is  necessary  to 
substitute  a  fresh  bit  as  often  as  every  few  inches,  but  under  ordinary 
conditions,  when  drilling  in  blue  clay  or  blue  shale,  one  bit  can  be 
used  for  making  from  50  to  100  feet. 

The  top  formation  usually  is  easily  drilled,  the  average  rate  being 
100  to  150  ft.  a  day.  In  most  districts,  however,  boulders  are 
encountered.  They  often  can  be  forced  into  the  walls  and  side- 
tracked, but  when  this  fails,  they  must  be  ground  up,  withdrawn  by  a 
basket,  or  blasted.  If  the  boulders  are  driven  ahead  until  a  shell 
is  encountered  a  Sharp  &  Hughes  bit  can  be  used  to  grind  them  up, 
while  often  a  charge  of  dynamite  will  save  time  by  blasting  them 
into  the  wall. 

Sand  of  course  is  ideal  for  rotary  drilling,  the  only  precaution 
necessary  being  to  watch  the  returns  and  see  that  the  walls  are 
'mudded  up.'  Shales  also  drill  easily,  and  clay,  while  sometimes  slow, 
gives  no  particular  trouble.  Formations  lying  at  an  inclined  angle 
should  be  drilled  slowly,  as  with  the  standard  tools,  to  prevent  the 
hole  from  going  crooked.  The  drilling-returns  from  a  well  furnish 
evidences  of  the  formation  being  passed  through,  and  the  ditch 
should  be  closely  watched  for  any  changes.  Experience  is  necessary 
to  judge  oil-sands,  water-sands,  etc.,  and  in  many  instances  where 
the  character  of  strata  is  uncertain,  the  safest  method  is  that  of 
shutting  out  the  water  above  the  strata  by  cementing  a  string  of 


DRIU.  IN  <J    METHODS  125 

casing  and  later  testing  by  bailing  or  pumping.  Should  the  formation 
prove  unproductive,  the  casing  is  lost,  but  this  is  a  necessary  additional 
expense  where  any  uncertainty  exists.  Wells  capable  of  making  from 
8000  to  10,000  barrels  per  day  have  later  been  discovered  in  territory 
where  the  returns  from  the  sands  had  been  misjudged.  Gas  makes 
its  appearance  known  in  the  trench  by  froth  or  foam  on  the  water, 
and  this  often  indicates  the  presence  of  a  sand.  Some  sands,  however, 
show  little  gas,  and  for  the  additional  reason  that  an  oil-sand  when 
washed,  resembles  a  water-sand,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  returns 
cannot  be  too  carefully  inspected. 

Before  putting  in  the  casing,  a  four-way  reamer-bit  is  run  to 
bottom  to  insure  its  free  passage.  The  drill-stem  is  then  stood  back 
in  the  derrick  and  the  casing  inserted  as  rapidly  as  possible  so  that 
circulation  can  be  started  again  before  the  walls  begin  caving.  Slide 
tongs  (Fig.  124)  are  used  to  support  the  elevator  on  the  rotary  table 
when  inserting  or  withdrawing  pipe.  When  a  hole  cannot  be  cir- 
culated, the  casing  must  be  withdrawn  to  a  point  above  the  friction, 


Fig.    124.     SLIDE   TONGS 

and  the  pipe  rotated  back  to  bottom,  where  it  is  later  cemented.  In 
deep  wells,  where  the  weight  of  the  casing  is  more  than  the  draw- 
works  can  safely  carry,  calf-wheels  are  installed  and  the  lines 
transferred  to  it.  Another  engine  becomes  necessary  to  move  the 
calf-wheels,  but  when  it  is  considered  that  the  success  of  the  well 
depends  upon  shutting  out  the  water,  this  additional  cost  need  not 
be  considered.  Ten-inch  casing  is  usually  set  for  the  water-string, 
although  &/4  and  \2l/2  -in.  are  frequently  used. 

Heavy  gas-pressures  are  generally  encountered  in  the  oil-sands 
or  at  some  point  not  far  above,  and  the  rotary  method  is  the  ideal 
one  for  this  character  of  work  because  the  pressure  can  be  overcome 
by  heavy  mud.  When  a  heavy  pressure  becomes  evident,  the  blowout- 
preventer  is  attached  to  the  water-string,  while  a  back  pressure-valve 
is  placed  in  the  drill-stem  at  the  bottom.  The  blowout-preventer 
is  a  heavy  gate  with  four  projecting  clips  which  can  be  set  up  to  the 
drill  stem  by  means  of  a  long  handle  operated  outside  of  the  derrick. 


126  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

The  clips  fit  snugly  around  the  stem  when  closed,  preventing  the 
escape  of  gas  or  mud,  while  the  body  of  the  preventer  has  two 
screwed  openings  which  communicate  with  the  lead-line.  This  valve 
is  also  made  to  close  when  there  is  no  drill-stem  in  the  hole. 
The  back  pressure-valve  screws  into  the  pipe-couplings  between 
joints,  and  is  so  arranged  that  a  pressure  below  is  resisted  while 
the  top-pressure  can  force  it  open.  It  often  happens,  in  extreme 
pressures,  that  gas  is  not  sufficiently  checked  and  that  there  is  danger 
of  a  blow-out.  Heavy,  clay  mud  can  be  admitted  to  the  drill-stem 
by  attaching  a  gate  to  the  casing  at  the  floor,  while  two  or  three 
joints  extend  above  it  to  a  second  gate  at  the  top.  A  hose  is  attached 
to  the  latter  and  the  clay  pumped  into  the  column  above  the  floor, 
when  the  upper  gate  is  closed  and  the  lower  one  opened,  allowing 
the  mud  to  slip  down  the  hole.  In  this  way  the  gas-pressure  can  be 
gradually  checked  until  it  gives  no  trouble.  This  method  is  called 
'lubricating'  and  by  its  use  the  heaviest  gas-pressures  can  be  controlled. 


Fig.     125.     ROTARY    SHOE 

The  greatest  source  of  trouble  when  using  a  rotary  is  twisting  off 
the  drill-stem,  that  is,  applying  so  great  a  torsional  strain  to  the 
stem  that  the  column  twists  in  two.  Frequently  the  relief  from  the 
strain  or  'backlash,'  as  it  is  called,  spins  the  stem  in  the  reverse 
direction,  often  parting  it  a  second  time.  Freezing  the  drill-stem 
does  not  often  occur,  but  when  it  does,  a  larger  string  can -be  rotated 
over  it  to  the  bit,  freeing  it  so  that  the  whole  column  can  be  removed. 
When  the  entire  drill-stem  resists  washing,  pulling,  etc.,  a  larger 
string  with  left-hand  threads  in  the  couplings  is  run  and  a  few  joints 
unscrewed  at  a  time  by  operating  the  rotary  in  the  reverse  direction 
until  the  hole  is  clear.  It  often  happens  that  the  casing  is  frozen 
while  being  run  previous  to  landing.  Where  this  happens,  the  same 
methods  as  in  standard  tools  can  be  used.  A  rotary  shoe  (Fig.  125) 
is  usually  placed  on  the  bottom  of  the  first  joint  of  casing. 

While  the  rotary  is  not  always  reliable  for  prospecting,  yet  a 
driller  with  wide  experience  in  judging  the  returns  makes  this  method 


DRILLING    METHODS  127 

nearly  as  safe  as  with  the  cable  tools,  especially  where  the  drilling 
is  done  in  daylight  so  that  the  ditch  can  be  more  carefully  inspected. 
If  the  cementing-point  is  uncertain,  a  smaller  rotary-bit  should  be 
used  and  when  ready  to  set  the  casing,  the  hole  can  be  enlarged  to 
bottom  in  the  usual  way.  After  the  oil-measures  have  been  drilled 
through,  the  walls  of  the  hole  are  left  in  the  mudded  condition  until 
the  liner  is  set  into  place.  This  is  done  by  attaching  the  perforated 
pipe  to  the  drill-stem  by  a  left-hand  coupling,  which,  when  unscrewed, 
leaves  an  adapter  or  guide  at  the  top,  to  prevent  lodgment  of  the 
bailer,  tools,  etc.,  when  cleaning  out.  In  the  southern  fields,  where 
the  oil-sand  is  often  a  coarse  gravel,  a  screen  or  strainer  pipe  is  used, 
while  in  California,  round  or  slotted  perforations  are  generally 
considered  to  be  better  adapted  to  the  fine  sands  usually  found.  When 
running  the  liner  in,  2-in.  tubing  is  used  to  carry  the  water  to  bottom 
instead  of  allowing  it  to  return  through  the  top  perforations.  The 
tubing  is  set  upon  a  ring  attached  to  the  lower  collar  of  the  liner, 
and  extends  to  the  drill-stem,  where  it  is  attached  to  the  latter  with  a 
bushing.  The  liner  always  extends  50  to  75  ft.  up  inside  the  larger 
string. 

After  being  lowered  to  within  a  few  inches  of  bottom,  clear  water 
is  pumped  into  the  well  until  the  returns  show  only  traces  of  mud. 
Then  the  liner  is  set  on  bottom  and  the  drill  stem  detached  from 
it.  The  latter  is  then  pulled  out  and  the  well  bailed  and  prepared 
for  production. 

Circulating  System.  When  passing  .through  running-sands  or 
caving-shales  with  the  standard  tools,  it  often  becomes  necessary 
to  'mud  up'  the  walls  in  the  same  way  as  is  done  with  a  rotary 
in  order  to  keep  the  casing  free  and  make  progress.  Two  pumps 
are  set  on  the  derrick-floor  with  hose  connections  as  in  the  rotary 
method,  the  flush-boxes  and  pit  being  also  used.  The  swivel, 
however,  is  not  necessary,  as  the  casing  is  not  turned  or  rotated 
but  set  upon  the  spider  as  in  the  cable-system.  A  circulating- 
head  (Fig.  126)  with  2-in.  side-openings  is  screwed  into  the  top- 
couplings  of  the  casing  and  the  hose  connected  to  one  of  the 
openings.  A  long  hollow-steel  plunger  is  previously  placed  above 
the  rope-socket  and  works  through  a  stuffing-box  in  the  top  of 
the  circulating-head.  When  drilling,  the  tools  are  lowered  to 
bottom,  the  -plunger  raised  with  the  wire  line-clamps  and  there 
tightened  with  a  set-screw,  allowing  space  for  the  plunger  to 
work  without  striking  the  circulator-head.  Drilling  is  thus  carried 
on  simultaneously  with  the  working  of  the  pumps,  the  latter 


128  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

carrying  much  of  the  cutting  from  the  well  in  a  form  of  sediment 
and  depositing  it  in  the  trench  where  it  can  be  removed.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  bail  as  frequently  as  with  the  ordinary  cable- 
system,  25  to  30  ft.  often  being  made  before  the  mud  accumulates 
and  prevents  the  free  fall  of  the  tools.  Constant  circulation  of 
muddy  water  prevents  the  .walls  from  caving,  and  keeps  the  casing 
free.  The  latter  may  be  raised  or  lowered  while  pumping  and  a 
joint  is  added  by  removing  the  circulating-head  whenever  suf- 
ficient hole  has  been  made. 

After  the  territory  becomes  familiar  to  the  operator  it  is  often 
found   that  continuous   circulation   is   not   necessary.     The   pumps 


Fig.    126.     WILLARD    CIRCULATING-HEAD    OR    OIL-SAVER 

are  run  at  intervals  while  the  driller  is  absent  for  meals  and  the 
well  shut  down,  while  in  other  cases  the  well  is  circulated  four 
or  five  times  a  day.  If  the  pipe  becomes  'logy/  pumping  can  be 
repeated  at  shorter  intervals.  Complete  circulation  is  not  always 
necessary,  the  important  thing  being  to  keep  the  walls  of  the 
hole  completely  'mudded  up.' 

In  using  the  combined  rotary  and  cable-tool  system,  the  bull- 
wheel  and  calf-wheels  are  installed,  while  on  the  right-hand  side 
of  the  derrick  are  placed  the  line-shaft  and  draw-works  with  an 
extra  engine.  The  pumps  are  placed  on  the  left  side  and  the 


DRILLING    METHODS  129 

rotary,  when  not  in  use,  can  be  removed  from  over  the  hole. 
It  will  be  seen  that  one  system  can  be  changed  to  the  other 
without  much  difficulty.  For  instance,  if  the  cable-tools  are  in 
use  and  a  change  to  the  rotary  is  desired,  the  calf-line  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  draw-works,  the  rotary  table  installed  and,  with  a 
few  minor  changes,  drilling  progresses  with  the  rotary. 

In  the  Parsons  and  Barrett  combination-method,  provision  is 
made  for  continuous  drilling  without  any  changes.  A  cellar  20 
ft.  deep  is  sunk  and  the  rotary  placed  at  bottom.  The  return- 
water  is  carried  off  through  a  tunnel  at  the  level  of  the  cellar- 
floor  to  a  well,  from  whence  it  is  drawn  by  a  small  pump  and 
carried  back  to  the  pit.  The  casing  is  suspended  by  a  bridle 
with  two  long,  heavy  wire-line  reins  which  are  fastened  to  the 
spider  below  and  the  casing  hook  above  the  walking-beam.  These 
reins  are  wide  enough  to  permit  the  beam  running  between  them 
and  are  long  enough  to  give  sufficient  freedom  for  lowering  a 
length  of  casing  without  interfering  with  drilling  operations.  The 
rotary  is  applied  direct  to  the  casing  and  is  run  by  a  separate 
engine,  while  a  special  rotary  shoe  is  attached  to  the  casing.  A 
circulating-head  with  plunger  is  used  and  the  drilling  is  carried 
on  at  the  same  time  that  the  casing  is  being  rotated.  The  under- 
reamer  or  other  cable  tools  can  be  used  the  same  as  in  ordinary 
work.  Some  operators  use  the  long  reins  without  rotating  the 
casing,  thus  eliminating  the  rotary  table  and  extra  engine.  The 
casing  can  be  moved  at  short  intervals  while  drilling  is  being 
carried  on. 


CHAPTER  V. 
THE  EXCLUSION   OF  WATER  FROM   OIL-SANDS. 

Water,  by  reason  of  its  greater  specific  gravity,  displaces  oil 
and  gas.  Therefore  it  is  of  first  importance  that  the  water  seep- 
ing into  the  hole  from  water-bearing  strata  nearer  the  surface  be 
prevented  from  flowing  down  the  hole  to  the  productive  measures. 
Otherwise,  when  it  has  reached  the  latter  it  will  displace  the  oil 
and  gas,  pushing  them  ahead  of  it,  and  eventually  spread  for  a  con- 
siderable distance  throughout  the  measure.  The  readiness  with 
which  it  travels  laterally  varies  with  such  factors  as  the  density  of 
the  oil,  porosity  of  the  sand,  etc.,  but  even  with  very  heavy  oils  the 
entrance  of  water  into  the  sand  soon  makes  itself  known,  not  only 
in  the  production  from  the  well  where  it  has  broken  in  but  also  in 
that  derived  from  the  nearby  wells.  Thus  it  is  that  the  careless- 
ness of  one  operator  may  lead  to  the  ruin  of  an  entire  district,  even 
though  all  the  other  operators  have  exercised  every  effort  to  pre- 
vent the  water  from  reaching  the  sand. 

The  importance  of  this  subject  is  beginning  to  receive  the  at- 
tention it  warrants,  but  not  until  much  damage  has  been  done  in 
the  older  fields,  where  the  encroachment  of  water  is  without  ques- 
tion the  most  serious  problem  connected  with  the  life  of  the  wells. 
Many  fields  appear  to  have  gone  through  the  same  stages.  First 
the  incipient  appearance  of  water  in  the  petroleum,  then  a  grad- 
ual increase  in  the  percentage  of  the  water  content,  until  finally  the 
field  becomes  irretrievably  flooded  or  else  so  far  gone  that  cor- 
rective measures  may  be  applied  only  at  great  expense.  The  dif- 
ficulty connected  with  determining  which  well  of  a  number  in  a 
zone  is  allowing  the  water  to  enter  the  oil  measure,  and  the  feeling 
of  certainty  expressed  by  each  operator  that  it  comes  from  another 
man's  well,  seem  to  point  towards  the  imperative  need  for  careful 
legislative  action  looking  towards  the  effectual  exclusion  of  the 
water  at  each  well  at  the  time  it  is  being  drilled  and  before  the 
productive  measures  have  been  pierced,  at  a  time  when  the  thor- 
oughness of  the  work  may  be  satisfactorily  tested.  It  seems  too 


EXCLUSION   OF   WATER   FROM    OIL-SANDS  131 

much  to  hope  that  supervision  will  be  provided  for  and  wisely 
administered,  but  if  this  is  not  brought  about,  the  prospects  for 
a  vigorous  and  continued  life  of  the  newer  fields  are  slight.  The 
presence  of  careless  and  incompetent  operators,  willing  to  take 
unwarranted  chances  in  their  efforts  to  hurry  drilling  operations, 
is  inevitable  in  all  fields,  and  in  this  situation  the  evil  effects  of 
their  laxity  are  unfortunately  not  borne  by  themselves  alone  but 
also  affect  their  neighbors. 

All  oil  wells  gradually  decline  in  the  amount  of  production,  over 
periods  of  from  a  few  months  to  several  years.  When  water  has 
made  its  appearance  in  a  well  the  actual  amount  of  moisture  may 
be  constant,  but  as  the  production  of  oil  gradually  falls  off,  the 
percentage  of  water  will  increase  without  there  being  an  actual 
increase  in  the  amount  of  water.  Other  wells  act  peculiarly  in 
pumping  all  oil  and  then  all  water  at  intervals  and  such  conditions 
are  often  hard  to  account  for  and  equally  difficult  to  remedy. 
However,  when  a  well  is  pumping  some  oil  it  may  safely  be  as- 
sumed that  all  the  water  is  being  cared  for,  provided  the  origin  of 
the  water  is  from  that  particular  well,  but  when  the  well  pumps 
nothing  but  water  the  case  is  of  course  hopeless  unless  the  dam- 
age can  be  remedied.  If  the  latter  is  found  impossible,  the  entire 
hole  should  be  plugged  with  cement  to  prevent  the  water  spreading 
throughout  the  field. 

The  problem  of  water  exclusion  in  its  simplest  form  is  merely 
that  of  inserting  a  string  of  water-tight  casing,  known  as  the 
'water  string,'  so  that  its  bottom  is  tightly  lodged  below  the  lowest 
water-bearing  stratum  and  above  the  top  of  the  productive  meas- 
ures (Fig.  127)  thereby  sealing  it  off  from  descent  below  the  casing 
shoe.  In  the  districts  where  the  distance  between  the  two  strata 
is  not  small,  this  may  be  easily  accomplished  in  most  cases.  But 
in  some  districts  the  water  stratum  may  be  separated  from  the 
oil  by  only  a  few  feet,  and  here  the  mechanical  difficulties  and  need 
for  care  are  great  if  the  water  is  to  be  properly  shut  off  and  the 
full  value  of  the  productive  measure  realized. 

The  lack  of  positive  knowledge  as  to  the  positions  of  the  top 
and  bottom  water  strata  gives  rise  to  considerable  doubt  concern- 
ing where  the  water  should  be  sealed  off  in  any  new  field  during 
the  early  days  of  its  development,  and  the  principal  damage  by 
flooding,  aside  from  that  due  to  negligence  during  subsequent  opera- 
tions, may  be  traced  to  this  uncertainty  when  the  first  few  wells 
were  being  drilled.  It  is  the  general  opinion  of  oil  men,  experi- 


132 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


enced  in  excluding  water,  that  after  the  precise  relative  positions 
of  these  measures  have  been  ascertained  little  excuse  remains  for  not 
protecting  the  oil-sand.  A  number  of  methods  for  accomplishing  this, 
under  the  various  drilling  conditions,  have  been  devised  and  few  situa- 
tions arise  that  cannot  be  met  if  handled  properly. 


svjv^&Smm 


Fig.    127.     LOG   SHOWING   WATER    SHUT   OFF   BY   LANDING    CASING   BELOW 

THE  WATER-SAND 


The  original  method  used  for  shutting-off  the  water,  which 
is  still  successfully  followed  in  the  eastern  and  middle  western 
states  where  the  strata  are  hard  and  cave  but  little',  is  simply  that 
of  setting  the  casing  on  bottom  and  proceeding  with  a  smaller 
size  drill,  thus  leaving  a  shoulder  upon  which  the  casing  may 
rest  and  effect  a  water-tight  bond  with  the  wall  of  the  hole.  To 
be  of  permanent  value,  however,  it  has  been  found  that  this  one- 


EXCLUSION    OF    WATER    FROM    OIL-SANDS  133 

time  universal  method  is  far  from  satisfactory  in  many  cases,  and 
particularly  unreliable  in  soft,  loosely  cemented  measures  that  may 
hold  the  water  back  for  a  few  months  and  then  permit  it  to  break 
in  by  gradually  leaching  through  the  interstices  of  the  surround- 
ing porous  measures. 

In  some  such  cases  the  proportion  of  water  that  works  its 
way  down  to  the  productive  measures  is  slight,  and  gives  little 
trouble  if  it  can  be  pumped  out  with  the  oil.  But  such  instances 
are  not  the  general  rule,  and  it  has  become  apparent  that  more 
positive  methods  for  excluding  the  water  must  be  applied  if  the 
lives  of  the  wells  are  to  be  protected.  In  the  first  attempts  at 
improvement,  bags  of  cereals  were  inserted  at  the  bottom,  before 
the  pipe  was  landed,  so  that  a  portion  of  these  would  expand 
on  the  outside  of  the  casing  and  seal  off  the  water.  This 
did  not  prove  very  effective  and  the  development  of  the  use  of 
cement  followed  as  a  natural  consequence  in  the  search  for  something 
that  would  hold  back  the  water  for  all  time.  It  has  now  been  tried 
for  several  years,  has  come  into  increasing  favor,  and  is  generally 
recognized  as  by  far  the  most  satisfactory  medium  for  permanently  re- 
taining the  superficial  water  back  of  the  casing. 

The  problem,  then,  is  that  of  introducing  from  2  to  8  or  10 
tons  of  cement  into  the  bottom  of  the  well  and  placing  it  so  that 
the  major  portion  of  it  is  situated  on  the  outside  of  the  casing 
at  the  bottom.  The  mechanical  difficulties  connected  with  accom- 
plishing this  are  considerable  in  some  cases ;  in  others  the  actual 
work  is  simple  and  requires  only  care  and  experience.  In  all  the 
processes  to  be  described,  the  preliminary  steps  are  the  same 
and  bear  an  important  relation  to  the  success  of  the  work.  The 
walls  of  the  hole  are  under-reamed  for  from  75  to  100  ft.  above 
bottom,  in  order  that  the  column  of  cement  may  be  as  thick  as 
possible,  and  the  hole  is  washed  by  pumping  in  fresh  water  until 
all  the  mud,  oil  and  gas  have  been  removed.  Both  oil  and  gas 
tend  to  prevent  the  cement  from  setting  properly  and  so  interfere 
with  the  formation  of  a  tight  bond. 

The  simplest  method  of  placing  the  cement  is  that  known  as 
'bailing'  it  in.  The  hole  is  first  filled  with  water  and  the  casing 
raised  until  the  shoe  is  about  60  ft.  off  bottom.  A  'stand'  of  three 
joints  of  casing  is  then  unscrewed  and  placed  to  one  side  in  the 
derrick.  The  cement,  mixed  to  a  thick  grout,  is  next  run  into 
the  hole  in  a  specially-constructed  bailer  that  dumps  when  it 
reaches  bottom.  When  1  or  2  tons  (dry  weight)  of  cement  have 


134 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


been  inserted  in  this  way,  the  stand  of  casing  is  screwed  back 
into  the  top  of  the  string,  filled  with  water,  and  a  plug  screwed 
into  the  top  coupling.  The  casing  is  then  lowered  until  the  shoe 
strikes  bottom,  and  since  the  pipe  is  full  of  water  which  is  pre- 
vented from  escaping  by  the  plug  at  the  top,  a  large  portion  of 
the  cement  at  the  bottom  is  forced  out  into  the  formation  and 
up  between  the  casing  and  the  wall  of  the  hole.  The  casing  is 
then  driven,  in  order  to  seat  the  shoe  into  the  bottom  as  far  as 
possible.  Some  operators  prefer,  instead  of  lowering  the  cement 
in  a  bailer,  to  run  it  in  in  a  series  of  long  narrow  bags  tied  to  the 


Fig.    128.     BAKER    CEMENT    PLUG 
a. — Slips,     b. — Valve. 

end  of  the  drilling-tools.  When  the  bottom  is  reached,  a  few 
strokes  of  the  drilling  tools  loosen  the  bags  and  break  them  so 
that  the  cement  is  free  to  flow  when  the  casing  is  lowered. 

In  connection  with  these  methods  the  Baker  'cement  plug' 
(Fig.  128)  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  plug  that  is  screwed 
into  the  top  of  the  casing  before  it  is  lowered.  The  plug  is  made 
of  light  cast  iron  and  so  constructed  that  it  may  be  hung  from 
the  bailer  with  a  piece  of  soft  rope  and  lowered  inside  the  casing. 
When  placed  below  the  casing-shoe  and  then  raised  with  a  slight 
tension,  a  set  of  slips  catch  on  the  shoe  and  the  bottom  opening 


EXCLUSION    OF    WATER   FROM    OIL-SANDS  135 

of  the  casing  is  effectually  closed.  The  casing  is  then  lowered, 
the  cement  forced  up  on  the  outside,  and  the  bailer  loosened  by 
a  stronger  pull  that  breaks  the  soft  rope,  leaving  the  plug  in  the 
hole.  Being  of  cast  iron,  it  is  easily  drilled  up. 

.  These  methods,  by  which  the  cement  is  placed  at  the  bottom 
of  the  hole  and  then  worked  out  to  its  final  position  on  the  outside 
of  the  casing,  have  been  largely  replaced  by  processes  in  which 
the  cement  is  pumped  down,  either  through  the  casing  or  through 
an  auxiliary  smaller  string  of  tubing  lowered  inside  the  casing 
for  that  purpose.  With  methods  of  this  class,  a  necessary  pre- 
liminary step  is  the  securing  of  a  'circulation,'  i.e.,  the  space 
between  the  casing  and  the  wall  of  the  hole  must  be  sufficiently 
cleared  of  caved  materials  so  that  there  is  a  free  passage  for  fluid 
pumped,  down  inside  the  casing  to  come  to  the  surface  on  the 
outside,  thus  insuring  that  when  cement  is  pumped  to  the  bottom 
it  will  pass  readily  around  the  casing-shoe  and  up  on  the  outside 
of  the  pipe,  if  prevented  from  rising  inside  the  pipe  in  cases  when 
tubing  is  used.  When  endeavoring  to  secure  a  circulation  it 
frequently  becomes  necessary  to  pull  up  the  casing  100  ft.  or  more 
from  bottom  and  resort  to  a  pump  pressure  of  several  hundred 
pounds  before  the  fluid  will  break  through  to  the  surface  on  the 
outside.  The  pipe  is  then  gradually  lowered,  and  worked  up  and 
down,  until  the  fluid  circulates  readily  when  the  shoe  is  only 
a  few  feet  off  bottom. 

The  type  of  pump  ordinarily  used  is  the  10  by  5  by  12-in. 
duplex  mud-pump,  used  in  the  oil  fields  for  pumping  mud  in  wells 
being  drilled  by  the  rotary  or  circulator  methods.  It  is  connected 
to  the  top  of  the  casing  by  a  section  of  2^  or  3-in.  pressure  armored- 
hose. 

In  the  Perkins  method,  which  is  of  particular  value  in  very  deep 
wells  or  those  in  which  the  water-string  of  casing  tends  to  'freeze' 
unless  moved  at  frequent  intervals,  the  cement  is  pumped  directly 
inside  the  casing  to  the  bottom.  It  is  also  known  as  the  disc, 
or  packer  method  from  the  fact  that  the  cement  is  inserted 
between  two  moving  packers  that  have  an  outside  diameter  almost 
as  great  as  the  inside  diameter  of  the  casing.  After  a  circulation 
has  been  obtained,  the  casing  is  suspended  so  that  the  shoe  is 
2  or  3  ft.  from  the  bottom,  and  enough  fresh  water  is  pumped 
in  to  clean  the  bottom  thoroughly.  The  two  packers  have  been 
prepared,  one  about  3  ft.  in  length,  and  the  other  of  such  length 
that  when  its  lower  end  reaches  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  the  upper 
end  still  remains  in  the  casing.  They  are  made  of  either  wood 


136  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

or  cast  iron,  with  ends  consisting  of  heavy  canvas  or  rubber 
washers  of  just  the  proper  size  to  pass  down  inside  the  casing. 
The  casing  is  filled  with  water,  the  shorter  packer  inserted  in  it 
and  against  this  is  pumped  the  cement,  mixed  to  a  grout  just 
thin  enough  to  be  pumped  readily.  When  the  contents  of  the 
cement  box  is  all  pumped  in,  the  longer  packer  is  placed  in  the  casing 
above  the  column  of  cement,  and  water  is  next  pumped  in,  pushing  the 
combination  of  lower  packer,  cement  and  upper  packer  down  inside  the 
pipe.  When  the  lower  packer  has  passed  the  casing  shoe  it  falls  to  the 
bottom  of  the  hole,  permitting  the  cement  to  pass  around  the  shoe  and 
up  on  the  outside  of  the  casing,  as  it  is  pushed  from  the  inside 
of  the  pipe  ahead  of  the  upper  packer.  When  the  latter  has 
reached  bottom  it  cannot  leave  the  casing  entirely,  because  of  its 
length ;  it  therefore  stops  the  further  flow  of  water  and  retards 
the  pump,  thus  indicating  that  the  cement  is  out  of  the  pipe. 

The  casing  is  then  landed  on  bottom,  the  cement  has  been 
placed  on  the  outside  of  the  pipe  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole  and 
the  packers,  like  the  cement  plug,  are  easily  drilled  through  after 
the  cement  has  set.  The  main  objections  to  this  method  are  the 
danger  of  the  packers  sticking  while  going  down  inside  the  casing, 
and  the  fact  that  the  lower  packer  may  fall  to  the  bottom  in  such 
a  way  as  to  prevent  the  casing  shoe  from  being  landed  squarely 
on  bottom,  getting  underneath  the  shoe  in  such  a  position  as  to 
result  in  the  cement  bond  breaking  when  the  packer  is  drilled. 

It  is  possible  to  follow  the  general  lines  of  the  above  method, 
and  dispense  with  the  traveling  packers  by  having  previously 
measured  into  a  tank,  connected  to  the  pump,  the  exact  amount  of 
water  necessary  to  fill  the  bore  of  the  casing  from  the  surface  to 
the  bottom.  The  cement  is  pushed  ahead  of  the  water  and  is 
known  to  have  passed  out  of  the  casing  when  the  tank  is  drained. 

In  other  methods  a  string  of  tubing  is  used  as  a  conductor  for 
carrying  the  cement  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  whence  it  is  made 
to  pass  to  the  outside  of  the  casing.  Probably  the  earliest  of 
these  was  the  'bottom  packer'  method.  In  this  there  is  attached 
to  the  lower  end  of  the  tubing  a  packer  similar  to  the  type 
described  in  connection  with  pumping-wells  (Fig.  140),  or  a  more 
simple  one  made  from  strips  of  belting  confined  between  two 
metal  plates  (Fig.  129).  The  duty  of  the  packer  is  to  close  off 
the  space  between  the  exterior  of  the  tubing  and  the  interior  of 
the  casing,  leaving  no  room  for  the  cement,  when  it  is  pumped 
down  inside  the  tubing,  except  to  pass  around  the  casing  shoe 
and,  up  on  the  outside  of  the  casing. 


