OLD DOCUMENTS
AND
THE NEW BIBLE, f
with Illustrations.
y. P.
PATERSON SMYTH
,
#^^^^.^^.
JS«
Presented to the
UBRARYofthe
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i<^ i
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LONDON :
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Uhc Qlb S>ocuments
AND
Ubc Bevv Bible.
AN EASY LESSOX FOR THE PEOPLE IN
BIBLICAL CRITICISM.
J. PATERSOK SMYTH, LL.B., E.D.,
Senior Moderator and Gold Medalist, Primate's Hebrew Prizeman, tCc. etc.
Trinity College, Dublin.
AUTHOR OF "HOW WH GOT OUK BIBLE."
THE OLD TESTAMENT.
THIRD EDITION.
Multae terricolis linguE, coelestibus una.
LONDON:
SAJVrUEL BAGSTER AXD SONS, LIMITED.
DUBLIN: EASON AND SON, LIMITED.
1890.
PEEFACE.
In our grandfathers' days, in the simple loving
reverence with which the Bible was regarded it almost
seemed to men as if, clasped and covered complete, it
had dropped down from Heaven like the image of the
goddess Diana. It was much too sacred a thing to
be the subject of critical inquiry; to admit the possi-
bility of mistakes in its text would have been little
short of heresy ; while as for making an investigation
into the composition and genuineness of its books — •
why, a man would as soon have thought of " botanising
upon his mother's grave ! "
But " old times have changed." In this age of criti-
cism nothing is too sacred to be questioned and inves-
tigated, and the present generation is accustomed to
see the most vital questions connected with the Bible
discussed with the utmost freedom.
Nor is the discussion confined, as in former days,
to the circle of scholars and theologians. The sounds
of attack and defence have reached the ears of " the
vi PREFACE.
people " outside that circle, and excited a spirit of
inquiry whicli, unsatisfied, may easily pass into one of
doubt and uneasiness,^ but wliich, rigbtly directed,
cannot fail to lead to a more intelligent belief in the
Bible and its claims. People want to be told without
reservation all that can be told them about this Bible
of theirs ; on what foundation it rests ; why they
should believe in its genuineness, its authenticity, its
inspiration, its correctness of transmission through all
the centuries. Never before perhaps was there as
much of unsatisfied popular questionings (often un-
spoken questionings) about these matters as at the
present day.
This book is one of a projected series in answer to
these popular questionings. It covers only one part
of the ground. It is not a book of "Evidences" in
favour of the Bible but an attempt at an impartial
history of facts. It is not an erudite treatise for
scholars and students, but a simple effort to " shift
knowledge into a more convenient position " for plain
^ A striking confirmation of this comes to me even as I write.
Before me lies an account of the Triennial Convention of the American
Church, held last month, where one Report states of so simple a matter
as the publication of the Revised Bible, " not all the assaults of scep-
ticism have so shal:en the ancient reverence for the Scriptures in the
viinds of Christians at large ! " What an amount of ignorance about
the Bible must be in the "minds of Christians at large " if that report
be correct ! Could we have a stronger proof of the need there is of
telling people all that can be told them about their Bible ?
PREFACE. Tii
people who have little opportunity of studying such
subjects for themselves.
Therefore I have tried to write it as simply as I
could. I have aimed at clearness rather than at com-
pleteness. Therefore, too, I have as far as possible
avoided cumbering its pages with references to learned
authorities which would be quite out of the reach of
such readers as I have in view.
It may be well to state here the plan of the book
which is fully explained later on. It consists of
three parts. The first deals with the Old Hebrew
Documents and the question of their correctness; the
second tells of other old documents and their use in
testing and correcting the Hebrew ; while the third
part is a series of easy illustrations to show how this
testing and correcting is done.
I have to thank Professor Westwood of Oxford for
his kind permission to photograph three of the
following plates from his Palceographia Sacra Pktoria.
J. P. S.
Christ Church Vicarage, Kingstown,
February 1890.
List of Plates.
1. The Moabite Stone Frontispiece
2. Medieval Hebrew Manuscbipts . . . Tofaccparje 28
3. Illuminated Mandsceipt Titles ... ,,34
4. A Page of the Samaritan Pentateuch . . ,,49
5. Manuscript with Curious Massoretic Footnotes „ 91
6. The Samaritan Roll at Nablous . . . „ 120
7. Ancient Copies of the Septuagint ... ,,148
8. The Septuagint op Mount Sinai ... ,,156
9. A "Palimpsest" Mastuscript .... ,,162
10. Striac Bible „ 166
11. Scrap op an "Old Latin" Manuscript . . ,,170
CONTENTS.
3Boof; £
THE OLD HEBREW DOCUMENTS
AND THE QUESTION OF
BIBLICAL CRITICISM.
CHAPTER I.
HEBREW WRITING, EARLIER AND LATER.
PAGE
I. Hebrew Writing i
II. The Ancient Characters 2
III. The Shapira Manuscripts 3
IV. The Handwriting op the Exiles 5
CHAPTER II.
SOME PECULIARITIES OF HEBREW WRITING.
I. Consonant-Writing .
II. Curious Mistakes
III. How TO Kead without Vowels
IV. Grammar and Theology .
V. Similar Letters
VI. The " Guardians op the Lines "
10
13
16
iS
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER III.
WHAT IS BIBLICAL CRITICISM!
PAGE
I. Mistakes in the Manuscripts , • . . . .20
II. Biblical Criticism . 22
III. Its Axioms and Rules ....... 24
IV. Its Working Material ....... 26
CHAPTER IV.
A VIEW OF THE OLD MANUSCRIPTS.
I. Some Curious Old Manuscripts
II. A Perplexing Discovery
III. The Guardianship op the Bible
IV. An Ancient Revision
V. The Vanished Manuscripts .
VI. Are our Manuscripts Correct?
28
30
31
32
34
35
CHAPTER V.
THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
THE EARLY AGES.
I. What can we Learn op the Vanished Manuscripts? 37
II. Call our First Witness — The Sacred Books . . 38
III. Summary op this Evidence 44
IV. A Search for Further Evidence 47
V. Call our Next Witness— The Samaritan Bible. . 49
VI. Cross-Examine our First Witness .... 52
VII. The Verdict 59
CONTENTS. xi
CHAPTER VI.
THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
THE MEN OF THE GREAT SYNAGOGUE.
PAGK
T. The Exiles' Retden 6i
II. The Legend op the Great Synagogue .... 63
III. Ls THE Legend True ? 65
IV. Ancient Ckiticism — Esau's Teeth 68
V. A Famous Witness to the Great Synagogue Bible . 70
VI. "The Abojiination op Desolation" .... 74
CHAPTER VII.
THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
THE TALMUD PERIOD.
I. The College of Tiberias
II. The Makers op the Talmud
III. Their "Biblical Criticism".
IV. The Bible op the Academies
V. The "Palestine Text"
77
79
80
83
85
CHAPTER VIIT.
THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
THE DAYS OF THE MASSORETES.
I. Who were the Massoretes?
II. Contents of the Massorah .
III. Its Two Classes op Notes .
IV. What is in the Text? .
V. What should be in the Text?
VI. The Vowels and Accents
VII. Manuscript Copying
VIII. The Last op the jNIassoretes
IX. A Mysterious Document
90
91
92
97
lOI
103
104
105
CHAPTER IX.
NOTES AND JOTTINGS
107
xu
CONTENTS.
THE OTHER OLD DOCUMENTS,
AND THEIR rSE IN
BIBLICAL CRITICISM.
INTRODUCTION
DOCUMENT No. I.
THE PENTATEUCH OF THE SAMARITANS.
I. The Holy Manusceipt op Nablgus
II. "Decline and Fall" op the Samaritan Bible .
III. Its Use in Criticism
IV. A Roundabout Story-teller
PAGE
117
iiS
120
122
124
DOCUMENTS No. II.
THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS,
THE TALMUD.
I. What is the Talmud?
II. Conflicting Opinions
III. "Law and Legend"
IV. Talmud Sayings
V. Bible Commentary .
VI. The Legend of Sandalphon
VII. An Ancient "Rip Van Winkle"
VIII. " The House that Jack Built "
THE TARGUMS ....
DOCUMENT No. III.
THE BIBLE OF "THE SEVENTY.'
I. The Apostles' Bible
11. The Romance op Aristeas .
III. Who made the Septuagint ? .
IV. Its Critical Value
V. Famous Septuagint Manuscripts
126
128
130
131
134
137
139
141
144
147
149
153
155
CONTENTS. xiii
DOCUjMENTS No. IV.
A BUNDLE OF GREEK BIBLES.
PAGE
I. A Witness to the Bible of the Scribes axd Pharisees 157
II. A Renegade and his Bible 157
DOCUMENT No. V.
THE SYRIAC BIBLE.
I. St. Ephraem the Syrian 161
II. The Oldest Christian Bible 162
III. Letter from the Lord Jescs to a Syrian King . .163
IV. Biblical Criticism and the Syriao Bible . . .166
DOCUMENT No. VI.
THE "VULGATE" OF ST. JEROME.
I. The Monk of Bethlehem . . . . , . 169
II. The "Temper op a Saint" 171
III. Papal Infallibility and Biblical Criticism. . .174
IV. The Value of the Vulgate 176
THE NEW BIBLE.
A SPECIMEN OP
BIBLICAL CRITICISM.
CHAPTER I.
CRITICS AT WORK.
I. Introductory 181
II. "The Old Testament Sitting" 182
III. Defects of our Specimen 1S3
IV. Nineteenth Century Massobetes 187
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER II.
SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK.
I, Cain's "Walk in the Field'
11. A Question of Vowels.
III. The Gibeonite Ambassadors
IV. Manasseh or Moses
V. An Infant King .
VI. The Aek and the Ebhod
VII. David and Goliath
VIII. The Giant's Beother .
IX. The Fords op the Wilderness
X. Keri and Kethibh.
XI. The Old Prophet op Bethel
XII. A Son op Samcel who never w.
XIII. "Like a Lion"
XIV. "Not Increased their Jot"
PAGE
1 88
190
191
192
193
194
196
198
200
200
201
202
204
206
CHAPTER III.
A FURTHER USE OF THE ANCIENT BIBLES.
I. The Plain op Moreh . 208
II. Leah's "Troop" 209
III. The Asherim 209
IV. Azazel 211
V. Gideon's Retcrn 211
VI. Ruler or Priest 212
VII. Arab's Pool 213
INDEX 215
Booh E.
THE OLD HEBREW DOCUMENTS,
AND THE QUESTION OP
BIBLICAL CRITICISM.
SPECIMEN PAGE OF AN ORDINARY HEBREW BIBLE.
Gen. i. i-io.
' viT T J" : -c- T - J" ^' :•: jt t c. •• ;
Gi.-rn ''^B-by '^tm ^rtin ^rtn nn^n v-ij^m ^
A : J- : - ' V e • t >t : it ' ._. t t •
■^^^^p_ 3 :d;^!7 ]^)?'^v ^^i^y^ ^v^^ r^n*!
.)• •.••• :r- I • :r A • : c.
V2^ "^i^^^T r^ D^^t'7^* ^^n^i aiio-^3 "iij^n-n?<
'^tnb'} as^ -lis^ i D^rtbhi KipJ^.i^ ="^^7.7
|T V >: 'v c • :r v'" • :r t :at t W
^^"73^ '•nn D^^rr Tjinn i^V"i ""n^ Q'iibii "iQi^^i «
• : - J • • .AT - ' J : ^ ' c .T . »• : • •.•; v _,-
•• • '• T|T V • v; J— MIT • c- J-
D\"D^ V'p'^b wjibii mp>^ « :]y^n^) y^p-^b byr^
•At T ^ 'c'.TiT •}• ■ :•: jt':- ',-• • :r - 'a-tjt j- ..
,T Tl" • T V 'j T V •.- T - " •,- • • 't.
• vv T T-- • <■ :•: t':-- ' i- '.:r At t - -
:ni'LD"^2 D^i'?^^ x"i^t d'^d^ ^<^p d'^dh mpD'71
CHAPTER I.
HEBREW WRITING, EARLIER AND LATER.
I.
Hebrew Writing.
The reader is probably aware that the Old Testament,
with some Httle exception/ is written in Hebrew,
the " holy tongue " of the Jews. It is a branch of
the great Semitic family of languages, so called because
the nations to which they belonged were considered to
be chiefly the descendants of Shem (Gen. x. 21). The
Syriac and Arabic represent other branches of the
same great family, and the increasing knowledge of
them in recent times has thrown a good deal of light
upon the language of the Old Testament.
On the opposite page we give a specimen from the
first chapter of Genesis as it appears in an ordinary
printed Hebrew Bible. Here is the first verse with
its corresponding English —
VT T 3..: -c- T - J" A. v; jTT • •■ :
.earth the and heavens the God created beginning the In
From this it will be seen that the language is
1 Portions of the Books of Ezra and Daniel, which are in Aramaic,
the common dialect of Palestine after the Captivity.
A
2 HEBREW WRITING, EARLIER AND LATER.
written hackivard, as we should say, i.e., from right to
left. The pages are taken in the same order, the right
hand before the left ; and therefore, in the reading of
a Hebrew Bible (if it be not too Irish an expression to
use), the beginning of the book is always at the end !
II.
The Ancient Characters.
Now this specimen of our present Hebrew Bible
belongs to the later or Assyrian writing. The char-
acters differ from those in which the books were
originally written, much as the clear Roman type of
our present Bible differs from the old black letter of
Wycliff's and Tyndale's versions. The ancient Hebrew
or Phosnician writing does not exist in any manu-
script that has come down to us, though it is rather
like the writing of the Samaritan Pentateuch, of which
we shall hear farther on. We have some old coins of
the time of Judas Maccabeus which present specimens
of it. There is also the famous Moabite Stone, dis-
covered some twenty years since, the actual old slab
on which Mesha "the sheepmaster," king of Moab,
3000 years ago had inscribed in these ancient char-
acters his own version of the fiorhtinpf with Israel.'^ In
the frontispiece is a photograph of this ancient inscrip-
tion, probably the very form in which the finger of
God traced the words long ago on the two tables of
^ See 2 Kings i. I, iii. 4 ; 2 Cliron. xx., &c.
HEBREW WRITING, EARLIER AND LATER. 3
stone on Mount Sinai. A cast of it may be seen in
any good library.
And very recently, in a curious way, a new speci-
men has come to light. One day, in the summer of
1880, a number of boys were playing about the Pool
of Siloam near Jerusalem. There is at the upper end
a tunnel cut out of the solid rock, by means of which
the Pool is fed ; and one of the boys, while wading
here, slipped and fell forward into the waters of the
tunnel. It was a fortunate fall for us, if not for the
boy; for, as he was recovering himself, his eye was
caught by some marks like letters on a smooth part of
the rock ; and on a fuller investigation afterwards by
competent scholars, this was found to be an inscription
by the workmen of the tunnel, written in ancient
Hebrew characters somewhere about the year 700 b.c.^
ui.
The Shapira Manuscripts.
A few years later, and it seemed as if even the
fame of these discoveries was to be entirely eclipsed.
In the August of 1883, an immense sensation was
caused in the learned world by the announcement of
a most wonderful "find" of ancient Hebrew manu-
scripts in Palestine, — " the great climax," it was called,
" of Biblical discovery,"
^ An interesting account of this inscription is given in the Bishop of
Ossory's " Echoes of Bible History," where it is shown that the tunnel
was most probably that made by Hezekiah, when he "stopped the
upper watercourse of Gihon and brought it straight down to the City
of David." See 2 Chron. xxxii. 2-4, xxxii. 30.
4 HEBREW WRITING, EARLIER AND LATER.
It consisted of fifteen leather slips, black with age
as it would seem, and impregnated with the faint
odour of funereal spices. They presented to the
casual observer only the appearance of a plain oily
surface, but on touching them with a brush dipped
in spirits of wine, the strange old writing became
visible, — forty columns of Deuteronomy in the ancient
Hebrew characters, just like those on the Moabite
Stone, and apparently dating from about the eighth
or ninth century before Christ.
These precious documents were brought to the
British Museum by a Mr. Shapira, a dealer in old
manuscripts, who had already procured through the
Arabs many literary curiosities, and he estimated the
value of this new-found treasure at one million pounds
sterling ! A council of the greatest experts in the
kingdom assembled to investigate the matter, and
Biblical scholars almost held their breath awaiting the
momentous decision, the importance of which was
vastly augmented by recent controversies as to the
date, composition, and authorship of the Pentateuch.
On Tuesday, August 2 1 st, the decision was an-
nounced in a leading paragraph of the Times. The
particulars of the investigation are extremely in-
teresting, but the result only concerns us here. The
Shapira bubble had burst ! The much-talked of
manuscript of the days of Jehoshaphat was found to
have been written in the days of Victoria, one of
the cleverest literary swindles perhaps ever recorded.
HEBREW WRITING, EARLIER AND LATER. 5
Thus ended the Shapira " discovery." Since that
time nobody ventures to speak of the possibility of
manuscripts yet existing in the ancient Hebrew
writino:.
IV.
The Handwriting of the Exiles.
When did the change from these ancient characters
to the present square writing take place ? That,
reader, is not an easy question to answer. The Jews,
of course, say in the days of Ezra. But the Jews
have a trick of putting down to Ezra or to Moses
every important event in the history of their Bible,
BO that this statement does not count for much.
Probably the change was a gradual one, and began
at or soon after the time of Ezra. The name of the
new writing (Assyrian) would suggest that the Israel-
ites brought it with them on their return from the
exile, though, on the other hand, a tradition that they
did so may have given rise to the name. But in
any case, there is little doubt that it was in full
possession in the days of our Lord. An interesting
confirmation of this is His expression that even " one
Yod or one tittle should in no wise pass from the
law " (Matt. V. 1 8), implying that the Yod (the letter
y) was the very smallest letter, as it is in the pre-
sent writing, whereas in the old alphabet it was one
of the largest.
The Samaritans still retain the ancient form of
6 HEBREW WRITING, EARLIER AND LATER.
writing, or rather a modification of it, and Lave always
been inclined to plume themselves considerably on
that fact. But the Jews do not care to be thus easily
set down, and so the Babylonian Talmud cleverly turns
the tables. " The law," it says, " Avas given to Israel
in the holy tongue and in the ancient Hebrew writing.
And it was given to them again in Ezra's days in
the square Assyrian writing. The Israelites chose to
themselves the holy tongue in the square writing, and
left the old Hebrew writing to ignorant persons. But
who are these idiots or ignorant persons ? Rabbi
Chasda informs us — the Samaritans ! "
CHAPTER II.
SOME PECULIARITIES OF HEBREW WRITING.
I.
Consonant-Writing.
There are some peculiarities about the Hebrew lan-
guage which it is important the reader should know,
that he may the better understand some of the ques-
tions which are the subject of Old Testament Biblical
criticism.
The first is this, that the Hebrciu alphabet, both in its
ancient cmd in its pjxsent form, consists of consonants
only. In the specimen given already, the little dots
and marks underneath the letters represent the vowel
sounds. But these marks are of comparatively modern
date, certainly not older than about 500 or 600 a.d.
In olden times the reader had only the consonants
before him, and had therefore to supply the right
vowel sounds himself in reading.
It is easy to see how in such a case the same word
might be differently read according to the different
vowels supplied. For example, in English, b r n
might be read b^^rn, b^rn, b^rn, BR^Ny, B^R^Ny, &c. ;
and if there were no vowel marks to indicate the
8 SOME PECULIARITIES OF HEBREW WRITING.
sound, we should have to be taught, like the Jews,
which word the writer intended.
n.
Curious Mistakes.
We have many Id stances of this inconvenience after
Hebrew had ceased to be a commonly spoken language.
The great Greek version of the Old Testament, the
Septuagint, of which we shall hear later on,^ is a case
in point. It is full of discrepancies arising from this
cause. Here, for example, are two Hebrew words in
Deuteronomy, B z R and p S G H, which in our
Hebrew Bible read Bezer and Pisgah, but which the
Septuagint translators render Bozor and Pasgah. St.
Jerome (a.d. 400), commenting on Gen. xv. ii, says
that his copy of the Septuagint, by supplying the
wrong vowels, tells that Abram, instead of " driving
the fowls away," as our Bible has it (VaY^SHegB 0^^^),
actually " sat down with them " (v^^YgeSH^B iT,^M) !
Or would the reader like a more sensational example,
though we scarcely care to vouch for its truth. Here
is a story " in the Jewish Talmud, in a comment on
I Kings xi. 15, 16, where " Joab had smitten every
male in Edom."
When he returned from the slaughter into the
1 It is important that the reader should here impress this name on
his memory, that it may convey a clear idea when he meets it again.
For this purpose it might be well to glance forward for a moment to
its story in Book II. p. 148.
2 The story is told by Elias Levita in his "Massoreth Ham-
massoreth," p. 128.
SOME PECULIARITIES OF HEBREW WRITIXG. 9
presence of King David, " Why hast thou smitten
them all ? " asked the king.
" Because," replied the warrior, " so it is written,
Thou shalt destroy every male " (z.^K^B.).
" z K R ! " exclaimed the king, " we read it ZgE^R,
every memory, every memorial of them."
Joab was enraged. He went immediately to his
Eabbi, and angrily demanded, " How teachest thou to
read this word ? "
" z^K^u, memory," replied the Rabbi.
Joab drew his sword.
" Why ? " asked the terrified teacher.
" Because it is written, ' Cursed be he that doeth
the work of the Lord deceitfully ' " (Jer. xlviii. i o).
The Rabbi does not seem to have been at all sur-
prised at this feat of quoting from a prophet who was
not bom for many years after. He tried to argue his
case, but all in vain. Joab was nothing if not scrip-
tural. His quotations were as ready as those of
Cromwell's Ironsides, and about as soothing too. " Ifc
is written also," he thundered, as he drew his flashinc
blade again, " Cursed is he that keepeth back his
sword from blood ! "
For the reader's comfort be it recorded that the
historian leaves it an open question whether the un-
fortunate tutor was let off, or whether his zealous
pupil, by depriving him of his head, cured him for ever
of false pronunciation. The story, in any case, will
illustrate our point as to the possibility of error in
Hebrew when written without vowels.
lo SOME PECULIARITIES OF HEBREW WRITING.
III.
How to Read without Vowels.
To the Euglish reader this consonant-writing would
seem a very great danger to the purity of the Hebrew
Scriptures, but the danger was really a very slight one
after all. In the first place, Eastern nations depended
on the memory much more than on writings. The
Jewish scribes could repeat whole books of their
Scriptures with perfect ease, just as the Mohammedans
repeat their Koran to-da}^. And thus the true read-
ing of the vowelless words was handed down from one
generation to another. When a young Jewish pupil
began to read the Scriptures, the page of consonant
words was opened before him ; the scribe, his teacher,
read over the words, and he repeated them after him,
with their right pronunciation. His task, perhaps,
might be expressed as a saying by heart with the
help of the consonants. We Westerns have but
little notion of the extraordinary powers in this
respect possessed by the Eastern mind. To this day
Oriental travellers express their wonder at the accu-
racy with which the minutest details of a lesson can
be reproduced long afterwards in the exact words of
the teacher.
But the great safeguard lay in the constitution of
the language itself. In Hebrew, as in all Semitic
dialects, the main root idea of a luorcl was quite in-
ielligihlc from the consonants alone. For example,
SOME PECULIARITIES OF HEBREW WRITING, il
D B 11 represented the idea of speaking, and according
to the different vowels supplied T>.^Bjt, DjBgR, D^BegR, &c.,
would mean to speak, to say, to address, to converse
with, to woo, to promise, to be promised ; also, as a
noun, a speaker, a word, a commandment, a proposal, a
chronicle, and so on.
But it may be objected, even with this root-idea
expressed, how was the reader without vowel points
to know the exact meaning intended, when each word
might be read in so many different ways ?
I answer, that even apart from the wonderful memory
of the scholars, the context v:ould, in almost every case,
he a sufficient guide to any intelligent reader. No
doubt it is possible to read a vowelless Hebrew word
in different ways if it stand alone ; but in its proper
context it is quite a different matter. Even in Eng-
lish, with the great disadvantage of having no fixed
root meaning expressed by the consonants, vowelless
words are often quite intelligible when read in their
proper context. A rapid shorthand writer seldom puts
in a vowel, and he can read his notes with ease long
after they have been made. Or, to give an easier
instance, suppose you have before you the Twenty-
third Psalm without vowels —
TH LRD S M SHPHHD I SHLL KT WNT
H :mkth M T L DN N GKN rSTES
H LDTH M BSD TH STLL WTRS.
When you have once been taught the true reading,
12 SOME PECULIARITIES OF HEBREW WRITING.
if you be ordinarily familiar with the pasfsage, you
will have little or no difficulty in reading it again.
Nay more, though each single word in it is capable
of being differently read, yet let the experiment be
tried, and you will find it almost impossible to make
sense of these three lines if you put the wrong vowels
to even a single word in them. In Hebrew, owing
to its fixed root meanings, this is much more the
case.
Of course this is not always so. Very often difierent
readings of a word will make equally good sense, and
this is where the reader is entirely dependent on the
Jewish tradition as handed down to us in the present
vowel points. There is a good illustration in Gen.
xlvii. 3 1 , where " Israel bowed himself on the bed's
head," though the Epistle to the Hebrews (chap. xi.
2l), quoting this verse from the Septuagint (Greek)
translation, makes him bow " upon the top of his
staff." The original word is hmtth. By the Hebrews
it was read H,^MjTT^H, the bed ; by the Greek trans-
lators, H^M^TTgH, the staff ; and it is very hard to say
which is the correct reading. Both make equally
good sense. Thus it will be seen how mistakes might
occur through this method of consonant-writing, and
the danger would, of course, be much increased if the
old Hebrew manuscripts were written, as they probably
were, like the old Greek ones,i without any division
^ The mistakes of the Septuagint translation in dividing what ought
to be a single word, or connecting into one words that ought to be
separate, give several indications that this was so ; yet, on the other
SOME PECULIARITIES OF HEBREW WRITING. 13
between the words. For example, as if we should
write in English Gen. i. i : —
NTHBGNNNGGDCRTDTHHVNSNDTHRTH.
The difficulty, however, is not of much practical
importance. Indeed, so little is it felt, that to this
day not only the Synagogue- rolls, but most modem
Jewish writings, books, and newspapers are without
the vowel points, and a Hebrew scholar can read them
with perfect ease.
If, in addition to what has been now said, the reader
will keep in mind (i.) the scrupulous care of the Jews
about the accurate reading of their Scriptures; (2.)
the fact that, being " people of one book," they were
many of them as familiar with the words of their Bible
as we are with those of the Lord's Prayer and the
Creed; (3.) and that, besides this, there was, as we
shall see, a special guild of scribes, at least from the
time of Ezra, to preserve and hand down the correct
reading, it will be easily seen that the danger from
Hebrew consonant-writing is by no means as great as
it appears at first sight.
IV.
Grammar and Theology.
It is worth a short digression to tell of the sharp
theological contests in Eeformation days on this
hand, the Moabite Stone and the Siloam inscriptions, which are very
ancient, have the words separated by little round dots cut in the stone,
as may be seen by examining frontispiece, and the same division exists
in the Pentateuch of the Samaritans.
14 SOME PECULIARITIES OF HEBREW WRITING.
subject of the Hebrew vowels. Nothing less would
sufRce the Jewish commentators and grammarians of the
time than that these vowel marks had been given, if
not to Adam in Paradise, certainly to Moses on Mount
Sinai, or, at the very utmost stretch of liberality, that
they had been fixed by Ezra and " the men of the
Great Synagogue." " They were a revelation from
God ; " " the consonant letters were the body, and the
vowel points the soul, and they move together as an
army moves with its leader." Christian scholars knew
little about the matter, and quite believed that the
vowels were as ancient as the consonants. We can
imagine then what a sensation was produced when
Elias Levita, a very famous Hebrew scholar, about the
year 1540, proved to the world that these vowel
marks were not in existence for hundreds of years
after the time of our Lord ! ^
Here was a new apple of discord in the already
sufficiently discordant field of controvers}*, whose noise
was filling the world in those Eeformation days. It
is hard to seek the truth dispassionately at such times.
Though Luther and Calvin held to the old opinion, the
Protestants in general thought they saw a weapon for
themselves in Levita's discovery, and, carried away by
their theological bias, they sided largely with the new
doctrine, and disclaimed the antiquity of the vowel
points. Thus they considered they were leaving them-
selves freer in the intei'pretation of the Old Testa-
ment, throwing off the tradition of the Rabbis, as they
^ See footnote, chap. viii. p. 102.
SOME PECULIARITIES OF HEBREW WRITING. 15
had already tlirown off the tradition of the Fathers of
the Chui'ch.
All very satisfactory no doubt to the Reformers. It
was rather suspicious, though, in the midst of their
satisfaction, to find that the astute controversialists
of Rome were quite as much delighted with the new
theory as they were, though for a very different
reason. " Why," said they, " it is a conclusive proof
of our position against you Protestants as to the use
of private judgment in interpreting the Bible. God
gave His inspired Word in that form without vowel
points, so that none but His appointed Church and its
accredited teachers could rightly read or understand it ;
thus were the vulgar people kept from reading it by
the special providence of God, lest it should be trodden
under foot of swine." " It proves," said the Jesuit
IMorinus, " that without the infallible interpretation of
the Church, the Bible is but a nose of wax, that may
be turned any way by ignorant men."
This was indeed turning the tables with a venge-
ance. Henceforth, as may be supposed, the Reformers
were not quite so eager in arguing against the
antiquity and value of the vowel' points. The reader
will better understand the merits of the controversy
after he has read the chapters on the story of the
Hebrew text, but it may be well to state here that
the question is quite a settled one. Nobody now
dreams of doubting the comparatively recent origin of
the Hebrew vowel points.
i6 SOME PECULIARITIES OF HEBREW WRITING.
V.
Similar Letters.
There is another peculiarity also to be noticed as
a common cause of errors in the Old Testament. I
mean the similarity of certain pairs of Hebrew letters.
Here are two i i which differ only in the length of
the tail. The first is the letter Yod, referred to in
Matt. V, 1 8, and corresponds to our Y. The other is
the Hebrew w. Clearly, in copying a long difficult
manuscript one of these letters might easily be written
for the other. A good Instance occurs in Ps. xxli. 1 6,
"They pierced my hands and my feet," where this
mistake has been the subject of many a controversy
(see specimen, p. 204).
Another pair of these similar letters is "1 and "7, dif-
fering only in the rounding of the angle. They corre-
spond to our R and D. They are responsible for a curi-
ous little slip, which the Kevisers seem not to have
noticed, in Gen. x. 3, 4, and i Chron. i. 6, 7. In the first
we read Riphat and Dodanim, in the other Diphat and
Rodanlm. But, indeed, they are responsible for a great
many slips. I doubt if there is a more mischievous
pair of letters in any alphabet in the world than this
same pair. They are continually being mistaken one
for the other. There is a disputed reading in 2 Sam.
viii. 1 3, which interestingly exhibits this confusion.
It tells of David " smiting of Syria in the Valley of
Salt eighteen thousand men. And he put garri-
SOME PECULIARITIES OF HEBREW WRITING. 17
sons in Edom." Now this is almost certainly a
mistake, even though the Revisers have not corrected
it. For the word "Syria" we should read "Edom."
The Valley of Salt was in the neighbourhood of Edom,
not Syria ; and if we turn to the parallel passage in
I Chron. xviii. 12, we read that " Abishai the son of
Zeruiah smote of Edom in the Valley of Salt eighteen
thousand men. And he put garrisons in Edom." The
title also of Ps. Ix. tells that it was sung when Joab
returned, and smote Edom in the Valley of Salt.
Now how did this error arise ? The words Syria
and Edom do not seem very likely to be mistaken one
for the other.
But here are the Hebrew forms —
D-)>j = A R,jM = Syria.
□!,>< = A^DyM = Edom.
It will be seen how easily " Edom '"' might have become
" Syria " by the scribe slightly rounding the angle of
the 1.
The Septuagint version has a very curious instance
of this error. In i Sam. xix. 13, where Michal, to
facilitate her husband's escape, put an image in the
bed and at its head " a pillow of goats " (hair), the
Septuagint translators have " Michal put at his head
a liver of goats." This shows that they read Kahhcd.^
a liver, instead of Kebhir, a pillow, confusing the final
d and r. Curiously enough, Josephus^ follows them
in this, " Michal," he says, " having let David down
' Ant. vi. II, 4.
i8 SOME PECULIARITIES OF HEBREW WRITING.
by a cord out of a window, fitted up a sick bed for
him, and put under the heel-clothes a goat's liver, and
made them believe, by the leaping of the liver, which
caused the bed-clothes to move also, that David
breathed like an asthmatic man ! "
There are also other similar pairs D ^ K b, D 3 g N,
n n n CH, any of which might by a little carelessness
in writing lead to a good deal of confusion ; ^ but there
is no need of illustrating further.
I have dealt here only with the more modern
writing, but when it is added that in the ancient
writing also this similarity existed between certain
pairs of letters, the reader will understand how, in
the long course of ages, errors might easily occur,
even with the most anxious care about the accuracy
of the text.
VI.
The "Guardians of the Lines."
The ancient scribes, too, had a peculiar trick in
writing their manuscripts. In our writing, if a word
near the end of the line is too long, we carry part
on to the next line, with a hyphen connecting. They
never did that. If they were near the end of the
line, and the next word was a little too long, they
^ A friend has just pointed out to me an unintentional illustration of
this danger in the specimen of Hebrew facing p. i, where the printer
has put in the bottom line Nip in mistake for Nip and two lines higher
up ins instead of IPIN being misled by the similarity of the middle
letters. I leave the error uncorrected.
SOME PECULIARITIES OF HEBREW WRITING. 19
took it down unbroken to the line below. But it
would not do to leave the blank thus caused at the
end of the line. So they filled it up with some other
letters, usually those at the beginning of the long
word that had been moved down. These letters are
called the " Guardians of the Lines." There was just
a chance, of course, that a stupid copyist might some-
times blunder over these, especially if the letters
could by any possibility be mistaken for any part of
the previous word, and so errors might arise in the
manuscripts.
Sometimes also a word of frequent occurrence was
abbreviated by writing only the first letters, with a
few small dashes after it to mark the abbreviation.
