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A
THE
Old Testament
Student
WITH
(^^\j^ Ju>Wwi^\aX ^ubburWw^Wt.
WILLIAM R. HAEPEE, Ph. D., Editor.
VOLUME VIIL
September, 1888— June, 1889.
Q Venton Patterson Publishing Qo.
28 Cooper Uoton, New Yokk. P. O. Box 1858.
London Agency : Triibner & Co., 57 and 59 Ludgate Hill.
*6
'''
Table of Contents,
II.
UI.
rv^
V.
VI.
VII.
■c;:.
VIII.
'=V
-^
IX.
\
o
X.
XI.
S'^
SEPTEMBER.
Editorial:
A New Feature.— "Word-Studies."— The Summer Schools.— The Talmud and
the New Testament.— Bible Study compared with Bible Listening- and Bible
Reading- 1- 3
Webeb on the Esch atoloqt of the Talmud. Prof. Oenrge B. Stevens, D.D.. 4- 6
Old Testament Word-Studies: "Man and Woman." Rev. P.A.Norclell,D.D. 6- 10
The LiTERAHy Study of the Bible: Its Methods and Purposes Illus-
TR.iTED m A Criticism of the Book or Amos. Wm. E. Chancellor 10- 19
Apocaltpses of Moses. Professor M. S. Terry, S. T.D 19- 23
Cheyne's COM.-tfENTARY ON THE PsALMS. Prof. Edward L. Curtis, Ph. D 33-25
Old Testament Notes and Notices 26, 37
Book Notices:
The Inspired Word 38
Correspondence School or Hebrkw 29
Current Old Testament Literature 30
THE XEW TKSTA.nEXX Sl'PPLiEMEXT: Studies on the Life of
THE Christ.
1. The Ministry of John 31- 34
2. The Preparation of the Christ 34- 36
3. Beginning in Galilee 36-38
4. The Galilean Ministry: the Period of Public Favor 38-40
OCTOBER.
I. Editorial:
The Miracle of the Word.- A Devout Spirit.— Talmudic Ideas and Symbols in
the New Testament. — The Principle of Accommodation. — The Use of Contrast
in Prophetic Teaching.— The Point of View 41- 44
n. Weber ON THE Eschatology of THE Talmud. II. Prof. Oeorge B.Stevens, D.D. 45-49
III. Old Test-Ament Word-studies: 2. Constituent Parts of Mak. Bev. P. A.
Nordell.D.D ^. 49-54
IV. PiEPEN-BRiNG's Old Testament Theology. J. B. Reynolds, B. D 54-56
V. The Assyrian King, Asurbanipal. Dean A, WalHer, B. A 57-63
VI. Synopses of Important Articles:
The Muslim's Faith.— The Hjgher Criticism in its Theological Bearings.- The
Characteristics of Hebrew Pqetry.- The Unchangeable Word.— A Revised Text
of the Hebrew Bible.— Views of the Babylonians concerning Life after Beath. 63- 66
VII. Book Notices: . — . -^ -
Swete's Septuagint.— Abraham: his Life and Times.— Solomon: his Life and
Times.— The People's Bible.— Elijah : his Life and Times 67-69
VIII. Correspondence School op Hebrew 70
IX. Current Old Testament Literature 71
X. THE XEW TESTAMEXT SPPPIiEMEKT: Studies on the Life op
the Christ.
6. Beginnings of Opposition 73-74
6. The First Conflicts 74-76
7. New Methods 76-78
8. False Reports 78- 80
iv TuK Old Testament Student.
NOVEMBER.
I. Editorial:
The O.T. and the Gospels.— The Egypt Explorailoii Fund.— More Bible Teach-
ers Wiuitfd.— College Bible Study.— The True Spirit of Bible Study.— Supe-
riority of the New Testament to the Talmud 81-84
n. Webeh ON THE EscH.VTOLOOv OF THE Talmud. III. Pruf.Oein-geB. Stevtns.D.D. 85-88
in. The Stoiiv or Samson. Rev. Oajryc Datia Bimrdman, D. D 88-96
IV. The Assyrian King, ASuBBANiPAL. II. Dean A. Walker, B. A 96-101
V. Old Testame.nt Word-studies: 3. Moral Good. Rtv. P. A. Nordell, D. D.... 101-105
VI. Manly's UiBLiCAL Doctrine OF Inspiration. Prof . Charles Rufug Brown 105-107
Vn. Synopses of Important Articles:
Two Discussions of Job Iii:SJ-:;T.— The Pentateucbal Story of Creation.— Idea
of O. T. Priesthood fulflllcd in the N. T 108,108
Vin. BOOK N(yicES:
Yale Lectures on the Sunday-School 110
IX. Current Old Testa.ment Litehatuhe Ill
X. THE .\KW TESTAMEXT srPI'CEMEXT: Stcdibs ON the Life OF
the Christ.
9. Parables of the Kingdom 113-lU
10. Deeds of Power 114-116
11. Advance and Retreat 116-118
12. The Hourof Decision 119,120
DECEMBER.
I. Editorial:
Bible Students In the Pews.— The Pastor as a Teacher.— The New Testament
Interpretation of the O. T.— The Anonymous Literature of Israel and its
SignlBcance.— Redemption, the Keynote of the O. T 121-123
II. The New Testament as Intebpreter op the Old Testament. Prof. Crawford,
H.Tiiu.D.D ; 124-133
in. The Septuaoint. Prof. Oeorae H. Schudde, Ph. D 134-140
IV. Wkber o.N THE Eschatology of the Talmud. IV. Prof.OeorgeB.Stevent.D.D. 140-143
V. Old Tkstamknt Word-studies: 4. Moral Evil. Rev. P. A. Nordell, D. D 143-147
VI. Old TESTA.MENT Notes AND Notices 148
VII. Book Notices:
Palestine in the time of Christ.— Humphrey's Sacred History 149,150
VIII. Correspondence School of Hebrew 151
IX. Current Old Testament Literatuke 152
X. THE XEW TESTAMEXT SlPPIiEMEXT: Studies on the Lite
of the Cfieist.
13. Journeys on the Borders 153,154
14. The Welcome Confession and the Unwelcome Teaching 154-136
15. The Tnuisflguration of Jesus 166-158
16. The Training of the Twelve 158-lBO
JANUARY.
I. Editorial:
The Point of View.- Prof. Edwards' Reasons for Hebrew Study.— The Human
and Divine in the Bible distinguished.— Kedemption, the Keynote of Ancient
RellKioiis.— Recent lliblical Literature 161-163
II. The Be.iiuno of New Testament Statements up6n the Authorship of Old
Testament Hooks. I^-<if. Oeorye B. Stevens, D.D 164-170
III. Tiele on Bahvlonian-.^ssyrian Culture. I. /Jet). .4. S. Carrier 170-176
IV. Old Testamknt Word-studies: 5. Divine Law. Rev. P. A. Nordell, D. D 176-180
V. Jeremiah's Temperament. Pmf. Wm. O. Ballantine 181-1S3—
VI. A Visit TO ZiN.iiRLI. Rnhcrt Francis Harper, Ph D 183,184
Vn. Synopses of Import.\nt Articles:
The Interpretation of the Book of Job.— The Resurrection in the Pentateuch.
— EIIJHli the Tishblte a Gentile.— The Rise and Decline of Idolatry.— The Two
Isaiahs, the real and the imaginary 185-188
Table of Contents. v
Vin. Book Notices;
Hovey's Biblical Esohatology.— Pressense's Ancient World and Christianity.—
Schaff'8 History of the Christian Church, Vol. VI.— Gelkie's Holy Land and
the Bible 189,190
IX. Correspondence Schooi. of Hebrew 191
X. COKRENT Old Testament Literature 193
XI. TII£ XEW TESTAMENT SUPPtEMEWT: Studies on the Life
of the Christ.
17. Review of the Galilean Ministry 193,194
18. Perea 194-196
19. Into the Shadow of Death 196-198
30. Jerusalem 198-300
FEBRUARY.
I. EDITOBLtL :
An Attitude of Conciliation.— The Old Testament more than a National Liter-
ature.— Prof, .-^tevens' Letter. — An *' American Institute of Sacred Scripture."
—The Pentateuchal Discussion.- A Review of Theories relating to Old Testa-
ment Quotations in the New Testament 201-206
II. The New Testament as a GniDE to the Interpretation or the Old
Testament. President Alvah Hovey, D.D 307-313
III. TiELE ON Babylonian-Assyrian Culture. II. Rev. A. S. Can-ier 314-219
IT. Old Testament Word-studies: 6. Theocratic Functionaries. Rev. P. A.
Nordell. D.D 220-334
V. Report of the Princepal of Schools op the American Institute of
Hebrew ( 1888) 224-228
VI. Report of the Treasubeb of the American Institute of Hebrew 229,230
vn. Book Notices:
BlaUrie's Books of Samuel.— Stearns' Old Testament Introduction 231
vni. Current Old Testament Literature 333
IX. THE XEW TESTAMEIST SUPPIiESIEWT: Studies on the Life
OF THE Christ.
21. A Day of Controversy 233,234
22. Continued Controversies 235,336
23. The Future 237-239
24. The Traitor 239,340
MARCH.
I. Editorial:
Biblicnl Key-words.— The Bible compared with other Literature.— Construct-
ive Study.— Necessity of Patience in investigating the Scriptures.— The Higher
Critics 241-243
II. The Schools of THE Sons OF the Prophets. Prof . Ira M. Price, Ph. D 244-249
III. The Babylonian IRtar-Epic. James A. Craig, Ph. D 349-256
IV. Old Testament Word-studies: 7. Sacrifice and Worship. Rev. P. A.
Nordcll.D.D 257-261
V. The Targums. Pruf. George H. Schodde, Ph. D 262-866
VI. Tiele ON Babylonian-Assyrian Culture. III. Rev. A. S. Carrier 266-270
vn. Old Testament Notes and Notices 270
VIII. Book Notices:
Wellhausen's History of Israel.— A Concordance of the Septuagint.— A Handy
Edition of the Bible 271
IX. Current Old Testa.ment Literature. 272
X. THE 1«EW TESTAMENT SlTPPtEMEIST : Studies on the Life
OF the Christ.
25. The Last Supper 273-275
26. Gethsemane 275-377
27. Tbe Arrest and Condemnation of Jesus 377, 278
28. Jesus before Pilate * 278-380
vi The Ou) Testament Student.
APRIL.
I. EDiTOBur.:
Tbe Kerelatlon of God at Sinai.— Kecent interest in Bible-study among Pas-
tors.—An American Institute of Sacred Literature 281-283
II. The Religious Ideas op the Book of Auob. Rev. E. E. Atkinson 28(-290
III. Tikle OS BAByLONiAN-AsSYRiAN CCLTCRE. IV. Rev. A. S. Carrier 280-296
IV. Old Testament Wobd-stcdies : 8. Idols asd Ikaoes. Rev. P. A. Nordell,
D.D 296-301
V. Old Testament Notbs and Notices:
The Pharoah and tlie Date of tlie Exodus.- Hebrew Parchments containiDK
parts of the Old Testament.— Biblical Instruction at Haverford College.— Old
Testament Study In the Universities of Germany and Switzerland during the
present winter 302-306
VI. Synopses of Important Articles:
Classic and Semitic Ethics.- Assyrian and Hebrew Chronology.- The Civiliza-
tion and RellgioDB of Central America and Peru 306,307
VII. Book Notices:
Scriptures Hebrew and Christian.— The Hallowing of Criticism.- Future Pro-
bation Examined.— The Psalms in Verse 308-310
VIII. Correspondence School of Hebrew 311
IX. Current Old Testame.vt Literature 312
X. THE XEW TEST.\.ME\T li!iUl*PL.EHEXT: STUDIES OS THE Life
OF TBE Christ.
29. The Crucifixion 313-315
30. Burial and Resurrection of Jesus 315-317
81. The Last Instructions 317-319
32. Review of the Later Period 319,320
MAY.
I. Editorial:
Majesty of the Bible.— A New Journal, The Old and New Testament Student.
—The Hebrew Summer Schools.— The Law of Perspective in Biblical Inves-
tigation 321-334
II. Proportion AND Method IN Old Testament Study. Prof.J.F.McCurdy,D.D. 325-331
III. The Figur.itive Element in Job. I. Mr. John S. Zelie 332-335
IV. Tiele ON Badylonian-Assyrian Culture. V. Rev. A. S. Carrier 335-341
V. Old Testament Word-btudies: 9. Angels, Demons, Etc. Rev. P. A. NordeU,
D.D 341-345
VI. Old Testament Notes and Notices :
A Memory Formula for Palestine.— Egypt Exploration Fund.— A Western
Summer School 346
Vn. Synopses of Important Articles:
The Egyptian Nile as a Civllizor.— Origin and Structure of the Book of
Judges.— Does the Nirvana of Buddha imply Immortality ? 347,348
vni. Book Notices:
A Commentary on Genesis and E.vodus 349
IX. Current Old Testament Literature 350
X. THE XEW TESTAMENT Sl'FPliEMEXT: STUDIES ON the Life
OF THE Christ.
33. The Land and the People 3i>l-aM
84. The Christ 351.a«
36. TheOospels 355-358
36. Course and Chronology of the Life of the Christ 359.360
JUNE.
I. Editorial:
Prophecy the predominating element in the Old Testament.— The perma
nently helpful character of Prophecy.— The revelation of God In Prophecy.—
A Criticism of "The Religious Ideas of Amos." 381-363
II. The Formal Element IN Poetry. Prof. E. 11. Johnson, D.D 3(it-386
Table of Contents. vii
in. How FAB DOES THE CLAIM OF A DIVINE OKIQIN FOR THE BIBLE DEPEND ON
THE GENUINENESS OF ITS SEPARATE BOOKS? Bel). OeorQC W. King 366-368
IV. The Figurative Element in Job. II. Mr. John S. Zelie 368-370
V. A Plea for Septuagint Studt. Rev. L. W. Batten 371, 373
VI. Old Testament Word-studies: 10. Time and Eternity. Bev. P. A. Nordell,
D. D 373-377
VII. The Song of Deborah. Judges V. Prof. Thomas Hill Rich 377-381
Vin. Old Testament Notes and Notices:
A New Professor.— A Notable Visitor.— The American Exploring Expedition.
—The Publications of the Palestine Exploration Fund 882
IX. Synopses of Important Articles:
The Prophecy of the Virgin Mother.— Immoralities of Old Testament Heroes.
—Lost Writings cited in the Old Testament.— Old Testament Criticism in the
Light of New Testament Quotations.— The Idea of God in Amos.— The Mes-
sianic Element in the Book of Job 383-386
X. Book Notices:
Media, Babylonia and Persia.— The Ten Commandments.— Biblical Antiqui-
ties.- Future Punishment.— Buddhism.— EUiott's Old Testament Prophecy... 387-392
XI. Current Old Testament Literature 393
XII. THE XEW TESTAMENT SUPPl-EMEKT: Studies on the Life
OF THE Christ.
37. The Plan and Methods of Jesus 394,395
38. Jesus and the Old Testament 396,397
39. Jesus and His Times 397-399
40. Jesusthe Christ 399,400
^T^E •:-OLD •:'TES^jP3njEp-:- studep.-^
Vol. VIII. SEPTEMBER, 1888. No. i.
With the present volume a new feature begins, viz., the New-
Testament studies contained in the "Supplement." In undertaking
this new department, The STUDENT does not in any sense lose sight of
its original purpose. The simple fact is that the advocacy of the
inductive method of Bible-study is as much a part of the work of THE
Student as is the advocacy of the study of the Old Testament. In
furtherance, therefore, of this kind of Bible-study, the New Testament
lessons are furnished. The interest already manifested in them is
sufficient ground for the feeling that no mistake has been made in
this new departure.
We trust that our readers will not pass by the "Word-Studies"
of Dr. Nordell as seeming too critical. They have been prepared for
those whose study of the Bible is restricted to the English translation.
They are, however, studies, and will scarcely be appreciated if given
only a reading. Similar "studies" on groups of important words will
be published in successive numbers of The Student. Shall they not
have the attention they deserve .■'
The eighth year of the Hebrew Summer Schools is rapidly near-
ing its close. The sessions of 1888 have, taken together, greatly sur-
passed those of any preceding year. The early date of the New
England School (May 22~June 14) interfered to some extent with the
attendance ; for at that time the colleges were still in session. But the
Philadelphia School was much larger and better than ever before, while
the attendance at Chautauqua was three times as large as during any
*2
2 The Old Testajlent Student.
preceding summer. The Chicago School is at this writing just
opening with over one hundred students. The change of the South-
ern School from the University of Virginia to Atlanta, Ga., was for
this year very unfortunate. The announcement of the change was
made so late as to injure greatly the efficiency of the School. But that
the change was, everything considered, a wise one, no one acquainted
with the facts will deny. The average attendance at the five North-
ern Schools has been sixty.
It has always been one of the embarrassments of New Testament
study that we have so little contemporary literature. Excepting the
writings of the New Testament, our Christian literature, speaking
broadly, does not date back beyond the second century. How inter-
esting it would be if a learned Jew had written an account of Jesus'
life, or if some Greek historian had given us a narrative of the spread
of Christianity in Asia Minor and Greece. Such literature would
doubtless throw a valuable light upon many New Testament state-
ments and give us interesting information at some points which the
New Testament does not supply. Wc have no such literature. The
cultured heathen world did not consider Jesus and his religion suffi-
ciently important to occupy their minds with its study or their pens
with a description of it.
We are not left wholly ignorant, however, of the thought-environ-
ment of the New Testament as it existed in the Jewish world. The
Talmudic literature, which covers a period of several centuries, includ-
ing the New Testament times, contains the current religious thought
to which the New Testament writers had been accustomed and from
which their convictions and prejudices, which only gradually wore
away, were formed. It has been felt in recent years that special inter-
est and importance attach to this literature as forming a kind of back-
ground to the New Testament and aiding in a knowledge of some of
its expressions and especially of some of the conceptions of the early
disciples which Jesus had to labor gradually to correct. Among
recent works on the Talmud, that of Weber {Die LcJircn des Talvnid)
deservedly holds high rank. We present to the readers of THE STU-
DENT a series of four articles upon "The Eschatology of the Talmud"
prepared by Professor Stevens and based upon Weber's researches.
It is believed that, while they will .show how much is crude and fanci-
ful in Jewish theology, they will at the same time disclose the roots
of some of the ideas which meet us in the New Testament, and par-
Editorial.
ticularly that they will make it clear why the early disciples could
not understand the spiritual mission and kingdom of Jesus, or bring
themselves to believe that he would suffer death. The articles which
follow in subsequent numbers will bear especially upon these points.
'Ql^'LY.-listcning ! There is much of it. It is of value ; it is better
than nothing. It is easy ; many enjoy it. We find it in our churches,
in our Sunday-schools, in our schools and colleges. Some imagine it
to be 'Qlhle-sttidy; some even so call it. But the mistake is great.
The sad fact is that, in the case of many who so deceive themselves,
'&\h\e-stiidy is becoming a thing unknown, well-nigh a thing impossi-
ble. Wihle-listening has become a bane. Who will measure the evil
it has done.' Who, the evil it is doing.'
Wih\e-readi/ig/ There is very considerable of this. It is of more
value than Bihle-/is tening. It may not be as easy ; it may not be as
enjoyable ; but it is more profitable. And yet, how profitable is it ?
Are we not satisfying ourselves with the less .' Are we not neglect-
ing larger possibilities ? Have we not, in many directions and in
many cases, much Bihle-rt-adino- that is called Bihle-sti/d}' f that is
really thought to be such .' The evil is not in the reading of the Bible ;
it is in the fact that we do not call things by their right names.
BWA^- study! There is very little. Many who talk about it have
never met with it, or have not recognized it. What is it .' The way
to find out is not to study a definition, but to become acquainted in
experience with the fact. When one can clearly distinguish, in one's
own practice, between BWA^-listening, BxhXe^-rcadiyig, and BxhX^-stiidy,
then probably one has begun to become acquainted with the last.
Bible-study stands in direct relation to Bible-listening and
Bible-reading. It fits one to do either with profit, with intelligence
and Christian judgment. It prepares the congregation to listen to
expository preaching, the Sunday-school scholar to consider the les-
son in company with the teacher with interest and independence of
thought. Especially, it prepares the scholar and student in our insti-
tutions of learning for proper Bible-listening and Bible-reading
throughout life. How often we sacrifice the lasting good to the appa-
rent edification of the moment! Shall we do less B\h\^-listening ■a.v\&.
less Bx^oXe.-reading that we may do more B\\:)\ii- study? Shall we do
more Bible-study that we may listen and read the better and the
longer t
WEBER ON THE ESCHATOLOGY OF THE TALMUD.*
By Prof. George B. Stevens, D. D.,
Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
I. THE COMPLETION OF THE INDIVIDUAL.
a. DEATH AND THE STATE OF TELE DEAD.
Death cornea to the wicked as the penalty of sin ; in the case of the righteous,
it comes, in God's plan, when his life is complete, his sins all atoned for and his
soul ready for its reward. As the owner of a Dg-tree knows when the figs are
ripe for the harvest, so the Holy One knows when to gather the souls of the
righteous to Himself. The wicked are caught away by the Angel of Death, but
the righteous are removed by the kiss of God. So died the patriarchs.
The soul departs reluctantly from the body except in the case of those who
are removed by the kiss of God. Respecting tlie place of departed souls, the
representations lack definiteness and vary greatly in detaUs. All souls, at death,
go to Sheol ; those of the righteous at length find rest and peace ; those of the
wicked wander aimlessly and find no resting-place. Even the souls of the good
long, for a time, for the bodies left behind and frequently return to the grave
where they lie, but, at leugtli, they ascend direct to God, and dwell among the
heavenly hosts near His throne. The souls of the wicked continue to wander in
Sheol, and to hover about the body until it is consumed and finally find their
dwelling-place in Sheol, or, according to others, in hell. A class of those who
are " undetermined " at death is recognized, whose fortunes and final fate are
not followed beyond their descent direct to Sheol.
Two classes of angels— composed of three groups each — go forth from the
throne of God to meet the souls of the dying. " "When a righteous man dies three
bands of angels go forth to meet him with the greeting of peace. When a wicked
man dies, three bands go forth and announce to him that there is no peace for
him and that he must go to the place of the uncircumcised."
Great significance attaches to the time of death. To die at the beginning of
the day of atonement or Sabbath is auspicious ; at the close, ominous. The
attending circumstances and location of the disease are also significant ; a red
face, an upturned countenance, a disease of the lower parts of the body are good
signs ; a pale countenance, to die amid the weeping of friends or with the face
turned toward the wall are evil omens.
To the body there remains, for a time, a partial consciousness after death.
The bodies of the righteous and of the intermediate class— the morally '• uudeter-
» The series of articles of wliioh this Is the first, consists of a free translation and condensa-
tion of the fourth part of Weber's Die Lrhren dcs Tnlmml, Leipzig, 1880. The effort has been
to embody ttic essential points of the author's discussion. The fact that nn epitome is attempted
renders it necessary for me to express the writer's thoutrhts larg-i'ly '" my own lanffuajre, instead
of presenting a mere translation. The parts which are literal and continuous translation are
enclosed in quotation marks.— G. B. S.
Weber on the Eschatology of the Talmxtd. 5
mined " — rest in peace ; those of the wicked find no peace. They quickly dis-
solve, while the bodies of the good last until " an hour before the resurrection."
The dead lead a shadowy existence but can communicate with each other
and even with the living. " The connection of the soul with the body and this
earthly mode of existence is more highly prized and more strongly held in the con-
sciousness of Judaism, than the hope of a union of the soul with God. Even the
souls of the righteous depart only gradually from the body ; those of others are
ever seeking it again. In this is reflected the uncertainty of salvation after
death. He who is not certain of heaven, holds fast to the earth. Entrance into
heaven is certain but for few. The majority are not yet ripe for heaven at their
death, and yet they are not absolutely excluded from it. Hence we are referred
to an intermediate state, a stage between death and eternal life which ministers
to the final completion."
b. THE SOJOUKN OF SOULS IN SHEOL.
Only the righteous go direct at death to God in heaven. The late Jewish
theology divides Sheol into two parts (Gehinnom and the lower paradise), or even
into seven. The Talmud does not distinguish Sheol from Gehinnom. Hence
between Sheol and Paradise lies an impassable gulf. The older representation
knows only Gehinnom for the wicked and the garden of Eden for the good. In the
Mediaeval theology the separation is but by a wall, and heU is a fore-court through
which even the righteous must pass in entering Paradise.
The name Gehinnom, according to Kimchi, is derived from the valley of Hin-
nom, near Jerusalem, where refuse was thrown and where fires were kept burn-
ing. The fires of Gehiiuiom either purify or destroy, — the former in the case of
Israelites, the latter in the case of the heathen. For the circumcised, Gehinnom
is purgatorial. No true Israelite shall finally fail of salvation. Many, however,
enter into life and peace only after long and severe suffering. Among these are
mentioned, those who perished in the wilderness, Korah's company, Esau and
Manasseh who, it is said, secretly secured entrance into heaven, contrary to the
command of the angels, through a hole or breach. This is a mode of expressing
the thought that he entered, not as a just man at death, but only after the full
endurance of the pains of hell. These pains are represented as fire which con-
tinues to torment the guilty for varying periods. The duration is usually set at
six months or a year. Intercession of the righteous for the wicked is recognized.
The award of rewards and penalties is adjusted to the relative proportion of
obedience and transgression of the law. Where transgressions preponderate, they
must be duly atoned for by suffering.
C. THE LOT OF THE BLESSED IN PARADISE.
The joys of Paradise are the reward of the righteous for his obedience. Here
his salvation becomes complete. Paradise is described by many sensuous represen-
tations. It has seven names, one of which is " bundle of lives" (1 Sam. 25:29),
because there the good are united. In Paradise God takes men into fellowship
with Him and they devote themselves to His praise. They see His face and are
nearer to Him than the angels. God mingles in their joys, even leading them in
the dance.
The glory of Paradise is painted in glowing colors. It has two portals over
which stand sixty myriads of holy angels. They welcome the righteous, placing
6 The Old Testament Student.
upon bim shining robes, crowns and pearls. They lead him to places made beau-
tiful by brooks and flowers. To each is given a tent according to the degree of
his glory. For each there flow four streams, one of milk, one of wine, one of
beilsam, and one of honey. Over eacli tent winds a golden grape-vine covered
with pearls. Under each tent stands a table filled with precious stones. Sixty
angels bid each just one enjoy what Paradise affords.
There are all manner of fruit-bearing trees— 800,000 m number — growing in
Paradise, and in ever>' part sing myriads of sweet-voiced angels. In the midst is
the tree of life whose branches cover all the place. Many other details are added.
The description is of scenes of luxury and sensuous beauty. There are degrees
of glory proportioned to the wortliiness of the righteous. In one place seven
orders of the just are named. The first includes those who have seen the Shechi-
nah. Of them is the saying true : The just shall see His face.
The dimensions of Paradise are carefully calculated. It would appear from
one of these computations that Pai'adise is sixty times as large as the world, and
that the world is but as a pot-lid in size when compared with the extent of hell.
So far as the inner relations between Paradise and hell are concerned, it is said
"the tears of the righteous cool the pains of hell, and that the inhabitants of the
latter region unite with those of Paradise in common praise to God. Both worlds
are, therefore, in spite of their opposition, in relation to each other until, at
length, the final separation occurs."
OLD TESTAMENT WORD-STUDIES: "MAN AND WOMAN."
By Key. P. A. Noudell, D. D.,
New London, Conn.
In complying wth the editor's request to prepare a series of word-studies for
The Old Testa3ient Student, it may not be out of place to indicate at the
outset the ground which they are intended to cover. As it has been planned that
they shall extend through the ten numbers of the current year, it has been deemed
best to gather certain prominent words of kindred meaning into groups, and to
consider, as far as possible, one group in each successive issue. The following
arrangement has been adopted, not as ideally perfect, but as perhaps the most
feasible under the circumstances : — 1. Man aud Woman; 2. Constituent parts of
Man ; 3. Moral Good ; 4. Moral Evil ; 5. Divine Law ; 6. Theocratic Function-
aries; 7. Sacrifice and Worship ; 8. Idols and Images ; 9. Supernatural Created
Beings ; 10. Time and Eternity. There are, of course, hundreds of words pro-
foundly interesting, whether considered in themselves or in their- relations, which
are excluded by this plan. Nevertheless, in the selection made necessary by the
limits of tlie discussion, it is hoped that there will be occasion for a consider-
ation of not a few of the most important words in the language. Lack of
space, furthermore, forbids the adequate discussion of many words that must here
be dismissed in a few sentences.
Hebrew is singularly rich in words which stand for the concept Man. While
Old Testameht Wokd-studies. 7
English possesses only this one term, and while Greek, Latin and German have
at least two each {avi/p and avdpuTTo;, vir and homo, Mann and Mensch), Hebrew
has at least five, several of them being in constant use.
A u
'Ish — 'Ishshah.
'Ish is derived from 'usli to be strong. In the early periods of the lan-
guage it seems to have been destitute of a regular plural, since 'is him is not
found until the later writers, and even then it seems to have obtained only a rare
recognition, and exclusively in poetry — Ps. 141:4; Prov. 8:4 ; Isa. 53:3. The ety-
mology of 'ish shows that it contemplates man as an embodiment of strength,
courage, braveiy and all manly qualities. In this respect it is the opposite of the
common name for woman, 'ishshah, a designation which in itself expresses
her relation of dependence. This word cannot be derived from the same root as
'ish, the first sh being clearly an assimilated u, so that, as Delitzsch points out
in the new American edition of his Commentary on the Psalms, vol. I., p. 196,
the name for woman is really a contraction of 'insha, meanmg the weak and
tender one. This again is derived from the verb 'iinash, Assyr. anasu to he
weak. It appears, then, that while these terms are commonly used to designate
the relation of sex, yet 'ishshah is not a mere feminine form of 'ish,a"man-
ess," as many of the commentators on Gen. 2:23 interpret it. The signification
and use of these words repose, not on the fact of sex itself, but on a recognition of
the distinguishing quality of each sex, — physical strength iu the man, weakness
and dependence in the woman.
The Rabbins might, of course, be expected to state this relation in their char-
acteristic way. R. Joshua, being asked to explain why the man at his biiih
turned his face downward, while the woman turned hers upwards, replied : " The
man looks toward the place from which he came at his creation (the earth); but
the woman up to the place from which she was created (the man)." Another
curious rabbinical fancy evolved from the words themselves is mentioned by Levy
(Neii-hebr. und cludd. Worterbuch), to the effect that so long as man and woman
remained virtuous, the Deity abides with them ; but when they cease to be vii'tu-
ous, fire consumes them. This alludes to the name Jahve in its usual contracted
form n'l the first letter of which occurs in JJ,'>{< (man), and the last in HCN
(woman) ; when these letters are removed there is left in each case only the
letters ^H , the common word for fire, in which "man" and "woman," so
to speak, disappear.
'Adham.
The writer of Gen. 2:7 connects the name of the first man with the material
out of which he was made : " The Lord God formed ' a d h a m of the dust of the
' " d h a m a h ." The majority of lexicographers and commentators follow this deri-
vation. Others, notably Gesenius, incline to connect it with the verb 'adham
to be red, and discover in this a reference to the complexion or color of the primi-
tive man. Still others endeavor to cormect these views, and conjecture that the
name refers to the color of the earth from which man was made. Josephus
(Antiq. I., 1,2) in speaking of the creation of the first man explains his name:
" This man was called Adam, which in the Hebrew tongue signifies one that is
red, because he was formed out of red earth compounded together ; for of that
kind is virgin and true earth." The derivation from '"dhamah seems on the
whole to be the most probable.
8 TuE Old Testament Student.
Ha 'a (lb a 111, then, contemplates man from the side of his eartlily nature.
He is the earth-begotton, the autochthon. The word became also a designation
of generic man {Gen. 6:1 ), but not, as Ewald and other commentators hold, of men
" as they usually are, the world, the present corrupted, earthly-minded ones, in
opposition to the Divine life. Cf. Job 31:33; Hos. 6:7, « kug/ioc.^' (Ewald on
Psalms.) ' A d h a ni is used both with and without the ailicle, not arbitrarily, but
with a distinction which is noted by Wellhausen : "Another circumstance shows
Q to be posterior to E. The first man is called here not Ha- Adam as in JE, but
always Adam, without the article (.5:1-5), a difference which Kuenen pertinently
compares with that between 6 Xpiar6r and Xpiaro;. But in Q itself (Gen. 1) the
first man is only the generic man ; if in .spite of this he is called simply Adam
(Gen. 5), as if it were his proper name, the only way to account for this is to sup-
pose a reminiscence of Gen. 2,3, though here the personification does not as yet
extend to the name." {Prohgom., p. 309.)
A
•"nosh.
.i\jiother word of this group is "nosh which appears to be derived from the
root 'an ash to be weak, tender, frail. Etymologically it is related to
'ishshah ('inshah), which also denotes the loeafc and /r«i7 one, and of which it
is the true masculine. It emphasizes just the opposite quality from that empha-
sized by 'ish, contemplating the life of man as feeble and evanescent: "As for
'"nosh, his days are as grass; as a flower of the field so he flourisheth," Ps. 103:
15. Ewald holds that "this word is formed in intentional opposition to "loSh
Ood, as its contrasted idea. Both words have been presers'ed in the most various
Semitic languages (thougli singularly not in Ethiopic). What Semitic nation
originated this expression of the two contrasted ideas— o/ God as the absolutely
poiverful, and of man, matched with God, as the absolutely weak ? It can scarcely
have been Israel, because ' " n n s h became almost obsolete in Hebrew, as also in
Arabic. The history of these two words, therefore, takes us to a primeval people
far to the north. The writer of Gen. 4:6 retained a correct feeling of the origin of
these ideas." [Hist, of Israel, vol. I., p. 264.)
Gebher.
The verb gabh ar to he strong or high, gives an interesting series of deriva-
tives in which the prevailing idea is that of pre-eminent strength, heroism, or
authority. Gebher, occurring altogetlier sixty-four times, is found in prose
only ten times, always in the plural except Deut. 22:5. It is, therefore, essen-
tially a poetic designation of man, sometimes used in this general sense, as in Ps.
34:8(9), "Blessed is the man (h agjioljher) that trusteth in him,"' but more com-
monly with reference to his strength and courage, qualities which made David a
gebher "raised on high" (2 Sam. 23:1), and which Job(3S:3)was told to exhibit
when God commanded him to gird up liis loins " like a g G b h 6 r . " Even when the
thouglit of liis mortality is presented, as in Job 14:10, the choice of tliis term implies
a feeling of surprise that man, so richly endowed with power, should waste away
and die. The feminine of ggbhcr is g'bh6rgth,a woman who exercises
authority over other women, iience a mistress. Gen. 6:4; Ps. 123:2, etc. Isaiah
(47:5,7) makes it descriptive of Babylon that proudly called herself mistress of the
kingdoms.
This conception of man is presented still more emphatically in the adjective
Old Testament Word-studies. 9
gibbor mighty, which is generally used absolutely to denote one who is con-
spicuous for power, daring, and heroic achievement. Nimrod began to be a
gibbor in the earth, the founder of the first world-empire (Gen. 10:8-12). Go-
liath was the gibbor of the Philistines (1 Sam. 17:51). Saul and Jonathan were
gib b o ri m ; in fact the plural, both in prose and poetry, is a favorite designation
of mighty men of valor and war. The adjective is closely related to the abstract
substantive g'bhurah, which denotes personal power, not latent, but in its
fullest activity, — power that passes over into the might of dominion. The gibbor,
then, is really, by deeds of personal prowess, or by reason of his wisdom or wealth,
a master of men, just as the g'blii riih is the mistress. The latter word, how-
ever, soon passed into an exclusively technical sense, being applied to the queen-
mother (1 Kgs. 1-5:3; Jer. 13:18), who seems to have exercised a commanding
influence in political affairs, and even over the king himself, who bows himself
before her and sets her on a throne at his right hand (1 Kgs. 2:19). " The high
rank of the queen-mother seems to be a relic of the primitive age in which the
relationship of the mother was of such vast importance (Accadians, Etrascans,
Finns, etc.). The political value of the position is strikingly shown in the author-
ity usurped for six years in Judah by the bold Athaliah. The mention of the
mothers of kings seems connected with their high rank in the social system as
queen-mothers. It is singular that Ahaz is one of the only two kings of Judah
whose mothers are not mentioned in the historical books. Perhaps his mother
died before arriving at the dignity of queen-mother. Compare also jSIic. 7:6
(' against her mother-m-law ')." Cheyne's Isaiah, 4th ed., p. 47.
G'bhir, which is the masculine of g'bhirah, and which occurs only in
Gen. 27:29,37, denoted one who exercised lordship over his brethren by the right
of primogeniture.
A
M'thim,
M'tbim, an archaic form occurring chiefly in poetry and always in the
plural, is sometimes written defectively, m'thim (Deut. 2:34,) but more gener-
ally m'thim. Its derivation is from miithah, -which does not occur in He-
brew, but means to stretch, extend, whence it passes into the substantive form
with the meaning of one stretched out to the full stature of man, i. e. full-grown.
The Ethiopia met and the Assyrian m u t have passed from the general mean-
ing man to that of a married man, husband. The Coptic mat means a sol-
dier. M'tbim is never common gender in the sense of tlie peo-ple, but always
men, almost invariably associated with the thought of fewness, impotence,
dependence, and hence with an implied feeling of contempt.
^ ^ - A - -
Na'ar, Bachur, Zaqen.
Hebrew employs several terms descriptive of man from the point of age, and
while they are in some instances quite loosely applied, yet the distinction
between them may be determined at least approximately. Na'ar occurs over
two hundred times, and is variously rendered child, lad, young man, and ser-
vant. The derivation is uncertain, but is given in Gesen. Lex. as from na'ar
to growl, roar, after the manner of young lions ; hence the utterance oi any kind
of harsh sound from the throat. The word na'ar is therefore supposed to allude
to the roughness, or harshness, of the voice at the transition from youth to puberty.
In actual usage the term covers the whole period of early life between birth and
the age of twenty years, or even more.
10 The Old Tbstajient Student.
Throughout the Pentateuch we encounter the singular fact that the feminine
form of this word is written nii'ara, while the k'ri directs it to be read
nS'arah, as in its other occurrences in the Old Testament. The explanation
probably is that in the earlier usage the word n a ' a r was regarded as common
gender, like the Greek n-aif, and that the distinctive feminine form was a later
development.
Bach il r denotes a young man in the flrs£ maturity of his manly powers. It
presents the thought of a figure more than ordinarily beautiful, i. e. of a dwice
young man, from b a c h a r to dioose out, select, with the associated idea of delight-
ing in the object or person thus selected. Saul, being in the full development of
his young manhood and presenting a distinguished appearance among his fellows,
was a bachur (1 Sam. 9:2) fit to be chosen king of the nation. Sometimes it
stands in connection with b'th uluth " young man and maidens"' (Ps. 168:12),
and points especially to those of a marriageable age. The same thought is im-
plied in the address of Boaz to Ruth (3:10) " thou followest not young men."
Zaqen, on the contrary, describes a man who has passed considerably
beyond the meridian of life, and may properly be called old. and therefore enti-
tled to the respect and veneration due to the experience and wisdom of age. The
zaqen was so called from zaqaii a beard. He was, literally, the bearded one.
All the nations of Western Asia seem to have attached a profound significance to
the beard as the distinguishing symbol of manhood. The beard was a sacred ob-
ject by which solemn oaths were sworn, and to insult it was the utmost indignity
that could be inflicted on a man. The same feeling survives to-day. See
" beard," Smith's Bib. Diet. Where the constitution of society was essentially
patriarchal, the term zaqen speedily passed from a designation of superior
age to that of superior social or political rank. The z ' q a n i m elders, were
not only among the Hebrews, but among the neighboring peoples, representatives
invested with legislative and judicial functions.
THE LITERARY STUDY OF THE BIBLE : ITS METHODS AND
PURPOSES ILLUSTRATED IN A CRITICISM
OF THE BOOK OF AMOS.
By Wm. E. Chancellou,
Amherst College, Amherst, Mass.
The night of the Dark Age was far spent ; the day was at hand. Its dawn
heralded a time more glorious than had ever been known before. The peoples of
Europe, spmng from the hordes of barbarians that had swept from distant Asia
over the steppes of Russia, through the high valleys and mountain-passes of the
central lands of the continent and down upon the golden plains of France and
sunny Italy, wlio had for long centuries given themselves to war in battle and siege,
to peopling and trausfoi-ming the wildernesses and to creating great and distinct
nationalities, at length had finished their coarser tasks and could turn to the herit-
age left by former days and by former generations of men safe-treasured from the
ravages of time. The light which then shone forth blinded men's eyes at first by
A Criticism of the Book of Amos. 11
reason of its strange brightness. There was then discovered a book known to but
few before, and yet a book very old and very powerful. In three centuries it had
placed its representatives on the imperial throne of the Caesars and in six made
Kome again mistress of the world. Its ministers had marshalled Christendom
against the fierce multitude of the followers of the false prophet, and had dictated
to the haughtiest potentates of Europe. Nevertheless, in those days men had not
known the Bible, and its greater work was yet to come. With nothuig in it revo-
lutionary, it was to cause greater revolutions than were yet written in history ;
calm in tone and speaking with authority, it was to rouse to fever heat and to
overthrow great dominions.
The Bible is no ordinary product of the human mind and the human heart.
For some reason men have been tremendously interested in it. There have been
martyrs for its truths. It has dii-ected history for centuries. Its earlier writings
record the story of that force which inaugurated the world-movement of Chris-
tianity. No man whosoever, infidel, non-believer, or of the faith, but admits
willtagly or necessarily that in this book there is something that has made it
essentially different from all other books. This truth we are now beginning to
realize. The last fifty years have witnessed a change in the attitude toward the
Bible. We are beginning now to look at the Bible in other than the devotional
light, to study it as an historical force, as a causative power in the record of pro-
gress. Our thought concerning the Bible is tending to become critical, scientific,
philosopliical — in a word, literary. This means that we are taking the Bible
purely on its own merits, and are seeking to know what it intrinsically is.
History is the record of deeds ; literature, the embodiment of life. We have
both in the Bible. The study of history gives knowledge ; that of literature
instructs in wisdom. The critical study of the Scriptures will prove that they
embody life, and are, therefore, literature in the truest sense of the word. Every
good result that follows from the study of other literature wUl follow in greater
or less degree from the study of this. It will broaden our sympathies, and this
more perhaps than in the study of any other literature ; for the Bible contains
— it is well worthy of noting — the best remains of the literary products of the
Semitic peoples. Therefore in studying it we are studying the constitution of
the Semitic mind, the qualities, traits and peculiarities of the Semitic genius.
Were this the only result of a literary study of the Bible there would still be in it
reason enough for its pursuit.
Of this Semitic race the Hebrews, few as they were in numbers, have done
more than any other division to change the constitution of society, more, indeed,
than any other division of all mankind. Why this has been so the literary stu-
dent must earnestly inquh-e. His first step is to find out where and how the
Hebrews differed from the peoples all about them. Only thus can he arrive at that
philosophical understanding of their literature which he desires. Only thus can he
know why the Hebrews wrought a greater work for mankind than the Egyptians,
the Assyrians or the Greeks, who were their contemporaries. He soon begins to
realize that this was largely because the Hebrews cared for the matter rather
than the manner, and at their best were lovers of the works of Jehovah rather
than of those of man.
One result of the study of the Bible as literature is that at once the Hebrew
authors cease to be abstractions and become realities. We feel the man in what
is said, and realize that the Hebrews lived and died as other men live and die,
12 The Old Testament Student.
thought and did as other men think and do, and wrote out of their separate and
individual existences. At once we are directed to the personality of each writer.
Here a wide and fruitful field is opened to us. There are Isaiah and Jeremiah,
Paul, John, and many others of marked individuality. We may well question
whether any single literature has represented among its authors so many and
various classes and conditions of men as has this. Is it objected that the New
Testament writers employed the Greek tongue V This is true; but it is also true
that their writings are essentially the products of Hebrew minds expressed
through the Greek medium. It would seem as though the Greek language, with
its nice exactness of philosophical terms, had been expressly prepared to meet
those wants of the New Testament teachers which the Hebrew tongue could not
satisfy; for in it abstract ideas can scarcely be represented at all. The two lan-
guages, Greek and Hebrew, served as complements one to another in the revela-
tion of God to man. The Bible is, then, the product of the Hebrew character,
the legacy of the Jews to the generations of the Gentiles who were to follow and
reap where they had sown. If literature is that written expression of thought
which lives, surely the Bible, more than any other literature, deserves this name.
The literary study of the Bible has yet deeper aims than these. Just as it is
a purpose in all literary study to find so far as possible what are the writer's con-
ceptions of the great ends of man, so here we seek to learn what the Hebrew
believes to be the problems of humanity. In doing this we do not pass without
the sphere of true literary work. It is our duty as students of life to search for
what is spiritual and profouTid everywhere. We must know the secrets of the
soul of man in every race and in every age. What a revelation is here for the
students of the Bible ! As we pursue this line of investigation we find tliat the
Hebrews had a distinct and characteristic theory of life. This is in particular
revealed in what is known as their " wisdom " or " gnomic " literature, in which
are classed such books as Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. This theory of life is that
men should be good and honest and pure because it is wise to be so. "The/ooJ
hath said in his heart, There is no God."* Tliis may be placing morality on the
lower level of expediency; but no one would be unwilling to admit that it were
better on that than on none. If we look, however, a little deeper into this theory
of life, we shall see in it a truly spiritual significance. '■ Wisdom is the principal
thing; therefore get wisdom : yea, with all thou hast gotten get understanding. "t
And what is this wisdom, this understanding V The Book of Job answers : " Be-
hold, the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom ; and to depart from evil is undei-stand-
ing.'\t The Hebrew believed that the one essential is to stand right before God.
Upon that theory of life sixty generations have been unable to make advance.
Hebrew history and literature deal, as do no other history and literature so
markedly, with the individual man. They are essentially biographical or autobi-
ographical in their spirit. Beside, therefore, the value of tlie study of the Bible
as a means of training the mind, there is in it that other and greater reason for its
pursuit, in tliat it trains the man.
There is yet another reason why the literary study of the Bible is desirable.
As we have it the book is an English classic, the English classic. It contains
the finest Saxon element and the purest idiom of all the books in our language. It
is the product of the growth of the English people in literature. As Macaulay
■Ps. 14:1. +Prov. 4:7. * Job 28:28.
A Criticism of the Book of Amos. 13
said, " the person who professes to be a critic of the delicacies of the English
tongue ought to have the Bible at his finger's ends." And if the English Bible be
the standard book in our literature, every one who seeks true literary culture
should be conversant with it. Nearly all the great masters of our language have
been earnest literary students of the English Scriptures, especially of the grander
portions of the Old Testament. Our Bible is something more than a transla-
tion, a version of writings in Hebrew and Greek. It has in it the true spirit of
the Anglo-Saxon genius. The mingling of the thoughts of those true Orientals,
the Hebrews, with our thoughts has greatly enlarged and broadened our spirit in
years past. The very style of Hebrew literature is of value to ours, giving it life,
vigor and coloring. Our tendency is to be didactic, cold-blooded. This the
ancient literature of the Bible, with its rendering into English of marvelous
rhythm, grace and fire, helps greatly to counteract.
How should the literary study of the Bible be pursued ? I shall endeavor to
answer this question by illustration in a criticism of the book of one of the
" minor prophets." First, however, I desire to note a few principles such as are
applicable in general to all other literary study. At the outset we should
endeavor to cast aside, hard as this maybe in such study as concerns the Bible, all
preconceptions. Only thus shall we be able to see clearly just what the book con-
tains, no more, no less. With this accomplished so far as possible, our next step
is to note in what relation the facts gathered stand to such other facts, not theo-
ries, as may have formed a part of our general knowledge of this class of subjects.
We do this to be able to understand the times of the writer. In all study of his-
tory we must judge the actors in its scenes, not by modern standards, but by
those of their own age. Otherwise our judgment will be neither impartial nor
likely to stand the test of time, for every decade in such case would change in
greater or less degi-ee the standards of historical criticism. Thirdly, we should
search for the man in the writings. And thus when, fourthly, we have considered
the literary expression of his thought, we shall be .able to state in something like
the judicial manner our conclusion concerning the writer and his work, and shall
have learned his historical significance. This is our end.
In the spirit, then, of the literary student, I ask your attention to a criticism
of the Book of the Prophet Amos.
It was in the reigns of Uzziah of Judah, and of Jeroboam of Israel, two years
before the earthquake, that the laborer of Tekoa, a little village south of Bethle-
hem, received the first revelation from God. The date of his mission may, there-
fore, be placed in the twelfth year of Uzziah and the tAventy-flfth of .Jeroboam,*
and according to one system of chronology, in the year 808 B. C.,t and to another,
in the year 762 B. C.j: The watching of the flocks was not the only work of the
humble laborer, he was also wont in time of the sycamore figs to go down into
the valleys to gather and dress them.? This acrid fruit had to be cut open, and
to be exposed to the sun to sweeten. From such environment as this, Amos went
forth to do God's bidding before his sinful brethren. Surely he must have had a
calling to this work, as he himself declared, else he could never have left his
flocks, and have gone to those of Israel who were living in the midst of sin, and
have preached before them in the very seats of their wickedness so earnestly and
so courageously !
*Ch.l:l. t Smith. t Geikie. § Ch. 7:14,15.
14 The Old Testament STxmENr.
The prophet boldly, fearlessly proclaims the truth. Uje high in the land
" sold the righteous for silver and the needy for a pair of shoes.*'* At their feasts
they reclined upon garments taken in pawn from the poor.t and therein violated
the Mosaic law which required articles of raiment to be restored at the even. J
They took exactions of wheat from the poor, and accepted bribes.? They wished
for the quick passage of the new moons and sabbaths that they might not be long
kept from trade. They sold at high prices and with false measures. The rich
begrudged the poor even the refuse of the wheat. ||
" Quid non mortalia peotora cogis,
Aurl sacra famce?"
Injustice and oppression were rife in the land. The poor were trodden under
foot, and the wealthy lived utterly apart from the Lord. It was a " sinful king-
dom."H Tlie riches gained in foreign wars and by trade and oppression provided
luxuries for the higher classes. These had their winter and their summer houses
in which were all the delights of wealth.** Their residences were often of hewn
stone.tt At their feasts was the music of viols, and there they reclined upon
couches of ivory. Women as well as men were given to drinking of wine.JJ
Such was tlie life of the rich : from it we know what must have been that of the
poor whom they oppressed.
The darkest part of the picture is yet to be revealed. At Bethel and Gilgal
they offered their worship to .lehovah, a worship simply of form. Their feasts
and solemn assemblies, their burnt offerings and sacrifices were all alike evU in
the eyes of tlie Lord. Priests and king had profaned the holy places. There
was a general turning aside to other gods. The very ceremonies in the temples
were made the cover for the worst social evils.?? Religious formalism could
descend no further. The fire on the altar had burnt out. Faith was dead.
One more fact is needed to complete this portrayal of the times. Israel had
now become a military despotism. The king seated on the throne was the great-
est of the rulers of his line. lie had conquered Damascus and all Syria to the
river Euphrates. At this time also the dominion of Uzziah of Judah e.xtended
over Edom and Arabia Petraja from the gulf of Elah to the river of Egypt. Thus
Judah and Israel together were now even more powerful than the united nation
had been in the days of David, the great king. But outward prosperity does not
insiue the permanence of nations : and this truth Amos must preach. The les-
son of Israel is that of many another people. No nation can long endure that is
not true to high principles, to its best instincts, to its message from God whether
written on tables of stone or in the hearts of men. History is full of warnings
to the peoples of earth, and no warning is more terrible than the downfall of
Israel.
How will the peasant, now to exercise the functions of a prophet, go about his
task ¥ Despite his humble lot he is no unlettered man. From various references
in the prophecy we see clearly that he is familiar with Hebrew history and the
Mosaic law. He has been out in the world of natiue, and has seen all the mighty
manifestations of God's presence and power. He has often slept, no doubt, under
the open vault of heaven and watched the on-going of the stars. He has heard
the voice of Jehovah in the thunder, and seen His agency in the rain and the
♦Ch.2:6. +Ch. 2:8. J Eiod. 22:28. 8 Ch. 5:U,13. .1 Ch. 8:.5--. lCh.9:8.
•Ch.3:15. ttCh.5:ll. »Ch.4:l. 88 Ch8.4:4; 5:21-23; 7:U; .5:18.
A Criticism of the Book of Amos. 15
■wind. His mind is full of the imagery of outdoor life, and the illustrations which
he uses are drawn from the sheep-fold and the vine-dresser's hut. He comes
with fresh ardor to his task, with a heart not hardened by long acquaintance with
evil. He is a man sent forth from nature by the God Whose own nature is.
How far the record of the mission of Amos is made up of single discourses,
delivered at short intervals, and each brief and pointed, as accords with the temper
of the Hebrew mind, it is now of course impossible to determine. We find the
prophecy readily divisible into two distinct portions : chs. 1-6, which consist of
weighty discourses, and chs. 7-9, which are simple narratives of visions.
The first part of the earlier division consists of annunciations of terrible
judgments upon the nations. With great tact those people roundabout the Hebrew
nations are denounced first, then the southern kingdom of Judah and finally
Israel itself. These judgments are cast into the form of a poem, magnificent
and awful, through which rumbles the suUen note of the refrain, " Thus saiththe
Lord : For three transgressions, yea, for four, I wUl not turn away the punish-
ment thereof."* Damascus, Gaza, Tyre, Edom, Ammon, Moab, Judah, Israel,
upon each and upon all Jehovah will visit the punishment due their sins. The
Lord God, who brought Israel up out of the land of Egypt and destroyed the
Amorite, " strong as the oaks,""t from before him, who led him in the wilderness,
and gave him Canaan for his possession. He, the Omnipotent, will "press Israel
in his place as a cart presseth that is full of sheaves."! In that day, Amos
declares, in the words of the earlier prophet, Joel, " The Lord shall roar from
Zion, and utter his voice from -Jerusalem."? Because the nations had warred
against the Hebrew^s, and had " cast off all pity,"|| and because Judah and Israel
had forgotten Jehovah, therefore will He destroy them all.
And now that he has declared his mission, Amos asks how he could fail to
prophesy what God had spoken unto him. He sees the evil in the land, the
tumults " upon the mountains of Samaria " and " the oppression in the midst
thereof. "U "Because of these God will smite the land, and the few remaining
from the dead He will carry away into captivity. Upon all the guilty, women as
well as men, priests as well as laymen, will Jehovah visit His wrath. Shall not
He who brought famine into the land, and withheld the rain from one portion
and granted it to another, who caused mildew to blight the crops and the palmer-
worm to devour their vineyards and orchards, who sent pestilence into the midst
of the people and who saved others as brands " plucked out of the burning,"** shall
not He " that formeth the mountains, and createth the wind, and declareth unto
man what is his thought, that maketh the morning darkness and treadeth upon
the high places of the earth," " the Lord, the God of hosts,"tt be able to perform
this His word ? Only as " ye seek the Lord, shall ye live, "It the preacher proclaims
to Israel. " Seek good and not evil, that ye may Uve : and so the Lord, the God
of hosts shall be with you, as ye say. Hate the evil, and love the good, and
establish judgment in the gate : it may be that the Lord, the God of hosts wall
be gracious unto the remnant of Joseph. "|§ If they will not obey nor turn aside
from destruction, Amos proclaims that wailing shall be heard in the streets, and
the people be carried away captive beyond Damascus. The land is doomed, only
a few shall remain alive, and the country shall be desolate. And yet of what
*Ch.l:3,ete. tCh.3:9. * Ch. 3:13. § Joel 3:16; ch. 1:2. ilCh.l:ll. H Ch. 3:9.
♦•Ch.4:9. -HCh. 4:13. « Ch. 5:B. §8Ch.5:14.
16 The Old Testament Student.
avail this preaching ? asks the prophet. " Shall horses run upon the rock ? Will
one plow there with oxen ? "* The nation is hardened ; and can know God no
more.
We note in this portion of the prophecy a depreciation of sacrifices. This is
the first indication of the new dispensation when the Son of God should be offered
up as the complete sacrifice for the race. Only in the light of the Old Testament
can we hope to see something of the full meaning of tlie crucifixion on Calvary.
That was the culmination of the Jewish ritual, the finishing of the work of the
Hebrews for the race, begun when Abram was called out of Ur of the Chaldees.
With the closing of the sixth chapter the record of the preaching of Amos
ceases. He has found that his work has been in vain. There now comes before
him a series of visions which disclose in broad outlines the future of the Hebrew
people, especially of the kingdom of Israel. These visions are five in number.
The first four differ from the last in that they teach in allegory, while the fifth is
a direct manifestation of the Lord himself. Succeeding these visions is the prom-
ise to the faithful.
The first and second visions, of the locusts devouring "the latter growth
after the king's mowing," and of the fire from the great deep that ■' would have
eaten up the land,'"t show God's mercy in that he saves Jacob at the prayer of
Amos because " he is small. '"t The lessons of the third and fourth make known
the approaching end of the national life. The nation tried by the plumb-line is
found desers'ing of destruction.? As to a basket of summer fruit, to Israel the
end is near.y
Between the nai'ratives of the third and fourth visions there is told an inci-
dent by which we may learn something of the times. Because of his fearless
preaching Amos has aroused the fear and hatred of Amaziah, "the priest of
Beth-el. '''i Amaziah seeks to stir up King Jeroboam by saying that the bold
peasant is engaged in conspiracy against the throne. To the priest's command to
flee out of Israel into Judah Amos replies that it is the Lord's errand on which
he has come, and closes by renewing his prophecy of evil for the priest and his
family, and of captivity for Israel. It is tlie old story, how the wicked are self-
convicted wlien they stand in the presence or hear the message of the good.
After the fourth vision, already commented upon, follows that terrible pre-
diction, " Behold the days come, saith the Lord God, that I will send a famine in
the land, not a famine of bread, nor a thirst for water, but of hearing of the
words of the Lord. And they shall wander from sea to sea. and from llie north
even to the east; they run to and fro to seek the word of the Lord, and shall not
find it."**
In the fifth vision the doom of Jehovah is come upon the land. In every
quarter of heaven, earth and hell will the Lord set his " eyes upon them for evil
and not for good."tt "Behold, the eyes of the Lord God are upon the sinful
kingdom, and I will destroy it from off the face of the earth; saving tliat I will
not utterly destroy the house of Jacob, saith the Lord. For, lo, I will command,
and 1 will sift the house of Israel among all the nations, like as corn is sifted in a
sieve, yet shall not the least grain fall upon the earth. ":Jt The promise comes,
however, not to Israel, but to despised Judah. The hut of David is to become a
•Ch. 6:12. tCh. 7:1. t Ch. 7:5. « Ch. 7:7. 1 Ch. 8:1. ICh. 7:10scq.
•• Ch. 8:11-13. tt Ch. 9:4. « Ch. 9:8, seq.
A Criticism of the Book of Amos. 17
noble palace, builded " as in the days of old."* Only the Judiean portion of the
race is to dwell again in Palestine. For them shall seed-time, vintage, harvest
follow in quick succession. "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that the
plowman shall overtake the reaper, and the treader of grapes him that soweth
seed ; and the mountains shall drop sweet wine, and all the hills shall melt."t In
the southern kingdom, in the dynasty of David gathers all the hope of the coming
blessed rule. The dark cloud of the prophecy is here at length lit up with the
rays of the divine promise.
The purification of the Hebrew nation was to result in tlie greatest glory and
the greatest good to mankind.! The remnant of this people, lifted away from
their evil surroundings and preserving in their darkest days the hope of the Mes-
siah, was at length to help toward the salvation of the race through Jesus the
Christ.
Thus did the herdman of Tekoa preach to those in Israel who had forgotten
the Lord. His language was tlie perfect medium for his thought. Two words
may describe his style in general— strong, vivid. The bold outlines of his thought
are filled in with the brightest colors. The prophecy is poetry almost entirely. It
is characterized generally by parallelism of thought. " Come to Beth-el, and
transgress ; to Gilgal, and multiply transgression."? " Publish ye in the palaces
at Ashdod, and in the palaces in the land of Egypt, and say. Assemble yourselves
upon the mountains of Samaria, and behold what great tumults are therein, and
what oppressions in the midst thereof."|| A very large proportion of Hebrew
prophecy was delivered as poetry, and a poetic character marked all prophetic
oratory. In the use of form and of imagery, as well as in the constitution of his
mind, Amos was quite as much the poet as the prophet.
In the study of Amos there now remains but one further matter to consider
— his historical significance. Amos is one of the few prophets of the northern
kingdom whose writings we have. Withm its borders Elijah had already proph-
esied and Elisha lived his godly life. The kingdom, the proud portion of the
Hebrew nation, had warred against Judah, and to all appearances had cast away
its share in the divine promises. The best of its people had long since departed
into the southern kingdom, where they might join in the true worship of Jehovah
still offered in His sanctuary at Jerusalem. The nation was no longer spiritually
descended from Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. They had abandoned their hope.
Suddenly from Judah comes the prophet with his message to repent. He stands
for two things in Jewish history : First, the truth that the division into Israel
and Judah is one that can be healed only on the spiritual side : there must be a
union of purpose. It is no mere geographical boundary chat holds them apart :
it is rather the plumbline of Jehovah, who tests the heart. Second, Amos stands
foretelling a doom that must come for all disobedience to Almighty God. He
has sought to persuade the sinful to turn back from the downward journey : yet
if they will not turn back, he can do nothing further than announce the judgment.
He has preached earnestly, he has predicted not without hope. Man can do no
more than this. By its very nature sin involves and necessitates its own terrible
punishment.
We have seen in Amos a tjrpe of the true prophet of Jehovah. "We have also
seen in him something of the prophet's mission, and in his writing certain of the
'Ch. 9:11. tCh. 9:13. t Ch. 9:13. § Ch. 4:4. ICh. 3:9.
*3
18 The Old Testament Student.
characteristics of Hebrew poetry, as for example its parallelism and free use of
imagery. Similar results would have followed from the study of other books in
the Bible.
The literary study of the Bible gains for the book our mental respect, and
once understood intellectually its message will be better obeyed by men's hearts
spiritually. TIius we are prepared to meet those misguided attempts of the age
which, criticising the Bible superficially and finding what seem to be flaws therein,
are doing no slight harm to the progress of the truth in the hearts of weaker men.
Further, the literary study of the Scriptures is one of the effective means for put-
ting a check upon the proving of theories by te.xts taken here and there \vithout
relation to their setting. It will train as can no other in the grasping of the
argument. This accomplished, the Bible ceases to be a collection of verses, and
becomes an organic series of writings that may be fully understood only by know-
ing the relations of the part to the whole. Such must be the beneficent results of
BibUcal criticism. Assuming nothing, it proves more than does any other method
of gaining the truths of the Scriptures. While it trains intellectually it teaches
spiritually ; for this examination of the Bible is sure to promote the great ends of
the individual Christian life.
By the Uterary study of the Bible we come into the closest companionship
with some of the best and greatest men of all times. To understand them we
must enter into sympathy with their thoughts and motives, and once sympathizing
with them their influence upon us must begin to be felt. We think of these early
preachers and doers of God's word too little as friends. The critical study of the
Scriptures arouses an interest both personal and friendly in those heroes of Bible-
hterature who fought with spiritual weapons " striving against sin." Therefore,
for the young, whose habits of mind and purposes of heart are most easily influ-
enced, is such study especially desirable.
Again, by the literary study of the Bible we are brought to understand the
Messiali of history better than in any other way. It has been said that the Golden
Age of the Jews lay not in the past but in the future, when the Messiah should
come; so to-day the Golden Age of the Christian lies not in the past, but in the
future, when again the second time Jesus the Christ shall appear in the fulness of
imknown days, in the final and perfect finishing of God's work among men. Toward
that day the world is looking. As students of history we should know the Jewish
conceptions of the Messiah and the early Christian memories of Ilim, and should
see how the picture grows upon the canvas touch by touch, Une by line, till Jesus
himself gave it life. The devotional study of the Scriptures is not enougli ; the
literary study is not enough. They should be united ; thus will our study, giving
knowledge of Him, for whom and by whom the Scriptures are, tend to become
complete. Such it can never be in this world of Time. And yet whatever assists
us in knowledge of Him shoiUd be earnestly sought out and encouraged. With-
out a certain measure of knowledge concerning Jesus, the Son of Man and the
Son of God, we can never hope to understand in even the barest outlines the vast
movements of history.
The mission of the Bible is not ended ; it cannot end in Time. Because of
all the length and breadth and height of this Book, because of its sweetness and
its grandeur, because of its message so terrible in its truth and so comforting in
its love, because of its work in literature, in government, in the individual life,
because of its close union with human destiny, therefore, were it well worth our
APOCAiiYPSES OF Moses. 19
while to open its pages more often and to read more closely therein. The Bible
can never be outgrown by man. It is the Book not of Death but of Life. As the
river seen in prophet's vision issuing out of the sanctuary of God was a healmg
flood and a life-giving stream, upon the banks whereof grew trees with fruit for
meat and with leaf for medicine,* so the Bible sent forth from the Almighty
brings healing and life whithersoever it cometh.
APOCALYPSES OF MOSES.
By Professor M. S. Terry, S. T. D.,
Garrett Biblical Institute, Evanston, 111.
Among the numerous revelations made to Moses, we find in Exodus 3 and 6,
in connection with the divine call and commission of Israel's great leader, a two-
fold apocalyptic word of Jahveh, which accords with the almost imiform habit
of this style of revelation to repeat itself under different symbols, or from differ-
ent points of view. The hypothesis of different authors is less probable and con-
vincing than the view which maintains tliat these closely related passages are
designed and essential features of the biblical revelation, and, like the repetition
of Pharaoh's dreams, serve to enhance the certainty and importance of the things
which they make known. The first of these revelations came to Moses in the
desert, when he led his flocks among the solitary valleys of the Horeb moun-
tains. The angel of Jahveh appeared to him under the impressive symbol
of a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush, and though the bush kept burning
it was not at all consumed.! Moses recognized it as a great and marvelous
vision, and drew nigh to behold more clearly. Thereupon the word of God spoke
to him out of the bush, and was as follows : {Exod. 3:4-22):
4, 5. Moses, Moses, draw not thou hither near,
PuU ofi thy sandals from upon thy feet.
For holy ground is the place where thou standest.
6. I am thy father's God,
The God of Abraham, God of Isaac, and God of Jacob.
7. I've seen, I've seen my people's woe in Egypt,
And heard their cry because of their oppressors,
For I have known their pains.
8. And I go down to snatch them out of Egypt's hand.
And bring from that land to a good broad land,
Unto a land that flows with milk and honey.
Unto the Canaanite's and Hittite's place.
And of the xVmorite, and Perizzite,
The Hivite also and the Jebusite.
•Ezek. -iTil-lS.
t The meaning of this sign is best seen in the fact that the burning judgments of God never
destroy anything that is pure and good, so that his people need never fear them. The oppres-
sions of Egypt could not consume Israel: the wrath of Pharaoh cannot harm Moses; God's
people are imperishable. And this thought is prominent in all subsequent revelations. God
Almighty is a consuming fire. He burns what is perishable; but "the remnant according to the
election of grace" are never to be consumed. The burnings of judgment only purify and make
them more conspicuous and wonderful.
20 The Old Testament Stttdent.
9. Now, lo, the cry of Israel's sons comes to me,
And I liave also seen the sore oppression,
"With which the Egyptians are oppressing them.
10. And now come, I will thee to Pharaoh send,
And bring my people, Israel's sons, from Egypt.
12. Surely I will be \\-ith thee,
And this for thee the sign that I have sent thee.
When thou the people bringest forth from Egypt,
Ye shall upon this mountain worship God.
14. I AM the One who evek is ;
Thus say thou to the sons of Israel,
I AM has sent me unto you.
15. Jahveh, your fathers' God,
The God of Abraham, God of Isaac and God of Jacob has sent me unto you,
This is my name unto eternity,
This my memorial for generations.
16. Go thou and gather Israel's aged men.
And thou shalt say unto them :
Jahveh, your fathers" God, appeared to me.
The God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, saying,
I have been carefully observing you.
And that which has been done to you in Egj'pt.
17. And I say I will bring you up from Egypt's woe,
Unto the Canaanite's and Ilittite's land.
And of the Amorite, and Perizzite,
The Hivite also and the Jebusite,
Unto a land that flows with milk and honey.
18. And they will listen to thy voice.
And thou shalt come.
Thou and the elders of Israel unto the King of Egypt,
And ye shall say unto him :
Jaliveh, the Hebrews' God, has met with us,
And now, let us, we pray thee, go
A three days' journey in the wilderness.
And unto Jahveh our God sacrifice.
19. And I know Egypt's King wiU not give you to go,
Kot even by a mighty hand.
20. And I will send my hand, and Egypt smite,
With all my wonders which I do therein,
And afterwards he will send you away.
21. And I will give this people favor in the eyes of Egypt,
And it shall come to pass that when ye go,
Ye shall not go forth empty ;
22. But let each woman of her neighbor ask,
And of her who is dwelling in her house.
Vessels of silver and of gold, and clothes.
And ye shall put them on your sons and daughters.
And ye shall spoil the Egyptians.
After this revelation Moses was instructed to employ certain miraculous
signs to convince the obdurate king ; and after vainly seeking to escape the burden
of his heavenly commission, he returned to his father-in-law, obtained his consent
to leave Midian, and forthwith returned to Egypt, and, with Aaron, his brother,
Apocalypses of Moses. 21
went into the presence of Pharaoh and asked that Israel might go Into the wilder-
ness to sacrifice unto Jahveh, their God. The request only seemed to enrage the
king, and bring heavier oppression upon the Israelites, so that the officers of
Israel censured Moses and Aaron for their interference, and charged them with
adding to the miseries of the enslaved people. Thereupon Moses again sought
the presence of Jahveh, and poured out before him a bitter complaint, alleging
that his mission to Pharaoh had only intensified the oppressions of Israel. Then
Jahveh again spoke unto him : (Exod. 6:1-8).
1. Now shalt thou see what I will do to Pharaoh ;
For with a strong hand he will send them forth,
And by a strong hand diive them from his land.
2. I AM Jahveh.
3. But I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac and to Jacob, in El-Shaddai,
And my name Jahveh I was not known to them.
4. And I confirmed my covenant with them.
To give to them the land of Canaan,
The land of their sojoumings, where they dwelt.
5. Also I've heard the cry of Israel's sons.
Whom the Egyptians keep in servitude,
And I have kept my covenant in mind.
6. Say therefore unto Israel, I am Jahveh ;
And I will bring you forth from Egypt's toils,
And from their bondage vrill deliver you.
And will redeem you with an arm stretched out,
And with great judgments.
7. And I will take you to me for a people.
And I will be unto you for a God,
And ye shall know that I am Jahveh your God,
Who bringeth you from Egypt's burdens forth.
8. And I will cause you to come to the land,
Which I have lifted up my hand to give
To Abraham, to Isaac and to Jacob,
And I vrtll give it you for a possession, —
I AM Jahveh.
Moses again pleaded, as in Ch. 4:1-10, that he was not a fluent speaker, and
therefore an unsuitable person to address Pharaoh; whereupon we have the
further oracle of ch. 7:1-5.
1. See, I have made thee God to Pharaoh,
And Aaron, thy brother, shall thy prophet be.
2. Thou shalt speak all which I commanded thee,
And Aaron thy brother shall to Pharaoh speak.
And he will send the sons of Israel from his land ;
3. And I will harden Pharaoh's heart.
And multiply my signs and miracles in Egypt's land.
4. And Pharaoh will not hearken imto you.
And against Egypt I wUl give my hand.
And bring my hosts, my people, Israel's sons,
Forth out of Egypt's land, with judgments great.
5. Then will the Egyptians know that I am Jahveh,
When over Egypt I stretch out my hand.
And bring the sons of Israel from their midst.
22 The Old Testament Student.
These apocalyptic words were soon followed by Jahveh's great and terrible
judgments upon the land of Egypt and her idolatries. Nowhere in all literature
is there to be found such a sublime exhibition of Jahveh's power over the forces
of nature and the superstitions of men. The ten plagues were preceded by the
ominous sign of Aaron's rod. It was changed into a dragon in the presence of
the king, and when his magicians by means of their enchantments wrought a
similar miracle ; " Aaron's rod swallowed up their rods " (7:12). Here was a
signal triumph in the realm of Egyptian superstition, prophetic of the final result
of the conflict between the God of Israel and the idolatries of that land.
After this preliminary sign the ten plagues follow in rapid succession. First
the waters of the sacred Nile, and all the waters of Egypt were turned into
blood; then came the plagues of frogs, lice, flies, murrain, boils, hail, locusts,
darkness and the death of all the lirst-bom of Egypt. They grew more and more
intense and destructive until, at last, from every dwelling in Egypt rose the bitter
wail, such as had never been known.
These great and terrible judgments were immediately followed by the tri-
umphant departure of Israel from the land of their bondage and the thrall of their
enemies, in a final spasm of rage the obdurate king of Egypt pursued the people
of Jahveh, aud was overwhelmed by the waters of the Red Sea. This miracle of
judgment was a kind of epilogue to the sublime drama of the ten plagues, as the
sign of the rod was a kind of prologue. The one opened and the other closed a
series of the most signal judgments that ever visited a land and its people. And
the song of Moses (ch. 15:1-18) which Israel sang on the further shore of that sea,
after they had seen " the salvation of Jahveh" (ch. 14:13, cf. verse 31), was an
appropriate chorus with which to close this marvelous tragedy.
This great and terrible day of Jahveh upon the land of Egypt could not fail
to supply imagery for future apocalyptic descriptions of divine judgments and
triumphs. Israel's exode, and the song of triumph by the sea were evidently in
the mind of the author of the New Testament Apocalypse, when he wrote of the
glassy sea mingled with fire, aud the victorious multitude standing by it with
the hai-ps of God, and singing the song of Moses and of the Lamb (Rev. 1.5:2,3). The
woes, also, of the seven trumpets and the seven last plagues are depicted in
imagery derived mainly from the narrative of the Egyptian plagues.
The student of prophecy should give thoughtful attention to the biblical con-
ception of .judgment, which is so strikingly illusti-ated in the plagues of Egypt.
To conceive " the day of Jahveh," and his execution of judgment as a formal
assize, in which the sovereign Ruler aud Judge sits to hear testimony, and pro-
nounce decisions of merit and demerit, of right and wrong, serves only the pur-
poses of metaphor or simile. Jahveh might have been represented as thus sitting
in judgment upon the idolatries and cruelties of the Egyptians. Pharaoh and all
his guilty associates in the oppression of Israel were brought to the bar of God ;
they stood before the judgment seat of Jahveh, and received just recompense for
their deeds. But evidently all this imagery of throne, and bar, and judgment
seat, and trial, and sentence, is but the drapery of human conceptions of judg-
ment. The essential thought is that God condemns and punishes his enemies,
and causes his people to triumph. j\jid whether the visitation comes in the form
of a flood that drowns the world, or in fire and brimstone such as destroyed the
wicked cities of the plain, or in such plagues as blighted Egypt, it is in every case
Cheyi^e's Commentary on the Psalms. 23
a coming of God to judgment ; or, if one prefer the other form of statement, a
bringing of both the just and the unjust before the tribunal of the Most High.
What further results are effected in individuals in the world of spirits, to what
conditions the souls of those who are cut oif from earthly life by the judgments of
God are consigned, and what may be the possible changes of life and modes of
thought and action in the unseen world,— these and all related questions are left
in mystery. Only the great truths that the wicked shall surely be punished and
the righteous be gloriously rewarded are clearly made known to us by the revela-
tions of God.
CHETNE'S COMMENTARY ON THE PSALMS.*
By PBor. Edward L. Curtis, Ph. D.,
Mccormick Theol. Seminary, Chicago, 111.
A volume by Dr. Cheyne is always welcome. By one famUiar with his writ-
ing, its leading characteristics can be stated almost before its pages are opened.
Its English will be choice, adorned with neat and happy phrases. A delightful
literary aroma will pervade the whole, showing that the author is no dry-as-dust
student, but one who holds fellowship and communion not only with commentators
and theologians, but also with poets and philosophers, the greatest and the best
minds. Exact and painstaking scholarship will be exhibited. Originality also and
freshness of view, with, however, no disregard of the opinions of others. The
most recent productions of biblical scholars of England, America, Germany, and
France, as well as the old standards, will be made, by citation and reference, to
illuminate the sacred text. And above all there will be a spirit of candor, fair-
ness, and better still of devout spirituality and reverence, seen on every page.
All of these characteristics we expected to find in this latest work of Dr. Cheyne,
and we have not been disappointed. It is worthy to be placed alongside of his
commentary on Isaiah. As in that, the student will find here also one of the best
endeavors to compare Hebrew religious thought and feeling, as illustrated in the
text, with that of other people. This indeed is a striking feature of Dr. Cheyne's
work. While there has been no end of writers who have illustrated the sacred
text by oriental customs and manners, he proceeds a step further and endeavors
to show constant parallels between biblical expression and thought and those of
other people. This doubtless will be offensive to some— those holding the fash-
ion of endeavoring to exalt the Jewish religion by degrading the religions of all
other people. But this is wrong, and defeats its purpose, as men are learning from
the science of comparative religion. Kevealed religion is not rendered less lus-
trous, less unique, less the one true religion of supernatural origin, by granting
parallel elements in other religions. Xay, its lustre by such a setting is rather
enhanced. This then is the most noteworthy feature of Dr. Cheyne's commenta-
ries. Often here he will appear to carry this too far and find mythic allusions
* The Book of Psaxms, or The Praises of Israel. A new translation, with commentary.
By the ECF. T. K. Cheyne, M. A., D, D. Jjondon: Kegan Paul, Trench dc Co. New York: Thos.
Whittaker & Co.
24 The Old Testament Stxtdent.
in the sacred songs which many will not allow ; but it must be remembered that,
rightly understood, the basis of revealed religion may be called natural, that there
was a development upward, with many accommodations to the notions and feel-
ings of natural religion. The Old Testament contmually exhibits tliis fact.
In reference to Dr. Cheyne's position ou the date of the Fsalms, it may be
said that, while he gives no special discussion of this point on each Psalm, and
perhaps rightly, for how impossible it is to fix their chronology with exactness,
he places them as a whole late in Israel's history. He regards Ewald's view that
there are eleven Davidic psalms the most conservative at present tenable. At
this we demur. The bloom of Israel's poetic literature we still place in the age of
the shepherd king. Wliy not? Was not the religious air pure enough to inspire
the Psalmist's praises of Israel's God before the luxurj' and idolatry from an out-
side world came in through the material development in the age of Solomon and
subsequently V Possibly the worship of the Hebrews may have been irregular.
Jehovah also may have been conceived of as primarily a national God. But we
cannot yet be convinced tliat at the start of the Hebrew monarchy inspired bards
did not SLug. Religious fervor then must have been intense.
Turning now to Dr. Ciieyne's view of the Messianic Psalms, we find much to
commend. In regard to the second, he opines that it refers not to any historical
king regarded as typically Messianic, but to the ideal or Messianic King himself.
Psalm 110, he says, may perhaps have the same reference. Psalm 45, on the other
hand, did not have an original Messianic reference, although on such a theory it
may have been presen'ed in the Psalter. This we regard correct. " Psalm 22 is
most probably a description under the form of a dramatic monologue of the ideal
Israelite, called by a kindred writer ' the covenant of the people ' and ' the light
the nations' (Isa. 13:7), who shall rise out of the provisional church-nation, and
identifying himself with it, lead it on to spiritual victory." This explanation we
also favor.
When we turn to De. Cheyne's translations and textual criticism, we cannot
find so much to commend as in the other features of his commentary. In the
first place his translations are often far from felicitous, and we think him prone
to find too many corruptions of the text and to suggest too readily that words and
phrases have dropped out. Our present Massoretic text, it is true, is not faultless;
but great conservatism is necessary in making emendations lest the last state be
worse than the first. To illustrate, we present his rendering of Psalm 23:1-4 :
1. Jehovah is my shepherd; I want for nothing.
2. In pastures of young grass he couches me ;
to reposeful waters he gently guides me ;
my soul he dotli restore.
3. He leads me along in right ti'acks,
because of his name ;
4. Should I even walk in a ravine of Hades gloom,
I will fear no evil.
[No unseen foe shall luirt me,]
for thou wilt be with me ;
thy club and shepherd's staff
they will comfort me.
We cannot agree that the structure of this artistic poem demands the addi-
tion made in v. 4. Hebrew poetry possesses much of its life, beauty and vigor,
because it refuses to be measured off with the regularity of a Chinese garden plat.
Chbtke's Commentary on the Psalms. 25
Dr. Cheyne carries his subjective criticism too far. We <ire told that in
Psabn 24, vs. 7-10 are a fragment of another Psalm. The reason for all this is
thus stated : " The Psalm as it stands is divisible into two parts, the connection
of which at any rate is not obvious. The God of vs. 1-6 is the God of the infinitely
great and the infinitely small, the God vcho made the earth and all that is in it,
and yet does not disdaui to be called my God ; the God of vs. 7-10 is a victorious
war-God. The religion of the first part is inward and moral ; the religion of the
second, so far as it can be characterized at all, is not in harmony with that of the
first." To all this it is suflicient to reply that the consciousness of the Christian
church, in their use of this Psakn as one for so many ages, proves that its concep-
tions are harmonious. " The infinitely great God " and " the infinitely small
God " can well be a victorious war-God, and why should not a poet of Israel have
had sufiicieat poetic genius to compose this Psalm, so beautifully adapted with
these two ideas imited to be sung at the bringing of the ark from the house of
Obed-edom to Jerusalem. {See Delitzsch in loco.)
In form this commentary resembles Perowne's. It is equally happy in
arrangement, and while we should not rank it as high, if one desires a commentary
which shall combine all needful elements in itself, containing both suggestions
practical for homiletical purposes, and critical exegesis, we rank it higher if one
desires a purely critical commentary on the Psalms ; for while from its brevity it
may often appear fragmentary, we believe in this respect it has no superior in
English. Still a just conservatism warns one to be on guard against too radical
views. Dr. Cheyne is not always a safe guide. One feels the lack also of a crit-
ical introduction to the Psalter. This matter is almost entirely wanting, being
probably reserved for another volume ; we hope that it may soon appear.
OLD TESTAMENT NOTES AND NOTICES.
Another Jewish periodical " The New Jewish Quarterly" is announced from
London. Its editors are J. Abraliams and C. J. Montefiore. It mil give prom-
inence to articles on biblical subjects. The list of contributors embraces emi-
nent biblical critics both Jewish and Christian. The prospects for the establish-
ment of such a journal are thought to be excellent.
At Johns Hopkins University next year Hebrew will be offered in the under-
graduate courses for the first time. WhUe the Semitic Seminary has made the
Hebrew O. T. the center of its work in the post-graduate department, it has now
been decided to give opportunity earlier in the course for any students, intending
to enter theological seminaries, and others, to take up Hebrew. The new course
will be known as group VIH. and the time given to the new studies will be dis-
tributed as follows : first year, oriental history, one hour ; second year, Hebrew,
two hours ; third year, Hebrew, three hours, per week. This new departure is
one heartily to be commended.
At a recent meeting of the Victoria Institute, Dr. Post of Beyrout read a
paper giving the results of nearly twenty-five years' botanical research in Syria
and Palestine. It was especially interesting to the Bible student. The discus-
sion disclosed the completeness of Dr. Post's labors in this field and drew atten-
tion to the importance and value of the special identification of those plants
alluded to in the Bible for biblical interpretation and apologetics. Although
many have written on the botany of Sjria during the last three hundred years,
yet but four works have been regarded as of real value and but one as containing
to any considerable extent the results of exact modern inquuy.
Dr. Edward Konig, extraordinary professor at Leipzig, and well known in
America too as an opponent of the central thesis of the Wellhausen school, has
recently received from the theological faculty of the university of Erlangen
causa honoris the degree of Doctor of Divinity. He has richly merited the
honor.
The well known conservative commentator, John Carl Friedrich Keil, died
on the fifth of May. He was borne in 1807. For twenty-five years he was profes-
sor at Dorpat, in the German-Russian provinces. Since 1859 he has been living at
Leipzig engaged exclusively in literary work, of which he did an immense amount.
The greater number of his commentaries and Old Testament works have been
translated into English.
A cable despatch announces the death of the Rev. John William Burgon,
D. D., Dean of Chichester. He was an eminent biblical scholar and critic though
extremely conservative. His w'ork was done principally on the Xew Testament
and his vehement attack on the Revision will be remembered.
Notes and Notices. 27
Professor Dr. John Bachmann, of the University of Rostock, died recently
at the age of fifty-sLx. He had for many years been the only Old Testament man
in connection with a German university who refused to accept the analysis of the
Pentateuch as a fixed fact of literary criticism. His influence as a teacher and
writer was never great, Rostock being the smallest university in Germany, and
Bachmann, though exceedingly conscientious and painstaking, having done little
literary work, and a part of that being in the department of hymnology. There
is not now at any of the German universities a single Old Testament professor
who accepts the Mosaic origin of the Pentateuch in the traditional sense of
the word.
^BOOI^M^OTIGES.^
INSPIRATION.*
This book is a collection of addresses delivered in Philadelphia by eminent
men of many religious denominations in defence of " the plenary inspiration of
the Scriptures.'" It does not afford material for the discussion of the problem of
inspiration, nor does it claim to enter upon such a discussion except from one
point of view. The writers have all one case to argue. Every lecture reaches
one foregone conclusion. They are not investigating, but attacking. You breathe
the air of theological controversy. Hard words are used ; hard blows are given.
A spirit so partisan, so aggressive, must sometimes be bitter, rash, even foolish
and blind. It would not be difficult to give examples of all these qualities in the
pages before us. Really this is not the spirit in which to approach a question so
broad, so intricate, so delicate, as this of Inspiration. The book will convince
nobody who needs to be convinced. It does not attract the inquirer, the honest
doubter.
This is not saying that there is not some excellent material here. In col-
lected addresses of this kind you expect inequality, and good things find them-
selves often in poor company. The strongest paper is that by Howard Osgood on
" The Witness of Jesus." The sweetest and most catholic is that by Wayland
Hoyt on "Questions concerning Inspiration." We must express unqualified
astonishment at the paper of Dr. G. S. Bishop, in which not only is the strict \'iew
of mechanical inspiration defended, but even the Hebrew vowel points are claimed
as inspired. Alas ! that in these days there should be such blind leaders of the
blind.
We rejoice in the growing interest in this matter of the inspiration of Script-
ure. It is the burning question of the day to wliich all other biblical investiga-
tions are either tributary or dependent. But this book will feed the flame, not
allay it. Its cry of " no quarter " will only provoke the response of " no surren-
der." A spirit of gentleness and candor, of broad, honest, reverent inquiry and
investigation, a judgment which is willing to wait till all the facts are in, these
we crave. From whatever quarter they come we will hail with gladness their
advent as encouraging the hope that the final solution of these fundamental prob-
lems is at hand.
* The Insi'Iked Word: A series of Papers and Addresses delivered at the Bible Inspiration
Conference, Philadelphia, 1887. New i'ork: A. D. F. Randolph <4 Co., 1888. Price, $1.50.
COEEESPONDENCE SCHOOL OF HEBEEW.
The following have become members of the
Correspondence School in various courses
during the four months ending August 1st:
Mr. G. A. Brock, Brighton, Mass.; Prof. G.
W. Caviness, Battle Creek, Mich.; Mr. A. G.
Clemlnson, Cambridge, England; Mr. Chas. L.
Clist, New York City; Kev. James Cosh, Bal-
main, Sydney, New South Wales; Mr. J. A.
Eckstorm, Chicago, III,; Mr. Edwin Fairley,
Sing Sing, N. Y.; Mr. Abram Grove, Toronto,
Ohio; Rev. A. E. Grover, Covington, Tenn. ;
Rev. S. O. Hall, Madison, N. C; Rev. T. C. Hall,
Chicago, 111.; Rev. W. L. Hamersly, Lynch-
burg, Va. ; Mr. M. A. Hughs, Wellsville, Kans.;
Mr. Jesse Johnson, Reynoldsburg, Ohio: Mr.
David F. Kapp, Concord, Pa.; Mr. T. W.
Kretschmann, Germantown, Pa.; Rev. G. L.
Locke, Bristol, R. I.; Rev. R. E. McAlpine,
Nagoya, Japan; Mr. M. F. Moreno, Brooklyn,
N. Y. ; Miss S. P. Morrison, Bloomington, Ind. ;
Rev. F. N. Parker, New Orleans, La.; Mr. A.
M. Paterson, Aylwin, Quebec ; Mr. R. W. Peach,
Washington, D. C. ; Rev. H. M. Pennlman,
East Derry, N. H.; Rev. J. W. Presby, Mystic,
Conn.; Rev. A. W. Reinhard, Forreston, 111.;
Prof. J. A. Reinhart, Paterson, N. J.; Rev. W.
H. Schwiering, Mt. Pleasant, Iowa; Rev. H.
T. Strout, Citronelle, Ala.; Rev. Wm. Stuart,
Dromore West, County Shgo, Ireland; Rev. L.
R. Swinney, DeRuyter, N. Y.; Rev. J. G. Tan-
ner, Rusk, Texas; Rev. W. R. Tratt, Musgrane
Town, Newfoundland; Miss M.Whitney, New
York City ; Rev. Jacob Yutzy, SeUnsgrove, Pa.;
Rev. J. G. Ziegler, Fairview, Pa.
Our foreign list continues to grow. England,
Ireland, Japan, Australia and Newfoundland
will be found among the addresses of new stu-
dents. The last uamed country has not had
a representative in the Correspondence School
before.
The graduates since the last report are as
follows: Rev. R. C. Armstrong, Corsicana,
Texas; Rev. T. M. Chalmers, Page Center,
Iowa; Rev. A. P. Ekman, Stromsburgh, Neb.;
Rev. C. H. Haggar, TownsvlUe, Queensland,
Australia; Rev. G. C. Henry, DesMoines, Iowa;
Rev. A. R. Hewitt, Weedsport, N. Y.; Rev. J.
van Houte, South Holland, 111.; Rev. J. J.
Lampe, New York City; Rev. G. L. Locke,
Bristol, R. I.; Mrs. Decatur Morgan, New Ha-
ven, Conn.; Rev. J. R. Munro, Antigonish,
Nova Scotia; Mr. A. A. Quiulan, College
Mound, Mo.; Miss Cassie Quinlan, Dutton,
Mich.; Rev. A. A. Von Iffland, Bergerville,
Quebec; Miss M. Whitney, New York City.
Four of these completed the Elementary
Course, six the Intermediate, and Ave the Pro-
gressive.
Perfect papers have been received from the
following, the numerals indicating the num-
ber received from each : Rev. W. P. Archibald,
Cavendish, Prince Edward Island,!; Rev. E.
H. Barnett, D. D., Atlanta, Ga., 1 ; Rev. Henry
Branch, Ellicott City, Md., 1 ; Rev. T. M. Chal-
mers, Page Center, Iowa, 1 ; Rev. John Chappie,
Bradley, England, 3; Rev. Ira D. Darling,
Sheffield, Pa., 1; Prof. Holmes Dysinger, New-
berry, S. C, 4; Rev. R. M. Kirby, Potsdam, N.
Y., 1; Mr. T. W. Kretschmann, Germantown,
Pa., 1 ; Rev. W. H. Lane, Yarmou thville. Me., 1 ;
Mr. S. D. Lathrop, Richmond, Mich., 1; Rev.
J. F. Morgan, Coeyraan's June, N. Y., 2; Mr.
R. W. Peach, Washington, D. C., 6; Rev. J. F.
Steele, Anand, India, 2; Rev. J. T. Whitley,
Elizabeth City, N. C, 2; Miss Maria Whitney,
New York City, 3.
Several of the graduates of the present year
began the courses which they have just com-
pleted from three to five years ago, one in
September, 1883. It is not to be supposed, of
course, that they have kept up the correspond-
ence work continuously for that time, but
after having been forced by the pressure of
other work to suspend it temporarily, they
have pluckily "resumed" again and again.
That they feel well repaid for their effort by
the results obtained is shown by the fact that
nearly every one has at once enrolled for the
next course. On the other hand some have
accomplished very much in a short time. One
student has completed the Elementary Course
within two and one-half months from the time
he began it, but as he had previously given a
little attention to Hebrew, the first part of the
course was not entirely new work. Another
who began absolutely at the beginning and
after seven months' study finished the Ele-
mentary Course in July, 1887, took up the In-
termediate Course in December, completed
that in less than four months, and is now half
through the Progressive, doing excellent work
in all the courses. Both these classes afford
interesting and encouraging examples of
what is possible in correspondence work. The
former proves clearly that industry and per-
severance in this study will bring really valua-
ble results even when it is pursued under the
most unfavorable circumstances. One who
spent nearly three years in the first course
says, " My labor in this field is such that I often
do not return home from my appointments in
two other towns till twelve at night once,
twice, and sometimes three times a week, so
that much of my study has to be done on
horseback, in the buggy and on the railroad
train. I would not take two hundred dollars
and stand where I did just before I began the
first lesson."
CUKRENT OLD TESTAMENT LITERATURE.
ami:bica>- axd fokkigx pibluatioxs.
The Order nf CreatUin: the Cimflict between Oen-
««(* awl GctiUnni- Uy Gludstoue, Huxley, etc.
Truth Seeker Co J0.75.
A Sygtein n1 llililical TtMilogy. By Dr. W. L.
Ale.xnn(ier. Clark's Foreign Theological Li-
brary, Etlinburi;. 3 vols t»AO.
Pic^ent Dm/ Tracts on the JUtjher Criticinni. lly
Drs. Payne-Smith, Howson, Bruce, etc. $1.00.
The Namex of God in liotu Scripture: a revela-
tion of Hfs nature and relationships. By
Andrew Jukes. N. T.: Whittaker $1..tU.
Erposiliunt. Vol. 4. By Dr. S. Cox. N. Y.:
Whittaker $L'.25.
Tlie Book of Psalms; or. The Praises of Israel:
a New Translation with a Commentary. By
Dr.T. K.Chcyno. London: Kegan, Paul&Co.
Akkadian Getwvns; or. The Influence of Early
Babylonian Keliglon on the Language and
Thought of Genesis. By E. G. King, D. D.
London: Bell.
Die Lehren de» Talrmulf, quellenmaesslg sys-
tcmatisch, und gemeinverstaendlich darges-
tellt. Von Dr. F. Weber. Leipzig: Dorflling.
The Phildsophii of lieliiiion, on the basis of its
History. l!y PBelderer. Vol. 3. London:
Williams Sc Norgate.
The Book of Job. according to the Revised Ver-
sion, with commentarj', illustrations and a
critical introduction. By D. Curry, D. D.
New York : Phillips & Hunt $2.00.
Le. Proiihite Joel. Introduction critique, tra-
duction et commentairo. By A. J. Baum-
gartner. Paris : Fischbacher lOf .
Die Psalmen. Hebiaeiseher Text mit ein Kur-
zen Auslegung. By Heiligstedt and Budde.
Halle $3-20.
Einjuehrung in die Heilige Schrift Alien u.
Xeuen Te^tamenta. By G. Behrmann. Ouet-
ersloh $1.05.
Beitrae^/e zur Erklacning des Buches Daniel. 1.
Heft. Dan. 2-6. By J.Melnhold. Leipzig. $0.60.
Hiob. By E. Keuss. Braunschweig $0.80.
The People's Bible. 1 Kns. 15-1 Chron. 9. By J.
Parker. New York: Funk &Wagnalls. $1.50.
Je«iu> in the O. T.; or. The Orcat Argument. By
W. H. Thomson, M. D. New edition. N. Y. :
Harpers ?200.
Popular Misconceptions about the first eleven
chapters of aenejsis and the Moralitv of the O.
T. By E. Hungerford. London: Bickers*
Son.
The Story of Media. Bahylonia and Persia. By
Z. A. Ragozin. N. Y.: Putnams $1..50.
Commcnlariiis in (i/«o8 Judicum et Ruth. By F.
de Hummelauor. Parisiis f.'i.SO.
Palestine: Lessons to my class through the
Land of Promise in the Pathway of our
Lord. By H.S. Newman. London: Partridge.
$0.75.
Reiiginn und Mytholngie cleY alien AeyyiAcr.
Noch den Denkmtclern bearb. 2. Hoelf te. By
H. Brugsch. Leipzig: Hinrichs.
Erklaerung der Ocncsis. By A. Pappehorn.
Paderborn: F. Sohoeningh 7.
Samuel and Saul: Their lives and times. By
W. J. Deane. London: Nisbet 28. (id.
ABTICLES AXD REVIEWS.
jVoses' Idea of Goil. By E. M. Epstein in Chris-
tian Quarteilv Keview, .luly, 1S88,
The Higher Criticism in its ThaiUigical Bear-
idflx.with special rcferenoo to the Pentateuch
Question. By Dr. Wm. Kupp in Reformed
Quar. Ueview, .luly, l.'<88.
is Monotheism a Primitive Faith J By E. A.
Allen in American Antiquarian, July, 1888.
A Newly Discovered Key tn Bil)lical Chronology.
By J. Schwartz in Bibliotheca Sacra, July,
1888.
The Name of G<sl and the Cuneiform Inserip-
lions. By Dr. Thos. Laurie. Ibid.
Schodde'K Book of Jubilees. By Lyon. Ibid.
Suele's The O. T. in Greek. Ibid.
freher's Die Lehren des Talmwts. Ibid.
The Chareicleristics of Hebrew Poetry. By J. H.
Thomas In Presbj-terlan Quarterly, July, 1888.
The Vnehangealtle Word. By Dr. T. W. Hooper.
Ibid.
The Muslim's Faith. By T. H. Patrick in An-
dover Keview, July, 1888.
The Vicwn of the Balmlonians concerning lAfe
after Death. Bv Cyrus Adier. Ibid.
Creation is Reveldiion. By Thos. Hill in Unita-
rian Review, July. 1S.S8.
A RevUed Text of Uie Hebrew Bilile. By A. W.
Thayer. Ibid.
The Song of Solomon. By A, H. Moment in The
Treasury, August. 18W.
Egyptian Souls and their JVorlels. By Maspero
In New Princeton Keview, July, 1888.
The Apejcrypha. Quarterly Review, April,
1888.
La Religion des Anciens Beih]iloniena a son plus
recent historien, M. Sayce. Par J. Hali5vy in
Rev. de I'Hislolre des Religions. Mars-Avril,
1888.
Getwn is 41:32. By Dr. Thos. Laurie In Presby-
terian Review, July, 188-1.
BcUjylon and Egypt, B. C. 1500. By Dr. Francis
Brown. Ibid.
-Veil of the Bible. Review. By H. P. Smith. Ibid.
Dod's Gene.iis. By Francis Brown. Ibid.
Chefine'x Job anil Solomrm. By H. Osgood in
Baptist Quar. Ueview. July, 1888.
Delitzsch's Psalms. By R. S. MacArthur. Ibid.
Wace's Apoenipha. By W. A. Stevens. Ibid.
The Pre-Christian Jcieish Interprcialion of Isaiali
52,.>t. By Ch. H. H. Wright in Expositor, June,
188*1.
ComilVs Ezechiel. By A. Jluellcr in Ztschr. d.
dentsch. Morganl. Gesellsch. XLI, 4. 1887,
Alitestamcntliche Studien in Amerika. 1. Ges-
chictliches. By G. Moore in Zeltschr. f. d.
alltest. Wissensch. VIII, 1, 1888.
Die Erobentng Osi-Manaste's im Zettaiier Jot-
iia's. By K. Budde. Ibid.
Je«ai<i 21 :«-10. By F. Buhl. Ibid.
Ucbcr das Ich der Psalmen. Hy R. Smend. Ibid.
Old Jewish Legends on Biblical Topics. No. 2.
Legendai-y Description of Hell. By A. Loewy,
Proceedings of Soc. of Bib. .-irch.. May, 1888.
The Name Oenubaih. By H. G . Tomkins. Ibid.
The Tree of Life and the Calender Plant of
Bahylonia and China. By Dr. T. De Lacou-
perle in Babylonian and Oriental Record.
June, 1888. ^ .., . ^ ., „
The Methods of the Higher Cnticwm and its Re-
mits. By O. Zocckler, trans, by H. A. Stim-
son in Independent, June 14, 21, ISSS.
Literary Correspondence between Asia aiid
Egypt in the Century before the Exodus.
ByA.H. Sayce. Ibid., June 28.
^8 (.J CI Tertiary Eden. By W. F. Warren. Ibid.
Evolution as a Theory of Creation.. By Dr. C.
S. Robinson in Homiletic Review, August,
188.H.
LaddS What is the BOilc 1 By E. Y. Hincks in
Anrlover Keview, August, 1888.
The idea of Priesthood. By W. Milhgan, D. D.,
in Expositor, July, 18.S-<. _^ , „ „ . „
The White Race of Ancient Palestitie. By A. H.
Sayce. Ibid. „ .„ „ „
Ancient and Modern Projyhets. By W. H. Ben-
nett. Ibid. . , , . ,, „ „
The iromuii in the Eptuih. Zech. 5 :o-ll. By b.
H. Kellogg, D. D., in Episcopal Recorder,
August !1. 1S88. r. TO- M
The Grand Tour :).000 Tears Ago. By W. M.
F. Petrie In Harper's Magazine, July, 1888.
OF
IMUOTIVE BIBLE-STUDIES.-SECOND SERIES.
[Copyright by W. R. Harper, 1888.]
Forty Studies on the Life of the Christ, based on the Gospel of Mark.
Edited by William B. Harper, Tale University, Neiv Haven.
STUDY I.— THE MIKISTKY OF JOHN, MAKK 1:1-8.
Introdoctorjr Kemarks. 1. Tlie series of " Studies " of wtiich this is the first, will include forty, all
treating of the Life of the Christ, based on the Bools of Mark.
2. The plan herewith presented does not aim to present results, but to suggest an order of
worlc which will secure results *
3. It is not intended for professional scholars, but for students of whatever class who desire to
etuclu.
Helps. 1. Any good commentary will be found serviceable. The following books are particu-
larly recommended as helpful and inexpensive:
1) Cambridae Bible for Schools, St. Mark, by G. F. Maclear, D. D., Macmillaa & Co. (N. Y.),
75 cts. 2) Handbooks for Bible Cktsses, St. Mark, by T. M. Lindsay, D. D., Scribner & Wel-
ford (N. T.), Sl-00. (Latest.) 3) Tlw Handy Commentary, St. Mark, by B. H. Plumptre,
D. D., CasseU & Co. (N. Y.), $1.00.
2. For the harmony of the Gospels Christ in the Gospels by J. P. Cadman, M. A., Scribners' (N.T.),
$1.50, will be found most useful. It weaves together the four Gospels into a consecutive
narrative, while by an ingenious system of numbering it distinguishes each writer's con-
tribution. It is especially valuable in the literary study of these books.
3. A "Life of Jesus Christ" while not indispensable will afford much assistance in the
'• studies." The Life of Clnist, by Hev. J. Stalker, Scribner & Welford, 60 cts., is unsur-
passed in real value by many larger works. The books of Farrar, Geikie and Eliicott are
helpful. The Life of Oirist, by Dr. B. Weiss, Scribner & Welford (N. Y.), 3 vols., $9.00. is
the latest and ablest work of German scholarship. It is a book for students.
i. A good Bible Dictionary will aid wonderfully in this work. The American Tract Society's
Dictionary of the Bible, $3.00, is recommended. Smith's Bible Dictionary is the standard
work. It is published in its unabridged form by Houghton,.Mifain & Co. (Boston), 4 vols.,
$20. There are numerous abridgments.
5. These "helps" must be rigidly held subordinate to the study and investigation of the text
itself. The primary aim of these " studies " is to lead the student to (to his own work.
6. It is understood that these " studies " are prepared on the basis of the Benised Version of the
New Testament. The student will not permit himself to be without it even if he has no
other help. It is better than any commentary.
* It is proposed to furnish directions and suggestions as to the best methods of study as
well as references to the best authorities on general and particular topics. The plan of the
" studies," as well as the space allotted them, forbids the furnishing of any considerable amount
of material.
32
The Old Testament Stctdext.
I. The Material Analyzed.*
Read carefully Mark 1:1-8 and master the details of the following points :
The Introduction (v. 1) ; 4. his popularity (v. 5) ;
1.
2. the O. T. Prophecy (vs. 2,3) ;
3. John's coming (v. 4) ;
5. his dress and food (v. 6) ;
6. his testimony to the Christ (vs. 7,8).
II. The Material Compared, t
Compare the Introduction (v. 1) with Jit.
1:1; with Lk. 1:1-4; with John 1:1-5. IJ ob-
serring the phrases Sim of David (Mt.), Sim
of Ood (Mk.), accurately, in order (Lit.), he'
ginnijig, JTord (John), and 2) In a general
way distingTiishing the purpose and styie
of each writer.
Passages referred to or parallel:
1) Mai. 3:1; Isa. 40:.^ (with vs. 3.3). Note
differences in quotation. How e.\plalned ?
■2) Vt. U:l-1:>. Read and classify additions
under (a) place, (b) persons, (c) words of
John. 3) Lk. 3:1-20. Make a similar classi-
fication of additional material under (a)
time, (b) life of John, (c) words of John, (dj
expectations of people, (e) O. T. quotations.
i) John 1:6-8,15,19-28. What light on (a)
John's commission; (b) hJs conception of
his work.
in. The Material Explained.
Preliminary Kote. The purpose here is to give help where it may be needed but principally by
hints and questions to suggest to the student points which may profitably be investigated.
1. textual topics and questions.:
1) T. 1.
What event begins the Christ's min-
istry?
meaning of each word ;
Of Jems Chrixl 1. e.
2) Vs. 2, 8
Je«uj* Christ:
the union,
•'about him."
Son of Ood: what light on the belief
of the early Christians about Jesus 1
. In Isaiah, etc.: but tlie quotations
are from two writers. How explain?
No other direct quotations by Mark
fromO. T. Why?
Original application of this proph-
ecy ? Its fitness here ?
3) T. 4. Wildemesi: where? Mt. 3:1; Lk. 3:3.
" Kepentanc«: two elements in it?
4) V. 6. Country of Judea...Jcru»alem: how
distinguish ?
5) V. 6. Locusts; cf. Lev. 11:21. WOd honey:
1 Sam. 14:25; Ps. 81:10.
6) T. 7. Stoop down aiid unloose: (1) for what
purpose ? (3) A servant's duty. (3)
Note the vivid detail of Mk. Cf. par-
allels.
7) T. 8. Baptized: significance of the past
tense ?
" Holy Ghogt: cf. John 3:5; Acts 2:4.
2. GENERAL TOPICS.?
1) Gospel. (T. 1.) (1) Primary meaning of the word; (2) its use in the X. T. ;
cf. Lk. 9:6; Acts 14:21 ; Rom. 1:15 (preach-the-gospel, i. e. gospelize), i. e.
"the spoken message;"— Rom. 1:1,9; 1 Cor. 4:15; Phil. 4:3; i. e. "the
act of preaching ;"— 2 Cor. 4:3; Gal. 2:2; 2 Tim. 2:8; i. e. "a body of
* By the "material" is meant the passage in the Book of Mark which forms the basis of the
present " study." In the five processes of analysis, comparison, explanation, organization and
application, the " material" ought to be thoroughly mastered.
t Here the passage in Mark is to be studied in the light of other parts of the Scriptures which
contain matter that is parallel or is likely to throw light upon it. Let all points in which these
other passages dilTer from the " material " in Mark or make additions to it or otherwise help in
Its study, be carefully noted,
tTho attention is here fixed upon the explanation of the ten— the words, phrases, clauses
and versos of the " material." At the close of this part of the work the student should have a
clear understanding of everything contained In the passage itself.
t Subjects are presented in the study of the " material" in Mark which take a wider range
and often require study which extends beyond the passage itself. Such "general topics"
receive attention here. Those of the most importance are printed in larger type and should
first receive attention. While all are helpful, only that part of the work should be undertaken
which can be mastered.
New Testament Supplement. 33
truth," "formulated statements." (3) Examine other passages. Observe
the approach to its use for the records of the Christ. (4) Its meaning here ?
2) Life of John. (1) Make a brief outline of (a) circumstances of the birth and early life of John
(cf. Lk. 1:5-2S; 57-SO), noting his priestly descent, expectations concerning him, his desert
life: (b) events of the period of his popularity; (c) his after life (Mk. 6:17; Matt. 14:3-12).
(2) Other Johns in the N. T.?
8) The Preaching of John. (1) Read carefully all that Is recorded of his preaching and distinguish
in it the practical (moral) element (Lk. 3:10-14), and the ideal (Messianic) element (vs. 7,8).
Observe the relation of the two elements— how John urges moral reformation because
of the coming Christ. Cf. Matt. 3:7-12. (2) What light is thrown upon (a) the moral state
of the times, cf. Lk. 3:10-14; and (b) the popular erpectation as to the Christ, cf. Lk. 3:15;
and (c) the character of the expected Christ, as personal, righteous, judicial, gracious,
present, etc., cf. v. 7; Matt. 3:12; John 1:26. (3) Besults of his preaching in (a) a great
national reformation (v. 5; cf. Mt. 11:7, addressed to Galileans); and (b) the quickening
of right Messianic expectations; cf.Mt. 11:12; John 1:29-42.
4) The Baptism of John. (1) Remembering that it was (a) administered once for all to each per-
son, and (b) intended for all the people, decide as to its 07'igin, how far it was original with
John (cf. Mk. 11:30), whether related to Levitical washings (cf. Ex. 29:4; Lev. 8:6), or the
revival of a prophetic symbol (cf. Isa. 1:16; Ezek. 36:2.5; Zeoh. 13:1), or according to the
custom of proselyte baptism. (2) In view of vs. 5,8 and parallels, John 1:26; 3:23, etc.,
determine the form of his baptism, whether by immersion or otherwise. (3) As to its
si{;Tif,/lca?ice observe (v. 4) the expressions " of repentance " (cf. Mt. 3:11) and "unto remis-
sum," and consider whether it was regarded as a means or a sign of complete reforma-
tion, or as the symbolic beginning of a new moral life and introductory to the Messianic
era; cf. John 1:25,26.
5) The Character and Work of John. (1) What elements of strength and weak-
ness in the personal character of John? Cf. vs. 4,6; Mt. 3:7; 14:3,4; Lk.
3:19; John 3:27-30; Mt. 11:2,3, etc. (2) His character as a prophet as dis-
closed (a) in his outward life (vs. 4,6; Lk. 1:15,80; cf. 2 Kgs. 1:8; Zech.
13:4) ; (b) in the prediction, Lk. 1:76 ; (c) in the phrase (Lk. 3:2) the word of
the Lord came ; cf. 1 Sam. 15:10; Jer. 1:2; Hos. 1:1; Joel 1:1, etc.; (d) in
in his preaching, moral and Messianic; cf. Isa., Jer., etc.; (e) in his rela-
tions with Herod ; cf . 2 Sam. 12. (3) Compare John with Samuel in per-
sonal and official character and activity; with Elijah, cf. Mai. 4:5; Mt. 17:
11-13. (4) Note Jesus' estimate of John. Lk. 7:24-28. (5) Wherein was
he more than a prophet ?
IT. The Material Organized.
1. Consider now the material thus far collected, and select certain general heads
under which it may be classified ; e. g. 1 ) persons, 2) places, 3) quotations,
4) institutions, 5) habits and customs, 6) events, 7) important words, 8)
teachings, 9) literary data.*
2. Go through the " study " and note dovm under each head everything which
belongs properly to it, indicating in each case the chapter and verse which
furnished the item.t
3. Condense the material into the briefest possible statement,! i. e. :
1) Bead eaeh verse, and write out in briefest possible form its thought ; e. g.
V. 1, the beginning of the gospel. v. 3, he shall cry, " Make ready the way
v. 2, a messenger shall prepare the way of the Lord."
for the Christ. v. 4, John comes baptizing and preaching
* The student should be provided with one or more blank-books, divided according to the
topics here indicated.
+ The student may Umit himself in this work to the material in Mark, or he may include all
the material which he may have gathered.
* This kind of work is seldom done; and yet it is the crowning part. If left undone, nine-
tenths of the prollt to be gained from the study is lost.
*4
34 Thk Old Testament Student.
T. 5, people flock to bim and accept lils v. 7, be preaches of uae to come, his
teachini;. superior.
V. 6, John's dress and food. v. 8, who is to do a mightier work.
2) Study the connection of these verses, and ugain write out the thought of those which may
bo Joined together: e. g.:
vs. 2,3, O. T. Prophecy Uiat a lierald ehall prMUiim the cimlng of the Chriat.
vs. 4-8, John appears at a religimui leader, altmctji muUUudet, tive» a» a prophet, gpeaka of one
tofoWnu him, his superior in jKninii and work.
3) Now join together v. 1, vs. 2,3, and vs. 4-8, and thus obtain the real idea of the entire pas-
sage; e. g.:
JesQH Chrtst'K ministry bpifinN with thf minlKtry of ,lohn. who In liU person, wurk, anil wordit
ftilHllN the propht'cy iif tho heruitl uf the Christ.
4) Finally, test all this by reading once more vs. 1-8, and deciding whether the condensation
thus arrived at is. In general, correct.
V. The Material Applied.*
1. Te£e Ascetic Life. Cf. vs. 4,6; Lk. 1:15-17,80. What elements of strength
and of weakness in such a life ?
2. Righteousness. 1) Under the inspiration of what belief did Jolin preach
reformation to the people y Cf . Mt. 3:12. 2) The Gospel principle and
ground of morality. Cf. Col. 3:1-4. 3) Need of an ideal basis for practical
morality.
3. Humility. 1) Manifested by Jolm. 2) A source of insight in him, cf. John
3:27-30. 3) An element of power in all character.
STUDY II.— THE PREPARATION OF THE CHRIST. MARK 1:9-13.
[In taking up each now " study," let the preceding one be reviewed.]
Besame. 1. Give a brief account of the movement inspired by John. 2. Its characteristics.
3. John's work as complete and independent. 1. John's work as incomplete and a prepa*
ration. .5. Conditions of its final success.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Examine carefullij Mark 1:9-13, and note the following points :
1. The journey of .Jesus and liis i3;ip- 4. to the "Wilderness (v. 12) ;
tism (v. 9) ; 5. his stay and three-fold experience
2. the Vision (v. 10); there (v. 13).
3. the Voice (V. 11);
II. The Material Cinnpared.
1. The Baptism, li Mt. :i:13-l<. observe (a) feeling and words of John iv. 14i; (b) reply of
Jesus (V. 15); (c) other verbal differences ivs. IB,!").
2) Lk. :t:'-'l,'J'2. Note (a) the circunistanccs of the baptism; (b) Jesus after baptism (v. 21);
Cc) the Spirit's appearance (v. 2:)).
3) .lohn I :;i2-:{4. Note (a) the abiding of the Spirit; (b) the oracle to John (v. 33); (c) the tes-
timony of John (vs. 32.:J4).
2. The Temptation. I) Mt. 4:1-11. Remark lal the Spirit's purpose (v. 1»; (b) condition of Jesus
(V. 2); (c) order of events (vs. 2,11); idi names given to Satan (vs. 1,3); (o) details of the
temptation (vs. 3-lU).
•2) Lk. 4:1-13. Note (a) spiritual state of Jcsuslv. II; (b) additional details (VS. .'i.B.liJ).
•The purpose and meaning of the "material" is to be brought into relation with the per-
sonal and social life of the present. What is the teaching of the passage for to-day'/ Thus the
student should aim to apply not a word hero and there, or a verse here and there, but the great
facts, the prominent ideas of the passage as a whole. Only the briefest hints of application can
be suggested to be worked out in detail according to the lime and inclination of the student.
New Testament Supplement. 35
III. The Material Explained.
]. TEXTUAL TOPICS AJTD QUESTIONS.
1) T. 9. {a.) Galilee. Where? 4) V. 12. DHveth. How? Cf. Ezek. 8:3; Acts
(h) Nazareth. Where? Its connection 8:39; etc. What reasons for inferring
with the life of Jesus? that Jesus was in an ecstatic state?
2) V. 10. (a) Straiylitway. A favorite word. Note 5) V. 13. (a) Forty days tempted. Cf. Ex. 34:38;
the frequency of its use in this chap- 1 Kps. 19:8. How reconcile this state-
ter. ■ ment with Mt. 4:3,3?
{\>) Rent amnder. Vivid. (b) Satan. Cf. 1 Chron. 31:1; Job 1:6;
(c) Atadnve. Observe punctuation (K. Zech. 3:1. Meaning of the name?
v.). Cf. Lk. 3:33. Is this (1) in a dove- Compare other terms, "devil" and
like manner, i. e. gently, or (3) in the "tempter " (Mt. 4:1,3).
form of a dove? (e) Wild hearts. Note Mark's habit of
3) V. 11. (a) ADOice. Did others hearit? Cf.Mt. vivid detail. Cf . v. 10.
3:17; Mk. 8:7. id) Ministered. In what respects? Cf.
ih) My Sim. Cf. Ps. 2:7. Am uiell Mt.3.5:44. At whatperioil? Cf.Mt.4:ll.
pleased; lit. "was well pleased." What (e) Mark does not mention the result
conclusion from the use of the past of the temptation. Any reason for
tense? Cf. Lk. 3:40; Johnl:l, 3; 17:34. this?
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
1) Jesus.* Eead Mt. 1:1-2:23 ; Lk. 1:26-38 ; 2:1-52, and classify results obtained
under the following heads : (a) genealogy ; (b) birth ; (c) events of infancy ;
(d) events of childhood; (e) growth, Lk. 2:40,52 (cf. Lk. 1:80); (f) self-
knowledge, as Son of God, as the Christ, Lk. 2:49.
2) John and Jesus, (a) Their relationship (Lk. 1:36), and previous intercourse,
cf. Lk. 1:39-56 ; Mt. 3:14 ; John 1:29,31 ; (b) gather .John's estimate of Je.sus
as regards (1) his humanity, John 1:30; (2) his character, Mt. 3:14; (3) his
dignity and mission, John 1:34,29; 3:31,34; (c) what influence, if any, did
John's ministry have upon Jesus, (1) personally or (2) in his work ? cf. v. 9 ;
Mt. 3:14,15; .John 1:35-37.
3) The Baptism of Jesas. (a) Bearing in mind the significance of John's baptism (cf. Study I.),
note (1) John's objection, Mt. 3:14: (3) certain respects in which this baptism had not the
same meaning for Jesus as for the others. Inquire (b) why Jesus came to be baptized,
whether (1) as an example to the multitudes, (3) as an Israelite, one of a sinful people, or
(3) to mark the laying aside of his private life and the entrance upon a public career.
(c) In view of Mt. 3:15, decide whether the baptism was to Jesus a means to attain to a
more righteous state, (d) Study the "Descent of the Spirit " that followed. Would the
Spirit have come upon Jesus if he had not submitted to baptism? Cf. V. 10; Lk. 3:21.
(e) Result of the whole event (vs. 9-11), (1) to John, cf. John 1:33,33; (3) to Jesus; decide
whether it marked a change in his nature or personal character, a completer conscious-
ness of his mission, or new endowments for entering upon his public ministry. Cf. Isa.
11:2; Lk. 4:1; Mk. 1:13; John 1:33.
4) The Temptation, (a) Is this event mythical or historical ? In favor of its
historical character note (1) its simplicity and originality; (2) its fitness at
this period in the life of Jesus at the beginning of the public ministry and
when he was filled with the Spirit, (b) If historical, was it (1) an objective
external event, or (2) is the narrative a symbolic picture of what went on in
the mind of Jesus ? (c) Decide as to the interpretation of the details (Lk.
4:3-12 and parallels) whether (1) literal events, or (2) symbolic, (d) Its signi-
ficance in the life of Jesus, (1) as revealing his nature, e. g. possibility of
* Many interesting and difficult questions arise in connection with this topic, but the student
is requested to restrict himself to the outUne suggested here and to master the /ac(« given in the
passages cited.
36 The Old Testament Student.
temptation, etc.; (2) as throwing light upon the purpose and method
with which he entered on his public ministry ; (3) as suggesting the diflS-
culties awaiting him (Lk. 4:13); (4) as establishing him in liis character;
(5) Heb. 2:18.
IV. The Material Organized.
1. Clamsifv the material under the following- heads (cf. Study 1.; iv.):
1) persons; :2)pliices: 3) events; 4) lltc-riiry duta; 6) Jesus as man; 6) Jesus as more than man.
2. Condeiige tlic material into the briefest i>ossible statement (follow method suirgested In Study
I.), e.g.:
S 1. V. 9, Jesus coming is baptized by John.
v. 10, After baptism, from the open heaven, the Spirit descends on him;
V. 11, A voice from heaven speaks approvingly to him.
Jems 18 baptized, receives the Spirit and htars an appruving voice from heaven.
S 2. V. 12, At once the Spirit drives him to the wilderness.
V. 13, Where among wild beasts he is tempted by Satan and ministered to by angels.
Under the Spirit'H impulne he aeciig the wildenitM and there is tempted by Satan.
§S 1, 2. Jeaun is baptized and receiTiw the Spirit at whose Impultte he HeeliN the wildemeiiN and
there Is tempted.
V. The Material Applied.
1. Stjibols. The usefulness of Symbols in religion (e. g. Baptism) :
1) to develop personal religious life;
2) to presence the purity of religious teaching ;
3) to illustrate and testify to religious truth.
2. Temptation. 1) Distinguish it from trial ; 2) the blessing in it ; 3) the need
of a more than human power to resist it; 4) the peculiar temptations of the
spiritual life.
STUDY ni.— BEGINNING IN GALILEE. MARK 1:14-20.
Besume. 1. What four events preparatory to the ministry of Jesus? 2. Show how each was a
preparation. 3. From the material already gathered form a general conception of Jesus
as he enters on his ministry.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Note the following points in vs. 14-20 :
1. The time; Jesus enters Galilee ; 5. their response (v. 18);
his work (v. 14) ; 6. sees James and John ; their
2. his words (v. 15) ; work (v. 19);
3. sees Simon and Andrew (v. 16); 7. he calls them; their response
4. his invitation (v. 17) ; (v. 20).
II. The Material Compared.
1. Entry into Galilee. 1) Mf, 4:12-1J. Note (a) places (v. 13); (b) O. T. prophecy (vs. 14-16); (o)
preaching begun (v. 17).
2) Lk. 3:23; 4:14-30. Note (a) age of Jesus; (b) at Nazareth (4:16-30); effect of his work, (vs.
11,15).
3) John 4:l-3,4&-54. Observe (a) region left, reasons for leaving (vs. 1-3); (b) attitude of
Galileans (v. 4.i); (c) at Cana (vs. 4&-W).
2. CaU i)f ftjWmici-8. 1) Mt. 4:18-22. Observe the almost verbal agreement.
2) Lk. 5:1-11. Classify (a) points of agreement with Mk.; ib) pointsof difference; (c) added
facts or detail?. Decide whether this is, (a) the same event more fully narrated; (b) a
New Testament Supplement. 37
totally different one; or (c) closely related, occurring: either Immediately before or after.
Luke's sources for his narrative as compared with Mk. and Mt., whether the same or dif-
ferent.
III. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
1) V. 14. (a.) John was delivered up. This marks Difference between "believe" and "be-
(1) the close of his ministry; (3) the lieve-in"?
beginning of Jesus' active and inde- 3) V. 16. (a) Sea of OaWee. (1) Where? Another
pendent ministry. name? (3) Characteristic features?
(b) Gospel of Ood; i. e. glad-tidings (b) FUhera. Learu something about
from God. Cf. v. 15 as its substance. (1) kinds of flsh; (2) methods of catch-
3) T. 15. (a) The time; i. e. "the appointed ing; (3) extent of trade; (4) social
time," (1) predicted by prophecy ; (2) position of fishermen,
realized with the close of John's 4) T. 17. Come after me. The regular invita-
ministry. tion of a teacher to become a perma-
(b) Is fulfilled. O. T. figure; cf. Gen. nent disciple.
29:21. 5i y. iO. Hired servaiUs. What inference as to
(c) Is-at-hand; almost, "is-here." the social rank of Zebedee?
(d) Believe in; i. e. exercise-faith-in.
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
1) PreTions Moyements of Jesus, (a) Read John 1:29-3:22; 4:4-43. (b) Make a
list of the events, (c) From John 2:13 and 4:35* calculate the probable
length of the period between the temptation and the Galilean beginning,
(d) Give some general idea of the character and results of this period,
usually called the Judaean ministry, (e) Reasons for the omission of these
events in the other Gospels, whether (1) ignorance; (2) design, no Gospel
intended to be exhaustive; (3) these events comparatively unimportant.
2) OaliUe.f (a) Origin and meaning of the word ; (b) divisions of the country ; (c) characteristics
of the land and people ; (d) previous history; state at that time.
3) Tlie Galilean Message. V. 15. (a) In view of its brevity, may this verse be
regarded as a summary or text of the discourse? (b) Let the student
analyze it, e. g. two facts and a two-fold command, (c) In the light of the
O. T., study the phrases, "the time" (Dan. 7:22; S:19 ; 11:35; Gal. 4:4)
and " Kingdom of God " (Exod. 19:6 ; 1 Sam. 8:7 ; 12:12 ; 2 Sam. 7:12-16 ;
Isa. 6:5; Dan. 2:44,45; 7:14,18). Make a rough definition of each phrase
for further study, (d) Compare John's message (Mt. 3:2) with this (1) in
form, (2) in its facts, (3) in its motives (cf. Mt. 3:10-12). (e) In what
respects, if any, does this message refer to the coming of the Christ V
4) The Calling of the Four. Ts. 16-20. (a) Picture the scene and details of the
event, (b) In the light of John 1 :35-42 explain the sudden call and quick
response, (c) To what kind of service does this call invite (cf. vs. 17, IS)?
(d) Can Lk. 5:1-11 be explained as a special call to Simon in view of John
1:41? (e) Compare the relations of Jesus and the four with (1) that of
prophets and their followers (cf. 1 Kings 19:19-21; 2Kgs. 2:2); (2) that of
the Rabbis and their disciples.
IT. The Material Organized.
1. Classify the material under the following heads :
1) persons; 3) places; 3) important events; 4) habits and customs; 5) important words
and phrases ; 6) literary data.
• The Passover coincided in time with the spring harvest, usually occurring in April,
t Cf. Smith's Bible Diet. Art. Galilee.
38 The Old Testamknt Student.
2. ConiUnse the materlcd into the briefest possible statement, e. g.:
{ 1. V. 14, When John is im|>risoned, Jesus comeB into Galilee preaching.
V. ir., " The time for God's Kingdom is come ; repent and believe It."
A/Ur John's imprisonment Jesus preaches in Oalilee.
i 2. V. 16, He sees Simon and Andrew ttshing in the sea of Galilee.
V. n, He calls them to become his followers.
V. 18, They follow.
Sinum and Andrew become his foUtniters.
S 3. V. 111. He sees James and John mending their nets.
V. 20. He calls them: they leave all and follow.
James and .Inhn Ijccomc his foUnwcrs.
88 2, 3. Simon anu Andhew, James and John, become his followers.
88 1-3. After .hihn's iniprlKonnient Jpsuk prearheH in (lalilpc and spcaros four folloTTem.
V. The Material Applied.
Religions Progress. Observe certain elements of the method with which Jesus
began his work and consider their present value in the spread of the truth.
1. Preaching good tidings from tied (v. 14)— compared, e. g., with the printing-
press, aud other agencies.
2. Demand for repentance and faith in the Gospel (v. 15) — the condition on
wliicli true religious life is possible.
3. A personal relation to .Jesus involving sacrifice of all other things (v. 18) —
the most fruitful means in developing right character.
STUDY IV.— THE GALILEAN MINISTRY: THE PERIOD OF PUBLIC
FAVOR. MARK 1:21^5.
Besume. 1. The work of Jesus before he comes into Galilee. 2. The events of the Galilean
beginning, 1) the two according to Mark, 2) additions from other sources. 3. The theme
of his preaching. 4. Grounds on which his ministry may be said really to begin at this
public entrance into Galilee (V. 14; Mt. 4:17). 5. Relations of Jesus and the Four.
I. The Material Analyzetl.
Read carefully Mark 1:21-45 and note the contents, e. g.:
1. Experience in the Synagogue (vs. throughout Galilee (vs. 35-39) ;
21-27) ; 5. a leper healed (vs. 40-44);
2. resulting fame (v. 28); 6. wider fame and desert ministry
3. at Simon's house (vs. 29-34); (v. 45),
4. retirement for prayer; ministry
II. The Material Conipared.
1. With vs. 21-39, cf. Lk. 4:31-44. .5. Observe the possible bearing of this mate-
2. With vs. 29-34, cf. Mt. x:14-l J. rial on the relations of these three Gos-
3. With vs. 40-45, cf. Mt. S:2.4: Lk. .".:12-lfi. pels;* e. g., which is the more prob-
4. Make lists of 1) additional material ob- able conclusion, It Matthew draws his
tained; 2) possible disagreements in account from Mark; 2t Mark takes I.uke
facts or their arrangement; 3) material andadds tolt; 3)Luke condensesMark;
peculiar to Mark.
* The student is here introduced to the problem of the origin of the Gospels. The subject
is intricate yet important and cannot be neglected. Each " study " will contain ni6re or less ma-
terial helpful in its investigation. The important work is to master the facts prpsenled in the
Gospels themselves. The larger commentaries may proHtabiy be consulted for a fuller discus-
sion, but all theories should be regarded witli caution.
New Testament Supplement. 39
i) all draw directly from other and Gospel. In distinction from it, these
original sources, three Gospels which cover substantially
6. These and many other events of the Gali- the same ground are called the Synop'
lean ministry do not appear in John's tic Gospels.
III. The Material Explaiued.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
1) V. 21. (a) Capernaum; its location; its con- (c) Prayed; light here thrown upon
dition then and now. the nature of Jesus.
(b) As to this synagogue of. Lk. 7:3-5. 9) V. 38. (a) Elsewhere; (1) to avoid undue ex-
2) V. i-2. Cf. Mt. 7:29. Account for the use of citement; (2) to accomplish his mis-
similar language. sion.
3) V. 23. With an unclean spirit; (a) lit. "in (b) Came I forth; whence? Cf. Lk.
an unc. spirit," i. e. the element or 4:43.
sphere in which he lived, cf. a similar 10) Y. M. Cometh; a, breach of law; of. Lev.
— e.-vpression "in Christ" 2 Cor. 13:3; 13:45,46.
Gal. 1:22, etc.; (b) explain the man's II) V. 41. Touched; (a) note the method of cure,
presence in the synagogue. (b) Jesus rendered unclean.
41 V. 24. (a) Significance of the use of the pro- 12) V. 43. (a) Strictly-charged; lit. "wroth-with."
nouns we, us. It (b) Sent him out; i. e. of the city. Cf.
(b) Holy One of God; a) Cf. Ps. 18:10; Lk. 5:13.
'/',,( -»tW; John 6:69; i. e. a confession of 13) V. 44. (a) The priest; i. e. at the Temple.
Jesus as the Christ; (3) how could Why? Cf. Lev. 14:3. He would be
this be known by this man ? legally declared clean and thus re-
5) T, 27. New teaching; i. e. in substance, man- stored to society.
ner and attending works. (b) Offer; cf. Lev. 14:4-33.
6) V. 32. (a) At even; close of the Sabbath. (o) Vnto them; either (!) the priests,
Why bring them then ? or (3) the people. The cure was thus
(h) possesiied-with-devils; i. e. "demon- recorded as complete.
ized," under the power of " demons." (d) Jesus' relation to the Law; (1) as
7) V. 34. (a) Dei'ils; i. e. (Am. Kev.) " demons ;" regards himself he is above it (v. 41);
a different word is that in Mt. 4:1. (2) as regards the leper, he insists on
(b) £r)ieu> him; cf. margin. Why re- obedience to it.
fuse their witness? 14) T. 45. Desert-places; (a) because of his con-
8) V. 35. (a) Morjiing; a regular division of sequent fame; (b) the prejudice and
time; cf.Mk. 13:35. hostility aroused,
(b) Desert place; i. e. uninhabited.
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
1) Synagogue.* (a) Meaning of the word ; (b) origin of the synagogue, whether at the time of
Ezra or before ; (c) officers; (d) worship ; (e) judicial functions; (f) the synagogue school ;
(g) relations to the temple ; (h) relations to the Christian church.
2) The Authority of Jesus. Vs. 22,27. (a) Try to get a clear idea of the impres-
sion made by Jesus in his ministry. Was it (1) originality of matter, or (2)
independence in ills manner, or (3) the fwce of his character ? (b) Note its
manifestation in (1) his teaching, (2) his works, (c) Compare it (1) with the
scribes, learn something of their methods, traditional, narrow, slavish ; (2)
the e.xorcists, or those who professed to cast out evil spirits, by spells, etc.
(d) Note that a similar authority was a characteristic of the prophets, cf .
Isa. 1:10 ; 43:1 ; Jer. 1:4-9, etc.
3) Leprosy, (a) Learn something about its general character, forms and symptoms; (b) the legis-
lation in relation to it, cf. Lev. 13,14; (c) its symboUc character, cf. Num. 13:10,11;
2 Chron. 26:19-31.
4) The Miracles, (a) Give careful study to the miracle narrated in vs. 23-26.
Note (1) the evidence of mental disease; (2) the moral state of the man;
(3) his body afflicted (v. 26). Observe the explanation of this condition (1 ) in
' Cf. Smith's Bible Dictionary; art. Synagogue.
40 The Old Testament Student.
the popular mind (v. 27); (2) the notion of the writer (v. 23); (3) what may
be inferred as to the opinion of Jesus. In favor of the reality of the mira-
cle, consider (1) the previous condition of the man; (2) the mamier of the
cure ; (3) the astonishment of the people, (b) In a similar way study the
miracle in vs. 40^2 in its special features with the evidences of its reality,
(c) These miracles considered together (1) as wrought on both mind and
body ; (2) their relation to the preaching of Jesus, whether equal in impor-
tance, or subordinate as proofs or means to draw the multitudes; (3) the
revelation they make of the mind and heart of Jesus.
IT. The Material Organized.
I. Clatnfy the material under the following heads: 1) places; 2) institutions: 3) important
events; 4i miracles; ,5) habits and customs; B) literary data; 7> .Tesus and the O. T.
a. The foUowinff results of a strict coiutcniwitum of the material are su?(resied. Let the student
work through the processes and improve on what is here (riven:
Jpsns rrmtes astunishnitnt and obtains nlde fame, bcraase of the anthorltj he lihons in tearhioK
and in rastinir not a dcmnii at the Kjnaeopoe of CapernaQm. The same day he heaU SImon'K
wife's mother and other sirk, and casts out demons at Simon's honse in the presenre of the ritl-
asens. The nest day after early private prayer Jesus befrins a mission tour in the nynairoiruea of
Galilee. He eleanses a leper nliose dUobedienre compels him to retire to the desert to meet the
mnltitadeK who come to hiui.
V. Tlie material Applied.
Authority. 1. In matters of religious truth consider the dangers to character in
an unquestioning submission to the authority of another. 2. The dangers
which lie in an independence of authority. 3. The duty to decide to what
authority to yield. 4. The reasonableness of yielding to the authority
of Jesus as a teacher.
^5?5E-:-OLD':-TES^r^n2Ep-:-STnDEp.-^
Vol. VIII. OCTOBER, 1888. No. 2.
There are two ways of finding evidence for the existence of the
intelligent first cause, or the manifestation of deity. One is that of
the child and the savage which finds the divine presence especially
revealed in the unexpected, the startling and extraordinary ; in such
phenomena as an eclipse or a sudden and terrible storm. The other
is that of the instructed mind which finds greater evidence in phe-
nomena exhibiting law and order, such as the harmonious movement
of the heavenly bodies, the regular succession of day and night, sum-
mer and winter, seed-time and harvest. Should not this latter mode
of seeking divine revelation be more frequently applied in the study
of the Old Testament.'' For, is it not true, that many too often think
of God's revelation of himself under the old dispensation as chiefly
found in connection with the wonders of the Exodus or those embod-
ied in the stories of Elijah and Elisha, neglecting almost entirely the
revelation in the prophetic word, in the unfolding of the idea of the
Divine kingdom of grace and redemption .■' Shall not more atten-
tion be given to the miracle of the divine word ?
"Bene orasse est bene studuisse." These familiar words attrib-
uted to Luther, are to be emphasized to those engaged in Biblical
study. In these days of critical analysis and historical research we
are apt to overlook the necessity of being drawn into close commun-
ion and fellowship with the Author and Source of all truth. While
piety itself is not wisdom, there is no truer word than the Scripture,
"the beginning of wisdom is the fear of God ;" and there is no method
more truly scientific than that which asks help from above.
*2
42 The Old Testament Student.
Some of the expressions and forms of thought in which the Tal-
mud coincides with the New Testament are particularly interesting.