EXCLUSION    OF    WATER    FROM    OIL-SANDS 


137 


METHOD 


In  all  tubing  methods  it  is 
necessary  that  the  precise  in- 
stant at  which  pumping 
should  cease  be  known,  lest 
the  cement  be  forced  up  a 
considerable  distance  on  the 
outside  of  the  casing.  Pro- 
vision for  this  may  be  made 
by  previously  measuring  into 
a  tank  the  necessary  amount 
of  water  to  fill  the  tubing,  as 
described  in  the  Perkins  method,  or  by  at- 
taching a  swage-nipple  or  bushing  to  the 
lower  end  of  the  tubing.  A  wood  plug, 
with  a  rubber  or  canvas  washer  nailed  to 
the  top,  is  inserted  in  the  tubing  between 
the  cement  and  the  water  used  for  forcing 
it  down,  and  when  the  plug  reaches  the  re- 
stricted opening  at  the  bottom  of  the  tub- 
ing the  pump-pressure  goes  up  and  it  is 
known  that  the  cement  is  all  out  of  the 
tubing. 

In  actual  practice  the  'bottom  packer' 
method  has  not  proved  as  successful  as 
might  be  expected,  because  of  various 
mechanical  obstacles.  Frequently  the  pack- 
er does  not  completely  fill  the  space  be- 
tween the  tubing  and  casing,  due  to  the 
wear  on  its  outside  edge  while  being  in- 
serted, thus  leaving  an  opening  through 
which  the  cement  works  up  inside  the  cas- 
ing. The  fact  that  the  packer  occupies 
such  a  large  space  also  prevents  the  tubing 
from  being  rapidly  withdrawn  after  the 
cement  has  been  inserted,  and  this  is  a 
disadvantage  since  it  is  well  to  run  the 
bailer  as  soon  as  possible  and  remove  the 
cement  remaining  inside  the  casing  before 
it  has  begun  to  set.  The  suction  caused  by 
withdrawing  the  packer  tends  to  draw  in 

cement  from  the  outside  of  the  casin?'  if 
the  shoe  is  not  landed  squarely  on  bottom. 


138 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


The  methods  now  generally  favored  are  various  forms  of  the 
following  typical  example.  Assume  that  the  8-in.  casing  has 
been  carried  to  2000  ft.,  where  it  is  to  be  cemented,  and  a  good 
landing  place  in  the  form  of  a  hard  shell  or  hard  shale  is  the 
measure  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole.  The  8-in.  casing  is  suspended 


Fig.    130.     "TOP-PACKER"   METHOD   FOR   INSERTING   CEMENT 


from  2  to  6  or  7  ft.  above  the  bottom  and  3-in.  tubing  is  run  in 
to  within  2  or  3  ft.  of  the  casing  shoe.  A  packing  head  (see  Fig.  130) 
is  stripped  over  the  top  joint  of  tubing  and  screwed  into  the  top 
casing-coupling,  packing  off  the  space  between  the  casing  and 
the  tubing  so  that  if  the  casing  is  filled  with  water,  when  the 
cement  is  pumped  in  through  the  tubing  it  will  be  prevented  from 


EXCLUSION    OF    WATER    FROM    OIL-SANDS 


139 


rising  inside  the  casing  and  must  travel  around  the  shoe  and  up 
on  the  outside.  Fig.  131  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  cement 
pump,  mixing  box,  tanks,  etc.  The  mixing  box  is  7  by  12  by  2 
ft.  and  holds  8  tons  of  cement.  The  large  tank,  with  a  capacity 
of  100  barrels  is  used  for  water  storage  and  the  small  tank  as  a 
receiving  tank  for  the  cement  after  it  has  been  mixed  in  the 
mixing-box.  A  screen  is  placed  over  the  top  of  the  small  tank 
to  prevent  lumps  of  cement  or  debris  from  entering  the  suction 
of  the  pump.  The  discharge-line,  including  a  section  of  armored 
hose,  connects  the  pump  with  the  tubing. 

When   the   tubing  has    been    inserted,    the    packing    head   is 
screwed   into   the   top   casing-coupling  and   the   tubing  connected 


Fig.    131.     PLAN   SHOWING   SURFACE   ARRANGEMENT   OF  APPARATUS   USED 
FOR  CEMENTING  OFF  WATER 

to  the  pump  discharge,  and  fresh  water  pumped  in  again  to  make 
sure  that  there  is  a  satisfactory  circulation.  The  cement,  which 
has  previously  been  passed  through  a  ^-in.  screen  into  the 
mixing  box,  is  next  mixed  with  water  by  opening  the  valve  B, 
leaving  the  valve  A  still  open  slightly  so  as  to  maintain  a  circula- 
tion in  the  well.  Connected  to  the  valve  B  is  a  section  of  hose 
with  a  ^j-in.  nozzle  that  is  directed  against  the  cement  for  mixing 
it.  At  the  same  time,  six  or  eight  men  stir  the  cement  with  hoes 
and  the  batch,  say  5  tons,  becomes  thoroughly  mixed  in  from 
10  to  15  minutes. 

The   mixed   cement   is   then   run   into  the   small   tank   T,  from 
which  it  is  taken  by  the  pump  and  forced  down  the  tubing.    This 


140  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

accomplished,  the  plug"  in  the  end  of  the  tee  at  the  top  of  the 
tubing  is  removed  and  a  wood  plug,  from  1  to  3  ft.  long,  tapered 
at  the  lower  end  and  with  a  canvas  washer  nailed  to  its  top,  is 
dropped  into  the  tubing.  The  tubing-plug  is  replaced  and  water 
pumped  in,  forcing  the  wood  plug  and  cement  ahead  of  it  down 
until  the  plug  strikes  the  swage  nipple,  when  a  pressure  on  a 
gauge  at  the  pump  immediately  goes  up,  indicating  that  the 
cement  is  all  out  of  the  tubing.  The  8-in.  casing  is  then  landed 
on  bottom,  the  tubing  withdrawn  and  the  bailer  run  in  to  remove 
the  cement  that  remains  inside  the  casing.  At  least  seven  days 
are  allowed  for  the  cement  to  set.  The  hole  is  then  drilled  about 
10  ft.  ahead  of  the  shoe  and  bailed  dry  for  the  purpose  of  testing 
the  cementing  job.  If  at  the  end  of  a  period  of  from  24  to  48 
hours  no  water  enters  the  hole  drilling  operations  are  continued. 

When  the  well  is  bailed  dry  the  greatest  collapsing  strain  is 
placed  on  the  casing,  since  no  fluid  remains  inside  the  pipe  to 
balance  the  pressure  of  that  on  the  outside.  The  table  on  page 
86  indicates  the  lengths  of  the  different  sizes  and  weights  of 
casing  that  may  be  inserted,  with  an  allowable  factor  of  safety 
of  2;  and  while  the  limits  set  forth  in  this  table  are  frequently 
exceeded,  yet  there  is  always  the  danger  when  doing  so  of  sub- 
jecting the  pipe  to  greater  collapsing  strain  than  it  can  bear, 
especially  if  it  has  been  weakened  by  wear  or  by  corrosion  and 
pitting  due  to  the  presence  of  salts  in  the  waters. 

Before  the  tubing  has  been  run  in,  during  the  preliminary  opera- 
tion of  securing  a  circulation,  the  fluid  may  come  to  .the  surface  on 
the  outside  of  the  pipe  even  though  it  is  not  traveling  around 
the  shoe,  if  a  leak  exists  in  the  casing.  If  such  is  the  case  it 
may  be  determined  by  continuing  to  pump  and  at  the  same  time 
lowering  the  casing  until  the  shoe  strikes  bottom.  If  the  casing 
leaks,  the  circulation  will  continue ;  but  if  no  leak  exists  and  the 
circulation  has  been  entirely  around  the  shoe,  then  when  the 
latter  is  placed  on  bottom  the  fluid  will  be  held  and  the  pump- 
pressure  increased  until  it  stops  the  pump. 

From  2  to  8  tons  (dry  weight)  of  cement  is  the  amount  cus- 
tomarily used,  although  greater  quantities  are  inserted  when 
unusually  large  cavities  are  to  be  filled.  Preferences  for  different 
brands  are  found  in  different  districts  but  there  appears  to  be 
little  advantage  in  any  one  make,  provided  the  cement  contains 
enough  gypsum  to  retard  the  set  so  that  the  time  of  initial  set 
is  long  enough  to  cover  the  period  of  mixing,  pumping  and  land- 
ing the  pipe.  Ordinarily,  when  everything  is  running  smoothly, 


EXCLUSION    OF    WATER    FROM    OIL-SAX  I  >S 


141 


this  occupies  about  a  half  hour.     Since  what  is  desired  is  a  tight 
bond,  rather  than  strength,  no  sand  is  mixed  with  the  cement. 

It  sometimes  happens,  particularly  with  the  early  wells  drilled 
in  a  new  field,  that  after  the  productive  sands  have  been  drilled 
and  the  well  is  carried  still  deeper  the  so-called  'bottom'  water  is 
encountered,  in  water-bearing  strata  situated  below  the  oil-sands 
(Fig.  132).  The  exclusion  of  such  water  is  liable  to  be  more 
difficult  than  that  of  the  top  water  because  of  the  presence  of 
gas  and  oil  in  the  hole,  especially  when  the  lower  water  occurs 


o*  f^fy 


Fig.   132.     LOG  SHOWING  WATER-SAND  2  FT. 
BELOW  OIL-SAND 


Fig.    133.     LOG    OF    WELL    IN    WHICH 

WATER  WAS  FOUND  BELOW  A 

71-FT.    OIL-SAND 


only  a  few  feet  below  the  oil-sand.  Particular  care  must  be 
exercised,  under  such  conditions,  in  gauging  the  amount  of  cement 
injected,  so  that  its  level  does  not  rise  to  the  oil-sand  and  inter- 
fere with  the  production  from  the  latter.  If  a  streak  of  hard 
ground  is  between  the  two  measures  it  may  be  possible  to  drive 
pieces  of  stone  and  brick,  with  a  few  sacks  of  cement,  into  this 
space  and  form  a  plug  that  will  prevent  the  water  from  rising. 

If  a  distance  of  2  ft.  or  more  intervene  between  the  oil-sand 
and  the  water-bearing  strata  (Fig.  133)  a  'bridge'  may  be  formed 
in  the  hole  above  the  water  measure  by  driving  down  tightly 
bricks,  stones,  etc.  These  tend  to  hold  back  the  water  temporarily 
and  provide  a  landing  place  for  a  body  of  cement,  which  is 


142  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

pumped  in  through  a  string  of  tubing,  run  in  until  it  is  a  few 
feet  above  the  bridge.  A  similar  bridge  is  also  used  when  after 
the  oil-sand  has  been  penetrated  and  the  well  is  finished,  it  is 
found  that  the  water  has  broken  in  around  the  casing-shoe  of 
the  water-string.  In  such  a  case  it  is  necessary,  if  the  water- 
string  can  be  loosened,  to  pull  it  a  short  distance  up  the  hole 
and  build  a  bridge  a  few  feet  below  its  old  landing  place,  thus 
providing  an  artificial  bottom  for  the  hole  while  cementing  the 
water-string  by  some  of  the  methods  described.  In  this  way  the 
bridge  prevents  the  entrance  of  the  cement  into  the  productive 
measure. 

In  other  instances,  however,  it  is  found  to  be  impossible  to 
loosen  or  move  the  entire  water-string  and  either  the  next  smaller 
size  pipe  must  be  inserted  and  cemented  where  the  bridge  is 
formed,  or  else  the  original  string  is  cut  off  at  a  point  where  it 
can  be  moved  and  the  hole  re-drilled  from  this  point  off  at  the 
side  of  the  original  hole.  Should  the  latter  alternative  be  fol- 
lowed, the  bottom  of  the  old  water-string  should  be  filled  with 
cement  above  the  bridge  prior  to  cutting  it  so  that  there  will  be 
no  subsequent  infiltration  of  water  to  the  oil-sand  through  this 
old  hole. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
PRODUCTION. 

Flowing  Wells.  Flowing  wells  are  encountered  in  nearly 
every  oil  field  of  importance  and  are  often  of  such  violence  as 
completely  to  destroy  the  rig*  and  damage  the  casing  in  the  well. 
The  gas  pressure  throws  the  sand  out  with  a  force  so  great  that 
it  often  cuts  through  heavy  steel  plates  in  a  few  hours,  while 
the  rig  timbers  fall  rapidly  before  the  blast.  Such  wells  as  the 
Dos  Bocas  in  Mexico,  the  Lucas  at  Spindle  Top,  the  Lake  View 
in  California,  and  the  great  Baku  gusher  in  Russia  produced 
thousands  of  tons  of  oil  and  sand  before  they  ceased  flowing, 
the  first  tearing  a  great  hole  in  the  surface  of  the  ground  before 
it  subsided.  Where  -a  heavy  flow  is  unexpected,  and  no  prepara- 
tions for  capping  have  been  made,  to  gain  control  is  exceedingly 
difficult,  often  impossible.  When  a  stream  of  oil  is  shooting  into 
the  air,  there  is  naturally  a  heavy  loss,  especially  of  the  lighter 
oils.  To  prevent  this,  boiler  shells  placed  upon  skids,  or  heavy 
timbers  reinforced  with  steel  plates  on  exposed  surfaces  are 
drawn  over  the  hole  at  the  derrick  floor  and  prevented  from  being 
thrown  off  by  wire  slings  anchored  to  the  derrick  sills.  The 
oil  is  caught  in  earthen  sumps  excavated  near  the  derrick,  and, 
when  the  flow  has  abated  somewhat,  efforts  are  usually  made  to 
get  the  well  under  control.  The  Lake  View  gusher  was  controlled 
by  placing  a  levee  around  the  derrick  12  to  15  ft.  higher  than  the 
mouth  of  the  well.  The  oil,  accumulating  inside  the  embankment, 
acted  as  a  cushion  and  prevented  the  flow  from  shooting  into 
the  air  (Fig.  134). 

Most  operators  do  not  believe  in  checking  the  flow  entirely, 
for  this  might  result  in  choking  the  underground  oil-channels, 
thus  ruining  the  well,  the  idea  being,  rather,  to  attach  a  heavy 
gate  or  blow-out  preventer  to  the  top  column  of  the  oil-string 
with  a  tee  above  the  gate,  if  one  be  used,  and  the  oil  conveyed 
through  a  lead-line  to  proper  storage.  Extensions  of  all  turns  in 
the  lead-line  should  be  made  with  a  nipple  and  cap  to  allow  the 
oil  to  cushion,  thus  saving  the  fittings  from  cutting  out  by  sand. 


144 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


Should  the  flow  be  expected,  the  gate  or  other  safety  appliance 
may  be  installed  in  advance  of  the  time  of  bringing  in  the  well, 
when  considerable  loss  of  oil  can  be  avoided.  The  pressure  is 


Fig.   134.     LAKE  VIEW  GUSHER  AT  THE  LAST  STAGES  OF  ITS  ACTIVITY 

often  so  great,  however,  that  the  heaviest  fittings  do  not  stand 
(Fig.  135).  In  this  case  the  well  is  temporarily  capped  with 
timbers  or  a  steel  shell  until  such  time  as'  it  can  be  properly 
controlled.  It  is  usual,  in  high-pressure  districts,  to  fill  in  around 
the  outer  casing  with  concrete  to  a  depth  .f  15  or  20  ft.  and 


Fig.  135.     DAMAGE  DUE  TO  HEAVY  FLOW  OF  GAS,  OIL  AND  SAND 

securely  anchor  the  strings  of  casing  to  the  concrete  block  and 
to  each  other  by  means  of  casing-clamps  and  bolts,  thus  prevent- 
ing any  damage  to  the  casing.  Wells  maintaining  pressure  as 


PRODUCTION 


145 


high  as  1000  Ibs.  are  safely  handled  in  this  way.  Although 
running  the  oil  into  earthen  sumps  causes  considerable  loss 
through  seepage  and  evaporation,  it  is  not  always  possible  to  do 
otherwise  until  the  flow  has  abated.  A  large  percentage  of  the 
oil  from  gushers  is  generally  lost  in  this  way,  particularly  so  if 
the  oil  is  of  a  high  gravity.  When  the  flow  is  going  above  the 
derrick,  it  is  often  possible  to  place  heavy  timbers  across  the 
second  or  third  girts  from  the  floor,  which  act  as  buffers  and 
prevent  loss.  Occasionally  a  flowing  well  takes  fire,  and  when 


Fig.    136.     BURNING   TANK    OF    OIL 

AFTER  BURNING  TWO  HOURS  AFTER  BURNING  EIGHT  HOURS 

Upper  Courses  of  Tank  White-Hot 

the  well  is  not  capped  it  is  often  a  difficult  matter  to  extinguish 
the  blaze.  If  a  sufficient  number  of  boilers  is  available  nearby, 
the  use  of  steam  is  often  successful  in  snuffing  out  the  fire. 
Chemicals  such  as  sodium  bicarbonate  and  sulphuric  acid  are  also 
successful  at  times  if  used  in  large  quantities.  Another  method 
is  to  tunnel  8  or  10  ft.  under  the  surface  to  the  casing  at  which 
point  it  can  be  dynamited  or  squeezed  together  with  jacks.  The 
oil  in  this  case  runs  out  through  the  tunnel,  lessening  the  flow  on 
top,  so  that  the  flame  can  be  extinguished  by  an  application  of 
steam.  Danger  from  fire  cannot  be  overestimated,  for  fire  means 


146  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

loss  of  property  and  often  of  life  before  being  extinguished. 
Every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  guard  against  fire  around 
oil-well  derricks  and  tanks  (Fig.-  136).  When  a  well  is  flowing 
and  not  under  control,  the  neighboring  boilers  should  be  shut  down 
and  spectators  kept  at  a  safe  distance.  It  is  a  good  idea  to  com- 
pletely fence  the  gusher  and  to  install  the  boilers  at  a  safe  distance 
and  at  a  point  where  the  wind  does  not  usually  pass  the  derrick 
first. 

Intermittent  Flowing  Wells.  Where  the  oil  and  gas-pressure 
has  diminished  on  steadily-flowing  wells,  they  often  flow  for  some 
time  at  intervals,  maintaining  a  steady  production.  Many  wells 
in  the  older  fields  start  their  initial  production  in  this  way. 
Enough  oil  accumulates  in  the  column  of  casing  to  hold  down 
the  gas  temporarily,  causing  the  pressure  to  rise,  and  the  con- 
tents to  discharge  through  the  lead  line.  The  gas  continues 
blowing  after  the  oil  has  been  expelled,  until  such  time  as  the  oil 


Fig.    137.     CASING  AND   PIPE-HEAD 

rises  high  enough  in  the  casing.  Then,  after  a  period  of  quiet, 
the  flow  is  repeated.  Eventually  the  gas  pressure  becomes  so  low 
that  other  means  must  be  resorted  to  for  inducing  the  flow. 

Artificial  Flowing  of  Oil  Wells.  In  some  localities,  particularly 
where  the  gravity  of  the  oil  is  low,  the  oil-string  is  pulled  back 
to  the  top  of  the  sand  and  the  next  smaller  size  inserted  to  the 
bottom.  The  latter,  called  the  'agitating-string,'  is  moved  up  and 
down  by  the  calf  wheels  through  a  space  of  50  or  75  ft.  in  order 
to  enliven  the  gas,  thus  making  a  flow  by  capillary  attraction  in 
the  small  annular  space  between  the  strings.  A  tee  is  placed  on 
the  oil-string  with  a  stand-pipe  sufficiently  high  to  prevent  the 
oil  running  over,  thus  forcing  it  through  the  lead-line  to  storage. 
Where  the  gravity  is  light,  the  oil-string  can  be  pulled  back  to 
the  top  of  the  sand  and  set  on  packing  clamps,  upon  the  next 
larger  string,  the  latter  having  a  collar  (Fig.  137)  with  two  2-in. 
holes  tapped  and  threaded,  into  which  the  lead-lines  are  screwed. 


PRODUCTION  147 

It  is  not  unusual  to  see  a  well  flowing  between  the  strings  at  the 
same  time  that  pumping  is  being  carried  on  inside  the  oil  string. 
A  packing-clamp  is  also  made  similar  to  a  stuffing  box;  it  is 
screwed  into  the  collar  of  the  next  larger  size  of  pipe  and  the 
oil-string  raised  or  lowered  through  it  for  'agitation'  purposes. 
The  swab  is  often  used  to  start  the  flow  by  being  run  into  the 


Fig.    141.     LARKIN 

HOOK  WALL- 

Fig.    138.     COMMON       Fig.     139.     STEM  Fig.    140.     LARKIN       PACKER   PUMPING 

SWAB  SWAB   WITH  HOOK  WALL-  TYPE,    WITH    GAS 

PLUNGER    VALVE  PACKER  ESCAPE 

well  and  rapidly  withdrawn.  With  two  bull'  ropes,  a  column  of 
from  1600  to  1800  ft.  of  fluid  can  be  lifted,  but  only  in  screw- 
casing,  as  the  inside  lap  of  stove-pipe  casing  would  cause  ex- 
cessive leakage.  The  swab  (Figs.  138  and  139),  which  is  run  on 
the  stem,  has  a  rubber  ring  placed  over  3-in.  pipe,  the  latter 
threaded  at  the  lower  end  to  permit  tightening  to  expand  the 


148 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


CROSS  HE  AD 


WALKING  BEAM 


POLISHED  ffOD 


LEAD  L/NE 


Fig.   142.     OIL-WELL  PUMP- 
ING  OUTFIT 


rubber  to  the  bore  of  the  casing.  Holes  are 
drilled  through  the  body  to  communicate 
with  the  3-in.  pipe  in  order  to  permit  pas- 
sage of  the  oil  when  the  swab  is  being  run 
in.  A  vertical  check-valve  is  attached  to 
the  bottom  to  prevent  leakage  when  lifting 
the  column.  Swabs  are  also  used  to  clear 
the  perforations  by  drawing  the  sand  or 
shale  into  the  casing  where  it  can  be 
bailed  or  drilled  out. 

Bailing  is  often  successful  in  inducing  a 
well  to  flow,  the  bailer  being  run  to  bottom 
and  rapidly  withdrawn.  This  agitates  the 
gas  and  causes  the  oil  to  flow.  Again,  a  2 
or  3-in  tubing  with  a  packer  (Figs.  140  and 
141)  is  placed  at  a  safe  distance  from  the 
bottom  to  prevent  its  becoming  sanded. 
The  oil  will  then  rise  in  the  smaller  column 
and  often  flow  steadily.  Care  should  be 
taken  in  placing  the  packer  that  no  leakage 
occurs  around  it  or  that  no  passages  are 
cut  through  the  rubber  later  on,  for  once 
sand  gets  above  it,  considerable  risk  is  at- 
tached to  its  withdrawal  from  the  well.  In 
fact,  many  operators  prefer  running  on  the 
tubing  a  swage-nipple  of  nearly  the  same 
diameter  as  the  oil-string  instead  of  the 
packer,  for  this  reason. 

Pumping.  When  a  well  has  ceased 
STAND/NG  VALVE  flowing,  or  cannot  be  made  to  flow  by 
reason  of  a  low  gas-pressure  when  the 
sand  is  first  struck,  it  is  usually  put  to 
pumping.  This  is  the  common  method 
of  extracting  oil  from  the  wells  through- 
out nearly  all  fields.  Pumping  is  ac- 
complished by  means  of  a  deep-well 
pump,  which  is  lowered  on  tubing  to  a 
sufficient  depth  to  insure  ample  submer- 
sion, but  in  wells  where  the  production  is 
light  the  walking  beam  need  only  be  run 
at  intervals  as  the  oil  accumulates.  The 


UPPER  CAGE 


GAR  BUTT  #OD 


WORKING  BARREL 


CAS  ANCHOR 


PRODUCTION 


149 


size  of  the  tubing  is  generally  3-in.  with  llj/2-thread  couplings, 
although  2  to  4  in.  is  used,  the  latter  having  8-thread  couplings. 
All  tubing  is  heavier  than  the  same  sizes  of  line-pipe,  and  wells 
4000-ft.  deep  may  be  pumped  with  profit.  The  actual  lift  of  fluid, 
however,  should  not  exceed  3000  ft.,  for  at  deeper  levels  the  strain 

on  the  equipment  is  excess- 
ive, and  parting  of  rods  or 
tubing  might  result. 

The  pump  or  working-bar- 
rel is  from  3  to  20  ft.  long,  6 
ft.  being  the  common  length 
(Fig.  143).  For  a  3-in.  work- 
ing-barrel, the  inside  bore  is 
2^4  in.,  some  manufacturers 
using  a  liner  of  this  size 
rather  than  to  bore  the  bar- 
rel itself.  A  hollow  steel 
plunger,  which  closely  fits 
the  barrel,  is  equipped  with 
a  valve  at  the  top,  while  a 
nut  is  screwed  into  the  lower 
end,  which  supports  the  gar- 
butt-rod  when  pulling  the 
sucker  rods.  The  garbutt- 
rod,  y%  in.  by  3  ft.,  has  a 
(three-winged  nut  at  its  up- 
(per  end  which  rests  upon  the 
<nut  of  the  barrel.  The  lower 
end  of  the  garbutt-rod  is 
connected  to  the  lower  or 
standing  valve  and  lifts  the 
latter  from  its  seat  when  the 
sucker-rods  pull  the  plunger 
from  the  barrel.  The  stand- 
ing valve  is  securely  seated  upon  a  beveled  shoe  or  shoul- 
der at  the  bottom  of  the  working-barrel,  having  a  long 
tapered  sleeve  for  this  purpose.  Each  valve  consists  of  a 
round  steel  ball  resting  upon  a  seat  and  has  three  or  four-wing 
cages  to  allow  the  balls  the  necessary  play,  at  the  same  time 
acting  as  guides  for  their  proper  seating.  The  valves  act  as  an 
ordinary  check-valve  when  pumping  is  in  progress,  the  3-in.  seat 


Fig.   143.     SECTION  OF  PUMP  OR  PLUNGER 

WORKING-BARREL 
Showing  lower   valve         Showing   upper   valve 


150  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

having  an  opening  of  1*4  inches.  Some  operators  use  two  and 
often  three  balls  when  pumping  wells  making  quantities  of  gas, 
the  latter  often  holding  the  balls  up  and  preventing  the  valve 
from  lifting.  In  the  eastern  as  well  as  some  of  the  southern  fields 
of  the  United  States,  where  the  percentage  of  sand  is  small,  an 
upper  valve  as  shown  in  Fig.  144,  is  substituted  for  the  steel 
plunger.  These  valves  have  leather  or  linen  rings  as  in  the  Lewis 
or  Kinney  pattern,  or  are  wound  with  cotton  or  hemp  rope  as  in 
the  Landas  pattern.  Valves  are  also  made  which  have  a  spring 
to  keep  the  cups  tight,  expanding  them  fully  to  the  working  barrel. 
The  Parker  valve  (Fig.  145)  differs  from  the  ordinary  valve  in 
that  a  plunger  draws  the  valve  up  against  the  seat,  which  is  placed 
above,  making  a  positive  action  which  is  often  successful  in  heavy 
gas-pressures  as  well  as  in  handling  sand. 


Fig.    144.     UPPER   VALVE    FOR 
WORKING-BARREL 

The  Parker  pump  has  larger  valves  than  those  of  the  ordinary 
pump.  It  is  better  adapted  to  heavy  sand  and  water  conditions 
because  of  the  positive  action  of  the  valves  (Fig.  146)  and  the 
fact  that  both  valves  work  close  together,  leaving  the  top  end  of  the 
plunger  open  and  cleaning  the  barrel  of  sand  at  each  stroke,  thus 
lessening  the  liability  of  the  pump  becoming  clogged  with  sand. 

The  Futhie  Hiveley  pump  (Fig.  147)  is  used  in  wells  handling 
large  quantities  of  sand  and  water;  2-in.  tubing  is  used  in  place 
of  ordinary  sucker  rods  and  the  fluid,  sand,  etc.,  is  raised  through 
the  2-in.  tubing,  preventing  the  sand  and  water  from  wearing  the 
plunger.  Whenever  the  valves  become  clogged,  the  plunger  is 


'lunger  rod 


Pump  barrel 


Discharge  col- 
umn 


Deflector  rod 


Upper  valve 

Valve  seat 
Valve 

Valve  nut 
Lock  nut 


Valve  rod 


Standing  val> 
Valve  rod 

Shoe 

Sprint? 

( iarhult  nut 


Spring  nut 
Spring 

Bushing 
Spring 

Valve  cage 

Standing  valve 
Shoe 


Fig.    145. 
1'AUKKR    PLUNGER 

PUMP    OR 
WORKING  BARREL 


Fig.    146. 

VALVES  IN 

PARKER   PUMP 


Fig.    147. 

FUTHIE     IITVELEY 
PLUNGER     PUMP 


152  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

set  upon  the  standing  valve  and  the  two  deflectors  raise  the  valves, 
allowing  the  fluid  to  flow  back,  thus  washing  out  the  sand.  In 
this  way  the  pump  can  be  cleared  of  sand  without  removing  it 
from  the  well. 

A  string  of  sucker-rods,  either  wooden  with  iron  connections  or 
solid  iron  or  steel,  is  used  to  work  the  plunger.  The  wooden  rods 
(Fig.  148)  which  are  used  in  the  Canadian  and  some  of  the  eastern  oil 
fields  of  the  United  States  are  made  of  ash  or  oak  from  1^  to  3*/2-in., 


Fig.  148.  WOOD  SUCKER   Fig.  149.  STEEL  SUCKER   Fig.  150.  POLISHED  ROD 
OR  PUMP  RODS  RODS 

with  iron  couplings  from  ^  to  \y2  in.  The  iron  or  steel  rods  (Fig. 
149)  are  20  ft.  long,  from  9/ie  to  1  in.  diameter,  with  %  to  1*4 -in. 
couplings,  and  are  extensively  used  in  all  oil  fields,  being  far  superior 
to  the  wooden  rods  for  pumping  heavy-gravity  oil  or  pumping  through 


PRODUCTION 


153 


small  tubing  at  depths  of  over  1500  ft.  The  sucker  rods  are  connected 
by  a  substitute  to  the  upper  valve  cage  and  extend  the  entire 
length  of  the  tubing  to  the  polished  rod  (Fig.  150).  The  latter 
is  ll/%  in.  by  10  or  20  ft.  and  works  through  a  stuffing-box  placed 
in  the  tee  at  the  top  of  the  tubing  (Fig.  151).  It  is  held  in  place 
by  a  2-in.  adjuster-grip  (Fig.  152)  which  can  be  loosened  to  raise 
or  lower  the  string  of  sucker-rods  as  desired.  The  grip  is  screwed 
into  2-in.  by  10-ft.  pipe,  the  latter  being  coupled  to  a  crosshead- 


Fig.   151.  Fig.    152. 