As, for example, the word yehovah appeared some-
times as y. The Septuagint version was thus led
into a mistake in translating Jer. vi. 11, where it
found CHAJIATH YEHOVAH, " the wrath of Jehovah,"
contracted into chamath y''. This is very like the
form chamathy, which means " my wrath," and they
accordingly so translate it.
CHAPTER III.
WHAT IS BIBLICAL CRITICISM?
I.
Mistakes in the Manuscripts.
The sources of error mentioned in the previous
chapter are peculiar to the Old Testament manuscripts.
But besides those, they were exposed to other sources
of error, in common with all manuscripts that have
been extensively copied. However careful the scribe
may be, it is almost impossible in copying any long
difficult manuscript to escape errors of various kinds.
Sometimes he will mistake one word for another that
looks very like it ; sometimes, if having the manuscript
read to him, he will confound two words of similar
sound ; sometimes, after writing in the last word of a
line or period, on looking up again, his eye will catch
the same word at the end of the next line or period,
and he will go on from that, omitting the whole pas-
sage between. This last is a very frequent fault.
Remarks and explanations, too, written in the margin,
will sometimes in transcribing get inserted in the text.
Again, in ancient manuscripts, where there is often
no division between the words, each line presenting a
WHAT IS BIBLICAL CRITICISM? 21
continuous row of letters, it might easily happen that
one word would be wrongly divided into two, or two
combined into one, as in the old story of the infidel
who wrote over his bed " God is nowhere," which was
read by his little boy as " God is now here." For
example, in the end of Ps. xlviii. 14, "This God is
our God for ever and ever: He will be our guide
unto death," some Hebrew manuscripts have HL-MTH =
unio death, others hlmth =for ever.
There is no need of further pursuing this subject.
The reader who remembers his own frequent slips and
erasures, even in writing an ordinary short letter, will
easily think of many ways besides in which errors
may arise, and will see at once the improbability of
the Old Testament manuscripts having escaped abso-
lutely flawless through a transmission of thousands of
years. If, even with all the advantages of the print-
ing-press and its multitudes of trained proof-readers,
many discrepancies exist between the different editions
of our Authorised Version, how can we wonder that
it should be so when every copy had to be made by the
slow laborious process of writing it out letter by letter ?
True, God might have quite obviated this danger.
He might have miraculously preserved the original
autographs of the inspired writers as a standard by
which copies could be corrected for ever, or He might
have directed the minds and fingers of Bible-copyists
before printing was invented, and of printers and
compositors in after days, so as to secure this perfect
transmission. If He had seen fit thus to make fallible
22 WHAT IS BIBLICAL CRITICISM?
men infallible, of course He could have done so. But
it does not seem to be God's way anywhere to work
miracles for men where their own careful use of the
abihties He has given would suffice for the purpose.
And the Old Testament text is no exception to this
rule. We shall find, as we go on, that never was a
book guarded with such scrupulous awe and reverence ;
never did any writing come down through the ages so
pure as we have reason to believe did our Hebrew
Bible; but that it has come to us word for word as it
left the hands of the inspired writers long ago, the
evidence will by no means allow us to believe.
II.
Biblical Criticism.
Biblical criticism is the science which deals with
the discovering and correcting of these errors in the
text. To be accurate, it should rather be called Textual
Criticism, for of course it deals equally with the text of
any manuscript, whether Biblical or not, and I shall
generally use this more accurate term in f uture.i The
reader must not be frightened at the hard name of
this science, as if it meant something abstruse and
difficult to understand. It may sometimes mean what
is very simple indeed, and instances of it may occur even
in the reading of the daily newspaper. For example,
I remember somewhere reading of a naval pensioners'
banquet, at which the toast was proposed, " That the
^ I retain the name Biblical Criticism on the title-pages and some
other places, where the more technical expression would bo inadvisable.
WHAT IS BIBLICAL CRITICISM? 23
man who has lost one eye in the service of his country
may never see with the other." Well, it did not
require much cleverness to suspect a mistake hero, and
to think of examining another account, and find that
the word " distress " or some such word had been
omitted from the text. Yet this was an operation in
textual criticism, though certainly an operation of the
most simple kind.^ One rather like it in the Bible, but
very much more diflBcult, occurred in the revision of the
well-known First Lesson for Christmas Day (Isa. ix.).
The old reading is (verse 3), " Thou hast multiplied the
nation and not increased the joy ; they joy before Thee
according to the joy in harvest," &c. Now, in a jubilant
passage of this kind, the "not increased their joy"
rather jars on one, and this fact led to the examining
of a great many old manuscripts and versions of Isaiah,
when it was found by the Revisers that the word " not "
was most probably a copyist's mistake (see specimen,
Book iii. p. 206).
But the operations of textual criticism are not
^ To give a more commonplace example still. The writer had a
rather amusing experience in textual criticism a few days since, while
travelling in a railway-carriage from Dublin to Kingstown. Right
over the carriage-window was the printed direction, " ait until the
PAIN STOPS !" It looked Irish to be sure, but somehow did not seem a
very probable direction to have been issued by a solemn board of rail-
way directors. A very slight examination showed that a letter, w,
had been lost before the first word, and a T before the fourth ; and
furthermore, it soon became evident that the p of this word pain was
originally an 11, whose tail had been erased by some mischievous school-
boy for a tempting emendation of the reading. And so the extra-
ordinary legend resolved itself into the very prosaic advice " wait
UNTIL THE TRAIN STOPS ; " but the process of thus recovering the correct
reading was a true process of textual criticism.
24 WHAT IS BIBLICAL CRITICISM?
always by any means so simple as this. Sometimes
the highest skill of the most experienced critics is
utterly at fault. And even in cases like those given
above, simple as they seem, the making of such correc-
tions is often a very dangerous experiment. For an
expression may seem to the critic incongruous or im-
probable through his misapprehending the thought
that was in the writer's mind. If, then, he should
find a number of ancient manuscripts which, owing
to the same misapprehension, have ventured to so alter
the passage that it agrees with his view, he is clearly
in danger of being confirmed in his mistake.
Thus it will be seen textual criticism needs to be
wisely and cautiously used. It is an " edge tool,"
which, the proverb says, children and fools must not
play with — many such have played with it to the sore
disfiguring of their work — but which in the hands of
the skilful workman may do much, and has done
much, especially during the past century, in removing
blemishes from the Bible text. In applying to the
Bible, it requires a calm judicial mind, reverent towards
God's Word, skilled in the accurate weicxhinsr of
evidence, and through long study of manuscripts well
acquainted with the many ways in which copyists'
errors are likely to arise.
III.
Its Axioms and Rules.
Its rules, even when they seem to the uninitiated
difficult and unreasonable, are simply the conclusions
WHAT IS BIBLICAL CRITICISM? 25
of common sense founded on a special knowledge of
the subject. For example, that in certain cases where
we have to decide between two different readings of
a passage, " the more difficult reading is to he preferred
to the easier, " merely means that experience of manu-
scripts has taught the critic that copyists are more
likely to try to simplify a difficult passage than to
complicate one that already runs freely and easily, and
therefore the more difficult reading is likely to be
the correct one.'' So also the rule that " the shorter
of two readings is to be preferred to the more wordy"
means only that experience has likewise taught that
copyists are more inclined to expand a short terse
reading than to condense a more wordy one.
For our present inquiry it is only necessary to
trouble the reader with three very simple and self-
evident propositions of textual criticism : —
( I .) If manuseripts were all of equal value, the truth
might he expceted, of course, to he with the majority —
e.g., if out of seventy manuscripts, sixty contained a
certain reading and ten omitted it, that reading would
probably be correct.
(2.) But manuscripts are not all of the same value.
For illustration, let 0 represent the original document,
^ For example, I am informed that in the hymn " Rock of Ages,"
the line " when mine eyelids close in death " reads in some copies
"when mine eyestrings burst in death." This is clearly the more
"difficult" reading, but for that reason it is the most likely to be the
original one, since nobody would be likely to alter the other for such
an unpleasant reading, but any one might be tempted to change it for
the other.
26 WHAT IS BIBLICAL CRITICISM?
and A and B copies of equal value made from it.
Now suppose three copies further to be made from B,
and from these again any numbers of others. It is
clear that the evidence of the one copy, a, would be
worth that of the whole set, c, d, e, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
copies descended from B.
|c
12 34567
(3.) The earlier any manuscript, the more likely it
is to he correct. For in the many ways we have
referred to it is possible for errors to creep into the
first copy of a manuscript. Any such errors would, of
course, be repeated by the man that afterwards copied
from this, who would also sometimes add other errors of
his own. This would be equally true of the man who
copied from him, and so on all the way down. So that
clearly as copies increased errors would be likely to
increase with them, and therefore, as a general rule,
the earlier manuscripts would be the more correct ones.''
IV.
Its Working Material.
The evidence on which the textual criticism of the
Old Testament chiefly bases its judgments I have
roughly divided into two parts : —
^ Of course this is only a general rule. It is quite possible that a
manuscript of the present year should be copied direct from one 1500
years old, and therefore be more correct than many which have existed
for centuries.
WHAT IS BIBLICAL CRITICISM? 27
I. Tee Old Hebrew Manuscripts, i.e., copies of
the Sacred Books made in the original language.
These are the foundation on which everything rests.
II. The Other Old Documents to aid in the
testing and correcting of these manuscripts. Under
this head come — (i.) The Ancient Versions, i.e., the
translations of the Hebrew books into other languages
long ago. (2.) The quotations from the Bible in
ancient Jewish commentaries, to which we may add
the earlier printed editions of the Hebrew Bible, made
perhaps from older manuscripts than any that have
survived.
Accordingly this volume is divided into three parts —
Book I. The '' Old Hebrew Documents," and the ques-
tion of Biblical Criticism.
Book II. The '' Other Old Documents," and their aid
in Biblical Criticism.
Book III. The New Bible a specimen of Biblical
Criticism, to illustrate how the above
materials are used in removing blem-
ishes from the Bible text.
CHAPTER IV.
A VIEW OF THE OLD MANUSCRIPTS.
Some Curious Old Manuscripts.
Wo are now in a position to glance at the old
Hebrew manuscripts of the Bible at present available to
scholars. There are very many of them — nearly two
thousand have already been examined — strange and curi-
ous old documents, on rough cumbrous hides, on brown
African skins, on rolls of the most delicate parchment,
some of them mildewed and faded and torn, some
almost as fresh as on the day when they were made.
From all quarters of the earth they come, from Pales-
tine and Babylon and the distant East, from Africa
and the islands of the Indian Sea, from the great
universities and libraries of the Gentiles, from the
filthy Jewish Ghettos in Italy and Spain. There are
the fine synagogue parchments, with their exquisite
writing wrought out with continual fasting and prayer ;
here the curious manuscripts of the Rabbis of China,
and the rough red goatskin rolls from the black Jews
of Malabar ; ^ piles of shrivelled fragments of only a
* In the early times there were Jewish settlements in India and
China, and Hebrew scholars often turned their attention in that direc-
r::^ s^
■:i<:3 O^^ri^c^.
w^ f -> l-v P <' '■■
A VIEW OF THE OLD MANUSCRIPTS. 29
few pages, and rough leathern rolls 150 feet long;
beautiful book-shaped copies of the Law, and soiled and
faded sheets of the Prophets and the Psalms, disinterred
from the " Ghenizas," where the Jews had buried them.
Many a romantic story doubtless belongs to the
history of these silent sheets and the names of the
forgotten writers, which some of them bear. Stories
of battle and siege, as of the capture of Toledo by
Edward the Black Prince, where the famous " Codex
Ezrge " ^ was found amongst the spoils ; stories of life
in the old Jewish academies long ago ; stories of fierce
persecution, of brave endurance ; of men fleeing with
their scriptures from the " followers of Christ ; " of
holocausts of ancient Jewish manuscripts of the Bible ;
of blazing synagogues and ruined homes,
"And dead white faces upturned to the sky,
Calling for vengeance to their fathers' God."
tion. In 1806 Dr. Buchanan obtained, among other manuscripts, a
roll of the Pentateuch from the black Jews of Malabar, It is now in
the University Library at Cambridge. It consists of about thirty-five
goatskins dyed red. It is the breadth of the Jewish sacred cubit, and
when complete must have been nearly ninety feet long.
^ The Jews of Toledo, in the Middle Ages, had in their synagogues
a roll called the Codex Ezrje, or the Codex Azarse. Some believed it
to have belonged to Ezra ; others thought it was the copy de^Dosited in
the'Azara or Hall of the Temple (see p. 81), and preserved in the siege
and capture of Jerusalem. At the capture of Toledo by Edward the
Black Prince in 1367, it came into his possession as part of the spoils.
The Jews redeemed it for a large sum, but it was afterwards destroyed
by fire with the synagogue. So highly was it valued, that manuscripts
were sent from all places to be compared with it, and some of our
existing manuscripts have appended to them a certificate that they
have been compared, not directly with the Codex EzriE itself, but with
manuscripts that had been verified by comparison with it.
30 A VIEW OF THE OLD MANUSCRIPTS.
But the very existence itself of these manuscripts
has sufficient in it of wonder and romance. They are
the holy oracles of God written in the " holy tongue "
of His people, faithfully handed down from generation
to generation since the days of the thunderings and
lightnings of Sinai. Who can look on them without
reverence and awe and deep conviction of the truth
of revelation ? Who can think without emotion of that
poor, despised, hunted race, through all the ages pre-
serving for their persecutors the message of Jehovah ?
Surely enough of wonder and romance that those
records should have come down to us from the days of
Moses ; that in this world of shortlived races, rapidly
succeeding each other and passing away, there should
remain one mysterious people existing to this day from
the dawn of history, the guardians through thirty cen-
turies of the words in those old Hebrew scrolls !
II.
A Perplexing Discovery.
But what is the value to the textual critic of these
venerable documents ? How many thousand years do
they go back ? Have we amongst them the autograph
of any inspired writer? Have we manuscripts at
least of the time of our Lord ? How far do they
enable us to fix with certainty the exact original of
the Hebrew Old Testament ?
To the reader who knows something of the New
Testament writings, with their documents reaching up
A VIEW OF THE OLD MANUSCRIPTS. 31
near the days of the Apostles, and the many variations
nevertheless existing in the text, an acquaintance with
these strange old manuscripts can scarcely fail to cause
surprise. Not one of them, we shall see immediately,
is written in the ancient writing. This, perhaps, ho
might have expected from what has been already said.
But, as he inquires further, a very perplexing fact
indeed reveals itself. He finds —
I. That the oldest Hebrew manuscript in exist-
ence IS OF date little earlier than William the
Conqueror !
II. And that in all the Hebrew manuscripts
that have ever been examined, the text is almost
word for word the same !
Let us realise what this means, (i.) That of the
early Old Testament books, written more than 3000
years ago, we have not a single copy 1 000 years old ;
or, in other words, that the earliest Old Testament
manuscript in existence is as far from the time of the
original writers as would be a New Testament manu-
script written to-day. (2.) That amid all the copyists'
errors and variations, which are the common fate of
every ancient book — the New Testament included —
this most ancient of all the books of the world has
virtually no variations at all !
III.
The Guardianship of the Bible.
Now, how are these strange phenomena to be
explained? This question will be fully treated in
32 A VIEW OF THE OLD MANUSCRIPTS.
the following story of the manuscripts, but a brief
summary of the answer here will perhaps enable the
reader to follow it more intelligently. The popular
notion is that of an absolutely perfect guardianship of
the Hebrew text by the Jews, Their deep reverence
for their Scriptures and the scrupulous care with
which these Scriptures were handed down is considered
quite sufficient explanation for this marvellpus agree-
ment of manuscripts. "Well, there is much truth in
this, a good deal more, we venture to say, than is
believed by many of those who question the accuracy
of the Hebrew Old Testament. We shall see as we
go on that for nearly 2000 years past at least this
guardianship was almost perfect ; scarcely a single
important slip of a transcriber could have occurred
without detection in all the copying of manuscripts
during that time. But we cannot speak thus con-
fidently of the manuscripts of the earlier period. They
certainly were not all uniform. The mauuscripts used
by the Palestine Jews varied, often considerably, from
those of the " Jews of the Dispersion " in other lands.
The Palestine manuscripts themselves had some varia-
tions between them. Therefore some better explana-
tion must be found for the uniformity in the existing
Hebrew manuscripts.
IV.
An Ancient Revision.
We must first clearly distinguish between the Pales-
tine manuscripts and all others. The Palestiiie text
A VIEW OF THE OLD MANUSCRIPTS. 33
is that which has come down to us, and, as will bo
seen, we have every reason to consider that it has
come down to us substantially correct. We do not
believe that it is entirely free from copyists' errors,
but from what we know of the solemn reverence with
which it has been always regarded from the beginning,
and the scrupulous, almost superstitious care with
which it has been transmitted for the past two thousand
years, we have ample reason to believe that this Pales-
tine Old Testament has come down to us very nearly
as it left the hands of the original writers.
This, however, does not sufficiently account for the
almost word-for-word agreement between our existing
manuscripts, since, as we have seen, even the Palestine
manuscripts in ancient times were not without some
variation. Unless by a continual miracle, no writings
could have passed through the process of copying
and recopying for thousands of years without many
an error and variation arising.
The explanation is by no means easy to find. The
following chapters will tell of a long continual revision
carried on through many centuries by the ablest Jewish
scholars ; of a mysterious standai'd text set up, to which
every manuscript conformed ; of the existence of all
Hebrew Bibles in the famous " days of the Massoretes "
in this uniform state in which they appear to-day.
This uniform text was then fixed and stereotyped as
the " Textus Receptus " or standard text of the Old
Testament. It is known as the " Massoretic " text,
and our manuscripts are all " Massoretic " manuscripts.
c
34 A VIEW OF THE OLD MANUSCRIPTS.
It is well for the reader to remember this name. We
have much to say of it afterwards in the " Story of the
Manuscripts."
The Vanished Manuscripts.
But what of the disappearance of the very ancient
manuscripts ? Why have we none even a thousand
years old ? If divergent copies once existed, why is
there not one to be found to-day to break the uni-
formity of the Massoretic text ? It is generally an-
swered that the Jews destroyed all copies that varied
from the standard Massoretic Bible. And this may
well have been so. We know that in a like case,
when the Caliph Othman adopted a standard text of
the Koran, he destroyed every copy that differed from
it. The text of the Vedas, too, in India, appears to
have been revised about five hundred years before
Christ, and no divergent copy allowed afterwards to
remain. This may have happened in the case of the
ancient Jewish manuscripts.
But there is really no need of postulating such a
cause. Why should they not have vanished as Jewish
manuscripts are continually vanishing now ? If the
present Jewish customs existed long ago, they must
have made the survival of any very ancient manuscript
Well nigh impossible. Even those which we possess
to-day have only escaped through having fallen into
Gentile hands. It is a rigid rule to this day among
..3■-n■»v•;■~'^^ -^jV^Vrj^ Trr-r*''—""'- •):; ■SVD'"
-^-^:i r.uc?^
PART OF THE ILLUMINATED TITLES OF THE BOOKS OF ECCLESIASTES AND NUMBERS.
From a Fifteenth Century Hebrew Manuscript.
On the reverse of the last leaf is written this deed of sale :— " To testify and make it
appear w Rabbi Jiichiel, the sun "f Uri, 1 acknowledge that I have delivered to him this
Pentateuch, of which I have received the value in ready n^ioney, and tlie sale thereof is an
everlasting s.ile. Done this 4th day, the 2Sth of t'ne month Ejar, a m. 5229. Tiie words of
Jacob tlie son of Mordecai."
To face page 34.]
A VIEW OF THE OLD MANUSCRIPTS. 35
the Jews that manuscripts condemned from any cause
as unfit for use must be forthwith reverently destroyed
lest they should fall into the hands of the profane.
Now, manuscripts were condemned for very slight
defects ; a new sheet if there were found in it three
errors of the scribe, a synagogue roll if injured through
the wear and tear of rolling and unrolling for the
daily lessons, or if letters were blurred or effaced
through the custom of kissing the opening and closing
words of the portion to be read. A " Gheniza " was
usually attached to the synagogue, a place where
these condemned manuscripts were reverently buried ;
though, by the way, this did not always save them
from defilement, for it appears from the Catalogues that
at least two decayed old parchments in the library of
the great Hebrew scholar, De Rossi, were unearthed at
Lucca from one of these Ghenizas.
VI.
Are our Manuscripts Correct?
In any case, however we explain the disappearance
of the ancient copies, one thing is clear, that, as far as
Hebrew manuscripts are concerned, we are shut up to
this Massoretic test. We have no other. The makers
of the Authorised Version simply translate it, with rarely
any question of its absolute correctness. The recent
revisers, while expressing their doubts, think it " most
prudent to adopt the Massoretic text as the basis of
their work, and to depart from it, as the Authorised
36 A VIEW OF THE OLD MANUSCRIPTS.
translators had done, only in exceptional cases." There-
fore it becomes a most important question, How far do
these Massoretic manuscripts correctly reproduce the
very words of the Old Testament writers, and where
they fail in so doing is there any means of discovering
and correcting their errors ? The answer to this ques-
tion also, as far as it can be given, must be gathered
from the following " Story of the Manuscripts."
CHAPTER V.
THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
THE EARLY AGES.
I.
What can we Learn of the Vanished Manuscripts?
Tho first trace of tlio documents of the Old Testa-
ment is found in Exod. xvii. 14, where, after the battle
with Amalek, we are told that Moses was commanded
to " write it in a book," either the original manuscript
of part of the Pentateuch or one of the sources from
which the Pentateuch was afterwards compiled.'^ It is
a " far cry " from that manuscript of Rephidim, three
thousand years ago, to the Hebrew documents in our
hands to-day. We have to learn now what is known
^ There is no doubt that many previously existing documents were
used in the composition of the Old Testament books, the Genealogies,
the " Book of the Wars of Jehovah," the " Book of Iddo," the "Book of
Jasher," the " Chronicles of the Kings of Judah and Israel," &c. But
the discussion of this question, deeply interesting as it is, lies quite
outside our ^x-esent plan. The reader will clearly understand that this
little book deals only with the external history of the Jewish Bible, i.e.,
the preservation and transmission of the books as they have come down
to us. With their composition and internal history, and the whole
fascinating but difficult question of what is called the "higher criti-
cism," we have nothing to do here.
38 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
of the history of the text during all the centuries
between.
It is but very little, reader, that there is to learn,
especially of the earlier ages, and even that little can
be but lightly touched on in a simple popular treatise
such as the present. We may roughly divide the
history into four periods : —
I. The Early Ages, from Moses to Ezra, i.e., to
about B.C. 500.
II. Ezra and the Scribes, to the destruction of
Jerusalem, a.d. 70.
III. The Talmud Period, to about a.d. 500.
IV. The Days of the Massorets, to a.d. iooo.
Let us try to investigate the subject by examining
the text as far as we can at each period of its history.
First, then, we inquire. At the close of the " Early Ages "
did all the copies agree in every letter, and was the
text absolutely correct as it left the hands of the in-
spired writers ?
Call our First Witness — The Sacred Books.
Of this first period little is known except what wo
can learn from the books themselves. There are no
manuscripts of that period remaining, no history, no
collateral sources of information, except perhaps the
Samaritan Pentateuch, to be afterwards examined.
What, then, we inquire, can be learned from the
books themselves ? What of the text of these vanished
THE EARLY AGES. 39
manuscripts ? Did it agree exactly with that which
has come down to us ? Was it carefully guarded from
corruption of copyists ? And the little that we can
gather of an answer to our question is something to
this effect : —
The manuscripts were written in the ancient Hebrew
writing on rolls of linen or papyrus, or skins fastened
together, much like the present parchment rolls of the
synagogue. [We read, for example, of the Eoll of
the Book (Ps. xl. 7), Jeremiah's Eoll (Jer. xxxvi. 14),
and the Flying Roll of Zechariah's vision (Zech. v. i).]
They were guarded with the most reverent care,
especially the Mosaic writings, the only Bible which
the Jews possessed for centuries. Moses, we are told,
committed his original manuscript " unto the priests,
the sons of Levi, which bare the Ark of the Covenant,
and unto all the elders of Israel ; and he commanded
the Levites to take the book, and to put it by (not in)
the side of the Ark of the Covenant, to be there for a
witness against the people of Israel " (Deut. xxxi. 9,
24, 26). It was preserved, therefore, in the Holy of
Holies, guarded by the awful majesty of God's visible
presence. Every seven years this " Book of the Law "
was to be read before the people ; and in Joshua's
days we learn (Joshua viii. 35) that "there was not a
word of all that Moses commanded which Joshua read
not before all the congregation." Further, it was en-
joined that every king of Israel, soon after his acces-
sion, should write out with his own hands a copy from
this manuscript, which was kept by the priests and
40 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
Levitea (Deut. xvii. 1 8) ; and it seems to have become
part of the coronation ceremonies that this original
document, or at least a copy of it, should be placed in
the hands of the king when he was crowned (2 Kings
xi. 12, and 2 Chron. xxiii. ii). The frequent mention
of this " Book of the Law " as that which must be
taught to men as God's guide for their life will occur
to every reader.
We find the statement in the early Christian fathers,
Tertullian, Epiphanius, St. Augustine, and others, that
the other inspired books also were placed in the sanc-
tuary, and what is of more consequence, Josephus, the
Jewish historian, seems to confirm this assertion.^ The
Bible also lends it some support. We read in Joshua
xxiv. 26, that Joshua added on his own writing to the
" Book of the Law ; " and in i Sam. x. 2 5, that Samuel
" told the people the manner of the kingdom, and wrote
it in the book, and laid it up Icfore the Lord." So
that, altogether, there seems reason to believe that the
Tabernacle, and afterwards the Temple, was the regular
depositary of the sacred manuscripts.
In Samuel's days the original documents (i.e., the
Law at least, and perhaps some of the other books)
would naturally be kept with the Ark in Shiloh, tho
home of the priests and of sacred learning.
^ See "Antiquities," Book iii. I. 7, and Book v. i. 17. He speaks
also ("Life of Josephus," § 75) of having, by the favour of Titus, saved
the " Holy Writings " at the destruction of Jerusalem (probably the
Temple manuscripts of the other books) ; and in the " Jewish Wars "
(vii. V. 5) he tells that the Law, taken from the Temple, was borne
aloft in the triumph of Titus and placed in the Palace.
THE EARLY AGES. 41
But it would seem as if the growing degeneracy of
the priesthood and their loss of influence in the nation
necessitated now the calling forth of a new order to
guard the Divine deposit and communicate its contents
to the people. We find all Samuel's teaching based
upon these Scripture records, and probably, that the
knowledge of them might be preserved and dissemi-
nated, he founded his theological colleges or " Schools
of the Prophets," where picked young scholars were
trained in the sacred learning at Naioth and Gilnfal
and Bethel.
We find Elijah visiting these schools in later days
as he passed to his miraculous assumption, and after-
wards his successor, Elisha, moving amongst them
prepai'ing and exhorting these young teachers of the
future.^
The chief work of the students no doubt would be
the study and expounding and copying of the Law,
though sacred poetry and music were also an impor-
tant part of their course.
And not only were they the expounders and guar-
dians of the older Scripture, but also as God inspired
them, the authors of the new. They were the national
poets and annalists, the composers of psalms, the com-
pilers of records such as the Books of Nathan and
Gad and Iddo tlie seer, so valuable afterwards as
materials for the Old Testament history. Two of the
oldest of the prophetical books, Hosea and Jonah, were
the work of men trained in the schools of Elijah, and
^ See I Sam. xix. 19, 20; 2 Kings ii. 3-5, iv. 38, vi. I, &c.
42 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
afterwards no writing was received as inspired unless
it could claim a propliet for its author, though not
necessarily one trained in prophetical schools.
It is easy to see how this new order of trained
students would be a further safeguard to the purity
of the text originally committed to the priestly line,
and after them, in the days of the Captivity, we find
the regularly appointed Guild of the Scribes and
the critical study of the manuscripts at least in its
beginning.
Before the Captivity, however, we have another
glimpse of the guardianship of the " Books *'" — a reve-
lation of gross neglect and of holy zeal. When
Hezekiah began his reign he found the Temple shut
up, and its worship and its sacred manuscripts quite
disregarded ; and so we are told he gathered together
in the East Street the priests and the Levites, and
by his burning words he aroused their enthusiasm for
restoring the " service of God and the Law and the
commandm ents. "
How far those men of Hezekiah went in examining
and restoring the Hebrew manuscripts it is impossible
to say. In the passing mentions of them, we gather
that they devoted themselves in Jerusalem to the study
of the Law ; ■^ that they found and copied out a con-
siderable part of the Proverbs of Solomon ; " that they
examined the pile of copies of the Temple Psalms
(how vast it must have been when the chief singers
^ 2 Chron. xxx. 22, xxxi. 4. - Prov. xxv. i.
THE EARLY AGES. 43
numbered two hundred and eighty-eight !),^ and from
them selected the genuine Psalms of David and Asaph
the seer.^ Jewish tradition assigns to them also the
copying out of the Books of Isaiah, Ecclesiastes, and
Solomon's Song. However this may be, clearly the
work of the royal reformer and his *' men " must
have had an important bearing on the fortunes of the
Jewish Bible.
And then comes a relapse almost to utter Paganism.
The following reigns, with their idolatrous desecration,
brought things to such a pass that a great sensa-
tion was caused in the days of Josiah, when Hilkiah
the priest ^ discovered, in some hiding-place, the lost
and almost forgotten '• Temple manuscript " of the
Law, concealed probably to escape the rage of the
idolatrous Manasseh.
This certainly looks rather badly for the guardian-
ship of the old manuscripts. And yet I doubt if even
from this one should argue to the probability of their
having become corrupted either by carelessness or
design. The danger here would be rather their being
totally lost. Indeed, at such times, the risk of cor-
ruption through copyists' errors would probably be
smaller than ever, since there would be very little
likelihood of any copying at all.
' I Chron. xxv. 7. - 2 Chron. xxix. 30.
^ 2 Chron. xxxiv. 14, <S:c.
44 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
III.
Summary of this Evidence.
It may be well to present tliis evidence in a more
condensed and systematic form, so as to show at a
glance what reason we have for believing in the sub-
stantial accuracy of the Hebrew manuscripts during
this early period.
1 . The deep reverence of the Jews for their sacred
writings and the care with which they were copied
in all the known period of the history of the text
may surely be assumed in this its comparatively un-
known period as well.
2. With regard to the Mosaic writings at least,
the Bible itself abundantly confirms this assumption.
3. The less any manuscript is copied, the less
danger, of course, there is of errors in copying. The
numerous variations of the New Testament documents
are a result of the very extensive demand for copies.
There would be but little of this in the early Old
Testament days.
4. The preservation and transmission of the text
was not left to chance or to untrained men. The
early manuscripts were committed to the priestly
order under peculiarly solemn circumstances. The
trained teachers from the schools of the prophets must
have done much in the guarding and copying as well
as teaching of the Scripture, aud after them in the
next period arose the new Guild of the Scribes and
the critical study of the Bible manuscripts.
THE EARLY AGES. 45
5. The Temple manuscript of the Law brought to
light by Hilkiah, B.C. 623, after its long concealment,
would probably tend to correct any errors in existing
copies and preserve future transcripts from corruption.
6. Though the other books were not regarded with
as high a veneration as the Pentateuch, and therefore
were not so safe from copyists' mistakes, yet, on the
other hand, they were less often copied, not being
used in worship or in teaching the people. Besides,
the prophetic and historical books were not very long
in existence before the great collecting and revising
of the Scriptures, of which we shall hear in the
following chapter. Indeed, some were not written
till after the Captivity, when the jealous guardianship
of the text had already begun. ^
7. It is worth notice that the inspired prophets,
while sternly rebuking the people for their iniquities,
and the priests for their shortcomings and neglect,
never let fall a word charging them with mutilation
or corruption of the Word of God ; though, of course,
this argument only holds good against serious or wilful
corruption.
We may add, too, that the belief held by the Jews
■of our Lord's time on the subject should probably count
for something. It is expressed in the Talmud "that
Moses received the Book of the Law from Sinai, and
^ It is interesting to note that the Revised Version, restoring the
•definite article omitted by the Authorised in Dan. ix. 2, shows us that
the prophetic writings were at that day reverently regarded as " the
Books "or "the Scriptures." Daniel read in "ths Books "the pro-
phecy of Jeremiah about the Captivity.
46 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
delivered it to Joshua ; Joshua delivered it to the
elders, the elders to the prophets, and the prophets to
the men of the great synagogue, from whom it passed
to the heads of the families of the Scribes." And
Josephus, about the same period, insists, " We have
not an innumerable multitude of books, as the Greeks,
but only twenty-two, which contain the record of all
past times, and which are justly believed to be divine.
. . . During so many ages as have already passed, no
one has been so hold as to add anything to them or to take
anything from them, or to make any change in them ; but
it becomes natural to all Jews from their birth to esteem
these books to contain divine doctrines, to persist in
them, and, if occasion be, willingly to die for them." ^
Such facts as these should go far to prove the
reverence with which the manuscripts were regarded
and the care exercised in their transmission. From
them we gather that God's watchful providence, by
the use of ordinary human means, preserved for us at
least the general purity of the Hebrew test, and the
fullest confirmation of this will meet us as we go on.
But in the case of the New Testament, we know
that, with this general purity of the text, there existed
some minor slips and inaccuracies of copyists, such as
have been spoken of in a previous chapter as incidental
to all manuscript-copying, and therefore the question
naturally arises. Did such exist also in the case of the
Old Testament of the " Early Ages ? "
^ Discourse against Apion, § 8.
THE EARLY AGES. 47
IV.
A Search for further Evidence.
The reader will naturally ask, How on earth could
such a question be answered ? How can we ascertain
anything further about the condition of the early text
if every early manuscript has perished centuries and
centuries ago ?
Well, reader, it is not a very easy task, but yet it
is not quite impossible either. Suppose that at the
close of what we have here called the Early Ages one
copy of the existing Hebrew Bible should have been
entirely separated off from the rest, carried away to
a far-distant land where there was no possibility/ of
contact with the Palestine copies, and there become the
parent of a long line of manuscripts. Suppose some
traveller should find for us to-day a number of manu-
script descendants of this solitary Bible which had
thus branched off 2 5 00 years ago. Would not the
comparing of these with our present manuscripts be
a valuable study, and help us much in our inquiry
about the early text ?
If we found them absolutely agreeing with ours,
should we not be right in saying that our Bible is
word for word the same as that of Palestine in the
Early Ages, and that all the manuscripts of these
Early Ages most probably agreed in every letter.