We commend to our readers the idea of tracing out as many of these
as the articles upon the Talmud which we are publishing furnish
material for doing. We call special attention to the Jewish concept-
ion of "this age" and "the coming age," meaning the periods before
Messiah's coming and after it respectively, as being the same forms of
expression which we find in the New Testament for the Ante-Mes-
sianic and the Messianic ages. Many of the symbols of the Book of
Revelation such as the tree of life, water of life, two resurrections,
the circumstances attending the millenium and the special manifesta-
tion of Satanic power at its close, are seen to be ideas common in
Jewish theology which are appropriated and adapted to the writer's
use. Who can fail to see in the use and meanings of the words Par-
adise, Hades and Gehenna in the New Testament the same con-
ceptions which constantly appear in Jewish contemporary literature .■'
But to us the most interesting coincidence is that between the Jewish
doctrine of the Messiah and that which is reflected in the New Tes-
tament. In Jewish thought the Messiah was to be a temporal prince
who was to reign in royal splendor in Jerusalem. This waspre-
'cisely the conception which the disciples brought with them from
their early training. If this was to be Messiah's reign, how hard
would it be for them to believe that he was to live a life of suffer-
ing and to die on the cross. In the Talmud the same difificulty is
found and is solved by the doctrine of two Messiahs. We know very
well how great a difficulty the saying of Jesus that he must die, made
in the disciples' minds and how disappointed they were when their
Master was crucified. Then it was that they transferred their unful-
filled hopes to the second coming of Jesus and trusted that, at that
time, he would establish the kingdom which he had failed to found
while here. The whole New Testament period exhibits to us the
gradual correction of the too worldly conceptions of Messiah's king-
dom which prevail in the Talmud and above which it was not strange
that the disciples could only gradually rise, even under the guidance
of the spiritual truth of Jesus and of Paul.
Is there anything in a Divine example ? The Israelites were
selected by God as the instrument through which to work out sal-
vation for the world. He found them in the depths of idolatry, prac-
tising polygamy, though having been slaves, holding others in slavery,
Editokial. 43
and, in short, so degraded and debased as sometimes to lead us to
wonder at the divine wisdom manifested in choosing such a nation.
Did he, for whom all things were possible, at once put away these
evils ? Did he abolish polygamy and slavery, give the Israelites a
moral code as rigid in all respects as that of the nineteenth century
and judge them by it ? The Jews in the time of the Christ had come
to worship the letter of the Scriptures. A thick crust of tradition
had settled down upon the sacred record and all but concealed its con-
tents from view. Most fantastic views were held as to the origin
and character of many of the books. A crude and absurd method of
exegesis prevailed. Did Jesus, first of all, announce that the com-
monly accepted views were wholly false .' Did he introduce each
discourse by an attack upon the literary and theological conceptions
of his times .■' Did he proceed to establish entirely new methods of
exegesis. Did he advocate a religion altogether at variance with
that of the people whom he addressed ? Or did he not rather take
out of Judaism what was true and build upon it .' Did he not rather
show them that the new religion which he taught was but a higher
form, a fulfillment of that which they already believed .'' Did he not
accommodate himself, in some degree, to the circumstances which
surrounded him .'' These are divine examples. Is there a better
guide .'' Are there not many phases of the religious and intellectual
work of to-day, to which this principle of accommodation is
applicable }
When Muhammad described heaven to his followers, he fre-
quently referred to it as a place " beneath which rivers flow." In a
land where rivers abound, this would signify little ; but to an Arab
whose home was in the desert, whose most precious possession was
water, it had an important signification. A land of rivers would in
itself be heaven to an Arab. The description was therefore in accor-
dance with the principle of contrast. That the Hebrew prophets
noted and employed this principle is seen from scores of cases. An
examination of Isaiah, chs. 2, 3, 4, will sufficiently illustrate the point,
(i) Having first threatened devastation and want (3:25,26; 4:1) the
prophet announces (4:2) a future dispensation characterized by liar-
vest blessings; (2) in contrast with the present corruption, degrada-
tion and filth (2:6-8), the characteristic of the people of this new
dispensation will be Iioliness, the filth having been removed (4:3,4) ;
(3) God has, at the time of speaking, rejected and abandoned his
44 The Old Testament Student.
people (2:5), but in this new period he will manifest his presence
(4:5) by symbols similar to those employed at the coming forth from
Egypt ; (4) it is true that God is about to deliver Israel up to des-
truction, but in that Messianic age he will protect them (4:6) from all
harm. The most natural interpretation of this passage, therefore,
furnishes a description of the Messianic time, every feature of which
is in direct contrast with what precedes. Nor is this true only of
the particular Messianic passage referred to. A comparison with the
historical setting in each case will show that it also holds true of every
such passage in Isaiah 1-12. Is there not here a great principle
which has not hitherto been sufficiently emphasized } If true of Isaiah
1-12, may it not be found still elsewhere .' Such a principle is only in
accord with the historical connection which, it would seem, must
exist in the case of all prophecy.
In the investigation of any subject the point of view is all impor-
tant. Especially is this true of critical inquiries into the meaning, the
form, the trustworthiness of Scripture. This point of view may be
hostile. Then discrepancies in detail multiply and the whole is soon
discredited. It may be an indifferent and negative stand-point. Then
the results are likely to be indefinite, lifeless, inconclusive. The true
way in which to attain to positive, helpful, constructive issues in bib-
lical criticism is to enter upon all investigations from the believing
point of view. Such a position of belief in the historical character
and credibility of the Word of God as a luholc is free to proceed con-
fidently and fruitfully to a candid, critical inquiry into details. Cau-
tious but not fearful, clear-eyed without assertive omniscience, patient
and hopeful, this critical spirit will accomplish great things in the
study of the Bible.
WEBER ON THE ESOHATOLOGT OF THE TALMUD.*
By Prof. George B. Stevens, D. D.,
Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
n. THE BEDEMPTION OF ISRAEL BY THE MESSIAH.
a. THE MESSIAH.
The name of the Messiah is a part of what God created before the world.
He is an essential part of the divine plan. His coming is the object of Israel's
faith, hope and unceasing prayer.
The conditions of Messiah's appearing are faith and good works. He will not
come imtil the nation fulfills these. One authority declares that if all Israel
should repent for a single day, redemption by the Messiah would follow. Another
conditions his coming upon a better Sabbath-observance, declaring that if Israel
would keep two Sabbaths as they ought to be observed, that Messiah would come ;
and even that he would come if one were perfectly observed.
It is said that the world-age will embrace six periods, corresponding to the
six days of the week, and then follows the eternal Sabbath. One mode of division
reckons the period before any law was given as covering the first two periods ;
that from Abraham's teachhig of the Thorah in Harran to Messiah's coming
embraces the third and fourth, and the fifth and sixth are to be included in the
Messianic period. The beginning of the Messianic age was sometimes more
exactly reckoned. It was to commence in the year 172 after the destruction of
the Temple because that event occurred 3828 years after the creation. "When this
prediction was unfulfilled other times were set and men were told that if, in a
certain year, they could buy a field for one denarius, they should not do it, for in
that year the Messiah would come, and why should they lose even so small a sum V
Others maintained that the time of his coming was a secret which could not be
determined.
There should be signs and portents of Messiah's coming in the Gentile world
and Israel. These are the so-called "pains of the Messiah" and remind one of
what is said in Matt. 24:4 sq. These are, oppositions and simderings of kingdoms,
plagues, hunger, contagions and confusions of every sort. And, finally, just pre-
ceding his coming, there were to be earthquakes and other dreadful natural phe-
nomena. The nation of Israel would be deeply sunken in immorality and dis-
obedience; city would be divided against city; the son would revile his father,
the daughter would rise up against her mother, and the daughter-in-law against
her mother-in-law ; those of the same household were to become enemies ; truth
and honor could not be found ; false Messiahs would appear and the law would be
despised. At the close of this wretched period, the Messiah should come and
fulfill the hope of Israel.
b. ELIAS, THE FOBERUNNER OF THE MESSIAH.
There is an obvious antinomy between the two foregoing representations of
* Continued from September number.
46 The Old Testament Student.
the antecedents of Messiah's coining, in that one represents his coming as depend- '
ent upon repentance and good works, and the other pictures the period imme-
diately preceding as one of tlie deepest moral degradation. A solution of this
contradiction is found in the doctrine concerning the mission and work of Elias.
Elias comes before the Messiah according to Mai. 3:23 (cf. Matt. 17:10,11).
His mission will be preparatory for Messiah's coming. According to some he will
show each family to what stem, race and house it belongs; others say that he
will unite those who are not of pure descent [filii spurii) to the congregation of
Israel. But the main emphasis is laid upon the reformatory character of his
work (cf. Mk. 9:12). He will settle all disputes and adjust all the various inter-
pretations of the law. But his greatest work will be to lead the nation to repent-
ance (cf. Luke 1:16,17). lie will rebuke the people for their sins, but will proclaim
peace for the obedient in Zion.
In this way the antinomy, above alluded to, is solved. Elias rescues the peo-
ple from their degradation and prepares them for the Messiah's appearance. It
is noticeable that other prophets are sometimes associated with Elias in his work.
Three ancient prophets, it is said, will rise from the dead in order to support the
Messiah in his work. They are Moses, Isaiah, Jeremiah, who is called in II. Mac-
cabees 15:14 " the prophet,"' the " lover of his brethren,"' who prays for his people
and for the holy city (cf. John 1:21,25 ; 7:40, where " the prophet" probably refers
to Jeremiah, also Matt. 16:13 sq.).
C. THE ENTRANCE OF THE IIESSIAH INTO THE WORLD.
The Messiah exists before his entrance into the world. It was God's will
from eternity to create the Messiah and to send him into the world. Ilis " name,"
the purpose and plan of his existence, is, therefore, eternal, but he exists eternally
only in an ideal sense. Only the later Jewish theology emphasizes the real pre-
existence of the Messiah before the creation. The transition from his ideal pre-
existence to his earthly appearance is to be accomplished by his birth in David's
line. He is to be a Son of David in the same sense as his other descendants. The
Jewish theology does not rise above the idea of the purely human idea of the Mes-
siah. He is, however, exalted in rank above all the ancient worthies. He shall
sit at God's right hand (cf. Ps. 110:1). and Abraham, sitting on the left, shall say :
" Lord, the son of my son (David) sits at thy right hand and I at thy left," but the
Lord will comfort him by the answer, " The son of thy son does sit at my right
hand and I sit at thy right hand."" The Messiah is exalted above the angels also,
yet not in such a way as involves the ascription to him of a supernatural char-
acter.
d. THE SECRET DEVELOPMENT AND ACTIVITY OF THE MESSIAH.
The Jewish theology represents the Messiah as appearing as an unknown
person who in secrecy and silence has been preparing for his work. As Moses
grew up in Pharaoh's house without the king's knowledge, so shall the Messiah
dwell for a time in the chief city of the nation unobsen'ed. During this period
he is to ripen and to grow equal to his work. His main preparation is in the
study of the law as it is to be his chief Messianic work to teach the same. The
law which he thus learns he will scrupulously keep. He will be as " full of com-
mandments as a mill." He will also endure disciplinary sufferings, since they
are needful to make him a just man. It is never maintained that the Messiah is
to be sinless. He sins and repents and by penitence and obedience to the law at
Webee on the Eschatologt of the Talmud. 47
length becomes a perfectly just man. He will be full of benevolence. He will
sit at the gates of Eome among the poor, the sick and the woimded and minister
to them.
The official name of the Messiah is Eedeemer (Goal). As Moses led Israel out
of Egypt, so shall the Messiah lead the nation out of its miseries by bringing its
scattered people together and establishing them in their own laud. The Messiah
shall restore the holy state and city, establish Israel supreme over the nations and
renew the spiritual life of the people by reinstating the law. Thus will the glory
lost in Adam's fall be restored,— a glory which shall prefigure the eternal gloiy of
the just.
In this account of the Messiah's mission no mention is made of sufferings
and death. The sufferings which are prophetically pictured in such passages as
Isaiah 53 are referred to Messiah's sympathetic suffering and intercession in be-
half of the people. The statement (Is. 53:6) that " Jehovah hath laid upon him
the iniquity of us all'' is understood to mean that it was Jehovah's good pleasure
to forgive aU our sins for his sake. The language of the chapter generally is
either weakened or applied to some other object than the Messiah. The notion
of substitutionary, penal suffering is not a part of the Messianic idea in Jewish
theology. The sufferings which he endures are a part of the experience by which
his moral perfection is wrought out.
The great end of his work is the redemption of Israel from foreign domina-
tion, the establishment of a dominion over the nations and a thorough reorgani-
zation and moral renovation of the nation upon the basis of devotion to the law.
All this he accomplishes, not by an atoning suffering and death, but by the power
of his personal righteousness. This power he attains by self-discipline, obedience
and sympathetic suffering and serving and for this work he prepares and sancti-
fies himself before his emergence into public.
e. JOSEPH'S SON AS A PREPARATORY MESSIAH.
The contradiction between the Jewish doctrine of the Messiah and the con-
ception presented in such passages as Isa. 53, is sometimes resolved by the doctrine
of a Messiah, called the Son of Joseph, or, by some, the Son of Ephraim, who shall
precede the great Messiah, the Son of David, and atone by suffering and death
for the sins of the people. He is a Messiah of lower dignity and in him are ful-
filled the prophecies which declare that the Servant of Jehovah will suffer and
die. He prepares the way for the great Messianic king to whom he is subordinate
as Aaron was to Moses. He wiU assemble the ten tribes in Egypt and Assyria
and conduct them into the Holy Land ; others represent Galilee as the place of
assembling.
These later conceptions were occasioned by the appeal of Christians to Isa.
53. The suffering Messiah there described could not be successfully adjusted to
the current Jewish conception and the polemics must invent some idea corre-
sponding more closely to the prophetic description. The subordinate Messiah,
Joseph's son, should die in the service of the people and his death should have an
atoning significance. He comes not for his own sake but for the sake of the
greater Messiah, David's son, who has an immortal life. Thus the redemptive
work proper is transferred to tliis secondary Messiah. It remains to David's son
to carry forward and complete the work of salvation.
48 The Old Testament Student.
/. the redemption of ISRAEL AND THE FIRST RESITRRECTION.
" In relation to Moses, the Messiah is second ; in comparison with all other
helpers he is the g^-eat Kedeemer." His redemption signifies primarily deliver-
ance from servitude to other peoples of which the deliverance of the nation from
Egypt by Moses stands as the historic type. The Messiah, after his first appear-
ance, will withdraw for a time (45 days), into retirement, according to most, into
the wilderness of Judea. This will be a period of sifting for the people who,
during this time, will eat the food of the poor, humble itself and thus prepare for
the coming redemption.
As a condition precedent to the Messianic deliverance the power of Rome
(commonly called the " Kingdom of Edom '") must be overthrown. The Roman
and the Messianic kingdoms are incompatible, and the latter CEtanot be established
until the former is destroyed.- At the time of Messiah's coming this power will
have reached its worst stage of cruelty and oppression. It ■will hasten its own
downfall by making Israel's yoke harder than ever; and the great Roman oppres-
sor in whom all this wickedness shall then culminate shall the Messiah destroy
" by the word of his mouth and the breath of his lips."
When the Roman power shall have been overthrown, then will Messiah
gather together the outcasts of Israel, uniting (according to most representa-
tions) the ten tribes with Judah and Benjamin. This, however, is a disputed
point, some maintaining that the ten tribes were driven out never to be restored
to their place in this world, but that they will be gathered into the perfected Israel
in the next life. The common representation is otherwise, however. Says one
Rabbi : " The winds shall strive with each other. The north wind shall say : I
wiU bring back the outcasts. The south wind shall say : I will fetch them."
Even from the world of the dead shall the participants in the Messianic reign
be brought. Those who are bound in Gehinnom shall see the light of the Messiah
and shall rejoice to see him and say: "lie will lead us out of our darkness.'"
Thus shall the circumcised, the true children of the covenant, be gathered from
their dispersion, while those from the caverns of Sheol arise, reclothed in their
former bodies, to participate in the glorious kingdom which Messiah shall estab-
lish in the holy land. This resurrection of the circumcised shall take place in the
holy laud. The bodies of those who were buried in other lands shall be rolled
along beneath the earth or shall pass through subterranean passages so as to rise
in the holy land. This process is painful ; therefore Israelites desire to be buried
in their own country in order to spare themselves this experience. Moses was
buried in a foreign land in order to assure other .Jews that they shall be raised
up. His resurrection will be certain and will be the guaranty of theirs.
At this resurrection the Almighty will soiuid a trumpet seven times, at each
blast of which a part of the process of reuniting the decomposed or scattered
body and the reuniting of the soul with it, takes place. A portion of the body re-
mains undestroyed and becomes the nucleus for the revivified body. Each person
rises in the clothes in which he was buried, hence the care concerning burial gar-
ments. Each has the same appearance, even such defects as lameness and blind-
ness (for identification), but these are healed immediately after resurrection.
This resurrection applies to Israel only and is to a renewed and glorified earthly
life, but not to an absolutely immortal one. The body does not however return
again to dust and corruption.
Old Testament Word-studies. 49
" Thus is the congi-egation of Israel restored to its true condition. From the
diaspora the living return, and from their graves the dead arise, in order to enjoy
in the holy laud the promised glory of the Messianic age."
OLD TESTAMENT WORD-STUDIES: 2. CONSTITUENT PARTS
OF MAN.
By Kev. p. a. Nordell, D. D.,
New London, Conn.
The complexity of man's constitution has been recognized from the earliest
times. The most obvious line of division falls between the material and spiritual
parts of his organization. Each of these comprises subdivisions more or less nu-
merous and subtle according to the observer's intuition and skill in discriminating
psychological phenomena. Among the Hebrews, as among all the nations of an-
tiquity, this line of demarcation, however sharply drawn at first sight, exhibits a
tendency to disappear the moment we undertake to separate rigidly between the
material and spiritual. This tendency springs from the constant association of
spiritual states and emotions with certain parts of the material organism, aud from
the evolution of higher psychological significations from words used primarily in a
physiological or material sense. Moreover, in words belonging to the vocabulary
of common life we cannot hope to find the nice discriminations of a scientific ter-
minology.
Ru(a)h spirit.
The primary signification of ru(a)h is wind, the sensible movement of the
air in all gradations of velocity, from the gentle zephyr at the " cool of the day,"
Gen. 3:8, to the terrific tempest that rends the mountains, 1 Kgs. 19:11. Hebrew
seems to have had no word for air, the atmosphere at rest, since in this condition
it was not perceptible. That wind was identical with the breath of men and ani-
mals was soon apparent, and although the latter received the specific name
n'shama(h), yet it continued very frequently to be called simply ru(a)h.
The latter designates the breath of beasts, Eccl. 9:18, of mankind. Job 10:12, and
of Jehovah, 2 Sam. 22:16. When a living being dies it ceases to breathe, i. e. it
expires. It was natural that a superficial observer, perceiving this close connec-
tion between breath and life, would leap to the conclusion that the invisible breath
of life was somehow identical with wind, the invisible breath of nature. Ru(a)h
became thus the general designation of the principle of life which man shares in
common with all creatures who possess the ru(a)h hayyim, — in G-en. 7:22
tautologically described as the " breath of the spirit of lives." But in man, as dis-
tinguished from the brute, this principle of life was also recognized as intelligent
spirit, the seat of sensation, passion, unrest, anxiety, courage, as well as of will,
determination, knowledge, wisdom, and skill. From this view of man as intelli-
gent ru(a)h the word passed easily into a designation of that omnipotent, intel-
ligent energy, the ru(a)h Elohim, which creates and sustains the visible uni-
verse. It was in a "sound of gentle stillness," as of a whispering wind, that
50 The Old U'^sstament Student.
Jehovah revealed himself to Elijah, 1 Kgs. 19:12 ; in a soft breathing, a r u ( S ) h ,
that the divine presence was manifested to Eliphaz, Job 4:15 ; but at the begin-
ning of the Christian dispensation it appeared as a mighty rushing Trfcifia, Acts
2:2, the intensity of its energy breaking forth, like an electric storm, in visible
flames of fire. In all these meanings the primary conception is that of an invisi-
ble force which is known only by its efl'ects.
11 u ( a )h became in this way a designation of spirituality in its largest form.
In the Divine Spirit, the " fountain of lives," m'qor hayyim, Ps. 36:10, is the
original source of every human spirit, and therefore the psalmist (31:6) commits
his r u( a ) h , his inmost life, to Jehovah in the full conviction that in so doing he
will not lose it, but recover it in wondrous depth and power..
Nephesh soul.
In biblical language ngphSsh is frequently employed in the same sense as
ru(a)h. As a psychological term it rests on the same physical phenomenon of
resjiiration, being derived from a verb meaning to breathe (nipJi.), to recover one's
breath after protracted exertion, hence to be refreshed, Ex. 23:16. The nephesh
as to its origin and powers is conceived of as standing on a lower plane than the
ru(a)h, being always associated with its earthy investiture, and never, except in
a few anthropopathic expressions, Jer. 51:14, Amos 6:8, rising into the realm of
pure si)irit. " The souls of animals arise, like plants, from the earth, as a conse-
quence of the divine word of power, Gen. 1:24. Thus the creating Spirit which
entered at the beginning, 1:2, into matter, rules in them; their connection with
the divine spring of life is through the medium of the common terrestrial creation.
But the human soul does not spring from the earth ; it is created by a special act
o/'/i'r)»ie j'»?)rwMin<7, see 2:7 in connection with 1:26." (Oehler.) The nSphSsh
is tlic animal life, the '/".W. which springs into existence when the ru(a)h enters
the material organism. " Man is not r u ( a ) h , but has it, — he /*■ soul." The soul
is therefore the center of individuality, so that "my soul," "thy soul," "his soul,"
etc., become stereotyped expressions for man's inmost personal life, his very self,
his ego. Ilu(a)h is never so used, since it is the universal principle of life
which underlies and conditions the nephesh, and not, like the latter, the indi-
vidualized form which the principle of life assumes. Hence in the enumeration
of a family, tribe, or people, persons are often spoken of as souls. Gen. 14:21; Exod.
1:7; Num. 31:35, — an expression that survives in popular usage to the present
time. Indeed, it was even possible to .speak of corpses as "dead souls," Num. 6:6 ;
9:10, i. e. as persons with whom the idea of individuality was still associated aft«r
the ru(ii)h had been withdrawn.
A marked characteristic of the Priest Code, though not exclusively confined
to it, is the employment of ngphesh in the sense of a morally responsible per-
son— " if a soul touch any unclean thing," " if a soul commit trespass," etc. This
usage which docs not occur in the Book of the Covenant, Exod. 20-23, seems to
be owing to the individual application, rather than the universal authoritj-. of the
levitical legislation. The same sense seems to attach to the word in Ezck. 18:4,27,
"the soul [i. e. the person] that sinneth, it [he] shall die, ' "he shall save his soul
riiimself] alive." It is not probable that the word nephesh is here employed in
the technical modern sense of soul. However true it is that cherished sin in-
volves man's spiritual nature in eternal loss and ruin, this does not seem to be the
Old Testament Word-studies. 51
thought in the prophet's mind, except inferentially. He is speaking rather of the
temporal consequences of sin to the person who commits it.
The soul, like the spirit, is also swayed by strong desires and passions, but
these not infrequently emphasize some form of seliiishness or greed, Pss. 10:3 ;
41:3. The essence of sin lies in the self-determination of the individual nephesh
toward earthly relations, in opposition to the divine will and authority, " their
soul abhorred my statutes," Lev. 26:43.
Tbe soul of man does not any more than that of the animal possess in itself
the reason of an undj'ing life, Ps. 22:29(30). Tbe pledge of its immortality lies in
its unbroken union with the Divine Spirit which is individualized in it; "Thou
wilt not leave my nephesh in Sheol," Ps. 16:10. The natural immortality of
the soul appears much more prominently in the New Testament than in the Old,
where tbe whole subject of a future life is purposely involved in much obscurity.
For tbe Mosaic dispensation aimed to train men to obedience by means of tem-
poral rewards and penalties rather than by tbe prospect of post-mortem blessed-
ness.
It does not follow because scriptural language distinguishes between r {i ( a ) h
and nephesh that they are distinct and separable entities, and that man pos-
sesses a tripartite nature, body, soul and spirit. These latter terms are rather to
be understood as descriptive of man's higher nature contemplated as a unity, but
as facing in tbe one case toward tbe spiritual world above, and in the other toward
the material world beneath.
N"shama(h) breath.
The specific term for breath is n'shama(h). It occurs only twenty-four
times, whereas nephesh occurs 729, and ru(a)h 376 times. Tbe breath blown
ou the hands produces a sensation of coolness, and therefore the breath of
Jehovah, far more powerful than that of man, is metaphorically described as a
freezing wind, Job 37:10. A rapid breathing is a sign of violent passion, as of
anger, hence in the breath of Eloah, Job 4:9, or in the blast of the breath of
Jehovah's nostrils, 2 Sam. 22:16, the Hebrew poet discerns a punitive agency which
overwhelms the wicked in swift and irresistible destruction. As the function of
respiration was connected with the power of life in man, so this divine breath,
conceived of anthropopathically, was associated with the self-existent and infinite
life of Jehovah. The transmission of this "breath of lives, " Gen. 2:7, into the
nostrils of man communicated to him a portion of the divine principle of life, so
that in virtue of it he becomes a partaker of the divine being. On the other
hand, should El fix his heart, i. e. his thought, upon himself, rather than on man,
and gather back to himself his ru(a)h and his n'shama(h), then all -flesh
would inevitably sink back into its original dust, Job 34:14. Tbe n'shama(h)
of man is also as a lamp or candle which is lighted by Jehovah, Prov. 20:27, and
human nature is like a vast cavern into whose darkest recesses this light shines.
By its means its intricacies can be explored alike to their mysterious origin in the
creative power of God, and to their terminus in the clear light of the eternal
world. But when this relation between the divine spirit and the human is
ignored, the light in man's nature is extinguished, and having no other source of
light, he gropes in hopeless darkness. His life in all its relations becomes to him
a series of insoluble enigmas and contradictions.
62 Thk Old Testament Student.
Basar flesh.
Basar is the material, external part of man, the corporeal investiture of the
immortal and invisible spirit. The LXX. renders it by aapi 138, "piac 79, and
aijfia 16 times. In these several renderings Kplac is that from which the thought
of organism is most distant, adp^ stands midway between the two, while oufia
designates the perfect instrument of the soul in whii-li the idea of organism is pre-
dominant. The basar as a living organism is dependent for its existence on its
union with the spirit. In itself it is frail and corruptible, exhibiting a constant
tendency to dissolve and return to the '*dhaniah out of which it was con-
structed. From such dissolution it is withheld by the renewing and vivifying
power of the ru(a)h. This perishable nature of the basar was seen to be a
characteristic of all animate creatures, and hence the word soon passed into a
broader signification which, ignoring the distinction between basar and nS-
phesh, included every form of animal life as well as that of man. KOl -basar,
all flesh, denotes all living creatures viewed from the side of their transitory, per-
ishable existence. Gen. 6:13,19 ; 7:15 ; Num. 16:22 ; Fs. 136:25, etc. From this com-
prehensive meaning it passes into one more restricted, including only the human
race. Gen. 6:12; Deut. 5:26; Ps. 145:21 ; Isa. 40:6. Contrasted with the omnipo-
tence and eternity of God who is absolute spirit, man is only basar, flesh, a
weak mortal, constantly falling away, Gen. 6:3; Job 10:4; Ps. 78:39. It is the
same thought as that emphasized when man is called 'ad ham and ''nosh, the
earth-begotten, and the frail one. A still further limitation of the phrase k6l-
basar occurs in Joel 2:28; 3:1, where the prophet sees the approaching dispensa-
tion accompanied by an effusion of the Spirit upon all flesh. This does not mean
the entire race of mankind, -una aap^, John 17:2, but the church of the Messianic
age, still conceived of as comprehended within the national limits of Israel. In
the old theocracy the Holy Spirit had been given to individuals here and there,
enduing them with wisdom and prophetic insight. But in that new Israel the
Spirit would come down like rain on all flesh, i. e. on all the people without dis-
tinction of age, rank, or condition. The same limitation appears in Jer. 12:12 and
Ezek. 20:48.
The Old Testament nowhere teaches that the basar, the sensuous part of
man's being, is also the seat of sin. It is indeed deeply tainted by sin and en-
thralled by its power, Gen. 6:12. but the ethical idea of flesh as essentially sinful,
and as antagonizing the higher life of the spirit by an illegitimate lusting after
sensual and eartlily things, is foreign to the Old Testament, and belongs to the
fully developed Pauline theology of the New.
Lebh or Lebhabh heart.
Lebhilbh, which frequently occurs in place of lebh, seems to be only a
strengthened form of the latter word, and to be used with no discernible difference
of meaning. In its physical sense it denotes the central bodily organ. 2 Sam. 18:14 ;
2 Kgs. 0:24, through which the blood flows, and beneo the center of physical life,
for the blood was looked on as the vehicle of life, Lev. 17:11. Gliding almost at
once into metonymical significations, it becomes one of the most interesting words
in the entire Hebrew vocabulary. From the Hebrew it passes with its wealth of
meaning into the New Testament, whose writers give it, if possible, a yet richer
expansion. In a semi-physical sense it designates the seat of bodily life, Ps.
Old Testament Word-studies. 53
22:26(27). While on the one hand the whole heart faints through sickness, Isa.
1:5, on the other it is strengthened by food and drink, Gen. 18:5 ; Jud. 19:5.
The profoundest importance attaches to this word when it is emplo3'ed in
connection with the spiritual nature of man. The external relations of man's
nature are described, as we have alread}' seen, by the words rii(a)h and ne-
phesh, the former standing for its spiritual and eternal relations, and the latter
for the earthly and temporal. There is still another point of view from which it
may be studied, viz., in its internal structure and relations. In Hebrew thought
the whole interior of this nature, with its innumerable feelings, afltections and emo-
tions, its faculties of memory and imagination, its thinking and reasoning powers,
its capacities of knowledge and wisdom, its resolutions, plans and purposes, its
hopes and fears, its moral and spiritual determinations, in a word, the entire emo-
tional, intellectual, and ethical activity of man is included in this comprehensive
word lebh. It is conceived of as an unfathomed and, to man, unfathomable
abyss, Ps. 64:6, a dark and mysterious realm filled with undefined thoughts and
purposes, with blind desires and passions, driven restlessly to and fro, like disem-
bodied shades, and making their presence known only as they rise into conscious-
ness, or emerge into the actual doings and experiences of the outward world.
Pious men are sometimes allowed to fall into temptation, that they may learn the
unsuspected contents of their own hearts, 2 Chron. 32:31. By the introduction of
sin the lebh becomes wholly corrupted, so that all the imagination of its thoughts
is only evil continually. Gen. 6:5. Out of its dismal depths go forth deceptions,
Neh. 6:8, hypocrisies, Job 36:13, and wicked works, Ps. 58:2(3). None but God is
able to search the secrets of the heart, i. e. explore this inner realm of the spirit,
1 Chron. 28:29; Ps. 44:21(22), and he alone is able to cleanse it from its evil and
impure contents, Ps. 51:10(12). So thoroughly is the natural heart corrupted, that
this purifying process amounts virtually to the creation of a new heart, Ezek.
18:31. The outward appearance does not always correspond to the inner state of
the heart, Prov. 13:14; hence God, who judges every man justly, determines his
moral worth by a scrutiny of the heart, 1 Sam. 16:7 ; Jer. 20:12. The afi'ections
and tendencies of the heart determine human destiny, for out of it are the issues
of life, Prov. 4:23. (On the Biblical Doctrine of the Heart, see Oehler's O. T.
Theology, § 71, and "The Hidden Heart," by Tayler Lewis, Princeton Rev.,
March, 1883.)
K^layoth kidneys, reins.
This word occurs only twenty-six times in the Old Testament, and throughout
the Pentateuch is uniformly rendered kidneys. In its fourteen occurrences in the
poetical and prophetical books it is, with one exception, Isa. 34:6, rendered reins,
LXX. viippdc, Vulg. ren. Indeed, wherever the reference is to animals it is trans-
lated kidneys, but reins when it refers to man. In the former case it is used in its
strict physiological sense, in the latter by metonomy for a part or side of man's
spiritual nature. Five times it is associated with lebh, being with it the sub-
ject of divine inspection and examination. It is commonly taken as the seat of
the tenderer emotions, such as kindness, pity, and benevolence ; but its exact
psychological equivalent is very obscure. Rev. J. G. Lansing in the Old Testa-
TAMENT Student, Feb., 1884, starting from a consideration of the physiological
functions of the kidneys, argues with much force that the k'layoth stand spe-
cifically for the conscience. In view of the fact that the 0. T. writers, with the
54 The Ou) Testament Student.
whole ancient world, referred the function of thought to the heart rather than to
the brain, it seems hardly safe to ascribe to the ancients such accurate knowledge
of physiological processes as this definition assumes. Moreover it is open to
question whether 0. T. writers ever conceived of the conscience as a distinct
moral power, or vaguely included it in the moral determinations of the heart.
PIEPENTRING'S OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY.*
By J. 13. Reynolds, B. D.,
New Haven, Conn.
The possibilities in the field of Old Testament theology have not been so
much exhausted but that we may look with high expectations upon any new con-
tributions to the subject. Willi this view we shall not be disappointed in the
work before us. It brings not a little new material and contains many improve-
ments in the mode of presenting the results of the author's studies.
The method is declared to be exegetical and historical. The wTiter criticises
with justice, we think, many of the previous works on Old Testament theology as
mere presentations of religious ideas and customs without taking count of their
successive development. He, therefore, aims " so far as possible to indicate the
historic development of each particular subject," leaving to those works which
narrate the history of Israel the burden of giving a general view of its religion.
Therefore, in accordance with his central purpose, the work is divided into
three periods. The first extends from Moses to the commencement of the eighth
century and is distinguished by the preponderating influence exercised by tradi-
tional ideas and usages, modified only in part by early prophetism. The second,
reaching from the appearance of the earliest prophetic books to the end of the exile,
is marked by the great influence of prophetism, arrived at the summit of its
power. The third, from the exile to the first century before the Christian era, is
characterized by the extraordinary influence of the written law and of sacer-
dotalism.
In arranging the literature of these periods the extreme results of the higher
criticism are accepted. That part of the Pentateuch commonly called the Jeho-
vistic document is placed in the first period. Deuteronomy is supposed to have
been written in the .seventh century, while the Elohistic document is claimed not
to have been written till the fifth century. Isaiah is distributed in small portions
from the end of the ninth century to the middle of the sixth. Ecclesiastes and
Esther are thought to have been written towards the end of the third century,
while Daniel is assigned to a date somewhere between 167 ami 164. The question
of the date of the authorship of the several books is, however, not discussed, the
author merely giving "the results which seem certain or probable." Though
there is room for much difference of opinion as to the time to which many
books are allotted, it is certainly to be regarded as a virtue that the author thus
clearly defines at the outset the literary basis of his work.
*TW'oloi?io de rAnclen Testament par Ch. I'iepcntrlng, pasteur de I'egliso rfformfe de
Strasbourg:. Paris: Libraire FUchbacher, 33 rue de Seine. New York: B. Wcstermann <t Co.
PlEPJENTRING'S OLD TeSTASIENT THEOLOGY. 55
The main body of the work is constructive, only a very little space being
given to the discussion of the critical questions at present under dispute. The
principle is constantly insisted upon that the biblical writings are not in any
proper sense theological. It is held that metaphysical distinctions were entirely
unknown even by the later writers and that in attempting to draw up a scheme
of biblical theology this fact must constantly be borne in mind. This claim is,
of course, not a new one, but the writer adheres to it with much greater consist-
ency than many who have stoutly asserted it. It is also claimed that the signifl-
cance of certain religious ceremonies must be differently regarded at different
periods. The law being not a sudden communication, but a gradual growth, it is
held that the rites of temple service only reached their final condition and mean-
ing after many changes and under varying influences. Many of these are thought
to have been gained from older Semitic or Egyptian religions. Many of the ser-
vices and feasts, it is asserted, were derived from the early celebrations at seed-
time and harvest. It is only at a later date that they are understood to have
assumed a theocratic significance. For example, we are told that " the feast of
the passover and of unleavened bread, considered in the Old Testament as one and
the same feast, is surely a combination of two different feasts, the one agricultn-
ral and the other theocratic." It is probable that originally this feast had also an
astronomical sense, that it was the feast of the spring time, found among most of
the nations of antiquity. This last character of the feast of the passover has been
already completely eifaced in Hebrew literature, though its agricultural character
still appears in certain passages, especially Lev. 23:9-14. " Here the offeiing of
the first fruits of the harvest is united with the passover, and this offering is
placed in close relationship with the feast which should be celebrated seven weeks
later, at the end of the harvest."
The Sabbath is conceived to be essentially a day of repose, but it is held that
this idea could not have been given to the day till the Israelites had ceased to be
wandering shepherds and became an agricultural people. The humanitarian side
of the Sabbath is thought to be emphasized in all the documents. •• Its principle
purpose is to furnish rest to the slaves and the domestic animals. Even in Deu-
teronomy we find the same point of view. The Sabbath is there associated with
the remembrance of the deliverance from slavery in Egypt. But the evident
thought of the Deuteronomist is this : Israel ought to remember that he was a
slave in Egypt and was delivered by Jehovah and that therefore he ought also on
that day to give rest to his slaves as well as to himself."
The main literature of the second period is thought to be prophecy. Here are
considered the names and character of God, also the prophetic idea of man and
sin. It seems to us that in some cases the writer has failed carefully to follow out
his own principle of the historic growth of religious ideas. The prophets whose
writings extended through three centuries are treated almost as contemporaries.
The author's treatment of the origin of sin will be found very unsatisfactory
to many. As to the story of the Fall, he claims that the " principal purpose of the
narrative consists in showing the origin not of sin, of moral evil, but of physical
evil, of the evils of life, and in proving that God is not the cause of these evils,
but that they are brought about by the sin of man." He also quotes with ap-
proval the idea of Bruch, that the author of the account of the Fall is influenced
by the double thought that physical evil is a result of sin and that sin is connected
with civilization ; and that he has kept those two ideas in experience which tells
66 The Old Testament Student.
that the infant is happy so long as he continues in a state of ignorance and of in-
nocence, whereas the development of spirit and of life give birth to instincts and
inordinate desires, which occasion the majority of misfortunes. It is therefore
concluded that the explanation of the origin of sin is not furnished us in Genesis.
The only solution offered to the question is the following : " The Old Testament
attributes generally to man freedom of choice between good and evil. Our
author attributes this freedom also to the first pair. So he could not think of ex-
plaining the origin of sin, the possibility of sin being given with the freedom of
man." " The account of the Fall simply declares the point of entrance of sin
into the heart of man. It is in tliis sense that the writer explains the origin of
sin, but not so if is meant by tliat term the source or the first cause of sin. He
does not push the question back to that cause. He confines himself to the exte-
rior circumstances which become to the first pair the occasion of sin in calling them
to make use of their liberty." " The Old Testament in general does not speak of
a change which has occuned in tlie moral nature of man in consequence of the
sin of Adam, since, outside of that narrative, there is never question in regard to
the fall of Adam or of a fall of humanity, but that man is considered free to do
good and avoid evU."
In the third section the writer considers Judaism which seems to him to be
strongly contrasted in its purpose with prophecy, which lays the greatest impor-
tance on moral life, subordinating to it all external practices of religion, while the
former dwells almost wholly upon ritual seiTices and external worship. It is
thought to represent the formalistic tendency. The growth of this idea as con-
ceived in the mind of the writer is carefully traced out, and what seems to him
the elaboration of the former simple ceremonies described.
In literary form this work is certainly to be most highly commended. The
statements of the writer are clear and distinct and each subject is treated as
briefly as possible, though without such condensation as to obscure the thought.
In this respect it is certainly greatly in advance of other works on the subject.
As to the results reached, it miglit seem that M. Piepentring was a skeptical
rationalist. But this is certainly far from being the case. The divine as well as
the human elements are positively asserted in the history of the kingdom of Israel,
and in conclusion the belief is expressed that such recognition of the human ele-
ment which exists in the Old Testament will but lead to a stronger conviction of
the divine power which was w'orking in the life of the Hebrew nation. Certainly
the spirit of the writer is quite different from that of many critical authorities.
His evident aim is constructive, and to many the book will seem to present at
least some helpful suggestions to the settlement of the questions which are receiv-
ing so much attention at the present day.
THE ASSYRIAN KING, ASURBANIPAL.
By Dean A. Walkek, B. A.,
New Haven, Conn.
Of all the great empires that in turn held sway over the human race before
the beginning of the Christian era, none exceeded in duration of power and splen-
dor of achievement the great empire of Assyria. Egypt may show a longer line
of dynasties reaching further back into the dawn of history ; but her soU was often
invaded by foreign armies, and Hyksos, Ethiopian, Assyrian and Grecian con-
querors interrupted the line of succession of her native rulers. Alexander's
empire covered a wider territory, but as a unit continued only through the life-time
of its founder. Babylonia, by whose hand Assyria fell, enjoyed her power but
fifty years, and the empire of the Medes and Persians that followed filled out only
two hundred years.
In contrast to these short-lived or intermittent powers, the Assyrian empire
had an uninterrupted autonomy of more than six hundred years, through which
the succession of its kings may be directly traced ; while the unknown begumings
of its history as an independent power may cover as much again. It was not, like
Alexander's empire, the creature of a day or of one man, but like the republic of
Rome, it rose from small beginnings with gradual increase of power and spread
of territory till it overshadowed the earth and well fitted the description of the
prophet Ezekiel (Ezek. 31:3-9), "Behold, the Assyrian was a cedar in Lebanon
with fair branches and with a shadowing shroud, and of an high stature ; and his
top was among the thick boughs. The waters made him great, the deep set him
up on high with her rivers running round about his plants, and sent out her little
rivers unto all the trees of the field. Therefore his height was exalted above all
the trees of the field and his boughs were multiplied and his branches became
long, because of the multitude of waters, when he shot forth. All the fowls of
heaven made their nests in his boughs, and under his branches did all the beasts
of the field bring forth their young, and under his branches dwelt all great nations.
Thus was he fair in his greatness, in the length of his branches; for his foot was
by great waters. The cedars in the garden of God, the fir trees were not like his
bouglis, and the chestnut trees were not like his branches ; nor any tree in the
garden of God was like unto him in his beauty. I have made him fair by the
multitude of his branches ; so that all the trees of Eden, that were in the garden
of God, envied him."
The highest point of Assyrian power was reached near the close of the empire
imder the dynasty of the Sargonides, a dynasty founded indeed by a usurper, but
Assyrian in every feature, numbering, in direct line, five kings, the first four of
whom were fine representatives of the ancient Assyrian character. The glory of
this dynasty reached its height in the reign of the subject of this paper, Asurban-
ipal, the son of Esarhaddon, grandson of Sennacherib, and great-grandson of
Sargon.
*3
68 The Old Testajient Student.
Asurbanipal was king of a warlike nation and descended from a family of
warriors, and inherited in full the wariike disposition of liis ancestors. Sargon,
the founder of the dynasty, was a usurper, who had made good his claim to the
throne merely by his ability to hold it and ou the principle that might makes right.
Of his ancestry we know nothing. He himself in his inscriptions gives us no
clew to his origin, though it was the custom of Assyrian kings to begin their
records with a .statement of their descent and a tribute of praise to their ances-
tors. Sargon was probably an officer of the army risen from the ranks by virtue
of his military ability. The long absence of his king, Salmancser IV., at that
time engaged with ill success in the sieges of Samaria and Tyre, and the consequent
discontent of the people and laxity of government at the capital, invited a revolu-
tion. Sargon seized the opportunity to make himself king and was accepted by the
army and people. After an active reign of seventeen years, he was succeeded by his
son, Sennacherib, who with equal energy enlarged and strengthened the dominion
of Assyria, till he was assassinated by his two eldest sons, Adrammelech and
Sharezer, as recorded in 2 Kgs. 19:37 and Isa. 37:38. Their ambition to rule in his
stead was frustrated by a younger sou, Esarhaddon, who with a portion of the
army was guarding the frontier of Armenia. Recognized by his troops as king,
Esarhaddon drove the assassins into Armenia and took the throne, which he held
for thirteen years. His reign was marked by the same vigorous policy as those
of his predecessors, till, becoming afflicted with an incurable disease, he abdicated
in favor of his eldest son, Asurbanipal. reserving for himself only the province of
Babylonia. The crowning of Asurbanipal by his father is placed in the year 670
B. C, but his accession to the sole command of the empire took place on the death
of his father, two years later. Dating from 668 B. C, his reign covered a period
of forty-two years, the longest reign in Assyrian history and one exceeded by few
ill the history of other nations, either ancient or modern.
Asurbanipal had had a thorough military training in the numerous campaigns
of his father, and at the very outset of his reign, his education was put to the test.
One of the signal events of his father's reign had been the conquest of Egypt, and
its division into twenty districts. These were placed, some under Assyrian officers,
and others under native Egyptian princes, who had sworn allegiance to the con-
queror. But now Tirhakah, the Ethiopian, taking advantage of the illness of
Esarhaddon, by whom he had been driven out of Egypt, returned at the end of
two years and soon again made himself master of the entire valley of the Nile
except a small corner of the delta. In this spot, well protected by its numerous
canals, the Assyrian governors were able to hold their ground wliile a message
was carried post-haste to Asurbanipal at Nineveh. The king's response was
prompt and efficient. A strong Assyrian force was sent under command of the
Tartan, which quickly drove Tirhakah out of Egypt and reorganized the country
on the former plan.
Before this was accomplished, however, the Egyptian governors who had had
command of some of the cities, questioning whether, after all, their lot would be
any better under an Assyrian than under an Ethiopian master, and fearing lest
he might, as soon as he should be more firmly established, replace them by Assjt-
ian governors, made ready in secret for an insuiTection, and invited Tirhakali to
return and take the throne, promising to secure for him the possession of Lower
Egypt. The plot, however, was discovered by the Assyrian officers, and two of
the ringleaders, Necho and Saretikdari, were taken and sent to Nineveh in chains.
The Assyrian King, AsTjkbanipal. 59
There they sued for pardon and Asurbanipal, either from motives of policy or
because his cruelty of disposition, afterward shown, was not yet developed, not
only forgave them, but even appointed Necho head of the vassal kings, to rule
Egypt in the name of Assyria.
On the death of Tirhakah, which occurred soon after, the war was renewed
by Tirhakah's step-son and successor, Urdamaui, a youth of great vigor, who in a
short time had captured Memphis and driven Necho and the Assyrian forces into
the delta. At this critical moment, the tardy arrival of troops from Nineveh
enabled the Egyptian princes to take the offensive. This second Egyptian cam-
paign was attended with equally successful results. Memphis and Thebes were
retaken and Urdamani was driven out of Egypt. The city of Amen was pillaged
and two of its obelisks, with a large amount of other booty, were sent as trophies
to Nineveh. Governors were again placed over the districts of Egypt and among
them, probably, was Psammetichus, the son of Necho, whose reign the Egyptians
were accustomed to consider as beginning on the expulsion of Tirhakah.
Somewhere in the first half of his reign, Asurbanipal conducted two other
lesser expeditions, the dates of which cannot be exactly determined though they
are represented in a cylinder inscription as occurring on his return from his
Egyptian campaigns.* The first was against the city of Tyre, which had revolted
and held out against a siege with some obstinacy. On the fall of Tyre, the smaller
Phoenician cities that had joined in the revolt were quickly taken. Baal, king of
Tyre, was pardoned and reinstated on his throne. Yakinlu, king of Aradus, on
seeing that he must fall into the hands of the Assyrians, committed suicide. Ills
eight sons were taken in the city. The eldest was pardoned and appointed to
succeed his father, while the other seven were put to death. Asurbanipal next
directed his march to Cilicia, where a small insurrection had broken out. This
was easily quelled, and, in token of submission, the CiUcian king, whose family
was already connected by marriage with the royal house of Assyria, was required
to send his daughter to the royal harem at Nineveh. In this expedition Asurban-
ipal crossed the Taurus range and penetrated to regions never before reached by
Assyrian arms.
About this time there occurred an event very flattering to the pride of the
Assyrian monarch. Gyges, the wealthy and powerful monarch of Lydia, who is
described in Asurbanipal's inscriptions as " of a country beyond the sea, whose
name the kings, his fathers, had not even heard of," sent an embassy, bringing as
a present two Cimmerian chieftains. The ambassadors were charged to say that
Gyges having, on a former occasion when hard pressed by his enemies, been told
in a dream of the might and glory of Asurbanipal and the great god Asur, and
having sent to do them homage, had signally defeated his enemies. He now sent
these two chieftains as a present in token of his gratitude for this divine assist-
ance. Asurbanipal was not the man to lose such an opportunity as this. He
accepted the present as tribute, kindly acknowledged Gyges as a vassal, imposed
a further tribute and sent a small body of Assyrian troops to make good his defence
* A discussion of the chronology of these events and of the relative value on this point of
the various inscriptions recording: them would require more space than can here be given to it.
The principal sources for the history are the inscription K 2675 and the cylinder inscriptions A
and B and R" I. But the three latter sources seem to follow, at least for the events before the
Elamitic war, a geographical rather than a chronological order. We have here followed the
cylinder inscriptions.
60 The Old Testament STin>ENT.
against the hordes of the Cimmerians, with, perhaps, the further purpose of hold-
ing Gyges to his allegiance. He had thus extended his authority to the furthest
limits of Asia Minor, far beyond that of his father, Esarhaddon.
A short and unimportant campaign followed for the punishment of the city
of Karbat, a city on the frontier of Elam, whose troops had made an inroad into
the territory of Uabylouia. The city was taken and its inhabitants were deported
to Egypt, in accordance with a well settled policy of the Assyrian kings in their
treatment of rebellious towns.
The Assyrian arms were next tumed to the north, against the Minni, a brave
and warlike people inhabiting the mountains in the region of Lake Van. The
expedition was one of great difficulty owing to the nature of the ground to be
traversed. The Minni had strongholds in the mountains difficult of access and
easy to defend. Hut the Assyrians were not less skilled in the storming of walled
fortresses than they were valorous in the open field. The king, .iVkhsheri, fled
from his capital to one of his castles, but there he was assassinated by his attend-
ants and his body was thrown to the Assyrians from the wall. His son, Vahalli,
then surrendered and sent to Nineveh his eldest son as a hostage and his daughter
as a concubine, and agreed to pay in addition to the regular rate of tribute thirty
horses.
Asurbaiiipal had now directed* campaigns with marked success in the south-
western, north-western and north-eastern comers of his empire, and in the two
latter had added large territories to his dominion. But these campaigns had been
of short duration and easily won. He now was to meet a danger that at one time
threatened to lose for him all the ground he had gained, if not to deprive him of
his empire itself. The war. or rather seiies of wars, which now followed cov-
ered a period of twelve years. But again the energy of the Assyrian monarch,
backed by well disciplined troops, was too much for the combined forces of his
enemies, and the war resulted in their complete overthrow and the annexation of
all Elam to the Assyrian domain.
During the reign of Esarhaddon, the relations of Elam and Assyria had been
peaceful and even friendly, and so continued when Aiurliuiiipal ascended the
throne. The latter, during a time of famine in Elam, had even assisted Urtaki,
the Elamite king, with supplies of com, and had offered asylum in Assyrian terri-
tory to certain tribes who had lied to avoid the famine. JJut when the famine was
passed, forgetting these favors, and instigated probably by A.ssyria's sworn enemy,
the Chaldean, Marduksuniibui, Urtaki collected his troops and fell upon Babylonia,
where, since the death of Esarhaddon, Sa'ul-mughina, a younger brother of Asur-
banipal, had been ruling as viceroy. Sa'ul-mughina appealed to Asurbanipal for
aid, and on the approach of the Assyrian troops, the Elamites withdrew. They
were overtaken, however, and defeated, and Urtaki with difficulty escaped to Susa,
where about a year later he and his chief captain in despair committed suicide.
Asurbanipal had not intended any further efforts in this direction; but the
death of Urtaki led to domestic complications in Elam that invited Assyrian
•The cylinder inscriptions represent ASurlianipal as comiucting his campaigns in person;
but K 267.'), the oldest and most leliuble source, does not bear this out. lu the campaign against
the Minni, even Cylinder B says that he sent his troops, but later uses the first person singular.
These later inscriptions seem to have been written expressly to e.xalt the prowess of the king
and aoooiillngly ascribe to him what was in fact done by his generals. The only campaign in
which it is quite certain that the king actually took part Is the last campaign against Elam.
The Assyrian King, AsUrbanipal. 61
interference. Urtaki himself had gained the throne by driving into exile the
former occupant, his elder brother, Ummanaldas, whom he had subsequently
caused to be put to death. Now, on the death of Urtaki, a third brother, Temin-
Timmau, disregarding the claims both of the two sons of Ummanaldas and of tlie
three sons of Urtaki, seized the throne and proceeded to put to death his brothers'
sons. But his five nephews, being forewarned of his intentions, fled with sixty
members of the royal family and attendants to the court of Asurbanipal, leaving,
however, a considerable body of sympathizers in Elam. Asurbanipal was quite
ready to take up their cause, while on the other side, Temin-umman strengthened
himself by alliances with several foreign princes, including two of the descendants
of the famous Merodach-baladan, whose territories lay along the Persian Gulf,
and several important Arabian chieftains. The war resulted in the total defeat
of the Elamites and their allies, and cost Temin-umman his head, while excessive
punishments were inflicted on the chiefs who had assisted him. Elam was then
divided into two provinces to be ruled by two of the sous of Urtaki. The eastern
province was assigned to Tammarit ; and the western, with Susa as its capital, to
Ummanigas.
The close of this foreign war was quickly followed by a dangerous civil out-
break. Sa'ul-mughina, the viceroy of Babylonia, to whom a life of dependence
was becoming irksome, resolved to throw off his brother's yoke and declare him-
self king of Babylonia in his own right. By a free use of the rich treasures of
Babylonian temples, he induced UmmanigaS, now ruler of western Elam, to forget
his indebtedness to Asurbanipal and join him in his revolt. The cruel punish-
ments inflicted by Asurbanipal on the hostile chiefs at the close of the previous
war made it easy for Sa'ul-mughina to find sympathizers among other neighboring
peoples, and he enlisted in his cause a powerful Arabian tribe and one of Mero-
dach-baladan's grandsons, Nebobelsumi. With every prospect of success, he was
prepared to advance into Assyria, when his plans were defeated by a disturbance
in another quarter. The weakness of the forces retained by Ummanigas at Susa
tempted Tammarit, ruler of eastern Elam, to make himself master of the western
province also, and accordingly he surprised Susa and put Ummanigas to death.
He was disposed, however, to continue the policy of Ummanigas, and went to as-
sist Sa'ul-mughina in his revolt. In his absence, a mountain chieftain, Indabigas
by name, came down upon Susa and occupied Tammarit's throne. The army of
Elam in Babylonia refused to assist Tammarit to regain his throne and returned
home in a body. Tammarit fled into concealment, and later made his way to
Nineveh. Sa'ul-mughina, thus abandoned by his strongest allies, was obliged to
assume the defensive. But his walled towns fell one by one, till finally Babylon
itself was taken. Before opening the gates, however, the populace, maddened by
the pangs of hunger, had seized Sa'ul-mughina and burned him alive. Many of
the nobles who had taken part in the insurrection were put to death, while those
for whom this was not the first offence were mutilated and their limbs cast to the
beasts of prey. Nebobelsumi, however, escaped and found refuge with the mount-
ain chieftain Indabigas at Susa.
It was probably about this time that the subject provinces in the west were
lost to the Assyrian empire. Psammetichus, the son of Necho, who after his
father's death at Memphis had been appointed a governor In the Delta, seized the
opportunity presented by the engagement of all the Assyrian forces in Babylonia
and Elam to renounce his allegiance, and invited Gyges to do the same. The lat-
62 The Old Testament Student.
ter, whose friendly embassy and gifts had been received by Asurbanipal as an act
of submission, and who had been required to send tribute, though his country had
never been actually invaded by Assyrian arms, was quite ready to do so, and also
sent aid to Psammetichus. These forces, believed to be the lonians and Carians
mentioned by Herodotus, were of great assistance to Psammetichus, and Egypt
under the dynasty then established, known as the twenty-sixth Saite dynasty,
began a long and prosperous independence. It would perhaps have been better for
Gyges to have kept his troops at home ; for shortly after this, his country was
overrun by a horde of barbarians, supposed to be the Cimmerians, on whose de-
feat he was congratulating himself when he sent his second embassy to Asur-
banipal. Gyges himself lost his life and was succeeded by his son Ardys.
Lenormant thinks this invasion of the Cimmerians was made by invitation of
A.surhaiiipal. However that may be, Asurbanipal seems to have made no effort
to retain possession of Egypt. To hold it thus far had already necessitated three
campaigns, and he seems to have regarded further efforts as futile, owing to the
distance of Egypt and the present occupation of all his forces in Babylonia. He
refused to be distracted from the work in hand. If it was his intention to take
up the Egyptian affair when the war in Elam should be finished, he probably
found when that time came that Psammetichus was too firmly established to
make the attempt practicable.
On the death of Sa'ul-mughina and the punishment of the Arabian chieftains,
a peace of several yeai's followed. Asurbanipal demanded of Indabigas the sur-
render of Nebobelsuuii, but did not trouble himself to enforce the request by
arms. Internal troubles in Elam, however, soon again invited Asurbanipal's in-
terference. IndabigaS was slain by Ummanaldas, chief of his bowmen, who
seized the throne but had to maintain it against numerous other claimants. As
a pretext for war, Asurbanipal renewed his demand for the person of Nebobel-
sumi, and when this pretext was made void by the suicide of the refugee, who
found that be was to be given up, .Vsurbanipal did not wait for other excuse, but
overran the country. Ummanaldas succeeded in maintaining himself in the
mountains of eastern Elam, but western Elam was taken and placed under the
authority of Tammarit, who as mentioned above, had been a refugee at the court
, of Asurbanipal since the inroad of Indabigas. But be had not held this position
long, before be was discovered to be plotting to make himself independent of
Assyria. He was seized and sent in chains to Xineveh. A second attempt by
Ummanaldas to possess himself of the whole territory was followed by the subju-
gation of both divisions. The entire country was devastated and its cities were
spoiled. The crowning act of this long series of wars was the complete subjuga-
tion of all Elam and its organization as a province of the Assyrian empire, ruled
by Assyrian officers. In a battle near Damascus, ASurbanipal severely chastised
the Arabian chiefs who had assisted Sa'ul-mughina, after which the country
seems to have enjoyed peace till his death.
[To be concluded in November number.]
SYNOPSES OF IMPOETANT ARTICLES.
The Muslim's Faith.* — The common conception of Muhammadauism errone-
ous. In order to gain the reverent submission of two hundred millions Islam must
have had some great truths to teach. These v?ere (1) belief in a Ood, "a real,
living, personal God, the Creator, the Sustalner, and the Governor of the whole
human race." Eatioualism is foreign to Islam; the incarnation is not a strange
thing, and the trinity was declaimed against only as Muhammad understood it.
(2) Belief in a divine revelation made " in many portions and in divers manners."
Not only, however, was the Torah revealed to Moses, the Psalms to David, the
Evangel to Jesus and the Koran to Muhammad, but Muhammad is the " ' seal of
the prophets' to the abrogation of all other religious dispensations." (3) Belief
in a future life, in which all men shall be rewarded or punished for the things
done in the body. It is and always will be a question, how far the sensual char-
acter of heaven was to be taken Literally, but the hell of the Koran is one of literal
fire. (4) Belief in salvation by faith, defined by theologians as " the confession of
the Ups, and the confidence of the heart." Yet every inducement was held out
to lead men to tlie performance of good deeds. The moral code was definite and
very strict. (5) Belief in a sacrifice, the great central feast of Islam being a day
of sacrifice, a witness, though unconscious that " without the shedding of blood
there is no remission." The missing link in the Muslim's creed is the crucifixion
of Christ. (6) Belief in prayer ; five times a day he adores God and seeks forgive-
ness and guidance ; these prayers formal perhaps, but not more so than those of
millions of so-called Christians. And there is scarcely a sentence in the whole
liturgy which a Christian might not utter. It is a matter for thankfulness that
in a day when prayer is scoffed at, Islam teaches its reality to so many millions.
(7) Belief in the absolute predestination of good and evil. " From the beginning
God created one family for Paradise and another for hell. Hence the fatalism
which enervates and demoralizes the social and national life of all Muslim people."
(8) Belief in the second coming of Christ, not taught definitely in the Koran, but
referred to frequently in the Traditions. (9) Belief in the need of divine grace; a
prayer recited forty times a day begins, " Guide thou us m the straight path, the
path of those to whom thou art gracious." In deahngs with Muhammadans, use
should be made of the great truths which they already possess. Here is a basis
upon which a superstructure may be erected. The method of attack is wrong
and will prove futile. It is not the method employed either by Christ or by the
Apostles. Muhammadauism has failed to regenerate men; so does Judaism.
Both have failed simply because they were not Christianity.
A clear, and direct presentation of facts little known and less appreciated. If it is a true
one, and the author is an authority, the suggestions which he makes concerning one of the
great problems of the age would seem to be of a most practical character.
* Rev. Thomas Patrick Hughes, M. R. A. S., Lebanon Springs, New York. The Andover
Review, July 1888. Pp. 23-35.
64 The Ou) Testament Student.
The Higher Criticism in its Theological Bearings.* — The higher criticism is
modern in its origin. While scholars of former days concerned themselves with
the text of Scripture, questions are now being discussed as to the composition,
the credibility, the integrity and literary form of the biblical writings. The issue
of these modem investigations has left the New Testament practically whole and
unharmed. But the ca.se is different with the Old Testament and especially with
the Pentateuch. The critical scholars of the Old Testament to-day are practic-
ally unanimous in maintaining the composite character of the Pentateuch. It is
probably a compilation of at least four separate documents all subsequent to the
time of Moses. This theory being accepted, what are the results to theology ?
Are they inconsistent with the Christian faith 'i While some conceptions of the
Old Testament will be altered or destroyed, its essential character as a book of
infallible moral and religious teaching will remain. In support of this it is to be
noted (!) that though not written by Moses, it is no forgery unworthy of credit, for
the book as a whole does not claim to have been written by Moses. Nor, indeed,
was there in those days any notion of literary ownership, and it was not regarded
as dishonorable to put one's ovni words into the mouth of another. It was never
done in order to deceive. (2) This theory does not impeach the veracity of Christ,
for lie did not claim to be omniscient, and in many things he was willing to work
in harmony with the views of his age. His authority does not decide the question ;
for it in this case becomes simply the authority of that generation of the Jews
that crucified Him. (3) This theory leaves the history just as credible as does
the traditional view ; for both must allow the use of earlier documents by the
author or authors. The Pentateuch, tliough written late in the life of the nation,
is in entire liarmony with the earlier historical books, and indeed, on this hypoth-
esis, is more fully brought into accord with them. Tradition among ancient peo-
ples was a valuable method of transmitting the knowledge of events. Among the
Hebrews, especially, it was largely free from myth and legend. (4) But this theory
does alter the traditional conception of the course of religious life and thought in
Israel. They did not receive their entire law, theology and ritual at the begin-
ning. Not a gloriously complete divine revelation followed by a thousand years of
apostasy, but a growing apprehension and appropriation of the Jehovah who
dwelt among them, is the view which this theory constrains us to adopt. It was
this profound consciousness of the divine presence with them that distinguished
Israel as a people. God was in the life of Israel in a higher and more intensive
form than in other nations. (5) Tlie law then does not point directly to Christ, but
only as first it sprang out of the soil of national life. Yet all this national life was
Messianic. The entire history of Israel is typical of Christ and therefore all parts
of its literature and life find their fullness in Him. Thus the new view is not
found necessarily fatal to the Christian faith. It is a theory about the Bible.
Christianity neither stands nor falls with any theory of the Bible.
The article will generally be regarded as takiiij,' ground which the evanifellcal rank and flie
are not ready to accept. It is a phase of the question worthy of careful consideration. The tone
and spirit are very liberal, yet entirely constructive.
Tlic Characteristics of Hebrew Poetry.t— (1) Hebrew poetry has the qualities of
all true poetry,— noble thought, expressed rhythmically, impressively, imagina-
* By Rev. Wm. Rupp, D. D., Reformed Quarterly Review. July, 1888. Pp. 3M-3T7.
+ By John n. Thomas in The Presbyterian Qiuirtcrly, July, 1888. Pp. 261-274.
Sttstopses of Important Articles. 65
tively. The poetic nature was characteristic of the Hebrew people throughout
their history. (2) That so much of the divine revelation is written in poetry is
explained by the fact that the human heart is most easily and deeply stirred by
great thoughts rhythmically expressed.
The characteristics of Hebrew poetry are (1) chiefly and universally, its relig-
ious purpose; (2) the absence of any consciousness of art; (3) unity; (4) the total
absence of any use of, or approach toward, fiction ; (5) directness, simplicity and
sincerity ; (6) the use of the bolder figures of speech ; (7) joyousuess ; (8) the
employment of imagery drawn from the natural scenery of Palestine, from domes-
tic life, from Hebrew history ; (9) artistic form ; (10) sublimity.
A presentation, in some respects hardly up to the times ; but comprehensive and helpful.
The Unchangeable Word.*— Progress in knowledge involving the passing
away of much that seemed to be established, is the characteristic of the present
age. But the truths that were originally written in the Word of God are unal-
terably the same. The Bible when it came from the hand of God was perfect.
This is argued (1) from the fact that the same God inspired the whole of it. It is
as complete and perfect as its divine author. It is substantiated (2) by the attri-
butes of God. He is unchangeable and perfect, and the revelation he has given
cannot be less than complete and established forever. This is proved also (3) by
the great object for which the Scriptures were written — to proclaim to all ages the
one everlasting gospel. This gospel based on universal human needs is unalter-
able and cannot be amended or improved. Practical inferences follow : — (1) All
the great doctrines of the Bible are fixed, whether or not man comprehends them.
(2) The moral law as laid down in the Bible is forever the same and is forever
binding on men.
A staunch and hearty upholding of the most conservative views relating to the Bible. It is
reassuring-, in these days of so many interrogations, to read such an article.
A Revised Text of the Hebrew Bible. t— The Revised Version of the English
Bible is veiy imsatisfactory because it adheres to the massoretic text and fails to
give any adequate recognition of the critical scholarship of the last two hundred
years. This massoretic text has no real claim to be considered an accurate tran-
script of the original manuscripts. Critical scholars for three centuries and more
have been comparing and emending this imperfect text on the established prin-
ciples of textual criticism. Examples of these changes are foimd in Gen. 1:1,
where for shamaim (heavens) is to be read maim (waters) ; also in Judges 3:8,
where for aram the correct reading is edom ; in Deut. 33:2, where the translation
of the corrected text is " and came from Meribah-Kadesh." Other changes desir-
able are to remove passages which are out of place, to their rightful positions, to
restore the ancient order of the O. T. Books, to give the prophetic writings their
proper chronological order and assign them to their right authors, and to perform
a similar service for the Psalms. A text thus amended and altered, the result
of twenty-five years of close critical study, has been prepared by Prof. Graetz of
Breslau, and now awaits pubUcation. The cost of publishing such a work will be
great, and it is hoped that American men of wealth and scholarship will feel it an
honor to aid in this enterprise.
* By T. W. Hooper D. D. in The Presbyterian Quarterly, July, 1888. Pp. 308-316.
+ By A. W. Thayer in Unitarian Review, July 1888. Pp. 58-69.
66 The Old Testament Student.
without a doubt the results of such work deserve publication; und yet it is to be feared
that Professor Graetz, if one may Judge from his emendations already suggested, e. g. in his
commentary on the Psalms, is too hasty in his conclusions to make the publication as desirable
as it would otherwise be.
yii'ws of the Babylonians concerning Life after Death.* — (1) Investigators of
this subject have been Hindis (1854), Talbot (1871), W. St. Chad Boscawen, and
Jeremias ( Die Bubylonisch-Axgyrischen VorsUllungen vom Lehen nach dem Tode (1887).
(2) Sources of information : (a) the story of tlie Descent of Istar to Hades, (trans-
lated by Mr. Adler iu tliis article); (b) the Nimrod-Epic, in which Nimrod, who
has lost a friend, resolves to seek out his ancestor, who has been deified, in order
to obtain the resurrection of his friend and immortality for himself ; but (c) the
prayers handed down contain no indication of any longing after immortality.
The rewards offered are " earthly prosperity, long life, and undying progeny."
Punishments are also earthly, viz., sickness, disease, destruction of progeny, sud-
den death. (3) Assyrians practiced burial, the denial of which was a great mis-
fortune. AVTiere they buried is a question. Lower Chaldaja, the original home,
is thought to have been the burial-place of the entire Mesopotamian Empire.
The expedition of the Royal Russian Museum (1886) examined ruins of Surghul
and El-hibba, and found both places to be cities of the dead. The corpses were
partly buried, partly incinerated. (4) Some information is given concerning the
funeral ceremonies. (5) General conclusion : The Assyro- Babylonians believe in
a future life. Reward and punishment, however, were as a rule awarded in the
flesh. Death was the great leveler, and all went to the same place, a dark, damp,
uncomfortable abode. This was denied those who were not properly buried.
For a few favorites of the gods, a happier fate was reserved. They were trans-
lated to the isles of the blessed and seem to have continued enjoying the same
sort of existence they had in the upper world. This, however, was exceptional.
Resurrection was known, but was vested largely in the hands of Allat, the queen
of the under-world, though the other gods were continually endeavoring to break
her spell.
The information contained in this article is valuable; the style and spirit are admirable.
Perhaps too much space is given to the translations, but lliese are, after all, the most important.
* By Cyrus Adler, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. The Andover Review, July,
1888. Pp. 92-101.
♦•BOOIfM^OTICES.^
SWETE'S SEPTDAGINT.*
The question of an Old Testament text is, with scholars, both tantalizing and
important ; tantalizing because of the apparent impossibility of securing within
the present generation anything at all complete or satisfactory, important because
so long as the text is confessedly so imperfect, critical results in many lines are
unattainable. This is the great problem ; but one of the many sub-problems, of
less inportance only because it is a sub-problem, is that which relates to the text
of the Septuagint, which, as agreed by all, is the most valuable help in determining
the Hebrew text. Before any work of much value can be done upon the latter,
the text of the former must be settled.
The great primary editions of the Septuagint have been 1 ) that of the Complu-
tensian Polyglott (1514-1517), 2) that of the Aldine press, but a few months later,
3) the Roman or Sixtine edition of 1587, and based on the Codex Vaticanus, and
4) the Alexandrian, issued by the Oxford Press 1707-1720. Of secondary editions
special value is assigned by our edition to the work of Holmes and Parsons {1798-
1827) not for the value of its text, but for the textual notes, and to the various
editions of Tischendorf (1850, 1856, 1860, 1869, 1875, 1880, 1887, the last two
under Nestle).
The present edition is a smaller or manual edition issued with as little delay
as possible, a more complete edition being intended to follow. The former " con-
fines itself to the variations of a few of the most important uncial codices already
edited in letterpress or facsimile." In the latter, •' it is proposed to give the va-
riations of all the Greek uncial MSS., of select Greek cursive MSS., of the more
important versions and of the quotations made by Philo and the earlier and more
important ecclesiastical writers." This edition, containing the materials for a
critical use of the Septuagint, is, of course, far superior to anything which has
hitherto been offered the student both in quality and price. Tischendorf's,
edition, up to this time the authority, like the American edition of Gesenius'
Lexicon, is one which the author, if he were now living, would refuse to recog-
nize as his own.
ABRAHAM: HIS LIFE AND TDIES.
The fifteen chapters of the book take up the following subjects : 1) Abram's
birth-place; 2) first call; 3) second call; 4) the promised land; 5) Egypt; 6) sep-
* The Old Testament in Greek accoruino to the SEPTnAGiNT, edited by the Syndics
of tlie University Press, by Henry Barclay Sweto, D. D., Honorary Fellow of Gonvllle and Caius
College. Vol. 1 Genesis-IV Kings. Cambridge, at the University Press, 1887. 8vo. Pp. 1-827.
New York : Macmillan & Co. Price, $2.25.
+ Abraham: His Life and Times. By Kev. William J. Deane, M. A., Rector of Ashen,
Essex. New York: 4nsoiiX). F.Bandolphcfc Co. 12nio. Pp.179. Price $1.00.
68 The OtD Testament Student.
aration; 7) Chedorlaomer; 8) the covenant; 9) Ilagar— circumcision ; 10) Sodom;
11) Gerar ai)d Beerslieba; 12) temptation ; 13) Maclipelah ; 14) Isaac's marriage;
16) closing years— death. The writer has formally adopted no theory of the docu-
ments of Genesis, his chief authority. He understands the narrative of that
book to liave been derived from different sources and to have been worked up
by a compiler into a consistent and fairly complete biography, and this with the
hints obtained from later Scripture gives us a finished picture of the patriarch.
Partly because the biblical narrative itself is so full, and hence a biography
of Abraham must consist largely of material already very familiar, partly
because the outside sources, at this early period, are comparatively rare and
unreliable and partly also because of the failure of the writer to build his work
upon a scientific interpretation of the records given us in Genesis, this volume is
not so valuable as some others of the series of which it is a part.
SOLOMON: HIS LIFE AND TEMES.*
This book is written by Canon Farrar, who is known as a prolific writer and
profound biblical scholar. In it are all the characteristics which we would
expect to find in a book written by its distinguished author. The influence
which surrounded the childhood and youth of Solomon,— his accession to the
throne,— the initial troubles of his reign,— his notable sacrifice and dream,— the
splendor of his court,— the building of the temple— its plan and aspect,— the
other buildings and cities which added to the glory of the kingdom, and the mar-
velously extended commerce which laid under contribution the products and
wealth of the surrounding nations, are pictured with an ailist's skill, and we are
made to see " Solomon in all'his glory."
The chapter on the decline of Solomon is the saddest and most instructive in the
book. The depth of the decline is thus presented at the close of the chapter. " lie
changed the true Israel into a feeble Simulacrum of Egypt,— a pale reflex of
Phoenicia. He stands out to kings as a conspicuous warning against the way
in wliich they should not walk. He found a people free, he left them enslaved ;
he found them unburdened, he left them oppressed; he found them simple, he
left them luxurious; he found them inclined to be faithful to one God, he left
them indifferent to the abominations of heathendom which they saw practiced
under the very shadow of his palace and his shrine; he found them occupying a
unique position as providential witnesses to one saving truth, he left them a
nation like other nations, only weaker in power and exhausted in resources."
The remainder of the book is mainly devoted to a careful consideration of
the wisdom of Solomon and books attributed to him. He says, " If Solomon's
authorsliip of the Song of Songs must be regarded as being in the highest degree
dubious, it must now be looked upon as a certain result of advancing knowledge
that he was not the author of Ecclesiastes." "In the Book of Proverbs, more
probably by far than in the other books attributed to Solomon, we may possess
some of his contributions to the thought of the world."
This book should be in the library of every thoughtful and devout student of
the Bible.
♦ Solomon: His Life and Times. By Rev. F. W. Farrar, D. D., F. R. S., Archdeacon and
Canon of Westminster; and Cliaplain In ordinary to the Queen. New York: Ansun D. F.
Rftndiilph <i Co., 38 West Twenty-third Street.
Book Notices. 69
THE PEOPLE'S BIBLE.*
The fifth and sixth volume of " The People's Bible," covering Joshua,
Judges, are on our table. Tweuty-flve volumes are to complete what has been
called "Parker's greatest work." The author treats the Bible as a book for the
people, as a revelation from God to the human family in which all the members
of the family have a common interest. In his view, on the very surface is found
in history, prophecy and song, in gospels, epistles and apocalypse, that which
meets the necessities of people of all classes. The alternative title, "Discourses
upon Holy Scripture," better describes the contents of tlie book. The author is a
London preacher with a representative congregation of the world's people before
him. He and they together are going through their own Bible, seeking to grasp
its grandest truths, to learn its gieatest lessons, and to breathe in its pure and
lofty spirit. The preacher, Dr. Parker, may be a skillful exegete, but results not
processes are what he gives the people. The digging and blasting have been done
in his study, if done at all ; in his pulpit there is no sight of either pickax or ham-
mer, or smell of powder. We see him only as one moving over a rich mineral
region, lifting and exhibiting to the people who press around liiui, nuggets of pre-
cious ore, and discoursing eloquently on their value aud use. Thus he goes
through the Bible. Those who follow him will, with little effort on their part,
find a certain profit and enjoyment, but not that profit and enjoyment which come
from an examination of what lies beneath the surface. A great multitude of
people, alas that it is so great, can enjoy and be profited by only such a treatment
of the holy volume.
ELIJAH : HIS LIFE AND TIMES.t
This volume treats of one of the most critical periods in the history of the
Jewish people, and the most remarkable propliet in that history until we come
to " the days of him in whom all men recognized a second Elijah." The author
gives us a graphic account of the state of Israel at the first appearance of Elijah.
He shows us Israel wavering between the worship of the living God aud that of
Baal, and Elijah, the type of the prophet in all ages, witnessing for tlie truth.
We see taking place the miglity changes caused by Elijah's bold and fearless tes-
timony to the existence of the true God. Critical points and points in contro-
versy are merely touched upon, but where any reference is made to opposing
views it is with a commendable spirit of fairness. Whenever, in the course of the
history, ethical or theological questions arise the author has treated them fully and
clearly. The care given to the interpretation of ditlicult passages, — for example,
those connected with the ascension of Elijah, — is esiiecially noteworthy. He takes
Elijah as the type of the Christian minister, and he seizes every opportunity, both
in the life of Elijah and in the history of his times, to derive practical lessons
which he presses home to the breasts of his readers. The style of both thought
and expression is simple and perspicuous. The book is especially practical, and
will commend itself to all classes of readers.
* The People's Bible. Discourses upon Holy Scripture by Joseph Parker, Minister of the
City Temple. Vols. V. and VI. New York: Fuiift * H'nDHnHs. Per vol., $1..50.
t Elijah: His Life and Times. By Rev. W. Milligan, D. D., Professor of Divinity and Bib-
lical Criticism, Aberdeen. New Torli : A. D. F. Randulph <t Co. ]3mo. Pp. 205. Price Sl.OO.
COREESPONDENCE SCHOOL OF HEBREW.
The following- persons have been enrolled as
members of the Correspondence School dur-
ing Aug-ust and September: Mr. K. T. Camp-
bell, Pawnee City, Neb.; Rev. C. E. Chandler,
Columbus, O.; Mr. H. W. Dickerman, Chicago,
111.; Rev. C. .T. Dobson, Claremont, Ontario,
Can.; Rev. J. H. GIrdwood, Ceresco, Mich.; Mr.
C. V. U. Hodge, Burlington, N. J.; Miss E. E.
Howard, Charlottesville, Va.; Mr. J. A. Ing-
ham, Haekcttstown, N. J.; Mr. T. J. Kirkpat-
rick, Springfield, O.; E. S. Maxson, M. D., Syra-
cuse, N. Y.; Rev. T. McAulis, Broach, India;
Prof. R. W. McGranahan. Coultcrsviiic, Pa.;
Rev. W. P. McKee, Minneapolis, Minn.; Rev.
B. W. Mebane, Dublin, Va. ; Rev. J. R. Munro,
Antigonish, N. S., Can.; Rev. D. F. Mus-
tard, Walton, Kan.; Rev. R. F. Norton, E. Nor-
wich, N. Y.; Prof. F. W. Phelps, Topcka, Kan.;
Rev. J. .1. Redditt, Scarboro, Ontario, Can.;
Rev. J. W. Smith, Xenia, O.; Rev. S. B. Tur-
rentine. King's Mountain. N. C. : Rev. B. C.
Warren, Deal's Island, Md.; Mr. E. M. Wherry,
Le Roy, N. Y.
It will be noticed that only about one-half of
the persons in the above list are ministers.
Of the other half nearly all are students who
have not yet entered the theological seminary.
This is an encouraging fact, as it is one of the
indications of the growth of sentiment in
favor of the acquisition of Hebrew as a prep-
aration for the theological course. The still
larger number who have begun the language
in the Summer Schools this year furnish an-
other indication of the same sort.
The graduates for the two months are Rev.
W. P. Archibald, Cavendish, Prince Edivard
Island, Can.; Prof. Holmes Dysinger, Car-
thage, III.; Prof. D. S. Gage, Macon, 111.; Prof.
W. H. Long, Waco, Texas; Mr. J. K. McGllllv-
ray, Winnipeg, Manitoba; Rev. D. D. Owen,
Pulaski, N. Y.; Rev. D. H. Patterson, TuUy,
N. Y.; Rev. J. Wood Saunders, Deer Park, 111.
I'erfect papers have been received from Rev.
E. H. Barnett, D. D., Atlanta, Ga., 2; Rev. J. P.
Bowell, Maple Bay, \'ancouver Island, I; Rev.
G. W. Davis, New Haven, Conn., 1; Mr. John
A. Ingham, Haekcttstown, N. J., 1; Rev. J. W.
Smith, Xenia. Ohio, 1; Rev. J. J. Van Zanten,
Holland, Mich., 1, and Mr. E. J. Young, Wash-
ington, D. C.,2.
It is an encouraging fact that more exami-
nation papers have been received and cor-
rected in each month this year than in the cot^
responding month of the previous year. The
amount of work done is the real test of the
success of the School, rather than the number
of additions to the list of members.
The attention of the members of the School
is called to the new Instruction Card, of which
a copy has been sent to each student. Observe
particularly the increase in the number of
prizes otTered to those sending in the largest
number of examination papers from Dec. 1,
isas, to Nov. :iOth, 188». Those who are com-
poting for the prizes offered this year shotild
remember that less than two months remain
in which to send in papers. A list of all who
have forwarded forty or more examlnatloa
papers during the year will be published In the
January Student.
To those students who have covered a con-
siderable amount of Hebrew work it will be
easy and very pleasant to take a cognate
course in Arabic or Assyrian. These studies
open a fresh field of research, involve new ele-
ments of linguistic acquisition, bring the stu-
dent into an unexplored epoch of history, and
furnish fresh incentives to Hebrew work
Itself. With the assistance of Mr. K. K. San-
ders, M. A., a Scholar in Semitic languages in
Yale University, the principal is able to offer
courses in these languages, arranged upon the
same plan and taught by the same methods as
those of the Hebrew courses.
Five members of the Correspondence School
have died within the past year. They are Prof.
N. H. Ensley, of Rodney, Miss., formerly a pro-
fessor in Washington, D. C, who will be re-
membered as one of the colored students by
those who attended the Chicago Summer School
of 18&1; Rev. F. K. Lcavell, of Baltimore, Md.,
one of the graduates of last year who took a
very high rank in the School; Rev. Donald
MacGregor, of Houston, Texas; Rev. L. R.
McCormick, of LoweysviUe, S. C, and Rev. E.
D. Simons, of New York City.
It may be announced that what is a branch
of the Correspondence School of Hebrew, has
been established in Tokio. Japan. This is the
outgrowth of an interest in Hebrew work which
is rapidly spreading, and of an appreciation of
the practical elliciency of the correspondence
system. Details of this new organization will
be given later.
CURRENT OLD TESTAMENT LITERATURE.
AMERICAN AND FOEEIGN PrBLICATIONS.
The Sermon Bible: Qenesis to 3 Samuel. N. T.:
A. C. Armstrong and Son Sl.oO.
Boitddha. By Jules Claretie. Paris $7.60.
The Inspiration of the Old Testament inductively
considered. The 7th Congrregational Union
Lecture. By Alfred Cave. London: Con-
gregational Union.
Juedlwhe Oeschichte., I. Ton ihren Aufiingen bis
zum Vntergatige d. Reiches Juda. By E.
Kriihe. Berlin: Oemigke M.4.50.
Derbiblische Simson der aegyptische Horus-Ra.
By E. Wietzlse. Wittenberg: Wunschmann.
.. M.1.40.
La Bible. Trojduction nouvelle. II. Levitique,
Nombres, Deuteronomie. Par E. Ledrain.
Paris : Lemerre 7.50f .
Die aenesis, mit Unterscheidung der Quellen-
schriften. By E. Kautzsch and A. Socin.
Beitraege zur semitischen Religions-geschichtc.
Der Gott Israel's u. die Goetter der Heiden.
By F. Baethgen. Berlin: Reuther M.IO.
Die Zerstrcuung d. Volkes Israel. 3. Hft.: Der
Thalmud. Berlin: Reuther M.l.SO.
La Sainte Bible. Texte de la Vulgate, traduc-
tion franyaise en regard, avec commentaires
tht'ologiques,etc. Le Deuteronome. Le Nom-
bres. Par Trochon et Bayle. Paris: Le-
thieilieux.
Introduetion a la critique generale de l' ancien
tes tnmeut. DeTorigine du Pentateuque. II
By L'Abbe Martin. Paris: Maisonneuye.SOf.
ARTICLES AND REVIEWS.
Manly's Bible Doctrine of Inspiration. By C. L.
Diven in New Englander, August, 1888.
From the Red Sea to Mt. Siiiai. By E. L. Wil-
son, in the Century, July, 1888.
Tlie Way of the Philistities. By A. H. Sayce, in
Independent, Aug. 2, 1888.
Delitzsch's New Genesis Commentary. Review.
Ibid, June U.
Was the Exodus- Pharaoh droimied in the Bed
Sea! By Prof. J. A. Paine, Ph. D., in the
Examiner. Aug. 16, '23, 30. 1888.
The Teaching of Bible History. By J. Sewall in
Sunday School Times. July 7, 1888.
Sayce on Babylonian Religion. Review. Ibid.
Stapfer's Palestine in the Time of Christ. Re-
view. Ibid, July 14.
The Offerings of the O. T. By C. A. Briggs.
Ibid, July 21.
Westmintter Abbey Lectures on Job. Review.
Ibid.
TheChokhma. By W. W.Davles. Ibid, Aug. 11.
Kittel's Oeschichte der Eebraeer. Critique in
Independent, July 19, 1888.
Prof. Delilzsch and the Jews. By B. Pick. Ibid.
An old Babylonian Letter. By T. G. Pinches.
Ibid, Aug. 23.
The Book of Job: with reference to Chap. 19:
23-27. By Rev. W. B. Hutton in Expositor,
Aug. 1888.
Delitzsch's Oenesis. By Kautzsch in Theol.
Ltztng, July 28, 1888.
Merx's Chrestomathia Targumiea. By Baeth-
gen. Ibid, Aug, 11.
Heiligstedfs Praeparationen zum Propheten
Jesaja. By Budde. Ibid.
Dalman's Der leidende und der sterbende
MessiasM.s.vr. By Siegfried. Ibid.
T?it' Lake of Moeris and the Patriarch Joseph.
Bv F. C. Whitehouse in Camb. Antiq. Soo.
Comm. XXVIII., 1888.
Tlic Name of "Moses." By A. H. Sayce in
Academy, July 7, 1888.
"Mosheh and Mastt." The Name "Moses."
By G. W. CoUins and E. B. Birks. Ibid,
July 14.
Notes on certain passages in Dcutero-Isaiah.
[40:19; 44:11; 46:14; .52:2:. By A. A. Bevan in
The Jour, of Philol. XVII., 1888.
EzechieVs Weissagung wider Tyrus. Cap. 26, 27,
38. By C. H. Manchot in Jahrbb. f. prot.
Theol. 3. 1888.
Das Buch Daniel u. die assyriologische For-
schung. 2. Das Mahl des Belsazar. By O.
Andrea in Bew. d. Glaubens. July, 1888.
Die nordamcricanisehen pentatcuchkritischen Es-
says. By F. Delitzsch in Ztschr. f. kir. Wiss.
u. Leb. 5. 1888.
Questions actuelle d'exegese et d'apologie biblique.
III. Les objections contre I'origine Mosaique
du Pentateuque. By J. Brucker in Etudes
rel. philos. et hist. July, 1888.
Micha Studien. I. Tegcnicoordige stand van het
Micha Traagstuck. By J. W. Pont in Theol.
Stud., 4, 1888.
The Pentateuchal Story of Creation. By Geo.
D. Armstrong, D. D., in Presby. Quarterly,
October, 1888.
Ewald's Old and New Testament Theology. By
J. L. Girardeau. Ibid.
Ladd's What is the Bible. By S. M. Suiith. Ibid.
Jeremias\ Die BabyUmish.assyrischen Vnrstel-
lungen voni Lcbcn tiach dem Tode. By Budde
in Theol. Ltrzt., Sept. 8, 1888.
L'entree des Israelites en Canaan et I'Egypte. By
R. Chatelanat in Rev. Chret., 8, 1888.
The Ten Tribes. By C. R. Conder in the Pales-
tine Exploration Fud, July, 1888.
The Burial of Moses. By A. R. Thompson, D.
D., in S. S. Times. Sept. 8, 1888.
The Ten Commandments as a covenant of Love.
By H. C. Trumbull, D. D., in S. S. Times,
Sept. 1.';, 22, 1888.
The Temples of Egypt. By Edw. L. Wilson in
Scribner's Magazine, October, 1888.
The Song of Solomon. By A. H. Moment, D.
D., in The Treasury, October, 1888.
The Text-Critical Value of the Septucw'nt. By
Prot. G, H. Schodde in The Independent,
Sept. 27, 1888.
Michael Heilprin: Life nf a Hebrew Scholar.
By J. W. Chadwlck in Unitarian Review,
September, 1888.
Drummond's Philo. Ibid.
The Pool of the Serpents. By Prof. J. A. Paine
in Independent, Sept. 13, 1888.
Immanuel. Editorial. Ibid.
Mrtses' Idea of God. By E. M. Epstein in Chris-
tian Quarterly Review, October, 1888.
The Origin. Mission and Destiny of, and the
Christian's Relation to. Civil Oovemment,from
the Old Testament. By David Lipscomb. Ibid.
Cheyne's Booh of Psalms. ByA. W.Benn. Ibid.,
Sept. 8; also in Athenspum, Sept. 1.
Junior-right among the Canaanites. By O. Neu-
bauer. Academy, Sept. 1.5.
Junior-right in Qeyiesis. By J. Jacobs in Archae-
ological Review, July, 1888.
Lenormant's HistoireAnciennc del' Orient. Athe-
niEum, Sept. 15.
The 3Ionoliths of Cyprus. By S. P. OUver, R. A.
Ibid.
Idea of O. T. Priesthood fulfilled in the N. T. By
Rev. Prof. W. Milligan, D. D., in The Expos-
itor, September, 1S88.
The Pentateuch: Egypticity and authenticity. By
G. Lansing. D.D. Ibid.
Die Essener. By R. Ohle in Jahrb. f . prot. Theol.,
July, 18S8.
Dawson's Modem Science in Bible Lands. By
W. Houghton in Academy, Sept. 1, 1888.
^ IJEHI •!• TEST^n^ElJT •:• SOTPLEIIJEIJT -^
OF
INDUCTIVE BIBLE-STUDIES.-SECOND SERIES.
[CofyditM l.y W. R. H>r]Kr, ISSJ.]
Forty Studies on the Life of the Christ, based on the Gospel of Mark.
Edited by William R. Harper, Tale University, New Haven.
STUDY v.— BEGINNINGS OF OPPOSITION. MARK 2:1-22.
Besome of Studies l.-VW. 1. The ministry of John as a preparation for the Ctirist. 2. The early
life of Jesus and the events which opened the way to his public ministry. 3. An outline
of hie life and work from the baptism to the events now to be considered.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead carefully Mark 2:1-22, and be able to make a definite statement upon each
of the following points :
1. return to Capernaum (v. 1) ; 5. associates of Jesus (v. 15) ;
2. a paralytic healed (vs. 2-12) ; 6. Jesus criticised ; lie replies (vs.
3. teaching by the sea (v. 13) ; 16,17) ; [22).
4. a new disciple (v. 14); 7. discussion about fasting (vs. 18-
II. The Material Compared.
1. With vs. 1-23 of. Mt. 9:2-17; Lk. 5:i;-S».
2. Note in Matthew, 1) the brevity of the narrative of the miracle; 2) the multitude's Idea about
Jesus, V. 8, "men"; 3) the name Matthew, 9:9; 4i a characteristic addition, 9:1!!.
3. Note In Luke, 1) the audience, 5:1J; 2) the condition of Jesus, 6:17; 3> details about Levi,
5:27-29.
4. Note in both, 1) more dcflnlto statements about the opposition to Jesus, Mt. 9:4; Lk. 5:30;
2) the fear of the people, Mt. 9:8; Lk. 5:20.
m. The Material Esiilained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AJSID QUESTIONS.
1) V. 1. T/ie house; I.e. of Peter, cf. 1:29. (Num. 23:5,lfi; Deut. 30:14; Isa. 2:3;
2) T. 2. (a) Observe Mark's characteristic de- etc.); and by the apostles (2 Tim. 4:2;
tails which appear also in vs. 3,4. Do James 1:21; I Pet. 2:81.
they suggest that here Is the narra- 3) V. 9. Mansick-nf-thc-palny; i. e. a paralytic.
tlve of an eye-witness? 4) V. 4. Note the phrases uiicowied and /ir(*cii
(b) The word; (Mk. 1G:20; Lk. 1:2; « up (lit. "scooped it out"), and ob-
Acts »:4). Abbreviated term for the serve their appropriateness to an ori-
gospel of the Kingdom of God; cf. ental dwelling.
Mt. 13:19; note similar use in theO.T.
New Testament Supplement. 73
5) T. 5. Faith; (a) of whom? (b) in what? U) V. 16. (a) Publicans ; cf. Lk. 3:13; 19:8; Mt.
6) T. 8. Perceiving, etc.; contrasted with the 5:46,47; 18:17; 31:33. From these and
"reasoning" of the scribes, an im- other passages learn something of
mediate and full spiritual insight; their business and social position
What light on the intellect of Jesus? from the Jewish stand-point.
7) T. 9. (a) -Ts; emphatic. What was the un- (b) SiHiiCT's; either (l)mei-ely foreign-
derlying thought of the scribes ? ers, or (3) persons who did not strictly
8) T. 10. (a) Son of Man; (cf. Dan. 7:13,14) (1) a observe the Jewish law, or (3) people
title of the expected Christ, but not of vicious lives.
in common use; (2) it emphasizes his (c) Disciples; (1) first used here in
lowliness and universal human rela- Mark to describe Jesus' associates;
tions; (3) it both reveals and conceals (2) meaning of the word; (3) whom
that he is the Christ. did it here include ?
(b) Power; note Jesus' consciousness 13) V. 16. P/iarisecs; meaning of the word?
of authority, cf. 1:23,27. 13) T. 18. (a) John's disciples; (1) where was
9) V. 13. (a) Sca-stde; what sea? John? (3) how account for their
(b) Multitude; describes a social class, union with the Pharisees in view of
"the common people" (cf. 12:37). Mt. 3:7? (3) motives in their ques-
10) V. 14. (a) Levi; (1) meaning of the name? tion?
(2) another name, Mt. 9:9; (3) how (b) Were fasting; i. e. at the time of
explain the fact of two names ? cf . this feast. Reasons why Jesus and
Mt. 16:17,18; Acts 13:9. (4) what prob- his disciples should fast; (1) either it
ability of his previous acquaintance was a legal fast-day, or (3) as a mark
with Jesus ? of their piety,
(b) ■place-of-toll ; custom-house; why
needed in this region ?
2. GENEBAL TOPICS.
1) The Miracle. Vs. 3-12. (a) From the material at hand seek to picture the
whole scene as vividly as possible ; (b) note in relation to the person healed,
his disease and apparent physical condition ; (c) study the word of forgive-
ness (v. 5), and consider the possible inferences from it as to (1) the man's
mental and moral state, (2) the insight of Jesus, (3) the prominence of the
spiritual element in his work; (d) observe the internal evidence for the
miracle, (1) the opposition of the scribes silenced, (2) the feelings of the
people (v. 12), (3) other possible arguments.
2) First Principles. Vs. 17,19-22. (a) Note carefully the characteristics of these
answers of Jesus as (1) indirect, (2) pictorial (cf. Lk. 5:36, "parable"), (3)
comprehensive; (b) study each one as exhibiting some phase of Jewish
life, e. g. (1) medicine, (2) marriage {explain these words as connected with
a marriage, sons-of-the-bride-chamber,^'' ^^ bridegroom," "cannot /ast," " shall-
be-taken-away ") ; (3) clothing (explain ''undressed" '' fiU it up" ''worse
rem"); (4) making and keeping of wine; (c) decide whether these phrases
have each a special meaning in the teaching which Jesus here conveys, and
if so, note especially "sick" [v. 17), "bridegroom" (v. 19, ef . John 3:29),
" shall-be-taken-aioay " (v. 20), "old garment" (v. 21), "new wine," "fresh
wine-skins " (v. 22). (d) Study the whole (1) as answers to the criticisms of
vs. 16,18; (2) as revealing the principles of Jesus concerning the persons he
seeks, and his methods of dealing with them ; (3) as disclosing the spirit of
the new company ; (4) as opposed to the prevailing religious ideas of the time.
IV. The Material Organized.
1. Classify the material, as in previous "studies," under the following heads : (1)
persons; (2) habits and customs; (3) institutions; (4) miracles; (5) impor-
tant events; (6) characteristics of Jesus; (7) literary data.
*4
74 The Old Testament Student.
2. Condense the material into the briefest possible statement under the leading
thought of Beginnings of Opposition, e. g. :
Questions arc raised in the course of the work of Jipsds about his right (1) to
fortrive sius, (2) to associate with publicans and sinners and (:5) to refrain
from fasting'. He answers the llrst by working a miracle of healing; the
second, by the deelaratiun that his mission is tu call sinners ; the third, by
showing that fasting is not suited to the spirit of his disciples and would only
injure their religions life.
V. The Material Applied.
Fasting. 1. The spirit and purpose of fasting as a religious exercise. 2. Its rela-
tion to the Clirlstian life; 1) regarded as foreign to tlie spirit of Jesus,
2) allowable and desirable in certain circumstances, 3) the great condition
■which regulates its use (vs. 1 9. :iO)— relation to Jesus Christ, 4) limitation
of its practice, e. g. by health, duty, personal feelings, etc., 5) dangers both
physical and spiritual in its exercise, 6) its relation to the religious needs
of the present day.
STUDY VI.— THE FIRST CONFLICTS. MARK 2:23-3:6.
Besume. I. Recall the occasions on wbicb Jesus be^ran to encounter opposition. 2. Mention the
persons from whom it came. 3. Note the teachings of Jesus which were likely to arouse It.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead carefully Mk. 2:23-3:6, and be able to make a definite statement concerning
each of the following points :
1. Disciples pluck grain in the fields 4. Jesus in the synagogue (ch. 3:1);
on the Sabbath (v. 23); 5. Pharisees watcli him (v. 2);
2. Pliarisees question (v. 24); 6. a withered hand healed (vs. 3-5);
3. Jesus replies (vs. 25-28) ; 7. plots against Jesus (v. 6).
II. The Material Compared.
1. With2:23-;^:6. cf. JIt. 12:1-14; I.k. 6:1-11.
2. Obsers-e additional points: 1) explanatuiy. Mt. li:l,9,10,lS: Lk. 6:1,6-8,11; 2) characteristic.
Ml. 12:5-7 ; 3) another arKumtnt, Mt. 12:11,12.
3. Review the order of events in Mk. 2:1 3:«, and note how Matthew follows a different order.
Cf. nt. 9:18-11:30.
III. The Material Explained.
1. textual topics and questions.
1) V. 23. Ears of com; (a) either wheat or bar- 4) V. 26. (a) Abiatliar; (1) the historical diflB-
Icy; (b) both ripened in April. The culty here; (2) various explanations
time of the event may have been proposed?
either just before or just after the ib) Shewbread; cf. Lev. 24:6-9. What
Passover. reason for supposing this event to
2) T. 24. Nat lawful; (a) the three-fold action have occurred on the Sabbath ?
of the disciples, cf. Mt. 12:1; Lk. 6:1; (c) Gave lo Oicm; what added argu-
(b) of. Deut. 23:i;5; Ex. 16:25,2ti; 20:9,10, ment here?
and determine what was the offense 5)Ch.S:l. T/ic tiynagogue; i. e. of Capernaum,
charged. cf. Mk. 1:21.
3) T. 25. What David did; (a) examine the his- 6) V. 2. (a) Watclied; a new attitude toward
tory referred to: (b) wherein lay the Jesus,
force of this argument ?
New Testament Supplement. 75
(b) Accuse; of what crime before and feeling and action, (3) they are them-
what tribunal (cf. Mt. 26;o9) ? selves responsible for it.
7) T. 5. (a) l/ookeil round about; characteristic 8) ?. 6. (a) Herodians ; (1) meaning of the
detail of Mark. name, (3) a party opposed in politics
(b) The human feelings of Jesus, (1) and doctrine to the Pharisees,
anger, (2) grief, (3) compassion. (b) Dentrny; cf. E.\. 31:15.
(c) Hardening; (1) a process going on,
(2) a growing incapacity for right ,
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
1) The Sabbath, (a) Read Ex. 20:8-11; 31:12-17; 35:3; Num. 15:32-36; Dent.
5:15, and consider the law of the Sabbath and the ground given there for its
observance ; (b) gather, from wliatever sources accessible, facts as to the
existence of a Sabbath among other ancient peoples ; (c) learn something of
the method in which this law was interpreted and applied to social life by
tlie Jewish teachers in the time of Jesus ; (d) mark the relation of Jesus to
this law, (1) superior to it, 2:28, (2) restoring its real purpose and giving
its true interpretation, 2:27; 3:4 (cf. Lk. 14:2-6; 13:10-17), (3) making it, in
certain respects, of none effect for himself and his disciples.
2) The Miracle. Mk. 3:1-6 (and parallels), (a) Bring the scene in its details
clearly and vividly before the mind ; (b) the special characteristics of this
miracle, (1) on the Sabbath, (2) without touch or direct command; (c) evi-
dence for its reality in (1) the incurable nature of the ailment, (2) the atti-
tude of the Pharisees before and after the event; (d) its purpose as (1) a
proof of power, (2) an illustration of his teaching about the Sabbath, (3) a
manifestation of mercy.
3) Hostility to Jesus, (a) Compare this attitude and action of the scribes and
Pharisees with their former relations to Jesus, cf. John 2:18 ; 4:1 ; Mk. 2:6,
7,16,18; (b) causes for their present hostility (1) in the actions of Jesus (cf.
John 5:16), (2) in his teachings, (3) in his claims; (c) how far this opposi-
tion may be regarded as prompted by honest religious motives ; (d) causes
for the hostility of the Herodians ; (e) significance of their union with the
Pharisees against Jesus.
IV. The Material Organized.
1. Oather the material and classify it under the following heads: 1) persons; 2)
historical allusions ; 3) miracles ; 4) teachings ; 5) Jesus as man ; 6} habits
and customs ; 7) institutions.
2. Condense the material into the smallest possible compass, e. g. :
1) § 1. ch. 2:23, On the way through the fields the disciples pluck grain.
V. 24, Pharisees asis why they do this unlawful thing.
V. 25, Jesus asks what David did when hungered.
V. 26, He ale the shewbread and gave to his men.
V. 27, The Sabbath was made for man.
V. 28, So that the Son of Man is its lord.
Jesus, defending Ms disciples accused of violating the Sabbath law by plucking grain,
cites the similar action of David, claims the Sabbath for man and asserts his own
lordship over it.
i 2. ch. 3:1, Jesus is in a synagogue on the Sabbath with a man whose hand is withered.
V. 2, They watch to accuse him if he heals it.
V. 3, Jesus says to him. Stand forth.
V. i, Heasksthem, Is it lawful to do good, to save life, or its opposite? They are silent.
V. 5, Looking at them with anger and grief for their attitude, he bids the man stretch
forth his hand and it is healed.
76 The Old Tbstament Student.
r. A. Pharjseee consult with Herodlans to destrojr him.
Jemtg, In a minagogue on the Sahhath before thoK loaUhing to accuse htm of Sabbath-
breaktng, claims the right to do good and then heats a withered hand. At once counsel
is talten to destroy him.
2) Let the student now seek to combine into a single condensed statement the
essential ideas of ii 1 and 2.
V. The Material Applied.
Sabbath Observance. 1 . Ha\'ing a.scertained the relation of Jesus to the Sab-
bath law, seek to determine I) how far those Christians are right wlio keep
the Sabbath in obedience to the literal requirements of the law ; 2) how
far they are right who regard the Jewish law of the Sabbath as having
ceased to be binding on Christians. 2. The need of a Sabbath rest both for
man and beast. 3. The Christian idea of a Sabbath and the spirit of its
obseiTance. 4. Practical applications of these ideas to 1) different classes
of people, e. g. working men, children, etc.; 2) different kinds of occupa-
tions suitable for the Sabbath.
STUDY Vn.— NEW METHODS. MARK 3:7-19a.
Bwame. 1. Tho attitude of Jesus toward the Jewish Sabbath. 2. Practical illustrations of this
attitude given by Jesus and his disciples. 3. Resulting feelings and action of the Phar-
isees.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead carefully Mk. 3:"-19a, and be able to make a definite statement upon each of
the following points :
1. Jesus withdraws to the sea; many 5. Jesus calls his disciples and or-
follow (vs. 7,8); dains twelve; their work (vs.
2. the attending boat (v. 9) ; [10); 13-15);
3. effect of his acts of healing (v. 6. their names (vs. 16-19).
4. witness of unclean spirits re-
buked (vs. 11,12);
II. The Material Compared.
1. With Mk. 3:7-19 of. Mt. 12:15-21 ; I.k. 0:12-19. Under the points of the above analysis gather
all additional material srlven in these parallel passages.
t. With Mk. 3:16-19 cf. Mt. 10:2-4 ; Acts 1:13.
in. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
1) V. J. ira/idrew; (a) WhyV Mt. 12:15; (b) 4) V. 9. LcM they Uirong him; vaa tue pres-
a permanent retirement from the sure of tho crowd unpleasant to
cities us the main field for his work. Jesus ?
2) T. 8. (a) Let these countries be located 5} V. II. Son of Ood; a clearer testimony
on the map. than in l:-'4.
(b) Tldngshedid; Mark emphasizes 6) V. IS. (a) Die mountain; where?
the doings of Jesus. (b) He himsidf u-oidd; i. e. implying
3) Ts. 9-12. Observe the many details given in deliberate choice on the part of
Mark alone. Jesus, ct. John 6:70; 15:16.
New Testament Supplement. 77
7) T. 14. Send-forth ; the same root- word as (b) Thomas ; another name (John
in "apostle." 11:16).
8) V. 16. SumaTned; cf. John 1:13. (c) AlphcBXis: (1) of. 2:14; (2) if the
9) V. 17. Boanerges; appropriateness of the same person, note the relation of
name; cf. Lk. 9:54; Mk. 9:38; 10:37. James and Matthew.
10) V. 18. (a) Bartholotnexv ; (1) meaning of the (d) Cananoean; (1) meaning; (3) an-
name; (3) probability of his being other term in Lk. 6:15.
the same person as Nathaniel, cf. 11) \. 19. Iscariot; (1) meaning; (3) national-
John l:45-i9; 31:2. ity of Judas (Josh. 15:20,35).
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
1) Jesus aud the Multitudes. Ts. 7-12. (a) Observe the wide extent of Jesus'
fame ; (b) consider the probable motives of the crowds that sought him,
e. g. (1) curiosity, (2) healing, (3) instruction, (4) other motives (John 6:26 ;
Mk. 7:1,2); (c) distinguish between the multitudes and the disciples (Mt.
12:46,49 ; Mk. 3:9 ; 4:10, etc.), (1) not all who sought him were accepted' (Mt.
8:19; Lk. 9:61,62), (2) conditions of discipleship (Lk. 14:26,27,33) ; (d) in
view of Lk. 6:17 ; John 6:66, were there many disciples ?
2) The Twelve. Vs. 13-19. (a) Study the occasion of this organization as found
in (1) the recent outbreak of hostility, (2) the growing fame of Jesus ; (b)
the significance in the number appointed (Mt. 19:28; Lk. 22:30); (c) ob-
serve the characteristics of the twelve, individually and as a body, e. g. (1)
nationality, (2) education, (3) social position, (4) personal traits, (5) relations
to one another; (d) reasons for the choice of such men, whether (1) neces-
sity, (2) their former relations to Jesus, (3) they are preferred by reason of
their characters ; (e) their relation to Jesus (vs. 14,15) ; (f) estimate some of
the advantages of this new company, e. g. (1) the personal influence and
teaching of Jesus concentrated on them, (2) a nucleus formed for the larger
body of disciples, (3) opportunity for more extended preaching of the Gospel,
(4) a body of witnesses to Jesus after his death.
IV. The Material Organized.
1. Classify the material vJideT the following heads: 1) places; 2) institutions ; 3)
persons ; 4) important events ; 5) literary data ; 6) Jesus as more than man.
2. Condense the material into the briefest possible statement.
§ 1. V. 7, Jesus retires to the sea with a multitude from Galilee.
V. 8, The fame of his deeds attracts many from other parts.
The fame of Jc^is attracts multitudes to his retreat hy the sea.
S 3. V. 9, A boat is to attend him lest they crowd upon him.
V. 10, His healings cause many sick to crowd upon him.
V. 11, Demoniacs worship and say. Thou art the Son of God.
V. 13, He forbids them to make him known.
A boat is to attend him, for the sick croivd upon him to be healed and the demoniacs
acknowledge him against ?ii8 will.
!l 1, 3, Jesus by the sea attracts multitudes, and to avoid the crowd of their
SICK and the demoniacs whose testimony he forbids, he is attended bt a
BOAT.
! 3 V. 13, From the mountain he calls certain ones to him.
vs. 14, 15, He appoints twelve men to be with him and to be sent forth for preaching
and healing.
V. 16. Simon surnamed Peter.
v. 17, James and John, sons of Zebedee, surnamed Boanerges.
V. 18, Andrew, Philip, Bartholomew, Matthew, Thomas, James son of Alphseus,
Thaddeus, Simon Canansean.
78 The Old Tkstament Student.
V. ICa, Judas Iscarlnt, the betrayer.
On (Tie mountain he appoints twelve m«n <u ecmpaniont and apottlet.
tl 1-8, JpiiD< bT the sea In itteDded br a bout heran«e of the thrOD|;Ing rrondu that iieek beallnf;
and appointN tnelre men ax coiupaiiiuiiN and aixisllen.
V. The Material Applied.
Fellowship with Jesus. 1. The means by whicli the twelve were trained.
2. Elements of this fellowship of Jesus which made it helpful. 3. How we
may share in this fellowship. 4. Its purpose — to fit men to help others.
5. How to exert this helpful influence.
STUDY VIII.-FALSE REPORTS. MARK 3:19b-35.
Beauine. 1. Mention chflnges In the methoils of Jesus. 2. Reasons for these changres. 3. Give
the names of the twelve. 4. State the purpose of Jesus in appointing: them.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead carefully Mk. 3:19b-35 and be able to make a definite statement concerning
each of the following points :
1. Multitudes throng the house 4. he replies in parables (vs. 23-30);
where Jesus is (v. 20) ; 5. his relatives come seeking him
2. actions and words of his friends (vs. 31.32);
(v. 21); 6. true relationship to Jesus ex-
3. scribes slander him (v. 22) ; plained by him (vs. 33-35).
II. The Material Compared.
1. WithMk. ;!:2(>-35of. Mt. 12:22-50; Ik. 11:14 :ffi; 8:19-il.
2. Observe the sections parallel wilh Mk., i. e. Mt. l-.':22-S2.4«-oO; Lk. 11:14-22; 8:18-21. Note
matter, 1) relating to place and time: 2)aniithcr artfumcnt: Mt. 12:27; 3) other details; Mt.
12:82,49; Lk. 8:19.
3. Observe the context, omitted in Mark, i. e. Mt. 12:33-45; Lk. 11:23-36; compare these sec-
tions of Matthew and Luke.
4. Note that after Mk. 3:19, the "Sermon on the Mount," given in Lk. 0:20-49; Mt. .j-J is
omitted.
5. Conclusions: I) Mark gives details of the actions, but omits many of the sayings of Jesus, of.
Mk. 3:8; 3) all three narratives similar, set independent of one another.
III. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
1) v. 20. (a) A house; i. e. In Capernaum. (b) Holy Spirit; (1) which Jesue
(b) ^oaiii; cf. Mk. 1 :3:i: 2:2,13; 3:7. claimed to possess; (2) and they called
2) V. 21. (a) FriemU; i. e. relatives, cf. v. 31. an unclean spirit, cf. v. 30.
(b) id)/ ?i(j!d; a strong term implying (o) eternal rin; either (1) involving
a forcible seizure. eternal continuance in sin, or(2)bring-
(c) said; lit. " kept saying," soin v. 22. ing eternally abiding guilt, cf. Num.
(d) beside himself; i. e. insane. 1.t:30,31.
3) T. 22. Beelzeliuh; meaning? ") V. 30. Said; i. e. "kept saying," cf. other oc.
4) V. 23. (a) Parables; i. e. Illustrations, analo- casions, Mt. 9:34; John 7:20; 8:48,62;
gies. 10:20.
(b) HoK'.etc; statethe argument here. 8) V. 31. Standinu without; why 7 of. Lk. 8:19.
5) V. 27. What additional arguuiein is ifiven 1 9) V. 34. Looking round; characteristic of Mk.
6) T. 29, (a) BUmpheme; i. e. " speak slander."
New Testament Supplement. 79
2. general topics.
1) The Scribes.* (a) Gather up all the material previously given in relation to
the scribes; (b) from all accessible sources learn something of (1) their
origin, (2) their history, (3) their occupation; (c) Jesus' relation to the
scribes (1) points of resemblance, (2) elements of opposition.
2) The Relatives of Jesus, (a) Their number and names (cf. Lk. 2:48; Mt. 13:55,
56) ; (b) what may be inferred as to the disappearance of Joseph from the
narrative; (c) note the three views concerning his "brethren," (1) later
sous of Joseph and Mary, cf. Lk 2:7, but also John 19:26,27, (2) sons of
Joseph by a former wife, (3) cousins, sons of his mother's sister ; (d) their
opinion of Jesus and his work, (1) they are acquainted with the promises con-
cerning him, Lk. 2:19,51, (2) unbelief in his methods and ideas, John 7:3-6,
(3) the motive of their action in Mk. 3:21 ; (e) their relation to Jesus and
his work afterwards, cf . John 19:25 ; Acts 1:14 ; 1 Cor. 16:7 ; Gal. 1:19.
IV. The Material Organized.
1. Classify the material under the following heads: 1) persons; 2) teachings; 3)
literary data ; 4) Jesus' manner of teaching.
2. Condense the material into the briefest possible statement :
§ 1. V. 19b, He enters a house.
V. 20, Multitudes keep them too busy to eat.
V. 21, Friends would restrain him saying, " He is mad."
Bis intense activity makes friends think him mad amd they vjish to restrain Mm.
i 2. V. 22, Scribes say, He has Beelzebub and so casts demons out.
V. 23, He replies. "How can Satan cast out Satan?"
V. 24, " A divided kingdom cannot stand."
V. 25, "A divided house cannot stand."
T. 26, "Satan, opposed to himselC, is destroyed."
vs. 23-26, " Satan would not destroy his own power."
V. 27, " But first bind the strong man before spoiling his goods."
vs. 23-27, "Not Satan, but another than Satan would destroy his power."
V. 28, "All sins and blasphemies of men shall be forgiven."
V. 29, " Except blasphemy against the Holy Spirit."
V. 30, Because they said, He has an unclean spirit.
vs. 28-30, Because of what they said (he added), " Blasphemy against the Holy Spirit is
never forgiven."
vs. 23-30. Another than Satan must be destroying his power; beware of blasphemy
against the Holy Spirit, which is never forgiven.
He replies to scribes who explain his power as from Satan. Satan would be
destroyed by another than himself; beware of blasphemy against the Holy
Spirit, which is never forgiven.
S8 2, 3. His intense activity is ascribed by his friends to insanity, and the scribes
EXPLAIN HIS POWER OVER DEMONS AS FROM SATAN. HE SAYS THAT ANOTHER
THAN SATAN WOULD DESTROY SATAN, AND WARNS THEM OF AN 0NPABDONABLE
SIN AGAINST THE HOLY SPIRIT.
S 4. V. 31, His relatives seek him.
V. 32, He is told that they are without.
V. 33, He asks. Who are they ?
V. 34, He looks around saying. Behold them!—
V. 35, They are those who do God's will.
When told that his relatives are seeking him he declares that these abo^U him who do
Ood's will are his kinsfolk.
' See Smith's Bib. Dictionari', Art. Scribes.
80 The Old Testajtent Student.
CC l-t. He Is opposed 1) bj his reUtlrea nho think him mad and nonid restrain him: Si hj (ha
srriheK nho mil his poner Katanlr. He flrht telU the KrrnH*s that another than ^nl&u
nouhl destro]' Satuii, and tiarns thi>ni ot un onpardonaltle kIh atrainst the llol) Spirit.
Second, he devlaren of his relathes that those who do (lOd'H irill are his kiusTolk.
V. The Material Applied.
The Family. 1. The family as an institution founded and blessed by God. 2.
Love for family, a natural instinct in its members, and divinely com-
manded. 3. The teaching of Jesus concerning the family : 1) the true basis
of filial and fraternal love ; 2) what obligations are superior to those of the
family and when the latter should be made subordinate ; cf. Lk. 2:49 ;
Mt. 8:21,22; 10:37. 4. The spirit and life of a Christian family; cf . Eph.
5:22-6:9, etc.
<^5?5E 'I'OiiD •:-TES^r^njEp-:- sthdep.-^-
Vol. VIII. NOVEMBER, 1888. No. 3.
The real sensitiveness of many to the criticism of the Old Testa-
ment arises from their loyalty to Christ. They fear lest in impugn-
ing traditional views concerning the written Word, the crown which
adorns their Master may in some way be tarnished. Such a feeling is
right. It is well that in connection with Old Testament study our
attention should be turned to the life of Christ. Let us, therefore,
study with inquiring spirit the gospels, seeking to learn just who and
what manner of person Christ was. We know that he was the Truth ;
and he longs that His disciples may know the truth concerning Him.
It may be that some of us will find that our idea of Him has come not
from the narfative of the New Testament, but from the meshes of
human speculation and theory that have been woven about Him, so
that our Christ is somewhat different in many ways from the Son of
Man who wandered as a Jewish rabbi through the land of Palestine.
Side by side with the work of investigation and exploration
going on in the land of the Euphrates, another work no less interest-
ing and important is being vigorously pushed in the land of the Nile.
Our readers are acquainted with the work of the "Egypt Exploration
Fund of England and America," of which Rev. Wm. C. Winslow, Bos-
ton (525 Beacon street), is vice-president and honorary treasurer for
America. In another place there is given a list of the discoveries
already made under the auspices of this " Fund," and of the books
which it has published. Surely, two points will be conceded by all
who are interested in this work of Bible illustration, for that is what
it really is: (i) Such work should be done; and in view of the
destruction which inevitably awaits all material not immediately
82 The Old Testament Student.
cared for, the sooner the work is done the better ; (2) such work, in
order to be done, must be supported. Large sums are not asked for.
The total expenditure of the last year, including publication, was
only $7,500 ; and as Dr. Ward has said, " the annual volumes published
are abundant remuneration to the subscribers of five dollars."
The study of the Bible-studies on the " Life and Times of the
Christ," has been undertaken (i) by a very large number of Christian
Endeavor Societies ; (2) by College Y. M. C. Associations in many of
the leading colleges ; (3) by general Y. M. C. Associations in many
cities ; (4) by classes specially formed for their study in churches of
various denominations ; (5) by many Sunday-schools ; (6) by hun-
dreds, even thousands, of individual students. One serious difificulty,
however, has arisen, a difficulty as unexpected as it is serious. In the
Christian Endeavor work, and especially in the college work, there is
a lack of teachers or leaders. There are scores of colleges from
which the report has come : We can find no man able and willing to
take the responsibility of guiding us. What is the trouble .'' The
minister, in some cases, because he is overwhelmed by the demands
of his parish work ; in others, because he really does not know /unci to
teach, and though a preacher of the gospel, is incapable of teaching
it, refuses to accept the leadership. The professor, in some cases,
because his regular tasks tax him to the utmost ; in others, because he
has no interest in the subject, or perhaps no knowledge of it, declines
to serve. What shall be done .■' The crying need of the hour is men
trained to do scientific Bible teaching. Why do not Christian students
see this need, and prepare themselves for the work .''
" The Bible, whether we will it or not, is to affect us in a thousand ways. It
is here and is bound to stay. Its inlhience cannot be ignored. Then why not act
like men ? Wliy remain in ignorance, and affect to scorn this beneficent, and at
the same time most powerful instalment in the formation of the character of
individuals and nations? Are not the arguments favoring it overwhelmingly
convincing? 'NATiy then let prejudice overcome our judgment and bigotry our
prudence? In the name of justice let us give the Bible a place in our college cur-
riculum ! Let it be taught of men who have been educated with this end in view.
Men who have studied the Bible rather than theology. Men who cannot be held
down by the narrow lines of sectarian creeds and dogmas. When this is done,
the shame of graduating men and women who know more of the writings of
Goethe and Shakspere than those of Job and St. John, who comprehend better
the ethics of Spenser than those of the Bible, who understand better the philoso-
Editorial. 83
phy of Plato thaa that of Jesus Christ, will be done away. Then the Bible, appre-
ciated by educated men and women, will hasten its good work— the civilization,
elevation and regeneration of humanity."
This is the plea* of a member of the last graduating class of the
University of Minnesota. Is it not worthy of the consideration of col-
lege instructors and trustees .'' This idea is growing. In very many
colleges the Bible will be taught this year for the first time. In quite
a number professors have been appointed who begin their work this
month. Whatever may be said of state institutions it is difficult to
understand how a denominational college, — and to this class most ot
our colleges belong, — can satisfy its constituency that there is a
reason for its separate existence where this Book has no place in
its curriculum of study.
"Studying biblical problems from a believing i>oint of view" —
the thought deserves attention and invites analysis. It does not mean
bringing to the Scripture antecedent beliefs as to its particular phe-
nomena, whether they be characterized by the strictest orthodoxy or
the loosest latitudinarianism. Preconceived views of controverted
questions, of details in the sacred narrative, though rigidly conserva-
tive, will not fail to make investigation into its true meaning largely
barren. Not because they are conservative, not though they should
be rudely rationalistic, but because they are pre-judgments, do they
bar the way and handicap the endeavor of the earnest interpreter of
the Word. Nor does the phrase mean the possession of a well defined
doctrine of Sacred Scripture as a whole, which is to guide and rule
investigation. A dominating preconception of what the Bible ought
to be is as unfruitful in exegesis as similar views of details and por-
tions of the truth. How then may "the believing point of view" be
defined .'' What are its characteristics .' To begin with, it implies
candor, open-mindedness, willingness to be persuaded and convinced
by facts and by facts only. It is more than that. It is a positive atti-
tude of friendliness toward the Scriptures as having a divine element,
as related to God, not a negative indifference or a critical levity in
handling them. Yet again, he who comes to the word of God "must
believe that He is." The true student is conscious of an ever-present,
all-pervading divine Spirit inclining him, with reverence, with a hum-
ble yet fearless assurance of the best and highest results, to press on
to the freest and most searching criticism of the Bible. Let the
* Published In the ArUl (June 7).
84 The Old Testament Student.
thoughtful investigator proceed in this spirit to this highest of all
pursuits. Let him remember the wise words of Richard Rothe :
" Let the Bible go forth into Christendom as it is in itself, as a book like
other books, without allowing any dogmatic theory to assign it to a reserved posi-
tion in the ranks of books ; let it accomplish what it can of itself entirely through
its own character and through that which each man can find in it for himself ;
and it will accomplish great things."*
In the last number of the Student we called attention to a few
coincidences in terms between the Talmud and the New Testament.
But there is something more striking than these in the relations of
these two literatures; that is, the difference between them in dignity,
reserve and spiritual elevation. There can be no more convincing
proof of the superiority and inspiration of the New Testament than
that which a comparison of it with the Talmud presents. While there
is much in this Jewish literature which is elevated and beautiful, it is
equally plain that much of it is contradictory and childish. In large
part it is the product of an unrestrained imagination. Nothing is too
mysterious for the Rabbins to explore ; no theme is too sacred for
them to debate with the utmost coolness and confidence. The result
is a literature full of extravagance, conceit and contradiction.
In no point is the lofty elevation of the New Testament above the
Talmud more evident than in its conception of the purpose of God for
the world. It is raised above all Jewish particularism. Not to be
Abraham's son by lineal descent, but to be his son by a life of faith
and obedience entitles to participation in the kingdom of God.
Christianity contemplates, not a Jewish kingdom of God, but a
kingdom of God composed of all trustful souls from every tribe and
nation under heaven. Even the Apocalypse, the most intensely Jew-
ish book in the New Testament and presenting most analogies to the
Talmudic language and thought, is elevated above all Jewish narrow-
ness in its conception of the kingdom of God as a city with gates on
every side into which the people of earth enter from every land. If it
is plain that Jewish thought explains some expressions and concep-
tions which have passed into the New Testament, it is equally plain
that it can no more explain the New Testament literature in its essen-
tial contents and spirit than the launching of a ship off the coasts of
China can explain the tidal wave which rises forty feet on the shores
of California.
> SliU Hours, p. 220.
WEBER ON THE ESCHATOLOGY OF THE TALMUD.*
By Pbof. George B. Steyens, D. D.,
Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
III. THE KINGDOM OF THE MESSIAH.
a. THE MESSIANIC AGE. .
The Messiah will bring all Israel to glory, dominion and spiritual perfection.
This will be the work of the Messianic age, or of the days of the Messiah. AVith
these days begins the " coming age " (clam habba), the eternal life of which the
prophets speak. At the end of the Messianic period follows the general judgment,
and time then passes into eternity. The "coming age" stands in contrast to
"this age"(cf. Lk. 12:30; 18:30; 20:34,35; Titus 2:12). The "Messianic age"
is the period which ensues upon Messiah's coming, and includes his reign and re-
construction of the nation. It forms the introduction to the great olam habba
which includes both time (from Messiah's coming) and eternity in itself.
The duration of the Messianic period is variously stated. According to one
view it was to be two thousand years, so as to make with the two thousand years
before the law and the two thousand under the law, a sabbatic week of thousand-
year periods, terminating in the great eternal Sabbath. Others say : forty years,
in memory of the sojourn in the desert; others four hundred, upon the analogy of
the period spent in Egypt. There are various other estimates.
It is noticeable that these computations rest upon supposed analogies drawn
from some period of Israel's history. Redemption from Egypt remains the great
historic type of the coming Messianic deliverance. " In any case the Messianic
age is tliought of as a definite period which brings to its conclusion Israel's his-
tory in this world, and is designed to be a preparation for eternity — a preparatory
week for the eternal Sabbath."
b. THE BUILDING OF JERUSALEM ANB OF THE SANCTUARY.
Since .Jerusalem lay in ruins it has been the fixed hope of Israel that the
nation should yet inhabit the restored city of God. Zion should be again a habi-
tation and the righteous should dwell again in their former homes. The city
should be rebuilt with new grandeur. The contrast is drawn between the Jerusa-
lem of this world and that of the Messianic age (cf. Gal. 4:25). At the Messiah's
advent, the city is to be rebuilt. It shall then become the seat of the Messianic
reign and the metropolis of the world. It is to be reared in matchless splendor
(cf. Rev. 21:10-21), adorned with sapphires, pearls and various precious stones.
The " Sabbath-limits " of the city, twelve miles square, shall be full of precious
stones. One rabbi says that, when in this world one man owes another, they go
before a judge who sometimes makes peace between them, and sometimes not.
Often the two come out from the hall of judgment without having become friends.
• Continued from October number.
86 The Old Testaseent Student.
But in the Messianic age, when one owes another, he will say : We will go and
present the matter before the king, Messiah, in Jerus;;'em. But when they have
proceeded as far as the Sabbath-limits of the city, they find them full of pearls
and precious stones. Then the debtor takes up two of them and says to the cred-
itor: "Do I owe you as much as these V And the creditor answers : "Xo, not
half so much. Let the debt be canceled ; you are set free from it."" That is what
is written in Ps. 147:14, " He maketb peace in thy borders.'" So rich is Jerusalem.
The height and size of Jerusalem shall be stupendous. It will stand far
above all its surroundings, and its extent will be so vast that it can embrace all
the vast multitudes of restored exiles. It will extend to Damascus on the north
and to Jaffa on the sea. The pre-eminence of Jerusalem in the Holy Laud shall
be matclied by the pre-eminence of the temple within the city itself. The city is
to be rebuilt for the sake of the temple which gives to it its worth and signifi-
cance. The rearing of the sanctuary by Solomon and its reconstruction after the
exUe is followed by the building of the far grander " third temple "' by the Mes-
siah. To this end it has been enjoined that, since the destruction of the second
temple, the Jew must never faU to petition in his prayers for the rebuilding of the
temple.
In the Messianic age the temple shall stand in its full and destined complete-
ness. The vessels that had been taken away shall be restored and the departed
glories of the place shall return. The last sanctuary shall be incomparably more
glorious than the first. It shall fulfill its destiny as the gathering place of all
nations. Its height shall be such that all the world can see it. " For the Holy
One will pile three nioiuitains upon one another, Carmel, Tabor and Sinai, and
upon the apex of this elevation will he build the sanctuarj'."' Light shall stream
forth from the temple and illumine all the world. It shall be the great center of
praise to God. To the hymns which shall sound forth from it, all the mountains
and hills shall make answer in refrain. Thus shall the sanctuary of the latter
days fulfill its glorious destiny.
C. TEMPLE SERVICE AND THE LAW IN THE MESSIANIC AGE.
The temple service is to be restored in the Messianic age for the spiritual per-
fecting of the people. Moses and Aaron will return to earth and the former will
re-instate the service and appoint and clothe the priests for their ministry. The
people will perform their service in accordance with the law and the traditions.
The great difference between the service of the past and of the coming age is
that, in the latter, Jerusalem is to be the place of assembling for all nations and
the sanctuary is to serve for the worship, not only of Israel, but of all the nations
of the world. Still it is only for an elect company from Israel and from the
heathen nations that participation in this worship is reserved.
In the new temple the law will be held in highest honor and will be explained
to the people by Jehovah himself. The temple service will not, however, exclude
the use of synagogues and schools. AVhen the law is taken up in that good time
a new light shall shine into it ; it shall become a new law because it shall be better
understood. In that time, also, shall the mysteries in the law become plain and
the disputed questions shall be settled. " The law will be new because it will ap-
pear in a new, God-given light and will be newly and fully understood."" The
Messiah will also himself fulfill the law. (Of. Matt. 5:17 sq.) There will also be a
Sanhedrin in the new Jerusalem, but it will be extended to embrace all the right-
eous men who shall make the spiritual welfare of the community their care.
Webee on the Eschatology of the Talmud. 87
d. righteousness and the blessedness of the community.
The Messiah is called " our righteousness " because he gives to the people
righteousness before God through his own personal holiness, his intercession for
the people and the leading of the people to the fulfillment of the law. Through
the Messiah is peace made between God and his people. In the Messianic age
men will neither merit a future recompense from observing the law nor acquire a
burden of guilt by disobedience, because the fulfillment of the law will be imme-
diately rewarded and siu immediately forgiven. The inhabitants of the new
Jerusalem enjoy a condition of perpetual grace and peace in the possession of the
rewards of righteousness and the joys of forgiveness. When this condition is
established, then can the blessing of God flow unhindered in all its fullness over
land and people. The " world-empire " and its bondage are no more and all is
freedom and peace.
The order of the physical world will be the same as now, only the fruitfulness
of the earth will be greatly augmented. " Every man can eat cakes and be clothed
in silk." Wheat will mature in two months ; vegetables in one. The length of
life will be greatly extended. Statements are found that the people of God do
not die in this age, and yet death is spoken of. This contradiction seems to be ex-
plained on the supposition that the heathen, who shall be the servants of Israel,
shall die after long life, but that the people of Jehovah shall not taste death any
more. Thus is made good the loss which was experienced in Adam's fall. Im-
mortality is restored. Man is again lord of creation and enjoys the condition
which was forfeited by sin, attaining his completion and the goal of all his hopes.
e. THE DOMINION OF THE MESSIAH OVER THE NATIONS.
The Messiah, the Son of David, is destined to be the ruler of the world. To
his eternal reign the prophecies refer. His kingdom shall supplant the Eoman
empire and he shall reign over all peoples. The significance of this empire was
that it was sent of God into the world as a punishment for Israel's sins. But for
these sins this world-empire would never have arisen, but the kingdom of David
and Solomon would have become a world-empire. " When now, finally, Israel's
sin is forgiven, and peace restored, then the heathen world-empire lias fulfilled its
destiny ; then can the kingdom of David and Solomon appear again, and now, in-
deed, in its character as world-empire. For the world-kingdom of the Messiah is
the renewal and fulfillment of that of David and Solomon.
The Messianic kingdom shall be universal and unlimited. The whole earth
shall be its realm. Yet Israel and the heathen nations shall not dwell together.
No one shall dwell among the people of God who serves idols. So far as the
nations remain idolatrous, they must dwell apart, but are under Israel's domin-
ion ; for " the world is created for the Messiah." Heathen peoples as such con-
tinue to exist. The relations of the Jews to these peoples is variously conceived.
Some represent that all will become Jews and thus be incorporated into the people
of God. Others speak of a missionary activity on the part of the Jews toward
them. The Jews shall teach them the law in their theatres. Others emphasize
the continuance of opposition. In general, however, the representation is, that an
elect portion of the heathen shall be incorporated into Israel, but that the great
mass shall identify themselves with that anti-Messianic power which is called
Gog and Magog. They shall, however, be subject and tributary to Israel, her
laborers and servants. All that Israel had lost at the hands of heathen nations
shall be fully restored.
88 Tna Old Testajcent Student.
/. OOG AXD MAGOG AND TH£ END OF THE 3LESSIANIC AGE.
A last attack upon the domiDion of the Messiah is that which is designated
as Gog and Magog. This conflict occurs at the end of the Messianic period, fills
up the iniquity of the heathen and leads up to the judgment and the end of the
world. It represents the transition from time to eternity, to the olam habba
in the narrower sense of the word. The time of Gog and Magog comprises
seven years. The meaning of the term is defined by the statement that " an evil
spirit enters into the nations and they rebel against the king Mes.siah. He, how-
ever, slays them, smiting the land with the rod of his mouth and killing the
wicked one by the breath of his lips, and he leaves only Israel remaining." (Cf.
Gen. 10:2; Exod. 38:2; 39:1,6; Ezek. 38:5; 39:2; also, Rev. 20:8; 2Thess.2:8.)
Some representations place the days of Gog and Magog at the beginning of
the Messianic age. Accordingly it is said that there are four great manifestations
of God : in Egypt, at the giving of the law, in the days of Gog and Magog, and
finally, in the days of the Messiah. The prevailing view, however, would reverse
the order of the last two and make this catastrophe the final conflict against Mes-
siah's reign, the signal for the judgment and destruction of the heathen, and the
last act in the great drama of human history before time is merged into eternity.
THE STOEY OP SAMSON.
By Rev. George Dana Boardiian, D. D.,
Philadelphia, Pa.
Character of Samson. — A singular character is Samson of Zorah. How per-
plexing its combination of Nazarite austerity and grotesque hilarity, divine inspi-
ration and animal cunning, dauntless bravery and ignoble sensuality, bodily
strength and moral weakness. Samson is the muscular, intrepid, religious, rol-
licking Hercules of sacred storj-. Witness his leonine exploit in the vineyards of
Timnah ; his playful riddle at the mairiage feast; his boyish stratagem with the
three hundred foxes ; his grotesque slaughter of the thousand Philistines with the
jawbone of an ass ; his prankish striding away with the gates of Gaza ; his frol-
icsome amours with Delilah ; his grim humor in the very act of suicide. Yet
this man, so jovial iuid mettlesome and wayward, is mentioned in the Xew Ti sta-
meut muster-roll of the Old Testament Sons of Faith, enshrined in the cataloirue
which contains such saintly names as Abel, Enoch, Abraham, Moses, Samuel,
David and the prophets. Whenever we are tempted to pronounce an altogether
unfavorable judgment, it is well to remember that there is One who (I Sam. 16:
7) sees not as man sees ; for man looks on the outward appearance, while Jehovah
looks on the heart. David was right (2 Sam. 24:14): It is better to fall into the
hand of God than into the hand of man ; for Jehovah's mercies are great.
Outline of Samson's period.— In studying the story of Samson, let us attempt a
swift outline of his period.
Glance, first, at the moral aspect. It was a period of profound religious de-
generacy. Although Joshua had nominally conquered the promised land, yet
the conquest was far from being complete. The land was still infested with idol-
The Stoet of Samson. S9
atrous aborigines ; the Canaanite was still in the land. Living on terms of more
or less familiarity with these idolaters, the Israelites could not fail to catch the
infection of their pagan vicinage. Accordingly, soon after the death of Joshua,
monotheism — the distinctive religion of the Abrahamic race — began to decline,
and ere long Israel completely forsook Jehovah, and served the Baalim, the Ash-
taroth, the gods of Syria, the gods of Zidon, the gods of Moab, the gods of Am-
mon, and the gods of the Philistines. So profound was the apostasy that even
Jonathan, a grandson of Moses, not content with usurping the functions of a
priest, added to those functions the worship of teraphim, graven idols and molten
images.
A moral deterioration so wretched of course entailed a political deterioration
as wretched. It was a period of national dissensions, tribe arraying itself against
tribe ; a period of national servitude, Israel tamely submitting to the yokes of
Ammonite and Canaanite and Midianite and Philistine ; a period of national ab-
jectness, Israel timidly creeping along crooked by-paths because there were no
open highways, ignobly content with a troglodyte existence in caves and moun-
tain dens. In brief, it was a period of national anarchy, when, as we are re-
peatedly reminded (Jud. 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25), there was no king in Israel;
every man did that which was right in his ovra eyes. It was the triumph of the
doctrine of individualism.