STUFFING  BOX  AND  GLANDS  SINGLE  ADJUST-         DOUBLE  ADJUST- 

ER GRIP  ER  GRIP 

tee  which  rests  on  top  of  the  walking-beam.  For  deep-well  pump- 
ing, temper  screws  are  often  left  at  the  well  and  used  in  place  of 
the  2-in.  pipe  and  grip,  while  special  pumping  devices  can  also  be 
purchased  which  are  stronger  and  more  reliable  than  the  ordinary 
2-in.  pipe.  The  polished  rod  may  extend  into  the  2-in.  grip-pipe, 
thus  making  allowance  for  shortening  or  lengthening  a  string  of 
rods,  the  stroke  of  the  pump  being  from  18  to  36  inches.  A 


Fig.    153.     TWO-WAY  CASING-HEAD  Fig.    154.     TWO-WAY  CASING-HEAD 

WITH  TWO-HOLE  TOP  OUTLET 

casing-head  (Figs.  153  and  154)  is  attached  to  a  nipple  screwed 
into  the  top  coupling  of  the  oil-string  and  a  recess  in  the  top  in 
which  a  plate  sets.  The  plate  has  an  opening  large  enough  to 
admit  the  tubing-collar.  When  the  last  joint  of  tubing  has  been 
placed  in  the  well,  a  tubing-ring  large  enough  to  cover  the  opening 
in  the  plate  and  having  a  hole  small  enough  to  engage  the 


154  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

tubing-collar  is  slipped  over  the  joint  and  the  tubing  set  upon  the 
casing-head,  gaskets  having  been  previously  placed  under  the  plate 
and  rings.  The  casing-head  is  a  casting,  having  2  or  3-in.  outlets 
on  the  sides  for  oil  or  gas,  the  weight  of  the  tubing  upon  the  plate 
preventing  their  escape,  forcing  them  into  the  line  attached  to 
the  opening.  Enough  gas  is  usually  collected  in  this  way  to  fire 
the  boiler  or  run  the  gas  engines.  A  lead-line  connected  to  the 
tee  on  the  tubing  conveys  the  oil  to  storage. 

After  the  tubing  has  been  set  upon  the  casing-head,  the  plunger, 
with  a  standing-valve  attached  by  the  garbutt-rod,  is  lowered  to  the 
shoe  of  the  working-barrel  by  the  sucker  rods.  These  are  raised 
and  lowered  several  times  upon  the  standing-valve  through  a  space 
of  1  to  2  ft.  to  insure  that  it  is  properly  seated.  The  rods 
are  pulled  back  sufficiently  to  prevent  the  plunger  striking  the  'stand- 
ing valve  when  the  full  stroke  of  the  beam  is  used.  The  wrist-pin 
is  usually  placed  in  the  first  hole  of  the  crankshaft,  making  a  pump- 
stroke  of  about  24  inches.  On  the  upward  stroke,  the  valve  is  closed 
and  the  plunger  sucks  in  the  oil,  the  standing  valve  being  open.  On 
the  downward  stroke,  the  upper  valve  opens,  the  lower  valve  closes 
and  the  plunger  descends  for  another  load.  Gas-anchors  placed  on 
the  bottom  of  the  working-barrel  often  relieve  the  pressure  on  the 
valves;  a  joint  of  tubing  is  perforated  with  ^J  to  y2-'m.  holes  for 
3  or  4  ft.  near  the  barrel,  and  a  plug  screwed  into  the  coupling  at 
the  lower  end.  A  piece  of  1^-in.  pipe  5  to  10  ft.  long  is  attached  to 
the  lower  end  of  the  standing-valve  and  extends  below  the  perfora- 
tions in  the  tubing.  When  the  oil  is  drawn  into  the  working  barrel, 
it  must  travel  through  the  perforations  and  thence  downward  to  the 
lower  end  of  the  l*/2-in.  pipe  before  it  can  enter  the  pump.  The  gas, 
instead  of  following  a  downward  course,  rises  outside  the  tubing  to 
the  casing-head. 

When  the  plunger  becomes  worn,  production  gradually  lowers  to 
a  point  where  a  renewal  of  the  pump  is  necessary.  Nearly  all  oil 
carries  with  it  more  or  less  sand,  which  cuts  and  wears  the  plungers 
rapidly.  Many  wells,  particularly  in  the  fields  of  the  Eastern  and 
Southern  United  States,  may  be  pumped  for  long  intervals  before 
renewals  are  required,  while  in  some  of  the  Western  fields,  it  is  not 
uncommon  for  the  pump  to  last  only  a  few  days.  A  pulling-gang  of 
three  or  four  men  is  kept  by  every  oil  company  to  perform  this  work. 
When  'pulling'  a  well,  the  beam  is  'taken  down'  by  disengaging  the 
pitman  from  the  crank  and  lowering  the  end  of  the  beam  which 
points  towards  the  engine  house,  so  that  the  end  inside  the  derrick 


PRODUCTION 


155 


swings  up  and  is  out  of  the  way.  The  rods  are  pulled,  including 
both  valves,  three  joints  at  a  time.  The  tubing  is  pulled  in  stands  of 
three  joints  and  stood  back  in  the  derrick.  This  work  requires  the 
better  part  of  a  day  where  the  well  is  being  pumped  at  a  depth  of 
2000  ft.  Should  the  pump  'sand  up,'  the  plunger  is  held  fast  so  the 
rods  and  tubing  are  pulled  together.  This  is  a  disagreeable  task, 
as  the  tubing  is  always  full  of  fluid  and  when  a  stand  is  unscrewed, 
the  oil  spurts  over  the  floor.  The  bull-wheels  are  used  for  this 
character  of  work,  except  in  deep  holes,  where  the  calf-wheels  are 
sometimes  employed. 

Many  pumping-wells  do  not  throw  oil  out  of  the  lead-line  at  every 


Fig.    155.     UNSCREWING   TUBING   WHILE   PULLING   A   'WET'   HOLE 

stroke  of  the  beam,  for  the  gas  usually  expels  the  contents  of  the 
tubing  at  intervals  when  the  weight  of  the  column  of  oil  has  been 
reduced  sufficiently  by  the  gas  to  cause  a  flow.  The  sucker-rods  by 
their  movement,  keep  the  gas  agitated  and  cause  the  flow  to  be  re- 
peated, the  valves  often  working  intermittently  to  raise  the  oil.  Again 
some  wells  will  make  a  small  production  through  the  tubing  without 
aid  from  the  pump,  while  others  require  a  constant  agitation  of  the 
gas  to  cause  the  well  to  flow.  Only  by  experimenting  with  each 
individual  well  can  the  right  method  be  determined  for  obtaining  the 


156 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


maximum  production.  One  well  may  produce  satisfactorily  with  a 
packer  or  swaged  nipple,  another  by  compressed  air,  while  a  neigh- 
boring well  may  use  pumps  to  the  best  advantage.  There  is  no  set 
rule  as  to  the  depth  to  tube  a  well  for  pumping,  but  in  most  instances 
the  tubing  should  be  lowered  as  near  to  bottom  as  possible  without 


Fig.    156. 


MODEL  SAND  PUMP 
OR   BAILER 


Fig.    157.     LARKIN   BAILER 

danger  of  'sanding  up'  the  pump.  Many  wells,  however,  make  more 
oil  when  pumped  a  hundred  feet  or  so  from  the  sand,  while  a  few 
may  require  tubing  several  hundred  feet  up  to  obtain  any  production 
whatever.  Sand-plugs  or  'bridges'  make  their  appearance  in  produc- 
ing-wells  and  are  removed  from  the  casing  by  bailing  or  drilling.  The 


PRODUCTION  157 

forms  of  bailers  shown  in  Figs.  156  and  157  are  successful  for  getting 
out  the  sand.  The  presence  of  water  in  the  well  is  always  a  source 
of  expense  and  annoyance,  for  it  aids  in  bridging  the  sand  and 
plugging  the  pump.  Gas  pockets  often  form  in  the  pump-chamber, 
interfering  with  the  action  of  the  valves  by  being  alternately  ex- 


Fig.    158.     BAND-WHEEL   PUMPING    POWER 

panded  and  compressed.  This  condition  is  hard  to  overcome,  the 
gas-anchor  not  always  preventing  admission  of  gas  to  the  working 
barrel.  Constant  improvements,  however,  are  being  made  and  it  is 
to  be  hoped  that  this  trouble  will  finally  be  eliminated. 


158  Oil,    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

Multiple  Pumping.  For  pumping  deep  wells  and  wells  which  give 
considerable  trouble  from  sanding,  the  walking-beam  is  used  with 
steam,  gas  engines  or  electric  motors,  for  power.  Where  the  wells  are 
grouped,  particularly  in  shallow  territory,  it  is  customary  to  install 
multiple  pumping-powers.  The  ordinary  power  (Fig.  158)  consists 
of  a  horizontal  shaft  which,  through  bevel  gearing,  drives  a  vertical 
shaft  upon  which  is  placed  one  or  more  eccentrics.  Holes  are  bored 
in  the  outer  flanges  of  the  latter,  to  which  the  jerker,  or  transmis- 
sion-line leading  to  the  well  is  attached.  The  jerker-line  is  pulled  a 
distance  corresponding  to  the  throw  of  the  eccentric  at  each  revolution, 
producing  a  horizontal  stroke  of  from  18  to  30  inches.  The  power  is 
furnished  by  steam,  gas  engine,  or  motors  and  can  be  arranged  to 
pump  as  many  as  25  1600-ft.  wells  or  18  2500-ft.  wells.  The  jack, 
made  of  iron  or  wood  (Fig.  159),  is  placed  over  the  well  at  the  der- 
rick-floor and  securely  fastened  to  the  casing  head  or  floor.  The 
horizontal  motion  imparted  by  the  jerker-line  is  changed  to  a  recipro- 
cating vertical  motion  (Fig.  160).  Multiple  pumping,  wherever  prac- 
ticable, reduces  the  cost  of  producing  oil  very  materially. 

Compressed  Air.  The  use  of  compressed  air  as  a  medium  of 
lifting  the  oil  has  found  favor  in  many  oil  fields,  especially  where  the 
encroachment  by  water  has  rendered  it  impossible  to  obtain  production 
by  plunger-pumping  or  other  means.  The  air-lift,  however,  is  not  sat- 
isfactory for  raising  oil  of  heavy  gravity.  The  oil  is  so  viscous  that 
the  air  collects  in  large  globules  and  finally  'blows  through'  the  fluid 
without  carrying  the  oil  with  it.  On  light-gravity  wells,  or  on  wells 
where  the  percentage  of  water  is  high,  it  works  successfully,  main- 
taining a  large  production  at  low  cost.  A  slight  drop  in  gravity  gen- 
erally results  when  a  compressor  is  1ised.  The  ordinary  compressor 
for  blowing  wells  is  of  the  compound  type,  capable  of  a  maximum 
pressure  of  at  least  500  Ibs.  and  with  a  working  of  350  Ibs.,  while  the 
output  of  air  is  about  300  cubic  ft.  of  free  air  per  minute  under  nor- 
mal conditions.  Mr.  Edward  A.  Rix*  says: 

"In  a  test  of  air-lift  systems  in  the  Kern  River  field  made  by  the 
Peerless  company,  pumping  a  mixture  of  water  with  20%  oil  at  an 
average  lift  of  470  ft.,  with  an  average  submergence  of  40%  and  an 
average  length  of  discharge  pipe  of  800  ft.,  they  found  as  the  average 
of  many  tests,  air-pressure,  152  Ib. ;  free  air  per  minute,  140  cu.  ft.; 
gallons  of  fluid  per  minute,  93 ;  cubic  feet  of  free  air  per  gallon  of 
fluid,  1.5;  ratio  of  free  air  to  fluid  pumped,  11.  Ninety-three  gallons 
of  fluid  per  minute  is  equivalent  to  3400  bbl.  per  day.  The  above 


^Western    Engineering,    August,    1912. 


PRODUCTION 


159 


pumping  was  done  through  3-in.  tubing  with  1*4 -in.  air  pipes,  and 
both  the  straight  air  systems  and  also  two  other  so-called  patented 
systems,  with  the  result  that  no  gain  was  shown  by  the  patented  sys- 


Fig.    159.     JONES    AND    HAMMOND   PUMPING-JACK 

terns ;  and  while  on  this  subject  it  might  be  well  to  say  that  one  well 
was  piped  as  many  as  thirteen  times,  using  the  straight  air  system 
and  after  each  piping  better  results  were  shown ;  in  fact,  the  variation 


Fig.    160.     PUMPING  WITH   SIMPLE  JACK 


160  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

in  pipe  sizes  and  ratio  of  submergence,  all  within  reasonable  limits, 
show  a  marked  variation  in  economy.  The  results  show  conclusively 
that  not  only  the  ratio  of  submergence,  but  also  the  relative  amounts 
of  air  and  water  being  pumped  influence  the  economy;  the  gravity  of 
oil  also  offers  its  troubles,  and  there  is,  over  and  above  all  these,  the 
question  of  the  size  of  the  discharge  pipe  for  the  fluid,  and  it  is  a 
vital  question.  Too  large  a  pipe  is  fatal,  because  the  air  slips  by;  too 
small  a  pipe  is  equally  bad,  because  the  air  escapes  and  the  expansion 
is  checked.  The  proper  size  is  a  matter  of  experience  based  on  an 
average  velocity  of  from  6  to  8  ft.  per  second  in  the  pipe  or  about  12 
to  18  gal.  per  square  inch  of  area  of  discharge  pipe." 

Various  forms  of  air-lifts  have  been  tried  out,  A.  Beeby  Thompson 
having  successfully  used  an  apparatus  (Fig.  161)  in  which  4-in. 
tubing  is  placed  to  bottom  with  10  ft.  of  J^-in.  perforations  in  the 
lower  joints  and  2  to  2^ -in.  column  inserted  inside  the  4-in.  "to  a 
depth  in  the  fluid  equal  to  at  least  twice  the  distance  from  the 
level  of  the  liquid  to  the  surface."  An  air-head  is  placed  at  the  surface 
and  the  air  is  forced  down  the  4-in.  tubing  outside  the  smaller  tubing 
and  returns  inside  the  2  or  2^2 -in.  tubing,  forcing  out  the  dead  oil 
and  later  carrying  up  the  aerated  fluid.  This  form  of  air-lift  has 
also  been  successfully  used  in  the  United  States.  The  Associated 
Oil  Co.  in  California  used  an  air-lift  as  shown  in  Fig.  162.  An 
ordinary  plunger  pump  is  often  used  in  conjunction  with  compressed 
air  when  the  well  is  making  water,  the  pump  being  placed  at  a  point 
above  the  water  level  where  the  oil  contains  little  water.  The  air- 
lift raises  the  water  with  a  small  percentage  of  oil  while  the  pump 
raises  oil  with  a  small  percentage  of  water.  Where  water  from  one 
well  is  flooding  the  territory  the  air-lift  is  installed  to  protect  the 
neighboring  wells  and  the  latter  kept  pumping,  the  reduced  water- 
level  making  it  possible  to  obtain  more  oil.  In  the  Kern  River  fields, 
it  was  found  by  continuous  blowing  of  the  key  well  that  production 
in  neighboring  wells  was  materially  increased.  In  many  cases,  how- 
ever, where  there  is  no  water  present,  the  air-lift  has  not  met  with 
such  pronounced  success,  but  this  can  be  attributed  largely  to  lack 
of  sufficient  oil  in  the  well  to  furnish  a  continuous  stream.  When 
the  latter  condition  obtains,  plunger-pumping  is  usually  the  only 
alternative. 

Perforations.  The  question  of  perforations  to  be  used  in  the  oil- 
string  is  an  important  one.  There  is  no  rule  governing  the  size  or 
quantity  in  any  particular  oil  field  and  in  many  cases  only  by  re- 
peated trial  is  a  perforation  found  which  gives  a  maximum  produc- 


PRODUCTION 


161 


Oil 


/?//•  In  fare 


Fig.    162.     STANDARD    SURFACE 

CONNECTIONS    FOR   AIR-LIFT 

PUMPING 


Fig. 


161.     THOMPSON'S    HEAD-GEAR 
COMPRESSED-AIR  PUMPING 


FOR 


162  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

tion.  The  gravity  of  the  oil,  the  amount  of  sand  the  well  makes,  the 
quality  of  sand,  that  is,  whether  fine  or  coarse,  the  presence  of  shale 
or  mud  and  the  percentage,  if  any,  of  water,  all  have  to  be  con- 
sidered. In  light  gravity  oils  it  often  happens  that  the  perforations 
become  clogged  with  shale  or  mud.  This  prevents  the  oil  from 
entering  the  pipe,  thus  reducing  production.  This  condition  sometimes 
may  be  remedied  by  repeated  swabbing,  by  moving  the  casing  to 
remove  the  shale  from  the  perforations,  by  washing  the  oil  or,  in 
extreme  cases,  by  withdrawing  the  oil-string  from  the  sand  until  the 
shoe  is  just  above  the  latter,  the  light  oil  working  its  way  through 
the  cavings  and  up  into  the  casing.  In  washing,  the  oil  is  pumped 
cold  or  hot  down  the  tubing  for  a  period  of  a  half-hour  or  more,  a 
3-in.  tee  having  been  previously  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  tubing 
to  force  the  flow  directly  against  the  perforations.  Some  operators 
pull  the  standing-valve  out  of  the  barrel  and  simply  pump  the  oil 
down  the  tubing  without  lowering  the  latter.  The  well  will  show  an 
appreciable  gain  until  the  perforations  again  become  clogged,  when 
washing  is  again  repeated.  Some  wells  require  washing  every  few 
days,  while  others  will  pump  satisfactorily  for  several  weeks. 

A  low  gravity  oil  usually  carries  a  large  percentage  of  sand,  and 
when  first  put  to  pumping  often  occasions  considerable  expense  and 
trouble  until  the  percentage  of  sand  is  reduced  by  reason  of  a  cavity 
formed  in  the  sand  around  the  oil-string.  If  the  sand  is  fine,  with 
a  small  percentage  of  water  present,  repeated  sanding  of  the  pump 
occurs  and  there  is  no  perforation  which  will  help  this  condition, 
continued  bailing  being  the  only  means  of  removing  the  sand.  In 
some  of  the  Russian  fields  the  wells  cannot  be  pumped  because  of 
an  excessive  quantity  of  sand,  and  production  is  obtained  only  by 
steady  bailing.  Should  the  sand  be  coarse,  however,  different  makes 
of  screens  or  screen-pipe  have  been  devised  whereby  the  sand  is 
excluded  from  the  casing,  allowing  the  oil  to  come  freely  through 
the  interstices.  In  one  form,  the  pipe  is  wound  with  a  tapered  wire 
over  ^-in.  or  j^-in.  round  holes,  the  wire  preventing  large  particles 
from  entering  the  pipe,  while  in  another,  the  holes  are  plugged  with 
'buttons'  having  small  slots,  which  answer  about  the  same  purpose 
as  the  wire.  Wells  in  California  producing  from  20  to  40  barrels 
a  day  have  been  increased  in  production  to  100  to  250  barrels  -a  day, 
while  in  the  southern  fields  of  the  United  States  the  use  of  this  pipe 
is  almost  universal. 

For  ordinary  producing  wells  in  California,  where  the  gravity 
of  oil  is  light,  %  to  ^-in.  round  perforations  are  used,  J^-in.  being 
the  common  size.  The  holes  are  bored  with  a  drill,  each  joint  having 


PRODUCTION  163 

three  to  six  rows,  from  4  to  12  in.  apart.  Many  operators  prefer 
perforating  the  casing  with  slotted  holes,  in  the  well  after  it  has  been 
landed  (Fig.  201),  the  holes  being  y^  by  \V2-m.  for  heavy  oil  and  ^ 
by  y%  for  light  oil  with  three  or  four  rows  to  the  joint.  Should  an 
oil-string  become  frozen  while  drilling  into  the  oil-sand,  it  can  al- 
ways be  perforated  in  the  well. 

Shooting  Wells.  Where  the  formation  containing  the  oil  is  hard, 
such  as  the  limestone  and  sandstone  found  in  the  fields  of  the  eastern 
and  central  United  States,  a  better  production  is  often  obtained  by 
blasting  the  oil-bearing  rock.  A  high  explosive,  such  as  nitro- 
glycerine, is  carefully  poured  into  long  cylindrical  cans  made  for  the 
purpose.  The  depth  of  the  well  to  the  oil-bearing  strata  is  first 
carefully  ascertained  and  the  charge  lowered  to  the  desired  position. 
A  firing-head  is  placed  at  the  top  of  the  upper  can  and  a  'go  devil/ 
a  piece  of  .cast  iron  with  wings  for  a  guide,  is  dropped  upon  the 
firing-head.  After  the  blast,  the  hole  is  thoroughly  cleaned  out, 
leaving  a  cavity  in  the  oil-formation  where  the  oil  may  gather.  The 
production  in  a  well  with  hard  formation  is  usually  increased  ap- 
preciably by  shooting,  but  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  quantity 
of  explosive  used,  for  an  excessive  charge  may  result  in  breaking  the 
formation  to  such  an  extent  as  to  ruin  the  well.  The  usual  shot  is 
from  10  to  300  quarts  of  nitro-glycerine,  depending  upon  the  forma- 
tion. A  shale  or  soft  stratum  may  be  so  compacted  by  a  blast  that 
the  oil  cannot  penetrate  it.  Shooting  has  been  tried  in  the  'tight' 
oil-sands  in  California  but  with  indifferent  success. 

Dehydrating  Oil.  When  water  is  present  in  a  free  state  in  oil, 
it  is  easily  separated  by  heating  with  steam.  The  latter  is  piped  into 
a  storage  tank  in  1  or  2-in.  coils,  the  coils  being  placed  horizontally 
from  4  to  6  in.  from  bottom.  They  should  be  kept  covered  with 
water  in  order  to  prevent  the  hot  oil  from  adhering  to  them.  A 
temperature  of  100  to  150°  F.  is  usually  sufficient  to  cause  the 
water  to  settle  to  the  bottom,  where  it  is  drawn  from  the  tank 
by  a  valve  placed  for  the  purpose.  Should  the  oil  be  emulsified, 
the  problem  of  separating  the  water  is  not  so  simple,  additional 
equipment  being  necessary  for  the  purpose.  An  emulsified  oil  is 
one  in  which  the  water  portion  carries  a  mineral  salt  in  solution, 
the  latter  acting  as  a  saponifying  agent  and  surrounding  the 
globule  with  a  membrane  or  skin  which  sometimes  cannot  be 
broken  by  steaming,  even  at  the  boiling  point.  The  emulsion  is 
reddish  brown  in  color,  has  a  jelly-like  appearance  and  is  extremely 
viscous.  The  belief  that  it  contains  shale  or  other  foreign  matter 


164  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

is  erroneous,  although  its  appearance  as  a  mass  is  deceiving.  It 
often  runs  as  high  as  75%  in  oils,  although  the  latter  percentage 
undoubtedly  contains  a  great  deal  of  free  water.  A  35%  emulsion, 
however,  is  common  and  quite  as  difficult  to  separate  as  are  the 
higher  percentages.  The  problem  that  confronts  the  operator  is 
not  only  one  of  breaking  up  the  globules  by  rupturing  the  encasing 
membrane,  but  in  saving  the  volatile  portions  of  the  oil,  which 
naturally  tend  to  evaporate  under  the  extreme  heat  conditions 
necessary.  Four  systems  which  have  been  successfully  and 
economically  used  will  be  described. 

I.  Dehydrating  by  Electricity.  This  method,  known  as  the 
Cottrell  process,*  has  been  successfully  used  on  emulsions  of  vary- 
ing proportions.  The  oil  is  first  allowed  to  flow  through  the 
wetted  septum  water  trap  A  (Fig.  163),  and  during  its  passage 
through  this  trap  the  free  water  is  deposited  on  the  wetted  septum 
2  and  passes  down  it  to  the  bottom  of  the  trap  and  so  away 
through  outlet  3,  which  is  so  adjusted  as  to  height  as  to  make  it 
self-regulating.  The  desired  oil  level  in  the  trap  is  maintained 
by  means  of  float  valve  1,  which  controls  the  supply.  From  this 
trap  the  oil  and  water  emulsion  is  discharged  through  outlet  4, 
whence  it  is  taken  by  the  rotary  pump  5  and  delivered  to  the 
treaters  B.  In  cases  where  the  contour  of  the  ground  permits, 
the  wetted  septum  water  trap  may  be  placed  at  an  elevation  above 
the  treaters,  thus  securing  gravity  feed  and  making  rotary  pump 
5  unnecessary.  The  wetted  septum  2  is  merely  a  pervious  canvas 
bag  which  has  been  thoroughly  wetted  with  water,  and  is  long 
enough  to  reach  below  the  permanent  water-level  in  the  lower 
element  of  the  trap.  Under  these  conditions  the  canvas  has  an 
affinity  for  water,  but  not  for  oil.  When  the  mixture  of  emulsion 
and  free  water,  in  its  passage  through  the  trap,  reaches  the 
canvas,  the  emulsion  passes  through,  while  the  water,  for  which 
the  canvas  has  an  affinity,  is  deposited  on  and  drawn  down  the 
canvas  to  join  the  main  body  of  water.  The  treaters  B  consist  of 
a  sheet-metal  tank  6,  cylindrical  for  the  major  part  of  its  height, 
but  having  an  inverted  conical  top  portion  7.  The  object  of  this  increase 
in  diameter  near  the  top  is  to  lengthen  the  distance  between  the 
electrodes  along  the  surface  of  the  oil,  and  thus  prevent  surface 
leakage. 

An  outer  electrode  is  formed  by  tightly  stretching  a  number 
of  wires  8  from  a  ring  9  at  the  base  of  the  inverted  cone  to  a 


* Western    Engineering,    April.    1912. 


PRODUCTION 


165 


circular  plate  10  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank.  Outside 
this  electrode  is  a  wetted  septum  11.  An  inner  electrode  is  formed 
by  tightly  stretching  wires  12  between  two  circular  plates  13 
suspended  in  the  tank  by  vertical  shaft  14.  The  wires  of  the  inner 


electrode  are  parallel  to,  and  exactly  concentric  with,  the  wires 
of  the  outer  electrode.  The  inner  electrode  is  supported  by  a 
clamp  15  on  the  shaft  14,  riding  on  a  bearing  saddle  16,  which  in 
turn  is  supported  by  the  channel-iron  frame  17  on  insulators  18. 


166  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

The  vertical  shaft  14  is  rotated  through  insulating  shaft  19,  and 
universal  joint  20  by  the  shaft  and  gearing  21,  the  latter  being 
operated  by  a  small  electric  motor. 

The  treater  has  a  cover  22  with  a  large  circular  opening  in  the 
centre  through  which  the  inner  electrode  passes.  The  top  ring 
of  the  treater  is  made  of  pipe  which  is  perforated  with  a  large 
number  of  holes  pointing  horizontally,  and  which  is  connected 
through  valve  24  to  a  steam  supply;  this  valve  is  normally  held 
closed  by  wire  25  and  fusible  link  26,  but  in  the  event  of  the  oil 
in  the  treater  catching  fire,  the  fusible  link  will  melt,  releasing 
valve  24,  and  so  filling  the  space  below  the  cover  with  steam  and 
choking  the  fire  out.  The  oil  enters  the  treater  at  inlet  27  (the 
flow  being  regulated  by  the  size  of  the  inlet  orifice),  and  is 
maintained  at  a  suitable  temperature,  depending  on  the  viscosity, 
by  means  of  a  steam  coil  28.  After  treatment  the  oil  and  water 
are  discharged  through  outlet  29  and  proceed  to  the  separator  C. 

The  inner  electrode  is  connected  through  the  saddle  and  frame 
with  a  source  of  electricity  at  a  voltage  between  10,000  and  15,000. 
The  action  of  the  electricity  is  to  create  a  strong  electrostatic 
field  between  the  electrodes.  As  the  emulsion  under  treatment 
comes  between  these  electrodes  the  infinitely  small  particles  of 
water,  being  conductors  of  electricity,  will  be  formed  into  chains 
from  electrode  to  electrode  along  the  electrostatic  lines  of  force, 
and,  if  the  voltage  be  sufficiently  high,  the  fine  films  of  non- 
conducting oil  between  the  water  particles  will  be  punctured, 
bringing  the  entire  chain  together  in  the  form  of  one  comparatively 
large  drop.  This  drop  is  now  free  water  and  is  deposited  on  the 
septum  11  and  conveyed  to  the  bottom  of  the  treater.  It  may 
happen,  however,  that  so  many  chains  of  water  particles  are 
formed  at  the  same  instant,  that  they  constitute  a  short  circuit 
between  the  electrodes,  thus  lowering  the  voltage  below  that 
point  at  which  it  can  puncture  the  oil  films.  In  order  to  prevent 
such  short-circuiting,  the  inner  electrode  is  rotated,  which  gives 
the  desired  result,  probably  owing  to  the  lengthening  of  the  chain 
between  corresponding  wires  in  the  outer  and  inner  electrodes  as 
the  latter  is  revolved. 

The  separator  C  is  merely  a  device  for  quickly  and  auto- 
matically separating  the  oil  and  water.  The  mixture  enters  at 
inlet  30,  and  the  clean  oil  rises  and  flows  away  to  the  delivery 
tanks  through  outlet  31,  while  the  water  drops  and  is  discharged 
through  pipe  32  in  a  clear  stream.  As  in  the  case  of  the  wetted 
septum  trap,  the  height  of  outlet  32  is  so  adjusted  as  to  make  the 


PRODUCTION  167 

flow   self-regulating,   the   controlling  factor  being  the   water-level 
in  the  lower  element  of  the  trap. 