If we found them agreeing substantially with ours,
but differing: a little here and there in words and
48 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
turns of expression, perhaps sometimes in adding or
omitting a few words in a verse, should we not con-
clude that certainly our Bible is at least substantially
the Bible of the Early Ages, even if it does not corre-
spond in every word and letter. For all in which
these two sets of manuscripts agree must infallibly
have belonged to the ancient text from which they
have both sprung. There is no other possible explana-
tion of their agreement, since, according to our supposi-
tion, they could have had no contact with each other.
So that the reader will see we might be quite able
thus to reproduce with certainty a large part of the
ancient text.
But what of the discrepancies between the two ?
What should we say of them ? Surely this, that one
or both of the sets of manuscripts had got some
copyists' errors, but at first we could not tell which.
Suppose then, lastly, that, while knowing of the
jealous care with which our Scriptures had bsen
guarded, we found from the history of this foreign
country that its manuscripts had been very carelessly
kept, that at one period at least there had been
designedly introduced for political purposes certain
of these differences which we had noticed. Should
wo not be inclined to say that where their readings
differed from ours the strange manuscripts were pro-
bably corrupt all the way through ; though, of course,
we could not say that in all these differences our own
copies were certainly right ?
Thus it will be evident — and this is very important
?.T>
%^l^p
V J- t^
"NJ n" i?
I- 3^U
THE EARLY AGES. 49
to remember — that the bad character of the strange
manuscripts would not weaken their evidence as to
the correctness of ours in places where both agree,
though it would very decidedly weaken their evidence
as to the incorrectness of ours in places where they
differ.
V.
Call our Next Witness, the Samaritan Bible.
Now, in our search for evidence about the ancient
text, we come upon one document which satisfies all
the above conditions. We discover that there exists a
Pentateuch among the Samaritans, a book which was
separated from the Jewish Pentateuch manuscripts at
the close of the " Early Ages," though only discovered
by European scholars in comparatively recent times.
This document is fully dealt with later on (Book ii.
p. 118), but it is necessary to refer to it slightly here.
Its importance, of course, consists in the fact that it is
Samaritan; that its text has existed separate from that
of the Jews since about five hundred years before Christ
— at latest, since the time when the renegade, Mauasseh,
in his passion for his young Samaritan wife, fled from
the anger of Nehemiah to be priest in the schismatic
temple of the Samaritans at Gerizim,^ probably carry-
ing with him a copy of the Law. The bitter enmity
existing between the two races is ample security that
^ Nell. xiii. 2S. Josephus, Antiquities, Book xi. ciiaps. vii. and viii.,
>vhere, however, the story is transferred to a later period.
D
50 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
its text has never since been influenced by that of the
Jewish Pentateuch; there-
/ fore the whole portion in
^" / which it and our Jewish
o *
^ : manuscripts of the Pen-
J : tateuch agree, and that
I' / means substantially al-
most the entire contents,
7^. must certainly belong to
/ \ the "Early Ages" Bible.
There is no other way pos-
;■ • sible of explaining their
: \ agreement. So that, it
: '•, will be seen, this Samari-
: \ tan Pentateuch is a most
: ': imjjortant ivitness to the
snhstantial purity of our
2Jrcsent text.
But then the Samari-
tan, in certain particulars,
is found to differ from our
text. The ages of the
patriarchs do not agree ;
the name Ebal, in Deut. xxvii. 4, appears as Gerizim
— though this is of little moment, it is so evidently
a corruption in favour of the Samaritan temple there ;
the narrative is fuller in many particulars, and there
are expansions and explanations of passages which
seem condensed and difficult in the Jewish Bible.
Now, it has been argued by some that these disf
THE EARLY AGES. 51
crcpancies go far to show that at the close of the
Early Ages, when the Samaritan branched off, similar
discrepancies must have existed between the early-
manuscripts ; that the Samaritan was copied from one
set of manuscripts, the Jewish from another and dif-
ferent set.
If we were as sure of accurate transmission in the
case of the Samaritan as we are in that of the Jewish
Scriptures, this would be a good argument. When
the manuscripts of this Samaritan Pentateuch were
first imported into Europe in the seventeenth cen-
tury, much surprise was felt at its variations from the
Hebrew, and scholars were at first inclined to give it
a high position. But, on fuller acquaintance, it quite
lost its character, as the reader will see for himself later
on. Suffice it to say here, that it now stands convicted
of having been freely tampered with, not only for contro-
versial purposes, as in the case of Ebal and Gerizim, but
also in many places to remove what seemed difficulties,
and to make the narrative flow more freely and easily.
Therefore we conclude that our Samaritan witness
is not of sufficiently good character ; and that, while
its substantial agreement with the Massoretic manu-
scripts is a strong confirmation of their correctness, its
charge of minor inaccuracies in these Hebrew manu-
scripts, or of discrepancies existing in the Early Ages,
is, as the Scotch lawyers would say, " not proven."
At the same time, some of its variations are sup-
ported by the authority of the Septuagint and other
versions of the following period, and it would be a
52 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
bold thing tx) say that in every little discrepancy
between them the Jewish Bible is certainly right
and the Samaritan certainly wrong. There are some
few instances at least where we may well doubt this.
For example, we give amongst the "Specimens" in
Book iii. p. 189 a Samaritan addition to the text
of Gen, iv. 8 which is strongly supported by other
authority, and is admitted by the recent revisers into
their margin: " Cain said to Abel his brother, Zct us
go into the field." We have shown in that place that
the Samaritan is very probably right, and that the
words may have at some time fallen out of the Hebrew
text. In Gen. xlvii. 2 1 it is almost certainly right
in telling that Joseph made hondmen of the Egyptians
for Pharaoh (see Revised Version, margin), instead of
merely " removing" them, as we have it.
But we only listen to it here because other autho-
rities strongly support it. We repeat again that its
variations from the Hebrew carry little or no weight
with them. Like all other such witnesses, it has to
suffer for its general bad character even where it may
be in the right. No scholar would now think of
using its unsupported testimony to call in question
the accuracy of the Hebrew text.
VI.
Cross-Examine our First Witness.
There seems just one other possible way of learning
anything as to the manuscripts of the Early Ages,
THE EARLY AGES. 53
and that is by cross-examining, as it were, our first
witness, the existing Old Testament itself. There is
a certain class of evidence found within its covers
which is sometimes brought forward as a proof that
in the Early Ages, before the separate books were
collected into one Jewish " Bible," and the Canon of
the Old Testament closed, the manuscripts must have
suffered from careless transcription.
It is that of ' ' repeated passages." What seem to
be copies of the same writings are found in two or
more different places, and these passages, when closely
compared, are found to exhibit variations of more or
less importance.
Compare, for example : —
2 Sam. xxii. with Ps. xviii.
Ps. xiv. ,, Ps. liii.
I Chr. xvi. 8-2 2
1 Chr, xvi. 23-33
2 Kings xix., xx.
2 Kings XXV.
Isa. XV., xvi.
Ps. cv. 1-15.
Ps. xcvi.
Isa. xxxvii., xxxviii.
Jer. Hi.
Jer. xlviii.
There are nearly a hundred such instances of
parallelism in the Old Testament, easily discovered by
means of a good Pieference Bible ; and to understand
aright the value of their evidence, the reader should
examine a few of them for himself before going on.
However, as one cannot trust all readers to take this
trouble, perhaps we had better print one or two illus-
54
THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
trations. Let us take at random the first two pairs
in the above list : —
2 Sam. xxn.
Tho Lord is my rock, and my
fortress, and deliverer ;
The God of my rock ; in Him will
I trust :
My shield, and the horn of my
salvation, my high tower, and my
refuge, my Saviour ; Thou savest me
from violence.
I will call upon the Lord, who is
worthy to be praised :
So shall I be saved from mine
enemies.
When the waves of death com-
passed me,
The floods of ungodliness made
me afraid ;
The cords of Sheol were round
about me ;
The snares of death came upon
me.
In my distress I called upon the
Lord,
Yea, I called unto my God.
Psalm xvin.
I love Thee, O Lord, my
strength.
The Lord is my rock, and my
fortress, and deliverer ;
IMy God, my strong rock ; in Him
will I trust :
My shield, and tho horn of my
salvation, my high tower.
I will call upon tho Lord, who is
worthy to be praised :
So shall I be saved from mine
enemies.
The cords of death compassed
me,
And the floods of ungodliness
made me afraid.
The cords of Sheol were round
about me ;
The pains of death came upon
mo.
In my distress I called upon the
Lord,
And cried unto my God.
And He rode upon a cherub and
did fly ;
Yea, He was seen upon the wings
of the wind.
And He made darkness pavilions
round about Him.
Psalm siv.
The fool bath said in his heart,
There is no God.
They are corrupt ; they have done
abominable works ;
There is none that doeth good.
The Lord looked down from
heaven upon the children of men.
To see if there were any that did
understand.
That did seek after God.
And He rode upon a cherub and
did fly ;
Yea, He flew swiftly upon the
wings of the wind.
He made darkness His hiding-
place. His pavilion round about
Him.
Psalm lhi.
The fool hath sold in his heart,
There is no God.
Corrupt are they, and have done
abominable iniquity.
There is none that doeth good.
God looked down from heaven
upon the children of men,
Ta see if there were any that did
understand,
That did seek after God.
Have all the workers of iniquity
no knowledge ?
Who eat up my people as they
cat bread.
And call not upon the Lord.
Have the workers of iniquitj' no
knowledge ?
Who eat up my people as they
eat bread.
And call not upon God.
THE EARLY AGES. 5S
In the first of these cases the existence of two
separate editions of the same poem is easily under-
stood. A couple of thousand years ago the compilers
of the Book of Psalms, the Jewish Church Hymnal,
extracted the poem for their collection out of 2
Samuel, or perhaps the author of 2 Samuel copied
it from the hymn-book to insert in his story. In
after - days this history and this hymn-book were
bound between the same covers, and thus we find two
separate copies of the poem, and what concerns us
most, we find that these two copies do not exactly
correspond.
Now, it has been argued that the difierences between
them point to a corruption of either or both the
copies, and as the Bible copyists of later days had
grown so extremely scrupulous about the accuracy of
the text, therefore the corruption probably belongs
to the Early Ages.
But do the discrepancies point to corruption at all ?
Not necessarily, I think. In all our present Church
Hymnals there are poems selected out of the works of
certain authors, and designedly shortened or modified
in some expression to make them suitable for singing
in church. Surely this may easily ha,ve happened
in the instances before us without any corruption or
carelessness at all.
Again, in the other pair of parallels, Ps. xiv. and
liii., we have an earlier and later edition of the same
hymn. What was to prevent the author from imjjroving
his poem or slightly altering an expression to make
56 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
it more suitable for tlie purpose for which it was
afterwards used ? Such is a very common case. Only
recently the magazines have been dealing with some
manuscript copies of Lord Tennyson's poems which
tell a curious story as to the many little variations
which the author had made between the first writing
of them and their appearance in print. Why should
not David or Solomon, or any other inspired writer,
take as much trouble as Lord Tennyson about a manu-
script poem, especially with the solemn feeling that he
was writing for the worship of the Temple of God.
And similarly may be explained, perhaps, many of
the discrepancies in the other passages referred to.
The reader will see that they are cases where the
author or compiler of a book transfers bodily into
his text a previous composition, either his own or
another's, as it suits his purpose. Now, in such a case
he is not necessarily bound to adhere strictly to the
letter of the borrowed passage. The author of the
Book of Kings, for example, transfers a long passage
out of Isaiah's writings, and in so doing varies it to
suit his purpose, making the history more minute and
circumstantial. There is no reason why he should
not, just as in the Psalter there is no reason why
the compiler of a hymn-book or the original writer
of a hymn should not insert or omit verses or slightly
alter an expression unsuitable to the occasion for
which the hymn was afterwards used. This should
cause no difficulty to us. There is much in the Bible
of compiling and editing of older writings, which
THE EARLY AGES. 57
surely ^as as mucli under God's guidance as were
the original writings themselves. The inspired writers
had as much freedom as any other writers in express-
ing the same thing differently at different times or in
adapting the words of earlier documents to suit their
present purposes.
Therefore we are not to assume that any two of
these similar passages must necessarily have agreed
originally word for word. In some cases the changes
seem clearly designed. At the same time, there can
be little doubt that many of the smaller verbal varia-
tions detected by this comparison of passages are the
result of inaccuracy on the part of some transcriber.
Let us take one example for illustration from each
of our specimens : —
(i.) 2 Sam, xxii. 11, "He was seen upon the
wings of the wind " is rendered in the parallel, Ps.
xviii. 10, "He did fly upon the wings of the wind."
It might seem at first sight probable that this was an
intentional change originally made. But when it is
pointed out that the Hebrew words are in the one
case i'iT'T ("He was seen"), and in the other ^}l''■)
("He did fly"), no unbiassed reader can avoid sus-
pecting a copyist's slip between that old pair of
eternal mischief-makers 1 and 1 (r and d)}
^ These letters closely resembled each other both in the earlier and
later alphabets, so this error may belong to later times. It is not easy
to give an example of copyist's error from similar letters that we can
with certainty assign to the Early Ages. Probably we shall find one
by comparing 2 Chron. xxii. i, 2, giving forty-two years as the age of
Ahaziah at his accession, with the parallel passage 2 Kings viii. 26,
58 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
(2.) Ps. xiv. 2, " The Lord (Hebrew, Jehovah)
looked down from heaven upon the childi*en of
men," &c., is rendered in the parallel, Ps. liii. 2, " God
looked down from heaven," &c.
This is a different class of variation altogether. It
points to a time early in Jewish history, when the
' ' unspeakable name " Jehovah began to be regarded
with such extreme reverence that there was the greatest
reluctance to pronounce it, even in reading the Bible.
So strong did this feeling become at one period, that it
was i^ublicly declared that, "Whosoever uttereth the
Sacred Name shall have no part in the world to come."
Therefore various expedients were devised. When
they met the word they read instead of it " The Name,"
or " God," or " Adonai." We shall hear more of this
afterwards in the notes of the Massoretes.
Here is evidently a case where, in making copies of
the Psalm for the Temple-singers, the word God was
not merely read, but actually substituted in the manu-
script for Jehovah ; and it is done, the reader will
see, everywhere that it occurs throughout this Psalm.
Clearly Ps. xiv. is the original poem, and the other is
a later copy of it. It is well for the reader, however,
which makes him only twenty-two. Similarity of letters might easily
cause this discrepancy, as the Jews, like ourselves, used letters to express
numbers, and the ancient letters for twenty and forty might easily be
mistaken one for the other. This may perhaps be the source of error
also in other very improbable numbers, such as the 50,070 men of the
little village of Bethshemesh (l Sam. vi. 19), slain for irreverence
toward the Ark of God, which, if it be an error, must belong to these
Early Ages, since it is copied in the Septuagint version of the follow-
ing period.
THE EARLY AGES. 59
to remember that this rare case of a copyist actually
altering a word intentionally proceeds, not from care-
lessness or controversial bias, but from the uttermost
extreme of reverence, and therefore gives no gi-oimds
for suspicion of inaccurate copying in general. Even
this could only have occurred in early times. A later
copyist would cut off his right hand rather than make
even such a triflinof alteration.
vn.
The Verdict.
Space will not permit of our entering more fully here
into this subject, or pointing out the passages in which
a copyist's error may probably exist.'^ The revisers'
margin may be investigated for some "various read-
ings " which they mention with approval, especially in
the historical books from Samuel to Chronicles, With
others we shall have to deal in the latter part of this
book. We are at present inquiring only as to the con-
dition of the text in its earliest period. The evidence,
it will be seen, is quite insufficient for any positive
decision on the matter ; but we are warranted at least
in saying that there is reason to believe that all the
copies of that period did not correspond minutely in
eveiy little word and letter. Besides the considera-
^ For example, that Saul was one year old when he began to reign
(see p. 193) ; the mistake about the name Vashni among the sons of
Samuel (i Chron. vi. 2S ; see specimen, p, 202) ; the defect in the
verse, " They pierced my hands and my feet " (Ps. xxii, 16), where the
Hebrew manuscripts make no sense at all (see specimen, p. 204).
6o THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
tions already presented there is this also to be taken
into account. Scholars are all agreed that some
superficial flaws exist in the Hebrew Bible of to-day.
If so, this early period must have had at least its full
share in producing them, partly because some of them
are repeated by the Septuagint version in the follow-
ing period, and therefore must belong to an earlier
date, partly because the continually increasing care
in the guardianship of the text made their occurrence
less probable after the days of Ezra.
CHAPTER VI.
THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
THE MEN OF THE GREAT SYNAGOGUE.
The Exiles' Return.
The second period in the " Story of the Manu-
scripts" extends frcm the time of Ezra to that of our
Lord, or more accnrately perhaps to the destruction of
Jerusalem, a.d. 70.
It is introduced by the touching scene in the
eighth chapter of Nehemiah, the thousands of re-
turned exiles that September morning bowing in wor-
ship in the " broad place that was before the Water
Gate " in Jerusalem, and Ezra the scribe, from the
puljoit of wood, reading to them out of his Hebrew
manuscript the almost forgotten words of Moses.
But the glory is departed of the ancient days ; the
holy tongue sounds strangely in ears accustomed so
long to the speech of their Chaldean masters — did
this feeling help to cause that sobbing through the
crowd ? — for we are told that the Scribes had to give
the sense with an interpretation so that the people
62 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
might understand the reading. This is an important
fact in the history of the text. From this time forth
the classic Hebrew of the Bible became almost exclu-
sively the property of the educated. The Jews for-
got their ancient language for the kindred Aramaic
of business life, just as the Scotch Highlanders and
the Irish to-day are forgetting their poetical mother-
tongue for the more useful English.
A few weeks afterwards there is another solemn
gathering, " when the children of Israel being as-
sembled with fasting and sackcloth and earth upon
them, separated themselves from all strangers, and
stood and confessed their sins and the iniquity of
their fathers." Who can read unmoved their pathetic
pleading? ''Thou art a gracious and a merciful
God. Now therefore, our God, the great, the mighty
and terrible God, let not all the trouble seem little
before Thee that hath come upon us since the time
of the kings of Assyria to this day. Howbeit Thou
art just in all that is brought upon us, for Thou hast
done right, but we have done wickedly." ^ And at
last, at the close of their pleading, comes that simple,
beautiful ceremony so expressive of their genuine
repentance and resolve — what an inspiration for a
powerful picture ! — the rough roll of skin produced
before the people inscribed with a solemn covenant of
service to Jehovah, the leaders standing forth in their
order ; first the priests, then the Levites, then the
1 Neb, ix. 32 ; x. 27.
THE MEN OF THE GREAT SYNAGOGUE. 63
chieftains of the tribes, one by one signing it in
Israel's name —
Nehemiah, the Tirshatha, son of Hachaliah ; ZecU-
kiah ; Seraiah; Azariah; Jeremiah; Pashur ;
and so on through the long roll. It is a scene worth
dwelling upon. Fourscore and four men solemnly
binding upon themselves and the people for whom
they signed "to do justly and love mercy, and
walk humbly with their God " — the Church of the
Eestoration unconsciously fitting itself for the hero-
days of the Maccabees. The true glory of Israel was
surely not past while such things were still possible
in the land.
II.
The Legend of the Great Synagogue.
That list of names, says Jewish tradition, is the
first muster-roll of the " men of the Great Synagogue,"
the men chosen as God's instruments for selecting
and revising and preserving for the world the books
of the Hebrew Bible. The tradition at least ex-
presses a perception of the fitness of such men for
this lofty work. For it was as true then as it was in
the days of the Wycliffe Bible in England, that he
who meddleth in such studies ' ' hath nede to live a
clene life and be full devout in preiers that the Holy
Spirit author of wisdom and cunnynge dresse him
for his work and sufier him not to err."
64 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
According to the Jews, Ezra was president of the
Great Synagogue, and at different periods Daniel,
Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Zerubbabel, Nehemiah,
&c., were members. It ceased, they say, at the death
of Simon the Just, the last of its members, about the
year 300 B.C.
Eound this assembly tradition clusters everything
important connected with the Jewish Bible. With
them ended the voices of the prophets. By them the
separate books were revised and edited and formed
into a Bible, so that nothing written after them would
be received as inspired. By their wisdom the pronun-
ciation was authoritatively fixed, and careful rules for
writing and interpretations were made to safeguard
the accuracy of the inspired Word. The authorship
of Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and the minor pro-
phets ; the change from the ancient Hebrew to the
present squai-e writing ; the beginning of the celebrated
notes of the Massorah ; the foundation of colleges for
Biblical study, and many things besides, with much
or little foundation, the Jews delight to associate with
the name of Ezra and his famous Great Synagogue.
Here is an extract from Rabbi Jacob ben Cha-
jim's well-known introduction to the Rabbinical Bible :
" And the men of the Great Synagogue, in whom was
heavenly light and powerful like the purest gold, on
whose hearts every study of the Law was engraved,
have set up marks, and built walls and bars and gates
to preserve the citadel in its splendour and brightness.
They came to the transparent cloud of its burning
THE MEN OF THE GREAT SYNAGOGUE. 65
doctrine ; they sanctified themselves to take the fire
from off the altar, so that no other hand might touch
and desecrate it. And the Spirit alighted upon them
as if by prophecy ; they wrote down their labours in
books, to which nothing is to be added ; and when
they had finished their work, the supernatural vision
and its sources were sealed, the glory and splendour
departed, and the angel of the Lord appeared no
more. For no one arose after them who could do as
they did. And now we are here this day gathering
the gleanings ; we capture the faint ones of their rear-
guard ; we run in their path day and night, and toil,
but can never come up to them."
III.
Is the Legend True?
How much of this old Jewish tradition is trust-
worthy it is very difficult to say. The Jews assert
that the story of the Great Synagogue is as certain as
almost any fact in their history ; while, on the other
hand, some modern critics regard it as little better
than a myth founded on the list of names in the Book
of Nehemiah.
There is not sufficient evidence for any positive
opinion as to the details of the subject. The main
facts, however, are beyond all reasonable doubt. We
know that there was gathered round Ezra a circle of
*'men of understanding" (Ezra viii. 16), with whom
E
66 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
he took counsel, and who helped him in his work,
some of whose names, too, are identical with those of
the " signers of the Roll."
We know also that, from that morning at the
Water Gate, when the " Great Scribe " stood with his
manuscript on the pulpit of wood, there never ceased
in Israel a regularly appointed Guild of Scribes.
They were the men whose business it was to copy
and preserve and expound to the people the ancient
oracles of God. They were the men also, a few cen-
turies later, who pursued to the death the Son of God
Himself.
Somewhere iu this period, too, must be placed the
collecting of the scattered Holy Books into a complete
Jewish Bible, when the Canon of the Old Testament
was closed ; so that no books written afterwards
would be received as inspii'ed. Whether this was done
gradually or at some one solemn council, whether it
was done by the traditional "Great Synagogue" or
no, are details that may very well be left open to
question.!
That the change to the later square writing took
place then is also positively certain. I do not see
why the Jews should not be right that it at least
^ There is a tradition probable enough, 2 Maccabees il 13, of the
library or collection that Nehemiah made, which, with other books,
contained the books about the Kings and Prophets, and the " Writings
of David." Thus may have begun the collection of the second part of
the Bible. The Pentateuch, of course, is not included in the list. It
was from its beginning ^Jar excellence " The Bible," reverenced by the
Jews and Samaritans alike. The latter reject all the rest of the
Scriptures.
THE MEN OF THE GREAT SYNAGOGUE. 67
began in the lifetime of Ezra. What more probable
than that the copy of the Law which he brought back
from Babylon should have been written in the new
square characters which during the days of their exile
had become so much more familiar to him and to
his fellows than the ancient handwriting of their fore-
fathers. At any rate there is positive evidence that
some of the manuscripts were thus written not very
long after Ezra's time. For on examining the Sep-
tuag-int (Greek Bible), translated during this period,
we discover several mistakes arising from this con-
fusion between similar letters, referred to already ; and
we find in many cases that the letters thus confused,
while similar in the new square alphabet, had no like-
ness at all in the ancient writing, and so could not
in it have been mistaken the one for the other.
That Ezra and the Great Synagogue so examined
and corrected the books of the Old Testament as to
leave them absolutely perfect has sometimes been
asserted in a past generation even by eminent Hebrew
scholars, but there is no good reason to believe any-
thing of the kind. They probably did all that ear-
nest scholarly men could do to correct copyists' errors.
They had every facility for so doing; in many
cases very likely the original autograph manuscripts
of the inspired writers were before them. But tliis
is the utmost that can be said. That the whole
Old Testament together was at any period absolutely
word for word as it left the hands of the writers no
one who understands its history will venture to say.
68 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
IV.
Ancient Criticisnn — Esau's Teeth.
But traces are not wanting in their day of the begin-
ning of a critical study of the text. They introduced
into their manuscripts the two "vowel letters," as
they are called, w and ?/ ("] and *»), to represent the two
principal sounds, and thus to give more definiteness to
the consonant-writing.^
They attempted, too, a crude sort of Biblical criti-
cism, such as the marking in a certain way words
about which there was something peculiar. The reader,
perhaps, will wonder how this can be known when no
one even of our most ancient writers has ever seen
one of these vanished copies. He will find, however,
in the following period of the history, that the copyists
there make notes about certain dots and marks which
had been transferred into their manusci'ipts from earlier
times, and which were so ancient that their meaning-
had even then become completely lost.
Some of their guesses at the meaning are rather
amusing. For instance, in the account of Esau's
meeting with Jacob, we are told (Gen. xxxiii. 4) that
he fell on his neck and kissed him, and the words
" and kissed him " are marked thus by these mysterious
dots, which remain to this day in our Hebrew Bibles.
^ There is no need of perplexing the reader with minute explana-
tions about these vowel letters. They must not be confused with the
vowel points mentioned already (p. 7, &c.), which did not appear for
one thousand years afterwards. But they were the first step in that
direction towards defining and fixing the true pronunciation.
THE MEN OF THE GREAT SYNAGOGUE. 69
Some of the old commentators were greatly exercised in
mind about the explanation of this. One thought they
denoted that the kiss was sincere ; another that it was
not sincere ; while a third wise teacher sagely informed
his readers that these dots were intended to represent
the marks of Esau's teeth, and to denote that Esau, in
pretending to kiss Jacob, really bit him ! I have some-
where met with an extraordinary inquiry into Jacob's
kissing Eachel, and why he lifted up his voice and wept,
but I do not think it much exceeds in absurdity this
wise sage's disquisition about Esau's kissing Jacob.
Stupid as it is, however, it is useful in pointing out
tlie antiquity of these critical remarks. Probably they
belonged to somewhere in this second period, and were
intended to denote some peculiarity about the words,
perhaps the Scribe's doubt as to their correctness.
Professor Abbott tells us, in the Church Quarterhj for
April 1889, that one ancient Jewish authority attributes
the marks to Ezra himself (not that that counts for
anything), and that he gives the curious reason for them
that Ezra, not being quite sure whether the words were
correct or not, dotted them, so as to save himself from
blame in either case — a sort of schoolboy trick, the
imputation of which is scarcely very flattering to the
" Great Scribe of the Law." " When Ezra," says he,
" was asked why he dotted a certain word, he replied,
' When Elijah comes, if he asks why I wrote down that
word I will answer, " I have already dotted it " {i.e., as
incorrect) ; but if he asks me why I dotted that word,
since it was correct, then I will rub out the dots ! ' "
70 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
A Famous Witness to the Great Synagogue Bible.
Now comes a very interesting question— Are the
Hebrew manuscripts which have come down to us
absolutely word for word the same as those which
were thus studied and criticised by the Scribes in
the ancient Great Synagogue days ? In the absence
of all the ancient manu-
scripts, is there any pos-
g* : sibility of answering this
^ : question ?
^ : Well, there is a witness
;* '; to be produced here too,
^ ;■ '• as in the earlier period.
o
^^ : \ The stream has, as it were,
^^ : \ been tapped again lower
^ ;■ \ down and a sample taken
■; which if it had been kept
: : \ pure would have been of
: ■; • incalculable value to-day
in determining for us the
condition of the ancient
Bible.
I refer to the " Sep-
tuagint," the Greek ver-
sion of the Old Testament,
which was begun about
280 years before Christ for the use of the Greek
THE MEN OF THE GREAT SYNAGOGUE. 71
speaking "Jews of the Dispersion,"^ and was the
Bible chiefly used by our Lord and His apostles. It
must, of course, have been translated from Hebrew
manuscripts of this period.
The strange story of this Septuagint is fully given
in Book ii. ; therefore we shall refer to it here merely
in so far as is necessary for our purpose of using it
as a witness.
The first thing that is revealed to us by a close
examination is that it agrees suhstantially right through
with our present Hebrew Bible, though differing from
it sometimes in minor details. Therefore, as we saw
in the case of the Samaritan Pentateuch at an earlier
date, this Septuagint is a most valuable witness to the
fact that our Hebrew Bible of to-day is substantially
the same book that was in use three hundred years
before Christ.
Now, this is a most important piece of evidence in
these sceptical days, and with all the defects of the
Samaritan and Septuagint, one must deeply regret the
foolish zeal of certain well-meaning wi'iters who, be-
cause these documents do not corroborate our Hebrew
Bible in every word, try all they can to discredit
them as mere corruptions of the Word of God which
scarce deserve to be mentioned at all in the investiga-
tion of the ancient text. In the first place, this is
not true, and if it were true it would be a very
bad thing for the Bible. For suppose it should be
objected that the Old Testament was a forgery of the
^ Jas. i. I ; I Pet. i. i (Revised Version).
72 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
Scribes shortly before the time of Christ, or that the
Jews had seriously tampered with the original deposit
on accomit of the support it gave to the hated Chris-
tianity, what a source of doubt and disturbance these
charges might become in the absence of all ancient
Hebrew manuscripts if God had not preserved for us
such providential proofs of the existence of the Bible
in those far-back ages, and of its all but complete
agreement with the Bible of to-day !
Let me, therefore, again call special attention to the
fact that the Pentateuch of the Samaritans i^voves the
substantial agreement of our Pentateuch with that fixe
hundred years hefore Christ, and that the Sc2Jtuagint
does the same for the vshole Old Testament a couple of
centuries later.
But in minor details the existing copies of the
Septuagint do not always exactly correspond with our
Hebrew Bible of to-day. In Jeremiah and Daniel,
and also in the historical books, there are many dis-
crepancies, some very trifling, some more important ;
and also in other books in a lesser degree. A fair
illustration of the average amount of variation may be
had by comparison of the Bible and Prayer-book ver-
sions of the Psalms. The Bible is, of course, trans-
lated from the Hebrew, but the Prayer-book version
is descended from the unrevised SeiDtuagint, and has
many minor variations, and even one rather serious
one — the addition to the 14 th Psalm of several verses
which have no right at all to be there, and which do
not exist in the best copies of the Septuagint.
THE MEN OF THE GREAT SYNAGOGUE. 72
In the PentateiTcli, the Septuagint and our Hebrew-
Bible are almost entirely the same. It is a significant
fact as to the purity of transmission of the Pentateuch
that, while in the late revision the margin of i Samuel
alone contains thirty references to Septuagint varia-
tions, that of the whole Pentateuch together contains
only four !
Now, what are we to say as to these discrepancies
in the Septuagint version ? Are we to discredit them,
as we have done in the case of our former witness,
the Samaritan Bible, or must they be received as proof
that the manuscripts of Great Synagogue days did not
exactly correspond with ours ?
Well, some of these discrepancies clearly arise from
mistakes in the Septuagint itself. At its best it was
not a very accurate version of the Palestine Bible, as
the reader will see for himself later on ; and to make
matters worse, its existing copies have become greatly
corrupted in the course of ages.
Nevertheless, after all allowance for the faults of
the Septuagint, there are certain of its variations from
our Hebrew Bible which it is evident to any scholarly
critic must be traced back to the Hebrew manuscripts
which lay before its translators as they wrote two
thousand years ago — variations, for example, for which
we cannot imagine any other possible explanation, or
variations which are confirmed by other ancient ver-
sions independent of the Septuagint. These must
have originated in the Hebrew manuscripts before
them.
74 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
True, these manuscripts before them were very
likely not at all as accurate as those of the Palestrae
Jews, and this fact must be allowed for in weighing
their evidence.
Not to obscure the subject by over- minuteness of
explanation, let it suffice here to state the belief among
scholSi's generally as the result of this comparison Avith
the Septuagint Bible, that while the " Great Syna-
gogue " manuscripts were in close substantial agree-
ment with our own, yet they were not absolutely word
for word uniform with ours, or even with each other.
There are plain traces of the existence of variations,
though of a trivial and superficial kind.
VI.
The "Abomination of Desolation."
B.C. 1 68. An awful inteiTuption in the work of
the Scribes ! A tremendous crisis in the history of
the Jewish Bible !
' ' 0 God, the heathen are come into Thine inhe-
ritance ; Thy holy Temple have they defiled, and made
Jerusalem an heap of stones! The dead bodies of
Thy servants have they given to be meat unto the
fowls of the air, and the flesh of Thy saints unto the
beasts of the land. Their blood have they shed like
water on every side of Jerusalem, and there was no
man to bury them ! " ^
How should I tell in a passing paragraph that story
1 Ps. Ixxix., most probably written at this period.
THE MEN OF THE GREAT SYNAGOGUE. 75
of the Maccabean days, curdling one's very blood with
liorror, while yet making every nerve thrill high with
the fierce excitement of battle and revenge ! In the
pages of Josephus, in the Books of the Maccabees,
find the story, and study it for yourself, my reader —
the invasion of Antiochus, the mad Syrian king ; the
raid not chiefly against city and people, but agaiust
God and religion and the holy manuscripts, the most
sacred treasure of the Jewish race.
Read of the patriots turning at bay, of the town
and Temple walls bespattered with blood, of Bibles
torn asunder and burned in the fire, of the fierce rage
of men, of the wailing of women, of the great sow
slaughtered in insult in the Temple itself, and the
broth of its filthy flesh spriukled, amid shouts of
laughter, on the sacred parchments ! ^
Look to the heights at the battle of Emmaus,
where fierce Judas the Maccabee prepares for re-
venge ; see the mourners in sackcloth calling upon
God, spreading out in the sunlight before Him the
charred and torn fragments of their holy books,
defiled by touch of the accursed Greeks, and painted all
over in wanton insult with the obscene figures of their
heathen gods." Ay, and though it does not concern
this history, look a little longer still ; hear the fierce
trumpet-blast of Israel's host; see the stem wan-iors
sweei^ing down from the hills crying for vengeance to
the God of Sabaoth. Enough of the wild story.