Nevertheless Jehovah did not utterly forsake his chosen people. Ever and
anon, in times of special emergency, when the national distress was at its ebb, he
raised up extraordmary deliverers, styled " judges." Although exercising unlim-
ited military powers, these judges were not so much national dictators as they
were guerilla chiefs, occasionally rising by force of personal prowess to the chief-
taincy of one or more of the twelve tribes. Living in a debased and almost bar-
barous age, they shared in the deterioration of their times. Xevertheless, rude
as these tools were, they were Jehovah's chosen instruments for delivering his
people. The most conspiciious of these judges, excepting the great Samuel, was
our hero Samson.
Outline of Samson's Career.— The story is gi'aphically told in the Book of the
Judges, chapters 13-16.
Forty years Israel had been writhing under the tyranny of the Philistines.
Meantime Jehovah has been preparing a mighty deliverer. In the town of Zorah,
on the confines of Judah and Dan, dwelt a Danite whose name was Manoah.
His wife, cherishing that blessed promise of a Messianic motherhood which was
the inspiration of every Hebrew bridal, was sad, because, like another Sarah and
another Hannah and another Elizabeth, she was still motherless. Suddenly
Jehovah's angel appears to her, and, as in the case of Elizabeth of Jerusalem and
Mary of Nazareth many a century afterward, makes a glad announcement :
" Thou Shalt conceive, and bear a son ; no razor shall ever come upon his head ;
neither wine nor strong drink nor unclean food shall ever touch his lips ; for he
shall be a Nazarite, separated unto God from the day of his birth to the day of his
death; and he shall begin to save Israel out of the hand of the Philistines."
Having made this annunciation, Jehovah's angel withdraws, ascending toward
heaven in the flame of the sacrificial altar.
Months passed by, and the promised son was bom. His delighted parents
called his name Samson. We know nothing of his infancy or childhood or youth.
90 The Old Testament Student.
All we are told of these is this (Jud. 13:24): "The child grew, and Jehovah
blessed him."' Probably our imagination will not roam far astray if we picture
him as growing up. lilie John the Baptist, in the seclusion of the Judean wilder-
ness, true to the ascetic vow of the Xazarile, his locks unshorn.
The moss his bed, the cave bis bumble cell.
His food the fruits, his drinlc the crystal well.— 27ioma« PameU.
And now, his austere training ended, the spirit of Jehovah began to move him iu
Malianeh-dan (that is, the camp of IJau), between Zorah and Eshtaol.
Yet, strange to say, the very first time this consecrated Xazarite appeared in
society, he appeared in the guise of a reckless wooer. Going down one day to
Tiinnah, a town in possession of the Philistines, he saw there a maiden who
iiistatitly captivated him. Hastening back to Zorah, he begged his parents that
they would secure her for his bride. Tlie old patriotism was not wholly dead;
for the parents testily replied : " Is there never a woman among the daughters
of thy brethren, or among all my people, that thou must go down and choose thy
wife from the daughters of those uncircumcised Philistines V " But the young
man was desperately in love, and insisted : " Get her for me ; for she pleases me
well." And here the inspired biographer records another of those providential
mysteries which so often perplex us : " His father and his mother knew not that
it was of Jehovah ; for he (Jehovah) sought an occasion against the Philistines."
Why God should choose to deliver his people by moving Samson to marry a PhU-
istiue girl, and thereby embroil him in a difficulty with the Philistines, with the
view of turning him into their enemy and conqueror, is so roundabout a method
as to be indeed an enigma of providence.
But the young man coutiuued steadfast. The country was, as we have seen,
in the grasp of the Philistines, and the land was overrun by wild beasts. On the
occasion of one of his visits, as he approached the vineyards of Timuali, a young
lion suddenly roared against him. What though he was weaponless ? The spirit
of Jehovah descended mightily upon him, and he rent asunder the lion as easily
as though it had been a kid. If one of us had achieved a like exploit, we would
not have kept it secret. But our hero made no mention of it, not even to his
parents. Perhaps he was so accustomed to feats of this kind that he did not
think it worth while to speak of it. Having visited his betrothed and returned
home, he went down to Timnah again. On his way thither he, with a curiosity
so natural tliat we can quite understand it, turned aside to see what had become
of the beast he had so easily slain. There was a swarm of bees in the carcass of
the lion, and honey. Being by no means a fastidious person, Samson gathered the
honey, and having refreshed himself by eating some of it, he carried the rest to
his parents, still omitting, however, to make any mention of his leonine exploit, or
wliere he had obtained the honey.
And now the wedding day has at last come. Our hero goes down once more to
Timnah, and according to the custom of the land and times, which demanded that
the bridegroom's family rather than the bride's should spread the banquet, Sam-
son made a great feast, which was to last seven days. The Philistines were not
disposed to be less open-hearted than the foreigner, and so they brought to Sam-
sou thirty companions to be his groomsmen. But a feast of seven days, however
epicurean the banqueters, cannot be wholly devoted to the dainties of the table.
As now, so then, the festivities were varied with pastimes and charades and rid-
The Story of Samson. 91
dies. The quick-witted Samson, we can easily believe, was more than a match
for the notoriously stolid Philistines in mental games of this sort. Accordingly,
early in the feast he said to his thirty paranymphs : " I will now give you a riddle ;
if any of you can find it out within the seven days of the feast I will give each
of you a tunic and a mantle (it was before the days of banks and vaults, and per-
sonal property largely consisted in costly apparel) ;— but if you cannot find out my
riddle within the seven days, then each of you must give me a tunic and a mantle."
A proposition so liberal met, of course, with a liberal response. " Put forth thy
riddle," they exclaim, " that we may hear it." We can imagine the grotesque de-
mureness with which Samson propounded bis riddle :
" Out of the eater came forth meat,
And out of the strong came forth sweetness."
The Philistines grappled with the problem three days, but unsuccessfully. Mean-
time the young bride herself feels deeply annoyed. What though she has just
been led to the altar? She is a Philistine and her husband is an Israelite; and
her national pride is stung on seeing her countrymen baffled by a foreigner, and
that foreigner a Hebrew and a subject. But she dissembles her pique. Kesorting
to one of those pathetic artifices characteristic of her sex, she weeps in the presence
of her liege lord and murmurs : " Thou dost but hate me and lovest me not ; thou
hast put forth a riddle unto the children of my people, and hast not told it me."
Samson, with the honest bluntness so characteristic of him, replies : "Behold, I
have not told it my father nor my mother, and shall I tell it thee? " But the
artful woman understands the power of tears, and so she continues her weeping
through the rest of the feast. Meantime the thirty groomsmen, despairing of
their ability to solve the riddle, bethink themselves on the seventh day of the
yoimg bride herself, and coming to her, exclaim : "Persuade thy husband to tell
thee the riddle ;" and then with a savageness which allows a glimpse into the awful
lawlessness of the times, they add: "lest we burn thee and thy father's house
with fire ; have ye called us to impoverish us ? " The bride, feeling her own per-
sonal pique uncomfortably reinforced by this dire threat of her neighbors, hastens
again into the presence of her new husband, and coaxes and weeps more dexter-
ously than ever. The good-natured, impetuous Samson can no longer resist such
persistent feminine importunity, and in a moment of weakness tells her the secret.
No sooner does she hear it than she hastens out and reports it to the sons of her
people. And now, just as the sun is setting at the close of the seventh day, the
thirty groomsmen triumphantly shout to the burly bridegroom :
" What is sweeter than honey ?
And what is stronger than a lion ?"
The nimble-minded, facetious Samson, still indulging in the grim humor which
never deserted him, sententiously retorts :
"If ye had not plowed with my heifer,
Te had not found out my riddle; "
in other words, " If this young bride of mine had not turned up the sod where I
had hid my treasure, ye never would have discovered it." But although our hero
has lost his wager, he keeps true to his promise. Again the spirit of Jehovah
comes down mightOy upon him. He is too obseiTant of the rites of hospitality,
however, to avenge himself on his Philistine guests. And so he rushes down to
92 The Old Testament Stiident.
Ashkelon, another city of tbe Philistines, and having slain thirty of its heroes and
seized their attire, he comes back to Timnah and gives the promised thirty tunics
and thirty mantles to his thirty groomsmen. But. although he has chivalrously
paid his forfeit, the memory of his wife's ignoble treachery angers him and he
immediately returns to his father's house. Meanwhile (and it is another glimpse
into the awful coarseness of the times), Samson's perfidious bride has been given
to the chief gioomsman.
Time passes ou, and the season of the wheat harvest is come. Samson, who
is too thoroughly good-natured to nurse his anger long, again goes down to Timnah
to visit his wife, bringing with him a kid in token of reconciliation. But her
father, it may be fearing that his formidable son-in-law might inflict some per-
sonal injury on his daughter, does not allow him to enter her chamber. Yet he
presumes to offer that son-in-law a strange proposal : •• Is not her younger sister
fairer than she y take her, I pray thee, instead of her." Samson is exasperated
and exclaims: "This time shall I be quits with the Pliilistines, when I do them a
mischief." Stealthily catching three hundred foxes, or rather jackals, he turns
them tail against tail, ties a firebrand in the midst between every two tails, sets
the brands on fire, and lets the jackals loose everywhere into the standing corn of
the Philistines. The manoeuvre proves as effective as it is ludicrous. The poor
jackals, maddened with fright and pain, and unable to escape, succeed in thor-
oughly igniting not only the standing corn, but also the shocks, and even the
oliveyards themselves. The sight of their ruined fields exasperates the Philis-
tines, and they angrily demand : " Who has done this '* "' And the stern
answer comes back : "Samson, the son-in-law of the Timnite, because his wife
has been taken away from him and turned over to his companion." The stolid
I'hilistines, regarding her and her father as the occasion of their disaster, rush to
Timnah and brutally burn father and daughter alive. Samson, more furious than
ever, shouts back to them : " If this is to be your line of action, I will take such
vengeance on you as shall make me perfectly satisfied." Accordingly, he smites
them hip and thigh with a tremendous slaugliter. Nevertheless, he is prudent
and secures for himself a secluded lair in the territory of Judah, known as the
Cave of the Eock of Etam.
Time passes ou. The Philistines, still smarting under the disaster so ridicu-
lously inflicted by Samson's 300 jackals, again invade the territory of Judah and
encamp in Lehi, a place not far from Etam. The men of Judah are terror-
stricken, and cravenly expostulate, " Why are ye come up against us ';* "' The
Philistines answer, " To bind Samson are we come up, to do to him as he has done
to us." Three thousand men of the tribe of Judah rush down to the Cave of
Etam's Rock, and demand of the hiding Samson. " llast thou forgotten that the
Philistines are our masters "i" what then is this that thou hast done \into us'/"
And the stalwart champion athletically answers, "As they did unto me, so have
I done unto them." Xothing more clearly or sadly indicates the profound degra-
dation into which the Lion-tribe has fallen than their craven proposition to their
famous countryman, " We are come down to bind thee, that we may deliver thee
into the hand of the Philistines." Samson, grimly keeping his temper, extorts
from them an oath : " Swear unto me. that ye will not fall upon me yourselves."
They swear the oath : " We will bind thee fast, and surrender thee into their
hand; but surely we will not kill thee." And now our mighty and jovial hero
allows his cowardly countrymen to bind him with two new stout ropes and carry
The Story of Samson. 93
Lim up out of his hiding place. The moment the Philistines catch a glimpse of
their doughty foe, at last a prisoner, they rend the air with a mighty shout.
Again the spirit of Jehovah comes down mightily upon Samson, and the ropes
become as flax that is burnt with fire, and the cords drop oil him as though they
were melted. Disdaining the use of sword or spear, he finds a fi'esh jawbone of
an ass just dead, and brandishing it as though it were a gleaming scimitar or
ponderous battle-ax, he slays therewith a thousand Philistines. Our hero then
vents his triumph in a punning couplet which it is impossible to reproduce in
English, but which may be rendered thus :
"With the jawbone of an ass, a (mjass two (m)asses.
With the jawbone of an ass have I smitten an ox-load of men."
Having indulged himself in this droll massacre and still droller pun, he flings away
his fantastic weapon and calls the scene of his triumph Ramath-lehi, that is. The
Hill of the Jawbone. No wonder that after his sportive slaughter of the chiliad our
hero feels sore athirst. With the abrupt revulsion so characteristic of impetuous
natures, Samson suddenly swings from pun into prayer : " O Jehovah, thou hast
given this great deliverance by the hand of thy servant ; and now shall I die of
thirst and fall into the hand of the uncircumcised ? " God graciously hears the
prayer of his servant and miraculously opens a fountain in Lehi. Our hero slakes
his thirst, and feeling refreshed, giatefully calls the spot Enhakkor, that is. The
Spring of the Suppliant.
And now we enter on darker scenes. What though our hero is a Nazarite,
consecrated to Jehovah from his biilh to his death V He is a voluptuous man, an
easy prey to his animal passions. Accordingly, he goes down to the Philistine
city of Gaza and enters into criminal relations with a courtesan. The arrival of a
warrior so redoubtable cannot be kept secret, and the news flies from mouth to
mouth : " Samson is in town ! " The Gazaites surroimd his lodging and lie in
wait quietly all night, saying, " When morning davras and he comes out, we will
kill him." But our hero is too sharp for them. Rising at midnight, and either
stealthily gliding by his liers-in-wait or else slaying them, he comes to the chief
entrance of the city. Grasping the massive doors of the gateway, and the two
side-posts, he tears them up, with the crossbar on them, places them on his
brawny shoulders, and hilariously carries them up to the top of the mountain that
is before Hebron.
Time passes on, and Samson has made the friendship of a woman in the val-
ley of Sorek, whose name is Delilah. The five lords of the Philistines, hearing of
this fresh infatuation, determine to turn it to their own advantage. Obtaining
an interview with Delilah, they propose to her that she should worm out of him
the secret of his enormous strength, and also of the way to capture him, each of
the Philistine lords promising her the very handsome reward of 1100 pieces of
silver. The wily courtesan is not slow to fall in with a bargain so tempting.
" Tell me, I pray thee," she exclaims, " wherein thy strength is so great and how
thou canst be boimd." Samson replies : " If they should bind me with seven green
withes that have never been used, my strength will leave me and I shall be like
an ordinary man." The treacherous mistress finds some way to communicate
Samson's answer to the Philistine lords, who immediately supply her Vi-ith the
green withes, and then lie in wait in an adjoining chamber. Taking the withes,
she binds her lover therewith, and banteringly shouts, " The Philistines be upon
94 The Old Testament Student.
thee, O Samson ! " And the strong man snaps the withes as a string of tow is
broken wlien it touches the fire. So his strength is still a secret. But Delilah is
not disheartened, and again tries to worm out the secret. Again he suggests :
"Let them bind me fast with stout ropes which have never been used, and my
strength will be gone." Obtaining the ropes, he demurely allows her to bind
him, and then she banteringly shouts : "The Philistines be upon thee, O Sam-
son!" And the strong man breaks the ropes from off his arms like a thread.
But Delilah is persistent, and again begs for the secret. He now makes a sugges-
tion which recklessly borders on tlie very verge of the secret : " Weave the seven
locks of my head with the web in thy loom." Delilah weaves the seven long
tresses of the Xazarite's hair as a woof into the warp of the loom standing in the
chamber, fastens the loom with a peg. and banteringly shouts: "The Philistines
he upon thee, O Samson!" TUe strong man, startled out of his nap, easily
plucks up the peg fastening the loom, and disengages his tresses from the web.
The piqued Delilah now murmurs: " IIow canst thou say. I love thee, when thy
heart is not with me V thou hast mocked me these three times, and hast not told
me wherein thy great strength lieth." The persistent Delilah keeps pressing him
day after day to disclose to her his secret, till at last his soul is vexed mito death.
In a moment of incredible weakness and folly, he tells her the whole secret: " No
razor hath ever come upon my head ; for I have been a Nazarite unto God from
my motlier's womb : if I be shaven, then my strength will go from me, and I shall
become weak, and be like any other man." Delilah, with a woman's intuition,
perceives that Samson has at last told the truth, and instantly sends for the Phil-
istine lords, saying: "Come up this once, for he hath told me all his heart."
The Philistine lords promptly arrive, bringing the promised reward in their hands.
And now the treacherous harlot, apparently administering some drowsy potion,
■ soothes the lusty hero to sleep upon her knees, shaves off the seven sacred tresses
of his head, and once more, and this time triumphantly, shouts : " The Philistines
be upon thee, O Samson ! " Startled out of his sleep, the strong man exclaims :
" I will go out as at other times, and shake myself." But he wist not that Jeho-
vah had departed from him.
We come to the tragic close. The Philistines seize the nerveless Israelite,
brutally bore out his eyes, convey him to their own Gaza, bind him with fetters of
brass, and doom him to the bitter degradation of grinding, like a woman at the
mill, in their Philistme prison-house. Meanwhile, however, the hair of our Naza-
rite begins to grow again, and with this growth his strength begins to return.
And now the lords of the Philistines, overjoyed by the capture of their puissant
foe, propose to oiler on a vast scale a grateful oblation to their national deity,
Dagon. Accordingly, they assemble in vast numbers in their temple, and praise
their Dagon, exultantly shouting : " Our god hath delivered into our hand Samson
our enemy, the destroyer of our country, even him who hath slain multitudes of
Philistines." As their hearts grow merry, it may be with banqueting-wine. they
brutally shout : " Call for Samson, that he may make us sport ! " The blind cap-
tive is led forth from the prison-house into the temple, and compulses his insolent
captors with his grotesque antics- and droll jests. But there is a tragic irony in
his grim humor. Wearied by liis awkward gropings on a stage which to him is
black as night, and stung to the quick by the coarse insults and ribald laughter
of his heathen conquerors, the wretched prisoner says to the lad appointed to lead
him by the hand : " Suffer me that I may feel the two pillars whereupon the
The Story of Samson. 95
temple resteth, that I may lean upon them." The mighty throng of spectators
renew their jeers as he is led to the center of the building. The despairing but
resolute soul pours itself out in the tragical prayer : " O Lord God, remember me,
I pray thee, and strengthen me, I pray thee, only this once, that I may be at once
avenged of the Philistines for my two eyes." Grasping the two middle columns
upon which the temple rests, the one with his right hand and the other with his
left, our blind and weary yet still mighty hero leans upon them. One more
despairing but still resolute prayer goes up: " Let me die with the Philistines ! "
And the grim hero bows himself with all his might, and the two pillars sway, and
the temple, filled with the lords of the Philistines and their friends, and bearing
3,000 men and women on its roof, topples with a crash ; and the dead which Sam-
son slays at his death are more than the dead which Samson has slain in his life.
And now all his kindred come down to Gaza, and rescue his corpse from the ruins,
and reverently bury him in the ancestral burying place between Zorah and
Eshtaol.
Such is the comic yet tragic story of Samson, who judged Israel twenty years.
The story, as every one knows, had a peculiar fascination for John Milton; why,
one can hardly tell, unless it was because Milton shared somewhat in Samson's
uxorious disposition, and was also himself blind. How powerfully he allegorizes
the tragedy of Samson in his work entitled, " The Reason of Church Government
Urged Against Prelatry : "
"I cannot better liken the state and person of a king than to that mighty
Nazarite Samson ; who, being disciplined from his birth in the precepts and the
practice of temperance and sobriety, without the strong drink of injurious and
excessive desires, grows up to a noble strength and perfection, with those his
sunny and illustrious locks, the laws, waving and curling about his godlike
shoulders. And, while he keeps them about him undiminished and iinshorn, he
may with the jawbone of an ass, that is, with the word of his meanest officer,
suppress and put to confusion thousands of those that rise against his just power.
But laying dovra his head among the strumpet flatteries of prelates, while he
sleeps and thinks no harm, they wickedly shaving oil all those bright and weighty
tresses of his laws and just prerogatives, which were his ornament and strength,
deliver him over to indirect and violent councils, which, as those Philistines, put
out the fair and far-sighted eyes of his natural discerning, and make him grind in
the prison-house of their sinister ends, and practice upon him ; till he, knowing
this prelatical razor to have bereft him of his wonted might, nourishes again his
puissant hair, the golden beams of law and right ; and they sternly shook thunder
with ruin upon the heads of those his evil counsellors, but not without great
affliction to himself."
But Milton's admiration for the character of Samson finds its chief expression
in his "Samson Agonistes." The blind bard of the commonwealth has infused
into this classic tragedy so much of his own grand personality as to transfigure
the rough and sensuous Hebrew judge into quite a moral hero, who ends his life
even sublimely :
*' Samson hath quit himself
Like Samson, and heroically hath finished
A life heroic."
Nevertheless, when we read the story of Samson, not as it is transfigured in
the drama of an English poet, but as it is enshrined in the prose of the original
chronicler, we cannot help feeling that the character of the Danite champion was
on the whole gross and ignoble. True, the spirit of Jehovah was wont to come
down mightUy upon him ; but this spirit-might was the lowest kind of force, — the
96 Thk Old Testament Student.
force of mere bodily strength. Milton finely expresses the idea when he makes
his hero say :
God, when lie gave mc strength, to ehow withal
How slight the gift was, hung- it in my hair.— Sanuon AgonUtet.
The very austerity of his Nazarite vow in the matter of food and drink makes
his sensuousness in the matter of lubricity all the njore repugnant. He could
rend a lion as ea.sily as though it were a kid, and even in his weakness could top-
ple down Dagon's temple. But he could not rule himself. His tragic suicide
was the dread and punitive entail of his own fatuous sensuality. Here, in fact,
is the grand meaning of this grotesque yet sombre story. The tragedy of Samson
is a tragedy of Nemesis. Thus Samson himself is both his own riddle and his
o^vu solution :
"Out of the eater came forth meat.
And out of the strong came forth sweetness."
THE ASSYRIAN KING, ASURBANIPAL.
By Dean A. Walker, B. A.,
New Haven, Conn.
II.
Of this period, from the close of the Elamitic war till the king's death, we
have very little knowledge. The king's own records of his campaigns close with
the defeat of the Arabs at Damascus and the reduction of Elam to the rank of a
province, about 648 or 647 B. C, and it was till lately supposed that he died about
that time. This supposition was based on a statement in the Canon of Ptolemy
that a certain Cinneladanus, a name quite unlike Aiurbanipiil. reigned in Babylon
from 647 to 626 B. C. But in his own annals, Asurbanipal stated that after put-
ting his brother Sa'ul-mughina to death, he himself reigned at Babylon ; and
Polyliistor affirms that Sa'ul-mughina was succeeded by his brother, who reigned
in Babylon twenty-one years. No records of his successor are found to establish
either conclusion, but it seems certain that Cinneladanus was one of several
names by which he was known, either in Assyria or in Babylonia alone, and that a
long period of peace followed the activities of the earlier part of his reign, in
which little occurred that seemed to him worthy of record.
Such an hypothesis accords best with the wonderful advance made during
this reign in the arts of peace, the evidence of which is not to be sought only in
the chronicles of the time, but may be actually seen in the wonderful products
remaining to us from this reign. He now had leisure for those great works for
which tlie wars of his earlier years had furnished abundant means. This period
was to Assyria what the age of Pericles was to Greece and the age of Solomon
was to the Jews, and presents a much more pleasing aspect of the monarch's
character. We now see him, not as a powerful and boastful warrior overrunning
the territories of his weaker neighbors and glorying in the complete destniction
he accomplishes, but as a patron of art and literature and a builder of magnificent
edifices.
The Assyrian King, Asttkbanipai,. 97
We will not go into a detailed description of Asuibanipal's building enter-
prises, but merely enumerate them and state a few characteristics. His most im-
portant work in this line is his own great palace at Koyunjik. Beside this he
made some additions and repairs on the palace of his grandfather Sennacherib,
also at Koyunjik. He built several temples, two of which were for the Goddess
Istar at Nineveh and Arbela, and repaired many others. He is said by some
Greek historians to have built the cities of Tarsus in Cilicia and Anchialus, but it
is elsewhere claimed that Tarsus was built by Sennacherib.
The great palace of Asurbanipal is one of the largest of Assyrian buildings,
but is chiefly noteworthy for its peculiar plan, its wealth of ornamentation, and
the beauty and delicacy of its sculptures. The common plan of Assyrian palaces
is rectangular, but in Asurbanipal 's palace the main building is shaped like the
capital letter T. It is to the sculptures and bas-reliefs in this building that we
are mainly indebted for our knowledge of the private character of the king.
Assyrian sculpture, as a rule, takes little notice of the common people except as
they are brought into direct connection with the king, but in the palace of Asur-
banipal we find much attention given to portraying scenes of every-day life, as
well as of battles and the hunting sports of the monarch. We can only attribute
this to an interest on the part of the king in his people and in the state of business
and the arts in his kingdom. It is true that many of these scenes may be in-
tended merely to show how the royal table was supplied with the delicacies in
which the royal palate delighted, as in the fishing scenes and where servants are
bringing in hares and partridges ; but previous rulers had been content to eat
what was set before them, asking no questions. Asurbanipal must have portrayed
on the walls of his dining room the methods by which these things were set be-
fore him.
Asurbanipal was interested in the works of nature. In his sculptures are
found beautiful garden and river scenes, in which the backgrounds are filled out
with all things appropriate, as birds in the air, fish in the waters and fruit on vines
and trees, many of which are carved with great delicacy. Whether it can be said
of him as of King Solomon that he " spake of trees from the cedar tree that is in
Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall ; he spake also of
beasts and of fowl and of creeping things and of fishes," it is at least evident
that he was interested in them and had their species to some extent distinguished
in his sculptures. The study of these sculptures is therefore no small aid in the
interpretation of the tablets left us from this period, in which lists are drawn up
of the principal objects of the animal and vegetable kingdoms as known to the
Assyrians. These lists are very complete and show some attempt at scientific
classification. Whether this implies any scientific study on the part of the king
himself may be questioned ; but it is reasonable to infer from it that the study of
science was favored at his court ; for in an absolute and despotic monarchy like
that of Assyria, all Ufe, social, commercial, literary and scientific, centers about
the king. What he favors prospers, and what he neglects languishes.
The same question arises, and is probably to be answered in the same way,
as to Asurbanipal's literary character. The Assyrians were not a literary people.
They were a race of warriors, and their inscriptions up to this period were con-
fined to records of the monarch's wars or of his displays of wealth in the con-
struction or repair of palaces, or of his piety in temple building. But in this
*3
98 The Old Testament Student.
reign, there vms a remarkable birth of interest in literature, and as is usual in
such a renaissance, a revival or marked advance in the arts and sciences. Even
the dry records of campaigns begin to show a literary style. Our most important
evidence of this is the great library of Asurbanibal, brought to light by Mr.
Layard and afterward further explored by Mr. George Smith. In one of the halls
of Sennacherib's palace at Koyunjik, the floor was found covered to the depth of
a foot or more with the clay tablets of tliis library, many of them in very muti-
lated condition and seemiug to have fallen from their shelves or other resting
places when the palace was destroyed. The inscriptions on these tablets were
estimated by Mr. Layard to exceed in amount all that the monuments of Egj'pt
have to offer, and cover almost every department of human thought, commerce,
art, architecture, zoology, botany, geography, astronomy and chronology, law,
ethics and religion, as well as purely literary productions. Under tlie head of
commerce, we have contract tablets of many kinds, records of loans and sales,
from which it may yet be possible to construct a political economy of ancient
Mesopotamia. Among these are the complete records of the banking firm of
Egibi, presenting the minutest details of business. Under natural science, we have
the lists of animals and plants and of the heavenly bodies; in geography, lists of
nations and places ; there are grammars and vocabularies and bi-lingual lexicons,
designed to i)reserve the language and make available the records of an older civ-
ilization ; in the department of ethics, religion and general literature, we find
psalms and hymns, lists and genealogies of the gods with their descriptive epi-
thets, calendars of sacred days with directions for their proper observances, and
epic poems and legends of the gods and early history of the world. Most interest-
ing among these is the series of twelve tablets containing the legend of Isdubar,
including the creation and deluge tablets which so closely resemble the biblical
accounts, and the descent of Istar into Hades, reminding us of the Greek legend
of Orpheus and Eurydice.
Most of these religious and literary tablets are copies of older works, as is
proved by the frequent lacunae in them at places where the originals were muti-
lated or obscure. These originals doubtless came from Babylonia, and may first
have attracted Asurbanipal's interest on his invasion of that province to punish
his rebellious brother. He must there have been struck with many novel ideas,
and as prominent among them, with the contrast between Babylonia and Assyria
in the affairs of religion. Babylonia was the ancient seat of their common relig-
ion, and the worship of the gods and the study of religion were there carried on to
a degree unknown in Assyria. In the latter country, the temple was a mere attach-
ment to the palace ; but in Babylonia, it stood alone, and in several instances by
its strength and weight has withstood the wear of time to this day, while the
palaces are crumbled to dust. In Assyria we find no traces of ancient gi-aves;
while in Babylonia, vast cities of the dead, with well ordered streets and careful
system of drainage and other provisions for the comfort of the dead, prove that
to them the future life was as real as the present and the unseen world engaged
a large share of their thought. Asurbanipal's long reign in Babylon gave him
ample time to acquaint himself with these interesting peculiarities of that coun-
try. Something of these thoughts he must have brought to Assyria, and had his
dynasty been granted a longer period of power, the studies thus inaugurated
might materially have changed the character of his people. But for this, the
work was begun too late. Soon after Asurbanipal's death, Nineveh was destroyed
The Assyrian King, A§tjrbantpal. 99
by the Medes, and the magnificent library he had collected was buried in the
ruins of the palace, there to be preserved two thousand years for our edification.
For Asurpanipal's religious character we go to his own records. In these he
evei^where styles himself the servant and favorite of the gods, and acknowledges
their hand in all his successes. He regards himself as divinely appointed to make
known their power to the nations round about. He is very ready to undertake
these missionary enterprises, and once undertaken, he makes very thorough work
of it. The enemies of Assyria are the enemies of Asur and have insulted his
power. These insults he, ASurbanipal, is to punish, and it is his work to restore
the gods to their former dignity. Thus in his conquest of Elam, he recovers and
restores to her proper temple in Babylonia, to her great satisfaction, the god-
dess whom Kudurnanhundi, the father(V) of Chedorlaomer of Biblical fame, had
carried away 1635 years before. Wliere enterprises of this kind, however, are so
directly in the line of his private and political interests, it is difficult to say just
how much we are to credit to personal piety. Asurbanipal seems to have done
little in temple building, only four such works being ascribed to him, whereas
his father, Esarhaddon, built as many as thirty-six in his short reign of twelve
years. But he was active in repairing many that had become ruined, and fur-
nished both new and old most lavishly with statues of the gods and furniture of
gold, silver, and rare kinds of wood.
The character of Asurbanipal furnishes but another proof in history that de-
votion to religion and the fine arts may go hand in hand with great cruelty of dis-
position. None of the kings of Assyria can be called merciful ; but Sennacherib
and Esarhaddon had been comparatively mild in their treatment of their prisoners.
Asurbanipal in this respect took a backward step and imitated the deeds of the
most cruel kings before him. In his earlier years he seems to have been more
lenient. Necho and his fellow conspirators in Egypt were forgiven and restored
to positions of power. Baal, perhaps for political reasons, was retained on the
throne of Tyre. But in his later years, those that fell into his hands were put to
death, and often with severest tortures. Mutilation was a common form of pun-
ishment. On the second defeat of the Elamites, their leaders experienced most
cruel treatment. The grandsons of Merodach-baladan were mutilated, two of
the allied princes had their tongues torn out, two of Teminummau's officers were
flayed alive.
These and other cruel forms of torture we find not only recorded in exultant
language in the inscriptions but portrayed also on the walls of the palaces.
There we see pinioned captives led about by rings passed through the tongue or
lips, and condemned men are buffeted in the face before being executed, or are
led about the city with the heads of their friends hung about their necks.
Much of this cruelty, however, is to be pardoned to the customs of a rude age,
and numerous parallels to it may be found in all the nations of that day. Asur-
banipal's cruelty was not the result of any meanness of character, like that of the
coward who seeks by display of power over his inferiors to console himself for his
enforced subservience to his superiors. It was, rather, due to the excess of ani-
mal spirits in the man and to his pride of station, which made insignificant the
life and comfort of the common lot of men. It was often exercised for dramatic
effect, to inspire his enemies with the sense of his power. It was akin to the old
Roman's delight in gladiatorial sports, whose familiarity with suffering and blood
in constant warfare hardened the heart to feelings of pity at other times.
100 The Old Tbstajient Student.
It was with this same excess of animal spirits that Asurbanipal enjoyed the
sports of the chase. In these he found exerci.se for his splendid physical powers
and daring courage. lie shrank from no personal danger. Unfortunately we
have no biogiaphy of him by contemporary and unprejudiced writers; but if we
may credit his own statements, he was a mar\'el of strength and courage, of un-
erring aim with bow and spear, ready single handed and on foot to encounter the
king of beasts and despatch him with a thrust of tlie short^sword. The calm dig-
nity and ease with which his royal highness grasps the wounded and infuriated
lion by the forelock or beard and drives the dagger between his ribs entitles him
to a place in the tales of the Arabian Xiglits. In the bas-reliefs the king stands
perfectly erect and at his ease, while the lion, whose dead-weight would be four
times the king's avoirdupois, leans against him at an angle of forty-Gve degrees,
without in the least disturbing his equilibrium. The sculptures representing such
astonishing prowess have not always the courage to face our incredulity single
handed. One of them, at least, is backed by an attendant in the shape of an in-
scription to the following effect: "I, Asurbanipal, king of the nations, king of
Assyria, in my great courage fighting on foot with a lion, terrible for his size,
seized him by the ear, and in the name of Asur and Istar, goddess of war, with
the spear that was in my hand, I terminated his life."
However much allowance we may think it necessary to make for the ego in
such a passage as this, we cannot doubt that Asurbanipal was a man of great
physical courage in war and the chase, and possessed many noble qualities of mind
befitting his high station. In almost every respect, as we now know him through
the inscriptions so recently brought to light, he stands at the farthest remove
from that character with whom he has so long been identified, the effeminate Sar-
danapalus of the Greek historians. The latter was renowned for his wealth, but
was a weak and ineflicient ruler, devoted to the pleasures of the harem and seldom
setting foot outside his palace. Asurbanipal, too, possessed great wealth, but he
did not allow himself to become enfeebled by luxury ; and although his practice of
taking as wives and concubines the daughters of subject princes gave him a large
harem, he did not lose his fondness for manly sports and recreations either bodily
or mental.
In a despotic eastern monarchy, where the character of the people is more
directly dependent on the character of the ruler than under a freer form of gov-
ernment, the king may be judged somewhat by the state of the nation. On this
test, Asurbanipal must be given a high place among the rulers of that age. In
his reign, the kingdom attained its greatest territorial extent, Assyrian art reached
its highest development, and science and literature, probably for the first time in
that nation, were seriously cultivated. It is this last form of activity that more
than anything else places ASurbauipal above his predecessors, and entitles him to
lasting fame and gratitude. The gathering of his great library, involving as it
did the copying and translation of so much that was then old, as well as the pro-
duction of much new material, has opened to us the doorway to a civilization far
more .ancient even than his own time. It may be that, as the contents of this
library become better known, some Ebers in the field of Assyriology will find ma-
terial from which to picture for us the home life of Terah and Nahor in ancient
Ur of the Chaldees before the first great Pilgrim Father '• gat him out of his
country and from his kindred and from his father's house to go unto the land that
the Lord would show him."
Old Testament Word-stttddes. 101
History is being added to at both ends. It is lengthening out toward the
future, but it is also reaching back into the past. The monuments of Assyria,
Babylonia and Egypt, the Moabite Stone and the Hittite inscriptions invite us to
retrace the long journey that the human race has made since it left its primitive
home in Eden and to explore those regions of history so long forgotten. Those
that have burned the midnight oil in the toilsome endeavor to master the cunei-
form signs are sometimes tempted to feel that all the information they can get
out of them is fairly earned and they have only themselves to thank for it ; but we
should not forget our indebtedness to Asurbanipal and other scholars of antiquity,
who have gathered such vast amount of material for our study, who have filled
with such rich treasures the fields in which we are now so eagerly plying the
spade.
OLD TESTAMENT WORD-STUDIES: 3. MORAL GOOD.
By Rev. P. A. Nordell, D. D.,
New London, Conn.
In the following group of words the general conception of moral good is made
sufliciently comprehensive to include terms which a more rigid classification
would place in other categories. It is to be understood simply as a convenient
phrase under which a number of words, very prominent in Old Testament usage,
may be gathered together for brief consideration.
Qadha.sh to be holy.
The primary meaning of qadhash has been much disputed. Many writers
have connected it with hadhash to he new, to come to light, as the new moon,
and have inferred that originally it meant to be light from the very first, hence pure,
untarnished, splendid. This derivation seems to find support in the fact that the
conception of tlie divine holiness is so often associated with that of the divine
glory; "[The tabernacle] shall be sanctified by my glory," Exod. 29:43. " Holy,
holy, holy is the Lord of Hosts; the whole earth is full of his glory," Isa. 6:3.
" Light is the earthly reflection of God's holy nature ; the Holy One of Israel is tlie
Light of Israel (Isa. 10:17). The light with its purity and splendor is the most suit-
able earthly element to represent the brilliant and spotless purity of the Holy
One in whom there is no interchange of light and darkness." (Keil on Exod., p.
29.) This derivation, however plausible, has been almost wholly abandoned
by recent writers, who refer qadhash to a root qd to cut, sever, hence to
separate. This seems to be the sense in which the word is employed in
in respect to Jeremiah's divine appointment to his prophetic work, " Before
thou camest forth from the womb, I separated thee ; I have appointed thee a
prophet to the nations," Jer. 1:5. Separation involved a two-fold idea; that of
separation /Vom the common mass,/7'om imperfection, impurity, and sin, and of
separation or dedication to some specific work, person, or deity. It may be a little
difiicult to realize the original simplicity of this idea of holiness, expressing, as
Wellhausen says, " rather what a thing is not, than what it is ;" but from this
meager foundation has been developed a series of the most pregnant significa-
tions tn the whole range of Old Testament revelation.
102 The Old Testament Stttdent.
Qodhesh holiness.
The most frequent of these derivatives is the substantive qodhSsh, which
occurs over 400 times, and is especially characteristic of the Pentateuchal legislation,
of the Psalms, and of the writings of Ezekiel. Here, as in the verb, the funda-
mental thought is that of separation, leading on the one hand to the concept of
moral purity, or holiness, the state of being opposed to, or set apart from, the
unclean, the profane, the wicked, and the abominable ; and on the other hand, to
the idea of consecration, or dedication, the state of being set apart for sacred uses.
The term has therefore a very wide range of application. It attached to the ground
about the burning bush, Exod. 3:5 ; to an unredeemed field, Lev. 27:21 ; to the land
of Palestine, Zech. 2:12(16); to Zion, Ps. 2:6 ; Joel 3:17 ; to Jerusalem, Isa. 52:1 ; to
the Sabbath, Exod. 16:23 ; Neh. 9:14 ; to the sanctuary with its furniture and uten-
sils, possini,- to the official garments worn by the priests, Exod. 28:2; to the food
eaten by them. Lev. 22:7; to the offerings and sacrifices, Exod. 28:38 ; Lev. 7:1 ; to
the priests, Ezra 8:28; and to the whole people of Israel, Exod. 22:31(30) ; Isa. 62:
12. In all these applications of the word the quality of holiness is seen to rest,
not on any natural or inherent property in the persons or things, but on their rela-
tion to Jehovah, the covenant God of Israel. They are holy because they are
specially dedicated to his service, or because of their proximity to the place where
he reveals himself. A place or thing becomes more sacred in proportion to its
nearness to Jehovah, so that it may even come to be designated qodhesh haq-
qodhashim, holy of holies, because this quality is reflected from it in the highest
degree. The term cannot be pared down to mean " spiritual," or " priestly," in
opposition to divine, as Wellhausen holds (Proleg., p. 422), nor does " holy " mean
"almost the same as ' exclusive,' " (ib. 499). For while the nearness of persons
or things to God, or their consecration to his sers'ice, does indeed remove them
out of tlieir ordinary worldly relations and sinful concomitants, nevertheless
through these same consecrated persons and things God enters into the sphere of
human life and earthly relations and makes the fullest revelation of himself that
the condition of the world admits. We are thus brought to the fact that the Old
Testament on almost every page exhibits the holiness of God as his supreme and
central attribute, " Who is like thee, O Lord, among the gods, glorious in holi-
ness?" Exod. 15:11. The beauty of his holiness demands from his creatures the
loftiest praise, 2 Chron. 20:21. At the same time its manifestation to the sinner
never fails to awaken a consciousness of guilt, of terror, and of desire to
escape from his presence so long as the guilt has not been removed by atone-
ment. Holiness is reflected from the throne upon which God sits, Ps. 47:8(9), and
from the heaven in which he dwells, Ps. 20:6(7). This attribute of the Divine
Being appears most conspicuously in the adjective
A
Qadhosh holy.
Unlike qudhesh, this word never applied to things, but only to persons,
and pre-eminently to God in whom holiness inheres supremely and infinitely. It
is the term which Jehovah employs when he would concentrate into a single word
a description of his own inmost nature, and by means of which he would enforce
upon his people Israel a separation from moral evil, and from contact with the
social and religious corruptions of the surrounding nations. " Ye shall be holy
unto me ; for I the Lord am holy, and have separated you from the peoples, that
ye should be mine," Lev. 20:26, is accentuated again and again. The attribute
Old Testamekt Word-studies. 103
expressed by tlus term becomes a frequent, and in Isaiah a stereotyped, designa-
tion of Jehovah as the Holy One, or more fully, the Holy One of Israel. It even
assumes the form of a proper name without the article. " I have not denied the
words of Q a d h 6 s h ," Job 10:6. " Thus saith the high and lofty inhabiting eter-
nity, and his name is Qadhosh," Isa. 57:15.
Another term, q a d h e s h , fern, q'dheshah, furnishes an interesting illus-
tration of the process by which derivatives from the same root may develop into
the most opposite meanings. As qodhesh and qadhosh have risen into a
designation of the highest possible conception of moral purity, so qadhesh and
q'dheshah have fallen into a designation of the deepest abyss of moral infamy.
Originally they denoted the youths and maidens who, from a religious motive,
made sacrifice of their innocence ih honor of the goddess Astarte, many of whom
became permanently attached to her debasing cultus. They were dedicated to her
worship in the same manner as the hUroduli at Corinth were consecrated to the
service of Aphrodite Paudemos. It was only a step from this meaning to that of
public libertines and harlots which the words soon came to denote.
Hesedh love, grace.
The only place where this word seems to be used in the sense of physical
beauty or loveliness is Isa. 40:6, "All flesh is grass, and the hesedh thereof as
the flower of the field." In every other place it refers to a friendly, loving dispo-
sition, pre-eminently to God's condescending love toward man. The display of
this undeserved love in the bestowment of material and spiritual blessings is more
precisely described in the word rah'mim, mercies. Hesedh denotes a pure
and unselfish love, entirely unlike that set forth in ' il h e b h and its derivatives,
which hke amo, amor, emphasizes rather its sensual aspect, a meaning which sur-
vives in our word amorous. It is not, therefore, a designation of love in general,
but of the love exhibited by a superior to an inferior, a compassionate pity that
seeks to relieve the poor and distressed. Hesedh, in the sense of unselfish love,
free grace, is then attributed in its highest and fullest degree to God, and its
exhibition on the part of man toward God or toward his fellow-man is but the
reflection of the divine attribute. In Israel this grace was especially revealed in
the covenant which united Jehovah and his people. " Jehovah and Israel formed as
it were one community, and hesedh is the bond by which the whole community
is knit together. It is not necessary to distinguish Jehovah's hesedh to Israel,
which we would term his grace, Israel's duty of hesedh to Jehovah, which we
would call piety, and the relation of hesedh between man and man which
embraces the duty of love and mutual consideration. To the Hebrew mind these
three are essentially one, and all comprised in the same covenant. Loyalty and
kindness between man and man are not duties inferred from Israel's relation to
Jehovah ; they are parts of that relation ; love to Jehovah and love to one's
brethren in Jehovah's house are identical." (Kobertson Smith, Prophets of
Israel, p. 162.)
Tsedheq, ts'dhaqah righteousness.
T s e d h e q denotes righteousness considered as an abstract virtue ; ts'dha-
qah is righteousness in the sphere of personal activity. No words in the Old
Testament are more important than these, and none have called forth such a large
104 The Old Testajtent Student.
and constantly growing literature. Their adequate discussion -would require a
separate treatise, and we can notice therefore only a few of the more salient
points of interest connected with them. The primary meaning presented by the
root t s d h q seems to be fastness or fixedness, and hence internal compactness
and solidity. When this conception of fixedness is transferred to the domain of
morals, we have fixedness and solidity of character, steadfastness in the exercise
of goodness; its opposite is rash 5' to he lax. loose, teicked. From this primary
meaning all higher moral significations are deduced. (Ryssel, Synonyma des
Wahren und Outen, 1872, p. 24.) Kautsch (Die Derivative des Stummes pHV
im A. T. Sprachgebrauch, 1881) disputes this derivation and endeavors to prove
that the original meaning is "conformity to a norm." Righteousness of charac-
ter is therefore conformity to an external rule of action, and in the case of man
this rule is the standard established by God. God's righteousness cannot of
course consist in agreement with a norm outside of himself, but with his own free
and holy nature. When, therefore, God in his judicial activity is spoken of as
righteous it means simply that he is unswervingly true to the rule of conduct that
he has set up for man, and that roots itself in a holiness that cannot be deflected
toward evil or wrong. But this " conformity to a norm "" of necessity carries us
back to the root idea of fixedness, that which stands fast and solid amidst all
tendencies to moral unsteadiness and flaccidity.
The holiness of God was chiefly revealed in the sphere of the theocracy, but
his t s ' d h a q a h extended to the entire government of the world. In virtue of his
covenant relation to Israel this word took on a narrower meaning within the theoc-
racy than outside, denoting not so much a personal righteousness in reference to
the divine standard, as a righteousness determined by conformity to the provis-
ions of God's covenant with liis people. Israel's righteousness consisted in a
strict performance of the conditions which the covenant involved. That the Old
Testament did, however, attach a much profounder meaning to the term than
mere rectitude of conduct is plainly seen in passages like Gen. 15:6, and Jer. 23:6,
where righteousness is not predicated as the result of conduct, but is imputed as
a divine gift in consequence of faith. In this sense it corresponds to the Xew
Testament SiKawavvrj,
Yashar upright.
The primary force of the verb y ii s h a r is to make straight ; " I will make the
crooked places straight," Isa. 45:2. Applied to conduct, it denotes that which is
straightforward to the observer's eyes, hence right or pleasing. Yosher is the
abstract noun and signifies straightness, Prov. 2:13, hence uprightness. The
most frequently occurring derivative is the adjective yashar, which describes
a man who moves in straight lines for the accomplishment of his purposes, i. e.
an honest, fair, upright man. While it commonly refers to conduct, this upright-
ness in external relations springs from uprightness in heart, Ps. 7:11. The pre-
cepts of the Lord are y'sharim , "both when viewed as norma normata, seeing
they proceed from the upright, absolutely good will of God, and as norma nornums,
seeing they lead along a straight way in the right track " (Del. on Ps. 19:9). The
quality of uprightness is not absolute, but determined by the moral stand-point of
him who pronounces upon it. " The way of the fool is yashar in his own eyes,"
Prov. 12:15, and evil advice was yashfir in the eyes of Absalom because it
pleased his evil mind, 2 Sam. 17:4.
The Biblical Doctrine of Inspiration. 105
' « meth truth.
The root idea, according to Ryssel, is both transitive, to support, and intran-
sitive, to be supported ; hence to be firm, secure, and in respect to any one's dis-
position and tendency, to be true, faithful, '"meth is that which endures, pos-
sesses continuance, therefore that, which bears the test of experience, viz. relia-
bility, faithfuluess, truth. As descriptive of one of the divine attributes it is
often associated with hesedh, the compassionate love of God, " Blessed be the
Lord, who hath not forsaken his grace and his truth toward my master," Gen.
24:27. In such connection it refers to the fidelity with wlaich Jehovah fulfills his
promises to those who walk in his ways. Of. Pss. 25:10 ; 53:3(4).
A
Tobh good.
This word passes also from the designation of physical excellency, which is
its common meaning, to the designation of moral good. God is not only good
but the supreme goodness, Ps. 34:8(9); Jer. 33:11, and many other places; and
this seems to be the Old Testament equivalent of the iSTew Testament declaration
that God is love, for love wills only good to those whom it embraces.
THE BIBLICAL DOCTKINE OF INSPIRATION.*
By Prof. Charles Rufus Brown,
Newton Centre, Mass.
The purpose of this volume, as gathered from several statements in it, is to
offer to those of all Christian denominations who believe that the Bible is inspired,
though they may differ in theories of inspiration, a view of inspiration dravra
from a candid examination of the facts of Sacred Scripture. The very title sug-
gests this. The same ring is heard again and again throughout the book. '' It is
easy," says Dr. Manly, "to present theories. But the question is one of fact
and not of theory. The Bible statements and the Bible phenomena are the deci-
sive phenomena in the case." " I have been desirous to examine all sides of the
question, and to seek for truth whether old or new ; resolved neither to cling
slavishly to confessional or traditional statements, nor to search for original
and startling ideas But there may be, after all, honest independence of
inquiry, a careful sifting of opinions, a fair recasting of views in the mould of
one's own thinking, and a subordination of the whole simply to the controlling
authority of God's Word " (Preface). Speaking on p. 1 10 of the direct evidence to
be expected, he says, " The testimony is also found in the phenomena apparent
on the very face of Scripture ; and accordingly the true doctrine of inspiiation is
to be gathered by legitimate induction from these, as well as from express asser-
tions. This is the only truly scientific, as well as the scriptural, method of
arriving at the genuine doctrine of inspiration. All the evidence should be
*The Biblical Doctrine of Inspiration Explained and Vindicated. By Rev. Basil
Manly, D. D., LL. D., Professor in the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, Louisville, Ky.
with complete indexes. ^ewYov^: A. C. Armstrong ami Son. J1.35.
*4
106 Tile Old Testament Student.
admitted, all the classes of phenomena should be examined." Referring to those
who make their own preconceived notions the gauge by which inspired and unin-
spired Scripture are to be measured, he quotes from Mr. McCouaughy (in S. S.
Times, 1880, p. 551) as follows : " There are those to-day who know just what God
ought to do, and their judgment, rather than what he pleases, is their criterion.
They measure their God with a yardstick They regulate him according to
right reason,— that is, their own. They prescribe the exact limits within which he
may work ; and then they fall down and worship the God of their own hands"
(p. 256).
These sentiments, so just and searching, are exactly what we should expect
from the distinguished author. They imply tliat he began his inquiry with the
determination to set himself free both from the Rationalism of Consers'atism and
that of Radicalism, and to receive with meekness that view of the Bible which the
phenomena of the Bible itself, when carefully examined, might present. The
uniform gentlemanliness aud generosity toward opponents, so difficult to main-
tain in a controversial work, unless one be " to the manor bom," and so appareut
in this book, are worthy of cultivation by writers on such themes. lie does not
once say, " You can not be true to the Bible unless you accept my doctrine of the
Bible." Far from it. Wliat he does say is more like this : " I honor you as
Christian brethren true to your convictions, and so I make an honest effort to
convince you that you are wrong by presenting considerations which may not
have occurred to you." Such an attitude is worthy of all praise and makes this
book an "epoch-making" one. We who are younger than Dr. Manly may well
learu from him this lesson, that no amount of painstaking scholarship will com-
pensate us for an absence of courtesy and brotherly love in the discussion of lofty
topics.
In part first, the idea of inspiration is carefully distinguished from other
more or less closely related ideas which sometimes have been confounded with it ;
as, for example, that of correct transcription of the inspired word, and the mis-
conception that inspired men should be perfect in character, or have perfect
knowledge of any subject. Very little exception can be taken to this part of the
work. The inspiration of the Bible is here twice defined ; once, as " that divine
influence that secures the accurate transference of tiuth into human language
by a speaker or writer, so as to be communicated to other men "" (p. 37); and
again, the Bible, while truly the product of men, is declared to be "truly the word
of God, having both infallible truth and divine authority in all it affirms or
enjoins " (p. 90). It will be observed that these statements are laid down at the
beginning; but, if the reader should feel, after an examination of the evidence
farther on, that they express a fair iuductiou from the facts, no complaint need
be made that they precede rather than follow the inductive examination.
I'art second is devoted to the direct proofs of inspiration. Here there are
some very strong arguments for the fact of inspiration, admirable, unanswerable
arguments ; but the very men whom Dr. Maidy seeks to convince are already
convinced of the fact of inspiration and of the value of just these arguments, and
are only in doubt in regard to the unerring accuracy of the Scriptures in eveiy
particular. It seems to the writer that our author rather assumes that the inspi-
ration involved in what he says is identical with infallibility than proves that they
aie the same. To pass beyond the presumptive argument, which is purely apriori
The Biblical Doctrine of Inspiratiok. 107
and must stand or fall as subsequent facts may determine, the treatment of a single
passage may make this clear. Take the familiar one in 2 Tim. 3:16 : " All Script-
ure is given by inspiration of God," etc., or "every Scripture, inspired of God, is
also profitable ; " etc. The conclusion is evident ; all the sacred writings are
inspired, and Dr. Manly insists that it is so. But the question naturally arises.
Have we conservatives had a misconception of what was necessarily involved in
inspiration, or not? Those who differ with Dr. Manly think we have. In his
treatment of the passage, he tacitly assumes, without attempt at proof, that we
have not. To satisfy an opponent he would have to prove from the passage not
only that all of Scripture is inspired, but also that it is absolutely free from error.
His reasoning seems to be this :
Men divinely inspired can affirm only infallible truth.
The Scripture writers were divinely inspired.
Therefore the Scripture writers could aflirm only truth without mixture of
error.
There are men who claim that the major premise is rationalistic. It is at
least not proved in this part of Dr. Manly's book.
Part third considers many classes of objections which have been made to the
doctrine here stated. The limits which Dr. Manly set to himself did not permit
him to give a full answer to these objections ; and therefore, though he does not
seek to shun a discussion of them, his treatment is so brief as to be somewhat
imsatisfactory. It is to be hoped that some time he will make his work more
complete by an exhaustive examination of the difficulties in the way of a hearty
acceptance of the doctrine he has here presented to us.
SYNOPSES OF IMPORTANT ARTICLES.
Two Dlscnssioiis of Job 10:23-'27.— I.* Tlie interpretation of this passage is
closely related to the idea of the Book of Job as a whole. Three current beliefs
of the age appear in the book. 1) Everything is traced directly to God. 2) God
is just in character and dealings with men. Hence suffering is a penalty and con-
sequence of sin. Both .Job and his three friends accept this. 3) God's relations
to men come out in this present life. The problem of the book is to reconcile
these three views with the facts of the case, Job's seeming uprightness and his
actual suffering. Job, first, questions the justice of God, but he cannot root that
belief out. Then he must modify his idea of God's relations to man as confined
to this life. He is convinced that there is no recovery for him in this life. Then
there flashes into view the new thought and faith ; he shall have dealings with
God and be justified in the future life. The \news that he hopes to see God. i. e.
enjoy his favor in this life either as a mere mass of flesh or when disease shall
have reduced him to a skeleton are untenable, because both conditions would not
be a sign of God's favor. The view that he hopes for restoration in this life is
opposed because of the fact that the whole tenor of the book, especially of Job's
speeches, is characterized by hopelessness in this respect. It is taken for granted
that his disease is incurable. The view that he expects a resurrection body is
alien not only to the book but to the spirit and knowledge of the times. There
remains the view that he will see God after death in a spiritual existence. In
regard to this, (1) it was for him the only conceivable solution; (2) he had had
previoiis glimpses of this truth ; (3) the epilogue wliich restores Job becomes a
natural and artistic conclusion in the light of the whole book ; (4) the emphasis
is laid not upon the manner or the form, but upon the fact of seeing God ; (5) thus
Job makes a valuable contribution to the problem of suffering.
II. t This passage may be viewed as " the triumphal arch of Job's victory."
Casting aside as untenable the view of a resurrection body we have two main
interpretations. 1) Job hoped for restoration in this life. In favor of this: (1)
the language requires it ; (2) arguments in favor of the " re.sunection body " view
apply also to this ; (3) the utter silence of Job and his friends and Jehovah else-
where concerning a future life; (4) the whole discussion is limited to the sphere
of this world; (5) a mark of great faith in Job; (6) the thing that was absolutely
needful for his vindication ; {") the epilogue. 2) Job expected to see God hereafter
in a disembodied state. In favor of this, (1) a sign of great faith ; (2) the language
requires it; (3) vs. 23,24 demand it; (4) Job expected no restoration in this life.
Reply to these latter arguments : (1) no greater faith demanded in the one case
than in the other ; (2) the language does not necessarily require it ; (3) in vs. 23.24
Job simply wanted future ages to know that he liad been restored ; (4) Job's lan-
guage is as inconsistent as his feelings are fluctuating. How different his endur-
ance of suffering if he had known that there was release in Sheol. Conclusion :
Job expected restoration in this life.
• By Rev. W. B. Hutton, M. A., In The ETpositor, Aug., 1888, pp. 127-151.
+ By Prof. W. W. Davis, Ph. D., In The Hnmiletlc Review, Oct., 1888, pp. 358-362.
Synopses of Important Articles. 109
The Peutatenchal Story of Creation.* — Discrepancies are often found in a com-
parison of ttie record of creation in Genesis with certain conclusions of geological
science. These discrepancies arise from various misconceptions of both the Bible
and the facts of science. It is to be noted, 1) Genesis is sacred history, geology is
human science, hence each omits facts not essential to its representations ; 2) the
former account is brief and stated in general terms ; 3) Moses' interpretations or
knowledge of what he wrote by inspiration is not our standard ; 4) the language
of Scripture is that of common life. With these facts in mind the pentateuchal
history of creation is examined. 1) The introduction, Gen. 1:1. Here is taught
the existence of one God, his creation of matter, his existence apart from his crea-
tion. Science is in harmony with this. 2) The history down to the creation of
man, Gen. 1:2-25. The word ''day" is shown by several reasons to be Intended
to mark an indefinite period of time, characterized by a special work. The works
of the several days are described. The religious uses of the story are, (1) no quar-
ter given to idolatry, (2) the revelation of the Divine Being as a loving and wise
Pather. A particular examination of the account shows not only no contradic-
tions to science, but even harmony with it. 3) The creation of man, male and
female. Gen. 1:26-31 ; 2:1-7,18-25. (1) This is no myth, but plain history; (2) it
all has a profound religious significance ; (3) it agrees with the best science in
putting man last and highest in creation and in the assertion of the unity of the
race. 4) Conclusions : (1) interpreting the documents with regard to the object
of their vniting, just the facts are found in Genesis, as would be expected ; (2)
because geology does not confirm some of these and does reveal others is no
ground for claiming discrepancies ; (3) where Geology is parallel with Genesis the
accounts harmonize ; (4) the character of the statements of Genesis mark it as a
divine revelation.
The subject is too large for adequate treatment in the space g-iven. Hence many generaliza-
tions are made without sufficient proof. The positions of the writer are, however, those com.
monly accepted. The main feature of this argument is its insistence upon the special object
which ruled the writer of the sacred record and determined both his selection of facts, their
arrangement and the form of their presentation.
Idea of 0. T. Priesthood Fulfilled in the N. T.t— The Priesthood held a central
and dominating position in the O. T. economy. What is its fulfillment in the N.
T.V Its sphere is not in ordinances and institutions, but in Christ and his church
as a body realizing the Christian Dispensation. This is established by the testi-
mony of Paul (Eom. 10:4; Gal. 2:19; 3:24; 1 Cor. 5:7,8) and of John's Gospel (ch.
6). This fulfillment is : 1) in Christ himself (cf. Epistle to the Hebrews) as High
Priest, (1) by his personal qualifications, (2) by his work, (3) because by and in
him we draw near to God ; 2) in his Church as a whole, as follows from the prin-
ciple that he instituted an organized body to represent him, (1) in her qualifica-
tions and character (a) as called of God, (b) sympathy with the sufi:ering, (c) holi-
ness. 2) Whether her work is priestly wOl be hereafter considered.
The article is one of a series by the author which is appearing in this periodical. It is a care-
ful, weighty treatment of an Important theme without much that is new or striking. Perhaps
too great stress is laid upon the importance of the idea of the priesthood in the N. T.
* By Geo. D. Armstrong, D. D., LL. D., in The Presbyterian Quarterly, Oct., 1888, pp. 345-368.
+ By Kev. Prof. W. Milligan, D. D., in The Expositor, Sept., 1888, pp. 161-180.
»B00I^M30TICES.^
YALE LECTURES ON THE SUNDAY SCHOOL.*
Thirty years ago the author of this book entered upon the Sunday-school
field as the field of liis chosen life work. These lectures are the ripe fruit of his
experience and investigations during that period. Tliey treat of the membership
and management of the Sunday-school, of its teachers and their training, of the
relation of the pastor to the scliool, of the auxiliaries of the Sunday-school, and
of the importance and difficulties, and the principles and methods of preaching to
children. We desire to call special attention to the lectures on the origin and
vaiying progress of the Sunday-scliool. The facts presented in these will be a
real surprise to many readers. Dr. Trumbull finds the Sunday-school to be no
modem institution ; but, as " an agency of the church where the Word of God is
taught interlocutorily or catechetically to children and other learners," it is of
Jewish origin and as old as the Synagogue. Jesus himself in his childhood was
a Sunday-school scholar and later on a Sunday-school teacher. lie gave the com-
mand to start Sunday-schools everywhere. This is in the great commission (Matt.
28:19,20). "The direction therein is to organize Bible-schools everywhere as the
very basis, the initial form, of the Christian Church. Grouping scholars— the
child and the child-Uke— in classes, under skilled teachers, for the study of the
Word of God by means of an interlocutoiy co-work between teacher and scholars ;
that is the starting point of Christ's Church, as he founded it. Whatever else is
added, these features must not be lacking" (p. 37). This ancient origin of the
Sunday-school and such an interpretation of Scripture, Dr. Trumbull does not
present as a surmise, speculation or theory, resting on general principles or com-
mending itself by its own sweet reasonableness, but he firmly establishes his view
by presenting the facts upon which it is based. It is a delightful characteristic
of Dr. Trumbull's work as a writer, that he buttresses his positions by constant
reference to authorities and quotations from them, showing most careful induc-
tive research and study. One notices especially in this work the use made of
Jewish writings.
Anotlier striking fact brought out in these lectures is that catechisms were
not designed by their framers to be unintelligibly committed by children to mem-
ory as a means of storing away religious truth. " It would seem in short that the
very method of 'learning' the Westminster Catechism, which has been more com-
mon than any other in the last two centuries, and which even has many advocates
and admirers to-day, is a method which the Westminster Divines themselves
stigmatized as ' parrot ' learning, and as contrary to the light of nature and nat-
ural reason" (p. S3).
We wish this work might be in the hands of every Sunday-school teacher and
pastor in our land. It is attractive in form and furnished with copious indexes.
* The Sunday-scuooi, ; its Origin. Mission, Methods and Au.\iliarie3. The Lyman Bcecher
Lectures before Yale Divinity School for 18S8, by fl. Clay Trumbull, Editor of the Sunday
School Tirne^, Author of Kadesh Barnea, the Blood Covenant, Teaching and Teachers, etc.
Philadelphia: Jnhn D. IToltie*. Publisher, 1888.
CUREENT OLD TESTAMENT LITERATURE.
AMEEICAJf AND FOREIGN PCBLICATIONS.
Livnig Religions: nr The O-reat BeltQiimsnf the
Orieyit, from Sacred Books and Modern Cus-
ti>ms. By J. N. Fradenburgh, Ph. D., D. D.
New York: Phillips and Hunt $1.50
Die Uagiographen, ihrc Verfasser, Entsteh^ings-
zeitu. bihnlt. 1 Hft. Das 1. Buch der Spriiche
u. Psaimen. By J. Wohlstein. Wien: Lippe,
1888 M.1.60
Tlie Origin and Development of Christian Dogma.
An essay in the Science of History. By C.
A. H. Tuthill. London : Paul 38. 6d.
Dela Circoncision: Etude Critique. By Klein.
Paris: lib. Durlacher, 1888.
11 Nabucodonosor di Giuditta: disquisizione
bibllco-assira. By G. Brunengo. Koma.
Le Commentaire de Samuel Ibn Hofni sur le Pen-
tateuque. By 6. Bacher. Paris: lib. Dur-
lacher, 1888.
Biblical Antiquities. A hand-book for use in
Seminaries, Sabbath-schools, families, and
by all students of the Bible. By Edwin C. Bis-
sell, D. D. Philadelphia: The American
Sunday School Union $1.00
Introduction to Biblical Hebrew, presenting
graduated instruction in the language of the
O. T. By James Kennedy, B. D., acting libra-
rian in the New College. London: Williams
and Norgate 13s.
Bistoire de I'Art dans VAntiguiti. IV. Jude^
Sardaigne, Syrie, Cappadoce. Par Perrot
et Chipiez. Paris: Hatchette and Co.
ABTICLES AND RETIEWS.
The Rise and Decline of Idolatry. By G. T.
Flanders, D. D., in The XJniversalist Quar-
terly, Oct., 1SS8.
The Civilization and Religions of Ancient Mexico,
Central America and Pei-u. By Caroline A.
Sawyer. Ibid.
Was Adam created by Process of Evolut ion ? By
Chas. S. Robinson, D. D., in The Homiletic
Review, Oct., 1888.
Exegesis of Job 19:25-27. By W. W. Davis, Ph.
D. Ibid.
Moses: Bis life and work. By Alexandre Weill,
in The Jewish World, Sept. 28, Oct. 6, 1888.
The Study of the Bible as a Liberal Education.
The Christian Standard, Oct. 6, 1888.
I8 the Book of Jonah historical ? By Rev. W. W.
Davies. Ph. D., in the Methodist Review,
Nov., 1888.
The Study of Bebrew by Preachers. By Prof.
Jas. Strong, LL. D. Ibid.
"Elijah the TIshbite" a Gentile. By Joseph
Longking. Ibid.
Alexander's Biblical Theology. Critique in
Methodist Review, Nov., 1888.
Our Lord and the Rest Day. By Joseph Hor-
ner, D. D. Ibid.
L'Origine des quatre premiers Chapitres du
Deuterimome. I. By A. Hoonacker inLeMu-
s^on, VII, 4. '88.
Drummond's Philo .Judaeus. Reviewed by Sohiir-
er in Theol. Ltztng, Oct. 6, '88.
Niece's Joseph t Opei-a. Review. Ibid.
Zur Erklacrung des Bexaemerons. By Guttler
in Theol. Quartalschr. 3, 1888.
Das Uixvangelium. By A. Hilgenfeld, in
Ztschr. f. wiss. Theol., 33, 1, 1889.
The Bible's Doctrine of the Bible. By Rev. Prof
E. H. Johnson, D. t)., in The Examiner, Oct
11, 18, 1888.
Stopfer's Palestine. Review in The Independ'
ent, Oct. 11, '88.
Ancient Science: the Bexameron. Ibid. Oct,
18, '88.
Walled Cities in the Ancient East. By Rev.
Geo. Rawhnson, M. A., in Sunday School
Times, Oct. 13, 1888.
The Punishment of Aclian's Trespass, By Rev.
S. T. Lowrie, D. D. Ibid, Oct. 20, '88.
Memorial Stones in the East. By Prof. J. A
Paine, in Sunday School Times, Oct. 6, 1888.
Pressense's Ancient World and Christianity.
Review. Ibid.
The Oldest Book in the World. By Howard OS'
good, D. D., in Biuliotheca Sacra, Oct., 1888.
Manhj's Bible Doctrine of Inspiration. Review,
Ibid.
Recent Discoveries in Egyptology. Correspond-
ence in the Unitarian Review, Oct., 1888.
Benan's People of Israel. Critique. Ibid.
Cave 071 Inspiration. Review. The Congrega-
tionalist, Oct. i, 1888.
Cheyne's Psalms. Review. Ibid.
Maitineau's Study of Religion. The Church
Quarterly Review, Oct., 1888.
Tlie Apocrypha. Ibid.
Ttie Scriptural Doctrine concerning Marriage
and Divorce. Westminster Review, Oct., '88.
Tlic Dogmas of Judaism. By S. Schechter in
Jewish Quarterly Review, Oct., '88.
Tlic Design and Contents of Ecclesiastes. By Dr.
M. Friedlaeuder. Ibid.
Where are the Ten Tribes ? By Dr. Neubauer,
M. A. Ibid.
Ortflin of the Book of Zechariah. By Rev"! Can-
on Cheyne. Ibid.
Myth and Tolemism. By Gerald Massey in The
National Review, Oct., '88.
Tlxe Names of the Lists of Thotmes III. which
may be assigned to Judea. By M. Maspero in
Jour, of the Trans. Vict. Inst. No. 86.
Tlie Melchizedek or Heavenly Priesthood of Our
Lord. By Rev. Prof. W. Milligan, D. D., in
The Expositor, Oct., 1888.
The Pentateuch— Egypticity and Authenticity, II.
By Rev. G. Lansing, D. D. Ibid.
OF
STUDY IX.— THE PARABLES OF THE KINGDOM. MARK 4:1-34.
BeSDine of Studies T.-VIII. 1. Sum up the events of this period and give a general characteriza-
tion of It. 2. Compare it with the previous period considered in Studies III.-IV. 3. An
advance is made in the woi-l£ of Jesus— what it is and how important it is to the Kin^om
of God.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead carefully Mk. 4:1-34 and be able to make a definite statement concerning
each of the following points :
1. Teaching by the sea (vs. 1,2) ; 4. on hearing (vs. 21-25) ;
2. parable of the four kinds of soil 5. the fruit-bearing earth (vs. 26-29);
(vs. 3-9) ; 6. the mustard seed (vs. 30-32) ;
3. its meaning explained (vs. 10-20) ; 7. Jesus' method of teaching (vs.
33.34).
II. The Material Compared.
1. Read thoughtfully Mt. 13:1-52 and I.k. 8:t-lS; i:t:IH,l».
2. Taking the parallel passages in Mt. and Lk. gather the additional matter; e. g. inMt. 13:1,10,
14-17, 19,31, 3«; Lk. S:4-r.,ll-l«,18; l:{:19.
3. Classify this gathered material according as it bears on the following points: 1) statements
throwing light on the passage in Mk.; 2) statements revealing special characteristics of
either Gospel, (a) O. T. quotations in Jit., (b) explanatory additions in Lk. (cf. S:12-m,18)
showing the desire of a careful writer for clearnesss and accuracy; cf. Lk. 1:3,4; 3) evi-
dence to show that the three accounts while having a common basis are yet Independent
of each other.
III. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
1) V. 1. (a) Began tn teach; a Hebrew idiom 5) V. 9. WIm hath cars, etc.; a Jewish teach-
equivalent to "taught." Cf. Acts 1:1. er's call for special attention. Cf. Mt.
(b) Sat; the teacher sat, the scholars 11:14,15; Lk. 14:34,35.
stood. Cf. Mt. l:i:2. 8) V. 10. (a) AUme; i. e. apart from the multi-
2) V. 4. By Uie xoayKiiU ; paths running tudes.
through the fields. CT. 2:23. (b) They.... about him; of the larger
3) T. 6. Rncky ; i. e. the rock lying close to body of disciples. Cf. Study VII., iii,
the surface. 2,(1).
4) V. 0. No root; cf. Lk. 8:0, "no moisture;" (o) ParaMc«; i.e. all that were spoken;
how are these two conditions con- of. vs. 2,33. May not this interpre-
nected? tatlon (vs. 10-25) have been given
New Testament Supplement.
113
17) T.
18) V.
19) T.
after the other parables, i. e. after
V. 34?
7) T. 11. (a) .l/j/stery; seek to find the N. T.
meaning of the word from such pas-
sages as Rom. 16:35; lCor.2:7-10; Epb.
1:9,10, etc.; (1) not something mys-
terious; (2) knowledge which is kept
secret from the many and disclosed
only to selected ones; (3) the inmost
truths of the Gospel which human
wisdom cannot discover, but which
has been revealed from above to all
sincere and earnest souls.
(b) Them that arc vAthoul ; (1) a phrase
by which the Jews meant Gentiles;
(3) applied by Jesus to his own coun-
trymen. Why 7
8) V. 12. That seeing they may see, etc.; (a) a
Hebrew idiom I'cf. Isa. 6:9) meaning
either '* keep on seeing " or " see
clearly;" (b) of. Mt. 13:13; state the
difference in the form of expression,
(c) how interpret the thought (1) as a
purpose of Jesus, or (3) as a result
due to human perversity?
9) V. 13. The parables ; i. e. of the Kingdom.
May not this parable also contain
the key by which to interpret all the
parables ?
10) V. 16. Are sown ; i. e. the hearer is both
seed and soil — soil, as receiving the
seed,— seed, as developing into a
plant from the soil,
11) V. 20. Accept ; how different from receive,
V. 16?
2. SPECIAL, TOPICS.
1) Parables, (a) Meaning of the word ; (b) use of parables in the O. T. (of. 2 Sam.
12:1-4; Isa. 5:1-6; 28:23-29) and by the Jewish teachers (rabbis); (c) the
occasion which prompted Jesus to use them as found (1) in the growing
opposition to him or (2) in his growing popularity; (d) his pui-pose in
employing them, whether (1) to attract, (2) to stimulate mental and spiritual
life, or (3) to distinguish true and false disciples; (e) decide whether it was
a purpose or a result of his using them that they concealed the truth ; (f)
principles of interpreting them as illustrated in vs. 13-20 ; (1) every parable
has one main thought and the rest is drapery, or (2) every detail has a spir-
itual meaning; (g) apply the principles to vs. 26-29,30-32.
2) The Kingdom of God. (a) Becall what has been gathered on this point in con-
nection with Mk. 1:15; (b) seek to show from these parables (1) how the
Kingdom depends for success on the nature and disposition of the hearers
of its message, (2) how its development depends on the personal moral
effort of its hearers, (3) how, beginning small, it has the power of vast self-
extension, (4) other teachings concerning it in these parables.
IT. The Material Organized.
1. Gather the material and classify it under the following heads : 1) habits and customs; 3) JesuB"
manner of teaching; 3) important words; 4) literary data; 5) important teachings.
12) v. 21. (a) Similar words; Mt. 5:15,16; Lk.
11:33; (b) the question expects what
answer ; (c) state the argument, (1) his
apparent purpose. (3) his real pur-
pose.
13) V. 22. (a)rftcreis,- emphatic, "therecan be."
(b) Ndihing hid; I. e. of this teaching.
(c) The hiding is in order to reveal
the truth. (1) to any who will accept
it, (3) to the earnest whom the con-
cealing would stimulate.
14) T. 24. (a) IVhat ; i. e. " when I speak."
(b) Wilh what measure, etc.; (Da pro-
verbial expression, cf. Mt. 7:3; (3) to
what it refers, whether their hearing
of Jesus or their proclaiming to
others what they hear.
15) v. 25. (a) a proverbial phrase; (b) its appli-
cation here whether to their ability
to understand the word or their
readiness to communicate it.
16) v. 27. (a) Sleep and rise ; i. e. the common
round of life.
(b) He; emphatic; its application (1)
to the recipients of the truth, or (3) to
Jesus and the preachers of the King-
dom.
28. Of herself ; man cannot make her.
80. How shall we liken ; a common form-
ula of Jewish teachers.
33. Spake;!, e. "would he speak," a
new method of teaching adopted.
114 The Old Testament Student.
2. Observe tbe following condensations of the material. 1) Work them out in detail and
2) gather them up lute a brief statement:
8 1. vs. 1.2,33,;14. Jesus from a boat tkaches multitudes oslv is parables, suited to
THEM, BUT GIVES THE EXPLANATION TO HIS DISCIPLES.
9 2. VS. 3-20. "The sower bows on four kinds of soil, only one of which ib
FRUITFUL." The DISCIPLES, F.4VORED ABOVE OTHERS, ABE PRIVATELY
TOLD THAT THIS REFERS TO THE KINDS OF PEOPLE WHO HE.Ul HIU .IND
THE RESULTS OF HIS WORK WITH THEM.
S3. VS. 21-25. "Like the lamp mv teacbi.no is i.vtended to give light. Heab
wisely; YOUR growth and usefulness depend ON IT."
t4. VS. 26-32. "The Kingdom of Heaven is like seed which the earth, apabt
fko.m man's agency. causes to crow gb.vdually until the harvest.
It is like the mustahd-seed, small as a seed, l.vroe as a tree, with
great and shadowing branches."
V. The Material Applied.
Responsibility ix view of the Gospel, l. In hearing the message of Jesus
(Mk. 4:3-8); observe 1) the conditions (soil) favorable to the acceptance of
the message, 2) the conditions unfavorable to its acceptance, 3) what causes
these conditions, 4) where the consequent responsibility lies for the final
result. 2. In working out the message into cJmracter (Mk. 4:26-29), note.
1) what .Jesus does for his followers; 2) what he does not do; 3) what is
expected of them. 3. In giving the message to others (Mk. 4:21-25), consider
1) whether this is a primary purpose in bestowing privileges on the children
of the Kingdom, 2) whether this is a fundamental condition of personal
Christian life, 3) note the results as indicated in v. 25.
STUDY X.— DEEDS OF POWER. MARK 4:3&-5:43.
Besome. 1. Tbe circumstances leading Jesus to teach in parables. 2. Characteristics of these
parables. 3. Their message concerning the Kingdom, i. Their efTect upon his hearers.
5. Principles of thSir interpretation.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead Mk. 4:35-5:43, and be able to make a definite statement concerning each of
the following points :
1. Journey to the other side of the 4. Jairus' daughter raised (5:21-24,
sea (4:35,36) ; 35-43) ;
2. the storm stilled (4:37-41); 6. the suffering woman healed (5:
3. the Gerasene demoniac restored 25-34).
(5:1-20);
II. The Material Compared.
1. Compare with Mk. 4:35-5:4.3 Ml. S::;:t-34i »:l,IS-26; I,k. 8:i2.5G.
2. Observe the following points: 11 What is peculiar to .Mark as compared with Matthew and
Luke? 2) further littht thrown by Matthew and Luke upon the details of the events, cf.
Ml. 8:29,34; 9:20, 23, 20; Lk. 8:20.27, 29.3.'>,40,42; 3) seeming variations, e. g. Ml. 8:28; 9:
1,1S; I,k. 8:31,42. Give exphinatlons of them. 4) Character of the account in Mark as
compared with the others. Is it (a) a mere synopsis ? or (b) an Independent narrative, (0)
marked by vivid, dramatic, original qualities ?
New Testament Supplement.
115
m. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
1) T. 35. On that day; (a) a precise note of
time; (b) the events of that day
in view of Mt. 13:1; (c) another
such day, Mk. 1:31-34.
3) V. 30. Even as he was; i. e. still in the
boat, cf. 4:1.
3) Vs. Si-S9. (a) Note the vivid details, cf. 5:4,
5; picture the scene; (b) what
may be said as to this being the
narrative 1) of an eye-witness,
2) of a sailor ?
4) T. 38. ia) Master; lit. "teacher." Note
their idea of Jesus. Cf. v. 41,
"Who is this?"
(h) Carest thou not ; (a) a com-
plaint: (b) ma.v this remark have
come from Peter ? Cf. Mk. 8:33;
John 13:6-8. 14) T. 19.
5) V. 39. Be still; lit. "be still and remain
so."
6) V. 40. (a.) Fearful; i. e. "cowardly," a
strong word. Cf. v. 41, "feared," 15) V. 28.
i. e. were astonished and rever-
ent, cf. 5:15.
(b) Not yet faith; (1) either in God
oriu Jesus; (2) not yet, in spite IS) V. 30.
of experience, cf . Mk. 1 :.33-34, etc.
7)5:1. Oerasenes ; describe their loca-
tion and characteristics ; cf . " De-
capohs," V. 30.
8) V. 2. Tombs; cf. Gen. 33:19; Lk. 23:53; 1") T. 34.
Num. 19:16.
9) V. J. (a) The spirit of these words; (b)
how account (1) for the use of 18) T. 37.
the phrase "Most High God"?
cf. Gen. 14:18; Num.34:16; {2)for 19) V. 38.
the knowledge shown of Jesus ?
10) Vs. 7-12. Study the use of the pronouns
referring to the demoniac to un- -") V. 41.
derstand their bearing on his
condition.
11) V. !». ieeioji; (a) the original use of the -1) V. 43.
word; (b) its application here.
12) V. 12. Why should they want to go into
the swine ?
13) V. 13.* (a) How could they go? (1) in the
person of the man? or (2) disem-
bodied ?
(b) Why permit them to go? (1) to
relieve the man ? (2) an exercise
of Jesus' authority ? cf. Mk. 1:27,
etc. ; (3) swine were unclean ?
(c) How were the swine destroy-
ed ? (1) because frightened by the
raging of the demoniac? (3) by
the disturbing presence of de-
mons? (.3) by the malice of the
demons ? (4) by the will of Jesus ?
(d) Why permit the swine to be
destroyed? (1) to punish sinful
Jews? Lev. 11:7,8, (3) an exercise
of the sovereignty of Jesus ? cf.
Mt. 31:18-23, (3) the action of de-
mons entirely apart from the
will of Jesus?
Tell, etc. ; (a) contrary to his cus-
tom, cf. Mk. 1:44; 5:43; Mt. 9:30;
12:16; (b) the reason as found in
the altered circumstances.
// Ito^ich; was this (a) supersti-
tion ? or (b) the common beUef
that contact was necessary ? Cf .
V. 23; Acts 5:15; 19:12; Mt. 14:36.
(a) The power; cf. Lk. 5:17; 6:19.
(b) Who touched; was this (a) a
sincere desire for information ?
or (b) to cause the woman to
disclose herself? Cf. John 1:47,48.
Thy faith; (a) degree and quaUty
of her faith ? (b) Jesus' opinion
of it?
Note the three disciples, cf. Mk.
3:16,17; Mt. 17:1; 26:37.
Tumult; on Jewish mourningr,
cf. Eccl. 13:5; Jer.9:17; Ezek.34:
17; 3 Chron. 35:2.5.
Talitha cuml; (a) "awake, little
one;" (b) light on the language
Jesus spoke, cf. Mk. 3:17.
The reason for this prohibition
as compared with v. 19; (a) the
growing excitement among the
people; (b) his desire to moderate
it.
2. SPECIAL TOPICS.
1) Demoniacal Possession, (a) Study carefully the statements made in Mk. 1:23-
26; 3:11; 5:1-15, and consider the following points: (1) the existence of
bodily and mental disease, (2) the popular belief, (3) the view that Jesus
took, (4) the expulsion accompanied by a struggle, (5) inclination to Jesus
yet, also accompanied by opposition to him, (6) acknowledgment of Jesus as
* The various views are suggested, and the student may decide between them after a study
of the facts.
116 The Old Testament Student.
the Christ, (7) the sufferer restored, (b) Note the bearing of these facts on the
view that tliese manifestations were merely bodily and mental troubles attrib-
uted to demons by the people and by Jesus, who accommodated himself to
the sufferers' views and to the popular belief, (c) What arguments in favor
of the view that the evil spirits were actually present ? (d) On that view what
may be said as to the following pomtsV (1) the occasion of demoniacal pos-
ses.sion is tlie victim's sinfulness, (2) this sin results in the supremacy of the
demon over the man's will, (3) this moral debasement results in bodily and
mental disease, (4) Jesus had authority over the demons, (.5) they recog-
nized him and acknowledged his authority, (6) an extraordinary outbreak
of evil powers at this period, (7) theur especial activity in Israel owing to
the religious training of the nation, (8) as to demoniacal possession at the
present time.
IV. The Material Organized.
1. Gather tlie material and classify it under the following heads: 1) persons, 2)
habits and customs, 3) places, 4) miracles, 5) Jesus as man, 6) Jesus as more
than man, 7) literary data.
2. Condense the material, according to methods already employed, under the gen-
eral topic of Manifestations of Authority.
V. The Material Applied.
Knowledge and Faitu. 1. Knowledge of Jesus no guarantee of strong faith
in him (Mk. 4:38-40). 2. Evidence of the power of Jesus does not always
lead to faith in him (Mk. 5:16,17). 3. Ignorance of Jesus in his true char-
acter does not prevent strong faith in him (Mk. 5:25-34). 4. Reasons for
the failure of faith as found in, 1) the power of circumstances and experi-
ence (4:37 ; 5:39,40), 2) the strength of selfishness (5:13,14). 5. Rewards of
faith in Jesus ; 1) fuller knowledge of him, 2) the manifestation of his favor.
STUDY XI.— ADVANCE AND RETREAT. MARK 6:1-44.
BcBume. 1. Give an account of the mighty acts of Jesus In the previous study and present tbem
as manifestintr his power. 2. The failure of Jesus on the other side of the sea and the
reasons for it. 3. The facts of demoniacal possession and the explanation of them.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead Mk. 6:1-44, and be able to make a definite statement on each of the follow-
ing points :
1. The failure at Nazareth (vs. l-6a); 6. Ilerod and John the Baptist (vs.
2. a preaching tour (v. 6b) ; 17-29) ;
3. the twelve sent out equipped and 7. the apostles return and go into
charged (vs. 7-11) ; retirementwith Jesus (vs. 30-32);
4. their work (vs. 12,13); 8. multitudes seek them and are
5. estimates of Jesus by Herod and fed (vs. 33-44).
others (vs. 14-16) ;
II. The Material Compared.
1. with Mk. 8:l-<)a cf. Mt. LtLiS-oS. Note the ditTerent connection, Mt. 13:58.
2. With Mk. 6:6b-13 cf. Sit. i):S5-38; 10:1,5-15; Lk. 9:1-6; observe variations (Mt. 10:10; Lk. 9:S
with Mk. 6:8,8) and account for them.
New Testament .Supplement.
117
3. With Mk. 6:U-29cf. 3It. 14:1-12; Lk. 9:7-9. Note, 1) Herod's motive, Mt. 14:5; 2) his desire,
I.k. 9:9; 3) the action of John's disciples, Mt. 14:12.
4. With Mk. 6:30-44, cf. Mt. 14:13-21; Lk. 9:10-17; John 0:1-13. 1) Observe another motive for
retirement, Mt. 14:13; 3) other persons, Mt. 14:21 ; 3) the place, Lk. 9:10; 4) note specially
the passage in John; (a) its details, (b) the note of time, John 0:4.
III. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
1) V. 1.
3) V.
His own country; i. e. his native
town.
Wisdom; i. e. such as those edu-
cated in the schools of Rabbis had,
cf. John 17:1.1. What inference as
to his early training?
3) V. 8. (a) The Cm-penter; (1) a hint about
the early Ufe of Jesus: (3) every
boy was taught a trade, of. Acts
18:3.
(b) Son of Mary; Joseph is not men-
tioned; Why?
(a) Cf. Lk. 4:24; (b) read the whole
passage (4:16-30) and note the gen-
eral and special points of resem-
blance and difference; (c) seek a
decision as to whether these are
accounts of the same event or not.
(a) Beoan to send; (1) cf. Mk. 4:1;
(2) purpose of this mission whether
merely to train them for the future
or thoroughly to evangelize Gali-
lee; (3) need of the latter in view of
the growing hostility and excite-
ment.
(b) Qave authority ; how?
6) T. 8. (a) Take nothing; either (1) because
of the unassuming nature of their
work, or (3) because they were to
expect these things to be supplied
by others, cf. Mt. 10:10b. (3) other
possible reasons.
(b) Money; lit. "copper coin," the
least amount.
7) T. 10. (a) House; (1) a domestic ministry;
(3) other methods employed by
Jesus, Mk. 1:31; 3:13, etc.; (3) fitness
4) V.
B) V. 7.
of this method for the twelve; (4)
eastern customs that afford the
ground for the action.
8) V. 11. Shake off the dust; (a) have nothing
more to do with such inhospitable
persons; (b) a testimony mi(o them
of the fact; (c) symbolic of their
uncleanness.
9) V. 13. ^iioin(edwi7?^ oil; (a) common med-
ical treatment, Isa. 1:6; (b) differed
from the method of Jesus; (c) per-
haps with prayer, Jas. 5:14; (d) eflS-
cacious for healing in their hands.
10) T. 14. (a) Evidence of the wide fame of
Jesus and the interest he aroused
among all; (b) varying ideas about
him; (c) note that they do not think
him the Christ.
11) V. 30. (a) Probable length of the tour; (b)
probability that Jesus visited Jeru-
salem during their tour, cf. John 5
and the event following in ch. 6;
(c) to what place they would be
likely to return.
13) V. 32. A desert place; (a) on the eastern
shore, of. John 6:1; (b) cf. note on
Mk. 1 :35, "study" IV.
13) T. 35. (a) Evidence of intense interest
amongthe people, cf.v.38; (b)what
occasion for so great a multitude?
cf. John 6:4,5.
14) V. 37. Two hundred pennyivorth; a pro-
verbial saying used to signify a
large sum, not a close calculation.
15) Vs. 39,40. Note the characteristic details in
Mark.
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
1) Herod. V. 14. (a) Learn something of liis family, their origr'n, their history,
prominent names among them, especially Herod the Great (cf . Mt. 2:2) ;
(b) in regard to this Herod, study, (1) his position, (2) his relation to
Romans, (3) to Jews, (4) his religious opinions, (5) his personal and social
life ; (c) note his view of John, of Jesus ; (d) further relations with Jesus,
cf. Lk. 13:31 ; 23:7-11.
2) The Miracle. Vs. 41-44. (a) Taking all four accounts, form a complete state-
ment of the course of events in their order; (b) what may be said as to the
explanations which have been proposed to account for the miracle, (1) food
118 The Old TESTAioarr Student.
concealed by the disciples was now brought forth by Jesus, (2) food con-
cealed among the multitude was generously given up through the persuasion
or example of Jesus, (3) a mythical story after Old Testament models, cf.
Exod. 16:8 sq.; 2 Kgs. 4:42-44 ; (c) facts to be considered, (1) the agreement
of four-fold account, (2) the simplicity and sobriety of the narrative, (3) the
resulting feelings of the people, John 6:14,15 ; (d) sum up conclusions, (1) as
to the reality of the miracle, (2) the way it was done, (3) the purpose and
teaching of it.
3) Characteristics of Jcsas. (a) Note certain characteristics of Jesus seen in vs.
5,6.31,34; Mt. 14:13; (b) others appearing in vs. 2,7,7-11,41,42; (c) compare
both series of characteristics with those in Mk. 1:12,13,22,27,34,35; 2:8.17;
3:4,5,13-19 ; 4:38-40 ; 5:30,34,41,43 ; (d) from all these sources form a more or
less general yet clear idea of Jesus, (1 ) as man, (2) as more than man.
lY. The Material Organized.
1. CUjislfv the material under the following heads: 1) places; 2) persons; 3) habits and customs;
4) methods; 5) miracles; 6) characteristics of Jesus; 7) literary data ; 8) chronological data.
2. Cotideme the material into the briefest possible statement:
i 1. V. 1. Thence he and his disciples go to his native town.
v. 2. Many are astonished at his teaching and say, " Whence comes his wisdom and
power?"
V. 3. "Is not he our townsman and do not his relatives live among us?" They
reject him.
V. 4. Jesus says, " A prophet is honored everywhere except at home."
V. 5. He can do few miracles,
v. 6a. He marvels at their unbelief.
Jesus visits his native town, astonishes them bv bis words and deeds,
BUT is rejected BECAUSE HE IS THEIR TOWNSMAN; AND HE CAN DO FEW
MIRACLES THERE, BECAUSE OF THEIR UNBELIEF, AT WHICH HE MARVELS.
S 2. VS. 6b-13. Let the student work this out himself.
8 3. vs. 14-29. The fame of Jesus leads some to call him Elijah or some prophet;
BUT Hkiiod savs he IS John rises from the dead. For Herod h.vd
UNWILLINGLY KILLED JOHN BECAUSE OF A PROMISE MADE AT A BANQUET TO
THE DAUGHTER OF HERODIAS, WHOM JOBN HAD OFFENDED.
8 4. vs. 30-44. The apostles return and with Jesus retire to a place where many
follow them. Jesus teaches the multitudes, and as night co-mes on,
FEEDS FIVE thousand WITH FIVF. LOAVES AND TWO FISHES.
The student may work through the processes in the above condensations and
gather up the whole Into as brief a statement as possible.
V. The Material Applied.
Defective Ciiahacter. Vs. 14-29. From a study of the character of Herod as
here exhibited show, 1) how there may be excellent qualities in those
accounted debased ; 2) how Herod's relations to John reveal his habit of
trifling with moral truth and duty ; 3) how the effect of such trifling upon
the character is seen, (a) in relation to unexpected temptations (vs. 22-26),
(b) in the development of superstitious feelings (vs. 14,16), (c) in insensi-
bility to right feeling and action (cf. Mk. 6:20 with Lk. 23:11).
New Testament Suppleiveent.
119
STUDY XII.— THE HOUR OF DECISION. MAEK 6:45-7:23.
Resnnie. 1. Give a statement concerning the mission of the twelve, occasion for it, preparation
for it, results of it, its purpose and signiflcance. 2. The character of Herod and his
place in the Gospel story. 3. The withdrawal of Jesus and his disciples and the events
attending it.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead carefully Mark 6:45-7:23 and be able to make a deiioite statement concerning
each of the following points :
1. Jesus sends away his disciples
and the multitude (v. 45);
2. on the mountain and the sea (vs.
46-52);
3. healing ministry in Gennesaret
(vs. 53-56);
4. scribes and Pharisees come and
question concerning ceremonial
traditions (7:1-5);
5. Jesus' denunciation (vs. 6-13);
6. the things within and without
man (vs. 14-23);
II. The Material Compared.
With Mk. 6:45-56 cf. Mt. 14:-22-3G; .John 6:14-21.
Note 1) additions Mt. 14:28-31; John 6:18,19,21; 2) identity in language, Mk. 6:50b; Mt. 14:27;
John 6:20; 3) variations, Mk. 6:52; Bit, 14:33; Mk. 6:45; John 6:17.
With Mk. 7:1-23 of. Mt. 15:1-20. Observe 1) the close similarity; 2) the addition concerning
the Pharisees Mt. 15:12-14, and t. 15, "Peter."
III. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
Tradilimi
1) T. 45. (a) Constrained ; a strong word
"forced." What was the need
of such constraint?
(b) Bcthsaida; cf. Lk. 9:10.
2) v. 46. Tn pray; cf. Mk. 1 :35.
3) V. 47. Even was aime; cf. Mt. 14:15.
E.\plain.
4) v. 48. (a) Fourth iratch; Jewish divis-
ions of time? cf. Mk. 13:3.5.
(b) Would have passed; "pur-
posed to pass;" (1) that they
might see him, (2) to test their
faith.
5) v. 52. (a) Understood not; what ought
they to have understood and ap-
plied to this event ?
(b) Hardened; cf. Mk. 3:5; here
in a passive sense, "dulled."
6) v. 56. Border; cf. Num. 15:;s7-40: was
this superstition ? cf. Mk. 5:28.
7) Vs. 2-4. (a) Note the bearing of this ex-
planatory matter on the ques-
tion of the persons for whom
this Gospel was written. Cf.
also 7:11.
(b) Vnwashen; two kinds of
washings, (1) for cleanliness, (2)
for religious purposes.
V. 5. Tradition; (1) words of instruc-
tion or command handed down
by word of mouth from one
generation to another; (3) its
special meaning here?
8) V. 10. Moses; (a) cf. Mt. 15:4 and ex-
plain; (b) does Jesus mean (1)
the writings called under the
name Moses? cf. Lk. 16:29,31, or
(2) that Moses himself said these
words ?
10) Vs. 11, 12. Note the reasoning here ; (1) a
son should care for his parents,
(2) but what he should give to
them is devoted to God, (3) there-
fore they can have nothing.
What then is Jesus' conception
of God here?
11) V. 19. Malting meats clean ; cf. Deut. 14:
3-20. Relation of Jesus to this
law, whether (1) annulling it, or
(2) unfolding its real meaning
and principle.
121 Vs. 21-23. (alDistinguish.inthislist.sinsof
thought and sins of act; (b)mark
the source of sin; fc) the nature
of sin; (d) how did the reasoning
(vs. 6-23) meet the accusations
(V. 5) of the Pharisees ?
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
1) The Geography of the Sea of Galilee, (a) Learn something of the position, size
and surroundings of the Sea of Galilee ; (b) what other names given it, Num.
120 TiiE Old Testament Student.
34:11; Jolin 6:1; (c) locate if possible and describe these places on its
shores. (1) the plain of Geiinesaret. (2) ("apcrnaiim. (.H) liethsaida. probabil-
ity of two Bethsaidas (cf. Lk. 9:10; ilk. (5:4.5), (4) Tiberias, John 6:23, (5)
country of the Gerasenes, Mk. 5:1 ; (d) trace the probable course of Jesus,
Mk. 6:32; Lk. 9:10; of the multitudes. Mk. 6:33; (e) indicate some geo-
graphical advantages to Jesus in selecting this region for the scene of his
cliief work.
2) The Crisis, (a) Keview rapidly the events just preceding those of this study,
Mk. chs. 4.5,6; (b) Xote tlie effect of these things upon the people, cf. John
6:14,15 ; (c) observe the necessity that he decide for or against their ideas and
desires; (d) what was involved in this decision, in view of (1) the attitude
of Herod, cf. Mk. 3:6; Lk. 9:7-9.(2) the hostility of the Pharisees; (e) what
may be inferred from Mk. 6:45.46; John 6:15 as to his decision; (f) read
thoughtfully John 6:22-71 as a commentary upon this event and its results.
IV. The Material Organized.
1. Clamfv Ihc matrrinl under the followintr heads: 1) places; 2i O. T. quotations; 3) habits and
cu8tomR; 4) iinportatit words; .ti important teachings; (fi) miracles.
2. Ol)8erve the following condensations:
1) 8 1. vs. 45,46. .Tesus dismisses all and prays alone.
vs. 47.48. He walks on the sea pa."*! the boat of the storm-beaten disciples.
vs. 49,ri0. They fear ; he says, " It is T."
vs. .11, .W. The storm ceases; they, too dull to comprehend his deeds, wonder.
2) Let the student gather these verses Into a compact statement.
3) i 2. vs. 5;i,54. On landing he is recognized.
vs. 6S,56. Wherever he goes they bring the sick who touch him and are healed.
After he landu many sefk )i<» aid far healing.
i) Lefthe student unite 8§ 1 and 2.
.5) 8 3. vs. 1-5. Pharisees complaiu that his disciples do not observe the customary traditions
of the Jews.
vs. 6-13. Jesus says, " Isaiah called your formal worship vain, and your custom about
Corhan proves that you make void God's law."
vs. 14,1.5. He says to the multitude, "Not what goes into man but what comes out of
him defiles."
vs. 17-23. He e.xplains to the disciples that it is not the food that goes into the mouth
but the sins that come from the heart that defile man.
Jexuy trllK IVtiiriiufn icftii ciimplaiti iiliinit tlie dixcipleg' neglect of Jewish tradition
Ihnl they miihe lind'K hiw void by tlieir tradition. He artcrtt to all Oiat not mate-
7-ial Viinga from u-ithnut but evil thingitfrom wiUiin man defile him.
6) Note the summing up of the whole.
.lOKUK lifter dlKiniNsliig all and praying alniic, nnlks on the sea to the dUclples*
storni-lossoil boat. On landing he hiils many, lie rrjerls the traditions of the
PharineeH anil di-claroH that only man's eril heart defiles him.
V. The Material Applied.
The I'hahiskes. From the character and relations of the Pharisees to Jesus
show how they may illusliiile, 1) the existence of evil-doing, possibly prac-
tised unconsciously, along with i)rofessiiins of hish morality; 2) the failure
of any endeavor to save men by outward rules of conduct; 3) the danger in
too much regard to self-cullure and the need of self-forgetfulness in the
growth of the religious life; 4) the power of conscientious but mistaken
men to hinder a good cause; 6) tlie necessity of inward, vital piety and a
spirit characterized by candor and liberality in the judgment of others.
♦•TgE't'OLD-t-TES^f^njEp-t-STnDEp.-^'
Vol. VIII. DECEMBER, 1888. No. 4,
What a blessing to any preacher are those hearers who are
well-informed concerning biblical facts and truths ! They are not
only his most appreciative listeners. They are not only his most
capable critics. They are not only those who derive the greatest
benefit from his preaching if he is a faithful student and expounder of
the Scriptures. They are much more. They constitute a bulwark
for him in the large, free treatment of biblical truth. Their ideas of
the Bible are drawn from a study of it, not brought to it and forced
upon it. Hence, on the one hand, they are open to new light, ready
for larger views, tolerant on behalf of any one who is seeking to
unfold the Word. But on the other hand, they guard the pulpit from
falling into a type of teaching which is extra-biblical. Here is per-
haps the great danger of the modern preaclier. So diverse are the
interests and so wide is the range of subjects which fall under his view
that he is tempted to depart from " the ministry of the Word." Happy
the pastor who is buttressed and shielded from either danger by the
strong, stimulating assistance of a body of Bible students among his
people.
Why should not every pastor aim to build up such a body of
hearers } Why is not that effort just as important and as helpful to
the kingdom of God as any other department of his labors .' Why
should he not put forth special energy in this direction .•" Much can
be done from the pulpit by expository preaching. Vastly more can
he accomplish as teacher of a Bible class in giving his personal atten-
tion to the training of his people in right methods of study. Why
should he not rather give up some other lines of work for his flock,
*2
122 The Old Testament Student.
in order to secure for them this supreme achievement — that they-
may know how to search, to appropriate, to be mighty in, the
Scriptures ?
In three articles published in successive numbers, the question of
the New Testament interpretation of the Old Testament will be pre-
sented. Of the many questions which demand the attention of the
biblical student, this one is, perhaps, most vital. One's interpretation
of a multitude of passages, one's views upon a great number of subor-
dinate topics will largely be determined by the view which he holds
in reference to the relation of the two Testaments. Nor is it an easy
matter to come to a decision upon this question. It cannot be denied
that difficulties lie in the way of accepting any one of the three
principal theories. Nothing will be gained, however, by shirking
responsibility. The theories deserve consideration. The difficulties
must be faced. What Professor Toy, of Harvard, does in this number
for one of these theories. Professor Stevens, of Yale University, will
do in the January Student, for a second, and President Alvah Hovey,
of Newton Theological Institution, will do in the February STUDENT
for the third. To most of us the view presented by Dr. Toy will
seem to take away from the New Testament all authority, and even
all claim to be regarded as a book of ordinary accuracy ; it will seem
impossible to entertain such a theory of the New Testament and at
the same time acknowledge, in any sense, its divine origin. Still this
is not the proper line of argument. We cannot say : This view must
be false because it is inconsistent with a given theory. We must
examine one by one the facts which he claims to exist, and decide
whether he is right or wrong in his claim. This method of procedure,
and this method alone, will satisfy a thoughtful man. It is, of course,
supposable that a large number of the STUDENT'S constituency have
investigated this question, and made decision upon it. It is true, on
the other hand, that many are just now considering it afresh, if not for
the first time. To both classes its discussion by men of such ability,
representing, as they do, three different schools of opinion cannot but
be helpful.
In speaking of the doubt which exists in reference to the author-
ship of the Book of Job, Prof. Davidson* remarks : "There are some
minds that cannot put up with uncertainty, and are under the necessity
•The Book of Job; Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges : p. 6».
Editorial. 123
of deluding themselves into quietude by fixing on some known name.
There are others to whom it is a comfort to think that in this omnis-
cient age a few things still remain mysterious. Uncertainty is to
them more suggestive than exact knowledge. No literature has so
many great anonymous works as that of Israel. The religious life of
this people was at certain periods very intense, and at these periods
the spiritual energy of the nation expressed itself almost impersonally,
through men who forgot themselves and were speedily forgotten in
name by others." Is not this fact, in itself, strong evidence that
Israel's literature is something different from ordinary literature. It
is broader than the work of any one man could possibly be. It is
human, to be sure ; but how much more than human !
The history of the world is the history of redemption. The
proto-evangelium, as one has said, is its magna charta. The authors
of the Old Testament recognize this, and thus are peerless among the
writers of antiquity. We find no such insight elsewhere, and rightly
call it of divine inspiration. These inspired men saw also that the
specific human organ of redemption for the world was Israel, — as a
people, and finally as represented in the Messiah. This thought is
the spinal cord of the Old Testament, binding the various writings
together in organic unity, and needs to be kept in view in any ade-
quate treatment of Old Testament History. The prominence given
to it still renders many of the older works, such as Jonathan Edwards'
History of Redemption, valuable ; and they should still find a place on
our book-shelves, and not be entirely pushed aside by the more scien-
tific and exact treatises of to-day, many of which fail to emphasize
sufficiently this underlying thought of the Old Testament.
THE NEW TESTAMENT AS INTERPRETER OF THE OLD
TESTAMENT.
By Crawford H. Toy,
Cambridge, Mass.
The metliod of determining the exegetical value of the New Testament
would seem to be simple enough. Here is an ancient book from which citations
are made in another ancient book. Are the citations correctly made and used ?
To answer this question in any given case, all that is necessary is to fix the text
and meaning of the two passages, by scientific principles of interpretation, and
compare them.
Tliere are, to be sure, one or two complications, which, however, need not seri-
ously embarrass the solution of the question. In the first place we are not abso-
lutely certain that we have the complete original text of either Old Testament or
New Testament. Our present Hebrew text, as is well known, depends upon MSS.
of which scarcely one is older than the tenth century of our era. Tliis Massoretic
text may sometimes be controlled by the Greek, Aramaic and Latiu versions,
thougli there are many cases in which these offer little or no help, and our depend-
ence has to be on the traditional Hebrew form. We know that this Hebrew text
has been jealously guarded probably from about the beginning of our era ; but
what may have been its fortunes before this time, when for hundreds of years
there was no authentic collection of the ancient Hebrew literature, when books
were copied by unknown men under unknown circumstances, when we have good
reason to believe that scribes took large liberties with their manuscripts, add-
ing to or taking from the material, and combining two or more books in one
manuscript, when the unintentional errors of one scribe might often be perpet-
uated by his successors, when there was no critical public to watch over the desti-
nies of books,— what, under these conditions, may have been the fortunes of the
Hebrew text, who can tell ?
The history of the New Testament text is in general similar to that just
described. The large number of errors in the received text has recently been
brought to light by the Canterbury revision. The texts now generally accepted,
those of Tischendorf and Westcott and Hort, rest almost entirely on two or three
manuscripts of tlie fourth and fifth centuries, controlled in a measure by the
Syriac and Latin versions. Yet in not a few cases the different testimonies are
80 discordant tliat an absolute decision is impossible, and the history of the New
Testament writings between the date of their composition and the appearance of
the earliest version is involved in the same obscurity which shrouds the early
history of the Hebrew text. We are to a certain extent at the mercy of the
scribes wliose methods of copying we do not know.
Yet for the body of Old Testament and New Testament writings we may be
reasonably sure that we have in substance the thought of the original authors.
There may be uncertainty about particular words, sentences, or paragraphs ; but
The New Testasient as Interpretbr of the Old. 125
the probability is not great that a succession of scribes extending through several
centuries could have quite transformed the body of their texts. For purposes of
historical investigation, the best modern editions of Old Testament and New Tes-
tament texts may be accepted as substantially correct; for the former Hahn,
and Baer and Delitzsch, and for the latter Tischendorf, and Westcott and Hort.
These do not claim absolute verbal accuracy, but they may fairly be regarded as
containing no very important errors in text or words. And so far as the broader
criticism Is concerned, the investigation of the integrity or composition of the
various books, this must of courise follow its own principles in general depend-
ence on the best attainable text.
Another complication is found in the fact that the New Testament writers
quote not from the Hebrew but from some version, more generally the Septua-
gint. In such cases, it becomes necessary to compare the version with the He-
brew and determine, if possible, the original form of the text. If the translation
of the version be perfectly correct, then our question is the same as if the quota-
tion were made immediately from the correct Hebrew. If the translation be not
correct, then the quotation is not, strictly speaking, from the Old Testament but
from another book ; the question would then be first, whether the New Testament
writer has correctly understood the version from which he cites, and then, whether
the version gives the substantial sense of the original or whether it departs there-
from in an important degree. If the New Testament author has only, for
example, the Septuagint before him, we cannot hold him responsible, as an
interpreter, for the errors of his version ; we must recognize and commend his
exegetical qualities if his employment of his text is accurate. But if this text
be not that of the Hebrew Old Testament, he is in so far an expounder not of the
Old Testament, but of the version. In the case of each quotation, therefore, it
will be necessary to decide whether it is the Hebrew or the Greek or some other
version that is cited.
Still another introductory question arises in connection with certain of the
quotations : What is the meaning of the expression that occurs so frequently in
the Gospels in connection with various incidents in the life of Jesus : — " That it
might be fulfilled " ? Similar phrases occur in the epistles of Paul and in the
epistle to the Hebrews. Are we to understand that the New Testament writer
intends to declare in such cases that there is the fulfillment of a prediction ? And
if so, does he mean that this remote fulfillment was had in view by the Old Testa-
ment writer 'i or only that, without the prescience of the latter, God had brought
it about that certain declarations should be illustrated and fulfilled in the life of
Jesus or in the history of the early Christian church 'i So far as the mere word-
ing of the expression goes, either of these views of its meaning might be main-
tained. In each case we have to decide as best we may the import of the
expression in question, from the tone of the New Testament writer and the gen-
eral direction of his narrative.
Putting such passages aside, we may examine the citations in which the main
point is the correctness of the use of the Old Testament made by New Testament
writers.
Let us take for example the passage Matthew 8:17 quoted from Isa. 53:4.
The Hebrew reads : " Our sicknesses he bore and our pains he carried them," which
is rendered with sufiicient exactness in the Gospel : " Himself took our weak-
126 Thk Old Testament Student.
nesses and bore our diseases." The prophet means to represent the servant of
Yahweli. of whom he is speaking, as suffering vicariously for the nation, enduring
sorrows produced by the national sin, and through this suffering eventually con-
quering peace and purity for his people. The picture is clear enough ; a righteous
person involved in suffering through no fault of his own, but by virtue of his
close relations to a sinful community, suffering of mind and of body inflicted on
him by his enemies. In the Gospel the sense given to these words is certaiidy
diflerent from this. " They brought to Jesus," says the evangelist, " many pos-
sessed with demons, and he cast out the spirits with a word and healed all that
were sick, that it might be fulfilled that was spokeu by Isaiah the prophet, saying,"
etc. Here Jesus is represented as taking into his own body and bearing the
diseases which he expelled from the bodies of others, a conception strange in
itself and foreign to the thought of the prophet. The meaning of the evangelist
has been supposed to be that Jesus by his suffering procured pardon and peace
for men, but in the passage in Matthew there is no word of spiritual experi-
ence or faith on the part of those who were treated ; it was simply a bodily cure
effected in them, and Jesus is said thereby, in accordance with the prediction of
the prophet Isaiali, to liave borne men's diseases; the natural imderstanding of
this seems to be that he assumed the diseases which he healed. It may be added
that the natural signification of the phrase, "that it might be fulfilled," is that
these healing acts of Jesus were definitely predicted by the prophet in the passage
cited.
In Matthew 21 :5 there is a curious misapprehension of the Hebrew expression
quoted from Zech. 9:9. The evangelist relates that two disciples were directed to
go to a village and to bring an ass and a colt which they should find there ; this
they are said to have done ; they " brought the ass and the colt and put ou tliem
their garments, and he sat thereon." The evangelist adds that all this was done
that the word of the prophet might be fulfilled : " Behold thy king comes to thee
meek and riding on an ass and a colt the foal of an ass." The words ■• ass " and
"colt" are imderstood in the New Testament use of the expression to mean two
diflerent animals, the ass being represented as the mother of the colt, whereas in
the Old Testament passage, the two words mean one animal, being simply used in
a sort of poetic parallelism, " an ass, that is, a colt of the ass species," both words
being masculine in the Hebrew.
A quotation which deals in an extraordinary manner with the Hebrew text
is that in Matthew 27:9.10 from Zech. 11:13 (the ascription to Jeremiah in Mat-
thew is doubtless a mere clerical error). The stress of the citation is made to
turn in the Gospel on a word which in all probability does not properly belong in
the Hebrew at all and gives it a sense (luile foreign to the meaning of the prophet.
The passage in Zechariah reads : " And Yahweh said to me. Throw it to the potter
— a goodly price at which I am priced by them I And I took the thirty pieces of
silver and threw them into the house of Yahweh to the potter." The evangelist
declares this to be a prediction of the purchase of the potter's field with the thirty
pieces of silver wliicli Judas returned to the priests. The word "potter" in the
Hebrew is suspicious; one does not know what a potter should be doing in the
temple and why the prophet should throw the money to him. The change of one
Hebrew consonant gives us "treasury" instead of "potter" ("IVIN for "1W)>
which is a natural sense in the connection ; and it is curious that in the Gospel
The New Testabient as Interpreter of the Old. 127
(v. 6), the priests say that it is not lawful to put this money into the treasury,
which was in general the obvious place for money. " Potter " is not found in the
Septuagint text, which misread the Hebrew in another way ; the reading in the
Gospel comes from some corrupt text of the time. But this is not the only
departure from the Hebrew in Matthew. There it is the first person, " I took
and threw;" here it is the third person plural, "They took and gave;" in the
Greek the form of the verb admits of either rendering and it was perhaps from a
Greek version that the evangelist took that form which best agreed with the
transaction to which he referred. Further, the Hebrew text says only that the
money was thrown to the potter ; in the Gospel it is represented as saying that
" they " gave it for the potter's field, another variation for which it is hard to
account, for in the prophet nothing is said of a field or a purchase. These com-
bined changes give a sense which we may fairly say does not belong to the pro-
phetic passage. In Zechariah the prophet in the symbolic procedure which he
is describing receives from the people the price of his religious care over them, a
price ridiculously small, which he takes and not without contempt throws into
the treasury of the temple. The emphasis is not on the place into which he puts
the money — this was of course the ti-easury — but on the smallness of the price at
which the people of Israel estimated the instruction of Yahweh's prophet and in
the fact that they were so willing to give np his services. What he means to say
is simply that Israel cared little for the instruction and guidance of their God
since they so readily dissolved the connection between themselves and His
appointed minister. There is a general parallelism between the two transactions
in question, in so far as the betrayal of .Jesus to the priests might have been
regarded by the evangelist as a betrayal by the people of God's minister and there-
fore an abandonment of God himself. The parallelism is not faithful in the
details, for it is the traitor Judas whose price is estimated by the priests at thirty
pieces of silver ; or, if it be .Judas himself who puts the price of his God at thirty
pieces, he cannot fairly be taken as the representative of the people. And further,
as is pointed out above, the stress in the two passages is by no means the same ;
in the prophet it is on the smallness of the price ; in the Gospel it is on the pur-
chase of the potter's field.
John 19:37 is another example of an interpretation based on a wrong transla-
tion. The original passage. Zech. 12:10, reads : " They shall look to me in respect
to [or in behalf of] him whom they have pierced [that is, slain]." The prophet,
speaking in the name of Yahweh, is describing the situation in Judah in his own
day and predicting a happier future. We gather from his words that the feeling
between the city of Jerusalem and the surrounding rural districts was an
unfriendly one, and he predicts a coming reconciliation between the two parties.
"And the chieftains of Judah shall say in their heart, the inhabitants of Jerusa-
lem are my strength in Yahweh of hosts their God. In tliat day I will make the
chieftains of Judah like a pan of fire in the midst of wood, and like a torch of fire
among sheaves, and they shall devour on the right hand and on the left all the
people round about, and Jerusalem [that is, the population of Jerusalem] shall yet
dwell in its own place, in Jerusalem. And Yahweh will save the tents of Judah
first, that the glory of the house of David and the glory of the inhabitants of
Jerusalem may not be magnified above Judah." After declaring that Yahweh
will endue the house of David with mighty strength and will seek to destroy all
128 The Old Testament Student.
the nations that come up against Jerusalem, the prophecy continues : " And I
will pour out on the house of David and on the inhabitants of Jerusalem the
spirit of grace and of supplication [that is, they shall have a kindly and prayerful
disposition], and they shall look to me in behalf of him whom they pierced [slew],
and shall mourn for him. In that day the mourning shall be great in Jerusalem."
Here is a strife between the two parties which came to blows. Some of the inhab-
itants of the country districts, a region evidently looked down upon by the haughty
inhabitants of the capital, had been slain, and Yahweh, says the prophet, will so
change the disposition of the proud Jerusaleniites tl\at their souls shall become
kindly, they shall mourn over their brother slain and shall turn their eyes to God
in respect to him, asking pardon for their sin in slaying him. The Hebrew text
represents the people as looking to God, and the person who is pierced [that is,
slain] is distinguished from God. The evangelist renders : " They shall look on
him whom they pierced." The substitution of '• him " for " me " is supported by
a few manuscripts and Jewish commentators, but the mass of manuscripts and
all the versions sustain the present Hebrew text, that is, the person who is
pierced is not, as the evangelist represents it, the same as he on whom they look.
Further, the rendering, " whom they pierced," is inadmissible ; the 'eth separates
the relative from the preceding pronoun.
Another mistranslation in the New Testament which is found also in the
Septuagint and Latin vulgate is the rendering ■' shall be blest " instead of " shall
bless themselves" in Acts 3:25; Gal. 3:8; from Gen. 12:3; 22:18; 26:4 : "All the
families of the earth shall bless themselves in thee." The signilication of the
expression, " to bless one person in another," is given in Gen. 48:20. where Jacob
calls for the sons of Joseph and blesses them, saying: " In thee shall Israel bless,
saying, God make thee as Ephraim and as Manasseh ;" that is, the prosperity of
the sons of Joseph was to be so great that other nations should take them as types
and standards of happiness, and should be able to think of no greater blessing for
men than that they should be like these. An equally clear explanation occurs in
Ps. 72:17 : " His name shall endure forever ; His name shall remain as long as the
sun, and all nations shall bless themselves in him, shall call him happy." Here
it is plain that the Psalmist is speaking of the happy fortunes of the king, and the
expression "call him happy" is parallel and equivalent to "shall bless themselves
in him." The same form of the Hebrew verb (hithpael) is found in Gen.
22:18 and 26:4, and a similar form (niphal) in Gen. 12:3 and 18:18. Israel,
like Ephraim and Manasseh and the king in Ps. 72, is to be so wonder-
fully blest by God that the other nations shall think no lot superior, and
when they would invoke prosperity on friends shall choose Yahweh's people as
the norm and standard of happiness. The promise on the face of it refers simply
to the national prosperity, and says nothing of a moral or religious inlUience of
Israel on the other nations. It is true tliat such an influence did afterwards
exist, but it is not referred to in these Old Testament passages, nor is there any
hint in text or context that the thought of such influence was in the mind of the
writer. The New Testament passages in Acts and Galatians see here a prediction
of Jesiis of Nazareth as the Messiah of Israel and the Saviour of the world, a
meaning which, if the above exposition be correct, is not found in the passages
quoted.
The same remark maybe paade on Paul's argument in Gal. 3:16, based on the
word " seed " as being singular and not plural. The promise, says he, was to
The New Testasient as Interpreter of the Old. 129
Abraham and his seed, not the plural " seeds," as if many were intended, but the
promise refers to one person, " thy seed,"' which he says is Christ. It Is well
known that the Hebrew word used in Genesis is a collective noun identical in
meaning with our " posterity," and cannot in itself, by virtue of its form, point
to an individual. If such a reference to an individual is intended, it must be
made clear by the context. But in the Old Testament passages cited, there is no
sucli explanatory mention of an individual ; on the contrary, the context shows
that it is the nation Israel that is meant, nor is there in all the Old Testament a
passage suggesting any other signification for the expression in question. No one
versed in Old Testament Hebrew would ever think of making such an argument
based on the singular form of the word zcra. How, then, did the Apostle Paul
come to employ such a method of reasoning? The explanation is that in the
later Hebrew and Jewish Aramaic of Paul's time, the singular number of the
word was employed for an individual, and a plural made from it to express " pos-
terity;" and Paul, familiar with this current usage and unfamiliar with Old Testa-
ment Hebrew, ti-ansf ers it to the Old Testament passage. In the same way in the
Midrash rahba, on Ruth 4:14, the term " seed " is interpreted of the Messiah. Paul
conceived that the form of the word necessarily involved the reference to an
individual ; he says that inasmuch as it is singular and not plural, it cannot mean
the nation, but must mean the Messiah.
In Paul's argument in the fourth chapter of Romans there is lack of precision
in the statement in v. 3 sqq., that Abraham's faith, the basis of his justification, was
something wholly different from works. Tlie idea in Gen. 15:6 is that God reck-
oned Abraham's trust in him as a righteous thing, as a righteous act, and it is
therefore to be considered a righteous work. AVe cannot but share in the apostle's
indignation against the religious formalism of his time, which undertook to sub-
stitute a set of ritual proceedings for inward righteousness, and in so far as an
act of faith is a spiritual work, we must grant the propriety of the argument
which sets it far above and in a different category from merely formal and out-
ward acts of obedience. But in so far as the apostle may wish to take Abraham's
act out of the category of human activities, that he may annihilate all human
righteousness in order to substitute for it the righteousness of Christ as the
ground of salvation, we must doubt whether he finds basis for this view in the
Old Testament. In general. Paul's sharp antithesis of faith and works is not an
Old Testament idea. The passage in llab. 2:3,4, which is translated in Romans
1:17 ; Gal. 3:11 : " The just shall live by faith," is more properly rendered, " The
just shall live by his constancy." It is fidelity to God's commands, according to
the Old Testament view, which is the condition and surety of man's deliverance
and blessing. The rule of salvation in the law, says the apostle, is "He who is
obedient shall live," and he shows the impossibility of salvation under the law
by pointing out the impossibility of complete obedience. The argument would
be sound if the Old Testament insisted on absolute perfection of obedience ; but
it uses the word " perfect " of man, as in Job's case, for example, in a restricted
sense. What was demanded was a controlling spirit of obedience, and occasional
errors were forgiven if the man repented, or in certain cases sacrifices were
appointed. Or, in the later times we find in certain Psalms, as in the 18th and
44th, confident assertions of personal perfectness : " I have kept the ways of Yah-
weh ; I was perfect with him ; therefore he has recompensed me according to my
130 TnE Old Testament Student.
rigliteousness." " We have not forgotten thee nor dealt falsely in thy covenant."
The Olil Testament knows no other condition of the enjoyment of the divine
favor than faithful obedience. The man's record is based on his voluntary activ-
ity, which, when sincere, is of course always accompanied by trust in God. But
the apostle, instead of conceiving of the Old Testament ideal as obedience per-
meated with and inspired by trust, makes a sharp contrast between the trust and
the obedience, a procedure which he tliinks necessary in order to break down the
current Jewish tlieory of salvation by an obedience which constantly ran the risk
of becoming mere formalism. What llie narration of Abraham's life in Genesis
means to declare is that Abraham was justified by his obedience, that is, by his
works, tliougli this obedience was as a matter of course grounded on confidence in
the truth of the divine promise; and in Gen. 15:6 his trust in the divine promise,
his voluntary act, was reckoned as an act of righteousness ; so that, in so far as his
faitli was ground of salvation, his rigliteousness was equally the ground of salva-
tion.
One of the hardest passages in Paul's writings to comprehend is his definition
of the righteousness which is of faith, in Rom. 10:6-8, taken in free translation
with explanatory insertions from the Septuagint of Deut. 30:12-14. The diffi-
culty lies in the fact that the passage in Deuteronomy refers without any doubt
to obedience to the law : '■ Tliis commandment which I command thee this day,"
says Moses, " is not too liard nor far off, nor in heaven nor beneath the sea, but
nigh unto thee, in thy mouth and in thy heart, that thou mayest do it." Yet the
apostle cites this passage as the utterance of the righteousness which is of faith,
"because,'' says he, " if thou shall confess with thy mouth Jesus as Lord, and
shall believe in thy heart that God raised him from the dead, thou shall be saved."
And that he intends to refer it to llie Messiah is evident from his explana-
tory additions: " Say not in thy heart, Who shall ascend into heaven (that is to
bring Christ down)'? or, Wlio shall descend into the abyss (that is to bring Christ
up from the dead)':"' We do not know how to explain his use of the passage
except by supposing that he took it as a completely isolated expression, without
reference to the context, and attached to it his own meaning, interpreting the
" word " in a sense entirely different from that which the connection demands.
A similar example of the apostle's habit of using Old Testament passages
without regard to the Hebrew or to the context, occurs in Rom. 14:10-12, where
he seeks to guard his brethren against hasty judgments of one another, by
reminding them of the final divine judgment: '-But thou, why dost thou
judge thy brother? or thou again, why dost thou set at naught thy broiher':*
for we shall all stand before the judgment seat of (iod." The fact of a
final judgment be wishes to establish or impress by a Scripture quotation, and he
cites Isa. 45:23, which he renders : " As I live, saith the Lord, to me every knee
shall bow, and every tongue sliall confess to God." But the propliet is simply
aunniincing the acceptance of the worship of Yahweh by all the nations. It is
Yahweh himself who speaks : " Look unto me and be ye saved, all the ends of the
earth, for 1 am God and there is not another; by myself I have sworn, the word
has gone forth from my mouth in righteousness and shall not return, that to me
every knee shall bow; every tongue shall swear; truly in Y'ahweh, shall one say
to me. is righteousness." " Men," says the prophet, " shall swear by him ;" that
is shall accept him as the holiest, as the true God. There is no word of a judg-
The New Testament as Interpreter of the Old. 131
ment, least of all, of a judgment after death. The apostle changes "swear by "
or " swear to" into " confess to," a meaning the Hebrew will not bear. A similar
meaning, however, belongs to an Aramaic word (Pael of Dip) used in the Tar-
gum of Jonathan as the rendering of the Hebrew expression for "swear," and as.
the apostle's vernacular was an Aramaic dialect, he may have got his translation
"confess" from some current Aramaic version. That he quotes the Old Testa-
ment passage as proof of a final judgment is evident from his concluding words:
" so then each one of us shall give account of himself to God."
Much stranger is the use which Paul makes of Isa. 28:11,12, in his discussion
of the Charismata in 1 Cor. 14:20 seq., where he malses a comparison between
prophesying and speaking with tongues in respect to their utility. He wishes to
show that prophesying is a higher and more edifying gift, meant to promote the
well-being of believers, while the glossolaly was a sign for unbelievers and there-
fore less to be desired by the Corinthian Christians. His proof of this last fact is
derived from the passage in Isaiah, which he renders, following neither Hebrew
nor Septuagint : " By people of strange tongues and by the lips of strangers will I
speak to this people, and not even thus will they hear me, says the Lord." The
prophetic "strange tongue" is simply a foreign language; that is, a foreign
nation with which the careless, disobedient population of Jerusalem is threatened,
as a punishment for their godlessness. All of them, says Isaiah, including
priest and prophet, have erred through strong drink, and come to God's mes-
senger babbling out their drunken objections to his message. Let them
babble, but " with stammerings of lip and with another tongue will he speak
to his people, because he said to them. This is the rest, give you rest to the
weary, and this is the repose — but they will not hear." The people of Israel
would not listen to the prophet's message of peace, the only true repose of trust
in Yah web, and now God would teach them a stem lesson with the whip of a
foreign people speaking with stammering of lips more serious than the babbling
of the Jerusalem debauchees. Contrast this with the Corinthian glossolaly, a
spiritual gift exercised by believers in the interest of religion, though, as the
apostle points out, not always wisely and well.
Another instructive citation is that in Eph. 4:8 from Ps. 68:19(18). The pas-
sage in the Psalm describes the God of Israel as a conquering king leading his cap-
tives taken in war and ascending the throne where he receives gifts from subject
nations. " Thou didst receive gifts among men " (Hebrew and Greek). In the epis-
tle this is interpreted of Christ as a victorious monarch who ascended into heaven
after having descended into Hades ; but instead of receiving gifts from men,
he is there said to have given gifts to men. The same change from " received "
to " gave " is found in the Peshitto-Syriac and the Targum, and we may there-
fore suppose that the text of the epistle came from some similar Aramaic reading.
The Hebrew reading is evidently the correct one, and the alteration of the text
came perhaps from the feeling in later times that it was not appropriate to the
Divine Majesty to receive gifts.
The influence of the Septuagint is seen in Eph. 4:26, a citation from Ps. 4:5(4).
The Hebrew reads : " Stand in awe and sin not," a warning to certain men to
cherish such awe of the holy and powerful God of Israel as should deter them
from falling into sins that would excite his anger. The Septuagint, followed by
the. epistle, translates: "Be angry and sin not," whence in the epistle the rule
132 The Old Testament Student.
of moderation of anger, an admirable moral precept, but not contained in the
Psalm.
The epistle to the Hebrews contains a large number of citations from the Old
Testament, the majority of which it may fairly be said do not follow the rules of
what we regard as correct exegesis. One of these citations appears to be from a
Septuagint passage which is not found in the Hebrew at all. namely, 1:6: " And
let all the angels of God worship him." This might conceivably come from the
Greek of Psalm 96:7 (Ileb. 97:7): " Worship him, all ye his angels," in which
"angels" is an incorrect rendering of the Hebrew elohim; the I'salm is really a
summons to heathen deities to worship Yahweh : " Shame on all the worshipers
of giaven images, they that make boast in idols ; worship him all ye gods." But
the citation in Hebrews follows word for word the Greek of Deut. 32:43. The
cited words are an expansion from Old Testament material such as that of Ps.
97:7. The Song of Moses in which they occur ends with a description of the
divine vengeance on the enemies of Israel, and the honor which is therefore to be
ascribed to him. This is interpreted in the epistle in a Messianic sense, and the
hymn is represented as bringing the first begotten [the Messiah] into the world,
that is, as introducing him to Israel and inducting him into his office as the sav-
iour of his people.
The way in which an erroneous Greek punctuation may lead to a complete
misunderstanding of the meaning of the Hebrew is well illustrated in the citation
from Isa. 8:17,18 in Hebrews 2:13. The burden of the prophet's preaching had
been the necessity of trust in Yahweh against the power of the hostile kings of
Syria and Israel. He was commanded to give to his children symbolical names
which should be signs of God's dealing with the nation, Shearyashub, " a remnant
shall return." and Mahershalalhashbaz, "haste-spoil-hurry-prey,"' so that they
and he might be omens and guides to the depressed and unbelieving people. And
so he says : " I will hope in him. Behold, I and the children whom Yahweh has
given me are signs and omens in Israel." The Greek rendered this with general
correctness except that it wrongly divided the second sentence : " Behold, I and the
children whom God has given me ; and they shall be signs and wonders in the
house of Israel." The author of the epistle takes the first half out of connection :
" Behold, I and the children whom God has given me." and interprets it to mean
the oneness of Jesus with his disciples, and hence the necessity of an incarnation.
A simple giammatical Messianic interpretation would have understood it as
declaring that the Messiah and his people were signs of God's presence in the
church and of the divine method of dealing with men ; the conjunction of the
Messiah and men who believed on him could prove only a oneness of aim between
them, not an identity of nature.
One object of the epistle to the Hebrews is to comfort the suffering Christians
of the time with the hope of coming happiness, and it seeks to find Scripture
demonstration of the Messianic S.abbath rest, the bodily and spiritual peace which
the followers of Christ should enjoy w hen he should come at the end of the present
age to establish his everlasting kingdom. This argument {Heb. 3:7-4:1 1) is drawn
from Ps. 9:67-11 : "O that ye would hear his voice to-day! Harden not your
heart as at Meribali * * * Forty years I loathed that generation and said, They are
a people that err in their hearts and they know not my ways. So that I sware in
my wrath, they shall not enter into my rest." Here is no promise, but the state-
The New Testament as Interpreter of the Old. 133
ment of a fact iu the far past ; the people had beeu disobedient in the wilderness
and God declared that as a punishment they should not enter Canaan. The epis-
tle holds that the last words of the Psalm passage contain a promise which had
not yet beeu fulfilled, since it was given after God had instituted the weekly Sab-
bath (Gen. 2:2) and also after Joshua had led the people into the rest of Canaan,
and hence that there remained a rest for the people of God, which could only be
the Messianic Sabbatism.
A similar mode of argumentation is adopted in Heb. 8:8-12, where the author
discusses the "new covenant" of Jer. 31:31-34. The epistle understands this
to mean the abolition of the Levitical system of daily sacrifice in favor of the
Christian scheme of the sacrifice of himself which Christ made once for all. But
the prophet's antithesis of new and old is something different. He thinks not of
abolishing the national system of sacrifices, but only of the introduction of
a spirit of obedience. His contrast is between the present ignorant rebellious
life of the nation, and a reconstruction in which the people would give an intelli-
gent and glad assent to the commands of their God. A fulfillment of this pre-
diction in Christianity might be sought in its pure and lofty spirit of obedience,
in the new heart which, as Jeremiah and Ezekiel say, God would give to men, a
heart to apprehend the righteousness and goodness of his services ; of the sacrifi-
cial system there is not a word in either of these prophets, in this connection.
In Heb. 10:5-7 an argument in the same direction is made from the word
"body " which occurs in the Septuagint rendering of Ps. 40:7-9 (6-8): " Sacrifice
and offering thou hast not desired, but a body thou hast prepared me ; * * * then I
said, Lo, I come * * * to do thy will, O my God, is my delight." The interpre-
tation of this in the epistle is as follows: The Messiah speaks: "The old Levit-
ical sacrifice thou dost not desire, and therefore thou hast prepared my body as a
sacrifice, and I come to do thy will by the offering of myself, once for all." The
contrast thus ascribed in the epistle to the Psalmist between two sorts of sacrifice
is not that of the Psalmist himself, who, on the contrary, puts obedience over
against sacrifice : "Thou dost not desire the ordinary sacrifice, which is a mere
outward thing; what will please thee is to do thy will, and in this I delight."
The rendering " body " is impossible.
An example of an undesirable though not very important mistranslation
occurs in Heb. 11:21 : "Jacob worshiped [leaning on] the top of his staff." The
Hebrew has: "Jacob bowed himself on the head of the bed." The Hebrew
words for bed and staff have the same consonants. The Catholic-English trans-
lation of 1582 renders, as is well known, "Jacob worshiped the top of his rod,"
and explains the rod as a figure of the scepter and kingdom of Christ.
It appears from these examples that in certain cases the New Testament use
of Old Testament passages is not correct. Sometimes the text is inaccurate,
sometimes the exegesis. The number of these cases is considerable, and the
conclusion is that a New Testament interpretation cannot be accepted without
examination, but must always be tested by hermeneutical principles.
THE SEPTUAGINT.*
By Professor George II. Schodde, Pii. D.
Capital Unirersity, Columbus, Ohio.
INTRODUCTORY.
For the problems of lower or textual criticism the versions of the Old Testa-
ment have a greater relative value than those of the Xew. While in the critical
apparatus of the Xew Testament the ancient versions occupy only a secondary
and subordinate rank over against the manuscripts as the primary authorities,
the condition of affairs in the Old Testament department is almost the exact
opposite of this. The reason of this is, that the versions antedate by many
centuries the oldest existing Hebrew manuscripts. Of the latter there are
indeed a very great number in existence, but none that were written before the
tenth or eleventh century. The oldest Hebrew manuscript known is probably
the Codex Babylonicus Petropolitanus, written in the year 916. with the Baby-
lonian system of punctuation. The text of the prophets from this codex was pub-
lished in 1876 by Professor Hermann L. Strack. Wellhauseu, who is a fair judge
in these matters, says in his fourth edition of Bleek's Introduction to the Old
Testament, 'i 275, that the manuscripts of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
belong to the very oldest. To this must yet be added, that, according to the view
of Lagarde, the most prominent scholar in Old Testament text-critical work, and
maintained with a considerable show of argument as early as 1863 in his Remarks
on the Greek Translation of the Proverbs, pp. 1 and 2, " our Hebrew manuscripts
of the Old Testament all go back to a single copy, the very corrections of who.se
mistakes in writing have been copied by them, and whose errors, which accident-
ally found their way into it, have been reproduced." Accordingly we would
practically have but the equivalent of one single Hebrew manuscript, which
served as an archetype for all the rest. The date assigned to this archetype is the
reign of the Emperor Adrian, 117 to 138 A. D. (Lagarde, Symmicla, 50 sqq.).
This view was expressed previously in 1853 by .Justus Olshausen, and is adopted
with great confidence by Cornill in his revision of the text of Ez.ekiel (1886, p. 6
sqq.). If this hypothesis should prove to be correct, then iutenial reasons would
come to the aid of external reasons in diminishing materially the value of the
traditional Massoretic text for the purposes of lower criticism. However, this
hypothesis has not been able to win for itself anything like a consensus of schol-
ars. Wellhausen, indeed, (? 294), calls it a " plausible " theory, but ridicules the
date assigned by Lagarde, while more conservative scholar's reject the whole as a
castle built in the air, and ascribe the wonderful agreement of the Hebrew manu-
scripts to the scrupulous care of the Jewish scholars.
• The writer would state that this and some other articles on the versions of the Old Testa-
ment, which may he expected to follow, are not intended to bring forward any new data or dis-
coveries, but, for the benefit of students and readers In general, to give merely a bird's-eye view
of the status of investigation with regard to these versions.