2.  Dehydrating  by  Direct  Heat.  There  are  many  variations 
of  this  method  in  use,  but  the  principal  objection  to  most  of 
them  is  the  lack  of  provision  for  preventing  loss  by  evaporation. 
A  system  which  has  been  patented,  however,  overcomes  this 
objection  and  can  be  used  at  a  cost  of  3  to  4  c.  per  barrel  including 
a  royalty  of  1  c.  per  barrel,  the  cost  of  installing  the  separator 
being  about  $1500.  The  oil  to  be  treated  enters  a  series  of  four 
or  six  12-in.  pipes  connected  by  return  bends  and  placed  in  sets 
of  two  about  30  in.  above  the  furnace  floor.  The  back  ends  of  the 
inside  walls  have  a  flue  space  12  in.  wide  and  the  heat  runs  the 
entire  length  of  the  furnace  through  the  flue  space  and  up  around 
the  evaporator  which  is  bricked  in,  leaving  an  open  space  of 
about  6  inches.  The  evaporator  is  a  cylinder  4  by  20  ft.  of  5/16- 
in.  steel  having  a  conical  bottom  and  resting  upon  a  foundation 
of  brick.  The  oil  is  heated  in  the  retort  to  a  temperature  of  from 
375  to  425°  F.  and  passes  through  a  4-in.  line  into  the  top  of  the 
evaporator.  Inside  the  latter  are  five  baffle  plates  made  of  gal- 
vanized iron,  having  deeply  serrated  edges  and  projecting  within 
1  in.  of  the  side  of  the  evaporator.  The  baffle  plates  are  held  in 
the  centres  by  lock  nuts  on  a  6-in.  pipe  which  has  four  large  open- 
ings immediately  below  each  plate.  The  latter  are  perforated 
with  %-in.  holes  except  the  top  one,  which  is  solid.  The  oil, 
upon  being  introduced  into  the  evaporator,  strikes  the  top  plate, 
spreads  to  the  sides  and  runs  down  the  evaporator  in  a  thin 
film,  the  perforated  plates  preventing  the  oil  from  entering  the 
openings  in  the  6-in.  pipe.  At  such  temperatures  as  400°  F.  the 
volatile  parts  of  the  oil  and  the  water  are  in  the  form  of  vapors, 
and  enter  the  openings  in  the  6-in.  pipe  as  such,  while  the  non- 
volatile parts,  including  the  mineral  salts,  continue  their  downward 
course  and  are  drawn  off  at  the  bottom  of  the  evaporator.  The 
6-in.  column  has  three  take-offs  which  convey  the  vapors  out  the 
side  of  the  evaporator  and  into  the  discharge-lines.  Both  the 
outgoing  oil  and  the  vapors  are  run  through  pipes  which  are 
enveloped  with  larger-sized  lines  which  convey  the  oil  entering  the 
retorts.  Thus  the  heat  of  the  outgoing  fluid  is  absorbed  largely  by 
the  incoming  fluid,  effecting  a  considerable  saving  in  heat  units, 
at  the  same  time  effectually  cooling  the  treated  product.  The 
vapors  are  further  condensed  by  being  gravitated  through  a  water 
jacket  and  enter  a  tank  separate  from  the  residuum,  where  the 


168  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

water  and  emulsion  can  readily  be  drawn  off.  The  'tops'  or  lighter 
portions,  can  then  be  mixed  with  the  residuum  and  the  whole 
shipped  to  the  purchaser.  A  unit  plant  will  readily  clean  1500 
or  2000  bbls.  of  oil  a  day,  leaving  no  traces  of  emulsion,  and  it 
will  be  found  that  the  gravity  has  been  raised  from  y2  to  1° 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  emulsions  have  been  eliminated.  The 
temperature  should  not  exceed  450°  F.,  the  latter  heat  being  more 
than  sufficient  to  break  up  the  emulsions  and  vaporize  the  water. 
The  treated  oil  should  be  gravitated  after  entering  the  evaporator, 
as  the  latter  should  never  have  a  pressure  exceeding  25  Ibs.  per 
square  inch.  The  retorts  and  larger  lines  can  be  made  up  from 
discarded  casing  to  reduce  cost,  and  tees  should  be  used  in  place 
of  elbows  when  the  percentage  of  mineral  salt  is  large,  as  the  latter 
is  apt  to  clog  the  lines  at  the  turns  after  being  liberated  from  the 
water.  A  steam  connection  at  each  tee  will  keep  the  bends  clear.  This 
system  can  be  used  successfully  on  any  emulsified  oil  with  an  oc- 
casional replacement  of  the  retorts  which  burn  out  in  time. 

j.  Dehydrating  by  Compressed  Air.  The  Milliff  dehydrating 
system  has  met  with  success  in  treating  emulsion  by  the  use  of  com- 
pressed air.  An  air  pressure  sufficient  to  overcome  the  weight  of 
the  oil  is  maintained  by  an  air  compressor  through  a  3-in.  line  which 
passes  under  a  boiler  furnace  at  which  it  is  heated  to  a  temperature 
of  1000°  F.  The  heated  air  is  conveyed  through  an  insulated  line  to 
a  tank  8  ft.  diameter  and  20  ft.  high  at  which  it  enters  at  the  bottom. 
A  fire  screen  is  used  in  the  line  to  prevent  hot  cinders  or  sparks 
from  coming  in  contact  with  the  oil,  and  a  thermometer  is  placed  near 
the  tank  for  temperature  readings.  The  air  enters  the  tank  at  the 
bottom  through  a  spider  with  four  3-in.  wings  having  x /16-in.  holes  and 
intermingles  with  the  oil  in  the  form  of  globules  of  varying  size. 
The  heat  from  the  air  attacks  the  water,  turning  it  into  steam,  at 
the  same  time  liberating  the  oil  from  the  emulsion  globule  and  carry- 
ing the  steam  upward  to  the  surface,  where  it  is  dissipated  into  the 
atmosphere,  at  the  same  time  dropping  the  excess  water  to  the 
bottom  in  a  free  state  where  it  can  be  drawn  off.  One  set  of  heater 
pipes  in  the  boiler-furnace  cleaned  140,000  barrels  of  oil  at  the  Port 
Costa  pumping  station  of  the  Associated  pipe  line.  The  oil  contained 
an  emulsion  of  30  to  60%  and  tested  less  than  1%  after  treating 
by  this  process. 

4.  Dehydrating  by  Indirect  Heat.  In  cases  where  the  emul- 
sion is  not  too  refractory,  the  oil  may  be  pumped  into  the 
bottom  of  a  tank  8  by  20  ft.  through  a  spider  with  from 


PRODUCTION  169 

y%  to  Vic-in.  holes.  About  500  ft.  of  2-in.  pipe  for  a  steam  coil 
should  be  used,  and  the  tank  should  contain  at  least  10  ft.  of  water,  which 
should  be  heated  and  maintained  at  a  temperature  of  from  150 
to  200°  F.  As  oil  and  water  have  different  coefficients  of  expansion, 
they  will  separate  upon  going  through  the  heated  water,  the  oil 
rising  to  the  top  while  the  water  mingles  with  that  below.  The 
latter  can-  be  drawn  off  whenever  necessary,  to  keep  a  level  of  about 

10  feet.     These  methods  are  all  continuous,  and  can  be  installed 
in  units  large  enough  to  dehydrate  500  to  20,000  barrels  of  oil  a  day. 

Handling  Oil.  In  pumping-wells,  or  wells  flowing  at  a  moderate 
rate,  the  oil  can  be  pumped  to  storage  without  appreciable  loss 
if  the  proper  precautions  are  taken.  All  pipe  lines  of  the  gather- 
ing-system should  be  laid  in  trenches  and  buried  sufficiently  deep 
for  protection  from  heat  or  cold.  As  it  is  usually  the  custom  to 
gauge  each  well  separately  for  its  production,  tanks  are  installed 
at  each  well  and  the  oil  measured  there  before  being  pumped  to 
storage.  These  tanks  are  usually  from  25  to  100  barrels  capacity, 
one  or  more  being  placed  at  each  well,  depending  upon  the  amount 
of  production.  If  the  well  is  making  sand,  a  box  with  baffle  boards 
is  placed  upon  a  scaffold  so  that  it  discharges  into  the  tank  and 
the  lead-line  from  the  pump  runs  into  it.  The  sand  can  be  shoveled 
out  of  the  box,  to  prevent  it  from  entering  the  tank.  If  the  well 
makes  water,  it  can  be  partially  drained  at  this  point.  By  the  use 
of  tanks  and  sand  boxes,  the  running  of  oil  into  earthen  sumps 
can  be  avoided  and  a  great  deal  of  oil  saved  from  loss  by  seepage 
and  evaporation.  Tanks  should  have  close-fitting  covers  made  of 
boards  and  roofing  paper  to  prevent  loss  of  the  more  volatile  con- 
stituents. The  use  of  tail  pumps  is  to  be  recommended  where  the 

011  cannot  be  gravitated  from  the  well.     They  are  made  of  worn- 
out  working-barrels   with   a  standing  valve   below  and   a   leather 
cup-valve   above   and   are   bolted   to   the   main   sill   in   line   with   the 
outside  end  of  the  walking-beam.     A  polished  rod  extends  to  the 
beam,   as   in   the   case   of   the   oil-well   pump;   the   tail   pump   has   a 
3-in.   suction   running  to   the   well   tank   and   discharges   into   the 
gathering-system,    a    check-valve    having    been    placed    in    the    latter 
to  eliminate  back-pressure.     Instead  of  removing  the  tail  pump 
when  the  tank  has  been  emptied,  a  by-pass  may  be  installed  so  that 
by  closing  the  discharge  gate  and  opening  the  by-pass  gate  the 
remaining  oil  circulates  with  each  stroke  of  the  beam  and  keeps 
the  pump  from  becoming  dry.     The  tail  pump  can  be  used  only 


170  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

upon  wells  making  a  production  up  to  350  barrels.    A  steam  pump 
becomes  necessary  on  a  larger  production. 

Some  operators  use  a  water-covered  storage-tank  with  the  sides 
protected  by  a  wooden  cover  to  prevent  evaporation  in  light  gravity 
oils,  while  others  paint  the  outside  of  the  tanks  white  to  reduce  the 
intensity  of  the  sun's  rays.  The  large  shipping  tanks  in  any  case 
should  be  well  protected  and  the  oil  discharged  from  the  gathering- 
system  into  the  tank  through  an  overshot  which  should  run  within 
a  few  feet  of  the  bottom.  For  a  production  of  1000  barrels  per  clay 
two  2000-barrel  tanks  are  sufficient  for  storage,  while  for  a  produc- 
tion of  from  5000  to  6000  barrels  5000  to  10,000-barrel  tanks 
are  used.  In  cases  where  it  becomes  necessary  to  store  oil  or 
where  a  gusher  may  be  expected,  55,000-barrel  tanks  are  built, 
but  where  the  oil  is  kept  moving  daily  in  small  shipments,  they 
are  hardly  necessary.  All  shipping  tanks  are  equipped  with  three 
or  more  sampling  cocks  placed  at  proper  intervals  on  the  side,  and 
the  suction  line  to  the  pump  is  usually  16  in.  or  more  from  bottom 
to  prevent  the  sludge  and  water  from  being  delivered  to  the  pur- 
chaser. A  swing-pipe  is  generally  used  on  the  inside  end  of  the 
suction  so  that  oil  can  be  drawn  from  any  level.  The  area  of  the 
heater-coil  and  all  dead-wood  is  subtracted  from  the  tank  at  the 
time  that  it  is  measured  or  'strapped.'  The  latter  is  done  by  taking 
the  mean  of  three  measurements  of  the  outside  diameter  and  a 
corresponding  number  of  the  height,  and  reducing  the  result  to 
barrels  of  42  gallons.  This  is  the  basis  upon  which  the  purchaser 
buys  the  oil;  a  gauge  sheet  is  made  for  every  ^-in.  and  a  copy 
given  to  the  seller. 

Upon  obtaining  a  full  tank  of  oil,  the  gauger  of  the  purchasing 
company  Chiefs'  or  samples  it  at  three  or  four  levels,  the  samples  be- 
ing placed  in  different  receptacles.  The  'thief  is  a  specially  made 
bucket  which  can  be  lowered  to  a  certain  point  and  a  sample  of 
oil  taken  from  that  particular  level.  Samples  are  usually  obtained 
at  the  bottom  of  the  discharge,  at  the  top  of  the  oil  and  two  inter- 
mediate samples  at  equal  distances.  These  are  taken  to  the  test- 
house,  where,  after,  shaking,  50  cc.  of  oil  from  each  is  poured  into 
a  100-cc.  burette  and  50  cc.  of  gasoline  added.  After  being  thor- 
oughly mixed  by  shaking,  the  burettes  are  placed  in  a  'centrifuge' 
capable  of  making  1000  to  3000  revolutions  per  minute  and  re- 
volved for  20  minutes.  The  centrifugal  motion  throws  the  base 
sediment  and  moisture  to  the  outside  or  bottom  point  of  the  burette ; 
the  readings  are  taken  and  multiplied  by  two,  there  being  50  cc. 


PRODUCTION  171 

of  oil  to  100  cc.  of  fluid.  The  limit  of  water  and  base  sediment  is 
usually  3%  and  anything  in  excess  of  that  figure  is  rejected.  The 
temperature  and  gravity  are  taken  by  pouring  parts  of  each  of  the 
samples  into  a  hydrometer- jar  and  a  reading  taken.  In  heavy  oils, 
some  purchasers  use  one-third  each  of  carbon-bisulphide,  which  'cuts' 
the  asphaltine  oil  and  gasoline. 

Shipping  is  usually  done  by  a  steam  pump  large  enough  to 
overcome  the  line-pressure ;  electric  pumps  are  also  used  for  this 
purpose.  Whenever  possible,  it  is  always  desirable  to  have  ship- 
ping tanks  at  the  lowest  point  of  the  property,  in  order  to  take 
advantage  of  a  gravity  flow,  thus  effecting  a  saving  in  pumping 
power.  The  use  of  concrete  reservoirs  for  oil  storage  is  not  always 
satisfactory,  as  it  is  difficult  to  build  a  large  reservoir  through 
which  the  oil  does  not  seep  to  some  extent.  It  is  often  necessary 
to  run  water  into  concrete  reservoirs  to  save  the  oil,  the  seepage 
sometimes  amounting  to  hundreds  of  barrels  per  day.  Oil  should 
be  shipped  as  soon  as  possible  after  being  produced,  as  the  evapora- 
tion, especially  in  warm  weather,  is  excessive.  Oil  standing  in  open 
earthen  reservoirs  has  been  known  to  shrink  as  much  as  40%  in 
the  course  of  from  15  to  20  days.  Oil,  between  33  and  34  gravity, 
standing  in  tanks  and  exposed  to  the  open  air  for  24  hours,  has 
been  known  to  lose  4%  of  its  original  volume  by  evaporation. 

Gas  Traps.  The  gas  coming  from  the  casing-head  is  usually 
caught  and  used  under  boilers  or  in  gas  engines,  but  the  gas 
coming  through  the  lead-line  with  the  oil  is  often  allowed  to  go 
to  waste. 

To  prevent  this,  a  gas  trap  as  shown  in  Fig.  164  can  be  installed 
near  the  derrick.  This  trap  consists  of  a  sealed  tank  of  about  25- 
barrel  capacity.  The  oil  enters  the  tank  through  a  check-valve 
and  is  drawn  off  through  a  3-in.  outlet  which  has  a  float  pressure- 
valve  to  regulate  the  discharge.  At  the  top,  a  relief-valve  is  placed 
to  protect  the  tank  from  excess  pressure,  while  the  gas  is  drawn  off 
below  through  a  2-in.  line.  This  trap  works  satisfactorily  on  wells 
of  moderate  pressure  working  no  sand. 

The  McLaughlin  automatic  gas  trap  (Fig.  165)  is  designed  to 
recover  the  gas  from  a  well  under  more  difficult  conditions, 
especially  where  there  are  quantities  of  sand  and  water  present. 
The  oil,  sand  and  gas  enter  the  device  through  the  lead-line  'H' 
which  leads  directly  from  the  well.  The  end  of  this  lead-line  is 
fitted  with  a  tee  into  which  is  screwed  a  nipple  'M*  about  4  ft.  long. 
On  the  upper  end  of  this  nipple  is  fitted  a  cast-iron  valve  'A!  The 


172 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


faces  of  this  valve  are  segments  of  a  sphere.  This  valve  engages  a 
cast-iron  valve  'B!  The  valve  seat  is  riveted  to  a  movable  tank  'C! 
The  movable  tank  'C  is  suspended  from  a  beam  'D'  and  is  counter- 
balanced by  the  weight  box  'E'  filled  with  scrap  iron.  The  beam  'D' 
is  supported  by  a  frame  'F! 

When  in  operation,  the  oil,  sand  and  gas  flow  from  the  well 
through  the  lead-line  'H'  into  the  trap  at  the  point  marked  '4-in.  oil 
inlet/  Before  oil  flows  into  the  trap,  the  valve  seat  fB'  is  held  firmly 
against  the  valve  (A'  by  the  action  of  the  counterweight  'E! 


REL/EF  l/ALVE 


Fig.    164.     STANDARD   GAS   TRAP 

As  soon  as  a  sufficient  amount  of  oil  has  entered  the  trap  to  over- 
balance the  counterweight,  the  tank  'C  carrying  the  valve  seat  (B' 
moves  downward  and  allows  the  excess  of  oil  and  sand  to  flow  out 
between  'A'  and  'B!  In  the  meanwhile  all  gas  has  been  disengaged 
from  the  oil  and  flows  out  through  the  gas  line  connection  'G! 

On  a  steadily  flowing  or  pumping-well,  the  trap  reaches  an 
equilibrium  so  that  the  oil  flows  out  continuously  at  the  bottom  and 


PRODUCTION 


173 


the  gas  at  the  top.  On  a  head  well  the  trap  valve  opens  and  closes 
rhythmically,  maintaining  at  all  times  a  perfect  seal.  The  unbalanced 
upward  pressure  of  the  gas  is  sufficient  to  maintain,  at  all  times,  an 
oil  seal  of  from  1  to  2  ft.  in  the  bottom  of  the  trap. 

Other  gas  traps,  similar  in  design,  are  made  of  three  or  four  joints 
of  casing,  which  is  held  in  a  nearly  vertical  position  by  guying  to 
the  derrick.  The  oil  and  gas  enter  the  trap  below,  the  gas  rises  to  the 
top  of  the  trap  where  it  passes  into  a  2-in.  line,  while  the  oil  is  drawn 
off  below.  In  some  of  the  Russian  fields,  where  production  is 
obtained  only  by  bailing,  the  use  of  the  above-described  gas  trap 


MoKh  Posfforl'fln. 


,  Counter  Weight 
'  Box  of  Scrap  Imn 


2'6as  Outlet  to  Main 


Fig.  165.    THE  MCLAUGHLIN  AUTOMATIC  GAS  TRAP 

is  impossible,  by  reason  of  the  casing  being  open  at  the  surface. 
The  gas  is  then  caught  by  perforating  the  inside  string  100  or 
200  ft.  below  the  surface  and  sealing  the  annular  space  between 
the  two  inside  strings.  A  gas  pump  (Fig.  166)  creates  a  suction, 
drawing  the  gas  through  this  space  and  into  the  receiving  line. 
The  gas  may  also  be  obtained  by  tapping  a  hole  through  all  the 
casing  to  the  inside  string  15  to  25  ft.  below  the  surface  and  pump- 
ing out  with  a  gas  pump. 

As  the  bailer  is  being  constantly  raised  and  lowered,  more  or 


174  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

less  air  is  also  caught,  but  considerable  quantities  of  gas  are  saved. 
'Bleeders'  or  traps  should  be  installed  in  the  gas  line  to  drain  off 
any  water  or  gasoline  that  accumulates,  thus  keeping  the  gas  flow 
open.  The  amount  of  gas  varies  from  a  few  feet  per  day  in  old 
pumping  wells  to  several  million  feet  in  gas  wells,  and  where 
several  wells  are  connected,  check-valves  should  always  be  placed 


166.     GAS    PUMP 


in  the  line  to  prevent  a  high-pressure  well  from  "forcing  its  gas 
into  a  low-pressure  one.  Gas  lines  and  traps  should  be  installed 
with  as  much  care  and  foresight  as  the  steam  lines  or  water  lines, 
for  a  great  saving  in  fuel  is  effected  by  conservation  of  the  gas, 
as  far  as  is  possible. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
FISHING  TOOLS  AND  METHODS. 

Unlike  many  branches  of  engineering  in  which  the  time  oc- 
cupied in  the  various  stages  of  the  work  can  be  closely  estimated 
beforehand,  the  drilling  of  wells  may  be  delayed  by  many  condi- 
tions that  could  not  have  been  foreseen.  The  most  vexatious, 
as  well  as  hazardous  of  these  are  occurrences  that  lead  to  'fishing 
jobs'  for  the  recovery  of  tools  or  casing  lost  in  the  hole.  Such 
problems  may  meet  with  prompt  success  or  may  drag  along  over 
a  long  period,  for  the  units  of  time  necessary  for  many  drilling  and 
fishing  operations  are  often  days  instead  of  hours,  and  in  this 
work,  as  with  the  original  nimrod,  Isaak  Walton,  patience  never 
ceases  to  be  a  virtue. 

While  the  loss  of  tools  is  accepted  as  a  logical  hazard  that  is 
bound  to  occur  with  greater  or  less  frequency  in  such  work,  yet 
the  care  and  attention  to  details  that  finds  its  reward  in  all  en- 
gineering enterprises  are  especially  valuable  traits  in  this  occupa- 
tion, and  frequent  examination  of  equipment  is  unquestionably 
the  greatest  single  factor  in  lessening  the  number  of  these  diffi- 
culties. To  this  end  the  drilling  and  sand-lines  should  be  watched 
carefully  for  signs  of  weakness  or  unusual  wear,  drilling  tools  should 
be  scrutinized  for  incipient  cracks,  especially  at  welds,  and  no  tools  or 
equipment  run  into  the  hole  unless,  as  far  as  can  be  detected,  they  are 
in  perfect  condition. 

Equally  important  are  the  steps  that  may  be  taken  in  anticipa- 
tion of  the  inevitable  fishing  job,  such  as  calipering  the  diameters 
of  the  different  parts  of  each  tool,  the  internal  and  external 
diameters  of  bailers,  etc.  Such  information  may  be  readily  ob- 
tained and  noted  in  the  casing  tally-book,  and  when  needed  at  all, 
is  likely  to  be  of  the  greatest  importance  and  assistance. 

Fishing  for  Lost  Tools.  It  would  be  impossible  to  describe 
all  the  fishing  tools  that  find  use  in  drilling  operations.  Many  are 
made  for  some  particular  purpose  or  use  in  a  well  where  peculiar 
conditions  exist,  and  when  that  work  is  finished  they  are  discarded 


176 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


or  remodeled  into  something  else,  and  heard  of  no  more.  Others 
find  a  wider  application  and  more  general  use  and  so  new  types 
of  tools  and  adaptations  of  old  ones  are  being  constantly  intro- 
duced. For  this  reason  this  chapter  will  attempt,  not  to  give  a 
complete  summary  of  all  fishing  tools,  but  rather  a  review  of  the 
more  common  accidents,  with  the  principles  of  remedial  measures 
and  their  applications. 

Tools  for  fishing  are  run  in  and  out  of  the  hole 
either  on  the  drilling-line  or  on  tubing.  In  either 
case  they  are  attached,  as  is  the  bit  when  drilling,  to 
a  string  of  tools  that  differs  from  the  ordinary  drill- 
ing string  only  in  the  fact  that  the  stem  is  placed 
above  the  jars  instead  of  below,  and  the  jars  (Fig. 
167)  used  have  a  longer  stroke  than  have  the  com- 
mon drilling  jars.  Both  changes  are  made  for  the 
purpose  of  being  able  to  deliver  a  more  powerful 
blow  on  the  up-stroke  of  the  walking-beam,  known 
as  'jarring,'  when  an  ordinary  pull  with  the  drilling- 
line  will  not  dislodge  and  loosen  whatever  has  been 
caught  with  the  fishing  tool. 

A  useful  accessory,  when  there  is  some  doubt  as 
to  the  position  or  size  of  the  material  lost  in  the 
hole,  and  a  question  as  to  the  proper  tool  to  run 
for  it,  is  the  'impression-block.'  This  is  a  round 
piece  of  wood,  about  2  ft.  long,  of  such  diameter 
that  it  travels  easily  inside  the  casing  or  hole,  and 
•  is  made  concave  at  the  lower  end.  A  few  nails  pro- 
ject from  the  concavity,  serving  to  hold  in  place  a 
mass  of  fairly  soft  soap,  so  that  when  the  block  is 
lowered  in  the  hole,  either  on  the  bottom  of  a  bailer 
or  attached  by  a  pin  to  the  bottom  of  the  jars,  until 
it  is  stopped  by  an  obstruction  and  then  pulled  out, 
the  indentations  in  the  soap  supply  a  fairly  intelligi- 
ble record  of  what  must  be  grasped  by  the  fishing 
tool. 

The  fundamental  principle  on  which  is  based  the 
majority  of  tools  for  fishing  is  that  of  running 
down,  either  on  the  outside  or  the  inside  of  what  is  to  be  recovered,  a 
device  containing  one  or  more  obliquely-sliding  plates  with  milled  or 
tooth  edges,  so  placed  that  when  the  fishing  tool  is  situated  beside  the 
lost  tool  and  then  pulled  up,  these  edged  plates,  known  as  'slips,'  en- 


Fig.  167. 

LONG-STROKE  JAR 
FOR  FISHING 


FISHING  TOOLS  AND  METHODS  177 

gage  with  the  lost  tool  and  cling  to  it  while  being  pulled  out  (Fig.  168). 
This  principle  is  applied  widely  in  a  great  variety  of  fishing  tools  for  re- 
covering lost  tools,  rotary  drill-stems  and  for  dislodging  frozen  casing. 
Probably  the  most  common  mishap  that  occurs  in  drilling  a 
well  is  that  due  to  a  break  in  the  drilling  or  sand-lines.  If  this 
has  not  happened  directly  where  the  line  is  attached  to  the  tools 
or  bailer,  it  is  recovered  by  either  the  common  rope-spear  (Fig. 
169),  in  which  the  wickers  or  spurs  for  the  line  point  out  from 


Fig.     168.     PRINCIPLE    OF    FISHING    TOOLS 


a  single  bar,  or  the  rope-grab  (Fig.  170)  with  the  wickers  pointing 
in  from  two  or  three  bars  that  spring  sufficiently  to  press  against 
the  casing  or  the  sides  of  the  hole.  The  grab  is  also  used  where 
pieces  of  loose  rope  or  wire  are  to  be  caught  and  withdrawn. 
In  some  cases  the  lost  tools  become  lodged  at  the  bottom  of  the 
hole  so  tightly  that  they  cannot  be  freed  by  pulling  with  the  rope- 
spear,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  break  the  drilling-line  at  the 
point  where  it  enters  the  rope-socket  before  the  tools  may  be 
loosened  by  some  other  method.  This  is  done,  after  the  rope  has 
become  entangled  in  the  rope-spear,  by  lowering  the  fishing-tools 
until  just  sufficient  slack  is  in  the  lost  line  so  that  when  the 


178 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


fishing-tools  are  given  the  walking-beam  motion,  the  lost  line 
becomes  taut  at  the  high  point  in  the  swing  of  the  beam.  They 
are  then  jarred,  sometimes  for  several  days  before  the  slight  jar 
applied  to  the  lost  line  at  each  stroke  of  the  beam  eventually 
breaks  the  lost  line  at  the  socket. 


Fig.    169.          Fig.    170. 


Fig.    171. 


Fig.    172. 


Fig.   173. 


Fig.   174. 


Fig.  169— CENTRE  ROPE-SPEAR.  Fig.  170— THREE-PRONG  ROPE-GRAB.  Fig.  171 
—LATCH-JACK.  Fig.  172— BULLDOG-SPEAR.  Fig.  173— CASING-BOWL  GRASPING 
TOP  OF  BAILER.  Fig.  174— BELL  OR  MANDREL-SOCKET. 

In  cases  where  the  sand-line  has  broken  and  the  bailer  is  held 
too  tightly  to  be  pulled  out  by  the  rope-spear,  the  line  is  jarred 
as  described  above,  until  it  is  pulled  away  from  the  bailer,  either 
alone  or  bringing  with  it  the  bail  which  not  infrequently  pulls 
away  from  the  body  of  the  bailer.  If  the  bail  remains  intact  a 
latch  or  boot-jack  (Fig.  171)  is  run.  This  is  a  fork-shaped  tool, 


FISHING  TOOLS  AND  METHODS  179 

often  made  from  the  upper  half  of  an  old  set  of  jars,  with  a  small 
bar  or  latch  at  the  lower  end,  swinging  on  a  pin  set  in  one  of  the 
forks.  When  horizontal  it  rests  at  the  other  end  in  a 
recess  in  the  second  fork.  When  this  is  run  for  a  bailer  and  the 
lower  ends  of  the  forks  are  passing  the  bail,  one  on  each  side  of  it, 
it  pushes  up  the  latch  and  goes  by  it.  The  latch  then  falls  back 
to  a  horizontal  position  and  holds  the  bail  when  the  fishing-tools 
are  pulled  up.  The  latch-jack  is  also  often  used  for  the  work 
customarily  done  by  the  rope-spear,  when  the  latter  is  not  avail- 
able, by  running  it  in  and  driving  the  rope  down  until  the  coils 
have  become  tangled  in  the  forks  and  latch  so  that  they  hang  to 
it  while  being  withdrawn. 

Occasionally  the  bail  may  be  pulled  away  in  the  course  of  trying 
to  jar  'the  bailer  free,  leaving  the  body  of  the  bailer  still  in  the 
hole.  In  such  a  case  an  ordinary  bulldog-spear  (Fig.  172)  may  be 
run  into  the  bailer  and  jarred,  although  this  step  is  seldom  suc- 
cessful, as  the  spear  is  more  liable  to  split  the  pipe  of  which  the 
bailer  is  made  than  it  is  to  dislodge  it.  When  conditions  permit, 
a  casing-bowl  (Fig.  173)  large  enough  to  run  over  the  bailer  may 
be  tried  and  if  this  fails  a  bell,  or  mandrel-socket  (Fig.  174)  may 
catch  the  bailer.  The  bell-socket  is  essentially  a  bar  or  mandrel 
with  an  enlarged  end,  and  a  hood  or  bell-shaped  piece  that  is  free 
to  move  up  and  down  on  the  mandrel.  When  used  for  fishing 
a  bailer,  the  ball  on  the  end  of  the  mandrel  enters  the  body  of 
the  bailer  and  the  fishing  tools  are  jarred  down,  forcing  the  bell 
down  over  the  top  of  the  bailer  so  that  it  takes  the  sha'pe  of  the 
inside  of  the  bell.  When  the  tools  are  pulled  up  the  mandrel 
passes  up  through  the  opening  in  the  bell  until  the  ball  at  the 
end  of  the  mandrel  reaches  the  inside  of  the  bent  portion  of  the 
bailer  (Fig.  175),  which  is  then  grasped  between  the  ball  and  the 
bell  and  is  pulled  out.  This  socket  is  also  of  considerable  value 
when  fishing  for  broken  and  odd-shaped  pieces  of  tubing  or  loose 
pieces  of  casing. 

Should  all  the  methods  outlined  for  recovering  the  lost  bailer 
fail,  then  about  the  only  move  remaining  is  to  run  in  the  drilling 
tools  and  drill  it  up.  Those  unacquainted  with  the  details  of 
drilling  practice  frequently  express  surprise  on  learning  that 
when  iron  or  steel  tools  cannot  be  recovered,  it  does  not  necessarily 
mean  the  abandonment  of  the  hole.  While  such  is  more  apt  to 
be  the  case  with  rotary  wells  than  not,  the  cable  tools  find  com- 
paratively little  difficulty  in  either  drilling  through  metal  pieces 


180 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


1 


i 


Fig.   175.     BELL-SOCKET  GRASPING  TOP 
OF   BAILER 


of  quite  fair  size  or  in  side-track- 
ing- these,  i.e.,  pushing-  them  off 
into  the  side  of  the  hole,  where 
the  ground  is  soft  and  permits  it. 
In  such  work  the  bit  is  dressed 
with  a  chisel-point  or  other  suit- 
able edge  and  a  suction-bailer  of 
the  type  shown  in  Figs.  88,  156 
and  157  used  to  withdraw  the 
pieces  of  iron  as  they  become 
small  enough  to  be  drawn  up 
into  the  bailer.  The  work  is 
often  tedious,  especially  if  the 
piece  to  be  drilled  is  an  under- 
reamer  lug  or  some  other  such 
tool  made  from  extra  hard  steel, 
but  it  is  far  from  impracticable 
and  few  cable-tool  wells  are 
given  up  by  reason  of  their  being 
plugged  by  tools,  although  this 
does  happen  occasionally. 

When  a  line  has  been  pulled 
from  the  rope-socket,  leaving 
the  entire  string  of  drilling  tools 
in  the  hole,  they  may  be  recov- 
ered by  one  of  several  types  of 
fishing-tools,  the  most  effective 
of  which  is  the  slip-socket  (Fig. 
176).  This  consists  of  a  strong 
body  with  a  lower  opening  suffi- 
ciently large  to  admit  the  top  of 
the  lost  tool.  If  necessary  a 
bowl  of  suitable  size  for  guiding 
the  lost  tool  up  to  the  opening  is 
attached  to  the  lower  outer  edge. 
Two  slips,  usually  made  part  of 
a  U-shaped  rein,  are  placed  in  it 
as  shown  in  Fig.  177,  with  a 
small  piece  of  wood  pressing 
them  against  the  tapering  in- 
side-face of  the  socket.  A  wood 


FISHING   TOOLS   AND    METHODS 


181 


block  is  also  driven  between  the  top  of  the  rein  and  the  top  of  the  two 
outside  openings,  in  order  to  prevent  the  slips  from  rising  when  the  top 
of  the  lost  tool  passes  up  between  them.  When  it  does  so,  it  pushes 
away  the  light  piece  of  wood  that  holds  the  slips  apart,  and  when  the 
fishing  tools  are  then  lifted  the  slips  bind  on  the  lost  tool  and 
hold  it  while  it  is  being  withdrawn.  The  merit  of  the  slip-socket 
lies  in  its  simplicity,  as  well  as  in  the  fact  that  as  the  pull  necessary  to 
dislodge  the  lost  tools  becomes  greater,  the  hold  of  the  slips  on  it 
increases. 