^ Josephus, Antiquities, xii. 5. 4; Diod. Sic, xxxiv. i.
^ I Maccabees iii. 46-50.
76 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
Full well that day did they avenge their wrongs, when
the blood of a thousand of the Syrian host atoned for
the swine-broth sprinkled on the Bible.
What would the world do, men ask, if it lost the
Bible ? Did you ever think, did you ever know,
reader, how nearly, humanly speaking, the world had
lost it — the Old Testament at least, and all of the
New which was quarried from the old ? The destruc-
tion of a few parchments flung into the fire meant
very little for the Syrian soldiers ; for us it went
perilously nigh to mean the Hebrew Bible swept away
for ever !
Nor was the danger over then. Solemnly, lovingly,
as the relics of the dead, were these sacred remnants
cherished by the nation, and new fair copies soon
replaced the old, copies perhaps honoured by the
touch of Christ. And then — another scene of horror,
another time of peril to the holy books, and Jerusalem
was captured, and the Temple lay in ruins, and in the
pile of the proud Romans' trophies lay the Temple
manuscript of the Books of Moses. ■^
And yet again, a half-century later, in the final
struggle of the Jews at Bethur, when Scribes and
manuscripts together were flung in hundreds into the
raging flames. Surely a higher than human care was
guarding that old Hebrew Bible !
^ Joseplius, Jewish Wars, vii. 5. 5.
CHAPTER VII.
THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
THE TALMUD PERIOD.
The College of Tiberias.
With the destruction of Jerusalem begins a new era
in the " Story of the Hebrew Manuscripts." The State
was broken up ; the Temple was in ruins ; it seemed as
if all now might well be at an end. But no. From
the moment that their national life died out at the
destruction of the holy city, the Jews, with nothing
left to live for in the present, threw themselves heart
and soul into the preservation of the relics of their
glorious past. The sacred wi'itings were everything
to them — their title-deeds, their national records, their
covenant with Jehovah. And so upon the sacred
writings their attention was centred with an earnest-
ness such as never had been known before. Religion
and patriotism united to inspire their reverence.
Every word, every letter, became holy in their eyes.
Quickly the centres of learning grew for the study
of the Hebrew Scriptures. At Japhneh, at Lydda,
78 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
at Caesarea, famous academies arose where grammar
and criticism and interpretation were taught. But
famous above all were the schools of Tiberias looking
out on the waters of the sacred lake. Travellers who
now visit the decaying little town remind us of the
glory of its ancient days — of turret and dome and
sculptured figure — of Herod's golden palace flashing
in the sun. Seldom do we hear of the greater ^lory,
when Herod and his golden palace were forgotten,
when earnest students paced its terraced paths in high
communings with the sages of their people, when
its archives were the treasuries of Biblical lore, and
the fame of its great schools was spread throughout
the Jewish world.
It was the last retreat of old Judaism in Palestine
before the advancing wave of Christianity. The Jewish
element reigned supreme. Not heathen or Samaritan
or dog of a Christian could find a resting-place within
its walls. It was the great university of the Hebrew
world, and many a glorious name figured on its roll.
Eabbi Judah the Holy was one of its teachers, and
Rabbi Johanan of Talmud fame, Aquila and Symma-
chus, the great Bible translators,^ were pujjils in its
halls of the Rabbi Akiba, whose life-story forms one
of the most romantic chapters in the whole of the
Hebrew literature. And even when its golden days
were over, when, retreating before the spread of Chris-
tianity, it had sent forth its greatest students into
other lands, the glory of the old academy lived again
* See Book ii, p. 158.
THE TALMUD PERIOD. 79
in the glory of her children, and Tiberias was almost
eclipsed by the Babylon schools on the banks of the
far Euphrates.
The Makers of the Talmud.
In almost every Jewish academy the whole com-se
of study was connected with the Scriptures, especially
with the Mosaic books. When Eabbi Ishmael was
asked at what time the "Greek wisdom" might be
studied, "At some hour," said he, "which is neither
day nor night, for it is written concerning the Book
of the Law, ' Day and night thou shalt meditate
therein ' " (Joshua i. 8).
It was not altogether, though, such a study as we
should approve of. Much attention was given to the
traditional explanations of the Torah or Law of Moses,
and the systematic collection of these traditions into
what was called the IMisrofA. In course of time, fear-
ing lest this oral JMishna should become lost or cor-
rupted, it was committed to writing, chiefly under the
care of Eabbi Judah and his confreres in the College
of Tiberias. And then there grew to it a series of
commentaries or " Gemaras," both in Palestine and
Babylon, till at length these increasing "traditions of
men " about the Scriptures threatened to bury altogether
the Scriptures themselves. The Mishna, together with
its Gemara or commentary, made up what is called
The Talmud. And by degrees this Talmud grew to be
8o THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
to them more important than the Scriptures them*
selves. " He that is learned in the Scriptures," said
they, *' and not in the Mishna, is a blockhead. The
Law was given to Moses by day, the Mishna by
night. The Law is like salt, the Mishna like pepper,
the Gemara like balmy spice." And thus their devo-
tion to the Talmud became the very curse of Judaism.
Professing to be the hedge and safeguard of the
Scriptures, it was really " making void the Word of
God by its tradition, teaching for doctrines the com-
mandments of men."
III.
Their " Biblical Criticism."
Fault-finding, however, is an ungracious task, espe-
cially with men to whom we owe so much as we do to
the Talmud Scribes. The making of the Talmud —
we shall hear more of it hereafter — was but part of
their work. For the other part — their critical care of
the Hebrew text — the world cannot be too thankful.
It is not easy to define exactly what they accom-
plished, for the work, as we have seen, was begun by
the Scribes, in the period before them, and finished
long afterwards in the days of the Massorets. They
did not attempt anything like a regular revision.
They marked certain readings that seemed to them
doubtful. If they met with a clear mistake they cor-
rected it in the margin, but seldom or never meddled
with the text. They gave minute directions about
THE TALMUD PERIOD. 8l
copying of manuscripts and cautions about such errors
as similar letters. They counted the number of verses
and words in each book in order to preserve it from
future corruption. They recorded, but in a rambling,
unmethodical way, the textual notes of their prede-
cessors for centuries before.
The Talmud contains many traces of their rough-
and-ready method of Bil^lical criticism. It enumerates
certain words which they found in their Bible manu-
scripts with a little mark already placed over them,
thus showing us that at least some rude sort of textual
criticism existed even before their days. These same
words may be seen in our Hebrew Bible to-day with
this mark above them, supposed by some to be the
" tittle " referred to by our Lord, and probably indi-
cating originally words that were omitted in some
manuscripts.
Their simple method of choosing between two vary-
ing readings in different manuscripts would certainly
not satisfy our revisers of the Jerusalem Cliamber,
with their perfect critical apparatus beside them.
There is a Talmud note, for instance, on Deut. xxxiii.
27 where the manuscripts disagreed as to a certain
word. " Eabbi Simeon -ben-Lakish said that three
copies were found in the hall of the Temple. In one
of them they found written ''2^Vl2 (Meoni), in two of
them r\2W2 (Meonah), and they adopted, therefore,
the text of the two against that of the one."
It was certainly a very mechanical mode, and one
that might easily have often set them wrong, for in
82 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
manuscripts, as in men, truth is by no means always
with the majority. But it was the best way they
knew. And, all things considered, we may be thank-
ful for their hard and fast rule of deciding by majority
instead of arbitrarily choosing, with their fanciful and
unscientific minds, what might seem to them the best
readings. Anyhow, the fact that they shrank from
introducing any changes into the text, and merely
kept them in the margin — for a long time, indeed,
only in their memories — does much to secure the text
even when they decided on the wrong word.
But the great security of the text amongst the
Talmudists is the extreme reverence and awe with
which it was regarded. Human nature is a strange
compound. The very men who practically were put-
ting their commentary in the place of the Bible almost
worshipped the letter of that Bible itself. They wrote
every word in it with scrupulous care ; they washed
their pens before the Holy Name ; they dared not
alter even a plain mistake except by a correction in
the margin of the text. " My son," said Eabbi
Ishmael, "take great heed how thou doest thy work,
for thy work is the work of Heaven, lest thou drop
or add a letter of the manuscript, and so become a
destroyer of the world." Never were saintly relics
reverenced as were these old manuscripts. Never was
a book so marvellously guarded. Nothing, surely, but
the conviction that " to them were committed the
oracles of God " could account for such a jealous care.-^
1 We have little conception of the awe and reverence of the Jew?
THE TALMUD PERIOD. §3
IV.
The Bible of the Academies.
Now, what was the condition of this carefully-
gnarded Bible of the academies in the early Christian
centuries as compared with that of our present Masso-
retic manuscripts ?
Though there are no Hebrew manuscripts of this
period remaining, yet by means of Greek and other
translations we can investigate the text up almost to
the days of our Lord. There are three celebrated
Greek versions — those of Aquila, Symmachus, and
Theodotion, made before the year 200 a.d.^ The first
two of these writers are said to have been students in
the College of Tiberias, and therefore would be wit-
nesses of the most approved Palestine text. Now, a
scholar can easily turn these translations back into
their original Hebrew, and then they are found to
agree, not exactly, but very closely, with the existing
manuscripts — much more closely than the Septuagint
version or the Pentateuch of the Samaritans.
The Syriac (Peshitto) version of the second century is
also clearly founded on Hebrew manuscripts like ours,
to this day for the words of the holy tougne. Even if it be not ScriiD-
ture, merely a leaf of the Hebrew Prayer-book which has got torn or
has fallen on the floor, it is touched with a superstitious awe, as an
idolater would touch his idol. To be sure, with the lower classes it is
more superstition than any real feeling of religion. The writer was
told by an eye-witness the other day of a Jewish boy treading inad-
vertently on such a page, and receiving from his horrified father a blow
that almost felled him to the ground.
^ For an account of these Versions see Book ii. p. 158.
U THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
and the Targums (i.e., translations into the common
vernacular of the Jews) seem to have precisely the
same text underlying them.
About A.D. 230 we have the testimony o£ Origan,
the best scholar of his age, who undertook to compare
in parallel columns the Hebrew with the Septuagint,
and the three other Greek versions just mentioned.
His evidence is to the same effect, with this addition,
that the Hebrew manuscripts of his day seem to have
been almost uniform in text. He seems never to
think of any variations, but to have before him a
standard Hebrew text, with which he labours to bring
the versions into agreement.
As we come down towards the year 400, the exist-
ence of the present Massoretic text is perfectly clear.
St. Jerome, the only Hebrew scholar of his day in
the Western Church, made his famous Vulgate version
from manuscripts almost exactly the same as ours. He
points out certain errors in the Septuagint which he
says " do not agree with the Hebrew," and quotes the
Hebrew exactly as it is now. He also, curiously
enough, writes out certain Hebrew verses in ordinary
Roman letters, showing us not only that he had it in
the passages quoted word for word as we have, but
also that he pronounced the words with the same
vowels as ours, though there were no vowel points in
existence in his time. Of course, they were Palestine
manuscripts that he used. His teachers were all
scribes from the Palestine schools. He tells us of
one who used to come by night to him, like Nicodemus,
THE TALMUD PERIOD. 85
" secretly for fear of the Jews ; " and in his preface
to the Books of Chronicles he mentions a doctor from
the College of Tiberias, in high esteem among the
Hebrews, as his principal instructor and helper in
the work.^
V.
The " Palestine Text"
We trace, then, back to the days of our Lord a
Hebrew text almost exactly the same as that which
has come down to us in the Massoretic manuscripts.
We have seen, too, that, from the care bestov/ed on it
before that time, we are justified in believing that, with
some slight variations, it is the identical text of the
" Great Synagogue " days, when many of the authors
of the later books were alive. Though there is but
little material for our history in the still earlier period,
all the evidence goes to show the marvellonsly correct
transmission of the Mosaic writings ; and whatever
variations existed in the manuscripts of the later books,
we have every reason to believe were corrected as far
las possible in the Great Synagogue days, when the
separate books were collected into a " Bible."
The reader will keep in mind that we are dealing
with the text as used hj the Palestine Jews. The
^ One of his teachers was the Rabbi Barrabanus, whose name, as a
great stroke of wit, was shortened into Barrabas by one of Jerome's assail-
ants. He is abusing Jerome for finding errors in the Septuagint, and
triumphantly demands, " AVhich are most likely to be right, the seventy
translators guided by the Holy Ghost, or the one translator guided by
Barrabas ? " Humour was not a strong point with these old fathers.
86 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
Samaritan Pentateuch and the (Greek) Septuagint
represent long-lost manuscripts, differing more or less
from this. They form a very interesting study, and
in some instances, as we shall see, suggest the true
readings in cases where the received text is faulty.
But we cannot depend on them. Our chief reason
for believing in the superior accuracy of the existing
Hebrew Scriptures is, that they contain the Palestine
text, which has been for all these ages in the hands
of scholarly priests and scribes, and guarded with the
most scrupulous care. The manuscripts used for the
Septuagint were in the hands of men who, as far as
we can judge, had neither the same Hebrew scholar-
ship, the same frightened awe about the letter of the
text, nor the same strict notions of a copyist's work
which obtained amongst the Palestine Jews. In
Alexandria especially, the home of the Septuagint,
the tendency was towards a much freer dealing with
Scripture than the rigid formal literalism of the Jews
of Palestine would allow. The sense, not the very
\\'ords and letters, was the chief consideration, and
they would probably not hesitate to slightly expand or
alter the form of an expression, if thus they could
express the sense more clearly.
Now, it is evident that this tone of mind, healthy as
it is in a student or expositor, is by no means con-
ducive to an accurate preserving and transmitting of
the text. The Palestine temper was the very opposite.
Be it narrowness and superstition, be it worship of
the letter while neglecting the spirit, be it foolish
THE TALMUD PERIOD. 87
mysticism about the meaning of trifles, hQ it what
it may, the fear and reverence engendered for every
jot and tittle of the sacred writings has been, in God's
providence, a most marvellous safeguard in the correct
transmission of the Old Testament in Palestine.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
THE DAYS OF THE MASSORETES.
Who were the Massoretes?
After the completion of the Talmud in the fifth
century the academies were freer than ever for the
study of the sacred text. We have seen that in the
previous periods a number of oral traditions had been
gradually accumulating respecting the right method of
reading the text, the accuracy of certain passages, &c.
These had grown to a considerable body of notes at
the close of the Talmud period, but were preserved
only in a confused way in the traditions of various
academies, and in the memories of various Rabbis.
But as the circumstances of their national life made it
increasingly difificult to preserve these oral traditions,
it now became desirable to collect them into some
order and commit them to writing, and this was the
beginning of the written Massorah, so famous in the
history of the Hebrew text. It will be remembered
that for ages all these notes and corrections were
THE DAYS OF THE MASSORETES. 89
oral, liaudecl down by tradition through the college*s
of the Scribes from one generation to another. They
were, therefore, always referred to as the Massorah,
i.e., the tradition ; the men who collected and committed
them to writing are called the Massoeetes, and the
text which these scholars have handed down to us
certified as in their opinion correct is known as the
Massoretic text. In the hands of the Massoretic
Scribes the original deposit was greatly enlarged and
improved. They arranged into a complete commentary
the remarks of their predecessors. They examined
the manuscripts critically and completely, whereas the
Talmudists had but made disconnected notes. They
studied the languages, the grammar, the interpretation
of the Scriptures. They invented the vowel points
and accents to stereotype the correct reading.
Thus slowly and gradually the Massorah ^ grew. It
belongs not to any one age or any one set of scholars.
It began probably with a few short technical notes to
guard against copyists' blunders in places liable to
error, and gradually grew during many ages into a
commentary on the whole text, a great " critical
apparatus " for the amending and preserving of the
Old Testament Scriptures.
Therefore, though we apply the terra to the men of
the period who completed and wrote the Massorah, the
Massoretes, in truth, might be said to have existed
"'■ The reader must keep clearly in mind that the Massorah was not
the text itself, but the mass of critical and other notes concerning the
text.
90 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
dmosfc from the clays of Ezra. " Indeed," says Elias
Levita, " there were hundreds and thousands of Mas-
soretes, and they continued, generation after generation,
for very many years."
Dr. Ginsburg, the highest living authority, puts the
beginning of the Massorah about three centuries before
Christ, and it was not completed for 1 300 years. What
we have here designated as the '' days of the Masso-
retes," i.e., the period when the Massorah was com-
pleted and written out, may be roughly set down at
from 500 to 1000 A.D.
II.
Contents of the Massorah.
A merely general notion of the contents of the
Massorah is all that can be given here. It deals
minutely with the books, sections, verses, words,
letters, vowel points, accents, and such matters. It
gives conjectures, or, where possible, definite correc-
tions, of anything apparently wrong in the text. It
indicates where anything was supposed to have been
added or left out or altered, or whether certain words
were written with or without the vowel letters (see
p. 68). It puts particular marks on words about
which there was anything in the least unusual. It
records the "various readings." It counts up the verses,
the words, even the letters of the separate books, and
invents mnemonic signs by which to remember them
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THE DAYS OF THE MASSORETES. 91
easily. It tells how often the same word occurs at
the beginning, middle, or end of a verse. It gives
the middle verse, the middle word, the middle letter,
of each book of the Law, &c., &c.
But to continue a long enumeration of this kind
will probably but confuse the reader. Clearness is
more important to aim at than completeness. There-
fore it will be best rather to try by means of a few
examples in simple form to leave in the reader's mind
a distinct, even if a very partial, notion of what the
Massorah contains.
III.
Its Two Classes of Notes.
At first the Massorah notes existed only in separate
books and sheets, which were used in the public
lectures of the Scribes. Afterwards, for convenience'
sake, they were transferred to the margin of the Old
Testament manuscripts. But this was very clumsily
done. The remarks were not always placed on the
same page with the verse to which they belonged. The
writers had a fashion, too, of making them up into all
sorts of fancy shapes, of men and fishes and flowers
and birds, as shown in the opposite photograph. If
there was too much matter for the figure, they did
not hesitate to transfer the overplus to the end of
the book ; if too little, they calmly inserted bits from
other places to fill up the gap. Thus it became a
92 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
Herculean task to reduce the Massorah into anything
like order.
The notes, for the most part, might be brought under
two separate heads referring to : —
(i.) What IS in the text. An elaborate system of
rules and annotations intended to secure the exact
transmission of the text before them in the smallest
particulars, to preserve from corruption every jot and
tittle of the Scriptures.
(2.) What SHOULD BE z?i the text. Corrections of
mistakes and guesses about doubtful readings, which,
however, they did not venture to meddle with in the
text itself, but only recorded in the margin of the
manuscript.
IV.
What is in the Text.
(i.) As the first illustration of the notes con-
cerning WHAT IS IN THE TEXT, I take an extract from
the " Massoreth - Hammassoreth " of Elias Levita, a
mediaeval writer on the Massorah, whom I have
referred to already —
" The Massoretes by their diligence have learned and
marked that the T in pn^ (Lev. xi. 42) is the middle
of all the letters of the Pentateuch ; that ' Moses
diligently sought ' (Lev. x. 1 6) is the middle of all the
words ; that * the breastplate ' verse (Lev. viii. 8) is
the middle of all the verses. This they have done in
THE DAYS OF THE MASSORETES. 93
all the sacred books. Moreover, they have counted
the verses, words, and letters of each section in the
Pentateuch, and made marks accordingly. Thus the
section ' Bereshith ' (the first section in Genesis) has
146 verses, the sign is amaziah." He means that the
Hebrew letters having regular numerical values like
our Roman numerals, the Hebrew letters amaziah,
like the Roman letters CXLVi., denote 146, and thus
make a mnemonic for the number of the vei'ses.
(2.) " They have also counted each separate letter
in the Scriptures, and have noted that —
"K (A) occurs 42,377 times.
"2(B) „ 35,218 „ &c., &c.
" Indeed," continues Levita, " a beautiful poem
was written long ago on this subject, beginning ' The
Tabernacle, the place of my court,' " &c.
Well, it is an ingenious poem anyhow, and a useful
poem for its purpose of enabling one to remember the
number of the letters. As to its beauty, there is no
accounting for tastes. I fear, though, its claim can
only be based on the philosophical principle that "the
useful is the truly beautiful," on which principle we
have an exquisitely beautiful poem in English, begin-
ning—
" Thirty clays hath September,
April, June, and November," &c.
Here is the first stanza of this " beautiful poem "
94
THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
on the letter J«} (A). I represent the Hebrew by
English letters : —
"AcHEL Mekon Benyanai,
SHesham Halo Zekeenai."
" Tlie Tabernacle is my court,
Whither my elders do resort."
" The whole congregation " For a sacrifice of peace
together was forty and two offering, two oxen, five rams,
thousand three hundred and five he goats, five lambs"
threescore " (Neh. vii. 66). (Numb. vii. 17).
Now for the explanation of this " poem." In the
above Hebrew words the " A." marks the letter dis-
cussed, the other initial letters, M., B., SH., H., Z.,
represent numbers whose total value is 42,377, the
number of A's in the Old Testament. To make assur-
ance doubly sure, the two verses underneath are added
as a further mnemonic : the number of the congre-
gation in one verse (42,360), and the number of
animals in the other ( 1 7), when added together, make
the same number, 42,377. Thus every letter in the
alphabet is laboriously gone through, with the pious
object of preventing the insertion or omission of a
single letter in the deposit committed to them by
God. I dare say these precautions were not always
effectual. It would require a high faith in human
nature to believe that every scribe took the trouble
of counting and checking the separate letters in his
manuscript. Yet it must have been in some degree
a security against errors, and in any case it shows the
THE DAYS OF THE MASSORETES. 95
care with vrhicli the appointed record-keepers of God
guarded their sacred charge.
(3.) Again, they would put asterisks, or rather
little circles, over certain words in a verse, calling
attention to a footnote. If the word occurs only in
that place the note says, " None other ; " if more than
oncBj it announces, " three, four, six, &c., times,"
giving the places where it occurs, something after the
style of Cruden's Concordance, only that the old Mas-
soretes had not the convenience of numbered chapters
and verses. These were usually words about which a
copyist might easily err ; for example, under the phrase
" The Spirit of God " (Elohim) the note says " It occurs
8 times,"' and indicates the places. In all other cases but
these eight it is " The Spirit of The Lord " (Jehovah),
and the note keeps the copyist from dropping into this
easy mistake of writing the more common phrase. They
write also such notes as these : — " There are two verses
in the Torah (Law) beginning with M : eleven verses
in which the first and last letter is N : there are forty
vers-es in which Lo is read three times," &c. They
explain that such a verb is connected with such a
noun, such a word should be so construed, and so on.
(4.) Here is a curious illustration of another class
of notes. I give it to show the marvellous carefulness
of these men, and how they considered no detail too
minute or insignificant to be attended to in their
sacred guardianship of the Word of God.
96 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
In Joshua ix. i we read : " When all the kings that
were on this side Jordan, the Hittite and the Amorite,
the Canaanite, the Perizzite, the Hivite, and the Jebusite,
heard thereof." Here are six kings mentioned, and
the conjunction " and " occurs only twice, before the
second and before the sixtli. What possible safe-
guard can there be to preserve that insignificant little
word in its proper position ? Would not a" copyist, if
not especially on . his guard, almost inevitably get it
into the wrong places ?
See how the Massoretes guard against this danger.
Underneath this verse about the kings they put,
in a footnote, a little catch-word, " The gold roil
THE KINGS," and refer us to a certain section in
the Book of Numbers. There we find the word
Gold in Numb. xxxi. 22, which reads as follows:
" Only the Gold and the silver, the brass, the iron, the
tin, and the lead." Here again we have six nouns, and
wc find that the conjunction *' and " is before the
second and sixth. Thus we learn that these are the
right positions for the conjunction in the verse from
which we have been referred. These two verses are
thus a check on each other — a check which, though it
seem slight to the English reader, was effective enough
for the Hebrew Scribes, with their intimate knowledge
of and scrupulous care for every letter of the text.
But whatever be the reader's estimate of its value, in
any case it illustrates the laborious and accurate care-
fulness of the Massoretes.
THE DAYS OF THE MASSORETES. 97
V.
What should be in the text.
The above are examples of their care to preserve
iincorrupt what is in the text. But sometimes they
had reason to believe that the manuscripts before
them had become corrupted already in some places,
and this necessitated another set of marginal com-
ments to indicate in their opinion what should he in
the text, for their reverence for the sacred letters {i.e.,
the consonants) of the text itself was carried so far
that they would not dare to meddle with them, even
to correct an obvious mistake. The reader must learn
the two Hebrew words continually used in this class
of notes : —
np = Keri = what must be read.
2^/13 = Kethibh = what is written.
(i.) Suppose, now, the Massoretes, in making a new
copy, found in the manuscript before them a word
which they had reason to believe was incorrect. Their
superstitious reverence for the text would not allow
them to correct it boldly. What then did they do ?
They wrote down in their new copy the consonants of
this incorrect word just as they found them. Then
they wrote in the margin the consonants of what they
believed to be the correct word, and put its voivels under
the consonants of the wrong word which they had
just transcribed, with an asterisk calling attention to
the margin. This incorrect word in the text then
with these vowels could not be read without making
G
98 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
nonsense, so the reader had to turn to the consonants
of the right word in the margin. It was as if we
should print in our English Bible : —
Bless the Lord, O my soul, and , „ ,
•^ * Read B N P T s.
forget not all His CgMMgNDM^NTS.*
i,c., "benefits" is the word that should be read
instead of " commandments." The right word in the
margin was called the " Keri " (what should be read).
The wrong word in the test was the " Kethibh " (that
which is written). There is a good example in Ps.
xvi. 10, where the text has "Thy holy ones," while
the " Keri " correctly gives the singular in the margin,
" Suffer Thine Holy Oyic to see corruption." The most
frequent example of a " Keri " is the unutterable name
JnvH, which, owing to the " Keri," we have learned to
mispronounce as Jehovah. No one can tell now with
any certainty what are its true vowels ; probably it
should be read as Yahveh. With such awe was the word
regarded that it was forbidden to be uttered by any
except the high priest, and by him only once a year
in the Holy of Holies.'^ On all other occasions the word
1 One old legend tells that whenever the high priest pronounced the
name it was heard as far as to Jericho, but all the hearers immediately
forgot it. Later stories attribute the miracles of Jesus to His utter-
ance of the Sacred Name, the true pronunciation of which He had
learned in some mysterious way. But the most curious thing about
this old superstition is the way in which its results remain to us still.
In consequence of it the Septuagint version always used the word
LoED for Jhvh, and through the Septuagint the habit has crept not
only into the works of the New Testament writers, who all used the
Septuagint, but even into our English Old Testament of to-daj', often
very much spoiling the force and meaning in passages where Jehovah
is contrasted with other gods.
THE DAYS OF THE MASSORETES. 99
Adonai (Lord) was usually directed to be read instead,
and to indicate this the vowels of AgD^^Nj were put under
the letters of the " most holy w^ord," thus 3^Ti^ji.
(2.) One class of the marginal " Keris " was, I should
think, rather a danger than a protection to the text,
though, at the same time, one could wish that some
of them were retained to-day in our English Bibles
for reading the Old Testament Lessons in church. They
are called euphemistic " Keris." Where a coarse, inde-
corous expression occurs in the text, the Scribes, while
not daring to meddle with the expression itself, put
in the margin words that were more fitted for reading
in public, and the "Keri" directed that the reader
should use them instead of the others.
3. Sometimes a word or phrase is in the text that
should he omitted — a usual case is where the copyist
has carelessly repeated a word. The reader will pro-
bably find examples often in his own letter- writing of
such redundancy ; it is a very common slip of writers.
In such a case we should just score out the word.
The Massoretes dared not do this, so they left its con-
sonants in the text, but called attention to the error
by leaving it without vowels, and writing in the mar-
gin, " KetJiihh, not Keri," i.e., "Written, but not to
be read;"-^ as, for example, Jer. li. 3 : " Against the
bender let the archer bend his bow," where the word
1 The Mcassorah gives eight instances : Ruth iii. 12 ; 2 Sam. xiii. 33,
XV, 21; 2 Kinga v. 18; Jer. xxxviii. 16, xxxix. 12, li. 3; Ezek.
xlviii. 16.
lOo THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
"bender" has been repeated by a slip of some early
copyist, or, for aught we know, of the original writer
himself. This is how it appears in the Massoretic
manuscripts : —
AG.^jNST THg Bj^ND^R TH BNDR '" * Kethibh, not Keri
LqT THg ARCHER B^ND HjS B^W (written ; not to be rend),
4. The converse of this case occurs very frequently.
The context clearly shows that one or more words
have been omitted. The Massoretes, of course, would
not supply the words, but leave a blank wherein they
insert the votvds required by the missing word or
words, and put the consonants of them in the margin
with a note, " Keri, not Kethibh," i.e., " Should be
read, though not written." ^ Take, as an example,
2 Sam. viii. 3 : —
Hg WgNT Tq RgCoV^R HiS B^RD^R ♦ phkts, Keri, nut Ketliibh
AT THg RiVgR ^^^ . . . ^. . . '"" (to be read, though not written).
i.e., in the opinion of the Massoretes, the word g^PHR^TS
(Euphrates) should be read after " river."
It may be well to remark here that these notes,
while showing the extreme care of the Massoretes, must
not always be regarded as infallible. We have to use
our judgment and the ancient versions in deciding.
Our English Authorised Version follows sometimes the
"Keri" (marginal correction), sometimes the "Kethibh"
(what is written, in text). The Ee vised Version seems
usually to prefer keeping the " Kethibh " in the text
1 The Massorah gives ten instances, some of which are questioned in
the Revised Version : Judges x. 13 ; Ruth iii, 5, 17 ; 2 Sam. viii. 3,
xvi. 23, xviii. 20; 2 Kings xix. 31, 37 ; Jer. xxxi. 38, 1. 29.
THE DAYS OF THE MASSORETES. loi
and leaving the " Keri " in the margin, with the note,
" Another reading is," ^ &c.
This is one of the great advantages of the Massoretic
reverence for the letter of the text. We not only get
their opinion in the margin as to the right reading,
but we have preserved for us also in the test the old
reading, which they rightly or wrongly regarde-d as
incorrect. If they, with their defective knowledge of
textual criticism, had ventured to correct the text as
they thought best, they would probably have done as
much harm as good, and the old, and in many cases
true, readings would have been entirely lost.
VI.
The Vowels and Accents.
The invention of the vowel-points is another very
important part of the work of the Massoretes. This
subject has been already dealt with in an earlier
chapter. It is scarcely necessary to add anything
further here, except, perhaps, to emphasise the fact
that the Massoretic vowel-system did not introduce
any change in the old traditional reading, but only
fixed and stereotyped it. The Massoretes found certain
vowel-sounds supplied in the reading of the consonant
text. They merely invented signs to represent these
sounds, so that there should be no possibility after-
wards of any variation in the reading. These vowel-
^ There are cases, however, such as Ps. c. 3 ; Isa. ix. 3, where the
revisers have made a great improvement by substituting the " Keri "
of the Massoretes for the " Kethibh," which has been retained in the
Authorised Version (see specimen, p. 206).
102 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
signs tliey regarded as a mere human unconsecrated
thing, quite external to the holy text itself, and only
used for convenience' sake.-^ They never admitted
them into the sacred rolls of the Synagogue.
It is, therefore, scarcely necessary to add that we
are not bound to accept the Massoretic vowels as in-
fallible. They represent the highest tradition as to
the correct reading. They are generally the only pos-
sible reading. But we must remember that the original
authors of the Bible wrote only the consonants. There-
fore, if in any particular place we are able to make
sense by reading the vowels differently, it is quite
possible that our reading may be right. See, for ex-
ample, " Jacob's bed " and " Jacob's staff" in page i 2.
We owe to them also the Hebrew accents, those
curious marks that may be noticed in our specimen
(p. i), dotted about over the text. I despair of
arousing my readers' enthusiasm about these accents,
mere grammar marks, as they have grown to be to the
English reader of Hebrew now, or, at most, signs for
recording the true chanting tones of the Synagogue.
Only the living voice — only, I think, the Jewish voice
can convey any idea of this beautiful contrivance
for recording the modulations and inflections of the
speaker's tones. They almost placed upon the paper
the spoken words. They marked the sense and logical
connection. They represented pause, emphasis, emo-
^ The story in Chapter II. of the controversy about the vowel-points
in Reformation times refers, of course, to a half -educated body of Jews
six hundred years after this period.
THE DAYS OF THE MASSORETES. 103
tion, whisper, tremulousness — everything that we im-
perfectly try to denote by italics, and capitals, and
dashes, and punctuation marks. Get a refined, educated
Jew, an enthusiastic man, capable of flashing eyes and
trembling excitement over his subject ; let him read
for you a touching passage in the Prophets according
to these accents by which the Massoretes tried to re-
produce the original utterance, and you will — well at
least you will probably be very much dissatisfied with
the reading of the First Lesson in church the next
Sunday.
VII.
Manuscript Copying.
Their rules for copying Synagogue manuscripts will
help to emphasise what has been said as to the pre-
cautions against transcribers' errors.
They must be transcribed from an ancient and
approved manuscript solely with pure black ink made
of soot, charcoal, and honey, upon the skin of a
" clean " animal prepared expressly for the purpose
by a Jew. The sheets or skins are to be fastened
together with strings made from the sinews of a clean
animal. The scribe must not write a single word
from memory; he must attentively look upon each
individual word in his exemplar, and orally pronounce
it before writing it down. In writing any of the
sacred names of God, he must solemnise his mind by
devotion and reverence ; before writing any of them
he must wash his pen ; before writing the Ineffable
I04 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
Name (Jhvh) he must wash his whole body. The
copy must be examined within thirteen days. Some
writers assert that the mistake of a single letter
vitiates the entire codex ; others assert that it is per-
mitted to correct three in any one sheet ; if more
are found the copy is to be condemned as profane.
Probably many of the Synagogue rolls in Gentile
libraries to-day are only these discarded copies.'^
viii.
The Last of the Massoretes.