The Septuagint. 135
The versions, however, all represent an earlier date of the Old Testament
text. The Septuagint, restored to its original readings, would antedate by twelve
hundred years at least the earliest Hebrew manuscript extant and bring us almost
as near to some of the Old Testament autographs as the Sinaiticus and the Vati-
canus do to the original copies of the Xew Testament books. The further fact,
that ill a number of books the Septuagint text varies from the Massoretic to so
marked a degree that the conclusion is almost unavoidable that the translators
had before them a recension of the Hebrew text differing from the present Masso-
retic, opens the way to critical possibilities that are of peculiar interest and
importance.
For a further reason the study of the Septuagint is now timely. For the
first time in the history of Old Testament research scholars are trying systematic-
ally and with trustworthy scientiflc methods to work out the problems of textual
criticism. While in the New Testament field this was the first of the great
problems that reached a practical settlement, and in the texts of Tischendorf,
Tregelles, and Westcott and Hort we have the application of an agreement of
methods satisfactory to about all the specialists, and thereby also practically one
resultant text of the New Testament, in the Old Testament department this
problem is only now beginning to be thoroughly discussed, and the burning ques-
tion is yet in regard to the methods and principles that must control this investi-
gation. The great work done iu the Old Testament line in the past decade and
century has been in the line of higher criticism. But in the further prosecution
of this work, scholars are constantly hampered by the fact that the problems of
lower criticism have not yet been settled. New Testament scholarship in this
regard followed the more logical order of research, but its task was easier.
Now there is a general consensus among all scholars, both the more critical
and the conservative, that in the text-critical work of the Old Testament the
Septuagint has a most important work to do. The differences arise when the
degree and manner in which this version should be allowed to influence or modify
the current Massoretic text are under discussion.
ORIGIN OF THE SEPTUAGINT.
Concerning the origin of the Septuagint as a whole we have absolutely no
external historical testimony whatever. All we possess is testimony of a debata-
ble character concerning the translation made of the Pentateuch. There exists a
letter, beyond all doubt spurious, which claims to have been WTitten by Aristeas
(or Aristseas, as Josephus calls him), a man high in authority at the court of
Ptolemy II. Philadelphus (2S3-247 B. C), addressed to his brother Philocrates.
This letter states that Demetrius Phalereus, the chief librarian at Alexandria,
proposes to King Ptolemy to enrich his library by having a translation of the Jew-
ish law-book made for it. The king agrees to this, and sends an embassy con-
sisting of his chief of guards, Andrew, and Aristeas, the author of the letter, to
Jerusalem with rich presents to the high priest Eleazar, asking him to send old
and worthy and wise men, six out of each tribe, to Alexandria, where they were
to translate the law-book for the royal library. Eleazar sends the seventy-two
men, who take with them a precious manuscript of tlie Pentateuch written in
golden letters. After having been royally entertained by the king, Demetrius
conducts them to the island of Pharus, where they could work undisturbed.
When they had come to an agreement on a section, Demetrius wrote down the
186 Thb Old Testament Student.
version. The whole work was completed in seventy-two days. A copy of the
translation was given to the Jewish community at Alexandria, who officially and
solemnly adopted it. The letter of Aiisteas is very long and goes minutely into
details in describing the visit to Jerusalem and the colloquy held with King
Ptolemy. It was first printed in 11501, and the best edition is found in Merx,
Arehiv., 1868.
What is the value of this i\jisteas letter ? Its character is such that, without
a dissenting voice, scholars are agreed that it is apocryphal and valueless as direct
historical testimony. The majority agree that it contains a kernel of historical
truth, but what the extent of this truth is, does not seem so clear. Wellhausen,
in Bleek ('i 279) and in his article on the Septuagint, in Vol. XXI. of the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica, regards it as settled by the letter that the Septuagint transla-
tion of the Pentateuch was done at Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy II.
All the rest of the letter he regards as literary decoration and ornamentation.
Schurer. in his Jtwish People in the time of Jesus Christ, Second Part, J 33, an
authority, at least equal if not better than Wellhausen, regards this as merely a
possibility, but by no means certain. For the details of the discussion we refer
to the authors mentioned. So much, however, is certain, that the Aristeas
account at an early day found acceptance among the Jews. Philo, ( Be vita Moyses,
II., 'i 5-7) knows of it in detail, and Josephus (^Antiq., XII., 2) reproduces it
almost in full as an historical fact.
A second direct testimony is from Aristobulus, of Alexandria, the oldest
Jewish pliilosoplier, who wrote a work on the Interpretation of the Sacred Laws,
which he dedicated to King Ptolemy Pliilometer (lSO-145 B. C), of which an
extract has been preserved by the church historian Eusebius {Prmparalio Hvan-
gelica, XHI., 12, 1-2). Here Aristobuhis maintains that Plato already was
acquainted with the law-book of the Jews, and tliat tlie cliief contents of tlie book
had been translated into Greek even before the days of Demetrius Phalereus.
From tliis it would seem that the author knew of a tradition about the Greek ver-
sion of the Pentateuch differing to a degree from that given by Aristeas. But
whether this vague statement confirms the accounts of Aristeas or makes it his-
torically still more unreliable, it would be difficult to say. The individual view
in the matter depends upon the amount of probability to be given to tlie Aristeas
letter.
Concerning the translation of tlie other books in the Septuagint we have abso-
lutely no liistorical record whatever. Tlie name of a '•Version of the Seventy,"
an abbreviation for seventy-two, was gradually transferred from the Pentateuch
to the whole work.
But if we have no direct testimony as to the temiimis a quo we are more for-
tunate in having some of reasonable reliance for the terminus ud quern of the ver-
sion. In the prologue to Ecclesiasticlis, the translator, who in 132 B. C. went to
Egypt, remarks that in his day there existed Greek versions, not only of the
law, but also of the prophets and the other books {o v6fto^ Kai ai -potpijTciat nal rd im-a
Tuv ^ipXiuv). There can be little or no doubt that he here refers to the Septuagint
version, which, at that date, must have been completed. This is corroborated
by the further fact that the most ancient relics of Jewish literature, preserved in
extracts by Alexander Polyhistor, and recorded by Eusebius in his Prcep. Evang.,
IX., all show acquaintance with the Septuagint (cf . for details, Schiirer, 1. c, i 33).
The Septuagint. 137
It is then almost entirely internal evidence to which we must appeal for informa-
tion concerning the origin of this historic version. It will appear later on that
diversities in the manner of translation in the various parts are so great, that the
idea of one man or one set of men having made this version is entirely excluded.
Beyond a doubt a beginning was made with the law, which, as also is seen from
internal reasons, originated in Alexandria, and was known to Demetrius, who
wrote under Ptolemy IV. (222-205 B. C). Whether the translation of the law
is to be attributed to the Jewish influence or to the literary ambition of the Ptole-
mies, is a much discussed question, for which only a possibly, scarcely a probably,
correct answer can be given. That the other books were translated under Jewish
auspices is highly probable, as they could not possess literary importance suffi-
ciently to tempt a Greek translator. The work of translating the whole Hebrew
codex into Greek may have occupied a generation or two, or even a whole century.
External and internal evidences will scarcely admit of going further than has been
done in the above remarks.
THE CHARACTEK OF THE TRANSLATION.
The first thing that strikes the student when comparing the Septuagint text
with the Hebrew is the differences of agreement and disagreement existing
between the Greek and the original texts in the different books. Some agree
almost word for word; as is the case especially with the Pentateuch and in a
smaller measure with several of the hagiographa, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon,
and Chronicles. Others, again, vary exceedingly, the worst in this regard being,
in the view of most scholars, the Book of Isaiah. Unfortunately special investi-
gations of all the books have not yet been made, so as to allow a judgment on the
whole. Lagarde has examined the Book of Proverbs ; Bickell, that of Job ; Hollen-
berg, that of Joshua; Wellhausen, the text of Samuel ; and within the past few
years exhaustive investigations of the text of Ezekiel and of Micah have been
made, though from different stand-points and diverging results on the merits of
the Septuagint, the former by Cornill, the latter by Kyssel. The differences
between the Greek and Hebrew are often many and of much greater importance
than the great bulk of various readings in the New Testament manuscripts. In
a large number of instances the Greek contains matter not foimd in the Hebrew,
as, e. g., in the Books of Ezra and Daniel, and to a lesser degree in such Books as
Job and Proverbs. In other cases matter found in the Hebrew is omitted or
abridged in the Greek. In many cases the Greek is an incorrect translation of
the present Hebrew text, the cause of the false rendition being still traceable to a
misunderstanding of the Hebrew. This is particularly the case in the more diffi-
cult poetical and prophetic books. The writer recently compared word for word
the Greek text of the Proverbs with the original. Not only were there many
omissions found, but on the average only about one sentence in three was what
could be regarded as a good translation, although in many instances the source of
the poor rendering could yet be discovered. No better and more thankworthy
work could be found for a student seeking to understand the character of the
vexed problem of the relation between the Septuagint and the Massoretic text
than working through the prolegomena and critical apparatus to Cornill's Ezekiel.
This does not mean that it is necessary to adopt Cornill's conclusions. There are
yet worlds to conquer in the Septuagint investigations.
*3
188 The Old Testament Student.
The language of tlie Septuagint is most remarkable. It is almost incorrect to
say that it is Greek. Plato and Aristotle would have been able to understand but
little of the non-historical portions. The Greek is entirely under the spell of the
Hebrew. The Septuagint has a language of its own. Naturally the difficulties
are not in the grammatical line ; they are almost entirely in the lexical. A Greek
word which in one of its uses corresponds to a Hebrew word in one of its uses, is
at once made the equivalent of the latter in all its figurative applications ; and
even more than this, also in its employment for clauses, phrases, and peculiar
idioms. Because, e. g., the Greek lUt^um in its basal sense is the equivalent of the
Hebrew n a than, it is at once compelled to do service in every sense and everj'
connection in which the latter can be employed. And when it comes to the use
of Old Testament words of peculiar theological or ethical importance, such as
(!(jfa, c'lpifvti, and others, they are used in senses of which the classical Greek lexicon
knows absolutely nothing. It is for this reason that even so good a Greek dic-
tionary as " Liddell and Scott " is useless for Septuagint work. A Septuagint
lexicon is a great desideratum, which, however, can scarcely be filled until the
Septuagint text itself has been better settled. As yet a good Hebrew dictionary
and an accurate knowledge of Greek are indispensable requisites for close Septua-
gint work.
But the very awkwardness in the language, which robs it of nearly all its
value as a piece of literature, is of the greatest advantage for the very work for
which Christian scholarship desires to use the Septuagint, namely, to determine
the character of the Hebrew text of which the Septuagint is a translation. As
matters now stand it is as a rule no difficult matter to re-translate the Greek and
thus reconstruct the Hebrew original. Its very fiiults make it a valuable aid for
text-critical work. Were the translation less slavish and less barbarized with
Hebraisms, this could not be the case.
histoky of tiee translation.
The so-called translation of the Seventy rapidly won its way into official
recognition among the Hellenistic Jews. The oldest writers of whom we have any
knowledge that they used the LXX. are Demetrius and Eupolemus. After them
we find I'hilo using the translation, at least of the Pentateuch, as equally author-
itative with the original. The same is done, though not to the same degree, by
Josephus. The majority of the New Testament writers make use of the Septua-
gint translation, especially Mark and Paul. Indeed the whole lexical material
of the New Testament is based upon the nsus loqiiendi of the LXX. In this
regard the method pursued by Cremer in his iV^eio Testament Lexicon is more cor-
rect than that of Trench in his Synonyv\s, who develops the New Testament
words out of the classical Greek in a rather one-sided manner. The use and
honor of the LXX. in the Christian Church, as well as the perception that it was
not in every particular a true version, led to the preparation of the three well-
known later Greek versions, namely, the intensely literal one of Aquila, that of
Theodotion, in which he tries to compromise between the Hebrew text and the
current LXX. version, and that of Symtuacluis, the Ebionite, wiiich adheres to the
Hebrew original but translates into readable Greek. Fragments of these versions
are preserved in the Hexapla. In the ordinary Septuagint editions Theodotion's
translation of Daniel has been substituted for the old version. No one of the
existing MSS. contains the old koiv^ or original text of the LXX., although schol-
The Sbptuagint. 139
ars are substantially agreed that we have a near approach to it in B, or the Vati-
canus. CorniU's investigations have made this more probable than it was before.
But we liave the testimony of patristic literature that at a relatively early date
the discrepancies between the old LXX. and the Veritas Htbraica, as Jerome and
others call it, led to a revision of the text. Of these revisions there were three.
The first and most important was made by Origen (185-254 A. D.) in his Hexapla.
He made the common text the basis of his investigations, and corrected the text
chiefly after the Greeli translations made later from the Hebrew, especially Theo-
dotion's. He designated the plus and minus of the edition by critical marks. The
value of this edition is reduced to a minimum by the fact that Origen seems not
to have been consistent in his metliods, as is seen chiefly from tlie Syriac Hexapla.
The Origen text was published by Eusebius and Pamphilus of Caesarea, and
became the oflicial text of Palestine. The revision of Hesychius was accepted by
the church of Egypt and that of Lucianus by the churches of Constantinople and
Antioch. The patristic citations on these points are found in full in Wellhausen's
Bleek (U 282,283).
In this way the old LXX. text in its original character was lost and sup-
planted by revisions made avowedly to conform the Greek to the accepted
Hebrew text of the day. The great woik then to be done by Septuagint scholars
is to discover again, if possible, the original koivi/ text and thus learn what the real
Septuagint was. It is a work of extraordinary difficulty to investigate the manu-
scripts of the version and, if possible, classify them in such a manner as to lead to
the solution of this problem. A beginning, and a good one, has been made by
Lagarde, who has begun the publication of what he considers the Lucianus
recensions, and further work in this line has been done by Cornill's classification.
THE VALUE OF THE VERSION.
A partial answer to this has already been given In the above, and a full
answer, in so far as this can be given at all at this stage of inquiry, will flow
naturally from what has been stated. While the exegetical value, especially for
individual passages, cannot be estimated at too high a rate, the chief advantage
to the Bible student must and always will lie in the text-critical help afforded by
the LXX. Until the original text of the LXX. has been re-discovered in so far as
this can ever be done, and thus the critical status of the version as such been
determined, the use of the Greek for the Hebrew text or interpretation must be
decided in each individual instance on the merits of the case in question. No
general rule for the use of the LXX. in this regard can yet be given. Such a
rule would infallibly lead to a misuse, as it has where rash attempts at generaliza-
tion have been made. The writer has treated of this phase of the general problem
in detail in the New York Independent, September 27, 1888, and begs to be per-
mitted to refer to that article.
EDITIONS OF THE SEPTUAGINT.
The editions of the Septuagint are many. The best known and most used is
the so-called Sixtina, of 1587. This is the traditional text. Fortunately it is also
a comparatively good one, being based in general upon the best MS. of the LXX.
extant, namely, the Vaticanus. Tischendorf has also published an edition, which
was, however, only a slight improvement on the Sixtina. This was still the case
when in Nestle's edition of Tischendorf some variant readings of the other uncials
140 The Old Testament Student.
were appended. The magnificent fac-simile reproduction of the Vaticanus,
published in Rome 1868-1881, prepared the way for a really good edition of the
text. This Professor Swete has begun to publish, issuing the first volume at
Cambridge, containing Genesis to IV. Kings.* Here the genuine Vaticanus te.xt,
which deviates considerably from the Sixtina, is reproduced, together with such
readings from the other leading MSS. as to give the reader the best critical mate-
rial on hand for the study of the Septuagint version. No other edition should
now be used for Septuagint work.
WEBER ON THE ESCHATOLOGY OF THE TALMUD, t
By Peof. Georgk B. Stevens, Pn. D.,
Yale University, New Haven, Ckinn.
IV. THE FIXAL COMPLETION.
a. THE resurrection and the .tudgment of the world.
Through the opposition of the nations of the world to the Messiah, the Mes-
sianic Kingdom is brought to an end. and the judgment and separation of the
godless nations from the earth which is renewed as the dwelling-place for the
people of God, begin. The resurrection is not general, but is for Israel alone.
Maimonides says : " The resurrection of the dead is a fundamental article of
Moses, our teacher, — peace to him ! — but it comes only to the rigliteous.'" Resur-
rection is the prerogative of those who participate in the Kingdom of God ; the
godless are already dead in life. It is accomplished only in the Holy Land.
Those who have not studied the law cannot rise again. Such is the general repre-
sentation in tlie talmudic literature. Some, however, maintain a resurrection for
the heathen, but say that they do not remain in life, but sink back into death
again. Generally the resurrection is contemplated distinctively as a reward of
righteousness, i. e. observance of the law.
The heathen and the disobedient (who have despised their circumcision and
renounced the Covenant) in Israel go direct at death to Gehinnom and receive
their just punishment (cf. Luke 16:23). " Gehinnom, which is for Israel a Purga-
tory, is for the heathen the place of punishment ; it is not in its original purpose
designed for Israel." Those who in Israel despise the sign of the Covenant, e. g.
the Samaritans, are reckoned as heathen and are destined for Gehinnom. There
are unpardonable sins which consign even Israelites forever to Gehinnom.
Those who faU into Gehinnom suffer pain and torment and at length com-
plete annihilation. Their pain is caused by the darkness, fire and brimstone of
the place. If one applies himself incessantly to prayer, his fire may be somewliat
cooled. The tears of the righteous falling into the place, cool its fires. The reason
why brimstone is so nauseating is that it is designed for the punisliment of Hell.
The smell of it is a premonition of its use. Are these sufferings everlasting or do
they terminate in absolute annihilation ? Both views are found ; the latter is the
• Cf. a notice of this work in The Old Testament Student, October, 1888.
+ Concluded from the November number.
Weber on the Eschatology of tbce Talmud. 141
more common one. It is probable that they may be reconciled on the supposition
that, for the worst of men, pimishment was everlasting, but for less degrees of
guilt, a cessation of being might make an end of suffering.
The idea of judgment has two forms, — as applied to the individual at his death
and as a general and final assize at the end of the Messianic age. This age is a
time of possible salvation for the heathen, and their final condemnation cannot
occur untn they shall have made their great resistance to the Messiah at the end
of the Messianic period. At that time the measure of their iniquity will be full
and they shall be assembled before God for final judgment. This will be the
last act in the drama of human history in time ; thereafter eternity ensues. The
Kabbins graphically picture this scene. God opens the book of the law and calls
upon those who have obeyed it to come and receive their reward. Hereupon all
nations rush forward in confusion. The Almighty rebukes them for their dis-
order and commands them to come one by one. The Eomans come first and are
asked : " With what have you been occupied ? " They answer : " Lord of the
worlds, we have built streets and baths and heaped up silver and gold, all that
Israel might busy itself with the law." They are told in answer that they have
done all this but for their own glory, ease and power, and are challenged to show
that they have kept the law." They cannot, and they depart with heavy hearts.
Thus the various nations are passed in review. After this an effort is made by
the nations to excuse themselves, which may be summarized thus : " We had no
law." Answer: "What means, 'God came from Sinai, from Mount Paran and
from Teman,' etc. (Deut. 33:2 ; Hab. 3:3), if not that He offered the law to all
nations? But only Israel received it." "But if thou hadst threatened us, as
thou didst Israel, we would have obeyed." Answer : " You did not even keep the
seven commandments of Noah which I gave you at the first." " But Israel has not
kept thy law." Answer: "I call heaven and earth to witness that they have,
and prove it by the very testimony of heathen : Abraham's faithfulness by Nimrod ;
Jacob's honesty by Laban ; Joseph's purity by Potiphar's wife, etc." "Lord of
the worlds, give us now a law and we will obey." Answer : " Do you not know
that he who prepares his food on the preparation day has something to eat on the
Sabbath ; but he who omits it must go hungry V But I will grant it. In my law
is an easy commandment, that to keep the feast of booths. Go and celebrate
this." Then they all go and build booths upon their roofs. Then God sends
forth a heat, hot and burning as in August, that all, stamping on the ground leave
the booths. Thus their disobedience is finally confirmed.
The judgment occurs in the valley of Jehoshaphat. " Thus will the heathen
world be assigned by God's judgment to destruction by the fire of Gehenna ; and
after the earth is in the exclusive possession of Israel and is freed from the god-
less heathen world, can it be renewed and become the sphere of the eternal life."
&. THE NEW HEAVEN, THE NEW EARTH AND THE NEW HUMANITY.
The heavens and the earth will at length pass away. The creation will not
be destroyed, but renewed. The new creation comes out of the old. This pro-
duction of the higher from the lower is illustrated by the derivation of Abraham
from Terah, Hezekiah from Ahaz, etc. The world is to go through a process of
purification. But the old world is the mother of the new, which is built out of
the material of the old and has its form for its type. The creation of the new
heaven and the new earth is determined upon from the beginning, is ideally exist-
142 The Old Testament Stitdent.
ent; it is now materially accomplished only so far as the old creation contains the
form and basis upon which the new world is to be reared. The new creation is
thoroughly light and pure ; the future world is all day (cf . Kev. 22:5). The prin-
ciple of darkness, the power of sin and destruction reigns no more. Correspond-
ing to this light is the moral purity of the new world, for it is no more the
dwelling of sinful men. There is also physical purity in so far as the new earth
is delivered from all delilement. The new earth, moreover, will be complete and
harmonious. Its perfection consists in the complete fulfillment of its purpose.
Ten marks of the new creation are enumerated, among which are, — light, the
water of life (cf. Rev. 22:1), health, and the yielding of fruits every month (cf.
Rev. 22:2). The new creation is harmonious in all its parts. In the animal
world there is no conflict, and between men and animals there is peace. Wild
beasts will be cured of their blood-thirstiness ; the lamb will have no need to fear
mankind and " all animals will be satisfied with a vegetable diet."
Upon the new earth dwells a new humanity. The renewal of man, that is,
the restoration of his normal condition, is designated as a '-healing,'" so far as it
relates to the material side of man. The blind will see, the deaf hear, the lame
walk, etc. (cf. Is. 35:5 sq.). The moral renewal of the world takes place through
the eradication of the purpose or principle of evil (jezer hara) from the human
heart and the giving of a new heart. It is this jezer hara which creates idol-
worship. In the future world God will root this out and give man a new heart.
The Holy One said to Israel : " In this world you rend yourselves away from my
commandments through the jezer hara; but in the future world I will pluck this
out of you by the root ; for it is written : " And I will put my spirit into your
heart (Ezek. 36:27)."
A A
C. THE COMING AGE (OLAM HABBA).
Three good gifts have been given to Israel which the nations covet, — the law,
the land of Israel, and the future world. The coming age belongs exclusively
to Israel. Every Israelite, as such, looks forward to it with e.xpectation, unless
he has forfeited his right to it by apostasy. Infants participate in the future life,
even those of wicked parents, provided they are circumcised. That all Israel is
to assemble in the Holy Land in this period is evident from the fact that those who
fell in the desert are to participate in the coming glory. But the heathen are
excluded. Of Israel and heathenism, Jacob and Esau stand as the respective
types. A commentary on Gen. 25:31 narrates in detail a conversation between
Jacob and Esau before their birth, in which Jacob explains to his brother the
different principles and employments of this world (age) and the future world.
Esau chooses {apparently at Jacob's instigation) this present world, and Jacob
takes for his part the blessings of the Olaui habba.
Respecting the modes of life in the future world there are two opinions,— the
more spiritual view, according to which there is to be no sensuous life of eating
and drinking, begetting and trading; no anger or hate, but the righteous will sit
with crowns on their heads enjoying God's presence; and a more materialistic
view, according to which relations continue very much the same as in this life,
except that sin is eliminated. In this view much emphasis is laid upon the feast-
ing which awaits the righteous and a noticeable peculiarity is that the flesh of the
Leviathan and Behemoth is indicated as the special delicacy which shall distin-
guish the festal occasion. These two varying conceptions of the coming age may
Old Testament Wokd-studees. 143
be explained upon the supposition that tlie ideas of this world and the next— the
earthly and the heavenly — are not clearly separated ; hence the emphasis of those
elements which belong to the one or to the other.
Notwithstanding these variations, it is agreed that existence in the coming
age will be blessed and glorious because it will be a life in full communion Vith
God. The Sabbath, as the symbol of peace and rest, is designated as a foretaste
of this future world. To happy rest is joined external glory. The righteous wear
the crowns which they once received from angels at Sinai and which were taken
away when they fell into sin. This blessedness and glory is the same in its nature
for all, but differs in degree : " Each righteous man has his own Eden in the Gar-
den of Eden." There are two opinions concerning the class with which God is
best pleased. According to one, it is those who have studied most the law and
commandments ; according to the other, it is the scribes who have in faithfulness
taught the young.
All this happiness culminates in the completed communion of life between
God and the righteous. The upper Jerusalem will come down upon the new
earth ; for there is a Jerusalem in the coming age different from that of this age.
It is built of sapphire and its central point is still a sanctuary. Aaron is the
priest, and receives the thauk-ofierings (all other offerings having ceased). The
righteous behold God and praise him, and He in his own person teaches them the
law. The relation between God and His people is the closest possible. " It is
more intimate than tliat between God and the angels ; for the elders of Israel con-
stitute the council in the coming age, therefore are nearest to Him."
The Talmud's most beautiful picture of the future is found in this story :
Joshua Ben Levi is sick and in a trance. When he comes to himself, his father
asks him : What hast thou seen ? He answers : I have seen a changed world ;
those who here were above are there beneath ; those who here were beneath are
there above. Then answered his father : Thou hast seen a pui-e world (that is,
one in which reality and appearance correspond).
OLD TESTAMENT WORD-STUDIES: 4. MOEAL EVIL.
By Eev. p. A. NoEDELL., D. D.,
New London, Conn.
All moral evil, while springing indeed from an underlying unity, exhibits
itself in many different aspects. Hebrew is peculiarly rich in words denoting
these various forms of opposition to moral good. The Old Testament does not
conceive of moral evil as an essential element in human nature, but as the result
of man's free volition in yielding to the solicitations of an evil principle of unex-
plained origin which already existed in the world, Gen. 3; Deut. 30:15. Sin,
according to the Old Testament, is not merely transgression of natural law entail-
ing physical suffering, as the heathen held, but opposition to divine holiness
springing from a selfish disregard of Jehovah's will as supreme law.
'aven vanity.
'aven is most frequently translated avofiia in the LXX., and iniquitas in the
144 The Old Testament Student.
Vulgate. From the latter it has passed into the A. V. where iniquity is the pre-
vailing rendering. These renderings indicate that the point of view from which
moral evil is regarded in this word is that of transgression of law, — that which is
opposed to equity in the relations of man to man. or of man to God. This inter-
pretiition is, however, incorrect. The primary thought is found in an unused
verb meaning to breathe heavily, to puff, pant, as the result of strenuous exer-
tion. The same verb naturally gives us the substantive 'on, strength, the puttmg
forth of power accompanied by deep breathings or pantings. The derivative
'av6n, assuming a moral significance, presents the idea of nothingness, empti-
ness, vanity— that which, having no real existence, has also no real worth. The
works of idolaters, i. e. their idols, are vanity, 'avSn, and nought, Isa. 41:29;
66:3. The oracles of the teraphim are 'aven, empty words, Zech. 10:2. Unjust
and oppressive judicial decisions are also 'avSn, Isa. 10:1. The frequent asso-
ciation of the word with idols and idolatry indicated that the oft-recurrijig phrase
•' workers of iniquity " is merely a synonym for idolaters. To " regard iniquity "
in the heart, Ps. 66:18, is, not to cultivate a tendency to wrong doing in general,
but to cherish a secret inclination toward idolatry, which is treason against Jeho-
vah. He will not answer the prayer that springs from such a heart. A stubborn
disregard of Jehovah's command is 'aven, and is as bad as idolatry, 1 Sam. 15:
23. From this conception of abstract evil as a vain and empty thing, the word
passes into a designation of the concrete accompaniments or consequences of evil ;
the wicked " bring forth iniquity," Job 15:35, but God returns it upon them, Ps.
94:23 ; cf. Job 4:8. It is only a short transition from this thought of the penal
consequences of evil to that of pain, sorrow, afHiction, the emptiness and desola-
tion of life, caused by the removal of the objects in which the heart had found
its joy, Ps. 90:10; Job 5:6.
'asham guilt.
The verb 'asham or 'ashcm, to incur an obligation or debt, either pecun-
iary or moral, gives the substantive 'asham, a debt, trespass, hence guilt, and
also the necessity of making restitution for damage that has been done, not will-
fully, but through ignorance or neglect, Gen. 26:10; Lev. 5:7. Fools make sport
of guilt and of the necessity of atoning for it, Prov. 14:9, but God smites those
who persist in such conduct. Ps. 68:21(22). This word assumes a technical sense
in the le\itical law, designating the guilt-offering which, like the sin-offering, was
expiatory in its nature. The use of this word in Isa. 53:10, where the innocent
servant is said to make his soul an 'asham for sin, has occasioned considerable
controversy. Wellhausen, in the interest of the Graflan hypothesis, asserts that
it has not the technical sense of guilt-offering, but only the primary meaning of
guilt. This meaning, however, is entirely contrary to the spirit of the whole
chapter which conspicuously represents the sufferings of the servant as a ransom,
Urpov, paid to Jehovah for tlie sinners whose guilt the servant expiates by his vol-
imtary suffermgs and death.
B'liyyaal worihlessness.
This word, commonly transferred into the English form Belial, occurs twenty-
seven times in the Old Testament. It seems to be one of the rare instances in
which Hebrew tolerates a compound word, being composed of b ' 1 i , nothing, and
yS'Sl, worth. It designates a person or thing whose leading characteristic is
Old Testament Wobd-studibs. 145
worthlessness. With ben it forms an idiomatic phrase, a sou of Belial, which
the B. v., either in the text or margin, generally renders " base fellow." It char-
acterizes conduct that is mean and despicable, Ps. 41:9 ; 101:3 ; thoughts that are
base and degrading, Deut. 15:9. In 2 Sam. 22:5 ; Ps. 18:5, the writer's thought in
connecting Belial with " floods " is quite obscure. The A. V. renders it " floods
of ungodly men," and the K. V. " floods of ungodliness." The context suggests
the idea of mortal terror, and therefore the rendering of De Witt, "the floods of
destruction " would seem more appropriate. In the form BeVap this word occurs
in the New Testament, 2 Cor. 6:15, where, having lost its abstract meaning, it
becomes a name of Satan, the prince of the realm of darkness.
Hawah destructive wickedness.
The root-meaning is a gaping mouth, hence a yawning abyss. Usually this
word stands for destruction, Ps. 57:11(12); Prov. 19:13. From this meaning it
glides into that of wickedness, Pss. 5:9(10), 55:11(12), this being conceived of as
destructive and corrupting. Though the word occurs only sixteen times in He-
brew, the LXX. gives it no less than ten different renderings. For a full discus-
sion of the word, see Delitzsch on Ps. 5:10 ; also Ilupfeld.
Hatta'th sin.
This is the prevailing Hebrew term for sin, and is properly rendered in the
LXX. aiiapria, and in the Vulg. peccatum. Prom Jud. 20:16 we learn that prima-
rily it denoted the missmg of a target or mark. Prom an ethical point of view it
represented a failure to attain the divine standard for human conduct. This
might occur through ignorance. Num. 15:28, or through the immaturity of youth,
Ps. 25:7. But usually it exhibited a deliberate deviation from the holy will of
God. Indeed, hatta'th seldom or never refers to mere errors, but to gross sins
that are apparent to all beholders, as were those of the Sodomites, Gen. 18:20, cf .
1 Sam. 2:17 ; 15:23. In the Mosaic law it became the standing designation of the
sin-offering. During the monarchy, when Israel apostatized from Jehovah,
hatta'th came to denote the national sin of idolatry, 1 Kgs. 15:26; Jer. 17:1.
In Deut. 9:21 the golden calf is termed Israel's sin.
'avel, 'av'lah unfairness.
Occurs only twenty times, and in the majority of instances is rendered aimia
in the LXX. The verb "aval, to turn around, to be perverse, occurs only twice,
Ps. 71:4 and Isa. 26:10, both times in Piel, and meaning to act in a rascally man-
ner. The substantive itself designates that form of moral evil which exhibits
itself in unfair transactions, whether in the perversion of justice. Lev. 19:15,35,
or in business dealings, Ezek. 28:18. 'av'lah, the feminine form, presents the
same general meaning, and differs from the masculine, if at all, in being a little
more emphatic. It suggests a perversity of conduct that amounts to actual vil-
lainy, Ps. 89:22(23) ; Mic. 3:10 ; Hab. 2:12.
'avon iniquity.
The A. v., except in a very few instances, renders this word by iniquity. In
the LXX. and Vulg. it is rendered by aSmia, injustitia, 73 times, a/iap-la, peccatum,
63 times, and avouia, iniquitas, 61 times. These renderings give us a partial clue
to the radical meaning of the word, which seems to have been a turning or bend-
146 Thk Old Testamknt Student.
ing away from righteousness and law. This is confirmed by the verb 'a rah , to
turn, twist, pervert, from which 'a von seems to be derived, meaning crooked-
ness, perversity, and in an ethical sense, depravity. It conceives of i,ji as a
departure from the normal path of obedience to God's holy will. But this aapait-
ure involves at once penal consequences, and the thought of these is also included
in the word. Cain, having heard the divine sentence pronounced upon him,
exclaims, "My 'avon," i. e. sin and punishment, "is greater than I can bear,"
Gen. 4:13. The frequent plirase "he sliall beai' his iniquity,'" spoken in refer-
ence to the transgressor of law. points to the same fact, as does also the declara-
tion in Isa. 53:6 that Jehovah made the iniquity of us all to fall on his innocent
servant. Cf. 1 Sam. 28:10; Ezek. 14:10. In some instances the additional idea
of guilt is presented. "The 'avon of the Amorites is not yet full," Gen. 15:16,
and the 'avon of the fathers is visited upon the children to the third and fourth
generations, Exod. 20:5. From tlie ideas of guilt and penalty there is but a step
to that of the pliysical overthrow and ruin which follow as the inevitable conse-
quences of sin and depravity, Gen. 19:15; Prov. 5:22.
'amal toil, misery.
From the common meaning of wearisome labor or toil this word passes here
and there into a designation of evil, more especially physical, conceived of as a
grievous bondage. Dent. 26:7; Ps. 107:12, that has no end, Eccl. 4:8, for man is
born to it, Job 5:7, the pride of his short life being only 'amal and sorrow,
'aven, Ps. 90:10. The frequency with which 'amal and 'av6n are conjoined
is surprising. Job 4:8; 5:6; 15:35; Ps. 7:4; 10:7; 55:10(11); Isa. 10:1 ; 59:4; Ilab.
1:3; no less surprising is the confusion in the renderings of these words in the
common English version.
Pesha' transgression, felony.
The verb pasha' means to break off, dirumpere; in respect to a sovereign,
to sever allegiance by rebellion, as when Israel rebelled against the house of
David, 1 Kgs. 12:11, or Edom against Jiidah, 2 Kgs. 8:20. Chiefly it designated
Israel's rebelling against Jehovah's sovereignty, Isa. 1:2; 1 Kgs. 8:50, or, in other
words, Israel's breaking of the covenant in their apostasy from Jehovah's service
to tliat of idols. Tlie substantive pes ha' preserves the meaning of the verb,
denoting originally a breach of covenant, or revolt from political supremacy, Prov.
28:2. When this revolt was directed against God it usually assumed the form of
transgression of his law, bold, wanton disregard of the moral boundaries which
he had assigned to his people, Micah 1:5. Pesha' is sometimes joined with
hatta'th for the sake of emphasis, but when the two are contrasted, Ps. 25:7,
the former is the stronger, denoting a willful and outrageous opposition to God,
springing from a perversion of the will, while the latter denotes rather sins of
infirmity springing from ignorance or from a consciousness clouded by passion.
Ra' wicked, evil.
Ra' is used both as an adjective and as a substantive, and occurs far more
frequently than any other word in the present group. It is the opposite of tob h ,
good, with which it is very often contrasted, e. g., "Speak not to Jacob either
good or bad," Gen. 31:24. The renderings of this word are exceedingly various,
Old Testajient Wokd-studibs. 147
and this arises from the remarkable diversity of its applications. It describes any-
thing and everything that is bad, ill-favored, grievous, mischievous, ■wicked, in
short, every form of evil, whether physical or moral. It springs from a root the
general meaning of which is to be restless, to be in motion, to break down, to
destroy. From an ethical stand-point it looks upon evil as a hurtful and destruc-
tive force, ceaselessly opposed to everything that is good whether in human rela-
tions or divine.
Rasha' mcked.
Like the preceding, this word also is in very frequent use. In a physical
sense it denoted that which is loose, slack, unstable, and hence metaphorically,
that which is lax, dissolute in an ethical sense. As a substantive it occurs almost
wholly in the plural form, r'sha'im, ungodly or wicked men. These are
regarded as morally lax, loose, controlled by no principles of truth or righteous-
ness. Having cut themselves loose from God, they have lost aU stability of
character, and have become "like chaff which the wind driveth away," Ps. 1:4,
or like a troubled sea, tliat cannot rest, Isa. 57:20. From every point of view the
r'sha'im are diametrically opposed to the tsaddiqim, the righteous, the
solid, firm, stable in character and disposition.
OLD TESTAMENT NOTES AND NOTICES.
Prof. E. P. Barrows, whose death at a ripe age was recently announced, left
in manuscript a Hebrew Grammar, the fruit of years of Hebrew study, a Com-
mentary on the Book of Proverbs, and an Autobiography.
Again an appreciation of the importance of Old Testament work has been
shown ; this time by the trustees of Madison University. Professor S. Burnham,
well-known to readers of The Student, will henceforth be assisted in his work
by Rev. Nathaniel Smith.
Dr. Richard J. H. Gottheil, of Columbia College, announces the following
Semitic Courses for the year: (1) Elementary Course (Harper's "Introductory
Method" and "Elements of Hebrew"); (2) Advanced Hebrew (1 Samuel 1-20);
(3) Rabbinical Hebrew (five courses) ; (4) Syriac (two courses) ; (5) Arabic (two
courses) ; (6) Assyrian ; (7) Semitic Palajography.
The latest advices from the Philadelphia Babylonian Exploring Expedition,
are to the effect that the damage occasioned by the shipwreck upon the Isle of
Samos is extremely slight, the loss of time being the only important matter.
While Professor Peters has been in Constantinople, vigorously pushing the
important work of securing privileges from the Turkish government, with large
hopes of success, the rest of the party lias reached Aintab ; and ere this the whole
company is en route for the scene of permanent activity.
Messrs. T. & T. Clark, of Edinburgh, announce for early publication a valu-
able work, entitled " The Text of Jeremiah ; or, a Critical Investigation of the
Greek and Hebrew, with the Variations of the Septuagint retranslated into the
Original and explained," by Prof. J. C. Workman, M. A., of Victoria University,
Coburg, Ontario. Besides discussing the relation between the texts, this book
reveals important matter for the correction and the reconstruction of the present
Massoretic text. Prof. Workman has been residing for the past four years in
Leipzig, and during the greater portion of that time has been specially engaged at
this investigation.
An interesting extension of the correspondence system appears in the recently
published announcement by missionaries in Tokio, Japan, of courses in Greek and
Hebrew, for the aid not only of missionaries but also of native preachers. Three
courses in Greek are proposed: (1) elementary, comprising grammar, analysis,
exercises ; (2) intermediate, consisting of grammatical and critical notes on por-
tions of the Greek Testament; (3) advanced, consisting of extracts with notes
from various Christian Greek writers. The Hebrew will be taken up through the
Correspondence School of the American Institute of Hebrew. This will be sup-
plemented by a Summer School of Hebrew in 1SS9. It is a well-known fact that
of all men, missionaries excel in their zeal for Bible study. This is but one
example of this interest.
^BOOIiM^OTICES.^
PALESTINE IN THE TIME OF CHRIST.*
The historical movement of the present day has, in the study of Christ and
the Gospels, produced a new branch of learning. It seeks to create from all
available sources of literature and archaeology a trustworthy and living picture of
the times in which Jesus lived and the scenes among which he walked. This
study is as yet in its infancy. Two works in this department, both by German
scholars, have been hitherto available for English readers, and those only in part.
Hausrath and Schiirer have each WTitten a history of the New Testament times
and it is but just now that so much as half of the latter work could be had in Eng-
lish. And even now the high price of these volumes, as well as the scholastic and
learned character of the contents, has put them beyond the reach of the mass of
Bible students. This is to be regretted, since the labors of these scholars are of
the greatest value in Scripture study. Passages in the Gospels and episodes ia
the life of Jesus are often vividly illuminated and take on an entirely new mean-
ing in the light of the habits, customs, and history of the people of the times.
But now in this book of Edmond Stapf er, an opportunity is given to secure
at a moderate price much of the best and latest results of investigation into the
Palestine of Christ's day, — a book written in a style marked by French vivacity
and attractiveness. It is a book for the people, and it is to be hoped that many
people wUl purchase it. There are deficiencies in it — inaccuracies of statement,
as well as lax theological views. But for all that it is the best popular presenta-
tion of the subject and wUl well repay careful and constant reading. It will serve,
also, as an excellent introduction to the larger and more exhaustive works already
mentioned, and the student once fairly embarked upon this fascinating subject
will hardly be satisfied until he has studied the fuller treatise of Schiirer.
A glance at the table of contents will give one an idea of the scope of the
work. The material is classified in two books : I. Social Life, embracing the
geography of the Gospels, a brief history of the times, the Sanhedrim, population,
the home life, dwellings and clothing, public life, country life, literature and
science ; II. the ReUgious Life, covering an account of the Pharisees and Saddu-
cees, their doctrines and practices, the synagogue, the Sabbath, the Bible, fasts
etc., prayer, the temple, the feasts, the Essenes, Jesus, his life and teaching. A
wonderful amount of light is thrown upon the New Testament. References more
or less helpful are made to more than four hundred passages in the Gospels, so
that the book becomes a kind of commentary upon the whole Gospel narrative.
There can be no doubt that a careful study of such a book would result in a
clearer understanding of the New Testament. It would give the death-blow to
many of those allegorizing, "spiritual"' interpretations of the words of Jesus
which are the chiefest hindrance to real Bible knowledge. It would also be likely
to produce in the mind a truer knowledge of Jesus as a man among the people of
* Palestine in the Time of Christ. By Edmond Stapfer, D. D., Professor in the Protest-
ant Theological Faculty of Paris. Translated by Annie Harwood Holmden. New York: A. C.
Armstrong & Son. Pp. xii, 528.
150 The Old Testament Student.
his time and thus of our time. We need the human Jesus as well as the divine
Christ. The Gospels give us both, and we must not lose sight of the man in the God.
But the danger here is that this study will too highly exalt the human ele-
ment in Jesus and minimize the divine. Dr. .Stapfer has either unintentionally
made that impression, or else has purposely sought to create it, in the last chapter
of his volume. Perhaps it was unavoidable in the brief space at his command.
He indeed promises us a fuller treatment of Christ's life and teaching. The
reader of this book must note this aspect of it and make the necessary allowance and
correction. Evidently the author belongs to the liberal school of theologians and
treats the Gospel narratives with a freedom which will not commend itself to many.
All of Dr. Stapfer"s statements of fact are not to be relied upon, especially in
his references to the present condition of Palestine. It seems as though his infor-
mation on these points has been obtained from untrustworthy sources. There
is also some rhetorical exaggeration indulged in throughout the book, which,
while lending interest to its perusal, is liable to leave a false impression upon the
reader. Apart from these defects the work is one heartily to be commended. It
has an index fairly complete and a table of references to biblical passages quoted,
as well as an excellent bibliography. The type is large and clear ; the outward
appearance attractive, and the amount of information given within, marvelous.
HUMPHREY'S SACRED HISTORY.
A book, dealing with the field which is covered in this volume, must subject
itself to searching tests. Students liave a right to expect many things from one
who attempts a history of what is confessedly the most difficult period of biblical
history. The ideal historian of these times ought to be possessed of at least six
characteristics; 1) a passion for facts and a strict adherence to them, 2) skill in
exegesis and interpretation, 3) wide acquaintance with the new learning— archseo-
logical and critical, 4) a faculty of historical grouping, which can produce an
intelligible, reasonable, finished picture. 5) ability to see the universal bearings of
the particular, local, temporary, 6) a devout spirit. A formidable list of qualities,
surely, — yet without any one of them a writer on these subjects is inadequately
furnished. Dr. Humphrey's book is characterized by, 1) traditional exegesis, 2)
want of acquaintance with the new learning, or at least an ignoring of it, 3) a theo-
logical setting in which the facts appear, 4) the quality of dogmatic generalization
and inference, 5) a strict Calvinistic orthodoxy, 6) failure to unify the impressions
of the history, 7) a devout, earnest spirit. It is difficult to see how the volume is
anything more than an abbreviated summary of Kurtz's Old Covenant. The
editors, with the commendable partiality of filial regard, say that the book " will
bring a surprising number of fresh suggestions of kindling and enriching thought
to all careful students of the Bible and advanced readers of Sacred History ; " and
"that it will clear away the mists from the vision of many serious and candid
doubters." While the many defects which belong to the very idea and structure
of this work will forbid our acquiescence in this judgment, still it may be said that
it reveals the workings of the keen, spiritual, vigorous mind of a scholar, moving
along the old lines aud hampered by preconceptions of what his subject contains.
• Sacked History from the Creation to the Giving of the Law. By Edward P. Hum-
phrey, D. D.. LL. D., some time Professor in the Danville Theological Seminary. New York:
A. C. Armglrvng d- Son, 1888. Pp. .\111, 540.
CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL OF HEBREW.
Thirty-seven persons became members of
the Correspondence School during October.
They are as follows: Rev. J. W. D. Anderson,
Elk City, Kans.; Rev. S. W. Anderson, Nash-
ville, Tenn.; Mr. W. F. Bacher, Philadelphia,
Pa.; Rev. R. D. Bambrick, Sydney Mines, Cape
Breton, N. S.; Rev. W. F. Campbell, Patten,
Maine.; Mr. S. S. Conger. Summit. N. J.; Rev.
P. K. Dayfoot, Strathroy, Ont.; Mr. J. Q.
Dealey, Providence, R. I.; Miss C. P. Dwight,
Elmira, N. Y.; Mr. G. W. Ehler, Detroit, Mich.;
Mr. W. D. Fuller, Colorado Springs, Col.; Rev.
H. S. Gekeler, Upper Sandusky, O. ; Rev. M.
W. Gilbert, Nashville, Tenn.; Rev. A. P. Green-
leaf, Battle Creek, Mich.; Rev. N. J. Gullck,
East Albany, N. Y.; Rev. J. J. Hall, Berlin, Vt.;
Prof. G. W. Hayes, Petersburg, Va.; Rev. L.
Heinmiller, Geneva, N. Y.; Mr. W. M Junkin,
Christiansburgh, Va.; Rev. Wm. Karback,
New Orleans, La.; Rev. E. H. Koyl. Beams-
ville, Ont.; Rev. E. R. Leyburn, Port Gibson,
Miss.; Rev. G. F. Mainwaring, Paradise, N. S.
Rev. John McCalman, New Bedford, Mass.;
Rev. A. D. McHenry, Columbiana, O.; Rev. G.
B. Merritt, Fall River, Mass.; Rev. J. R. Moses,
Philadelphia, Pa.; Rev. E. A. Potts, Lynch-
burg, Va.; Rev. P. O. Powell, Middle Grove,
Mo.; Miss Cassie Quinlan, Stella, Neb.; Rev.
W. E. Renshaw, Richmond, Utah; Rev. G. S.
Rollins. Wilmington, N. C; Mr. W. O. Sayles,
New York City; Rev. L. A. Thirlkeld, Balti
more, Md.; Mr. J. M. C. Thompson, Princeton,
N. J. ; Mr. G. E. Young, Xenia, Ohio.
Many of those who have recently taken up
the Correspondence Work have been induced
to do so through the kind olfices of the friends
of the School. In September and October, a
letter was sent to the members of the School
and some others, requesting them to furnish
the names of those of their acquaintance who
would be likely to be interested in this work.
Many responded, and the result has been a
larger addition to our numbers than has oc-
curred in the same length of time for several
years. For this assistance the hearty thanks of
the principal and instructors are due, not only
to those who find in the published lists of new
students the names of persons whose names
they sent in, but also to those who as yet see
no result from their efforts to aid us. It may
not be out of place also to remind others that
it is not yet too late to send us lists of names.
Perfect examination papers were received
during October from Rev. E. H. Barnett, D.
D., Atlanta, Ga., three; Dr. E. S. Maxson, Syra-
cuse, N. Y., two; and Rev. G. A. Carstensen,
Erie, Pa.; Mr. John A. Ingham, Hackettstown,
N. J., and Rev. R. M. Kirby, Potsdam, N. Y.,
each one.
Courses were completed by Rev. E. H. Bar-
nett, Atlanta, Ga.; Rev. H. C. Ross, IngersoU,
Ont., and Rev. David Rohb, Leith, Scotland;
and all continue at once with the next course.
Mr. Robb says, "I think the lessons most ad-
mirable, only regret that I did not have them
twenty years ago."
The following students who discontinued
Correspondence study during the summer, re-
sumed sending papers in the course of the
month covered by this report: Rev. L. C. H.
Adams, Monroe, N. Y. ; Rev. W. P. Aylsworth,
Fairfield, Neb.; Rev. F. W. Bartlett, Williams-
town, Mass.; Rev. J. A. Bowler, Lancaster,
N. H.; Prof. G. W. Caviness, So. Lancaster,
Mass.; Miss E. S. Colton, Farmington, Conn.;
Rev. P. D. Cowan, Wellesley, Mass.; Rev. J. R.
de W. Cowie, Waterford, N. B. ; Rev. S. O.
Curtice, Port Chester, N. Y.; Rev. C. A. Evald,
Chicago, 111.; Rev. J. C. Flanders, Manchester
Centre, Vt.; Rev. A. J. Fristoe, Baltimore, Md.;
Rev. L. M. Gates, Georgetown, N. Y.; Rev. F.
B. Greul, Philadelphia, Pa.: Mrs. John How-
land, Guadalajara, Mexico; Eld. O. A. Johnson,
Helena, Mont.; Mrs. W. C. Mickey, Princeton,
N. J.; Mr. T. E. Moffat, New Wilmington, Pa.;
Rev. J. W. Preshy, Mystic, Conn.; Rev. J. H.
Ralston, Worcester, Mass.; Rev. A. R. Rich,
Grove City, Pa. ; Rev. H. H. Sangree, Curry-
town, N. Y.; Rev. W. H. Schwiering, Mt. Pleas-
ant, Iowa; Rev. W. A. Schruff, Chillicothe, O.;
Rev. A. L. Urban, Philadelphia, Pa.; Rev. T.
M. Westrup, Monterey, Mexico.
The November Student was issued so early
that it was impossible to publish in it the Octo-
ber reports. Hence the Correspondence School
page was omitted. It is intended, however,
that this department shall appear regularly
hereafter.
If the number of examination papers re-
ceived in the present month is any criterion,
the amount of work done in the Correspond-
ence School during the coming winter will be
greater than ever before.
The next number of the Student will con-
tain a list of all members of the School who
have sent in forty or more examination papers
during the year ending Nov. 30th. At the
head of this list will, of course, stand the names
of those who have sent the largest number
and who are hence entitled to the prizes of-
fered this year. Many have already signified
their intention to make a determined effort to
secure one of those offered for the year begin-
ning Dec. 1st.
CURKENT OLD TESTAMENT LITERATURE.
AHEBICAN AND FOBEIGN PCBUCATIONS.
The PeerUm Prophet; or. The Life and Times of
John the Baplisl. By Archibald MeCullagh,
D. D. New York: Randolph Jl.OO
Jeremiah : /il« life and times. By Rev. T. K.
Chey ne. D. D. London S.a.6
The Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testa-
ment. By E. Schrader. Vol.11 S.10.6
The Pulpit Commentary: It. Samuel. By Rev.
R. P. Smith. D. D. London S.15
The Bilile of our Lord and His Apostles. The
Septuapnt considered in relation to the Gos-
pel. By J. G. Carlcton. London S.2.8
The Exjvisitors' BiliU: II. Samuel. By W. G.
Blaikie, D. D. New York: A. C. Armstronfr
& Son ? 1 . .tO
Clirist in the Bible: I. Oenesit and Exodus. By
Rev. A. B. Simpson. NewYork: Word, Work
& World Pub. Co t3 00
Die Oft'nifarung. hetrachtet vom Standpunhte der
Weilnnschauung u. d. Gottesbegriffs der Kali-
bala. By F. Kolb. Leipzig: Fock M.6.
Biblicnl KKChatoligtj. By Alvah Hovey, I). D.
Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication
Society, 1888.
De Ihistiiire de la Vulgate en France, lecon d'ou-
verture faite a la Faculte de thiolooie protes-
tante de Paris, le 4 novembre 1888. By S.
Bergcr. Paris: libr. Fischbacher. 1888.
Handhuch der thetilogischen Wissenschaften, etc.,
hrsg. V. O. Zockler. 3 Aufl. 1 Bd. 1 Ahtlg-.
GrundUgung u. der Schriftlheologie. 1 Hiilfte.
Nordlingen, Beck, 1889 M.7.
Das Zf.italter des Propheten Joel. Inaug. Diss.
Bv G. Kessner. Leipzig: Druck v. Grimme
&'TrOmel, 1888.
Introduction to the Boohs of the Old and Neic
Testament. By O. S. Stearns, D. D. Boston:
Silver, Burdett &Co $1.00.
Studien zur Oeschichtc d. alien Aegupten. 111.
Ti/roau.Sidon. J. Krall. Wien, 18K8...M.l.:iO.
Die Psalmen. Uehersctzt u. ausgelcgt. By H.
Hupfeid. Fiir die 3. Aufl. bearb. v. W. No-
wack. 2. Bd. Gotha: F. A. Perthes, 1888.. ..
M.14.
Das Buch Ezechiel u. die, Vi kleinen Propheten,
ausgelegt. By C. v. Orelli. LKu^zgetasster
Kommentar zu den heil. Schriften A. u.
N. T's, A. T., 5 Abth.] Nordlingen, Beck,
1888 M.6..-)0
Ezechiel, Capitel 20 erlautert. By M. Friedmann.
(In hebr. Sprache.) Wien: (Lippe), 1888.
M.0.80.
Kennst du das Land 7 Bikler aus dem gelobten
Lande zur Erklarg. der heil. Schrift. By L.
Sehneller. Jerusalem; Buchbandlg. d. syr.
Wttisenhauees. 18S8 M 5.
La btlilia, la natura c la sciema. Vol. U. By
Alf. Travaglini. (Pcntateuco; Genesi), fasc.
1 e 2. Vasto : tip. edit. Istonia di C. Mascian-
gelo, 1888.
The Sabbatical Rest of God and Man : A Study
of Hel). 4:8.3. By Rev. John Hughes. M. A.
London: Nisbol S.7.6
The Ilnllouyina of Criticism: Nine Sermons on
Elijah, etc. By Rev. T. K. Cheyne, D. D.
London: Hodder & Stoughton S.5.
Inspirntinn and the Bible: An Enquiry. By
HolM'rt F. Horton. London.
Bildische Real- u. Verbal Ilandhotihiirdanz.
Neue, sitrgfaeltig rev. Ausg. Bv G. Biichner. 1
Lfg. Basel: Riehm, 1888 M.0.50.
ABTICLES AXD BETIEWS.
Die Anhitnge des RiclUerbuches. By K. Budde
in Ztschr. f. d. alttest. WIsscnscb. VIIL 2.
1888.
Sauls Knnigswahlu. Verwerfung. By K. Budde.
Ibid.
Exegelische u. Kritische Bemerkungen. 1 Sam.
20::W :58: 21:4-6: 1 Sam. 2y;t). By J. Ley. Ibid.
Die lieden des Buches Jeremia gegen die HHden
25,46-51. By F. Schwalley. Ibid.
Xoch cinmal n. 45:7. By J. C. Matthes. Ibid.
Uebcr d(« Wichtigkt.it (Ur Samaritan ischen Litter-
atur fUr die semitische Sprachwissenscliaft,
Eregese u. Dogmeugtgchichle, mil besundcrer
RUclssicht auf die Schriften SlarkahK. By M.
Heidenheim. [Handscfir. Nr. .'>22 der kouigL
Hibliothek zu Berlin] in Verhandlunt-'en der
31). Vers, deutschcr Philol. u. Schulmanner
In Ziirich, 1888.
The Interpretation of the Book of Job. By Prof.
J. F. Genung in Andover Review, Nov., '88.
The "i" of the Psalter. In the Independent,
Nov. 8, '88.
Keil's Archcenlogy (Kev.). Ibid.
Humvhrcy'g Sacred Histo)-y{Hev.). Ibid., Nov. 1.
[Ixl Kailiitii bei A/fnWi:(l Jerusalem (xler Oazaf
EinearchaologischbililischeStudie. By Wan-
del in Schulblt. f. d. Prov. Branden'nerg, '88.
Das Verwandschaftswurt D>' . By M. Krenkel in
Ztschr. f. d. alttest. Wissensch. VIII. 2 ("88),
pp. 280-284.
Die Wortstellung im hehraelschen Nominalsalze.
By C. Albrecht. Ibid.
Beilrafge zur hehraeisehen Wort. u. Namener-
klaerung. 2. i^l/j sodaUs. By J. Grill. Ibid.
Die Tafelinschrift Hab. 2. By C. Bredenkamp in
in Theoi. Stud u. Krit., '89.
The Palace of Artajcerxes-Mnemon and the Book
of Eflher. By Prof. .MorrisJastrow, Jr.,Ph.D.,
in Sunday School Times. Nov. 17. '88.
Teachings of the Qabbnln i Kev. I. Ibid.
Oricii(n( Modes of Covenanting. By Dr. Cunning-
ham Geikie. Ibid., Nov. 10.
Diida Book of Genesis. By C. L. Diven in the
New Englander, Oct., '88.
Jeuish Gineiibtgi-s. By J. B. Scouller, D. D., In
Evangelical Repository, Oct., *88.
The Two Isaiahs; the real and the imaginary. By
Principal Geo. C. M. Douglas, D. D., in the
Presbyterian Review, Oct.. '88.
ncriiud.— 1. Forbes' "Studies on the Book of
P.snlms" (Briggs); 2. Bredenknnip's "Isaiah"
(F.Brown); Driver's "Isaiah" (Briggsi; Stap-
fer's "Palestine" (C. W. Hodge). Ibid.
The Studii of the Hrhrew Language in College.
By Prof. C. E. Crandall, A.M., in the Sabbath
Recorder. Nov. 8, '8.8.
Studict in Practical Exegesis, Psalm XXXII. By
Prof. T. K. Cheyne, D. D., in the Expositor,
Nov., '88.
Kitlr.U's Oeschiclitc der Behraeer. By Horst in
Thcol. Ltztg., Nov. 3. '88.
Wrcschncr's Samaritanische Traditionen. By
Sic^rfricd. Ibid.
SdMCi:' s licUgionof the AncientBabuloniansi'Kev.)
By .lohn PhelpsTaylor in And. Kev., Nov.. '88.
The Rfj^urrcctiftn in the Pentateuch. By Howard
Ossgood, D. D., in the Baptist Quarterly Rev.,
Oct.. '88.
La critiiiue et la foi [Cetle etude est la preface
d'un ouvragc sur Lcs Sources du Pentatcuque'].
By A. Wcstphal in Revue chrelienne, 1888, 10.
OF
STUDY XIII.— JOURNEYS ON THE BORDERS. MARK 7:24-8:9.
BeBDme of Studies IX.-XII. 1. The new methods of teaching and working employed by Jeeua In
this period. 3. The growth both of favor and of opposition toward him. 3. Tbe events
that brought about a crisis in his worls. 4. The nature of this crisis, its importance and
outcome.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Read carefully Mark 7:24-8:9 and be able to make a definite statement concerning
each of the following points :
1. A secret journey (v. 24) ;
2. a woman's persistent prayer (vs.
25-28);
3. its result (vs. 29,30) ;
4. the return (v. 31);
5. a wondrous miracle (vs. 32-37) ;
6. a multitude fed (8:1-9).
n. The material Compared.
1. With Marls 7:24-8:9 cf. Matt. 1.5:21-39a.
2. Note additional details; (a) events preceding Mk.
meuts, Mt. 15:30,31.
35 in Mt. 15:22-24; (b) general state-
Hi. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL, TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
I) v.
24, (a) Thence; an immediate depart-
ure; why ?
(b) liitii the borders; (1) of. v. 31;
Mt. 15:21 as to whether he ae|,ually
entered these foreign lands; (2)
how many times did Jesus pass
beyond the borders of Palestine?
(c) Tyre and Sidon; (1) location;
(2) relation to Israel, cf. 2 Sam. 5:
11; Joel 3:4-8; Ezek. 26:2; 27:17;
(3) to Jesus, Mk. 3:8; Mt. 11:21,22.
(d) iVo man hnow; what then was
the reason for his coming hither;
(1) ministry ? (2) rest ? (3) to escape
attack?
2) v. 26. (a) E.\plain the words describing
the woman's nationality.
(b) Besought; (a) the language she
spoke? (b) the language Jesus
used in reply ?
3) V. 27. (a) Note the figurative form of
Jesus' reply.
(b) Oiildren; refers to whom ? Cf.
Mt. 8:12.
(c) Dogs; how regarded by Jews?
Cf. 2 Kgs. 8:13: 1 Sam. 24:14; Job
30:1: Mt. 7:6; Deut. 23:18.
(d) What may be said as to the
reply of Jesus; (1) its harshness
of form; whether expressing his
real feelings, or (2) an innerspirit
of kindness hidden in order to
test the woman, or (3) his sense
of the limitation of his mission
164 The Old Testament Studekt.
and her consequent exclusion 8> Cb. 8:1. Again a grtal muUUude; conelder
from its benefits. whether (a) Jesus bad recovered
i) V. 28. Lord; cf. Mt. 15:22. Her knowl- his popularity, cf. John 6:06 or (b)
edge of Jesus and how she ob- these were persons formerly un-
taincd it ? acquainted with him.
5) T. 81. (a) Trace the course of Jesus; (b) 9) V. 2. (a) Note the motive of the mira-
why take this circuit? cle; (b) was it also intended as a
6) T«. 8£-8;. (a) Related in Mk. only; (b) note slg-n?
all the peculiar features of this lUj Vs. 2-9. la) Cf. Mk. 6:34-H; (b) note re-
healing work, vs. 33,34; (c) con- semblances and differences; (c)
sider their meaning, whether (1) decide in view of all the facts (cf.
means of cure; (2> as symbols Mk. S:l»,20j whether these are two
and (3) to awaken the man's faith. accounts of the same event.
7) V. 84. Ephphatha; cf. Mk. 3:17: 5:41.
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
JesnB and the Gentiles, (a) Study the words of Jesus in Mk. 7:27 and Mt. 15:
26 in their bearing upon his attitude toward others than Jews ; (b) cf. sim-
ilar teacliings Mt. 10:5,6 ; (c) inquire into the wisdom of this attitude in
view of (1) Jewish aversion to Gentiles; (2) the fulfillment of O. T. Proph-
ecy; (3) the preparation of the disciples; (4) the foundation of the King-
dom ; (d) cf. Mt. 8:5-12 as revealing another attitude and compare it with
John 10:16; Acts 1:8, etc., to see the final purpose of Jesus in relation to
Gentiles ; (e) note Eph. 2:11-22 for Paul's idea of the relation of this whole
question to the death of Jesus; (f) sum up conclusions under (1) his tem-
poral mission ; (2) his ultimate purpose.
IT. The Material Organized.
1. Gather the material and classify it under the following heads : 1) persons; 2)
places; 3) miracles; 4) important teachings; 5) Jesus as man; 6) literary
data; 7) important events.
2. Ck>ndense the material into the briefest possible statement under the general
topic of A FRONTIER MINISTRY.
V. The Material Applied.
The Discipline of Defeat. 1. Note two examples of defeat — Jesus rejected
by many and in retirement ; the woman repulsed by him. 2. Observe the
attitude of each in these circumstances— Jesus faithful to his work yet
compassionate; the woman, earnest, trustful, persistent. 3. From these
examples draw some conclusions as to the temptations that assaU one
enduring the discipline of defeat. 4. The spirit in which one should
endure it. 5. The relation of this discipline to the development of character.
STUDY XIV.— THE WELCOME CONFESSION AND THE UNWELCOME
TEACHING. MAKE 8:10-9:1.
Besnme. 1. Jesus' retreat to the border-land— occasion for It and course of it. 2. The character
of Jesus as eihibited on these journeys.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead carefully Mark 8:10-9:1 and be able to make a definite statement concerning
each of the following points :
New Testament Supplement.
165
1. Across the sea (v. 10);
2. Jesus' encounter with Pharisees
and departure (vs. 11-13);
3. his admonition concerning them
(vs. 14^-20);
4. miracle at Bethsaida (vs. 22-26) ;
5. on the way to northern Galilee
(V. 27);
6. the welcome confession (vs. 28-
30);
7. the unwelcome teaching (vs. 31-
33);
8. the true disciple described (vs.
34-9:1) ;
n. The Material Compared.
With Mk. 8:10-21 cf. Mt. 15:39b-16:12. Note 1) another name, ]5:39b; 2) other inquirers, 16:1;
3) a comparison, 16:3.3; 4) explanations, 16:11,13.
With Mk. S:37-9:lof. Jit. 16:13-28; Lk. 9:18-27. Note 1) attitude of Jesus, Lk. 9:18; 3) another
view of Jesus, Jit. 16:14; 3) Peter's confession, Mt. 16:16; Lk. 9:20; 4) reply of Jesus, Jit.
16:17-19; 5) rebuke of Peter, Mt. 16:22; 6) words of Jesus, Mt. 16:23.27; Lk. 9:23,25,26.
What reason can be given for the omission in Mark of the promise to Peter recorded In Mt.
16:17-19!
ni. The Material Explained.
1. textual TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
1) V. 11. (a) Quxstion with htm; (1) i. e.
"enter into controversy;" (3)
what seems to be their attitude ?
(b) Sign from heaven; (1) con-
trasted with signs on earth; (3)
on the ground that he claimed
to be the Cbrist; (3) cf. Joel 3:30,
31 for their reason; (4) cf. John
2:18; 6:30: Mt. 13:38 for similar
occasions; (5) why did Jesus fail
to gratify them; because they
were insincere, or incapable of
understanding him ?
(c) Tempting; (1) were they con-
sciously tempting him ? or (3)
was it a temptation to him all
unknown to them ? fS) in what
respect was it a temptation to
him? cf. Mt. 4:3-9.
2) T. 12. No sign; cf. Mt. 12:39,40; John 3:
19; 3:2 and explain.
3) V. 15. Leaven, etc.; (a) i. e. the spirit
and influence of these parties;
(b) state in a general way what
this was.
4) V. 16. Reatoned; 1. e. "were convers-
ing:" (a) apart from what Jesus
was saying, or (b) as suggested
by his words.
5) V. 17. Compare the insight of Jesus
with that of the twelve.
B) Vs. 22-26. Note (a) this is related in Mark
only; (b) it has special features:
(1) done apart; (2) use of means;
(3) gradual cure; (4) the man
sent home; (c) seek to explain
the meaning of these special
features; (d) cf. Mk. 7:.32-36.
7) v. 27. (a) Trace the course taken by
Jesus; (b) describe the region
and characterize its inhabitants;
(c) reason for this journey ?
8) V. 28. The reason why Jesusasked this
question, whether (a) from curi-
osity, or (b) to test the disciples,
or (c) what other motives ?
9) V. 30. Of him; (a) that he was the
Christ; (b) reason for the charge
whether (1) because of their
crude ideas of him, or (2) for fear
of his enemies, or (3) to avoid
the popular enthusiasm, or (4)
other reasons ?
10) V. 32. Openly; i. e. definitely; cf. Mk.
3:20; John 3:14; Mt. 13:40 for less
plain words.
11) V. 33. (a) Seeing his disciples ; (l)inMk.
only; (3) significance of it here?
(b) Satan; (1) of. Mk. 1:13; (2)
was this appropriate to Peter,
because of the spirit of his
words or in what they suggested
to Jesus?
13) Vs. 35-38. Note the four sentences intro-
duced by "for" as reasons for
V. 34b.
13) V. 34. (a) Deny himself; does this mean
(1) to refuse to grant his own
desires, or (3) to renounce him-
self ?
(b) His cross; (1) the custom al-
luded to; (3) the principle illus-
trated; (3) was any hint intended
of the way in which Jesus would
die?
14) V. 35. Life; (a) note the two senses In
which the word is used; (b) ap-
ply them to vs. 3.5-37.
1.5) T. 89. (a) Adulterous ; in what sense ?
Cf. Hos.3:l.
166 Tub Old Testament Student.
(b) When he enmelh; observe (1) 16) 9:1. The KInodnm nf God cnme; de-
the person to whom Jesus re- clde as tola) the event Indicated,
fers; (2| what event he indicates; whether (1) the transtlKuratlon;
(3) bonr the statement illustrates (2) pentccost; Acts 2:2-4; (3) the
hl8 insight. destruction of Jerusalem; (b)
the persons referred to.
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
Estimates of Jesns. Mk. 8:28,29. (a) Note these views about Jesus held by
the people, and in tlie ease of each sliow why it was applicable to him ; (b)
observe that tliey do not regard him as the Christ, and decide between two
explanations for this fact; (1) there had not been sufficiently clear evidence
given them ; (2) they had once so regarded him but now cease to do so; (c)
in favor of the first explanation, (1) the ambiguous title "Son of man ;" (2)
the prohibitions, cf. Mk. 3:11,12, etc.; (3) his lowly life and peculiar
methods; (4) other reasons, cf. Mt. 11:2.3; Mk. 6:14-16; (d) in favor of the
second explanation ; (1) his miracles ; (2) his words; (3) his personality and
■witness to himself, Mt. 11:4-6,14; (4) testimony of John Mk. 1:7; John 1:
36; (5) of demons, Mk. 1:24; 3:11; 5:6,7; (6) of the people, Mt. 12:23;
14:33; 9:27; 15:22; (7) his attitude (after the events of Mk. 6:34-44; John
6:15) as explaining their change of view (cf. also John 6:52-70) ; (e) signifi-
cance of the confession of Peter in either case ; (f ) which estimate of him
satisfied Jesus himself V
rV. The Material Organized.
1. Classify the material under the following heads: 1) places; 2) important teachings; 3) impor-
tant events; 4) miracles; 51 Jesus us nuirc than man; 6) lilerary data.
Z. Condcime Mk. 8:10-20 into the brii fest possitile statement.
3. Observe the following statement of the essential ideas of Mk. 8:27-9:1, and verify it by work-
ing through the processes:
Jesus flnds Ihnt the IhpIvo, if not otliprs. aiknowliilire him to he the Christ. He tells them
thnt he is to sufTiT death at the hniiils of llie Jenish rulers, and that his true followers must hare
a similar experieiiee to i;ain true Die. If niiy refuse to honor hlra as he is now, be will reject
them when he comes in glory, as some present shall see him before they die.
V. The Material Applied.
The Demand for Evidence. Mk.S:ll. 1. The rightfulness and obligation of
demanding evidence for the claims of Jesus. 2. The constant craving for
more evidence — a characteristic of that age and of the present day. 3.
The stronger demonstration of the truth which has, in the end, always
resulted from the search for more evidence. 4. This constant craving, a
symptom of spiritual disease: (;i) unbelief ; (b) unconscious hypocrisy. 5.
The cure for this disease: (a) candid study of evidence presented; (b)
willingness to act so far as the evidence is satisfactory.
STUDY XV.— THE TRANSFIGURATION OF JESUS. MARK 9:2-29.
Besume. 1. Trace the course of Jesus through the events of the previous "study." 2. The im-
portance of the confession made by Peter, both as a result and a preparation. 3. The
new teaching of Jesus concerning himself and bis disciples. 4. State some reasons for
Clirlstian self-denial.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead carefully Mk. 9:2-29 and be able to make a definite statement concerning
each of the following points:
New Testament Supplement.
157
1. Jesus and three disciples upon a
mountain (v. 2) ;
2. is transfigured (v. 3) ;
3. attendant scenes and experiences
(vs. 4-8); [9-13);
4. the following conversation {vs.
5. the other disciples and the de-
moniac boy {vs. 14-19) :
6. Jesus and the father (vs. 20-24) ;
7. the boy restored (25-27) ;
8. the secret of power (vs. 28-29).
II. The Material Compared.
With Mk. 9:3-8 cf. Mt. 17:1-8; Lk. 9:28-3G. 1) Note additions concerning (a) attitude and
appearance of Jesus; (b) his conversation (Lk. 9:311; (c) feelings and actions of disciples;
2) observe and explain the variation in time, Lk. 9:28.
With Mk. 9:9-13, cf. Mt. 17:9-1S. Note a characteristic addition, Mt. 17:1S (cf. Mt. 16:12).
With Mk. 9:14-29 cf. Mt. 17:14-20; Lk. 9:37-43a. 1) Make a list of all the varying expressions
used to describe the condition of the boy; 2) notice further additions, (a) the time Lk. 9:
87; (b) the feeling of the multitude, Lk. 9:48; (c) a reason for failure, Jit. 17:20.
in. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
1) V.
5) v.
(a) Mountain; (1) the two chief sites
assigned; (2) the argumentsforeach.
(b) Transfigured; lit. "transformed;"
a change (1) in his face, cf. Lk. 9:29;
(2) in his garments.
2) T. 8. Fuller; (a) cf. Mai. 3:2; (b) learn
something more about this occupa-
tion.
3) v. 6. Rahhi; (a) what language? (b) mean-
ing of the word?
4) V. 6. For, etc.; (a) is this an excuse for
Peter's remark ? (b) if so, why should
it require excuse ?
A cloud; (a) cf. Mt. 17:5 for its char-
acter; (b) cf. Exod. 14:19; 19:16; 1
Kgs. 8:10,11 for its significance.
6) V. 10. The ground of their questioning,
whether (a) the resurrection as a
general fact ; (b) the resurrection of
Jesus in particular, or, (c) its close
relation to his death.
7) v. 11. Elijah must come; (a) cf. Mai. 4:5; fb)
trace the relation of these words to
what has gone before.
8) T. 12. (a) Eestoreth; cf. Mai. 4:6.
(b) Bow is it written 1 (1) a return to
the subject of vs. 9,10; (2) implying
that such prophecy was to be ful-
filled as well as that concerning Eli-
jah; and (3) that the Son of man
comes in order to suffer.
9) v. 13. (a) Is then the prophecy in Mai. 4:5,6
entirely fulfilled, or (b) may Elijah
himself still be expected ?
(b) Written of him; i. e. (1) of Elijah,
cf. 1 Kgs. 19:2; 2 Eg-s. 1 :9; (2) of the
Christ, 1. e. the prophecy of his per-
secutions betokens a like experience
for his forerunner; (3) of the coming
and not the persecution of Elijah.
10) v. 15. Amazed; whether (a) at the glory of
of his face, or (b) that he came so
opportunely.
11) v. 17. Dumb spirit; (a) note the symptoms
of what disease? (b) how could this
be regarded as due to the presence
of a demon ?
12) V. 23. // thou canst; (1) Jesus quotes the
man's words; ('2) how has the man
misplaced the dilEculty ?
13) V. 28. Did the disciples expect to have this
ability? Cf. Mk. 6:7.
14) T. 29. This kind; of demon; (a) recognized
as peculiarly obstinate and mali-
cious; (b) a special preparation re-
quired for overcoming him; (c) was
this necessary for Jesus also ?
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
Tlie Problems of the Transflguration. (a) The character of the event whether
mythical (cf . Exod. 34:29,30) or historical ; (b) if historical was it an objec-
tive external event or a vision granted to the three disciples ; (c) if the
former, explain the following objections : (1) Moses could not be present in
the body ; (2) the humanity of Jesus would be unreal ; (3) the disciples
would not recognize Moses and Elijah ; (4) no other dealings with departed
spirits in Jesus' life ; (d) objections to the vision-theory : (1) the language
nowhere suggests it ; (2) Lk. 9:32 ; (3) the event would fail to mean any-
168 The Old Testasient Student.
thing to Jesus ; (e) the relations of the event (1) to what precedes (Mk. 8:39 ;
9:1); (2) to what follows (2 Pet. 1:16-18) ; (f ) the significance to Jesus and to
the disciples, (1) of the transformation of Jesus; (2) of the coming and
conversation of Moses and Elijah; (3) of the voice; (g) the light thrown
(l)upon the character aud nature of Jesus (2 Pet. 1:16-18); (2) upon his
relations to the Old Testament life ; (3) upon the future life and relations
of believers.
lY. The Material Organized.
1. Gather the material and classify It under the following heads: 1) important events: 2) impor-
tant teachings: 3) Jesus aud the O.T.; 4) miracles; 5) historical allusions: 6) literary data;
7) chronologicul data.
2. Note the ftilkivHiiu (unaenealUin of Mk. 9:9-l;t, and in a similar way work out vs. 2-8; 14-29,
gatheriiiK the whole under the general topic of Contrastii in the Ilfo of Jesus.
Obedient (o his command, the ciixciphs tell no one about that event, though they quegtion about
hig remi)Tcctiim. Ihey auk ahout Elijah's coming and are told that Elijah has come, atid
a» tlie Christ must suffer, so he lias suffered.
T. The Material Applied.
Intercession. Mk. 9:22-25. l. Consider the relation of the father's faith and
prayer to the boy's restoration. 2. Xote similar examples in the Script-
ures: Mk. 7:29; 5:36; 2:5; Gen. 18:23-32; 17:18-20; Exod. 32:11-14,30-
34 ; Job 42:10. 3. From these and similar examples make a statement of
the biblical principle of what may be called intercessory prayer or vicarious
faith. 4. Note its limitations. Gal. 6:5. 5. Observe the highest illustra-
tion of the principle, lleb. 7:25; 1 Cor. 15:3; 1 John 2:1 ; 1 Pet. 2:24. 6.
Apply this principle to personal and social life; 1) the duty of interces-
sion : 2) its reflex influence.
STUDY XVI.— THE TRAINING OF THE TWELVE. MARK 9:30-50.
BesDme. 1. Describe vividly the transfiguration of Jesus and its related events. 2. State some-
thing of its appropriateness at this period and its significance for Jesus and for the dis-
ciples. 3. What illustration of "vicarious faith" in the previous "study" and what
may be said of the biblical teaching concerning it ?
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead carefully Mark 9:30-50 and be able to make a definite statement concerning
each of the following points :
1. A secret journey (v. 30); 5. a disciple's intolerance (v. 38) ;
2. the strange teaching again (vs. 6. Jesus' estimate of service (vs. 39-
31,32); 41);
3. Jesus' inquiry and its reception 7. a great offence and its issue (vs.
(vs. 33,34); [35-37); 42-19);
4. he sets forth true greatness (vs. 8. saving salt (v. 50).
II. The Material Compared.
1. With Mk. 9:30-50 of. Mt. 17:22 -ilH; 18:1-0; Lk. 9:4»li iO. 1. Note the characteristic descrip-
tions of mental states and aclivltics in l,k. 9:4:tb,45,47.49: cf. I.k. 8:15; fi:ll: 1(1:14; 2S!
12; 2) collect and arraiitre in an orderly narrative the events given in Mk. 9:33-35 and par-
allels: 3) observe what is narrated in Mk. only, e. g. vs. 30,33-35,39,41,4iS-50.
New Testament Stipplement.
169
ni. The Material Explained.
1. textual topics anb questions.
1) V. 30. Paused tfirough; i.e. -'made jour-
neys through" without stopping
as formerly.
2) T. 31. (a) For, etc.; the reason for the
secret journeys— he has new and
important teaching for the disci-
ples only.
(b) Taught; lit. "kept teaching;"
so, "would say;" showing that
this was his chief work.
3) V. 37. In my name; (a) lit. "upon my
name," i. e. upon the ground of
all that the name means; (b)
what name is meant (cf. v. 41) ?
4) V. 38. Casting out lieviU; (a) cf. Mt. 12:
27: (b) what was the attitude of
such an one toward Jesus ?
5) Vs. 43-47. (a) cf. Mt. 5:29; (b) is this to be
literally obeyed? (c) draw out its
figurative meaning as related to
8:34-36; (d) show its relation to
vs. 38-42.
6) V. 48. Life; (a) note the corresponding
phrase in v. 47; (b) to what this
refers, (1) the future state only;
(2) the character revealed and
the principles taught by Jesus;
cf. John 3:5; 17:3.
7) V. 48. (a) Cf. Isa. 06:24; (b) its meaning
there; (c) its teaching here.
8) V. 50. (a) The uses of salt* in oriental
countries and its symbolic mean-
ing in the Scriptures; cf. Job 6:
6; Lk. 14:35; Lev. 2:13; Num.18:
19; 2 Kgs. 2:30,21; Mt. 5:13; (b)
the difficulties here (1) as to what
evenjone refers, whether "all
men" or "sinners;" (2) the
meaning of salted, whether "pre-
served" or "purified;" (3) the
reference of fire whether to the
"testing" or the "penal" deal-
ings of God
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
Hell.t V. 43. (a) Note the marginal reading in the E. V. and study the use of
" Gehenna " in the light of 2 Chron. 28:3 ; 33:6 ; 2 Kgs. 23:10 as related to
the place of final punishment ; (b) the terms " life " and " kingdom of God,"
standing opposed to "hell" (vs. 43,47) as throwing light by contrast npou
its meaning; (c) observe other words used parallel with it, as e. g. Job 11:
8; Ps. 86:13; Lk. 16:23; Mt. 11:23, and distinguish them from " Gehenna;"
(d) compare other passages, as e. g. Mt. 2-5:41 ; 13:50 ; 16:23,24 ; Rev. 21:8 ;
(e) investigate the influence of Jewish conceptions of " hell " upon New
Testament language; (f) show the bearing of all this material upon the
place and manner of final retribution. '
rv. The Material Organized.
1. Gather the material and classify it under the following heads: 1) persons; 2) important
teachings; 3) O. T. quotations; 4) habits and customs.
2. Note the following condensation of the material :
g 1. v. 30. They pass through Galilee. Jesus would not have it known.
V. 31. For he teaches them that he will he slain and will rise again.
V. 32. They do not understand and fear to ask him.
In secret journeys the disciples are taught abuuthis cuming death and resurrection, but
tliey comprehend not and fear to ask.
; 2. V. 33. In Capernaum he asks them " What are you discussing ?"
V. 34. They are silent, for they were discussing who was greatest.
V. 35. He teaches them that to be first is to be last.
V. 36. He takes a little child in his arms before them all, saying:
T. 37. " Receiving one such child in my name, you receive me and him that sent me."
* Cf. Bible Dictionary, art. " Salt."
t Cf. Smith's Bible Dictionary, articles on Hell, Gehenna, etc., and for the Jewish view,
The Old Testame.nt Student, Sept., 1888, an article by Prof. George B. Stevens, D. D., The
Esehatulogy of the Talmud.
160 The Old Testament Student.
He Uaehu the disetplet, unwOltng to IM him of their dlxexutlon at to who vxu areatett,
thai to beflnt i» to be loef, "for." said he, tahing a child in hit armt, " to receive in my
name fuch as this child is to receive me and him that sent me."
It 2, 3. He keeps teacbino the discipi-es about his comino death ako kesurreo
TiON. They discdss who is okkatest, and he savs that to be lowly
ENOUGH TO RECEIVE IN HIS NAME SUCH AS ARE LIKE THE CHILD HE TAKES IW
HIS ARMS, IS TO BE OREAT, " FOR THIS IS TO RECEIVE ME AND HIM THAT SENT ME."
! 3. V. :!8. John says, We forbade a man casting out demons In thy name, for he followed
not us.
V. 39. Jesus says. Forbid him not, for while so doing he will not soon speak evil of us.
V. 40. " He that is not our enemy is our friend."
V. 41. " Whoever shall give you a cup of water for my sake is rewarded."
John tells of having forbidden one u-ho by himself teas casting out demons in Jems'
name. Jesus saus. Forbid him not, for while so doing he is our friend, and the least help
given for my take is rewarded.
V. 42. " Whoever leads a weak believer in me to fall, would better be drowned."
vs. 43,45. "If your hand or foot leads you to fall, cut It off rather than lose life thereby."
V. 47. " If your eye leads you to fall, cast It out rather than lose the kingdom of God
thereby and find hell;
V. 48. " Where sin and anguish are unending.
V. 49. "For everyone shall be salted with lire.
V. 60. "Have good salt and be at peace."
Do not lead believers in Jesut to fall, and, at any cost, keep yourself from falling ; for U
means to lose life and gain unending anguish. Be ye therefore pure and peaceable.
vs. 38-50. John IS TOLD not to forbid one who by himself is casting out demons ih
Jesus' name. For he is a friend, and his work is to be rewarded. Do
not lead others to fall <iR let yourself fall away from Jesus on any
account, for it means to lose life and incur UNENOINO 61N AND ANOmSB.
Be pure and peaceable.
66 1, 2, 3. The dUriples are taught, 1 ) that JeKUH mnst ho killod and irill ri^e atsnin ; 2) that trne
greatiiesK is to hare a child-like spirit ; 8) that to be (loin? anytliinir fur Jesus U blestted ;
4) that to lit faith in JesDS be lost is to lose life and And hell ; a) that purity and peace are
to be sought.
V. The Material Applied.
Christian Tolerance. Mk. 9:38-42. 1. Observe tlie incident related and
note 1) a man having faitli (possibly weak and imperfect) in Jesus; 2)
engaged in a separate and unauthorized work similar to his. 2. Consider
the reasons given for tolerance; 1) the spirit in which his work was
done; 2) the character of the work itself {vs. 39,41) ; 3) the relation of the
worker to ,Jesus (v. 40) ; 4) injury resulting to him if forbidden (v. 42) ; 5)
reflex influence of forbidding him (v. 42; cf. Mt. 18:7). 3. Compare Mt.
12:30, and seek to frame a statement which will include both cases. 4.
Apply the principles obtained to present religious life in their bearing
upon 1) relations of sects and churches; 2) dealing with doubting and
wavering disciples, etc.
^W^^ 'I'OLD -I-TES^l^^IlQEp-:- STUDEp.-^
Vol. VIII. JANUARY, 18S9. No. 5.
Points of view are often determining factors in historical inter-
pretation. This fact should always be remembered in connection
with the study of the Old Testament. What then are the points of
view to be taken ? Are we to criticise and investigate the narratives
concerning Israel simply from the point of view of their likeness to
the traditions of other peoples ? This resemblance, indeed, cannot be
ignored ; for to do that would be both superficial and unscientific.
Does it not seem necessary that biblical history be analyzed and dis-
sected in the same critical way in which all other history is treated .''
But there is also another point of view which must not be overlooked.
That is the one derived from the culmination of Israel's history in
Jesus Christ and his church ; and, above all, from the historic fact of
the resurrection of the Christ. The Old Testament records of divine
manifestations cannot be properly and scientifically investigated
except from the point of view of the resurrection of the Christ.
It is interesting to look back upon the thoughts and labors of
those who have contributed to the elevation of biblical studies in
the church and to the present high standard of attainment which
is maintained with few exceptions in our country. Among such
scholars and teachers was Prof Bela B. Edwards, whose too brief
career, cut off in its prime, gave promise of large service to the cause
of Old Testament study. In his inaugural address as professor of'
Hebrew at Andover in 1838, he elaborated some reasons for the study
of Hebrew, which may well be considered to-day. They are as follows :
1) An argument for the study of Hebrew may be derived from the fact that
great emiueuce in the pursuit, on the part of a few individuals, cannot be expected
in the absence of a general cultivation of tlie language.
2) We will be better prepared to take all proper advantage of the immense
stores of erudition on the general subject which have been collected in Germany.
*2
162 The Old Testament Stitdbnt.
3) It strengthens the faith of the student in the genuineness and divine
authority of tlie Scriptures.
4) It influences the imagination and the taste.
5) It has an important bearing upon the missionary enterprise in the training
of translators.
6) It tlirows light on the systems of Christian theology.
7) It counteracts the present increasing tendency in some portions of the
church to undervalue the Old Testament and to degrade it from any couuection
with the New.
Exception is not infrequently taken to works on the Bible that
lay emphasis upon the part of man in its production. The charge
against such a representation seems to be that it designedly minim-
izes the divine element in the Scriptures. Is this objection valid .'
Will it not be granted that there is almost insuperable difificulty in
drawing the exact line between the divine and the human elements
in the Bible, just as is the case in analyzing the person of Christ.'
It would at least seem to be fair to assume that, as far as the Bible
can be reasonably explained as the product of man's genius, this
explanation must be allowed. Regarding all such elements as the
product of the human mind, the determination of the divine element
is simplified. It is found in the residuum which cannot be attributed
to man. We confidently affirm that there is such a residuum which
stamps the Scripture as an authoritative rule of faith and practice.
No doubt the part of man in producing the Bible may be and is some-
times over-estimated. On the other hand, one may err in magnifying
the divine element. It is a question whether certain schools of theo-
locfical thought have not done this. If the former extreme is danger-
ous, may not this latter error tend to hinder a clear understanding of
Scripture and to prevent it from having its true and rightful position
of influence in the world ?
The study of ancient religions is not only a fascinating work.
It is full of instruction by way of resemblance and contrast with the
religion of Judaism. While in Israel men confidently expected
deliverance, in the other nations they were driven by failure and de-
spair to desire ardently the same blessing and to seek for it. What
God revealed in a unique and positive manner to his ancient chosen
people, was, it might almost be said, forced out of less favored races
by the anguish of their hopelessness. Those truths which were writ-
ten in li"ht for the one, were by the others dimly discerned in dark-
ness through their experiences of want. In the midst of such diversity,
Editoeial. 163
how remarkably similar are the ultimate issues in all these early civil-
izations. Redemption is the key-note, the far-off harmony, to which
all respond. Preparation, in the one case through progress, but
through relapse and decline in the other — still preparation, all the
while, for the consummation of this redemption, is the underlying
principle which rules the course of events. Thus all this ancient life,
whether in Israel or in Assyria and Egypt, becomes instinct with
divine forces and full of divine significance. .
Books upon biblical topics occupy no insignificant place in the
mass of literature which presents itself for examination before Chris-
tian ministers and students. That this is so is an encouraging fact.
But it is practically very important to inquire also as to the charac-
teristics and methods which such books reveal. Are we improving
upon our forefathers.' They produced a massive, stalwart biblical lit-
erature, which demanded study and meditation. A vigorous effort
was indispensable for the mastery of the works they furnished for their
day. We live, on the contrary, in the era of clearness, simplicity and
brevity. Commentaries are compact and concise. Sermons are pithy.
The primer is the favorite form of publication.
In relation to the Bible a gratifying progress has also been made
in methods. Not only do exegetical works find a ready sale ; they
are themselves more scientific and systematic. Attention is also being
paid to the separate books of Scripture ; their contents are expounded
and their teachings formulated. Bible characters are studied in the
light of their times. A flood of radiance is poured upon the histories,
prophecies and epistles from the habits and customs of the ages in
which they were first produced. But in close relation to this move-
ment is another tendency. Homiletical helps are very popular. So-
called aids to preachers in their preparation for the pulpit and to
teachers for their study of the Bible are appearing on all sides. The
great danger in thus multiplying material which would lighten the
difficulties and remove the hindrances in the way of the Bible-teacher
is that it will tend to destroy individual effort.
This is a deplorable result. Our students must be masters of their
helps, or these will crush them. The Scriptures invite and demand
individual study. No amount of expository literature however valu-
able can supply the place of it. The choice between books relating
to the Scriptures must be determined by this rule — Do they stimulate
or do they take the place of personal study ? Have no book which
will not help to do better and more effective work on the Bible.
THE BEARING OF NEW TESTAMENT STATEMENTS UPON
THE AUTHOESHIP OF OLD TESTAMENT BOOKS.
By Pkof. George B. Stevens, Ph.D., D. D.,
• Tale University, New Haven, Conn.
It is justly felt by all reverent students of the Bible that great importance
attaches to those references to the books of the Old Testament which are made
by our Lord and his apostles. That they ascribed divine inspiration and author-
ity to those books there can be no doubt. Did they make statements equally ex-
plicit and intentional regarding their authorship ? By most persons it will be felt that
a greater degree of importance attaches to what Christ may have said or implied on
this point than to that which may be found in the writings of the apostles and other
New Testament writers. For whatever the degree of their inspiration, or even
infallibility, regarding religious truth, it is rarely claimed that they were omnis-
cient respecting historical and literary questions. On the problem of the author-
ship of a book — which, indeed, was not a problem in their time — they might receive
the traditional opinion and express themselves accordingly without forfeiting
their claim to be competent and authorized interpreters of Christian truth, even
if , subsequent investigation should prove the assumed opinion to be en-oneous.
Most persons would admit this possibility as being involved in the limitations of
their knowledge regarding subjects lying outside the range of essential spiritual
truth.
But while the Christian world has never claimed onmiscience for the apostles,
it has made this claim for Christ, at least in regard to the matters where he men-
tioned no limitations upon his knowledge (cf. Mk. 13:32),— matters upon which
he has made some declaration. It becomes a question of great interest, therefore,
to the Christian, whether Jesus has stated anything in regard to the authorship of
Old Testament bonks ; and if he has not stated anything explicitly, whether any
opinion is implied in his language. If he has explicitly stated that Moses wrote
the whole Pentateuch, then the conclusions reached by many critics regarding the
composite character of those books are in conflict with Christ's authority, and the
alternative is : (a) Are these conclusions in error ? or (b) Was Jesus fallible in his
knowledge in regard to this (and perhaps similar) subjects ? There are scholars
who espouse each of these views. Is there any other view more tenable than
either of them ?
Much will depend upon how explicitly Clirist has spoken upon these points.
Has he made any statement with Oit intention of maintaining that a particular
person (as Moses or David) wrote a particular book or psalm i" or has he simply
spoken of such compositions by the names which were universally associated with
them in his time, it being no part of his purpose to allirm anything regarding
their authorship? Do liis allusions hinge upon the question of authorship, and
are they intended to bear upon it ? or are they intended to serve purposes which
are not really affected by that question V
Tke Bearing of New Testament Statements, Etc. 165
Kecourse must be had to the passages. A complete induction of all the New
Testament passages which would be in point, is impossible in a brief article. But
for the reason stated, the words of Christ are most important. I consider two
questions : (a) What is the bearing of Christ's words upon the question of the
Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch ? (b) Does Christ mean to authenticate the
Davidic authorship of Ps. 110 in Mk. 12:35-37 (parallel passages, Mt.22:41 sq.;
Lk. 20:41 sq.)?
The ten most important and decisive passages in the Gospels bearing upon
the first question (the only ones, counting parallel passages as one, having any
direct bearing) may be classified thus :
(a) Passages in which a command is referred to Moses : (1) Mt. 8:4 (par. pass.
Mk. 1:44 ; Lk. 5:14) " And Jesus saith unto him, See thou tell no man ; but go
thy way, show thyself to the priest, and offer the gift that Moses commanded, for a
testimony unto them." The reference is to Lev. 14:4 sq., and the command there
imposed is said to issue from Moses. (2) Mt. 19:7,8 (Mk. 10:3-5) "They say unto
him, Why then did Moses command to give a bill of divorcement, and to put her
away ? He saith unto them, Moses for your hardness of heart suffered you to put
away your wives," etc. The reference is to Deut. 24:1. It is the Pharisees who
refer to the command as Moses'; but the same idea is implied in Christ's answer :
" Moses suffered," etc.*
(b) One passage in which an Old Testament commandment is characterized
as something which "Moses said": (3) Mk. 7:10, " For Moses said. Honor thy
father and thy mother," etc. (Exod. 30:12). In the parallel passage, Mt. 15:4, the
expression, "for Moses said," is replaced by "for God commanded, saying."
According to Mark, Jesus speaks of one of the ten commandments as something
which Moses said ; but taken in connection with Matthew, if the two expres-
sions used are considered as substantially equivalent, the result would be that
this passage refers the commandment to God as its source, and to Moses as the
accredited human agent through whom it was proclaimed, rather than to him
as the wTiter of the book in which it is found, or even of the passage itself con-
sidered as a part of a book.
(c) Passages in which Moses is said to have written something : (4) Mk. 12:
19 (par. pass. Mt. 22:24; Lk. 20:28), "And they (the Sadducees) asked him, say-
ing. Master, Moses wrote unto us. If a man's brother die, and leave a wife behind
him, and have no child, that his brother should take his wife and raise up seed
unto his brother " (Deut. 22:5). It is the Sadducees who speak of Moses as writ-
ing this commandment. " Moses wrote unto us.'''' Are they thinking of literary
authorship or simply of the authority with which the command referred to came
to them, namely, that of Moses ? Does the silence, or perhaps the acquiescence
of Christ in what they say, commit him to the position that Moses was the literary
author of Deuteronomy, or, at least, of so much of it as the Sadducees quote?
(d) Passages which speak of the " book of Moses." (5) Mk. 12:26 (par. pass.
Mt. 22:31 ; Lk. 20:37) : " But as touching the dead, that they are raised ; have ye
* Mk. 10:5 (par. to Mt. 19:8) reads: " But Jesus said to them. On account of the hardness of
your heart, he (Moses) wrote you this commandment." The parallel expression to "he wrote "
is "he permitted," showing that the Mosaic conces.Mon to the rude conditions of the time is what
is referred to. We follow here the narrative of Matthew as being, probably, the more original
(so Meyer in loco.). But if Mark is followed to the neglect of Matthew, no thought of literary
authorship can be associated with the words. If Mark were here followed, this instance would
fall under (c).
166 The Old Testament Student.
not read in the book of Moses, in the place concerning the Bush, how God spake
unto liini, saying," etc. (Exod. 3:6). In the parallel passage we find instead of
the expression, "book of Moses," (Mt.) "Have ye not read tliat which was
spoken to you by God, saying," and (Luke) "Even Moses showed, in the place
coiiceiTiing the Bush, where lie called the Lord the God of Abraham," etc. The
result is that, according to Mark, Jesus refers to Exod. 3:6 as being in the " book
of Moses" — a current name for the Pentateuch. The passage is spoken by God
(Mt.) and Moses is represented as " sliowing " (Luke), that is, establishing a cer-
tain conclusion by means of it. Does the use of the passage in any way turn
upon the authorship of the book called the "book of Moses"? Certainly not.
Does then the allusion to the book as Moses" commit Christ to the opinion of its
Mosaic authorship V It cannot be maintained that it was any part of his set pur-
pose to refer to the subject. If the passage authenticates the Mosaic authorship,
it can only do so by a tacit assumption of it, at most. The question was not con-
sciously before the mind of Christ or before the minds of his time. Unless some
passage or set of passages can be produced which is equivalent to Chrisfs saying
that Moses ■«TOte the Pentateuch, it is competent to maintain that the language
in which he spoke of such subjects was the language of his time, and was con-
formed to the universal opinions of his time which he had no occasion to consider,
much less to discuss or to pronounce upon. May not Christ have referred to the
Pentateuch by a current title, " the book " or " books of Moses," without pronoun-
cing any literary judgment or being in any way implicated in a literary problem
arising centuries later, as well as one might now refer to the Homeric poems
without thereby in any way committing himself or making himself responsible
for any literary opinion in regard to the unity of the Iliad and Odyssey, or as to
their composition throughout, in their present form, by a man named Homer?
We have (e) references to the " law of Moses." (6) Lk. 2:22 : " And when the
days of their puriflcEition according to the law of Moses were fulfilled," etc. (Lev.
12:2). (7) Lk. 24:44 : " All things must be fulfilled which are written in the law
of Moses, and the prophets," etc. (8) John 1:17,45: "The law was given by
Moses," etc. " Philip findeth Nathanael andsaith unto him, We have found him
of whom Moses in the law, and the prophets did write," etc. (9) John 7:19,22,23 :
"Did not Moses give you the law?" etc. " Moses hath given you circumcision,"
etc. " That the law of Moses may not be broken," etc. (10) John 8:5 : " Now in
the law Moses commanded us," etc. (Lev. 20:10).
In this set of passages we have undoubted references to the Pentateuch as the
"law of Moses." Not only is a certain ritual requirement (Lev. 12:2) spoken of
as a part of the " law of Moses," but the prophetic element, which is evidently
thought of as pervading in the Pentateuch, is said to find its fulfillment in Christ.
It is not to be doubted that Christ thinks and speaks of the whole Pentateuch
under the term " the law of Moses." The passages of John are in harmony with
this supposition : "The law came by Moses" (1:17); " Moses gave you the law"
(7:19).
Are these allusions to the Pentateuch as the "book" or the "law of
Moses" fairly equivalent to the statement that Moses was its literary author in
its present form V JIany will declare that they are and that this settles the ques-
tion. Others will take the same view, and since they believe that critical research
does noc confirm the statement, will impute error or ignorance to Christ. It is to
The Bearing of New Testament Statements, Etc. 167
be noted that these opinions coincide in one premise, but, differing in the other
they reach opposite conclusions. The arguments may be thus represented (usmg
he terms "orthodox view" and " rationahstic view" to designate them for
it of better names) :-Orthodox view : Christ said tijat Moses ^-o te he Penta-
teuch; whatever Christ said must be true; therefore Moses did wrte the Peta
teuch Rationalistic view: Clmst said that Moses ^'^'^f' the Pentateuch^ it is
found that Moses did not write it; therefore Christ did not know, and was m
^"°U is to be noticed also that critics of both the types named deal with the pas-
sages in the same way. They mamtain or assume that the words of Christ refer
to literary authorship, or at least apply to it, when that question arises Th
the assumption of both schools. Is it a fair and warrantable assumption ? If it
S then the mind which hesitates to hold that Christ is committed to «-h a <iue "
tion of historical investigation and critical research ,s at liberty to sift the pas-
sages and demand that, on the assumption that it is fan- to app y Christ's words
to literary authorship at all, he be made responsible for absolutely notMng wMch
he himself did not say. With this view let us classify again our ten passages on a
""^^TZo cases (Mt. 19:7,8; John 8:5) it is the Pharisees who speak, referring
two commands to Moses, to one of which Jesus alludes as a perm^ss^on of Moses.
It will hardly be contended that these statements apply to literary authorship,
and whatever their reference, there is no explicit assertion of Christ.
In one case (Mk. 12:19) it is the Sadducees who speak, refenrmg to Moses as
writing a certam Old Testament passage (Deut. 25:5). Even if this statement of
the Sadducees were authoritative, it is not equivalent to the affirmation that
Moses wrote the whole present Book of Deuteronomy, much less the whole Pen-
^""^^'in'one case Luke (2:22) speaks of a passage (Lev. 12:2) as a part of the '_' law
of Moses;" in one (John 1:17) John the Baptist states that the law ^<^sS^ven
ly Moses and in one (John 1:45) Philip speaks of Moses in the law writmg o
' Christ, ihe last is the only one in which anything is said about Moses wntv>g
anything, and this is said with distinct reference to his v^vitmg prophettcally m the
law about Christ. Do PhiUp's words fairly apply to the authorship of our present
Old Testament law books ? The reader must judge. But six of our ten passages
have been passed in review and yet we have no affirmation from Christ himsdj
In /our cases the Gospels introduce Christ as speaking m reference to the
matter. In two of these (Mt. 8:4; Mk. 7:10) he refers two commands (Lev. 14:3
sq • Exod. 20:12) du-ectly to Moses. Moses gave these commands. They emanate
fi^m that lawgiver. Is more than this contained in them? Are they Jairly
equivalent to the statement that Moses wrote the books in their present form m
which those commands are found ? In one case (Mk. 12:26) Jesus speaks of a pas-
sage (Exod. 3:6) as being found in the "book of Moses," and in another (Lk.
24T44 says that all the prophecies written in the "law of Moses concermng
Himself must be f QlQlled. That the Pentateuch was universally called by these
names is certain. Does Christ in using these universal designations mean to
affirm anything touchmg authorship? Can his words be fairly thus applied?
They eo^plMtt, affirm nothing more than that Moses is the (human) soiu'ce of
these specific' commands referred to. If they necessarily im^ly wrUing,ihey do
not imply it to the extent of the whole Pentateuch in its present form. The per-
168 The Old Testament Student.
son who holds that it has been ascertained by study that only the f uDdamental
legislation of the Pentateuch emanates from Moses and that our completed
" books of Moses " are not the direct product of his hand, may safely challenge
his opponents to bring any word of Christ which conflicts with his opinion.
Christ refers specific commands to Moses ; he speaks of the Pentateuch under the
popular designations ; but there in not a pasimge (unless an exception be made in
favor of Mk. 10:5; see note on page 165) in which Oirist explicitly states that Moses
wrote a single verse of the Pentateuch.
To many there will seem to be something harsh and perhaps forced in this
method of handling the passages, confining them to what they ea;p?i«(7j/sa)/ and not
letting them make their own natural impression. The method is no favorite with
us. But if one school of interpreters insists upon applying these passages to liter-
ary authorship and making them a make-weight in the discussion of the literary
problems connected with the Pentateuch, it is fair for another school, as against
these, to insist that the passages shall be used for what they say only. To say
that Christ's language naturally implies a certain opinion is too easy a mode of
disputation. That position may always be challenged. Does it necessarily imply
any particular opinion on Christ's part or any committing of himself to it?
Those who use the supposed implications of his allusions in this peremplorj' way
and as an authority precluding discussion may properly be reminded how much
of their ground is of the nature of supposition and inference, and how little of it
(if any) is found in the explicit words of our Lord.
The two views which we have characterized (with no fondness for either
term) as rationalistic aTid orthodox, assume, more or less distinctly, that it is fair
to apply the words of Christ to the question of Pentateuchal analysis and author-
ship. The latter view lays much emphasis upon this ; the former generally
assumes at least so much as that Christ shared the belief of his time on the sub-
ject. Does not our review of the passages rather lead to the conclusion, on the
one hand, that he did not intend to affirm and has not actually affirmed any opin-
ion on the question, and on the other, that the state of his mind on the subject
is at most a matter of speculation and not of testimony V The practical resiUt in
the orthodox view is that it decides a literary problem by the alleged authority of
Christ, or in other words, that, for all investigators of the subject, it insists upon
pivoting the authority and trustworthiness of Jesus as a teacher upon the decision
of a critical and historical problem. This imperils faith in Christ far more than
the rationalistic view, because it is possible to hold (as many do) that literary (and
kindred) s.ubjects lay outside the sphere of Christ's knowledge in his incarnation
(as did the day of his coming), but that the former limitation no more disproves
his authority as a divinely sent teacher than the hitter.
"We prefer to hold that we are neither compelled to affirm the rationalistic
assumption on the one hand, nor to accept the orthodox dilemma on the other.
Christ did not design to teach and did not teach anything upon the authorship of
Old Testament books. His mission was immeasurably grauder than such a sup-
position implies. His concern was with the truths of eternal life in God"s king-
dom and not with literary questions. This is the more certainly true since those
questions have been developed from modern investigation and did not exist at all
in his time.
Our next inquiry concerns the bearing of Mk. 12:35-37 (par. pass. Mt. 22:41-
46 ; Luke 20:41-44) upon the Davidic authorship of the 110th Psalm there quoted.
The Beaktng of New Testament Statements, Etc. 169
The passage reads: "And Jesus answered and said, while he taught in the
temple. How say the scribes that Christ is the son of David ? For David himself
said by the Holy Ghost, The Lord said to my Lord, Sit thou on my right hand, till
I make thine enemies thy footstool. David therefore himself calleth him Lord,
and whence is he then his son ?" (Ps. 110:1).
Here Jesus seems plainly to base an argument upon the view that David
wrote the 110th Psalm. Modem criticism finds from a study of the Psalm itself
great difficulties in the supposition that David wrote it. These it does not belong
to us to discuss. The only question is, whether if we conclude that David did not
write that Psalm we should be denying or depreciating the authority of Jesus.
It is evident, in the first place, that the three verses in which we have the
narrative, give us but a fragment of the argument of which the statements
recorded form a part. The expression, "Jesus answered " (35), implies an argu-
ment with the Jews in which they had tried to "catch him in talk" (Mk. 12:13).
The earlier portion of the chapter narrates three such attempts. May not Jesus
here have retorted with a question which none of them could answer ? All the
Jews assumed that David wrote the 110th Psalm, and that in verse 1 he spoke of
the Messiah. Now how could the Messiah be David's son (as they said) and his
Lord at the same time (as the Psalm calls him)? If he wished thus to put them
in a dilemma, this question would certainly do so. But many shrink from sup-
posing that Jesus used a method of argument so nearly like that which the scribes
and Pharisees employed against him.
Let us then suppose that Jesus spoke after the universal manner of his time
of the Psalm as written by David. The important question is : Does the point of
what he here says depend upon the direct Davidic authorship of the Psalm ? If it does,
then we must either suppose, as many do (though granting the great difficulty of
the supposition) that David wrote the Psalm, since Jesus vii'tually said so, or that
Jesus here based his argument upon an incorrect opmion. But if the argument
does not depend upon the Davidic authorship, then we are at liberty to say that
Jesus simply referred to the Psalm, as it was universally the custom to do, as
David's, but that the essential point which he wishes to make, and therefore the
nerve of his argument, does not depend upon whether David actually wrote it or
not. What is that point ? It is this. How can the scribes maintain that the
Messiah is merely a descendant of David, when, in the 110th Psalm, he is spoken
of by the regal title of Lord, and is accorded by Jehovah a seat at his own right
hand ? The purpose of Jesus is to set over against the low Jewish conception of
the Messiah as a great human monarch in David's line, his own idea of his true,
divine mission and character. If the 110th Psalm is Messianic, he establishes his
point, whether it is Davidic in authorship or not. The true Messiah is no mere
son of David — a second Solomon — who shall reign in earthly splendor ; his is a
mightier sceptre, a grander position, a more enduring throne. The edict of Jeho-
vah has placed him on that throne. The whole argument turns on two concep-
tions of the Messiah, that of the scribes and that of Jesus, which alone rises to
the full dignity of such Messianic passages as Ps. 110:1.
Jesus spoke of the passage as what David said. Whether he consciously
turned his mind to the question of authorship we need not speculate. It was no
part of his work to discuss such questions. In reference to all such universal
beliefs, where no essential moral principles were involved, he spoke the language
1"0 The Old Testament Student.
of his time as truly as he spoke the dialects of the lands where he labored and
taught. How immeasurably inferior to what it is would his teaching have been
if he had mingled in liis instruction concerning the kingdom of God some lessons
on the aulhorship and composition of some of the Jewish sacred books ! How
incongruous with his character would such a course have been !
The Fsaltn in question is variously interpreted. Some suppose it to refer
directly to the Messiah ; others, indirectly, the primary reference being to the
king of Israel as a type of the Messiah. Christian scholars are well agreed that
it is Messianic, and this position is all that need concern us here. David may
have written it ; but if he did not, the force of Christ's thought is not broken. In
this case the reference to David belongs to the drapery of his argument. It is an
example, of which there are multitudes, of his using the thought-forms of his
time. In those forms he has embodied the essential, imperishable truths of his
kingdom. That which he has here embodied is the truth of his superhuman
character and divine, spiritual kingship. This truth gleamed from the pages of
the Old Testament, and the Jews miglit have seen it, had not their eyes been
blind to the import and bearuig of their own prophetic types and symbols. It
was a glimpse into the deeper import of prophecy which Jesus would give the
captious scribes, when, teaching in the temple, he propounded the question:
How the Messiah could be merely a descendant of David, when, in ancient proph-
ecy, he is called David's Lord, and is assigned a seat at Jehovah's right hand.*
TIELE ON BABYLONIAN-ASSYRIAN CULTURE,! I.
By Rev. A. S. Carkiek,
HcCormick Theol. Seminary, Chicago, lU.
It is not intended to describe the culture of Babylonia and Assyria in all
its peculiarities, still less to follow its development step by step. The time for
that has not come, and the investigation of our very imperfect sources has not
progressed far enough. But the subject is too important to be passed in complete
silence. The people of the Euphrates and Tigris won for themselves, by conquest,
a pre-eminent position in the world's history. But they were, besides, the custo-
* Since tbe discussion of this passage has been necessarily limited in scope, I will add a few
sentences from two eminent scholars, illustrating and confirming the view taken:
"Christ quoted the Psalm In order to unfold the higher idea of the Messiah as tbe Son of
God, and to oppose, )ioJ the idea that lie was to be Son of David, but a oue-sided adherence
to this, at the expense of the other and higher one He used Ps. 110 to convince them that
the two elements were blended together in the Messianic idea In this regard it is a matter
of no moment whether David uttered the Psalm or not."— Neander, Life tif Chritt, pp. 40:i,3
(Bohn ed.).
"Looked at closely, the appeal (to this Psalm) is merely tbe form in which .lesus brought
home to the scribes the incomparablencss of tbe true Messiah, well attested in the Old Testa-
ment." "The fulfillment of this Psalm in Its highest siguiflcance was claimed by Jesus as
something raising him above David. And certainly, as those expressions wei'O Inspired by the
Spirit of (Sod, they first found their fulflllment in David's perfect Son."— Orclli, Uld TentiDnent
Priiphrcy, 154, l.")7.
t This article is tbe first of a series presenting a condensation of tbe last chapter of Titlt'a
Babyloniach-Ateyrtfche QeschichU, Qotba, 1888.
TiELE ON Babylonian- Assyrian Culture. 171
dians of a civilization which gave the staudaid to Western Asia, nay, influenced
Greece itself ; and to this culture, no less than to their martial prowess, they owe
their commanding position.
The origin of Babylonian culture loses itself, like that of Egypt and China,
in the mists of antiquity. The oldest monuments show a high degree of artistic
ability, and the oldest cuneiform inscriptions are far removed from what must
have been the original picture-writing. Such progi-ess points to a long anteced-
ent development. Whence then is the origin of this culture to be sought V That
theory finds most favor which refers it to a non-Semitic people who brought it
with them from the shores of the Persian Gulf and disseminated it among the
Semitic inhabitants of Babylonia.
But here we confront another question. Did such a non-Semitic people
exist ? Hak^vy and others answer in the negative, and others ascribe to the
Semitic people themselves the sources of their own culture. But we have decided
reason to believe that a non-Semitic language, which we may term old Chaldean,
was spoken and ^^Titteu in Babylonia down to the latest period of the empire.
But it is quite another question whether this old Chaldean people created
this culture which the Semitic Babylonians took and developed. It is not impos-
sible that we must go back of them for its origin. It is not the place here, how-
ever, to discuss what is, at the most, a mere conjecture, though I caimot entirely
discard tlie idea that culture and cuneiform writing came to the old Chaldeans
and through them to the Semites from a people who spoke a widely different
speech.
It is also merely conjecture that this culture had its origin on the shores of
the Persian Gulf, but it is conjecture with a high degree of probability. In
legends transmitted by Berossos we are told of the divine Fishman, Cannes, who
every morning rose from the Erythreau Sea to teach the barbarous Chaldeans
sciences and arts and orderly social life, and at evening plunged again beneath the
waves. It can hardly be doubted that in this divinity we are to recognise Ea, the
god of the light and fire-germs in the waters, who figures so frequently on Baby-
lonian and Assyrian monuments. The oldest seat of Ea's worship is Eridu, close
by the sea. His son Maruduk and his associate Nabil, received special honor on
the islands and coasts of the Persian Gulf. The tradition that seems to lie im-
bedded in this legend is, that it was the worshipers of Ea, seamen and coast
dwellers who introduced their culture into Chaldea.
In agreement with this are the antiquity and sacredness of the laws of Ea,
and the incantations of Eridu, and the fact that the oldest traditions, like the
Gizdhubar-Epos, are localized near the sea-coast. There also were the centers of
mighty states, there are found the oldest monuments of Chaldean culture. The
reign of the first Semitic king of Babel, Sargon I., if we follow the reckoning of
Nabiina'id, must be put earlier than the oldest known kings of Ur. But his
inscriptions show that even he used a mode of writing not native to his speech.
The leading divinities to which Babel and Borsippa were dedicated, are the same
which, in the south, belonged to the circle of Ea. Perhaps the ruling class at
Babel, which brought there the higher civilization, had its origin also in the
south.
Wherever its origin is to be sought, there can be no doubt of the high
antiquity of the Babylonian and the derived Assyrian culture, and though it can-
not be proved that it was the mother of all culture, this is not impossible.
172 The Old Testajient Student.
The Babylonians did not leave the culture they inherited just where they found
it. They assimilated and enlarged it. Tliey puriDed it and gave it a higher aim.
The Semites never excelled their predecessors in artistic perception, perhaps not
as seamen or merchants. But they infused a seriousness and depth into tlie relig-
ious life, strengthened the monarchical idea, enriched the literature, and founded
a state on such principles that it long resisted the mightiest shocks, and ruled for
centuries the most extensive territories. Though they were borrowers, they were
not therefore lacking in originality. Greece and Persia, nations that borrowed
freely on all sides, disprove such a theory. The cultui-e in which the Babylon-
ians were instructed, blossomed out under the iulluenee of their own ideas and
became their own inalienable possession.
FORM OF GOVEUNJIENT, LAWS, AND CUSTOMS.
Very little is known of the Babylonian and Assyrian form of government.
"We attempt to present only what we know with certainty. The government was
undoubtedly monai-chical; but from the Assyrian method of naming the years
after high officials, including the king, it has been conjectured that the govern-
ment was originally an aristocracy. This, though not impossible, cannot be
proved. From the earliest times we find the monarch bearing a distinctive title.
The oldest ruler of Assur called himself liJaku. or I5aku, with the addition " of
the God Assur." This indicated a religious dignity. The king was vicegerent of
the supreme god. Some South Babylonian princes, whose monuments are found
at Telloh, and some princes of Eridu, bear this title, but in such connection as to
indicate that they are not vicegerents of a god, but vassals of a great king, the
name of a place being added.
We can with certainty say that the oldest form of government in Assyria was
theocratic. To these peoples, as to other Semites, the highest divinity was the
only true king ; the earthly ruler, only his representative. He may have origi-
nally belonged to the order of priests. These call him to rule. The sovereignty
rests with the god, that is, with the priesthood. The kings are the heirs and suc-
cessors of the oldest IJaku whom we know; and while they were never high
priests in the literal sense, they were recognized as such in Assyria, and in Babel
actually stood at the head of the priesthood. They have the right to sacrifice
while the priest stands behind them, so that they can call themselves saugu of
the high divinity of Bel, which can hardly be other than a priestly title. Still
higher is the other favorite title, saknu of Bel, that is, vicegerent of the divinity.
But while they called themselves not alone Issaku, but Sarru or Malku. it was
only king by the grace of the god. They are deeply conscious of dependence.
The divinity elected and called them. They were begotten by the highest god,
borne by the mother goddess. Despotic as they may be in their rule over men,
they are the humble, obedient children of their god. Then- palaces, like temples,
were carefully oriented, and in clothing and ornaments, they alone imitated the
gods.
Whether, as in Egypt, they received worship as gods, is another question.
They are called, however, "sun of the land," "sun of the whole people." It is
not meant that the suu-god was incarnate in them, but this is the figiu-ative
language appropriate to describe the king.
On the other hand, it is certain that the oldest royal names did not have a
vertical wedge only before them, like ordinary proper names, but also the star,
TiELE ON BABLYOOTAN-AsSYKIAK CUITTJRE. 173
the determinative for God. Hence they were reckoned as sons of god, and
received a reverential regard similar to the Brahmans and kings of India, who are
frequently called Beva.
We find in Assyria no trace of that king-worship so frequent in Egypt. The
only thing which looks like homage to royalty, is the remarkable fact of an altar
standing before a relief of Asurnasirpal at the entrance of a temple found by
Layard at Kalah. The picture of the king was, however, according to Assyrian
ideas, the symbol of the kingdom, and one could pray to this, without paying
divine reverence to the king.
The unified states of Babylonia and Assyria, whether Ur, or Babel, Assur, or
Nineveh was the capital, certainly arose from the blending of several smaller
kingdoms and could in a certain sense be called feudal. The king allowed the
subject princes to occupy their thrones as vassals, paying tribute or furnishing
auxiliaries in ease of war. Hence the titles, " king of kings " (sar sarrani), " ruler
of kings" (nasik sarrani), "lord of lords " (Bel beli). These tiibutary provinces
were part of the empire, though distinguished in the inscriptions from the states
which "were reckoned to the land of Assur." So Israel, after the capture of
Samaria by Sargon, was united to Assyria, and .Judah, after the abortive insur-
rection of Zedekiah, was incorporated into the Babylonian kingdom.
While the Babylonian and Assyrian kings were without doubt absolute
rulers, they recognized the laws as bindmg upon themselves, and took counsel
with the magnates of the empire, witli the learned men, and the priests, reserving
always the right of final decision. Nahuna'id restores the temple of Samas at Sip-
par, after taking counsel with the wise men of his kingdom. And when Esar-
haddou wished to associate his son with him on the throne, he called together
a parliament of the dignitaries of the realm.
The Assyrian kings had a large court, to which belonged the so-called rubi
and suparsaki. By the first title are denoted princes of the blood; by the second,
the highest officials. The Turtanu or Tartan stands at the head of these. He
was the chief field marshal. In a catalogue of Assyrian officials a distinction is
made between Tartan of the " right hand " (imnu), and Tartan of the " left hand "
(sumelu), that is, of the south and of the north. After the Tartan followed four
high officials whose duties are not clear ; the Nasir-ekalli or governor of the pal-
ace, the Eab-bi-lub, perhaps master of the eunuchs, the Tukulu, and the Salat or
royal governor. We must class here the Rabsake, whose rank was that of lieut-
enant-general.
The governors of the provinces rank next to these dignitaries, though it can-
not be determined what led to the order of precedence. The Sargonids changed
this order completely.
Frequently we read that the king had the "image of his kingdom " erected
in a territory. This was the symbol of his over-lordship. But the more distant
a province was from the capital, the more was left to the discretion of tlie Salat.
It is doubtful if the office of Limu was more than honorary ; it may have had
a religious character. It was certainly old, for Tiglath-pileser I. dates from the
Limu-year of Ina-ilija-alUk ; and Raniman-nirar I. a century earlier has a Limu-
date.
In Babylonia, time was reckoned by the years of the king's reign, but the
official system seems not to have differed materially from that of Assyria. Five
174 The Old Testament Student.
high dignitaries were at the head. But while in Assyria a warrior had the prece-
dence, in Babylonia it was a spiritual lord. After these five came, as in Assyria,
the great governors of the realm.
That the higher otBces in Babylonia were hereditary cannot be proved and is
improbable. Many inscriptions indicate otherwise. The condition was exactly
the same as in Egypt.
Tlie army was the especial care of the Assyrian kings. For centuries their
arms dominated Western Asia. From the sculptures on their palaces we learn
how carefully their armies were organized. Tliere were three, perhaps four mil-
itary divisions, the charioteers to whom the king and higher officers belonged,
the cavalrj', the foot-soldiers, and a corps which may be compared to our engineer
corps. The chariot is drawn Ijy two, sometimes three horses. The cliarioteer
has always a driver, often two armed attendants, who flght with bows and arrows
or with lance, also with sword and dagger. The royal chariot, like that of Egj'pt,
is known by its peculiar plumes. The cavalry consisted of bowmen and spear-
men, the footmen consisted of bowmen, lancers, and slingers. While the light
infantry are armed simply with quiver, bow and sword, and clothed with a light
loin covering, the heavy armed infantry wore a coat of chain armor, greaves and
a helmet with, or without, crest. Sometimes a round shield was carried; some-
times a woven shield, the height of a man, was borne before the warrior. The
art of siege was earned to a high degree of perfection, as is witnessed by the
reliefs. Battering rams were used, as well as implements for hurling great stones.
Mining was resorted to, and a fortified camp often established outside the belea-
guered city. On the walls of Sennacherib's palace is a portrayal of the siege of
Labis in Judah ; the assault, the defence, the surrender, and its delivery to the king,
who sits for that purpose, in full array upon his throne — all are accurately depicted.
Within the fortified camp a religious ceremonial is seen in progress. Two priests
with ball-shaped cups are sacrificing on an altar, before which stands a table with
sacrificial gifts, and the objects of their reverence are apparently two standards,
which always accompany the king in war. We may judge that the standards are
the pledge of the divine presence in the army though the symbolism is unknown
to us.
Tireless wanlors, all-powerful rulers, then were the kings of Assur, while
those of Babylonia were no less absolute monarchs. But if we may conjecture
what cannot be proved, they were limited in their despotism by the mighty
priesthoods of Babel, Xipur, Eridu. An unlimited autocracy does not exclude
the presence of general laws, and to the question whether the great kings them-
selves were bound by such laws, we must decidedly answer in the aflBrmative.
Sargon II. speaks of the laws of Assur, violated by his predecessors, restored
by himself. A remarkable nabylonian-text describes tlie fearful misfortunes that
visit land and people when the king does not respect the laws. It is true tliat no
earllily power can call him to account, but he has to fear the vengeance of Ea,
the arbiter of destiny. If he judges after the book of Ea, the gods will exalt him.
If injustice is done to Sippar, Nipur or Babel, the vengeance of the gods of these
places visits him. The wliole prophetic discourse is thus summed up. " Be he
over-shepherd, be he temple-director, or a royal official who superintends temples
in Sippur, Nipur or Babel. . . .the great gods will be angry, they will forget tlieir
dwellings, they will not enter into their sanctuaries.'' It is clear then that the
TiELE ON BABYLONIAN-ASSYKIAN CULTURE. 175
Babylonian and Assyrian monarchy was no blind despotism, but that the duty
was recognized by prince and people to rule according to justice and law.
The customs of the people can only be presented in their leading features. But
we find in the palaces of Assyrian princes, and in the remnants of the old Chaldean
culture, evidences of great luxury. The walls are richly adorned, the men and
women wear various ornaments of precious metals ; weapons, wagons, furniture,
all articles of daily life, unite artistic simplicity with richness and splendor. Of
comse a wide difference existed between court life and the life of the common
people. But whatever may be conjectured concerning the earliest life of the
people, it is certain that at Ur and Eridu, houses have been excavated, built of
bricks, with several chambers, with traces of wall painting, which without doubt
were private dwellings. Business transactions were not limited to those high in
rank. There is evidence that in the great cities, like Babel, there was a well-to-do
middle class, and luxury may not have been peculiar to the nobility.
As in other states of antiquity, so in Assyria and Babylonia, slavery and the
slave-trade existed. The price of a slave varied from about $12.50 to $475.00.
A high price was paid for one who understood handicraft. In Babel the slaves
wore small olives of burnt clay about their necks, which bore their own names,
that of their master and the date of purchase. The temples had their slaves,
who sometimes gave oracular utterances.
The Babylonians are usually represented as soft and voluptuous ; the Assyr-
ians as harsh and cruel. This statement is too sweeping. We know the treat-
ment of Zedekiah by Nebuchadnezzar, and luxury was by no means unknown to
the later Assyrians. There is, however, some truth in the conti-ast. The Assyr-
ians weie more warlike and aggressive than the Babylonians, who, on the other
hand, in the arts of peace, in the sciences, in the elements of higher civilization,
were pre-eminent. Assyrians formed the nucleus of the Assyrian army. The
Babylonian army consisted of Kassites, and they paid the mercenaries of Elam
with their temple treasures.
The Babylonian artistic sense was finer; the Assyrian, more realistic. The
voluptuous Istar was extensively worshiped in Nineveh as well as in Babylonia.
From whatever sources Herodotus derived his account of the sacrifice of chastity
upon the altar of the great goddess at Babel, it is clear that Istar of Uruk (Erech),
together with her companions, presents no ideal of purity. But the poets of Baby-
lonia are sharp in condemning her. The repulsive features of Istar's worship
must have been survivals of an early cultus, which was non-Semitic. Religious
conservatism sometimes perpetuates customs which have long lost their signifi-
cance. The difierence in moral standards seems to be rather between the old
Chaldeans and Semites in the north and south, than between Assyrians and
Babylonians. In the south the old Chaldaic element was prominent.
The kings of Assyria and Babylonia had extensive harems. Perhaps queenly
honors were granted to but one of the wives. In a well-known relief, the king is
seen taking a festal meal, in his vine arbor, in a splendid palace garden, with
his queen, surrounded by eunuchs; but this does not prove that he had not true
wives and many slaves besides.
The architectural precautions against the violation of the female apartments
indicate that, at least, in the higher circles, polygamy was the rule. Choice wines
176 The Old Testament Student.
were greatly prized by the Assyrians. This love for wines probably gave the
Prophet N'alium opportunity to reproach the Xinevites with druukeuiiess.
They were the most cruel nation of antiquity. Without a trace of shame
they picture their butcheries on the walls of their palaces. Maiming was the
lightest cruelty. The sweetest revenge was to flay an enemy alive, and nail his
skin to the city wall. Impalement was also a favorite torture, and when the king
is merry in the garden with his spouse, the heads of his conquered enemies are
hung up before his eyes. While the impartial historian can only express abhor-
rence at these barbarities, it must be remembered that all Semites were cruel and
revengeful, and their successors, the Persians, and even western nations, consid-
ered no punishment too severe to suppress insurrection against the national god.
[To be continued.]
OLD TESTAMENT WORD-STUDIES! 5. DIVINE LAW.
By Rev. P. A. Nokdell, D. D.,
New London, Conn.
The human spirit stands in close and dependent relation to the divine, which
is not only the source of life but also the source of law. In the present group of
words we consider those which express in one form or another the idea of divine
will, justice, wisdom, and love entering into the sphere of human relations as
fundamental principles of conduct, controlling, directing, guiding a sinful and
estranged humanity from the pains and penalties of sin unto a restoration of the
union and fellowship with God wherein man realizes his true happiness and
exalted destiny.
A
Din cause, judgment.
The verb di n in the majority of its occun-euces refers to divine judicial inter-
positions ; such, e. g., as when Jehovah vindicated the innocence of his maligned
servants, Gen. 3();6; Ps. 7:8(9), pronounces sentence upon his people who have his
law but fail to keep it, Ps. 50:4, or chastises heathen nations that have oppressed
Israel, Gen. 15:14; Ps. 110:6. The substantive, however, which in the Aramaic
of Daniel is used exclusively to denote a sentence proceeding from the divine tribu-
nal, is used in biblical Hebrew only once in this sense, Ps. 76:8. In every other
instance it denotes a judicial utterance enianaliug from human authority, Job 19:
29; Esth. 1:13, and hence, by metonomy, the civil suits or disputed legal ques-
tions concerning which the parties interested sought to obtain favorable decisions,
Ps. 140:12; Prov. 29:7. In its primary sense of ruling, this word points back to
the time when judicial as well as governing functions were vested in the ruler or
chief, as is still common in the East.
Dath edict, late.
This word is characteristic of the latest biblical literature. From this it passes
into the rabbinical writings wliere it is used in the general sense of law or religion.
From the fact that no satisfactory Hebrew or Aramaic etymology has been discov-
ered for it, and that the word suddenly became prominent during Israel's contact
with Persia in the exilic and post-exilic periods, it has been inferred that the word
Old Testament Wokd-studibs. 177
is of Persian origin, and may be traced to the passive participle of the verb d a ,
denoting that which has been given, placed, fixed, hence a decree or law estab-
lished by royal authority. This is the prevailing signification of the word in the
Book of Esther. In Ezra and Daniel it includes also divine decrees ; Ezra was a
scribe of the law of the God of heaven, 7:12,21, and against Daniel no occasion
could be found save concerning the law of his God, 6:5(6). One very remarkable
exception to this very late use of the word occurs in the difficult passage,
Deut. 33:2. Its presence in this early and pure Hebrew is not susceptible of
explanation either on the traditional or the critical view of the origin of the
book. Its presence here is possibly the result of a post-exilic corruption of the
text, and this becomes the more probable in view of the LXX. reading, " upon his
right hand his angels," instead of "at his right hand a fiery law unto them,"
'esh dath la mo. Nor is it readily conceivable how such a corruption could
have crept in through the error of a copyist.
Hoq, huqqah statute, ordinance.
The radicals h q form the basis of several verbs, such as haqah, haqaq,
which mean primarily to pierce, cut into, engrave, etc. The latter is used in Isa.
22:16 to designate the act of hewing out a sepulcher in the rock, and in Isa. 30:8
the inscribing of a divine message on a tablet where it might remain " forever
and forever " as an imperishable testimony. In Isa. 49:16 Jehovah declares that
he has engraved the restored Israel on the palms of his hands, that it might be
continually before him. So Job (19:23,24) exclaims,
" Oh that my words were now written !
Oh that they were inscribed in a book !
That with an iron pen and lead
They were graven in the rock for ever !"
From these and similar usages it appears that a h o q designated the words which
were thus engraved in metal or stone, and hence a fixed appointment, an immu-
table edict or decree proceeding from an established authority. Hoq might
accordingly designate anything determined by measure, as "bread of my appoint-
ment," i. e. a portion which God assigns, Prov. 30:8; Job 23:12, a task given to
slaves, Exod. 5:14; the predetermined bounds of human life. Job 15:5; the fixed
limits of the sea. Job 26:10 ; Prov. 8:29. A consuetudinary law is called a hoq in
Israel, Jud. 11:39. The word is chiefly used, however, to designate either a single
regulation, or the whole body of theocratic laws imparted to Israel as a revelation
of Jehovah's will touching morals, politics, jurisprudence, or religion. Inasmuch
as the validity of these ordinances rested on a recognized authority uninfluenced
by the fluctuations of public opinion or by royal caprice, they would naturally be
designated by a term which, like h (5q , would point to their permanence and sta-
bility. Hence the frequent expression " it shall be a statute forever," or " a
perpetual statute."
H ii q q a h is from the same stem as hoq, and has the same general mean-
ing. In two instances, 1 Kgs. 3:3; Mic. 6:16, it refers to royal decrees, but in all
other instances it refers to statutes or ordinances conceived of as established by
divine authority. In a few places. Lev. 18:3,30 ; 20:23 ; 2 Kgs. 17:8, it designates
heathen customs and practices, but detestable as these were to the minds of
178 The Old Tkstament Student.
pious Israelites, in the estimat* of the heathen themselves they were supposed
to rest on the sanction of their deities. The laws of nature called "the ordi-
nances of heaven," Job 38:33; Jer. 33:2.5, or '-of the moon," Jer. 31:35, were
regarded as direct expressions of the creative will of Jehovah. In all the remain-
ing ninety-three occurrences of this word it refers diiectly to those early expres-
sions of divine will which had been communicated to individuals for their personal
guidance, as in the case of Abraham, Gen. 26:5, or to those more formal legislative
specifications delivered to an acknowledged representative of the nation, as in
the case of Moses and the Mosaic code. This was composed of h a q q o t h . stat-
utes, tliat could not be changed or repealed except by the Lawgiver himself, nor
were the people permitted to make distinctions between the several precepts.
Mitsvah commandment.
Both English versions are quite consistent in rendering this word by " com-
mandment." The A. v. in only half a dozen, and the R. V. in a still less num-
ber of instances, depart from this rendering, Neh. 10:32(33); Jer. 32:11 ; 35:18;
Dan. 9:5. In the first of these places the word designates certain •' ordinances "
which the returned Jews made for themselves relative to the support of the tem-
ple service, and here the usual rendering would clearly be out of place ; in the
second, its meaning is uncertain, denoting either the law of contracts, or the
specifications contained in a contract ; in the third, the variation seems to be
requiied by the laws of euphony, aud in the fourth to be entirely arbitrary. The
corresponding word in the LXX. is (vtoA?) , and in the Vulgate praeceptum.
Mitsvah is from tsavah, the root-meaning of which is ''to be fast;" (Piel) to
make fast, or secure ; hence, to order, command. In a few instances mitsvah
is applied to special royal orders, but everywhere else it designated those direct
expressions of Jehovah's will which constituted Israel's law. He had a right to
command, and their duty was summed up in prompt and willing obedience.
Mishmereth charge.
The divine law was also Israel's peculiar treasure, that which distinguished
and lifted the nation above all other nations in point of religious privilege and
enlightenment. So long as the people loyally observed its precepts this law was
regarded as a pledge of greater economic prosperity and of more secure defence
against enemies than the fabulous wealth and vast armies of neighboring empires.
It was tlie priceless national jewel to be kept and guarded with scrupulous care,
not as a thing that Israel had discovered or devised, but as that which Jehovah,
their covenant God, had most solemnly entrusted to their guardianship. From
this point of view the law was called mishmereth. Lev. 8:35; 18:30; Num.
9:19,23 ; Deut. 11:1 ; Mai. 3:14, etc.; it was a charge, i. e. a trust accompanied by
specific directions respecting the manner in which it was to be kept ami used.
More frequently, however, the word referred to the discharge of official duties
connected with the care of the sanctuary iind with its ritual. " The Levites shall
keep the mishmereth of the tabernacle," Num. 1:63; to each of the three
leading Levitical families was given the luTshmereth, charge, of some desig-
nated part of this whole work, Num.3:25,31,36. At the dedication of the first
temple the priests were arranged in ranks according to their several mish-
m 'roth, -2 Chron. 7:16.
Old Testament Word-studies. 179
Mishpat judgment.
Like din, mishpat also denotes a judicial sentence. It is derived from
shaphat, to erect, set upright, and this primary meaning transferred to the
administration of justice gives the signification of judging. Mishpat differs
from din in that it implies a reference to an objective standard of right and
equity. The latter is simply a decision handed down by a judge who has it in his
power to pervert justice should self-interest or pleasure dictate such a course. A
din, accordingly, may, or may not, be just and equitable. This being the ease,
we find it used only in a single instance, Ps. 76:8(9), of a divine judicial utterance.