I 

n 

7 

r 

Fig.    177. 


178. 


Fig.    179 


180. 


Fig.  176— SLIP-SOCKET  WITH  BOWL.  Fig.  177— SLIP-SOCKET  READY  FOR  USE. 
Fig.  178— COMBINATION-SOCKET  WITH  SIDE  OPENING.  Fig.  179— COMBINATION- 
SOCKET  SHOWN  IN  SECTION.  Fig.  180— TONGUE-SOCKET. 

The  combination-socket  (Figs.  178  and  179)  accomplishes  the 
same  class  of  work  as  the  slip-socket,  and  has  even  greater 
strength.  It  differs  in  construction  from  it  in  having  either  three 
or  four  slips,  rilling  a  complete  circle  on  the  inside  and  held  down 
by  a  coil  spring  instead  of  being  part  of  a  rein.  The  larger  number 
of  slips  permits  the  lost  tool  to  be  grasped  more  fully,  and,  as 
in  the  slip-socket,  the  hold  of  the  slips  increases  with  the  strength 
of  the  pull  applied.  When  using  the  combination-socket,  however, 


182  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

the  exact  size  of  the  body  to  be  caught  must  be  known,  -because 
of  the  close  fit  of  the  slips,  while  a  considerable  range  of  sizes  may 
be  caught  with  the  same  slips  in  a  slip-socket.  For  this  reason, 
when  doubt  exists  as  to  the  size  of  the  tool  to  be  caught  it  is 
preferable  to  use  the  latter.  A  further  advantage  of  the  slip- 
socket  is  that  when  the  lost  tools  have  been  pulled  from  the  hole, 
the  rein-slips  are  much  more  easily  disengaged  from  their  hold 
than  are  the  slips  of  the  combination-socket. 

These  sockets  are  both  of  the  bulldog  type,  i.e.,  when  they 
have  once  taken  hold  of  the  lost  tool  they  are  not  easily  released. 
However,  in  many  cases  this  may  be  done,  when  it  has  been  found 
impossible  to  move  the  lost  tool  and  it  is  desired  to  release  the 
fishing-string,  by  what  is  known  as  'jarring  both  ways.'  The 
walking-beam  is  given  such  a  stroke  that  a  jar  is  applied  at  the 
contact  of  the  slips  with  the  lost  tool  on  both  the  up  and  down- 
strokes  of  the  fishing-string,  eventually  either  pulling  the  socket 
free  from  the  lost  tool  or  smashing  one  of  the  slips,  thereby 
loosening  the  hold. 

When  this  does  not  succeed  in  loosening  the  fishing-tools 
and  it  is  considered  advisable  to  withdraw  the  drilling  line,  leaving 
the  tools  in  the  hole,  the  line  may  be  cut  by  one  of  the  several 
forms  of  rope-knives.  These  are  run  into  the  hole  on  the  end  of 
the  sand-line,  and  are  simple  affairs  that  consist  essentially  of  a 
frame,  surrounding  the  line  to  be  cut,  and  a  strong  chopping- 
blade.  When  the  frame  has  been  lowered  until  the  tool  rests 
on  the  rope-socket  of  the  fishing-string  the  blade  is  driven  into 
the  line  by  raising  and  lowering  the  sand-line,  which  drops  a  metal 
block  on  the  blade,  forcing  it  diagonally  across  the  drilling-line. 

A  tool  used  especially  when  the  drilling-line  has  pulled  com- 
pletely out  of  the  rope-socket,  instead  of  having  broken  off  at  the 
top  of  it,  is  the  tongue-socket  (Fig.  180),  containing  a  mandrel 
with  slip  to  run  into  the  opening  from  which  the  wire-line  has  escaped, 
and  a  slip  inside  the  main  body  of  the  tool  for  grasping  the  neck 
of  the  socket. 

Occasionally  one  of  the  joints  between  the  tools  in  a  drilling- 
string  may  become  unscrewed,  leaving  the  pin  of  a  stem,  sinker  or 
set  of  jars  pointing  up.  In  such  a  case  either  the  combination  or 
slip-socket  may  be  run,  unless  the  body  of  the  tools  occupies  so 
much  of  the  space  inside  the  casing  that  no  room  remains  for  the 
socket  to  pass  over  and  grasp  it.  'Pin-slips'  to  be  used  in  a  combina- 
tion-socket are  made  for  such  a  condition,  with  an  inside  thread 


FISHING  TOOLS  AND  METHODS 


183 


fl 


Fig.    181.     MILLING  TOOL 


13 

i 

m 

1 

Ha 

Fig.   182.     MILLING  TOOL 


Fig.   183.     TOP  OF  LOST 
BIT    BURIED     IN     SIDE 
OF    HOLE 


184  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

conforming  exactly  to  the  threads  on  the  pin  of  the  lost  tools.  When 
the  socket  is  lowered,  the  slips  fall  around  the  threads  on  the  pin, 
meshing  with  these,  and  hold  it  while  the  tools  are  pulled  out.  This 
method  is  not  applicable  when  the  tools  are  lodged  so  tightly  that 
they  must  be  jarred  before  they«become  free  to  move. 

When  the  pin-slips  will  not  pull  the  tools,  or  the  latter  have 
broken  at  a  point  where  they  occupy  the  entire  inside  of  the  casing, 
it  is  necessary  to  cut  away  an  outside  portion  of  the  top  of  the  lost 
tools  with  a  milling  tool  (Fig.  181).  This  is  run  in  on  tubing,  which 
is  suspended  from  the  surface  on  a  specially-constructed  jack  that 
holds  it  as  casing  is  held  by  a  spider  and  slips,  and  at  the  same  time 
permits  it  to  turn  readily  on  a  set  of  rollers.  The  tubing  is  turned 
by  a  large  wheel  driven  by  power,  and  is  gradually  lowered  by  means 
of  the  jack  as  fast  as  the  exterior  of  the  lost  tool  becomes  milled,  until 
a  sufficiently  long  pin  has  been  cut  to  permit  an  ordinary  socket  to 
grasp  it  (Fig.  182). 

The  points  that  become  weakened  and  break  most  frequently  in 
a  string  of  drilling-tools  are  at  the  joint  of  the  drilling-bit  with  the 
stem  and  directly  above  this  a  few  inches,  where  the  box  of  the  stem 
is  welded  to  the  stem  proper.  Breaks  of  this  kind  are  liable  to  cause 
considerable  difficulty  when  the  top  of  the  lost  tool  has  become 
burred  and  damaged  by  the  subsequent  blows  delivered  before  the 
accident  is  detected,  and  also  because  the  bit,  or  box-end  of  the  stem 
if  the  break  occurred  at  that  point,  is  below  the  bottom  of  the  casing 
and  tends  to  fall  off  to  one  side  of  the  hole  (Fig.  183).  For  this 
reason  it  is  preferable  to  use  as  long  bits  as  possible,  many  operators 
never  running  them  when  they  are  worn  down  to  a  length  of  4  ft. 
If  the  bit  fortunately  remains  erect  it  may  be  recovered  with  a  slip 
or  combination-socket,  provided  the  top  has  not  been  deformed  by 
the  pounding  to  such  an  extent  that  it  will  not  pass  up  inside  the 
slips.  If  this  has  happened,  a  side-rasp  (Fig.  184),  or  two-wing 
rasp  (Fig.  185)  must  be  swung  up  and  down  on  the  end  of  the 
fishing-string  until  the  irregularities  have  been  milled  away. 

When  the  top  of  the  bit  leans  to  one  side  of  the  hole  so  that  the 
fishing-tools  cannot  be  passed  over  it,  the  task  becomes  more  difficult, 
as  it  must  be  brought  to  a  vertical  position  by  drilling  around  it 
either  with  a  spud  (Fig.  186)  or  with  a  hollow  reamer  (Fig.  187). 
These  bring  it  to  the  centre  of  the  hole  and  at  the  same  time  they 
scrape  in  cavings  from  the  side  which  hold  it  in  place.  Of  the  two 
tools,  the  hollow  reamer,  which  is  really  a  double-spud,  is  much 
the  more  effective,  as  its  two  prongs  spring  out  to  a  wide  sweep 


FISHING  TOOLS  AND  METHODS 


185 


when  they  have  passed  below  the  casing  shoe,  and  if  the  top  of 
the  lost  tool  has  not  become  too  deeply  imbedded  in  the  formation 
alongside  it  they  work  it  back  to  the  centre  of  the  hole. 

If  these   attempts   fail,   it  may  be   found  possible  to   drill  a  hole 
with  the  drilling-tools  off  to  the  side  and  below  the  lost  tool,  into 


Fig.    184 


Fig.    185. 


Fig.    186. 


Fig.    187. 


Fig.    188. 


Fig.    189. 


Fig.  184— SIDE  RASP.  Fig.  185— TWO  WING  RASP.  Fig.  186— SPUD.  Fig.  187— 
HOLLOW  REAMER.  Fig.  188— BALL-BEARING  JAR  KNOCKER.  .  Fig.  189— KESSEL- 
MAN  CASING-BOWL  WITH  SLIPS  TO  RUN  ON  CASING. 


186  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

which  with  a  little  maneuvering  it  may  be  made  to  fall  and  then 
be  in  a  position  to  be  grasped.  Another  tool  used  for  bringing 
a  lost  bit  to  the  centre  is  the  wall-hook,  consisting  of  a  long  bar 
bent  to  a  semicircle  at  the  bottom  and  given  a  wide  sweep  so  that 
when  run  in  on  tubing  or  a  manila  cable  it  swings  the  top  of  the 
lost  tool  back  to  the  centre. 

When  all  the  attempts  outlined  above  have  failed,  the  plan  of 
shooting  the  bit  off  into  the  neighboring  formation  is  tried. 
Either  liquid  nitro-glycerine  or  60%  dynamite  in  sticks  is  inserted 
in  the  hole  in  a  sheet-metal  tube  run  into  the  hole  on  the  end  of 
the  sand-line.  The  tube  is  made  the  same  length  as  the  bit  in 
order  that  the  force  of  the  shot  will  apply  equally  at  all  points 
and  pot  drive  one  end  into  the  formation  and  leave  the  other  end 
protruding  into  the  hole.  Instead  of  one  electric  detonating-cap 
several  are  used,  to  insure  an  explosion,  and  the  sand-line,  with 
an  insulated  wire  fastened  to  it  at  intervals  of  50  or  75  ft.,  completes 
the  electric  circuit.  Before  the  shot  is  fired  the  casing  is  pulled 
up  to  from  50  to  100  ft.  from  bottom. 

A  simple,  but  more  dangerous,  method  is  that  of  firing  with  a 
fuse.  The  dynamite  is  inserted  in  the  hole  in  a  water-tight  tube 
on  the  end  of  the  sand-line.  The  fuse  is  lit  at  the  surface  and  the 
charge  promptly  lowered ;  and  while  this  method  is  usually  suc- 
cessful, especially  with  shallow  holes  that  allow  ample  time  for 
the  charge  to  reach  the  bottom,  yet  occasionally  a  premature 
explosion  occurs.  The  inevitable  result  is  a  wreck  of  the  casing 
opposite  the  point  of  explosion,  and  the  hazard  is  not  warranted 
if  the  electrical  appliances  for  the  first  method  can  be  obtained. 

Among  other  fishing-tools  employed  for  recovering  lost  tools 
is  the  'jar-knocker'  (Fig.  188),  devised  for  loosening  drilling- 
tools  that  are  being  run  without  jars,  usually  with  a  manila  cable, 
and  have  become  imbedded  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole  so  that  a 
pull  with  the  drilling-cable  does  not  release  them.  It  is  from 
8  to  24  ft.  long  and  is  run  into  the  hole  on  the  end  of  the  sand- 
line,  with  its  lower  portion  around  the  drilling-cable.  As  heavy 
a  pull  is  taken  on  the  cable  as  it  will  safely  stand  and  the  jar- 
knocker  is  dropped  onto  the  rope-socket  of  the  tools  a  number 
of  times  from  a  distance  of  20  or  30  ft.,  by  raising  and  lowering 
the  sand-line.  The  jar  of  this  contact,  in  conjunction  with  the 
strain  on  the  cable,  soon  loosens  the  tools.  The  jar-knocker  is 
also  used  for  loosening  the  two  ends  of  a  set  of  jars  that  have 
become  locked  and  do  not  move  freely. 


FISHING  TOOLS  AND  METHODS 


187 


Fig.     190. 

;NING 


LOOSENING  TIGHTLY 

LODGED    TOOLS    BY 

MEANS    OF   BOWL   AND 

SLIPS    ON    CASING 


A  feature  in  connection  with  the  prob- 
lems of  loosening  either  tools  or  casing 
that  are  lodged  tightly  in  the  hole  is  the 
fact  that  the  jar  applied  through  the  mo- 
tion of  the  walking-beam  is  not  as  great 
as  might  be  imagined  from  observing  the 
sweep  of  the  beam.  This  is  due  to  the 
stretch  in  the  line  between  it  and  the  fish- 
ing-tools. For  this  reason,  any  method 
by  which  a  strain  may  be  placed  on  the 
tools  or  casing  to  be  loosened,  as  the  one 
just  illustrated  of  pulling  the  drilling-line 
taut  and  then  jarring  with  a  separate 
tool,  is  more  likely  to  be  productive  of 
results  than  is  the  simple  jarring  alone. 

This  principle,  of  the  application  of 
both  a  pull  and  a  jar,  is  employed  in  the 
casing-bowl  method  for  dislodging  tools, 
wherein  the  tools  are  grasped  first  by  a 
bowl  and  set  of  inside  slips  (Fig.  189), 
run  into  the  hole  on  the  end  of  a  string 
of  casing  (Fig.  190).  The  casing  is  held 
at  the  surface  by  a  spider  and  slips,  sup- 
ported by  either  hydraulic  or  screw-jacks, 
and  the  spider  and  pipe  are  raised  by  the 
jacks  (Fig.  191)  until  the  strain  on  the 
casing  is  as  great  as  may  safely  be  ap- 
plied without  danger  of  parting  the  pipe. 
A  socket  and  string  of  fishing-tools  is 
then  run  down  inside  the  pipe  until  the 
neck  of  the  rope-socket  on  the  lost  tools 
is  grasped,  and  jarring  is  then  com- 
menced. As  the  tools  gradually  become 
loosened  by  the  upward  jarring,  the  pipe 
and  bowl  are  raised  by  the  jacks  so  as 
to  maintain  a  pulling  strain  on  the  lost 
tools,  thus  gaining  the  full  effective  value 
of  the  jarring  until  the  tools  are  entirely 
free  and  may  be  pulled  out.  An  adapta- 
tion of  this  method  is  shown  in  Fig.  192. 
A  shoe  or  bowl  with  a  beveled  inside 


188 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


surface,  is  first  run  %in  on  the  end  of  the  casing.  A  slip-socket  is  then 
lowered  until  it  grasps  the  lost  tool,  and  the  casing  raised  until  the 
beveled  surface  meets  the  bottom  of  the  socket,  thus  applying  both  the 
pull  of  the  casing  and  the  jar  of  the  walking-beam  to  the  socket. 

The  horn-spcket  (Fig.  193)  is  a  tool  with  a  taper  opening  for 
going  over  a  lost  tool  and  taking  a  friction-hold  by  which  it  is 
held  while  being  pulled  out.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  small  tools 


Fig.   191. 

DUFF-BETHLEHEM 
HYDRAULIC   JACK 


BOWL    PULLING 
UP   ON   SLIP- 
SOCKET 


Fig.   193. 
HORN-SOCKET 


that  are  quite  loose  in  the  hole,  such  as  bits,  working-barrels  in 
pumping-wells,  and  under-reamer  lugs  that  have  broken  or  become 
lost  from  the  reamer.  The  latter  are  particularly  elusive  pieces 
of  metal,  their  shape  and  small  size  rendering  their  capture  diffi- 
cult and  their  hardness  making  it  almost  impossible  to  drill  them 
up.  At  times  they  may  be  pushed  off  into  the  side  of  the 
hole,  but  the  movement  of  casing  usually  dislodges  them  and  they 


l-ISIIIXi;   TOOLS    AND    MKTIIODS  189 

drop  back  to  the  bottom  again.  .V  basket  similar  to  that  shown 
in  Fig.  194  may  occasionally  be  made  to  catch  a  lost  lug,  by 
running  it  in  on  the  drilling-tools  and  churning  until  the  wickers 
have  closed  in  about  it.  A  great  variety  of  special  tools  of  one 
kind  and  another  has  been  devised  for  recovering  these  lugs, 
but  as  yet  nothing  that  may  be  considered  thoroughly  satisfactory 
has  been  developed. 

In  connection  with  the  problem  of  recovering  lugs,  as  well 
as  many  other  of  the  small  tools  that  resist  capture,  the  possible 
application  of  some  form  of  a  magnet  appears  to  offer  a  wide 
and  inviting  field.  Considerable  experimental  work  along  this 
line  has  been  carried  on,  but  the  technical  difficulties  seem  to  have 
been  too  great  for  successful  results,  although  the  principle  is 
sound  a'nd  would  be  of  great  value  if  it  could  be  applied  under  the 
peculiar  conditions  of  pressure  at  the  bottom  of  a  deep  hole  filled 
with  water  and  in  the  presence  of  bodies  of  casing,  which  have 
themselves  in  nearly  all  cases  become  highly  magnetized. 

Fishing  for  Casing.  Among  the  accidents  that  may  hinder  the 
progress  of  drilling  a  well,  and  involve  no  small  expense  as  well 
as  loss  of  time,  are  the  mishaps  that  occur  to  the  casing,  especially 
in  those  fields  where  the  sides  of  the  holes  cave  badly  and  give  rise 
to  the  constant  danger  of  cavings  falling  in  and  binding  the  pipe. 
The  extent  to  which  conditions  of  this  nature  may  endanger  the 
casing  depends  entirely  upon  the  ground.  Some  formations 
'stand  up'  and  are  so  compact  and  closely  cemented  that  no  dirt 
falls  in,  while  others  disintegrate  rapidly  and  unless  the  pipe  is 
moved  up  and  down  at  frequent  intervals,  so  that  the  materials 
fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  it  soon  becomes  bound  with  so 
much  loosened  dirt  that  it  resists  all  efforts  to  move  it. 

Frequently,  when  casing  has  become  'frozen'  in  this  way  and 
cannot  be  pulled  up,  it  may  be  driven  down  for  a  few  feet  and 
then  pulled  back  to  its  original  position,  driven  again  and  so 
worked  up  and  down  until  it  is  loosened.  The  driving  is  accom- 
plished by  inserting  a  drive-head  (Fig.  94)  in  the  coupling  at  the 
top  of  the  string  of  casing  and  striking  this  with  heavy  clamps 
attached  to  the  drilling-tools,  raising  and  lowering  the  tools  either 
by  direct  drive  .from  the  bull-wheel  shaft  or  with  the  jerk-line  and 
spudding-shoe.  Another  resource  that  may  be  tried  is  that  of 
bailing  the  water  from  the  inside  of  the  pipe,  causing  the  pressure 
of  the  water  on  the  outside,  between  the  pipe  and  the  wall  of  the 
hole,  to  tend  to  force  the  sands  that  are  binding  the  pipe  down  to 


190 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


Fig.     194.     BASKET-TOOL    FOR    CAP- 
TURING   UNDER-REAMER    LUG 


Fig.    195.     FOX   TWO-SLIP 
TRIP   CASING-SPEAR 


I  -I  SUING  TOOLS  AND  METHODS  191 

the  bottom  of  the  hole.  In  either  of  these  methods,  precautions 
must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  sudden  descent  of  the  pipe  for  any 
considerable  distance  after  it  has  become  free,  because  of  the 
danger  of  its  bending  or  telescoping.  The  usual  device  is  a  wire 
sling  suspended  from  the  casing-hook  and  attached  either  to  the 
ends  of  the  spider  or  to  each  of  the  two  links  of  an  ordinary  elevator. 

Frequently  it  is  necessary  to  apply  more  forcible  measures  be- 
fore the  casing  may  be  dislodged,  and  for  this  work  spears  that 
take  hold  of  the  pipe,  and  by  means  of  which  it  may  be  jarred, 
are  universally  used.  Usually  they  are  run  into  the  hole,  on  a 
drilling-line  and  string  of  tools,  until  the  desired  depth  is  reached ; 
they  are  then  pulled  up  till  the  slips  engage  with  the  inside  of  the 
pipe  and  jarred  until  the  pipe  is  moved. 

The  most  simple  form  of  spear  for  this  purpose  is  the  common 
bulldog-spear  (Fig.  172),  which  is  rarely  used,  however,  because 
it  may  not  be  pulled  up  in  the  pipe  after  the  slips  have  once  taken 
hold.  Many  improved  patterns,  such  as  those  shown  in  Figs. 
195  and  196,  are  so  constructed  that  when  it  is  desired  to  free  the 
spear  and  withdraw  it  from  the  pipe,  a  downward  jar  of  the  tools 
causes  the  slips  to  become  disengaged  and  fall  into  a  recess  in 
the  body  of  the  spear,  where  they  remain  while  it  is  being  pulled 
out.  A  dozen  or  more  styles  of  'trip'  spears,  as  these  are  known, 
are  made  for  service  of  this  kind,  some  with  two  and  others  with 
four  slips,  and  all  work  along  the  same  lines  of  being  lowered  to 
the  desired  point  and  then  raised,  at  which  time  the  slips  engage 
with  the  pipe.  When  lowered  a  second  time,  the  slips  trip  back 
into  a  recess  and  remain  there,  and  the  spear  must  be  pulled  from 
the  hole  and  the  slips  'set'  again  before  they  can  be  made  to 
grasp  the  pipe.  The  most  common  type  is  made  so  that  the 
slips  grasp  the  pipe  for  an  upward  pull,  and  is  known  as  the 
'jar-up'  spear.  For  jarring  down  on  pipe  the  oblique  plane 
holding  the  slips  is  reversed. 

Often  the  point  at  which  the  pipe  is  bound  will  be  found 
to  be  at  the  casing-shoe,  which,  by  reason  of  its  slightly  greater 
diameter,  is  holding  back  cavings  that  would  otherwise  pass  to 
the  bottom  of  the  hole.  Or  it  may  be  that  the  shoe  has  been 
lowered  into  an  opening  just  small  enough  to  bind  it.  In  such  cases 
a  few  taps  with  a  casing  spear  usually  succeed  in  knocking  it  loose. 
At  other  times  the  friction  may  be  so  great  that  jarring  must  be 
continued  for  several  hours,  or  days,  before  the  pipe  starts  to  move. 


192 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


Fig. 


196.     FOX    FOUR-SLIP    TRIP 
CASING-SPEAR 


Fig.    197.      CASING-SUB    AND    AUXILI- 
ARY   STRING    FOR    DISLODGING 
FROZEN    CASING 


FISHING  TOOLS  AND  METHODS 


193 


When  the  casing  resists  the  usual  attempts  with  a  spear  to  free  it,  the 
plan  illustrated  in  Fig.  197  is  often  found  successful.  As  in  the 
casing-bowl  method  of  loosening  tools  by  the  aid  of  an  auxiliary 
string  of  pipe,  the  casing-spear  is  run  into  the  hole  on  the  end 
of  a  second  string  of  casing,  that  will  pass  readily  inside  of  the 
frozen  string.  The  spear  is  attached  to  the  pipe  by  a  'casing- 
sub,'  which  has  an  outside  thread  for  screwing  into  a  coupling 
of  the  pipe  on  which  it  is  run ;  its  lower  portion  is  a  box  for 
fastening  it  to  the  casing-spear  and  the  upper  end  is  a  mandrel, 
similar  in  shape  to  the  neck  of  a  rope-socket.  When  the  spear  has  been 
lowered  to  the  point  where  the  cavings  are  binding  the  casing, 
it  is  made  to  take  hold  of  the  casing  and  as  great  a  pull  is  taken 
on  the  auxiliary  string  of  pipe,  with  a  set  of  jacks,  as  is  safe. 
A  socket  and  string  of  fishing-tools  are  then  run  down  on  the 
drilling-line,  inside  the  second  string  of  pipe,  the  mandrel  of  the 
casing-sub  is  seized  and  jarring  is  commenced.  A  second  set 
of  jacks  may  be  used  to  pull  directly  on  the  frozen  string  of 
casing,  and  this  with  the  pull  of  the  pipe  on  the  spear  and  the 
jarring  applied  with  the  tools  and  socket  combine  to  place  a 
terrific  force  on  the  frozen  casing.  If  this  fails,  either  to  loosen 
the  pipe  or  to  part  it,  some  new  line  of  attack  must  be  followed. 

At  this  point  several  methods  of  procedure  may  be  followed, 
depending  largely  on  local  conditions.  The  simplest  is  the 
abandonment  of  the  frozen  casing  and  the  insertion  of  a  smaller 
sized  string.  But  circumstances  may  be  such  that  it  is  con- 
sidered imperative  that  the  pipe  of  the  size  frozen  be  carried  to 
a  greater  depth  than  it  had  attained  at  the  time  it  was  lost.  It 
then  becomes  necessary  to  part  the  frozen  casing  at  a  point  above 
the  zone  where  it  is  bound  tightly,  pull  out  the  recovered  portion 
and  run  it  back  with  a  new  casing-shoe  on  the  bottom,  and  drill 
a  new  hole  off  to  the  side  of  the  portion  left  remaining  in  the 
hole. 

In  the  course  of  the  attempts  to  loosen  it  the  pipe  may  have 
parted,  but  if  it  has  not  done  so  it  may  be  divided  at  any 
point  by  cutting  or  dynamiting.  Before  doing  this  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  ascertain  the  point  nearest  the  surface  where  the 
binding  effect  of  the  caved  material  ceases.  This  is  learned 
through  the  fact  that  when  the  spear  is  jarred  at  a  point  op- 
posite where  the  pipe  is  bound,  the  top  of  the  casing  at  the 
surface  will  not  move  or  exhibit  any  'vibration'  when  the  hand 
is  placed  on  it.  But  when  the  jarring  is  applied  at  a  point  in  the 


194 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


pipe  above  the  cavings,  a  noticeable  movement  of  the  casing  is 
apparent  at  each  stroke  of  the  walking-beam. 

Casing  is  cut  by  means  of  a  tool  (Fig.  198)  holding  four  small 
sharp-edged  wheels  similar  to  those  used  in  an  ordinary  hand 
pipe-cutter.  The  cutting  wheels  are  each  held  in  a  sliding 
block,  all  the  blocks  pointing  towards  the  centre  of  the  body  of 


Fig.   198. 
CASING   CUTTER 


Fig.    199.     CASING  CUT- 
TER   WHEELS    ENTER- 
ING  CASING 


Fig.   200.     JONES   CASING 
CUTTER 


the  tool.  It  is  run  into  the  hole  on  tubing  and  when  the  desired 
depth  is  reached,  a  long  taper  mandrel  is  lowered  inside  the 
tubing  on  the  sand-line.  This  mandrel  enters  an  opening  in  the 
body  of  the  cutting-tool  and  pushes  out  the  blocks  holding  the 
cutter  wheels  (Fig.  199).  The  tubing  is  then  turned  and  the 
mandrel  gradually  forces  the  cutter  wheels  out  into  the  body  of 
the  casing.  Another  type  of  cutter  (Fig.  200)  is  so  constructed 


FISHING  TOOLS  AND  METHODS  195 

that  the  taper  mandrel  is  part  of  the  tool  and  when  it  has  been 
lowered  on  tubing  to  the  point  at  which  the  casing  is  to  be  cut, 
a  short  reverse  turn  of  the  tubing  releases  the  mandrel,  which 
then  pushes  out  the  cutter-wheel  blocks  as  it  is  raised  by  a 
pull  on  the  tubing.  When  this  cutter  is  used,  the  tubing  is  sus- 
pended from  the  temper-screw  by  which  it  is  pulled  up  at  the 
same  time  that  it  is  being  turned. 

Sometimes  considerable  difficulty  is  encountered  in  endeavor- 
ing to  cut  casing,  and,  to  expedite  matters,  it  may  be  decided  to 
shoot  it.  The  general  methods  outlined  in  the  discussion  of  side- 
tracking lost  bits  are  employed  for  tearing  the  casing  apart,  or 
the  shell  containing  the  dynamite  may  be  lowered  on  the  end 
of  a  string  of  tubing,  screwed  up  tightly  so  that  it  allows  no 
water  leakages,  and  exploded  by  dropping  down  on  it,  through 
the  tubing,  a  short  piece  of  pipe  containing  two  or  three  sticks 
of  dynamite  with  caps  and  fuses.  Whenever  possible,  however, 
it  is  advisable  not  to  use  any  but  the  electric  method  for  detonat- 
ing, as  the  liability  of  a  premature  explosion  with  other  methods 
involves  risks  of  injury  to  the  men  and  damage  to  the  casing. 

A  third  method  of  parting  pipe  is  that  of  ripping  it  until  it 
is  so  weakened  that  it  may  be  pulled  apart.  The  chief  use  of 
the  tool  shown  in  Fig.  201  is  for  perforating  casing  to  admit  oil, 
as  shown  by  the  series  of  sketches,  but  it  serves  equally  well  as 
a  ripper  when  used  with  a  suitable  knife.  The  body  contains 
a  slotted  opening  for  the  passage  of  a  bar  up  and  down  beneath 
a  knife,  which  swings  on  a  pin.  Screwed  into  the  lower  end  of 
the  bar  is  a  long  rod  or  plunger,  serving  as  a  guide  for  a  frame 
with  two  or  more  expanding  wings  of  spring-steel  that  bear 
against  the  inside  of  the  casing.  When  lowered  in  the  hole,  on 
tubing  with  a  set  of  jars  between  the  tubing  and  the  perforator, 
this  frame  is  placed  above  a  small  spring-key,  situated  near  the 
lower  end  of  the  plunger,  and  the  frame  is  pushed  ahead  of  the 
body  of  the  perforator  while  it  is  being  lowered.  When  the  proper 
depth  has  been  reached  and  the  tools  and  perforator  are  pulled  up 
a  few  feet,  the  bar  and  plunger  are  drawn  up  by  the  body  of  the 
perforator,  leaving  the  expanding  wings  motionless  until  the  frame 
has  slipped  down  over  the  spring-key.  The  key  and  nut  at  the 
end  of  the  plunger  now  prevent  the  frame  from  further  movement 
on  the  plunger,  and  when  the  tubing  and  perforator  are  again 
lowered,  the  springs  bearing  against  the  side  of  the  casing  hold 
the  frame  quiet  and  the  bar  at  the  upper  end  of  the  plunger 
pushes  up  the  Joose  end  of  the  knife.  The  point  first  pierces 


196 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


Fig.   201.     CYCLE   OF   OPERATIONS   WITH    SINGLE-KNIFE   PERFORATOR 


FISHING  TOOLS  AND  METHODS  197 

the  pipe  and  as  the  body  of  the  perforator  is  lowered  further,  the 
knife  comes  to  a  horizontal  position,  punching  a  rectangular  hole 
and  holding  the  tools  and  tubing  from  further  movement  down- 
ward by  the  square  shoulder  on  its  lower  side  which  will  not  cut 
down  through  the  pipe.  The  tools  are  then  raised  to  the  point  at 
which  another  hole  is  to  be  cut  and  the  operation  repeated. 