Foremost in the great work of the Massorah was
the College of Tiberias, and away on the Euphrates
the Babylon schools, now rivalling their ancient mother
in repute. The two sets of scholars worked indepen-
dently of each other, and did not always entirely
agree in their result. The points of difference, how-
ever, are of very minor importance, and the Western
or Palestine school ultimately prevailed, though not to
the entire exclusion of the other.
I wish, reader, it were allowed me, in closing this
chapter, to write for you the story of " The Last of the
Massoretes;" to tell of the Massorah completed ; of the
academies broken up and rude Arab tribes holding
revel in the halls ; of outcast Jewish scholars wander-
ing through the land to seek precarious shelter in
Germany and Spain. About the year when William
the Conqueror was born Aaron ben-Asher was Prin-
^ See Scott Porter, Text Crit., p. 72, note.
THE DAYS OF THE MASSORETES. 105
cipal of the College of Tiberias, and Jacob ben-
Naplitliali of the Babylon schools, and no man was
enrolled after them in the number of the Massorah
Scribes. Two famous Rabbis were they, worthy to
close the long illustrious list of the scholarly " men
of the Massorah." Each of them exerted his powers
to the utmost that his academy should produce an
immaculate copy of the Scriptures, and in such reputa-
tion were their manuscripts held that they became the
standards for the Massoretic text.
But history affords no materials for the story. No
liistoi'ian of their day recognised their importance.
No chronicler was touched by the romantic nobleness
of the task, to picture the last days of the rival
academies and the end of the great work thii'teeu
centuries long. Silent and signless the Massoretes
disappeared. Let us not forget what we owe to their
labours. Let us not be unmindful of His good hand
upon us who sent them to preserve for us the " Oracles
of God."
IX.
A Mysterious Document
Now that we have gone through the " Story of the
Manuscripts," we cannot help feeling that an important
question still remains unsolved. What was the docu-
ment from which the Massoretic manuscripts were
copied ? No one can look over a number of these
manuscripts, or even examine the printed text of an
ordinary Hebrew Bible, noticing how every peculiarly
io6 THE STORY OF THE MANUSCRIPTS.
sliaped letter, every correction, nay, even every little
irregularity and error, is exactly reproduced in all of
them alike, without feeling convinced that there must
have heen some one document with these peculiarities
•which luas made the archetype or standard of the Mas-
sorctic text. Where did this mysterious document
come from ? Was it a manuscript made by the men
of the Great Synagogue as the result of revision ?
Was it one of the "Temple copies" referred to in
p. 8 1 ? Was it a " Codex of Ezra," such as tradi-
tion tells of, or a standard selected in conclave by the
Scribes ? Or had it another and more tragic story —
some dread crisis in the history of the nation — in the
struggle with Antiochus — in the massacre at Bethur ?
Is there a lost picture somewhere in the ancient story
— the hunted patriots hiding in the mountains ; the
soiled and torn fragments of the Hebrew manuscripts
gathered together from their places of concealment,
of some of the books only two or three, of some per-
haps but a single copy, stained with blood, shrivelled
by fire, all that remains to them of their sacred
records ?
What wonder if it were so in those awful days when
the Bible so nearly perished altogether ! What won-
der if from these few manuscripts came the " Standard
Bible," the ancestor of this mysteriously uniform text ?
These are all but guesses, reader. We can only
guess. The dim past holds its secret still as to the
oriffin of this " Standard Bible."
CHAPTER IX.
NOTES AND jfOTTINGS.
After tlie dispersion of the Jewish academies many
Hebrew scholars fled to Europe, especially to Spain,
where the critical study of the Bible and tradition was
still carried on The result of their work, however, is
not to us of much importance, since the text was long
before this time completely fixed. Their writings are
chiefly of value on account of the manuscripts which
they had before them, many of which have since been
lost to the world.
Amongst the famous names of this period often
met with in Commentaries on the Bible are those of
Aben-Ezra, Rashi, David Ivimchi, and the great
Maimonides, the Jewish Luther, of whom it is written,
'"From Moses of Sinai to Moses Maimonides, no man
like him lived."
The first printed portion of the Hebrew Scripture
was the Book of Psalms, published a.d. 1477.
Io8 NOTES AND JOTTINGS.
The most importfiut of all the earlier Hebrew Bibles
was issued, iu the sixteenth century by Daniel Bom-
berg of Venice, whose editor-in-chief was a very
famous scholar, the Rabbi Jacob - ben - Chajim, an
African Jew. It is most refreshing to watch this old
Hebrew's enthusiasm over his work, and to note, even in
so dry a document as an " Introduction to the Rab-
binical Bible," the little touclies revealing his character
and his moral fitness for so important a task. He is
greatly delighted witli his employer's zeal. " Seignior
Daniel Bomberg," he writes, " did all in his power to
send into all countries in order to searcli what may be
found of the Massorah. He was not backward, nor
did he draw back his right hand from producing gold
out of his purse to defray the expenses of books and
messengers. . . . Like a bear bereft of her young
ones, he hastened to this work, for he loved the
daughter of Jacob."
A beautiful trait in his character is his simple
modesty so indicative of a superior mind. When
Bomberg proposed to him this great work, " I told
him," he says, "that I did not know as much as
he thought, in accordance with what we read at the
end of chap. ii. of the Jerusalem Maccoth, ' A man
who knows only one book when he is in a place
where he is respected for knowing two is in duty
bound to say, ' I know only one book.' "
It is rather amusing to compare the modesty of
ben Chajim with that of another great contemporary
worker at the Massorah notes, Elias Levita, whose
NOTES AND JOTTINGS. 109
name has already occurred in the preceding pages.
"I have seen," he says, "that it is not good for this
my book to be alone. I will therefore make it an
helpmeet for it." And so he writes a poetical intro-
duction in which he tells how people could not under-
stand the Massoretic notes : —
" Till the clay it was said to me by ray estimable friends,
' What doest thou here, Elias ? Throw light upon the Massorah.
For the glory of God and Holy "Writ explain to us the ]\Iassorali.'
When the Prince heard me, then lie kissed me with the kisses
of his mouth,
Saying, 'Art thou that my lord Elias whose books are over
all countries 1 ' "
After Bomberg's Bible comes a long series of edi-
tions reaching down to the present century. Much
time and money and labour were expended in collect-
ing and comparing Hebrew manuscripts for the pre-
paration of the Bibles, but the result was very dis-
appointing. No discoveries of any importance were
made ; nothing earlier than the Massoretic manuscripts
could anywhere be found, and these were almost word
for word the same.
Would you care to be shown, reader, an ancient
picture of the maldng of the " Standard Hebrew
Bible," ^ whose origin is enveloped in mystery, whoso
manuscripts have been copied with such scrupulous
care that even its little flaws have come down to
1 See Chap. VIII. p. 106.
no NOTES AND JOTTINGS.
us untouclied? The picture rises irresistibly before
me from a page of my English Bible.
There is the old copyist seated at his desk patiently
transcribing letter by letter the wearisome list of names
in I Chron. viii., ix. — name after name — name after
name — in monotonous succession. At last he stops
and lays down his pen. He has just written the
words, " These dwelt at Jerusalem.^' • This will
do nicely for a catch-word to find his place again
when he returns, and so repeating the words to him-
self the old man retires to rest.
I see him next day resuming his task. He arranges
his parchments, he looks at the, catch-word, the last he
has written, and raising his eyes to the manuscript
before him, they light on the words, h^ct at the top of
the jprccedhuj jx<//c, " These dwelt at Jerusalem,"
and calmly he goes on from that, in blissful uncon-
sciousness that he is writing over again his yesterday's
work.
You can find that little picture for yourself, my
reader, if you open your English Bible at i Chron.
ix. 34. This is the verse where the old scribe stopped
at " These dwelt at Jerusalem ; " and if you look up
to the 28th verse of the preceding chapter, you will
find the same words in the line that caught his eye
when he returned, and you will see he has written
over again after ix. 34 a good deal of the passage
that follows viii. 28.
Compared with the vast amount of labour expended
NOTES AND jfOTTINGS. ill
on the textual criticism of the New Testament, very little
indeed has been done for the Old. Unfortunately,
when the question of the perfect accuracy of the Old
Testament text was first started in the Reformation
days, it became at once, like that of the vowel-points, a
party contest instead of an unbiassed search for the
truth. The good fathers of the Council of Trent, in-
nocent of any knowledge of Hebrew themselves, and
desirous to laud up the authority of the (Latin) Vul-
gate, the Authorised Version of the Western Church of
that day, threw doubts upon the correct transmission
of the Hebrew manuscripts in the hands of the " unbe-
lieving Jews." This, of course, was quite enough to
rouse the Protestants to the defence of it, so that the
accuracy of the Hebrew Old Testament soon became
with them almost an article of faith, and, like many of
the party shibboleths of to-day, was most violently in-
sisted on by those who were least capable of forming a
judgment about it. His " views were unsound," he was
" tending to Popery," who openly expressed his doubts
upon the question, and so the odium theologicum, as so
often before and since, muzzled the honest seeking for
the truth, and the unbiassed scholarly study of the
subject was thrown back for centuries.
Though much has been already done we have still
great need of a good critical edition of the Old Testa-
ment, embodying the chief results of modern scholar-
ship. There is, of course, in the absence of all manu-
scripts of earlier than Massoretic times, a great drawback
112 NOTES AND JOTTINGS.
to the critical study of the Old Testament, as compared
with the New. But much more might be done with
the material at hand, especially with the ancient ver-
sions, which, if thoroughly investigated, are capable of
throwing much light upon the Hebrew test. There is
reason to hope that our own generation will not be
entirely unfruitful in this direction. We are promised
very soon Dr. Ginsburg's critical edition of the Masso-
retic text ; the Bishop of Salisbury is busy with the
Vulgate of the New Testament, which we trust will
soon be followed by that of the Old. Swete's scholarly
edition of the Septuagint is in course of completion,
and students are already busying themselves with the
great treasury of Syriac manuscripts stored up in the
library of the British Museum and elsewhere. But
many years must elapse before any important results
are attained in the investigation of the Hebrew Scrip-
tures. The recent revision of the Old Testament was
undertaken at least half-a-century too soon.
As to the right attitude to adopt with regard to the
present Hebrew text, we may say that the best scholars
receive it without hesitation as substantially accurate,
at the same time lea\T[ng themselves open to accept
any really well-authenticated corrections by means of
the ancient versions.
In speaking thus plainly about the probability of
errors in the Scriptures, there is great danger that
an exaggerated impression should be caused as to the
NOTES AND JOTTINGS. 113
extent o£ these errors. The reader should be reminded
that the great majority are of the most trivial kind,
misspelling or transposing of words, omitting or in-
serting of insignificant particles, and such like. The
New Testament variations are enormously more in
number than those which probably will ever be dis-
covered in the Old, and yet two of our greatest textual
critics have asserted in a recent famous book^ that the
New Testament variations of any importance, if all put
together, would not exceed the one-thoiiscmdtJi part of
the whole text.
Some readers will perhaps be disturbed at finding
that the Old Testament has not been transmitted to
us absolutely word for word correct. Well, such is
the case anyhow ; and whether we like it or no, there
is no use in quarrelling with facts. We know with
certainty that we have the substance of God's revelation
exactly as the original writers had it ; that we cannot
say the same of every letter and syllable is surely not
of so very much account. And perhaps it may not be
altogether an unmixed evil either. It may help men
to broader and truer notions of what inspiration really
means. It may teach that not the ignorant worship
of the letter, but the honest learning and obeying of
the spirit of His revelation is what God values, since
He has left the words of the Bible in some degree to
run the same risks as the words of other books, while
taking care that its substance should come down to us
^ Westcott and Hort's Introduction to the Greek New Testament.
H
114 NOTES AND JOTTINGS.
as originally given. It is surely instructive to see our
Lord and His apostles content to use a Bible (tlie
Septuagint) which, while giving faithfully the sub-
stance of God's Word, was often very inaccurate in
minor details. We have a much more accurate Bible
than they. But whatever our feeling about the matter,
we should remember that we have it as God has thought
fit to let us have it. Had it been necessary to His pm%
poses that the text should have been miraculously
preserved from the slightest flaw, we need have no
doubt but that this would have been accomplished.
Boom M.
THE OTHER OLD DOCUMENTS,
AND THEIR USE IN
BIBLICAL CRITICISM.
INTRODUCTION.
Having now learned something of the history and
present condition of the " Old Hebrew Documents,"
we have next to examine some of the " Other Old
Documents," i.e., the various ancient Bibles which are
used by critics in the investigation of the Hebrew text.
The reader will easily understand from the previous
history the importance of these Bibles. All the old
Hebrew manuscripts before A.D. 9 00 have vanished
from the earth ; unless in the very improbable event
of some future romantic discovery in tombs or buried
cities, we shall never be able to examine one of them.
But these ancient Bibles were translated from those old
vanished manuscripts ages and ages ago. Therefore
the interrogating of them is like going back a thousand
years behind our existing manuscripts and asking the
men of our Lord's day, and even of long before, " How
did that vanished old Hebrew Bible of yours read this
or that disputed passage ? "
Unfortunately, the value of their evidence also is
lessened, as might be expected, by the same slips and
errors of copyists whose existence in the Hebrew
Bible has sent us to seek their aid. In the following
pages we shall deal with the more important of these
ancient Bibles.
DOCUMENT No. I.
THE PENTATEUCH OF THE SAMARITANS.
The Holy Manuscript of Nablous.
It had often been noticed with some curiosity,
especially at the Reformation times, in the disputes
about the Hebrew Bible, that in the works of certain
old fathers, Origen, and St. Jerome, and Eusebius the
historian, and others, there were references to " the
ancient Hehrew according to the Samaritans," as dis-
tinguished from the " Hebrew according to the Jews,"
and notes made of certain discrepancies existing be-
tween them. What could these references mean?
No one in Europe knew anything about a " Samaritan
Hebrew." Was it merely an error of these ancient
fathers, or did there somewhere exist a Hebrew Bible
differing from that which had come down to us through
the Jews ?
As time went on and nothing was discovered about
it, it gradually began to be forgotten or relegated to
the region of ancient fiction ; until one day, early in
the seventeenth century, when Biblical students were
startled by the announcement that a copy of this
THE PENTATEUCH OF THE SAMARITANS. 119
mysterious document had arrived in Europe, having
been discovered by a traveller among the Samaritans
of Damascus.
It was a very venerable-looking manuscript, written
in the unfamiliar ancient Hebrew letters, and for that
reason at first very difficult to read.
Soon afterwards another copy was found in Egypt,
but was captured by pirates, with the ship that was
bringing it to Europe. Before 1630 Archbishop
Ussher had obtained sis others, and now there are
altogether about sixteen Samaritan manuscripts in
the European libraries.
The most famous copy in existence is the Synagogue
Roll at Nablous, where the Samaritans, now but a few
hundred in number, still cling to the ancient seat of
their race.^ It is guarded with the most sacred care,
and never exhibited even to their own people, except
on the Great Day of Atonement. A few Europeans
have, however, managed to get a sight of it, and from
their accounts we learn that the writing, which seems
very old, is on the hair-side of skins twenty-five inches
by fifteen — according to the Samaritan account, the
skins of rams ofiered in sacrifice. The manuscript is
worn very thin, even into holes in many places, and it
is a good deal messed, as if with ink spilled over it, so
that a large part is almost illegible. It is kept in a
cylindrical silver case, ornamented with engravings of
the Tabernacle and its furniture, and the whole is
^ Nablous, a corruption of Neapolis, is almost on the site of ancient
Shechem.
I20 THE PENTATEUCH OF THE SAMARITANS.
wrapped in a gorgeously embroidered cover of red
satin and gold. The Samaritans assert that it is
nearly as old as the days of Moses. They say — and
one Russian traveller asserts that they are right — that
an inscription runs through the middle of the text of
the Ten Commandments : —
I Abishua, son op Phinehas, son op Eleazar son
OP Aaron the priest — upon them be the graOb
OF Jehovah ! To His honour have I written
this holt Law at the entrance op the Tabernacle
OF Testimony on Mount Gerizim, Beth El, in
the thirteenth year of the taking possession op
THE land op Canaan. Praise Jehovah !
The inscription, however, has been looked for since,
but in vain. Without entering too minutely into
the question, all that wc need say here is, that if it
is or ever was in the manuscript, it does not deserve
the slightest credit. Nobody who knows anything of
the subject would believe that this manuscript has
been in existence three thousand years.
II.
"Decline and Fall" of the Samaritan Bible.
Of course, these very ancient-looking manuscripts,
when they first appeared, created a considerable sen-
sation. Men talked of their use among scholars of
Origen's days, of their strange ancient writing dating
back beyond Ezra the Scribe, and with the usual
tendency of human nature under such circumstances,
many jumped at once to the conclusion that they had
THE SAMARITAX ROLL AT XABLOUS.
(By kind riermission of the Palestine Exploration Fund.)
To face page 120.]
THE PENTATEUCH OF THE SAMARITANS. 121
got back to a document of vast antiquity, and that the
received Hebrew text was of little account beside it.
Of course, too, like the other Biblical disputes
referred to already, indeed like most theological dis-
putes of those days when party spirit ran so high, the
question as to their value soon became a contest for
victory of party. The Eomanist theologians made it
almost a point of honour to uphold the Samaritan
Scriptures. In the first place, they had always a
strong prejudice against the Hebrew Bible. Not one
of the good fathers of the Council of Trent knew a
word of Hebrew, and they did not like its being set
up as an authority against their Latin Vulgate Bible,
the " Authorised Version " of the Western Church.
Besides, it scored a point for them against Protestants
if they could show that there was any uncertainty as
to the text of the received Bible on which Protestants
professed to take their stand — it proved the need of
an infallible guide, which of course existed only in
the Church of Rome. The Protestants were not slow
in following the controversial lead thus set them,
and so, instead of critically examining the Samaritan
credentials with patient scholarly care, both parties
contented themselves with fighting for victory and
vigorously abusing their opponents.
This is no place for a critical treatment of the
question. Sufiice it to say, that when the din of
controversy had ceased sufficiently for calmer argu-
ments to be heard, the opinion of scholars gradually
grew against the authority of the Samaritan text.
122 THE PENTATEUCH OF THE SAMARITANS.
though still they were willing to allow a good deal
of weight to its variations from the Hebrew. At
length, early in the present century, even the remnant
of authority remaining to it was quite 6wept away.
A great Hebrew scholar, Gesenius, having analysed
and classified its deviations from the Jewish manu-
scripts, showed in a masterly essay that they were
nearly all owing to — (i) grammatical blunders of
the Samaritan Scribes ; or (2) to a disposition to
smooth and explain readings that seemed to them
difficult and obscure ; or (3) to a wilful corruption of
the text for controversial purposes, as, for example,
where they substitute for the name of Ebal that of
Mount Gerizim, on which their schismatical Temple
stood, to show that this was the spot indicated by God
as the future national place of worship. We may add
that, so unanswerable are the arguments in this treatise,
no one now would think of setting up the Samaritan
Pentateuch as an authority in Biblical criticism.
III.
Its Use in Criticism.
Yet is it of some value in criticising our Hebrew
Bible. With all its faults, it has at least this in its
favour as an independent witness, that its text has
been kept for nearly twenty-five centuries free from
any contact with the received Jewish text. Therefore,
its substantial agreement through its whole extent
with the Massoretic manuscripts is a clear proof of
their general accuracy. On the other hand, if, in
THE PENTATEUCH OF THE SAMARITANS. 123
some minor detail, the Syriac and Vulgate and other
important ancient Bibles to be described hereafter
agree with each other against a reading in the Jewish
Bible, it is evident that their case would be con-
siderably strengthened if we found the Samaritan on
their side, as in the examples already given (p. 5 2),
" Cain said unto Abel, Let us go into the field "
(Gen. iv. 8), or Joseph "made bondmen" of the
people of Egypt (Gen. xlvii. 2 1 ). Here the Septua-
gint and Syriac and Vulgate agree against the Hebrew ;
and when we turn to the Samaritan we find it agree-
ing with them, thus making a strong case against the
accuracy of the received text in these places.
There is a well-known variation in Exod. xii. 40,
where the Hebrew text tells that " the sojourning of
the children of Israel who dwelt in Egypt was 430
years." If the writer meant that their sojourning in
Egypt was 430 years, it seems diflScult to reconcile it
with the chronology or with St. Paul's statement in
Gal. iii. 17, where 430 years is given as the whole
interval between Abraham and the Lawgiving on
Mount Sinai. The Samaritan has, " The sojourning
of the children of Israel and of their fathers in the
land of Canaan and in the land of Egypt was 430
years." ^ It may be that the Samaritan is right, but
from what we know of its general character, it is not
at all improbable that this is a correction to remove
what seemed to its editors a chronological difficulty.
1 And the Septuagint has substantially the same. Yet there are
forcible arguments on the other side, and Egyptologists say that the
Egyptian chronology seems to confirm our received reading.
124 THE PENTATEUCH OF THE SAMARITANS.
The reading seems a very tempting one, but most
Biblical critics refuse to accept it. It is a good
illustration of the rule in p. 25, that in many cases
" the more difficult of two readings must be preferred
to the easier."
V.
A Roundabout Story-teller.
The reader must not think that because the Sama-
ritan is of little authority in its variations from the
Jewish Pentateuch, it is therefore a very corrupt and
valueless book. Nothing of the kind. If we had not
the Jewish text we should not be at all badly off with
the " Five Books of Moses, according to the Samaritans."
The variations for the most part consist of unimportant
mistakes of grammar, and of expansions and para-
phrases which very little affect the meaning. One
curious peculiarity is, that when there is recorded some
long command of God to Moses, whereas the Jewish text
would briefly tell that Moses did as he was commanded,
the Samaritan must needs go over the whole command,
word for word, in recording that Moses had done it.
It may interest the reader to have a specimen from
this famous old document. I select the following
passage because it illustrates, amongst other things,
the peculiarity I have just referred to. It will be
noticed that it agrees substantially with the Hebrew,
its only variation being that it repeats almost word for
word the second paragraph in recording how literally
Moses and Aaron did as they were commanded : —
HEBREW.
And the Lord said unto
Moses, Pharaoh's heart is har-
denkd, he refuseth to let the
PEOPLE GO. Get thee unto Pha-
raoh IN THE morning ; LO, HE
GOETH UNTO THE WATER ; AND
THOU SHALT STAND BY THE RIVER's
BRINK AGAINST HE COME ; AND THE
BOD WHICH WAS TURNED TO A SER-
PENT SHALT THOU TAKE IN THINE
HAND.
And THOU shalt say unto
HIM, The Lord God of the
Hebrews hath sent me unto
THEE, SAYING, LeT MY PEOPLE
GO, THAT THEY MAY SERVE ME IN
THE WILDERNESS : AND, BEHOLD,
HITHERTO THOU WOULDEST NOT
HEAR. Thus saith the Lord,
In this THOU SHALT KNOW THAT
I AM THE Lord : behold, I will
SMITE WITH the BOD THAT IS IN
MINE HAND UPON THE WATERS
WHICH ARE IN THE RIVER, AND
THEY SHALL BE TURNED INTO
BLOOD. And the fish that is in
the river shall die, and the
river shall stink ; and the
Egyptians shall loathe to
DRINK of the water OF THE
RIVER.
And the Lord spake unto
Moses, Say unto Aaron, Take
thy rod, and stretch out think
HAND UPON THE WATERS OF EgYPT,
&c. — ExoD. vii, 14-19.
SAMARITAN.
And the Lord said unto
Moses, Pharaoh's heart is har-
dened, he REFUSETH TO LET THE
PEOPLE GO. Get thee unto Pha-
raoh in the morning ; lo, he
GOETH unto the WATER ; AND
THOU SHALT STAND BY THE RIVER'S
BRINK AGAINST HE COME ; AND THE
ROD WHICH WAS TURNED TO A SER-
PENT SHALT THOU TAKE IN THINE
HAND.
And THOU shalt say unto
HIM, The Lord God op the
Hebrews hath sent me unto
THEE, SAYING, LeT MY PEOPLE
GO, THAT THEY MAY SERVE ME IN
THE WILDERNESS : AND, BEHOLD,
HITHERTO THOU WOULDEST NOT
HEAR. Thus saith the Lord,
In this thou shalt know that
I AM the Lord : behold, I will
SMITE WITH THE ROD THAT IS IN
MINE HAND UPON THE WATERS
WHICH ARE IN THE RIVER, AND
THEY SHALL BE TURNED INTO
BLOOD. And the fish that is in
the river shall die, and the
river shall stink ; and the
Egyptians shall loathe to drink
of the water of the river.
And Moses and Aaron went
TO Pharaoh, and said unto him.
The Lord God of the Hebrews
hath sent us to thee, saying,
Let my people go, that they
may serve me in the wilder-
ness : and, behold, hitherto
THOU WOULDEST NOT HEAR. ThUS
SAITH THE Lord, In this thou
SHALT KNOW THAT I AM THE LoRD :
behold, I WILL SMITE WITH THE
HOD THAT IS IN MINE HAND UPON
THE WATERS WHICH ARE IN THE
RIVER, AND THEY SHALL BE TURNED
INTO BLOOD. And the FISH THAT IS
IN THE RIVER SHALL DIE, AND THE
RIVER SHALL STINK ; AND THE
Egyptians SHALL loathe to drink
OF the water of the RIVER.
And the Lord spake unto
Moses, Say unto Aaron, Take
thy rod, and stretch out thine
hand upon the waters op
Egypt, &c.
DOCUMENTS No. II.
THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS.
Heke we bring together a group of documents not of
sufficient importance to be separately treated.
THE TALMUD.
I.
What Is the Talmud?
We have already seen (Bk. i. p. 79) that from time
immemorial there existed amongst the Jews certain
oral traditions about the Scriptures and their inter-
pretation; that these, handed down through many
generations, were at length, in the early centuries of
Christianity, collected and systematised in the colleges
of the Scribes into a book called the Mishna ; that in
course of time a "Gemara," or Commentary, was written
on this book ; and that the Mishna, together with its
Gemara, make up what is called the Talmud. We
may add here that the writing down of the Mishna
occurred about the second century a.d., and that of the
Gemara about the fourth or fifth.^ It is evident that
1 The Gemara, or Commentary of Jerusalem, dates about 370 a.d.,
and that of the Babylon schools about 500 a.d. According as the
Jerusalem or Babylon Gemara was attached to the Mishna, so the
whole was called the Jerusalem'or Babylon Talmud.
THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS. 127
such a book as this must necessarily contain a great
many quotations from Scripture, often involving minute
reference to the exact words of the text, and therefore
that it ought to be one of the most valuable aids in
testing the accuracy of the existing manuscripts.
Unfortunately, however, owing to the extreme re-
verence of the Jews for the Massoretic text, the succes-
sive editors of the Talmud seem to have altered its
quotations to correspond with the Hebrew manuscripts
before them, so that the most careful examination of
the existing Talmud copies have led to no discoveries
of much importance. True, there are recorded about
a thousand variations from the existing Bible, but
very few of them are of any consequence. Therefore,
it will be seen that the Talmud cannot be expected to
count for much in the aids to Bible criticism.
This is all that is absolutely necessary to be said about
the Talmud for the purpose of this present work, but
it is impossible here to lay down the pen. Indeed, it
would be scarcely justifiable to dismiss in a few pages
a book that stands out so prominently in the history
of Judaism — nay, I should rather say in the history
of the world. Who has not heard of the " Talmud,"
and formed some puzzled notion as to what the word
means ? Continually it meets us in all classes of
reading. In science, in literature, in theologj-, in
law, in ethics, in metaphysics, in ancient faiiy-lore,
the old-world name arises to us again and again,
making us wonder what the curious treatise can be
that touches in so many points such varied subjects.
128 THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS.
It is, therefore, worth while writing a little further
about the Talmud. One is sorely tempted to wander
off into whole chapters on its fascinating lore. So
if we promise to reasonably restrain our vagrant im-
pulses, the reader, we hope, will pardon a few pages
more, even if not absolutely necessary to our " Lesson
in Biblical Criticism."
n.
Conflicting Opinions.
Very varied are the opinions about the Talmud.
Christian writers, with whom it has been too much the
custom to read non-Christian books with the object of
refuting them, have given us many treatises branding
it as the very curse of Judaism and of religion. They
have dwelt upon our Lord's condemning its traditions.
They have collected from it samples torn out of their
context, silly and grotesque stories, conflicting state-
ments, and specimens of the ignorant and narrow pre-
judices of the nation. They have declaimed against its
legendary colouring of Bible narratives — its profane
and degrading representations of God, the Almighty
and His angels taking part in foolish discussions of
the Eabbis. They have held up their hands in horror
at indelicate allusions such as they could not dare to
transfer to their pages.
And all these charges can be fully proved against
the Talmud. In its vast and tangled mass of ancient
lore many such evil things as these can be found.
Indeed, at times, the reader, wandering through th^
THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS. 129
pages of nonsense that these wise sages wrote, will
feel almost a sympathy with the belief of Carlyle, that
" nine out of every ten men are fools, and he would not
like to say too much about the tenth." But to dwell
only on these faults would be to give a very false impres-
sion of this wonderful old book, some parts of which have
come down to us from almost the dawn of antiquity.
It should be remembered that our Lord Himself,
like all other Jewish boys, was probably, in His
childhood, taught from the Talmud ; that many of our
liousehold words in theology have come to us, through
Him, from the Talmud teaching. Redemption, Bap-
tism, Grace, Salvation, Faith, Son of Man, &c., are
words of old Judaism, to which He only gave a higher
meaning. His rebukes, too, were directed only against
its faults, not against its whole substance. The Talmud
itself speaks almost as strongly as He against the
" plague of Pharisaism ;" the " dyed ones who do evil
deeds like Zimri, and require a goodly reward like
Phinehas ; " " who preach beautifully, but do not act
beautifully." The Talmud points to the Scrijotures as
the source of all teaching. " Turn them, and turn
them again," it says, for "everything is in them." Six
hundred and thirteen injunctions, says the Talmud,
was Moses directed to give to the people. David
reduced them to eleven in the 1 5 th Psalm : " He that
walketh uprightly," &c. The prophet Micah reduced
them to three : ' ' What doth the Lord require of
thee, but to do justly, and to love mercy, and to
walk humbly with thy God ? " (vi. 8). Amos
I
I30 THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS.
reduced them to one : " Seek ye Me and ye shall
live " (v. 4).
Therefore it is that the Jews indignantly chal-
lenge the Christian accounts of this their greatest
literary treasure next to the Bible. They point to
its enforcing and explaining the Scriptures ; to its
mighty influence in preserving their nationality ; to
its wholesome directions about purity and cleanli-
ness ; to its result in many a social excellence in the
character of their nation. " Nothing," say they, " can
absolve the Jews from the debt of gratitude which
they owe to the Talmud, the book which in so great
measure has helped to make them what they are."
III.
" Law and Legend."
To understand these conflicting testimonies, it is
important to keep in mind, what has been too often
overlooked, that the Talmud consists of two elements,
Law and Legend, Halachah and Hagadah, as they are
called by the Jews.
The former is an attempt to bring the Mosaic
legislation into practical operation — that is, to bring
under its great principles the little ordinary cases of
everyday life. This is often done in a foolish and
quibbling manner ; it often goes into indelicate de-
tails in order to be thoroughly practical ; it often, too,
must be charged with making void the Word of God
THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS. \2>r
Gj Its refinements of fanciful exposition. Yet no man
who studies the history of the Jews can doubt, on the
whole, its important influence for good upon the nation.
The other or Legendary element consists of a series
of anecdotes and sayings of the scribes, a kind of
ornamental addition illustrating and enforcing the
principles of the Law, or affectionately commemorating
the great sages of the past. To us stolid children of
the West it must seem often but a wild play of fancy
and fable and humour not very much in keeping with
the solemnity of its purpose ; but to the Jews, Avho
know it best, it is a store of wise and tender and
touching sayings ; its allegories and parables and
fairy-lore, even where they seem to us the most
foolish, being credited with a lofty and beautiful secret
meaning. And even our duller vision can perceive
that many of its stories and moral precepts are exqui-
sitely beautiful, and cannot fail to be helpful to the
Jewish children, who are taught them from their
earliest days.
rv.
Talmud Sayings.
In the following section I give some specimens
from the Talmud. But it is necessary to guard the
reader against forming from them too favourable an
impression. He must remember that they are speci-
mens of the Talmud at its best, and that often a con-
siderable mass of rubbish has to be waded through
to find them : —
131 THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS.
Jerusalem was destroyed because the instruction of the young
was neglected.
The world is saved by the breath of the school-children. Even
for the rebuilding of the Temple, schools must not be interrupted.
A sage, walking in the crowded market-place, suddenly en-
countered the prophet Elijah. "Who out of that crowd shall be
saved 1" he asked ; and Elijah pointed to a poor turnkey, " Because
he was merciful to his prisoners ; " and next to two common
workmen pleasantly talking as they passed. The sage rushed up
to them and asked, " I pray you, what are your saving works?"
But the puzzled workmen replied, " "We are poor men who live
by our trade. We know not of any good works in us. We try
to be cheerful and good-natured. We talk to the sad, and cheer
them to forget their grief. If we know of two who have quarrelled,
we talk to them, and persuade them to be friends. This is our
whole life."
Life is a passing shadow, says the Scripture. Is it the shadow
of a tower or of a tree ? A shadow that prevails for a while ?
Nay, it is the shadow of a bird in his flight ; away flies the bird,
and there is neither bird nor shadow.
He who has more learning than good works is like a tree with
many branches but few roots, which the first wind throws on its
face ; while he whose good works are greater than his knowledge
is like a tree with many roots and few branches, which all the
winds of heaven cannot uproot.
Teach thy tongue to say, " I do not know."
Prayer is Israel's only weapon, a weapon inherited from its
fathers and tried in a thousand battles.
Moses made a serpent of brass and put it on a pole ; and it
came to pass, if a serpent had bitten any man, when he beheld
that serpent of brass he lived. Dost think that a serpent killeth
THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS. 133
or giveth life ? But as long as Israel are looking up to their
Father in Heaven they will not die.
We read that while, in the contest with Amalek, Moses lifted
up his arms Israel prevailed. Did Moses' hands make war or
break war? But this is to tell you that as long as Israel are
looking upwards and humbling their hearts before the Father in
Heaven they will prevail ; if not, they fall.
" If your God hates idolatry," asked a heathen, " why does He
not destroy it ? " And they answered him, " Behold, men worship
the sun, the moon, the stars. Would you have Him destroy this
beautiful world for the sake of the foolish 1 "
If there is anything bad to say of you, say it yourself.