Mishpat, on the contrary, in virtue of its ethical force, always implies a sen-
tence framed with reference to an absolute standard, and hence a just and equit-
able decision. Because of this moral aspect of mishpat we find, moreover,
that it is quite frequently associated with ts'dhakah, righteousness, the latter
being the eternal principle and divine attribute which expresses itself as mish-
pat in relation to all forms of conduct. This makes it clear why this word
rather than d i n was chosen by biblical writers to designate the judicial utterances
of Jehovah, since these are universally characterized by conformity to perfect
j ustice. These divine m i s h p a t i m , as declarations of the highest law, intimate
also a close connection between obedience and reward, or disobedience and pen-
alty. Jehovah is both the Judge and the Vindicator of his law, " Shall not the
Judge of all the earth do mishpat?" Gen. 18:25 ; i. e. Shall he not pronounce
and execute a sentence respecting which there can be no possible suspicion of
injustice? Nor does God pervert mishpat, Deut. 16:19; Job. 8:3, as earthly
judges do who turn it into " wormwood " and " gall," Amos 5:7 ; 6:12.
Throughout Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy mishpat is most fre-
quently synonymous with huqqim, statutes, and stands for the entire legisla-
tion contained in these books. This signification is also characteristic of the
later historical books, of the post-exUic 119th Psalm, and especially of Ezekiel
among the prophets. In the earlier prophetic and poetic literature, on the con-
trary, it usually denotes God's acts of punitive or reformatory judgment. In
Judges, Samuel and 2 Kings it is generally used as a designation of religious
customs or royal habits.
A
'edhuth testimony.
This is a significant and characteristic designation of the divine law. It is
not merely a code determining the rights of persons and things, but a revelation
which bears impressive witness to the holy character of God, to his unalterable
opposition to sin, and to his displeasure against those who disregard his law.
The law was an affirmation of universal and unchangeable principles of religion
and morality, and as such became a standing testimony against eveiy apostacy
from Jehovah's service, as weU as against every violation of personal rights.
Throughout the middle books of the Pentateuch 'edhuth is the technical desig-
nation of the Decalogue, which was laid up in the ark under the mercy-seat — " the
symbol of God's righteous severity against sin being hidden beneath the symbol
of his grace and mercy." The Decalogue was the basis of Jehovah's covenant
with Israel, and as such occupied the central place m the sanctuary. Other
things were named from their proximity to it, as, e. g., the two tables of
the testimony, Exod. 31:18; the ark of the testimony, Exod. 30:6; the vail of
180 The Old Testament Stxtdent.
the testimony, Lev. 24:3 ; the tabernacle of the testimony, Exod. 38:21 ; the
congregation before the testimony, Num. 17:4(19), etc. In the plural form,
' e d h • V o t h , this word is used in the later historical books and in the Psalms as a
collective designation of the whole body of laws that claimed Jehovah as their
author. It was, therefore, interchangeable with " commandments " and " stat-
utes." The title of Ps. 60 presents this word in a connection which, as in the
case of most of these titles, is of exceedingly obscure interpretation. " Upon a
Lily of the Testimony ■' suggests that the Psalm was set to a melody associated
with these words.
y A A
Piqqudhim precepts.
A poetic term found exclusively in the Psalms. It occurs twenty-one times
in Ps. 119, and only three times in all the rest. The LXX. in seventeen instances
renders it eivo/^, and the Vulgate praeceptum ; hence the prevailing rendering
" precept " in the A. V. The R. V. consistently translates it so in every instance.
From the point of view presented in this word, the law is regarded as a system of
ethics which, having a divine author, must be infallibly " upright,"' Ps. 19:8(9), in
its exposition of human duty, and eternally •• faithful," Ps. 111:7, assuring a reali-
zation of the highest good to those in every age and in aU circumstances who
make its requirements the norma nortnans of life and duty.
Torah law.
The influence of a theory in determining the signification of a word is strik-
ingly shown in the case of torah. The scholarship of only a few years ago,
resting on the traditional construction of Israelitish history, asserted quite posi-,
tively that this word wherever it occurred in the Old Testament, referred to the
Mosaic or Pentateuchal code. Now, on the contrary, the critics assure us that in
the prophetical writings and in the Psalms, formerly supposed to be replete with
references to the Sinaitic legislation, there is but one " absolutely certain refer-
ence to the Pentateuch," viz., Mai. 4:4 (Cheyne, Isa., vol. 1:6). In all other
instances we must read "instruction" or ''prophetic revelation." Of course if
the Pentateuchal law. as we know it, did not come into existence until after the
exile, the prophets who wrote before that time could not have referred to it,
and any apparent references must be interpreted accordingly. The signification
of this word in any given place will then be determined entirely by the interpret-
er's critical bias.
The word itself is derived from the Hiph. of yarah, to show, teach, and
means primarily instruction, doctrine. This meaning was gradually extended
into that of authoritative declaration, and this again passed into the sense of law.
Torah , even when it came to have this last meaning, was not employed in such
a rigidly "juristic sense" as our word law. "But in the theocratic sphere it
always applied to a revelation of the divine will in the form of a norm and per-
manent rule." (Orelli, O. T. Prophecy, p. 129.)
JEEEMIAH'S TEMPERAMENT.
By Pkofessor Wm. G. Ballajsttine, D. D.,
Oberlln Theol. Seminary, Oberlin, Ohio.
It is popularly assumed that the Prophet Jeremiah was naturally of an
extremely melancholy temperament. He is thought of as a man who carried
gloom with him, who had a readiness for seeing the dark side of things, and who
easily melted into tears. We hear much now-a-days of the " gospel of sunshine."
The world is to be conquered by hope and courage. To many, Jeremiah stands
as a conspicuous example of "how not to do it." He is contrasted with Moses
and Samuel and Paul as timidity is contrasted with courage and as failure is con-
trasted with success.
But whatever of the gloom of the Book of Jeremiah we set down to the dis-
position of the prophet we subtract from the impression of that historical crisis
which Providence appointed him to feel and to interpret. The idea is often
flippantly thrown out in a humorous way that a man's theology is as much to be
attributed to his liver as to his brain. Thus the most solemn expositions of the
guilt and doom of sin are robbed of their power to alarm, being quietly referred
to want of exercise or want of sleep on the part of the preacher.
The history of the Hebrew nation is a real tragedy. The Davidic kingdom
failed. In its decline and fall every element of humiliation and bitterness was
combined, and a lesson was given to all time. But the world can learn history
only through literature. It was necessary that some giand, sensitive, patriotic,
heroic soul should live through all these terrible national experiences, feel them
as his own, take in their full moral significance, and express all the shame and
woe of them in immortal words.
Measuring merit, as Americans do, by success, it is hard for us justly to
appreciate the greatness of a man who was appointed interpreter of utter national
collapse. Jeremiah did not succeed in anything but in doing his duty. At the
end of twenty-three years, he could look tack on a dead uniformity of failure.
If Jeremiah is the saddest character in Hebrew history, we must remember that
he had the saddest position of all. Moses was horrified at the sight of the golden
calf. But he had power to destroy the idol, and his intercession for the people
averted the threatened judgment. Jeremiah found idols everywhere; children
were sacrificed to them ; the nation clung to them even in exile. And he was
forbidden to intercede, since the situation was beyond t)ie help even of a Moses
(15:1). Joshua lay on his face after the repulse at Ai, in deepest discouragement.
But he soon saw the nation purged and victorious. Jeremiah's fellow-citizens
were all Achans, and defeat followed defeat. Elijah, bold as he was, fled away
disconsolate, as Jeremiah wished he could do, and sat down xmder the juniper
tree. But he was sent to Iloreb to learn that seven thousand still remained
faithful to Jehovah. Jeremiah is left unable to find one that seeketh truth.
Samuel was grieved at the failure of the theocracy and at the disobedience of
182 The Old Testament Student.
Saul. Yet his intercession for the people was still powerful, and he had the
privilege of auointiug David, the new hope of the nation. Jeremiah watches the
briet inglorious career of each of the successive weaklings of the house of Josiah
with no duty but to foretell ruin and to weep. For even a Samuel could have
done nothing more now. Paul had great sorrow and continual pain in his heart
for his brethren's sake; but it was his relief to go far away and do a mighty con-
structive work among the Gentiles. Jeremiah, equally scorned and rejected, had
still to stay and watch the throes of national death.
Thus neither Moses nor Joshua nor Samuel nor Elijah nor Paul was ever sub-
jected to such atrial as Jeremiah. As a sufferer he. stands next to our Lord
liimself. Why should we attribute his distress to unusual predisposition to mel-
ancholy V If he shrank from the stem task assigned to him. Moses and Isaiah
had done the same. If he yielded to discouragement, Joshua had done the same.
If he longed for a lodge in the wilderness, the bold Elijah had sought the same.
If he cursed the day of his birth, Job, the great example of patience, had done the
same. If he wept over Jerusalem, so did our Lord. That Jeremiah preserved
the sweetness of his affections and the loyalty of his piety and the boldness of his
otBcial testimony to the end, argues rather a naturally strong, ardent, high-spir-
ited, heroic nature.
Jeremiah was a lonely man, not from choice but by divine command. The
consolation of wife and children was denied him. His brethren and his father's
house dealt treacherously with him. The men of Auathoth, his native village,
conspired against his life. He suffered arrest on a false charge of desertion,
imprisonment, the stocks, confinement in a miry dungeon. He lived at strife
with the king, the princes, the prophets, the priests, and all the people.
As a patriot, Jeremiah had the unwelcome duty of discouraging patriotic
hopes and resistance to foreign oppression. He shared in the overwhelming aud
never forgotten national sorrow over the fall of Josiah at Megiddo. Then fol-
lowed the captivity of Jehoahaz ; the luxury, oppression, defiant impiety and
death of Jehoiakim, who was buried with the burial of an ass ; the weakness,
wickedness, captivity, and childlessness of Jehoiachia ; the pusillanimity, captiv-
ity, bereavement, and blindness of Zedekiah. When the royal house had thus
exhausted all the possibilities of ignominy, and Gedaliah's vigor kindled a ray of
hope, this was suddenly quenched by his atrocious murder, and all the wounds of
the bleeding nation were opened afresh. Nothing could now restrain the infatu-
ation of the people from a voluntary exile in Egypt. It was Jeremiah's duty to
foretell continually invasion, famine, pestilence, drought, overthrow, captivity,
the destruction of the city and temple. No other prophet ever had such a task —
to go always do^Tiward but never upward, to pass from gloom into thicker bliick-
ness, to see each national shiime merged in a deeper, to see defeat added to defeat,
but never a victory, to .see c.ilamity fall on calamity, yet the people never wiser
or more penitent. He was never allowed to attempt to arouse the national spirit.
. As a prophet, to Jeremiah was not assigned the privilege of reforming, deliv-
ering, inspiring, leading, but only llie burden of predicting, aud then witnessing,
the doom of obstinacy. He found the whole nation in a state of perpetual back-
sliding. Idolatry was universal. The blood of the innocent poor flowed una-
venged. The prophets prophesied falsely, the priests profited by it, and the
people loved to have it so. Sodom and Gomorrah alone could furnish a parallel.
A Visit to Zinjtrli. 183
Thus personally and as a lover of his country and as a lover of God, Jeremiah
felt every grief that can wring the heart and never had any earthly alleviation.
To ask why he was not cheerful and sunny and hopeful under such circumstances,
is frivolous. His life was a long Gethsemane. He went down with his nation
into its grave. To attribute the sadness of the Book of Jeremiah to the author's
natural liability to the " blues," is to miss the point of the longest and sub-
limest lesson of the hideousness and dreadful consequences of sin given to
the world before Calvary. In its effect upon so strong and healthful and great a
man as Jeremiah we are to measure the appalling horror of the national ruin.
Jesus of Nazareth was a man of sorrows and acquainted with grief. We are
never told that he smiled ; but we are told three times that he wept. Tliose who
think slightingly of Jeremiah will find it hard to appreciate the character of our
Lord. In view of our great national sins and our national levity, in view of the
shallow views and superficial work of many professed Christians, it seems that
the church of America needs a new study of the thoughts and feelings of Jere-
miah. Even in our country there may be situations where a man of God may
have a good reason for tears, a full excuse for failure, and a divine impulse to
terrible denunciation.
A VISIT TO ZmJIKLI*.
By Robert Fkancis Hakper, Ph. D.,
Bagdad, Turkey in Asia.
On the 19th of October, 1888, accompanied by Mi-. Perez II. Field and two
servants, I left Aintab for Zinjirli. After a journey of seven hours— almost due
west— over a rugged and mountainous road, we stopped at Sara-Kaya, i. e. the
yellow cliff, for the night. The inhabitants of this small mountain-village seemed
to be afraid of our Frank dress and repeating rifles, as we were refused cover on
all sides. However, after an hour's parley, we finally persuaded one of the old
men to take us into his house. After a night of ceaseless fighting with the ver-
min peculiar to these regions, we continued our journey westward. The road, if
such a dignified name can be given to the paths and river beds through which we
passed, lay over the mountains, until, after seven hours riding, we reached the
so-called Autioch plain. We crossed this plain in two hours; and, at 3 P. M., we
were upon the mound of Zinjirli. The guard, left by the Germans, very kindly
gave us permission to make our headquarters in one of the wooden tents, erected
by the Germans for a warehouse. As we were fatigued, we made only a cursory
examination of the mound before retiring.
On the next morning, we entered into a closer examination of the trenches,
hoping to find some objects which the Germans had not taken away. We were
only partially successful. In one of the largest ditches, I found a large statue
of a Hittite Uon. The figure of the lion proper rests on a base Im. 76cms. high,
Im. 45cms. broad, and 76cms. thick. Only the head, shoulders and two fore-paws
of the lion were carved out of this rock. The height of the lion is the same as
the breadth of the stone, viz. Im. 45cms. The highest part of its head projects
184 The Old Testament STirDENT.
above the base Im. lOcms., and the paws SOcms. The statue called to mind at
once the large lions in the British Museum. The carving, however, is verj- much
ruder— exceedingly rude. The stone and figure are perfectly preserved. There
is no inscription on them. The statue is now lying in a circular hole in one of
the largest trenches, tipped up at an angle of 45°.
We found another interesting room on the other side of the mound near the
three wooden tents. The first thing to attract my attention here was a large
statue, about the size of the .Shalmaneser Monolith in the British Museum, leaning
up against one of the sides of the trench. After a closer examination, I found
that it was of plaster paris, colored — evidently an unsuccessful attempt made by
the Germans to take a cast of some large object. In the same chamber, I found
some very fine tiles. They were of burnt clay, reddish color, and about 29cms.
square. They could be modern. They were placed evenly in the form of a floor
and they had evidently served for this purpose. Further on, resting on a base
Im. 4cms. square, is a finely cut circular object with flat top and bottom. This
object was probably the base of a statue. Its height is 60cms. circumference at
top and bottom 2m. 30cms., and at centre 2m. 90cms. It is cracked lengthwise
through the centre. Around both top and bottom are carved rope-mouldings.
We found two other interesting chambers, which I shall not attempt to describe.
Zinjirli lies at the base of the Amanus mountains, called by the Turks Giaour
— east of the ridge — facing the Antioch plain. It is in one of the narrowest
parts of the plain, midway between Antioch and Marash. The mound is com-
paratively small and low — about a half-mile in circuit, — its elevation above the
sun-ounding plain being 30-40 feet. The Germans, who excavated in the spring
of 1888, have literally perforated the greater part of the mound with deep, broad
trenches. The ground in the mound is very hard and gritty, and filled with large
round stones. At present, these stones are being drawn away on two-wheeled
carts by the natives to be used for building purposes.
An hour and one quarter to the east is another large mound. It is about
75ft. in elevation and larger than Zinjirli. From the inhabitants in the Kurdish
summer-village at Zinjirli, I learned that the Germans intended to return in
March, 1889, to prosecute their work at Zinjirli and to open tliis other mound. I
al.so learned that two hours to the nortli-east, lying in a boggy marsh, there are
two large Ilittite monuments. At present they are under water. They could, how-
ever, be gotten out very easily, and the natives would be glad to point out exactly
where they are.
Visitors to Zinjirli can find accommodations either on the mound itself or at
Keller, a village 40 minutes to the south-west. On our return to Aintab, we
remained over night at Beilan Kijj, taking from that point a much smoother and
better road to Aintab. The distance from Aintab to Zinjirli is generally placed
at 18 hours. We went in IB and returned in 13. An interesting article on
" Sculptures near Zinjirli " is to be found in the Jime, 1887, number of the Amer-
ican Journal of Archcmloyy.
AXNTAB, TUKIvJSY, Oct. 30th, 1888.
SYNOPSES OF IMPOETANT AKTICLES.
The Interpretation of the Book of Job.*— The commonly accepted interpreta-
tion which makes " the mystery of God's providential government of men " the
subject of the book is to be rejected, because 1) it lays too much emphasis upon
what is external and mechanical ; 2) it makes what is subordinate play the lead-
ing part.
The Book of Job is " the Epic of the Inner Life," " an epic in which is
recorded the spiritual history of the man of Uz, his struggles and adventures,
unknown to sense, but real to faith." Of Satan's agency in his calamities. Job
has no knowledge ; but of the calamities themselves, he has a very lively sense.
They mark him as a man " smitten of God." Here, then, is Job's difficulty. He
is righteous ; and yet God is treating him as though he were guilty. How can
that be ? Doubt begets doubt. Can it be that the powers that work unseen are
after all arrayed on the side of evil and against godliness? Even his friends
do not understand his case. They withhold sympathy but not reproaches. He
is led, however, to break with the conventional view of God and to stake "life
and destiny on the belief that the powers that work unseen, in spite of inexorable
appearances, are for righteousness."
Two questions remain. The first has reference to bridging the chasm
between his soul and God. The second centers about the enigma of death. The
idea of a Daysman between Mm and God furnishes the solution to the first.
Only the supposition that man shall live again enables him to solve the second.
But what of this present world, with its perplexing facts and problems ? The
three friends portray the awful fate of the wicked. Job retorts by calling their
attention to the prosperity and security of the wicked. The friends have no
answer. It remains then for him to fit himself into the sum of things, to find by
creative faith " the road through this life, where so often wickedness gets the pay
and righteousness the oppression." He begins with the wicked. Their life is
not foimded on the truth of things. It will not, therefore, endure. The twenty-
eighth chapter reveals " the true wisdom of life,"— the reality.
After Job's retrospect (chs. 29-31), of his former life of prosperity and honor,
the discourses of Elihu are introduced. Elihu, like the three friends, is a conven-
tional believer. "It is the author's intention, in the persons of Elihu and Job,
to bring these two classes, who have been the antagonists throughout the poem,
to the test of God's immediate presence." The way they meet that ordeal will
show who has the real determination of heart towards God. Then comes Job's
vindication. At last, that Presence is here for whose coming he had so fervently
longed. But the revelation ? Only this : that we are, in aU things, " to see that
there is wisdom and power sufficient for everything, to make every creature ful-
fill its part in one infinite purpose and wiU." And this is his vindication : " to go
on with enlightened eyes and chastened spirit." Job's restoration to health and
prosperity seems, to some, an artistic blemish. It would have been, had that
* By Professor John F. Genunjr, in The Andover BevUw, Nov., 18SS. pp. 437-408.
♦4
1S6 Thb Old TESTAiiEur Student.
been the end which Job sought. But that for which he longed had been real-
ized in the vision of God. His restoration was merely an incidental addition. In
other words, " Seek ye first the kingdom of God and his righteousness ; and all
these things shall be added unto you."' A. M. W.
The threat merit of tula Interpretation is that It takes the book as it lies before us and
seeks to harmonize all the facts. Tbe article Is a masterly one and deserves study.
The Resurrection in the Peutateiich.*— Can we derive from the Pentateuch
the same idea of resurrection that we at present liold ? Light is thrown on tlie
meaning of the Pentateuch from two sources : 1) From discoveries in Babylonia.
The description of the Chaldean Sheol resembles that of the Bible. The gods
could restore the dead to life. After death those accepted by the gods would
become like them. 2) From Egypt. As far back as 3000 B. C, the Egyptians
looked forward to a future Ufe, where the righteous as a reward for their good
deeds were to die no more, and where the impure were to go to a lake of fire.
Thus we get a knowledge of the religious belief of Babylonia, whence Abraham
came, and of Egypt, under whose suzerainty over Canaan Abraham lived for
100 years. The Pentateuch contains the doctrine of resurrection, as is shown 1)
by the appeal made to the Pentateuch in proof of resurrection by our Saviour
and Paul; 2) by a study of Genesis, in relation to (1) the creation of man. Man
is a union of a body, and a living spirit from God. Personality is not destroyed
at death, but the spirit in the other world is to represent tlie man. Thus Abra-
ham is to " go to his fathers in peace." (2) Adam, who first lived in communion
with God. As a punishment for his sin, the sentence not merely of physical
death, but of spiritual death, was passed on him, which means he was cut off from
communion with God. (3) Cain and Abel. Abel, who was accepted of God, is
slain by Cain, yet Cain's life is guarded by God. If, then, death ended all, was
not Abel the loser and Cain the gainer 'i Adam, then, had this dilemma to face :
Either death ends all, and hence there is no God of life who is faithful to his
word ; or God lives and Abel will be rewarded in another sphere, and Cain pun-
ished. Enoch, as a reward for his faith, was taken to God. Is it not reasonable
to believe that faithful Abel looked for the same spiritual blessings ? Would not
Adam reasonably have this hope for Abel from all that he knew of God y All
these things seem to point to a hope of resurrection. Enoch, Abraham, and Moses
had this same belief . This is further illustrated from Ezek. 37:1-14 and Rev.
11:3-13. II. C.
An ingenious article on the right side— an argument, however, which takes no account of
the critical view of the Pentateuch, and th« possibility that the writer or writers wrote from the
stand-point ol tlielr own times.
Elijah the Tislibite a tientUe.t— Six reasons are suggested to show that Elijah
was a Gentile. 1. The Hebrew word toshab is used to signify "foreigner,"
" stranger," or " sojourner," and the two latter terms were never applied to Jews
by their countrymen. 2. Elijah was fed by tlie unclean ravens; even if the raven
had been clean, yet it would have here been unclean to a Jew, since its talons were
* By Howard Osgood, D. D., in The Baptist Quarterly Review, October, 1888.
+By Dr. Joseph Longklng, in The ilcthodUt Review, November, 1888.
Synopses of Impobtant Articles. 187
polluted by contact with carrion. 3. The widow of Zarephath is to be regarded
as a heathen. Elijah was sent to her, because 1) Elijah and his hostess were non-
Israelites ; 2) this foreign place afforded security. 4. The brook Cherith is east of
the Jordan, and Elijah goes home when he goes to dwell by that brook. 5. Luke
4:25-27 establishes the fact of the Gentile origin of both the widow and Naamau,
and strongly suggests Elijah to be of the same race. 6. In the transfiguration
scene Elijah stands as a representative of the Gentiles.
Bejoinder hy the Editor. — The language used implies not that he was a for-
eigner in Israel, but a foreigner in Gilead. Toshab, though usually employed to
indicate a stranger dwelling in the midst of Israel, yet in Ps. 39:12 and 1 Chron.
29:15 is used of a pilgrim. 2. Because Elijah was fed by unclean ravens it does
not follow that all they touch is unclean. Lev. 11:15,24,25,31,32 shows that the
law applied to carcasses. 3. As to the location of Cherith, 1) natives tell us it is
west of the Jordan ; 2) if east, it proves no more than that Gilead is east of the
Jordan. 4. In Luke 4:25-27 the Saviour places the emphasis more upon the
woman than upon the prophet, and does not imply that Elijah was a Gentile. 5.
At the transfiguration the living represented the living, and the departed repre-
sented the departed. 6. Again it is, 1) not likely that the Almighty would send a
Gentile to the Hebrews; 2) no record of the non-Hebraic descent of Elijah is
found; 3) in the character of EUj ah we discover nothing incompatible with his
Hebraic nationality. F.
The Rise and Decline of Idolatry.* — " Fetichism is the infancy of religion," is a
theory that was started in a time of intellectual ferment and is crude, untenable.
Idolatry, of which fetichism is the lowest type, " is not a primary but a secondary
formation." " The human race, when itcameto have a religion, setout with apure
monotheism," from which idolatry is a retrogression. The three stages in the
development of idolatry are, 1 ) a beginning in nature- worship ; man must worship,
but apart from the light of divine revelation he worships that in nature which
reflects himself ; 2) a logical tendency from the simplicity of nature-worship to a
diversity of personalized forms. This is historically true in Egypt, Greece and
Rome, and suggests that as idolatry began in simplicity there was behind it an
absolute simplicity, the one God, and a monotheistic faith, the common property
of mankind. This view of idolatry is illustrated in the history of Israel in their
rushing into idolatry under the impulse of their passions whence only God could
save them. And here it is noted that not only passion but intellect left to itself
begets idolatry. Witness the history of Buddhism, which, beginning in intellec-
tual atheism, has ended in a multiplicity of gods. 3) The third stage is disinte-
gration. The history of Hindoo religions is a history of perpetual division into
sects, " a tangled jungle " of superstitions. Thus it is maintained that the scrip-
tural doctrine of a fall from piimitive spii-itual monotheism is justified by the
historical facts of the development of idolatry.
A vigorous discussion worthy of attention. The presentation of the subject is confused by
a poor arrangement of the material and a tendency to diverge from the main point.
» By G. T. Flanders, D. D., in The Universalist Quarterly, Oct., 1888, pp. 465-478.
188 The Old Testament Student.
The Two Isaiabs, the real and the Imaginary.*— This hypothesis of two
Isaialis is the creation of German rationalists, whose plausible reasoning has per-
suaded English students, particularly Drs. Cheyne and Driver, to adopt similar
views. Dr. Driver's " Isaiah " is the latest and most popular presentation of
them. But there seems to be no sufficient reasons given for disbelieving the uni-
versal and unbroken tradition of a single Isaiah. Let the methods of the new
school be considered and tested. 1) They make much use of Assyriological
material, which often conflicts with the biblical statements. This is more likely
to show the inaccuracy of the AssjTian than that of the prophecy. Indeed, caution
must be exercised in comparing the brief, condensed, general statements of Isaiah
with the Assyrian records. The former are texts, summaries, and are lacking in
the definite chronological character needful for adequate comparison. 2) A sim-
ilar caution must be used in giving the work of the prophet a character largely
political. The latter part of Isaiah is not so much concerned about Cjtus and
the exiles in Babylon as about the great consummation of the church in the far
future. This view links together all of Isaiah's prophecies, the early and the
late. 3) These critics affirm that Isaiah could not take his position as the later
prophecies represent him, in a distant future of exile, and prophesy a still more
distant future to come. He must have lived in the exUe to have thus spoken of
the return. But the earlier prophecies speak of an exile, and the exile in effect
had been slowly going on from Solomon's time. Hence Isaiah could take the
wide-spread expectation of it for granted and go on to more distant events. That
he should liave given names of coming persons is marvelous, yet not more so than
the element of time that appears. Prophecy is usually timeless. 4) They insist
that the historical element in the book must settle the date of Isaiah's work.
But the prophet rises above the historical situation. God. not history, is the
source of the prophecy. Besides these main positions of the critics, whicli are
largely untenable, there are other facts against them : 1) the frequent breaks in
the book before ch. 40 ; 2) the indecisive argument from language ; 3) the differ-
ent views held about chs. 40-66 ; 4) the uniform tradition of the Jewish church.
The methods and principles employed by the critics are to a great extent, (1) intel-
lectually unsound; (2) morally irreverent and confusing in their tendencies; (3)
scientiQcally unproductive and incredible.
This article presents an exceedingly sliong argniment for the older views of biblical science
by using tlielr best positions in a vigorous criticism of the newer school. Few would accept
the old views if they were presented in a complete exposition, while the very boldness and pro-
gressivcness of the later criticism lay it open to assault. It is well to be reminded that one may
go too fast in throwing aside what has been accepted In the past. This presentation is worth
studying for its material, and demands study because of its want of order and clearness. One
may note that Dr. Briggs declares in this very number of the Rcvietv cp. 663; that " no critic of
eminence at the present day believes that Isaiah wrote chs. 40-06."
» By Principal George C. M. Douglass, D. D., in the Prcshylerian Bevtew, Oct., 1888, pp. 603-687.
^BOOIii-I^OTICES.^-
BIBLICAL ESCHATOLOGY.*
Eschatology has beeu so generally relegated to the teachings of the New Tes-
tament, that a student of the Old Testament, at first sight, may deem the title of
Dr. Hovey's book somewhat misleading. But the grave questions involved in the
doctrine touch very vitally all revelation. Such topics as "Natural Death,"
"Resurrection of the Dead," "Condition of Human Souls between Death and
Resurrection," " The Last Judgment," " The Final State of Believers," and " The
Final State of UnbeUevers" are topics which stir thought when reading Genesis
as well as when reading the Apocalypse.
In a very compact form the author has given the results of years of study,
stimulated by the questionings of his classes. Believing that our knowledge of
final things for definiteness is entirely dependent upon the teachings of the Bible,
he has followed the method of Christ with " a certain lawyer : " " What is writ-
ten in the Law? How readest thou?" (Lk. 10:26). Quietly, with mental
reserve, and with a thorough, scholarly method, he inten-ogates nearly all the texts
generally quoted for and against the subjects in hand, and gives us his own con-
clusions, leaving his reader to decide for himself. The tone of candor and catho-
licity is exceedingly charming. We have not noticed a sentence which smacks of
the odium theologicum — a rare power and a rarer fact.
There may be difi:erences of opinion as to the interpretation of some texts ;
perhaps some of those selected from the Old Testament are rather inferential
than conclusive ; but there can be no question as to the reverence with which all
of them are considered. We commend the book, as timely and suggestive. It is
a book to be studied as well as read, or rather to be studied when read.
THE ANCIENT WORLD AND CHKISTIANITY.t
In this work the history of the religious element in man is narrated from its
earliest known sources. The well-known learning of the author, his candor and
liberality, his hopeful and earnest spirit, are at their best in this volume. The
literary style, as also the an-angement of the material, is worthy of praise. Begin-
ning with pre-historic man, the religious development of the east is traced in
Chaldea, Egypt and Phoenicia; then follow the religious ideas of the oriental
Aryans, the religions of India in the Vedas and Buddhism. The scene changes
to the west, where Hellenic paganism is succeeded by the Graeco-Roman syncret-
ism, whose decay leaves the path open for the coming of Christ in this the full-
ness of time. The writer's view is that these endeavors of man after God
* Biblical Eschatology. By Alvah Hovey, D. D., LL. D. Philadelphia: American Bap-
tist Publication Society. Price, 90 cts.
tTHE Ancient World and Christianity. By E. Be Pressense, D. D. New York: A. C.
Armstrong and Son.
190 The Old Testament Student.
were divinely ordered as a preparation for Christianity. " All history is sacred."
The Spirit of God was at work in the heathen world as well as in the Jewish
nation, to kindle a desire for tlie Redeemer and to foster and stimulate that desire
until lie shall be revealed. Nowhere are so many facts brought together concern-
ing tlie ancient religions, or so broad and accurate a view taken of them in so small
a compass, as in this volume. It would greatly stimulate all who are students of
the Bible, whether ministers or laymen.
LUTHER AND THE BIBLE.*
The present volume of Dr. SchafE's admirable Church History possesses spe-
cial importance for students of the Bible. The Reformation is the apocalypse and
apotheosis of the Scriptures. It began with an opened Bible. Luther's greatest
achievement was the German translation of the Scriptures. It is well known
that from this period as the beginning, and from the great Reformer as the source,
two great movements took their rise, the power of which is by no means broken
to-day. On the one hand the Bible became an infallible book, and its very words
the sole arbiter and authority in all doubtful questions. On the other hand, in
Luther's free treatment of certain parts of the Scriptures may be traced the
beginnings of modern rationalism. Two tendencies so opposite sprang from the
same soil. In the pages of this volume will be found a clear and full statement
of the facts concerning Luther's work upon the Bible and a critical estimate of
his version. The dispassionate, industrious and devout spirit that characterizes
all of Dr. SchafE's contributions to church history is manifest in this notable book.
GEIKIE'S HOLY LA>D ASD THE BIBLE. t
The literature which has grown out of Palestine exploration is very copious.
Dr. Geikie recognizes the fact in the preface to the work before us. But his aim
is in a popular way to employ the latest results of investigation in this field, and
also by personal observation gather " illustrations of the several wTitings "' from
natural objects and local usages. "Nothing is more instructive" (so reads the
preface) " or can be more charming, when reading scripture, than the illumination
of its texts from such sources, throwing light upon its constantly recurring Orien-
tal imagery and local allusions, and revealing the exact meaning of words and
phrases which otherwise would not be adequately understood." From this it will
be inferred that Dr. Geikie's itiueraiy is a sort of topographical commentary on
the Bible. A perusal of the books confirms the impression conveyed by the pref-
ace. The increased vividness which tlie work gives to the scenes and events of
God's Word will make it a valuable addition to the Bible-studenfs library. Nev-
ertheless, it is open to criticism. Excessive difl'useness here and there distracts
the attention ; and there are exegeses that might better be left to the distinctively
critical and exegetical commentaries.
• History or thb Christian Church. VI. The German Reformation. 1617-1530. By
Philip Schatr, D. D. New York: Charles Scribner's Som. M.OO.
+ The Hoi.y Land and the Bible. A book ot Scripture Illustrntions g-athered in Pales-
tine. By Cunningham Geikie, D. D., 'Vicar of St. Martin's at Palace, Norwich. With a map of
Palestine. 2 vols. New York : James Pott il Co. 1888. Pp. vl, 560, 544.
CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL OF HEBREW.
The prizes for the largest number of papers
received within the year ending: Nov. 30tb,
above the grade of 8, have been awarded as
follows:
First prize, $20.00 in books. Mr. J. K. MacGil-
Uvray, now in Princeton Theological Sem-
inary, but of Winnipeg, Manitoba, up to the
beginning of the seminary year.
Second prize, Sl.5.00 in books, Rev. J. F. Mor-
gan, Coeyman's Junction, N. Y.
Third prize, $10.00, Miss Maria Whitney, of
New York City,
Fourth prize, §5.00, Rev. D. H. Patterson,
TuUy, N. Y.
The next twenty students, in the order of
the number of papers sent are 1, Rev. J. van
Houte, S. Holland, 111.: 2, Rev. E. H. Barnett,
D. D., Atlanta, Ga.: 3, A. A. Quinlan, College
Mound. Mo. ; 4, Rev. E. T. Miller, Halifax, N. S.;
5, Rev. Canon A. A. Von Iffland, Bergerville,
Quebec; 6, Rev. C. G. Hudson, Anderson, Ind.;
7, Rev. Ira D. Darling, Sheffield, Pa,; 8, Rev.
R. M. Kirby, Potsdam, N. Y.; 9, Rev. J. W.
Saunders, Deer Park, 111.; 10 to 13 (same no.)
Rev. J. F. Clarkson, Osborn, Mo.; Rev. D. F.
Davies, Paddy's Run, O.; Prof. Holmes Dy-
singer, Carthage, 111.; Rev. C. H. Haggar'
Townsville, Queensland, Australia; 14, Rev.
B. W. Mebane, Dublin, Va. ; 15, Miss Cassie
Quinlan, Stella, Neb.; 16, Rev. J. H. Messenger,
Mechanicsville, N. Y.; 17, Rev. S. E. Jones,
Wheeling, W. Va.; 18, Mr. D. S. Gage, Macon,
111. : 19, Rev. J. G. Tanner, Houston, Texas; 20,
Miss Frances Blackburn, 0.xtord, England.
The February number of the Student will
contain the annual report of the Principal, in
which all members of both the Correspondence
and Summer Schools will be interested. This
will take the place of the Correspondence
School page for that issue. The reports this
month are therefore extended over the first
half of Dec. as well as the month of Nov.
The enrollments numberforty-six, viz.; Rev.
John Allender, Champaign, 111.; Prof. W. B.
Anderson, LaBeUe, Mo. ; Rev. I. L. Case, Ripley,
Tenn.; Rev. R. J. Church, Stratford, N. Y.;
Miss L. R. Corwin, Cleveland, O.; Rev. W. J.
Cuthbertson, Deer River, N. Y. : Rev. E. A.
Davidson, Boston, Mass.; Mr. J. H. Dorsey,
Tampa, Fla.; Miss Elsie S. Dow, Wasioja, Minn.;
Rev. A. P. Ekman, New York City; Rev. G.
W. Folwell, Brooklyn, N. Y.; Rev. A. W. Ger-
rie, Portage la Prairie, Manitoba ; Rev. J. H.
Gill, Southold, N. Y.; Mrs. S. R. Gray, Cam-
bridge, N. Y.; Rev. 1. M. Haldeman, New York
City; Rev. E. C. B. Hallam, Dundas, Ont.; Rev.
0. M. Hawkins, Boonville, Mo.; Mr. James
Heard, Summit, N. J.; Mr. T. H. Hunt, Char-
lottetown, P. E. I.; Rev. Geo. Jackson, Cole-
raine, Ireland; Mr. P. F. Jernegan, Provi-
dence, R. I.; Prof. Abby Leach, Poughkeepsie,
N. Y.; Rev. Geo. Lloyd, Frankfort, Mich.;
Rev. W. F. Miirkwick, Meriden. Conn.: Rev.
J. T. Marvin, Hamilton, Minn.; Rev. M. Mo-
Fadyen, Saticoy, Cal.; Mrs. W. B. McGill, Mar-
lette, Mich.; J. M. P. Metcalf, St. Louis, Mo.:
Rev. Alfred Osborne, Markham, Can.; Rev. J.
T. Plunket, D. D., Detroit, Mich.; Rev. David
Prill, Grafton, Nova Scotia ; Rev. Walter Reid,
Weston, Ont.; Rev. A. B. Scoville, Dover Plains-
N. Y.; Rev. R. H. Shirley, Owego, N. Y.; Rev.
C. J. Shrimpton, Ridgeway, N. J.: Miss M. E.
Silverthorne, Northfield, Mass.: Prof. L. A.
Starr, Bellevue, Pa.; Rev. G. E. Stevens, Syra-
cuse, N. Y.; Rev. Herbert Symonds, Toronto,
Ont.; Rev. F. T. Tapscott, Port Arthur, Out.;
Rev. F. W. Towle, Monticello, Me.; Rev. C. C.
Townsend, Lowville, N. Y.; Rev. S. Warner,
St. Louis, Mo.; Rev. R. R. Watkins, Franklin-
ville, N. Y.; Rev N. O. Westergreen, Evans-
ton, III.; Rev. W. W. W. Wilson, Easton, Md.
The graduates since the last report are Rev.
J. F. Clarkson, Osborn, Mo.; Rev. I. D. Darhng,
Sheffield, Pa.; Rev. D. F. Davies, Paddy's Run,
O.; Rev. C. T. Dunning, Petersburg, Pa.; Rev.
J. C. Flanders, Manchester Centre, Vt.; Rev.
G. Heam, Coeymans, N. Y.; Rev. C. G. Hud-
son, Anderson, Ind.; Rev. R. M. Kirby, Pots-
dam, N. Y.; Rev. E. S. Lewis, Chattanooga,
Tenn.; Mr. J. K. MacGillivray, Princeton, N.
J.; Rev. J. H. Messenger, Mechanicsville, N. Y.;
Rev. W. A. Schruff, Chillicothe, O.; Miss M.
Whitney, New York City. Of these two com-
pleted the Elementary Course, nine, the Inter-
mediate and two the Progressive.
Perfect papers have been received from the
following: Three from Mr. W. M. Junkin,
Christiansburgh, Va.; and Mr. S. D. Lathrop,
Richmond, Mich., two from Rev. H. S. Gekeler,
Upper Sandusky, O.; Mr. J. A. Ingham, Hack-
ettstown, N. J.; one from Rev. E. H. Barnett,
D. D., Atlanta, Ga.; Mr. S. S. Conger, Summit,
N. J.; Rev. E. A. Davidson, Boston, Mass.;
Miss C. P. Dwight, Elmira, N. Y.; Mrs. John
Rowland, Guadalajara, Mex.; Rev. J. W.
Smith, Xenia, O. ; Mrs. H. M. Sydenstricker,
Hamilton, Mo.
Remember that the number of prizes for
next year has been increased from four to
nine and the total value from $50.00 to $100.00.
This number of the Student will be sent to
all members of the Correspondence School
whether subscribers or not. It is hoped that
those who ai-e not subscribers will become so.
Every live member of the school should be in-
terested in knowing how his own work com-
pares with that of others, who are taking up
the study with him, who are finishing the var-
ious courses, who win the prizes offered. If
not ready to subscribe just yet, send 15 cents
for the next number containing the annual
reports and the plans for the coming year.
CURRENT OLD TESTAMENT LITERATURE.
AHGKICAN AND FOBEIGN PUBLICATIONS.
La Me^e^ itwlcs archtottHjiqxun 9ur see mouu^
rntnt*. By Ch. Kobault de Fleury. Con-
tlnufespar son Ills. Vol. IV., V., VI. Paris:
Impr. Motteroz; Ubr. des Imurlmerles r6-
unles, Ism.
lets nmr de Oriehtche vertaling van het Oude Tes-
tament. Overgrxirukt uU het proornmma van
het Erasmiaanmh m/mnasium voor 1K88-89. By
I. Hooykaas. Kotteraam: A. Eeltjes, IHSg.
Die Henlichheit iter liibcl ycjcnuher den Angrlf-
fen ihrcr Krilikcr. Ein Zeimnin aw der Ge-
meinde f. die Gemcinde. Ity O. Hasenkamp.
Mlt e. Vorworte v. C. K. Victor. Gotha: F.
A. Perthes. 18>S8 M.4.
Drie weocn, I'en dncl [Renan. Hist, du peuple
d'lerai'l; Kittel, Gesch. der Tlehriler; Baethiie].
Beitrilge zur semitixchen lielioionsyeschichten,
I. By A. Kuenen In Theol. Tijdschr., 18.*», 5.
The People 8 Bible. XV. 1 Chron. 10 to 2 Chnin.
ai. By .Joseph Parker, D. D. New York:
Funk & Wngnalls $1.50.
The Lea.it of all Lnnds: Seven Chapters in the
Tnpiigrapitu of Palestine in relation to its His-
tory. By Wiiliam Miller, LL. D. London:
Blackle & Son S.3.6.
The Eiltites ; or. The Story of a Forgotten Em-
pire. By A. H. Sayce, LL. D. London: Re-
ligious Tract Society S.J.B.
Liber Chroniciirum, Textu,m Masoreticum. Ed.
S. Baer M1.30.
Schorr's Talmudische Exegesen. Untereucht v-
M. Kohn M.6-
Evolution of Ancient Hinduism. By A. M.
Floyer. London: Chapman & Hall S.2.6.
Klnleitung in das Alte Testament. 3Aufl. By
H. L. Strack. Noerdlingen: Beck M.3.20.
Alttestamentliclie Theologie. By H. Schultz. i
volllg umgearb. aufl. I. Goettingen....M.15.
Entstehung d. Vollies Israel u. SeAner natinyialen
Organisation. By C .H. Cornlll. Hamburg.
M0.60.
Plain Commentary on tlie Minor Prophets. Com-
piled from various sources by the author of
■'Christ our Law." London: Masters ..S.T.B.
Some Chapters on Judaism and Vie Science of
RcUginn. By Rabbi Louis Grossman, D. D.
New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons ?1 50.
A Personal Narrative of the Euphrates ETpcdi-
tion. By William Francis Alnsworth. 2 vol.
London: Kegan Paul.
Early Adventures in Persia, Susiana and Baby-
lonia. By Henry Layard. 3 vol. London:
Murray S.34.
The History; of Jerumlem : the City of Herod and
Satadin. By Walter Besant and E. H. Pal-
mer. New and revised edition. London:
Bentley S.7.6.
AltTICLES AXD REVIEWS.
Junior Right among the Canaanites. Letters In
the Academy, Oct. 27 ; Nov. 3,10, '88.
Baethgcn's Beitraege zur Semitischen Reliaion-
geschicMe. Review, ibid, Nov. 10, '88.
Staile's Gesehichte des Vulkes Israel. Return's
Histoiredu Peuple Israel. Kitten's Gesehichte
der Hebrmer. Reviews by Kamphausen In
Theo. Studien u. Kritiken, 1, 89.
Poetical Fragments in the Pentateuch. By Rev.
W. C. Daland iu the Sabbath Recorder, Dec.
6, '88.
From Sinai to Shechem. By Edward L. Wilson
in the Century, Dec, '88.
Oriental Numbers and Battles. By William
Wright, D. D., in Sunday School Times, Nov.
21, '88.
The Three Walls of .lerusalem: the Wall of Jere-
miah as relating to Calvary. By Prof. .1. A.
Paine. Ph. D. in The CbrisUan at Work,
Nov. 29, '88.
Cheyne's Psalms. Critique iu the Unitarian
Review, Dec, '88.
Clastic and Semitic EUiics. By A. P. Peabody,
D. D., in the Andover Review, Dec, '88.
KautzschundSocin's Die Genesis. Review. By
G.F.Moore. Ibid.
Bissell's Biblical Antifiuities. Review. By J. P.
Taylor. Ibid.
The Idea of God in Amos. By Prof. H. G.
Mitchell, Ph. D., in Journal Soc Bibl. Litr.
and E.tpg., Dec, '87.
Psalm ex. By Prof. T. H. Rich, D. D. Ibid.
Vr Kasdlm. By Prof. Francis Brown, D. D.
Ibid.
Joshua 22:9-34 and the Israelitish Cultus. By
Prof. E. C. Bissell, D. D. Ibid.
Who were the Philistines! By Isaac H. Hall.
Ph. D., in The Sunday School Times, Dec 1'
'88.
Lexois' The Holy Places of Jerusalem. Review
In AthenEcum, Dee. 1, '88.
Les hypoge/s royaux de Thebes. I. By Mas-
pero. In Revue de L'HIstoire des Religions,
3, '88. n. Ibid, 4, '88.
Les Traveaux de M. Jeremias, et dcM. Haupt sur
la Religion et la Latigue des Ancicns Assyr-
tens. By HaWvy. Ibid, 3, '88.
Studies in Practical En^esis. II. Psalm IV.
By Prof. T. K. Cheyne, D. D., in the Exposi-
tor, Dec, '88.
Advice about Commentaries. L The Pentateuch
and Joshua. By Rev. C. H. H. Wright, D. D.
Ibid.
OF
STUDY XVII.— REVIEW OF THE GALILEAN MINISTRY.
MARK 1:14-9:50.
Introdoctory. 1. This seems to be a conTenient point from which to review the ground covered
in Studies III.-XVI. 3. While the material is that which has already been taken up it
mil be studied from another point of view with the endeavor to grasp a conception of
these chapters as a whole. S. It is believed therefore that the student will recognize
the great importance of mastering the material and will give the necessary time and
study to accomplish this result. 4. For reading in conaection with this subject, chapters
IV. and V. in StalUer's Life of Christ are recommended. .5. It is desirable also that the
student refer to the original materials collected in his note-book or elsewhere as a prep-
aration for this review exercise.
I. Course of the Galilean Ministry.
1. Bead Mk. 1:14-9:50, and make a list of the events narrated.
2. Compare JIt. 4:12-18:35; Lk. 4:14-9:50; reading rapidly but thoughtfully.
3. Note specially Mt. chs. 5,6,7; 8:19-22; 9:27-34; 11:2-30; 12:38-45; 17:34-27; 18:21-35; lk. 4:16-30;
5:1-11: 7:1-17,30-50; John 4:46-54; 6:22-36,59-71;— as events not recorded in Mark, and
make a list of them.
4. Select from these lists three or more events which are representative of the
various stages in the course of this ministry ; e. g. Mk. 2:1-12 ; 3:22 ; 6:33-
44 ; 8:27-30. Having selected these representative events group the others
about them.
5. Find suitable terms to describe the stages of the ministry, as already noted ; e. g.
" the period of popular favor ;" " the growth of opposition ;" "the crisis of
the ministry ;" "the season of obscurity;" and be able to give a definite
statement about each period.
II. Characteristics of the GalUeau Ministry.
1. Read Mk. 1:14,17,39,45; 3:7,14; 4:2; 5:19; 6:6,7-13, and obseiTe some of the
methods employed by Jesus in this ministry.
2. From lists already prepared or by a study of the material in Mark recall the
fifteen principal miracles :
1) divide them into classes according as they are wrought in nature or upon
man;
2) note the liuman elements in them ;
3) note the elements of a more than human power in them ;
4) determine as far as possible (a) their purpose, (b) their effects.
194 The Old Testament Student.
III. The Teachings of the (ialileau SliuistrT.
1. From lists already prepared or by a study of the material in Mark give the
titles of ten discourses of Jesus delivered during this ministiy.
2. Read the following passages and determine from them the teaching of Jesus
upon each of the following topics :
1) God; Mk. 1:14,15; 8:S8: 9:47; 6:41 (cf. Mt. 10:29-31; 11:25; Lk. 6:36).
2) The Kinodom o/Ood; Mk. 1:15; 4:11,26-32; 9:1; membership in It, Mk. 1:15; 8:38: 9:37,43-
47 (cf. Mt. 13:4H3: Lk. 7:2S|.
3) Binuclfandhisrdatumtomen: Mk.l:38; 2:10; 2:17; 3:35; 8:31,34 (cf. Mt. 13:41; 11:27).
4) Man, hi* moral coiulitionatid needs; Mk. 1:15; 2:9,17; 7;3&-23.
6) The O. T. economy; Mk. 1:44 ; 2:l»-22,23-28; 7:9,10.
6) Sin and salvation; Mk. 3:23,28,29; 4:25; 7:15; 8:35-38; 9:23,42; 2:5 (of. Mt. 13:39; 12:28-30).
IT. The Results of the 6alileau Ministry.
1. Recall as definitely as possible 1) the sources of the popularity of Jesus (a) in
what he did, (b) in what he said, (c) in what was expected of him ; and
2) the grounds of hostility to him (a) in his words, (b) in his deeds, (c) in
his failure to meet the expectations of the people.
2. Note the outcome of this ministry as related to 1) the religious leaders; 2) the
mass of the people ; 3) the disciples of Jesus.
V. Bearings of the Galilean Ministry upon Present Religious Life.
1. Methods of extending the Kingdom of God in the world and in the individual
soul.
2. Righteousness as connected with the formal and outward elements of religion.
3. The relations of conservatism and progress.
STUDY XVIII.— PEREA. MARK 10:1-31.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead carefully Mk. 10:1-31 and be able to make a definite statement concerning
each of the following points :
1. A new ministry (v. 1) ; 5. the kingdom and the rich (vs. 23-
2. a discussion of the law of divorce 27) ;
(vs. 2-12) ; 6. concerning self-sacrificing disci-
3. Jesus and the children (vs. 13-16); pies (vs. 28-31).
4. Jesus and the rich inquirer (vs.
17-22) ;
II. The Material Compared.
1. with Mk. 10:1-13 cf. Mt. I9:l-12: (a) observe imporiant iiualifying statements iJIt. 19:3,9); (b)
the objection raised (Mt. I!):7); ic) the discussion concerninj? celibacy (Mt. 10:10-12).
2. With Mk. 10:13-31 ct. Mt. l!l:i;J-30; Lk. lS:l.-)-:IO.
(a) additional words and phrases. Mt. 10:13, IS. 20.21,28: Lk. 18:15,18,23;
(b) variations in statement, Mt. 19:!;, 29; Lk. 18:29;
(c) make a complete narrative of the incident of Mk. 10:17-23;*
(d) the promise of Mt. 19:28 and its fitness In accordance with what view of the purpose
of the Gospel?
• CTirfait in the Ooapels, by J. P. Cadman, M. A. (Scribners") will be found useful here.
New Testament Supplement.
195
1.
m. The Material Explained.
TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
1) V. 1. (a) Beyond Jordan; (1) the name
of this region ? (2) his previous
visits there? Ct. John 10:40: 3:26.
(b) Again; this indicates (1) a re-
turn to his early methods: (3) a
renewal of popularity.
3) V. 2. Tempti7ig; consider whether (a)
to sin, or (b) to indiscreet words
in view of (1) the popular view
about divorce; (2) the division of
the Pharisees on this point: (3)
the ruler of this region (Mk. 6:14-
IT).
3) Vs. 5-9. Follow the course of argument :
(a) Moses' law modified by expe-
diency; (b) the basis of the law
(V. 6); (c) the conclusion that
follows (vs. 7,8); (d) the rule laid
down (V. 9.)
4) Ts, 13,16. Note Jlk.'s vivid details peculiar
to him. Cf. vs. 21-23.
5) Vs. 17,18. Consider (a) what his estimate of
Jesus was; (b) the spirit of his
question; (c) the spirit of Jesus'
question either (1) humility or (2)
sharp challenge; (d) whether Je-
sus here claims equality with
God.
6) V. 21. One thiTig; but notice three
things commanded.
7) T. 22. Sorrowful; (a) cf. Lk. 16:14; (b) in
view of vs. 17, 20, 21, decide as to
the man's character; (c) note the
conjecture that identifies him
with Lazarus.*
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
1) The Perean Ministi-y. (a) Kead rapidly Lk. 9:51-18:14; John 7:2-10:42, and.
make up from each a list of events ; (b) observe how these events occur
during the period alluded to in Mk. 10:1, usually called the ministry in
Perea; (c) from the references to the feasts in John 7:2; 10:22; 11:55,
decide in general about the length of this ministry ; (d) note the literary
problem — why these events are omitted in Matthew and Mark (cf . " study "
III. iii. 2. 1)).
2) Marriage and Divorce, (a) Study the Hebrew idea of the relation of the sexes; (1) the divine
ordinance at creation (Gen. 2:18,23,'24); (2) the Mosaic conception of marriage: (Deut. 7:3;
24:1): (3) the position of woman among the Hebrews (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 1:5,8,28; Ruth 1:8-
13; 2:8,9; Ps. 45; Prov. 13:4; 31:10-31); (b) compare this as far as possible with the ideas
and practices of other ancient peoples; (c) the Christian principles of marriage; (1) the
teaching of Jesus in this passage; (3) the ideas of Paul (1 Cor. 7; Eph. 5:28-33; 1 Tim. 2:
11-14; 5:3); (3)other views (1 Pet. 3:1-7; Ja8.1:37; 2Johnl; Rev.21:9).
IT. The Material Organized.
1. Gather the material and classify it under the following heads: 1) places; 2)
habits and customs ; 3) O. T. quotations ; 4) important teachings ; 5) Jesus
and the O. T. ; 6) important events ; 7) historical allusions.
* Cf. Plumptre, Handy Commentary on 31ark.
8) T. 23. (a) Hardly ; i.e. " with great diffi-
culty."
(b) Enter into, etc.; does this re-
fer to (1) enjoying a future state,
or (2) acquiring a present charac-
ter?
9) V. 26. Then who, etc.; (a) what was the
common view? (b) How was it
based on O. T. teaching? Cf.
Deut. 28:1,U, etc.
10) Vs. 28-31. Observe (a) the spirit of Peter's
reply: (b) the true motive for the
sacrifice; (c) the qualifying addi-
tion (V. .30).
11) V. 20. Houses and brethren, etc.; (a) Can
this be taken literally; (b) if not,
what is its figurative meaning,
whether (1) equivalent posses-
sions in the ChristiaQCommunity
(1 Cor. 4:15; Acts 4:34 ; Rom. ]6:
13) : or (2) spiritual compensations
to the individual (1 Cor. 3:23; 3
Cor. 6:10?
12) V. 30. (a) World to come; whether (1)
the epoch of the Christ ; or (2) the
future life ?
(b) Eternal life; (1) in view of
John 3:36; 5:24, etc., is this en-
joyed before or after death? Cf.
V. 23; Mt. 19:17; (3) its bearing
upon the meaning of " world to
come"?
196
The Old Testament Student.
2. Condense the material Mk. 10:1-31, according to the methods already indicated,
into tlie briefest possible statement under the general topic of Some Laws
of the Kingdom.
Y. The Material Applied.
1. Self-sackifice. Mk. 10:21-27. (a) Note the advice of Jesus to the inquirer
concerning his property, (b) The doctrine of Jesus concerning wealth-
consider thouglitfully tlie following points : (1) poverty is indispensable to
the ideal Christian life ; (2) true Christianity consists in neither poverty nor
in riches, but in entire spiritual self-sacrifice in behalf of Jesus Christ; (3)
the dilticulties in the way of tliis self-sacriflce ; (4) the greater hindrances in
the case of the rich ; (5) the teaching of Mk. 10:27 ; (6) the grand opportu-
nities of consecrated wealth to-day.
2. Tue Rewards of Self-sackifice. Mk. 10:28-31. Consider in regard to
these rewards : (a) their character, whether literal or figurative ; (b) the
two-fold sphere in which they are given ; (c) whether the promise of them
has beeu realized and may be expected to-day ; (d) the danger in the prom-
ise of reward and how it may be avoided ; (e) results of self-sacriOee from
a wrong motive (v. 31 ; cf. Mt. 20:1-16); (f) how these promises may be
made useful in the Christian life.
STUDY XIX.— DJTO THE SHADOW OF DEATH. MARK 10:32-52.
Be6uiiic. 1. The scene and characteristics of the ministry in Perea. 2. The Kingdom of God In
its relations 1) to children; 2) to the rich; 3) to the self-sacriflcing. 3. Jesus' view of
marriage.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead carefully Mark 10:32-52, and be able to make a definite statement concerning
each of the following points :
On the way to Jerusalem {v. 32) ;
the unwelcome message again (vs.
33,34);
the disciples' request (vs. 35-37) ;
4. the reply of Jesus (vs. 38-40) ;
6. the blind man healed (vs. 46-52).
5. the law of pre-eminence (vs. 41-
45);
II. The Material Compared.
1. With >Uirk 10:32-52, cf. Mt. 20:i;-:14; Lk. 18:31-43.
2. Observe the additional material furnished in Mt. 20:23,34; Lk. 1$:31,34,43.
3. Compare with the corresponding passage in Mark, note and explain the differences in
li Mt. 20:20; 2) Mt. 20:30; 3) Lk. 1S:S5.
4. Determine the bearing of these differences!) upon the relations of the Gospels to each other;
2) upon the trustworthiness of the Gospel narratives.
III. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
1) T. 32. la) In the way; (1) read John 11:1-
57: (2) make a list of the events;
(3) note that these occur in the
time intervening between Mk.
10:31 and 10:32.
(b) /esus was going before; (1) was
this customary? cf. Mk. 1:1"; 8:
33; (2) why then mentioned here?
(o) Amaud afraid; the reason
for these fceliogs In view (1) of
New Testament Supplejient. 197
the goal of his journey and (3) of 7) Ts. 37-89. What may be said as to (a) the
thereceptionhewouldmeetthere; occasion of this request (of. Mt.
cf. John 11:53; (3) what ground 19:38); (b) the unworthy element
for conjecturing any change in in it; (c) the possibly commenda-
his bearing or appearance ? ble features of it.
2) T. 3S. Gentiles ; the general use and the 8) V. 40. (a) Is riot mine; does Jesus declare
special application of this word ? himself limited; if so, in what
3) V. 35. (a.) Near; i. e. for a private con- respects and in relation to whom?
versation. Why ? (b) Hath been prepared ; (1) by
(b) TTouid,- i. e. "wish." The mo- whom? (3) when? cf. Mt. 35:34;
tives of such a request ? (3) for whom ? cf . Mk. 10:43,44.
4) V. 87. Right hand— left hand; its sig- 9) V. 45. (a) Came; note Jesus' idea of his
niflcance as revealed in Ps. 110:1; mission; cf. Mk. 3:17.
45:9; Acts 7:55. (b) His life; i. e. "himself."
5) T. 38. (a)I>TOiftffiecMp;cf. Ps.l6:5;23:6; (c) Ransom; i. e. the price of re-
75:8; Isa. 51:17; Mt. 26:39. lease. Note Jesus' idea of the
(b) Be baptized, etc.; cf. Lk. 13:50 meaning of his death,
and explain the figure. (d) For; lit. " instead of."
(c) Note that (a) and (b) are paral- 10) T. 46. Jericho; learn something of its
lei expressions for the same or geography and history,
similar ideas;— a Hebrew form of 11) V. 47. Son of David; what significance
speech. Cf . Ps. 37 :!, etc. ; and note in this title ? cf . Mt. 1 ;1.
here vs. 43,43,44; Mk. 4:33,30, etc. 13) V. 51. Rabboni; (a) characteristic of
6) V. 39. Consider (a) just what this predie- Mark, cf. 3:17, etc.; (b) its mean-
tion of Jesus meant, and (b) how ing?
it may be regarded as fulfilled. 13) V. 52. Thy /aitft; (a) how shown in words
Cf. Acts 13:3; fiev. 1:9. and deeds? (b) faith in what?
2. GENEKAL TOPICS.
1) The Miracle. Mt. 10:46-62. (a) Form as clear and as vivid a picture as possible of the scene;
(b) observe the method employed in healing, in relation to (1) the man's body, (3) his
mind; (c) gather evidence tor the reality of the miracle in (1) the character of the narra-
tive, (2) the condition of the blind man, (3) the position and feelings of the multitude;
(d) Jesus' motive for performing the miracle, as found (1) in himself, (2) in the man.
2) Lessons on the Cross. Mk. 10:33,34. (a) Compare the former statements in
8:31; 9:31; (b) in view of 9:31 ("taught" = kept teaching) how explain
the want of understanding among the disciples ? (c) taking this passage
(Mk. 10:33,34) divide it into three parts ; (d) consider to what extent this
expectation of Jesus arose (1) from mere human foresight ; (2) from insight
more than human ; (e) note the teaching of the cross (1 ) in relation to Jesus
himself, 10:45b, (2) as an example to the disciple in self-development, cf.
Mk. 8:34,35, and in service to others, cf. Mk. 10:44,45.
lY. The Material Organized.
1. OalUer the material and classify it under the following heads : 1) persons ; 2) places; 3) teach-
ings; 4) miracles; 5) important events; 6) literary data; 7) habits and customs; 8) Jesus
as man.
3. Condense the material into the briefest possible statement, taking it verse by verse, and com-
pare the result with the following:
JesDS leads toward Jerusalem the disciples ani.ized and afraid to go thither. He tells the twelve
that he in there to saffer from Jews and Gentiles, to be slain and to rise again. James and John
ask privately for the highest honors in his kingdom and to obtain them are willing to snffer as
ho suffers. He replies. Yon shall indeed suffer as I do, but I cannot arbitrarily bestow these
honors upon you. To the others, angry at James and Jolin, he shows tliat pre-eminence in his
kingdom comes not through power to rule but through willingness to serve, of which the Son of
Man is the example. Xear Jericho, attended by a multitude, he hears a blind man's appeal and
calls him. The multitude, at first rebuking, then encourage the blind man to come to Jesus, who
approves his faith and restores him to sight; whereupon he follows Jesos.
198 The Old Testa jient Student.
V. The Material Applied.
TnK IIallowixg of AjIbition. 1. Mark 10:42-45 ; the ambitious spirit mani-
fested among the disciples. 2. How far ambition— i. e. the desire for dis-
tinction—is common to all men. 3. From Mk. 10:42-44, determine
1) whether Jesus permits the ambitious spirit in his kingdom ; 2) that man-
ifestation of it which he disapproves ; 3) that which is according to his will.
4. Ambition as manifested in .Jesus and in his followers; e. g. Paul, cf.
Phil. 3:13,14. .5. The need of such a .spirit and the power it becomes, when
rightly directed, in the Kingdom of God.
STUDY XX.— JERUSALEM. MARK 11:1-25.
Besome. 1. Incidents of the journey to Jerusalem. 2. The spirit and purposes of Jesus on this
journey as compared with those of the disciples. 3. The character of Bartlmeus and
Jesus' method of dealing with him.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Read carefully Mark 11:1-25, and be able to make a definite statement concerning
each of the following points :
1. The approach (v. 1); 6. the day in Jerusalem (vs. 15-18);
2. preparations (vs. 2-6) ; 7. the withdrawal at evening (v. 19);
3. the entry (vs. 7-lla); 8. the fig-tree's fate and its lessons
4. the withdrawal at evening (lib) ; (vs. 20-25).
5. Jesus and the fig-tree (vs. 12-14) ;
II. The Material Compared.
1. With Mk. 11:1-25 compare Mt. 21:1-22; Lk. 19:29-48; .luhn 12:12-19.
2. Classify the material obtained under the following heads:
1) Additional details, Mt. 21:2; Lk. 19:3:J..'!7.17.18; John 12:12;
2) the characteristic miotations, Mt. 21:4,5. Ki;
3) added events and statements, Mt. 21:10,11,14-1(1; Lk, 19::t9, 40.41-44; John I2:12,1».1Q-19;
4) variations: (a) order and relation of events in .Mt, 21:12-22; Lk, 19:45, as compared n-ith
Mark; (b) the various versions of the people's son^, Mk. 11:9,10; Mt. 21:9; Lk. 19:88;
John 12:1:;.
3. Conclusions from these facts as to 1) the principle of the arrangement of material in Matthew;
2) the independence of Mark's gospel; 3) the characteristics of John's narrative; 4) the
value of a four-told account.
III. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOI'ICS AND QUESTIONS,
1) T. 1, Bethany; cf. John 12:1-11 for details; 3) T. 3. (a) The Lord; whether meaning (1)
note also the time (V. 1) ; Jesus prob- Jehovah ; or, (2) the Christ ; or, (3) the
ably spent the Sabbath there. master or teacher ?
2) V. 2. (a) Te shall find, etc.; was this (1) (b) Send back hither; 1. e. Jesus will
more than human knowledge ? or (2) return the colt.
had he seen the colt as he passed 4i V. 4. Open street ; Mark's vivid detail
through the village ? or (3) had he again.
made a previous arrangement? .5) V. 6. Let them go; whether (a) euper-
(b) Noman sat; cf. Num. 19:1,2; naturally Influenced; or (b) kindly
Deut. 21:3; 1 Sam. 6:7; (1) sacred; disposed; or(c) as disciples of Jesus.
(2) sacriflcial. 6) T. 8. SpreadUi«(r(;aj7ncii(«; cf.2Kgs.9:13.
New Testament Supplement. 199
7) V. 9. (a) Hosanna; meaning? success in performing it ? (d) Recall
(b) He that cometh ; (1) the usual anothersimilaraetion(cf. Jolm3:14);
greeting to the pilgrims; cf. Ps. 118; (e) are these two accounts of one
(2) what special reference on this oc- event ?
casion ? U> V. 17. Written; cf. Isa. 56:7; Jer. 7:11. Ob-
8) V. 10. 7)1 the highest; i. e. in heaven; wheth- serve Jesus' application of the 0. T.
er (a) heard there ; or (b) descending writings.
from thence. 15) V. 19. Out nf the city; why ?
9) V. 11. iouftetJ round about ; peculiar to 16) V. 21. Peter; peculiar to Mark. How sig-
Mark. Cf. 3:5. nlfleant of the source of this ma-
10) V. 12. Hunoered; Why? terial? cf. 8:32.
11) T. 13. (a) Leaves ; i. e. which promised 17) V. 22. Answering; the question implied in
fruit. Peter's remark; i. e. "How did so
(b) If haply, etc.; bearing of this on wonderful a result come to pass?"
the knowledge of Jesus? 18) V. 23. Cometh to pass ; i.e. "is accustomed
12) V. 14. Consider what prompted this saying, to be done."
whether (a) disappointment; (b)vex- 19) V. 21. Have received; lit. "received;" i. e.
atiou; (c) desire to retaliate; (d) at the time of asking.
purpose to teach the disciples con- 20) V. 25. (a) Stoidpraj/ing; different positions
corning (1) their own nation (cf. Lk. in prayer; cf. Mt. 6:5; Dan. 6:10;
13:6-9); or (3) the power of faith (vs. 1 Kgs. 18:42.
2-2-35). (b) Tour Father; cf. 8:38; a name
13) V. 15. (a) Note the occasion for these given to God here first in Mark, but
abuses of the temple; (b) state the a favorite term with Jesus. Cf. Mt.
principle they violated; (c) how ex- 6:9,14.
plain (1) this action of Jesus? (3) his
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
The Entry into Jerusalem, (a) Eecall as distinctly and vividly as possible the
course and circumstances of this event, noting particularly (1) the road
taken ; (2) the two companies of people ; (b) determine the relation of Jesus
to this demonstration, whether (1) accidental and unexpected; or (2) a con-
cession to imperfect but enthusiastic disciples ; or (3) a deliberate purpose
thus to enter the city ; (c) consider the meaning of the various elements in
this scene, e. g. (1) the colt of an ass, Zech. 9:9 ; Gen. 22:3 ; Judg. 5:10 ; 10:3,4 ;
peace and royalty, not humility ; (2) the people's cries ; how far a proclama-
tion of the Christ ; (d) note that Jesus allows the multitude thus to proclaim
him as the Christ, and seek to explain it (1) in contrast with his previous
course of action ; (2) on the ground that he expected to be accepted by the
nation as its king (cf. 10:33) ; (3) in view of a purpose to give the nation the
opportunity either to accept or reject him ; (e) observe the attitude and
feelings (1) of the multitude ; to what extent convinced of his claims (cf .
Mt. 21:11); (2) of the Pharisees, Lk. 19:39; (3) of the city, Mt. 21:10,11;
(4) of the disciples, John 12:16; (f) sum up the issues of the movement
(1) in its immediate results, failure (cf. 11:11) ; (2) its ultimate meaning to
the Jews (cf . Lk. 19:41-44) ; (3) what if the nation had accepted him ?
IT. The Material Organized.
1. GatJier (he material and classify it under the following heads : 1) places; 2) important events;
3) important teachings; 4) habits and customs; 5)0. T. quotations; 6) miracles; 7) Jesus
as man ; 8) literary data.
2. Condense the material Mk. 11:1-11 into the briefest possible statement; e. g. :
V. 1. Approaching Jerusalem he sends two disciples away, saying:
V. 2. From the next village bring a colt which you find tied there;
V. 3. If any question, say, The Lord needs him ; he will return him soon.
200 Thb Old Testament Student.
vs. 1-3. Approaching Jenualem he tends turn dUHplu to the nert viUage to bring a colt
for the Lord'» tue.
V. 4. Tbey find the colt tied before a bouse and loose him;
vs. 5,6. Bystanders question, but lot them go when they give Jesus' message.
T. 7. Tbey bring the colt, cast on him their cloaks and Jesus sits on him.
vs. 4-7. They fi Jid the colt and are allowed to bring him to Jems; they east their garments
upon him and Jems fits thereon.
V. 8. Many spread garments and branches upon the way.
V. 9. Those before and after him cry Hosanna! blessed is the Christ,
v. 10. Blessed is the coming Kingdom, the Kingdom of David; let heaven proclaim it.
VS. 8-10. The multitudes give him royal horum, crying Hosanna (o the Christ and his
Mngdom.
V. 11. He enters the temple, looks about, and retires to Bethany at even.
vs. 1-11. Approaching Jekusalem Jescs sends for a colt, and sitting upon
IT AMIDST A MULTITUDE GIVING HIM ROYAL HONORS AND CRYING HO-
SANNA TO THE Christ and his kingdom, enters the temple, and
AI-TER EXAMINING IT, GOES TO BETHANY.
3. Let the student in a similar way condense Mk. 11:13-21.
4. Study the following paraphrase of Mk. 11 :\ii-'2o and improve upon it wherever necessary:
V. 23. And Jesus, answering Peter's exclamation of wonder that his mere word should
have had so marvelous a result, replies: It is the power of faith in God that works such
wonders. Have faith in him, trust him to accomplish such works through you. V. 23.
Yea, I tell you, have such faith in him, that, should you command anything to be done —
even that this Mount of Olives be cast into the sea— you have no doubt that this is
sure to come to pass. Then it shall be accomplished. V. 24. Apply this to your
prayers. Have such faith in God, that, should you pray for anything, you believe it to be
at once granted you ; you regard it as even now in your possession. Then you shall
receive what you ask. V. 25. But as you |)ray, are you conscious of cherishing evil
against your fellow-man ? If so, do not fail to lay aside aU such feelings, for only as you
are right with man can you be right with God. Only thus can your faith avail with Him
and your prayer be answered.
y. The Material Applied.
1. Traders in the Temple. Mk. 11:15-18. 1) Recall (a) the sanctity of the
temple and (b) the pui'pose of the traders, to profit from the religious neces-
sities and zeal of the worshipers ; 2) seek to determine why Jesus drove them
out ; 3) thoughtfully inquire the relation of these things to the religious
life of the present in their bearing upon (a) entertainments in houses of
worship; (b) mercenary religionists (1 Tim. 6:5).
2) Principles of Prayer. Mk. 11:24,25. 1) Note two principles of prayer (a)
faith in God (v. 24) ; (b) love for man (v. 25) ; 2) consider wliat each of these
implies, e. g. faith forbids foolish and idle petitions and insures wis-
dom and calmness in prayer;— love makes against selfish and denun-
ciatory prayer; 3) note from this stand-point the secret of much unan-
swered prayer.
^T5E-:'0LD-:-TESl^^II2EP':'STUDEp.-4
Vol. VIII. FEBRUARY, 1889. No. 6,
When new views are advanced concerning the Bible or its teach-
ings they are met in two different ways. There are many who
instantly seek to show how destructive they are, and warn all against
accepting them on the peril of their Christian faith. There are others
who, while not inclined to receive new views, ask whether they may
not be reconciled with the faith of the church and be harmless as
affecting the essentials of Christianity. Both of these classes of men
are needful; does not one admire more the latter.? The former class
has too often driven men from the church by their denunciation of
that which afterwards was received as true, and which candid minds
had felt they must hold ; while the latter has often kept within the
bounds of the church those who otherwise would have gone off into
unbelief There is needed the same caution in dealing with questions
of biblical criticism that one has given respecting evolution, who says,
" Wise dealing with this question will consider not only how to keep
Christians from becoming evolutionists, but also — a matter often over-
looked, apparently, by those who write without weighing the full
effect of their words — how to keep evolutionists from giving up
Christ."
The Old Testament is not Hebrew literature. This statement
may appear startling; but it is true. The Old Testament is not
Hebrew literature in the sense that the Iliad and the Greek Drama
are Greek literature ; or the Book of the Dead, Egyptian ; or the
Zend Avesta, Persian. If one desires simple Hebrew literature, the
product of the Jewish mind, he will find it in the Talmud, Targums,
and other Rabbinical writings. The writers of the Old Testament
were more than mere Hebrews. Moses, David and Isaiah did not
simply reflect national thought and feeling. They were inspired, were
men to whom divine thought and feeling were revealed. When we
*2
202 The Old Testament Student.
speak of the study of the Old Testament as literature, we mean, then,
the study of the national dress and outward adornment of a body of
divine truth. Such study is profitable and interesting, and very
important. But is it not insignificant when compared with the study
of the doctrine which this outward national dress contains.' Renan
has made a special study of the Hebrew Scriptures from the point of
view that they are a national literature, and with what result ? The
divine truth has made so little impression upon him that he can write
a play "the story of which, of a nun's debauchery the day before the
guillotine, is as corrupt as can be well conceived, and its leading
thought is that passions must run their course even if death stands at
the door." Such debasing thought and philosophy may thus co-exist
with the highest appreciation of the liible as a literature. Turn now
from Renan to those who have studied these sacred writings to find
therein the voice of God speaking of sin, justice and mercy ; and how
great the contrast. Here belong such men as Luther, Calvin, Lati-
mer, Kno.x, Wesley, together with the great rank and file of earnest
Christian workers and believers. " The Old Testament is not the
history of men's thoughts about God, or desires after God, or affec-
tions towards him. It professes to be a history of God's unveiling of
himself to men. If it is not that, it is nothing; it is false from begin-
ning to end. To make it the history of the speculation of a certain
tribe about God, we must deny the very root of any speculations
which that tribe ever had. For this root is the belief that they could
not think of him, unless he had first thought of them ; that they could
not speak of him, unless he were speaking of them."
In the modern revival of biblical study there is danger that the
Scripture by some may be studied only after the manner of Renan, or
too exclusively as a national literature.
The following letter will explain itself and serve as an answer to
a number who have corresponded with the editor concerning the mat-
ter. It will be noted that Professor Stevens himself discovered the
omission, but only when it was too late to make mention of it in the
January STUDENT :
To the Editor of the Old Testament Student:
In the collation of passages in my retcnt article upon "' The Bearing of New
Testament Statements upon the Authorship of Old Testament Books," I inadvert-
ently omitted a passage of importance: John .1:40,47, "For if ye believed Moses,
ye would believe me ; for he wrote of mr. But if ye believe not his writings,
how sliall ye believe my words?" I discovered this omission the day on which
The Student went into the mails, but, of course, too late for change or comment.
Editorial. 203
I do not, however, regard the passage as inconsistent with the view presented in
my article. No specific portion of the Pentateuch is here cited or alluded to.
Doubtless the reference is to the types and shadows which pointed to Christ
(cf. John 3:14), and to the general Messianic import of the Law and perhaps to
some passage like Deut. 18:15 sq. {cf. Acts 7:37). The point which is here essen-
tial to our discussion is this : If the basis of the Pentateuchal legislation and
prophecy is Mosaic, would it not be just as true that Moses wrote of Christ, as if
he had written the Pentateuch in its present form ? Or, in other words, does
Christ in this language mean to refer to literary authorship as understood by us ?
or do his words make necessary any position beyond this, that Moses was an
inspired law-giver and prophet, and that in the Pentateuch the Jews were con-
fronted with his authority and testimon3' concerning the Messiah ?
In the judgment of many this passage will form an exception to my state-
ment : " There is not a passage (unless an exception be made in favor of Mark
10:5; see note on page 165) in which Christ explicitly states that Moses wrote a
single verse of the Pentateuch " (page 168). Of course, by all the presuppositions
of the discussion, I mean here the Pentateuch in its present form. I have not
denied, but affirmed, that Christ in a few cases used language which is fairly
equivalent to saying that there were contents of our Pentateuch which Moses
wrote. But I said : Granted that his language implies writing on Moses' part, it
does not necessitate the view that Moses wrote "the whole Pentateuch in its
present form " (p. 167), but is satisfied upon the supposition that "only the funda-
mental legislation of the Pentateuch emanates from Moses, — that our complete
'books of Moses' are not the direct product of his hand" (p. 168). If John 5:
46,47 would not be just as true and pertinent provided the supposition here made
were the correct one, we should be pleased to see the proof.
But if any deem the passage a valid exception to my statement, as meant and
explained, I am more than willing that they should have the benefit of its support
for the view commonly called "conservative." It will be remembered that this
part of my article confessed itself to be an argumentimi ad hominem which, at
most, had for its purpose to reduce to strict statement the matter supposed to bear
upon the subject. After the most generous concessions to the traditional view
are made the question returns : whether it is fair to apply Christ's language to
literary authorship and whether the views of such critics as Delitzsch, who holds
the documentary and post-Mosaic theory of the Pentateuch as respects its present
form, while holding that it is Mosaic in its basis, do not as truly meet every
requirement of our Lord's language as the view that Moses wrote the whole Pen-
tateuch as it now stands. This is, as we insisted, the really decisive question
and upon the tenableness of the former view will depend the faith of many, since
substantially this view of the " books of Moses " is rapidly approaching, with all
specialists, the force of demonstration.
George B. Stevens.
As in former years, the Reports of the Principal of Schools and
of the Treasurer of the American Institute of Hebrew are published
in The Student. It should be a matter of interest to all to know
the work which has been done, and by whose aid this work has been
accomplished. For lack of space, the reports are somewhat more
204 The Old Testament Student.
condensed than usual. As is shown, the work has steadily grown
from the beginning, the past year being in many respects the most
prosperous of the whole number. Now that four of the five years for
which the Institute was organized have passed, the question naturally
arises. What shall be done at the end of the fifth year.' Shall the
Institute discontinue its work .'' or shall it reorganize on a better and
broader foundation.'' or shall it arrange to continue practically as it
has done during the past.' The answer to the first question has been
a universal No. In view of what has been done, and of the constantly
widening field, the sentiment is emphatically against any giving up
of the work. Some suggestions have been made looking toward an
enlargement of the work. Why should not the whole Bible be
included ? There is a greater demand for systematic courses of .study
(whether by correspondence, or in Summer Schools) in New Testa-
ment Greek, and in the English Bible, than for such courses in Hebrew.
Why, then, should there not be an "American Institute of Sacred
Scripture," with courses in all three departments.' Much might be,
indeed has been, said in favor of this ; the chief difficulty would
seem to be lack of energy and time for organization, and lack of money
for carrying it on. The prevailing opinion among those most closely
identified with the work is, that perhaps the best thing will be to go
right on with a purpose and organization similar to that which now
exists. If only money could be secured, a broad and comprehensive
work in Bible-study could be inaugurated, the influence of which
would within five years be powerfully felt in every city and town of
the country. The time is ripe for an onward movement. Where are
those who r.re able to support such an undertaking .'
The first paper in the Pentateuchal discussion (by Professors
Harper and Green, in Hebraicd) has, after considerable delay, put in
an appearance. It is a presentation of the analysis of the first twelve
chapters of Genesis, with the facts and considerations urged in its
favor. It shows that, according to the analy.sts, there are two distinct
stories not only (a) of the creation, but also (b) of the descendants of
Adam to Noah, (c) of the deluge, (d) of the peopling of the earth.
It shows that in each of these series of stories there is to be found a
peculiar vocabulary, and a peculiar style ; and that the writers,
though describing the same events, use different material and have
different theological conceptions. The article shows not only the dry
facts and figures of the analysts, but also their spirit, their attitude
towards the material as a whole, or in other words, the way in which
Editorial. 205
they interpret all this material. The greatest part of the matter of
the article (sixty pages) can be understood by those who have no
knowledge of Hebrew. The consideration of tliis material by Pro-
fessor Green will be published in the following number of Hcbraica.
It is understood that the author of the paper (just published) in his
presentation is seeking only to represent, as best he can, the views of
those who accept the analysis, and that the statements given are
made without any reference to the conclusions to which he himself
may have come, which, as a matter of fact, are, in many respects,
widely different.
With this number the third article in the series, considering the
authority of the New Testament in reference to Old Testament liter-
ary and exegetical questions, is given to the readers of The STUDENT.
All will admit that the discussions have been able, independent, and
helpful. Whatever view one may hold, it is helpful to know and
appreciate other views. We have no sympathy with that spirit
which dogmatically asserts: My view alone is correct; all others are
false and pernicious in their influence, and do not deserve consider-
ation. The fact is, one may hold his view all the more firmly after
having come to know something of the views of others. The most
striking feature of these discussions has been the simplicity and can-
dor which have characterized them. The position taken in President
Hovey's paper will generally be regarded as the most satisfactory.
And yet the number of careful students in the ministry of to-day,
who have been, as they themselves would put it, compelled to accept
one of the other positions, is surprisingly large. After all, as in the
majority of discussions, the matter rests largely upon the particular
way in which the question is put. Suppose each of these theories is
stated as follows :
1. Jesus and the Apostles knew of the Old Testament only what
other men of their times knew ; their authority therefore, in their
statements regarding it, is of no more value than that of any other
writer of the times.
2. Jesus and the Apostles knew the real facts concerning the lit-
erary character and the authorship of all these books ; but they saw
their inability to accomplish anything in disseminating the truth in
respect to these matters. They therefore prudently decided to appear
to accept what they knew to be false ; and built all their teachings
upon this false basis.
3. Jesus and the Apostles knew the truth concerning these writ-
ings ; they expressly declare the Pentateuch, for example, to have
206 Tub Old Testament Student. ,
been written by Moses, the One-hundred-tenth Psalm to have been
written by David. These portions, therefore, must be considered to
have been so written. The mere raising of the question is a denial of
the foundation-principle of Christianity ; for if it were to be shown
that Moses did not write the Pentateuch, or David the One-hundred-
tcnth Psalm, the veracity of Jesus is impugned, and modern crit-
icism is substituted for his divine assertions.
Each of these theories, in the form stated above, appears in its
worst light ; and yet those who hold the first, generally state the
second and third in some such way ; those who hold the second state
thus the first and third; and those who hold the third do not hesitate
to put the first and second in a form even more offensive, if such a
thing is possible. Now, (i) no one of these statements fairly repre-
sents the school which is supposed to hold it. There may be a few
radicals in each class who would take such extreme positions ; but
the number in any case is small. (2) A fair and full statement of
each, for which there is not space here, including all the points which
must be covered, would bring these three theories much closer
together. (3) No statement, satisfactorily covering the facts, can be
made which does not include, in some sense, all three theories ; for
how can it be denied that there is a truth in all three .'' (4) It is true
(a) that Jesus and the Apostles were men of their times, employing
in their interpretation the methods of their times, proceeding in their
work from the knowledge possessed by their times ; and it is also
true (b) that they were in many respects far in advance of their fel-
lows, knowing what they did not know, yet never introducing this
supernatural knowledge except in reference to questions and upon
occasions of the highest importance ; in other words, accommodating
themselves to the ignorance and even prejudices of those about them,
and following in this the example set by God himself in his dealings
with the always sinning Israel ; but, true as both of these things are, it
is still more true (c) that Jesus spoke with authority, and that, too,
divine, whenever he spoke at all ; and that his utterances, when
rightly interpreted and understood, must be regarded as final. Much
more might be said. History is but repeating itself. Three
ideas, all necessary to a true conception of the matter in hand, have
been separated : one school emphasizes and exaggerates one ; another
school, the second ; another, the third. They do not seem to see that
one of these ideas, standing by itself, is, at the very best, but half a
truth, and that a true hermeneutics demands for exegesis not one, or
two, but all three ; and that a careful exegesis discloses and proves
the existence of all three.
THE NEW TESTAMENT AS A GUIDE TO THE INTEEPEE-
TATION OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.
By President Alvah Hovet, D. D., LL. D.,
Newton Centre, Mass.
It will be readily granted that every important question ought to be answered
in the light of all the evidence which bears upon it. An effort should therefore be
made to comprehend the whole case, in order that every feature of it may have
its proper influence on the judgment. But difierences of opinion sometimes exist
as to the credibility of certain events which are supposed to bear upon the ques-
tion, or as to the relation which they have to it. All inquirers do not approach
the same question with identical beliefs or assumptions in respect to allied sub-
jects, and so it comes to pass that they reach different conclusions. This is
inevitable. As their premises differ, their conclusions must differ.
One who has carefully weighed the evidence in respect to the life, the death,
and the resurrection of Jesus Christ, and has been thoroughly convinced that he
was a wholly exceptional member of the human family, divine as well as human,
indeed, the Holy One of God, will necessarily be influenced by this conviction in
all his further study of the New Testament. Having accepted the stupendous
fact of the resurrection, he will welcome to his confidence the equally stupendous
fact of the incarnation. Believing in the incarnation, he will naturally assent
without delay to the Lord's claim of sinlessuess. And with sinlessness he will
be ready to associate superlative clearness of spiritual vision. Then, too, he will
trust the promise of Christ which assured his disciples of another Advocate, the
Spirit of truth, who would show them things to come and guide them into all the
truth. Moreover, the fact of heaven-given foresight in the disciples will surely
tend to render credible a similar foresight in the ancient prophets. And a belief
in prophecy as a means of preparation for Christ, will prepare him to discover in
the Old Testament typical hints and foreshadowings of the Messiah's reign. And
if so, he will not be surprised to find that the teaching of Jesus and of his Apos-
tles implies that there was a divine purpose, working obscurely, but with far-
reaching and wise Intent, in the history, the worship, and the sacred literature of
the chosen people. Bread was thus cast upon the waters, to be found again after
many days. And, as a result of all this, he will see that the books of the Old
Testament cannot be classed with books of merely human origin, or interpreted
without regard to their fulfillment in Christ and the meaning which he drew from
much of their language.
The present writer believes that the claim of Jesus Christ to be "the Son of
God" and ''the light of the world" is supported by evidence (wholly distinct
from the fulfillment of prophecy) that cannot be shaken, and therefore, on the
principle that all pertinent evidence must be weighed, he cannot study the Lord's
208 The Old Testament Student.
use of the Old Testament without assigning to it special importance. For all
that Christ taught was taught with authority. And in this respect his interpre-
tation of the Old Testament stands on a level with his teaching as to the nature
of God or the moral condition of man. If it was inferior to the latter, he at least
does not seem to have heen aware of the inferiority. Even when he disclaims for
himself, and for all other beings save the Father, a knowledge of the date of his
second coming, he does it with a positiveness which shows that what he knew
was perfectly distinct in his owii consciousness from what he did not know. But
no trace of conscious ignorance appears in his use or interpretation of the Old
Testament.*
Take then, for an illustration of his method of interpreting the Old Testa-
ment, his reply to the Sadducees, as recorded in Mark 12:26,27, — "But as touch-
ing the dead, that they are raised, have ye not read in the book of Moses, at the
Bush, how God spake unto him, saying, I am the Ood of Abraham, and the God of
Isaac, and the Ood of Jacob? lie is not the God of the dead, but of the living."
Evidently Christ saw in the language of God to Moses a cogent reason for believ-
ing that the patriarchs were alive when it was uttered. To him it was incredible
that God should identify himself to Moses by his relation to servants who had
been suffered long since to pass out of existence. The honor which he put upon
his friends by associating their names with his own, and by calling himself their
God, the One in whom they trusted, was utterly inconsistent with the opinion
that they had perished at death, or that they would remain forever disembodied
and therefore incomplete. It is to the credit of the Sadducees that they seem to
have perceived the force of this profoimd interpretation. Yet it would not have
been likely to occur to any modem exegete, especially if he were satisfied with the
mere letter of the record, without trying to discover the spiritual implications of
it. Besides, it will be obsei-ved that the truth which Christ drew from the lan-
guage was strictly an inference, nothing more. But though an inference it was
positive, authoritative, and worthy of him who spake as never man spake.
With the same penetrating insight Jesus treated the Mosaic law in his Ser-
mon on the Mount. Wliile asserting the sacredness of that law, he proceeded to
give a far deeper meaning to several of its precepts than the letter of them sug-
gested to other teachers. No one can read unmoved his exposition of the truth
suggested by the ancient law in respect to murder, adultery, divorce, swearing,
retaliation, or love to enemies. Of a piece with this was his interpretation of the
fourth command, and his reduction of the whole moral code of the Pentateuch to
the duplicate requirement of love to God and love to men. Indeed, while it may
be said that he sometimes found, beneath the surface of the Old Testament lan-
guage, prophetic or spiritual truths which cannot be discovered by the finest lit-
erary acumen, there is no solid reason to believe that he ever perverted the divine
intent of that language. It may be surprising to historical critics that he could
• Christ's divine nature is believed to have Ijeen always omniscient, and his human nature
to have been assisted by the Holy Spirit, trivcn him without measure, so that, at every point of
his ministry, his teaching which truly represented the knowledge of his divine nature, as far as
it was shared by his human nature, was absolutely perfect. He taught as the God-man : but by
the aid of the incarnate Word and of the Holy Spirit the human side of his nature was never
Ignorant ot what his mission called him to teach. It did not call him to teach the time of his
second advent; but it did call hlni to speak of David as the author of the llOth Psalm, and of
Moses as the writer of the law, i. e. the Pentateuch, or the substance of it (see below).
The New Testament as Interpreter of the Old. 209
say to his disciples, "All things must be fulfilled, which were written in the law
of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the psalms concerning me " (Luke 24:44) ;
for they deem it possible to explain all that is written in the Pentateuch without
supposing any reference to Christ ; but they surely cannot deny that the promise
to Abraham and to his seed may have included spiritual as well as material good ;
they cannot deny that the animal sacrifices of the Mosaic economy may have been
typical of the Lamb of God that taketh away the sin of the world ; nor can they
deny that the prediction of Moses as to a prophet like himself may have referred,
in its highest sense, to One in whom the whole line of prophets would culminate.
Is it incredible that rites of worship in one period should be adapted to prepare
men for better things in another period ? No believer in a personal God and a
special revelation of his will can safely affirm this. To destroy the force of
Christ's interpretation of the Old Testament, one of two things must be done : it
must be clearly shown that he was an imperfect teacher in other respects, or that
the passages which he has explained cannot mean or imply what he affirms. And
neither of these things has been done.
A further question now presents itself : Does the teaching of Jesus Christ
have any relation to the higher criticism of the Old Testament ? To the author-
ship of the Pentateuch or of the Psalms ? Do any of his recorded sayings prove
that he believed Moses to have written the first five books of the Old Testament,
or David to have written any of the Psalms '? There is evidence that he held
David to be the author of the 110th Psalm. For towards the close of his ministry
he asked the Pharisees a question, namely, " What think ye of the Christ V Whose
son is he ? They say unto him. The son of David. And he saith unto them. How
then doth David in the Spirit call him Lord, saying, The Lord said unto my Lord,
Sit thou on my right hand, till I put thine enemies under thy feet V If David then
calleth him Lord, how is he his son ? " (Matt. 22:41-4-5.) " This Psalm," says Dr.
Toy, " was regarded as Messianic by Jewish expositors up to the tenth century ;
and this is the view of the New Testament, where also (in the Gospels and Acts)
it is ascribed to David : here ' David ' cannot, as is sometimes the case, be under-
stood as a vague name for the Book of Psalms, but must mean the individual man
so called. " Yet the Davidic authorship of the Psalm is rejected by many, because,
or chiefly because, " the direct recognition of a Jerusalem king as priest (v. 4)
seems to suit only one period of Jewish history, the Maccabean, when a Levitical
dynasty sat on the throne." This appears to be the only important reason for think-
ing that David could not have WTitten the Psalm. And it is wholly insufficient. For
it assumes that if there be any prediction of a Messiah to come in the Old Testa-
ment it must be typical, and the type must have furnished all the features of the
picture. The inspired poet may have been familiar with the story of Melchisedek,
a Jerusalem priest-king, he may have deemed a priest-king superior in dignity to
either a priest or a king, but though assisted by the Spirit of God he could not
have conceived these offices to be united in the person of the Messiah, unless he
saw before his face an actual priest reigning as king in Zion: — such limits does
modern criticism put to the genius of inspired poets ! But if any one imagines
the record of David's life to be so complete that the occasion of every Psalm which
he wrote can be pointed out, we beg leave to reject the imagination as extravagant
and delusive. Think of applying such a rule to the hymns of Isaac Watts or of
Charles Wesley, with nothing but a brief story of their lives, and the contents of
210 The Old Testament Student.
their hymns, to show how these two were related to each other I Think of limit-
ing a Shakspeare or Milton to characters which he had seen illustrated before his
eyes in actual life '. The doctrine of evolutiou may demand the adoption of such
a rule, but originality of thought and the Spirit of God protest against it. Desir-
able as it may be to know the background and occasion of every paragraph in the
sacred record, we must be content in many cases to lack that knowledge. For to
obtain it from the slender materials at our command would require a more crea-
tive imagination than David needed to write the 110th Psalm.
But Jesus is not said by the evangelists to have spoken so definitely about the
authorship of any book of the Old Testament. In Luke 16:29 Abraham is repre-
sented by Christ as saying to the rich man in Hades: "They"' (thy brothers)
"have Moses and the prophets, let them hear them,'" — probably meaning, "they
have the words or books of Moses and the prophets."" And such an expression
might have been used, if the books treated of Moses and the prophets, as the
books of Esther and of Job treat of those persons. If we supply " words "' instead
of " books," as is suggested by the verb " hear," Abraham refers to the teaching
of Moses and the prophets. This is the better view.
Again, Jesus is represented in Luke 24:44 as saying to his disciples : " These
are my words which I spake unto you while I was yet with you, how that all
things must needs be fulfilled which are written in the law of Moses and the
prophets, and the psalms, concerning me." But here the Lord does not aflirm in
so many words that the law was written by Moses. Aaron or some one else may
have written down the law which was given by God through Moses.
According to John 5:45,46 Jesus said to the Jews : " Think not that I will
accuse you to the Father: there is one that accuseth you, even Moses, on whom
ye have set your hope. For if ye believed Moses, ye would have believed me, for
he wrote of me. But if ye believe not his writings, how shall ye believe my words "i""
This language shows that Jesus believed Moses to be the writer of some part of
the Old Testament which had in it references to himself. But he does not fur-
ther define that part. It may have been the whole Pentateuch, except a few edi-
torial notes, or it may have been only parts of the same ; but from what is known
of Jewish belief at that time we are constrained to think that it was in reality a
large part of the Pentateuch, including the legal statutes and their repetition in
Deuteronomy. Of course, then, the fair import and full value of Christ's testi-
mony should be taken into account by those who attempt to ascertain the age of
the I'entateuch or of any considerable fraction of it. And any method of inquiry
■which rules out of consideration his words must be defective.
But shall the Apostles be heard also ? Is their view of the Old Testament
entitled to any particular respect V It will not be forgotten that Jesus promised the
Eleven the Spirit of truth, to guide them, after his own departure, into all the
truth, or that from the first Pentecost onward they preached " the good news ''
with astonishing confidence and success. Xor will it be doubted that the same
Spirit was given for the same purpose to Paul, when he was added to the group of
earlier Apostles and commissioned to do a service of the same kind as theirs. So
then we ask. Did the Apostles' use of the Old Testament resemble their Lord"s?
And their interpretation of it reveal a similar insight V These questions cannot
be fully answered without a patient examination of all the passages in which they
make use of the Old Testament; but some light may be obtained from a few
passages in which they have been said to misinterpret the ancient Scriptures.
The New Testament as Interpreter of the Old. 211
The language of Paul in Gal. 3:16 is one of these. Here the Apostle, misled,
as is supposed, by the use of words in the Aramaic of his own day, gives a wrong
explanation of a certain Old Testament expression : " Now to Abraham were the
promises spoken, and to his seed. He saith not, And to seeds, as of many; but
as of one. And to thy seed, which is Christ." Now if the Apostle saw, in the
exclusive use of the singular form of the word " seed" in the promises, evidence
that they pointed to some kind of unity which had its centre and source in Christ,
he certainly perceived, as did his Lord when replying to the Sadducees, something
more in a particular form of expression than simple scholarship would have been
likely to discover, but which it cannot fairly deny when pointed out. For while
it is true that the word " seeds " is not applied in the Old Testament to the pos-
terity of any man, but the singular is used as a collective noun, yet the plural is
said by Dr. Toy to have been used of human progeny in the Aramaic and later
Hebrew, and we may therefore infer that there is nothing in the nature of the
case to prevent such a use. Moreover we find the plural of the same word in the
Old Testament applied to different kinds of grain (1 Sam. 8:15). And a man
might now enter a country store, and say to the proprietor : " What grains have
you on hand?" with the answer: "Wheat, rye, oats, corn, bailey," etc. Or he
might ask: " What teas have you V" and be answered: "Black, green, English-
breakfast," etc. Or again: " What coffees have you V" and be informed : "Mocha,
Java," etc. Yet a diligent critic might certainly search through a hundred vol-
umes and find the words grain, tea, and coffee a thousand times in the singular, and
probably not once in the plural. In fact the word " seeds " (D'i^"!?) occurs but
once in the Old Testament, and means in that place different kinds of grain.
Suppose that single instance were wanting, how easy would it be to say that the
word had no plural among the Jews when it was apphed to grains. But how
insecure the foundation for such a statement ! Yet no more insecure than is the
argument from the non-appearance of the plural with reference to human poster-
ity, against its use by the people in that way, or against the reasoning of Paul
which assumes that it might properly be thus used, if the thought to be expressed
required the plural form.
Dr. Hackett's explanation of the passage is therefore entirely satisfactory.
" It is, therefore, as if Paul had said : " Search the Scriptures from Genesis to
Malachi : the promises all run in one strain ; they make no mention of a plurality
of seeds, such as a natural and spiritual seed, at the same time ; they speak of a
single seed only, the believing race (see Kom. 4:12), whether Jews or Gentiles ;
and as this restriction of the language to one seed limits and exhausts the prom-
ises as to any share in the blessings of Abraham's justification, there are no prom-
ises of this nature for other seeds, such as Abraham's natural descendants, merely
as such, or Jews by adoption, in virtue of their submission to Jewish rites."
Very deep and beautiful is the thought which Paul here expresses. All
believers are virtually one person and that person is Christ (see verse 28 below).
He is the life of their life. Their faith comes through him and unites them with
him. When the nations are blessed, it will be because they bless themselves in
him. And when the Saviour said, " I am the vine ; ye are the branches," he
enunciated the same truth.
To the present writer all the passages in Paul's Epistles to the Komans and
Galatians, which refer to Gen. 15:6 and Hab. 2:3,4, in support of the doctrine of
212 TuE Old Testament Student.
justification by faitli, seem to be very helpful in bringing to light the religious
purport of Old Testament language, and in showing the essential sameness of the
way of life since the world began, or, more exactly, since sin entered into the
world. For it is perfectly evident that I'aul looked upon faith, not as a human
work for which a niiiii could claim reward, but as a renunciation of self-righteous-
ness and a trustful reliance upon tlie mercy of God. Yet no writer of the Xew
Testament asserts more strongly than lie that true faith works by love and moves
to right conduct. Nay, he evidently expects it to bear more abundant fruits of
righteousness than could possibly flow from a heart that relies upon its own
works for acceptance with God. Paul is as truly the apostle of love as of faith ;
but neither of these graces feeds upon itself ; both find their object and life
in God.
But there are citations from the Old Testament by Paul which are less
strictly doctrinal than those which have been noticed above. A specimen of these
has been selected for criticism by a writer in this series of articles. It is 1 Cor.
14:21, and PauPs use of the Old Testament is pronounced " much stranger "' in
this case than his use of it in Rom. 14:1(1-20, wliich is considered verj' incorrect.
The quotation reads thus: " In the law it is written. By men of strange tongues
and by the lips of strangers, will I speak unto this people" (Isa. 28:11,12). Of
this quotation Prof. Gould justly says: ''Of course, the prophecy contains only
an analogy to the case to which the Apostle applies it. In both, the strange
speech is brought into contrast with plain and instructive utterance, and in both
the reason for it is substantially tlie same, viz., the unbelief of those to wliom it
is addressed. .. .The mere proof of (Jod's being and truth, was subserved alike
by the Old Testament incursions of barbarians, taking the place of God's prophets
with their instructive speech, and by the gift of the New Testament tongues,
contrasted with the same prophetic speech." The value of Paul's use of the pas-
sage from Isaiah to the interpreter is this, that it calls his attention to the prin-
ciple of God's procedure as being the same under both economies, a principle of
the greatest importance in studying the Scriptures.
A few general remarks will serve to present the writer's view more definitely.
(1) The New Testament is not tlie primary source of knowledge concerning the
meaning of the Old. The text of the Old Testament itself is that source, an<l it
should be studied with tlie same fidelity as that of the New. Indeed, as to the
proximate aim of any passage, nothing can take the place of the language of the
passage itself, illuminated by the context and by whatever can be ascertained
respecting the persons addressed and their circumstances at the time. First the
text, and then commentaries ; not commentaries first, and then the text.
(2) The New Testament affords but little assistance to one engaged in the
textual criticism of the Old Testament. For the writers, whether Apostles or
their associates, evidently quoted, for the most part, from memory. The pur-
poses for which they used the ancient Scriptures did not generally require them to
go back of the current versions. Indeed, those purposes justified them in adopt-
ing words and clauses, apt expressions, and sentences brought together from dif-
ferent parts of the record, without special regard to the original connection. But
so meagre are the sources of textual criticism for the Old Testament that, when-
ever the New Testament writers appear to give a fresh version of the original,
their version is entitled to deep consideration.
The New Testajient as Interpreter of the Ol"D. 213
(3) The New Testament affords but little aid to the so-caUed higher criticism
of the Old. It shows in a general way the limits and divisions of the Old Testa-
ment canon. It proves that Jesus and his Apostles considered the law, the
prophecy, and the history, as these now appear in the Old Testament, to be sacred
and trustworthy. But the modern questions of the higher criticism were not
before them, and naturally, therefore, were not answered by them. Yet what
they say incidentally may be of great service to one who is seeking to ascertain
the date and authorship of certain parts of the Old Testament. For example,
they offer an insuperable objection to any view of the origin of the Pentateuch
which invalidates its credibility as a record of what God communicated to the
people through Moses ; and they require us to believe that an important part of
the law was written by Moses (see above).
(4) The New Testament is exceedingly helpful to one in discovering the
religious principles which underlie many passages of the Old Testament. This
has been illustrated by our study of Christ's reply to the question of the Sadducees
concerning the resurrection. It may also be illustrated by the Lord's use and
explanation of the Sabbath day. For, in the light of what he taught by word and
act, one may be morally certain, for instance, that the man who was stoned for
gathering sticks on the Sabbath (Num. 15:32-36) must have done this in a spirit
of defiance to the law of God, and without the excuse of real need. Again, an
interpreter of the 16th chapter of Leviticus might be in doubt as to the range of
offenses for which atonement was made by the sm-offering. Was that offering a
condition of the forgiveness of all unexpiated sins, or only of civil and ritual
offences which disturbed one's standing in the visible theocracy ? With this
doubt in mind the interpreter must welcome the light afforded by Heb. 9:13,14,
and other passages in the same Epistle. In fact, a considerable part of the Epistle
to the Hebrews will be found of essential service in a candid study of the Mosaic
ritual.
(5) The New Testament is of great assistance in tracing the line of Messianic
prediction in the Old. It may not go very far in enabling one to decide upon the
character of a prediction, whether it is direct or typical, but it deserves the highest
consideration when the fact of Messianic reference is in question. Whatever
authority belongs to the teaching of Christ and his Apostles may be alleged, for
example, in support of a Messianic interpretation of the 110th Psalm, and conse-
quently in support of the existence of prophecy in the times before Christ.
Without further specification it seems to the writer of this article clear that
the New Testament is an important source of instruction to interpreters of the
earlier Scriptures, and that the considerations already presented furnish satisfac-
tory evidence of this. Yet far more might be said, if the proper limits of a paper
for The Old Testament Student permitted.
TIELE ON BABYLONIAN-ASSYRIAN CULTURE. II.
Bt Eev. a. S. Carrier,
McCormick Theol. Semioary, Chicago, lU.
RELIGION, MYTHOLOGY AND DOCTRINE.
Apart from the language, the most striking proof of the unity of the Baby-
lonians and Assyrians is their religion. Both pray in general to the same great
gods, they have the same religious traditions, the same cultus, and apparently the
same temple architecture. Even the gods, whom it is reasonable to suppose the
Semitic Babylonians borrowed from the old Chaldeans, were honored by the
Assyrians and had their temples, centuries old, in Assur and Nineveh. The only
Assyrian god not worshiped by the JSahylonians was the national god Asur,
whose service ceased entirely with the fall of Nineveh. But all the gods of the
Babylonians were holy to the Assyrians. Whenever they came to Babel, either as
peacemakers or as conquerors, they were zealou.s to bring their sacrifices and gifts
to the gods of the land. To seize the hands of the great Bel of Babel or of Deri,
was a high ceremonial act which they did not willingly forego. It was for them
a higher consecration, as was the sight of Ka at Heliopolis to the Egyptian kings.
Some gods of lower rank were not so early known in the northern laud ; but sooner
or later they also found their way thither, and the doctrines of the Assyrian Pan-
theon were brought by the Assyrian jiriests more and more into conformity with
the doctrines of the Babylonian priestly .schools, whose sacred texts the Assyrian
kings had copied for their libraries. With all the local differences, there was no
idea of distinct religion. When therefore we give the main outlines of the Baby-
lonian religion, we have at the same time presented the belief and cultus of the
Assyrian.
Glancing then at the divine world of Babylon, we find at the head of this
Bantheon, a triad of chief gods, corresponding to that mentioned by Damascius,
Anu, Bel {the highest Bel), and the god whose name is commonly written Ea.
ANU.
Anu (Anna or Ana) was formerly god of Unik (Orchoe, Erech). lie had also
a temple at Ur and one in the city of Assur. His sanctuaries were found in sev-
eral places and were named E-Ana, "house of Anna.'" But though he retained
an exalted place in the hierarchy of the gods, he gradually lost his place in the
cultus.
According to some he was god of the unseen heavens above the firmament ;
according to others, of the fixed stars. In the mythic uranography both repre-
sentations amount to the same thing. His symbol resembles a Maltese cross,
representing as it appears the four points of the compass and hence the entire
heavens. Ilis bow, which is frequently mentioned, wjis probably tlie Milky Way.
Bel and Ea stand beside him in the system, but he is without doubt the highest.
TiELE ON Babylonian-Assyrian Culture. 215
At the deluge all the gods rushed terrified to his heaven, where they sat cowering
before the lattice, and even Istar fled to him for help when repulsed by the hero
of the Epos.
A
BEL.
The most ancient center of the worship of Bel, the lord of the lands, was Nip-
pur. In the mythology he is god of punishment and vengeance, and is exceed-
ingly enraged that some beings are rescued at the deluge. He is only appeased
by seeing that pestilence, famine and wild beasts are left, with which to punish
sinners. He was called the sword-god and war-god, and as creator of the lumi-
naries had also a celestial character. He needed Ea's assistance to protect his
son Sin from Ann, who wished to eclipse him, while into this struggle entered
SamaS, the sun-god, and Istar, the embodiment of the stars, on Anu's side. The
latter was hence the mightiest, while Ea and Bel stood on a footing of equality. D
A
EA. .
Ea was god of the cosmic ocean. He dwelt in the abyss. He was the father
of profound wisdom, the instructor and counselor of gods and men, the healer of
sickness, the foe of evil spirits. When the deluge was decided upon in the coun-
cil of the gods, he commanded his true worshiper to build a ship to escape the
general ruin. He blamed Bel for thinking to blot out good and bad alike. Only
puuishmeut, he said, not destruction, was deserved. Sennacherib, who did not
forget him at the opening of the canals, which he dug to supply Nineveh with
drinking water, cast a little golden ship and a golden fish into the ocean as an
offering to Ea, when his fleet stood ready to sail to Nagite. " Bull of the Ocean,"
he called him. Dagon, the fish-god, is no doubt identical with him. We may
believe also that he corresponds to the Oauues of Berossos, the originator of all
culture. A hymn in an Old-Chaldaic text describes him as in a boat with his wife
and his son Marduk. This boat delights the heart " at break of day." It is the
sun-boat sailing over the celestial ocean like the ship of the Egyptian Ra. He
thus originally belonged to a group of light-gods, whose myth arose among a
people of fishers and seafarers. Further, he was evidently also the god of crea-
tion. In a famous hymn the fire-god Gibil is endowed with attributes similar to
Ea's. He was, hence, essentially the same, and the latter, therefore, found his
most brilliant manifestation in the sun, which traverses the celestial seas.
We find, then, in historic times a system of three mighty gods : Ann, who is
throned in the highest heavens; Bel, the stern god of death, the punisher and
avenger, and Ea, the benignant god, granting life and all life's blessings.
Each of these gods has his spouse beside him. Antuni, the wife of Anu, is
the mother-goddess. She is sometimes identified with Istar, and her realm is the
starry heaven. Belit is the wife of Bel and goddess of the underworld. She is
sometimes called Allat, and is as terrible as her lord. Davkina, the Danke of
Damascius, is the wife of Ea, mistress of the earth, but like her husband bearing
some relation to the waters.
The distinctions between the goddesses are not sharply defined. The attrib-
utes of the great gods are likewise interchangeable, and there are several inter-
esting inscriptions which plainly indicate that Anu, Bel and Ea were but different
names for the supreme divinity. We are also justified in the conjecture that the
216 Thb Old Testament Student.
mythological system of Babel was the result of the merging of various local sys-
A A
terns, ill which Anu, Bel and Ea were respectively the highest gods. Ea was
undoubtedly originally non-Semitic; Bel. on the other hand, Semitic. While
Ann's nationality is in doubt, his name may be a translation of Ihe and he him-
self a union of the chief god of the primitive inhabitants with the chief god of
the Semites.
The triad of the highest gods is followed by a second, the members of which
are generally considered sons of the first. Sin, the son of Bel ; Samas, of Ea ; and
Rainnian, of Anu.
SIN.
Sin, the moon-god, the Old-Chaldaic Agu, was a deity highly reverenced, after
whom Sargon I. named his son. In Ur, though not a god of the highest rank, he
received through various dynasties supreme honors, probably because he was
the local god of the capital. In Ilarran also, he had an old temple. The mythol-
ogy assigns him merely a subordinate or even a passive role, but his worshipers
exalt him as lord and judge of heaven and earth from whose decision there is no
appeal.
V V
SAMAS.
The sun-god, §amas, bore this name among the Semites, but was worshiped
among the old Chaldeans under the name Bab-bara. The poets extol him as
" the light-bearer of the wide heavenly spaces, to whom the gods look up, and in
whom remote people delight themselves."' He spreads out the infinity of heaven
like a covering over the earth ; he drives away evil spirits ; he is protector of the
laws, avenger of justice, and, like the Persian Mithra, he abhors every lie. As
the unseen Light-god^ throned in the highest heavens, he was called Malik, the
king. Sippar, the double city, was sacred to him under this name, and also to his
spou.se Malkat, who appears as Venus, the moniing star. lie cannot always be
distinguished from Adar, god of the sun-glow. lie is called the serv'ant and
confidant of Anu and Bel, the mediator between men and the highest gods.
From his visible manifestation in the daily motions of the sun, the idea of service
would naturally be suggested to his worshipers.
A
RAMMANl^r.
Tlie wind-and-weather-god next follows, whom the old Chaldeans call Mir-
mir, the Semites Ramman. Without doubt he was Rimmon or Dadu of the
Arameans. lie is god of all the fierce elemental forces, and the evil spirits fight
on his side. Among the Assyrians the terrible side of his nature stood in the
foreground ; they entreated him to u.se his destructive power against their ene-
mies. But to the Babylonians he was more often the god of blessing.
Little can be said of the spouses of these gods. Anunit, however, the wife
of Samas, is one of the numerous forms of the celebrated Istar.
V
I STAR.
This deity is at the same time the best known and the least known of the
goddesses of the Babylonian Pantheon. She was called 'AStoret among the
Phoenicians; her worship extended over Western Asia, and in Eg)'pt she had a
TiELE ON Babyloiqan-Assykian Culture. 217
relative in Hathor. Slie is Imown under two forms. As a stem and warlike
goddess, she had her chief seats at Arbela, Agane and Larsa. As the volup-
tuous and fruitful mother, she had temples at Uruk and Nineveh. But we
know that these forms were not always sharply distinguished. As the mother
she laments at the deluge for " her people " who have been annihilated. In her
journey to Hades she appears as the mother in the most comprehensive sense,
for when she is imprisoned there, all production ceases ; but a warlike character
appears wheu she threatens to break down the doors of the lower world
and free the dead, unless they release her. The plural form of her name
denotes all the goddesses in general. Here our uncertainty begins. This last
fact would lead us to think that the name referred to no one particular goddess,
still more since Istar is called indifferently daughter of Anu, Asur or Sin. We
can probably safely distinguish at least two Igtars, one the mother, imwedded, the
queen, first-born of all the gods, who exercised a certain dominion over the others,
a mythological conception only possible among a people where the matriarchate
prevailed; the other, a goddess better suited to the Semitic system, of lower rank,
and worshiped by the side of her husband.
ADAR AND NERGAL.
These gods presided over war and the chase. Their attributes and characters
are much the same. Both are represented as lion and bull colossi with human
heads. Kergal's outward manifestation was the planet Mars. Adar was wor-
A
shiped also in Elam. Being eldest son of Ea, he was prince of the gods. He
belonged to the circle of light-gods, and partook of many of his father's charac-
teristics. He presided over the arts and protected mankind from evil spirits.
But he had another side ; as the god of the glowing sun he was death-dealing.
The destroying angel, Dibbara, was one of his forms.
MARUDUK.
"When Babel had become the great capital of a mighty empire and even after
its decadence, Maruduk and the closely related Xabu of Borsippa were exalted
to the highest rank; yet in Assyria it was not till long after Tiglath-pileser I.
that Maruduk was accepted as one of the highest gods. He received the title
Bel beli, and in a hymn to him we read, " Thy will is the highest command for
heaven and earth." But it was the glory of his city Babel which so exalted him.
He was a son of Ea, a great warrior and hunter. The lightning was his weapon,
and with his dogs, the four winds, he fought the powers of darkness. Hence
he was a beneficent god, terrible only to the evil. Old hymns represent him as
the mediator between men and his father, Ea. He had a famous oracle at Babel.
Zarpanitu, at Babel, was called his spouse, though elsewhere, the wife of Nabu.
She had many of the attributes of Hera-Eileithyia, and presided at births.
NABU.
This god, at first, perhaps, identical with Maruduk, was afterwards counted
as his son. Nabu was the one who granted to kings the scepter of dominion
for the government of all lands. He was the god of revelation and inspiration,
(ilu tasmetu), the tutelar divinity of scribes, priests and learned men. He was
probably a fire-god, and his symbol Mercury, the morning star.
218 The Oli> Testament Student.
V
ASUR.
At the head of the Assyrian Pantheon stood Asur, god of war and the chase,
father of the gods. Ilis name is often written An-sur, perhaps meaning "the
good." We can no longer see in liim the characteristics of a nature god. though
a well known divinity may be concealed under his name. With the fall of the
Assyrian Empire he vanished from the cultus.
We have now treated in outline the most prominent gods of Babylonia and
Assyria, but our present knowledge does not justify us in separating between
what was peculiar to the Semitic races and what was borrowed from the old
Chaldeans, or in more wide-reaching conclusions than we have here and there
indicated. We know the Semites of Babel and Assur were polytheists, and where
there is polytheism there is mythology. But the sagas and tales of their myth-
ology serve as mediums for ethical thoughts or primitive histories. The battle of
Maruduk against the she-dragon Tiamat is similar in many ways to the story of
Indra in the Kig-Veda, to that of Perseus, of Thor, of St. Michiiel and St. George.
It also stands related to the battle of the evil spirits with the moon-god Sin, in
which an eclipse is represented. The myth of the destroying angel Dibbara, the
god of pestilence, is doubtless the story of a fearful plague which visited southern
Babylonia, Elam and the western country. Istar's descent into Hades is doubt-
less a nature myth, describing in an animated way the search for the sources of
living water. When she is set free and returns to the upper world she calls her
dead lover Dumuzi (Tammuz) back to life by bathuig him with the water of
immortality. This myth is anthropomorphic rather than cosmogonic, and while
often obscure, it was intended to strengthen the belief in immortality. The
deluge story we possess in various forms, all plainly polytheistic and proceeding
from a nature myth. There is a certain naive humor in the representation of the
gods, an air of genial familiarity among them. Istar complains that she has borne
men, but no fish brood ; Ea justifies himself against Bel for rescuing his favorite ;
Bel is rebuked for his vengeful passion, and Istar refuses him any share in the
sacrifices. Bol silently recognizes his ■m-ong and makes amends by exalting
among the gods the man whose rescue had so enraged him. It is plain that the
story-teller has used the myths to picture the destruction of a sinful humanity,
and to show that evil-doers will still be punished with hunger, pestilence and
wild beasts. In Berossos' stoi7 Kronos, i. e. Bel, rescues Xisuthros, but the chief
purpose here is to recount the rescue of the sacred books. A nature myth prob-
ably lies at the foundation of the so-called Epos, of which the deluge story is but
an episode. The hero of this, who has with reason been compared to Nimrod, the
gi-eat hunter, with a similarity also to Samson, and to Herakles. was certainly a
god and not a king. His battle against the Elamite king, Ilumbaba, against
Istar, queen of Uruk, and other tales, are not legendary histories, but localized
myths. Many features of the story show that the time of the myths lay far
behind the poet.
The Babylonian priests did not reject the myths ; they used them for doctrinal
purposes. Though we cannot speak authoritatively of a Babylonian system of
dogmatics, there are undoubted traces of a theology. AVe can prove from a num-
ber of passages that the Babylonian- Assyrian religion was ruled by tlieocratic ideas
and a belief in the unlimited might of God, only modified by a trust in his justice,
TiELE ON Babylonian-Assyrian Culture. 219
pity and grace. A moral order of the world was an accepted doctrine. The titles
of the gods, the ideas of the lower world, the sacred hymns and the care for the
dead prove also a belief in a personal immortality.
The universal terms for divinity, God, are the general Semitic words ilu and
bel, — the first probably expressing majesty ; the second, lordship. Malik, king,
is also used, and for the goddesses belit, bilat or Malikat. Ilu is the only univer-
sal appellation ; and for the goddesses Istar, istarati. The gods stand high above
man and nature, with hardly atrace of immanence. This is a genuine Semitic view,
and just as characteristic is it that the stern, destructive gods receive equal honor
with the beneficent. Eadically different from the tolerant Egyptian custom was
the fact that foreign gods were seldom or never admitted to the Pantheon. Gods
of other nations might indeed be received to their temples, but they stood there
like hostages in the court of a king, and when the conquered people showed signs
of complete submission, their gods were readily returned. Asur and his associates
remained ever the only true divinities, exalted high above the nature gods around
them.
A pure monotheism was, however, never reached. Though the Babylonians
and Assyrians often assigned to one god an exalted rank, though they sometimes
called one father of the gods of heaven and earth, though they sometimes named
the highest gods of Babel and Assur ilu or bel and came gradually to accept the
view that the gods of the first triad and Asur were essentially the same, yet they
never rose to the conception of a transcendent spirit, Ilu standing alone and above
the highest gods. They were very near monotheism ; but they failed to take the
last important step, and so, like the Egyptians, remained to the end monarchical
polytheists.
OLD TESTAMENT WORD-STUDIES: 6. THEOCRATIC
FUNCTIONARIES.
By Rev. P. A. Nordell, J). D.,
New London, Conn.
I Rather for consideration under this title a .series of terms which, while they
are in most instances common to the nations of antiquity, or may be said to have
equivalents in every well-developed religious eultus, yet among the HeVjrews were
invested with strikingly technical significations. These significations arose from
Israel's unique relation to Jehovah, their ever-present although invisible Protector,
Leader, Lawgiver, and Ruler. This relation necessitated explicit and continuous
revelations of his will, through men who were accredited as his messengers and
representatives. His worship also demanded a service more or less formal, and
this was administered by men especially set apart for these duties. They were
the recognized mediators between the peoi)le and Jehovah. In so far as thej'
were loyal to their commission they beciinie vehicles and expounders of those
divine truths which fundamentally distinguished the religion of Israel from the
mass of surrounding heathenism, which gave life to the theocracy, stability and
permanency to the community, the growing consciousness of a great and fruitful
mission to the world, and therefore the capacity of extraordinary recoveries from
apparently fatal shocks, and of tlic exhibition of fresh and expansive power in the
development of those divinely a))pointed institutions in which the moral and spir-
itual life of the community attained its highest realization.
Ro'eh seer.
The active participle of ra'ah is used some twelve times as a substan-
tive denoting one who .sees, i. e. a seer. The first occurrence of the word in this
sense is quite significant : " Formerly in Israel, when a man went to inquire of God,
thus he said. Come and let us go to the seer : for he that is to-day called a prophet
was formerly called a seer,'' 1 Sam. 9:0. The passage is interesting in that it
shows the transition from one popular designation to another, as well as a sub-
stantial identity in their meaning. Both terms are freely applied to Samuel, who
in the language of the people was also, like Moses, called "a man of God." He
appears as the first example of a new class of men whom the exigencies of the
times called into conspicuous activity. He was not merely a seer of visions, but a
reformer, a forerunner of that long succession of prophets who, amidst the decay
of existing institutions, took their stand firmly on the old Mosaic principles and
sought to embody them in the changed life and strange conditions of the age. In
this respect Samuel himself was a transition between the old line of seers who
had reflected only rarely and meagerly the dazzling glory of the Mosaic age, and
the new order of prophets through whom this spirit of propliecy moved as an irre-
sistible renovating force. The use of this designation di<l not, however, cease
with Samuel. In 2 Sam. 15:27, Zadok is termed a ro'eh. Why this title is given
Old Testament Word-studies. 221
tim, he belonging to the priestly rather than to the prophetic order, is not appar-
ent, unless we may assume that he had been at some previous time the recipient
of divine revelations. The only other ro'eh mentioned by name is Hanani, who
came to Asa with a distasteful message from Jehovah, 2 Chron, 7;10. Isaiah
employs the term only once, and then to designate Jehovah's fearless and truth-
ful messengers who, like Hanani, brought reproachful communications and warn-
ings of impending calamities. " For it is a rebellious people which say to the
seers, ro'im, See not: and to the beholders, hozim. Behold not for us right
things ; cause the Holy One of Israel to cease from before us,'' 30:9-11. In a
single instance, Isa. 28:7, the word ro'eh is employed in the sense of ro'i,
that which is seen, looked at, hence prophetic vision. Depicting the terrible
extent to which the vice of drunkenness prevailed in Jerusalem, Isaiah declares
that even the priests and prophets, who were forbidden the use of strong drink
during the discharge of their official duties, were habitually under its influence, so
that they "err in vision," blasphemously mistaking the incoherent ravings of
intoxication for the illumination of the Spirit of God.
Hozeh seer, gazer.
Another term used a little more frequently than ro'eh and in a sense
scarcely distinguishable from it is hozeh. It is translated seer in the majority
of its occurrences both in the A. V. and in the R. V. In Isa. 47:13, it designates
gazers at the stars, and is associated with astrologers and monthly prognostica-
tors ; but when applied to possessors of the true prophetic spirit it seems to be
entirely interchangeable with ro'eh. In 2 Chron. 16:7,10, as we have seen, refer-
ence is made to "Hanani the ro'eh," and in 19:2, to "Hanani the h(5zeh."
A similar identity in meaning appears in the passage quoted above from Isa. 30:
9-11. The many attempts to establish a distinction in the use of these words
must be abandoned as almost futile. The most that can be said is that " the
verbs ra'ah and hazah must be distinguished to this extent, that the former
denotes simplj' the relation of the eye to the object which it sees, the lat-
ter the dwelling of the glance on the form of an object, therefore on an image.
Accordingly they are related to each other as our 'seeing' and 'beholding'"
(Orelli, 0. T. Proph., p. 5, n.).
David appears to have attached to himself a number of "seers," hozim.
The earliest and perhaps most influential of these was Gad, who joined David
while he was defending himself against Saul. Through the seer David consults
Jehovah, and is encouraged to undertake an expedition against the invading Phil-
istines, and is given positive assurance of victory over them, 1 Sam. 22:5 and 23:
1-5. Heman and Jeduthun are also mentioned as David's seers, 1 Chron. 25:5 ;
2 Chron. 35:15. With them is associated Asaph, also a seer, 2 Chron. 29:30. The
fact that they received the official title of " king's seers" indicates that they were
more or less closely connected with the court at Jerusalem. Moreover, they come
before us as directors in the musical services of the temple, prophesying "with
harps, with psalteries, and with cymbals," 1 Chron. 25:1, and "in giving thanks
and praising Jehovah," 25:3. Several of this class seem to have been the official
historiographers of the kingdom, 1 Chron. 29:29 ; 2 Chron. 9:29 ; 12:15.
While the writing prophets never apply to themselves the term hozeh (it
is applied once to Amos by Amaziah, the priest of Bethel), they use the deriva-
tive haz 6 n , vision, as a descriptive title for their collected prophecies, Isa. 1:1 ;
222 The Old Testament Student.
Obad. 1; Nahum 1:1, thereby implying the supernatural origin of the communi-
cations contained in them. They were not mere intuitions, or shrewd guesses
excogitated from the seer's personal observation of the political, social, and relig-
ious conditions of his time. Subjective these revelations may have been in the
sense that there was no external reality impressing the sensuous organs, neverthe-
less the spiritual realities unfolded before the prophet's inward perception by a
power other than himself were entirely objective to his own consciousness.
Nabhi' prophet.
Exepetes and lexicographers have diflfcred considerably as to the primary
meaning of this word and of the verb nabha' from which it is derived. Hup-
feld, for instance, holds that nabha has essentially the same meaning as
na'ani to lintn, buzz, murmur, a signitioation which is applicable to any dull,
half smothered tone, and hence especially to any secret, confidential communica-
tion, such as inspiration, i. e. a divine suggestion conceived of as whispered in the
ear of the prophet or poet, who is the familiar friend of God (Die Psalmen, .36:2).
The best modern scholarship rejects this analogy, and understands nabha' to con-
vey the idea of something breaking forth, rising up, presenting itself primarily to the
eye, as a fountain that bubbles up, and then to the ear, as a word or declaration
that forces itself into utterance. Nabhi' does not denote the spoken word, or
one who is made to speak, as its passive form suggests, but is to be taken in an
active sense as the speaker or proclaimer. He is one who overflows, boils over,
with visions or revelations of the divine word, and these he is powerless to sup-
press. This is strikingly described by Amos (3:8), " The lion has roared, who
can but fear V Adonai Jehovah has spoken, who can but prophesy, yinnabhe'?"
It is moreover illustrated in the experience of Jonah, who fled in vain from the
necessity that was laid upon him. The conception lying at the root of nabhi'
seems, then, to be that of a spokesman who does not speak his own words,
but represents another whose words he proclaims. This is clear from Ex. 7:1, "I
have made thee a god to Pharaoh, and Aaron thy brother shall be thy nabhi'," —
a relation that had already been explained in Ex. 4:6, " And he shall be thy spokes-
man to the people : and it shall come to pass that he shall be to thee a mouth,
and thou shalt be to him as God." The nabhi' is, accordingly, the human
organ, the mouth, that articulates the thought of the spirit. The characteristic,
popularly supposed to be the preeminent distinction of the prophet, viz., that he
foresees and announces future events, is seen to be merely incidental to his voca-
tion, lie is not so much one who /on-tells, as one who /or-tells, i. e. speaks for
another person. Conscious of speaking for God, he is never found leaning on
human authority, but always on the immediate "word of the Lord," which stands
before his mind as the symbol of absolute and eternal truth. Because of the
prophet's direct and intimate relation to God he becomes the embodiment and
vehicle of a living revelation which exhibits in constantly clearer characters Jeho-
vah's will and purpose.
Sohen priest.
The prophet stands alone unconnected, the startling product of a crisis. His
activities lie in the free realm of the spirit. He has no earthly paternity, 1 Sam.
10:12, but appears in response to the creative call of God, 1 Sam. 3:4, sq., Jer.
1:5-10. The kohen p)ue«<, on the contrary, is the hereditary representative of
Old Testament Wobd-stddies. 223
a revelation of faith that has crystallized into institutions. He is the symbol of
established religious ordinances, of forms and ritual. He is not the medium of
revelation, but its conservator and interpreter. Jehovah's will, announced by
prophets and embodied in law, is especially committed to the kohen, who is
charged with the duty of teaching it to the people. Lev. 10:11 ; Deut. 24:8. This
distinction in function of prophet and priest is repeatedly recognized — "The law
shall not perish from the priest, nor counsel from the wise, nor the word from
the prophet," Jer. 18:18 ; " They shall seek a vision from the prophet : but the
law shall not perish from the priest," Ezek. 7:26. As the priest represents
established order, so he is himself the representative of a class, a family,
to whom pertain the rights of the holy office in virtue of an original divine
appointment and subsequent unbroken descent, Ex. 40:12,13; Lev. 8 ; Num. 17;
Ezra 2:62. These functions of the priesthood are plainly suggested in the desig-
nation kohen, the kal part. Of an unused stem k a h a n , the primary meaning
of which is to stand upright. A kohen is a man who stands before Jehovah as
his servant or minister ; "the koh''nim, Jehovah's ministers, mourn," Joel 1:9 ;
2:17. We find, accordingly, that to them were committed the care of the sanct-
uary, the offering of sacrifice, and the whole work of ordinary mediatorship
between Jehovah and the people.
The office of priest was sometimes combined with that of prophet, as in the
case of Samuel, 1 Sam. 3:1,19-21, and of Zadok, 2 Sam. 15:27. Usually they were
distinct, and not infrequently in sharp contradiction, the one being the conser-
vator of a degenerate tradition, Jer. 1:18 ; Hos. 5:1, and confirmed in their corrupt
practices by the divinations of false and greedy prophets with whom they were in
alliance, Micah 3:11 ; the other, the true conservative, was a preacher of the
higher principles of eternal truth, which in its new applications seemed to be
revolutionary and iconoclastic.
_ A
Levi Levite.
Closely connected with the priestly order is that of the Levites, Pviyyim,
so called from their tribal descent. They were separated from the rest of Israel,
sanctified, for their special services ; they were given over to Jehovah in place of
the first-born of every tribe who were spared when Jehovah destroyed the first-
born of Egypt, Num. 3:45. In the Levitical legislation, as well as in the later
historical books, the term "Levite" is a title synonymous with "priest." It
occurs with great frequency in the phrase " the priests the Levites," which is
equivalent to "the Levitical priests.'' This indicates that all the priests were
Levites ; but it does not follow that all the Levites were priests. The higher and
preeminently sacerdotal functions pertaining to the sanctuary devolved only on
the Kohathites, one of the three great families which composed the tribe of Levi.
This family owed its official superiority to the fact that it included Aaron and his
descendants. The tribe of Levi, as a whole, occupied the place of a mediator
between .Jehovah and the people, being directed to pitch their tents " round about
the tabernacle of the testimony that there be no wrath upon the congregation,"
Num. 1:52. The greatly controverted question as to the significance of the terms
" priest " and " Levite " in different periods of Israelitish history, together with the
relation of these officials to each other, is too large a subject for our present con-
sideration, even if this were the place for its presentation.
224 Thb Old Testament Stxtdent.
Melek kiny.
Recent investigations seem to show tliat the early Assyrian and Babylonian
governments were essentially theocratic, the king being merely the representative
of the invisible Deity, who was worshiped as the true sovereign of the nation
(0. T. Student, Jan., 1889, p. 172). However this may have been in the remoter
East, it certainly held true of the monarchy in Israel. Though in the time of
Samuel the exUn-nal form of government underwent a change, the essential idea
remained. Jehovah was still d)' facto the supreme sovereign, his human represent-
ative being simply (hi gratia rex. Like the high-priest, he was consecrated for
his office by holy oil, and was therefore called " the Lord's anointed," 1 Sam.
24:10(11). In the executive and judicial affairs of the kingdom he was a mediator
between the people and Jehovah. Jehovah had accordingly three classes of rep-
resentatives, viz., pro])hcts, priests, and kings, these being respectively ministers
of his word, his worship, and his authority. David is the single instance in which
these three functions were combined in one person, and thus he became a type of
his greater Son, King Messiah, who as a prophet is the Word of God incarnate, as
a high-priest besprinkles with his own blood the mercy-seat in the heavens, and as
a king rules forever from the right hand of the throne of Majesty on high.
REPORT OF THE PRINCIPAL OF SCHOOLS OF THE AMERI-
CAN INSTITUTE OF HEBREW (1888).
To the Mcmhers of the American Institute of Hehrev] :
The Principal of Schools herewith .submits his fourth annual report. The
report will take up, first, the Correspondence School ; secondly, the Summer
Schools ; thirdly, certain general matters relating to the work as a whole.
I. THE CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL.
The Correspondence School has just closed its eighth year. During four of
these years it has been under the direction of the American Institute of Hebrew.
1. Membership op the School.
1. The membership of the Klementary Course 356
2. " " " Intermediate " 162
3. " " " ProcrcHsive " 86
4. " " " Advanced " 30
5. " " " Cognate Courses 18
Total Membership 652
2. Various Statistics concerning the work of the School.
1. New members enrolled during 1888 246 ; d. 1887, 201
2. Students stopping work during 1888 126 ; '' 139
3. Net gain during ISSS 120; '_ 62
4. Students graduated from one or more courses during 1888. 79; ^^ <9
5. Various denominations represented 35 ; " 32
6. States and countries, a) in United States and Canada 48 ; 51
b) in other lands 12; " 12
7. Average age of men at work 33 ; '^^ 33
8. Number of women in the Scliool 20 ; ^^ 20
9. Number of men not in ministry 117 ; " 101
d. 1887, 1940
1300
615
17
78
3950
849
711
820
The Institute of Hebrew— Pkincipal's Keport. 225
10. Number of examination-papers corrected in Elem. Course. 2112 ;
11. " " " Interm. " 1488;
12. " " " Prog. " 797;
13. " " " Adv. " 47;
14. " " " Cog. Courses. 60;
15. Total number of examination-papers corrected 4504 ;
16. Letters written witb examination-papers 725 ;
17. " " to men not at work 883;
18. " " to inquirers 1131 ;
3. Remarks upon the Statistics.
1. During 1886, the number of examination-papers corrected was 4313 ; during
1887, a year of only eleven months, 3950 ; during 1888, 4504. The increase would
have been still greater but for the falling off due to the fact that this was a Presi-
dential year.
2. During the first six years of the School, there were completed 219 courses ;
during the seventh year, 79 ; during the eighth year, exactly the same number.
Of the total number of courses completed in eight years, 377, nearly one-half have
been completed within two years.
3. The number of those who have stopped work during the year is 13 less than
the preceding year ; the number of new students is 45 more ; the net gain is 120,
as over against 62.
4. The reasons for discontinuance may be classified as follows : (a) Entrance
upon seminary studies; (b) failure of health ; (c) death ; (d) overpressure of regu-
lar duties ; (e) permanent appointment to some denominational work ; (f) discour-
agement ; (g) insufficient education.
4. Japanese Branch.
A Japanese branch of the Correspondence School is being organized, with
headquarters at Tokio. While intended primarily for the missionaries, it is pro-
posed also to use it in the training of native workers. Should this experiment
prove successful, much may be hoped for in other missionary fields. It is a sig-
nificant fact that in many quarters the question is being considered of using the
correspondence idea in missionary training.