Knives  for  punching  a  number  of  apertures,  through  which  oil 
may  gain  admittance  to  the  inside  of  the  casing,  are  so  made  that 
they  cut  a  rectangular  hole  of  the  desired  size.  Those  for  ripping 
the  pipe  or  a  coupling  have  a  cutting  edge  similar  to  the  rounded 
blade  of  an  ordinary  knife  (b  Fig.  202)  so  that  when  the  knife  has 
once  made  an  incision  it  continues  to  rip  the  pipe  as  long  as 
forced  down  by  the  weight  of  the  tubing,  or  the  jarring  of  the 
tools. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  casing  to  part  of  its  own  accord  at  some 
point  in  the  hole.  This  may  result  from  the  great  strain  of  the 
weight  of  a  long  string,  from  the  pull  applied  when  trying  to 
loosen  a  frozen  string,  or  because  of  defective  threads.  Pipe  rarely 


Fig.   202.     (a)   PERFORATING   KNIFE  (b)    RIPPING  KNIFE 

parts  at  the  middle  of  a  joint,  the  threaded  portion  directly  where 
it  enters  the  coupling  appearing  to  be  the  most  liable  to  break. 
Some  styles  of  elevators,  particularly  when  they  have  become 
worn,  tend  to  pinch  the  casing  directly  below  the  coupling  and 
weaken  the  bond  between  the  pipe  and  the  coupling  at  the  thread. 
Such  an  injury  to  the  pipe  may  not  be  noticeable  at  the  time  it  is 
inserted  and  the  weakened  joint  may  be  several  hundred  feet  from 
the  surface  before  an  especially  great  strain  is  placed  on  the  casing, 
causing  it  to  part  at  this  point. 

The  remedy  in  these  cases  is  to  withdraw  the  upper  portion 
of  the  string  and  place  on  the  bottom  of  it  a  steel  die-nipple  (Fig. 
203)  by  means  of  which  a  thread  may  be  cut  on  the  top  of  the 
lost  portion.  The  threaded  parts  of  a  die-nipple  are  usually  5  or 
6  in.  in  length,  with  a  slight  taper  and  are  grooved  or  fluted 
transversely  to  the  direction  of  the  thread  in  order  to  permit  the 
steel  cuttings  to  escape. 

When  the  break  occurs  at  the  lower  end  of  a  coupling,  all  that 
is  necessary  is  to  run  in  the  die-nipple  and  turn  the  casing  until  a 


198  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

sufficient  thread  has  been  cut  on  the  outside  of  the  lost  pipe  to 
insure  a  bond  with  the  threads  of  the  die-nipple.  If  the  break  is 
at  the  top  of  a  coupling,  leaving  it  in  the  hole,  it  may  be  that  the 
outside  threaded  end  of  the  die-nipple  can  be  screwed  into  it ;  but 
unless  .the  coupling  is  unusually  long,  enough  threads  cannot  be 
cut  to  secure  a  tight  hold  and  it  is  a  more  common  practice  to  cut 
the  pipe  with  a  casing-cutter  a  short  distance  below  the  coupling 
and  bring  the  loose  piece  holding  the  coupling  out  with  the  cutter 
when  it  is  withdrawn.  This  leaves  a  cleaned  end  of  the  pipe  ex- 
posed, over  which  the  inside  threaded  end  of  the  die-nipple  may 
be  screwed. 

Some  operators  prefer  to  use,  instead  of  a  die-nipple,  a  casing- 
bowl.  The  bowl,  especially  when  equipped  with  two  sets  of  slips 
(Fig.  173),  supplies  a  much  stronger  hold  on  the  lost  pipe,  and 
effects  a  saving  in  time,  since  the  pipe  need  not  be  withdrawn  for 
the  removal  of  the  bowl  unless  it  is  the  string  that  is  to  exclude 
water  from  the  oil-sand.  When  a  die-nipple  has  been  used  to 
join  the  two  ends,  it  is  safer  to  pull  the  pipe  and  remove  the  nipple 
and  defective  joint. 

Another  accident  to  which  casing  is  subject  is  that  of  collapsing, 
either  because  of  the  pressure  exerted  against  it  by  the  column  of 
water  on  the  outside  when  it  has  been  bailed  dry,  or  through  a 
rock  or  boulder  falling  in  and  grinding  against  the  side.  In  the 
latter  case,  as  the  well  is  deepened  and  the  pipe  lowered  the 
boulder  becomes  wedged  between  the  wall  of  the  hole  and  the  pipe, 
directly  below  a  coupling,  forcing  a  portion  of  the  pipe  inward  so 
that  the  tools  or  bailer  are  prevented  from  passing  through  at  this 
point.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  pipe  may  be  pulled 
from  the  well  and  the  damaged  joint  removed  from  the  string. 
But  when  the  string  of  casing  has  been  landed  and  cannot  be 
withdrawn,  or  the  depression  is  only  a  slight  one,  a  swage  (Fig. 
204)  is  run  in  on  the  drilling-tools  and  worked  up  and  down  until 
it  has  forced  back  the  pipe  to  its  original  position.  Water-courses 
are  provided  by  fluted  channels  diagonally  along  the  side. 

Another  form  of  swage  contains  a  hole  bored  diagonally  from 
the  bottom  to  a  point  on  the  side  near  the  pin.  Such  a  tool  is 
necessary  when  the  drilling-tools  have  become  imprisoned  by  a 
collapse  in  the  pipe  that  has  occurred  while  the  tools  were  in  the 
hole.  If  it  is  deemed  inadvisable  to  cut  the  drilling-line  above  the 
weak  place  in  the  pipe,  a  new  line  is  strung  and  the  swage  and 
a  second  string  of  tools  are  lowered  in  the  hole,  the  swage  passing 
down  around  the  first  line  by  sliding  it  through  the  opening.  In 


FISHING  TOOLS  AND  METHODS 


199 


this  way  the  lost  line  does  not  interfere  with  the  action  of  the 
swage.  A  third  form  of  swage  contains  a  series  of  rollers  at  the 
circle  of  its  widest  diameter,  for  rendering  the  swaging  action 
more  effective. 

In  the  fields  where  the  strata  are  steeply  inclined,  the 
direction  of  the  holes  is  frequently  thrown  off  from  the  vertical 
by  reason  of  the  constant  deflection  of  the  drilling-tools  in  the 
direction  of  the  dip.  Such  a  condition  may  result  in  one  or  two 
joints  of  pipe  being  broken  off  when  the  casing  is  lowered  to 
where  the  hole  swerves.  The  pieces  are  usually  quite  loose  in  the 


Fig.   203.     DIE-NIPPLE 


Fig.    204.     SWAGE 
WITH  FLUTED 
WATER-COURSE 


Fig.  205.     BULLDOG 
TUBING-SPEAR 


hole  and  may  be  recovered  with  a  spear  or  a  bell-socket.  In  fact, 
it  is  said  that  the  latter  was  first  used  for  jobs  of  this  kind  before 
its  wider  application  for  fishing  bailers  and  broken  tubing  was 
developed. 

Accidents  to  Producing  Wells.  The  accidents  that  befall  pro- 
ducing-wells,  while  of  rather  frequent  occurrence,  are  not  liable 
to  be  of  a  serious  nature,  and  the  remedies  are  usually  simple. 
Aside  from  the  unscrewing  of  sucker-rods,  parting  of  the.  tubing 
is  probably  the  most  common  mishap.  This  may  result  from 
carelessness  while  withdrawing  or  inserting  it,  from  defective 


200  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

threads  weakened  by  long  wear,  or  from  what  is  known  as  the 
'back  lash'  of  sucker-rods,  caused  by  the  rods  parting  at  the  time 
a  strain  has  been  placed  on  them  when  trying  to  loosen  a  plunger 
that  is  'sanded  up'  in  the  working  barrel. 

If  the  tubing  drops  only  a  short  distance,  it  will  usually  remain 
intact  and  may  be  recovered  with  a  bulldog  tubing-spear  (Fig. 
205).  In  producing-wells,  the  fishing-tools  are  customarily  run 
on  tubing,  instead  of  a  drilling-line  and  string  of  fishing-tools, 
since  the  latter  has  usually  been  removed  for  use  elsewhere. 
However,  a  precaution  that  should  always  be  followed  is  that  of 
inserting  a  set  of  jars  between  the  tubing  and  the  spear.  The  need 
for  this  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  lost  tubing  may  be  wedged 
so  that  in  applying  a  direct  pull  on  it  sufficiently  strong  to  pull 
up  the  lost  material,  there  will  be  considerable  danger  of  parting 
the  tubing  at  a  new  point  above  the  spear.  With  the  jars  placed 
between  the  tubing  and  the  spear,  a  few  upward  bumps  may  be 
applied  and  the  lost  pipe  dislodged. 

When  the  size  of  the  casing  is  enough  greater  than  that  of  the 
lost  tubing  inside  of  it  so  that  difficulty  may  be  experienced  in 
getting  the  spear  to  enter  the  tubing,  a  hood  or  bowl  is  attached 
to  the  spear  for  the  purpose  of  guiding  the  tubing  up  over  the 
latter,  as  in  Fig.  206.  This  figure  illustrates  also  another  type 
of  the  same  style  of  spear,  found  to  be  more  convenient  where 
several  different  sizes  of  tubing  are  in  use  on  the  same  property. 
Instead  of  a  solid  body  throughout,  it  is  so  constructed  that  any 
one  of  the  different  bars  or  mandrels  with  slips  for  grasping  the 
various  sizes  of  tubing  may  be  screwed  into  the  body. 

When  the  lost  tubing  cannot  be  pulled  readily  but  must  be 
jarred  before  it  becomes  free,  the  jarring  of  the  spear  often  splits 
the  tubing  until  the  slips  reach  the  end  of  the  joint  at  which, 
if  a  collar  has  remained  at  the  top  of  the  lost  pipe,  the  slips 
become  lodged  and  take  hold  while  it  is  pulled  out.  If  no  collar 
is  at  the  top  of  the  uppermost  joint  in  a  lost  string  that  is  being 
split,  a  spear-mandrel  about  25  ft.  in  length  is  used,  permitting 
the  slips  to  pass  through  the  top  joint  and  grasp  the  second  joint 
below  the  collar  that  connects  it  with  the  first  joint. 

The  behavior  of  tubing  when  dropped  seems  to  be  very  erratic. 
At  times  it  falls  for  a  considerable  distance  without  suffering  any 
material  injury,  and  in  other  cases,  when  dropped  possibly  only 
a  few  feet,  assumes  a  spiral  shape  or  breaks  at  a  number  of  points. 
In  such  instances  the  upper  portions  become  wedged  with  the 
lower,  two  or  more  pieces  will  be  flattened  against  each  other,  and 


FISHING  TOOLS  AND  METHODS 


201 


Fig.  206.      TUBING-SPEAR  WITH  BOWL  Fig.   207.     TUBING   OVERSHOT 


202  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

the  difficulty  of  its  recovery  is  greatly  increased  because  the  pipe 
is  no  longer  in  a  single  string  and  the  flattened  openings  prevent 
the  ready  admission  of  the  ordinary  spears. 

When  such  an  accident  has  occurred,  it  is  advisable  to  expedite 
the  fishing  by  installing  a  drilling-line  and  string  of  tools,  which 
may  be  run  in  and  out  of  the  hole  faster  than  can  be  done  with 
tubing  and  permit  more  effective  jarring  in  the  endeavor  to  loosen 
pieces  of  pipe  that  resist  an  ordinary  pull.  Deformation  of  the 
lost  tubing  renders  it  imperative  in  nearly  all  such  cases  that  the 
attempts  to  fish  it  out  be  made  with  forms  of  overshot-tools,  that 
grasp  and  hold  the  exterior  of  the  pipe.  The  impression-block  is 
also  a  very  necessary  help,  as  it  must  be  run  after  each  piece  of 
pipe  has  been  pulled  in  order  to  show  the  shape  of  the  next  piece 
that  is  to  be  caught.  Much  ingenuity  is  shown  in  designing 
special  tools  with  which  to  recover  such  material,  the  bell-socket 
(Figs.  174  and  175),  rotary  over-shots  (Figs.  212,  213  and  214) 
and  casing-bowls  all  being  called  into  requisition  and  adapted 
at  one  time  or  another  for  work  of  this  class. 

Fig.   207   illustrates   a   simple   but   remarkably   useful   tool   for 

grasping  the  outside  of  crooked 
and  odd-shaped  pieces  of  pipe.  It 
is  made  from  the  body  of  an  ordi- 
nary combination-socket,  with  the 
spring  and  slips  removed,  and 
slotted  near  the  'bottom  so  that 
a  'dog'  of  any  desired  size  or 
shape  may  swing  on  a  pin-hinge 
placed  in  a  recess  on  the  outside 
Fig.  208.  DOGS  FOR  TUBING-SOCKET  edge.  The  'dog,'  or  'dogs/  if 
provision  is  made  for  two  to  swing  opposite  each  other,  is  free  to 
move  exactly  as  does  the  flapper-bottom  of  a  flat-bottom  bailer, 
and  when  in  a  horizontal  position  it  rests  on  a  shoulder  turned 
near  the  bottom.  When  the  impression-block  has  indicated  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  projection  to  be  grasped,  a  suitable  dog  is 
made  (Fig.  208),  so  shaped  that  when  the  socket  is  lowered  over 
the  lost  pipe  the  dog  swings  upward.  Then  when  the  socket  is  raised, 
the  dog  grips  the  pipe  with  a  friction-hold  while  it  is  being  withdrawn. 
Another  tool  occasionally  used  is  a  bowl  with  a  long,  tapered, 
inside  thread,  similar  to  that  in  a  die-nipple,  by  which  it  is  made 
to  screw  over  and  cling  to  the  lost  tubing.  The  cutting-thread,' 
and  thread  of  the  pipe  on  which  the  tool  is  run,  are  made  left-hand, 


FISHING  TOOLS  AND  METHODS 


203 


so  that  if  the  lost  string  is  wedged  tightly  the  bowl  not  only 
grasps  the  top  piece  but  also  unscrews  such  a  portion  of  the 
tubing  as  will  turn. 

The  most  common  accident  to  sucker-rods,  in  pumping-wells, 
is  that  of  unscrewing  at  the  joint  of  a  pin  and  box.  They  usually 
may  be  screwed  together  again  without  having  to  pull  them  from 
the  well.  When  the  string  is  parted  by  a  rod  breaking,  the  lost 
portion  is  recovered  either  with 'a  sucker-rod  socket  or  with  a  'mouse- 
trap.' Both  tools  are  run  inside  the  tubing  on  the  rods ;  the 
former  (Fig.  209)  is  constructed 
like  the  combination-socket  used 
for  fishing  lost  tools,  and  is  the 
more  effective  of  the  two  unless 
the  top  of  the  rods  has  become 
burred  so  that  the  slips  will  not 
pass  over  it.  The  mouse-trap 
(Fig.  210)  is  made  from  a  piece  of 
heavy  pipe,  small  enough  in  di- 
ameter to  go  inside  the  tubing.  In 
its  simplest  form  it  has  a  fork- 
shaped  hinge  near  the  bottom, 
which  falls  in  around  the  pipe 
underneath  the  sucker-rod  box 
and  holds  it  while  the  rods  are 
pulled  out.  Another  form  contains 
a  slip  by  which  a  friction-hold 
may  be  secured  at  any  point  on  a 
rod. 

Rotary  Fishing  Tools.  When 
drilling  is  being  carried  on  by 
the  rotary  method  the  variety  of  accidents  that  may  happen  is 
smaller  than  when  cable  tools  are  used,  since  the  drill-stem  and 
bit  are  the  only  equipment  run  into  the  hole.  Such  difficulties  as 
occur  with  these  are  generally  of  minor  consequence,  but  when 
troubles  do  develop  they  appear  to  lead,  more  often  than 
with  cable-tool  wells,  to  the  abandonment  of  the  hole.  If  the  job 
reaches  such  a  stage  that  the  fishing-tools  are  run  in  and  out  of 
the  hole  frequently,  the  work  progresses  much  more  slowly  than 
with  cable-tool  wells,  where  the  tools  are  run  on  a  line. 

The   most  common   difficulty   results    from    the    twisting  and 
separating  of  the  drill-stem,  usually  near  the  bottom   where  the 


Fig.  209.  COMBINATION  SUCKER- 
ROD  SOCKET 


204 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


/       \ 


^~ 

> 

.*^^-~. 

\  ; 

\ 

i 

i 
i 

i\  ' 

'•  • 

Fig.    211.      WASH- 
DOWN    SPEAR 


Fig.    212.     SPRING 
OVERSHOT 


Fig.    210.      MOUSE-TRAPS 
With  check-valve  With    slips 


FISHING  TOOLS  AND   METHODS 


205 


torsional  strain  is  greatest.  'Twist-offs'  are  recovered  either  by 
spears  that  grasp  the  inside  of  the  pipe  with  slips,  or  with  various 
styles  of  overshots  that  run  over  it  and  grip  it  on  the  outside, 
usually  directly  underneath  a  collar.  The  usual  type  of  spear 
(Fig.  211)  has  openings  through  which  the  circulating  fluid  is 


Fig.    213. 


ROTARY   OVERSHOT    WITH 
SWINGING   DOGS 


Fig.    214.     SNOW-KIDD    ROTARY 
OVERSHOT 


pumped  as  with  the  rotary  bit,  and  has  a  single  circular  slip  that 
grasps  the  full  body  of  the  drill-pipe  on  the  inside.  A  short 
diamond-shaped  guide  is  inserted  in  the  bottom  for  steering  the 
spear  into  the  pipe,  but  if  the  top  of  the  pipe  has  fallen  off  to  the 
side  of  the  hole,  considerable  patience  is  often  required  before  the 
spear  may  be  made  to  go  into  it.  In  such  a  case  an  off-set  joint 
is  usually  placed  in  the  drill-pipe  on  which  the  spear  is  run, 
directly  above  the  spear,  so  that  it  is  swung  off  to  the  side  of  the 
hole  and  passes  more  readily  into  the  lost  pipe. 

The  overshot  most  commonly  used  is  made  with  a  set  of  springs 
on  the  inside  (Fig.  212)  which  permit  the  tool  to  pass  down  over 


206 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


the  lost  pipe,  but  which,  when  pulled  up,  clasp  it  underneath  a 
collar.  Another  form  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  213.  This  contains 
three  or  four  'dogs'  on  a  pin-hinge,  which  swing  up  when  going 
down  over  the  couplings  of  the  lost  pipe  and  fall  back  to  a 
horizontal  position  when  beneath  a  coupling  so  that,  when  lifted, 
they  pull  it  up.  A  third  style  (Fig.  214)  is  shown  recovering  lost 
pipe  in  Fig.  215.  In  this  the  two  slips  are  heavy  solid  pieces, 


t 


Fig.  215.  CYCLE  OF  OPERATIONS  OF  SNOW-KIDD  ROTARY  OVERSHOT 


supported  on  a  shoulder  in  the  body  of  the  overshot.  They  are 
so  made  that  when  placed  together  their  lower  edge  is  a  complete 
circle,  while  the  top  edge  is  not  circular  but  has  the  inside  diam- 
eter of  the  bowl  for  one  axis  and  the  outside  diameter  of  the  lost 
pipe  for  the  other.  As  the  bowl  is  lowered  over  a  collar  of  the 
lost  pipe,  the  tops  of  the  slips  are  pushed  back,  but  fall  in  against 
the  pipe  as  soon  as  the  collar  is  passed,  and  when  the  bowl  is 


FISHING  TOOLS  AND   METHODS 


207 


Fig.  216.    ROTARY  WASH- 
DOWN    SPEAR    for   Un- 
Screwing  Frozen  Drill-Pipe 


raised,  the  portions  represented  by  the  small 
axis  lodge  against  the  pipe  beneath  the  col- 
lar and  bear  up  against  it  while  it  is  being 
pulled  up.  A  shoe  with  an  opening  cut  in 
one  side,  as  shown,  is  usually  run  ahead  of 
the  bowl  for  guiding  the  lost  pipe  up  inside 
of  it. 

A  form  of  accident  liable  to  occur  when 
drilling  with  the  rotary  tools  and  which 
may  develop  into  serious  difficulties,  is  that 
which  arises  from  dirt  binding  the  drill- 
stem,  either  through  the  unexpected  heav- 
ing of  sand  when  a  gas-stratum  is  encountered, 
or  through  the  sides  of  the  hole  caving  in. 
The  simplest  way  out  of  trouble  of  this  kind 
is  to  run  an  overshot  on  a  string  of  pipe 
that  is  large  enough  to  pass  over  the  lost 
drill-pipe.  The  overshot  is  preceded  by  a 
rotary  casing-shoe  and  the  circulating 
fluid  is  pumped  down  inside'  the  larger 
string,  removing  the  caved  material  as  fast 
as  it  is  loosened  by  slowly  turning  the  shoe. 
In  this  way  the  caved  ground  is  cleaned  out 
and  when  the  larger  string  is  withdrawn  the 
overshot  pulls  the  drill-pipe  with  it.  But 
in  many  such  cases  the  small  space  betwee  i 
the  lost  pipe  and  the  fishing-string,  and  be- 
tween the  latter  and  the  side  of  the  hole, 
hinders  the  free  circulation  of  mud  and  not 
infrequently  causes  the  fishing-string  itself 
to  become  frozen,  thus  complicating  matters 
still  further. 

For  this  reason  it  is  generally  considered 
preferable,  although  requiring  more  time,  to 
recover  the  lost  pipe  in  single  joints,  by  un- 
screwing them.  The  fishing  string  is  left- 
hand-thread  pipe  and  the  tool  run  on  the 
bottom  of  it  is  a  wash-down  spear  (Fig. 
216),  with  a  circular  slip  or  with  two  ordi- 
nary bulldog  tubing-slips.  In  addition  to 
these,  and  the  opening  for  the  passage  of 


238  OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 

the  circulating  fluid,  it  is  equipped  with  another  slip,  which  is  moved 
horizontally  by  a  spring",  the  duty  of  which  is  to  grip  the  inside 
of  the  lost  pipe  when  the  fishing-string  is  turned  to  the  left.  When 
the  body  of  the  spear  has  entered  the  top  of  the  lost  pipe,  the 
fishing-string  is  turned  to  the  left  until  one  or  more  joints  of  the 
lost  pipe  have  been  unscrewed.  The  fishing-string  is  then  with- 
drawn, pulling  with  it,  by  means  of  the  vertical  slips,  the  un- 
screwed sections. 

If  the  well  is  remote  from  where  left-hand  pipe  may  be  ob- 
tained, the  ordinary  pipe  may  be  used  by  boring  a  hole  through 
the  coupling  and  pipe  at  each  point  where  the  two  come  together 
and  inserting  pins  in  these  openings  when  the  pipe  is  being  run 
into  the  hole.  The  pins  thus  prevent  the  pipe  from  unscrewing 
when  the  left-hand  turn  is  given  it  in  unscrewing  the  lost  pipe. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
ACCOUNTING  SYSTEMS. 

The  oil  industry  on  the  Pacific  coast  is  young,  consequently 
much  experimenting  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  accounting 
systems  for  oil  companies.  It  is  only  during  the  last  few  years 
that  operators  have  realized  the  importance  of  efficient  accounting 
systems  whereby  a  check  can  be  kept  upon  operations,  and 
monthly  exhibits  obtained  showing  operating  results  in  concise 
form.  Many  companies  at  present  have  systems  burdened  with 
detail,  and  either  a  proper  answer  is  not  obtained  or  else  the 
results  do  not  justify  the  effort.  Too  often  there  is  a  duplication 
'of  work  at  the  field  and  main  office.  With  a  properly  arranged 
system  the  entire  details  should  be  handled  at  the  base  of  opera- 
tions, which  is  the  field,  and  information  transmitted  to  the  main 
office  in  consolidated  form  so  that  results  are  easily  obtained  and 
no  duplication  of  work  is  necessary.  This  can  all  be  done  with- 
out effecting  control  by  the  main  office  upon  the  operations  at  the 
field  and  at  the  same  time  it  provides  for  a  complete  check  on  the 
detailed  accounting. 

The  chart  of  accounts  (see  folding  plate)  is  a  graphic  represen- 
tation of  the  entire  classification  of  accounts,  showing  'the  relation 
that  one  account  bears  to  another  and  of  all  accounts  to  the  bal- 
ance sheet.  The  operations  of  an  oil  accounting  system  may  be 
classified  as  follows : 

(a)  Development 

(b)  Production 

(c)  Pay  Roll 

(d)  Purchasing  and  Stores 

(e)  Teaming 

(f)  Miscellaneous  Departments 

(g)  Reports 

(h)     Financial  Statements 

Development  (Drilling).  At  the  end  of  every  twenty-four 
hours  a  Drillers  Tower  Report  (Form  No.  1)  is  'sent  to  the  field 


210 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


office  with  time  cards.  From  the  information  contained  on  this 
report  the  Daily  Drilling  Report  (Form  No.  2)  is  made  out  in 
duplicate,  original  to  main  office  and  duplicate,  after  being  recorded 
on  the  Well  Log  (Form  No.  4),  is  sent  to  the  superintendent  of 
development.  It  is  filed  by  well  number  and  date. 

The  well  foreman  each  day  makes  out  the  Well  Pullers  Report 
(Form  No.  3)  giving  a  detailed  description  of  the  well-pulling 
operation  of  each  well.  It  is  sent  to  the  superintendent  of  develop- 
ment and  is  filed  by  well  number  and  date. 


WESTEffN  OIL  CO. 

DfflUZflS  TOWER  ffFPOffT.          Date,                       19   . 

We/1  Mo                           Property. 

LOSt  Timt. 

Came  on  Tbiverat. 

Findinq 

Cause 

Deptfi                                formation, 

Formation  cnanojed  during,  my  7b»rer 

Material  Usea 

At,                             Ft     To. 

At-,                           ff    To, 

Atcrrenat  fatten  out. 

At,                              Ft    7b. 

Samples  taken  at.                                             Ft 

Total  Material  in  Hole, 

M>  Ft  macte  durmglbtrtr 

Oil  found  at, 

fr 

Went  ofTTbiver 

Gas  found  at.                                                          Ft 

Water  four*  at. 

Ft 

Dn/Irr 

Mote  Rarticular/y  eacn  cnang^f  in  f~arm& 

tion  and  Oeptti  atenanae 

rYf//l*>.                            Propert, 

LOStTime.. 

Came  on  Tower                  

finding. 

Cause, 

Oepffi.                            Formation, 

format/on  changed  during  my  Tower  as  follows 

Material  Usea. 

/»)•.                              ft     To 

Af.                                  Ft      Tt 

Material  taken  out. 

At,                                  Ft      & 

Samples  fatten  at. 

ft 

Total  Material  m  Hol» 

Mo  Ft  made  durrnq  Tower 

O/l  found  of. 

ft 

H&if  offTtiver 

6os  found  at, 

Ft 

Htottr  found  ft. 

Ft 

0-nllrr 

Form    1.     DRILLERS'   TOWER    REPORT 

Production  (Pumping).  At  the  end  of  every  twenty-four  hours 
the  Daily  Report  of  Wells  Pumped  (Form  No.  5)  is  made  out  in 
duplicate  by  the  pumpers  and  shows  details  and  conditions  re- 
garding pumping.  The  original  is  sent  to  the  main  office  and  a 
duplicate  is  given  to  the  superintendent  of  production.  After  re- 
cording on  the  Recapitulation  of  Oil  Production  (Form  No.  6) 
they  are  filed  according  to  pumping  plant  and  by  date. 

When  oil  is  delivered  to  the  consumer,  Run  Ticket  (Form  No. 
7)  is  made  out  in  triplicate.  The  original  is  given  to  the  consumer, 
a  duplicate  sent  to  the  main  office  and  a  triplicate  held  in  a  numeral 
binder  at  the  field  office.  Run  Tickets  are  posted  to  Recapitulation 
of  Oil  Production  (Form  No.  6).  The  main  office  upon  receipt  of 
duplicate,  checks  extensions  and  then  posts  same  to  Consumer 
Statement  in  duplicate,  entering  thereon  ticket  number,  quantity 
and  amount. 


ACCOUNTING    SYSTEMS 


211 


WESTERN  OIL  Co                      DA/LY  DRILLING  REPORT                      vo  

M/f//M) 

nn                                                                    ig 

DepM  a/  Last  Report 

rr. 

Casing  ariasf  Report.                                                  Ft 

Drilled  too/ay 

Ff 

Putinfoaayf                                                             Ft 

Present  Depth 

Ff 

To  fa/  new  in  ,                                                                Ft 

{(/not  'of  'Casing  i/sea. 

Weight  per  Foot. 

Descr/pt/on  of  Formation  found 

from                           To 

Ft 

From                             7~o 

Ft 

From                           ro 

Ft 

From                           7c 

Ft 

From                          fo 

Ft 

Wafer-  struck  at. 

Ft  /r>  format/on  of 

ffises  in  ho/e  to  yvrfh/n 

Ft  from  top     Xmd  of  Water 

Strut  off  Water  art  . 

ft  /n  format/on                                Wfh                            Casing 

Weighing.                    Los  per  Ft 

Cemented  at 

Wo  ofSacJfs  usea                 Sranct 

Or/-     struck  at. 

Ft  /rr  format/on  of 

Went  through  oi/  stratum  at. 

/nfo, 

Of/  Sand  known  as,                                                                                                                                                              \ 

Dr/f/er  -  Morrt/ng 

Afternoon. 

Tool  Dresser-  Morning. 

dffernoon. 

S/qrtarfure, 

Mai/  Or/q/na./  Report  Dotty  to  Ma/n  Office,  San  franc  /sco 

WESTERN  OIL  COMFHNY 
WELL  PULLERS  REPORT 


(a) 
(b) 
(c) 
(d) 
(e) 


Property 


Roofs  Put  leaf 


Length  of  Tube  Putted 


Form   2.     DAILY   DRILLING   REPORT 

The  record  of  oil  in  each  tank  is  kept  on  the  Recapitulation  of 
Oil  Production  (Form  No.  6).  Postings  are  made  to  this  form 
from  Daily  Report  of  Wells  Pumped  (Form  No.  5)  and  Run  Tick- 
ets (Form  No.  7). 

Pay-Roil  System.  The  princi- 
pal divisions  of  the  pay-roll  sys- 
tem are: 

Hiring. 

Time  Keeping1. 
Time  Recording. 
Discharging. 
Paying. 

The  original  record  of  employ- 
ment is  the  Hiring  Card  (Form 
No.  8).  This  form  is  filled  out 
by  foremen  for  each  employee 
starting  to  work,  and  is  sent  to 
the  pay-roll  clerk  who  makes  no- 
tation of  same  on  Pay-Roll  Record 
(Form  No.  9).  It  is  then  placed 
in  a  vertical  file  in  numerical  or- 
der by  employee  number. 


Length  of  Tube  Rep/aceot 


Or/gmaJ  Depth  of  We/I 


Number  Feet  Fit/ed  //> 


Depth  Jffer  Bai/mq 


No  fe  Maty  or  on  back,  ^//repa/rs  frrcra/e  ancf  frrattr/a/ustc/. 


Foreman 


Form.  3.     WELL  PULLERS'  REPORT 


212 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


Drillers  and  toolers  record  their  time  each  day  on  a  Drilling 
Time  Card  (Form  No.  10)  showing  their  name  and  number,  well 


lr£STE/W  OIL  COMPANY 

Record  ofWfH  f/3 Section  Nt. 


Genera/   /nformafiorr 


Total  Oil formations. 


F/erafon 


began 


Date  Began  Pumping. 


Rating 


•After  30  da.) 


'_fMs6asL 


Gravity  (After 
Per  Cent  Water 


Tool  Ore. 


From   I  To.     I  Ft. 


ffgfnarffS. 


ffesa/ts 


Cement 


Amount. 
Method. 


Time- 


ffesutts. 


/ng    r 
n/iKxt 


Purpose 


f/fachi'rre  Useef.     1          ferforarfiori 


Form  4.     WELL   LOG    (Front) 


number,  time  and  duty  engaged  in.  These  cards  are  dropped  in 
a  box  kept  at  boarding  houses  for  that  purpose  and,  after  approval 
by  the  foremen,  are  collected  each  day  by  the  timekeeper.  The 


LogofWt/iN'                     Property.                                           Section  N9 

Graphic   I-  og 

from 

TO 

ft 

Formation 

rrom. 