Commit a sin twice and you will think it quite allowable.
Think of three things, whence thou comest, whither thou goest,
and to whom thou shalt have to give account, even the All Holy,
praised be He ! Four shall not enter into Paradise : the scoffer,
the liar, the hypocrite, and the slanderer. To slander is to
murder.
Love your wife like yourself ; honour her more than yourself.
Whoever lives unmarried lives without joy, without comfort,
without blessing. Descend a step in choosing a wife. If she be
small, bend down to her and whisper in her ear. He who for-
sakes the love of his youth, God's altar weeps for him. He who
sees his wife die before him has, as it were, been present at the
destruction of the sanctuary itself — the world grows dark around
him.
It is woman alone through which God's blessings are vouch-
safed to a house. She teaches the children, speeds the t hus-
band to the place of worship, and welcomes him when he
134 THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS.
returns ; she keeps the house godly and pure, and Gpd's blessing
rests on all these things.
He who marries for money, his children shall be a curse to him.
The house that does not open to tlie poor shall open to the
physician.
' Tlie day is short and the work is heavy, but the labourers are
idle, though the reward be great. It is not incumbent on thee to
complete the work, but thou must not therefore cease from it.
If thou hast worked much great shall be thy reward, for the
]\Iaster who employed thee is faithful in His payment. But
know that the true reward is not of this world.
A man stands at the door of his patron's house. He daxe not
ask for the patron himself, but for his favourite slave or his son,
who then goes in and tells the master inside, "This man, N. N.,
is standing at the gate ; shall he come in or not 1 " Not so the
Holy ; praised be He ! If misfortune come upon a man, let him
not cry to Michael or to Gabriel, but unto Me let him cry, and I
will answer him right speedily, as it is written, Every one who
calls on the name of the Lord shall be saved.
Pible Commentary.
Here are a few specimens of its Bible commentary :^
Cain was ploughing his fields. Abel, leading his flocks to
pasture, crossed the ground which his brother was tilling.
In a wrathful sjnrit, Cain approached Abel, saying, " Where-
fore comest thou with thy flocks to dwell in and to feed upon
the land which belongs to me 1 "
And Abel answered, " Wherefore eatest thou of the flesh of my
sheep? Wherefore clothe thyself in garments fashioned from
their wool ? Pay me for the flesh Avhich thou hast eaten, for the
THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS. 135
garments in which thou art clothed, for they are minCj even as
this ground is thine,"
Then said Cain to his brother, " Behold, thou art in my power.
If I should see fit to slay thee now, to-day, who would avenge
thy death?"
'' God, who has placed us upon this earth," replied Abel. " He
is the judge who rewardeth the pious man according to his deeds,
and the wicked according to his wickedness. Thou canst not slay
me and hide from Him the action. He will surely punish thee;
ay, even for the evil words which thou hast spoken to me but
now."
This answer increased Cain's wratliful feelings, and raising the
implement of his labour which he was holding in his hand, he
struck his brother snddenly therewith and killed him. And it
came to pass after this rash, action that Cain grieved and wept
bitterly. Then arising, he dug a hole in the ground and buried
therein his brother's body from the light of day.
And after this, the Lord appeared to Cain and said to him —
" Where is Abel thy brother, who was with thee 1 "
And Cain replied unto the Lord —
" I know not. Am I my brother's keeper ? "
Then said the Lord —
'" What hast thou done ? Thy brother's blood cries to
Me from the ground.'
Abram, when quite a child, beholding the brilliant splendour
of the noonday sun and the reflected glory which it cast upon
all objects around, he said, " Surely this brilliant light must be
a god ; to him will I render worship." And he worshipped the
sun and prayed to it. But as the day lengthened the sun's bright-
ness faded, the radiance which it cast upon the earth was lost in
the lowering clouds of night, and as the twilight deepened the
youth ceased his supplication, saying, " No, this cannot be a god.
Where then can I find the Creator, He who made the heavens
and the earth ? " He looked towards the west, the south, the
north, and to the east. The sun disappeared from his view ;
nature became enveloped in the pall of a past day. Then the
moon arose, and when Abram saw it shining in the heavens
136 THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS.
.surrounded by its myriads of stars, he said, "Perhaps these
are the gods who have created all things," and he uttered prayers
to them. But when the morning dawned and the stars paled,
and the moon faded into silvery whiteness and was lost in the
returning glory of the sun, Abram knew God, and said, " There
is a higher power, a Supreme Being, and these luminaries are but
His servants, the work of His hands," From that day, even
until the day of his death, Abram knew the Lord, and walked in
all His ways. And Abram sought his father when he was sur-
rounded by his officers, and he spoke to him, saying —
"Father tell me, I pray, where I may find the God who
created the heavens and the earth, thee, and me, and all the
people in the world."
And Terah answered, "My son, the creator of all things is
here with us in the house."
Then said Abram, " Show him to me, my father."
And Terah led Abram into an inner apartment, and pointing
to the twelve large idols and the many smaller ones around,
he said, " These are the gods who created the heavens and the
earth, thee, me, and all the people of the Avorld."
Abram then sought his mother, saying, "My motlier, behold,
my father has shown to me the gods who created the earth and
all that it contains ; therefore prepare for me, I pray thee, a kid
for a sacrifice, that the gods of my father may partake of the
same and receive it favourably."
Abram's mother did as her son had requested her, and Abram
placed the food which she prepared before the idols, but none
stretched forth a hand to eat.
Then Abram jested, and said, "Perchance 'tis not exactly to
their tastes, or mayhap the quantity appears stinted. I will
prepare a larger offering, and strive to make it still more
savoury."
Next day Abram requested his mother to prepare two kids,
and with her greatest skill, and placing them before the idols, he
watched, with the same result as on the previous day.
Then Abram exclaimed, " Woe to my father and to this evil
generation ; woe to those who incline their hearts to vanity and
worship senseless images without the power to smell or eat, to
THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS. 137
Bee or liear. Mouths they have, but sounds they cannot utter ;
eyes they have, but lack all power to see ; they have ears that
cannot hear, hands that cannot move, and feet that cannot walk.
Senseless they are as the men who wrought them ; senseless all
who trust in them and bow before them." And seizing an iron
implement, he destroyed and broke with it all the images save
one, into the hands of which he placed the iron which he had
used.
The noise of this proceeding reached the ears of Terah, who
liurried to the apartment, where he found the broken idols and
the food which Abram had placed before them. In wrath and
indignation he cried out unto his son, saying, " What is this that
thou hast done unto my gods?"
And Abram answered, "I brought them savoury food, and
behold, they all grasped for it with eagerness at the same time,
all save the largest one, who, annoyed and displeased with their
greed, seized that iron which he holds and destroyed them."
" False are thy words," answered Terah in anger. " Had these
images the breath of life, that they should move and act as thou
hast said ? Did I not fashion them with my own hands ? How,
then, could the larger destroy the smaller ones ? "
" Then why serve senseless, powerless gods ? " replied Abram ;
" gods who can neither help thee in thy need nor hear thy sup-
plications 1 "
VI.
The Legend of Sandalphon.
Some of our readers will remember Longfellow's
exquisite presentation of the ancient Talmud legend : —
SANDALPHON.
" Have you read in the Talmud of old,
In the legends the Eabbins have told.
Of the limitless realms of the air, —
Have you read it,— the marvellous story
Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Glory,
Sandalphon, the Angel of Prayer ? .
ijS THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS.
How erect at the outermost gates
Of the City Celestial he waits,
With his feet on the ladder of light,
That, crowded with angels unnumbered,
By Jacob was seen as he slumbered
Alone in the desert by night 1
The Angels of Wind and of Fire
Chant only one hymn and expire
With the song's irresistible stress ;
Expire in their rapture and wonder,
As harp-strings are broken asunder
By music they throb to express !
But serene in the rapturous throng,
Unmoved by the rush of the song,
With eyes unimpassioncd and slow,
Among the dead angels, the deathless
Sandalphon -stands listening breathless
To sounds that ascend from below ; —
From the spirits on earth that adore ;
From the souls that entreat and implore
In the fervour and passion of prayer ;
From the hearts that are broken with losses.
And weary from dragging the crosses
Too heavy for mortals to bear.
And he gathers the prayers as he stands,
And they change into flowers in his hands,
Into garlands of purple and red ;
And beneath the great arch of the portal,
Through the streets of the City Immortal,
Is wafted the fragrance they shed.
It is but a legend, I know —
A fable, a phantom, a show
Of the ancient Rabbinical lore ;
THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS. 139
Yet the old mediceval tradition,
The beautiful, strange superstition.
But haunts me and holds me the more.
When I look from my window at night,
And the welkin above is all white.
All throbbing and panting with stars,
Among them majestic is standing
Sandalphon the angel, expanding
His pinions in nebulous bars.
And the legend, I feel, is a part
Of the hunger and thirst of the heart ;
The frenzy and fire of the brain.
That grasps at the fruitage forbidden,
The golden pomegranates of Eden,
To quiet its fever and pain." ^
VII.
An Ancient "Rip Van Winkle."
The followiug illustration from the Babylonian
Talmud (Taanith, fol. 23 a and h) will show (i) how
Bible quotations occur which may be used for textual
criticism ; (2) the Eabbis' fanciful method of Bible
^ Longfellow seems to have been a good deal attracted by the Talmud.
There are few more beautiful things in his works than the Legend of
the Rabbi ben Levi, who sprang over the walls of Heaven with the
sword of the Angel of Death in his hand, and thus obtained for man
the boon that the dread Angel must "walk on earth unseen for ever-
more." The reader may remember in the " Golden Legend " the scene
of the Rabbi and the school-children : —
" Come hither, Judas Iscariot,
Say if thy lesson thou hast got
From the Rabbinical Book or not ? "
and how, after Judas has glibly answered in the great Talmud mys-
teries, the old pedagogue proceeds to call up " little Jesus, the car
penter's son."
I40 THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS.
interpretation; and, perhaps, (3) tlie origin of the
favourite fairy-tale, " The Sleeping Beauty," who slept
for seventy years, and of Washington Irving's famous
story of " Kip Van Winkle : " —
" Choni lia-Maagol was all his life unable to understand the
Biblical passage, ' When the Lord turned again the captivity
of Zion, we were like them that dream ' (Ps. cxxvi. i). ' Can
seventy years be regarded as a dream ? How is it possible,' he
asked, ' for a man to remain for seventy years asleep ? ' One
day, wliilst on a journej'', he saw a man planting a carob-tree, and
asked him how long a period he expected would elapse before
the tree became fruitful. * Seventy years,' was the reply. * Do
you then expect to live seventy years and to eat of the fruit 1 '
' When I entered the world,' was the answer, ' I found carob-
trees in abundance. Even as my fathers planted for me, in liku
manner shall I also plant for those that are to come after me.'
" Choni sat down to his meal, and a deep sleep fell upon him,
and he slumbered. The rock closed up around him, and he was
hidden from the sight of men. And thus he lay for seventy
years. "When he awoke and rose to his feet, lo ! he beheld a
man eating of the fruit of the very carob-tree that he had seen
planted. Choni asked, ' Dost thou know who it was that planted
this tree ? ' ' My grandfather.' Then Choni knew that he had
slept on for seventy years. He went to his house and asked
where the son of Choni ha-Maagol was. * His son,' they told
him, ' is dead. His grandson you can see if you will.' ' I am
Choni ha-Maagol!' he exclaimed; but no one believed him.
" He thence turned his steps to the House of Learning, and
he heard the Kabbis saying, * We have resolved this difficulty
as we used to do when Choni ha-Maagol M'as alive ; ' for in
times past, when Choni went to the meeting, he was able to
expound every subject under discussion. ' I am Choni ha-
Maagol !' he cried for the second time. But again none would
believe him, neither did they treat him with honour. Broken-
hearted, he left the haunts of men, and prayed for death, and his
prayer was answered. ' This,' says Eavah, * is the meaning of
the saving : To the friendless man Death cometh as a blessing.' "
THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS.
141
VIII.
"The House that Jack Built."
It may seem strange to be looking in the holy books of
the Jews for the origin of fairy-tales ; but what would
you say, my reader, if you found in them the source
of "The House that Jack Built;" and, moreover, if
you were told that this queer old nursery rhyme is but
an adaptation of a solemn Passover hymn of ancient
days, by means of which the Jewish children learned
in parable the history of their nation ? The poem is
found in the Seder Hagadah (Passover Service-Book),
fol. 23, 1 83 1. It is translated fi-om the Chaldee.
I take the interpretation from the small edition pub-
lished by Vallentyne, Bedford Square, London : —
A kill, a kid, my father bouglit
For two pieces of money :
A kid, a kid.
Then came the cat, and ate the kid,
That my father bought
For two pieces of money :
A kid, a kid.
Then came the dog, and bit the cat,
That ate the kid.
That my father bought
For two pieces of money :
A kid, a kid.
The kid, a clean
animal, refers to
Israel, "tlie one
peculiar people upon
earth," which God
purchased (Exod.
XV. 16) for Himself
by means of the two
precious tables of
the Law.
The cat refers to
Babylon. "De-
voured the kid" is
descriptive of the
Babylonian captiv-
ity,which swallowed
up Jewish nation-
ality, A.M. 3338.
The dor; means
Persia, by whose
power Babj'lon was
overthrown.
142
THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS.
Tlien came tlie staff, and beat the dog,
That bit the cat,
Tliat ate the kid,
Til at my father bought
For two pieces of money :
A kid, a kid.
5-
Then came the fire, and burned the staff,
That beat tlic dog.
That bit the cat,
That ate the kid,
That my father bought
For two pieces of money :
A kid, a kid.
6.
Then came the water, and quenched the
lire,
That burned the staff,
That beat the dog,
That bit the cat.
That ate the kid,
That my father bought
For two pieces of money :
A kid, a kid.
The staff is Greece,
which put an end
to the Persian domi-
nation.
The fire refers to
Rome.
The water refers
to the Turks, de-
scendants of Ish-
mael, who wrested
the Holy Land from
the power of Horn?.
Then came the ox, and dranlc the water,
That quenched the fire.
That burned the staff',
Tliat beat the dog,
That bit the cat,
That ate the kid,
That my father bought
For two pieces of money :
A kid, a kid.
The 035 means
Edoni (the Euro-
l^eau nations), who
will in the latter
days rescue the
Holy Land from tlie
possession of Ish-
mael. (See Abar-
banel on Ezek.
xxxix. )
THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS.
143
The hidcher refers
to the fearful war
which will then suc-
ceed, when the con-
federated armies of
Gog and Magog,
Persia, Cush, and
Pul will come up
"like the tempest"
to drive the sons of
Edom from Pales-
tine (Ezek. xxxviii.,
xxxix. ).
The Angel of
Death is a gi'eat
pestilence, in wliicli
all the foes of Israel
shall i:)erish.
Tlien came the butcher, and slew the ox
That drank the water,
That quenched the fire,
That burned the staff,
That beat the dog.
That bit the cat,
That ate tlie kid.
That my father bought
For two pieces of money :
A kid, a kid.
9-
Then came the Angel of Death, and
killed the butcher.
That slew the ox.
That drank the water.
That quenched the fire,
That burned the staff,
That beat the dog.
That bit the cat,
That ate the kid,
That my father bought
For two pieces of money :
A kid, a kid.
10.
Then came the Holy One, blessed be He !
And killed the Angel of Death,
That killed the butcher,
That slew the ox,
That drank the water,
That quenched the fire,
That biirned the staff,
That beat the dog,
That bit the cat,
That ate the kid,
That my father bought
For two pieces of money :
A kid, a kid.^
1 It would seem as if from this ancestry came not only "The House
The last verse de-
scribes the establisli-
ment of God's king-
dom on earth, when
Israel shall be re-
stored under Mes-
siah, the son of
David.
144 THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS.
THE TARGUMS.
The Talmud has tempted us so far beyond our
limits that very little space is left for dealing with
the Targuras, the Chaldee paraphrases of Scripture
in use for the teaching of the people. The reader
will remember the scene at p. 6i, where Ezra read
to the returned exiles from his manuscript of the Law,
and the Scribes had to " give the sense and cause them
to understand the reading." This is the first instance
we have of a Targum or paraphrase. It afterwards
became a regular custom in the synagogue, for the
sake of the common people who had lost all know-
ledge of the holy tongue, that, when the words of
the Law were read, an interpreter should translate into
vernacular Aramaic, and that he should expand his
translation into a free paraphrase of the meaning, that
all the people might easily understand. This inter-
preter, or " meturgeman " (our English word " drago-
man," which occurs so frequently in stories of modern
Eastern travel), was bound by certain rules : he must
wait till the reader had finished his verse or pas-
sage ; neither reader nor meturgeman is to raise his
voice one above the other ; the meturgeman must
not lean against a pillar or beam, but stand erect
with fear and reverence ; he must never use a written
that Jack Built," but also that other queer doggerel of the old
woman and the kid, "Butcher, butcher, kill Ox, Ox will not drink
"Water, Water will not quench Fire, Fire will not burn Stick, Stick
will not beat Kid, and I cannot get home till midnight."
THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS. 145
" Targum," but must deliver his interpretation " ex-
tempore," lest it might seem that he was reading out
of the Law itself, and thus the Scriptures be held
accountable for his teaching.
In course of time, however, the same causes which
led to the writing of the Talmud led also to the per-
mission that Targums might be written, and thus
these paraphrases have come down to us to help in
testing the accuracy of the text.
Their value for this purpose, however, is but small,
not only on account of the loose and fanciful nature of
their comments, but also because the oldest dates no
farther back than the early Christian centuries, when
the present Massoretic text was already pretty well
established. Their freedom in dealing with the Scrip-
tures makes it difficult to tell what were the exact
words of the text which was being interpreted, but
it is clear that the sacred manuscripts before them
must have corresponded very closely with those in our
hands to-day. The Targum of Onkelos on the Penta-
teuch is the most valuable, owing to its keeping so
literally to its text. There are, besides, the Targum
of Jonathan, the Jerusalem Targum, and others, but
it is not necessary to enter more fully into details.
Perhaps the following little specimen may interest
the reader, and give him a clearer idea of the use
of the Targums for the purpose of textual criticism : — ■
146
THE TALMUD AND THE TARGUMS.
BIBLE.
Gen. in. 22.
And the Lobd
God said, Behold,
the man is become
as one op us, to
know good and
evil : and now,
lest he put foeth
his hand, and
take also op the
tree op life, and
eat, and live for
£V£B.
TARGUM OF
ONKELOS.
And the Lord
God said, Be-
hold, Adam is the
ONLY one in the
WORLD knowing
good and evil :
perchance NOW
HE MIGHT stretch
FORTH HIS HAND,
AND TAKE ALSO
PROM THE TREE OP
LIFE, AND EAT, AND
LIVE FOR EVER-
MORE.
TARGUM OF JONATHAN.
And THE Lord God said
TO THE ANGELS THAT WERE
MINISTERING BEFORE HiM, LO,
THERE IS Adam alone on the
EARTH, AS I AM ALONE IN THE
HIGHEST HEAVEN, AND THERE
WILL SPRING FROM HIM THOSE
WHO KNOW HOW TO DISTIN-
GUISH BETWEEN GOOD AND
EVIL. If he had kept THE
COMMANDMENT THAT I COM-
MANDED HE WOULD HAVE
BEEN LIVING AND LASTING,
LIKE THE TREE OF LIFE, FOR
EVERMORE. NOW, SINCE HE
HAS NOT KEPT WHAT I COM-
MANDED, WE DECREE AGAINST
HIM, AND EXPEL HIM FROM
THE Garden op Eden, be-
fore HE may stretch OUT
HIS hand and take from
the fruits op the tree op
LIFE, FOR IP he ate THERE-
FROM HE WOULD LIVE AND
REMAIN FOR EVER.
DOCUMENT No. III.
THE BIBLE OF ''THE SEVENTY."
I.
The Apostles' Bible.
We have now to tell of a very wonderful book, the
most important as well as the most famous version
of the Bible that the world has ever seen. It was
the first translation of Holy Scripture in existence.
It, and not the original Hebrew, was the Bible chiefly
used by our Lord, the Bible used by the Apostles^
and Evangelists, the Bible used by Jews and Gentiles
alike in the early days of Christianity. It is the
source of most of the ancient versions of the Old
Testament. It supplies the chief theological terms
of the New. It is to-day in the Eastern Church the
standard, the sacred text, fully installed in the place
of the original Hebrew.
This rival of the Hebrew Bible text was the cele-
brated Greek version of the Old Testament known as
"The Septuagint," or Bible of the Seventy, which in
the two centuries before Christ was the recognised
^ Out of thirty-seven quotations made by our Lord, thirty-three
agree almost verbatim with this version. " What saith the Scripture ? "
Bays St. Paul, and immediately he proceeds to quote the Septuagint.
148 THE BIBLE OF " THE SEVENTY."
Scripture amongst all tlie " Jews of the Dispersiou."
What our Authorised Version is to the English-speak-
ing races, that was the Septuagint to the ancient
world. It was the " People's Bible," as far as such a
name is applicable in speaking of those ancient days.
It was written in the popular language. It was sold
at the popular price, comparing with the Hebrew as
our " Shilling Popular Editions " of books to-day com-
pare with the elaborate guinea volumes. Consequently
its influence was very important. It kept alive the
knowledge of God when the ' ' holy tongue " had fallen
into disuse. It spread amongst the Gentiles the anti-
cipation of the coming Messiah. It was the safe-
guard of Judaism amongst the scattered Israelites
until Judaism had become a withered branch too dead
and sapless to be worth safeguarding any longer, and
then it became Christianity's chariot as it passed
forth from its birthplace in Palestine to conquer the
world. Humanly speaking, it is hard to see how
Christianity could ever have succeeded without the
SejDtuagint Bible.
Besides all this, it has a further claim on our atten-
tion here. It has much to do with Old Testament
Biblical criticism as a most important witness of the
Hebrew text, from which it was translated before
Massoretic or even Talmud days.
Whence, then, came this Septuagint version ? Who
were its authors ? Why was it made ? Wliat is its
value in the investigation of the text ?
ANCIENT COPIES OF THE SEPTUAGINT.
( ^.TIpOC
; /ew-ro>
C-rrapT i
.)An^^^ J. I
ArxovTicx
,#tJ>xro >i on 1 c
■V O C Tu> rj A ^ )
.;
CA\HMei[H
TOYCK-XIOl
perrcucounr
reKHiic^pfT
->.i^»
■he.
^
/.-oj^i, r.rc^f .-^^ >
No. 1. — A half-burnt fragment of the Codex Geneseos Cottonianus,
a very valuable Septuagint Manuscript about 1400 years old.
No. 2. — Facsimile of its writing, full size.
No. 6.— Beginning of the 29th Psalm, from a papyrus manuscript
of Septuagint in the British Museum.
(PUotographtd by kind permission of Professor Westwood, Oxford, from the
Palceographia Sacra. Pictoria.)
To face_ iiaQC 14S.]
THE BIBLE OF "THE SEVENTY." 149
II.
The Romance of Aristeas.
There is a curious old letter extant professing to be
written by Aristeas, a distinguished officer of Ptolemy
Philadelphus, king of Egypt, in the third century B.C.
It carries us back to the days of the famous Alex-
andrian Library, the literary treasure-house of the
ancient world. It tells that the book-loving King
Ptolemy, with the true passion of a collector, had set
his heart on adding to his treasures a translation of
the Hebrew Pentateuch, of which he had heard through
his chief librarian, Demetrius Phalereus.
He was advised by Aristeas that it was no easy
matter to procure it. "You certainly will not got
it," said he, " while those thousands of Jewish slaves
are suffering throughout your land." (I wonder if the
King knew the story of his far-back predecessors and
those other Jewish slaves which his new document
would tell of.)
Ptolemy, however, was not to be baffled. He
ordered an enormous sum of money to be expended,
and 198,000 captives were immediately set free.
Then was arranged a gorgeous procession to Jeru-
salem, of which this host of freed men formed the
chief part — a second exodus of Israel from Egypt.
With them they bore splendid presents to Eleazar,
the high priest, fifty talents of gold, seventy talents
of -silver, besides tables and cisterns and bowls of gold
I50 THE BIBLE OF "THE SEVENTY."
in lavish abundance ; also a letter from the king,
requesting that there might be sent to him a copy of
the Law, and Jewish scholars capable of translating it.
Then comes the equally gorgeous account of the
return ; of the seventy-two learned Hebrews, six from
each tribe ; of the exquisitely fine parchment manu-
scripts of the Law, "written in gold in the Jewish
letters ; " of the royal reception prepared for them in
Alexandria ; the seven days' feasting in the presence
of the king ; the seventy questions testing their wis-
dom ; and then the magnificent study prepared for them
by the sea, away from the bustle of the noisy streets,
where, in seventy-two days " of co-operation and confer-
ence," they gave to the world the Septuagint version !
Aristeas had surely not stinted in his wonders ;
but in his day, as in our own, such stories seldom
lost in repetition. So we find in the early Christian
ages the additional touches that there were seventy-
two separate cells'^ (some say thirty-six) on the rocky
shores of the island of Pharos, in which the translators
worked independently of each other, and it was found
at the end that each had produced a translation
exactly word for word with all the others. Therefore,
of course, the work was miraculous — a direct inspira-
tion of the Spirit of God !
When it was ended, Demetrius, the chief librarian,
1 Justin Martyr, in the second century, tells us that he was shown
by his guide at Alexandria the ruins of these Septuagint cells ! If his
story does not prove the inspiration of the Septuagint, it proves, at any
rate, that, in the matter of the tales of tourist guides, there is nothing
new under the sun.
THE BIBLE OF ''THE SEVENTY." 151
summoned the Jews of the city to the house where
the translators had worked, and read the translation,
which was heartily approved. Curses were pronounced
on any who should dare to add to or take from it.
The Jews received permission to take a copy. The
king I'ejoiced greatly, and commanded the books to
be carefully kept. He gave to each translator three
robes and two talents of gold, with other gifts ; to
Eleazar, the high priest, he sent ten silver-footed tables
and a cup of thirty talents, and begged that any of
the translators who wished might come and see him
again, for he delighted to meet such men, and to spend
his wealth upon them.
m.
Who made the Septuagint?
This story, substantially repeated by Josephus, by
the famous Philo the Jew, and by many of the
Christian fathers, was generally received as the true
account of the origin of the Septuagint until about
two hundred years since. It probably explains the
name " Septuagint," or " Seventy," applied to the
version^ (which is usually denoted by the numerals
Isx.) from the number of the translators, and, doubt-
less, it also accounts in a great measure for the high
repute in which this version so long was held.
^ It is by some derived from the sanction given to the version by
the Seventy of the Alexandrian Sanhedrim. It is held by others that
the name Septuagint originally belonged to the Alexandrian Library,
from the number of its founders, and was thence applied to this, one
of its most famous documents.
152 THE BIBLE OF ''THE SEVENTY."
It is now universally considered to be a mere piece
of Eastern romance, invented to uphold the credit of
the work. But it undoubtedly rests on a basis of fact.
All the evidence points clearly to the facts, which are
amply confirmed by the study of the work itself, that
this Greek version originated in Alexandria in the
time of the earlier Ptolemies, about 280 B.C., and that
the nucleus of the work was certainly the Pentateuch.
That the literary tastes of the Egyptian king had
something to do with its origin may also be true, just
as in New l^estament days a Persian translation was
ordered by the Emperor Akbar. But, clearly, the real
cause of its existence must be sought in the needs of
the scattered Jews of the Dispersion, who knew scarcely
anything of Hebrew, and whose common language was
the universal Greek.
One part of the story that must certainly, we fear,
be put aside as pure fiction is that of the Palestine
manuscripts and the scholars from Jerusalem coming
to translate them. An examination of the work itself,
with its imperfect knowledge of Hebrew, its mistakes
about Palestine names of places, its Egyptian words
and turns of expression, its Macedonic Greek which
prevailed at Alexandria, and its free tendencies in
translation, so opposed to the superstitious literalism
of the Jewish schools, at once puts the Palestine
origin of the version completely out of court. It was
made by Jewish scholars of Alexandria, and not all
of them very good scholars either, judging from their
work. They show in many places a very imperfect
THE BIBLE OF ''THE SEVENTY.' 153
knowledge of Hebrew, and indeed of Greek too, for
that matter. They frequently mistake ordinary words
for proper names, and sometimes try to translate
proper names as if they were ordinary words. The
similarity of the Hebrew letters is one of their great
stumbling-blocks. We have already given examples
of their errors from this cause as well as from their
differences of Hebrew pronunciation. There are many
mistakes, too, from the wrongly dividing or joining of
words written probably without any division in the
Hebrew manuscript before them ; as, for example, in
Ps. cvi. 7, al yam, " at the sea," which they translate,
alyam, " going in."
IV.
Its Critical Value.
As to the value of the Septuagint in Textual
Criticism, opinions are widely divided. Some scholars,
pointing to the great antiquity of the translation, and
to its frequent use by our Lord and the Apostles,
would have us receive it as superior almost to the
Massoretic Hebrew text. Others would entirely ignore
its authority, telling us that its variations from the
Hebrew arose " out of the carelessness and caprice of
transcribers, their uncritical and wanton passion for
emendation, and their defective knowledge of the
Hebrew tongue" (Keil., Introd.). The truth lies
between these extremes.
It is true that this Septuagint has been translated
from a very ancient Hebrew Bible. It is true, too,
154 THE BIBLE OF "THE SEVENTY."
that in the time of the Septuagint translators some
variations existed in the Hebrew text. There can be
little doubt either that in some places at least, where it
differs from the present Hebrew, the Septuagint pre-
serves for us the truer reading. But it would be very-
dangerous to attempt many corrections on its sole
authority. We have seen already what stupid mis-
takes it sometimes made, and there is inuch besides
to make us accept its evidence with great caution where
it differs from the Hebrew.
The several books were evidently translated by men
of very different attainments in scholarship, and without
any after revision to bring the various parts into har-
mony. Then these Egyptian Jews were by no means
hampered with the rigid Palestine notions. The fact
that they ventured to translate the Bible at all out of
the holy tongue, which would seem almost sacrilege to
the Jews of Tiberias ; their admission of the apocryphal
books into their Canon; and still more, perhaps, the
existence of a schismatical temple in Egypt/ with its
priesthood and ritual, while they still recognised Jeru-
salem as the mother Church, all indicate a tone of
thought much freer and less scrupulous than that of
the Holy Land. And accordingly we trace in their
translation a bold, free handling of the text before
them, often expanding and paraphrasing to bring out
1 During the terrible Syrian persecution in Palestine, about 200 B.o.,
Onias, son of the murdered high priest, fled to Egypt. King Ptolemy
received him kindly, and gave him a disused heathen temple at Leonto-
polis, which was converted into a Jewish sanctuary, with its Aaronio
priesthood and temple ritual.
THE BIBLE OF " THE SEVENTY." 155
the sense, or to gratify their love of diffuse writing.
Evidently the meaning, not the strict letter of the
text, was the chief consideration with them. True, the
sense was, on the whole, fairly rendered. Indeed, were
it otherwise we could not understand the use of the
version by our Lord and His Apostles. But, at the
same time, it is clear that this freeness, however use-
ful, is a serious defect in an instrument of textual
criticism when the object is to find out exactly what
Hebrew words were in the manuscripts used by the
translators.
But the chief difficulty in using the Septuagint is,
that it is very difficult now to tell, with any certainty,
what the Septuagint originally said. Even in the days
of Origen, 1600 years ago, it had already grown so cor-
rupt as to greatly need the revision of it which he
attempted, and unfortunately his well-meant efforts only
made matters worse. He compared it with the Hebrew
Bibles of his day, supplying from the Hebrew what
seemed to be omissions, and noting what seemed to
him mistakes or additions. These additions and omis-
sions, &c., he denoted by asterisks and crosses and
other literary marks. But, as might be expected, in
the course of frequent copying these marks of his
got often misplaced, and often dropped out altogether,
so that the cure in time became really worse than the
disease.
Much has been done for it in recent years, but much
still remains to be done, in the collecting of ancient
copies and recording their various readings. As it
156 THE BIBLE OF ''THE SEVENTY."
stands at present, the revisers cannot well be blamed
that they hesitated to use it more freely in their work,
though few would be inclined to go the length of their
American confreres, who practically advised that it
should be rejected altogether.
V.
Famous Septuagint Manuscripts.
The most ancient copies known of the Septuagint
are the Vatican Codex, an old manuscript of the
fourth century, preserved in the Vatican Library at
Rome, and the " Sinaitic," whose romantic story is
graphically told by Dr. Tischendorf, the finder of its
scattered sheets in the old paper basket at Mount
Sinai (see photograph on opposite page).
A little later in date is the Codex Alexandrinus, in
which we have a special interest, as it belongs to our
own nation, and may be seen any day in its case in
the British Museum." ^ There is a small facsimile of
it in the plate facing p. 149, which exhibits also the
burnt fragment of another celebrated Septuagint copy,
the Codex Geneseos Cottonianus.
1 For an account of these manuscripts see the writer's " How we got
our Bible " (Bagster & Sons).
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DOCUMENTS No. IV.
A BUNDLE OF GREEK BIBLES.
A witness to the Bible of the Scribes and
Pharisees.
I place together iu this bundle a set of old documents
which are of considerable value in the textual criticism
of the Old Testament. Chief amongst them are portions
0^ three translations of the Hebrew Bible into Greek,
made during the second century a.d. by three scholars,
named Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, and, there-
fore, witnessing to the Hebrew text that existed in
the time of our Lord, and probably long before.
I dare not tax the reader's patience with any detailed
account of these old Bibles. Let me, therefore, draw
forth a single version from my bundle, and give it and
its story as a specimen of the rest.
Renegade and his Bible.
In the lovely city of Sinope, on the shores of the
Black Sea, there lived in the second century a heathen
gentleman named Aquila, a man of high position, con-
nected by marriage with the imperial family of Borne.
158 A BUNDLE OF GREEK BIBLES.
One advantage of being connected with royalty was,
in Aquila's day at least, tlie choice of a comfortable
post in the Civil Service. By the Emperor's direction,
he was commissioned to Jerusalem to examine and
report on certain public buildings, and while residing
there the amateur surveyor became converted to Chris-
tianity.
He was not, however, a very satisfactory convert.