5. Prizes.
In order to stimulate the members of the School, to do a larger amount of
work, four prizes were offered, viz., one of twenty dollars (in books) ; a second, of
fifteen ; a third, of ten ; and a fourth, of five. These prizes were awarded to those
members who sent in the largest number of examination-papers during the year,
with a grade of not less than 8 on a scale of 10. This year they were awarded as
follows : the first to Mr. J. K. McGillivray, Princeton Theological Seminary,
Princeton, N. J. ; the second to the Rev. J. P. Morgan, Coeyman's Junction, N. Y. ;
the third to Miss Maria Whitney, New York City ; the foxirth to the Rev. D. H.
Patterson, Tully, N. Y. The number of contestants was quite large. The plan
seems to have succeeded. Next year the number of prizes will be increased to
nine, amounting in all to 1100.00.
6. Cognate Courses.
Because of the difficulty of printing lessons in an acceptable form, the expense
of type being so great as to forbid its use, and for other reasons the work in this
department has not developed as it might have been expected to do. It gives me
pleasure to state that now all difficulties seem to have been overcome, and that
226 The Old TEsxAiusNT Student.
we are prepared to carry on the work here as effectively as in Hebrew. It is not
expected, of course, that the classes will ever be large.
7. Assistants i.v the Cokrespoxdesce School.
In the work of the past year the Principal has been aided by Mr. C. Eugene
Crandall, to whom has been entrusted much of the detail relating to the internal
work ; Mr. A. M. Wilson, who, during a portion of the year, assisted in correcting
e.xaniination-papers, and Mr. F. K. Sanders, who, besides the work of correcting
Hebrew papers, has also aided -in the work of the Cognate Courses. The Principal
desires to make jmblic acknowledgment of the valuable service rendered the Insti-
tute by all these gentlemen. When it is considered that the papers to be corrected
come from all parts of the world and from all classes of people ; that each paper
must be examined, corrected, graded, and returned with suggestions ; that many
papers require for examination an entire hour ; that the work is of the most
minute, critical, and even delicate character, the labors of these gentlemen will
be more thoroughly appreciated.
8. The Work in General.
There can be no doubt that instruction by correspondence is henceforth to be
recognized as one of the great fields of educational work. The results seem, indeed,
incredible to those who are not acquainted with the real facts in the case. Interest
is on the increase. Greater things by far may be expected in the near future. The
work of the past year has been in most respects quite gratifying. It is only in the
financial part that the showing is not so good. The expense has been as follows :
1888.
For salaries SI, 420.01
For printing and stationery. 4&3.21
For advertising and postage. 328.09
General expense 38.20
In explanation of the increase in expense over last year it may be said (1) that
this year was one of 12 instead of 11 months ; (2) that it has been impossible to
secure competent assistants for the salaries heretofore paid ; (3) that more exten-
sive, aggressive work has been carried on ; (4) that as a result of this work the net
gain has been 120 instead of 62 ; (5) that the tuition-fees for the year have been
$1,438.98 over against $1,257.28.
II. THE SUMMER SCHOOLS.
1. The Summer Schools of the American Institute of Hebrew were held as
follows : New England School. May 22-June 12 (Newton Theol. Institution. New-
ton Centre, Mass.) ; Philadelphia School, June 13-July 3 (Protest. Epis. Divinity
School, Philadelphia, Pa.); Southern School, July 19-Aug. 15 (Atlanta, Ga.) ;
Chicago School, Aug. 16-Sept. 5 (Garrett Bildical Institute, Evanston, 111.).
2. Two Schools also were held at Chautauqua, July 5-July 25, July 26-Aug.
15. These had no connection with the American Institute of Hebrew ; they were,
however, under the same principalsliii), and. by special vote of the Executive
Committee, were announced in connection with the Schools of the Institute. In
making an estimate of the work performed, these Schools must be considered.
3. The Instructors in the Schools were as follows :
Chas. Hufus Brown, Ph.D., Nowt. Centre, Mass. Jas. A. Craig, Ph. D., Cincinnati, O.
Nowton Theolofrical Institution. Lane Theological Seminary.
Geo. S. Burroughs, Ph. I)., Amherst, .Mass. A. S. Carrier, B. D., Chicago. 111.
Amherst College. McCormlck Theological Seminary.
1887.
1886.
$1,1S0.&5
$1,385.56
275.79
376.61
265.08
191.18
25.21
15.67
The Institute of Hebrew — Principal's Report. 227
C. E. Crandall, M. A., New Haven, Conn. J. F. McCui-dy, Ph. D., Toronto, Canada.
American Institute of Hebrew. Toronto University.
Edward L. Curtis, Pli. D., Chicago. III. W. W. Moore, D. D., Hampden Sidney, Va.
McCormicli Theological Seminary. ' Presbyterian Theological Seminary.
William R. Harper, Ph. D., New Haven, Conn. James M. Rawlings, M. A., Univ. of Va., Va.
Yale University. University of Virginia.
Hermann V. Hilprecht, Ph. D., Phila., Pa. Frank K. Sanders, M. A., New Haven, Conn.
University of Pennsylvania. American Institute of Hebrew.
Chas. Horswell, B. D., Evanston, ni. George H. Schodde, Ph. D., Columbus, O.
Garrett Biblical Institute. Capital University.
John G. Lansing, D. D., New Brunswick, N. J. Barnard C. Taylor, M. A., Chester, Pa.
Theol. Sem. of the Dutch Reformed Church. Crozer Theological Seminary.
Wallace W. Lovejoy, M. A., Philadelphia, Pa. M. S. Terry, D. D., Evanston, 111.
Reformed Episcopal Divinity School. Garrett Biblical Institute.
D. A. McClenahan, M. A., Allegheny, Pa. Revere F. Weidner, D. D., Rock Island, 111.
United Presbyterian Theological Seminary. Augustana Theological Seminary.
4. The membersliip of the Schools held in the North, includins the two Schools
held at Chautauqua, was slightly in excess of that of last year. Many men
attended two or more Schools.
5. For the details of the work in each school the Principal would refer to the
special reports accompanying this general report. It may be noted here, however,
that the School at Newton Centre was much smaller than in former j'ears, because
of the early date at which it was held, a time which permitted no college men to
attend. The change of the location of the Southern School from the University
of Virginia to Atlanta proved, for this year at all events, a disaster. The details
of this also will be furnished in the special report of that School.
III. THE WORK IN GENERAL.
1. The Principal's Work.
The Principal was present during the entire session of all the Schools (includ-
ing those held at Chautauqua) except the Southern. His work during the year
was in amount and character about the same as that of previous years. His work
for the Institute (including the Hebrew instruction which he gave at Chautauqua)
amounted to about five hundred hours of teaching, and about the same number in
office-work.
2. Printed Matter used during the Year.
Correspondence School : No. Pages.
Letters — Aggressive work 5,700 5,700
Delinquent work 300 300
Circulars for aggressive work 20,500 40,500
Postal Cards — Aggressive work 500 1,000
Delinquent work, etc 1,160 2,320
Application Forms 1,000 3,000
Instruction Cards 1,000 2,000
Slimmer Schools :
Letters 1,085 1,085
Special Circular to College Men 1,000 2,000
Enrollment Blanks 500 500
General S. S. Circular 30,000 240,000
General :
Calendars 5,000 80,000
Principal's Report 500 4,000
Envelopes 35,500 35;500
Letter-heads 6,500 6,500
Total 110.245 424,405
228 The Old Testament Student.
3. The Endowment Fund.
Only *3,356 has been received over against $5,413 of 1887 and $4,881 of 1886.
A falling short of $2,057 from 1887, of $1,525 from 1886. This deficiency is due
(1) to the fact that by the arrangement of the Southern Committee, the salaries of
the instructors were paid directly by the Piedmont Chautauciua, and the large sum
(over $900) contributed last year for the University of Virginia School did not come
into the treasury of the Institute ; (2) that in some cases those who contributed
for five years paid up the entire subscription during the third year ; (3) that some
of the largest donors have died ; (4) that some of the contributors have seemingly-
forgotten their obligations to the Institute, and this in spite of the frequent
reminders sent them ; (5) that, although considerable effort has been made to
enlist new friends, the technical character of the work has made it difficult to
secure a large amount of aid.
3. The Expenses for the Year.
1. The expenses of the Correspondence School have been $2,289.01 ($537.58
more than in 1887, $283.09 more than in 1886). The receipts from fees have been
$1,438.98 ($182.70 more than 1877). The fees with the appropriation, $600, and the
balance to its credit from last year, viz., $103.85, falls short of paying the expenses
by $146.18. This deficit is more than balanced by a new contribution of $200
designated particularly for the Correspondence School.
2. The Summer School expenses of 1888 are in every case less than those of
1887, the difference being
In the case of the New Enghind School $480.64
" Philadelphia " 142.37
" Chicago " 269.41
Total $882.42
3. The expenses of Summer Schools have in each case been less than the
amount appropriated by the Committee, viz., the fees and an appropriation of
$600, the amount
In the case of the New Eiicland School $192.07
" Phihuklphia '• 19.37
" Chicago " 311.09
4. The Principal was authorized to announce free tuition (with an incidental
fee, however, of $5) in case he should bo able to secure $600 in new subscriptions
for all the Schools. This sum was obtained from the following sources :
Benjamin Douglass, Esq., Chicaco $250.00
John 1). Rockefeller, Esq.. New York City 200.00
The Professors and Students at Evanston, 111 150.00
5. The total expenses of the year have been S6.301.47, against $7,682.01 of 1887,
$7,277.43 of 1886, a difference of $1,:^80.54. This is due (1) to the money saved on
the three Northern Summer Schools, viz., $882.42 ; (2) to the fact that the salaries
of the Southern School did not pass through the treasury of the Institute.
The Principal would herewith publicly acknowledge the many courtesies, the
active co-operation and the valuable help received from a very large number of
geiitlonien. The work, in his opinion, has come to assume a permanent character,
and will, in some form, be continued.
Respectfully submitted,
December 26, 1888. WU.LIAM R. HARPER.
KEPOKT OF THE TREASURER OF THE AMERICAN INSTI-
TUTE OF HEBREW.
I. DONORS AND DONATIONS.
Barney. Eugene J., Dayton, O $ 75.00
Bartlett, Rev. F. W., Williamstown,
Mass 3.00
Bissell, Prof. Edwin C, Hartford, Conn. 5.0O
Bolton, Rev. H.W., ChieaK-o, III 10.00
Bradish, Rev. J. Q., New York, N. Y.. . . 5.00
Briggs, Rev, H. F., Evaaston. Ill 3.00
Brown, Alex., Philadelphia, Pa 50.00
Brown, Prof. Chas. R., Newton Centre,
Mass 25.00
Burnham, Prof. S., Hamilton, N. Y 20.00
Calki ns. Rev. H. R., Evanston, 111 3.00
Carwarciine, Rev. H. W.. Evanston, 111.. 3.00
Cartwright, Rev. 1. C, Evanston, 111. . .. 3.00
Charlton, Rev. Adara, Lynedoch, Ont. . 3.00
Clarke, Rev. Wm., Evanston, 111 1.00
Clissold, H. R., Morgan Park, 111 10.00
Coffin, Lemuel, Philadelphia, Pa 50.00
Colby, Hon. Chas. L., Milwaukee, Wis.. 30.00
Colby, Rev. Henry P., Dayton, 0 5.00
Converse, Edmund W.. Boston, Mass... 30.00
Converse, John H., Philadelphia, Pa.... .50.00
Converse, J. W.. Boston. Mass 25.00
Craig. Rev. A. E., Evanston, 111 3.00
Crandall, C. E., New Haven, Conn 30.00
Crandall. Ezra. Milton, Wis 35.00
Crosby. Rev. Howard. New York, N. Y. 20.00
Crowell, Geo. E., Brattleboro, Vt 25.00
Crozer, G. K., Chester. Pa 25.00
Crozer, J. Lewis, Philadelphia, Pa 20 00
Crozer. Samuel A., Chester, Pa 35.00
Cunningham, Rev. G. E., Evanston, 111. 1.00
Currier, Prof. A. N., Iowa Citv, la 3.50
Curtis, Prof. E. L., Chicago, 111 25.00
Curtis, S.M., Newark, Del 5.00
Dales, Rev. J. B., Philadelphia, Pa 50.00
Dana, Rev. S. W., Philadelphia, Pa 35.00
Davis, Rev. Geo. W., New Haven, Conn. 10.00
Davis, Rev. J. P., Evanston, III 2.00
Deering. Wm.. Evanston, III 20.00
Denio, Prof. F. B., Bangor, Me 25.00
Denison, John N., Boston, Mass 100.00
Dexter, Rev. Henry M., Boston, Mass.. 10.00
Dodge, Rev. D. Stuart. New York, N. Y. .50.00
Douglass, Benjamin, Chicago, 111 450.00
Fisk, Rev. W., Evanston, 111 3.00
Fox, Rev. J. W., Buda, III 2.00
Frazier, W. W., Philadelphia, Pa 50.00
Goodman & Dickerson, Chicago, 111 50.00
Goodspeed, Rev. Geo. S., New Haven,
Conn 10.00
Griffith, Rev. A. M., Evanston, 111 3.00
Grover, W. O., Boston, Mass 100.00
Hangan. Rev. P., Evanston, 111 3.00
Harper, Prof. W. R., New Haven, Conn. 200.00
Harrington, Rev. C. K., Yokahama,
Japan 20.00
Harrison, Mrs. Geo. L., Philadelphia, Pa. 50 00
Henderson, A. M., Chicago, III .. .. 25,00
Henderson, Rev. J. A., Omaha. Neb .5.00
Herhen, Hev. S. J.. Evanston, 111 3.00
Holbrook, Z. S., Evanston, 111 10.00
Jaycox, Mrs. E. L., Evanston, 111 5.00
Jessup, Morris K., New York, N. Y lOO.OO
Johnson, Prof. Herrick, Chicago, 111.. .. 30.00
Jones, Rev. S. F., Evanston, III 10.00
Kevan, Hev. J. H., Evanston, 111 3.00
King, Dr. Chas. R., Philadelphia, Pa. . . . 25.00
Kirby, Rev. R. M., Pottsdara, N. Y 6.00
Landis, Prof. J. P., Dayton, O 20.00
Larish, Rev. G. I., Evanston, III 3.00
Lewis, Rev. E. G., Evanston, 111 5.00
McClenahan, Prof. D. A., Allegheny, Pa. 60.00
McDowell, Rev. J. Q. A.. New Castle, Pa. 5.00
MeKee, Rev. Will. P., Minneapolis,
Minn 5.00
McKibbon, Prof. Geo. F., Granville, O.. 6.00
McKirahan, Wm., Hookstown, Pa 35.00
McYickar. Rev. W. N., Philadelphia, Pa. 50.00
McWilliams, Daniel W., Brooklyn, N. Y. 250.00
Miller, A. H., Philadelphia. Pa 20.00
Miller, Miss M. S., Philadelphia, Pa 10.00
Monroe, Elbert B., Southport, Conn. . . . 200.00
Noyes, Rev. J. C Evanston, 111 10.00
Parker. Prof. L. P., Iowa City, la 2.50
Potts, Jos. D., Philadelphia, Pa .50.00
Powers, Mrs. Thos. H., Philadelphia, Pa. 50.00
Bainey, Wm., Cambridge. 0 10.00
Rapp, Hev. J. J., Evanston, 111 3.00
Reiehelt, Jno. A., Chicago. Ill 25.00
Rhoades, Rev. W. C. P., Brooklyn, N. Y. 6.00
Richards, C. W., Oswego, N. Y 10.00
Robert. H. M., Oswego, N. Y 30.00
Robertson, Rev. P., Cincinnati. 0 10.00
Robie, Edward. Greenland, N. H 6.00
Rockefeller, Jno. D., New York, N. Y.. . 300.00
Roy, Rev. J., Cobourg, Ont 1.00
Salsman, Rev. F. J., Newton Centre,
Mass 1 00
Scott, Rev. W. T., Evanston, 111 8.00
Smith, Rev. E., Evanston, 111 3.00
Snow, Rev. Fred. A., Newton Centre,
Mass 1.00
Strangland, Rev. E. J., Evanston. Ill 3.00
Stearns, Prof. O. S., Newton Centre,
Mass 10.00
Summey, Prof. Geo., Chester, S. C 25.00
Thomas, Rev. Jno. H., Lawrenceburg,
Ind 3.00
Thorne, C. C, Pitman, Fla 2.00
Thresher, E. M., Davton. O 25.00
Tingle, Rev. G. W., Evanston, 111 1.00
Wheeler, Andrew. Philadelphia, Pa . 25 00
Whitaker, Rt. Rev. O. W., Philadelphia,
Pa 15.00
White, Jno. G., Philadelphia, Pa 10.00
Whittlesey, Rev. N. H., Evanston, 111... 10.00
Wright, Rev. K. A., Evanston, 111 1.00
Total Endowment ?3,356.00
230
The Old Testament Student.
II. RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS.
Tear Ending Deceubeh 1, 1888.
DISBURSEMENTS.
Correspondence School:
Tuition refunded $ 19.50
Salaries 1,420.01
Printlnir and Stationery.. 4K).-.'l
Advertising IBH.OO
Postage 15!i.O!)
General Expense a8.20
$2,289.01
New England Scm.mer School:
Salaries t 378.27
Prlntinir and Stationery.. Ig.Kf
Advertising 61.88
Postaire 77.31
General Expense 51.64
»577.93
Philadelphia Summer School:
Salaries t 5.58.75
Printing and Stationery.. 20.08
Advertising 51.89
Postage 77.00
General Expense 45.91
$753.63
Chicago Summer School:
Salaries $ 628.25
Printing and Stationery.. 17.09
'Advertising 51.88
Postage B8.36
General Expense 8.U3
Vim.'.n
Southern Summer School:
Salaries $ 52.16
Printing and Stationery. , 17.59
Advertising 51.88
General Expense 8.84
$130.47
Cognate Class,— Printing and Station-
ery $ 1.00
Endowment Fund Expense 13:). 62
Principal's Salary 1,200.00
Executive Committee Expense 15.25
Institute Expenses, rent, interest, etc. 207.86
Loans 1,775.00
Office Furniture 5.00
Summer School Circular, paid by ad-
vertising, etc 223.75
$8,076,43
Balance on hand, Dee. 1, 1888 227.72
$8,304.15
HECEIPTS.
Dalance on hand from 1887 $118.21
From Endowment Fund $3,356.00
Advertising and Postage
Summer School Circular.. 223.75
Tu itlon-fees in Cor. School
1887 80.30
Tuition-fees In Cor. School
1888 1,368.68
Incidental-fees at New
England Summer School. 132.60
Koom-rent at same 37.50
IncidentMl fees at I'hila-
delpliia Summer School.. 173.00
Incldintalfccs at Chicago
Summer School 415.00
Loans 2,389.94
Tuition-fees In Cognate
Class 22.17
8,187.94
$8,304.16
ASSETS.
Cash
Endowment Fund arrears (estimated)
Tuition-fees arrears (estimatedl
Printed matter
$ 227.72
500.011
100.00
43.00
3(1.80
Loans
LIABILITIES.
.... $1,389.04
Excess of Liabilities over Assets
f »10..-)2
478.3'-'
$1,389.04
$1,389.04
The Committee appointed to audit the Treasurer ".s Report have examined the
accounts and found them correct, ■v\'ith vouchers corresponding.
Charles A. Briggs,
Wallace AV. Lovejoy.
♦•BOOIf-M^OTICES.^
THE BOOKS OF SAMUEL.
With the purpose of these vohimes one cannot but be in hearty sympathy.
They aim to give a continuous exposition of the two Boolis of Samuel. It is to
be expected that the worli to be found in them will be based on the widest knowl-
edge and animated by a devout spirit. From the author's reputation as a scholar
one has a right to look for this. Dr. Blaikie's contributions to biblical history
have been singularly able and helpful. What of the workmanship here displayed ?
Much may be said in praise. There are serious faults, however, which greatly
mar its otherwise commendable character. The author indulges too freely in
imaginative flights on which he founds homiletic conclusions which are altogether
too unsubstantial. To conjecture for example (cf. p. 127, vol. I.), that the asses of
Kish which had strayed were specially needed, so that the operations of the farm
had to be suspended in consequence ; and then to urge upon all the blessedness
of equauimity under similar circumstances — do not call this exposition ; it might
better be named Miiposition. These volumes are, unfortunately, too full of this
kind of thing. Exception might be taken, also, to the expositor's unfavorable
conception of Elkanah as not justified by the facts ; to his dark and unsympa-
thetic delineation of Saul and the correspondingly too highly favorable portrayal
of David. Yet no one can fail to be more or less profited by the perusal of these
expositions or to be convinced that expository preaching if done on right methods
is in the highest degree attractive and edifying.
AN OLD TESTAMENT INTRODUCTION.!
This book contains " a succinct outline of each of the books of the Old Tes-
tament, giving attention to authorship, date, contents, chief critical difficulties,
and such literature as may aid in the solution of the difficulties." The author
has succeeded in condensing his information into 148 pages (7 J in. x 5 in.) and
in presenting us with the established facts in a very handy form. Where there is
room for difference of opinion, he has refrained carefully from dogmatizing, and
contents himself with giving the various theories. The book will render its best
service when supplemented by oral instruction, but is nevertheless an excellent
guide to students who wish independently to make their way through the litera-
ture of the topics suggested. The main facts concerning the twelve minor
Prophets are given in two convenient tables at the end. The book supplies a
need which has long been felt and in the attractive dress which the publisher has
given it, will doubtless be very cordially welcomed by all interested in the study
of the Old Testament.
* I. The First Book of Samuel. By Rev. Prof. W. G. Blaikie, D. D., LL. D. The Exposi-
tor's Bible. "Se.w York: A. C. Armstrong A Son. II. The Second Book of Samdel. By the
same.
+ Introduction to the Books of the Old Testament. With Analyses and illustrative
literature. By O. S. Stearns, D. D., Professor of Biblical Interpretation in Newton Theo. Inst.
Boston; Silver, Burdetf and Co. SI.OO.
CURRENT OLD TESTAMENT LITERATURE.
ASIERICAN AND FOHEIGK PUBLICATIONS.
Buddliism In iu ConneclUm xciOi Brahmtniiim
and Hittduism and in iU Contrast with ChrU-
tkiniti/. Uy Sir Mouier Williams. Loiidou:
Murray.
BiCKH/lyphic Bible: Ueinu a Careful Selectiim nf
the munt tntnrxtino and Itnpiirthnt Ptijigaiiejs in
the Uld and New TrMament; lieijuUirly Ar-
ranged frtnn Oene»i» to Revelation. Etnbel-
listatd and Illustrated with Hundreds of En-
^ravinps on Wood. New York: Scribner &
Welford.
Manual oj mblical Archtenligy. By Karl Fred-
erick Keil. With alterations and ..Additions
furnished by the Author of the Enirllsh
Translation. Vol. II. Translated from the
German, and Edited by the Ker. Alexander
Cusin. .M. A. Ibid.
Das Buch der IteligUiuen. Nach ehristliche und
jiidische Quellen. By A. Franz, Stuttgart,
18.su.
The Story of Daniel: hit Life and Time*. Second
edition. Edinburgh; Gemmell, !«)» 5s.
The Bible View of the Jewish Church. By How-
ard Crosby, D. D. New York: Funk & Wair-
nalls..
.SI.iW.
The Beginntnyn of Heliginn. By Thomas Scott
Bacon. London: Kivin^rtons $4.40.
Crudeyt's Complete Concordance to the Old and
New Tejitnmenta and the Apochrypha. Edited
bj' Wm. Younginau. New York: Warne.tl.W.
AUTICLES AND KEVIEWS.
Noeldeke on the Primitive Religion nf leraet.
Biblical Kesearch in The Independent, Dec.
20. IKSK.
Hitzig'i DieZwolf Klcinen Propheten. Critique
hv E. Kenan iu .Journal des Savants, Nov.,
188X.
Aini<worth'ft Personal Narrative of the Euphrates
Expedition. Keviow In Athenaeum, Dec. 23,
1X88.
Ishim an a Political Syntem. By A. T. Sibbold
in National Kevicw, Jan., ]»8».
Pff/iV." TrtHis II. Critiiiue in Independent, Jan.
:j. 1.H811; also in S. S. Times. Jan. 3, 1SS9.
Biblical Renearch. The Independent, Jan. 10,
188».
Behind the Synagogue. By A. B. Ehrllch. Ibid.,
Jan. 17, 1889.
Die lo Frstreise-Psalmen (Ps. liO-lMl. 11. By
G. Sturmtels in Der Bcw. d. Glaub., Dec,
1888.
Mngeji' Idea of Ood, deduced mainly from the
nnmei< which he aftpUc^ to him. IV. By Eph.
M. Epsioin, in Christian Quarterly Heview,
Jan., 1889.
The Growth of Religion. By Rev. E. L. Shaffer
in Unlversalist Quarterly. Jtm., 1889.
The Levirate Marriage. By Prof. W. W. Davis.
Ph. D., in The Christian Advocate, Deo. 13,
I8«8.
Mohammed and Ma Koran. By Prof. H. M.
Harmuii, 1). D., in Methodist Review, Jan.,
imi.
Iiaethgen';< Bcitriige zur semitischen Religlnns-
Ut:r:chichte. Critique In the Sunday School
Times, Dec. 29, 1888.
Oencnis and Geobigy. By Prof. A. Crawford in
VirB^lnia Seminary Magazine, Jan., 1889.
Humphrev'f Sacred Iliftory. By Dr. J. F. Lati-
mer in Presliyterinn Quarterly, Jan., 1*89.
Cheync'f Psalms. By Dr. W. «". .Moore. Ibid.
.4 Plea for the Bible. By W. Willner in the Jew-
isli .Metssenger. Jan. 2.'), 1889.
Lepers and Leprosy in the Bast, By Susan E.
Wallace in the Sunday School Times, Jan. 3,
1889.
Poetry of the Bible. By Prof. Dr. Philip Scbaff.
Ibid., Jan. 19.
L'iii7)/ of the Pentateuch. Book Review. Ibid.
Sludien liber das alte .lerusalem. By Brandt In
Deutsch-Evantr., Bliitl. 10-12, 1888.
The Site of Ebenezer. WiUi a note by C. R.
Conder. Bv Th. Chaplin In Pal. E.xpl. Fund.,
Oct., 1888.
Tlie Conduit iiCAir the Pool nf Bethesda. By W.
Simpson. Ibid.
The Study of the Septuaglnt. By H. A. Redpath
in the Clergyman's Magazine, Dec, 1888.
The Bible a (;<«/«•( <i/ hJvents. A PnsUiumous
Essay. By Kev. Chas. T. Collins in the An-
dover Review, Jan., 1889.
Assyrian and Heltrew ChmnnUigy- By Rev.
James Orr, D. D., In The Presbyterian Re-
view, Jan., 1889.
Reviews nf Recent Literature.—" Blaikic's2 Sam-
uel," by .1. D. Davis; "Ca.«8ell's Esther," by
C. A. Aiken: "Curry's Job"; "Bradley's
Lectures on .lob'*; " Wace's Apocrypha," by
C. A. Briggs ; " Henan's Israel"; Stade's
Geschichte": " KIttell's Goschlchte," by F.
Brown; "Green's Hebrew Grammar," by
S. I. Curtiss: " Harper's Hebrew Syntax," by
Briggs, in the Presbyterian Review, Jan.,
1889.
Critical Note. Divine Human Names. By Thos.
Laurie. D. D.. in BIbliotheca Sacra, Jan., 1889.
The Bible and the Homily in Old English. By
Prof. T. W. Hunt, Ph. D., in The Homlletic
Iteview. Feb.. 1889.
Studies in the Psalter. U. The Sixteenth Pgalm.
Bv T. W. Chambers, D. D. Ibid.
The Last Nine Chapters of Ezchicl. By F. W.
Farrar, D. D., in the E.xpositer, Jan., 1889.
The .•icriptural Idea of I'ricsthnod embodied in
Su/:eejisive Types. By Rev. F. Rendall, A. M.
Il)ld.
DeliUsch's Nnter Cnmmentar llher die Getieais.
Review by Kautzsch in Theo. Stud. u. Krit.,
2. 18.89.
La Prophitie Juive. By Eugene Bersier in Re-
vue Chretienne, Jan. 1. 1889.
Lcji Livres sacres de I'Orient. Bv Mm. Bartb.
Saint Hiiaire in Journal des Savants. Dec,
1888.
The ApiKrypha. In the Edinburgh Review,
Jan.. 18.S9.
The Nim^s of God. In Church Quarterly Re-
view, Jan., 1889.
Renan's Hlttory of Israel. Ibid.
Where are the Ten Tril>es7 II. By Dr. Neu-
Iniuer in Jewish Quarterly Review. Jan.. 1889.
The l{i.ie and Development of the Massorah. By
Kev. J. D. Harris, M. A. Ibid.
.Mmlic Pasmges in the Psalms. By C. G. Monte-
tlnip. Ibid.
The Book nf Hnsea In the Light nf Assj/rian Re-
search. By Prof. A. H. Sayce. Ibid.
OF
INDUCTIVE BIBLE-STUDIES.-SECOND SERIES.
[Copyright by W. R. Harper, 1888.]
Forty Studies on the Life of tlie Christ, based ou the Gospel of Mark.
Edited by William R. Harper, Yale University, New Haven.
STUDY XXI.— A DAY OF CONTROVERSY. MARK ll:27-]i::17.
Besnme. 1. The reason for Jesus' entry into Jerusalem. 3. The explanation of the circum-
stances attending it. 3. The lesson of the barren flg-tree.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Read carefully Mark 11 :27-12:17, and be able to make a definite statement concern-
ing each of the following points, e. g. :
1. Jesus in the temple (v. 27) ; 4. the quotation (vs. 10,11) ;
2. a discussion concerning his au- 5. the result (v. 12) ;
thority (vs. 28-33) ; 6. discussion concerning tribute (vs.
3. parable of the wicked husband- 13-17).
men (12:1-9);
II. The Material Compared.
1. With Ml5. 11:37-12:17 cf. Mt. 21:23-22:22; Lk. 20:1-26.
3. Note the light thrown on Mark in Mt. 21:23,46; 22:15,22; Lk. 20:1,6,20,26.
3. Observe the additional material, Mt. 21:28-32,43,44; 22:1-14; Lk. 20:18.
4. Compare carefully the three accounts of the parable, Mk. 13:1-9; Mt. 21:33-41; Lk. 20:9-16,
observing likenesses and differences in statement, and note the bearing of the results
upon the relation of these narratives to each other.
, III. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
L) V. 27. (a) Walking; and teaching; an ized teacher; (3) of the Christ;
ancient custom. Cf . John 10:23. (b) as to its source. Note its pur-
ib) Chief priests, etc.; i. e. repre- pose, either (a) to inquire into
sentatives of the ecclesiastical his claims ; (b) to find ground for
authority. accusation; (c) to awe him into
2) T. 28. A double question; (a) as to the silence, or (d) to discredit him
kind of authority, whether, e. g., before all.
(1) of a prophet ; (3) of an author-
*4
234
The Old Testa jubnt Stthjent.
3) V. ao. Tlic bapUtm of John ; i. e. his
work as summed up In this sym-
bol.
4) V8. 30-33. Consider the design of Jesus (a)
to catch them : rb) to disclose
their sin In relation to John; (o)
to compel them to confess John's
work as from God, and therefore
(d) the divine source of his own
authority to which John testlfled.
5) Ch. 12:1, Learnsomethlngof oriental vine
culture as represented here.
6) V. i. Receive tliefruitg; 1. e. as rent for
the land.
7) T. 10. (a) Explain the figure; (b) note
the original appUcatlou of the
passage ; ic) Jesus' use of It.
8) V. 13. They neiid; for the persons sent
cf. Mt. ;£;:I0.
9) V. 14. (a) Care»t luA; 1. e. "art no parti-
san."
(b) Beoardegt not the person ; a
Hebrew Idiom; cf. Deut. 1:17;
Prov. 34:'J3.
10) V. 17. (a) Render; lit. "pay back" what
is due.
(b) Marvelled greatly ; for what
reason?
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
1) The Parsble. (a) Recall In a vivid picture the story (Mk. 12:1-9) and observe its relation to
Isa. .">:1,2; (b) make a brief statement of what may be regarded as Its essential teaching
and compare this with Isa. .5:3-7; (c) study the details and determine how far they have a
special application, c. g. (1) the vineyard, its parts and products; (2) the husbandmen,
whether the people as a whole or their rc'li)rioiis leaders; (3) the lord, the servants and the
son; (4) the "others" (v. 9), whether the Gentiles or the followers of Jesus as a whole;
(d) compare the parables in Mk. 4:1-34 in their purpose and form (cf. "Study" IX. ill.
2.1)).
2) The Political Situation, (a) Note the existence of Caesar's rule in .Jerusalem
(Mk. 12:14-17) ; (b) learn something of the way this rule was regarded (1) by
the people in general, (2) by the Pharisees, (3) by the llerodians; (c) con-
sider how Jesus was situated in relation to this rule, (1) what was expected
of him as the Christ in national affairs, (2) the probable attitude of the
Romans in view of this e.xpectation ; (d) from this point of view consider
the critical importance of this question and its answer (vs. 15,17) ; (e) study
the answer of Jesus (v. 17) and decide whether (1) it was an evasion, (2) it
was a virtual surrender to Csesar, (.■?) it offered a new solution of the prob-
lem ; (f) if the latter, endeavor to state the principle which Jesus here laid
down and observe the position of the Apostolic Church in relation to it
(Rom. 13:1-7; 1 Pet. 2:13-17; Acts 4:19).
IV. The Material Organized.
1. Gather the material and classify it under the following heads: 1) persons; 2) habits and cus-
toms; 3) Important teachings; 4) O. T. quotations; ii) literary data.
2. Conderuie the material, according to methods already employed, under the general topic of
jDdgments of the King, regarding 1) himself, 2) his people, 3) other rulers.
V. The Material Applied.
Religion and Politics. 1. Having determined the teaching of Jesus upon the
relations of politics and religion (Mk. 12:17) as to 1) their separation, and
2) the duty of the Christian to the State. 2. Apply these teachings to the
following positions: 1) a Cliristiaii should have nothing to do with politics;
2) religious matters are a direct concern of the State ; 3) the Church should
interfere directly with questions of politics. 3. Show what bearing, if any,
these teachings have upon the following subjects : Religion in the common
schooU; Preaching the Chspel where civil law forbids; Political prohibition of
the liquor traffic; Sabbath legislation.
New Testament Supplement.
235
STUDY XXII.— CONTINUED CONTROVERSIES. MARK 12:18-44.
BeBDme, 1. Jesus' reception in the Temple. 3. The purpose and results of the discussions into
which he is drawn. 3. His teaching concerning' civil government.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Read carefully Mk. 12:18-44 and be able to make a definite statement concerning
each of the following points, e. g. :
4. the feeling of the people (v. 37) ;
5. Jesus' denunciation of the scribes
(vs. 38-40) ;
6. the widow's offering and its lesson
(vs. 41-44) ;
1. Discussion with the Sadducees
(vs.lS-27);
2. a scribe's inquiry and its answer
(vs. 28-34) ;
3. Jesus' appeal to David (vs. 35,
36);
n. The Material Compared.
With Mk. 12:18-44, cf. Mt. 22:15-23:!; Lk. 20:21-21:4.
Note special features in each account, e.g. Mk. 13:38,31-34,37,41 ; Mt. 22:33.40,41-43; Lk. 20:3i»-
Study resemblances and differences in the three accounts; e. g. comparing Mk. 12:24,35 and
Mt. 22:2!t,30 with Lk. 20:84-36 ; and Mk. 13:38-40; Lk. 20:45-47 with Mt. 23:1-7.
III. The Material Explained.
1.
1) T. 18.
6) T. 28.
3) T. 19.
3) V. 24.
4) T. 25.
ti) V. 20.
TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
(a) Re»urrcction ; i. e. of the
body, Involving the immortality
of the soul.
(b) Asked; (1) motive of this
question, whether serious dis-
cussion or to discredit Jesus by
this absurd case? (3) What it
implied as to Jesus' views of res-
urrection, ef. John 5:38,39.
Moses wrote; (a) cf. Deut. 35:
5,6; (b) the custom was called
" brother-in-law (levirate) mar-
riage"; (c) reason for it?
Err; (a) note the mildness of
Jesus; (b) what the error was (1)
as to the manner of resurrec-
tion, (3) in the consequent denial
of any resurrection; (c) observe
the twofold cause of the twofold
error.
(a) Argument from Gods' powei';
(b) meeting the error as to man-
ner of resurrection; (c) lighten
(1) angels, (3) relations of the
heavenly state.
(a) Argument from the Script-
ures; (b) meeting the denial of
resurrection ; (c) estimate the
meaning and force of the argu-
ment, whether (1) merely verbal
and fallacious, or (3) an appeal
7) V. 31.
8) V. 32.
9) V. 35.
10) V. 38.
nature of God and his cove-
nant relations to the patriarchs,
which involved their continued
existence; (d) its bearing upon
those not in the covenant.
Asked; the motive for this ques-
tion in view of Mt. 33:35, whether'
(a) to test his ability, or (b) to
tempt him (1) to take sides for
or against tradition, or (3) to
convict him of blaspheming in
his claim to be God's Son, in view
of his answer (v. 29); cf. John
5:18; 10;33,3(i.
The second; why add this?
Well said ; the spirit of this reply ?
(a) Aimvered; either (1) the reply
in Mt. 33:43 or (3) the secret argu-
ment in Mk. 13:38.
(b) Bow say ; i. e. "in what
sense ;" (1) does Jesus deny the
fact? Cf. Mk. 10:47; Mt. 31:9;
or (3) does he correct the com-
mon view that a human and
temporal Christ only was to be
expected; and thus (3) answer
the secret argument of v. 38 ?
(a)7n the Holy Spirit; cf. Mk. 1:23
("Study"IV. iii. 1. 3)).
(b) David said; note three views*
as to these words, (1) Jesus em-
to the underlying facts of the
phasized David's authorsUp of
* The article in The 0. T. Student, Jan., 1889, by Prof. G. B. Stevens, on The Bearing of N. T.
Statements upon the Authorship of O. T. Books, may be profitably consulted. Cf. the present (Feb. )
number also.
236 The Old Testament Stitdent.
the Psalm and was correct; (2) (b) Heard Mm gladiy; (1) because
he was mistaken in declaring of his sllencingr his questioners ?
that David wrote it; (3) he testi- or (2) because they favored this
fled that it spoke of the Christ view of the Christ?
but accepted the view of his l:;i Vs. :|8, 39. (a) Explain the customs here al-
time as to its author without luded to; Cb) note the classes of
testifying to its correctness. sins denounced ; (c) why were
11) T. SJ. (a) Lord; (1) a higher than a hu- the scribes specially assailed ?
man and temporal Christ; (2)how I.Ji V. 41. Motley; not for the poor butof-
does this bear upon Jesus' idea ferings to the Lord,
of himself? (3) Cf. Romans H) V. 44. All that she had; how did Jesus
1:3,4. know this? Cf. John 4:18.
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
1) JesQR as a Reasoner.. (a) Recall the part taken by Jesus in the discussions of
Mk. 11:27-12:37; (b) seek examples of the following characteristics in his
answers: (1) candor; (2) simplicity ; (3) boldness; (4) keenness; (5) gentle-
ness; (6) severity; (c) inquire as to the evidence of (1) his use of verbal
quibbling answers intended to puzzle ; (2) arguments based on literal and
formal grounds; (3) arguments on broad spiritual principles; (4) a marvel-
ous insight into the O. T. Scriptures and into the human mind ; (d) in a
general way sum up the purpose and the results of these discussions as
relates to(]) the hostile questioners; (2) Jesus and his disciples; (3) the
people.
2) The Sadducees.* (a) Learn something of their origin; (b) the class of people that composed
them ; (c) their political and religious views ; (d) the good element in their religious
position; (e) their relation to (1) Pharisees; (2) Romans; Ci) Jesus.
IV. The Material Organized.
1. Oather the material and classify It under the following heads: 1) persons; 2) habits and cus-
toms; 3) important teachings j 4) Jesus and the O.T.; 5) Jesus as man and more than man;
6) places; 7) historical allusions.
2. Condctwe the material into the briefest possible statement and compare the results with the
following:
Sadiliirfes ini|ulrin!r of Jesus about n rase nliioh discredits the resurrection are told that God's
noni implies a resurrection and (ioti's power Hill free the future iiPe from earthly conilitions.
An in(]ulrinif scrilie is told that supreme love of (;od and unseitlsh lo\e of man are the great com.
nianduients. The scribe, heartllj a-ssentini:. Is declared to be near the Kingdom <if (iod. Jesus
asks. How can the ('hrist be Darhi's son and the psalm call him David's I.oril 1 He bids them
beware of tlie srribeH whose Ambition, avarice and hypocrisy shall be conilemned. Hehoidintr a
poor widow casting 11 gift into the treasury among others, he said, llecause sliu oast in all she
had, she gave the most of ail.
T. The Mat«rial Applied.
1. Controversy. 1) Controversy upon religious subjects regarded as a means of
demonstrating the truth ; 2) the right spirit to be maintained; 3) the temp-
tations incident to it; 4) the failure of controversy especially with unbe-
lievers ; 5) its weakness as lying in an appeal to the miud rather than
to the heart; 6) what is more convincing than argument?
2. Benevolence. Vs. 41-44. Determine from this incident 1 ) the right spirit in
giving to God of one's property ; 2) the false and true measure of gifts-
amount <as compared with means; 3) what might be expected to result
were the true measure accepted by Christians.
■ Cf. Smith's Bible Dictionary, Art. Sadducees.
New Testament Supplement.
237
STUDY XXIII.— THE FUTUEE. MARK 13:1-37.
Resame. 1. The spirit and purpose of the questioners of Jesus. 3. The answers of Jesus as
revealing his views, 1) of the future life; 3) of the essence of religion; 3) of the Christ.
3. His opinion of the scribes and the reason for it. 4. The issue of all these contro-
versies.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Read carefully Mark 13:1-37, and be able to make a definite statement concerning
each of the following points, e. g. :
1. Conversation on leaving the tem-
ple (vs. 1,2);
2. the disciples' inquiry (vs. 3,4);
3. the prospect of social disturb-
ances and their lesson (vs. 6-8) ;
4. the prospect of personal trials
and their lesson (vs. 9-13) ;
.5
the decisive sign and its lesson
(vs. 14-23) ;
6. the events to follow (vs. 24-27) ;
7. the certainty and the uncertainty
involved (vs. 28-32) ;
8. the final warning (vs. 33-37).
II. The Material Compared.
In connection with Mk. 13:1-37 read with care Mt. 24:1-51; Lk. '21 :.5-38.
Compare the three accounts more or less fully according to the time which can be given to
this work, observing particularly, 1) new facts or statements. Jit. 24:3, 15, "20, 26-28, 30,37-
41; Lk. 21:20,24-26,28; 3) the ditTerent forms of the parable, Mk. 13:34-36; Mt. 24:43-51;
Lk. 21:34-36.
From this comparison draw some conclusions as to the origin and relations of these three
reports of this speech.
in. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
I) T. 3.
3) v. 4.
3) T. G.
4) Vs
• 'r
5) V.
7.
6) v.
8.
7) v.
9.
8) v.
10.
Mount of Oliveg; its location in
reference to Jerusalem ?
(a) These things ; i. e. (I) the event
of V. 2; (3) the events of Mt. 24: 9) V. 13.
3b, regarded either as involved
in (1), or as distinct from it.
(b) Note the two questions here
concerning (I) the time of the
event and (3) the sign of its
nearness. 10) V. 14.
(a) Shall come ; i. e. " as you ex-
pect me to come." Cf. Mk. 8:38;
Mt. 16:28.
(b) In my name ; i. e. *' as the
Christ." Note Jesus' idea of
himself.
Are these events to be regarded
as literally to come to pass ?
End; i.e. when "these things" 11) V. 15.
shall come to pass ; so v. 13.
Beginning of travail; i. e. only
the beginning of disturbances 13) V. 19.
leading up to the "end."
Cf. Acts 5:27,40; 3 Cor. 11:24;
Acts 24:1; 25:23-27.
(a) First; 1. e. "before the end." 13) V. 24.
(b) This prophecy either (1) may
be regarded as having its ful-
fillment in that generation (cf.
Col. 1:6,33; Kom. 1:8); or (3) is
still to be fulfilled.
(a) Hated; why was this to be
expected ?
(b) Saved; from what? (1) the
material destruction (vs. 6-13)?
or (3) spiritual disaster and final
loss ? Cf . V. 30.
(a) Abomination of desolation; i.
e. the abominable thing (or per-
son) producing desolation. For
the event referred to cf. Lk. 31:
20; Mt. 34:15.
(b) Him that 7-eadcth; (1) either
this record, referred to by the
writer, or (3) Daniel 9:37; 11:31,
referred to by Jesus.
Not go down; i. e. through the
house, but by the outer stair-
way.
(a) Those days; i. e. following the
event of v. 14.
(b) After; how long ? Cf. Lk. 31:
34b: Mt. 24:29.
Those days; how related to (1) v.
14 and (3) v. 19?
238
The Old Tbstament Sttident.
l!i) V. S2. Neither Hie Son; whether (a) be-
cause he would not ? or (hi be-
cause he could not ?
20i T. SS. Pray: whether (a) lor his com-
ing ? or (b) lo be prepared for It ?
21) Ta. :!4-SC. (a> Note the essential thought:
(b> consider the significance of
the details: (1) the lord; (2) the
servants and the porter; (3i the
house; (4) the night seasons (v.
35); (6) "sleeping."
14) Ts. 24,2.1. (a) Are these evenU literal ?or(b)
Is the language symbolical 7 Cf .
Joel 2:1,2,10; Isu. 13:8-10.
ir>) V. 26. Sim of Man; of. Dan. 7:13; Mt.
16:28.
16) V. 27. Angclg; either (a) "messengers"
(cf. Mai. 3:1), apostlesand preach-
ers, or (b) angelic beings.
17) T. 29. Theee things ; either the event of
(1) vs. l>-23 or (2) vs. 14-23 only.
So V. 30.
18) V. 30. This generation; whether (1) the
present generation, cf. Mk. 9:1,
or (2) the Jewish people ?
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
The Interprelatlon of (lie Discourse, (a) Note the elements of diflBculty in under-
standing its meaning, (1) words indefinite in respect to the time or event
referred to, e. g. these things (vs. 4,8,29,30), end (vs. 7.13), first (v. 10), those
days (vs. 19,24), all things (v. 23), the time (v. 33); (2) phrases ambiguous in
meaning, e. g. all nations (v. 10), angels (v. 27), this generation (v. 30); (b)
consider the two principal explanations of the discourse ; (1) two events,
widely separate in time, are predicted— the destniction of Jenisalem, with
its sign (v. 14)— the coming of the Christ with two successive signs (vs. 6-8,
9-13) ; (2) one event is predicted— the coming of the Christ, which is iden-
tical with the destruction of Jerusalem, with three successive signs (vs. 5-8,
9-13,14); (c) according to the first view how interpret (1) v. 10; (2) after,
v. 24 (cf. Mt. 24:29); (3) v. 30; (4) v. 32; (d) according to the second view
how interpret (1) v. 10; (2) angels, v. 27 ; (3) v. 32 as over against v. 30?
(e) taking all things into consideration what view is most acceptable V
IV. The Material Organized.
1. Gather the material and classify it under the following heads: 1) places, 2) important events,
3) historical allusions, 4) important teachings, 5) Jesus as man and more than man, 0) lit-
erary data.
2. Condenne the material, Mk. 13:1-37, into the briefest possible statement, e. g. :
VS. 1-4.
He
Jesus declares that the temple, massive as it Is, shall be totally destroyed.
is asked concerning the time and the sign of these events,
vs. .S-S. He replies, False Christs, social conHicts, physical disturbances, will come as the
beginning of trouble,
vs. 9-13. You will suffer persecutions and hatred from all for my sake and you must
preach everywhere first: he that endureth will reach the end.
vs. 14-23. But when the impious desolator comes, then flee at once, for only in God's
mercy will any escape from the unparalleled trial. False Christs will appear;
but 1 have warned you.
vs. 24-27. After this in the midst of diatiirtiances in the heavens the Son of Man shall
gloriously appear and gather his elect,
vs. 38-37. As the budding tree tells of summer nigh, these things tell of his coming, yea,
even in this generation my sure word predicts their fulflllmcut. The time only
the Father knows. Watch and pray as the porter watches for his absent mas-
ter, uncertain of his coming.
vs. 1-3". IVlini .IcsuK liiiil Hiilil llijit till* leniplp irnuld he totally dostroyed and his disciplcM
iiii|iiiri'il thr tliiir mid lite siuii iil' thos*' tliliitrs. ho repllod: When .1 sciinoii of mm-IiiI
and physical distiirlianro Is past and Ihoiitcli pt-rsociitcd for niy sake )itu hate pri-arlicd
everyHliiTi', ulicn. tliially. the inipioiis dt'sidutiir is come, flee from the anfnl trial that
shall fVdIiin. Alter it, nith portents in the heatcns, the Son of Man slinll appear.
TlieKc tilings arc coinlni; in this generation. The Father alone knons the tlnte. IVatch
and pra).
New Testament Supplement. 239
Y. The Material Applied.
Watchfulness, l. A needful element in the Christian life in view of the com-
ing of the Christ, which is 1) uncertain, 2) sudden. 2. The true spirit of
watchfulness, 1) not anxiety, or 2) constant thought, but 3) readiness as
manifested in (a) fidelity to present duty, (b) striving after perfection of
character.
STUDY XXIV.— THE TRAITOR. MARK 14:1 11.
Resume. 1. The circumstances of Jesus' departure from the temple. 2. An outline of the dis-
course on the Mount of Olives. 3. The interpretation of that discourse.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead carefully Mark 14:1-11, and be able to make a definite statement concerning
each of the following points, e. g. :
1. The time (v. la) ; 4. the protest (vs. 4,5) ;
2. the counsel of his foes (vs. lb,2) ; 5. the reply of Jesus (vs. 6-9) ;
3. the scene at Simon's house (v. 3) ; 6. the traitor (vs. 10,11).
II. The Material Compared.
I. With Mk. li:l-ll. cf. Mt. 2G:1-16; Lk. 22:1-6; and note points in Mt. 26:1-3,15; Lk. 32:2-6.
3. Compare 1) Lk. 7 :36-50, and from (a) internal resemblances, (b) differences, (c) relative posi-
tion in the Gospel narratives, seeii to determine whether these are two accounts of the
same event; 2) Jolm 12:1-8, and study in a similar way.
3. If John 12:1-8 be regarded as narrating the same event as that of Mk. 14:1-11, 1) determine
which gospel presents the true chronological order and 3) note the light it throws upon
Mark; (a) the woman; (b) the guests; (c) the objector ; (d) other points.
m. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
I) V. 1. (a) 4/f«r tw)0 (toys; i.e. counting from (e) Brake; (1) peculiar to Mark; (2)
the events of Mk. 13. Cf. Mt. 26:1. reason for breaking ?
(b) iVot duriji© the femt; how and why 4) V. 5. (a) May this be regarded as a large
was this plan changed ? sum ?
3) V. 2. For; note (a) the reason for the " sub- (b) What may be Inferred as to the
tilty" and the delay; (b) the feeling social position of the "woman"?
of the people toward Jesus. (c) Mwi-mured; lit. " wroth-with." Cf.
3) T. 3. (a) In Bethany; either (I) Immediately Mk. 1:43. The spirit of this criticism;
after Mk. 13:3; or (2) at the time of cf. John 12:6.
Mk. 11:1. Cf. John 12:1. 5) T. J. Note the twofold argument drawn
(b) The leper; could he have been so from (a) the person; (b) his circum-
at that time? Cf. Lev. 13:45,46. stances.
(c) Spikenard; (1) for meaning cf. 6) V. 9. PTTioieioorM; what light upon the in-
margln R. V. ; (3) note the use of oint- sight of Jesus ? Cf . Mk. 13 :10.
ments among ancient peoples. 7) V. 10. He that was one, etc. ; emphatic ; cf.
(d) Poured, etc.; the significance of Lk. 32:3.
such an act, (a) in general, (b) her pur-
pose, (c) Jesus' interpretation.
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
Judas Iscariot. (a) Gather the facts in relation to Judas as given in the following
passages: Mk. 3:19; John 13:29; 6:70,71; 12:5,6; Mk. 14:10,11; John 13:
240 The Old Testament Student.
26,27; 18:2; Lk. 22:47,48; Mt. 27:3-5; Acts 1:16,17; (b) in view of Mk. 3:
19 consider why Jesus chose him, whether (1) ignorantly, or (2) hopefully, or
(3) designedly (John 13:18); (c) why he followed Jesus, whether (1) with
selfish aims solely, (2) with pure devotion, (3) with mixed motives; (d)
inquire into the cause of his deterioration as connected with (1) his being
the only Judean disciple, (2) his work— encouraging selfishness, (3) Jesus'
insight into his mind (John 6:70,71); (e) cause for his act of betrayal as
found in (1) covetouaness (John 12:6), (2) disappointment (Mk. 9:34-37),
(3) spite and revenge (Lk. 22:47,48); (f) the explanation of his repentance
(Mt. 27:3-5) ; (g) general summary of Judas' character, (1) its good points,
(2) its fatal defects; (h) is Judas' character exceptional, (1) in its essential
elements ? or (2) in its special circumstances ?
IT. The Material Organized.
1. Qathcr the maUrial and classify it under the following heads: 1) persons, 2) places, 3) habits
and customs, 4) important events, 5) literary data, 6) Jesus as more than man.
3. Condense the material verse by verse according to methods already indicated under the general
topic of Beginning uf the Knd.
T. The Material Applied.
A Christian Phinciple of Life. Mk. 14:3-9. Observe how the following points
are illustrated in this passage and consider their application to all right
living : 1) the Christian principle of life— supreme devotion to Jesus Christ ;
2) this determines one"s couree wlien duties seem to conflict (v. 5) ; 3) this
develops unselfishness to its highest degree (v. 3); 4) this is fruitful not
only in its local and immediate sphere (v. 8), but in permanent and wide-
reaching benefits (v. 9).
^T5E 'I'OhD 'I'mmjni'Eiim' STnDEp.-<>
Vol. VIII. MARCH, 1889. No. 7.
MOCH is being printed which professes to furnish a kej to the
Bible or key-words to its separate books. The figure is a forcible one,
suggesting both the riches that are contained in these Scriptures and
the possibility of difficulty in appropriating them. But can one pos-
sessor pass his key on to another .^ No; every one must fashion his
own. What may be suggested as two keys of which all may avail
theniselves .' These — devout study and simple obedience.
The exalted character of the Bible is in no way more clearly
shown than in a comparison with the finest products of other litera-
tures. There have been many theories of the mode and process of
creation, but none have ever approached the simple and sublime
affirmations of the first chapter of Genesis. Many great thinkers have
essayed to solve, in elaborate systems of philosophy or in epic and
dramatic representations, the problem of human life with its inequali-
ties and disappointments, but every one of them must yield to the pro-
found wisdom of the Book of Job. And when the figure of the Man
of Nazareth rises before us, who does not recall the glad confession of
Augustine : "In Cicero and Plato and other such writers I find many
things acutely said and many things that awaken fervor and desire,
but in none of them do I find these words, 'Come unto me and I will
give you rest.' " Gladly then should all such comparisons with other
literatures be welcomed by lovers of the Bible, and those who pur-
sue them be encouraged to continue. As the lesser hills of human
thought standing by themselves seem lofty, so when brought under
the shadow of the high mountains of God, while they will lose none of
*2
242 The Old Testament Student.
their own grandeur, they will serve to make more impressive the
majesty of those loftier peaks of divine revelation whose summits are
lost in the heavens.
The benefactors of any age are not those that criticise, but those
that construct. A certain amount of destruction is inevitable in sys-
tems of thought as in material things. Both wear out and must make
way for better things. This enters into the divine method of working.
"He taketh away the first that he may establish the second." It is a
favorite saying to-day and a true one, that "every age must have its
own theology." Our spiritual needs must be met ; our peculiar diffi-
culties and temptations adequately provided for. The past may bring
up its materials. It is our task to fashion them into new forms. The
danger here is that what is negative and destructive will be empha-
sized and pushed, to the comparative neglect of that which is estab-
lished and positive. In the passion for discarding what is old, that
which is permanently valuable is thrown away. The student of the
Bible should remember this. Let him never forget to aim at positive
results. If he must tear away and cast down much of the theological
architecture of the fathers, let him see to it that he builds up some-
thing which shall be a shelter and a citadel for his generation. In
other words, in the study of the Bible, the chief aim, the ultimate
purpose must be constructive.
Patience is a virtue which has its place in Bible-study. Is it
not often the case that students are in too much of a hurrj- to solve
hard questions and unravel intricate difficulties connected with these
Scriptures.' Do they not often discard and deny because some con-
tradiction or knotty point does not yield at almost the first investiga-
tion .'' Have we not seen young men who were already convinced that
certain biblical problems were insoluble.-' It is well to bear in mind
the element of patient reflection. Consider the growth of the Bible
through the measured progress of centuries — how slowly it gathered
itself together and became what it now is. What has been begotten
in patience, in patience should be pondered and studied.
To denounce the "higher criticism" of the Bible is regarded by
some as a mark of orthodoxy, and soundness in the faith. More
often, however, it is a mark of ignorance or bigotry. What is this
Editorial. 243
higher criticism so much dreaded and feared ? The higher criticism
of the Bible is that science which investigates the Sacred Scriptures
in reference to their historical and literary character. The lower
criticism is concerned with the study of the text, the mechanical
part of these ancient writings ; the higher, with the human life that
was the vehicle of divine revelation. "An ancient book is, so to speak,
a fragment of ancient life ; and to understand it aright we must treat
it as a living thing, as a bit of the life of the author and his time,
which we shall not fully understand without putting ourselves back
into the age in which it was written." To do this is the work of
higher criticism. It brings into relief, as far as possible, the living
man who was the penman of God, but who wrote as no machine, nor
even as a stenographer, taking mere dictation down, but with all his
faculties alive and asserting their own individual force and power.
The higher criticism discerns the personal peculiarities of the sacred
writers, notes their special language and style, the material or class of
facts, events, and thought, in which they present God's message
to men. Without the results of the higher criticism, the Bible would
be a dead mechanical book, containing the revelation of God in a col-
orless form. But with the results it becomes a book instinct with
life. We see behind it and through it living men, we hear their
peculiar form of utterance, we listen to the special doctrines in which
they delighted, we observe how they were moulded and influenced by
the times in which they dwelt. They were men, not angels, who
spake moved by the Holy Ghost, and it is the province of the higher
criticism to bring out this human side of the Bible. This has been
the especial field of biblical study during the present century, and
if in any way the Bible is more clearly understood in historic setting
and literary form than formerly, the debt is due to the higher critics.
They are a noble band of scholars, taken as a whole, and their work
should not be derided or made the subject of sarcastic sneer on account
of the wild vagaries of a few of their number.
THE SCHOOLS OF THE SONS OF THE PEOPHETS.
By Prof. Ira M. Price, Ph. D.,
Chicago Baptist Union Theological Seminary, Morgan Park, 111.
The prophetic order of the Old Testament is generally regarded as founded
upon the authority of the utterances in Deut. 18:15,18. The order itself, however,
did not exist until the time of Samuel. Between Closes and Samuel Israel passed
through the middle ages of its history. Few characters appear who give shape to
and mould poUtical and reUgioua life. No great character comes forth until
Samuel is called. He is the last and the climax of the Judges, the end of the old
order of things and the beginning of the new, the water-shed, the borderland
between the theocracy and the monarchy. He, the reformer, the reorganizer of
Israel, politically and religiously, the priest, prophet and judge, anoints the first
two kings of Israel. Political and religious Israel is revolutioned in his day. By
later Old Testament writers he is compared with Moses (Jer. 15:1, of. Ps. 99:6).
During his life we find the existence of collections or schools of sons of the
prophets. These are attributed to Samuel as their founder. They form the
beginnings of the prophetic order, whose continuous existence can be tiaced down
through Old Testament times, and whose influence is felt in all subsequent Old
Testament history and literature.
In the treatment of this subject the Old Testament will be used as the
authority. Tradition and legend will not be considered. The endeavor shall be
to examine and classifj' the information given concerning the sons of the prophets
1) as collected in bands or schools; 2) in particular localities; 3) under different
teachers; 4) with specified instruction; 5) with an occupation; 6) as to their
means of subsistence.
1. Bands or Schools. The earliest mention of these bauds is found in
1 Sam. 10:2-5. AVhen Samuel has anointed Saul king of Israel he sends him
away with certain directions. Saul is to meet three men going up to Bethel to
worship. " After that," says Samuel, " thou shalt come to the hill (marg. Gibeah)
of God, where is the gaiTison of the I'hilistines : and it shall come to pass, when
thou art come thither to the city, that thou shalt meet a band of prophets coming
down from the high place;" Samuel without doubt knew all about tliis band of
prophets, and theii- order of worship at particular times. In 1 Sam. 19:20 we find :
" And Saul sent messengers to take David : and when they saw the company of
the prophets prophesying, and Samuel standing as head over them ; the spirit of
God came upon the messengers of Saul, and they also prophesied."
Here a company is mentioned, while in tlie preceding passage they are called
a band, without any information as to their probable numbers. When Jezebel
was detei-miued on the destruction of the Lord's prophets we find (1 Kings 18:4) :
" Obadiah took an hundred prophets and hid them by fifty in a cave, and fed them
with bread and water." At this point (Samaria) we have fiurlher evidence of a
band or collection of prophets in 1 Kings 22:6 : " Then the king of Israel gathered
The Schools of the Sons of the Prophets. 246
the prophets together about four hundred men." Again when the farmer from
Baal Shalishah brought his contribution to Elisha, the old prophet commands him
to set it before the people (sons of prophets), the man replied (2 Kings 4:43) :
" What, should I set this before an hundred men ? " When Elisha returned from
the east of Jordan, after the ascension of Elijah, the sons of the prophets at Jer-
icho, fearing lest Elijah might have been cast upon some mountain or in some
valley, and desiring to search for Mm, said (2 Kings 2:16): " Behold now, there be
with thy servants fifty strong men." These passages all show that the sons of
the prophets were not only collected in bands or companies, but that these com-
panies consisted of considerable numbers.
2. Their Headquarters. 1) Ramah. This was the birth-place and
home of Samuel. After he made his yearly circuit as judge, " his return was to
Ramah, for there was his house ; and there he judged Israel : and he built there
an altar unto Jehovah " (1 Sam. 7:17). When Saul was in pursuit of David (1 Sam.
19:18-24) " David fled, and escaped, and came to Samuel to Ramah and Saul
sent messengers to take David, they saw the company of prophets prophesy-
ing, and Samuel standing as head over them." In the narrative we find that
three successive sets of messengers from Saul prophesy as soon as they come into
contact with the sons of the prophets and also that Saul himself finally comes into
the same state. At this place was without doubt the original school of the
prophets as founded by Samuel.
2) Bethel. We have no definite information that a school existed in this
place in Samuel's day. But the inference from the information given is that it was
a centre of worship (1 Sam. 10:3) and ere long became a headquarters for the sons
of the prophets. In the reign of Jeroboam an old prophet made his home at^this
place (1 Kings 13:11). While Elijah and Elisha were on then- way to the place of
translation of the former, " The sons of the prophets that were at Bethel came
forth to Elisha, and said unto him, knowest thou that Jehovah will take away thy
master from thy head, to-day V And he said. Yea, I know it ; hold ye your peace,"
(2 Kings 2:3). After his return from the east of the Jordan, and after the heal-
ing of the bitter waters near Jericho, Elisha " went up from thence to Bethel "
(2 Kings 2:23), undoubtedly with the express purpose of reporting to the sons of
the prophets his sad experience in the loss of his master, Elijah.
3) Oilgal. Samuel's command to Saul (1 Sam. 10:8): "thou shalt go down
before me to Gilgal," and the consequent prophesyings of Saul among the sons of
the prophets in the neighborhood of Gibeah, are a reasonable evidence that at or
near this point a school of the prophets was to be found in Samuel's day. At any
rate, in Samuel's yearly circuit as judge (1 Sam. 7:16), Gilgal received his regular
visits. Not again until Elijah's day do we have definite information on this
point. " And it came to pass, when Jehovah would take up Elijah by a whirl-
wind into heaven, that Elijah went with Elisha from Gilgal " (2 Kings 2:1). The
two prophets were probably giving instruction in the school at this place. On
their way they stop at two other schools to leave a parting word (2 Kings 2:2,4,5).
A number of years after this time there was a famine in the land " and Elisha
came again to Gilgal " (2 Kings 4:38). At this time he heals the pottage, poisoned
by the use of wild gourds. At this point we learn that there were at this time
about one hundred of these sons of the prophets (2 Kings 4:43).
4) Jericho. The third stopping place of Elijah and Elisha on their last journey
together was at Jericho. Here Elijah gives his last exhortation to the sons of the
246 The Old Testament Student.
prophets. After this was done (2 Kings 2:4-7) " they two went on. And fifty
men of the sons of the prophets went, and stood over against them afar off."
After the departure of Elijah, Elisha returns to Jericho (vs. 15-18) and tarries
three days with the sons of the prophets, whence he goes on up to Bethel. The
prosperity of this school may be inferred from 2 Kings 6:1.2, in which it is evi-
dent that they had grown in numbers beyond the capacity of their building.
5) Carmel. The evidence for this place as a headquarters of the sons of the
prophets is inferential rather than positive. In IfKings 2, we find that Elisha on
his return from the .Jordan and Jericho, " went up from thence unto Bethel"
(v. 23), and "from thence to Mount Carmel"' (v. 25). When the .Shunammite
woman was sorrowing over the death of her son (2 Kings 4:8-25) " she went and
came unto the man of God (Elisha) to Mount Carmel" (v. 25). This must have
been one of his regular engagements, because it was " neither new-moon nor sab-
bath " (V. 23), at which times he undoubtedly held special services at the relig-
ious centres other than the schools. Mount Carmel may have been chosen as a
centre for the sons of the prophets in commemoration of the test between Elijah
and the false prophets, and the consequent slaughter of the latter (1 Kings 18).
6) Samaria. And Elisha " went up from thence unto Bethel " (2 Kings 2:23),
and •' from thence unto Mount Carmel, and from thence he returned to Samaria"
(v. 25). At Jericho and Bethel and probably at Mount Carmel, Elisha had
already visited the schools of the prophets. Samaria was, at least a part of his
life, his home (2 Kings 6:32). Samuel liad his greatest school at his residence
and home, Ramah. It is hardly credible that so forcible a character as Elisha
should settle down in Samaria, and not collect about himself a body of sons of the
prophets. In fact — we find (1 Kings 18:4) during the persecutions of Jezebel:
" Obadiah took an hundred prophets and hid them by fifty in a cave, and fed them
with bread and water." Again at this same place, when Jehoshaphat and Ahab
were about to war with Ramoth-Gilead (1 Kings 22:1-6), " the king of Israel gath-
ered the prophets together, about four hundred men " (v. 6). These passages
reveal the fact that at Samaria there were large numbers of prophets. It is per-
fectly reasonable to suppose that these men were members of a school of the
prophets which was under the direct control of Elisha whose residence was at
this place.
The result of the examination of the above passages finds schools of the
prophets at 1) Ramah, 2) Bethel, 3) Gilgal, 4) Jericho, and probably 6) Caimel and
6) Samaria.
That they dwelt apart and in their own buUdings is certified by two or three
passages. In 1 Sam. 19:18,19, we find that when David fled to Ramah "he and
Samuel went and dwelt in Naioth " (i. e. dwellings, buildings, probably college
buildings) ; " And it was told Saul, saying. Behold, David is at Naioth (the col-
lege buildings) in Ramah." "And he went thither to Naioth (the college
buildings) in Ramah ; and the spirit of God came upon him also, and he went on
and prophesied, until he came to Naioth (the college buildings) in Ramah " (v. 23).
In 2 Kings 6:1-2, "the sons of the prophets said unto Elisha, the place where
we dwell before thee, is too strait for us. Let us go, we pray thee, unto Jordan,
and take thence every man a beam, and let us make a place there, where we may
dwell." This school was probiil>ly at Jericho, as they went down into the Jordan
valley for their timber (v. 4). In 2 Kings 4:38-41 we find an additional evidence
of their common dwelling. They all ate from the same pottage. And in vs.
The Schools of the Sons of the Prophets. 247
42,43 the gifts of the farmer are set before all. So that we can conclude that
while a few may have married and had homes of their own (2 Kings 4:1) the sons
of the prophets as a class occupied buildings together, and ate together as mem-
bers of one household.
3. Their Teachers. The sous of the prophets had as their teachers, at
least, three of the great men of their day. 1) Samuel. When the messengers of
Saul went to Eamah to capture David (1 Sam. 19:20), "they saw the company of
the prophets prophesying, and Samuel standing as head (superintendent) over
them." He was the presiding officer of this school, whether of any other we
know not. " He went from year to year in circuit to Bethel, and Gilgal, and
Mizpeh, and he judged Israel in all those places" (1 Sam. 7:16). In Bethel and
Gilgal there were in later times schools ; but we have no evidence that Samuel
founded them or that he did more in these places than to judge the people.
2) Elijah. Only in the last days of Elijah's life have we any evidence of his
relations to these schools. The word of Jehovah seems to have found him at
Gilgal, the seat of one of the schools, (2 Kings 2:1). On his way to the east of the
Jordan he stops at the school at Bethel (vs. 2,3), and at Jericho (vs. 4-6). Jehovah
had sent him to these places (vs. 2,6), evidently to deliver his last message of .
instruction to these sons of the prophets.
3) Elisha. Elisha was the God-appointed and anointed successor of Elijah
(1 Kings 19:16,19); and he was recognized as such by the sons of the prophets,
(2 Kings 2:15). Almost his entire life after the departure of Elijah was spent
among the various schools of the prophets. If this had been his master's work,
Elijah must have been the main supporter and guide of these schools in his day.
Elisha's authoritative connection with them seems to have begun when his
master had departed. He visits the schools at Jericho, Bethel, Carmel and Sama-
ria (2 Kings 2). A little later we find him at Gilgal (2 Kings 4:38). Then he is
found by the Shunammite at Carmel (2 Kings 4:25) ; and again at Jericho (2
Kings 6:1-7). He seems to have cared as well for their families, where any
were in need (as in 2 Kings 4:1-7), as for themselves. While carrying almost
the entire burden of the kingdom of Israel on his shoulders, he was vigilant and
faithful in his care of these schools.
The teachers of the sons of the prophets were so far as the Bible reveals,
1) Samuel, 2) Elijah and 3) Elisha. The chief man was known in these schools
under different titles. Samuel is called Father (1 Sam. 10:10) ; Elijah is desig-
nated Master (2 Kings 2:3,5,16), Father (v. 12) ; Elisha is called Master (2 Kings
6:5), Man of God (2 Kings 4:40). These all indicate superiority and power.
Compare also on this point, 2 Kings 2:15 ; 4:38.
4. Things Taught. The information on this point must be also largely «
inferential. We can suppose that the law was taught, and that the ceremonies
connected with worship were fully explained.
1) Prophesying. It is difficult to understand the full force of this word.
When Saul met the prophets coming down from the hill of God, they were proph-
esying (1 Sam. 10:5). Again when Saul met the band of prophets in Gilgal, " the
spirit of God came mightily upon him, and he prophesied among them" (v. 10).
When the three sets of Saul's messengers to capture David came to Kamah they
all prophesied ; Saul himself yielded to the same spirit (1 Sam. 19:18-24). This
was probably a physically active and exhausting method of worsliip. We find
that Saul was so worn out by it that he lay down exhausted one day and night
248 Tile Old Testament Student.
(v. 24). In the other cases above referred to, the simplest explanation is that
the prophesying was a recital of verses or psalms iii praise to God.
2) Music. That these prophesyings were accompanied with music is shown
in 1 Sam. 10:5; the band of prophets came down from the high place "with a
psaltery (suggesting the use of psalms), and a timbrel, and a pipe, and a harp
before them." Some years after this time (1 Chron 25:1-7) we find that •' David
and the captains of the host separated for the sen'ice certain of the sons of Asaph,
and of Ileman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with harps, with psalteries
and with cymbals." " And the number of them, with their brethren that were
instructed in singing unto Jehovah, even all that were skillful was two hundred
fourscore and eight'" (v. 7). It is quite evident that, if in David's day the temple
music was so elaborate, there must have been considerable musical instruction
somewhere within the reach of these sons of the prophets. The almost necessary
accompaniment of prophesying as well ;is of worship was music. Even Elisba
attests this statement (2 Kings 3:15).
Without doubt these sons of the prophets composed sacred poetry and music
and used them widely in their praises and worship. Perhaps also they were
instructed in the religious and political matters of the times in which they lived.
They learned of the wisdom of their master (2 Kings 4:38).
5. Their Occupation. 1) Stud;/ and Worship. Their first duty was prob-
ably to malie the most of their instruction. They were to be exercising in worship
and praise ; in bringing under their influence all whom they met (1 Sam. 10:10-13 ;
19:18-24). 2) Bun errands. In 2 Kgs. 9:1-12 we find: " Elisha the prophet called
one of the sons of the prophets, and said unto him. Gird up thy loins, and take
this vial of oil in thine hand, and go to Ramoth-Gilead '" {v. 1). Elisha gives
him his orders, and his words for Jehu, wliom he is to anoint king over Israel.
" The young man, even the young man the prophet " (v. 4), performed witli pre-
cision and promptness his master's command. 3) Regular duties of a prophet. When.
Ahab had allowed Ben-hadad to escape (1 Kgs. 20:29-34), " a certain man of the
sons of the prophets" (v. 35) met him, and by an illustration (vs. 34 and 40)
inveigled Ahab into pronouncing judgment upon himself. Ahab regarded him as
one of the prophets, and " went to his house heavy and displeased." This work
of one of the sons of the prophets corresponded in every respect to the work of
any regular prophet. It can scarcely be imagined that all of the sons of the
prophets received revelations; it is probable that they did not. On the other
hand, there were those outside of these schools who received messages of God and
delivered them (Amos 7:14).
6. Their Means of Subsistence. If these young men were constantly
engaged in religious services and duties, they had little time to look after the
necessities of life. The information on this point leads to the conclusion that
they were dependent on the charity of Israel. Some of the most definite informa-
tion on this point is found in 2 Kgs. 4. Passing over the poverty of one of the
wives of the sons of the prophets (vs. 1-7), and tlie house provided by the Shu-
nammite woman for Elisha in his journeys (vs. S-11), we find the sous of the
prophets gathering their food in the fields— evidently uncultivated (v. 39). Soon
" there came a man from Baal-Shalishah, aud brought the man of God bread of
the first fruits, twenty loaves of barley, and fresh ears of corn in the husk. And
he (Elisha) said, Give unto the people that they may eat. And his servant said :
What, should I set this before an hundred men ? '' (vs. 42 and 43). The severity
The Babylonian IJtak-Epic. 249
of the dearth about Gilgal may have induced this husbandman to aid Elisha and
these sons of the prophets, but the aid is received as a matter of course, and
justifies the supposition that this was not out of the usual order of events. A
still clearer case is found where Gehazi (2 Kgs. 5:21-24) follows the chariot of
Naaman, saying, " My master hath sent me, saying, Behold, even now there be come
to me from the hUl country of Ephraim two young men of the sons of the
prophets ; give them, I pray thee, a talent of silver, and two changes of raiment "
(v. 22). The bare fact that such a request should he made, shows that it was in
accordance with the custom of the times to aid and help support these sons of the
prophets. They were evidently largely dependent upon the charity of Israel and
the people of God.
In conclusion, we have found in this brief discussion that the sons of the
prophets 1) were collected together in bands or schools ; 2) in six different locali-
ties, viz., (a) Ramah, (b) Bethel, (c) Gilgal, (d) Jericho, (e) Carmel, (f) Samaria;
3) under the tuition of (a) Samuel, (b) Elijah and (e) Elisha ; 4) with instruction
in (a) prophesying-worship, (b) sacred music, (c) practical matters of their day ;
5) with their time wholly occupied in (a) study and worship, (b) doing errands for
their masters and God, (c) performing the regular duties of a prophet; 6) largely
dependent for their support upon the charity of the people.
All of these facts and inferences throw a new halo about the prophet of the
Old Testament.
THE BABYLONIAN ISTAR-EPIO.
By James A. Craig, Ph. D.,
Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, O.
Among the Assyrian kings, Assurbanipal is conspicuous both as a ruthless
warrior and as a man of letters and scientific aspirations. It is to him and to his
famous library, which was destroyed in the downfall of Nineveh, through the
Chaldeans, that we are indebted for the preservation of this poem as well as for a
large part of the literature that has come down to us. He was the great patron
of science and art. He not only employed scribes to record his own fortunes and
achievements in war, but also, either out of a purely literary instinct or from a
consciousness of the solidarity of the human family, felt impelled to preserve for
his own and future times the Intellectual products of the past. For this purpose
he gathered about his court competent scholars to translate the heritage of liter-
ary works bequeathed to the Babylonian and Assyrian Semites, from a people whose
ancestry, language and traditions were distinct from his own, viz., the early Ak-
kadian inhabitants of Babylonia. Touching the lineage of this people archae-
ology has not much information. Their language was highly agglutinative.
Several of its syllabic characters bear a suggestive similarity, both in form and
meaning, to the early Chinese characters, the difference being between horizontal
and perpendicular lines. In the compounding of ideographs there is a further
similarity. Then- physiological features and habits of life, so far as we know
them, would also favor comparison. The Akkadians are called in the texts sal-
250 The Old Testament Student.
mat kakkadi, i. e., blackheaded. Their afliiiities in speech, etc., so far as we know
them, from the monuments are, at least, Ural-altaic, and it may be that further
discoveries and investigations such as have been begun by Prof. T. LaCouperie,
of London, may reveal unsuspected kinships.
In religion they were polytheists, and this polytheism probably resulted from
a primitive Shamanism, such as exists at present among the Ostiaks and other
tribes of Siberia.
Theirs was an individualized pantheism ; the lower world and the heavens
were full of spirits good and bad. Demoniacal possession was a prominent article
of their belief. These embodied themselves in man, in reptiles, in the winds, etc.,
and all were subject to their attack. Over these demons the priests had the power
of exorcism by means of certain magical incantation-ceremonies. Gradually
these spirits became deified, and those of the sky, earth and under-world attained
to prominence — the others ranked as dii minores. Later, as with the Assyrians
so with the Chaldeans, the gods were conceived of anthropomorphically, and with
the exception of Nineb and Nergal represented in human form.
In our epic we Lave mention of several gods. Sauias is the sun-god, who,
owing to the peculiarity of the warm southern climate, and the astronomical or
astrological tendencies of the people, held a rank inferior to Sin, the moon-god,
who was, according to their mythology, his father. Ea, who creates the messen-
ger, UdJuSu-namir, was the god of life and knowledge, the determiner of destiny,
king of the abyss and rivers, plays a large role in the account of the deluge,
informs the Babylonian Xoah, Hassisadra-Xisuthros, of the conclusion of the
gods and commands him to build a ship,— he also becomes the father of Bel, the
tutelary divinity of Babylon. Allatu, who bore the name of Irkalla also, was the
goddess of the lower world and the spouse of Nergal, who in one of the hymns
is styled "the majestic croucher" (the great lion) among the gods. Namtar,
originally conceived of as a destroying plague, is personified ; he was regarded
as the sou of Allatu, and as her faithful servant to whom was entrusted the con-
duct of those condemned to punishment to the great prison-house. On the earth
his mission was to inflict with disease, and thus acquire new subjects for his mis-
tress in the lower world. His deadly mission was performed in the night, for so
long as the sun-god had sway in the heavens this power of darkness was more or
less circumscribed. In Istar and Tammuz we find the archetypes of western
cults.
Tammuz was the sun-god of Eridu, the young and beautiful spouse of I§tar,
who was bereft of him through the antagonistic and slaying might of winter.
He is the Adonis of Greek mythology, which represented him as the son of the
priest of the Paphian Aphrodite, Cinyras, by his own daughter, Myrrha. His wor-
ship passed over to the Greeks through the Phoenicians, who commemorated liis
death at Byblos on the north of Beyrut, on the highway between Babylonia and the
west. Here, as the blood-colored waters rolled down from the Lebanon range
through the Nahr Ibrahim seaward, the inliabitunts of Byblos (Gebal) gathered to
celebrate the funeral festival of the god. Streets and temples were filled with
wailing women who tore their hair, disfigured their faces and cut their breasts in
token of their grief. With the eunuch priests of Astoreth their cry ascended to
heaven. This festival was a part of Ezekiel's vision recorded in chap. VIII.
Istar, the Astoreth of the Plioenicians, the Aphrodite of the Cyprians, the Arte-
mis of Ephesus, was of Akkadian origin, as shown both by the name and by the
The Babylonian Istar-Epic. 251
confusion among the Semites in regard to her. She stands on an equality with
the other deities of the pantheon, females among the Akkadians being accorded the
preference. In later times she was worshiped both at Nineveh and at Arbela,but
in the previously established centre, Assur, no temple was erected to her honor.
Among the earlier Assyrian kings she was rarely invoked and always as a subor-
dinate ; but in the time of Esarhaddon she was elevated to a position of supreme
power. She is the mighty one who has founded his throne for numberless days
and endless years, and to him, her faithful son, she promised power to overcome
and vanquish all his enemies. Assurbauipal (Sardanapalus), his son and successor,
who worshiped her in Arbela, and whose creation, together with that of Assur,
he acknowledged himself to be, invoked her aid as the " queen of war." When
Teumman, the Elamitic king, who was said by the Assyrian scribe to be " like a
devil," devised evil against his kingdom and hers, her aid was invoked and
granted. "Fear not!" was the returning word, "for I have compassion upon
thee for the lifting up of thy hands, for thine eyes which are full of tears." She
manifests herself to the seer, in a night-vision, in human form and angry mien,
armed with bow and broadsword for war. She speaks as a mother to the fearful
king, and promises victory : " his face should not pale, his feet should not stumble,
nor his strength wax feeble." It was particulaily among the Assyrians, who
were themselves a warlike people, that she was honored for her warlike tendencies ;
the same feature was emphasized in the Ephesian goddess. The Babylonians, on
the other hand, dwelt upon her finer instincts, as did also the Phcenicians with the
Cyprian goddess. It is this gentler side of her nature, the love side, which in
course of time became degraded and debauched, that is seen in our epic. She
mourns the loss of her youthful Tammuz, and descends into the lowest depths to
search for the waters of life by which she may restore him from the power of
death. Originally she must have been the deified spirit of the earth, who was
wedded to the sun-god. He was killed by the might of winter and she was left to
mourn in widowhood. The Phoenician and Grecian cults of Ashtoreth and Aphro-
dite (Venus) are, therefore, to be found in their germs in Akkadian mythology.
Istar did not remain simply the great life-producer, but in time became the goddess
of love and reproduction. Fecundity and procreative power and sensual instinct
were her gifts, hence her withdrawal, in tlie poem, from the upper world is
attended by the completest disruption of social life, not through a perversion of
natural instinct, but by its complete cessation.
This poem has, following Geo. Smith, been regarded by almost all Assyriolo-
gists, as an Episode of the Nimrod-Epos, and this view has hindered the proper
understanding of the closing lines, as in other instances wrong translations have
led to fanciful theories. Fox Talbot, who translated it in part twenty-five years
ago, and who ten years later gave a translation of it to be found in Vol. I. of the
" Eecords of the Past," was led by a groundless translation of Keverse, 17-18, to
offer the conjecture that it was a kind of miracle-play actually performed in one
of the temples, adding : " Juggling tricks which have been known in the East from
immemorial (vide Pharaoh's magicians) were probably introduced for the amuse-
ment of the audience." As a mark of the advance in the study of Assyriology
it may be interesting to quote the translation. It is: "The chiefest deceitful
trick! Bring forth fishes of the waters out of an empty vessel." The lines
were, indeed, diflicult. The present understanding of the text is due not
to any single Assyriologist, but to Assyriologists. Although the names of Tal-
252 The Old Testament Student.
bot, Schrader, Smith are most intimately connected with it, yet they left much
to be desired, as was to be expected. In 1887, my fellow-student and friend,
Dr. Jeremias, gave a new translation and commentary much in advance of
anything else on the subject. In his introduction he denies that there is any-
thing in the poem which would lead one to suppose that the descent of Ijtar
was in any way connected with a desire to avenge herself of the insult offered
her by Nimrod and Eabani. Rather is it a rhapsody indirectly related to the
stories of the love-adventures of Istar, inasmuch as the mythological relation
of iStar to Tammuz forms the back-ground of the narrative. Moreover, in
the >fimrod-Epic, iJtar appears as the daughter of the god Anu, while here
she is the daughter of Sin. The closing lines throw light on the whole.
They do not belong to the epic proper ; nevertheless, they form the core of the
whole, since they furnish the reason for the narration of the "Descent of Istar."
A man is mourning the death of his sister, and betakes himself to a magician to
ascertain how he can redeem her from the prison-house of Hades. To prove to
him that the gates of Hades were not impassable, he tells him the story of IStar,
and advises him to secure, by offerings and prayer, the help of Ijtar, the con-
queror of Hades, and Tammuz. After this he is to perform certain funeral-rites
over the sarcophagus of the dead, and assisted by the companions of Istar (the
uhati), begin the wail. In the fifth line from the last the departed spirit hears
the brother's lament and beseeches him to perform these ceremonies on the days
of Tammuz (cf. Ezek. 8:14) and there effect her deliverance from the lower-
world.
It is interesting also to note the correspondences between this Hades of the
Akkadians and that of tlie Old Testament. Doors and bars ai-e covered with
"dust," and the imprisoned spirits feed upon clay. It is a place of darkness, a
prison whence there is no escape, a place where there is no hope or help, a verit-
able beth '61am (ekal kottu) hid in the lower depths. So the hope of Job " goes
down to the bars of Sheol, when once there is rest in the dust,'' and Ilezekiah
said: "In the noontide of my days. I shall go into the gates of Sheol. In Ps.
88:4 sq., the suppliant mourns : " I am counted with them that go down into the
pit; I am as a man that hath no help cast off among the dead." " Thou hast
laid me in the lowest pit, in darlc places, in the depths." To these lon-est depths of
Sheol, Isaiah and Ezekiel assign the king of Babylon and the Assyrian host. In
Job 10:21,22 Job prays for a little comfort before he goes hence whence he " should
not return," even "to the land of darkness and shadow of death;'' aland of thick
darkness, as darkness itself ; a land of the shadow of death without any order, and
where the light is as darkness. The concreteness with which everything is
described contrasts, on the other hand, with the Hades of the Old Testament.
The porter at the gates and the w%aters will at once recall the Grecian myth-
ology with its Charon, Acheron, Cocytus and Periphlegethon.
I may say in offering the following translation that, in reproducing in modern
language the epics or Ij-rics of the past, it is not only justitiable but even neces-
sary, if we wish them to appeal to us as they did to those for whom they were
composed, to present them in some of the forms of our own poetical products.
This is the finest epic of ancient Chaldea. Its poetry is seen even in the particu-
ulars of the construction. The chief peculiarity of Semitic poetry (the parallel,
membrorum) runs throughout. Brevity is used to make the scenic and the ti'agic
more vivid and impressive. The imagination of the reader is forced into activity
The Babylonian IsTar-Epic. 253
— transitions are rapid even to abruptness. Asyndeton prevails everywhere.
Moreover, tliere seems to have been an intentional effort at metrical composition
as in the lines 20-24 which I shall give here in the Assyrian :
usela mitilti akile baltuti
eli baltuti imaidu mituti
kepu pasu epusnia ikabbi
izzakara ana rabiti Istar
Again, in the conduct of Istar through the seven gates by the porter, there is
a consistent repetition of the words of the first line in the second, and the third
rhymes with both, where there is no necessity of repetition if the effect which it
produces were not desired. The true character of the poem can be preserved by
throwing it into metrical form and a literal rendering can be given by using
liberty in changing the metre or introducing broken lines. It is with the desire
of preserving more fully the poetic virtues of an epic, which at times reminds one
of a Homer or Aeschylus, that I ofler the followmg, with the view rather of
intimating how it might be done than of doing it — poeta nascitur, non fit.
A BABYLONIAN EPIC— ISTAR'S DESCENT TO HADES.
On the land without regress, the land that thou knowest,
Istar, Sin's daughter, did fix her attention.
The daughter of Sin did fix her attention.
On the dwelling of darkness, the abode of Irkalla,
On the dwelling whose inhabitant conies no more out,
On the road whose advancing knows no returning.
On the house whose inhabitant 's remov'd from the light,
Where they 're nourished with dust and clay is their food,
Where they see not the light, but in darkness are dwelling.
And are clad like the birds with a covering of wings ;
On door and on bars lies the dust thickly gathered.
Arrived at the door of the land without regress.
To the porter in keeping, this order she giveth :
Thou watcher of waters, throw open thy portal !
Throw open thy portal, within will I enter !
If the door be not opened that I may pass through it.
The door will I shatter, its bolts break in pieces,
Its sills will I burst, its leaves tear asunder,
The dead will I raise up, will food and life give them.
Even unto the living the dead will I raise up.
The porter then opened his mouth and made answer,
To the great goddess Istar, made answer the porter :
" Withhold ! 0 my lady, do not break it away,
I go to Allatu, thy name to announce."
254 The Old Testament Student.
The porter announced to the queen, to Allatu :
" Thy sister, IStar, is come over these waters
When Allatu these tidings received she made answer :
" What brinsieth hor heart to me, praj- ? What trouble ?
These waters I have
Like the rush and the roar of the flood am I weeping,
Am weeping o'er men who their wives have abandoned.
O'er maidens who mourn the embrace of their lovers,
Am weeping o'er infants destroyed e'er their day.
Go ! porter, throw open thy door — open to her !
And treat.her according to olden-time law."
The porter departed, threw open his door ;
" 0 enter, my lady, exult underworld !
Palace of the land, that knows no returning,
0 let it rejoice in thy presence."
The first door he caused her to enter, disrobed her,
Removed the great crown from her head.
" Why tak'st thou the great crown from my head, 0 porter ?"
" 0 enter, my lady, for so bids Allatu."
The next door he caused her to enter, disrobed her,
And the rings were removed from her ears.
" Why tak'st thou the rings from my ears, 0 porter?"
" 0 enter, my lady, for so bids Allatu."
The third door he caused hor to enter, disrobed her,
The necklace removed from her neck.
" Why tak'st thou from my neck the necklace, 0 porter ?"
'' 0 enter, my lady, for so bids Allatu."
The fourth door he caused her to enter, disrobed her,
Her jewels removed from her breast.
" Why tak'st thou from my breast the jewels, 0 porter?"
" O enter, my lady, for so bids Allatu."
The fifth door he caused her to enter, disrobed her,
The gemmed-girdle removed from her waist.
" Why tak'st thou from my waist my gemmed-girdle, 0 porter?"
" 0 enter, my lady, for so bids Allatu.''
The sixth door he caused her to enter, disrobed her,
Took the rings from her hands and her feet.
" Why from hands and from feet take the rings, pray, 0 porter ?"
" 0 enter, my lady, for so bids Allatu."
The seventh door he caused her to enter, disrobed her,
From her body her cincture removed.
" Why take from my body my cincture, 0 porter ?"
" 0 enter, my lady, for so bids Allatu."
The Babtlonian IsTAR-Epic. 255
To the land without regress when Istar descended,
Allatu beheld her and raged in her presence ;
Imprudently, boldly, did Istar attack her.
Then opened Allatu her mouth and commanded,
To Namtar, her servant, the order was given :
Go, Namtar, and open my {case of enchantments)!
Go bring (them hither).
With disease of the eye and the hip and the foot.
With disease of the heart and the scalp, go smite IStar !
AiBict her whole person !"
After Istar, the goddess, had (been thus afflicted)
The bull no more covered the cow, nor ass gendered ;
No more in the street lay the man with the maide^n ;
The man went asleep when he would.
When she would, slept the maiden.
The god's-servant, Pap-su-kal, tore his face in the presence
Of Samas — while clothed in the garb of deep mourning —
Samas went, sorely wept before Sin, his father,
His tears ran down before the king, Ea,
Saying : " Istar's gone down to the land, and returns not.
Since Istar's descent to the land without regress
The bull no more covers the cow, nor ass genders ;
No more in the street lies the man with the maiden.
The man falls asleep when ho will,
When she will, sleeps the maiden."
Then Ea created a male in his wisdom,
The god's-servant, Uddusu-namir, created.
" Go ! Uddusu-namir, to the land without regress.
The seven doors of the land without regress open !
Let Allatu behold thee, and rejoice in thy presence !
When her heart is at ease, and her spirit is joyful ;
Then do thou adjure her in the name of the great gods :
' Thy head raise, to the fountain direct thy attention,
0 lady, confine not the fountain, I pray thee ;
1 desire to drink of the waters within it. '"
This hearing, Allatu her sides smote, her nails bit.
" Of me thou hast asked an impossible favor.
Hence ! Uddusu-namir, in the dungeon I'll shut thee ;
Thy food shall be the mud of the city.
From the drains of the city shalt thou drink the water.
The shadow of the wall shall be thy dwelling.
Thy dwelling-place shall be its foundation.
Confinement and dungeon, thy strength let them shatter."
' In the original there are five lines here.
266 The Old Testament Student.
Allatu then opened her mouth and commanded,
To Namtar, her servant, the order was given :
"Go ! Namtar, break down the palafe eternal !
Go! shatter the pilhirs, foundatiiin-stones scatter.
Go! lead forth the spirits, on noldeu thrones set them,
With the water of life sprinkle litar, the goddess.
Lead her forth from my presence — "
Then went Namtar and broke down the palace eternal.
And shattered the pillars, the foundation-stones scattered ;
He led forth the s|)irits, iin froldeii thrones sat them.
With the watcr-of-life sprinkled I.itar the goddess.
Led her forth from her presence.
Through the^r.s'< door he led her, gave to her her cincture.
Throufjh the second door he led her, and gave her rings to her.
Through the third door he led her, gave back her gemmed-girdle.
Through the fourth door he led her, gave back her breast-jewels.
Through the fifth door he led her, gave to her her necklace.
Through the sixth door he led her, gave to her her ear-rings.
Through the seventh door he led her, and the great crown gave to her.
Here ends the descent of Istar. The priest continues : —
" If her freedom she grant thee not, turn to her, facing.
And for Tammuz, the bridegroom of the years of her j'outh.
Pour out water e'en purest, with sweet balm [anoint him]
And clothe him with garments, a flute [give unto him]
The companions of Istar, let wail with loud [wailingj,
And the goddess, Belili, the precious case breaking, . .
With diamonds!?) (the place) shall be filled (to o'erflowing)."
The complaint of her brother she then understanding.
The great goddess Belili the precious case breaking . .
(The whole place) with diamonds(?) was filled to o'erflowing.
"0 let me not perish, nay, do not, my brother!
On the feast-days of Tammuz play the crystal flute for me,
At that time, 0 play uie the flute.
Let the mourners then play for me, both men and maidens.
Let them jday upon instruments, let them breathe incense."
OLD TESTAMENT WORD-STUDIES: 7. SACRIFICE AND
WORSHIP.
By Eev. p. a. Nobdell, D. D.,
New London, Conn.
Every attempt to heal the alienation produced by a wrong or injury involves
not only an expression of penitence, but an instinctive sense of the propriety of
some gift or presentation which, offered by the offender to the offended party,
becomes a visible pledge of the restoration of friendly relations. The offering is
of the nature of an atonement between alienated parties, healing the breach.
This conscious need of reparation becomes especially acute when a transgressor
is constrained to approach an offended deity. The feeling that his life is forfeited
prompts the effort to expiate his guilt by the substitution of some other life, ani-
mal or human, as a sacrifice in place of himself. This seems to be the idea lying
at the root of sacrifice as it is encountered in all religions. Whatever its primary
origin, it certainly was sanctioned in the Mosaic legislation, and its sanction was
accompanied by specific ritualistic directions.
In considering a group of words so closely related to the results of the recent
Old Testament criticism it may not be improper to note, in passing, certain facts
lying on the surface of the concordance. The interpretation of these facts must
of course be determined by each reader for himself.
Minhah present, offering.
Minhah, though denoting primarily a simple gift or present, seems almost
at once to pass into a specific designation for a gift offered to a deity. This is a
quite natural development of its meaning, since, even where it refers to a present
from man to man, there is always an implied desire to propitiate the person to
whom the gift is offered, as in the case of Jacob's minhah to Esau, Gen. 32:13,
14, and in the minhah brought down to Joseph by his brethren. Gen. 42:11.
Certain "sons of Belial" who despised Saul, the newly anointed king of Israel,
brought him no minhah, 1 Sam. 10:27. The minhah sent by a subjugated
people to their conqueror is at times a special gift intended to gain his favor,
Judg. 3:15. At other times it takes the form of regular tribute, as that brought
by the Moabites and Syrians to David, 2 Sam. 8:2,6, and by the adjacent kingdoms
to Solomon, 1 Kgs. 4:21. More frequently, however, it denotes an offering pre-
sented to Jehovah for the purpose of winning his favor. The earliest occurrence
of the word in this sense is in Gen. 4:3,4,5, where it designates both the bloody
offering brought by Abel, and the unbloody offering presented by Cain. Later on
a distinction was made between them, and minhah became the specific term for
offerings that did not involve the shedding of blood ; Eli's sons made themselves
"fat with the chiefest of all the miuhoth of Israel," Judg. 2:29; "Bring no
more vain oblations (minhSth)," Isa. 1:13. Malachi designates by it all offerings,
bloody and bloodless, brought by corrupt Israel to Jehovah's altar, 1:10,11,13 ; 2:
268 Tne Old Testament Student.
12,13. The leading use of the term is in connection with the ritual of the taber-
nacle and the temple. Its one hundred occurrences in Exodus, Leviticus, Num-
bers, present a sharply defined technical sense— the " meal offerinf?," composed of
fine flour, oil and frankincense, Lev. 2:1. In a few instances the earlier prophets
seem to give it a similar meaning, Joel 1:9,13 ; 2:4 ; Amos 5:22.
Next to its occurrences in the Priest Code of Exodus-Numbers, we find its
most frequent employment in the so-called " holiness law "' of Ezekiel, 42:13-46:20,
the latter using it in precisely the same technical sense as the former. The
writers of the period between the exodus and the exile use it indeed of an offering
to Jehovah, but in connections that do not necessarily imply a reference to a ritual-
istic " meal offering," except perhaps Joel and Amos, and it is barely possible
that in these instances it may refer to unbloody offerings in general rather than
to the specific " meal offering." In the exilic books of Kings and the post-exilic
writings of Nehemiah and the Chronicler the references are explicitly to the
"meal offering." We find, on the contrary, that in the so-called "prophetical"
documents minhiih has in general the sense of a simple propitiatory gift from
one man to another, or of an unbloody offering to Jehovah, as throughout Genesis,
Judges, Samuel, Isaiah and the earlier Psalms. Over against its one hundred
occurrences in the Priest Code, the great prophetic 4aw-book of Deuteronomy does
not so much as mention it.
Qorban offering.
From qarabh, to bring near, to present, hence that which is brought near,
a gift. It never signifies a gift from one person to another, but always a gift
from man to God. As such it may denote an offering of meal. Lev. 2:1 ; of first
fruits, 2:3 ; of animals for sacrifice, 1:2 ; 3:6 ; or any gifts, such as gold and silver
utensils for the tabernacle, wagons, etc.. Num. ch. 7. It would denote, therefore,
anything devoted to Jehovah. The thing so dedicated could not be recalled, or
put to common uses. Note in Mk. 7:11 the extension of tlie application of this
word by a spirit of gross selfishness.
Aside from its seventy-eight occurrences in the Priest Code it is found only in
Ezek. 20:28; 40:43. Qorban is used in the Priest Code in the same sense that
minhah is used in the prophetical portions of the Old Testament, viz., to express
the general idea of a gift or sacrifice to Jehovah.
Zebhah sacrifice.
Zebhah, almost invariably rendered "sacrifice" in the A. V. and ftwia in
the LXX., is found in the entire range of Hebrew literature from the earliest to
the latest, in the " prophetical " as well as in the " priestly " portions, and with
the same fundamental meaning of bloody in distinction from bloodless offerings.
This meaning comes from the verb zabhah, to kill, slaughter, 1 Sam. 28:24;
Deut. 12:15; 1 Kgs. 19:21; Ezek. 34:3. Very soon it passed from this simpler
sense of killing an animal for food to that of killing for the purpose of offering a
sacrifice to the deity. This is the prevailing sense of the verb, and from it we
also have the derivation mizbe(a)h, altar, that on which the zebhah is con-
sumed. In Leviticus and Numbers zrbhah is always conjoined with sh Ma-
in im in the phrase " sacrifice of peace offerings" or "thank offerings." Com-
pared with the simple z C b h a ]} it seems to have been offered under more solemn
and imposing circumstances. Elsewhere it is most frequently associated with the
Old Testajient Word-studies. 259
burnt offering, Ezra 18:12 ; Deut. 12:6,11 ; Josh. 22:26,28, etc. From the earliest
times it seems to have been a sacrificial feast or communion meal of which a por-
tion was offered to Jehovah and the rest eaten by the invited guests, as when
Jacob parted from Laban, Gen. 31:54, or by the assembled worshipers, as when
the people at the high-place of Zuph refrained from eating until Samuel the man
of God had arrived to bless the zebhah, 1 Sam. 9:11-14. Cf. 20:60; Lev. 7:
15,16. That similar sacrificial feasts were customary among the aboriginal
Canaanites is clear from the fact that the Israelites were strictly enjoined from
participating in them, Exod. 34:15. In general it may be said that the zebhah,
like the ni nihiili , was an expression of gratitude for Jehovah's favors, and a plea
for their future continuance.
'olah burnt offering.
Like zebhah, this word is of frequent and almost imiversal occurrence in
the books of the Old Testament. It is derived from the common verb " ;i 1 a h , to
go up, ascend, and contemplates the sacrifice as ascending from the altar to Jeho-
vah in flame and smoke. The thought is the same as in Judg. 20:40, " The Ben-
jaminites looked behind them and the whole city ^Bent up to heaven " in smoke.
Hosea (10:8) seems to play on the word in saying, " the thorn and the thistle shall
go up, ya'''leh, on the altars" of Israel instead of the ascending 'olah. The
A. V. translates it "burnt offering" in all but two places,— 1 Kgs. 10:5, where the
margin of the E. V. gives " his burnt offering which he offered," instead " his
ascent by which he went up," and Ezek. 40:26, " there were seven steps to go up
to it." The general LXX. renderings, oTuiKav-ij/xa, or 6/ioKavTumc, seem to have been
justified by the fact that the animal offered as an 'olah was entirely consumed
on the altar, whereas in the zebhah only the blood and fat were burned, whOe
the flesh was resen'ed to be eaten by the priests or worshipers. 'Olah, as
already noted, is frequently joined with zebhah. When the former is singular
and the latter plural, "burnt offering and sacrifices," Ezra 18:12; Josh. 22:26; 2
Chron. 7:1, the "olah may perhaps be regarded as one or more animals selected
from the whole number of z ' b h a h i m and especially dedicated to Jehovah as a
biu'nt offering on his altar. Very slight difference of meaning is discernable at
different periods, except that the pre-levitical usage seems to emphasize the idea
of expiation, and the Mosaic that of self-dedication. In the law, however, the
idea of expiation is transferred from the 'olah to the h a 1 1 a ' t h .
Hatta'th sin offering.
This word is rendered "sin offering" 115 times out of 284, and "sin" in
almost every other instance. We have already noted (O. T. Student, Dec, 1888,
p. 145), that this is the common Hebrew term for sin, and that it means literally
a missing of the mark, hence a failure to attain the divine standard for human
conduct. This is the general conception underlying the word, but in the Levitical
legislation this meaning has been transferred from the sin itself to the sacrifice
presented in expiation of the sin. The hatta'th, or sin offering, is therefore,
like the 'olah, a subordinate variety of the zebhah with a more specific sig-
nification. That it is of later origin is generally admitted.
We would naturally expect to find this word characteristic of the Priest Code.
We discover, accordingly, that it is used in the sense of " sin " only twenty-nine
260 The Old Testament Student.
times, but uinety-five times in the sense of " sin oflfering." In all the subsequent
literature antedating the exile there are no references to the sui offering, unless
they are found in 2 Kgs. 12:16(17) and IIos. 4:S. The former passage reads, " The
guilt-money, kesgph 'ashani, and the sin-money, kSseph hatta'th, was
not brought into the house of Jehovah ; it pertained to the priests." The R. V.
renders it, " The money for the guilt offering and the money for the sin offering,"
etc. ; but this rendering is only conjectural and introduces a thought not found in
the text. The reference in Ilosea is still more doubtful, " They feed on the sins
of my people," a figurative expression which has sometimes been interpreted to
mean that the priests eat the sin offering, a thing that could not be rebuked since
the Mosaic law distinctly commanded it. Lev. 10:17. Xor is hatta'th in Gen.
4:7 to be translated as some have suggested, " If thou doest not well, a sin offering
lieth at the door," but "sin croucheth," like a wild beast "at the door." The
LXX., familiar with a ritualistic worship, renders it, " If thou hast brought it [the
offering] rightly, and hast not rightly divided it, hast thou not sinned ?" The
first mention of the sin offering after the Levitical legislation occurs in Ezek. 40:
39-46:20, wheie it is referred to fourteen times, and appears in connection with
the bunit offering, the meal offering, and the guilt offering. In the post-exilic
literature it is distinctly mentioned, Ezra 8:35; Neh. 10:33(34); 2 Chron. 29:21,23,
24. Deuteronomy contains no hint of a sin offering.
'asham guilt offering.
The general statements made about hatta'th hold good also of 'asham.
Its primary reference to guilt is carried over to the guilt offering. The precise
difference between the hatta'th and the "iisham is obscure and has never been
satisfactorily cleared up. They have much in common, but seem to have differed
chiefly in that the former was intended to bring about an atonement for guilt,
while the latter seems to have been regarded in general as a kind of satisfaction
over and above the full restitution made for an injury to another, or for a viola-
tion of the law of holiness. The specific instances in which the 'asham was
prescribed were as follows : for ceremonial defilement, Lev. 5:1-6,15-17, including
that of the Nazarite, Num. 6:11 ; for trespass against another's property. Lev. 2-6 ;
Num. 6:6 ; or person, Lev. 19:20,21 ; for purification in case of recovery from
leprosy, Lev. 14:12-25.
Like the hatta'th, the 'iisham is nowhere referred to as a part of the
Israelitish cultus except in Exodus-Xumbers and Ezekiel. A kind of guilt offer-
ing is spoken of in 1 Sam. 6:3 seq., but this was offered by the Philistines at the
suggestion of their priests and diviners, and consisted of five golden tumors and
five golden mice, by which they hoped to allay the wrath of Jehovah, whose ark
they had captured on the battle-field. This of course had nothing to do with the
guilt offering of Jehovah's ritual.
Eipper to make atonement.
The thought of atonement was expressed among the Hebrews by the word
kTppurim, occurring only in Exod. 29:36 ; 30:10,16; Lev. 23:27,28 ; 25:9 ; Num.
5:8; 29:11, and always in the plural. It is from the verb kaphSr which occurs
with only three exceptions in the intensive foims of Piel and Pual. Its primary
meaning is to bend, to wind around, hence (o cover. In this sense and in the Kal
form it is found only once, Gen. 4:14, "Thou shalt cover, kapharta, it within
Old Testament Word-studies. 261
and without with pitch, bakkopher." The earliest occurrence of the word in
its metaphorical sense is in Gen. 32:20(21), where Jacob, on the point of meeting
Esau, says, " I will appease him {lit. cover his face) with the present that goeth
before me." To Jacob's awakened conscience it appeared that repentance and
amendment were insufficient to expiate past guilt, and to bring about a genuine
reconciliation. There must be an offering on the part of the offender to the
offended. Esau's face must be covered so that he should not see any more the
wrong committed against himself. Jacob's present serves then the double pur-
pose of covering the face of the offended brother, and of covering or hiding the
offence from his sight. Essentially the same use of the word occurs in Prov. 16:
14, " The wrath of a king is as messengers of death ; but a wise man will pacify
it, kapp'rennah," i. e., cover the wrath expressed in the king's face by some
appropriate act of expiation or offering that will screen the offender from the
wrath and lead to reconciliation. The pecuUar use of the word in Isa. 28:18,
" Your covenant with death shall be annulled, k u p p a r ," seems to point to a pro-
cess of destroying the covenant by covering the writing with repeated strokes of
the pen or pencil. In all its remaining occurrences the verb is closely connected
with the thought of sin and penalty, either individual or national. There could be
no approach to a holy God until the sinner had been covered by an atonement.
It is not the face of God that is covered, according to the analogy of Gen. 32:20
(21), for kipper never takes God as its object, but always the sinner or his sin,
except in the few instances where it is used absolutely, Deut. 21:8 ; 32:43. Con-
versely, in all ti'ansactions between God and man kipper never takes man as its
sMb;ect,for the covering of sin is in every instance the gracious act of God himself,
or the official act of his priestly representative. In the former case the act of
covering is an exhibition of pure mercy, of direct forgiveness, Deut. 21:8; Ezek.
16:63 ; 2 Chron. 30:18 ; in the latter an act of atonement, or forgiveness in connec-
tion with sacrifices, and this is the meaning throughout the Levitical law.
Of the 103 occurrences of the verb seventy-eight are in the Pentateuch, and
seventy-five of these in Exodus-Numbers, these latter having in every instance
the sense of priestly atonement. In the pre-exilic literature of Samuel, Psalms,
Proverbs, Isaiah, and Jeremiah, it occurs twelve times, and with one exception,
invariably in the sense of forgiving or purging away sin as a free divine act. The
exception, 2 Sam. 21:3, " And David said unto the Gibeonites, What shall I do
for you ? and wherewith shall 1 make atonement, that ye may bless the inheritance
of the Lord?" is significant, there being no reference to priestly expiation, but to
a restitution to be made to the Gibeonites for the evil done them by Saul and his
bloody house. Ezekiel uses the word four times, 16:63; 43:26; 45:15,17, and,
except the first instance, in a strictly ritualistic sense. This is its first occurrence
in this sense after the legislation of Exodus-Numbers. Subsequent to Ezekiel it
occurs five times, Neh. 10:33(34); Dan. 9:24; 1 Chron. 6:49(34); 2 Chron. 29:34;
30:18, and in every instance except the last it denotes atonement in the ritualistic
sense.
From the same verb we have the word kapporeth, mercy seat, found sev-
enteen times, and outside of Exodus-Numbers only in 1 Chron. 28:11.
A number of other interesting words might be noticed in connection with this
group, but the space already occupied precludes their consideration.
THE TARGUMS.
By Professor George H. Schodde, Ph. D.,
Capital University, Columbus, Ohio.
ORIGIN OF TARGUMS.
Targum is the technical term for the Aramaic versions or paraphrases of
the Old Testament. The etymology of the word is not settled. Formerly it was
derived from ragami.e. "to throw " (stones), and figuratively, " to transfer"' or
"translate," corresponding to jacere and trajkere. Pinches, however, discovered
an Assyrian verbal root ragnmu, to which he assigned the meaning " to speak,"
and from which the noun riymu, " word " is derived, Fr. Delitzsch {Heb. and
Assyr. p. 50) accepts this as the true etymology of Targum, and translates tar-
gumanu as "the speaker," one who speaks for others by interpreting their words.
Schrader (KAT.- 5\') gives to the root royamu the meaning of " crying aloud."
"e.Kulting." In the Old Testament the participle only is used, and that but a
single time, namely in Ezra 4:7, and rendered " set forth " in the K. V. but
" interpreted " in the A. V. As a quadriliteral verb targem is often foimd in
post-biblical Hebrew, in Talmud and Targums in the sense of " translating," or
"interpreting." The word has found its way Into nearly aU modem languages,
e. g. in the English " dragoman."
In origin and history these versions differ materially from the Septuagint.
They are in no sense or manner the outgrowth of a literary movement or ambi-
tion. They arose from the necessities and needs of the worship in the synagogues,
and their production was from the beginning encouraged and fostered by the relig-
ious authorities. Just at how early a date the masses of uneducated Jews forgot
the Hebrew and adopted the Aramaic, thus making the use of Aramaic trans-
lations and interpretations a necessary part of public worship, cannot be accurately
determined. The data for deciding this question are as meagre as are those for
its companion problem as to what language, Aramaic or Greek, oui' Lord was
accustomed to use. Neh. 8:8 does not furnish a tei-mimts a quo. The word there
rendered "clearly," by the A. V., and "distinctly," or (in the margin) " with an
interpretation," by the R. V. is, in the Talmud, explained by "Targum," (cf.
Deutsch, Art. " Targums " in Literary Bemains, p. 321). From this source Chris-
tian scholars formerly drew their date for the beginning of Targumic interpre-
tation in the synagogue. It is known from good historical evidence that written
Targums, and especially those yet in existence, can not antedate by more than a
few years the christian era. The earliest written Targum or translation men-
tioned is one on Job from the middle of the tirst Christian century. As Job is
one of the llagiographa and was not like the Law and the Prophets, used officially
in the synagogue but generally only for private devotion, it is quite probable that
■written Targumin of the latter were in existence at an equally early date at least.
The Talmud in its oldest portions describes the manner in which the Aramaic
interpretations were given. A verse or paragraph was read in the original by the
The Targums. 263
render of the synagogue, which was followed by an interpretation in Aramaic,
not read, but given from memory, by the targumist. This was in harmony with
the general principles of early Palestinian Judaism, according to which only the
original word of revelation was to be used in public worship, the interpretation in
the language understood by the people to be distinguished as human by the fact
that it was only orally given. Just why, when and how this oral tradition became
written tradition is not known. The probabilities are that the written form
was intended to fix and harmonize this tradition.
TAKGUM OF ONKELOS.
The best and most important of the Targums is that of Onkelos. Concerning
the personality of the author we have only such data as are given in later Jewish
literature. These, which have been best discussed probably by Zunz, in his
GottesdienstUche Vortrage der Juden, agree in this, that he lived about the time of
the destruction of the second temple. The Talmuds, at one place make him a
pupil and friend of the older Gamaliel ; at another, they place him in the first
half of the second century. They agree in regarding him as not a native Jew but
a proselyte. These statements, together with the character of his Targum, have
been the occasion of a great deal of speculation with regard to his person and his
connection with Aquilas, the translator of the extremely literal Greek version of
this Old Testament prepared for the purpose of supplanting the old and more free
Septuagint. The identity of the two has again and again been asserted, but this
view is generally rejected by competent scholars, (cf . the article Targums in the
IX. edition of the Encyclopaedia BrUannica).
But the character and kind of the two versions are much alike. The Targum
of Onkelos is really a translation, and that, too, a good one. While some of the
later Targums are really interpretations, with incidental translations, Onkelos is
a translation with only incidental interpretation. As a rule it is very literal, even
paraphrases being employed only at times. In poetical passages, such as Gen.
49, Num. 24, Dent. 32,33, haggadistic amplifications and embellishments are
introduced. Further departures from the original consist chiefly in circumlocu-
tions employed for the purpose of doing away with the anthropomorphisms and
anthropopathics in the conception of the Deity, in accordance with the whole
train and method of Jewish thought at that time, also in the Greek Alexandrian
circles. Noldeke, who is the best authority on the Aramaic languages, says of
Onkelos, "the translation in the oflicial or Babylonian Targum is throughout
painfully literal, and even if this literal character does not make the frightful
impression of Aquila's Greek, this results from the fact that the language of the
Targum, on account of its close relation to the Hebrew, could adapt itself more
easily to this idiom, and partly because we are so little acquainted with the real
usages of the Aramaic language. iEsthetic and grammatical reasons never stand
in the way of this literalness, but just as soon as such a rendition would cause
oilence or could lead to a misunderstanding from the point of religion, it is at
once dropped and then the author does not shun wide circumlocutions." He says
of the language that it is " a somewhat younger development of the Palestinian
Aramaic already known to us in several of the books of the Old Testament" (cf.
his Die Alttestamentliche Literatur).
The date of Onkelos' Targum is a disputed point. At an early age the ver-
sion was regarded as a high authority by Jewish writers, having even its own
264 The Old Testamekt Student.
Massora. The Talmud quotes it as such (cf. Frankel, Zu dem Targum dea Pro-
pheten). The older view had accordingly been that it must be assigned to the
first Christian century, a position still defended by so good an authority as Weber,
DieLehren des Talmuds, Einleitung. Frankel, chiefly for linguistic reasons, assigns
it to the third century, and Luzatto even to post-Talmudic times. A somewhat
striuige view is that of Bleek-AVellhaus,('n. § 287. In accordance with the idea
that the earlier Jewish paraphrasing was the freest in character, which under the
influence of the legal school lore was gradually curtailed and hemmed in to conform
more and more to the words of the original, the literal character of the Onkelos
version is regarded as an argument rather for its late than for its early composition.
The present Onkelos is regarded as the outcome of a long development, the result
of learned work and research. The writer says, " the Jerusalem Targum is indeed
in its present literary form younger than the Babylonian [i. e. Onkelos], but it
stands in a closer connection with the old oral Interpretation, while the latter
grew out of the transforming reformation brought about by the learned men. The
former is thus the wild outgrowths from the old roots ; the latter is the shoot sub-
jected to the direction of the hands of the gardener."
The text of the Targum has been frequently printed, e. g. in the Kabbinical
Bibles of Bomberg and Buxtorf and in the London Polyglott. A critical edition
of the text was issued in the first volume of A. Berliner's " Targum Onkelos."
1884. This is the best text and should be used in the study of the version. The
literature and also the giammatical and lexical aids for the study of Onkelos and
the other Targums are given with comparative fullness in the article on the sub-
ject in the Encyclopedia Britannica. To the list there given must be added as
extremely valuable, particularly for the vowel system and the philological side in
general, the Clirestomathia Targumica of Merx, 1888. Brown's Aramaic Method
will serve as an introductory book. The neglect which the text had suffered
from the hands of scholars had prevented the issuing of a comparatively reliable
text until recently, and with this had made it impossible to utilize thoroughly and
satisfactorily the grammatical data furnished by Onkelos and the other Targums.
It was only within the last few years that a satisfactory grammar of Biblical ^Vra-
maic could be prepared. The Massoretic edition of the Books of Daniel and Ezra
by Baer and Delitzsch, enabled Kautzsch to do this much-needed work. Hence
for lexical, grammatical and text-critical purposes these Targums have been
rendering but meagre services so far. That they can reuder more and better
service is plain from the writings of Lagarde, and this is illustrated by the excel-
lent use made of the Targum by Comill in his tentative reconstruction of the
Hebrew text of Ezekiel (pp. 110-136), and, with not quite as good success, by
Ryssel is his treatise on the text of Micah.
THE TAEQUM OF JONATHAN BEN UZZIEL.
Jonathan, the son of Uzziel, is mentioned in the Talmud as the author of a
Targiim on the projj/ieto jmorcs et posteriores, i. e. the historical and the prophetic
books of the Old Testament. He is said to have been a pupil of Ilillel. hence
older than Onkelos and the Christian era. These data are discussed in \Veber
(p. 14). This Targum is not homogeneous in character as is that of Onkelos.
Quite a difference can be obsei^ved in his treatment of the earlier prophetic books
(Joshua, Samuel, Kings) and the later prophets (Isaiah and others). In the former
he is more strictly a translator, pai-ai>hrasing only in poetic sections, such as the
The Targums. 265
Song of Deborah ; in the prophets proper he is remarkably free with explanations,
additions, etc., so that he often falls into the manner of later haggadistic and
midrashic writers. For this reason it was supposed that the Targnm was the
work of two different writers ; but since Gesenius this opinion has generally been
abandoned. The language is, on the whole, the same as that of Onkelos. Con-
cerning his age there is the same dispute as in regard to the date of Onkelos. A
large number of scholars are willing to accept the traditional view of the syna-
gogue and church as based upon the statements of Jewish literatures. Others,
among them Jewish scholars like Frankel and Geiger, arguing from such internal
evidence as language, etc., merely, claim it for the third or the fourth century,
and maintain, as they do for Onkelos, that it is the result of the editorial work of
the learned Jewish schools at Babylon, which are known not to have been estab-
lished until the third century. This, however, is not understood as excluding the
use of older documents in such editorial composition. Indeed, this is maintained
as a fact. e. g. by Schiirer, in his Lehrbuch (p. 479), who draws attention to the
fact that Chaldee versions are mentioned in the Mishna and claims that some
New Testament passages, e. g. Eph. 4:8, show the influence of the Targumic
method of interpretation in that era. Observe some interesting details in Bleek-
Wellhmisen {? 287). A critical edition of the consonant text, based upon the excel-
lent Codex Eeuchlinianus, was published by Lagarde in 1872.
JERUSALEM TARGUM ON THE PENTATEUCH.
Altogether different in character and in every particular much inferior in
value to the new classical Targums already mentioned is a second Targum cover-
ing the whole of the Pentateuch, which is sometimes claimed to have been pre-
pared by Jonathan ben Uzziel (Pseudo-Jonathan) but is now generally designated
by the better term of Jerusalem Targum. All critics acknowledge it is a Pales-
tinian product, its language, too, being that of the Jerusalem Talmud. It is
further agreed, that it cannot possibly be younger than the close of the seventh
century. In Num. 24:19 it mentions the sinful city of Constantinople and in v.
24 the land of Lombardy ; in Gen. 21:21 it mentions the two wives of Mohammed
Chadidja and Fatima. Compare especially the solid article of Volck, in Herzog.
Real Encycl., 2d. Ed. Vol. XV. The version can scarcely be called a translation ;
the text is for the writer only a pretext for introducing all possible midrashic
notions. In Deutsch's article already mentioned (to be found also in Smith's
Dictionary of the Bible) the English reader can find specimen verses in translation
not only from this, but also from the older Targums. Pseudo-Jonathan is full of
myths and fables, ideas and representations common to late Jewish literature.
The language is full of foreign words and barbarisms. But that it contains also
portions of older Targums Is evident from the contents (cf . especially Noldeke, 1. c.)
FRAGMENTS OF A PENTATEUCH TARGUM.
There is also preserved a Targum, improperly called the Jerusalem Targum,
which contains, after the manner of Pseudo- Jonathan, translations and interpre-
tations of a number of verses from the Pentateuch. It is now generally desig-
nated as Jerusalem Targum II. Concerning the relations of the two Jerusalem
Targums to each other, which is acknowledged on all hands to be very close, there
has been considerable discussion and about the same amount of disagreement.
These fragments are Palestinian in character and language and are, perhaps, the
266 The Old TESTAME>fT Student.
remnants of a larger Targum. Tliis, again, is disputed by some. Volck regards
it as a '■ haggadistic supplement to Onkelos," it being clear that Onkelos is used by
the author (cf. Schiirer and Volck, 1. c).
TARGUMLN ON THE HAGIOOKAPHA.
All of these are of a late date and their authors are unknown. The Targum
on Ps. 108 speaks of Constanliuople. We have a Targum on the Psalms, Job and
Proverbs. That on Proverbs is comparatively literal. That on Psalms shows
dependence on the Pesliitto and is slightly haggadistic ; that on Job is verj- much
so. The Targums on the five Megilloth (Ruth, Esther, Lamentations, Eccle-
siastes and Song of Songs) constitute a class of their own, and were composed
after the Talmud. Of the Book of Esther there are several Targums. All these
on the Megilloth are e.xpositions more than translations. A Targum on the two
Books of Chronicles was published in 1715 by Beck. It is a comparatively late
production. The most complete bibliography of the whole Targum literature is in
the article of the Encyclopedia Britannica by Dr. S. M. Schiller-Szinessey.
TIELE ON BABYLONIAN-ASSYRIAN CULTURE. III.
By Rev. A. S. Cakeier,
McCkirmick Theol. Seminary, Cbicago, 111.
KELIGION. — THE CULTtJS AND THE RELATIONS TO THE DEITY.
Since religion occupied such a prominent position in the life of the Assyiians
and Babylonians, ruling every thought and act, it is no wonder that Assyrian
kings were so solicitous for the public worship of the gods, and that they, no less
than the devotees themselves, supported the mighty and learned priesthoods.
Inscriptions of Assyrian kings almost always close with accounts of the construc-
tion or restoration of some temple. Babylonian treat almost exclusively of
such matters, and one of the proudest titles is Finisher or Restorer (Zaniuu) of
the two chief temples of Babel and Borsippa. Each place possessed at least one
temple for its tutelar divinity. Nebuchadnezzar II. names, among the temples
which he restored in Babel and Borsippa, ten in the former city and six in the
latter, beside tire chief sanctuaries. Sargou II., when he built his new city,
Dilr-8arukiu, a place of small extent, erected sanctuaries for Ea, Sin, Ningal,
Ramniaii, Samas and Adar. No town was secure which did not well provide for
its gods ; 110 king could count on divine protection who did not devote a share of
his spoils to the temples ; and while many were content simply to restore damage,
to beautify or enlarge, those more strict took the greatest pains to uncover the
lowest foundation stone and repair every breach.
Among the oldest and most famous temples were those of the Sun in Sippar,
Nergal at Kuta, Bt?l at Nippur, but especially Sin at I'r. In Assyria the temples
of litar at Nineveh and at Aibail deserve special notice. At the latter there
seems to have been a prophetic school. Great uncertainty prevails as to the inner
construction of these temples. We can only speak with certainty regarding the
TiBLE ON Babylonian-Assyrian Culture. 267
A
chief temples at Babel and Borsippa. The first, called E-sagila, dedicated pri-
marily to Maruduk, was a sort of Acropolis, which comprised several sanctuaries,
and perhaps formed part of the royal palace. Within was the shrine of Maruduk,
containing his golden chair, and the sacred boat, which was carried in processions ;
a shrine for his father Ea, for his spouse Zarpanitu, and for his son Nabu, the
latter being called, like the entire temple at Borsippa, E-zida. Either in Nabu's
shrine or Ea's was the Holy of Holies, Parakku, the sacred seat of the gods who
determine destiny, where in the first feast of the year the great god of heaven and
A
earth {Ea or Nabu) came down amid the reverently standing gods to decide the
destiny of prince and kingdom. In the midst of the temple space rose the ter-
race-tower, Zikurat, called the " house of the foundation stone of heaven and
earth," or at Borsippa the "house of the seven luminaries or spheres of heaven
and earth." E-sagila was connected, by Nabopolassar, by a new street with the
great thoroughfare Ai-bur-sabu, which crossed the city from one end to the other
and opened into the street of Nana, the latter probably leading to Borsippa, where
was a temple originally dedicated to Maruduk, later to his son Nabil. This tem-
ple was in constant communication with the one at Babel, and during the gieat
feast, Zakmuku, Nabu was conducted in his ship to visit his father at E-sagila.
In E-zida, at Borsippa, were various shrines of Nabii, one of which was called
" the great house of life." Here dwelt his spouse Nana, and above all rose the
Zikurat, originally forty-two cubits high and raised still higher by Nebuchadnez-
zar. These were the most celebrated temples in the whole land, and Assyrian
A
kings considered it an added honor to call themselves completers of E-sagila, even
after subduing an obstinate rebellion in Babylonia. Moreover they did not neglect
other Babylonian temples, bestowing no less attention on them than on the sanc-
tuaries of their own land.
The temples were built and adorned in a style of utmost magnificence. The
statues of the gods were often overlaid with silver and gold. But we seldom read
of new images ; age was here synonymous with holiness. These statues, for the
most part, had the human form ; but often, as with the Egyptians, we find mixed
human and animal figures. Bulls and lions with human heads, and eagle heads
with human bodies, were common. The highest deities, however, are human in
form, and frequently are accompanied by their sacred animals. A symbol of the
highest divinity, perhaps borrowed from Egypt, was the winged sun-disk. In
this was often placed a figure human above, feathered below, holding a ring or
shooting an arrow. Two pairs of wings, and from one to four pairs of horns, as
symbols of power, are common in the reliefs. The water-vessel and the pine-cone
whicli they carry are symbols of life and fertility.
No greater misfortune could happen to a city than to lose its images after
they had been consecrated and become the incarnation of deity. The bloodiest
war would be undertaken to recover tliem.
Erection, restoration and endowment of temples were acts which secured for
one life and health and the favor of the gods. The phrases in remecUum, pro salute
animce, so common in mediaeval religious foundations, And numerous parallels in
the oldest Babylonian inscriptions. We often see such dedications as " for my
life," " for my life and my fathers " and " the life of my son."
268 The Old Testa sient Student.
The kings, wlio bore as well the title iuaku. had the right to exercise the
priestly function, and like their Egj'ptian brothers certainly belonged to the learned
class. Comparison of cuneiform texts with Greek writers, like Diodorus Siculus,
■warrants us in distinguishing temple priests, atoning priests, and prophets, though
the Assyrian names of these three classes cannot yet with certainty be determined.
We can, however, be certain that the iSJaku, the highest priestly title, was a
temple priest. So were probably the §angu and the Kalii, the latter a Babylonian
title, signifying "the exalted." Of special interest is the terms Maggi, Magi,
whose superior, the Rabmag, accompanied Nebuchadnezzar to Jerusalem.
Although this title signifies simply "Splendid," we know from many sources
that the word had in Babylonia the meaning which we attach to the word Magi.
Beside these functionaries were the " Scribes " whom .Sargon II. commissioned
along with his plenipotentiaries to teach the fear of God and of the king to the
mixed population of his liew city. "Recorders" {dupsarri), and perhaps also
prophets (Nabu), are mentioned. IIow their functions were apportioned and what
was their hierarchal rank we cannot decide. We can only be certain of the duties
of the Recorders and the true priests.
The chief duty of the priests was to sacrifice and to pray. Sacrifices con-
sisted of free-will offerings of clean beasts and fruits, of libations of oil and wine,
of burnt offerings, which doubtless included incense. Human sacrifice and the
sacrifice of chastity were probably not out of vogue, though not mentioned in
cuneiform literature.
We are yet in the dark as to the high feasts and processions and also as to that
great Mystery, "the grasping the hands of Bel " of Babel or Deri, in which kiugs
alone participated, and which they considered of the highest importance. We
are better instructed in the performance of^ the ritual acts for private persons.
The belief in spirits, powerful wielders of magic, to whose craft and tricks man-
kind is daily exposed, is plainly evident, the belief was just as profound that
through certain incantations and by the help of the higher gods, these evil spirits
might be rendered harmless.
But all magic was not looked upon as lawful . Sorcery practiced to gain power
for evil or to overthrow enemies, was forbidden. But magic practiced to gain
the favor of the gods for healing, long life or eternal blessedness, was encouraged.
The multitude of incantatory formulas which are preserved show how highly
esteemed the art was.
The fame of the Babylonian priests, under the name of Chaldeans, spread
far to the westward. The formulas consist of a prayer often quite beautiful, a
litany, and they were employed against the demons of disease, fever, death,
insanity and delirium. Eclipses of the moon and the dedication of the royal
sceptre called them into play. Ceremonies probably extending over seven days,
were required to free one from the effects of a curse (anat). All the gods were
summoned, but chiefly the spirits of heaven and earth, the savior, Maruduk, and
the beneficent Ea, as the incantations of their city Eridu were the most famous.
The form of worship compared with that of Egypt or India was extremely
simple, designated merely as a lifting or folding of the hands, but religion gave
dignity and consecration to the whole life. Holy pictures adorned palace walls,
and holy symbols were carried into battle ; important contracts and royal charters
were headed with such symbols. ' In common with many ancient nations, the
TiELE ON Babylonian-Assyrian Culture. 269
Assyrians compounded their proper names with those of deities. But it is note-
worthy that so many names are in the form of a wish or prayer. Each day was
sacred to some god, and daily sacrifices were offered by the king. The seventh,
fourteenth, twenty-first and twenty-eighth of each month, and the nineteenth as
well, were rest days, Jabattu, on which one was in danger from the evil eye, and
from morn till night neither king nor priest might eat his usual food, go about his
usual business or wear his festal robes. Every tenth day seems to have been a
day of jubilation, on which no psalm of penitence might be sung. The great
days were certainly the feasts of the chief gods, the holiest of these being the
Zakmuku feast at Babel, occurring about the time of the Jewish Passover.
That religion ruled the whole life is plain also from the firm belief in a divine
providence which planned for the requital of good and evil, wliich called kings
even from the mother's womb to rule the nations, and which in the midst of
insurrections and foreign wars gave victory to the royal arms and moved to sub-
mission the hearts of neighboring princes.
Like all ancient nations, the Babylonians believed it possible to know the
future, and the decisions of the gods. But they had reached the point where
they no longer looked for direct manifestations of deity. Theophanies belonged
to the mythical histories. The highest gods communicated with man through
their sons alone, and they only by oracles and dreams, but especially by the aspect
of the heavens. Famous oracles existed in the leading cities. Dreams, though
occasionally coming to any pious believer, were the special prerogative of seers,
the Magi being the authorized interpreters and communicating to the suppliant
the purport of the divine utterance. Thus the gods spoke through the mouth of
their servants to Sennacherib when he asked concerning the result of a campaign,
— " Go, march forth ; we will march by thy side ; we will help thee in the expedi-
tion." Thus Istar encouraged Asurbanipal when he planned an expedition against
Ahsere of Man, — "I am the destroyer of Ahsere of Man." We are told also of
written words beheld in a dream upon the altar of Sin ; of a vision of Istar in full
panoply and celestial splendor promising to appear to her votary, the king. The
belief in such manifestations was only a limitation of the old faith, not a modern
rationalism ; the people of antiquity considered them just as real as direct the-
ophanies.
Astrology was diligently studied, and while not the source of mythology, the
chief gods were yet associated with stars and constellations, and the various pecul-
iar changes of the heavenly bodies were regarded as warnings sent by the gods
which men must heed. Sometimes the portent was interpreted by a species of
analogy, if the star of the king of the gods was bright, the earthly king was
to be fortunate and powerful. Eclipses were objects of the most diligent study.
All this may seem artificial and superstitious, yet it was based upon a firm belief
in an immutable order of the world and an uninterrupted series of divine mani-
festations.
The warm piety of the Semite, the deep religious sense, was not absent from
the Babylonians and Assyrians. In purity and exaltation of conception they
were but little removed from the Israelitish prophets. In their prayers and
hymns they embodied thoughts which charm and attract. This is shown in the
inscriptions of Babylonian kings, notably those of Nebuchadnezzar II., as well as
in their penitential psalms and lamentations. It is true sin is not always sharply
distinguished from its penalty, but it is deeply felt and represented to be a wan-
270 The Old TESTAjrENT Student.
dering from the right way, impurity, hostility to God, who is entreated to take it
away and graciously avert his righteous anger. In spite of their polytheism, the
tone and spirit of many passages remind us strongly of the Hebrew Psalms, the
god who is addressed being exalted to the very highest heaven. Invariably, how-
ever, the intercession of some other god is implored, a mediator was deemed
necessary. There is one psalm in which no particular deity is named. The poet,
as usual, makes the penitent speak of his god or his goddess, but this probably
means nothing more than guardian angel ; further, confession of a " known or
unknown sin" is made to a "known or unknown god." Though this is not
monotheism, it approaches it closely. The god or goddess invoked as the peti-
tioner's own, is none other than his better Self. If he sins, his god or goddess
forsakes him, and his flrst intercession is for the god"s return, his first effort for
his propitiation.
All this proves that religion in Babylonia reached early a comparatively high
development. However much of the external and formal, of the superstitious
and magical may have clung to the worship, there was no lack of deep religious
feeling and moral earnestness, which ejipressed itself most powerfully in the peni-
tential psalms.
OLD TESTAMENT NOTES AND NOTICES.
Quite a number of changes have taken place within the last few weeks in the
Old Testament professorships of the German universities. At Rostock, in the
place of tlie late Dr. Bachmann. we now lind Dr. E. Kiinig, late docent at Leipzig,
and with this change the last of the anti-analytical men has been succeeded by
one who believes in pentateuchal analysis. Professor Konig is one of the leading
opponents of the Wellhausen reconstruction scheme and is a prolific writer. The
University of Halle has lost both its Old Testament men, Schlottmann and Riehm.
In the place of the former, who was also President of the German Bible Revision
Committee, Professor Kautzsch, of Tiibingen, lias been called. Professor Riehm's
place is not to be filled for the present. Professor Kautzsch has secured his envia-
ble reputation for accurate scholarship rather through the quality than the quan-
tity of his literary work. There are few among the men in his department who
have written less tlian he ; but his revision of Gesenius' grammar, his Aramaic
grammar, and other work is of superior excellence. Professor Cornill, who only
two years ago was called as extra ordinari\is to Kiinigsberg. has been made an
ordinarius. Bertheau, of the philosophical faculty in Gottingen, who died several
months ago, has been succeeded by Smend, of Basel. It was the intention of the
authorities to call Wellhausen, of Marburg, but he was entirely unacceptable to
the Hanoverian churchmen. In this way Smend leaves the theological faculty
and enters the philosophical, just as Wellhausen did a few years ago.
The announcement comes from Canada that ilr. Hirschfelder, the lecturer in
Hebrew and other oriental languages in the University College, Toronto, retires
from active duty. Rev. Dr. McCurdy, already a lecturer in this department in
the same college, is to be advanced to the position of professor of oriental lan-
guages in Toronto University.
♦•BOO^-M^OTICES.^-
WELLHAUSEN'S HISTORY OP ISRAEL.*
This work has abready been noticed in these columns. Attention Is called to
it again by reason of the fact that Messrs. Macmillan and Company now offer it
for sale in this country. The original work has already become standard and this
translation, authorized by Wellhausen, is reliable and will doubtless be read by
many who are seeking for light upon the problems of Old Testament criticism.