!». 

Ft. 

Formation 

•  . 

_~  —  - 

^^_ 

•  —  •   __ 

^  

Form   4.     WELL  LOG    (Back) 


ACCOUNTING    SYSTEMS 


213 


timekeeper  figures  extensions  and  checks  the  time  cards  to  see 
that  each  man  has  accounted  for  a  full  day.  He  then  enters  the 
time  on  the  Pay  Roll  (Form  No.  9)  opposite  name  of  employee 
and  under  proper  day  and  enters  total  amount  to  Record  of  Time 
Cards  (Form  No.  11)  under  the  corresponding  day;  then  posts 
to  column  sheet  for  distribution  of  pay  roll.  The  cards  are  then 
filed  numerically  by  number  of  employee. 

All  time  other  than  drillers,  toolers  and  teamster  is  recorded 


WESTERN  O/L  COMPANY. 

DJ/LY  REPORT  Of  WELLS  PUMPED. 
From  /2  Moon.                                             &        Jb  /2  Noon,                                                  w 

Property 

We// 
W0. 

Hours 

Cause 

ffafeu 
Secanab 

Hours 

fct/e 

Cause. 

ffate  fa 
Seconds 

'| 

<t 

6 

& 

/O 

>:' 

/ 

^ 

3. 

7 

9 

// 

This  Report  must  be  refrterea/da/'/y, 

Signed; 
Pumper  from  12  M  to  /2PM. 

When  We//  /s  pLfmp/rrgr  mark    / 

•'     "  /c//e          ••         O 

Pumper  fro/77  /2PM-  to  /2M. 

Show  cofTtf/r/o/j  every  two  hours. 

Form   5.     DAILY   REPORT   OF  WELLS   PUMPED 


on  the  General  Time  Card  (Form  No.  12).  The  same  explanation 
holds  good  for  operation  as  Drillers  Time  Card  above. 

Each  teamster  records  his  time  on  Teamster  Time  Card  (Form 
No.  13)  and  enters  thereon  a  description  of  the  work  done.  Same 
explanation  obtains  for  operation  as  Drillers  Time  Card  above. 
The  items  are  then  posted  to  various  accounts  on  distribution  sheet 
and  credited  to  Teaming  Revenue,  account  No.  72.  These  charges 
are  based  on  the  prevailing  teaming  charges  of  the  district. 

Record  of  Pay  Roll  (Form  No.  9)  and  Record  of  Time  Cards 
(Form  No.  11)  are  placed  opposite  each  other  in  a  loose-leaf  binder. 


214 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


ACCOUNTING    SYSTEMS 


215 


/?l/W  TtCK£T. 

WESTERN  OIL  COMPANY. 

/O               A/a 

So/a'  to. 

from  Tank  No                                              Run  S/o. 

Descnpf/orr 

Mo. 
feet 

XV<7 

//jcftes 

Quantity 

Tota/j 

QuanMy     \\ 

Gauge  be  fore  /fun 

Gauge  after  Run 

Gross  A/o  Barrets 

Temperature 

Spec  Gravity 

%  Water  ana-  Sana1 

ToW  Deductions 

Tota/  Net  Barre/s  Crude  O/'/ 

Total  Charge  <g>                      per  8b/ 

Amount- 

Def/^ereaf  by 

ffece/pted  for  Purchaser  by 

Form   7.     RUN   TICKET 


The  time  cards  are  posted  each  day  to  Record  of  Pay  Roll  for  time 
of  employee  and  Record  of  Time  Cards  (Form  No.  11)  for  value 
of  each  employee's  time.  The  total  amount  entered  on  this  sheet 
for  the  day  must  agree  with  the  Distribution  of  Pay  Roll  according 


.  ••'-'-.  •  •' i 


ttftourCmp/oy 


Form   8.     HIRING  CARD 

to  accounts  affected  and  should  balance  at  the  end  of  the  month. 
At  the  end  of  the  month,  this  total  must  equal  the  total  amount 
as  shown  on  Record  of  Pay  Roll  (Form  No.  9)  in  column  headed 
Amount  Earned. 

At  the  end  of  the  month,  totals  as  shown  on  Distribution  of 
Pay  Roll  according  to  accounts  affected  and  totals  shown  on  Record 
of  Pay  Roll  for  amount  earned,  as  well  as  details  regarding  deduc- 
tions are  entered  on  Pay-Roll  Report  (Form  No.  26)  which  is  sent 
to  the  main  office. 


216 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


•„-.,      ">*    f^H,   Boani^f  H.sc,    <ty 


Form  9.     RECORD   OF  PAY   ROLL 


Dft/LUN&  TIME  CARD. 
W£ST£RN    OJL    COMFMNY. 

f/a/rre                                                  At>. 

Time,                     ftate,                   Amount. 

Work  Done 

Well  Mo 

Time 

Amount 

Rigging  Up 

Dri/Jmq 

F/shinq 

Puffing  in  Casing 

When  roustabouts  tvorJt  or?  new  iff//  /X*y  must  use  ffta  caret 

Wrrrf  expfonafron  of  wor/r  a/one  on  back 

Form    10.     DRILLING  TIME    CARD 


ACCOUNTING    SYSTEMS 


217 


Upon  receipt  of  copy  of  Pay-Roll  Record  (Form  No.  9)  at  main 
office  the  Voucher  Check  is  drawn  for  net  amount  of  pay  roll  and 
charged  to  accrued  pay-roll  account  No.  43.  Pay  checks  (Form 


IVHSTfHN    Oil.   COMPANY 

> 

MM 

r/r 

^ 

<vw» 

*t>r 

./fc. 

?  jy 

L1JJJJ 

Form  11.     RECORD  OF  TIME  CARDS 

No.  14)  are  then  drawn  for  amount  due  each  employee  as  shown 
on  the  Pay-Roil  Record  on  which  the  number  of  pay  check  is 
noted.  Pay  checks  are  then  sent  to  the  field  for  distribution  to 
employees. 

When  an  employee  is  discharged  the  foreman  or  superintended 
makes  out  a  Discharge  Card  (Form  No.  15)  showing  employee's  name, 
number,  time  discharged,  hours  worked  and  day  discharged.  The 


TM/C&D        Wrsrfff*  OIL  Co 

M*me,                                           M> 

T/me                   ffarfe.                 Amott/rf, 

.Mrrcf  of  Work 

We//Mumber 

T/rrte 

4mouni 

frva/ucinq  Wel/s 

Pt/mp/ng  ffe/t 

Pul/mq       '• 

Clean/nq    - 

Repairing  Done  On 

State  Ptoce  Wortfeet 

Bui/atir/gs 

Tanfa,  O//&  Gas  lines 

Wafer  System 

Bo'/frA  Sfeam  /ints 

a/<*We//ff/qs 

A/etv  Work 

5  fate  PtoceWortect 

Bui/af/rxys 

Tanks.  O/7&  Gas  tines 

IVaferSysffm 

Batters  a&fam/tnes 

6rna//rrg 

General  Work 

Write  fftpianofion  of  War*  Done  on  Back 

Form    12.     GENERAL   TIME   CARD 


employee  takes  the  discharge  card  to  the  timekeeper,  who  records 
thereon  detailed  information  regarding  time,  deduction  and  balance 
due.  The  discharge  card  is  signed  by  the  employee  and  payment 


218 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


TFAMSTEffS  77M£  CARD.  WfSTrffM  OIL  Co. 
\  A/arme  Afo. 

ti 
t| 

N 

! 

TEJMSTEPS  REPORT.             A/umber  of  Jn/mcr/s  Used  . 
Chargeab/e  forte. 

Load  of. 

From 

To. 

Time 
Storte^ 

T/me 
Ftn/sha 

Hours 
onJob 

jtffs 
Chanfa 

Amount 

/f6racf/rr(/  orffoaaf  Wort,  Sfarfe  fully  work  ctortff  crrro/wfiere- 

The  above  /$  correct: 
/ 

Ifaraf  'feff/nsfer. 

Form   13.     TEAMSTER  TIME  CARD 


Sfortcmenf 
No 

PAY  CHECK 

from: 

To. 

Tots/Oars; 

WESTERN   OIL  COMPANY 

/«                    / 

' 

Pay  to  the  Order  of,                                                                                         / 

Board. 

Store. 

/n  fu/l  for  alf  Service  to  : 

dctranceSi 

Tofa/, 

FIRST  NATIONAL  BANK                                WESTERN  O/i.  (&MPANY 

Balance  due. 

San  franc/sco.  Ca/t  forma.                  ( 
Bv 

1 

}    * 

Form   14.     PAY   CHECK 


DISCHJftOf  CARD 

WCSTERN  OIL  COMPANY 


Form   IS.     DISCHARGE   CARD 


ACCOUNTING    SYSTEMS  219 

made  from  Revolving  Fund  at  Oil  Fields,  account  No.  2.     The  cards 
are  then  filed  alphabetically  by  employee's  name. 

Purchasing  and  Stores  System.  The  main  divisions  of  this  sys- 
tem are  as  follows : 

(a)  Requisitions 

(b)  Purchasing 

(c)  Receiving 

(d)  Storing 

(e)  Issuing 

(f)  Transfers 

All  purchases,  whether  for  oil-well  material  and  supplies  or  com- 
missary, are  purchased  by  the  purchasing  agent  who  is  at  the  main 
office.  The  only  exception  to  the  above  is  in  case  of  a  rush  order, 
then  the  purchase  order  is  sent  direct  from  the  field  office. 

Requisitions  (Form  No.  16)  are  made  out  in  duplicate  at  the  field 
for  all  purchases.  The  original  is  sent  to  the  purchasing  agent  and  a 
duplicate  is  retained  for  field  record.  Purchase  Order  (Form  No.. 
17)  is  made  out  in  triplicate.  Original  is  sent  to  the  individual  or 
company  from  whom  the  purchase  is  made,  duplicate  is  retained  as  a 
main-office  record  and  the  triplicate  is  mailed  to  the  field  for  field 
record. 

All  invoices  are  received  at  the  field  in  duplicate,  and  after  goods 
have  been  received  and  invoices  checked  for  quantity,  prices,  etc.,  the 
originals  are  forwarded  to  the  purchasing  agent.  Duplicates  are  re- 
tained at  the  field  and  filed  for  reference.  A  properly  arranged  store- 
room is  essential,  and  it  should  be  laid  out  to  insure  a  place  for  every- 
thing and  everything  in  its  place. 

All  stores,  whether  taken  from  oil-well  materials  and  supplies  or 
from  commissary,  are  issued  on  a  requisition  (Form  No.  18),  and  it 
must  be  shown  on  these  requisitions  whether  materials  given  out  are 
old  or  new.  Stores  transferred  between  wells  or  accounts,  or  coming 
from  the  field  to  the  store-room  are  handled  on  Transfer  Slips  (Form 
No.  19).  A  Stock  Ledger  (Form  No.  20)  is  kept  for  oil-well  materials 
and  supplies  and  also  commissary.  In  the  commissary  only  the  por- 
tion designated  as  'New  Material'  is  used.  Invoices  as  received  at 
the  field  are  checked  for  prices,  quantities,  extension,  etc.,  and  the  dis- 
tribution to  the  account  affected  is  also  shown  thereon. 

When  all  invoices  have  been  properly  checked  they  are  posted  to 
the  Stock  Ledger  (Form  No.  20),  being  entered  as  a  charge  to  the 
article  affected  under  the  caption  of  New  Material.  Charges  to  Old 
Material  are  entered  from  the  Transfer  Slips  (Form  No.  19). 


220 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


PURCHASE  REQU 

Purchasing  Depart 

ismoN.           WESTERN  OIL  COMMNY. 

-trrrerrf-                                  Date.                                                19 

P/ease  ora/er  supp/ies,  as  fb/Jows 

Onr/arraf 

Wanted. 

Mafer/a/. 

Purpose 

Approved 

f/'e/d  Manaarer-                                             Stores-  -Gommisarv  Manager. 

Form    16.     PURCHASE   REQUISITION 


PUf?C> 

WESTERN  OIL  Co. 

7/7. 

WSf    ORDER 

Date 

,/Q 

PL, 
Mo 
On 

trtis 

Ybur/nvoiee. 

Gentlemen: 
Quantity 

Ptease  fui 
Mac/ling  or 
FbrtMJfnfa 

-nisft  fh/s  Camp  a 

nyfhe  fol/ow/ng  grooafs. 
Description. 

$trtf>  fc                           l//'a 

Price. 

Amount. 

Send  all  Invoices  to  FieH  Office  in  Dupl 
Also  ty.  showmy  nto'gftt  and  ffcrfv  . 
WepayrToctMrretevfbrpack/rHferDrayinat 

Terms 

WesTERN  OIL  COMPANY. 
By; 

Form     17.     PURCHASE    ORDER 


ACCOUNTING    SYSTEMS 


221 


STORE  ROOM  REQUISITION. 

Dn-r* 

WESTER^  OIL 

/Q 

COMPANY. 

A/a 

/ssuect  for 

/tec  *  Mo 

Charge 

Entered. 

Quantity 

Description 

Pr/ce. 

OUMrfer/al 

NewMtxfena/ 

Delivered  by: 

Received  by 

Signed  by. 

Form    18.     STORE-ROOM    REQUISITION 

A  store-room  requisition  (Form  No.  18)  is  made  out  for  all  ma- 
terials and  supplies  desired,  and  these  requisitions  must  be  signed  by 
proper  authority  before  being  honored  by  the  storekeeper.  Each  day 
the  requisitions,  together  with  all  transfer  slips,  are  sent  to  the  account- 
ing department  at  the  field,  and,  after  being  checked,  priced  and  ex- 
tended are  re-capped  on  sheets  headed  Re-cap  of  Stores  Issued  and 
Re-cap  of  Transfers  respectively.  They  are  then  entered  in  the  Stock 
Ledger  (Form  No.  20)  as  credits  to  the  articles  affected,  and  after 


7VWSFCRSUP 

Cfnryt 
Greet/ 

WESTERN  OIL  COMPANY. 

JQ| 

r                                                                                  Js 

oA/o 

Make  M>  Transfers 
Without  Trans  fir  S/ip. 
Girt  fu//  /nforrrxrhon 

'•ou/ff  M> 

t- 

Jceounj«A/o. 

Quantify. 

Description 

Pr/ce 

O/WAfarfrxr/ 

Wf#Mb/eria/ 

De//  versa/  by- 

"*****•' 

****"»' 

Form  19.     TRANSFER  SLIPS 


222 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


STOCK  LEDGER.                                   Wesrf/fN    OIL  COMPANY. 

Article.        .                                                                                                             Sheet  No. 

Maximum.                                                     Minimum.                                                     Uni+, 

New   Material- 

~5/a;  Materiat- 

Suanfi 

i       Quart 

^jp  Balance 

Quanfttie*. 

In 

Bator 

ce  x 

d=UJ 

JJLJ_ 

Form  20.     STOCK   LEDGER 

having  been  proved  with  the  daily  total  of  distribution  as  shown  on 
the  two  re-cap  sheets  are  filed  under  date  of  issue. 

After  invoices  have  been  properly  recorded  at  the  field  they  are 
sent  to  the  main  office  and  entered  in  the  Purchase  Ledger  (Form 
No.  21)  and  also  in  the  Distribution  Ledger  (Form  No.  22).  In- 
voices are  first  posted  in  the  Purchase  Ledger  (Form  No.  21)  to  the 


PURCHASE  LEDGER                                       WESTERN  OIL  COMPANY             Cofjfro/ 
Sritet  No.                                 Name,                                                                             /v<> 

Terms.                                      Ae/dress. 

ftGfn&rks, 

Date  of 
Entry 

Description 

Check  No 

Dff-fe  of 
Invo/ce 

No 

Charges 

y 

Credits 

¥//      • 

rrf. 

.—  —  ^J 

_J 

„—      -       -J 

s 

~   J_i 

JX> 

—  J 

*•  P 

**•! 

Form  21.     PURCHASE   LEDGER 

account  of  the  creditor  and  as  they  are  posted,  the  control  number  and 
invoice  number  are  entered  thereon.  They  are  next  posted  to  the 
Distribution  Ledger  (Form  No.  22)  as  a  charge  against  the  account 
affected.  The  'reverse  proof  posting  system  is  used  so  that  the 
total  of  all  credits  to  the  Purchase  Ledger  must  agree  with  the  total 
of  all  charges  to  Distribution  Ledger. 


jDtSTff/BUTON  LEDGER                                       WESTERN   O/L  COMPANY. 
Account                                                                                      Account  No.                     Sheet  No 

Date 

No  ' 

NO. 

Am 

ount 

Date 

invoicr 

dmou/rf- 

^  1 

—  ' 

^—\ 

—  ^ 

. 

^ 

L-  —  ' 

~j 

—^ 

~^<4 

UJ 

L  —  •  —     —  ^ 

Form    22.     DISTRIBUTION    LEDGER 


ACCOUNTING    SYSTEMS 


223 


Machine  Shop.  All  work  performed  by  the  machine  shop  must 
originate  from  a  Work  Order  in  duplicate  (Form  No.  23),  original  to 
accounting  department,  and  duplicate  to  machine  shop.  Each  Work 
Order  is  entered  on  a  register  showing  the  work  order,  date  of  work 


Form   23.     WORK   ORDER    (Front) 

order,  made  for,  and  date  to  be  completed.  The  time  of  each  em- 
ployee in  the  machine  shop  is  recorded  daily  on  Machine  Shop  Time 
Card  (Form  24).  At  the  close  of  each  day  all  time  cards  are  sent  to 
the  timekeeper,  who  enters  the  employees'  rate  and  extends  the  amount. 
Materials  for  jobs  are  recorded  on  Machine  Shop  Material  Requi- 
sition (Form  No.  25),  and  each  day  they  are  sent  to  the  stores  de- 
partment, where  the  prices  are  entered  and  amounts  extended.  After 
being  priced  and  extended  they  are  sent  to  the  accounting  department 
and  with  the  time  cards  are  re-capped  daily,  showing  the  charges  to 


Form    23.     WORK    ORDER    (Back) 

work  orders  affected.  At  the  close  of  the  month,  from  the  recapitula- 
tion of  time  cards,  and  material  requisitions,  Work-in-Process  (Ac- 
count No.  16)  is  charged  and  Accrued  Pay  Roll  (Account  No.  43) 
and  Oil- Well  Material  and  Supplies  (Account  No.  11)  respectively, 
are  credited. 


224 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


MUCMWf  SHOP  TIMC  CARD                                             tVeSTfm  O>L  Ct 
Name                                                    *£?*''*                      Off,: 

Work  Dont 

"M^SH? 

!K* 

H£^H 

tmounr 

Signed 

rorrm*" 

Form    24.     MACHINE-SHOP    TIME    CARD 


MACHINE  SHOP  MATERIAL  REQUISITION.                WESTERN  OIL  Co. 
Charge  to                                             ftequis/f/bn 
Date,                                        WorfOra/erMo                                    No. 

Descript/on. 

Quenfity. 

for  Off/ce  Use. 

Pr/ce. 

d/nouni-. 