He still retained many of his heathen superstitions ;
and one day it was found necessary by the heads of
the courageous little Church at Jerusalem that he
should be publicly reprimanded. It was not the first
time, nor will it be the last, that an honest rebuke has
been the cause of a " 'vert " to some other religious
body. Aquila, in anger, joined himself to the Jews ;
and having become circumcised, he soon began to pose
as a most zealous defender of the Mosaic Law and
ritual.
At this time a fierce controversy raged between
Jews and Christians as to the interpretation of certain
Messianic prophecies in the Old Testament ; and as
the Septuagint was the version chiefly appealed to by
the latter it was sternly banned by the Eabbis as the
" Christians' Bible." They even went so far as to
compare the ' ' accursed day when the seventy elders
wrote the Law in Greek for the king " (Ptolemy) with
that other day of evil in the ancient time "when
Israel made for itself the golden calf."
It was necessary, of course, under these circum-
stances, that there should be a Greek translation other
A BUNDLE OF GREEK BIBLES. 159
than the Septuagint for the use of the Jews who could
not read the Hebrew, and their aristocratic convert,
being a man of some scholarship, determined to under-
take this task himself.
The Jews were delighted with the new work, and
it gained so large a circulation that a new edition
(that highest pleasure of an author) was called for
within a few years of its first issue.
This is the specimen version, or rather the remains
of it, that I have drawn out of my bundle of docu-
ments to exhibit. It follows the Hebrew with slavish
literalness, so as, indeed, quite to spoil its own Greek.
But this defect is its chief virtue for the pui'pose of
textual criticism, as, of course, it makes it easier to
find out the exact Hebrew words which the translator
had before him. It would, therefore, be a most
valuable help if we had it perfect ; all the more
so, since Aquila is said to have become a student of
the great College of Tiberias, and on that account
would be a witness to the very best Palestine text.
Some interesting traces may be found in it of the
controversial purpose with which it was prepared ;
for example, in Isa. vii. 14, "Behold a virgin shall
conceive," &c., where he translates the word "young
woman ; " not exactly a false translation, but yet evi-
dently intended to turn the point of the Christians'
argument.
Any notice of the other versions in the bundle
would probably only tire the reader. From this
account of Aquila's he will form some notion of the
i6o A BUNDLE OF GREEK BIBLES.
rest.^ Therefore, it is only necessary, further, to say
that the evidence of these versions goes to show that
the Hebrew manuscripts from which they were trans-
lated in the second century corresponded very nearly
with the Massoretic manuscripts in our hands to-day,
though, at the same time, they exhibit some inter-
esting variations which the Septuagint and other
versions frequently support.
^ St. Jerome tells us that Aquila sought to reproduce the Hebrew
word for word ; that Symniachus aimed at a clear exposition of the
sense ; while Theodotion's object was to make a revised edition of
the Septuagint.
DOCUMENT No. V.
THE SY RI AC BIBLE.
I.
St. Ephraem the Syrian.
Once upon a time, some fifteen hundred years ago,
there lived a great father of the Syrian Church,
generally known to scholars now by the name of St.
Ephraem the Syrian. He was a very learned and
thoughtful old writer, yet his name would probably
have been as little remembered as that of many other
learned and thoughtful writers of his day had it not
been for its connection, partly accidental, with two
great facts in the history of Biblical criticism.
The first was, that when the old man had been
neaT'ly a thousand years in his grave, some enthusiastic
admirer one day wanted to copy out one of his lec-
tures. But parchment for the purpose was expensive
and difficult to be got. So, providing himself with
a piece of pumice-stone, he or she — these enthusiastic
admirers are generally ladies — coolly scrubbed out the
writing of a very ancient and valuable copy of the
Scriptures, for which there was probably little demand
in that day, and wrote in its stead St. Ephraem's dis-
courses. This old parchment was brought from the
L
1 62 THE SYRIAC BIBLE.
East with a number of other manuscripts in the six-
teenth century, and afterwards having passed into the
possession of her family, was presented to the Royal
Library at Paris by the infamous Catharine de Medicis.
In later days, when Biblical criticism had become
an important branch of study, some dim traces of
the ancient writing appearing underneath called the
attention of scholars to the document, and by the
repeated applications of chemicals the old obliterated
Bible was at length partially restored, and the Paris
Library thus became the possessor of one of the greatest
literary treasures in the world, a Bible manuscript
dating from the fifth century. From its accidental
connection with the lectures of the old Syrian, this
stained and blotted old Bible is now known as the
" Codex of Ephraem." (See Plate, opposite.)
The other fact is, that Ephraem's greatest work was
a commentary on the Syriac Bible of his day ; and
long ages afterwards, when the importance of the
Syriac Bible became recognised in textual criticism
and all the ancient Bibles such as Ephraem used had
utterly disappeared, this commentary of his became,
of course, a most valuable source of information about
the old Syriac text.
II.
The Oldest Chr'rstian Bible.
This Syriac Bible is the most ancient of all the
Christian versions. It was evidently growing anti-
Specimen of a "PALIMPSEST" Manpscript like that of St. Ephraem.
(Notice under the writing the faintly appearing letters of the Old Bible
that had been rubbed out. )
i 'IJf'f. E'
* T -5'^
'1^
"«. '*^ ,v >«^ ^-t _j
o '^^ ■ ^ c""' b fe P ^ -
^
^
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n-:
.^r^
PhotO'jrap)ied fioin the Dublin, University Palimpsest, CixXex Z
To face page 162.]
THE SYRIAC BIBLE. 163
quated even in Epbraem's day (about a.d, 350), if we
may judge from liis comments on the text He
constantly finds it necessary to explain words and
phrases that had already become obscure to the people
of his time, though, by the way, he very often explains
them wrongly. The fact, however, that such explana-
tions were needed is most probably an indication of
the antiquity of the Syriac text which lay before him.
Melito, bishop of Sardis, about the year 170, quotes
the reading of this Syriac Bible of a verse in Genesis ;
and the great Origen, whom we have mentioned already,
and who lived about a.d. 250, tells of a Syriac Bible
manuscript in the possession of a poor widow whom he
knew. All the other evidence confirms the impression
thus left on us as to its date, and scholars are now
almost unanimous in placing the Syriac version not
later than about the year 150 a.d.
m.
Letter from the Lord Jesus to a Syrian King.
The traditions of the Syrian Church, however, are
by no means satisfied with so modern a date for their
Bible. One opinion puts the date of the Syriac Old
Testament back to the days of Solomon and Hiram,
when all the Hebrew books written up to that date
were, they say, translated into the Syi'iac tongue.
Another tradition tells that it was translated by the
priest, who was sent to Samaria by the Assyrian
king (2 Kings xvii. 28); while a third and some-
i64 THE SYRIAC BIBLE.
what more plausible statement is, that the version
belongs to the days of Thaddeus the apostle and Abgarus,
king of Edessa, the correspondent of our Lord.
Have you ever heard, reader, the ancient Church
story of the evangelisation of Syria, the letter of King
Abgarus written to Jesus Christ, and the answer of
our Lord to that Syrian king? The story goes that,
moved by the account of Christ's beautiful life, and of
His unkind reception by the Jews, and needing also to
be healed by Him of a sore disease, King Abgarus
sent Him a letter inviting Him to his land, and
generously offering to share with Him all that he had.
The story was widely believed in the early centuries.
It seems a pity we cannot believe it still. On reading
the simple, touching letter, one is almost inclined to
regret that we live in this clearer, colder age of his-
torical doubt and criticism, in which all those beautiful
old legends are withering away.
Here are the letters as given by Eusebius, the
great Church historian in the fourth century. He
says he found them in the archives of the library at
Edessa, and translated them from their original Syriac
tongue : —
CTopS of t^e 3L£ttcr ton'tten bo 3Stintj aiisarus fa JCSUS,
nnti sent to f^im at Jerusalem 6g
3fnanias t'^e Cotirto:.
Abgarus, Prince of Edessa, sends greeting to
Jesus, the excellent Saviour who has appeared
on the borders ov jerusalem. i have heard thk
REPORTS RESPECTING ThEE, AND THY CURES A3 PER-
THE SYRIAC BIBLE. 163
FORMED BY ThEE WITHOUT MEDICINE OR THE USE OV
HERBS. For it is said Thod makest the blind
TO SEE again, and THE LAME TO WALK. AND THOU
CLEANSEST THE LEPERS, AND ThOC CASTEST OCT IM-
PURE SPIRITS AND DEMONS, AND ThOU HEALEST THOSE
THAT ARE TORMENTED BY LONG DISEASE, AND ThOU
EAISEST THE DEAD ; AND HEARING ALL THESE THINGS
OP Thee, I concluded in my mind one of two
THINGS ; EITHER ThOU ART GOD, AND HAVING DE-
SCENDED FROM HEAVEN, DOEST THESE THINGS ; OR
ELSE, DOING THEM, THOU ART THE SON OF GOD.
Therefore, now I have written and besought
Thee to visit me, and to heal the disease with
which i am afflicted.
I HAVE HEARD ALSO THAT THE JeWS MURMUR
AGAINST Thee, and are plotting to injure Thee.
I HAVE, however, A VERY SMALL BUT NOBLE ESTATE,
which is SUFFICIENT FOR US BOTH.
S:ijc ansiucr of 5CSU5 to aKing atirjarus
bg tf)c Courier Ananias.
Blessed art thou, 0 Abgarus, who, without
SEEING, hast BELIEVED IN ME. FoR ITJS WRITTEN
CONCERNING Me, THAT THEY WHO HAVE BEEN ME
WILL NOT BELIEVE ; THAT THEY WHO HAVE NOT SEEN
MAY BELIEVE AND LIVE. BUT IN REGARD TO WHAT
THOU HAST WRITTEN, THAT I SHOULD COME TO THEE,
IT IS NECESSARY THAT I SHOULD FULFIL ALL THINGS
HERE FOR WHICH I HAVE BEEN SENT, AND AFTER THIS
FULFILMENT THUS TO BE RECEIVED AGAIN BY HiM
THAT SENT ]Me. AnD AFTER I HAVE BEEN RECEIVED
UP, I WILL SEND TO THEE A CERTAIN ONE OF My
DISCIPLES, THAT HE MAY HEAL THY AFFLICTION, AND
GIVE LIFE TO THEE AND THOSE WHO ARE WITH THEE.
After these letters, the historian gives the account,
which he found subjoined to them in the Syriac
166 THE SYRIAC BIBLE.
tongue, of the fulfilment of our Lord's promise after
His Ascension, and the proclamation to Syria of the
Christian faith. For many centuries it was believed
that Edessa had a charmed existence, being imper-
vious to all assaults of besiegers through its possession
of this divine epistle.
IV.
Biblical Criticism and the Syriac Bible.
At any rate, leaving these old traditions altogether
out of account, there is, as we have seen, clear proof
of the existence of this Syriac version soon after the
year 150. It is, therefore, the earhest of all Chris-
tian versions. St. Ephraem teaches us by the words
and phrases quoted in his commentary that the Syriac
text in our hands to-day is substantially the same as
that which he had before him. We find the very
same words in our existing Syriac manuscripts. And
we have further evidence of this from the fact that
soon after his day the Syrian Church split into three
hostile sects, hating each other as heartily as did the
Jews and Samaritans, but all three nevertheless using
to this day the same version of the Scriptures. This
indicates clearly that the present Syriac Bible must
have been in use before the schisms in the Church,
since we cannot believe that after it any one of the
three hostile parties would have accepted its Bible
from another.
SPECIMEN OF SYRIAC.
PESHITO VERSION.
wCTloiyJ Jcfl^jb . JcflJ^ LO^ JoCTl wOTOiv-.]
\jc«u<»-2s JOOT wqiO;^-.) )Jot . JJ^^^*^ OCT! jOCTl
. j6ot jLLX ox^ . )6ot» pz^ *I.6cn Ju* JLaj
OCTio . )._*_LX.j.::i» l|cnQ_i ^ocruiy) jJLXo
. JjcnOLj ^^ »cTi_m^» JL6»q-im\ Ji,| )lJot
jocri OCT! ]i . (T\jL>l^ ^:2i_,cTi_j ■ ^ ■ \-^«
)LA^J»o . jocn Jbc^:^ . )>^\>.\ jy;
c3-u^i±s . cnjs j; U ).s?>..>»o . Jocn ^jml^U^
XT'} r^j • ^^^i^^-O U CTL^tO . jL)
)jwxii» ).l^Q.j» ^ocnlbk ^qi^ •. wOTCi2i>jrLO>
. cjT.:2LA.£i ^x>Qycri.>D» ,y^)J . ^oocnJ JcnJ^j
To fact poye i66. J
THE SYRIAC BIBLE. 167
The great value of this Syriac version consists iu
the fact that it is a translation direct from the Hebrew,
many of the other early versions being second hand,
made from the Septuagint translation. And its value
is increased owing to its excellence. It comes nearest
to our ideal of what a version ought to be. It re-
produces its original faithfully, and as far as possible
literally, seldom or never relaxing into free paraphrase.
Of course, the Hebrew manuscripts underlying it
are many centuries earlier than Massoretic days ; many
centuries earlier, it may be, even than the days of
our Lord.^ It has several small variations from the
existing Hebrew Bible, sometimes evidently arising
from confusion of the " similar letters" or from read-
ing the vowels differently from the Massoretes, but in
some cases exhibiting quite different and at times
apparently better readings than those of the Masso-
retic text.
Its chief defect for purposes of criticism is due to
traces of the influence of the Septuagint upon it. It
was almost inevitable that this should be so. The
Septuagint was the People's Bible, the Bible used by
our Lord and His Apostles, and circulated all over
the Christian Church. It would, therefore, be very
likely in process of time to tinge more or less all the
Eastern versions of the Old Testament.
^ Christians have sometimes unfairly suspected that the Jews, in
their opposition to Christianity, may have tampered with the text of
Messianic prophecies. Therefore the importance of the Syriac Bible
is increased by the fact that it was made from a Hebrew Bible which
existed before any disputes between Jews and Christians.
168 THE SYRIAC BIBLE.
The Syriac, like all the other ancient Bibles, still
needs a great deal of revision before it can become a
satisfactory instrument in the work of Biblical criticism.
But there is ample store of material for the purpose.
The Vatican and other great Continental libraries
possess several important copies ; and nearer hand, in
the galleries of the British Museum is a richer collec-
tion than any, including the famous library treasures
of the Monastery of St. Mary, INIother of God, from
the Nitrian deserts in Egypt. So there is only want-
ing— and they are already coming forward — a band
of earnest scholars to work at these old manuscripts,
and give to the world a Syriac Bible worthy of its
ancient history.
DOCUMENT No. VI.
THE ''VULGATE'' OF ST. JEROME.
The Monk of Bethlehem.
Towards the end of the fourth century so many
variations had crept into the Old Latin Bibles that the
need of some kind of revision began to be very keenly
felt by every one who had the opportunity of comparing
two of them together. There were almost as many
different " editions," it was said, " as there were
copies."
Just at this crisis, when the leaders of the Latin-
speaking Churches were casting about for some one
to help them, there returned to Rome from his Beth-
lehem monastery one of the greatest Biblical scholars
of his day, Eusebius Hieronymus, better known to us
as St. Jerome, and his high reputation pointed him
out at once as the very man for this important work.
Jerome was not very willing at first to undertake it.
It is a thankless task, he said, and will only arouse
bitter prejudice amongst those " who think that igno-
rance and holiness are one and the same." However,
he was persuaded to attempt it, amid much advice
to be very tender of the prejudices of the " weak
170 THE "VULGATE" OF ST JEROME.
brothers," whose consciences were so sensitive about
meddling with the Scriptures, and he finished a rather
cautious revision of the New Testament about the
year 385. Then he began a Revised Version of the
Psalms, correcting the current Psalters by means not
of the original Hebrew, but of those Greek versions of
Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion which we have just
described. After this he went through a number of the
Old Testament books, with a good deal of murmuring
from his clerical friends that he was going too far
with his changes in the Bible, and a good deal of
dissatisfaction in his own mind that he was not going
half as far as he ought to.
At last he grew tired of this cautious patching of old
versions, which no amount of patching could mend, and
so he determined on the bold stroke of going back to
the fountain-head and translating the Old Testament
direct from the original Hebrew manuscripts.
It was a very serious undertaking, and no other
scholar in the Church of those days would have been
competent to attempt it. But Jerome was a man of
great resources. He was a most industrious and ener-
getic worker, and an able and accomplished scholar.
He was no novice in the task of translating ; he had
learned , his Hebrew from the Palestine Rabbis ; he
had teachers from the. College of Tiberias privately
assisting him ; he had access to Hebrew manuscripts
probably centuries older than the time of our Lord.
And, therefore, though he had many obstacles in his
way ; though his Hebrew scholarship was by no means
SCRAP OK AN "OLD LATIN " manuscript, the version
WHOSE MISTAKES LED TO THE MAKING OF ST. JEROMES
vifL(;ATE (see p. 170).
Photographed from Mamiscript of Archbishop Ussher's, noic in the L.brar
of Trinity College, Dublin.
To face page 170.
THE " VULGATE'-' OF ST. JEROME. 171
perfect ; though there were no vowels in his Hebrew
manuscripts to assist him in finding the meaning;
though the fierce popular prejudice against changes
considerably hampered the freedom of his work, he
produced the most valuable translation of the Bible
that has ever been made before modern days. No
other work has had such an influence on the history
of the Bible. For more than a thousand years it
was the parent of every version of the Scriptures in
Western Europe ; and even now, when the original
Greek and Hebrew manuscripts are so easily accessible,
the Rhemish and Douay Testaments are translations
from this famous " Vulgate " Bible of St. Jerome, so
are also our own Prayer Book Psalms, and the " Com-
fortable Words " in the Communion OflSce, while even
in the Authorised Version of the Bible its influence
is quite perceptible.
II.
The "Temper of a Saint."
Such a howl of indignation as this new Bible ex-
cited ! Remembering the prejudice which our recent
English Revised Bible excited a few years ago, it is
instructive to recall the story how the work of the old
monk of Bethlehem was received. It was called re-
volutionary and heretical ; it was pronounced subversive
of all faith in Holy Scripture ; it was an impious tam-
pering with the inspired Word of God ; in fact, for
172 THE " VULGATE" OF ST. JEROME.
centuries afterwards it was rejected and condemned,
and everything was said that ignorant bigotry could
suggest to bring it into disrepute. What a lesson on
the evils of senseless prejudice ! What an instance,
too, of a brave, honest man determined to follow fear-
lessly what he felt to be right, even though the whole
world were against him !
Even his greatest friends and admirers were swayed
by the popular cry. St. Augustine, who was scholar
enough to understand the merits of the work, and who
had in the beginning praised and congratulated him,
got frightened at the last. He begged him to let it
alone. He told him the story of an old bishop in
Africa, who used his (St. Jerome's) new - fangled
translation; how one day, in reading the Lesson in
Church, he read the word " ivy " instead of " gourd,"
in the story of Jonah, when the people started up in
wild excitement, and refused to be quiet till they got
their old Bible back.
Poor St. Jerome ! it was a hard time for him, and
his letters in existence tell how keenly he felt it.
Unfortunately, too, whatever his other qualifications
for the title, the old man had certainly not the
" temper of a saint," and he slashed out bitterly
against the " fools," the " stupids," the " two-legged
donkeys " (hipedcs asellos), whose prejudices had raised
such an outcry against him. It is hard to blame
him. It is a sad story to look back upon — a brave
man wearing out his life in one of the grandest works
ever accomplished for the Church, and seeing this
THE ''VULGATE" OF ST. JEROME. 173
work of his by ignorant bigotry banned and pro-
scribed to his dying day !
It was long after his death before its value was
recognised. Pope Gregory the Great first set the
fashion by using it in his Commentary on the Book
of Job, and it is almost amusing to see how com-
pletely the tide had turned at the time of the Council
of Trent, when the injured old scholar had been a
thousand years dead. Men had then grown as
attached to the Vulgate of St. Jerome as those of
the fourth century had been to its predecessors. In
fact, they seem almost to have forgotten that it was
only a translation. When errors were pointed out,
they quite resented the idea of correcting it by means
of the old Greek and Hebrew manuscripts. " It is
the version of the Church," said they, " and in the
language of the Church. Why should it yield to
old Greek and Hebrew manuscripts which have been
in the hands of schismatics and unbelievers for hun-
dreds of years ? " So these wise scholars invented
an easy method of textual criticism for themselves.
Instead of going to the trouble of comparing the
version with the ancient manuscripts, they settled
the matter by calmly decreeing in Council that the
old Vulgate should be received as " authentic," what-
ever that may mean, and that it should be the stan-
dard version, to which appeal must be made in all
matters of controversy. An interesting exhibition of
the feeling at the time is a passage in the preface
to the great Complutensian Polyglot Bible, where the
174 T^HE « VULGATE'' OF ST. JEROME.
Hebrew and the Greek and the Latin Vulgate were
printed in parallel columns, side by side, the venerable
old Vulgate being in the middle, which the editors,
with grim humour, compared to the position of our
Lord between the two thieves !
III.
Papal Infallibility and Biblical Criticism.
We have seen now that for centuries after St.
Jerome the Vulgate had been banned and suspected ;
indeed, men had often presumed to " correct " it, so
as to make it agree with the corrupt Old Latin Bible,
which held the place of honour. The reader will
therefore see reason to believe that by the time of the
Council of Trent its copies had probably got into a
state very much needing the exercise of intelligent
textual criticism. The Council, as we have seen,
contented themselves by declaring it " authentic," and
decreeing that "hereafter the sacred Scripture, and
especially this ancient Vulgate edition, should be
printed as accurately as possible."
About forty years after, Pope Sixtus V. undertook
to bring out a correct edition. His method was a
very simple one indeed. He got together a company
of learned revisers, but with this understanding, that
their functions were merely to collect manuscripts and
prepare the evidence for and against certain readings
in the text, after which the Pope himself, by reason
not of his scholarship, but of his gift of infallibility,
THE ''VULGATE" OF ST. JEROME. 17^
decided straight off which were the genuine words !
Then it occurred to him that it would be a good
thins: for the credit of his new edition if he forbade
the collecting of any further critical materials, lest the
authority of this sacred work should be undermined.
He decreed also that all readings varying from his
edition should be rejected as incorrect ; that it should
never be altered in the slightest degree, under pain of
the anger of Almighty God and His blessed apostles
Peter and Paul ; and if any man presumed to trans-
gress this mandate, he was to be placed under the ban
of the major excommunication, not to be absolved
except by the Pope himself!
But alas for " the best laid plans of mice and
men " ! Scholars who examined the new book very
soon learned, if they did not know it before, that, as
there was no royal road to learning, so was there also
no papal road to criticism. The book was fall of mis-
takes. The scholarship of Sixtus was by no means
great, and his infallibility somehow failed to make up
for this defect. The position was a very awkward one,
and though things were kept quiet during the life of
the Pope, as soon as he was dead it was strongly felt
that his Vulgate would bring discredit and peril on the
Church. At any cost, a new edition must be prepared
to supersede the " infallible " one. But the credit of
the deceased Pope must somehow be saved as well.
How was this to be done ?
I am afraid the Jesuits of that day do not come out
of the matter with very clean hands. Only one way
176 THE ''VULGATE'' OF ST. JEROME.
seemed open to them, and they adopted it. "The
mistakes were all owing to the fault of the printer ! "
Not that they descended to a deliberate untruth. Dr.
Salmon, in his recent book on " Infallibility," points
out the delightful equivocation with which they salved
their conscience. " Either the printers were to blame,
or somebody else," said they. But in the preface to the
new edition brought out under Pope Clement VIII.
the "somebody else" was left out altogether, and the
whole blame of the Papal blunders was saddled on the
unfortunate printer.
IV.
The Value of the Vulgate.
This new edition, the Clementine "Vulgate, was a
considerable improvement on its predecessor, but was
very far from being a faultless work. Indeed, a satis-
factory edition of the Vulgate now may almost be
regarded as an impossibility. So many causes have
united to corrupt it, that it is one of the hardest prob-
lems in textual criticism to restore the original " Bible
of St. Jerome." But it is well worth doing all that
can be done in this direction by means of the available
ancient sources.
The document is a most important one. It is a
witness of the Hebrew text at a very early period, for
Jerome had probably manuscripts before him of an
THE "VULGATE" OE ST. JEROME. 177
earlier date than the days of our Lord. And it must
be remembered, too, that, like the Syriac, the Vulgate
Old Testament is a translation dived from the Hebrew ;i
not, like many other Christian versions, a second-hand
translation from the Septuagint Greek, Therefore, it
is worthy of much more pains than are being spent
on it by Biblical scholars, and, even in its present
faulty state, is a most valuable aid in the criticism
of the Hebrew text.
^ This is not true of the whole work. The Book of Psalms and a
few of the apocryphal books were not translated from the original
Hebrew, but were taken from the old Latin Bible, slightly revised by
St, Jerome.
'Booli IM.
THE NEW BIBLE.
A SPECIMEN OF
BIBLICAL CRITICISM.
CHAPTER I.
CRITICS AT WORK.
I.
Introductory.
" The Old Testament is sitting, sir ! "
It called up rather absurdly reminiscences of the
poultry-yard, this statement with which a pompous
official barred the entrance to the Jerusalem Chamber
to some visitors of our acquaintance during the recent
revision days. The information really conveyed was
that behind those closed doors the Biblical critics of
the Revision Company were working at the materials
accessible to them for producing a correct version of
the Old Testament, and the visitors must retire with-
out gratifying their curiosity about either the historic
chamber or the work of the revisers.
I trust the reader's interest has been by this time
sufficiently aroused to make him share their curiosity
in the latter particular, for a glance at the work in
the Jerusalem Chamber would be a most valuable
illustration of our " Lesson in Biblical Criticism." We
have already roughly examined the accessible material
— the " Old Hebrew Documents " and the " Other Old
Documents" described in the preceding pages. We
1 82 CRITICS AT WORK.
have still to learn the method of using this material
in producing a correct Bible, and the easiest way of
doing so is by watching how it was used by the
scholars of the Old Testament revision.
The reader will, of course, quite understand that
this is not a book about the Revised or any other par-
ticular version. We merely desire to glance here at
the recent revision, as the most convenient specimen
accessible for our purpose. Let us therefore, in fancy,
put aside the burly janitor from the doorway and view
for a brief moment the " Old Testament sitting*"
II.
"The Old Testament Sitting."
An ancient chamber, grand with historic memories,
lined round with cedar and with curious tapestry — a
long table running down the centre — a band of men
busily intent on the written and printed sheets that
lie spread out before them — a heavy face and mono-
tonous voice arguing as to the value of a verse in the
Septuagint which differs considerably from the Hebrew
under discussion.
That is all. Nothing that seems very romantic or
interesting about it. Does it differ from the scene
which the reader expected ? Is he looking round him
for the beautiful gold and purple Psalters, or the rough,
worn edges of old copies of the Law ? Have I misled
him, by the previous descriptions of the material, to
imagine the floor piled with faded parchments from
CRITICS AT ]VORK. 183
tLe archives of the East, and bishops and deans and
reverend professors grubbing in the mouldering dirt
of the old manuscripts, hurrying about from one docu-
ment to another to investigate the evidence about the
passages in question ?
Comfort yourself, my reader. The parchments and
the dirt are safe in their repositories all over the
different libraries of Europe. The dirty work has
been already done. For a hundred years past patient
scholars have been toiling in many lands over the
masses of ancient Biblical lore, and the results of
their toil appear in the clean and carefully prepared
sheets that lie on the revisers' table. Beside each
column of the Hebrew are accurate annotations, tell-
ing of every important variation that has been dis-
covered, whether in some of the Massoretic manu-
scripts, or in the Samaritan, or in certain copies of
the Septuagint, or in the Syriac or Vulgate versions.
If the Talmud or Targums, or any of the mediasval
Jewish commentators, or any other authorities, have light
to throw on a passage, their information too is carefully
recorded. So that, it will be seen, the evidence for or
against any particular reading is manifest at a glance.
III.
Defects of our Specimen.
Before proceeding to examine the work of the Old
Testament revisers, it is necessary to remark that,
though the most convenient specimen, it is by no
1 84 CRITICS AT WORK.
means a good specimen for teaching how the various
" Old Documents " ought to be used in producing a
correct Bible. There are defects both in the material
used and in the restrictions placed upon themselves
by those who used them, which seriously hinder it
from being a good illustration of the processes of
Biblical criticism.
Partly perhaps from unwillingness to' run counter
to popular prejudices, but chiefly from difficulties con-
nected with the state of the manuscripts, the revisers
bound themselves to a close adherence to the Mas-
soretic Hebrew Text. Now, however they might
otherwise differ about their work, they all knew very
well that this text was in many places of questionable
integrity. Though, on the whole, it is safe to regard
it as correct, though in the Pentateuch it reaches
almost perfect accuracy, yet there were parts, especially
the historical books, in which every scholar knew of
superficial flaws and mistakes, some of which, too,
were not very difficult of correction. But, except in
rare cases, these flaws and mistakes had to be allowed
to remain ; the revisers considered that, in the present
state of our knowledge on the subject, it was best to
adhere to the standard Massoretic text,
A good deal of blame has been attached to them
for this " want of boldness " in accomplishing their
work. It has been pointed out that the most
ancient Massoretic manuscript is scarcely a thousand
years old ; that the Septuagint and other ancient
versions take us back much nearer to Old Testament
CRITICS AT WORK. 185
times ; tlaafc they often give readings which quite
solve difficulties in the Hebrew text, and have every
appearance of being more correct; that sometimes it
is easy to prove from their translation that the mis-
take mvsi he in the Hebrew, and to see exactly the
copyist's slip which gave rise to the mistake.
And all this is true. The Revised Old Testament
is decidedly behind the scholarship of the age. The
work is a timid and cautious one. There is little
doubt that the next revision, whenever it takes place,
will be bolder and freer, and that the ancient versions,
especially the Septuagint, will play a larger part in
the work. Yet, in spite of all this, we believe that the
revisers were fully justified in their cautious procedure.
For, in the first place, as we have seen already, there
is every reason to believe that the existing Hebrew
manuscripts, late though they be, differ but very
slightly from those in use at the time of our Lord,
and probably centuries earlier. The most important
of their flaws and defects are of very ancient times,
before any critical study of the manuscripts had
begun, and before any of the versions, except perhaps
the Septuagint, had been made.
And, in the second place, it must be remembered
that the versions, the only means of correcting the
Hebrew, are at present in a most unsatisfactory state.
The different copies of the Septuagint vary consider-
ably from each other, and this too is the case with
the other old versions.
Therefore there is much to be said for the revisers'
i86 CRITICS AT WORK.
explanation that the time is not yet ripe, that " our
knowledge at present is not sufficient to justify an
attempt at a reconstruction of the text by means of
the Ancient Versions." The fact is, we were nob
ready for an Old Testament revision at ail in this
present century. The amount of necessary prepara-
tion work is simply enormous. We want a band of
scholarly specialists to spend years in collecting and
comparing the copies of the Septuagint, and by means
of their critical wisdom to find out as nearly as pos-
sible what the old scholars of King Ptolemy really
wrote down two thousand years ago. The same thing
is needed for every one of the old versions, as far
as it is possible to do it for them now. The Hebrew
manuscripts themselves also need a good deal of careful
study.
We must wait for all this to be accomplished. And
we must wait, too — we shall not have long to wait —
for the growth of a spirit of common sense in the
public, whose prejudices have so much to do with
rendering any new version a failure or a success.
Our " Bible-loving people " must learn to ' aspire a
little higher than the " rhythm " and " music " and
" old associations," whose disturbance, I remember, was
the chief burden of their criticism in the days of the
late revision. They must get beyond this sentimental
pietism, and see that, if necessary, all things else must
be sacrificed to the one supreme object of making the
Bible mean to us exactly what it meant to its original
readers.
CRITICS AT WORK. 187
All these things will take time. On the whole, it
may be safely asserted that for another half-century
at least the time will not be ripe for a successful Old
Testament revision.
IV.
Nineteenth Century M asso retes.
Under these circumstances, the revisers adopted a
safe middle course. In cases of evident mistakes in
the " Old Hebrew Documents," or of very plausible
readings in the " Other Old Documents," they acted as
did the old Massoretic revisers long ago — merely give
the correction a place in the margin, only in very rare
cases indeed making changes in the text. The reader
will easily understand that the circumstances which
necessitated this cautious procedure must considerably
lessen the value of the Old Testament revision for our
purpose as an illustration of Biblical criticism. For a
good illustration it would be requisite that the " Hebrew
Documents " should be freely open to correction, and
that the " Other Old Documents," the instruments
of that correction, should be in proper condition for
accomplishing their task.
However, by carefully selecting our specimens for
examination, we shall probably make it answer suffi-
ciently for our purpose.
CHAPTER II.
SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK.
I.
" Authorised " Reading. Revisers' Reading.
Gen. iv. S: And Cain talked And Cain told Abel his brother :
with Abel his brother : and it and it came to pass, &c.
came to pass, when they were in
i. /> 1 1 ..1 1. /-. • ■ I. Marginal Reading.
the held, that Cain rose up ai^ainst
,,,,., , , , , . Ilcbrcw moans, Cam said unto Abel
Abel his brother, and slew him. j^^^ brother; and many ancient an-
thorities have, "said unto Abel his
brother, Let us go into the field."
The Hebrew verb here means regularly said to, and
when we meet it we always expect to find after it
the words that were said. But there are no such
words following it in the Hebrew text. Therefore,
the translators of our Authorised Version saved the
sense at the cost of the grammar, and incorrectly
translated it talked with." The revisers have made
a partial compromise — " Cain told Abel." The words
literally translated would be : —
And Cain
SAID TO Abel nis brother:
and it came to pass when
they were in the field that
Cain rose up, &c.
SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK. 189
One is therefore inclined to suspect that the line
containing the words which Cain said may have
been lost out of the text by the slip of some copyist.
They certainly do not occur in the " Old Hebrew
Documents."
In this difficulty the revisers turned to the " Other
Old Documents " to find out how they read the verse.
First the Samaritan Pentateuch was called as a wit-
ness, and it read : —
And Cain
SAID TO Abel his brother,
Let us go into the field.
And it came to pass, when
they were in the field, that
Cain rose up, &c.
This seemed a very likely reading. But then the
Samaritan witness was not of too respectable a char-
acter. It had before been convicted of altering pas-
sages to make them read more smoothly and easily.