It is a book for scholars and thinkers, for such as are well established in the
faith. Its learning and acuteness are undoubted ; its spirit will not be regarded
as commendable.
A CONCORDANCE OF THE SEPTU AGIST, t
A much needed help for students of the Septuagint is afforded in this volume.
It is a large octavo of 284 pages, 9J x 6i inches, clearly printed and at a moderate
price. It is unfortxmate that Tischendorf 's edition was the best available text of
the Septuagint at the time this work was prepared. Swete's edition, when com-
pleted, vdll doubtless supersede all others. This fact will detract somewhat
from the value of this concordance ; yet it will always be more or less sei'viceable.
Students of the Old Testament in general are coming to realize more clearly the
importance of the comparison and indeed of the separate study of the Septuagiut
version along with the Hebrew original. Let us hope that this concordance will
assist in bringing about a consummation so desirable.
A HANDY EDITION OF THE BIBLE. t
This is a very convenient edition of the two Testaments in the original,
details concerning which are given below. It is stated that this volume is the
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use, for frequent reference, for permanent companionship and study, those who
procure it will highly prize this tasteful edition.
* Pkoleoomena to the History or Israel : with a reprint of the article " Israel''
FROM THE Encyclopedia Britannica. By Julius Wellhausen. Translated under the author's
supervision by J. S. Black and A. Menziea : with preface by Prof. W. K. Smith, Edinburgh :
A. JcC. Black. New York : Macmillan & Co.
+ A Handy Concordance of the Septuagint, giving various readings from Codices Vat.,
Alex., Sin., and Ephr.; with an appendix. London: S. Bagster it Sons. New York: John
Wiley <i- Sons.
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CURRENT OLD TESTAMENT LITERATURE.
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Die Qeschichtlichen HatTiiti/rapheniChroniha, Es-
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From Adam to Ahraham: or. Lessons on Gene-
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The Booh of Isaiah. Vol. L fta. 1-39. By G. A.
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s.T.a.
Natural Reliqiim: Itiauyural Lecture at Olasgow.
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ARTICLES AND BEVIEWS.
On the Legends Concerning the Touth of Mose».
By A. Wiedemann, in Proc. of the Soc. of
Bib. Arch., XL 2, 1883.
Etudes sur le Deuteronome. 71. Les sources et la
date der Deuteronome (Suite). By L. Horst. In
Kev. d'l'hist. des Religions, Nov., Dec, 1888.
L'Orgueil de Salomon. By J. Levi, in Rev. des
Etudes Julves, Juil-Sept., 1888.
Anti-Parsic Sentences <n Deularo-Isaiah. By
Dr. Alexander Kohut, in Jewish Exponent,
Feb. 1. 1889.
Tlie Vertiacular Language of Our Lord. By Dr.
Franz Deliusch in Sunday School Times, Feb.
2, 18.^(1.
Classification of Bible Poetry. By Philip Schaff,
D. fi. Ibid, Feb. 9.
Modem Critics on Men of the Bible. Reviews of
Driver's Isaiah and Chcyne's Jeremiah. Ibid.
Biide Beacitns. I. Samson. By R. G. Ferguson,
D. D., in Evangelical Repository, Feb., 1889.
The Foundation of Rome by Noah. By Fedcrico
Garlanda, Ph. b., in The Independent, Feb.
7. 18.19.
The Mexican Messiah. By Dominick Daly, in
American Antiquarian, Jan.. 1889.
The Mosaic Doctrines of Death and After-Death.
By Prof. U. V. Foster, D. D., in Cumberland
Presbyterian Review, Jan., 1889.
La Verite de I'Histoire hibliijue. 1. Le Nouveau
Roman de M. Renan sur I'histoire sainte. U.
Eteudue de Vijtspiration dc I'histoire hihlioue.
By J. Brucker, In Etudes rellgienses, pbilos.
hist, et litt.. Doc., 1888.
Del Segno degli Elirci. U. By G. Rezasco. In
Glonale Ligustlco. Sett.-Ott., 1888.
Narrative of o Seirntifie Krpedition i;i the Traiu-
Jordanic'Regiou in tlie Spring of IS^. By Post,
in Pal. E.\pl. Fund., Oct.. I8><8.
Delitzsch's Neuer Commentar liber die Genesis.
By E. Kautzsch, in Theol. Stud. u. Krit., 2,
1889.
Fahre d'Envicu's Le Livre du Prophiie Daniel.
Review by A. Lolsy in Bulletin Crlt., 23, 1888;
by J. Knabenbauer, in Stimmen aus Maria-
Laach, 10, 1888.
The Higher Criticism and its Results. By Prof.
C. A. Briggs, D.D., in The Congregationalist,
Feb. 21. 1889.
Will the Revised Version be Accepted t By Rev.
J. A. Faulkner, in Sunday School Times, Feb.
■2:3, 1889.
The Rites, Ceremonies, and Customs of the Jews.
By Prof. B. Pick, Ph. D., in Homiletio Re-
view, March, 1889.
Studies in the Psalter. No. UI. The Nineteenth
Psalm. By Dr. T. W. Chambers. Ibid.
Scripture Poetry. liv A. J. Maas, S. J., in Am.
Cath. Quar. Rev.. Jan., 1889.
Philo and his Littest Interpreter. By F. C. Por-
ter, In New Englandcr, Feb., 1889.
In Self-Dcfenee: (Critical Observations on my
Hebrew New Testament. Bj- Prof. Franz De-
lltzsch. in E.xpositor, Feb.. 1889.
The Hallel. By Rev. Bd. G. King, D. D. Ibid.
A Comparison of Brahmanism and Buddhism
with Christianity. By John Alfred Faulkner,
in Reformed Quarterly Review. Jan., 1889.
Swete's Septuagint. Review by E. Hatch, in
Classical Review, Feb.. 1889.
Rcnan's Histoire du Peuple Israel. Review In
Athemvum, Feb. 2, 1889.
SmitlVs Isaiah. Review by Cheyne, in Academy,
Feb. 9, 1889.
Inspiration and Infallibility. By S. L. Bowman,
S. T. D., In Methodist Review, March-April,
1889.
Cuirent Discussion. The Ethics of the Old Testa-
ment. Ibid.
Der Dehalog u. das sinaitische Bundesbuch im in-
ncrcn zusammenhang dargestellt. By O. Nau-
mann. in Ztschr. f. Kirch. Wiss. u. Leb.,
XI.-XII., 1888.
Grundlehren der alttcstamentUchen Pnypheten.
By Fr. Diisterdieck. Ibid.
OF
INDUCTIVE BIBLE-STUDIES.-SECOND SERIES.
[Copyright by W. R. Harper, 18^8.]
Forty Studies on the Life of the Christ, based on the Gospel of Marlt.
Edited by William K. Harper, Tale University, New Haven.
STUDY XXV.— THE LAST SUPPER. MARK 14:12-26.
Besume. 1. The course of events which led to the betrayal of Jesus. 3. The scene at Bethany
and the questions connected with it. 3. The character of Judas.
I. The Material Aaalyzed.
Read carefully Mk. 14:12-26, and be able to give a definite statement concerning
each of the following points :
1. The disciples' iuquiry (v. 12) ; 4. words at the passover-meal (vs.
2. the instructions of Jesus (vs. 13- 17-21);
15) ; 5. the new institution (vs. 22-25) ;
3. the instructions carried out (v. 6. the departure (v. 26).
16);
II. The Material Compared.
1. With Mk. U:ia-26 cf. Mt. 26:17-30; Lk. 22:7-30; John 13:1,2,21-26; 1 Cor. 11:23-25. The
attention of the student is called to the following points:
1) Note the variations in the account (a) of the announcement of the traitor, Mt. 26:25; Lk.
22:21-23; John 13:21-26; (b) of the Lord's Supper.
2) Note and explain the similarity of the accounts of the Supper in 1 Corinthians and Luke as
compared with Matthew and Mark.
3) Note and explain the omission in John of the Supper.
4) Note the additional material furnished in John, chs. 13,14; Lk. 22:24-38.
»4
274
Thjb Old Tbstament Student.
III. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
1) V. 12. (a) First day; i. e. the 14th NIean
(Ex. 12:18), which had come to be
included in the feast.
(b) Unleavened bread; cf . Lev.23:6,6.
2) Vs. 13,14. Do these directions imply (a) pre-
vious arrangement or (b) super-
natural knowledge, on the part of
Jesus? Cf.Mk.ll:2,3. (c)Whyare
they necessary? Cf. John 11:40-53.
3) T. 14. (a) Good man; consider the proba-
bility of his being a follower of
Jesus.
(b) My guett-chamlier; I. e. (a) " the
one I am accustomed to use," or
(b) " the one I have engaged."
4) V. 18. Be that eateth; how did this in-
crease the offence ? Cf . Ps. 41 -.9.
5) V. 20. Dippeth with me in the dish; e.v-
plain the custom.
6) V. 21. (a) fTritten; i. e. in the O. T., cf.
Isa. 53, etc.
(b) fTiw, etc.; (1) note the compas-
sionate element in these words.
(2) Did Jesus desire to restrain the
betrayer? (3) Probability that Ju-
das retired soon after; cf. John
13:27-30; Lk. 22:21.
7) V. 22. Brake; i.e. (a) either that all might
have a part, or (b) with a symbolic
reference.
8) V. 24. (a) Hy Mood of the covenant; (1) cf.
Ex. 34:8-8; (2) for the "covenant,"
cf. Jer. :il :31-34; (3) the special ap-
plication here.
(b) Many; I. e. " all." Cf. John 3:
16; 1 Tim. 2:6.
!)) T. 26. (a) Until that day. etc.; (1) Is this
literal or (2) symbolic? If so, of
what? (3) What is the "day" re-
ferred to? Cf. Mk. 9:1; Acts2:a-
4; Rev. 21:5.
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
1) The Passover, (a) Recall the events connected with the origin of the passover (Ex. 12:1-36);
(b) the laws relating to its observance (Ex. 12:14-20; Lev. 23:4-8; Num. 28:16-25); (c)
endeavor to form a more or less complete idea of the method of observing it in the time
of Jesus; (d) the signiflcance of it as a religious observance, (I) a memorial, (2) a sacrifice;
(e) the spirit of its observance, (1) as being a family feast, (2) as having a joyous character.
3) The New Institnlioii. -Mk. 14:22-24. (a) Consider the time when Jesus observed the passover.
(1) the view of the synoptic gospels (Mk. 14:12,17; Alt. 26:17,30; Lk. 22:7,14); (2) the view of
John (John 13:1,2!); 18:28; 19:14): (3) the harmony of the two views; (b) seek to determine
at what point in the passover feast this institution was introduced, whether (1) in the
course of it or (3) at its close (cf. Mk. 14:22: Mt. 26:2fi); (c) note its close relations to the
passover (1) in time and place, (2) in what it omits, (3) in what it retains of the passover
ceremonies; (d) observe its parabolic character in harmony with Jesus' methods of
teaching.
3) Tlie Significance of the New Institntion. By a careful study of tlie material
seek to ascertain tlie significance of this institution from the following
points of view : (a) as revealing some characteristics of Jesus ; (b) as teach-
ing the meaning of his death ; (c) as an enduring memorial of himself; (d)
as a permanent testimony to his doctrine ; (e) as a speciiil channel of divine
grace ; (f ) as a means of Christian fellowship.
IV. The Material Organized.
Outlier the material and classify it under the following lieads : 1 ) habits and
customs; 2) institutions ; 3) important teachings; 4) chronological data;
5) Jesus and the O. T. ; 6) Jesus as man and more than man ; 7) literary
data.
Condense the material into the briefest possible statement, e. g.:
V. 12. On the day when the passover was sacrificed the disciples ask where they shall pre-
pare it.
V. 13. He replies. Let two go into the city and then follow a certain man.
New Testament Supplement. 275
V. 14. And say to the owner of the house into which he goes, Where shall the Master eat
the passover ?
V. 15. He will show you the place; there make ready.
V. 16. They go, find the place and make ready.
vs. 12-16. When the right day comes the disciples inquire where to prepare the
PASSOVER, AND ARE DIRECTED TO A ROOM WHERE THEY PREPARE IT.
V. 17. At even he comes with the twelve.
V. 18. During the meal Jesus said. One eating here shall betray me.
V. 19. Bach one In grief replies, Is it I ?
V. 20. He said. It is one that dips with me into the dish.
V. 31. I must go, as the Scripture says, but woe to him that betrays me; he would better
not have been born.
vs. 17-21. At even, eating with the twelve, he says. One of you shall betray me.
Asked to name him, he says. It is one of you: but though I must die, as
predicted, it were good for my betrayer never to have lived.
V. 32. During the meal he took bread, blessed it, broke and gave it to them, saying, Take
this my body.
V. 33. He takes a cup, and after giving thanks, gives it to them and all drink.
V. 24. He said. This is my covenant-blood, shed for many.
V. 25. I shall drink no more wine till the Kingdom of God comes.
vs. 22-25. During the meal he blesses and divides bread among them, saying. Take
this my body. Likewise a cup, and all drink, while he says. This is my
covenant-blood shed for many. I DRINK wine again only when the King-
dom OF God comes.
vs. 13-25. When the passover has been prepared as he directs Jesus conies with the twelve, and during
the meal declares (while they question) that he shall be betrayed by one of them who wonld
better never have lived. He blesses and divides bread among them, saying. Take this my
body; and wine, saying, 31y covenant-blood, shed for many. 1 shall drink again only In
the Kingdom of God.
y. The Material Applied.
Evil Character. Mk. 14:18-21. 1) Consider the possibility of being over-
come of evil even in the presence of the highest goodness ; 2) note the
peculiarly aggravated character of that manifestation of evil (Mt. 26:25),
3) observe how it may be used to accomplish the divine purpose; 4) yet in
a way perfectly consistent with human responsibility.
STUDY XXVI.— GETHSEMANE. MAEK 14:27-42.
Resume. 1. Scenes of the Last Supper. 3. Relations of the Passover and the Last Supper.
3. Purpose of Jesus in establishing this new institution.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Read carefully Mk. 14:27-42, and be able to make a definite statement concerning
each of the following points :
1 . Conversation concerning the dis- 2. the experience in Gethsemane
ciples' fidelity (vs. 27-31) ; (vs. 32-42).
276
The Old Testabient Student.
II. The Material Compared.
1. With Mk. U:27-«2cf. Mt. *«:31-»U; Lk. 2->::!l-:i4..J«-4(l; John l»:36-38: 18:1.
2. Note 1) varied forms of statement, Mt. 2«::ill; Lk. 22:42; 2) new materials, Mt. 26:42,44; John
1H:1; 3) the special material in l.k. 22:43. 44; i) the place of the event of Lk. 22:83,34;
John 13:37, .18, as compared with Mlt. I-l:29-.ll.
3. The words of John l(i,16,i; spolieD at this time.
m. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
4) V.
31.
5) V.
82,
6) T.
33.
7) V.
34.
8)T.
35.
(b) The funir; i. e. the season of his
sufferings and death (cf. v. 41); so
"this cup."
9) V. 36. (a) Abba; peculiar to Mark; lighten
the language Jesus spoke.
ib) Father; Jesus' idea of his relation
to God ?
10) T. 41. (a) Cometh; i. e. having previously
gone away; cf. Mt. 28:44. Why re-
peat this prayer three times?
(b) Sleep <m; is this ironical?
11) Y. 42. Arise; cf. v. 41. How explain the
change of command ?
1) V. 27. (a) Offended; note the margin (R.V.).
(b) Written; (1) where; (2) itsoriglnal
application: (3) its use here?
2) T. 28. Of) before you; as the shepherd; cf.
John 10:4.
3) T. 30. Note the nature of this statement
and its witness to Jesus' knowledge.
Spake; lit. " kept saying."
Place; cf. Margin (K. V.).
Greatly amazed; cf. 9:15. Does this
imply an entrance into a new ex-
perience?
Watch; for what purpose?
(a) Prayed, etc.; lit. "kept praying";
(I) a real petition; (2) light on the
nature of Jesus.
2. GENEKAL TOPICS.
The Agony, (a) Bring clearly to mind the experiences of Jesus at this time ; (b)
consider his character and nature as previous " studies " have revealed him ;
(c) inquire as to the meaning of these strange experiences (Mk. 14:33-41),
recognizing the element of mystery involved ; e. g. ( 1 ) shrinking from foreseen
physical suffering and death, or shame and humiliation ; (2) undefined fear
in view of the dark outlook ; (3) sorrow at being compelled to give up his
work; (4) grief on account of betrayal ; (5) sad consciousness of failure ; (6)
shrinking from the crowning part of his work, which was to bear the sin
and punishment of the people ; cf . Heb. 5:7-9 ; (d) note the view of Jesus
which this scene discloses, (1) his humanity, (2) his relation to God.
IT. The Material Organized.
1.
Oather the tnaterial and classify it under the following heads: 1) places; 2) habits and customs;
3) important events; 4) O. T. quotations; a) Jesus as man ; 6) Jesus as more than man.
2. Condense the material according to methods already employed under the general topic of
Sorrowful Anticipations and Preparationtt.
y. The Material Applied.
1. The Prater. V. 36. 1) Jesus feels the necessity of prayer; 2) the Person to
whom the prayer is addi-essed ; 3) tlie argument on which it is based ; 4) the
reality and sincerity of the request; 5) the spirit with which the request is
made; 6) the outcome in his case ; 7) should the same spirit be manifested
and the same result be looked for in all prayer? 1 John 5:14; 8) does
prayer involve nothing more than this? cf. Mt. 7:7-11, etc.
New Testament Supplement. 277
Death. 1) The natural shrinking from the prospect of death ; 2) what makes
death ten-ible? 3) the Christian view of death ; 4) the consequent attitude
of the Christian toward it; 5) bearing of all this upon modern funeral cus-
toms.
STUDY XXVII.— THE AKEEST AND CONDEMNATION OF JESUS.
MAKK 14:43-72.
BesDme. 1. The journey to Gethsemane and the scene there. 2. An explanation of the feelings
and words of Jesus. 3. The disciples as their characters are manifested in these scenes.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead carefully Mk. 14:43-72, and be able to make a definite statement concerning
each of the following points :
1. The arrest of Jesus (vs. 43-49) ; 4. Jesus before the council (vs. 53-
2. flight of disciples (v. 50) ; 65) ;
3. a young man's experience (vs. 51, 5. Peter's denial (vs. 66-72).
52);
II. The Material Compared.
1. With Mk. 14:43-73 cf. Mt. 26:47-75; Lk. 2-2:47-6o; John 18:2-27.
2. While the comparative study of these passages in detail would be very helpful, there is space
here to refer only to the principal points: 1) new material in Mt. ■2C:a0,62-al,63,6$, and
Lk. 22:48,51,61; 2) the section peculiar to Mk., vs. .51,52.
3. Bead carefully John 18:2-27, and note the following-: 1) the main tacts identical with those in
the synoptic gospels; 2) the great divergence in language and details.
ni. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
1) T. 48. Oreat multitude; (a) of what classes T) T. 53. (a) Observe that a meeting of the
of persons did this consist? et. Lk. Sanhedrin is indicated; (b) an irreg-
23:,53; John 18:3.12. ular meeting at night,
(b) Why are such measures taken ? 8| T. 55. On the need of witnesses, cf. Deut.
cf. V. 48. 17:6; 19:15.
2) V. 44. Token; what would seem to have 9) V. 58. Cf. John 2:19.
been the expectation of Judas ? 10) T. 61. (a) Answered nothing; why ?
3) V. 45. Kissed; ct. margin (R. V.). (b) Artthau the Christ; cf. Mt. 26:C3;
4) V. 47. A certain one; cf. John 18:10. Would he put Jesus on oath.
we not expect that the name would 11) T. 62. Did Jesus feel compelled to answer ?
be given in this narrative ? 12)7.64. Blasphemy; wherein did Jesus lay
5) V. 49. The Scriptures; what particular himself open to this charge?
writings here referred to ? cf. Mt. 13) V. 66. Recall the style of oriental dwellings
26 :56. and follow the movements of Peter.
6) V. 51. Linen Hoth; i. e. a sleeping robe. 14) T. 68. Consider the motive for this denial.
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
1) Jesiis, the Christ. Vs. 61,62. (a) Observe the unequivocal statement which
Jesus makes here; (b) analyze it to discover what he claims to be : (1) the
Christ; (2) the Son of God; (3) a son of man; (4) clothed with divine
majesty and power; (c) note how the words were understood by Iris judges,
vs. 63,64 (cf. John 10:33); (d) the significance of this claim in view of the
circumstances, his seeming failure and expectation of death.
278 The Old Testament Student.
2) The Author of Ihin Uoprl. Ta. .MioS. la) NoU- the conjecture that this "youn^maii" is Mark,
the author of this flospel. (b) Estimate the force of the followlnfr points urftcd In its
favor: (1) the reason for calling attention to this incident was the personal interest of
the writer: (2) the details narrated show a personal recollection; {'i) the mother of Mark
bad a house in Jcrusaiein (Acts 12:lu'); (4) the young man's actions here accord with the
character of Mark as elsewhere disclosed; cf. Acts 15:37.38; 13:13; (5) the probability of
such a personal reference by the author of this Gospel; cf. personal references In other
Gospels, John 13:23; Mt. V.'J; Lk. 'ii :13. (cl Learn so far as possible the grounds for regard-
ing Mark as the author of this Gospel.
lY. The Material Organized.
1. Oather the material and classify it under tlie following heads: 1) persons; 2)
habits and customs ; 3) places ; 4) important events ; 5) important teach-
ings; 6) Jesus as man and more than man.
2. Condtrae Mk. 14 :43-72 according to methods already indicated ; e.g.:
1) vs. 43-50.
r. 43. At once Judas comes with an armed band.
V. 44. He had said, Take the one whom I kiss.
V. 45. Now he comes and kisses Jesus, saylDg Rabbi.
V. 46. They take him.
V. 47. A friend wounds one of the band.
V. 48. Jesus says, Vou act as though I were a bandit.
y. 49. I taught you dally and you took me not; but let the Scripture be fulfilled.
V. 50. All his friends flee.
V. 51. A young man following lightly clad is seized.
T. S3. He escapes naked.
At once Judas comes witli an armed hand, who take Je»u», Judas Tiaving hissed Mm a»
a sign to tlicm. After the resistance of a friend and h it own protest against so unnects-
sary violence, Uioug)t predicted, his friends Jle-e, and one ligMtu cUul following is
seized, hut escapes naked.
2) In a similar way condense vs. 53-65,66-72.
Y. The Material Applied.
Judas and Petek. 1. Compare the sin of Judas with the sin of Peter, 1) in the
motive and occasion of each, 2) in the light of their character and profes-
sions, 3) in the effect of each sin upon the heart of Jesus. 2. Do these sins
differ to any great extent in their essential elements ; cf . Mt. 16:23 ; John
6:70. 3. Did Jesus deal in any different manner with each of these men V
cf. Mt. 26:50 ; Lk. 22:48,61. 4. The reason for the different fate which fell
to each of them as found (a) in the inscrutable wisdom of God, (b) in the
fundamental elements of character which each man possessed.
STUDY XXVIII.— JESUS BEFOEE PILATE. MARK 15:1-15.
Keaame. I. The occurrences of the night. 2. The behaviour of the disciples. 3. The attitude of
Jesus in these experiences. 4. The author of this Gospel.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Read carefully Mk. 15:1-15, and be able to nuike a definite statement concerning
each of the following points :
New Testament Supplement. 279
1. The morning consultation (v. la) ; 5. Barabbas (v. 7) ;
2. Jesus delivered to Pilate (v. lb); 6. the multitude's desires (vs. 8-14) ;
3. Jesus before Pilate (vs. 2-5) ; 7. Pilate's decision (v. 15).
4. the governor's custom (v. 6) ;
11. The Material Compared.
With Mk. 15:1-15 of. Mt. •2;:1,2,11-2B; Lk. 2i:66-2.3:2o; John 18:2«-19:1.
Note new material concerning 1) the charges against Jesus, Lk. 23:2,3; John 1$:30; 2) Jesus
before Herod, Lk. 23:7-12; 3) Pilate's opinion of Jesus, Jit. 27:24; Lk. 23:4,13-16,20.23;
John lS:38b; 4) Pilate's conversations with the Jews, .John 18:29-32; with Jesus, John 18:
33-37; 5) other points, Mt. 27:19; John lS:28,40h.
S. Observe 1) how this section in Mark is lacking in his customary minute and picturesque
details as compared with the other narratives; 2) difficulties in taking Lk. 33:68-71 as par-
allel with Mk. 15:1.
in. The Material Explained.
1. textual topics and questions.
1) V. 1. (a) Straightway: note one of Mark's 6) V. 12. (a) TVhat then/ etc.; what reason for
characteristic words. asking this question ?
(b) Bound; significant of his con- (b) Whom ye call; did Pilate expect
demnation. them to favor Jesus ?
ie) Pilate; learn something of his offl- 7) T. 14. What evil hath he done! (a) Consider
cial position and relation to Jews, cf. the attitude of Pilate toward Jesus
Lk. 13:1,3. during these scenes, (b) Inquire the
■3) T. 2. Asked; (a) in a private interview, reason for this.
John 18:33; (b) what suggested the 8) V. 15. Scaurged; (a) usually preliminary to'
question? crucifiiion; (b) perhaps with a hope
3) V. 3. .4^ccused; Ht. "kept accusing." of satisfying the multitude, cf. John
4) v. 5. No more answered; suggest some rea- 19:5.
son for this.
5) V. 9. What was the motive for Pilate's
question ?
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
1) The Council, (a) Learn something of the composition, organization and powers of this coun-
cil, called the "Sanhedrin"; (b) observe that Jesus is twice brought before them (subse-
quent to John 18:13), cf. Mk. 14:55: 15:1; (c) in view of the actions of these gatherings
decide whether they were formal and legal or irregular and informal meetings of the
Sanhedrin.
2) The Popular Verdict. V. 13. (a) Consider the persons composing the "mul-
titude" of v. 11, whether representative of the popular feeling or not; (b)
probability that they were seized by a sudden impulse or deceived by false
representations ; (c) their declaration, Mt. 27:25 ; (d) the impression made in
the Gospel narratives throughout as to the popularity of Jesus ; (e) endeavor
to decide whether (1) the people as a whole rejected Jesus here or (2) a faction
of political leaders stirred up the rabble against him.
IT. The Material Organized.
1. Gather the material and classify it under the following heads: 1) persons; 2)
habits and customs; 3) institutions; 4) historical allusions; 5) important
events.
2. Note thefollcnoing condensation of Mk. 15:1-15, and work out the details, improv-
ing or correcting it wherever desirable :
280 The Old Testament Student.
V. 1. At morn the assembled council condemns and delivers Jesus bound to Pilate.
V. 2. Pilate aske, Art thou Klag of the Jews? He says, Yes.
V. 3. The chief priests make many charges.
V. 4. Pilate asks, Will you not reply to these many charges ?
V. 5. Jesus replies not; while Pilate marvels.
vs. 1-5. At morn the muncil convenes, ci>ndemus and taken Jesus to Pilate. Jcmu, in reply to
Pilatc'iiflriit qucttion, says that he is King of the Jews, but to (he priests' charges replies
rwt, whereupon Pilate questions and marvels.
V. 6. At the feast Pilate Is used to free a prisoner at their request.
V. 7. Barabbas is a prisoner with other rebels and murderers.
V. 8. The multitude make the usual reiiuest.
V. ». Pilate asks, Do you wish the release of the King of the Jews?
V. 10. He sees that from envy the priests have arrested Jesus.
V. 11. The priests induce them to ask for Uarabbas.
v. 12. Pilate asks, What about him you call King of the Jews ?
v. 13. They cry out, Crucify him.
v. 14. Pilate asks, What evil has he done ? They roar out. Crucify him.
v. 15. Pilate, to satiety them, frees Uarabbas, scourges, and orders Jesus crucified.
vs. 6-15. Tlie multitude, ashing far the customani release uf a prisoner, induced by Uie priests,
refuse Pilate's offer (o release Jesus and choone Barablias, an imprismied rebeL They
keep tetling Pilate to crucify Jesuji. To satisfy them, lie frees Barabbas and condemns
Jesus.
vs. 1-15. The cotinril t'ondenin iind tnke JoHUH to I'llate. nho exaiiilncH lilni uhilc tlief arruKc him.
To their many clluru-cs .lesUN In silent, at which IMlatc ijuostldns and niarrcls. The ruK-
touiary release of oue prisoner Is re(|aested by the miiUltttde. who. In reply lo Pilate's
inciairy, and inilut^ed by the priests, rlioose Itarabbas, a rebel, and say of Jesus, Crucify
him. Pilate then IVees Barabbas and condemns Jesns.
V. Tbe Mat<'riul Applied.
Pilate. Find illustrations in Pilate and make general applications tt> the follow-
ing points: 1. The present influence of past sins. 2. The weakness of a
distracted will. 3. Responsibility evaded in form is not avoided in fact.
4. Compare, in Jesus, the power of conscious and tranquil innocence.
^T5E-:-0LD':'TESl^^]IJEp-:-STUDEp.-^
Vol. VIII. APRIL, 1889. No. 8.
The Hebrews received their supreme revelation of God in the
desert of Sinai. Did the locality of this revelation influence its form .'
So some have thought. The conception which the sons of Israel
entertained of Jehovah was certainly intensified by the physical
aspects of that sombre and bleak region. According to the principle
of contrast, the influence of which has been observed in the prophetic
writings, we find emphasized by Moses those benevolent and tender
attributes of the Lord which the circumstances of the people seemed
to require. Over against the great and terrible wilderness stands the
majestic figure of " the Lord your God " that " bare thee, as a man doth
bear his own son" (Deut. 1:31). While we may not allow that the
idea of God entertained by Israel was in any sense developed by this
desert life, it is an interesting study to note how the idea itself was
portrayed, energized, and made particularly impressive in the midst
of the sterile wastes and gloomy heights of Horeb.
It is gratifying to observe signs which indicate that an interest
in Bible-study is continually spreading among all classes of Christians.
Some suggestions in a recent editorial note in the STUDENT bearing
upon the pastor's relation to his people as a teacher of the Bible have
called forth some responses which show that not a k\v among the
ministry are awake to their responsibilities and opportunities in this
matter. Several pastors have set apart one Sunday monthly upon
which they seek to lead their people into united and consecutive
study of some book of the Scripture. The latest example of this
endeavor is a pamphlet of twenty pages entitled " Popular Studies and
Sermons in explanation of eleven chapters of Romans ;* being a new
♦ By Rev. Sidney Strong, Mt. Vernon, Ohio.
•2
282 Thk Old Testament Student.
method of combining expository preaching with individual Bible study
on the part of the Members of the Congregation." Such an ideal is
eminently proper and seasonable. To make any Scripture epistle or
psalm or prophecy rise from a dead and useless quiescence in the
pages of Holy Writ to a lively and fruitful activity in the life of living
men is to do an incalculably helpful service. These writings are the
words not of man but of God. The pastor who stirs up his people to
study for themselves these divine oracles brings human souls into vital
relations to eternal and superhuman realities. Who can measure the
result .'' What work has in it more of real spiritual benefit.' What
work is more in harmony with the purpose and design of the Chris-
tian ministry.' Is any line of service more needed at the present day
as a stimulus of right religious ideas or as a corrective of inadequate
views and hurtful errors, than the study of the Bible in the church at
large on a true method under the guidance of a wise pastor.'
The suggestion was made in a recent editorial that perhaps the
time had come for a reorganization of the American Institute of
Hebrew on a broader basis. The suggestion seems to have met with
favor in many quarters, if one may judge from the number and char-
acter of the letters which it has called forth. And, after all, why not
have an American Itistitiite of Sacred Literature?
i) An Institute which should aim to furnish instruction, not only
in Hebrew and the cognate languages, but also in the Greek of the
Septuagi,fit and of the New Testament; instruction, moreover, not
only in linguistic and philological lines, but also in Biblical Literature,
Biblical History, — in other words, the English Bible.
2) An Institute which should organize certain rigid courses of
study in these subjects, raise the standard of Bible-study, which is
to-day confessedly so low, and impart a stimulus all along the line of
biblical work.
3) An Institute which should give instruction (a) by Summer
Schools established particularly for this purpose ; (b) by classes organ-
ized in connection with other institutions ; (c) by private classes
organized under specially appointed teachers in various parts of the
country ; (d) by correspondence, a method coming more and more
into use as a most practicable means of teaching.
4) An Institute which should hold examinations not only for
those who have studied in the School of the Institute itself, but also
for those who have studied privately, or in Sunday-school, or in nor-
Editobial. 283
mal classes, or in colleges or divinity schools ; these examinations to
be held (a) in connection with the Summer Schools of the Institute ;
(b) at various institutions of learning ; (c) by special appointment.
5) An Institute, the work of which would in no case interfere
with the work of existing institutions ; which would rather supple-
ment and strengthen that which is at present being done in so many
ways.
6) An Institute which would, in a word, encourage men to sys-
tematic and thorough work; show how this kind of work can be done,
and, what is of great importance, give some sort of recognition for the
work when done.
There is not space, here, for even a meagre outline of such
a work. Two questions, however, naturally present themselves :
(i) Is it possible for any organization to provide courses of instruc-
tion in the English Bible which would be satisfactory to all .' If
managed judiciously and conservatively, — and to succeed at all,
this must be the character of the management, — there is no reason
why all might not be satisfied. (2) Is not this very work being done
by the Sunday-school, the theological seminary, and other agencies
already in existence .-" No. Much is being done, but not enough ;
good ^or^ is doubtless being done, but there is a demand for some-
thing better. The work proposed would exert a decided influence
upon all that is being done. It would be not so much a new work,
as an organizing of old work. Biblical work is to-day at loose ends.
It needs stirring up, systematizing, elevating.
The plan of an "American Institute of Sacred Literature" has
been under consideration for a long time. Some of the most eminent
of America's Bible students have given the plan their approbation.
It may not be that the time for action has arrived ; it is nevertheless
true that the question is one which deserves careful consideration.
Such an organization is feasible ; it may be said that such an organiza-
tion is a necessity ; if so, it will, sooner or later, come.
THE RELIGIOUS IDEAS OP THE BOOK OF AMOS.
By Rev. E. E. Atkinson,
Chlcopee, Mass.
Among tbe forces tliat found their consummation in the epoch of Jesus and
his apostles, a prominent place must be given to the work of the Hebrew prophets.
Amid internal corruption and lieathen allurements, in the face of sensualism and
idolatry, the Hebrew prophets were the preachers of a pure morality and the conser-
vators of a living faith in the one holy God. The \vritings of the prophets, Impor-
tant as they are, liave been little understood, owing to lack of appreciation of the
time and circumstances of their composition. Tlieir mysteriousness has been
regarded as a necessary characteristic, and to deprive them of this, in the eyes of
many, has brought the historico-critical method into great disfavor. But accord-
ing to any rational view of inspiration the utterances of the prophets can never be
adequately understood imtil they have received their proper place in the history of
the people.
First in order of time among the writings of the Hebrew prophets is the Book
of Amos. Amos has been called rightly " the father of wTitten prophecy." The
book occupies a unique position in the Scriptures of the ancient Hebrews. If it
were only for its lofty poeti-y, its grand style, its manly vigor of expression, it
■would be well worthy of special study. But it is our present task to examhie the
Book of Amos with a view to its religious ideas, to mark its contribution to the
development of the faith of Israel. As before said, in order to understand the
religious ideas of any biblical writing, we need to give such writing its proper
setting in the history of the people. Let us picture to ourselves tlie historical
situation and social condition of the nation at the time when Amos stood forth as
a prophet. It was in the reign of Jeroboam II., toward the middle of the eighth
century B. C, that Amos left his flocks in the fields of Tekoa in the land of Judah,
and went to Bethel and uttered his propliecy against the house of Israel. The
reign of Jeroboam II. was one of outward prosperity and brilliancy. His fatlier,
Joash, had left liiui a kingdom greatly strengthened since the days of depres.«ion
under Jehoahaz. But it remained for Jeroboam still further to extend the limits
of the kingdom of Israel. We have few details of his personal character or of the
nature of his wars; but the extensive results of his conquests and the splendor of
his reign mark him as the greatest of the kings of the northern kingdom. It
seemed as if the royal magnificence of David and Solomon had returned. His
sway extended from Hamatli on the Orontes to the wady of the Arabah, south of
the Dead Sea. The districts east of the Jordan, Ammon and Moab, were recon-
quered and made tributary to Israel. Little is said of the relation of Judah to
Israel at this time. Probably it was not included in the kingdom of Jeroboam.
While the reign of Jeroboam II. was marked by outward success and splendor,
the internal condition of the kingdom was that of corruption and decay. The
country was ruined by prosperity. Rich from the spoils of war and the profits of
The Eeligious Ideas of the Book of Amos. 285
coromerce, the people gave way to luxury and all its vices. The wealthy indulged
in the wildest extravagance. They built mansions of ivory, lavishly fitted out
with luxurious furnishings. Attached to their palatial residences were costly
vineyards. Along with their abandonment to luxury and the excesses of wealth
there was a lowering of public and private morality. Social life among high and
low had become corrupt. Drunkenness and sensuality spread on every side.
Public festivals and private feasts were the scenes of most revolting excesses.
There was withal a general passion for money, no matter how it was obtained.
False measures and weights were used in the corn market. Corrupt judges were
easily bribed. Unjust exactions of wheat were required of the husbandmen. In
general the more wealthy classes oppressed the poor with excessive extortions.
There was everywhere lying, stealing, murder, until, as Hosea says, " blood touched
blood." Even the sacred shrines of Yahweh were not free from the corruption of
the times. The reUgion itself yielded to the prevailing taint. The old simplicity
of the religion of Israel had given place to an elaborate and distorted ritual. The
calf-worship at Bethel and Dan had gradually merged into gross idolatry. Also
at Samaria and Gilgal calf-images were worshiped. Much of their cultus was
derived from Canaanitish customs, and although it was presumably Yahweh wor-
ship, yet it presented au easy way for the admittance of all the grosser forms of
heathenism. Drunkenness and debauchery invaded the hallowed precincts of the
sanctuary. Priest and prophet reeled through the influence of strong drink in the
very ministration of their sacred offices. Connected with their religious rites were
practices of the most degrading nature. They transgressed at Bethel and multi-
plied transgression at Gilgal (Amos 4:4). High and low, soldier and citizen,
attendant at court and priest at the altar were given over to coiTuption and vice.
Love of virtue and knowledge of God seemed to be banished from the land.
It was in such a state of affairs that Amos uttered his prophecy. It was
indeed a remarkable scene when the herdsman of Tekoa confronted the priests of
Bethel and the grandees of Israel with his sweeping charges and bitter denuncia-
tions. No wonder that his words seemed so distasteful to them (7:16). We do
not get the full significance of the work of Amos at this particular point of Israel's
history, if we regard him merely as denouncing vice and encouraging a purer form
of religion. We must take in the situation and give the prophet his proper posi-
tion as representing a stage in the growth of Hebrew culture. He was something
more than a pure and simple moral teacher or purifier of religious worship. He
was a prophet and yet more than a prophet. He represented a phase of the pro-
phetic office which was greatly in advance of what it had been in former times.
He seemed to scorn the intimation of Amaziah that he was a prophet (7:14). Evi-
dently the schools of the prophets had fallen in disrepute. He felt that he had a
higher mission than that of the technical seer. His task was different even from
that of Elijah or Elisha. He did not utter his prophecy against an idolatrous
dynasty as such. He did not wish to set up a good king in the place of a bad one.
He held a wider view of national affairs. We see in him the prophet as a states-
man, as a student of political events. But he represented no party within the
state, nor was he spokesman of any alliance with foreign powers. He was a
politico-religious philosopher. He looked at the nation both in its internal condi-
tion and in its relation to foreign powers from the religious point of view.
Although the prophet stood forth as the mouthpiece of God, yet it was a political
sagacity, a broader outlook over the nations, a deeper insight into the times, that
286 The Old Testament Student.
put new meaning and influence into the prophetic office. The prophet was a
statesman and yet more than a statesman. His view of causes and effects in
national affairs was based on moral and religious grounds. Amos saw a necessary
connection between the corruption of the nation, the encroachment of foreign
powers, and the immediate control of God. Furthermore, we must look to the
outward history for some particular occasion that drew Amos from his flocks to
utter his prophecy against the house of Israel. "With his comprehensive view of
the nations the prophet beheld one foreign power which was assuming vast pro-
portions and which threatened the speedy destruction of Israel. It was the power
of Assyria that was looming above the horizon as a prospective foe. For a hun-
dred years it had shown its force as a world power upon the surrounding nations,
and now Amos saw that it would soon move upon Israel itself. In AssjTia he
saw the means which God would take to punish Israel for their sins. This is the
burden of his prophecy, the overthrow of Israel as the result of their sins. " For,
behold, I will raise up against you a nation, O house of Israel, saith Yahweh, the
God of hosts ; and they shall aOlict you from the entering in of Hamath unto the
brook of the Arabah '" (6:14). It is this one great fact— the impending doom of
Israel— that is prominent before the mind of Amos and is the occasion of his com-
ing forward to utter his prophecy.
When we come to examine more particularly the religious ideas of Amos, we
must be careful not to superimpose upon the thought of the prophet any precon-
ceived notions of our own. Amos has no formulated creed to present, and is silent
npon many articles of faith that we naturally look for in any well regulated system
of theology. Much less does he attempt to teach any creed or system of religious
truth. The prophets are in a true sense religious teachers, but they are not dog-
matic teachers of doctrines. They are not designedly didactic. Their aitn is to
influence life rather than to join together a skeleton of theology. And so in treat-
ing of the religious ideas of Amos, it is not necessary to articulate his complete
system of theological belief even if we could discover all its parts. AVe wish
simply to mark some of the evidences that we may find in the Book of Amos of
an advance in Hebrew faith over that of former times. Although prophetic
thought, focussed as it usually is in one burning passion, does not readily admit
of any strict analysis, yet in a general way we may divide the religious ideas of
Amos into three classes, the ideas in regard to God, in regard to man, and in
regard to the relation between God and man.
In the flrst place, what is Amos' idea of God V ATliat does he have to say as
to the existence of a Divine Being ? We may say at the outset that he does not
discuss the existence of God. It is .assumed as a matter of course. But we are
interested to know what content he puts into his conception of the being of God.
By a mere casual reading we cannot fail to see that Amos' idea of God is more
spiritual than the old notion of a Being who could be seen by human eyes, who ate
and drank as a man and who wrestled in bodily form. There is a great advance
upon this ancient anthropological idea. Nordoes Amos conceive of God as confined
to any particular place. The old presentations placed God in Sinai. Moses had to
go up into the mountain in order to meet him. The ancient theophanies repre-
sented him as coming from the south. Later he took up his dwelling in the
temple. With Amos Yahweh is no local divinity, but is a practically omnipres-
ent God. Another very significant advance upon the old ideas of God is seen in
the fact that Amos does not even consider Yahweh as the God of Israel alone.
The Religious Ideas of the Book of Ajuos. 287
Formerly ic was thought that as for other nations, they had their own gods, while
Tahweh was exclusively the God of Israel. Moab had its Chemosh, Phenicia its
Baal, and the idea of Yahweh's control of other nations was foreign to Hebrew
thought. Change of country meant a change of gods. On this point we have a
noteworthy passage in 1 Sam. 26:19, where David says: "They have driven me
out this day that I should not cleave unto the inheritance of Yahweh, saying.
Go serve other gods." In the first two chapters of our prophecy Amos puts into
the mouth of Yahweh the denunciation of the sins of other nations as well as of
those of Israel, in a way that would have seemed strange to a former period. Not
only did Yahweh bring the Israelites out of Egypt, but he also brought the Philis-
tines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kii- (9:7). This idea of Yahweh's control
of other nations beside Israel, is a great advance in the religious thought of the
people. Amos frequently uses the title " God of hosts," in speaking of Yahweh.
It is true that the right meaning of the expression is not known decisively, but
whatever may be the exact significance of the term, it is evident that Amos had
in mind a largeness of conception that was new to the thought of Israel. Further,
Amos conceives of God as a moral being. He is holy, just and good. According
to the old national faith, the most prominent characteristic of God was that of
power. He protected his people by his might. He especially came to their aid
against their enemies in time of war. If Israel conquered Moab, it was because
Yahweh was stronger than Chemosh. It must have sounded strange in the
ears of the priests of Bethel when Amos, as the spokesman of Yahweh, said,
" You only have I known of all the families of the earth; therefore will I visit
upon you all your iniquities " (3:2). He foretold the overthrow of their kingdom
because of Yahweh's knowledge of them. It was difierent probably from any-
thing that they had ever heard before. They had relied on Yahweh's protection.
Surely his knowledge of them was sufficient to secure their safety. But Amos
stood forth in the name of God and announced that they had abused their privi-
leges. They had misunderstood the nature of God. Yahweh had known them,
but they had not known Yahweh. Amos would have them understand that
Yahweh was not merely God of favoritism, but the God of justices. Israel must
take its stand with other nations and conform to one standard of right. It
would be too much to say that Israel had never considered God as a moral being
before, but never had the thought been so strongly presented as by Amos.
The consideration of God's righteousness naturally leads us to the idea of
man as a moral being or the general sdbject of sin. What, then, is the idea of
Amos in regard to man's sin and transgression? Amos has much to say about
the sin and transgression of the people, but he gives no explanation of the nature
of sin. He does not attempt to account for its origin in history or to trace its
development in the human heart. It was sufficient for his purpose to declare that
the transgressions of Israel were an offense to God. It is also to be noticed that
the prophet had in mind the solidarity of his people. He did not single out indi-
viduals as guilty of punishment. It was the nation as a whole which had com-
mitted sin. Amos was deeply sensible of the moral corruption of the times and
was bitter in his rebuke of the recreant house of Israel. Yet he is not content to
denounce sin in the abstract. He levels his blows against concrete actions. He
specifies the particular sins which Israel is committing and which are displeasing
to Yahweh. The picture of the low moral condition presented above, in our
brief survey of the history of the times, is drawn for the most part from Amos'
288 The Old Testament Student.
own writings. He mentions the individual sins that he may bring them severally
under the force of his uncompromising condemnation. It is especially worthy of
notice that the prophet seems to pass over the fact of idolatry and impure wor-
ship, in order to attack the sins of life and conduct. He is apparently not dis-
turbed about calf-worship and the introduction of a heathen cultus, but he sum-
mons the wrath of God against drunkenness and sensuality, against robbery and
.oppression of the poor. The calamity which he predicts is to come upon Israel,
not because of their idolatry, but because they have committed sin. Even when
he speaks of the transgressions at Bethel and CJilgal, where heathen forms had
been introduced, he does not refer to their idolatry, but denounces the sinful prac-
tices which were associated with the worship at these places.
The prophet's idea of religion was that it should open out into right conduct.
Yahweh, the holy and just God, requires of his people a well-ordered life. Amos
seems almost to lose sight of the worth of proper forms of worship in his insisting
upon moral rectitude. The ceremonies and sacrifices of the morally impure are
an offense to God. Amos expresses the fierce indignation of Yahweh in the fol-
lowing characteristic passage: "I hate, I despise your feasts, and I will take
no delight in your solemn assemblies. Yea, though you offer me your burnt offer-
ings and your meal offerings, I will not accept them ; neither will I regard the
peace offerings of your fat beasts. Take thou away from me the noise of thy
songs; for I will not hear the melody of thy viols" (5:21-24). This seems an
unaccountable sentiment for a representative of a people whose religious life we
are accustomed to associate with sacrifices and feasts, with priestly functions and
temple service. But we begin to realize the prophet's attitude of mind as he goes
on to say : " But let judgment roll down as waters and righteousness as a mighty
stream " (5:24).
The contribution of Amos to the idea of sin is not an addition by way of a
clearer definition of terms or refinement of theological distinction. The prophet
rather stands forth as the representative of an aroused moral sense. He gives
expression to a natural human feeling against sin. He places the sins of Israel on
a level with the sins of other nations. He condemns his people because they have
broken universal moral laws. He calls tlie Philistines and Egyptians to bear wit-
ness against the transgressions of Israel. There is a marked advance in ctliical
feeling over the times of the judges, when lying, treacliery and murder were
resorted to in order to carry out the highest interests of the people. So in the
reigns of David and Solomon, the life and conduct of God's anointed servants fall
far below the rigorous demands of the herdsman prophet of Tekoa. This call
of Amos for a pure morality is also a protest against the degrading practices
connected with the hamoth or "high places," and the asherim or " groves," which
had been early introduced and had become firmly fixed as a recognized element in
the religious life of the people. Amos marks the growing spirit of reform which
afterward manifested itself in the measures adopted by Ilezekiah and Josiah to
purify the worship of the nation.
In our discussion of the ideas of Amos in regard to God and in regard to
man. we have unavoidably anticipated, to some extent, the consideration of the
prophet's idea concerning the relation between God and man. Amos is so fully
occupied with the large aspect of Israel's national disgrace and threatened punisli-
ment, that the individual is swallowed up in the promiscuous downfall of the
nation. So we need not expect to find any definite statement in regard to regen-
The Religious Ideas of the Book of Amos. 289
eration, conversion or the mystical union of the soul with God. Amos, however,
does speak of a union of man with God; and although, at times, he seems to
make a personal appeal to the individual, still he refers to the nation as a whole.
This union is to be brought about on the part of the nation by seeking God, by
returning to him. To seek God is to seek the good, to do that which is right.
Tlie conversion of the nation is to manifest itself in outward acts of righteousness.
The impending overthrow of the nation which is ever present before the mind of
the prophet is the means by which on the part of God Israel is to be brought into
proper relations with Him. In the fourth chapter Amos enumerates a number of
disciplinary measures that God has taken to bring tlie nation into a proper attitude
to himself. The burden of the passage several times repeated is as follows:
" Yet ye have not returned unto me, saith Yahweh." In this way we may
understand the meaning of that familiar expression " Prepare to meet thy God."
When it is taken out of its connection and used, as it often is, as a text for a per-
sonal appeal for a self-examination in view of the final judgment, the immediate
application is apt to be lost sight of. Amos opens the chapter with a declaration
of the sweeping punishment that God is to bring upon the nation. This is the one
final measure that he is to adopt, since less summary judgments have been una-
vailing. And then the prophet goes on to review some of the unsuccessful ways
in which God has undertaken to turn the obdurate heart of the nation, with the
repeated burden referred to above. And then in verse 12, speaking for Yahweh,
Amos says : " Therefore," — because my minor chastisements have not availed,
" thus will I do unto thee, O Israel "—as threatened in verses 2 and 3, referring
to the captivity ; "and because I will do this unto thee, prepare to meet thy God,
O Israel"— that is, be ready to recognize in tliis threatened overthrow of the
nation the punitive judgment of God.
In regard to the advance in the thought of Amos over that of former times
concerning the union between God and man, we may refer in a general way to
what has been said already concerning Amos' ideas of the nature of God and of
man and the evidences of growth in these directions. In a more special sense the
idea of a union between God and man suggests the question of the covenant
between Yahweh and Israel. And here again we see that Amos has a much more
advanced notion of the covenant relation of Israel than that of former times. The
elective character of the covenant, together with the inheritance of the promises,
receives strange treatment at the hands of tliis prophet of Yahweh. The down-
fall of the nation, as an act of God, would seem to an ordinary Hebrew as a breach
of the covenant, but according to Amos it is an act of Yahweh to bring the nation
into truer covenant relations with their God. When Amos, speaking to the nation
in behalf of Yahweh, declares, " You only have I known of all the nations of the
earth," apparently we have a strong expression of the favoritism of God in the
arbitrary choice of Israel, and we are hardly prepared for the turn in thought as
the prophet adds, " therefore, I will visit upon you all your iniquities." Further,
Amos does not lay much stress on the institutional character of the covenant.
Ceremonial rites have very little value in his eyes unless there is a moral life
behind them. God demands not burnt offerings or meal offerings, but the " sacri-
fices of righteousness."
In our consideration of the advance in Hebrew thought and growth of religious
ideas we must bear in mind that this advance was in truth a growth and not a
progress marked by the external addition of absolutely new and foreign elements.
290 The Old Testaslent Student.
As Christianity grew out of Judaism, so the larger thought of the prophets grew
out of the ideas that, in the germ, were the possession of the people from the verj'
beginning of their histon*. As in regard to the covenant, so in regard to the whole
range of ideas concerning God and man. We have it all in the old germinant
thought, " Ye shall be holy, for I am holy "' (Lev. 11:44). It may be said that a
growth has taken place along the line of a change in the idea of holiness. Thus
we have seen that Amos represents a stage in the progress of the religions thought
of Israel. Yet we are still under the Old Covenant. Although Amos denounces
his nation and exposes their wickedness, he is nevertheless a Jew. Or, rather,
strictly speaking, we cannot, except by anticipation, call Amos even a "Jew."
The nation has further growth before it in the matter of thought and life, and
Judaism proper did not take its rise until after the exile. However, Amos is
consciously one of God's chosen people. In this character he confidently asserts
himself before the close of his prophecy. He believes that God has something
good in store for the nation. So that the severe, harsh tone of the book is lighted
up with a hopeful view of the future. Although Yahweh is the Lord and Judge
of all the nations of the earth, yet he has special dealings with his own chosen
people, and so Amos closes his prophecy with a bright vision of the future ideal
state. It is to be founded on moral principles. The nation will be truly united
to Yahweh. The people will reflect the moral and spiritual qualities of their God.
Yet the position of Amos is one of more than national import. Although as
the herdsman of Tekoa he denounces the priests of Bethel and the grandees of
Samaria, yet he speaks for all time. Although he warns his country against the
specific incursion of a foreign power, yet there is a spirit of universality and abso-
luteness in his utterances. Above all the proper prerogatives of a Hebrew prophet,
above all national considerations and local applications, above all lessons to be
learned from the immediate issue of events, Amos stands forth as the embodiment
of a robust faith in the complete sway of ethical principles and the final triumph
of good over evil. To sum up, religion according to Amos consists not so much in
belief or worship as in conduct, in a well regulated moral life. This life of rigor-
ous moral virtue is demanded by the majesty and justice of God. For the pur-
pose of bringing Israel to the enjoyment of such a life, God is to visit upon the
nation its overthrow and captivity. Amos lays down, for the first time, the prin-
ciples of a pure ethical monotheism.
TIELE ON BABYLONIAN-ASSYRIAN CULTURE. IV.
By Rev. A. S. Cakuiek,
MoCormick Theol. Seminary, Chicago, 111.
LITERATURE AND SCIENCE.
A striking proof that the Babylonians attained a high degree of civilization at
a very early period is the fact that the invention of writing lay in the remote past.
The oldest inscriptions, dating back forty centuries before our era, are written in a
character which, in imitation of the terminology of Egyptologists, has been called
hieratic. This was derived from an older hieroglyphic writing, and while in
TiELE ON Babylonian-Assyrian Culture. 291
Egypt both styles were in use, in Babylonia the original Hieroglyph is rarely
traceable. The lines and angles of the original picture were still further conven-
tionalized through the use of a three-cornered stylus on the soft surface of clay
tablets. Hence arose the so-called cuneiform writing, the successor to the hieratic,
which remained in use up to the time of the Seleucidce. From the ninth century
B. C. there are indications of the knowledge and use of the Aramaic character,
which was far better suited to the peculiarities of a Semitic speech.
At first, as is shown by the inscriptions found at Telloh the writing was not
in continuous lines from left to right, but from right to left in horizontal columns,
which were divided into an unequal number of smaller perpendicular columns,
each of which contained the signs of a word or word-group, arranged perpendicu-
larly. This is the original and natural direction ; for according to it the signs for
" man " and " statue " stand upright, while that for " fish " is recumbent. The
later conventional style reverses this. Here we see the relationship to the Chi-
nese, which is still written in perpendicular columns, and to the Egyptian, which
was written sometimes in one way, sometimes in the other. The Babylonians
early abandoned the perpendicular style, while in Assyria no trace of it whatever
remains. The change may have been due to Semitic ideas and Semitic supremacy.
The archaistic cuneiform style must have arisen in Babylonia before the founda-
tion of the Assyrian Empire. The Assyrian inscriptions of Kammannlrar I. differ
little from the old Babylonian of Hammurabi. But each from a common starting
point developed in a way peculiar to itself.
"We can but touch on the origin of the Babylonian hieroglyphic writing which
developed into the cuneiform. It seems certain to the writer that it was not
invented by a Semitic people ; for the phonetic values of the signs do not corre-
spond to known Semitic names of the objects represented, neither do they suit
well the oral expression of a Semitic speech. But it is not an ascertained fact
that the Sumerians and Akkadians were the originators of the system, though
this is the general view. The suspicion is forced upon one that this style of
writing was borrowed by the old Chaldeans themselves from a sea-coast people of
higher civilization. But it can be asserted with certainty that neither Chinese
nor Egyptians transmitted it to the Babylonians, or borrowed it from them. In
all probability these three peoples derived their system of written characters from
a common source and then developed it independently. The direction of the
writing, the rule that the front of the figures was turned toward the reader, with
other peculiarities, show that the Egyptian and old Babylonian systems at least
found their root in the same groimd idea, and this, of course, was by no means
the only possible one ; nor was there any compulsion upon the human mind to pro-
ceed in one line of development rather than in another. But though the system
of written characters of the Babylonians and Assyrians may have been an inher-
itance, it became in a true sense their own creation, for they elaborated it by their
own genius and fitted it to their own ideas.
The cuneiform writing had a real literary utility ; stories, legends and poems
were engraved, in characters exceedingly minute, on clay tablets, which were
often numbered, like the pages of a book, the title of the whole being frequently,
as in Hebrew, the opening word, the first word of the next tablet being also indi-
cated upon each. Though we possess but a fragment of all the literature of
Babylonia, nevertheless we are able even now to take a bird's-eye view of the
whole and to convince ourselves of its varied character.
292 Tile Old Testament Student.
Mythic and half-mythic stories, historical passages, hymns to the gods and
other devotional songs take the first place in the literature which has bewi pre-
served. There are also prophecies, oracles, collections of proverbs and fables of
various animals. The cosmogonies, or better, theogonies, date from a very early
period. Pure myths are the tales of Maruduk or Uammaii in the contest with the
dragon Tiamat, the story of the descent of Ijtar to Ilades, and the anthropo-
morphic account of the rebellion of the storm-bird Zu. Histories in mythic dress
are the tales of the birth and childhood of Sargon, of the terrible deeds of Dibbara,
the god of pestilence. Of priceless value is the so-called Ximrod-Epos, the name
of whose hero is commonly read Izdubar or Gistubar. The sixth and eleventh
tablets of the origimil twelve are the only ones which have been preserved with
any degree of completeness ; of the tenth we possess a considerable fragment ; but
the rest are hopelessly mutilated. There can be no doubt, however, that the tab-
lets contained a continuous history of a warrior who is customarily identified
witli Ximrod, and at the same time held to be a sun-hero, a sort of Hercules,
whose labors corresponded to the twelve months. Though much of this must
remain for the present conjectural, we cannot ignore the points of similarity with
the Greek hero. The one is the object of the hatred of Hera, the other, of that of
Istar, though on different grounds ; the one conquers monsters and tyrants, the
other overthrows the Elamitic despot Humbaba and the bull sent against him by
Anu and Istar; both, though with different purposes, undertake a journey to the
west. Yet with all this, the differences are too great to identify the heroes. The
ancient Uruk was the scene of the events of the Epos. The hero was a mythical,
not au historic personage, though he appears as a prince's son, frees the laud from
foreign tyranny, and reigns in Uruk. Extremely remarkable is the quarrel with
Istar, who is represented as queen of Uruk. Tlie visit to the Babylonian Xoah,
whom Berossos calls Xisutliros, gives the poet opportunity to insert the story of
the flood, which is acknowledged to have many points of similarity with the bib-
lical account and to be composed of two or more differing legends. The note-
worthy fact in all this is that out of the myths and traditions of a pre-historic age
the Biibylonians constructed an epic whose origin cannot be later than the period of
the highest development of the kingdom of Ur. But we have no reason to believe
that they were wTitten in any other language than the vernacular of the Semitic
inhabitants, though old Chaldaic models may have been before the minds of the
poets.
The Assyrian Lyrics likewise desen'e mention. They are quite numerous,
consisting of incantatory formulas; the penitential psalms already mentioned;
and the hymns to the gods, of which we possess many, and which, while used in
religious ceremonies, were perhaps not expressly composed for them, but were the
voice of the holy enthusiasm of the poets. The terms poet and seer being in
antiquity synonymous, a magical power was ascribed to a beautiful hymn. These
hymns are dedicated to the great gods of the pantheon. One praises Anu's
weapon, the lightning; others are addressed to no particular god, while others are
prayers for the welfare of land and king. Here belongs the so-called Royal Psalm,
which hardly deserves this title, being a simple prayer for the blessing and happi-
ness of the king. As to form there are traces of parallelism of verse members,
while in some there appears an alliterative rhyme. In five hymns at least certain
successive lines begin, if not with the same syllable, at least with the same souud.
TiELE ON Babylonian-Assyrian Cultttke. 293
The question, when did the Babylonian literature originate and what is the
relative age of its productions, cannot yet be answered. Independent Assyrian
literature is easily reviewed, but the Babylonian empire and literature was cent-
uries old. The limits on the one side are the reigns of the Sargonids, Sen-
nacherib and Asurbanipal (700 B. C), and on the other Sargon I., before whose
time (3800 B. C) no Semitic Babylonian literature can be thought of. Formerly it
was held that all the Babylonian texts were composed in the Akkadian or Sumer-
ian, and were translated by the Semite. The date of the original composition was
assumed to be the seventeenth century before our era, after which time it has been
said the old Chaldaic became a dead language. Neither assumption is correct.
It is an open question whether the old Chaldaic were not a living language down
to the time of Samas-sumukin. Even if this were not so, it was certainly always
a sacred and learned language like the Latin of the Middle Ages. Consequently
texts written in this language might still belong to the Semitic period. It is
nearly certain that the Semitic text of the penitential psalms is the original and
older and the other a translation. It is inconceivable that a gifted people like the
Babylonians should have done nothing for centuries but transcribe and translate
the remains of a foreign speech. Their historical inscriptions prove them masters
of their language and show them able to take a lofty flight in the utterance of
religious thought. They stood for a long period at the head of civilization and
taught their conquerors, the Assyrians. It must not be denied, however, that the
South was the theatre of most of the Sagas and legends. Not Ur or Nippur, not
Babel or Agane, were the scene of the Deluge-story and of the exploits of Gistubar,
but Surippak, which in historical times was unimportant, and Uruk, which
once the capital of a mighty kingdom, yielded later to the overlordship of Ur.
The representation of Istar as a princess who chose from time to time a new
spouse points to a time when the matriarchate prevailed. But the days of Surip-
pak and Uruk lay in the gray and misty past ; the acting heroes are but mythic
forms, and poems regarding them could no more have arisen in that early period
than the Homeric songs in the time of the Trojan war. The conjecture seems
justified that the story of Gistubar's victory over Humbaba belonged to a time
when the Elamites under Kudurnanhundi carried away the sacred statue of
Nana from Uruk, and when later Kudurmabuk founded a dynasty in Larsa and
Ur, and that the intention was to stir the national consciousness by the remem-
brance of a glorious past.
It is diflicult to pronounce judgment on the literary value of the stories and
poems left by the Babylonians. On the one hand they have been exalted to a
place beside the literary monuments of classic antiquity ; on the other hand they
have been characterized as a " depressing waste of Ninevitish gentleman-farmer
poetry." Neither judgment is just. If the tablets of the Chaldean Genesis are
parts of a greater work, they contain a theogony and cosmogony of essential value
for our knowledge of the development of religious ideas and for the history of
comparative religion. But they cannot be mentioned in the same breath with
Hesiod, neither can the epic tales bear a literary comparison with the heroic poems
of Greece and Rome, nor with the Hebrew stories of the deeds of their forefather
which are so elevated and so full of genuine touches of nature. It is the Lyric
alone which approaches the like productions of other ancient peoples.
294 The Old Testamknt Stddbnt.
Two things must be remembered; first, the mutilated condition of our rec-
ords, and secondly, our imperfect understanding of even these fragmentary artistic
productions.
To speak of those which are fairly complete and in the main understood, the
incantations, astrological and omen tablets have very slight literary value. A
lofty strain characterizes some of the hymns, and the penitential psalms often
exhibit a deep religious feeling. But the Baljyloiiians had a notable talent for
story-telling. The description of the contest between Istar and Gistubar is ani-
mated. The goddess flatters him, and seeks to bind him to her as her spouse.
He rebuffs her, pointing to the multitudes she has ruined by her fornications.
She flees, insulted, to her father Ann. and they send against the hero a monster,
which he slays. The story of her journey to the lower world is striking and
graphic, the description of the place itself picturesque and '■ the house of dark-
ness, the seat of the fearful Irkalla, the house which, if one enters, he never
leaves, for the path leads back no more — the place where dust is their food and
mire their meat, where they see no light but abide in darkness, where like birds
they are wrapped in feathers, and dust covers bars and doors." The conversation
with the porter, who strips the goddess of garments and ornaments, has an epic
breadth .and dignity. In the Deluge-legends, there are good descriptions, though
the author has failed to picture the horror of the catastrophe, but a certain dry
humor pervades the account of the council of the gods. Bel is in disgrace for his
unreasoning act of indiscriminate destruction ; he finally is calmed, and behaves
himself politely, even leading forth the rescued family. The picture is graphic
where the gods rush to Anu's heaven before the rising waters and cower down
before the lattice like dogs in their kennels, and again where they breathe in the
sweet savor of the sacrifice, and gather like flies around the altar. These are
not sublime pictures, but the naive wit shows the genuine story-teller.
We risk nothing in such a judgment as this : In contents and form the Baby-
lonian literature is far behind the classic, the Indian, the Arabic, the Persian, and
the old Hebrew. It surpasses, in several respects, the Egyptian, and stands far
above the Old-Eranic Avesta. In no sense, however, can it be called monoto-
nous, judging from the variety of our scanty remains alone.
The Assyrians seem to have done little else than copy the productions of the
Babylonians, yet we are not warranted in denying them all originality. There
are traces of Assyrian poesy, and we must not forget the numerous historical
texts which, while generally monotonous and dry, have religious introductions in
a more ornate style and of greater dignity of speech. From the time of Sargon II.,
progress in the art of historical composition is noticeable. The description of the
battle of Halule and of the naval expedition to the Elamitic coast, in the military
records of Sennacherib, deserve special mention. Under ASurbanipal we reach
the point of highest literary development, and the accounts of the appearance of
Istar to that monarch, of the conquest of Babel and of the march to Arabia, are
vivid .and animated.
The Assyrians stood in much the same literary relation to the Babylonians as
the Bomans to the Greeks. Warlike and practical, they sought to found a mighty
state. History was to them of more importance than the creations of fancy.
Even the literary spirit that av<'oke later, may have had its origin rather in an
interest for the old religious and national traditions than in a fondness for poesy.
TiELE ON Babylonian-Assyrian Culture. 295
The Assyrians seem to have been more inclined to what might then be called
science, though here, too, they learned from the Babylonians. The reputation of
the latter in antiquity as patrons of science is well known. Kallisthenes sent
Aristotle, from Babel, a list of observations reaching, by the most moderate esti-
mate, to 2234 B. C. The number of eclipses mentioned on tablets carry us back
much farther. The Zikurat, in Assyria at least, were used as observatories. It
has been conjectured that the Babylonians possessed a sort of telescope, but this is
improbable. They named the signs of the Zodiac, and knew five of the planets,
they observed tlie comets, the motions of Venus, the position of the Pole star and
perhaps also sun-spots. Their explanation of many phenomena was often of
course quite artless. Their system of time division was complete, the solar hour
and the clepsydra being their inventions. Their lunar year of twelve months was
rectified by intercalary months, most commonly by the second Adaru (arhu mahru
sa adaru, or arah addaru arku); there was beside a second Nisannu and Ululu.
They had made considerable progress in mathematics, using a sexagesimal and
sometimes a centesimal system. Yet we cannot dignify these studies by the name
of true science. Their main purpose was to learn the future and the will of the
gods. Mathematics was the handmaid of magic. Astromony was subordinate,
astrology supreme. Every celestial phenomenon was connected with simultaneous
events on earth, which were to be expected again with the same aspect of the
heavens. It must be observed, however, that among the sea-coast people, the needs
of navigation may have necessitated an exact observation of the heavenly bodies.
But it is difficult to determine what share the old Chaldeans may have had in tlie
origin of primitive science. It is certain that all the teclinical expressions of
mathematics are in a non-Semitic language ; yet, admitting that the Semites bor-
rowed, they unquestionably worked over and augmented their acquisition.
Their medical science was little better than a system of magic, charms and
spells, it was inferior to the art as practiced in Egypt and Vedic India.
It is not without some exaggeration that one speaks of writings on natural
history, geography and grammar. We possess lists of words, synonyms and
names of the most varied objects, composed for the most part in different lan-
guages or dialects, having the apparent purpose of aiding in the understanding of
old texts or in the learning of various languages. It has been thought that we
possess examples of regular grammatical analyses.
Many of these texts may have been composed for the use and assistance of
the admmistrators of the widely extended empire. There are two classes of texts,
however, which have a decidedly scientific character. The first consist of lists of
natiu-al objects, like plants and animals, aiTanged according to species in such a
way as to evince no mean powers of observation. Higher still stand the gram-
matical tables which in their classification of declensions and conjugations, in
their arrangement of words according to roots, shows an insight into the spirit of
language which no other ancient nation, not even the Egyptians, possessed, and
proves them the forenmners in a field into which Greeks, Indians, and Arabians
much later entered.
All these literary and scientific treasures were early written upon clay tablets,
and in Babylonia laid away in temples under the auspices of priestly schools,
kings and private persons as well deeming it a pious duty to endow and enrich
these collections. lu Assyria, kings alone founded and maintained libraries.
There are reasons for believing that each Babylonian library had a literary char-
296 The Old Testament Student.
acter peculiar to itself. The copies in the immense collections of the Assyrian
kings are gathered from various libraries. The so-called Epos, and perhaps I;tar's
Descent to Hades, from Uruk ; the creation legend from Kuta ; the mathematical
tables from Larsa ; the astronomical tables from Agane. We possess nothing,
however, from the libraries of the other important Babylonian cities. The Assyr-
ian libraries were later and of a more miscellaneous character. The oldest was at
Assur. This has been almost entirely destroyed. From ASurnajirpal to Sargon II.,
the one at Kalah was the object of the royal care. Sennacherib transferred this to
Nineveh, where it was in later times greatly enriched by Asurbunipal, under
whom Assyrian literature seemed about to come forth from its long-time obscu-
rity, and to unfold into an independent life; but the fall of the empire was at
hand, and this fruitful promise was unfulfilled.
OLD TESTAMENT WOED-STUDIES: 8. IDOLS AND IMAGES.
By Rev. P. A. Xokdell, D. D.,
New London, Conn.
The idolatries practiced by the nations that surrounded Israel proved, as we
know, an irresistible temptation to the abandonment of the pure and spiritual
worship of Jehovah. His service was continually invaded and superseded by sen-
suous and debasing idolatries. The popular tendency to sensuousness exhibited
itself in the use of images even for Jehovah himself. Sucli representations were
distinctly forbidden in the ilosaic law, were utterly repugnant to the spirit of
Jehovah's worship, and were most earnestly denounced by the prophets as
equally detestable with the idols set up in honor of strange divinities. In the fol-
lowing group of words it will be convenient to consider not merely the terms by
which idolatrous images were characterized, but to some extent also the gods
whom they represented, and for whom Israel forsook its own religion.
'aven vanity, iniquity.
Isaiah (66:3) says, " He that burneth frankincense is as he that blesseth an
'aven." Hosea (4:7 ; 5:8; 10:5) having in mind the golden calf that Jeroboam
set up at Beth-el, "house of God," 1 Kgs. 12:29, regards the place as no longer
worthy of this exalted name, and transforms it into Beth-aven, '• house of the idol."
These are the only instances wherein this word, commonly denoting vanity, iniq-
uity (see Old Testament Student, Dec. 1S88, p. H4), designates the idol itself.
The transition from the thought of abstract evil considered as vanity, emptiness,
to idols— evil in its most concrete manifestations— was easy and natural, since
those who trusted in them were deceived and disappointed.
'eymah horror.
This word is commonly used in the sense of fear, dread, horror. Gen. 15:12,
Ex. 15:16, Ps. 55:4(5). But Jeremiah employs it in a single instance, 50:38, of
idols. Prophesying the destruction of the pride and glory of Babylon, he says, " It
is a land full of graven images, and they [the inhabitants thereof] are mad upon
Old Testament Word-studies. 297
their horrors, 'eymim." Their unbounded trust in their idols, objects of
unspeakable horror to a pious Israelite, supported them in an attitude of insane
arrogance toward Jehovah and his captive people.
"lU idol, nothingness.
'Mil occurs twenty times and is rendered "idol" by the A. V. in all but
three places. In two of the latter places we have a clear intimation of the notion
that led to the use of the word in this connection. Job (13:14) exclaims to his
friends, " Ye are all forgers of lies, ye are all physicians of no value, '"lil." Of
the false prophets it is said, Jer. 14:14, "they prophesy imto you a lying vision,
and divination, and a thing of nought, 'Mil." An idol is therefore conceived of
as an 'Mil because it represents only falsehood and nothingness. A striking use
of the word occurs in Zech. 11:17, " Woe unto the idol shepherd," which is not a
misprint for " idle," as generally supposed, but refers to a blind and impotent
image set up for the protection of the people, but who, in contrast with Jehovah,
failed in all the duties of a shepherd.
'ephod ephod.
In the earliest occurrence of this word outside of the legislation of Exodus-
Numbers, it appears at first sight to denote an image set up for private worship.
After the defeat of the Midianites, the people proposed to make Gideon king of
Israel. He requested, instead, that the golden earrings gathered from the spoil
might be given him, and from these he made an 'ephod, " and put it in his own
city, even in Ophrah," Jud. 8:27. Interpreters who regard the Israelitish religion
as a slow and natural development, instead of an original divme revelation,
assume that Gideon's 'ephod was an image of Jehovah, probably a golden calf,
and that the .Jehovah-worship of that early day was at best only a semi-heathenish
cult. A variety of considerations show that this assumption is unwarranted, (see
Konig's Relig. Hist, of Israel, pp. 111-115). Most probably the word signifies
here, as elsewhere, a characteristic priestly garment, such as that which was made
for Aaron, Exod. 28:6, and which constituted one of the distinctive appurtenances
of the high priest. Later custom extended the wearing of simple linen ephods to
common priests, 1 Sam. 18:28; 22:18, and even to persons outside of the priestly
order who might be engaged La solemn religious services, 2 Sam. 6:14. Gideon's
'ephod seems to have been a priestly garment of extraordinary richness. He
sinned in that he invaded the functions of the Aaronic priesthood, and set up a
worship of Jehovah in his own house, thereby drawing Israel away from the legiti-
mate sanctuary. That it was really a service rendered to Jehovah is clear from
Israel's immediate apostasy to Baal after Gideon's death, Jud. 8:33. The associa-
tion of the 'ephod with teraphim and graven images, Jud. 17:.5; 18:14,17,20;
Hos. 3:4, indicates that it was a priestly garment that played an important part
even in the debased Jehovah-worship of the northern kingdom, (Miihlau and
Volck's Oesen. Lex.).
'"sherah Asherah, grove ; 'ashtoreth Ashtoreth.
The former of these words occurs forty times. The R. V. does not undertake
to translate it but simply transliterates the Hebrew term into "Asherah," or the
plural form "Asherim," "Asheroth." The A. V., on the contrary, influenced
by the LXX. aAaoc, and the Vulg., Incus, -nermis, renders it in every instance
*3
298 The Old Tbstament Student.
" grove " or " groves." Considerable obscurity still surrounds the meaning. That
it does not mean " grove," in the sense of a living tree or a number of trees dedi-
cated to a particular divinity, seems clear from such passages as 2 Kgs. 21:7,
where among Mana.sseh's evil doings is mentioned the fact that " he set a graven
image of the ' " s h e r u h that he had made in the house " of Jehovah, and 2 Kgs.
23:6, where it is said that Josiah " brought out the ' * g h e r a h from the house of
Jehovah,. . . .and burned it at the brook Kidron, and stamped it to small powder."
The word probably denoted the wooden images or symbols of Asherali, or Ashto-
reth, the leading female divinity of the l'ha>nicians, corresponding to Ishtar of the
Babylonians, to Aphrodite of the Greeks and Cyprians, to Artemis or Diana of the
Ephesians, and to Venus of the Romans. She was the goddess of love and fruit-
fulness, and as such may originally have been represented by a fruitful tree. But
as the living tree could not (according to Dillmann's suggestion, Deut. 16:21) be
magically produced wherever it chanced to be needed, it followed that make-
shifts sprang into use. Trees were hewn down, and with their branches were
removed to the sacred places. In course of time the trees were trimmed into
more or less artistic pillars, or were carved into statues. At length the name
'•she rah became the designation of not only the statue of the goddess, but of
the place where she was worshiped, including the altar and other appurtenances.
We read accordingly that in the days of Jeroboam and of Abaz, on every high
hill and under every green tree, 1 Kgs. 14:23 ; 2 Kgs. 17:10, the people set up these
abominations to '"shcrah, 1 Kgs. 16:13. That the term was also, though
incorrectly, used for the goddess herself appears from such statements as that
Elijah sent for " the prophets of the Baal and the prophets of the ' " s h e r a h,"
1 Kgs. 18:19, and that Manasseh set up a graven image of the '"sherah in the
temple, 2 Kgs. 21:7. Ash toreth, beside representing the principle of fecimdity,
was also the moon-goddess, a trace of which remains, e. g., in the proper name
Ashtaroth-karnaim, the horned Ashtaroth, Gen. 14:5, she being worshiped " under
the image of a honied bull's head," (Delitzsch in toe). The plural form "ash-
taroth, Jud. 2:13, 1 Sam. 3:4, etc., refers, like "sheroth, Jud. 3:7, to the
images of the goddess.
Ba'al Baal; matstsebhah pillar, obelisk.
As we have just noted, and as we might naturally expect, the term ""shcrah
is not unf requently associated with B .a Ml, the chief divinity of the Phopnicians,
who represented the masculhie reproductive principle of nature, and to whose
worship the Israelites were prone to apostatize. The word meant originally mas-
ter, Judg. 19:22, or husband, 2 Sam. 11:26, hence lord or ruler, Isa. 16:18. The
Babylonian origin of the Phrenician cultus is seen in the correspondence of Baal
with Bel, as of Ash toreth with Ishtar. The frequent mention of niatstse-
bhoth, pillars, obelisks, with '"shcroth, Ex. 34:7; Deut. 7:5; 12:3; 16:21;
1 Kgs. 14:23; 2 Kgs. 17:10; 18:4; 23:14; 2 Chron. 14:3(2); 31:1; Mic. 5:14(13), indi-
cates that Baal and Ashtoretli were commonly worshiped together, the m a t s t s C -
b h o t h probably being phallic emblems of Baal and the ' * s h c r 6 1 h of Ashtoreth.
These words suggest the nature of tlie rites by which these divinities were served,
and the depth of the abominations into which the Israelites fell when they aban-
doned the worship of Jehovah. A further identification of Baal with the sun and
of Ashtoreth with the moon is suggested in 2 Kgs. 23:4, where it is said that
Josiah ordered the destruction of all the utensils employed at Jerusalem for the
Oi-D Testament Wokd-studies. 299
service of "Baal, and fortheAsherah, and for all the host of heaven." The plural,
Baalim, manifestly refers to the numerous statues of Baal that appeared wherever
his worship extended.
Gillulim clods, lumps.
This is a frequent and scornful designation of idols, especially characteristic
of Ezekiel, he employing it thirty-nine times out of the flfty-one in which it occurs.
Its frequent connection with ' M i 1 i m , denoting the nothingness and worthless-
uess of idols, and with sliiqqiltsim, denoting their detestable and abominable
nature, suggests the loathing with which these idols were regarded. This is seen
still farther in the meaning of the word itself, clods, dung, from galal, to be
round, hence galal, excrementum, as of sheep, camels. The interpretation
"dung-gods," proposed in the margin of the A. V. of Deut. 29:17, Vulg. sordes, is
supported by Rabbinical authorities, and by the general thought in Ezek. 36:25,
"And I will sprinkle clean water upon you, and ye shall be clean ; from all your
filthiness, and from all your idols, gillulim, I will cleanse you." The use of
such an expression shows the contempt which a worshiper of Jehovah felt for
idols as unclean and defiling things.
^ - A
Hammanim sun-image.
Josiah, as we are told in 2 Chron. 34:6, "brake down the altars of the Baalim
that were in his presence, and the sun-images, hammanim, that were above
them he hewed down." From the association of these images with Baal, the sun-
god, we infer that they were representations of Baal himself. Phoenician inscrip-
tions moreover speak of Ba'al ham man, lord of the sun, showing that
Hamman, a poetic name for the sun, Job 30:28 ; Isa. 30:26, was a synonym of Baal.
The plural, hammanim, as in the case of Baalim and Asherim, probably
denoted carved pUlars or other recognized symbols employed in connection with
Phoenician heliolatry.
Massekah, nesek molten image.
The former word, from nasak, to pour, is used in every instance but one,
Isa. 30:1, of an idol made by pouring the molten metal into a mould, as when
Aaron made the golden calf, Ex. 32:3,4. When it is said that he first fashioned
the gold with a graving tool, the exact process of manufacture becomes somewhat
uncertain. It appears at any rate that the golden ear-rings must have been fused
together either into a solid image, or into plates with which to overlay a wooden
model.
Nesek, from nasak, which also means to pour out, is generally used of the
drink-offering which was poured out as a libation to Jehovah, but in a few
instances, Isa. 41:29; 48:5; Jer. 10:14; 51:17, is used in the same sense as mas-
sekah, viz., of an idolatrous image formed by casting in a mould.
Miphletseth idol, abominable image.
The A. V. in 1 Kgs. 15:13 narrates that Asa removed "Maacah his mother
from being queen, because she had made an idol in a grove ; and Asa destroyed
her idol." The R. V. reads, " because she had made an abominable image for an
Asherah ; and Asa cut down her image." The word miphletseth, translated
in the former case " idol," and in the latter " abominable image," occurs nowhere
300 The Old Tkbtaitent Student.
else except in the parallel narrative in 2 Chron. 15:16. The LXX. had apparently
a different Hebrew text in the former place, since it reads, " because she had
made an assembly in her grove." In the latter place it reads that Asa removed
his mother "from being priestess to Astarte." The Vulg. has in the one place,
ve esset princeps Friapi, and that Asa conf regit simulacrum turpissimum; and in
the other, eo quod fecissit in luco gimulacrum Priapi. These renderings indicate
that Maacah's image was a phallus. The word itself is derived from the verb
palats, which occurs only once, Job 9:10. in the sense of trembling or shaking
from fear. There is only one other derivative, tIphletsSth, and this is used
but once, Jer. 49:16, meaning terribleness. Mlph 1 etse th , then, would denote
some object of dread or horror, such as a phallus with its obscene ritual would be
to the pious mind of Asa. This perhaps accounts for the application of this
peculiar term to this single object.
Semel image.
We meet this word only in Deut. 4:16 ; 2 Chron. 33:7,15 ; Ezek. 8:3,5. It is
derived from an unused stem, sml, probably related to the Arabic samala, to
sketch, delineate, and in 2 Chron. 33:7 seems to denote au idol hewn from stone.
Pesel graven image.
Pesel, from pa sal, to hew or cut a rough stone into a desired shape, as
the two tables for the decalogue, Ex. 34:1 ; Deut. 10:1, or the foundation stones
for Solomon's temple, 1 Kgs. 5:18(32), may denote an image or statue hewn from
stone. Micah's pesgl was cast of solid silver, Jud. 17:3,4, the roughnesses
being subsequently cut away by a file or chisel. Images made of solid gold or
silver being too costly, the word came to denote a piece of timber hewn into the
form of an idol and overlaid with gold or other metal, Isa. 40:10-15.
'atsabh figure, idol.
This tei-m, derived from the verb 'atsiibh, to cut out, shape, fashion, is
applied to idols in the sense of things fashioned or made into figures. As
'atsebh denotes a laborer, it is probable that the notion of toil, laborious effort,
is also to be included in the shaping of the idol. This is suggested in Ilosea 13:2,
" they have made them idols, ' * t s a b h i m , according to their own under-
standing, all of tliem the work of the craftsman."
Shiqquts abomination.
Religious abhorrence of idols as representations of heathen divinities found
expression in this word. We read in 1 Kgs. 11:5,7, that Solomon went after Mil-
com the shiqquts of the Ammonites, and that he built a high place for Chemosh
the s h Tq q u t.*! of Moab, and for Molech the s h T q q u t s of the children of Ammon.
In 2 Kgs. 23:13 it is told that Josiah defiled the mount of corruption that Solomon
had built for Aslitoreth the shiqquts of the Zidoniaus. Nahum (3:6) declares
that Jehovah will cast abominable filth, shiqqiitsim, upon the bloody and cor-
rupted city of Nineveh . Zechariah (9 :7) uses the word in a sense that indicates that
he means by it meats offered to idols. In all other places it refers to idolatrous
images.
Old Testament Word-studies. 301
T"=raphim teraphim, images.
A word of exceedingly obscure and consequently disputed origin (see Smith's
Bib. Diet. "Magic," Vol. II., pp. 1743-4, Del. Genesis 31:19). The teraphim
seem to have been images in human form and of various sizes, wliich were not
worshiped as idols (Laban recognized Jehovah, Gen. 24:49-53), but employed as
household protectors, dispensers of comfort and good fortune, penates. By appro-
priating them Rachel hoped to secure for her own family the prosperity of
Laban's house. They were also employed for the purpose on obtaining oracular
answers.
OLD TESTAMENT NOTES AND NOTICES.
The Pharaoh and Hate of the Exodus.— In a recent issue (March, 1889) of Ttie
2'lteological Monthly, Mr. J. Schwartz, librarian of the Apprentices' Library. New
York City, claims to prove that the ordinary view as to the Pharaoh of the Exodus
and the date of that event are wrong. It was Tutmes III., on April 20, 1438
B. C, more than 100 years before the time commonly supposed, who permitted the
children of Israel to go forth from Egypt. The writer also declares that in a
forthcoming article he will offer a further argument on this point which will leave
no possible room for doubt. The evidence will be awaited with interest.
'Hebrew Parchments contaiuing parts of the Old Testament. — The undersigned
has in his possession the following collection of Hebrew parchments, which have
been lately sent to this country from one of the Armenian monasteries: 1. An
Esther Roll, unpointed Hebrew text, 12 columns, size 5 feet 8 J inches by 12 J
inches. Evidently over a century old and in excellent preservation. Value S20.
2. The Schema, — Deut. 6:4 and onward. Two copies. Value SI each. 3. Two
Phylacteries, with text the same as the Schema in good condition. Value
S3 each. 4. Another Esther Roll, 7 feet 3 inches long and 8 inches wide, undated,
but with unpointed Hebrew Text, and evidently about 200 years old. Value $15.
Julius H. Wabd, Herald Ed. Rooms, Boston.
Biblical Instmetion at Harerford College. — From its very beginning as Ilav-
erford School, in 1833, to its present vigorous life, the managers of Haverford
College have held closely to their desire " to inculcate the simple truths of the
Christian religion." And while making advances in material prosperity and in
methods and results of instruction, the old motto of the school : ''Non doctior sed
meliorc doctrina imbutus,^' has been closely followed by the college. Not only to
make scholars, but to educate Christian men. has been the aim, and the result of
this earnest and sincere endeavor is seen in the alumni, whose position in church
and state is the best evidence of the wisdom of their training. As this was the
purpose of the school and afterward of the college, there resulted, naturally, the
determination to teach the Bible ; and from the very beginning until now there
have not only been daily religious services with the reading of the Scriptures, but
there has been compulsory class instruction in the Book of Books. As college
after college has been adding to its course instruction in the English Bible, the
faculty of Haverford College has been strengthened in its confidence in the wisdom
of the course pursued during half a century and has been not a little encouraged
by the knowledge that this movement had been anticipated here in every essential
particular. But though the biblical instruction has always been present, it has
experienced change and improvement, gaining by the increase in teaching staff,
and by superior material accommodations. It is a reasonably good course, but it
has also its outlook toward the future, and will doubtless be greatly improved and
strengthened. The course as now arranged may be divided into (a) required, (b)
Old Testament Notes and Notices. 303
elective, (a) Every student during his entire college course of four years is
required to attend one hour a week on biblical instruction. The course has been
lately graded so that the work begun in the freshman year is carried on systemat-
ically to the end of the senior year. In the freshman year all students, both in
arts and science have a " general outline of the history and literature of the
Bible," the aim being to teach those simple facts which every intelligent man
ought to know before he comes to college — but does not. The entire history is
covered during the year, by lectures, with occasional use of a text-book and refer-
ences for study in the library. In the sophomore year the classical students study
Luke's Gospel in Greek, learning from it by harmonistic comparisons with the
other gospels the facts of Christ's life. The scientific students, on the other
hand, have the history of Israel, — a review of the first year's work, somewhat
more in detail, and Luke's Gospel in English. During the junior and senior years
the classical students are united in one class, pursuing during alternate years the
Life aud Epistles of Paul, and Old Testament History and Archaeology ; while
the scientific classes united in the same way make a careful study of the Life and
Teachings of Christ, and in alternate years the Life and Epistles of Paul. With
the instruction there is, moreover, some exercise in that useful but sadly neg-
lected art of memorizing select portions of Scripture.
It will be seen from this brief summary that the whole period of Bible-history
is covered by every student. The instruction is careful and reverent; and in the
hands of men who themselves believe in the Book, it may be expected not only to
add knowledge of facts but to quicken faith in the divine realities of Chris-
tianity, (b) Beside this required course, there are several elective courses open
to all who are prepared to profit by them. During the junior and senior years.
Professor J. Eendel Harris gives courses in New Testament Greek, in N. T. Text-
ual Criticism and in the Doctrines and usages of the Early Christian Church.
And upon the field of Old Testament study there is a first course in Elementary
Hebrew Grammar throughout the year, and a second course in Hebrew with criti-
cal interpretation of selected books or passages, accompanied by lectures on O. T.
Archaeology, and inductive study of Syntax. Prof. Robert W. Rogers.
Old Testament Study in the Universities of Germany and Switzerland during
the Present Winter. — A perusal of the announcements of lectures on Old Testa-
ment topics by the universities of Germany and Switzerland aud the tabulation
of these announcements enables us to get a bird's-eye view of what is being done
in this department during this present "Winter Semester. The following state-
ments comprise the twenty-two German universities (with the exception of Ros-
tock, from which there is no definite report from the theological faculty) and the
six Swiss institutions. Of the twenty-seven universities referred to, in seven,
lectiues on Genesis are given, viz., by Kleinert in Berlin, Scholz (C.)* in Breslau,
Koehler in Erlangen, Stade in Giessen, Schultz in Goettingen, Koenig in Leip-
zig, and Perrochet in Neuchatel. In ten the Psaljis are expounded, viz., by
Sti-ack in Berlin, Kamphausen in Bonn, Bredenkamp in Greifswald, Rothstein
in Halle, Kneucker in Heidelberg, Sommer in Koenigslierg, Franz DeUtzsch in
Leipzig, V. Baudissin in Marburg, Oettli in Berne, aud Steiner in Zurich. In
fifteen, Isaiah, viz., by Dillmann and Strack in Berlin, Budde in Bonn, Weiss in
' C. = Catholic.
304 Thb Old Testasient Student.
Braunsberg, Raebiger iu Breslau, Duhm in Goettingen, Giessbrecht in Greifswald,
Kautzsch in Halle. Coniill in Koenigsberg, Guthe in Leipzig, Schoenfelder in
Munich, Tell in Muenster, Nowack in Strassbiirg, Himpel (C.) in Tuebingen,
Montet in Geneva, Vuilleumier in Lausanne. Twmty-three professors are reading
on Old Testament Introduction in Ucenty universities, viz., Dillmann in
Berlin, Kampliausen and Kaulen (C.) in Bonn, Kittel in Breslau, Koehler in
Erlangen, Koenig in Freiburg, Duhm in Goettingen, Bredenkamp in Greifswald,
Merx in Heidelberg. Hilgenfeld in .Jena, Sommer in Koenigsberg, Ryssel in Leip-
zig, v. Baudissin in Marburg, Tell in Muenster, Nowack in Strassburg. Grill and
Himpel (0.) in Tuebingen, Kihn in Wuerzberg. Orelli in Basel, Oettli and Herzog
(C.) in Berne, Vuilleumier in Lausanne, and Perrochet in Neuchatel. The term
Old Testament Introduction covers an indefinite theme. Some put it at
the head of a course of lectures covering the whole of the Old Testament. Others
confine themselves principally to certain questions, as the Pentateuchal Question ;
others to certain books, as the Historical and Prophetical Books. In only one
university is the History of the Old Testament Text treated as a special
topic outside of Old Testament Introduction, viz., by DOlmaun, of Berlin. In
three universities the Aramaic portions of Daniel, Ezra and Nedemiah are
lectured upon in connection with the Aramaic dialect, viz., by Schrader iu Berlin,
Delitzsch in Leipzig, and Marti in Ba.sel (Biblical Aramaic by Pretorius in Breslau).
Messianic Propuecy in Old Testament is treated as a separate topic in
seven universities, viz., by Reusch (C.) in Bonn. Meinhold in Greifswald, Kautzsch
in Halle, Franz Delitzsch and Guthe in Leipzig, Smend in Basel, and Heiden-
heim in Zurich. (Philippi. of the Philosoph. Faculty of Rostock on Messianic
Prophecy in Hosea, Joel, Jonah, Nahura, Habakkuk.) Old Testament His-
tory or History of Israel is taught in seven universities, by Scholz (C.) in
Breslau, Siegfried in Jena, Coniill in Koenigsberg, Guthe in Leipzig, Smend in
Basel. Montet in Geneva, and Ladame in Neuchatel. The Theology of the
Old Testament is taught in four universities, by Kautzsch in Halle, Stade in
Giessen, Ryssel in Leipzig (on Immortality in Old Testament), and Oswald in
Braunsberg (Theology of Genesis). Four are working on the Book of Job,
Baethgen iu Halle, Siegfried in Jena, Klostermauu in Kiel, Orelli in Basel, and
Oettli in Berne. Arch.eology in seven, viz., by Koenig in Freiburg, Baethgen
in Halle, Siegfried in Jena, v. Baudissin in Marburg. Grimm in Wuerzburg,
Smend in Basel. Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel,
Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, as distinct courses, have each the attention of a single
university. In four universities lectures are given on the Minor Prophets,
viz., by Kittel in Breslau, Merx in Heidelberg, Klostermanu in Kiel, and Baur in
Leipzig. Hebiiew Gramjiar is announced at seventeen universities, and fifteen
have what is known as Old Testament Skminar in which the i)rofessor meets
the students for personal drill in exegesis or in some important branch of Old
Testament study. Two professors, viz., Franz Delitzsch, of Leipzig, and Stiack,
of Berlin, announce the Institutum Judaicum as a part of university work, its
aim being to inform theological students on all (juestions pertaining to the Jews
and to interest them in Jewish Christian Missions. Kaulen (C.) in Bonn is lec-
turing on Biblical llermeneutics, and Sommer in Konigsberg op the Topography
of Jerusalem.
The following books are under review in current German periodicals; In
the Studien und Kritiken, 2 Heft., 1889, Kautzsch, of Tuebingen, reviews the
Old Testament Kotes and Notices. 305
work of De. Franz Delitzsch, ^eiter Commentar iiber die Oenesis. Leipzig, 1887.
Driver, Prof. Canon S. R., D. D.: Isaiah, his Life and Times and the Writings
which bear his Name. London, 1888. 2s. 6d. This book is reviewed in tlie Theo-
logische lAteratur Zeitung, December 29, 1888, by Prof. Budde, of Bonn. Mein-
HOLD, Dr. Lie. J. (Prof. Ext. in Greifswald), Beilrdge zur Erkldrung des Buchs
Daniel. 1 Heft. Daniel 2-6. Leipzig, 1888. This work is also reviewed by Prof.
Budde in the same periodical. Emil Wietzke: Ber Biblische Simson der
Aegyptische Honis Ba. Eine neue Erkldrung zu Judg. 13-16. Wittenberg, 1888.
M.1.40. We translate the opening and closing sentences of Prof. A. Wiedmann's
review of this book in the Theologische Literatur Zeitiing, Dec. 15, 1888 :
" The idea, contained in the title, of explaining the biblical Samson as a sun-
divinity has for a long time found many representatives. Nevertheless the efforts
then as now to prove that the character of the Jewish hero was a trace of the sun
myth have yielded few satisfactory results. A new attempt of this sort has been
presented by the author of the work before us. Proceeding not from the Egyp-
tian texts, but solely upon the frequently very bold constructions of Teichmiiller
of the deeper contents of the Egyptian religion, the rehearsal of which naturally
does not belong here, he tries to identify Samson with an Egyptian sun-divinity
and so to explain the single episode in chapters 14-16 of the Book of Judges.
The first two chapters, according to him, represent, in the garments of common,
popular poetry, the relation of the sun-god to the three Egyptian Palestinian
periods, the third (16th) the career of the divinity in the underworld
The author, who comes out very confidently and considers that the Samson ques-
tion has been solved through his inquiries, declares himself finally prepared
against the obstinacy of dogmatic prejudice, but consoles himself with St. Augus-
tine and St. Jerome. But dogmatic prejudice will not be alone in declaring itself
against the author's favorite method of inquiry and against his interpretation of
the text. And also the number of those will not be great who agree in the personal
judgment of the author (p. 51), ' What light diffuses itself anew, through these
researches upon the mythology and theology of all antiquity !' "
These important books on the history of Israel are reviewed at length by
Kamphausen in the first number of the Studien und Kritikenot 1889: 1. Dr.
Bernhard Stade (Professor in Giessen). Geschichte des Volkes Israel. Mitlllus-
trationen und Karten. Vol. I. Berlin, 1887. 2. Ernest Kenan (Professor in
the College of France). Eistoire du Peuple d''Israel. Vol. I. Paris, 1887. 3. R.
Kittel (formerly of Stuttgart, recently called to Breslau). Geschichte der Hebrder.
1 Halbband. QueUenkunde und Geschichte der Zeit bis zum Tode Josuas.
Gotha, 1888. We translate only the concluding words of the reviewer :
" I close these pages with the sentiment of Heinrich von Sybel, worth laying
to heart, and the devout wish of de Wette. Sybel once said : ' In conscientious
study of the recent past where we feel ourselves oppressed by the superabundance
of the materials and then again must feel the fragmentariness of our knowledge,
the consciousness becomes in us doubly strong, how incredibly few sure results
are to be achieved by the most thorough investigation of antiquity.' But the hon-
orable de Wette prefaced his Introduction to tlie Old Testament, when he sent
out the last edition, with the words, ' Let the spirit of truth, love and unity tune
the over-zealous minds to mildness and conciliation.' "
Berlin, Jan. 5, 1889. Rev. N. I. Rubinkam.
SYNOPSES OF IMPORTANT ARTICLES.
Classic and Semitic Ethics.*— I. Between the two, there is a fundamental dif-
ference. At Greece and Rome, individual acts derived their character solely from
their relation to the supreme good. But in the Semitic system of morality, acts
are judged by their intrinsic and inherent nature. Rightness or wrougness is an
attribute of the act in itself considered. Righteous and Righteousness are employed,
never in a utilitarian, very frequently in an expressly anti-utilitarian sense. The
same idea runs through the New Testament. The Kingdom of God and the
rightness which He requires are to be sought first and chief of all. II. The supe-
riority of Semitic Ethics. 1. Hebrew Ethics. 1) Complete on its own plane : 2) in
advance of all that comes to us from other than Christian sources. 2. Christian
Ethics. 1) As to the outward life, it covers the whole ground of the Decalogue
with more minuteness of detail. 2) For the inner man, it is a complete ''man-
ual and directory ; " .3) the law of Christ is also a law of example.
Objection : The morality of the Gospel is not new. ilany, at least of the pre-
cepts of the New Testament, are to be found in other and older writings. Answer :
The peculiarity of the moral system of the Gospel is its perfectness, not its orig-
inality. A. M. W.
1. The terms, "Semitic Ethics" Is not used with exactness. By It, the writer means only
Hebrew and Christian ethics ; but the term is applicable to the moral system of the Assyrians
as well as tothat of the Hebrews.
2. The forensic use, by Paul, of righttou» and righteowsnegs cannot, by a mere stroke of the
pen, be set aside.
Assyrian and Hebrew Chronology, t — A serious discrepancy exists between the
Assyrian reckoning of dates and the ordinarily received system of biblical chro-
nology. Agreeing in placing the fall of Samaria at 722 B. C, the two systems
diverge both before and after this event until in the reigns of Jehu and Ahab we
have a difference of forty years and Sennacherib's campaign, in B. C. 714 accord-
ing to the Bible, is assigned by the monuments to B. C. 701. The Assyrian dates
must be allowed to be in general trustworthy. Are the biblical numbers to be
rejected ? So say Wellhausen and his school. They regard these numbers as a
fanciful scheme, a purely artificial product of post-exilian scribes, foisted on to
the history. This theoi-y is too ingenious and imaginative, too rigid, too far away
from the facts, to be acceptable. We stand on the general fidelity of the biblical
numbers except where error can be actually proved. The question then comes.
Can the two chronologies be harmonized ? We believe they can. Two preliminary
points are made: (1 ) The internal difficulty of the Hebrew Chronology— namely
that while the regnal years of the kings of Israel from Jehu to the fall of Samaria
amount to 143 years — the Judean reigns for the same period amount to 165 years.
* By Andrew P. Peabody, D. D., LL. D., in The Andovcr Review, Dec, 1888, pp. 561-676.
+ By James Orr, D. D., In Prabytertan Revtew, Jan., 1889, pp. 14-W.
Synopses of Important Articles. 307
Casting aside the theory of two interregna which may be supposed to fill up the
gap, the most probable conclusion is that Uzziah reigned together with his father
Amazlah, and Jotham likewise with Uzziah, for a time. The time which is thus
taken up by these joint reigns in Judah corresponds to the Israelite line when
Pekah's reign— the one proved error in the Bible numbers — Is shortened to six or
seven years. (2) The Hebrew mode of reckoning regnal years is probably not the
Assyrian method of post-dating the accession of a king, but that of regarding the
first and last years in which a king reigned as each a year in his reign. The blbhcal
chronology of this period Is carefully reviewed on this basis ; and as a result of
the consistent carrying out of this view it Is claimed that while on a few minor
points a conjectural element must be admitted, this theory solves, without strain-
ing or resort to arbitrary assumption, aU the main chronological difficulties which
arise from comparison of the Bible with the monuments.
The CiTilization and Religion of Central America and Pern.* — The researches
of M. Eavllle have revealed to us that in ancient Mexico there existed a civiliza-
tion characterized by much which Is supposed to be modem. But the extraordi-
nary fact is that with this refined civilization flourished a religion, barbarous
and sanguinary, the chief element of which was human sacrifice. This religion
was " naturism " — the worship of the forces and phenomena of nature, especially
of the sun, developing into a complicated polytheism. The bloody nature of the
religion Is explained by the ferocious character of the warrior-race, the Aztecs,
who oven'an Mexico and conquered the primitive people who had reached this
high civilized state. They worshiped a mild deity, a sun-god, whom they sup-
posed to have departed when the Aztecs came, but who would return. When
Cortez invaded the land he was thought to be the returning deity. Hence his
easy victory. In Mexico, as in Phoenicia and Syria, we see the coincidence of a
high civilization with depraved religious practices. In Peru is found the same
sun-worship characteristic of all American peoples. The state was a theocracy.
Morality was high. The Peruvian daily salutation was, "Thoushalt not steal,"
and the response, "Thou sbalt not he." Catholicism has not benefited these
peoples. What will Protestantism do ?
A popular statement of the results of modern investigations into the life of these interest-
ing but neglected peoples. This is one of the many lines of research which are contributing to
our knowledge of the subject of comparative religions.
* By Caroline A. Sawyer in The UniversaUst Quarterly, Oct., 1888, pp. 479-490.
•>BOOI^M]OTICES.<-
SCRIPTURES HEBREW AND CHRISTIAN.*
The first volume of this excellent work has already been noticed in this jour-
nal (Old Testament Student, Sept., 18&6). The present volume contains
selections from Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy. Ruth,
1 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther. Job, Psalms, Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, Micah, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zech-
ariah, Malachi. While the same principles which ruled in the preparation of the
former volume are manifest in the present one, it is to be noted that the restrict-
ive phrase " for young readers " is omitted from the title page, — the editors very
wisely recognizing that not only is the material adapted for readers of all ages,
but some who would otherwise be attracted and benefited, might be repelled by
the phrase seeming to restrict the design of the work to the instruction of the
young. The Old Testament portion of the work seems to be completed in these
two volumes. The translation differs somewhat from both the old and the new
versions and will thus serve as an excellent commentary to be used in connection
with them. The arrangement of the material will not be satisfactorj' to all ; but
it cannot be doubted that those who read these volumes, whether young or old,
will gain a more vivid and, on the whole, more truthful idea of the Old Testa-
ment Scriptures than from the Scriptures in their traditional arrangement or
from the study of commentaries. The appearance of the book is excellent and it
is published at a reasonable price.
THE HALLOWISG OF CRITICISM.t
The title of this book is a condensed argument for the position which its
author adopts. He tells us in his preface that "the Scriptures must in future, as
many think, be expounded by preachers and teachers with some reference to the
results of criticism ; and the questions become an urgent one how this can be
done so as not to injure, but, if possible even to promote, the higher or religious
life." These sermons are written to illustrate the possibility of accepting the
results of criticism in relation to Elijah and his times, and yet of using the mate-
rial thus sifted for the purpose of impressive and elevating religious teaching. It
• SCRiPTtTBES Hebrew ,\nd Christian. Arrangred and edited as an introduction to the
study of the Bible, by Edward T. Bartlett. D. D., Dean of the Protestant Episcopal Divinity
School in Philadelphia and John P. Peters. Ph. I)., Professor of the Old Testament Laninia^es
and Literature in the Protestant Episcopal Divinity School, Philadelphia, and Professor of
Hebrew in the University of Pennsylvania. Vol. II. Hebrew Literature. New York and Lon-
don ; O. P. Putnam'it Som. ]88n. Price Jl-.W.
+ The HaI/I.owino of Criticism : Nine Sermons preached in Rochester Cathedral, with an
Essay read at the Church Congress, Manchester, Oct. 2, 1888. By the Rev. T. K. Cheyne, D. D.
London : Hndder and Stoughton, 1888.
Book Notices. 309
is a common suspicion to-day that the higher criticism if permitted to exercise
itself upon the Bible would undermine all the foundations of the preacher's power.
Prof. Cheyne endeavors to show practically that this is not true. Eecognizing
much in these wonderful stories concerning the ancient prophet which is merely
the poetic di-ess of fact he nevertheless always holds fast to the essential realities
lying beneath the form. The sermons are not powerful in laying hold on the
moral convictions, but they abound in passages of real spiritual beauty and are shot
through with profound faith in the verities of the religious Ufe. If any preacher
is troubled for fear that the new movements in biblical criticism are only destruc-
tive let him buy and study these sermons. The subject of the essay read at
the Church Congress is, To what extent shall results of historical and scientific
criticism, especially of the Old Testament, be recognized in sermons and teach-
ing ? and, bold as are its positions, it closes with words like these, " I should insist
on the doctrine of the Holy Spirit's continual presence being made ever more and
more a reality. No essential truth which He has once revealed can be impaired
by any fresh discovery of facts. Faith in the supernatural cannot pass away ; but
our modes of conceiving the supernatural may be largely modified through the
revelations of science and of criticism. Spiritual truths cannot become anti-
quated, but if the successes of criticism have the value which I have ascribed to
them, they must lead to fuller insight into divine truth. All truth, in fact, is
divine ; all truths are connected and therefore ultimately reconcilable." From
so reverent and so careful an investigator, biblical study has nothing to lose and
everything to gain.
FUTURE PROBATION EXAMINED.*
This book comes within the scope of this journal only so far as the Old Testa-
ment is used in its argument. It is believed that a helpful service can be done
in calling attention to the use of the O. T., and in guarding it carefully from per-
version and misapplication, on the part of those who engage in the defense of this
or that side of some important doctrine. As for the present volume, it makes
comparatively little use of O. T. passages and is, in general, quite accurate. Some
doubtful texts are used as proof. Isa. 9:6 is adduced in behalf of the eternity of
God. It is somewhat forced to urge (p. 103) Eccl. 9:10 as against a future proba-
tion. If used as a proof-text it proves too much. The words of Hosea 13:9,
quoted from the A. V". on p. 159, lose their force in the writer's argument when
the R. V. is followed. Indeed it is an unaccountable oversight in this book that
the texts are not always cited from the Revised Version. The method of gather-
ing passages from all parts of the Bible without apparent reference to their con-
nection or to their position in the history of revelation is not one to be commended.
That it is followed by the author of this volume is a serious blemish upon what
is otherwise a strong and fair argument against the hypothesis of future pro-
bation.
* Future Probation Examined. By William DeLoss Love, pastor at South Hadley, Mass
New York: Futik&Wagiuxlls.lSSS. Pp.323.
810 The Old Testament Student.
THE PSALMS IS VERSE.*
Dr. Coles, the author of this version of the Psalms, is already well known as
a skilled translator of h3Tnns in foreign tongues. His versions of the Dies Irae
have received high praise. To translate successfully the Praise-songs of Israel
into prose is no light task. Still more difficult must it be to put them into the
metrical forms of English poetry. Dr. Ck)les is the first to confess that he has not
reached the ideal. He has done well. Many of his renderings are both faithful
and musical at the same time. His aim is expressed by himself '-to be literal,
but not so literal as to convert rich prose into poor verse ; to be a faithful but not
too punctual an Lnterpretater ; to get as close to the Hebrew original as possible,
and present as far as the two idioms would allow the precise form and color of the
Hebrew thought ; to transfer wherever he could the exact phraseology, hallowed
and familiar, of the Received or Revised version ; and to use no more words than
sufficed to express the meaning of the text." As a sample of the work done a
selection from Psalm 24, verses 7-10, is subjoined :
Lift up your heads, ye ancient gates !
Yo everlasting doors, give way I
For lo I tl>e King of Glory waits.
And means to enter in to-day.
'• Who is this King of Glory? Who?"
Jehovah, mighty to subdue.
Lift up your heads, ye ancient gates !
To everlasting doors, give way I
For !o ! the King of Glory waits,
And means to enter in to-day.
" Who is this King of Glory, then?"
The Lord of nugcls and of men.
* A New Rendehinq of the Hebrew Psai,ms into English Verse, with Notes, critical,
etc., and an historical sketch of the French, English and Scotch metrical versions. By Abraham
Coles, M. D., LL. D. New York: D. Appleton * Co., 1888. Pp. Lxvili, 296.
COREESPONDENCE SCHOOL OF HEBREW.
The atteutiou of the members of the Corre-
spondence School is especially called to the
advertisement of the Summer Schools for 1889
ivhich appears in this number. The same
number of schools as in previous years will be
held and in the same places, except that the
New England School, which has met for the
last three years at Newton Centre, Mass., re-
turns this year to New Haven, where it was
held in 1885.
It is hoped that a larger proportion of Cor-
respondence School students will attend the
Summer Schools this year than ever before.
The Correspondence and Summer Schools aim
at the same results, though by different meth-
ods, and are supplementary to each other.
Students in the former by becoming- members
of a Summer School have their enthusiasm re-
doubled by personal contact with instructors
and feUow-students and gain an impetus by a
few weeks' interrupted work which is of great
benefit to them in subsequent Correspondence
work. No other class is so well fitted to make
good use of the advantages which a Summer
School affords. On the other hand, those who
have secured large results by rapid and con-
centrated work for a few weeks need the
careful and painstaking work of the Corre-
spondence School to fl.x those results and make
them perfectly available.
The reports this month include the three
months ending March 15th. The new members
are as follows: Mr. H. U. Alexander, Chicago,
111.: Mr. H. W. Almon, Texas, Ga.; Rev. G. A.
Beckwith, Windham, Vt.; Mr. W. T. Brown,
New Bedford, Mass.; Rev. .T. A. Cahill, Econ-
omy, N. S.; Rev. J. G. Campbell, Clark, Dak.;
Rev. W. A. Chaphn, Boston, Mass.; Mr. J. L.
Clark, New York City; Mr. L. F. Cockroft, San
Francisco, Cal. ; Rev. W. Craig, Chnton, Ont.;
Rev. C. H. Curtis, Lysander, N. T.; Rev. Wm.
Dahlke, Reserve, N. Y.; Rev. P. S. Davies,
Missouri Valley, Iowa; Rev. R. H. Davis, North
Conway, N. H.; Rev. H. B. Dohner, Lancaster,
Pa.; Rev. G. S. Duncan, Mooredale, Pa.; Rev.
J. F. Eaton, Ripon, Wis.; Mr. E. W. Fitzsimons,
Dublin, Ireland ; Rev. Anthony Hall, Manches-
ter, England ; Rev. G. Hearn, Coeyman's, N. Y.;
Rev. A. J. Herries, El Paso, III.; Rev. B. Hew-
ton. Maple Grove, Quebec; Rev. Adam Holm,
Blairstown, Iowa; Rev. Isaac Jewell, Rising
Sun, Md. ; Mr. Edmund Kershaw, Islip, N. Y.;
Rev. E. G. Lund, Greensburg, Pa.; Rev. W. N.
Mebane, Pulaski City, Va.; Rev. O. A. Mer-
chant, Chester, N. Y. ; Mary B. Moody, M. D.,
New Haven, Conn.; Rev. M. M. Norton, Port-
land, Ore. ; Rev. J. P. O'Brien, Ciena, O.; Rev.
Andrew Robertson, New Glasgow, N. S. ; Rev.
S. V. Robinson, Tottenville, N. Y.; Mr. W. S.
Ross, Great Falls, N. H.; Rev. James Rowe,
Genoa Bluff, Iowa; Rev. W. A. Schruff, Chilli-
cothe, O. ; Rev. W. R. Scott, Belmont, O. ; Rev.
G. G. Smeade, Pulaski City, Va.; Rev. Wm.
Smith, Hollowayville, III. ; Rev. Chr. Staebler,
Crediton, Ont. ; Rev. C. G. SterUng, Pine Ridge
Agency, Dak. ; Rev. P. F. Stevens, Charleston,
S. C; Mr. T. J. Van Horn, Welton, Iowa; Rev.
Alex. Watt, Forostville, N. Y.; Rev. W. M.
Warden, South Meriden, Conn.; Rev. D. B.
Whimster, Hays City, Kan.; Miss M. C. Welles,
Newlngton, Conn.; Rev. G. R. White, Yar-
mouth, N. S. To these may be added a lady in
England who desired that her name should
not be published.
The graduates for the quarter are: Rev. W,
D. Akers, Maryville, Tenn. ; Rev. Robert Bar
bour. New York City ; Miss Frances Blackburn
Oxford, England; Miss L. R. Corwin, Cleve-
land, O. ; Rev. J. W. Ferner, Storm Lake, Iowa
Rev. L. M. Gates, Georgetown, N. Y. ; Rev. A
P. Greenleaf, Battle Creek, Mich.; Miss E. E,
Howard, Charlottesville, Va. ; Rev. S. E. Jones,
Wheeling, W. Va. ; Mr. T. W. Kretschraann,
Philadelphia, Pa. ; Mr. S. D. Lathrop, Rich
mond, Mich. ; Rev. A. A. Mainwaring, Phila
delphia. Pa. ; Rev. J. P. Morgan, Coeyman's
Junction, N. Y. ; Rev. J. W. Presby, Mystic,
Conn.; Rev. A. W. Reinhard, Forreston, III.
Rev. Alfred Roebuck, Bradford, England ; Rev
J. F. Steele, Anand, India ; Mrs. H. M. Syden
Strieker, Hamilton, Mo. ; Rev. J. G. Tanner,
Houston, Tex. It will be observed that four
of the above nineteen are ladies, which indi-
cates that the ladies are doing a much larger
proportion of the work than their numbers
bear to the whole number of students.
The quality of the work done continues to
improve, the number of perfect papers re-
ceived during the quarter being unusually
large. Eleven have been received from Mr.
S. D. Lathrop, Richmond, Mich.; five from Mr.
W. M. Junkln, Christiansburgh, Va. ; three
from Rev. R. D. Bambrick, Sydney Mines, N.
S.; Mr. S. S. Conger, Summit, N. J., and Rev.
Wm. Smith, Hollowayville, 111. ; two from Rev.
W. D. Akers, Mary vide, Tenn. ; Mr. C. V. R.
Hodge, Burlington, N. J. ; Prof. Abby Leach,
Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. ; Mr. W.
S. Ross, Great Falls, N. H. ; Miss E. R. SterUng,
Bridgeport, Conn., and Rev. Alex. Watt, For-
ostville, N. Y. The following are credited with
one each: Mr. W. F. Bacher, Philadelphia,
Pa.; Rev. J. Chappie, Ramsbottom, England;
Rev. P. K. Dayfoot, Strathroy, Ont. ; Rev. I. M.
Haldeman, New York City; Mr. J. A. Ingham,
Hackettstown, N. J.; Rev. H. M. Kirby, Pots-
dam, N. Y.; Mr. T. W. Kretschmann, Philadel-
phia, Pa. ; Rev. J. P. O'Brien, Olena, 0.; Rev.
David Price, Grafton, N. S. ; Rev. W. E. Ren-
shaw, Richmond, Utah ; Rev. J. G. Tanner,
Houston, Tex.
CURRENT OLD TESTAMENT LITERATURE.
AMEBICAN ASD FOKEIGN PIBLICATIOSS.
Bible Charactern. liy Charles Reade, D. C. L.
New York: Harpers.
Commeutani on the Old Tettament. Vol. 1. Gen-
esis and Exodm. By M. S. Terry. D. D.. and
F. H. Ncwhall. D. D. New York: Hunt and
Eaton «3-25.
The Sabbath. What— why— hou)— day— reoions—
mode. By C. M. Brlgrgs, D. D. New York:
Hunt and Eaton tO-60-
John the Baptist, the Forerunner of our Lord:
hU Life and Tforh. By Hoss C. Houghton,
D. D. New York: Hunt and Eaton $1.25.
Inter Kotiones dei sancti in Testamenti veteris et
patris fidellum in novt lihris vjiitas quae Ht
ratio. Dissertatio theologica by K. Thool.
Kiinisberg, '89 M.l.
Les Psaumes de Maaloth. Essai d'explicatioti.
Par Felix Bovet. Paris: Libr. Flachbacher,
•89 fr.3.60.
Calvin hebraisant et interpreU de VAncten Test-
ament. Par A. J. Baumgartner. Paris:
Libr. Fischbaeher fr.2.
The Bible true from the Beginning. Vol.1. By
E. Gough. London S.18.
Prophetic Notes. By Rev. H. Sturt. London:
S.4.6.
Phoenicia. By Rev. Canon RawUnson in
"Story of the Nations" series. London:
Unwln S.5.6.
ARTICLES AXD REVIEWS.
The Biblical Paradise. By Samuel T. Spear,
D. D., in The Independent, Feb. 28, '89.
The Edcnic Apocalypse. By M. S. Terry, S. T.
D., in The Treasury, March, '89.
Literary Admirers of Buddhism. By Sir Monler
Williams. Reprinted in Our Day, March, '89.
Recent Literature of the O. T. Apocalypse. By
Rev. B. Pick, Ph. D., in The Independent,
March 14, '89.
Tide's Babylonisch-Assyrlsche Oeschichte. He-
view. Ibid.
Who Wrote the Book of Esther 1 By Dr. M. Jas-
trow in The Jewish Exponent, March 15, '89.
The Sabbath. By Rabbi Davidson in The
American Israelite, March U, '89.
The Epistle to the Hebrews; 7. Christ and Hoses.
By Rev. Prof. A. B. Bruce, D. D., in The
Expositor, March, '69.
The Priesthood and the Priestly Service of the
Church. By Rev. Prof. W. MilUgan, D. D.
Ibid.
R<c<:ii( Old Testament Literature in the United
Stater. ByRev.Prof.S. I.Curtls8,D.D. Ibid.
Die hiitlische Literaturdes Jahres 1888. A. .ittes
Testament. In Ztscbr. f. d. Kirch. Wlss. u.
Leben I., '89.
Lc Peuple d' Israel et son Historien. Par M. Fer-
dinand Brunetierc in Revue d. deux Mondes,
Feb., 'S9.
Recent Old Testament Literature. By Canon S.
R. Driver, D. D., in the Contemporary Re-
view, March, '89.
Recent Research in BilAical Archaeology. By
Joseph Jacobs in Arcbteological Review,
March, '89.
Batch's Essays in Biblical Oreek. Review by
Sanday in The Academy, March 2, '89.
The Pharaoh and the Date of the Ez^idus. By
Jacob Schwartz in the Theological Monthly,
March, '89.
The Prophets. By Canon Farrar in the Homi-
letic Monthly, March, '89.
The Mosaic Doctrines of Death and after-Death.
By Prof. R. V. Foster, D. D., In Cumberland
Pres. Rev., Jan., '89.
Immoralities of Old Testament Heroes. By Geo.
D. Boardman, D. D., in Andover Review,
March, '89.
The Religimis Faculty. Its JS'ature. Scope and
Satisfaction. By Rev. W. Harrison in The
Canadian Methodist Quarterly, Jan., "89.
Tlie Hebrew Months. By C. R. Conder In Pales-
tine Expl. Fund., Jan., '89.
Recherches bibliqius. 15. Oen. 10:2-4. Par J.
Halevy in Rev. d. etudes Julves, Oct., '88.
The Waten of ShUoah that go softly. Isa. 8:6.
With :j plates. By W. F. Birch in Pal. Eipl.
Fund., Jan., '89.
Die Tisionen des Prophetcn Amos. Aus der
Mappe elnes alten Professors. By G. Studer
in Theol. Ztschr. aus d. Schwelz. 4, '88.
Sampsamt: L Mace. 15:23. By Th. Beinach in
Rev. d. etud. Grecques, July, '88.
The Valleys and Waters of Jerusalem. By W.
F. Birch in Pal. Expl. Fund., Jan., 1889.
OF
INDUCTIVE BIBLE-STUDIES -SECOND SERIES.
[Copyright by W. R. Harper, ISSS.]
Forty Studies on the Life of the Christ, based ou the Gospel of Mark.
Edited by William R. Harper, Tale TJniTersity, New Haven.
STUDY XXIX.— THE CRUCIFIXION. MARK 15:16-41.
ResDme of Studies XXV.-XXVIII. 1. Name the chief erents covered in these "Studies." 2. The
trials of Jesus, their number and character. 3. The signiflcanoe of the last supper.
4. Lessons from the life and doings of Pilate.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead carefully Mk. 15:16^1, and be able to make a definite statement concerning
each of the following points :
1. Jesus and the soldiers (vs. 16-20a); 5. the last agonies and death (vs. 33
2. on the way to the cross (vs. 20b- -38);
22); 6. the centurion's testimony (v. 39);
3. Jesus crucified (vs. 23-27); 7. the spectators (vs. 40,41).
4. revilings (vs. 29-32) ;
11. The Material Compared.
1. With Mk. 15:18-41 compare Mt. 27:'2V-56; Lk. 23:26-49; John 19:2-37.
2. Notice 1) that Mark's narrative resembles Matthew's much more closely than Luke's or
John's; 2) the somewhat fuller, perhaps different, order of events in John 19:1-16; 3) the
verbal disagreement, with the substantial identity, of the four reports of the superscrip-
tion; Mk. 15:26; Mt. 27:37; Lk. 23:38; John 19:19.
3. The student would find it interesting and helpful to draw up from the four accounts a com-
plete list of the circumstances and events gathering about the crucifixion.
III. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
1) v. 16. (a) Praetortum ; a Latin word, 18:3), the number would be about
adopted in Greek, signifying the six hundred,
"headquarters" of the governor. 2) V. 18. Began to aalute; i. e., "went to sa-
(b) The whole band; if taken ex- luting."
actly (but see same word in John
314
The Old Testasiknt Student.
3) T, 10. SmoU ; lit. "kept smitiDg ;" so
"did spit," "worshiped;" signi-
fying continued actions.
■») Tb. 18-1». la) Compare with Mk.l4:tt5(Lk.22:
U3-«5) in (1) the persons; (2) their
purpose and spirit ; (3) their guilt,
(b) Note that (1) this could only
have been done with Pilate's per-
mission, and (2) his purpose in
permitting it is to arouse sympa-
thy in the people. Cr. John 19:4,.^.
5) T. 21. FaUier of A. and R.; (a) a phrase
peculiar to Mark ; lb) probable that
these were Christians when this
was written; (c) cf. Rom. 16:13;
(d) then did Simon become a Chris-
tian after his sons?
6) T. 22. (a) Brtjitf him; i. e. Jesus had to be
supported.
(b) Place of a skull; (1) Latin " Cal-
varla" = "Calvary"; (2) two views
about the meaning of this phrase;
(3) the views as to the location ?
7) T. 23. (a) Offered; for what purpose?
(b) Received il not; why ?
8) V. 24. Crucify ; let the student make re^i
to himself the method of crucify-
ing and the suffering of the cruci-
fied.
9i T. 25. I7i(rd hiiur; 1. e. nine o'clock. Cf.
John 19:14 and seek to explain the
difference.
lU) V. 31. He «aB«i; i. e." helped," "healed."
What is the point of the sarcasm ?
11) V. 32. Reitrnached; 111. "kept reproach-
ing"; so "railed" (v. 29), "said"
(V. 31).
12) T. 33. WDarkneea; how explained (1) as
supernatural, yet (2) connected
with the not uncommon darkness
that precedes an earthquake (cf.
Mt. 27 :51) ? (3) Its purpose ?
(b) The whole land; (1) that region,
or (2) half the world ?
13) T. 84. Elol, etc.; (a) What language? (h)
Quoted from Ps. 22:1 ; (c) its mean-
ing for Jesus?
14) V. :io. Was this (a) a misunderstanding,
or (b) a mocking jest ?
15) V. 37. Luud voice; for what he said, of.
Lk. 23:46.
16) T. 88. Veil.... rent; (a) how? (1) physical
basis, Mt. 27 :51 ; (21 a supernatural
purpose: (b) its slgniflcance, (1)
abandonment of the temple by
God; (2) unhindered access of man
to God: (3) all this in view of the
death of Jesus.
2. GENERAL TOPICS.
1) The Woman-Friends of Jesns. Vs. 40,41. (a) Observe the frequent allusions in the Gospels to
the presence of women among the hearers of Jesus; (1) those who came into some tem-
porary relations to him. ef. John 4:7 sq.; 8:3 sq.; 11:1 sq.; Mk. 1::J0; .5:25; 7:25; 14:3; Lk.
7:U-17,36-50; 10:38^2; 13:11 sq.; 18:15; 23:27; Mt. •20:-30; (2) those who became permanent
disciples, cf. Lk. 8:2,3; (b) of the latter note the references to (1) Mary Magdalene, her
home, whether identical with the woman of Lk. 7:37; her character, John 20:11-17; (2)
Salome, her probable relation to Jesus, cf. Mt. 27:56; John 19:25; (3) Mary, his mother, her
relations to Jesus; (c) the Jewish idea as to the position of women and Jesus' attitude
toward it, cf. John 4:27; (d) woman in the early church. Acts 1:14: 9:30; 12:12, etc.
2) The Meaning of the Death of Jesus, (a) Kecall Jesus' prophecies of his death,
Mk. 8:31 ; 9:31 ; 10:33,34 ; (b) uote his hints as to its purpose and meaning,
Mk. 10:45 ; 14:22-24 ; John 6:51 ; 12:32,33, etc. ; (c) examine the apostolic
teaching, ef. 1 Pet. 1:19; Tit. 2:14; 1 Tim. 2:6; 2 Cor. 5:15; Gal. 3:13;
1 John 1:7 ; (d) giasp firmly the fact of the "vicarious" death (atonement)
of Jesus and then observe the theories which seek to explain it, (1) the
moral influence exerted by his death ; (2) in Jesus' death God illustrated
his character as a moral governor by giving his Son to be punished for sin-
ners ; (3) iu Jesus' death for simiers God vindicated his righteous character
and became reconciled to man, when his Son suffered the penalty of law.
IT. The Material Organized.
1. Oathcr the material and classify it under the following heads: 1) persons; 2) places; 3) impor-
tant events; 4) habits and customs; 5) important teachings; 6) literary data; 7) miracles.
2. Condense the material, Mk. 15:16-41, Into the briefest possible statement, under the general
topic of The Death of a King.
T. The Material Applied.
The Death of Jesus. The most fitting application of this material will be
found in the thoughtful contemplation of the biblical narrative. The fol-
New Testament Supplement. 315
lowing points are suggested : 1 . Dwell on the following characteristics of
Jesus as illustrated here, 1) heroism; 2) forgivingness, Lk. 23;34; 3)
patience; 4) pity; 5) human feelings of anguish; 6) love, John 19:26,27.
2. Observe that this suffering and death is foreseen and endured with a con-
sciousness of its being a sacrifice made on behalf of others. 3. Thought-
fully inquire into the obligation which this self-sacriflce of Jesus on our
behalf lays upon us.
STUDY XXX.— BUEIAL AND RESURRECTION OF JESUS. MARK
15:42-16:8.
Besome. 1. Give as complete as possible an account of the events attending the crucifixion of
Jesus. 2. The significance of the conduct and words of Jesus in this event.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead carefully Mk. 15:42-16:8, and be able to make a definite statement concern-
ing each of the following points :
1. The request of Joseph (15:42,43); 6. visitors to the tomb (16:2-4);
2. Pilate's reply (15:44,45); 7. the young man within (16:5);
3. the burial (15:46); 8. his word (16:6,7);
4. the spectators (15:47); 9. the result (16:8).
5. the women's purchase (16:1);
II. The Material Compared.
1. WithMk. 15:42-16:8 compare Mt. 27:57-28:16; Lk. 28:50-24:12; John 19:38-20:10, and make
lists of the events in each account.
2. Take the passages in each which are parallel with those in Mark, i. e. with Mk. 15:42-47, Mt.
27:57-61; Lk. 23:50-56; John 10:38-42— with Mk. 16:1-8, Mt, 28:1-8; Lk. 24:1-11; John 20:1, 2.
3. Now observe the additional events given in Mt. 27:62-66; 28:8-10,11-15; Lk. 24:12; John 20:
3-10.
4. Note two methods of dealing with these accounts of the resurrection: 1) to attempt to har-
monize them, or 2) to regard them as independent and fragmentary and as such incapa-
ble of being harmonized; while 3) all bear clear witness to the fact of the resurrection.
m. The Material Explained.
1. TEXTUAL TOPICS AND QUESTIONS.
1) v. 42. Even; before the coming of the Sab- 5) 16:1. Sabbath was post; i. e. at sunset of
bath, however. Saturday.
2) V. 43. Ojuncillor; i. e. a member of thesan- 6) V. S. Said; lit. " were-saying."
hedrim. 7) T. 4. For ii uias, etc. ; the reason (a) for the
That is, the day, etc.; peculiar to Mark question of v. 3, or (b) that the stone
and characteristic. had to be rolled rather than lifted or
Of-honorable-eatate ; lit. " of good otherwise moved, or (e) that they
form;" i. e. "influential." could not fail to see.
Looking for the Kingdom, etc: not 8) V. 5. (a)NoticethedetailspeculiartoMark.
meaning necessarily a disciple of (b) Fomio man; cf. Mt. 28:5.
Jesus, but cf. John 19:38. 9) V. 7. (a.) And Peter; (1) how characteristic
Boldly went in; better, "grew-bold of Mark? (2) Why thus emphasize
and went-in," in contrast with pre- his name?
vious timidity. (b) Tlwre shall ye see Mm; cf. 1 Cor. 15:
3) T. 46. Learn something of Jewish burial 6; Mt. 28:16.
customs; cf. also Mk. 16:1. (c) As he said; cf. Mk. 14:28.
4) V. 47. Beheld; lit. " were-beholding," i. e. 10) V. 8. Said nothino ," i. e. on their way to the
were looking on while the burial was disciples,
taking place.
816 The Old Testament Student.
2. general topics.
1) The Resurrection, (a) Investigate and develop the following considerations in
their bearing upon the reality of the resurrection : (1) the death and burial
of Jesus ; (2) the empty tomb on the first day of the week ; (3) the collapse
of the disciples after the death of Jesus, their temporary disbelief and the
contrast presented in their courage, faith aud energy after being persuaded
of his resurrection; (4) the testimony of St. Paul, 1 Cor. 15:1-8; (5) the
testimony of the early church ; (6) the spirit of the early church ; (b) apply
the above considerations to (1) the " deception " theory ; (2) the " delusion "
theory; (3) the "inward vision" theory; (c) the significance of the resur-
rection of Jesus, in relation to (1) the gospel history; (2) the apostles; (3)
Jesus himself.
2) The ClironoloKif. Mk. 10:1,2,9. (a) Note the common testimony of the Gospels (as well as of
tradition) that Jesus rose on tho first day of the week (Sunday), of. ML 28:1; Lk. 34:1;
John 20:1; (b) from this point trace back the events of (1) Saturday, Mk. 10:1; 15:42 (Lk.
24:1); (2) Friday, Mk. 15:42; 15:33; 15:1: (3) Thursday, Mk. 14:30; 14:17; 14:12; (4) Wednes-
day, Mk. 14:1,2; (5) Tuesday, Mk. 11:20; (6) Monday, Mk. 11:12; (T) Sunday, ,Mk. 11:11; (c)
endeavor to ;determine on whicli day tho Passover fell (cf. "Study" XXV., lU., 2,2))
whether (1) Thursday-Friday or (2) Friday-Saturday.
IT. The Mat4>rial Organized.
1. Oather the material and classify it under the following heads: 1) important events; 2) Impor-
tant teachings; 3) historical allusions; 4) Jesus as more than man; 5) literary data;
61 chronological data.
2. Condense the material into the briefest i)ossible statement, e. g.:
15:42. At even, since it was tho Preparation.
V. 43. Joseph of Arimathica, a rich counsellor, a believer, asks Pilate for Jesus' body.
V. 44. Pilate wonders and asks if Jesus is dead. '
v. 4.5. Learning it, he grants the body to Joseph,
v. 46. He embalms it and secures it In a rock-tomb.
V. 47. The two Marys see the place.
ve. 42-47. Because it was Preparation evening, Joseph, an injluetitial believer, obtains Jenta' body
from Pilate, who is assured of his death, embalms and entombs it in eight of the two
Marys.
16:1. After the Sabbath three women buy spices to anoint him.
V. 2. They seek the tomb at sunrise.
V. 3. Asking who would remove the stone.
V. 4. They see it, though great, rolled away.
V. 5. They enter and are amazed to see on the right a youth clad in white.
V. 6. He says, Tou seek the crucified Jesus; he is gone, risen from this place.
V. 7. Go, tell the disciples to find him in Galilee, as he said.
V. 8. They flee in contusion, silence and fear.
vs. 1-8. Three women having bought spices, at mmrise after the Sabbath come to the tomb to
atuiint him. Unexpectedly they see the stone removed from the door and in the tomb a
youth clad in white, wito says, Jesus is risen; tell his disciples to meet him in OalUce.
They flee in silent fear.
15:42-16:8. An inlluciitial IwlleTcr, Joseph, ol)t:ilns Jesus' hoily, and cntorahs it. The niornlni; after
the Satiliiitli iTunion oumint; to anoint liliii learn from a youth In the tomb that Jesus U
risen, and will meet the disciples In Galilee. Thef flee in silent fear.
V. The Material Applied.
The Gospel of the Resukrection. l. The resurrection of Jesus in its bear-
ing upon the personal life of the believer; 1) the assurance of acceptance
with God, Rom. 4:24,25 ; 8:34 ; 2) the incentive to a new life and the power
New Testament Supplement. 317
of attaining it, 2 Cor. 5:14,15 ; Rom. 5:10 ; 6:4,5 ; Col. 3:1-4 ; PhU. 3:10, etc.;
3) the certainty of personal resurrection of the whole man, 1 Cor. 15:20 ;
John 6:39,40; 1 Thes. 4:14. 2. The resurrection of Jesus in its bearing
upon the relations and conditions of the resuiTcction life and society ;
1)" we shall know each other there;" 2) a perfected fellowship with the
divine-human Jesus Christ, Phil. 1:23.
STUDY XXXI.- THE LAST INSTRUCTIONS. MARK 16:9-20.
Besome. 1. An account of the burial and resurrection of Jesus. 2. An estimate of the character
and relation of the accounts of the resurrection. 3. The importance of the resurrection
as a fact in the Christian history.
I. The Material Analyzed.
Bead carefully Mk. 16:9-20, and be able to make a definite statement concerning
each of the following points, e. g. :
1. His first appearance and its se- 4. his instructions and promises (vs.
quel (vs. 9-11); 15-18);
2. another appearance and its se- 5. his subsequent departure (v.
quel (vs. 12,13); 19);
3. his appearance and rebuke to the 6. their apostolic activity (v. 20).
eleven (v. 14);
II. The Material Compared.
1. WithMk.l6:9-Ucf. John 20:11-18.
2. With Mlc. 16:13,13 cf. Lk. 24:13-85.
3. With Mk. 16:14-18 cf. Mt. •28:16-20; Ik. 24:36-49; John 20:19-23.
4. With Mk. 16:19,20 cf.Lk. 24:50-.J3; Acts 1:6-14.
5. Obserye 1) the apparent discrepancy in Mk. 16:14 and Mt. 28:16 as to place; 2) the form of
Mk. 16:9-30, (a) a summary of events detailed in the other narratives, (b) lacking the vivid
detail of Mark.