___^-  —  J 

~~~  —  t. 

Form    25.      MACHINE-SHOP    MATERIAL    REQUISITION 


WESTERN  OIL  COMPANY 

PAY  ROLL  REPORT. 
Report  of  Ftoy  f?o/l  &  Dea/uctions  for  Men  ffr  of  ,                                                       /9     . 

ActfA 

Distribution  of  Pay  Roll 
Oescrtp  rion 

dmounf. 

*/m 

Deafuc-fions 
/Iceounr 

1  ;,„„„„  f 

g 

Wells  Drilling^  Set 

/</?< 

7/ysis 

t>ff/0# 

10 

Wells  Comp/eted,- 

• 

* 

„ 

II 

Oil  tVeil  Marr'l  fr  Supplies. 

13 

Bu//dirrg$  A  Srrttc/isres 

19 

Oil  Sys  fern 

?0 

Got     ' 

Zl 

Wafer  . 

Z2 

Steam  •• 

24 

f/eefr  A  Teteph  Sji 

srem 

25 

'roti 

•K/S 

32 

Advartfed  Cxpfrri 

n 

no 

PL/rrjpjnq 

in 

Pu/linq 

nz 

Cleaning 

/>3 

KT&pvr,  Blrt* 

HA 

"       "        -      -°?,Sf.  *?....  

120 

.      -               -fire 

,„/.-,, 

Vfiba 

7 

121 

*     *      »    -a 

07^, 

•tsS-Orats 

I?F 

Commisary 

I4A 

7eamn% 

763 

Dnl/ing  a-  field  Tools  Expense. 

-JH 

Water  System  expense  
Steam    »            • 

f£ 

6as         '             " 

I6A 

•\  ^,'<  r>ine  S/TOP     " 

91 

Offl 

ce 

•- 

92 

Supertnfena/encf 

na,'i  i:~n/*  *•*  

Anal. 

'  W 

JF 

•;r:/>T>//°\     4/7JOU 

7/ 

We/lN? 

SecftonN0 

Amount 

Remarks 

h=t— 

[—  •—  —  ~~-  S*     ~J~-~  L' 

'~<*~-~, 

Form    26.     PAY-ROLL    REPORT 


ACCOUNTING   SYSTEMS 


225 


OH  WELL  MATCH,*.**  SUPPLY  KPOVT.          "»*»V  <*  COMPANY, 
ffeport  of  Supplies  /ssuef*  *  Transfers  Ma/ate  for  Month  of.                                                           *9    • 

<% 

Description 

B 

1C 

C#A> 

?6ff 

Cfffl 

•)/7S 

9 

We//s  Dril//ng^_S.f  ^na/ysis  6ete>v. 

/O 

*     Comp/etfcf.-~  •        *          * 

// 

a/  We//Mafer/a/  &  Supp/fs. 

/fl 

gui/tf//Vf  *  Structures 

J3 

Oi/  System. 

fO 

Gas      " 

2/ 

Wafer  • 

2? 

Steam  • 

ZJ 

Fir*      " 

24 

f/ecfrtc  &  Telephone  System 

Z5 

6raa/fot  ffoaats  &  Orounds 

32 

AJvarrcM  fjrpenffs. 

/O 

Pumping. 

// 

Pu///nq. 

>z 

G  fea  n  ing. 

/3 

fJepair/ng 

/7 

Maintenance  A-  ffepairs  -  Bvf/rffrrqs  (9  Srri/ctvrts  . 

>ft 

.,          Q;/  System. 

/9 

>•              *        "       -Meefru:  6  Te/ephorrr  Astern- 

20 

»               ,.         .,      -  Fire  System. 

Z> 

»      -Graraed  #000"$  SGrovfjffs- 

/4£ 

TeartniffQ  fxperrse. 

764 

Dri/fig  &  r/e/a  Tbo/  expense 

79D 

Wafer  Sysfe/n  expense. 

82D 

Steam     "            " 

16ft 

Mac/r/ne  Snap       * 

88B 

Gas  Sysfe/n            * 

Credit  Oi/Wel/Mafert'a/&Supp/ies  Jcc*t  A/t  //. 

A 

to/ysis  of 

'et/sDrij/mg 

-/recount  A/f^. 
fw*4  —   TVMsreHS.  — 

Jno/ys 

is  ofWe/h 

Comp/effcf. 

&* 

murm$in»s.  

Form    27.     OIL-WELL    MATERIAL    AND    SUPPLIES    REPORT 

After  the  time  cards  and  material  requisitions  have  been  re-capped 
they  are  posted  to  each  work  order  showing  date,  requisition  number 
and  amount  for  material  used,  and  date,  employee  number  and  amount 
for  labor  charges.  This  information  is  not  shown  on  the  duplicate 
sent  to  the  machine  shop,  as  the  copy  sent  to  machine  shop  is  for  in- 
structions only.  Completed  work  orders  are  re-capped  at  the  close 
of  the  month  and  charged  to  accounts  affected,  as  shown  on  the  work 
orders,  and  machine  shop  (Account  No.  84)  is  credited.  From  the 
total  of  cost  of  completed  orders  a  charge  is  made  to  Cost  of  Machine 
Shop  Revenue  (Account  No.  85).  Work  in  Process  (Account  No. 
16)  is  credited.  This  latter  account  will  then  show  at  the  close  of 
each  month  the  value  of  uncompleted  orders. 

Reports.  The  following  reports  are  received  from  the  field  at 
the  close  of  each  month,  and  from  these  reports  postings  are  mad* 
to  the  general  records: 


226 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


TEAMtNG  REPORT                          WESTERN    O/L    COMPANY 
ftecor&  of  Teamirta  Charges  for  M&ytti  of.                                                       ,               /9     . 

4.  ' 
A- 

Jccourrts 

Amount 

Analysis  of  We/Is  Orttt/ng.  Jcc'f-  No  9 

Amount 

I 

Wells  Drilling  -  See  Ana/ysis 

We//                     ffffion 

_  _ 

to 

•     Completed-    •• 

H 

// 

•     '-Pp/it>S 

• 

.,-• 

3±:,'J/r'jS  ,f  Sfr-ucf  Lire's. 

It 

tftstem 

W 

• 

« 

SpeeLi  —  — 

1 

fftcfr  ATe/epn.  System. 

?.<• 

Gradea1  Roods  S  Grounds 

• 

jg 

Adraftcffd  Expenses 

//i  i 

Pumping 

/// 

Pul/inqi 

//? 

C/eammj. 

1/3 

ffepair/ng 

Mainffnancf  S  /frpairs  -8/dq'iaStrucfrs 

•       "•     -Oi/  Svsfem 

ua 

«       »       -e/ee&Te/  •• 

1 

M             "       »-6rttdeaf/?offa/s  ffc 

AV 

Commissary 

/§•? 

Board/rig  Houses 

31 

T&awrrq 

we 

Dnl/tng  &  Fiefd  Toa/s'fxpense 

Ana/ysis  oftVeUs  Comp/ttret.  Jccf.  No/O 

Amo 

jnf 

^  :• 

Steam     . 

Machine  Strop    » 

We//              Section 

880 

AJS  Sys-frm 

,gj 

Operations. 

92 

Super  m  tendence. 

Crectif  rooming  Revenue  dcc't  72 

ffemarfa. 

~Z>  —  I 

=^-^-—~  --—  '  

\ 

^^LL> 

3t^ 

Form  28.     TEAMING  REPORT 


WrSTSrW  O/L  COMPANY1. 
MACHIUf  SHOP  REPORT 
ffepori-  of  Machine  Shop  Operations  for  Month  of                                                                              '9 

Arc? 
No. 

Description. 

Amount 

Ana/ys/S 

^ 

Wach 
Frpen 

fnop 

TotatC, 

Cost 

{abo 

Mate 

?st 

ftemarScs 

dfc 

Welk  Drilling-  SteArta/ysis  below 

We//s  Completed-  "         "    ,      " 

'"\ 

19 
20 

Buildings  *  Sfructures.  
Oil  System 
Gas    - 

. 

23 

f4 

Wafer'  
Steam  «  
dec  trie  &  Te/epnoneSysfem. 
Fire  S^sfem 

3 

(jrec/ec*1  /foacfs  &  (sroun&s 
Alrencfcf  fxpemes 

no 

Pumping. 

5 

C/eomnq. 
Repairing 

//<? 

Main  ff  nance  »  ffef. 

v,rs-8Mos  Attract* 
•  '  -  Oil  System. 
~     -eiecraKISys 

/2O 
IZ/ 
12  E 

~     -  fire  System 
•     -  Grouted  Poads  etc. 

130 
/4A 

Qoo/rding  Mouses 
Teaming 

768 

Drilling  St  field  To 

7/  £xpensf 

79C 

Wafer  System  £xpt 

nse. 

Jg 

Sfevn,      ., 

^^ 

MocA/ne  5/top,  Mainf.  S  Repairs 

91 

Administration  6 

•  Office 

92 

Stiperintencfffncff 

Jna/ysts  ofJccounf-9 

I  Analysis  of  Ace 

yjr*-/0 

W/iVffl  Section  My  j  Amour 

t-     W'ei'M^jfcf/wHv 

Amount-. 

6e/Jtra/  ffemar/rs 

\ 

1            1 

L-J  ^  —  U  —  i 

-J  —  U—1 

b^  — 

L  —  ^_^  —  ^^  __4 

Form   29.     MACHINE-SHOP    REPORT 


ACCOUNTING    SYSTEMS 


227 


Pay-Roll  Report  (Form  No.  26).  As  described  in  the  Pay-Roll 
system,  this  report  is  made  up  from  the  several  Pay-Roil  records.  Upon 
receipt  of  same  at  main  office  the  information  contained  thereon  is 
posted  to  the  General  Records,  charging  accounts  Nos.  9  to  92  inclusive, 
in  accordance  with  the  classification,  and  crediting  total  to  Accrued  Pay 
Roll  (Account  No.  43).  Accrued  Pay  Roll  (Account  No.  43)  is 


ffeoor  t  of  Water.  Qas  &  Steam  Systems,  Ori///r>g  &•  f)e/£f  Toots  Revenues,  Month  of,                                  /9    . 

Ace* 

Report  of  Wafer  &s  fern  Revenues. 

Acc'f- 

Report  of  Gas  System  Revenues 

tfr 

Description. 

Amot 

inf. 

f/f. 

Description  . 

Amount. 

6 

Accounts  Receivable. 

6 

Iccounfs  ffrceirab/e 

wr 

B 

M 
D 

oarcfing  Mouses. 

/3£ 

9oare/ing  Mouses 

165 

achine  Shop  . 

95 

Senerat  Expenses. 

76E 

n'/lina  &  Fte/tt  Tool  'fxpense. 

fBt 

Oeerat/orrs. 

5 

Gentra)  fxpenses  . 

/2/ 

Main*.  &  fftpairs,-6n,aeaRoaefsA6fais. 

Zg 

Operations. 

O-fct/f  Htoter  System  ffrrenue  4ctf7g. 

Creifit  fas  System  Revenue.  -Afcfg7. 

Mime. 

Name 

.  Tbto/. 

Tbtff/ 

Report  of  Drilling  &  fie/a  Too/  Revenues 

Report  of  Steam  System  Revenues. 

We//No 

Sect/on* 

Amount 

We//f/f 

SectronNf 

Amount. 

>Ve//f/i 

Section/*  Amount    Wf////t.  nxf/o/7/V? 

Amount. 

Cnarafe  We//s  DriJ/i'nqf  Acrf  9 

, 

Tota/ 

Cfiarqte  Operations      *  J26. 

Cftarqe  IVe//s  DriH 

nqrf 

cf9-Cr«ditDn  /atF/fMTt. 

JM  v. 

1  '•   75 

Gnea/ttSff&m  ,<rt;''  ^^  Vryfnuf  Acc*t.  d/  Tbto/. 

Remarry: 

Form    30.     REPORT    OF   WATER,    GAS,    STEAM  AND  DRILLING  AND  FIELD 

REVENUES 

charged  and  the  different  accounts  affected  by  pay-roll  deductions  are 
credited  with  the  respective  amounts  of  deductions. 

For  further  information  and  to  show  the  amounts  affecting  each 
drilling  well,  as  well  as  each  completed  well,  a  detailed  analysis  is 
shown  at  the  bottom  of.  the  report.  Under  each  division  the  analysis 
gives  the  well  number,  section  and  amount  chargeable  to  each  well. 

Oil-Weil  Material  and  Supplies  Report  (Form  No.  27).  The  gen- 
eral principle  of  handling  the  pay-roll  report  as  outlined  above  is  used 


228 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


CAStNG   REPORT                           HfcSTCftN    OfL   COMf^MY 

ffranrotCMm  «<W.  **v>#>  of.                                                                                f 

Me 

B 

Humfirrof 

Stir 

ivri&t 

*j£JZ 

c£?"n 

'                      ffcmarts 

Tofv/ 

ffscord  ofCastng  Returned,  Month  of. 

'f 

IVr/t 

o'frret 

s,zr 

Weight 

^r 

ratal 
Charyfj 

^                  /remarks 

JH- 

TMa/ 

Summary 

feet 

Amou 

Casuxr  m  IVrl/S:-  first  of  Month 

Casing  used  'duruiq  Mont/! 

nr« 

Cffsmg  Rstvrrvct  durmg  Morrt-h 

Casmf  m  IHtJj  at  DcrteJ              J 

Form    31.     CASING    REPORT 


Pffooucr/oN  REPORT                  WESTERN  O/L  COMPANY 

ffecom/  of  O//  Proa/ucf/on  for  Monfh  of                                                                              /<? 

"% 

rota/  86/s 
for/Month 

\     Percent     ~ 

%,2%7/Z, 

rota/  fours 

rro.t'vr.'rrg 

£frn££f 

Jrerarcre 
Bb/s  per  da* 

Of  ,'4  ,~<«u:    ' 

ffemarfrs 

Toto/s 

Summary 

0e-fo//s 

ToMs 

/n  Storage  f/rsi-  of  Month 

Proa/uc-f/on  a/ur/ngMonfti 

Less  Lease  Consumption 

/riSfvraqref//-stofMonfnaf*ocfucecfafunhgM>nfft 

Less  Sh/pmenfs  atur/ng  Morrffi 

In  Sfvr&Qff  0f  Ocrfe  ( 

Form  32.     PRODUCTION  REPORT 


ACCOUNTING    SYSTEMS 


22Q 


OIL  SALES  REPORT                  WESTERN    OlL    COMPANY 
Record  of  0/1  So/a/  &  Used  for  Ft/el  -  Month  of                                                                     19 

f/o 

Account                                Bom 

•/S         perBbl 

Amount 

IF 

-.".  \  Sftr 
^      /*w 

t/SDri  t/na 

vunt  'yy 

gj| 

lount 

6 

Accounts  ffeceirable-fsee  Analysis) 

9 

Welts  Dnllinq-         (.         •       ) 

760 

On/ling  *  fieU  Tool  Expense 

79C 

Water  System 

828 

Sfeer/rr      , 

ISC 

Machine  Shop. 

IZ/ 

Matnt&./?epairsrGraettdfloadS;6rt>unt 

Credit  OiJ  Sa/fr  /tcct  M>  6O. 

AtKT/ys/s  ofOr/S&/e:5~Accout 

7fs  ffeceivabterMonffr  of. 

/$ 

/fame.                         00rr 

r/s.     otrBtx     dm*. 

VJnt                      f/ame                      Barn 

t/S.       perSU 

Jmc 

lunf 

Gamed  Forward, 

ratal 

Form    33.     OIL-SALES    REPORT 

in  handling  this  report.  The  accounts  affected  in  the  classification  are 
charged  and  Oil- Well  Materials  and  Supplies  (Account  No.  11)  is 
credited  with  the  total  issues  for  the  month  as  shown  by  the  material 
requisitions.  From  the  recapitulation  of  Transfer  Slips  (Form 
No.  19)  accounts  are  charged  with  the  total  received  through 
transfers  and  credited  with  the  total  issued  through  transfers. 

Account  No.  11  will  show  charges  for  all  materials  going  back 
into  stock  from  the  field.  Wells  drilling  and  completed  wells  show 
by  individual  wells  a  complete  analysis  of  charges  from  Account 
No.  11  as  well  as  charges  and  credits  through  transfer  to  or  from 
other  accounts. 

Teaming  Report  (Form  No.  28).  This  report  shows  the  total 
monthly  earnings  from  team  operations  and  from  the  report  the  re- 
spective accounts  are  charged  and  Teaming  Revenue  (Account  No.  72) 
is  credited.  The  revenue  arises  from  charges  for  the  use  of  teams  at 
going  rates.  All  expenses  of  operating  the  teams  are  charged  to  team- 


230 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


W&TERN   OIL  COMPANY. 

Comparative  S+atement  of  Assets-  Liabilities  &  Capital  Worth  for  Period  ending                          ~         19 

T,tle  of  Accounts. 

This  year 

I         Last  Year 

—  ^—  —  ^  _^_ 

ASSCTS. 

De 

tei/ 

Total. 

Detail           n 

tal 

C1SH  ASSETS. 

/ 

fferolwnaFund-  San  Francisco. 

* 

Of/  Fie/ds 

J 

first  National  Bank-  San  Francisco. 

4 

'                         •    -  Bakers  field 

* 

Traveling  Funds 

CURRENT  ASSETS. 

6 

Accounts  /receivable 

7 

Loans-  a-  Motes  Receivable. 

8 

Personal  Accounts. 

WELL  DEVELOPMENT  ASSETS- 

9 

Wells  Dri/lmq  -  (See  Analyst  sj 

/O 

*     Comp/ettd-CSeednotfS'S) 

INVENTORY    ASSETS. 

/I 

Oil  We/lMaftaal  <*  Supp/,es  . 

12 

Commissary. 

'? 

Boara-mg  Houses  . 

/4 

Hay  .  cirai/T  8e  fffeaf- 

/f 

Macfune  S/roff-  tVerk/n  Progress 

PLANT  ASSETS. 

Lands. 

,    /*. 

Leases. 

t± 

Bui/d/nas  3r  Structures. 

HO 

Oil  System 

^/ 

Gas     n 
Water  .  '  

JjL 

Steam,' 

f/re     »      . 

Z5 

f/ectr.  A  re/ep*.  System. 

£9U/PMENT  ASSETS. 

5k 

Horses,  Wagons  &  Harness. 

*9 

Off,ce  rwiprnent. 

30 

Dn///f7g  &  f/e/ft  Too/s. 

3t 

Shop  Machinery  and  Too/s. 

J* 

Commissary  Equipment- 

DEFERRED   ASSET'S. 

33 

/la/danced  Expenses- 

34 

Un  expired  /n  sura  nee. 

to 

"             Taxes. 

36: 

5tar/bnerjt  &  Office  Supp/i'es- 

Tata/  Assets 

LMBIL/T/ES. 

CURRENT  LIABILITIES. 

40 

Accounts  Payable. 

4/ 

Loans  A  Notes  fbvat>/e. 

43 

-        Pavffo//. 

RESERVE    LIABILITIES- 

ffeserve  for  Qepreciation-Exhaustw  of  Oil  Lands. 

45 

••                "          -We/to.- 

46 

-P/ant. 

^ 

r               "          -Eauipment 

Total  L  idbi/i  ties 

CAPITAL    WORTH. 

49 

Authorized  Capita/  Stock  • 

Wet  Capita/  SfocSr/ssued 

JL 

Surplus  Ad/us  tmenf 

S2 

'       At  Date- 

Form   34.     COMPARATIVE   STATEMENT   OF  ASSETS,  LIABILITIES  AND 
CAPITAL    WORTH 

ing  under  the  proper  classification  and  by  crediting  teaming  revenue 
with  the  use  of  teams  at  going  rates  it  enables  the  company  to 
determine  whether  it  is  better  to  operate  their  own  teams  or  hire 
outside  teaming. 

As  provided  in  the  previous  reports,  the  individual  drilling  wells 
and  completed  wells  share  the  respective  charges  for  teaming 
service. 

Machine  Shop  Report  (Form  No.  29).  This  report  is  made  up 
from  the  recapitulation  of  completed  orders.  The  respective  accounts 


ACCOUNTING    SYSTEMS 


231 


Wt-sre.ffl/   OIL  COMPANY 

^^"^f  .                       ^•"••^^^^^^        ..^  ^^^^_  _ 

iasf 

'9 

Kfar 

,V 

Description 

\CurrtntHitonth 

Mo 

loOett 

CaertntMmfh 

Mo 

foOffte. 

-f- 

Oil  Sa/es 

Gross  Gam 

£7 

Oil  Well  Materials  &  Supplies  Sales 

64 

Cost  ofOi/  Well  Ma  ferial  f  SSvpp/res  So/dS-  Issued 

dross  Gam 

t,6  • 

Commissary  Sales 

67 

Cost  of  Commissary  Safes  &  Issues 

Gross  ffain 

es. 

Boarc/mcr  House  ffevenue. 

"0 

Cost  of  Operating  Bearding  houses 

Grvss  Gam 

72 

Teaming  Revenue 

2 

Cost  o'f  Operating  Teams 

Gross  Gain. 

7-7 

Onll  ma  S  FieM  Tool  Revenue      ' 

-^ 

Drilling  &  field  Too/  Expense 

Gross  Gain 

TV 

Water  System  Revenue 

7-) 

Cost  of  Operating  tVarer  System 

Cross  Gain 

HI 

>"V,-.~7       ^y^/;V^7     ,^V>  ,^7^'<- 

• 

Cost  of  Operatic,  Steam  System 

Gross  ffain 

S4 

Machine  Shop  Revenue 

85  \ 

Cost  of  Machine  Snop  Revenue 

Gross  Gain 

87 

6as  System  Revenue. 

86 

Cost  of  Operating  <5as'  System 

Gross  ffam 

Total  Gross  Ga/n 

GENERAL  EXPENSES 

91 

Adm/m'sfrative  &  Office  Salaries 

97 

Sufer/n  fenofencf 

a  j 

Office  Expenses 

94 

Sfaf/onery  &  Off  if  e  5upp/t£S 

'Jf 

Ofher  General  Expenses 

"6 

Insurance. 

97 

Taxes 

9S 

Rents 

.99 

Telephone  A  Telegraph 

.'00 

Traveling  Expenses 

1  01 

Commissions 

IQ2 

Legal  Expenses 

To  fa/  General  Expenses 

Less        %  Charged  to  Production 

L  ess  %  Charged  to  Operating. 

'                                                            Tofal  Deductions. 

Nef  General  Expenses 

Mpt  Operat/nq.  Gam  . 

MISCELLANEOUS  GAINS  &  LOSSES 

104 

Miscellaneous  (jams 

lOi 

Discount  Received 

'  CC' 

Interest  Received 

ro-ta/ 

'07 

Miscellaneous  Lasses 

fffg 

Discount  /Wowed. 

IO3 

Inferest-  Paid 

To-tal. 

Wet  Miscellaneous  Gain-  Loss 

IS 

Net  Gain  for  Period- 

*>/ 

Surp/uf  first  of  Period 

52 

Surplus  /It-  Oate 

Form   35.     COMPARATIVE   STATEMENT   OF   REVENUES   AND   EXPENSES 

affected  are  charged  and  Machine  Shop  Revenue  (Account  No.  84) 
is  credited  with  the  total. 

There  is  also  shown  on  this  report  an  analysis  of  labor,  material 
and  expense  on  completed  orders.  The  total  of  this  represents  the 
cost  of  completed  orders  and  from  this  information  Cost  of  Machine 
Shop  Revenue  (Account  No.  85)  is  charged  and  Machine  Shop- 
Work  in  Process  (Account  No.  16)  is  credited. 

Report  of  Water  System  Revenues. 

Report  of  Gas  System  Revenues.  .  T-, 

>Form  No.  30. 
Report  of  Steam  System  Revenues. 

Report  of  Drilling  and  Field  Tool  Revenues. 


232 


OIL    PRODUCTION    METHODS 


WfSTCRN   OIL  COMFMNY 
Analysis  of  Production  a  Opervrtinar  Costs  for  Month  of                                            r9 

Acct 

This  Year 

Last  Y"eor 

fV°. 

Description 

Current  Montt,  —M 

ofoDate 

Current  Month 

—  MotoDate 

PRODUCTION  COST 

DIRECT 

I/O 

Pumping 

III 

Pulling 

II? 

Cleaning 

113 

Repairing 

//4 

General  Expenses  % 

Total  Direct  Cost. 

IND/ffEC 

J 

115 

Oeprei 

"/arion-  Ex  ha 

ust  ion  o 

f  Oil  Lands 

116 

•           -  ofWetls 

Total  Indirect  Cost 

To  fa/  Production  Cost 

OP£fi 

ATING  0 

1ST. 

17 

Mainteno 

nee  A  Repair 

s-Buildir 

qs  8  Structures 

18 

, 

•Oi/Sys 

tern 

19 

, 

, 

-  tlecfr 

<c  A  Telephone  System 

go 

* 

0 

-Fire  S 

ys/em 

zi 

• 

• 

-Grade 

ctffoads  a  Grounds 

ft 

-                       »       -Furniture  S-  Fixtures 

2} 

-Office  Equipment 

?4 

fjas  Syst 

rm  Charges 

?5 

Water  • 

0 

26 

Steam  - 

/27 

Teaming 

g 

/Z8 

Oepreaa 

'ton-  Genera 

/ 

Extraora 

nary  iosse. 

r  &  Expe 

rises 

/30 

ffoya/he. 

/J/ 

&fnera/  Expenff*           % 

Total  Operating  Cost 

it 

if  '/a 

Charged  to  Derf/0/yment 

Net  Operat/ng  Cost 

Tat 

7/  Gosto 

f  Months  Production 

15 

0/1  'on 

Hand-  Firs  /  of  Period 

Tofo 

'Cost-  Oil  on 

f/0rrdf/r 

rt  offrnodtkProdL/ced 

: 

-   -Oi/So 

/d  and  & 

onsumed 

15 

Ya/ue 

yfOi/on 

Hand  End  of  Period 

Bon 

e/s  of  Oi/  or 

tfarrd-  f 

nd  of  fer/od 

Cosi 

perBarre 

-  Direct 

1  Production 

-  Indere 

r/ 

* 

, 

-  Opera 

f/ng 

Total  Cost  per  Barrff/ 

Section 

Previously    Expended 

Expended  this  Month 

Expended  to  Date 

tf? 

Af° 

ffOri//ed 

AmoufTt 

Ff  Ori/fed 

4  men  rrl 

Cosfprfi 

Ft  Onl/ea 

Amount     a 

iffffr 

Form   36.     COMPARATIVE  ANALYSIS   OF  PRODUCTION  AND  OPERATING  COSTS 

The  information  for  these  reports  is  consolidated  on  one  sheet 
and,  as  in  the  case  of  the  previous  reports,  the  accounts  affected 
are  charged  and  the  respective  revenue  accounts  are  credited.  The 
information  compiled  on  this  report  is  obtained  from  recapitulation 
of  the  details  of  operation.  Going  rates  for  charges  for  water,  gas, 
steam  and  the  use  of  drilling  and  field  tools  are  established  and 
upon  these  rates  is  determined  the  revenue  earned. 

Casing  Report  (Form  No.  31).  A  detailed  record  is  kept  of  all 
casing  issued  out  of  stock  as  well  as  all  casing  received  back  into  stock 


ACCOUNTING    SYSTEMS 


233 


Form    37.     COMPARATIVE    ANALYSIS    OF  DEPARTMENTAL    OPERATIONS 

and  at  the  end  of  the  month  a  casing  report  is  made  up  showing  the 
complete  transactions  by  wells.  From  the  report  (Account  No.  9) 
Well  Drilling  is  charged  and  Casing,  under  Account  No.  11,  is 
credited  with  all  casing  issued.  A  contra  entry  is  made  for  all 
casing  received  back  into  stock.  The  individual  well  accounts  are 
charged  and  credited  in  accordance  with  the  classification. 

Production  Report  (Form  No.  32).  This  report  is  self-explanatory 
and  it  is  only  necessary  to  add  that  no  closing  entries  are  made  there- 
from, as  it  is  for  statistical  purposes  only. 


234  OIL   PRODUCTION    METHODS 

Oil  Sales  Report  (Form  No.  33).  From  this  report,  an  entry  is 
made  at  the  close  of  each  month  charging  the  respective  accounts  with 
the  oil  sold  as  enumerated  in  the  classification  and  crediting  (Account 
No.  60).  A  detailed  list  of  account  receivable  sales  is  shown  at  the 
bottom  of  the  report.  The  total  of  this  list  must  agree  with  the  total 
as  represented  by  Account  No.  6  at  the  top  of  the  report.  An  analysis 
of  charges  to  individual  wells  is  also  shown. 

Financial  Statements.  Reports  should  be  sent  from  the 
field  to  the  main  office,  and  must  cover  every  operation,  so 
that  when  received,  the  information  can  be  posted  direct  to  the 
general  records  without  the  necessity  of  voluminous  correspond- 
ence in  order  to  receive  enlightenment  upon  certain  subjects.  The 
records  at  the  main  office  should  be  so  arranged  that  with  very 
little  effort  an  intelligent  financial  statement  can  be  abstracted 
therefrom.  These  statements  represent  in  terse  form  the  complete 
operations  and  should  consist  of  the  following: 

(a)  Comparative    statement   of   assets,    liabilities   and    capital 
worth  (Form  No.  34) 

(b)  Comparative   statement   of   revenues   and   expenses 

(Form  No.  35) 

(c)  Comparative   analysis  of  production   and   operating  costs 

(Form  No.  36) 

(d)  Comparative  analysis   of  departmental  operations 

(Form  No.  37) 


INDEX 


A  PAGE 

Accidents   to  producing  wells...  199 

Accounting  systems   209 

Adamantine  in  rotary  drilling...  121 

Adapter    108 

Adjuster  grip 153 

Agitating   string 146 

Air,    Dehydrating    oil    by    com- 
pressed      168 

American   Well   Works    113 

Air-lift   158 

Anticline.   36 

Anticlinal  theory  37 

Artificial  flowing  of  oil  wells 146 

Asphalt  base    22 

Associated  Oil  Co.  Air-lift 160 

Auger-stem   93 

B 

Back-brake    35 

Back-pressure  valve  125 

Bailer    97 

Bailer  methods  of  cementing  wa- 
ter  off    133 

Baker  cement  plug   134 

Baker  shoe   84 

Baku   gusher    143 

Band-wheel  59,  62,    64 

Band-wheel,   Material  for    60 

Barrett  jack  and  circle  90 

Beaume  scale  24 

Bell  socket 202 

Benzine    26 

Blasting     to     loosen     string     of 

casing    110 

Bleeders  174 

Blowout  preventer   125 

Boilers    71 

Boiling    point    26 

Boot-jack    178 

Bottom-packer     method     of     ce- 
menting water  off   137 

Brace    57 

Broken  drilling  line   176 

Bulldog  tubing  spear  200 

Bull-roping   94 

Bulldog-spear    179,  191 

Bull-wheel  59,  64,    65 

Bull-wheel,  Material  for  60 

Bull-wheel   posts    59,    64 

Bumpers 58 

Burning  wells    145 

Butt  weld   .  82 


C  PAGE 

Cable-tool  method  of  drilling...  21 

Calf-wheel    59,  65 

Calf-wheel,  Material  for 60 

Calf-wheel  shaft   68 

Calipering  tools  175 

Canadian  pole  tool  drill  18 

Capping  gushers   144 

Casing  78 

Casing-bowl    179,  202 

Casing,  Collapse  of 198 

Casing  cutter   194 

Casing,  Fishing  for   189 

Casing-head    153 

Casing  pulley   58 

Casing  shoe   84 

Casing-sub    193 

Casing,  Weight  per  foot   83 

Cellar    87 

Cement  plug  134 

Cementing    water    off    by    bailer 

methods    133 

Bottom-packer  methods    ....  136 

Disc  methods   135 

Packer  methods 135 

Perkins  method  135 

Pumping  methods    135 

Tubing  methods    137 

Centrifuge    170 

Chisel-point  bit   120 

Churn  tool  method,  First  used..  18 

Clays,  Shales  and  32 

Clinometer    35 

Circulating  head   127 

Collapse  of  casing 198 

Collapse  of  stove-pipe  casing....  105 

Collapsing  pressure  of  casing. . .  86 

Color  of  petroleum   26 

Combination  socket   181 

Combined    rotary   and    standard- 
drilling   128 

Compressed  air,  Dehydrating  oil 

by 168 

Compressed-air  pumping    158 

Concrete   tanks    171 

Conglomerates,  Gravels  and 33 

Contours    42 

Controlling  gas  pressure   125 

Cordage   74 

Cottrell    process    of    dehydrating 

oil 164 

Cracker  line  77 

Crane    88 

Crown  58 


236 


OIL   PRODUCTION    METHODS 


PAGE 

Crown  block 58 

Crown  block  iron  68 

Crown-pulley    64 

Crude  oil,  weight  per  barrel 25 

Crude  oil,  weight  per  cubic  foot  25 

Crude  oil,  weight  per  gallon 25 

Cutting  casing   194 

Cutting  casing  by  ripping 195 

Cutting  the  drilling  line 182 

D 

Dart-bailer    98 

Dehydrating  oil  163 

Dehydrating  oil  by  compressed  air  168 
Dehydrating  oil  by  direct  heat  . . .   167 

Dehydrating  oil  by  electricity   164 

Dehydrating  oil  by  indirect  heat..   168 

Derrick 57 

Derrick  legs   57 

Derrick  sills 57 

Development   accounts    209 

Diamond-point  bit   120 

Die-nipple     Ill,  197 

Dip    35 

Direct  heat,  Dehydrating  oil  by.   167 

Disc-bit    122 

Disc  method  of  cementing  water 

off 135 

Distillate*    27 

Dog-leg    77 

Dome  structure 40 

Dos  Bocas  gusher   143 

Doubler    58 

Drag  bit    120 

Drag  shoe  121 

Draw  works 115 

Drill-collar    123 

Drill-stem    ,   116 

Drilling  accounts    209 

Drilling-bits    93 

Drilling  engine  69,     70 

Drilling  in   sharply  inclined   for- 
mations       109 

Drilling-jars    92 

Drilling  prospect  holes  112 

Drilling  report  51 

Drilling  tools   90 

Drilling  up  a  bailer 179 

Drive-clamps    102 

Drive-head    ,....   102 

Driving  screw  casing    105 

Driving  stove-pipe   casing 102 

Drive-pipe    84 

Dynamite,  Use  of  to  clear  a  well 
of  drilling  tools    186 


Electrically    operated    drilling 

tools    100 

Electricity,  Dehydrating  oil  by..   164 


PAGE 

Ehnore  process   27 

Emulsified  oil 163 

Engine  block    67 

Engines    67 

Engine   sill    57 

Equipment,  Rigs  and   55 

Evaporation  of  oil   171 

Exclusion  of  water  below  the  oil- 
sand     141 

Exclusion    of    water    from    oil- 
sands     130 

Extinguishing   oil-well   fires 145 

F 

Fair  elevator    105 

Faults 38 

Financial   statements    234 

Fire  at  oil-wells   145 

First  oil-well  in  the  United  States  15 

First  production  of  crude  oil....  15 

Fishing  for  casing   189 

Fishing  for  lost  tools   175 

Fishing  tools  and  methods 175 

Fishing  tools,  principle  of  176 

Fish-tail  bit    120 

Flash  point  26 

Flowing  wells 143 

Fox  trip  casing  spear    191 

Friction  pulley  59 

Frozen  pipe    109 

Futhie-Hiveley  pump    150 

G 

Garbutt-rod  149 

Gas-burner    73 

Gas  for  fuel ....154,  171 

Gasoline   26 

Gas  pressure,  Control  of 125 

Gas  pump   173 

Gas  traps    171 

Geology    28 

Girt 57 

Graphic  log    52 

Gravels  and  conglomerates 33 

Gumbo     50 

Gushers,  Control  of 143 

H 

Handling  oil    169 

Headache  post  58 

Heat,  Dehydrating  oil  by 167 

Heaving  plug  113 

Heaving  sands   32 

Hitching-on    99 

Hollow    reamer     184 

Horn  socket   188 

Hydraulic  method  of  drilling.  ...  21 

Hydrometer    24 


Ideal   oil-sand    . . 
Impression  block 


I 


. . . .     30 
176,  202 


INDEX 


237 


PAGE 


Inserted-joint  casing   84 

Intermittent  flowing  wells  146 


Jack  and  circle   90 

Jack-post    59 

Jar-knocker     186 

Jarring   a    string   of   tools   under 

strain     187 

Jarring  both  ways 182 

Jars  for  fishing  176 

Jar-up  spear  191 

K 

Katalla,  Alaska,  Oil  seepage  near  47 

Katalla,  Alaska,  Oil  well  at   26 

Kerosene    27 

Kinney  valve 150 

Knuckle  post   58 


Lake  View  gusher  143 

Landas  valve   150 

Lap  weld   ' 82 

Larkin  bailer   156 

Larkin  wall  packer  147 

Latch-jack  178 

Left-hand  pipe   207 

Lewis   valve    150 

Limestone    33 

Liner   108 

Line  wells   50 

Log  of  oil  well  212 

Logs    50 

Lost  tools    175 

Lubricating   126 

Lucas  gusher   143 

Lumber  lists  for  derrick 59 

M 

Machine   shop   accounts 223 

Magnetic  fishing  tools  189 

Main  sill 57 

Mandrel-socket    179 

Manila  rope 74 

Maximum    lift    for    pumping    oil 

wells    149 

McLaughlin  gas  trap  171 

Metric  ton  16 

Milliff  system  of  dehydrating  oil  168 

Milling  tool    184 

Models  to  show  structures 53 

Monocline    37 

Morahan  bailer  98 

Mother  Hubbard  drilling  bit 94 

Mouse   trap    203 

Mudded  up 115 

Mud  sills  57 

Multiple  pumping  158 


N 


PAGE 


Naphtha 27 

Nose  sill   57 


Occurrence    of   petroleum,    Rela- 
tion of  rock  structures  to  the.  34 

Oil  burner  72 

Oil,  Origin  of   33 

Oil-well  pump    148 

Origin  of  oil  33 

Outcrops    48 

Over-shot    205 

Overturns    39 


Packer  method  of  cementing  wa- 
ter off  135 

Paraffin  base    22 

Parker  valve 150 

Parsons    &    Barrett    combination 

method   129 

Parted  casing,  Recovering. .  .197,  200 

Parting  of  stove-pipe  casing 104 

Pay-roll  system   211 

Perforating  casing 195 

Perforations    160 

Perkins  method  of  cementing  wa- 
ter off  135 

Pin-slips  182 

Pipe  system  for  handling  oil 169 

Piping  oil  to  storage   169 

Pitman    66 

Plunge    40 

Polished   rod 153 

Pony  sill    57 

Pood    16 

Principle  of  fishing  tools 176 

Producing-wells,  Accidents  to...   199 

Production 143 

Production  accounts    210 

Production,  Measuring  of ;  .   169 

Production  of  petroleum  in  Unit- 
ed States   16 

Production  of   petroleum    in    the 

world    18 

Properties  and  uses  of  petroleum    22 

Prospect  holes  for  oil 112 

Pull  and  jar  in  fishing  operations  187 

Pulling  a  well   154 

Pumping  accounts    210 

Pumping-jack     158 

Pumping   methods   of  cementing 

water  off 135 

Pumping  oil   148 

Pumping-power 158 

Pump,  Oil-well    148 

Purchasing  and  stores  system. . . .  219 


238 


OIL   PRODUCTION    METHODS 


R  PAGE 

Reach-rod    64 

Recovering  casing    189 

Recovering  drilling-tools    180 

Recovering  parted  casing. ...  197,  200 

Recovering   twist-offs    205 

Relation  of  rock  structure  to  the 

occurrence   of  petroleum 34 

Reports  to  main  office  225 

Residuum    27 

Reverse  lever  rod  58 

Rig  irons  66 

Rig  iron  list  67 

Rigs   and   equipment 55 

Rig,  Standard  drilling 56 

Ripping  casing  1% 

Rix,  Edward  A 158 

Rock    :.  51 

Rock  structure  34 

Rope-grab    177 

Rope  sockets    , 91 

Rope-spear    177 

Rotary  drilling  for  prospecting. .  126 

Rotary  fishing  tools  203 

Rotary  method  of  drilling 21,  113 

Rotary  over-shot    202,  206 

Rotary  shoe 126 

Rotary  table    114 

Sampling  oil  tanks  170 

Sampson-post   59 


Sand-line  sheave   64 

Sand  pump   156 

Sand-reel    59,    63 

Sands  and  sandstones  30 

Scott  elevator    105 

Screen-pipe   162 

Screw  casing 81 

Screw  casing,  Dimensions  of. ...  83 

Sediment,  Limit  of  170 

Sedimentary  rocks,  Classes  of. .  29 

Seepage    46 

Shales  and  clays  32 

Sharp  &  Hughes  rotary  bit 122 

Shell    51 

Shipping  171 

Shooting  a  drilling  bit 186 

Shooting   wells   to   increase   pro- 
duction      163 

Shrinkage  of  oil  171 

Side-rasp 184 

Side  sills   57 

Side-tracking  casing    110 

Side-tracking  casing  by  shooting  195 
Side-tracking  lost  bits  by  shoot- 
ing   186 

Single-link  elevator   107 

Sinker-bar    104 

Sisal  rope   74 

Slide  tongs   125 


PAGE 

Slipper-out    19 

Slips    176 

Slip-socket 180 

Snow-Kidd   rotary   over-shot....  206 

Sockets  for  manila  rope  91 

Sockets  for  wire  rope .  . .     91 

Specific  gravity,  Definition  of.  .     24 
Specific  gravities  of  typical  oils..     24 

Spring  pole  drill  18 

Spacing  of  wells   49 

Spear,  Wash-down    205,  207 

Spider    105 

Spring  over-shot  205 

Spud    184 

Spudding-in    98 

Spudding-shoe    98 

Standard  drilling  rig  56 

Standard  drilling  rig,  Schedule  of 

parts    58 

Standard  method  of  drilling.  .  .21,     87 

Star  drilling  machine 20,     21 

Starter   joint    80 

Steel  derricks  56 

Steel  sucker  rods 152 

Stem-swab  147 

Sticky  clay 51 

Storage  tanks  170 

Stove-pipe  casing    79 

Strike 35 

String  of  casing   78 

String  of  drilling  tools    90 

Structure,  Rock  34 

Sub-sill  57 

Sucker  rods ., 152 

Sucker  rods,  Recovering 202 

Sucker-rod   socket    203 

Suction-bailer ^ 180 

Surface    indications    of   oil 46 

Swab   147 

Swage 198 

Swing-lever  64 

Swivel  118 

Syncline    36 


Tail  board  58 

Tail  pumps   169 

Tail   sill   58 

Tanks  for  storage 170 

Telegraph  cord   58 

Temper-screw    99 

Testing  oil  samples   170 

Thief  170 

Thompson's   head-gear   for   com- 
pressed air  pumping 160 

Tight-hitched    109 

Tool-joints    91 

Tool  joints  for  rotary  drilling...  122 

Tool  wrench  96 

Tool  tongue-socket    182 


INDEX 


239 


PAGE 

Topographic  maps    42 

Tower  51 

Trip  spears   191 

Tubing  over-shot    202 

Turn-back  starter  80 

Turntable     116 

Twist-offs    205 

Two-wing  rasp    184 

U 

Uncoiling  wire  rope  77 

Unconformity   41 

Under-reamer 95 

Unit  of  volume 15 

U.   S.  barrel    16 

V 

Walking-beam    59 

Wash-down  spear    205,  207 

Washing  oil  wells  162 


PAGE 

Water  and  oil,  Separating   163 

Water    below    the    oil-sand,    Ex- 
clusion of 141 

Water-covered  storage  tanks....  170 
Water,    Exclusion    of    from    oil- 
sands  130 

Water  in  drilling    Ill 

Water-string 131 

Water  table 58 

Well   log    212 

Wells,   Location  and  spacing..  49 

White,  I.  C 37 

Wildcat  well 22 

Willard  circulating  head    128 

Wilson  elevator  105 

Wilson   under-reamer    95 

Wire  rope   75 

Wooden  sucker  rods   152 

Working  barrel   149 

World,   Production  of  petroleum 

in    .  18 


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