Its evidence, therefore, could not be accepted without
confirmation. Then they tried the Septuagint, which
read just the same. The Syriac (Peshitto) was called,
and then St. Jerome's old Vulgate, and last of all the
two Jerusalem Targums, and they all persisted in
inserting the words, " Let us go into the field."
There is a passage in i Sam. xx. 1 1 which also
rather favours this insertion : " And Jonathan said
unto David, Come, let us go into the field. And they
went out both of them into the field."
igo SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK.
It was argued in defence of the Hebrew reading,
that the difficulty about the meaning of the verb
might have made the other documents fill up the sense
by inserting these words ; while the Hebrew scribes
were so scrupulous about the letter of the text that
they would not meddle with it on any consideration.
This may have been so, but the evidence seems very
strong against it. I think, from the tone of the
revisers' marginal note, that they were very much
inclined to admit the disputed words into the text ;
and though now they must remain out in the cold for
the present, their chances of admission are decidedly
promising whenever the next Old Testament revision
takes place.
II.
"Authorised" Reading, Revisers' Reading.
Gen. xlix. 6 : la their self-will In their self-will they houghed
they digged down a wall. an ox.
It is hard to say which of these is the right reading.
The Hebrew might mean either, according to the
vowels supplied.
HQRU SHR might be read h.^qru SII^^R, " they digged
down a wall ; " or H^QgRU SH^R, " they houghed an ox."
The Septuagint has the latter translation, and it seems
to allude to the spirit of destructiveness manifested
(compare 2 Sam. viii. 4) ; but most of the other ver-
sions have the reading of the " Authorised Version."
SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK. 191
IIL
" Authobised" Reading. Reviseks' Reading.
Josh. ix. 4 : The Gibeonites The Gibeonites
went - and - made - as - if - they - had- took-them-pro visions,
been-ambassadors.
There is this improbability against the "Authorised"
reading, that one does not quite see why the Gibeonites
need pretend to be what they really were. That they
"took them provisions," which is the reading in the
Septuagint and of nearly all the ancient versions, fits
in very well with their statement in verse 12:" This
bread which we took for provisions," &c.
The mistake, on whichever side it exists, is simply
the confusion of oar two mischievous old acquaintances,
T and 1, d and r. Here are the two words : —
(i.) 1Tt3iJn = Hitztayaru = acted-as-ambassadors.
(2.) "I'l'^iOiin = Hitztayaru = took-them-provisions.
The first is the reading of nearly all the Massoretic
manuscripts. Either the second was the word in the
ancient Hebrew manuscripts which the Septuagint and
other translators worked from, or else they mistook the
other word for it. Who can tell which is right ? The
reader is now almost in as good a position to decide
the question as were the revisers in the Jerusalem
Chamber.
192 SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK.
"Authorised" Reading. Revisers' Reading.
Judges xviii. 30: And Jonathan, And Jonathan, the son of Ger-
the sdn of Gershom, the son of shorn, the son of Moses, he and
Manasseh, he and his sons were his sons were priests.
priests (to the Danites' idol).
Here is a curious case of tampering witK the Hebrew
text such as the Massoretes would never have dared to
attempt. It was done a thousand years before their
day. The Hebrew Bible, following the best manu-
scripts, has the word written thus, ]\PsH, the N being
what is called " suspended." The name, therefore, is read
as Mxsii (Manasseh) ; though, if the little suspended
N were removed, it would be Msh = Mosheh (Moses).
Clearly "MoSEs" is the true reading, for Gershom
was the son of Moses, not of Manasseh, and Jonathan
is expressly stated to be a Levite, not a Manassite.
So far the evidence of the " Old Hebrew Documents."
Now let "US see what the " Other Old Documents "
have to say. The reading " Manasseh " appears in
the Septuagint, and therefore must have been in the
Hebrew manuscripts used by the famous " Seventy
Translators." It is found also in the Syriac, and
indeed in all the important versions with the excep-
tion of the Vulgate. St. Jerome's old Rabbis must
have taught him that it was wrong. It is clearly a
reading of very ancient times. But in spite of all
its supporters and all its antiquity, the reader wiU
easily see that it needs to be corrected.
SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK. 193
There was probably not the least intention amongst
the Jews of falsifying the text in this place. They
scrupulously kept the N small and suspended, and
had a note in the margin calling attention to it.
It was only that they hated to hear the name of
Moses read in such a connection, and so, to spare
their feelings, they pronounced it as Manasseh.-^ The
Talmud has a note accounting for the reading : — " Ger-
shom is called the son of Manasseh. Was he not the
son of Moses ? For it is written, The sons of Moses
were Gershom and Eliezer. But because he did the
works of Manasseh the idolater, the Scripture hangs
him on to the family of Manasseh." And Rashi,
the Jewish commentator mentioned already, tells us,
" For the honour of Moses N was written, but it was
suspended to indicate that it was not Manasseh, but
Moses."
V.
"Authorised" Reading. Eevisers' Margin.
I Sam. xiii. i : Saul reigned Saul was (thirty) years old when
one year, and when he had reigned he began to reign, and he reigned
two years over Israel. two years over Israel.
Beyond all question the Hebrew Bible is hero
corrupt. The usual formula for stating a king's age
at his accession and his length of reign is : — "
n;as years old wlicn he legan to reign, and he
1 With the same object they substituted hosheth for Baal in proper
names, Ishbosheth for Eshbaal, Mephibosheth for Meribaal, Jerubesheth
for Jerubaal, &c., to avoid pronouncing the accursed name.
N
194 SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK.
reigned years." For example, 2 Sam. ii. 10:
" Ishboshetli was forty years old vjJien he hegan to reign,
and he reigned two years." 2 Sam. v. 4 : " David ivas
thirty years old when he hegan to reign, and he reigned
forty years ; " and so frequently in the Books of Kings,
Now, this is the formula used above, and it cannot be
rightly rendered, as in our Bibles, " Saul reigned one
year ; " it should read, according to the Hebrew,
" Saul was one year old," which is clearly a mistake.
Probably the scribe, in writing the formula, left the
numerals blank, to be afterwards filled in, and thus the
mistake arose. The Septuagint does not help us much.
Some of its later editions have the word thirty, as
above, but the best MSS. leave out the verse.
It is very likely that in the ancient and less
scrupulous days some scribe thought this a con-
venient place for inserting in his manuscript the
usual information about the king's age and reign.
All we can say now is, that this verse is corrupt, and
we cannot tell what the true reading should be.
VI.
"Authorised" Reading. Revisers' Margik.
I Sam. xiv. 18 : And Saul said The Septuagint has —
unto Ahiah, Bring hither the ARK Bring hither the EPHOD ; for he
of God. For the ark of God was wore the ephod at that time before
at that time with the children of Israel.
Israel.
The Septuagint here is very probably right, though
the revisers have left the text uncorrected. Let the
SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK. 195
reader judge for himself. Here are the chief con-
siderations that influenced them in admitting into their
margin the Septuagint reading : —
( I .) The ark was, most probably, not there at all at
the time, but at Kirjath-jearim (i Sam, vii. i, 2),
where it remained from its capture by the Philistines
until David removed it.
(2.) The ark would have been of no use for Saul's
purpose. He wanted to ascertain the Divine will,
and it was the ephod, not the ark, that was the instru-
ment for doing so.
(3.) The words, "Bring hither the ark," are never
used. The Hebrew verb here is suitable only to the
bringing of smaller objects. Bring hither the ephod
is a usual expression (see chap, xxiii. 9 ; xxx. 7).
(4.) Moreover, the words, witkdrmv thine hand, i.e.,
desist, would not be appropriate if he were ordering
Ahiali to get ready the ark to be carried out to
battle.
(5.) The mistake of ark for ephod might easily
take place. Here are the words —
p-)X = Ark.
nSM = Ephod.
Besides, too, it was noticed that, though the present
authorised reading seems so smooth in English, in
the original Hebrew it is defective and ungrammatical.
Thus, " The ark was that day and {not with) the
children of Israel."
196 SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK.
On the whole, I think the reader will see that it is
extremely probable, to say the least, that the Septua-
gint preserves for us the correct reading which was
in the very ancient Hebrew manuscripts, and that our
Massoretic manuscripts in this instance are corrupt.
VII.
The Story of David and Goliath (i Sam. xvii.,xviii.).
The revisers have rightly noted in the mai'gin of
I Sam. xvii. 1 2 that the episodes immediately before
and after the combat with the giant (i.e., vers. 1 2—3 I
and ver. 5 5 , &c.) are omitted in the Septuagint. It
was objected by some that this note was not justified,
because that the famous Alexandrian manuscript of the
Septuagint does not omit these parts. This is quite
true, but on examining that manuscript it is found to
be almost a stronger proof than if it had made the omis-
sion. Clearly the scribe who wrote it was accustomed
to a manuscript which omitted these disputed parts.
For immediately after finishing ver. 1 1 he begins the
first words of ver. 32, as if they were the words
immediately following, and then suddenly stops and
proceeds to incorporate the missing section. But he
does not score out the words of ver. 3 2 which he had
begun, and so the traces of his correcting himself
remain clear in the manuscript for 1 5 00 years.
Most probably he remembered just then, or some-
body pointed out to him, that the Hebrew manuscripts
SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK. 197
contained this other section, and so he decided that it
ought to be in the text in that place.
Ought it ? How well I remember as a boy the
difficulties which this story presented to me as it
stands in our English Bible ! Has it not often seemed
strange to you, reader ? Just before, we are told how
David was introduced to the court of Saul, and became
a prime favourite with the king, and was made his
armour-bearer. Yet here he is represented as back
amongst the sheep-folds, sent by his father to his
brethren, treated by these brethren with a sharpness
such as kings' favourites are certainly not often sub-
jected to. Nay, we find that he is altogether unknown
at court. The king has to inquire of Abner, who is
unable to answer him, " Whose son is this youth ? "
All this is very puzzling. Strike out the passages
omitted by the Septuagint and all follows smoothly.
Ver. 3 2 follows quite naturally after ver. 1 1 , and
xviii. 6 after xvii. 54. The story is then perfectly
consistent. Nay, more. The Hebrew text shows some
traces of having been pieced together at ver. 12, and
it will be seen, too, that the omitted passages when
put together form in themselves a complete story.
It looks very like, indeed, as if the Septuagint were
right, and that these passages had become inserted
in the Hebrew text out of some other written account
of the story, or else that they have got out of their
proper place in the book.
And yet it may well be retorted, as it often has
been, that the Septuagint translators, not feeling their
198 SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK.
responsibility about the text as the Palestine Jews
did, were not at all above striking out passages which
presented difficulties to their minds. It may be so.
Certainly if it were in the Pentateuch it was asserted
that this serious interpolation had occurred we should
be very slow to believe it except on the most indis-
putable evidence. But in the early ages the manu-
script of the Book of Samuel, which was used more
for private circulation, and never regarded with the
same high degree of reverence as were the Books of
Moses, might quite possibly have had this disputed
part inserted between its leaves by some private
owner, and thus become the source of an error such
as this.
At any rate, in the present state of the evidence
the revisers would not be justified in altering the
text.
VIII.
2 S.vjr. xxi. 19 : And Elhanan, the son of Jaare-Oregim, a Beth-
lemite, slew Goliath the Gittite, the staff of whose spear was like a
weaver's beam.
Poor Goliath the Gittite ! Surely we all thought
that, if we knew anything of Hebrew history, we knew
even from nursery days that he had been pretty well
killed already by David himself, when he drew the
giant's sword " and slew him, and cut off his head
therewith."
Of course, we at once suspect some corruption. But
how are we to liunt it down ? Fortunately there is a
SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK. 199
parallel history, i Chron. ss., evidently copied from
the same source, and corresponding word for word,
except that it tells that Elhanan, the son of Jaar,
" slow Lahmi, the hrothcr of Goliath." How are these
two statements to be accounted for ? —
Jaar the Bethlemite slew Goliath.
Jaar slew Lahmi, the brother of CtOliath.
At the sound of the word Lg^HMi the Hebrew
scholar at once pricks up his ears. He knows that
this word, being in what we should call the objective
or accusative case, will have in Hebrew the sign of
that case, the particle eth, before it; thus eth-lhmi.
Immediately he jumps to the conclusion that the word
btiilhmi (the Bethlemite), in the other passage, is a
mistake for ethlhml Thus set on the track, lie sees
how easily the, word "brother" might have become lost
or confused in the text.
Eth-Goliath is ni^-GoLIATH.
Brother of Goliath is >ni^-GoLiATH.
If the lines be placed directly under each other, the
reader will see at once how easily a copyist might
make the mistake : —
EtHLHMI '»nj^-G0LIATH= (slew) ETH-LjHMr, BROTHER OF GoLIATH.
Bthlhmi jnj^-GoLiATH= Bethlemite (slew) Goltath.
200 SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK.
IX.
"Authokised" Reading. Revisers' Reading.
2 Sam, XV. 28 : I will tarry iu I will tarry at the fords of the
the plain of the wilderness, wilderness.
The reader will remember what has been said
(p. 97) about the Massoretic marginal notes, the Keri
and Kethibh. This is an illustration. The text has
" Habaroth " (fords), the Keri (note in the margin)
says, " read Haraboth " (plains). It also interestingly
exhibits a very common form of transcriber's mistake.
The writer, raising his eyes to the copy before him,
repeats to himself the word " Haraboth," and then,
before he has half-written it, it gets confused in his
mind with Habaroth, which is so very like it in sound
and appearance.
It is very hard to say which is right. The Kethibh,
"fords," looks the most suitable to the context (see
chap. xvii. 1 6) ; yet all the ancient versions support
the Keri.
X.
"Authorised" Reading. Revisers' Reading.
2 Sam. xviii. 13 : Wrought false- Dealt falsely against his life,
hood against mine own life.
Here is another of the Keri notes. The text
has Naphsho (his life), but the Massoretic note in the
margin says, " Read Naphshi " (my life). As already
pointed out, we cannot place much dependence on
SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK. 201
these notes of the Massorah scribes. We Lave to use
our judgment and the ancient versions in deciding
between the reading of the text and the margin.
Here the evidence of the versions is too conflicting to
help us.
XI.
"Authoiused" Reading. Revisers' Margin.
I Kings xiii. 12, 13 : The father The father said unto them,
said unto them, Which way went Which way went he? And his
he? Now, his sons had seen sons shewed him which way the
which way the man of God went, man of God went. And he said
And he said unto his sons, Saddle unto his sons, Saddle me the ass.
me the ass.
Now, reader, which of these two readings seems to
you the more probable ? Is it not beyond question the
second ? The father asks which way, the sons shew him,
and immediately he commands, " Saddle me the ass."
But, as has been already pointed out, it is a dan-
gerous thing to decide by our notions of jjrobability.
Let us see what other considerations besides decided
the revisers.
Hebrew verbs have what we may call a causa-
tive voice. Thus here the vei'b to sec, when in this
causative voice, would mean to cause to see, i.e., to shew.
To see and to shew, then, are parts of the same verb,
and are to be distinguished only by a slight difference
in the vowels. Therefore, a confusion might easily
arise between —
YjRU = his sons had seen.
Y^u\] = his sons shelved him.
202 SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK.
So when this alternative reading was proposed at
the revision, the first inquiry was, What does the old
Septuagiut say ? And on examination it was found
that it read " the^j shelved," indicating that that was
how the translators read this (vowelless) word in the
ancient Hebrew manuscripts used in the making of it.
This, together with the plausibleness of the reading,
was a strong point in its favour. Next the Vulgate
was questioned, then the Syriac, and finally the
Targums, and all persisted in reading with the Sep-
tuagiut, " his sons shelved him."
It was argued, however, on the contrary side, that
the Vulgate and Syriac, though translations direct
from the ancient Hebrew, might have been influenced
in the course of centuries by the all-powerful Septua-
giut, and therefore, perhaps, should not count as addi-
tional witnesses. In any case, it was said, the Hebrew
gives a good and fairly probable sense, which, without
greater reason, ought not to be disturbed.
Finally the question came to the vote, and since a
majority of two-thirds was requisite for any change in
the text, the new I'eading had to content itself with a
place in the margin.
XII.
"Authorised" Reading. Revisers' Reading.
I Chron. vi. 2S : And the sons And the sons of Samuel ; the
of Samuel ; the first-born Vashni, first-born (Joel), and the second
and Abiah. Abiah.
This correction was certainly needed, and it is a
curious instance of how mistakes arise.
SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK. 203
Wo learn from i Sam. viii. 2 that tlie first-born of
Samuel was Joel, and the second Abiah ; and tlio 33 rd
verse of this chapter speaks also of Joel, the son of
Samuel. Therefore the name Vashni, as the first-born,
in the above verse, has always been rather a puzzle,
and the only explanation was that offered in the mar-
gin of our Authorised Version, that Yashni must have
been another name for Joel. To the English reader
this may seem a fairly plausible explanation ; but let
him take this short Hebrew lesson before making up
his mind : —
v is the Hebrew conjunction "and."
SHNi means " the second,"
Therefore vshxi = '• and the second."
Xow, the Hebrew manuscripts read thus : —
And the soks of Samuel i.e., And the soxs of Sajuel
THE FIRSTBOBX VSHNI ABIAH. . . . THE FIESTBOKN, AND TEE
SECOND AbIAH.
After reading the name Joel in the other passages
as the first-born, does it not at once occur to the
reader to suspect that the word Joel has by some
accidental slip of a copyist dropped out of the text,
and that the copyist consequently, puzzled by the
Hebrew word vshxi ('' and the second "), where no
first had been mentioned, has vocalised it as a proper
name, Vashni, as though it were the name of Samuel's
first-born ? Supply the word Joel in the blank space
above, and the whole difficulty disappears.
204 SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK.
This is one of those extremely rare cases where we
seem compelled to go against all the Old Documents.
The blunder is more than two thousand years old. It
was even in the ancient Hebrew manuscripts from which
the Septuagint translators worked two thousand years
ago, and they, of course, transferred it to their version,
where it exists to this day. The Syriac is the only
important version which corrects it.
XIII.
Ps. xxii. 1 6 : Thcij pierced my hands and my feet.
Plero is a very remarkable case where the Hebrew
text has been entirely deserted in our English Bibles
for the preferable reading of the versions.
We saw in Bk. i. p. i6 how mistakes might
arise from the confusion of the two similar letters
^ and "J {y and u). Here is a case in point. The
Hebrew in this famous passage makes no sense as
it stands. The word translated " they pierced " is not
even a verb at all. It is a noun, ARI (HN), " a lion,"
with a preposition k' (D) prefixed, so that it reads
K^ARi (nN3), " like a lion."
" Like a lion my hands and my feet " is clearly,
sheer nonsense. But if the little > at the end be
lengthened to *), it becomes the Hebrew verb K^aru
(TIND), "they pierced." Therefore, of course, there
can be no doubt that this is the right reading, and
SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK. 205
tliat a mistake has arisen owing to confusion of two
similar letters.
However, to make assurance doubly sure the Ancient
Versions were consulted. The Septuagint reads, " They
pierced ; " the Syriac and the Vulgate read the
same ; and the other versions all practically confunn
it, though some of them read a slightly different
word.
This being one of the prominent Messianic texts, the
charge of wilfully corrupting it was brought against
the Jews, and largely believed, too, in those days, when
anything evil was but too readily believed of them.
But the charge is utterly unfounded. Though they
kept this form of the word in the text, they always
read it '' they pierced," and it would seem that their
reason for not correcting it even in the margin was
because they held that the form K^ARI was gramma-
tically consistent with the correct reading. The word
occurs only once more in the Bible, Isa. xxxviii. 13,
" Lilce a lion, so will He hreah all my loncs" and there
is an interesting note in the Massorah stating that it
occurs only in these two places, and that it has a dif-
ferent signification in each, thus clearly showing that
in this verse of the Psalms they did not read it " like
a lion.'"' The fact, too, that all the versions read it
as a verb, even those of Aquila and Symmachus, who
were so deeply imbued with the teaching of the Pales-
tine Jews, points to the same conclusion.
2o6 SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK.
XIV.
"Authorised" Reading. Revisers' Readiko.
IsA. ix. 3 : Thou hast multi- Thou hast multiplied the nation ;
pli^d the nation, and not increased Thou hast increased to it the
the joy ; they joy before Thee joy ; ^ they joy before Thee, &c.
according to the joy in harvest, &c.
The new reading is so mncli more in keeping with
the whole jubilant tone of this Lesson for Christmas
Day, that it will commend itself to many who know
nothing at all about the reasons for changing it. The
"not increased their joy" always sounded so like
a discord in the Christmas music. Yet, when we
examine the Hebrew manuscripts, we find that all,
except about ten or eleven, contain the objectionable
reading. What right, then, had the revisers to
change it ?
There are two little Hebrew words of similar sound,
rather like each other, too, in appearance, but very
different in meaning. They are —
l^^ = LO = not,
ib = l'o = to it ;
and the question is which of these ought to h& in
the text. If the first be right, we must read, "not
increased the joy ; " if the other, " increased to it
the joy."
Now, though the first is in the text of the manu-
1 Freely translated, " Thou hast increased their joy," Revised
Version.
SPECIMENS OF CRITICAL WORK. 207
scripts, there is an asterisk placed over it by the
Massoretic scribes, indicating what seemed to them an
error, and directing us to a footnote, which says, " Keri
l'o," that is, " l'o should be read." True, we have
sometimes to reject these Massoretic corrections as
erroneous ; but here the context seems so obviously to
require this reading, that the revisers felt themselves
compelled to accept it, more especially when, on ex-
amining the Targum and the Syriac and other ancient
versions, they found them, for the most part, in agree-
ment with it.
In Ps. c. 3 is a similar correction, and on the
same grounds, '• It is He that hath made us, and
NOT we ourselves," reads in the Eevised Version, " It
is He that hath made us, and we are his." Here,
however, the old reading seems just as likely to be
right as the new one.
CHAPTER III.
A FURTHER USB OF THE ANCIENT BIBLES.
I M'AIS'T here to illustrate very briefly a further use of
the " Other Old Documents " in producing a correct
Bible. Where a word occurs only once or twice in
the Hebrew Bible, or where, from any other cause, its
meaning is doubtful, these Old Versions are very use-
ful in settling its correct translation. True, we cannot
always entirely depend on them. One of them will
sometimes contradict another. But it is evident that
it must be a considerable help in deciding the meaning
if we know how men two thousand years ago under-
stood the word. Here are a few specimens and illus-
trations : —
' " Authorised " Reading. Revisers' Reading.
Gen. xii. 6 : Abram passed Unto the oak of Moreh.
through the land . . . unto the
plain of Moreh.
The meaning of the Hebrew word is doubtful. St.
Jerome had to translate it in making his Vulgate
1500 years ago, and he rendered it the jjlain, and
so do also the chief Jewish authorities. But the old
Septuagint, 600 years earlier, always translates the
A FURTHER USE OF THE ANCIENT BIBLES. 209
word oaJc, showing that that w^as the meaning it
conveyed to them ; and the Syriac gives the same
rendering.
II.
" Authorised " Reading. Revisees' Reading.
Gen.xxx. II : Leah said, Atroop! Leah said Fortunate! and she
and she called his name Gad. called his name Gad.
The word cried out by Leah was Gad ! It might
possibly mean a troop, but it is not easy to fix its
derivation. In our difficulty we turn to the Ancient
Versions. The Septuagint has, " In good fortune ! "
The Vulgate has, " Fortunately ! " The Syriac reads,
" My fortune cometh ! " The Tar gum of Onkelos,
" Fortune cometh ! " the Targum of Jonathan, " My
good star cometh ! " so that evidently the whole
weight of ancient testimony favours the new in-
terpretation.
in.
•' Authorised " Reading. Revisers' Reading.
Ex. xxxiv. 13 : Ye shall destroy And cut down their Asherim.
their altars, break their images, „
and cut down their groves. Probably the woodensymbols of the
goddess Asherak.
Here is a case where the English versions sought
in the Ancient Versions the meaning of a word,
and were set wrong by thepa. The Hebrew word is
0
2IO A FURTHER USE OF THE ANCIENT BIBLES.
ASHERIM, and the old Englisli translators could not tell
what the strange word meant to its original readers ;
but they found that St. Jerome's Vulgate translated
it " groves." St. Jerome had probably gone to the
Septuagint for the meaning, for we find it thus ren-
dered by the old scholars of King Ptolemy. Evidently
they were as much puzzled by the word as was St.
Jerome, or the English translators who followed
his lead. Thus the word " groves " got into the
English Bible, and thus it remains to the present
day.
But any one who will carefully examine the different
passages where it occurs will see at once that it cannot
mean "groves." To "make," "set up," " break," are
not terms generally used of a grove of trees. It most
probably denoted some movable object of worship ;
perhaps a figure of the goddess Ashtoreth, or, at any
rate, some rude wooden image used in connection with
heathen worship. See, for example, 2 Kings xxiii. 6,
where Josiah brought out the grove from the house of
the Lord, and burnt it, and stamped it to powder ;
2 Chron. xvii. 6 : Jehoshaphat took away the groves,
&c., &c. The revisers, in their difficulty, cut the knot
by simply printing the Hebrew word in English letters,
and letting the reader make what he could of it ; so
now the time-honoured " groves " are in future to be
known as the " Asherim."
A FURTHER USE OF THE ANCIENT BIBLES. 211
IV.
• "Authorised" Reading. Revisers' Reading.
Lev. xvi. 8, 10, 26 : The other lot for Azazel.
The other lot for the scapegoat.
This is the only place where the Hebrew word
AZAZEL occurs in the Old Testament, and the question
of its meaning is a long-standing difBculty. The
English versions, from the " Great Bible " down, have
taken the interpretation from St. Jerome's Vulgate.
He renders it " cajjer emissarius '"' — " the goat that was
sent out." Probably this was a guess from the con-
text, or perhaps he got it from the old Bible of
Symmachus (see Book ii. p. i 5 8), who gives a similar
meaning. The Septuagint translates it vaguely, as if
at a loss what to make of it. Some other early writers
think it means the devil. The Jews of the Middle
Ages tell us that it meant some evil spirit. Where
all was so hazy, doubtless the revisers acted wisely in
leaving it as they found it, simply, as in the previous
case of the Asherim, expressing the Hebrew pronuncia-
tion in English letters, and so not committing them-
selves to any theory on the subject.
V.
" AtTTHORISED " READING. ReVISERS' ReADING.
Judges viii. 13 : Gideon re- Gideon returned from the battle
turned from the battle before the from the ascent of Heres.
sun was up.
The word heres does mean the sun, bat it may also
212 A FURTHER USE OF THE ANCIENT BIBLES.
be a proper name ; see i. 35, ii. 9. What is the true
meaning ? Did Gideon return " before the rising of
the sun," or " from the height of Heres ? " The
Vulgate says the former, and most Jewish com-
mentators agree with it. The Septuagint says " from
the ascent of Ares." Where doctors differ who shall
decide ?
VI.
"Authorised" Reading. Revisers' Reading.
2 Sam. viii. 18 : David's sons David's sons were priests.
were chief rulers.
This is a very startling translation, if it be correct.
If David's sons were priests, there must have been a
serious neglect of the law which restricted the priest-
hood to the family of Levi. The Hebrew word used
is the same that in v. 17 is applied to Zadok and
Ahimelech the priests. It is also used of Ira the
Jairite in ch. xx. 26, and later, in the list of Solomon's
officers, of Zabud the son of Nathan, who was " a
KOHEN, and the king's friend." But surely it is pos-
sible that it may mean a chief minister either of
Church or State. The Vulgate renders the word
" priests," and is followed by Luther and by Cover-
dale's Bible ; but the Septuagint has " courtiers," and
both the Syriac Bible and the Targums have "princes."
So, as far as the guidance of the Old Versions will take
us in fixing the translation, we cannot go along with
the recent revisers. The question, however, is a
A FURTHER USE OF THE ANCIENT BIBLES. 213
very difficult one, and important issues concerning
what is called the higher criticism (see footnote, p. 37)
are affected by it.
VII.
" Authorised " Reading. Revisers' Reading.
I Kings xxii. 38 : And one And they washed the chariot by
washedthecliariotinthepoolof Sa- the pool of Samaria, and the dogs
maria, and the dogs licked up his licked up his blood : now the har-
blood, and theywashed his armour. lots washed themselves there.
The Hebrew word whose meaning is in question is
ZONOTH. Now, in Hebrew, of course, as in English, it
may happen that entirely different meanings may grow
on to the same word.^ The Hebrew word zonoth
has not only the signification armour, but also, and
much more frequently, the very different meaning,
haiiots.
Which does it mean in the passage before us ? It
is possible, to be sure, that the writer meant to inform
us of the washing of Ahab's blood-stained armour.
But considering the commoner signification of the
word, does it not seem more probable that he meant
to give an additional touch of ignominy to Ahab's
wretched fate, by telling us that it was the pool
where the harlots washed themselves in which the
blood of the dead king was washed from the
chariot ?
We turn to the Ancient Versions to aid us in the
inquiry, and find that the Syriac Bible eighteen cen-
^ Take, for example, the English word post.
214. A FURTHER USE OF THE ANCIENT BIBLES.
turies ago rendered the word " armour." The Targum
gives the same signification. But the old Septuagint
translators, four hundred years earlier, give it its
commoner Hebrew meaning, " The harlots washed
themselves ; " and we see the revisers have thought fit
to follow their lead.
I have nothing to do with the question as to which
is the better translation, as my object is but to illus-
trate this use of the Ancient Versions.
And now, reader, our " Lesson in Biblical Criti-
cism " is over. We have inquired into the accuracy
of the Hebrew Writings, we have made the acquaint-
ance of the chief Ancient Bibles of the world, we
have learned some rudiments of Biblical Criticism,
and, like schoolboys, worked out for ourselves little
problems in our newly-acquired science. I trust all
this may have been worth the doing, and may result
in a more intelligent interest in the Bible. If the
" Lesson" bring half as much interest and instruction
to its learner as the preparation for it has brought to
the teacher, it certainly will not have been learned in
vain.
INDEX.
Aaron ben-Asher, 104
Abgiirus' letter to our Lord, 164
Abomination of Desolation, 74
Abraui and the fowls, 8
Accents, 102
Ancient language forgotten, 62
Ancient revision, 33
Antioclius, 75, 106
Aquila and Syinmachus, 78-83, 157
Aristeas' romance, 149
Assyrian writing, 2
Babylon scliools, 104
Betlishemesii, 58 n.
Bible, narrow escape of, j6
Biblical criticism, 22
Book of the Law, 39
Breastplate verse, 92
Buchanan's manuscript, 29
Cain and Abel, 123, 188
Church Hymnal, Jewish, 55
Codex of Ephraem, 162
Codex of Ezra, 29
College of Tiberias, 76
Consonant writing, 6
Controversies, textual, 15, iii, 121
Copying manuscripts, 103
Criticism in Talmud, 81.
Curious mistakes, 7
David and Joab, 9
Defects of the late revision, 183
Dotted words, 68
Eastern memory, 10
Edward the Black Prince, 29
Elias Levita, 8 7i., 14, 90, 92, 109
Ephraem the Syrian, 161
Epistle of our Lord, 164
Errors, insignificant, 113
Esau's teeth, 68
Ezra, 5, 29, 60, 64, 65
Fancy shapes of Massorah, 19
Gemaea, 80, 126
Ghenizas, 29, 35
" Gold for the Kings," g6
Great Synagogue, 63, &c.
Guardians of the Lines, 18
Guild of Scribes, 13, 42, 44
Halachah and Hagadah, 130
Hebrew writing, 1-3
Hezekiah, men of, 42
Higher criticism, 37 n.
Hilkiah's discovery, 43, 45
" House that Jack built," 141
How to read without vowels, 10
Iddo, honk of, 37, 41
Infallibility, 174
Ivy and the gourd, 172
Jacob kissing Esau, 68
Jacob ben-Naphthali, 104
Jacob's bed or Jacob's staff, 12
Jahveh, 98, 103
Jasher, book of, 37
Jerome, 8, 84, 171
Jerusalem chamber, 181
Jews of Malabar, 28
Joab, 9, 17
Josephus, 40, 46, 75, 76
Jot and tittle, 5
Judas the Maccabee, 2, 75
Keri and Kethibh, 97, 200
Last of the Massoretes, 104
"Let us go into the field," 52, 18
Liver of goats, 17
Longfellow, 139
2r6
INDEX.
Manasseh the renegade, 49
manuscripts, all of late date, 31
Manuscripts, curious old, 28
Massorah, 88, &c.
Massoretes, 33-88
Massoretic manuscripts, 33
Massoreth Ham-massoreth, 8 n., 92
Mistakes of copyists, 16-21
Michal, 17
Moabite stone, 2, 13 n.
NaBLOUS manuscript, 119
Nehemiah's library, 66 ??.
Nitrian manuscripts, 168
" Not increased the joy," 23, 205
Okigen, 84, 163
Othman's Koran, 34
Palestine text, 32, 86
Phoenician writing, 2
•'Pierced my hands and my feet,
16, 59, 204
Pillow of goat's hair, 17
Poem on the alphabet, 93
Pope Sixtus, 174
Repeated passages, 53
Revision, ancient, 33
Rip Van Winkle, 139
Rock of ages, 25 n.
Romance of Aristeas, 149
Rules of criticism, 25
Samaritan Pentateuch, 2, 38, 49,
118
Sandalphon, 137
Saul one year old, 59, 193
Schools of the Prophets, 41
Scribes, 13, 42, 44, 66, 80
"Seen on the wings of the wind,'
54, 57
Septuagint, 71-74, 147
Shapira manuscripts, 3
Signing of the Roll, 63
Siloam inscription, 3, 13 n.
Similar letters, 16
Standard Bible, 106, 109
Symmachus, 157
S.vriac, 83, 161
" Syria" mistake for Edom, 16
Swine broth on the Bible, 75
Talmud, 79, 126
Targums, 144
Temple manuscripts, 40, 43, 106
Textual criticism, 22-27
Tiberias, 78, 104
Tittle, 5, 81
Toledo, its famous MS., 29 n,
Ussher's manuscripts, I19
Vashnt, 59, 202
Vowel letters, 68
Vowel points, 7, 15, loi
Vulgate, 170
Yahveh, 98, 103
Yod, 5, 16
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AIDS TO THE STUDY OF THE HEBREW SCRIPTURES.
THE ENGLISHMAN'S HEBREW AND CHALDEE CONCORDANCB
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