6. In connection with Mk. 16:1-30 and parallels the student would find it profitable to make a
list of the events and circumstances gathering about the resurrection and ascension.
ni. The Material Explained. •
1. textual topics and questions.
1) v. 9. (a) Appeared; the word may be used 7) T. 16. Believeth and is baptized; (a) both re-
(1) of visions in dreams, etc. (Mt. 1: quired; (b) significance in order?
30), or (3) of actual bodily sight (Lk. 8) V. 17. Them (ftatfieheue,- (a) does this signify
9:8). Note the same word, vs. 12,14. (1) the whole body of believers? or
(b) From whom he had cast out, etc. ; (2) certain indi\nduals among them ?
(1) cf. Lk. 8:3; (2) why mentioned (b) how may this be said to be ful-
here rather than in 15:40? filled? Cf. Acts 8:7; 2:4; 28:5; 28:8,
3) V. 11. When; better "though." etc.
3) T. 12. In another form; cf. Lk. 24:16, i. e. 9) T. 19. (a) Lord Jesus; significance of the
changed somehow so that they did title (1) as regards belief of the
not recognize the old familiar form. writer, (2) as bearing upon the au-
4) V. 13. Neither believed they; so vs. 11,14; thorship of these verses.
why so emphasize this ? (b) Sat doi/>ii, etc.; (1) cf. Ps. 110:1;
5) v. 14. Upbraided; same word as in 15:33. (2) it was the same Jesus.
6) T. 15. (a) He said; either (1) on the same 10) T. 20. (a) Everywhere; learn something of
occasion as v. 14, or (3) as in Mt. 28: the extent of the apostolic preach-
16. ing of the Gospel,
(b) Whole creation; i. e. only limited (b) Note the two-fold activity of the
by capacity to receive. ascended Lord.
818 The Old Testament Studewt.
2. general topics.
l)._'nie LaKt TiTelTe Terse* of Mark. Vs. 9-20. (a) Note the difference of opinioa In re^rd to the
relation of this section to the rest of the Gospel ; (b) the view that these verses were not
originally a part of the Gospel ; grounds for It, ill the manuscripts; (i) the difference In
literary style, peculiar expressions, want of vivid detail, etc. : (3i tradition; (c) the argu-
ment for its being an original part of the Gospel, (1) manuscripts; (i) early testimony and
usage: (3) abrupt ending of v. K; (d) the view that Mark added it at a later time; (e) the
authority which It carries, if not by Mark.
2) The Kisen Jesus, (a) Study the Scripture statements as to the life and person
of Jesus during this period ; cf. Mk. 16:9,12.14 ; Mt. 28:9,17 ; Lk. 24:15,16,
30,31,36,37,39.43 ; John 20:1.5.17,19,27 ; 21:4,13,15 ; Acts 1:3 ; (b) obser\'e that
from Acts 1:3 this period is called "the great forty days'"; (c) decide, if
possible, from the above passages between the following views: (1) Jesus
rose with his perfected " resurrection body," in which he manifests himself
to the disciples ; (2) Jesus rose with his earthly body, which at the time of
his ascension was transformed into the ''resurrection body"; (3) he rose
with his earthly body, which was, during this period, gradually being
transformed, etc. ; (4) lie adopted an earthly body for these appearances,
the glorified body with which he rose being suited only for the heavenly
life ; (d) suggest some reasons why Jesus appeared so seldom and to the
disciples only; (e) note some results of this forty days' period, (1) certainty
of the resurrection ; (2) restoration of Peter, John 21:15-17; (3) instruction
as to the future, cf. Acts 1:3-8; (4) organization of the new community,
Mt. 28:18-20.
3) The Ascension, (a) Study the Scripture statements. Mk. 16:13; Lk. 24:.il; Acts 1:9; (b) com-
pare also Lk. 9:51; John H:2,I2; l(i:5,38; 17:11; 20:17; Eph. 4:10; (c) note the relation
between the resurrection and the ascension; (d) the bearing of these statements and
considerations in (a) (b) (c) upon the objective reality of the ascension; (e) some reasons
why no direct statements are given in Matthew and John ; (f I significance of the ascen-
sion, (1) its naturalness in the life of Jesus; i2i as the means to his exaltation; i3) its bear-
ing on the locality of heaven ; (4) in the life of the church and the individual believer,
Mk. 16:20; John 16:7.
IV. The Material Organized.
1. GatJierOiemateriaJ and classify It under the following heads: 1) persons; 2) important events:
3) habits and customs; 4) Jesus as man and as more than man; 5) literary data: 6) mira-
cles.
2. Condense Oie material Into the briefest possible statement, e. g. :
v. 9. He appears after his resurrection first to Mary Magdalene, a healed demoniac.
V. 10. She tells his mourning disciples.
V. 11. They disbelieve her story.
VS. 9-11. Mary Magdalene i» the flrat to »et the risen Jems and tells his disciples, but they dis-
lielieve her.
V. 12. Later, two, on a country walk, see him lu another form.
V. 13. They tell of It, but are not believed.
vs. 12,13. Two who see him a* they walk teli of U, but are not beltmtd.
V. 14. The eleven, while at meat, see blm: he ohldes them for not believing those who saw
him.
V. l.'i. He says to them, " Go, preach everywhere to everybody."
V. 16. '• He who believes and is baptized shall be saved; he who believes not, condemned."
V. 17. " Believers shall, as signs, ctist out devils in my name and speak new tongues."
V. 18. "They shall handle serpents and drink poison without barm; shall heal the sick."
V. 19. Thereon the Lord Jesus goes Into heaven and sits at God's right hand.
V. 20. They preach everywhere, the Lord helping and giving signs. Amen.
New Testament Supplement. 319
VB. 14-20. He appears to the eleven, chides thtm for their unbelief, bids them preach everywhere,
saying, " Baptized believers shall be saved, unbelievers condemned; believers shall work
signs of power and mercy." Then he ascends to Ood's right hand ; they preach every-
where, attended by his effectual help.
vs. 9-20. When the disciples disbeliered the story of Mary, who first saw him risen, and the two,
irlio saw him as they walked, he appears to them, chides them, bids them preach every-
where, promising salvation and miraculous power to belieTers. He ascends to God ; they
with his eflfectual help preach everywhere.
y. Tbe Material Applied.
The Mission of Disciples. Mk. 16:16,16. 1. These commands of Jesus in
their bearing upon disciples in every age ; 1) by reason of their common
Cliristian life ; 2) so far as in previous ages disciples have failed to obey
them. 2. The unlimited obligation conditioned on the promise, Mt. 28:20.
3. Possibility of accomplishing in the present age the work commanded.
4. Preaching considered as the great work, involving 1) proclamation, 2)
persuasion to obedience, Mt. 28:19, 3) instruction, Mt. 28:20. 5. Its result,
1) faith leading to baptism and securing salvation or 2) unbelief, incurring
condemnation. 6. How am I related to the last instructions of Jesus the
Christ ?
STUDY XXSII.— REVIEW OF THE LATER PERIOD. MARK 10:1-16:20.
Introductory. 1. In bringing- to a close these studies upon Mark's Gospel and before taking up
the remaining eight "studies" (a topical view of the Life and Times of Jesus the Christ),
it will be found helpful (1) to renew Studies XVIII.-XXXT. somewhat carefully, and (2) to
obtain a moreorlesscomplete view of the whole Gospel. 2. The purpose will be to gather
up the results which the separate "studies" have produced. Hence the student's work
will be directed to obtaining general views ; the material will be taken up as a whole ; the
directions given and help furnished will be suggestive. 3. Do not underrate the impor-
tance of this review. It is the most valuable part of the whole work. What has been
done before is incomplete without this. It will serve to organize and fix in the mind the
results of previous studies. 4. In connection with this "study" one of the smaller lives
of Jesus might profitably be read. Stalker's "Life of Jesus Christ" or Vallings' "Jesus
Christ the Divine Man,"* are recommended. ^. The spirit in which to enter upon this
"study" is important to consider. So comprehensive, so valuable a work, one, too,
which involves some drudgery and patient thoiight and perseverance, will require an
earnest determination to be faithful to the end.
I. The Events of the Later Period, t
1. Read over again as a whole Mk. 10:1-16:20 and organize the material about the
following divisions : 1) the later active ministry, 10:1-52; 2) the last week,
11:1-15:47; 3) the consummation, 16:1-20.
2. Insert in their proper places among the events of each division the chief additional facts
furnished in the other gospels.
3. Study and combine the chronological statements to learn something about the duration of
the later ministry.
4. Make as a final result a condensed statement covering the life and work of
Jesus during this period.
• Jesub Christ, the Divtne Man ; his Life and Times. By J. F. 'Vallings, M. A. In the
series of " Men of the Bible." New York: 4. JD. F. Randolph <t Co. Price $1.00. An excellent
work dealing with the spiritual and universal elements in the life of Jesus.
t In the study of this section the student will find serviceable the materials gathered in his
note book, as also in the course of the topics to follow.
320 The Old Testament Student.
II. Characteristics of the Later Period.
From a study of the narratives and a consultation of the material already gath-
ered, let the student be able to make a more or less full and definite state-
ment upon the following topics :*
1. The chief characteristics of the ministry in Perea.
2. The omission in Mark of details about this ministry.
3. The chief characteristics in the history of the last week.
4. The miracles of the later period, their number and character.
5. Tlie addresses of the later period, their number and character.
6. The character of Jesus as revealed in the last week.
7. The attitude of the people during the last week.
8. The spirit and bearmg of the disciples from the time of Jesus' arrest to his
ascension.
9. The Resurrection— its reality and effects.
III. A Comparative Study of the Later Period.
1. Having already noted the events of this period, compare them with those of the Qalilean
Ministry, Mk. 1 : 14-9 :50, gathering the conclusions under the following heads : 1) the people
and their relation to Jesus; 2) his disciples and their relation to him; 3) his miraculous
works, their number and character.
2. Make a similar comparison of the teachinfiS of Jesus In these periods: 1) as to the form and
manner of his teaching; e. g. the parables: 2) as to the material of bis teaching; state-
ments concerning his own death, Mk. 8:31 ; 9:31 : 10:33,34; 14:22-25.
3. Compare the revelation of the character and person of Jesus In these periods: 1) similar
qualities and characteristics; 2) new and higher traits of character.
IT. The Ministry of Jesns as a Whole.
Consider thoughtfully the following topics and endeavor to form a simple and
definite idea about each of them :t
1. Jesus as his works reveal him.
2. Jesus as his words reveal him.
3. Jesus as an historical character.
4. The claims of Jesus and their establishment.
5. Jesus as the Divine Man and the Universal Saviour.
• No more profitable work could be done than to write out more or less fully a statement
covering each of these topics.
t Where more than one engage in this study some of these topics may be assigned to individ-
uals and thus the labor be divided and progress facilitated.
♦•T5E •:'OLD •:'TES^r;^ii2Ep-:- studep.-^
Vol. VIII. MAY, 1889. No. 9.
Can one recall too frequently the grandeur of the theme and the
magnitude of the field which is presented in the study of the Scriptures .'
The Old Testament — the record of divine manifestations and divine
activities among men from the beginning until the coming of the Son
of Man ; the New Testament — portraying larger and grander possi-
bilities and realities for man in communion with the Most High ; the
Bible — sweeping through the centuries from Eden to the City of God
in its histor}^ of Jehovah's redemption on behalf of humanity, pictur-
ing immortal glories, arousing infinite aspirations which its truth
alone can satisfy, encouraging eternal hopes whose fulfilling it is ever
working among men to accomplish ; God's Book, Man's Book.
Should not the consciousness of all that is involved in such a study be
kept in living recollection ? May it stimulate to unwearied applica-
tion in apprehending the meaning and spirit of the word of God.
The April number of The Old Testament Student con-
tained information of a somewhat important change in the business
management and general purposes of the journal. It is hoped that
subscribers generally have regarded favorably what cannot but be a
marked advance in the line of the ideas which have controlled the
work of The Student in the past. Beginning as T/ic Hebrew Stic-
dent with the design of encouraging the study of the Hebrew of the
Old Testament, it enlarged its field so as to cover the interests of the
Old Testament as a whole and became The Old Testament Stu-
dent. Now again, by influences almost beyond its own control, it
*2
322 The Old I'estament Student.
has been constrained to take another forward step. This advance
movement has been steadily resisted by the conductors of this journal.
They have felt unwilling even to consider so serious a matter as enter-
ing the New Testament field. They have avoided and deferred it. But
it has constantly presented itself and steadily demanded consideration.
With great hesitation was it determined to admit the second series of
"Inductive Studies on the Life and Times of the Christ." But these
Studies have been favorably received. They have not interfered with,
rather they have assisted, the purposes which the journal represents.
They have been the occasion of many requests to continue in larger
measure the admission of New Testament material into THE STU-
DENT. With an opening for more extended business facilities and
the removal of the journal to New York City, the opportunity seems
to have arrived. It is earnestly desired that the decision may have
the approval of all the subscribers when the announcement is made
that (i) a practically new journal, yet with the aims and high stand-
ard of the older one, (2) enlarged to sixty-four pages in each number,
(3) issued twelve times a year, instead of ten, as heretofore, (4) will
publish its first number July, 1889, (5) under the name of The Old
AND New Testament Student.
A detailed account of the new features of the new enterprise has
been given in the prospectus already referred to. It may not be
amiss, however, to refer again to some of the more important ones,
(i) A department of expository preaching. It is a cause of complaint
on the part of some that THE STUDENT is too critical in its tone and
not as helpful as it might be to the minister in his study, especially in
his direct work of preparation for the pulpit. This objection has not
been unforeseen but has been deliberately disregarded. It has been
thought that the indirect influence of the high standard maintained by
this journal in biblical investigation, in its resolute condemnation of
false methods of Bible study and interpretation, and the admission of
only that material which was scholarly and thoroughly scientific, has
had its effect upon the ministry in leading them to a more earnest
study and a more careful use of the Scriptures in their private and
public work. It has now been decided to devote a department of the
new journ'al to the advocacy of expository preaching. Material will
be furnished of a character to be used by ministers in their homiletic
studies and pulpit work. Methods will be suggested, outlines of
expository sermons given, and everything which will help to a revival
and an extension of this kind of preaching will be considered. (2)
Excellent portraits of some of our leading biblical scholars, with bio-
Editorial. 323
graphical sketches by competent hands, will be given. It is hoped
that the portrait of Prof. Wm. Henry Green will appear in the July
number. (3) Help will be offered to those who are teaching the Bible
in the suggestion of methods, the best literature and practical exam-
ples of work on the part of experienced teachers.
In fact, it is proposed in The Old and New Testament Stu-
dent to conserve and improve all the best elements of the old and
add better and broader features which the new opportunities afford
May it not be asked of the subscribers who believe in this work, who
favor this extension of it, and are to receive the benefit of the' new
movement, (i) that they will continue the interest and help which
they have so freely given to the journal in the past, and (2) that, in
every way possible, by a renewed and enlarged practical assistance,
they will make more widely known and more effective the work
which this journal is doing. The enlargement of its field ought to
double its subscription list. Whether this result shall come, de^pends
in no small measure on those who are at present numbered among its
subscribers.
The ninth season of the Summer Schools of the American Insti-
tute of Hebrew is announced. Five Schools will be held (i) at Yale
Divinity School, New Haven, Conn., May 21-June 11 • (2) at P E
Divinity School, Philadelphia, June 13-JuIy 3 ; (3) at' Chautauqua'
N. Y., a first session, July 6-26 ; (4) at Chautauqua, a second session
July 27-Aug. 15 ; (5) at Chicago, Garrett Biblical Institute, Evanston'
Aug. I S-Sept. 4. The courses of study offered to students are various
enough to meet the wants of beginners in Hebrew or of advanced
students of Arabic and Assyrian. There is no doubt about the practi-
cal benefits wrought by these Schools. There has been no time in
which these benefits are recognized more clearly by students and
ministers than at the present. Not a few among the subscribers to
The Student have attended one or more sessions of them The
hope may be expressed that this year will see a larger number pres-
ent than ever before. The Principal expects to be in attendance at all
the Schools, and judging from the corps of instructors engaged such
as Profs. Brown, Burnham, Gottheil, Jastrow, McClenahan Terry
Weidner, and others, and from the experience of the past, the oppor-
tunities offered are superior and the results to be gained by those
who attend will be satisfying and permanent. Let all who are think
mg favorably of the matter begin to make their plans to spend a part
of the vacation in study at one of the Hebrew Summer Schools
324
The Old Tes-i'AMJSnt Student.
A NECESSARY delay in the issuing of Hebraica for January has
occasioned the publication of that number in connection with the
number for April, making a double issue of over one hundred pages.
The interest of most readers will centre in the elaborate reply of Prof.
Wm Henry Green to the views of Pentateuch Analysis held by the
critics as presented in the October number by Prof. Harper. It will
be clearly seen (i) that the traditional view is not by any means with-
out able defenders and strong defences, (2) that the critical vew is
open to trenchant attack from more than one stand-point and in more
than one of its presumably unassailable positions, and il) that, most
important of all, in these two articles, Bible students of America have
an opportunity given for the first time of studying for themselves the
fundamental elements of this Pentateuch Question. It is certainly
desirable that as many as possible among our ministry take such a
time and opportunity as is afforded them here to test the critical
hypothesis and determine for themselves the solution of this matter.
IWESTIGATIONS into the Scriptures, as into any departinent of
knowledge, are subject to the law oi perspective One line of study
both modifies and is modified by other lines which make up the whole.
How often this is forgotten! In theology it is not seldom the case
that doctrines of minor importance have been exalted by some to a
chief place. Others, having a passion for dogma, are impatient with
those who, by careful study of the form and contents of the Bible,
brin- forth facts not harmonious with their formulas. May not those
who^confine their studies to biblical literary criticism -retimes fail
to remember that the results of such work must be correlated with the
larger, more spiritual and vital results of profounder investigations
How much trouble comes from neglecting this ^--' f ^^^^^ ^l
What controversy would be avoided, what personal difficulty and
doubt leading on, alas, sometimes to spiritual shipwreck, would be
esc.oed -if students would take care to estimate what seen^s to be
tru" and established in their special line of work according to the tests
afforded by other methods and results attained in other lines of the
same great field.
PROPORTION AND METHOD IN OLD TESTAMENT STUDY.
By Pbof. J. P. McCuEDY, Ph. D.,
University of Toronto.
Among those who study the Old Testament earnestly and at the same time
agree as to the value of its contents, it is natural that there should be consider-
able difference of opinion as to the relative practical importance of its several
parts. When it is considered that the Hebrew Scriptures were primarily intended
for a race vv'hich in its history and providential training has had no modem par-
allel, and for conditions of society and civilization which do not repeat them-
selves ; when it is further taken into account that this literature is extremely
various in its subject matter, in form, in immediate purpose, and in historical
occasion; and when finally it is remembered that the books themselves contain
no direct practical application of their spiritual and moral teachings to times and
races beyond those immediately in view, it is easy to understand the difficulty of
securing a fixed standard for adjudging to each book on each main division its
true permanent place in the whole great educational system of the Old Covenant.
Under such conditions it might seem as though the readiest and most obvious
principle of selection were the best, namely, that each votary of the Old Testa-
ment should regard that portion as the most valuable which serves him best for
moral nurture and practical helpfulness. And this must ultimately be the right
principle of estimation, since from the very natiue of the whole collection it can
only be tested by its moral and spiritual effects. If these tests, however, are to
be uniform and final, it is necessary that those who study and meditate upon the
sacred records should have a competent knowledge of the objective facts with a
right conception of their primary scope and purpose. Otherwise, it is not only
possible but inevitable that large portions of Scripture will be misintei'preted or
slighted, and while reverent souls are anxious to use the whole Word of God for
devotional ends or at least in some practical way, such a use is often likely to be
factitious and unstable. This danger is, perhaps, universally recognized, or would,
at least, be generally admitted, and yet it seems to be little considered ; the guides
of the people may, to be sure, point out to their hearers or pupils the pre-eminent
importance of certain passages in the Old Testament, for practical or doctrinal
purposes, but they seldom attempt to give them a fixed criterion by which they
may judge for themselves of the applicability of the different kinds of composi-
tion to the purposes of religious and moral culture. This failure has been, no
doubt, largely due to the unfortunate circumstance that the requisite preliminary
studies have been supposed to be proper work only for technically trained stu-
dents, but this error is only a symptom of a deeper evil. The main cause is the
same as that which has occasioned the prevalent neglect of real study of the Old
Testament, and indifference to everything in it which is not a matter of easy edi-
fication. It is an indolent acquiescence in the current conventional view that all
parts of the Bible are equally " good." The truth of such a statement is granted
326 The Old Testasient Student.
without much opposition, since it seems to be an obvious corollary from the
proposition that the whole Bible is of divine origin; and no trouble has been
taken by the mass of Bible teachers and readers to show in what different senses
the term " good '' may be understood. The practical result of this whole tendency
has been that the Old Testament is popularly studied in but two ways : texts are
sought out for the establishment of doctrines, and single passages are worked up
more or less homiletically for piuposes of direct edification.
A variety of courses now promises to make Old Testament study in influential
quarters more discriminating, more real, and more solid. Three of these may be
mentioned. There is, in the first place, the critical tendency of the times which,
whatever may be its excesses and mistakes, is mainly due to the desire for more
light and greater certitude. It has helped largely to clear up obscuiities in the
text and to bring out clearly the historical setting of much of the Old Testament
teaching. Again, there is coming into vogue a much surer system of hermeueu-
tics than in the old days when it was felt necessary to allegorize or spiritualize at
will large portions of the llebrew literature, which were merely the record of
facts in the history of the chosen people or expressions of their intellectual and
moral development. Lastly a more systematic and thorough method of study is
gradually coming to be employed in conformity with the improved educational
principles that prevail in all spheres of inquiry. For example, more attention is
being paid to books or separate compositions, as individual wholes, and in their
relations to one another, and to the greater whole of the one historical revelation,
while the treatment of single passages is more determined, than it has hitherto
been by its coherence with its surroundings. The theological stand-point is not
neglected; but ethical, literary, and historical canons receive more of their due.
There is also some ground for the hope that what is now being done in these
directions by scholars and a few leading Bible teachers among the clergy and laity
will become more readily and directly available for the people at large.
This much needed reform I have ventured to call " proportion " in Old Testa-
ment study. By this I mean paying due attention to each kind and section of the
Hebrew records according as they severally contain appropriate material for
instruction and practical help. From what has been already said it is manifestly
impossible for any individual or any body of men to divide up the Bible minutely
into sections for the use or guidance of readers generally, and thereby indicate the
relative degree of importance that is to be attached to each. All that can be done
is to give general hints as to some main considerations that should have weight
with any one seeking to frame some sort of working canon for himself. A few
such suggestions I would diflidently offer here, putting them in the form of lead-
ing propositions with brief accompanying remarks.
1. In all proper study the teaching of the Old Testament must be learned at
first hand.
It is involved in the nature of the material of study and of its practical use
that its appropriation and utilization depend upon moral judgments. To be wel-
come to a man for his practical guidance it must commend itself to him as worthy,
righteous, and wholesome. Here the authority of any of our fellows is of no per-
manent value to us : we must put the matter to the test of personal experience.
Wliile this is universally admitted, it does not seem to be as generally or heartily
granted that the formation of our opinions as to the exact meaning or drift of any
portion of our moral and spiritual text-book must also be an independent process
Proportion and Method in Old Testament Study. 327
if it is to have any essential value. In other words what we are to learn from the
Old Testament is of little practical significance to us unless we find it or verify it
for ourselves. Otherwise we do not learn it from the Old Testament at aU, but
from books or people that aflSrm it to be the teaching of the Old Testament.
Unfortunately it is just in this latter way that most of the popular impressions of
Old Testament teaching are acquired. We indolently acquiesce in second-hand
or perhaps fiftieth-hand interpretations or current applications of passages more
or less familiar, and as a rule we do not trouble ourselves to test these impressions,
which have the force of convictions, by the immediate or larger context of such
passages. One of the evil results is that we are apt to find a good doctrine or a
saving precept where it is not taught. The chances are that it may be presented
elsewhere in the Old Testament, though this is not always the case, nor would it
justify the error if it were. A memorable instance of such unquestioning accept-
ance of incompetent authority is the ancient belief and still popular persuasion
that the Old Testament contains explicit statements about the future life. A
minor example taken at random is the application usually given to the words in
Jer. 29:11, "to give you hope in your latter end," as our version renders the
phrase. Moreover, even when the current interpretation is right the reader or
hearer who accepts it without question and without verification is still grossly at
fault and at serious disadvantage since he does not make the thing his own as a
bibUcal fact or truth. Obviously such a reader or hearer is in very unfavorable
circumstances for securing proportion in Old Testament study.
2. The teaching of the Old Testament does not all lie upon the surface, but
most of it at various depths below the surface.
The amount of study — research, attention, reflection — that needs to be expended
on the Old Testament for personal religious culture is very different in different
parts. Let us look for a moment at the character of the material and its general
teaching. According to the admirable an'augement of our modern versions we
have three grand divisions of the contents : history, national and individual ; per-
sonal experience and reflections based thereon ; and prophecy — instruction in the
stricter sense, in form as well as in matter, the interpretation (cf. Isa. 43:27) of
the ways of God with men. On the other hand, what the Scriptures have to tell
men for their moral and spiritual guidance may be summed up under two heads :
their teaching as to the nature of God revealed in his dealings with man, and their
teaching as to what men's belief and conduct should be in view of such a revela-
tion. Now a very little consideration will suggest to us how various in point of
plainness the different forms and parts of this diverse teaching are. With respect
to the nature and ways of God, how, for example, the clear and precise terms of
the revelation from Sinai and the grand, broad intuitions of many of the Psalms
differ in apprehensibility from the slowly evolved and only half-expressed lessons
of Job and Ecclesiastes, or the great final interpretation of the long drawn out
and complex drama of history and prophecy ! And with regard to the life and
duties of men, how much more direct and easily learned by heart are the explicit
commands of the Decalogue and the clear-cut maxims of Proverbs than the
implicit lessons of the vast array of individual and national experiences that have
been set for our learning in the chronicles of the theocracy and the biographies
of patriarchs, kings and prophets !
These matters again may seem to be, as they in fact largely are, common-
places of biblical study. But are they usually taken to heart by Bible readers as
328 The Old Testament Student.
if they suggested aia>'thing for right methods of working with the Bible ? Is it
not true that we are apt to read or, as we say, " study " the whole Bible pretty
much in one unvarj'ing fashion, and that we as a general rule refuse to the por-
tions which contain the less explicit teacliing. the research, attention, and reflec-
tion which they demand ? Is there not here further to be recorded a failure to
observe proportion in study ? Is there not often to be observed what amounts to
a shirking of the duty of searching for hid treasures under the tacit assumption
that anything in the Bible whose meaning is obvious must necessarily be of more
practical importance than anything whose meaning has to be slowly and systemat-
ically (" scientifically ") studied out 'f
3. An indispensable prerequisite to due proportion in Old Testament study is
a correct notion of the development of the Israelitish literature.
Probably no single collection of books ever written stands in so much need of
sifting, comparison, and systematization in order to secure a proper idea of the
scope of the whole, the relation of the parts, and the progress of the leading
thoughts, as does the Old Testament. Unlike the New Testament, which was com-
posed within half a century , the composition of the Old extended over ten centuries.
Viewed from the human side alone, it was the outgrowth of a unique history and
an unexampled moral and religious experience. It furnishes within itself no
ready-made theory of its growth or of the range of its many sided teaching — and
so biblical theology, logically the first as it is the most fundamental of the sacred
sciences, is historically the last, and has not yet become popularized. Some of
the most important of the books as we have tliem are composite, notably the Pen-
tateuch, the Psalms, Proverbs and Isaiah, and it is only to a comparatively small
portion of the whole that a date has been affixed by the authors so that the rela-
tive stages of development on which much of it stands are a matter of inference.
The terms in which the great leading ideas are expressed — such as sm, wicked-
ness, guilt, folly, wisdom, judgment, righteousness— had a history which to us is
somewhat obscured through the lack of definite early associations, and no glossary
has been transmitted to us along with the text.
But it is manifest to any one who gives any earnest thought to the matter
that the Old Testament must be utilized through the overcoming of such difficul-
ties. There must be guiding threads in the checkered story of objective revela-
tion just as there was a purpose in the directing Providence and a genuine history
of rational moral experience in the human minds and hearts that furnished the
basis and conditioned the processes of the subjective revelation. It is necessary
to emphasize the true circumstances of the case, because it is so natural and so
common to think that while there are puzzling things in matters of detail the main
outline of Old Testament revelation is obvious and distinct. The facts point the
other way : it is a rare thing to find any one who lias a consistent, intelligent idea
of the progress of teaching in the Old Testament or of the development of the liter-
ature, just because matters of detail are not sufficiently studied and understood
and gathered up into consistent wholes ; because little effort is made to bridge over
in the imagination the vast historical and psychological interval between our
times, our mental ways and hiibits, and those represented in the work we profess
to study and expound ; because we do not try in sympatlietic appreciation to think
through the problems and the experiences that maVe the warp and woof of the
Hebrew records. But it is idle to speak of study of the Old Testament in any
real, profound sense unless these things are done. Only those who have endeav-
Proportion and Method in Old Testament Study. 329
ored in some measure to do the work can have any idea of the difference in results
as well as in methods between this only right system and the easy-going habit of
taking current geueraUties on faith.
Now there is one great guiding principle for our metliod of studying the Old
Testament, namely, the inner necessity of taking the work and words of the
prophets as the central and determining element. So important is this principle
that probably the best division that has been made of Old Testament teaching
or "theology" is that which marks it off into the three stages of pre-prophetic,
prophetic, and post-prophetic. It was the call and the ministry of the literary
prophets, Hosea, Amos, Isaiah, Micah, and their successors which, more than
anything else, contributed to awaken God's people to a deeper sense of the true
character of individual as well as national sin, of the certainty and desert of its
punishment ; of the claims of the righteous Jehovah to obedience and trust ; of
the need of a positive, inward righteousness which alone, apart from outward
rites, could be acceptable to the righteous God ; of the sure coming of a moral
and spiritual redemption which should be larger and more precious than political
or social prosperity and should include not the Hebrews alone but all the nations
of the earth of whom Jehovah was also Father and King ; of the mission of the
righteous servant who was to bring in this glad redemption and " educe infallibly
the riglit order of things " (Isa. 42:3), for Israel and the world. With the literary
productions of this creative, regenerative era must be classed also most of the
Psalms and much of the so-called " wisdom " literature, with its debates and con-
clusions on the deepest problems of life and duty and its maxims for the practical
guidance of human life.
It is evident and undeniable that here we have the core and quintessence of
the Old Testament teaching. The first principles of the method of study accord-
ingly suggest themselves at once. It is the best method to make this great divi-
sion of the Old Testament the centre and starting point of our investigations.
4. For practical ends those portions of the Old Testament should be most
assiduously studied which contain the records of personal exx)erience.
Reverting for a moment to the familiar division of the contents of Scripture
into the two great heads of the revelation of God's natm-e and ways, and their
teaching as to what man's conduct and belief should be under such a revelation,
it is to be observed that while in the Old Testament much is given us in both
classes of teaching in the way of direct statement and of positive, explicit com-
mand, a great deal more is conveyed indirectly in the form of a record of the
gradual unfolding of human conceptions of God and duty through personal trial
and conflict, through long schooling and slow learning. Thus the receptiveness
of the human spirit was the outcome of centuries of disciplinary training. Not
otherwise has it always been and is now; only the ancient Hebrews had a
special revelation and a special training. We have the same lessons to learn as
they. The heart is still deceitful above all things. It is still as easy and natural
as ever to lie, to cheat, to covet, to forget and disobey God. The spoiling of a
family and the corruption of a state are occurrences as familiar now as in the
days of David or Jeremiah. We can learn by seeing how the old God-instructed
Hebrews were taught. There is nothing that can take the place of this Old
Testament teaching. There the story was told once for all with a prodigality of
illustration so various and profuse that it did not need to be told again under
du-ect divine superintendence. The New Testament does not need to repeat
330 The Ou) Testament Student.
the story ; its mission is to supply the motive to take the story to heart. The
world will never outgrow the depth and reach of the teaching as long as evU is
done or forgiveness sought.
But the matter to be chiefly empliasized is that while we can best learn the
divine law and cliaracter and tlie laws of human duty through concrete examples
of the working of tlie divine Spirit upon humau souls and the conduct of men like
ourselves under this special schooling of Providence, there is one great department
of Old Testament literature in which these conditions are presented in a way to
make the study most highly interesting and profitable. I refer, of course, to the
prophetic literature supplemented by the later liistories. In it all the elements of
history 'teaching by example, are at their fullest and best. Moreover, it not only
tells the story, but it points the moral — a moral which in the region of practical
life and spiritual w-orship it is so difficult for us to draw for ourselves. It is the
first and last text-book of ethics, and the best moral guide for men of affairs, for
statesmen and lawyers and merchants for wliom it solves in advance the problem
of business and political aims and principles. It is above and beneath all the
great source for theology, in the strict sense of that word. In it God not only
announces but proves himself to be, by the witness of his people which He invokes,
not only the righteous Ruler and Judge, but the faithful uuforgetting promise-
keeping God, the Father and Shepherd of his people; and makes the further
claim to be the God and Saviour of mankind — a claim to whose justice the present
and the coming age are the best witne.sses.
With reference to the special plea made for the prophetic literature in its
widest sense that it is our best authority for practical religion and moral life, for
conduct and duty, it is necessary to add, for the sake of proportion in study, that
it fulfills these conditions in a different way from that exhibited in the pre-
prophetic writings. In it the ethical, the right, the just, the holy in character
and conduct, are exalted to the highest plane ; they form its theme, its burden,
its motive. With the preaching propliets and tlieir more meditative contempo-
raries, the Hebrew poets, who were just as truly the seers of the nation and the
world, it was a matter wider and deeper and more immediate than personal or
even national life or death that the righteousness of Jehovah should be vindi-
cated, and that the consequential moral compulsion of obedience and faith should
be recognized by his people. Hence we find in tlieir utterances the ethical every-
where and paramount. From them we have what we may call the great govern-
ing motives of the Old Testament : seriousness, earnestness, reverence, faith,
truth. Compared with the extra prophetic literature, which has its own indis-
pensable place in the progress of Old Testament teaching, we find a decisive
advance with corresponding greater practical utility. One thing at least may here
be indicated. In the prophetic handling of sin, its personal relations are empha-
sized. It is showTi even where national sins are spoken of, to be self-destruction,
ingratitude, disobedience, wrong, with personal consequences in the undoing of
the offender or the nation as a punishment based upon moral laws. If we now
take the earUer literature we shall find that, as a rule, specific cases of transgres-
sion are treated of in their relations to the divinely instituted community or state
rather than in their relations to personal character. Only on this supposition can
we, for example, explain the punishment meted out to Uzzah and the men of
Bethshemesh for theii- respective offenses with regard to the ark, or tliat no moral
judgment is passed upon the sins of the then great patriarchs, a thing which would
Proportion and Method in Old Testament Study. 331
strike us as strange in the prophetic writings and the biographical notices con-
tained in them. David, again, was ''a man after God's mind" (not "heart")
mainly because he was tlie founder of the dynasty and the strong rule that was to
secure the perpetuation of the chosen people as the vehicle of revelation ; not
because he was a pattern to his subjects of a correct life or an ideal religious
monarch.
Most of the practical conclusions that may be drawn from the above facts
easily suggest themselves. I shall conclude with a few brief remarks.
In the first place, great harm is being done by pressing beyond their legiti-
mate biblical range of application, many of the events recorded in the earlier his-
tory of the Old Testament. It is temerity and presumption as well as an" injury
to the cause of the Bible itself to undertake the allegorizing of incidents of
entirely neutral moral significance such as one finds in the admirable " Peep of
Day " series for the young and in much Sunday-school teaching and religious lit-
erature everywhere. Taking the Pentateuch, Joshua and Judges as a whole, I
fear that such comments as I have indicated form the staple of the popular
explanation of their contents. Meanwhile as to the prophetic literature with all
its inexhaustible perennial wealth of instruction and practical help, with its con-
tents more level to oiu' apprehension and in accord with our experience, and with
its interpretation much more under our control, what one most frequently hears
about it, besides the citation of single texts, is one elaborate attempt after another
to explain obscure predictions or to justify symbolizing theories and the like
enterprises of secondary importance. Indeed, it is questionable whether it is not
still the popular impression that prophecy means primarily and properly pre-
diction.
It may be observed further, that there is no danger lest the view I have
advocated of the paramount importance of the prophetic vnitings as a whole
should tend to rob the Pentateuch of its due influence. That section of the Bible
which contains the moral code of Sinai and the discourses of Deuteronomy can
never be shorn of its glory or its power, either through the indifiierence of friends
or the cavLUings of foes. But taking the Pentateuch as a whole, it cannot be
denied that there is very mucli in it that was of temporary and restricted signifi-
cance, and much again that is beyond the plane of our ordinary experience and
not amenable to the canons of judgment which may be readily applied to other
portions of the Bible. It is a question of proportion in study, of method, of utility.
Finally, we have in the prophetic literature a theodicy and an ethics that are
sublime and just, immediately and universally available, the permanent and
immovable foundation of all moral systems that acknowledge the fear of God to
be the beginning of wisdom. Moreover, the student who gives it due weight and
prominence in his reading and thinking, must set his seal to the testimony that it
is the same God who " of old time spoke to the fathers through the prophets by
divers portions and in divers manners," and who " in the end of these days hath
spoken unto us through a Son."
THE FIGURATIVE ELEMENT IN JOB. I.
By Mr. John S. Zelie,
Tale Divinity School, New Haven.
In this discussiou of the figurative element in the book of Job we cannot
hope to do more than point out the general cliaracteristics of the figurative style.
In connection with this element there arise many questions which belong to other
and special departments of the criticism of tlie book, such as its origin, author-
ship and place of writing ; but with these we have nothing to do. The line which
we follow in tins investigation is only one of many in which this element may be
studied with profitable results ; and in a book where figure, poetry and description
abound, as here, we can in a single study cover but a limited field. We undertake
to consider the figurative element only as it appears in the work of the different
characters of the book and as it gives a key to their individual genius and temper.
With regard, then, to this personal use of language, we raise the question. Is there
discoverable in the speeches of the book a tendency of the individual speakers
toward a certain continuous style of figurative language? Do we find them
adapting their language to their individual views of the problems of the book, and
do we obseiTe that their differences in stand-point and motive correspond with
differences in the source and use of figurative illustration V
With this purpose in mind we apply these questions to the speeches of Eli-
phaz, the first of Job"s three friends, and if we understand bis position correctly,
his figures and language are what we might expect from such a position. Eliphaz
represents the theological dignity and learning of his time. He stands for that
explanation of the human life and the universe and God's dealings with these
that had been up to his time sutHcient to answer all questions. Here is the first
recorded dissatisfaction with orthodoxy, which is called to explain itself, and
throughout this book we cainiot but be impressed with the fact that no bias of
the author has put anything in the way of each speaker's saying the best that
could be said for his own proposition. The figures of Eliphaz are the traditional
figures of his time, country and creed. His speeches are a careful collection of
the best metaphors and comparisons of the old faith. He selects the most strik-
ing of the old similes, forms of speech into which had been condensed the
doctrines of the yeais, but there is nothing new or spontaneous in them. The
advice to Job is that of the preacher and not the friend. His language is cold,
his figiu-es clear cut and beautiful, but they never come down to Job's individual
case.
One particular trait appears especially prominent in his figures, that of
impersonality. His speech is all general. He is treating not of Job's case but of the
case of mankind. He is always didactic and brings no help to Job in his weari-
ness. Even later In the book where, havuig tired of this indirect strain, he falls
to recounting Job's pai'ticular sins, he is still general ; the sins are the sins Job
ought to have committed ; they are the old offenses of landlords : " the taking of
The Figurative Elejient in Job. 333
pledges for nought, stripping the naked, withholding water and bread and turning
the widows away."* His points are the old points, his illustrations the old illus-
trations, always expressed in the most perfect form but briugmg nothing to the
solution of this particular man's life problem.
One main idea seems to follow itself out in his speech, the idea of wickedness
working out its own destruction according to law. To him evei7thing accords
with a law which works itself out as regularly as his own rhetorical arrangement
of it.
Eliphaz's wicked man is no man whom he or Job ever saw. He is the wicked
man he has heard of, the sinner as he should be, one who " plows iniquity, sows
trouble and reaps the same "t according to his favorite simile. The wicked man's
destruction is not that of any man to whom he could point, but is like " the
extinction of the lions ; liis children are far from safety, he finds the sword,
blight, famine and desolation," premature death and obliterated memory, but all
this means nothing by which the hearer can profit. His description of man's low
estate in God's sight is theoretical ; " his foundation is in the dust, he is crushed
like a moth, goes down like the houses of clay, or like a loosened tent cord is his
hold on life. ''J His rewards and punishments and the figures by which he repre-
sents them are all temporal, all sins are carnal, all goodness is goodness of action
and all prosperity visible.
God is the traditional giver of rain, friend of mourners, deliverer from fam-
ine and the sword. His conception of God brings out no new beneficence and no
new poetical figure. His "Good Man" is always visibly good and his reward is
the good reputation, the peaceful tent, the thrifty farm, the good old age and the
blessing of unnumbered offspring. His account of the " vision in the night when
deep sleep falleth upon man,"? though it contributes little to doctrine, contributes
much to form and is the most delicate and skiUful of his descriptions, and per-
haps it is not too much to say of it that it is not surpassed by any of the appari-
tions of literature.
Throughout we find that Eliphaz's figures and arrangement of thought are
harmonions and complete, and in passing to the figures of Bildad we pass to the
consideration of a totally different purpose, plan and atmosphere. Eliphaz was a
man of argnmeut, Bildad of description. The purpose of the former is to convert;
of the latter to overawe. From reason we pass to imagination. Eliphaz gives us
one grand picture absorbing all its details, Bildad a rapid and vivid panorama.
One depends for effect on completeness, the other on single impressions; one is
universal, the other local. The most striking change is the change of place.
Bildad's scenes are from the home of tradition, Arabia. To his mind mere
description of the truth is enough and so he does not argue but puts into his
description the accummulated poetry and fervor of Arabic tradition. Where
Eliphaz was calm and considerate of Job, Bildad is ungovemed and ruthless.
His literary temper he declares at once " How long wilt thou declare these
things ? "II He hates long introductions and wordy subtleties.
The first point about which his figures cluster is the supremacy of God's law
and his remoteness from man's uncleanness. His figures are few, but almost his
first one gives us the clue to his idea of the punishment of sin. It is the same as
that of Eliphaz. Job's children are "given into the hands of their transgres-
►Ch. 23:6,7,9a. tCh.4:i'. tCU.4:19,21. §Ch.4:138qq. ICh.8:3.
334 The Old Testajient Student.
sion."* Punishment comes from one's own wickedness imaided by anything
from without. Tlie second tigure developing liis view of the "law of sin and
death" is that of the fowler. The wicked man's "own counsel shall cast
him headlong. For he Is cast into a net by his own feet and he walketh upon
the toils. A gin shall take him by the heel and a snare shall lay hold on him : a
noose is hid for him in the ground."! It is a vivid picture of the wicked man
caught at last by his own tran.sgressiou.
From his idea of punishment we turn to look at his method of describing
man, for this is a central idea with Bildad. He has no respect for the individual
life or personality. The only testimony that he trusts comes from men in the
mass. One man's testimony out of agreement with the testimony of tradition
counts for nothing. " We are but of yesterday and know nothLng."":J When Job
pleads the possibility of a mistake in the old conception of life, he is met with the
withering oriental sarcasm : '■ Shall the earth be forsaken for thee or shall the
rock be removed out of its place V "J A new departure in his figures describing
man is his comparison of him with the moon and stars in ch. 25, which is a
change from Eliphaz's use of the angels, indicating an oriental tendency to iden-
tify stars with spirits. But it is in Bildad"s description of the '■ Wicked Man's
Fate '" that he finds the broadest field for his rhetoric. Eliphaz gave us a cata-
logue of the wcked man's dangers but BUdad paints each one. The '• dark-
ness " which surrounds Eliphaz's sinner becomes the " darkened tent ; " the
"snares" become the visible "fowler's traps." Like the luxuriant flag and
the rush when water is withdrawn, perishes the evil-doer. || Unstable as the
"spider's house '"I is his trust and to this day the proverb remains in the land.
Like some " shady, well-rooted tree,"** suddenly withered, his life influence fails.
He sends forth the Arab's crj' " Fate has put out my lamp." We see the " dark-
ened tent, the forsaken hearth, the straightened steps "ft and then in solemn and
brilliant figures his final destruction. The "first bom of death," a terribly
impressive figure for Job's own disease, lays hold upon him, secures him and
makes him ready for the " king of terrors." Then comes the last horror of the
Shemitic mind, the worst that this representative of tradition could find, namely,
the desolate and accursed home and the forgotten name. The end of the 18th
chapter embraces all these figures heaped up in a relentless sequence ; brimstone
marks the curse of his habitation and loathsome creatures bear witness to the
eternal unfruitfulness of his domain.
In the speeches of Zophar we find the search for figures directed not by a
desire to argue or to describe but by a desire for a more personal encounter.
With Zophar eveiy figure is a sharp thrust not at Job's theory but at Job himself.
Through Zophar the debate becomes hateful and bitter. Zophai- brings out some
new figures but no new and distinct source of figures. His style is as diflScult
to characterize in a single word as is his personality. He gives us five main des-
criptions. His panegyric on the Divine Wisdom. " High as heaven, deeper than
sheol "It gives us his idea of man's position in relation to God. To his mind
servile obedience to arbitrary rule is all we have a right to think of.
Eveiy speaker in turn describes Job's future prosperity if he will repent, but
strangely out of keeping with his general temper the picture of Zophar seems the
best. It is the most restful of the promises of the friends, and his idea of the
•Ch.8:4. +Ch.l8:7b-10a. *Ch.8:9a. S Ch. 18:4b.c. I Ch. 8:11-13.
1.Ch.8:U. "Ch.8:16-ie. ++Ch. 18:5-7. «Ch.ll:8.
TiELE ON BABYLONIAlSr-AsSTRIAN CULTURE. 335
reward of virtue is of a higher type thau that of the others, higher than Eliphaz's
"peaceful farm"t or Bildad's "shouting lips:"t " Thou shalt forget thy misery;
thou slialt remember it as waters that liave passed away : and thy life shall be
clearer than the noonday ; though there be darkness, it shall be as the morn-
ing."2 . . . Holiness rather than temporal restoration seems to be the induce-
ment to a change of life. The old conception of sin working out its own punish-
ment, common to all three, is dressed up again in the figure of an epicure "in
whose mouth wickedness is sweet "|1 and who is compelled by his own gluttony to
disgorge what he has swallowed. Each of the friends has some favorite point on
which he particularly lavishes his figures. In Bildad's speeches it is the terrible
procession of the wicked man's terrors, in Zophar's it is merciless storm of disaster
that falls upon him, with sudden and utter bewilderment. In Zophar's hand
" Justice becomes a stiletto, not a sword." In the brilliance of the other friends'
figures we forget Job in our wonder at the wicked man's doom ; but Zophar would
turn our attention to the sinner himself with contempt and loathing.
[To be continued.]
TIELE ON BABYLONIAN-ASSYRIAN CULTURE. V.
By Rev. A. S. Carrier,
McCormick Theol. Seminary, Chicago, 111.
Art occupies so prominent a position in the life of Babylonia and Assyria,
and presents so many striking and peculiar features, that even the merest sketch
of their culture would be incomplete without a discussion of at least some of its
phases. Yet in such a discussion one must proceed with caution; for in the
determination of the proper sequence of undated monuments, so much depends
upon subjective estimation, that one is not safe from mistakes without long and
intelligent study of the history of art. The view one takes of the development of
Babylonian- Assyrian art depends necessarily upon his estimate of the period of
such works ; and his judgment of the character and proper value of this artistic
growth must be influenced largely by his aesthetic perception. In this sketch it
wiU not be possible to discuss technicalities, but we shall limit ourselves to the
chief features which belong to the history of the people and found our conclu-
sions upon them.
In the art of Babylonia and Assyria, we find still further proof of the unity
of the two nations ; all leading characteristics being of the same national school,
and the points of difference shown in mere details, works found in Telloh, Babel
and Nineveh presenting the same general features. This is well illustrated by the
materials used in building ; there bein^ no stone f oimd in Babylonia, these were
chiefly dried and burnt bricks ; stone was used only for foundations, or, like the
nobler metals, for adornment, in statues, or bas-reliefs.
In Assyria, where they had not only stone in abundance, but skill to use it,
the inhabitants showed themselves more willing to construct and restore frail
structures of brick, than to deviate from the architectural customs handed down
from their ancestors, and build of more lasting material.
+ Ch. 5:34sqq, tCh. 8:-'l. § Ch. 11:16,17. II Ch. 20:12-16.
336 The Old Testament Student.
There has been some question as to whether the art of these two nations had
its origin in that of Egypt. Assyria undoubtedly felt its .influence. All ivory
articles hitherto found are imitations of the Egjptiau, and the lotos ornament is
used frequently in temple architecture; but there are indications that such influ-
ences were introduced by Aramaic artists, and they cannot be assumed as direct
proof of Egyptian origin. To determine that we must examine the oldest Babylo-
nian monuments. The opinion once prevailed that an Egyptian origin was indi-
cated by the resemblance to Egyptian work shown in the monuments discovered
at Telloh, which displayed the same simplicity and calm, the same smooth shorn
heads and faces. But critics now think differently ; the similarity indeed is
great, but close observation shows the independence of Babylonian art. There
are the same forcible striking characteristics which were later so exaggerated by
the Assyrians, and which are altogether wanting in the Egyptian figures. And
further, though there is also a similarity between the oldest pyramids and the
Babylonian Zikurat, the Pyramids had an entirely distinct significance, and the
temple architecture in general was widely different. Yet the points of similarity
justify us in presupposing, as in the case of the writing, a parent stem from which
both are branches developing independently.
The discoveries of De Sarzec, at Telloh, have thrown some light on that Old
Chaldsean art in which the Babylonian-Assyrian is rooted. These probably non-
Semitic productions belong to a civilization which antedates the known Semitic
empire in Babylonia. A temple was found there 53 x 31 meters square, similar in
outline to the later Chaldean architecture, built of burnt and dried bricks, its
corners, (not sides as in Egypt), exactly oriented, a Zikurat in the middle, and all
of the period of the priest-king Gudea.
In this older art. three steps of development can be traced. To the Drst, the
reliefs belong which are very rough and primitive, representing the childhood of
art. To the second are reckoned the eight statues of Gudea and those of Urba'u,
chiseled, with great skill and fine artistic perception, out of hard stone, probably
diorite. The powerful, which is such an element in later art, appears here, but
without the exaggeration which is afterward so apparent. The hands and feet of
these statues are made with special care ; their heads are entirely different from
the bearded heads of Assyrian and liabylonian statues, being for the most part
quite smooth, some, however, being adorned with an ornamental hair-covering as
in Egypt. There is here also an attempt at representing the folds of drapery
whicli we do not see again till the Persian and Greek period. In the third, which
is designated the classical period, are placed works which show a decided progress,
and pictures in which the beard and hair are elaborately portrayed.
It would be exaggerated skepticism to deny that these artistic productions
exceed in age everything yet found in Babylonia. The only exception would be
the fine cylinder attributed, perhaps somewhat hastily, to Sargon I. 3800 B. C.
Art never again reached so high a dejlfelopment as in these early specimens,
and here we are confronted with a phenomenon similar to that in Egypt, where
the sculptures of the fourth dynasty far excel all later work. The fact is the
more striking since the succeeding periods are not characterized in either land by
any decadence in literature, science or state-craft. There is a strong probability
that the workers of the earlier time in both countries were of different race from
their later imitators. The artists who chiseled King Shafra were no more Semitic
than the sculptors who perpetuated King Gudca seem to have been. As the
TIEIjB on BABTLONIAN-ASSTBIAN CuiiTTTRE. 337
Egyptians intermingled witli foreign elements, their skill in art declined. So it
was with the old Chaldsean art, and the Semites of Babel and Assur were merely
copyists, never x>roduciiig anything of genuine originality. The Semitic races
were gifted, but they were not independently able to produce anything of a high
grade. It was not until they handed over their inheritance to the Persians and
Greeks that the plastic art entered upon a higher development ; for, though the
Babylonians and Assyrians surpass other Semites as artists, they owe this pre-
eminence to the old Chaldseans.
The character of the massive buildings of Babylonia and Assyria is chiefly
the same in all periods. The architect, more than any other artist, is dependent
upon the materials at his hand, and these in Babylonia were, as has been already
stated, almost exclusively bricks, sun-dried or burnt, which were usually laid in
bitumen. In Assyria they were often used in a moist condition and the weight of
the superincumbent structure was expected to compress them into one compact
mass. The walls were covered with burnt bricks, and exposed places with glazed
tiles ; stone was sparingly used for this purpose in Assyria. In only one particular
did the Assyrians make a noticeable advance on Babylonian models. In the
shrines of the gods the Babylonians used pillars of wood overlaid with metal ; but
the Assyrians built columns of stone, and showed some originality in the adorn-
ment of capital and base. It is still a question whether the buildings had more
than one story, certain reliefs representing two-story structures.
This brick architecture suifered necessarily from uniformity. There was a
great disproportion between length and breadth, the width of the long haUs
depending on the length of the roof timbers, as no intermediate pillars were used.
To obviate the effect caused by absence of windows, coloring and wood-work were
employed, together with projecting pilasters, which were quite rude in Chaldsea,
but richly adorned in Assyria. The copiugs of the outer walls were overlaid with
tin. Both the inner and outer walls were covered to a certain height with stone,
and above that there was a variegated stucco work. Ivory and bronze were
extensively used in decoration. The massive and clumsy elements of their build-
ings, together with their childish and petty form of ornamentation are, however,
always the prominent features of the Babylonian- Assyrian architecture. The
almost exclusive use of brick necessitated the frequent employment of arched and
vaulted construction, which, though the Ohaldasan architects may not have dis-
covered, they nevertheless employed with great skill.
It is noticeable that, while the monumental buUdings of Egypt were sepul-
chres and temples, those of Babel and Assur were principally palaces. The
temples, though built with care and cost, were smaller than the palaces, and often
appendages of the latter. Tombs were carefully built ; but the care for the dead
was never carried to such a degree of perfection as in Egypt. All skill was
employed to make the dwellings of kings and deities as magnificent as possible,
and the size of these was continually increasing. The palace at Telloh was 53x31
meters ; the so-called Wuswas at Warka, 200x150 meters ; the palace of Sargon II.
at Dur-Sarukin contained thuty open comt-rooms and more than two hundred
chambers, while hi that of Sennacherib there was one hall nearly as long as the
entire palace at Telloh.
Little is known of temple architecture. On a relief of Sargon we have a pict-
ure which seems the prototype of the oldest Grecian temples. A long gable rests
838 The Old Testamekt Student.
upon six pilasters, which are crossed by horizontal bars; the door, which was
probably crowned with a gable-shaped ornament, stands between the two middle
pilasters; on both sides of the door are two columns terminating in a lance-
pointed capital, and two statues facing one another ; a colossal figure of some beaat
stands behind one of the statues. In front of the temple on bases are two vessels
for purification. It is probable that this was the general plan of most Assyrian
sanctuaries.
The Zikurat was not the true sanctuary. Though a city might have many
temples, it had but one Zikurat ; this formed the most striking feature of the
cliief sanctuary and was carried up to a height of several stories, access to which
was gained by an outside stairway, either winding or double, i. e., on each side of
the tower. The ground plan was rectangular, with a massive foiuidatiou, and it
was probably surmounted by a small shrine.
One is not justified in concluding that the Babylonians and Assyrians were
less pious than the Egyptians because their temples were smaller. The costly
ornaments and statues which they dedicated to their temples show their piety. In
truth the entire palace was a holy house where the gods and their earthly repre-
sentatives dwelt side by side.
The Assyrians as well as the Babylonians were noted workers in bronze. The
tlireshold of a temple at Borsippa, IJ meters long, abundantly proves this, as well
as the bronze doors of Balawat, which are masterpieces dating back to the ninth
century B. C.
Painting was employed for both exterior and interior decoration, and to judge
from the remains we possess, attained quite a degree of excellence ; the conven-
tional element so prominent in sculpture is lacking here, the hair and beard being
depicted in natural waves and not in the stiff crimps of the statues and reliefs.
Sculptine was, however, more used in decoration tlian painting. The material
employed in Clialdoea was chietly the more costly stones, such as basalt, dolerite
and diorite, while the Assyrians chose the more common and more easily worked
varieties like alabaster and sandstone. Bronze casts are also frequently found.
The quality of material produced a natural influence upon the workmanship.
The inscriptions of Babylonian kiugs often speak of statues erected in honor of
the gods, of solid gold or silver, or overlaid witli these metals. In addition to this,
Assyrian inscriptions mentioned the statue of royalty, which was set up in the
capitals of conquered districts. Without venturing too general a statement, it
seems probable that the Babylonian artists produced more frequently complete
statues, while tlie Assyrians devoted themselves to the carving of reliefs, if we
may judge from the .specimens which have been handed down to us. The objects
preserved deal almost exclusively with religious subjects or with the exploits of
kings in war or in the chase. Rarely is the liousehold life of princes depicted ; yet
we possess one portrayal of a festal meal of Asurbauipal with his queen. There
was also little tendency to represent feminine beauty or grace, and the comic ele-
ment, found in Egyptian reliefs, is totally wanting here. While we must draw no
hasty conclusions, since we possess as yet no reliefs from private dwellings, it
seems certain thiit the ruling subjects were taken from religious and public life.
In the treatment of subjects, truth was often sacrificed to conventionality :
the androcephalous lions and bulls have five legs in order always to show four ;
the eye is placed directly facing the observer, though the head may be in profile ;
the hair and beard are stillly and unnaturally crimped. While, however, there is
TiELE ON Babylonian-Assybian Culture. 339
great uniformity of design, there is some attempt discernible to distinguisli
between the faces of different classes of men. It was in the portrayal of animals
that the Mesopotamian artist was at his best ; he was less hampered by conven-
tionality there, and surpassed all other ancient workers in spirited scenes, hardly
excepting the Greeks. Tlie great blemish of their art was an exaggerated realism
which shows itself in monstrous muscles and limbs.
Assyrian sculpture made no other advance on the Chiildsean than that of
increased artistic dexterity. Its history begins with the great restorer of the
Assyrian monarchy, Asurnasipal, under whom and Salmanassar II., his son,
Assyrian art reached its first period of high development. The black obelisk of
Salmanassar II. and the bronze doors of Balawat are noteworthy productions of
this age. It is, however, in the details that their excellence consists ; the group-
ing is poor and the background wanting or iiisigniflcaut, and these characteristics
remained up to the new period inaugurated by the Sargonids. Then, while not
reaching the standard of the old Chaldsean, art, like literature, took an upward
flight. There was better taste, better proportioned figures, closer study of detail
and more carefully elaborated backgrounds. Under Sennacherib all these cliarac-
teristics become still more clearly marked ; tlie entire court-life is portrayed to its
minutest particulars, and this is sometimes carried so far that the reliefs seem
bluiTed. In religious subjects alone, the old simple severity was preserved. The
little we possess of Esarhaddon's reign shows no retrogression, and under A§ur-
banipal Assyrian art reached its culmination. Too little is preseiTed of the sculpt-
ure of the new Babylonian empire to permit us to judge of the art of that period.
Music was cultivated, both vocal and instrumental, as the reliefs abundantly
testify.
There is in all this abundant testimony to the artistic ability of the Baby-
lonian and Assyrian peoples. Had they emancipated themselves from tradition
they might have excelled their teachers, the old Chaldseans. They were not, like
the Greeks, an art-loving people, yet they achieved more in this direction than all
the other members of their race combined, and though they were in some special
particulars excelled by the Egyptians, in many others they are in no respect
behind them.
INDUSTRIAL PURSUITS.
Among the products of industiy first to be mentioned are the hundreds of
seals, which are still preserved, and whose numbers are not surprising when one
reflects that every person of importance had a seal. Originally these were cylinders,
but from the year 800 onward spherical and hemispherical seals were used. The
softer stones were at first chosen, but later the harder, like syenite, rock-crystal
and garnet. There is evidence of glowing skill in cutting these stones, the sub-
jects of which were generally of a religious character. In the new Babylonian
empire and under the Achsemenian kings the art declined.
The ceramic art did not originally stand high in Babylonia ; but the introduc-
tion of the potter's wheel wrought a change, and toward the close of the Assyrian
period we find pottery enameled and adorned with patterns. Glass is not found in
any quantity, but its manufacture had been brought to quite a degree of perfec-
tion. The Babylonians and Assyrians showed special skill in tlie working of metals.
Iron they knew earlier than the Egyptians, and made far more extensive use of it.
Gold and silver were quite generally employed for ornaments. It is a mark of
340 The Old Testament Student.
advanced civilization that use was made not only of the spoon, but also of the
fork, wliich did not appear in Northern Europe until after the middle ages. The
royal furniture, in particular, was elaborated with the greatest care and luxury,
sometimes being made entirely of metal, and wlien of wood, carved, gilded, or
overlaid with gold, ivory, or precious stones. It is scarcely necessary to state that
the warlike Assyrians expended great care upon the ornamentation and strength
of their weapons and chariots.
Specially famed in antiquity were the Babylonian colored fabrics (cf. Josh.
7:21 ; I'liny H. N. V'lII., §74 cap. 48; Anian Exp. Al. VI., 29). The art of em-
broidery must also liave reached an extraordinary perfection, anything ricljer and
more tasteful than the clothing of Assyrian princes and magnates is hard to
imagine. Only a highly cultivated and truly aristocratic people could so have
united artistic sense with technical skill.
In mechanics they were in advance of the Egyptians, inasmuch as they used
the lever, which was unknown to the latter ; and they showed far more skill in
handling colossal statues. The building of canals and dredging of rivers were
achievements which were given a place beside their conquests. The canals not
only seiTed to bring drinking water from the mountains but to irrigate gardens
and vineyards. Tlie kings delighted in parks and plantations. A Maruduk-
baliddin is mentioned, probably a prince of Babel, who, in spite of his continual
defensive wars, had no less than sixty-seven vegetable gardens and six parks.
COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION.
While there is no direct mention of the fact in the oldest monuments, yet
industrial activity must have produced a mercantile spirit. There is much
ancient testimony to Babylonian and Assyrian commerce : Ezekiel calls Chaldiea a
land of commerce and 15abel a city of mercliants ; Nahum says the merchants of
Nineveli were more numerous than the stars of heaven. The Babylonian weights
and measures were in use in Western Asia in the sixteenth century B. C, and
the Babylonian unit of weight, the miua, is mentioned in the Rig- Veda. Coined
money was unknown ; gold and silver were weighed. It is probably a mere
assumption that tliere was a banking house of the Egibi, which did business in
Babel for a series of years. All tlie products of native industry, textile fabrics,
salves and balsams were exported, and among tlie imports were ivory, woods,
wines, plants, and animals. Through the Phoenicians a bj-isk trade was carried
on with the far w'est.
The land route was the most important for commerce, but it cannot be dis-
proved tliat the Babylonians were sea-farers. They lived near the coast and had
derived their culture from that region and wo\ikl natur.iUy not leave unused the
means of travel wliicli water afforded. In tliis connection we cannot overlook the
traces of commercial intercourse with India; an Indian deluge legend betrays
the influence of Babylonian thought upon Indian fancy; in tlie Homeric poems
tin and other Indian commercial products are mentioned, which could only have
been obtained through the medium of Nineveh or Babel ; and cedar, teak-wood
and the Indian dogs were brouglit to Mesopotamia. It is true all these might
have come by hind, but the route by sea is so mucli easier and more direct, that
in all probability the Babylonians would have chosen it.
Old Testament Word-studies. 341
Such a rich and venerable civilization could not but have had a tremendous
influence on surrounding nations. Over the nomadic and warlike tribes, who
were held in check only by repeated chastisements, it must have exercised a sort
of magical power, while the more remote, civilized nations were naturally incited
to emulation. This is strikingly shown in the temple architecture of the northern
neighbors of the Assyrians and by the fact that the cuneiform writing was
adopted by peoples living in Armenia, Cappadocia and Elamite districts, and that
it was developed into a syllabic system by the Persians. The question is still an
open one whether the so-called Phoenician alphabet originated from the cuneiform.
Be this as it may, there is abundant evidence that Babylonian scholars were the
teachers of the west. Their religious conceptions influenced the philosophy and
theosophy of Greece and Rome. Of their influence upon the east, we are not so
sure, yet there are collateral evidences that the old Persians, the Medes and the
Elamites owed certain elements of their civilization to them. The connection
with India has been noticed, and it is thought that Chaldjean astrology penetrated
to China; without hazarding a judgment, this seems not improbable, for the
intercourse of the nations of antiquity seems to have been much more general
than has hitherto been imagined.
But it is especially for the history and development of art that the produc-
tions of Babylonia and Assyria are of commanding importance. It has long
been recognized by specialists that the oldest Greek art is closely related through
its prototypes in Asia Minor with the Babylonian- Assyrian, and further investi-
gations but multiply the proofs. Motives and types can be pointed out which
the Chaktean artists created, and which found their way through Syria, Phoenicia,
and Asia Minor to Greece and Rome. They were again revived in the art of the
Renaissance and have been passed down to us, upon whom the ends of the world
have come.
A people which not only played such a magnificent part in the history of
states, but exercised such a wide-reaching influence upon the development of cult-
ure, deserves to be better known, and though the sources for the study of impor-
tant periods are still but fragmentary, yet persistent and strictly methodical
investigation in the gray mists of antiquity as well as in the records of later
centuries will shed abroad more light and enable us to corroborate what we
possess and complete what is lacking.
OLD TESTAMENT WORD-STUDIES: 9. ANGELS,
DEMONS, ETC.
By Rev. P. A. Nobdell, D. D.,
New liOndon, Conn.
The Old Testament clearly reveals the existence of finite spirits intermediate
between God and man, and characterized by opposite moral tendencies. The
good are the servants of God, swift to do his pleasure, the evil are hostile to his
government. Of their origin no explicit information is given.. We know, how-
ever, that their creation antedated that of man. The angelology of the Old Tes-
tament bears clear traces of development, assuming greater prominence and more
342 The Old Testament Student.
varied and special fonns after the Jews had come into contact with Babylonian
and Persian inlluences. In the majority of instances it will be found diflicult, if
not impossible, to determine the exact meaning of the terms employed. This
difliciilty sprin<,'s in large measure from our limited knowledge of the spiritual
world, and from the impossibility of conveying adequate conceptions of facts and
phenomena that transcend human experience.
Rufa)h ra'ah einl spirit.
The most general or indeQnite term for a spiritual being is r li (a) li . The
spirit, like the wind, was an invisible, immaterial agent whose presence was per-
ceived only by its effects. Unquestionably the Hebrew mind conceived of God as
a spirit, although the Old Testament contains no explicit declaration to that effect,
as does the New. .John 4:24. Nor is there an instance in the Old Testament
where a holy angel is called a rii(a)h . The passage in Ps. 104:4, " who maketh
his angels spirits," a rendering in which the A. V. follows the LXX.. is univers-
ally taken by modern inteipreters as referring to the winds and the lightnings
which are the avant^couriers of Ilim " Who maketh the clouds his chariot." On
the contrary a wicked spirit is called ru(a)h,"lwill be a lying spirit, ru(a)h
shcqer, in the mouth of all his prophets, "" 1 Kgs. 22:22. The phrase rii(a)h
r."i'ah, evil spirit, "And God sent !vn evil spirit between Abimelech and the men
of Shechem," Jud. 9:23, " An evil spirit from Jehovah terrified " Saul, 1 Sam.
16:14, does not seem to refer so much to a personal spirit as to a bitter feud in the
one case, and to a mental disorder in the other. In the latter case it is, indeed
spoken of both as a spirit of God, r il (,"0 li ' ' 1 o h i m , and as a spirit of evil,
ru(a)h hiirii'iili, v. 23. It is not unlikely, however, that, as in the cases of
demoniacal possession in the New Testament times, the physical malady was at
least intensified by tlie sufferer being delivered into the power of a personal evil
spirit, if it was not wholly the result of it.
KJ -
Mal'akh messenger, angel.
As ru(a)h is the most general, so mal'Skh is the most frequent designa-
tion of a superhuman, spiritual being. Gen. 21:17; 28:12; 32:1(2); Ps. 91:11, etc.
In every instance it designated those whose moral attributes were good. In
about one-half of its numerous occurrences it is translated " messenger," being so
rendered in the case of human agents entrusted with communications from one
person to another. But in the case of spiritual beings sent from God to accom-
plish his pleasure, or to convey his word to men, the same word is used, the
Hebrew having developed no distinct term for a superhuman as distinguished
from a human messenger. A single exception to the employment of this term
as a designation of good angels seems to be found in Ps. 78:49, " He cast upon
them the fierceness of his anger ... by sending maT'lchey rii'im."
This phrase should not be rendered '• evil .angels," as in the A. V., but " angels
of evil," R. v., or " misfortune." They were God's messengers sent to chastise
Israel on account of their sins. In Pss. 103:20,22, and 148:2 the poet seems to
conceive of the mal'akh im as an inner circle of exalted spirits, called cKb-
borim kho(."i)b' heroes in strength, who stand about Jehovah intent on his
word and hastening to fulfill his bidding.
Old Tbstamkkt Wokd-studies. 343
Mal'akh Jehovah angel of Jehovah.
This phrase occurs above fifty times and seems to be synonymous with
mal'akh '"iGliim, angel of God. In the Pentateuch these expressions,
according to the documentary hypothesis, are characteristic in the one case of tlie
Jehovistic fragments (J, DUlmau C), and in tlie other of tlie older Elohistic
(E, Dill. B). In Jud. 6:12,20; 13:3-16, they are used interchangeably. The
unique phrase " angel of his presence," or " face," Isa. 63:9, is probably identical
in meaning with " angel of Jehovah." " It seems to be certain that the expres-
sion ' the Face (or, the Name) of God ' is not merely metaphorical, but the com-
mon mythic phrase of the early Semites for the self-manifesting aspect of the
divine nature, and that when the later Old Testament writers discarded mj^thic
phraseology, they gave a similar content to the term ' angel.' In the phrase
' angel of his Face,' we seem to have a confusion of two forms of expression inci-
dent to a midway stage of revelation." (Cheyne in loc.) No phrase in the Old
Testament has received such extensive discussion. From the time of the early
Fathers wide differences as to its exact theological import have prevailed, and
still continue. Any adequate examination of its use would require too much space,
and belongs more properly to the department of Old Testament Theology.
Cf. Oehler, ?§59,61.
o ij w A - A
Mahanaylm, ts'bha'oth hosts.
M a h " n c li , the prevailing designation of a military camp occurs twice in
the dual form and with a peculiar signification. In Gen. 32:1,2, it is said that
after Jacob had parted with Laban he went on his way, " and the angels of God
met him. And Jacob said when he saw them, this is God's host, mah°neh
''lohim, and he called the name of that place Mahanayim," i. e. the two
hosts, having reference probably to his own camp and that of the angelic host
encamped around him for his protection. The dual occurs also in Cant. 6:13 (7:1),
" Why will ye look upon the Shulamite, as upon the dance of the mahanayim?"
In view of the fact that this term became in later Hebrew a common designation
of "the angels" the passage seems to imply that the beauty of the Shulamite
occasioned the same wondering admiration as might a vision of an angelic dance.
Probably there is here an implied reference to Gen. 32:2, and to the song of the
b"ney 'Mo him, the sons of God mentioned in Job 38:7.
The verb t sab ha' meant primarily to go forth, especially to war, Num.
31:7,42, whence the substantive came to mean, first, military service, war; and
secondly, the men employed in such service, an army, a host. Gradually the
meaning was extended so as to include angelic beings, "I saw Jehovah sitting
on his throne, and all the host of heaven, kol-ts'bha' hashshamay im ,
standing on his right hand and on his left," 1 Kgs. 22:19. Cf. Ps. 148:2. These
celestial spirits had in the physical universe their correlatives in the heavenly
luminaries. Hence the sun, the moon, and the stars are likewise called " the host
of heaven," Dent. 4:9 ; 2 Kgs. 23:.5 ; Jer. 8:2, etc. Sometimes the two meanings
blend almost inseparably, as in Job 38:6,7, " Who laid the comer-stone thereof,
when the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for joy?"
The most frequent occuneuce of the term in this sense is in the appellation
J'hovah ts'bha'oth, Jehovah of hosts. It does not occur at all in the Hexa-
teuch or in Judges, being found for the first time in 1 Sam. 1:11 ; but in the
later prophetical literature, especially Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ilaggai, Zechariah, and
844 The Olv Testament Student.
Malachi, it becomes a stereotyped designation of Israel's God. Amos never uses
the simple phrase ".Jehovah of hosts," but "Jehovah Elohim of liosts," or
" Adunai .Jeliovah Eloliim of liosts.'' It is a little remarkable that over against
the frequent occurrence of this phrase in the prophets just mentioned, it is not
employed in a single instance by Ezekiel or Daniel. Two interpretations have
been suggested, the one contemplating Jehovah as leader of Israel's armies, the
other as commander of tlie heavenly host. The latter probably contains the real
meaning, and may be understood as including all the celestial powers, both spir-
itual and siderial.
A A
K'rubhim chernbini.
The absence of a Hebrew stem from which to derive this word makes the
etymology word exceedingly obscure. Many derivations have been suggested, but
all are conjectural, and none entirely satisfactory. The cherubim are first men-
tioned in (Jen. 3:24 as guarding the way to the tree of life. Images of the cheru-
bim are next spoken of in connection with the ark of the covenant whose
mercy-seat was overshadowed by their outstretched wings, Kx. i;.5:18-22 ; 37:7-9.
In the most holy place of Solomon's temple two colossal chenibim stood on the floor
at opposite sides of the room, facing each other, and covering the intervening
space with their outspread wings, 1 Kgs. 6:23-28. The walls and doors were also
covered with figures of cherubim, palm trees, and open flowers, vs. 29-35. The
same ornamentation is described in Ezek. 41:18-2.5. In Ezekiel's visions, chs. 1
and 10, wliere the cherubim are presented in strangely complicated forms, they
constitute the living chariot- throne upon which the God of Israel rides forth in
glory. Cf. Ps. 18:10 (11). From these and other references it may be gathered
that the cherubim " nowhere appear developed into independent personality, like
the mill Tikhim ; they are not sent out like these, but are constantly confined
to the seat of the divine habitation, and the manifestation of the Divine Being,"
(Oehler, O. T. Theol. ? 119); secondly, the images of the cherubim in the taber-
nacle and in the temple were not idolatrous representations of Jehovah, for the
whole genius of the Hebrew religion was hostile to sensuous representations of the
invisible and spiritual God ; thirdly, these cherubic images, as well as the cheru-
bim that kept the way to the tree of life, seem to represent the innermost flaming
circle by which the immutable holiness of the Creator declares its inaccessibility
to the sinful consciousness of the creature ; fourthly, as " living creatures,"
hay y 6th, the Cua of the Apocalypse, they seem to symbolize that omnipotent
and omniscient creative life which, Uowing forth into the universe in inexhaust-
ible vital power, displays the glory of the ever-living God; and fifthly, whatever
suggestions the Hebrews might have received from the winged lions and bulls of
Assyria and liabylon, or from the sphinxes at the entrances to the Egyptian tem-
ples, it is certain that these suggestions when admitted into the sphere of revela-
tion assumed entirely new and far higher significations.
- A
S'raphim seraphim.
The s-rapliim are mentioned in Isa. 6:2,6. Aside from these places the
word sarfiph occurs only in Num. 21:6,8; Deut. 8:15; Isa. 14:29 ; 30:6, and is
descriptive of serpents whose venomous bite produced excruciating agony, as if of
fire in the llesh. The s'raphim, from sfiraph, to burn, would then, accord-
ing to the populai- notion, denote the " burning ones," at first sight identical with
Old Testament Word-studies. , 345
the cherubim, whose " appearance was like burning coals of fire," Ezek. 1:13. A
closer examination shows that they were not identical. The cherubim are repre-
sented as occupying a place underneath Jehovah ; the seraphim stand above him.
The latter seem to possess a more independent, self-conscious personality. They
appear, not simply as the fiery guardians of the divine holiness, but as exalted
spirits whose unceasing employment is the proclamation of this holiness. Unlike
the cherubim, they are sent to perform Jehovah's will, to inspire his shrinking
human messenger with courage to assume the task assigned to him. On the rela-
tion of the cherubim to the storm-clouds, and of the seraphim to the fiery ser-
pent-like lightning, as presented in the early and long popular solar mythology of
the Semitic nations, see Cheyne's Isaiah, Vol. II., pp. 296-299.
Satan adversary, Satan.
Primarily this word meant an opposer, adversary, "The angel of the Lord
placed himself in the way for an adversary, I'satan , against" Balaam, Num.
22:22. In later Hebrew literature it occurs as a designation of an evil spirit,
hostile alike to God's gracious purposes in the world, and to the men by whom
these purposes were accomplished. The satiin who tempted David to number
Israel, 1 Chron. 21:1, cannot be regarded as a human adversary, like the satiin
in 1 Kgs. 11:23,25. In the first and second chapters of Job, and in Zech. 3:1,2,
the use of the article, hassatan, shows that the term was employed as a proper
name. A comparison of 2 Sam. 24:1 with 1 Chron. 21:1 shows that the doctrine
of a personal Satan was a late development unknown to the older historian who
seemed to have ouly a vague conception of " an evil spirit from Jehovah," 1 Sam.
16:14-23, to which there was not as yet attributed a concrete personality, much
less a place of pre-eminence in a fully developed system of demonology.
- A A A
Sa'ir satyr, lilith night-monster.
Both of these were products of popular superstition. The former term is the
usual designation of the he-goat, meaning the hairy one. Esau is called an 'ish
sa'ir, a hairy man, Gen. 27:11. The s°"irim, satyrs, were supposed to be
goat-shaped demons inhabiting ruins and desolate places, Isa.- 13:21 ; 34:14. From
Lev. 17:7, and 2 Chron. 11:15 we learn that they were objects of popular worship.
The lilith is mentioned only in Isa. 34:14, and is supposed in the A. V. to be
the " screech owl " and in the R. V. to be some sort of " night monster." Accord-
ing to the Rabbins the lilith was a night-spectre that assumed the form of a
beautiful woman who enticed children into her presence and, like the Lamia,
murdered them.
OLD TESTAMENT NOTES AND NOTICES.
A Memory Formula for Palestiiie. — Many Bible students confess great diffl-
culty in keeping clearly in mind those leading facts of sacred geography which are
so necessary in daily use. In reality, Palestine is the most easily rememberable
of lands, when its dimensions and distances are properly arranged for memory.
The following formula, once fixed in mind, cannot easily be forgotten. The
writer has devised it for his own help, and found it of great use among his Sun-
day-school pupils and elsewhere, and hopes for it a wider usefulness.
Take for base-line Jordan between the two seas, a north and south line of 60
mUes. West from its head is Nazareth ; from its middle point, Samaria ; from
its foot, Jerusalem. West fi-om middle of Dead Sea is Hebron. From Hebron to
Jerusalem, north, about 20 miles; Jerusalem to Samaria, 30; Samaria to Nazar-
eth, 30 ; Nazareth to Dan, 40 ; Dan back to Beersheba, 150. From Dan west to
Mediterranean (near Tyre). 25 miles; Jordan through Nazareth west to sea, 35
miles ; Jordan through Samaria to sea, 45 miles ; Jordan through Jerusalem to
sea, 55 miles; middle of Dead Sea through Hebron to Mediterranean, 65 miles.
Add, if desired, that from Dan south to Mt. Hor, or from Beersheba to Sinai, is
250 miles, and that area of Palestine proper is about 6000 miles, very near that of
New Hampshire, which it also somewhat resembles in shape.
The distances given are very close to the exact survey measurements, varying
at the utmost less than two miles.
Egypt Exploration Fund.— Among the discoveries and disclosures of the
Egypt Exploration Fund of England and America up to date have been: (1)
Pithom. the treasure (store) city of Exndus 1:2, throwing new and precious light
on the Hebrew sojourn and the Exodus route. (2) Goshen, the chief town or cap-
ital in " the land of Goshen" — of supreme importance in finally settling its locale
in Egypt. (3) Tahpanhes (Jeremiah 43:8), the DaphuEe of the Greeks, where
the fugitive princesses of King Zedekiah and Jeremiah dwelt — sacked by Nebuch-
adnezzar—disclosing the only Egyptian building specifically named in the Old
Testament, its arrangements explaining a special description by Jeremiah. (4)
City of Onias (described by Josephus). an important Jewish settlement in Egypt.
(5) Zoan (the Tauis of the Greeks and the Septuagint), the great northern capital
of the Pharaohs — where Moses interviewed Pharaoh — hardly inferior in gi'andeur
to Thebes, and where the greatest of all colossi stood, that of Rameses II. (6)
Am, the city in " the fields of Zoan," affording the colossus of Rameses II (the
Phai-aoh of the oppression) now in Boston. (7) Naukratis, the brilliant Greek
emporium before the rise of Alexandria, of prime value in determining the relation-
ship of Egyptian to early Greek arts. (8) Bubastis (the Pi-Beseth of Scripture).
A Summer School for the study of Hebrew will be held in American Fork,
Utah, July 22- Aug. 11, under the direction of the Rev. Thomas F. Day. Rev.
Mr. Day is a graduate of Union Theol. Seminary. He has been trained in the
American Institute of Hebrew and is thoroughly familiar with the modern
methods of teaching and studying Hebrew. Under his management the enter-
prise may expect large success.
SYNOPSES OF IMPOETANT ARTICLES.
Tbe Egyptian Nile as a Cirilizer.* — Egyptian civilization was the creation of
ttie Kile. 1) The Nile prepared Egypt for human habitation by producing the
rich valley which makes Egypt habitable. 2) It made of Egypt a fortified agricult-
ural country having deserts to the east and west and the sea to the north and, by its
character and the soil which it produced, rendered Egypt independent of other
nations, free to develop her agricultural resources with the least possible labor
and ever increasing range. 3) It originated much and contributed largely to the
arts and inventions. It stimulated architecture, supplying bricks from its mud
and a water-way for transporting stone. It encouraged hydraulics. Its papyrus
and lotos assisted the growth of art and literature. 4) It originated and con-
tributed much to philosophy and science. In philosophy, the idea arose from
Egypt and the Nile that water was the first principle of things. In science,
the beginnings of geometry and algebra, mensuration and geography are con-
nected with the financial system according to which the use of the Nile water was
regulated and distributed. Similar questions relating to riparian rights, etc., led
to a science of government. Astronomy goes back to the Nile. 5) It had gi-eat
influence in literature and religion. Some of the finest of Egyptian poems are
hymns to the Nile. It was one of the chief deities, having one of the most
remarkable festivals, giving rise to a mythological lore, to the mystic allegory of
Osiris. On the str'eam of the heavenly river, only a more glorious Nile, the soul
sailed away to the regions of Osiris.
Origin and Structure of the Book of Judges, t — It consists of three well-
defined portions : (1) an introduction, 1:1-2:5, giving a view of the country at the
beginning of the period; (2) 2:6-ch. 16, the period of the Judges; (3) chs. 17-21,
an appendix in two portions, (a) 17,18, migration of a part of the tribe of Dan to
the north, (b) 19-21 . war of the Israelites against Benjamin. 1) The structure of
the Book is seen most clearly in the middle portion. This consists essentially of
a series of older naiTatives fitted into a framework by a later editor and provided
by him with introductory and concluding remarks. Cf. the similar organization
and phraseology of the history of the six greater judges (3:7-11 ; 3:12-30 ; 4:1-3 ;
6:1-7; 10:6,7,10; 11:33b; 12:7; 13:1; 15:20; 16:31 end). The compUer has given
this middle portion an introduction, 2:6-3:6, not all by his own hand. He is prob-
ably not the first compiler of such a history. He is imbued with the ideas of
Deuteronomy (cf. e. g. his theory of the history of the period 2:11-19). But other
narratives do not show this coloring ; hence it is possible that there was a pre-
deuteronomic collection of histories of the judges used in compiling this book.
2) The first division, 1:1-2:5, consists of fragments relating to the conquest of
Canaan, probably parallel with parts of Joshua (cf. Judg. 1:21; 1:20b, lOb-15 ; 1:
* By Prof. J. G. Lausiug', D. D., in The Presbyterian Review, Apr. 1889, pp. 245-255.
t By Rev. Prof. S. E. Driver, D. D., in Tlie Jewish Quarterly Review, April, 1889, pp. 258-270.
348 The Old Testamekt Student.
27,28; 1:29 with Josh. 15:63; 15:14-19; 17:12,13; 16:10 in coiTespouding order);
both very probably excerpts from what was once a detailed account of the con-
quest of Canaan. 3) The third division differs from the other two in being the
narrative of two liistorical incidents. Ch. 20 is tlie puzzle of the entire book.
The representation is of a united Israel (20:1) of immense number (20:2) with other
historical anachronisms which mark it as scarcely historical in its present form
and not liomogeneous. Its object appears to have been to give an ideal repre-
sentation of the community inspired by a keen sense of right. 4) As to particular
narratives, the song of Deborah (eh. o) is a contemporarj" historical document of
the highest value. Ch. 4 is later and contains a somewhat different and inde-
pendent tradition. The naiTative of Jephthah is thoroughly historical in sub-
stance; the message (11:12-28) has been expanded by the writer on the basis of
JE (cf. Num. 20:14,17 ; 21:4,13,21-24,25). To cast the speeches of their characters
into their own language and color them with their own ideas is the habitual
practice of O. T. historians.
The Book of Judges is one of the most perplexing- and difficult in its literary and historical
problems of anj- writing in the wliole 0. T. The above article affords an example of the minute
scrutiny and scholarly criticism which the liberal school of English 0. T. investigators is
giving to the books of the Bible. The article must be read as a whole in order that the strength
or weakness of it may be fairly estimated. The writer's evident carefulness of statement and
judicial hesitation in affirming conclusions is commendable. There are times, however, when
he builds his critical edifice out of very meagre materials.
Does the Xinaua of Buddha imply Immortality I* — Buddhism is essentially
atheistic, materialistic and pessimistic. Its cliief and central contention is against
the idea of a personal God and hence of a personal immortality. But while this
is the recognized teaching of Buddhism, it is claimed by Prof. Max Miiller that it
was not the teaching of Buddha himself that Nirvana meant extinction of being.
That Prof. Midler is not warranted in this view is maintained from the following
considerations : (1) The whole Buddhist system rests on a denial of personality to
the soul. It is a candle-flame, holding its shape only while burning. In the face
of this fundamental doctrine to postulate immortality of the soul is futile. (2)
Buddha attained Nirvana before he died. This fact does not prove that Nirvana is
immortality, nor indeed is it consistent with the view that Nin'ana is immediate
extinction. This Nirvana of Buddha is a moral condition, indifference to all
things, which, however, necessarily conditions and precedes extinction. (3) The
passages of the Dharmapada which Miiller uses to defend his view, when exam-
ined and sifted, do not prove. There is no real contradiction between the teach-
ings of Buddha himself and the Buddhist canon. Nirvana, defined as the end
of desire and pain, succeeded by the end of conscious being, has a consistent
meaning throughout the Buddhist teaching.
The article fairly makes out its case against Prof. Ma.x MOUer. It does not, however, suc-
ceed in showing that the Nirvana of Buddha implies extinction of being. That no positive deliv-
erance either way on this point can be cited from Buddha seems evident from the facts collected
here. The material is presented clearly and in a iiopular manner without claim to or evidence
of original research.
* By Prof. Martyn Summerbell. M. A., in Christian Thought, April, 1889, pp. 369-393.
♦•BOOl2-M30a'I6ES.-<-
A COMMENTARY ON GENESIS AND EXODUS.*
This volume forms one of the series of commentaries prepared under the edit-
orial supervision of the late Dr. Whedou. The books of Genesis and Exodus
were assigned to Prof, i^ewhall, and after his death his materials, consisting of
more or less complete notes upon various chapters, were given over to Dr. M. S.
Terry, who has organized them, prepared the notes upcto the remaining portions
and also written a general introduction to the Pentateuch. The work could not
have fallen into the hands of a more candid and competent scholar. In his intro-
duction. Dr. Teriy gives a clear account of the critical handling of the Penta-
teuch, grants the existence of documents, and of diflerent stages of legislation
but maintains that these facts do not conflict with the Mosaic authorship of the
whole. He finds no satisfactory hypothesis to account for the use of the divine
names. The first and second chapters of Genesis are thought not to describe a
universal cosmogony, but only the sky, climate and soil where the first human
pair were created. The biblical creation is only that which attended the intro-
duction of man upon the earth and is therefore essentially of limited extent. The
author endeavors to steer clear of all rationalizing theories, maintaining that the
theorists who find discrepancies and errors in Genesis have their eyes too full of
"star dust" to see clearly the facts. Yet it may be questioned whether the
conceptions entertained in these notes and according to which the Scripture
is interpreted are not sometimes a little too dogmatic and rigid, as for exam-
ple, when on the passage, Gen. 11:7 " let us go down," etc., it is said " the solemn
deliberation and decision of the Triune God is mysteriously intimated in this lan-
guage." The view held of the Messianic passages is somewhat vague, no clear
distinction being drawn between the historical realization of the promises and
the divine purpose which undoubtedly lay in them. The discussions of disputed
passages are, for the most part, full and clear, fair statements being made of the
various views in each instance. In the case of Jacob's blessing and Moses' song,
a rhythmical translation is given, while in the body of the work the Common Ver-
sion is made the basis of the commentary. The volume cannot be unqualifiedly
recommended. What commentary, especially on so difiicult a portion of Scripture
as this, is thoroughly satisfactory ? But those who use it will have a candidly
conservative, honest and reverent, if, in some instances, a somewhat narrow and
dogmatic guide into these portions of the Pentateuch.
* COMMENTARV ON THE OLD TESTAMENT. VOL. I. GENESIS AND EXODUS. By MiltOn S.
Terry, D. D., and Fales H. Newhall, D. D. New York: Hunt & Eaton. Price, $2.25.
CURRENT OLD TESTAMENT LITERATURE.
JJIXBICA?! AND FOBEIGN PUBLICATIONS.
La liMaton dans la lilljU. EtiuU crilUpu de la
manii-re dunl la R(lit;ii>n ctl prechee el def endue
dans les divers ICcrits hitiliques. Tome I.
L'Anclen Testament. Par C. G. Chavannes.
Paris : Fisobbacher 'if.
An Examinatinn of Some of the Moral DIfflcul-
lies uf the Old TestametU. By J. H. Jellett.
Second edition. Dublin: Hodges, 1889. .2s.i!d.
David: his Life and Times (Men of the Bible).
By W. J. Deane. London: Nisbet, 18S9.2s.6d.
Taraum on Isaiah I '>. With Commentaiy. By
H. S. Lewis. London: Triibner, 18S9 .'is.
The Text of Jeremiah; or, A Critical Investiga-
tion of the (JreiJi and Hebrew, with the varia-
tions in the LXX. re-translntrd into the Oriuiiial
and explained. With an Introductory Notice
hjj Byam Delitzsch. By G. C. Workman.
Edinburgh : T. & T. CUirli «8.
Mohammed and Mohammedanism Oritically
Considered. By S. W. Koelle. London: Ri^v
ingtons l'''S.
Phwnicia. Story of the Nations. By George
Rawlinson, M. A. New York: G. P. Put-
nam's Sons $l.oO.
Through Bible Lands. By Philip Schaff, D. D.
New edition. New York: American Tract
Society t--0O.
The History of Ancient Civilization. A hnnd-
bool; bosed upon M. Gustave Ducoudray's
••Histoire Sommairc dc la Civilization." Witli
lllustriitlons. New York: D. Appleton & Co.
$1.75.
Historical Connection between the Old and Nctc
Testnments. Bible Class Primer. By Dr. A.
Skinner. Now York: Scribner & Welford.
Die Reliuioncn der VDlkcr. Nach den hesten For-
schuniis-Krgi'bnissen bearb. Von A. Reichen-
bach. 4 u. h Buoli. Munchen: Ernst, 1887.
DieOMter [irieehenlands im Zusammenhang der
allgemeinen Beligionsgcschichte. Rektornts-
rede. Von E. Langhans. Bern $U.50.
Lchrbuch der hihlischen Ocschichte Allen Testa-
menU. Von S. Kiihler. 3 Thl. 1 Lfg. Er-
langen, 1889 ?300.
Dos Alte Testament und die christliche Sitten-
lehre. Von E. Fischer. Ootha: F. A. Perthes,
1889 $3.40.
Zur Theorieder hiblischen Welssagung und Zur
Characteristic d. Hebraerbriefs. Von A. Klos-
termann. Zwei Vortrage; Nordlingon: Beck,
1889 1-
By Rabbi E. Sohreiber, In
•ch 32, 1889.
ARTICLES AND REVIEWS.
Does the Nirvana of Buddha imply Immortality 1
By Prof. Martvn Summerbell, M. A., in
Christian Tlioug'ht, April, 18*9.
Science and Religion. By Richard Owen, D. D.,
LL. D. Ibid.
Studies in the Psalter: Psalm XXIV. By T. W.
Chambers, D. D., In Homiletlc Review, April,
1889.
Tlie Prophecy of the Virgin MoOxer. By Prof.
Dr. W. J. Bcechcr. Ibid.
Another View of the Higher Criticism. By Prof.
C. M. Mead. D. D., In The Congregatlonallst,
March 3s, isso.
Woman in Israel.
The Occident, Marcli
Bnethgen's Religion of Israel. Review in The
Independent, March 38. 18S9.
Bible Deacons. II. Absalom. By R. G. Forsru-
son, D. D., in Evangelical Repository, April,
1889.
Deborah: A Mother in Israel. By Alice E.
Held, in The Jewish Messenger, March 29,
1S8<I.
Moses' Idea of God, deduced mainly from the
Names which he applies to Him. III. By
Eph. M. Epstein, In Christian Quarterly Re-
view, 2, 1889.
The Testimony of Jesus is the SpirU of Prophecy.
By S. T. Willis. Ibid.
The Book of Jeremiah: A Paraphrase. By D.
R. Dungan. Ibid.
Tite ChrUtologu of Genesis. By B. F. Wilson, in
The Presbyterian Quarterly, 3, 18S9.
The Discovery of Pithom. By Dr. W. W. Moore.
Ibid.
Briggs' Messianic Prophecy. Review by J. B.
Shearer. Ibid.
Tlie EmiPtian Nile as a Civilixer. By Prof. J.
G. Lansing, D. D., in The Presbyterian Re-
view, April, 1889.
The Study of the English Bible in Theologleal
S'-miiiarics. Editorial note by Prot. C. A.
llriRKS, D. D. Ibid.
Reviews. Stearns' Introduction to the O. T.;
Uelirmaiin's Einfilhruug tJeffeis); Schultz
und Strack's Psaimcn (Vos); Cheyno's Jere-
iiiiah, and Hallowing of Criticism (Briggs);
llortons Inspiration and the Bible; Caves
Inspiration of the O. T. (Warfleid). Presby-
terian Review, April, 1S89.
The Scriptural Doctrine of the Holy Spirit. By
Rev. Charles F. Thwing, D. D., in Bibliotheoa
Sacra, April, 1889.
Uses and Abuses of an Important Priiic(pl« of
Interpretation. Ibid.
Septenary Time and the Origin of the SabhaVi.
By Rev. John Q. Bittinger. Ibid.
The Lost Wrilings, quoted and referred to, in (he
Old Testament. By Rev. Prof. Ira M. Price,
Ph. D. Ibid.
Critical Notes: As to the Age of DanM. Dr.
Briggs on the Higher Criticism and ils ResidU.
Ibid.
Quand la Bible a-t-elle etc composes, F a-t-il dans
('.diicfcn Testament deslivres ou des morceaux
ant,' ricurs a V tpoepie du Second TempU 7 By
M. Vcrnes, in Rev. d. I'hist. des Religions,
Jan.-Feb., 1889.
Lrgenrte zum Plane von Gaza. Hersg. v. H.
Guthe in Ztschr. d. Dcutsch. Palest, ver. xi.,
3 u. 4, 1S8S.
The Study of the Scriptures in our College*. By
Rev. H.Bianchard, in Universallst Quarterly,
-Vpril, 1889.
Where are the Ten Tribes f III. By Dr. Neu-
bttuer, in The Jewish Quarterly Review,
April, 1889.
Le Pantheisme oriental et le Monotheisme he-
hreiv. Conference. By A. Franck, In Rev.
polit. et litt. Rev. bleue, B, 1889.
> i^EHi •:• test;3eqei2t •:• sappLEniEijT
•4^
OF
@$p 015 ^psfampnl^ jE^iubpnK
INDUCTIVE BIBLE-STUDIES.-SECOND SERIES.
[Copyrtghl by W. R. Harper, 18S8.]
Forty Studies on the Life of the Christ, based ou the Gospel of Mark.
Edited by William R. Harper, Yale University, New Haven.
STUDY XXXIII.— THE LAND AXD THE PEOPLE.
I. Introductory.
1. This is the first of a series of " Studies " which aim to gather up the material already col-
lected in previous work and to present it in topical form.
2. The material presented and the topics suggested for study will, no doubt, seem to be more
than may be mastered in the time which can be given to it by the average student.
Hence the more important subjects are printed in larger type that they may be first
studied and the others omitted, if there is not sufficient time to enter upon them.
3. If a class is engaged upon this work, the less important topics may be assigned to different
members of it, if desired, and thus the entire ground be covered.
i. The chief original sources for the study of this topic are, of course, the Gospels. Other val-
uable material may be found in Josephus and the Talmuds. The modern materials for
further investigation will be noted in the course of the work under each point consid-
ered. For the most part, only such will be given as are accessible and profitable to the
average intelligent student.
II. The Land.
It is important for tlie student to form a somewhat definite idea of the land of
Palestine, and its condition in the time when Jesus lived. The following
points may be carefully considered :
1. The Extent of the Land.i 1) The length and breadth ; 2) comparison as to size
with other countries; 3) its insignificant extent as compared with the
events that occurred upon its soil ; meaning of this.^
2. The Natural Features of the Land.s 1) Compare the following passages which
contain references to this point: Lk. 1:39; 4:31; 6:12; Mk. 3:22; 10:32;
13:14; Lk. 1:80; Mt. 3:1; Mk. 6:46; Mt. 7:24-27; John 11:54; 2) Note (a)
that the land may in general be characterized as mountainous ; (b) that this
characteristic determines the position and extent of the valleys ; (c) that it
also explains the nature of the streams, even the peculiar characteristics of
1 Cf. A Mnemonic Formula for Palestine, in this number of O. T. Stijdest, p. 346. Stapfer:
Palestine in the Time of Christ, p. 33; GeiHe's Life and Words of C hrist, ch. II.
3 Stanley, Sinai OTid Palestine, p. 114. 3 Cf . Geikie, ch. 2. ; Stanley, S. and Pal., p. 127.
352 The Old Testamknt Student.
the Jordan :i (d) that the fertility of the soil is conditioned upon the nature
of these streams ; (e) that the laud by its position and natural features was
isolated and its people therefore less affected by external influences ;2 3)
detennine in a general way the boundaries of the land.
3. The Main Divisions of the Land.-' 1) Compare John 4 :3,i; observe the three divis-
ions of the land and their relative position : 2) learn something of the phys-
ical characteristics of each division, (a) Judea; (b) Samaria; (c) Galilee, in
respect to (1) mountains and valleys, (2) lakes and streams, (3) fertility of
soil and variety of natural products ; 3) note especially that Galilee was
densely populated and exceedingly prosperous ;■• 4) name and locate some
of the principal cities of each division, cf. John 2:12; Mk. 8:27 ; Lk. 1:26 ;
Mt. 1 1 :21 ; Lk. 18:35 ; 19:28 ; John 4:5 : 5) compare ilk. 10:1 ; 7:31 ; Lk. 3:1
for other and outlying districts.
4. Plants and Animals.' 1) Gather from thefollowingpassagcs some ideaof the natural products
of the land: Mt. fi:3S; 7:16; Mk. 6:S9: 11:13: John 8:1: 12:13: Lk. 17:6: John 12:24; Mt. 12:1.
2) Observe the animal life' as shown in Mt. 7:6; 10:16,29; 8:20: Lk. 10:19; 12:24; 13:15,34; 17:
37: Mk. 10:25; 3i noting the variety of animal and vegetable life, consider how this land Is
adapted thus to be the scene of the life of the universal Christ.«
in. The People.
1. Their History.' Some consideration may profitably be given by the student to
the historj' of the period after the Jewish captivity.
1) Note the following divisions:
(a) The Persian Period,* B. C. o;iS-333, in the beginning of which the people returned to Jeru-
salem and were ruled by a Persian governor. Ezra in B. C. 444 establishid the Law over
the people and the era of Judaism begins, (hi The Greek Period,* B. C, .332-6."). The land
having been conquered by Alexander is ruled by his generals who are kings of Egypt or
Syria. An important event is the revolt under the Maccabees.io B. C. 16«*; (c) The Roman
Period.ii B. C. 6.T-A. D. 70; from the time when Pompey besieged Jerusalem to the time
when Titus destroyed the city.
2) Consider carefully the following points : (a) the subjection of the nation to a
succession of foreign rulers ; (b) they preserve throughout an unconquer-
able spirit of independence,i2 fostered by their religious consciousness and
hope.
3)lThe Roman domination ; (a) the development of it (1) at first, according to the
Roman custom, government through native princes, the rise of Ilerod, Mt.
2:1 ,22, and the history of his family ;" (2) Judea governed by a Roman procu-
rator and Galilee by a native prince of Herod's family (Lk. 3:1); (b) the
feeling of Romans toward Jews and of Jews toward Romans," Mk. 15:15 ;
Mt. 27:24; John 11:48, etc.; (c) signs of this domination in the Gospels, Mt.
27:11; Mk. 15:16: Lk. 7:2; Mk. 12:14,15; John 19:12; 18:3.
1 Stanley, S. and Pal., p. 275 sq. » Milman, Bk. LX., pp. 48()-»92; Stanley's
2 Stanley, S. and Pal., p. 112. J. C, Lectures 43-45.
• Stapfer, pp. 34-45; Stanley, chs. 3, 5, 10. » Milman, Bk. IX.. pp. 4»2-,509.
< Merrill, Galilee in the Time of Chriet, Chs. 'o Stanley, J. C, Lectures 48, 49.
5,11. 11 Stapfer. Bk. I., ch. 3.
5 Stapfer, pp. 223-22-'<. •' On the rise of the Zealots (cf. Lk. 6:16) see
« Geikie. p. 17; Stanley, pp. 124-127. Edersheim, Life and Times of Jemit the Metilah,
• All the histories of the Jews furnish ma- I., pp. 237,238.
terlal on this point. Ewald's great work is tor is Stanley, J. C, Lecture 50; Geikie, ch. 3,4.
scholars. Milman's Hintnry of the Jetcs and i< Stapfer. p. 214.
Stanley's Lectures on the Jewish Church are
popular.
New Testament Supplement. 353
2. The Home Llfe.i Compare the following passages and make as clear and vivid a statement
as possible covering the home life of the people: 1) Mk. 1:29,33; 2:4; Lk. 15:8; 12:3; Ml. Hi:
17— the house; 2) Mt. 5:15; Mk. 2:22; Mt. 24:41; Lk. 11:7; Mk. 2:4— domestic utensils and
arrangements; 3) John 6:9; Lk. 24:42; John 2:10; Mt. 13:33; Mk. 9:50; Lk. 11:12— food; 4)
John 19:23; Lk. 16:19; Mk. 2:21; 14:51; Mt. 9:20; 5:40— clothing: 5) John 2:1,2; Mk. 2:19; Mt.
25:6,10; Lk. 15:n,12; 10:40; Lk. 7:12; Mt. 9:23-25; John 11:38,39,44; 19:39-41— family rela-
tions.
3. City and Country Life.:: In a similar way note the facts in the following passages and form
from them a somewhat distinct idea of 1) city life; (a) John 4:46; Lk. 3:12,14; Mt. 9:10;
John 9:8: Mk. 3:6; 12:35— social classes; (b) Mt. 13:45,55; Lk. 10:35; Mt. 25:16,27; Lk. 16:1,3
—occupations; (c) Lk. 5:29; 7:44-46; Mk. 6:21; 12:20; John 13:4,5; Lk. 15:22-23— social cus-
toms; 2) country life: (a) Lk. 2:8; 5:2; 9:62; Mk. 4:3; 12:1; Lk. 10:30; Mt. 3:12; John 10:3—
occupations; (b) Lk. 15:6; Mt. 16:2,3; Mt. 15:14- country customs; (c) Mk. 8:3; Lk. 6:1;
10:4,5,30; 12:35— travel; 3) other classes and customs; Mk. 1:23,40; Lk. 10:.34.
4. Ediication.3 The following points are to be noted : 1) the child usually received
his education at home ; 2) the public school, if it existed, was in connection
with the synagogue ; 3) the textrbook was the Law of Moses ; 4) reading,
writing and memorizing passages of the Law were the objects aimed at ;
6) higher education was for those who intended to be teachers of the Law,
and was carried on by the scribes in their schools ; it aimed at skill in inter-
preting and applying the Law; 6) in view of John 7:15, note the possibly
meagre education of Jesus.
5. The Language Spoken.J 1) Hebrew had ceased to be spoken by all classes; 2) two views as to
the language spoken in Jesus' day, (a) the Greek was the common dialect; in favor of
this il) the Greek influence in the land during the previous three centuries ; (2) the O. T.
quotations in the Gospels from the Greek versions; (3) other passages, Lk. 23:38: Mk. 7:
26,27; John 7:35; (b) the most generally accepted view is that a dialect of Hebrew called
Aramaic was the language of the people, in favor of this il) the fact that in the syna-
gogue the Hebrew Scriptures were interpreted in this dialect to the people, (2) the Ara-
maic wordss and phrases in the N. T., cf. Mk. 3:17; 5:41; 7:34; 15:34; John 20:16; Lk. 16:9,
etc. Cf. also Acts 26:14.
6. The Religious Life. Trace out with more or less fullness the references to the
religious life of the people in the following passages: 1) Jenisalem the
great centre of religious worship, Lk. 2:41; Mk. 1:44; John 4:20; 2) the
centre of worship in Jerusalem is the temple^ (a) its worship and officers,
Lk. 1:8-10 ; Mk. 12:33 ; John 11:49 ; (b) religious customs connected with it,
Lk. 18:10 ; Mk. 1:44 ; Lk. 2:22-27 ; John 7:14 ; 8:20 ; Mt. 17:24 (temple tax);
(c) its appearance and plan, Lk. 21:5 ; John 10:23 ; Mt. 27:5 ; Lk. 1:11 ; Mt.
23:35; Mk. 15:38; 3) the local worship is conducted in the synagogue,^ Lk.
4:16,17,21 ; 4) religious forms and ceremonies in general, Mk. 7:2-4,11 ; Mt.
6:2,5,16; 12:27 (exorcism) ; Lk. 11:38,42; 5) the feasts,* John 2:13 ; 7:2; 10:
22 ; 6) religious people, Pharisees, Sadducees, other pious persons, Lk. 2:25,
38 ; 7) the Scriptures,9 their names, etc., Lk. 24:44 ; Mt. 22:36,40 ; John 5:39 ;
8) religious bodies," Mk. 14:55 ; Lk. 22:66 ; Mt. 5:22 ; Mk. 5:22.
1 Stapfer, Bk. I., chs. 7-10; Geikie, pp. 156-170. 2 Stapfer, Bk. I., Chs. 11, 12.
3 Stapfer, pp. 141-146; Farrar, Life of Christ, ch. 7; Geikie, pp. 170-174; ValUngs, Jesus Christ,
the Diciiic Man, pp. 46-49; Edersheim, Jems the Messiah, I., pp. 226-233.
lit need not be said that this is a difiQcult question which requires special study to solve.
The student may be referred to Neubauer's article " On the Dialects Spoken in Palestine in the
Time of Christ" in Studia Biblica for an exhaustive and learned treatment.
5 For a list of these cf. Hebraica, Vol. I., pp. 102-106, 188. e Stapfer, Bk. II., chs. 11,12.
' Stapfer, Bk. It., ch. 6. s Stapfer, pp. 358-365.
8 Stapfer, Bk. IL, ch. 13. 10 Stapfer, Bk. L, ch. 4.
354 The Old Testament Student.
IV. SiiDimary.
Describe an imaginary journey from Capernaum to Jerusalem in the time of
Jesus.i indicating 1) the physical features of the land; 2) the persons met
with ; 3) the habits and customs which might be observed ; 4) the chief
points of interest in Jerusalem.^
STUDY XXXIV.— THE CHRIST.'
I. The Old Testament Ideas of the Christ.*
1. The .Name."' D.-iscertaIn the Hebrew equivalent for "the Christ" (cf. John 1:41 land theorigi-
Dttl meaning of the word: 2) from Lev. 4:3: 1 Kfrs. 10:16: lSam.36:9; 18:13 learn who were
thus called and the signiflcance of this name as applied to them; 3) Note the adjective
messianic as used to signify things relating to the .Messiah (Christ). Distinguish between
a broad sense of the word referring in general to the hopes for the fijture, and a narrow
sense, relating to the personal Messiah.
2. Some Important Principles. 1) Distinguish between the Messianic purpose, i. e.
that the Christ should come, as revealed in tlie O. T. and the historic real-
ization of it at any given epoch in O. T. life: e. g., cf. the purpose in Gen.
17:7 in relation to the Christ (Gal. 3:16), and Abraham's idea of the Christ.
2) Distinguish between the N. T. interpretation of O. T. conceptions and the
historic apprehension of them at any given epoch in O. T. times: e. g., cf.
IIos. 11:1 and Mt. 2:15; cf. also Dan. 12:8; 1 Pet. 1:10,11.
3. General Messiauic Ideas. Read thoughtfully the following passages and compare them with
the accompanying statements. Make other statements if these are not satisfactory.
Note the following general Messianic ideas:
1) T)ie Kingdom nf Qtul (a) E.\. 19:3-6— established by a covenant at Sinai in which (1) God was
sole ruler (cf. Num. :i3:2i), ^i) and the people holy unto Him; (bl 1 Sam. 8:1-9; 10:10, etc.—
modified by(l) the choice of a human king and y) the rise of the prophetic order; (c)
Amos 9:11; Isa. 2:3,4; 60:!i-ll— when divided and gradually declining In power and upright-
ness under the kings of Israel and .Judah and attacked by enemies, it is idealized by
prophets as a future transformed kingdom.
2) Joel 2:1; Mai. 3:2— (Ae day of Jehnvah, la) Zech. 12:8— ushering In the future kingdom when
(b) Isa. 1:24-28— Israel will be sifted, a righteous remnant be saved, (ci the wicked will
be destroyed; and (d) Ps. 50— all being accomplished through the personal advent of
Jehovah.
3) Isa. 2:2-4; Amos9;8-].5— (he (;(oriou«/t«t«re when (a) the repentant people shall be restored,
ibi Isa. 56:6,7- the heathen shall be admitted, (c) righteousness and peace shall prevail.
4. Special Messianic Ideas. In a similar way compare the following passages from
the O. T. with the accompanying statements concerning the Christ (Mes-
siah) :
1) Ezek. 34:23,24 ; Ps. 2— the Kingdom of God and the glorious future is to be
consummated in the advent of a representative of Jehovah besides the
advent of Jehovah himself.
2) This representative is to be foimd (a) Gen. 3:14,15— among the sons of men,
(b) Gen. 9:26,27; 12:1-3; 49:8-10— in the family of Shem, of Abraham, of
1 Stanley, S. and Pal., ch. 13. ■ Stnpfer, pp. 48-00; Edershclm, I., pp. 111-130.
» A very excellent discussion of the whole suliject Is Stanton's T/ie Jcivieh and the Christian
Meeeiah. See also Westcott, Introduction to the Stndy of the ao»pcl», ch. 2.
< The best works treating of this section are Briggs' Messianic Prophecy and OrelU's Old Testa-
ment Prophecy.
s Smith's Bib. Diet., art. Messiah, p. 1905.
Xew Testament Supplement. 355
Judah, (c) Ps. 110; Deut. 18:18,19— among priests, prophets, (d) 2 Sam. 7:
llb-16; Isa. 9:6,7— in the kingly line of David, (e) Isa. 52:13-15— as a ser-
vant, (f) Ps. 2 ; Mic. 5:4 ; Isa. 9:6,7 — having divine attributes.
3) Mic. 5:2 ; Isa. 42:1-4 ; 52:13 ; 53:4-9 ; Ps. 40:9,10 ; Dan. 9:24-26— the work
of this representative is (a) to restore and rule, (b) to teach, (c) to suffer.
4) Note the elements of Messianic teaching not harmonized in the O. T. : (a)
the Christ as ruUng and suffering ; (b) the Christ as human and divine.
II. Ideas of tlie Christ in the Inter-Biblical Period, i
1. Preliiuin.irj'. The sources are meagre and unsatisfactory. Tbey consist of two classes,' 1) the
Jewish apocryphal writings, 2) the Jewish apocalyptic writings.
3. The Apoixypliiil Writings. The conclusion which a fair study of these writings produces is
that few if any traces of a Messianic hope are found in them.
3. The Apocalyptic Writings. s The Messianic views of these books may be stated as follows: l)The
Christ has a unique office and work; he is no longer merely one of David's successors;
2) he is given an exalted, superhuman character; 3) no clear references are found to a
suffering Christ or to a Christ who should be prophet or priest.
III. Ideas of the Clirist in the Time of Jesus.*
1. The Ideas. The following passages may be read and compared with the accom-
panying statement of their meaning: 1) Mt. 2:1,2; Lk. 2:25,38— he was
expected to come soon; 2) .John 7:27— he was to come in a mysterious
way; 3) John 7:31; Mt. 11:2-5— he was to be possessed of unearthly
qualities; 4) Lk. 1:74; John 1:49; 7:42— he was tobeaking; 5) Mk. 8:31,
32; Lk. 18:34— that he would suffer was not expected; but cf. Lk. 2:34,35;
John 1:29 ; 6) Mk. 9:11— he was to be preceded by Elijah.
2. Their Application. Note the following passages: ])Lk. 17:20; Mt. 18:1— by
some the Christ as king was regarded as an earthly ruler dispensing tem-
poral blessings ; 2) Lk. 1:68,74,75; 2:25,37,38- by others the spiritual bless-
ings resulting from his rule were pre-eminent, yet these were often viewed
from a legal, formal stand-point.
3. The Task of Jesns. 1) To present an Ideal which united the ideas ol the Christ (a) as king and
as sufferer; (b) as divine and as human; 3) to induce the people to give up their material
conceptions and accept him as the spiritual Ideal of the Christ.
STUDY XXXV.— THE GOSPELS.s
I. Introductory.
1. Before studying the life of the Christ it seems to be necessary and profitable that the Gospels
which contain almost all the information concerning that life be examined. While all
who are pursuing these "studies" accept these writings, doubtless, as historical and
inspired, it is well to Inquire into their origin, authors and characteristics, their relations
to each other and their trustworthiness.
1 Edersheim, i., pp. 31-39, 78-83. O. T. Student, vi., Art. by Schodde, N. T. Judaism and its
Genesis, pp. 44-47. Drummond, The Jewish Messinh.
s For a tabular statement of this literature see Weetcott's Introduction, p. 108.
3 Stapfer, pp. 236-244; Geikie, I., pp. 333-342.
•1 Vallings, pp. 32-27; Stevens in 0. T. Student, Oct., 1888, pp. 45-47, cf. also p. 42; Edersheim,
I., pp. 160-179; Stapfer, pp. 336-332.
6 A full and fairly satisfactory discussion of the topics of this " Study " will be found in West-
cott, Intwduction to the Study of the Gospels, chs. 4-S.
356 The Old Testament Student.
2. There arc some questions connected with this suhjuct for which there are different nnd oppo-
site answers: some others which must bt- left unanswered. But there Is much besides
which is reasonably clear and settled, worthy of every student's attention.
3. Many of the statements made can be verified by the student in a study of the Gospels them*
selves. In relatlou to others, he Is referred to the most available literature, and It Is
hoped that as much of this reading will be done as lime will allow and the books at hand
can supply.
II. Characteristics of the Gospels.'
1 . Tlie Material. Make a more or less full examination of the material contained
in each Gospel, e. g.,
1) Matthew: Note the following points: (a) its extent, including an investi-
gation of (1) tlie number of chapters. (2) the number of verses (approxi-
mately 975), (3) tlie limits of the narrative, from the Nativity to the Great
Commission ; (b) general outline of material, of which the following is sug-
gested: (1) early life of Jesus, 1:18-2:23; (2) his preparation, 3:1-4:11 ; (3)
the Galilean ministry, 4:12-18:35 ; (4) the journey to .Jerusalem, 19:1-21:11 ;
(5) the last days. 21:12-28:20; (c) the noticeable features that impress one
in reading the book, the following among others: (1) the genealogy, 1:1-17 ;
(2) the O. T. quotations (over sixty-flve); (3) predominance of discourses,
cf. chs. 5-7; 10; 11; 12; 13; 18; 23-25, etc. ; (4) arraugement in groups of
discourses and deeds, cf . chs. 8, 9, deeds ; 14-17, deeds, alternating with
discourses' as above (c) (3).
2) Mark: Note the following points : (a) its extent, including an inquiry into
(1) the number of cliapters, (2) the approximate number of verses (about
675), (3) limits of the narrative, e. g. from the Preaching of John to the
Ascension; (b) general outline of material; study the following : (1) prep-
aration, 1:2-13; (2) Galilean ministry, 1:14-9:50; (3) journey to Jerusalem,
10:1-11:10; (4) last days, 11:11-16:20; (c) noticeable features observed in a
rapid reading, e. g. (1) brief introduction. 1:1; (2) absence of account of
early life of Jesus ; (3) scarcity of quotations from O. T. ; (4) predominance
of deeds, cf. chs. 1:21-3:12; 4:35-5:43; 6:30-56, etc.; (5) somewhat system-
atic endeavor after an order of time, cf. 1:21,35 ; 2:1 ; 4:35 ; 8:1 ; 9:2, etc.
3) Luke: Consider the following: (a) its extent, comprehending (1) the num-
ber of chapters, (2) the approximate number of verses (about 1150), (3) limits
of the narrative, e. g. from the Nativity of John to the Ascension of Jesus ;
(b) general outline of material, the following is suggested: (1) nativity and
early life Of John and of Jesus, 1:5-2:52 ; (2) preparation, 3:1-22 ; 4:1-13 ; (3)
the Galilean ministry, 4:14-9:50 ; (4) the journey toward Jerusalem, 9:51-19:
44 ; (5) the last days, 19:45-24:53 ; (c) noticeable features in a cursoiy reading,
(1) the peculiar introduction, 1:1-4; (2) the long accounts of the birth and
early life of Jesus, chs. 1,2; (3) a genealogy, 3:23-38; (4) extended account
of the journey to Jerusalem ; (5) historical character, fullness of incident,
completeness of narrative.
4) John : Note the following : (a) the extent, including ( 1 ) the number of chap-
ters, (2) the number of verses (about 875), (3) the limits of the narrative, e. g.
from John's preaching to the great forty days ; (b)general outline of material,
this will be found difficult to settle upon ; the following is approximate : (1)
1 A spirited treatment of this topic with helpful suggestions upon the whole "Study" is to be
found in Farrar's Mataoa of tlie Books, chs. 1-6.
New Testament Supplesient. 357
early miuistiy, 1:19-3:36; (2) Galilean ministiy, 4:1-7:10; (3) journey to Jeru-
salem, 7:14-12:11 ; (4) the last days, 12:12-21:23; (c) the noticeable features are
(1) the prologue, 1:1-18; (2) visits to Jerusalem mentioned and work there,
cf. 2:13-3:21 ; 5:1-47 ; 7:10-52 ; 10:22-39 ; (3) predominance of discourses ; (4)
typical groups and individuals, 7:3-5 ; 4:39-42 ; 8:33 ; 9:40,41 ; 11:47-52, etc.
The Style. Note certain cbaracteristics of style in each of the Gospels, e. g.,
1) Matthew: Decide whether or uot the following are elements of its style: (a) Rhythm,
e. g., 10:34-43; 11:28-30; (b) influenced by Hebrew way of thinking and writing, cf. words,
etc., 4:5: 6:16; 7:28; 12:5-7,47; (c) certain peculiar expressions, 4:17; 1:22.
2) JVfa»7c;i In a similar way note the following: (a) vivid and graphic expressions, e. g. 4:37,
38; (b) simplicity of diction, cf. 2:13-17; (c) use of peculiar words and phrases, (1) Latiaisms,
6:27; 15:16,39; (2) Aramaicisms, 3:17; 5:41; 15:34; (d) its favorite words, 1:10,22, etc.
3) Luke: Verify if possible the following characteristics as appUed to the style: (a) free,
flowing, Lk. 19:41-44, etc.; (b) elaborate, cf. 9:43-45, etc.; (c) copious in vocabulary;^ (d)
the historical style; Hebraistic coloring in chs. 1 and 2.
4) John:" Taking 1:1-18 as an example, decide whether John's style may be characterized
thus: (a) simplicity; (b) repetition of ideas in similar forms; (c) Hebraisms, of. 7:37; 3:14;
6:49; 14:27 (parallelism); (d) certain favorite phrases, 8:13; 3:19 and 1:1-18; (e) philosophical
cast of language.
The Thought or Purpose. Examine the material of these writings to ascertain
whether any definite, directive and constructive thoughts can be traced in
them, e. g.,
1) Matthew:* Ascertain the strength of the following statements with their
proof; (a) Matthew's thought was the fulfillment of the Old Testament
life and teachings in Jesus as the Christ; (b) this explains (1) the frequent
quotation from the O. T., (2) the Sermon on the Mount as the code of the
new covenant, (3) peculiar phrases, 1:1 ; 24:3,15, etc. ; (c) it was written for
Hebrews, 15:1,2 (cf. Mk. 7:1-4).
2) Mark .-5 Note the following as to the purpose in Mark ; (a) to give a living
portrait of the historical Jesus ; (b) to show his power as the Son of God,
2:10 ; 4:39 ; 11:29 ; and (c) to note the effects of his power, 1 :27 ; 4:41 ; 5:42 ;
(d) written for Gentiles, 7:1-4, etc.
3) Luke:^ Consider whether in this Gospel the thought is (a) of an orderly,
historical narrative, cf. 1:4; (b) to disclose the perfect manhood of Jesus
and (c) to show the universal character of his work, eh. 15 ; 18:9-14.
4) John :' Certain main ideas of this Gospel are (a) a disclosure of the divine-
ness of Jesus the Christ, 8:58 ; 17:1-3, etc. ; (b) in the inner spiritual ele-
ments of his life and teaching, chs. 14-16 ; (c) in order that men might
believe, and live through Him, 20:30,31.
m. Relations of the Gospels.
Evidently from a study of the characteristics of the Gospels it maybe seen that
a close relation^ exists between Matthew, Mark and Luke in regard to the
general outline of material.
Further study in comparing the three shows the large amount of special mate-
rial which they have in common, as well as extraordinary resemblances in
forms of statement of the same event.
1 Cf . Lindsay, St. Mark's Oogpel, p. 28.
s See the list of over twenty-five words peculiar to Luke, in Westcott's IMroduction, p. 383.
• Cf. Cambridge Bible for Schools: St. John, pp. 38-46. J Cf. Bib. Diet., p. 1837.
6 Cf . Lindsay, pp. 26-35. 6 Cf . Bib. Diet., p. 1697, and the introductions to the commentaries.
1 Cf. Camb. Bib., Johii, pp. 34-36; Bib. Diet., art. John, p. 1429.
sCf. an excellent statement in Lindsay's Mark, pp. 17-26.
358 Thk Old Testament Student.
3. In both these respects they are quite different from the Gospel of John, which
introduces much new material and arranges it on a different plan and sel-
dom agi-ees with them in language where nanating the same event.
4. But while for their resemblances called the .Synoptic Gospels, they have certain
important differences from one anotlier: 1) differences in style already
noted; 2) differences in thought and purpose already noted; 3) differences
in the amount of material given; 4) differences in manner of expression
when narrating the same event, e. g., the transfiguration, Mt. 17:1-13 ; ilk.
9:2-13 ; Lk. 9:28-36.
6. As to the relationi of John to the SjTioptic Gospels note the following points :
1) differences in (a) the scene of his ministry : (b) the material of his teach-
ing ; (c) the view given of Jesus ; 2) resemblances in (a) the main facts , (b)
the elements of the teachings ; 3) no inconsistency between (a) the views
given of Jesus; (b) the differences in the scene of the ministrj-; 4) conclu-
sion that John independently supplements the synoptists from the spiritual
stand-point.
IT. Origin of the Gosi)els.2
1. A study of the relations of the Synoptic Gospels calls attention to the question of their
origin and helps in its solution: 1) since the3- are so alllte In some respects as to seem
dependent one upon another lor its material, and 2) since ttiey are so different in other
respects as to suff^est tliat a relation of dependence is impossible.
2. Three views may be held in view of these facts, as follows: I) the writers copied from one
another; 2) the Gospels are dependent on an orlfc-inal oral gospel current among the
Apostles; 3) they are dependent on writlen accounts which are similar and yet different
enough to account for the variations in our Gospels.
3. The prevalent view among scholars is the twi)-tuitrcea Ihcot-y. This maintains 1) that there was,
previous to our present Gospels, a Gospel writing on which they were liased; 2) that
Marlt is the oldest of our Gospels; 3) that these two writings, 1) and 2), were used in the
composition of Matthew and Luke.
4. The i)eculiar relation sustained by John to the Synoptic Gospels proves that It was written
long after.
5. No definite time can be stated as to the date of the appearance of the Gospels. From the
following considerations, among others, they are placed at least in the first century: 1)
the vividness and simplicity of the narratives themselves; 2) the uniform tradition as
it appears in the titles of the Gospels and in the early Christian literature.
V. Trnstwordiiness of the Gospels.^
Tliat these Gospels present historical facts and are a trustworthy record of the
life, claims and work of Jesus the Christ, may be considered in the light of
the following points :
1. The internal evidence of these writings, 1) simplicity, 2) candor, 3) substantial
agreement in the midst of diversity, 4) the portrait of Jesus* as made up of
(a) words, (b) acts, (c) character.
2. The use of these writings in the early church. s
3. The power of these writings throughout the world.
1 Cf. Westcott's Introduction, pp. 284-299: Camb. Bible, John, eh. vi., Int.; Bib. Diet., p.9U,
col. 1.
2 Any of the Introductions to the N. T. contains material bearing on this topic. Cf. Salmon's
ItltroJucttnn, pp. liVi-lOO.
s Cf. Kisher, Tlic Supernatural Origtn of Christianity; Bib. Diet. (Am. Ed.) art. Oo»pcl«, pp.
951-958; Farrar, Witness of Hiatory to Chrtft, Icct. 2.
< Cf . Central Evidctices of Oiristianily, ch. 2 ; How, 27i« Jesus of the Evangelists.
» Cf. Salmon, /iilroducMoii, lects. 4-7.
New Testament Supplement. 359
STUDY XXXVI.— COURSE AND CHRONOLOGY OF THE LIFE OF
THE CHRIST.
I. lutroductory.
1. It will be profitable now to look back over what has been done in Studies I. -III. The student
has now obtained a knowledge of the geographical and physical characteristics of the
land in which the Christ lived, as well as of the history and the (then) present condition
of the people among whom he labored. He has, also, learned with some degree of clear-
ness the various ideas about the expected Christ held by the various classes of the people.
He has carefully examined the records of the life of the Christ to ascertain their charac-
teristics, their relations, their origin, trustworthiness, etc. Thus a background has been
created, a preparation made, for the consideration of the chief subject of these studies,
the life and work of the Christ himself.
2. The following Studies will develop this subject. The present one will take up the life of the
Christ from without, from the external stand-point, to place him in the midst of these
surroundings, to trace his outward life passed among them, to note the various events
that characterized that lite from the beginning to the end.
3. The only authorities for our study here are the Gospels. In regard to them it is to be noted
1) they do not pretend to give us all the events of the Christ's life, 2) they do not relate
them always in chronological order, 3) their statements are sometimes not in harmony
with one another and the information necessary to harmonize them is not in possession
of the student, 4i yet, after all, an intelligible and tolerably complete account can be
gathered of this life the significance of which is found not in the fullness with which its
chronological or historical course is grasped, bxit in its spiritual and divine relations as
these are revealed and developed in human life and earthly conditions.
IL The Course of the Life.
1. Recall the statement of material eoutaiued iu each of the Gospels (cf. Study
XXXV., I., 1, l)-4)) and from them all form a complete general outline
of the life of the Christ. The following topics are suggested, but let the
student exercise his own judgment and substitute others if preferable:
1) The birth of Jesus; 2) his early life; 3) preparation for puhlic ministry;
4) early ministry; 5) galilean ministry; Q) journey toward Jerusalem; 7) last
days; S) resurrection.
2. It will, now, be best to take up some of the larger divisions in the general out-
line and seek to divide them into smaller sections ; e. g.,
1) The Galilean Ministry : several point.s of division might be selected ;
the following are suggested for testing and approval by the student : (a)
from the beginning to the event of Mk. 3:13-19 ; Lk. 6:12-19 (Mt. 10:2-4)—
the choosing of the Tioelve; (b) thence to the event of Mt. 14:13-21 ; Mk. 6:30
-44; Lk. 9:10-17; John 6:1-14.— feeding of the five thousand; (c) thence to
Mt. 19:1,2; Mk. 10:1; Lk. 9:51-56— departure from Galilee.
2) Journey towaed Jerusalem : (a) to the discourse of Mt. 20:17-19 ; Mk.
10:32-34; Lk. 18:31-34— t/te approaching doom; (b) to the event of Mt. 21:1 ;
Mk. 11:1 ; Lk. 19:29 ; John 12:12— the entry into Jerusalem.
[Topic ") may be similaiiy treated by dividing it according to days.]
3. Now take slips of paper and write at the head of each slip one of these general topics or their
divisions. Then consult the passages in the Gospels which narrate the events of this
period, and as you read note down in a single word or a brief phrase each event in its
order;i e. g..
1 In making up these lists 1) do not be solicitous to put the particular events in their exact
order, but 2) take some one Gospel, e. g. Mark, as a basis for arrangement and insert the events
of the other Gospels where they seem to belong. Consult a Harmony if possible, but do not feel
bound always to yield to its authority.
360 Thk Old Testasient Student.
1) The Bihtii of Jescs iMt. 1:18-26; Lk. l:.>-2:7): (a) hirth of John the BapUet announced
(Lk. 1:5-25); (b) hirth nf Jesiu announced <Lk. l:2t!-38); <o\ Maru visits Elizabeth (Lk. 1:39-68);
idi Ijirlh (>! Juhn fLk. 1 :5T-80); (e) birOi «/ Jeme (Mt. 1 :18-25; Lk. 2:1-7).
2) His Early Life (Mt. 2:1-23; Lk. 2:8-52): (a) tldingn to the nhephcrds (Lk. 2:8-30); (b) eir-
cumcfofon and prM«n<a«(«n(Lk. 2:21-38); <c) rbiH o/Ui« mai/i (Mt. 2:1-12); id) fllyH into Egypt
(Mt. 2:13-23); (e) at Nazareth (Mt. 2:23; Lk. 2:39.40): (f) vIM to Jenimtcm (Lk. 2:41,51); (g) at
Xazarcih again (Lk. 2:51,62). [The other topics may be similarly treated.]
4. When this work is completed you will have a systematized list of over one
hundred events in the life of Jesus. i E.xercise yourself in this list until
you have mastered its main outlines and particular sections so as to think
through the course of the life from beginning to end.
III. The Chronolofry of tho Life.s
1. Preliminai-y Remarks. It would be very desirable to establish some cbronoloKicaldata with
which to connect the facts of the life of Jesus. But the Gospels contain no system of
chronology and the uncertain data which can be gained depend upon doubtful inferences
from passages not directly concerned with chronology. The endeavor here will be to
obtain approximate dates for the following events: 1) the date of the death of Jesus;
2) the date of his birth ; 3) the length of his ministry.
2. 2'he data from which to determine these dates are as follows : 1) the number of
passovers mentioned in the Gospels, each being a year apart ; of. .John 2:13 ;
6:4; 13:1 (note John 5:1 as possibly another passover^); 2) Mk. 15:42, fixing
Friday as the day of his death ; 3) Ex. 12:6, fixing the passover day on the
15th of the month ; 4) John 2:20, taken in connection with Herod's begin-
ning the temple in B. C. 19 ; 5) Lk. 3:23.
3. The date of Jcsua' death. 1) Taking together 2) and 3) above, it is calculated that Friday fell on
the Uth or 1.5thJ (Nisan) in the years 30 A. D. or 33 A. D.; 2) but the datum of 4) above,
yields the year 28 A. D. as the date of the first passover (John 2:13) and the third passover
would be A. D. 30; 3) hence the conclusion that Jesus was crucified on the Uth or 15th
(Nisan), A. D. 30.
4. The length of the minUtry. 1) The number of passovers would give at least two years lor the
ministry, A. D. 28-30; 2) but his ministry had already begun, ct. John 1:29-2:12; 3) hence
his baptism is, appro.ximateiy, in the latter part of A. D. 27 or the beginning of A. D. 28.
5. Tliedate of his hirlh. 1) Lk. 3:23 in connection with the previously established date, A. D. 27-28,
would yield li. C. 2 as about the date of his birth; 2) this conclusion agrees with calcula-
tions from Mt. 2:1,2,1«.
6. The princijial dates in the life of Jesus are, therefore, about as follows : 1) birth,
B. C. 2 ; 2) baptism, A. D. 27-28 ; 3) public ministry, A. D. 28-30 ; 4) death,
Friday, Nisan 14-15, A. D. 30.
7. The student may now organize the ministry of Jesus about these dates accord-
ing to the minor chronological hints given in the gospels.''
• Compare such an outline in Lindsay's Mark, pp. a5-;!n.
« The best discussion of these points will bo found In Andrews" Life of Our Lord, where, how-
ever, John 5:1 is taken as a passover, and the dates are, therefore, different by a year from those
given here.
s Cf. in favor of this. Andrews, pp. 171-180; against, Oodet on John, i., pp. 432,463.
* On the alleged discrepancy between the Synoptists and John, see Andrews, pp. 426-460;
Weiss' Hfeof rhrift, iii., pp. 273-282. .
5 An excellent chronological resum<5 of the ministry of Jesus is given in Stapfer, pp. 477-487.
^T5E 'I'OhD 'l-^IimjUiETlW^^ STnDEp.-4
Vol. VIII. JUNE, 1889. No. 10.
Whatever may or may not be true of prophecy, one thing is
true ; the prophetic element constitutes the largest part of divine
revelation recorded in the Old Testament. What have we besides
prophecy .' The legislative element. Yet much of this, Deuter-
onomy for example, is placed in a prophetic setting and breathes a
prophetic spirit. The Psalms .' But are not the best Psalms, those
most read and most helpful, prophetic even in the narrowest sense of
that term .'' Even Job furnishes us a prophetic character, — Eliphaz
the Temanite, who tells us of his marvelous vision (Job 4:12-17).
We must, to be sure, recognize as separate the priestly element
with its law and ceremonial, and the wisdom element with its phil-
osophical inquiry into the problems which trouble the observing
mind ; for both these elements are as distinct from the prophetic as is
either from the other. But how small is each in comparison with the
prophetic !
Another thing is true of prophecy ; that of all portions of Script-
ure it comes into closest connection with the life and heart of our
humanity. What do w'e care for the abrogated Levitical system .'
It is interesting from the archseological point of view ; it is important
as showing God's method of dealing with the infant church ; but
where does it touch us to day .-' How many of us in time of affliction
go to the Book of Job for comfort, or in time of despondency and
doubt seek help from the experience of Koheleth ? Yet the whole
world can produce no such book as that of Job, and in all literature
there is no truer, more pathetic record of a storm-tossed soul than
that contained in the Book of Ecclesiastes.
362 Toe Old Testament Student.
The stories of Scripture, it will be said, have moved and influ-
enced men of every age and condition of life. These stories find an
entrance to the heart, and appeal to it at a time when the mind is
capable of receiving nothing else. They remain in it and cling to it
long after all else is forgotten. Have not the Scripture stories come
closer to man, done more for man, than any other literature, sacred or
profane .' This may be so ; but the fact is, the Scripture stories are, in
the truest and strictest sense of the term, prophecy. Of the prophetic
portions of our Scripture, therefore, it may be said. They are bound up
more intimately than any other with our lives ; they strike us at more
points ; they make revelation seem more real, more precious.
A THIRD thing is true of the prophetic portions of Scripture ; that
of all portions they most clearly show us God. In the types and
shadows of the Levitical system we see God. He appears also in the
Wisdom literature. But do not our best ideas, our clearest concep-
tions of him come, so far as the Old Testament is concerned, from the
study of the consecrated lives of his prophets, from the great moral
truths they taught, from the principles seen to underlie their work,
from the distinct and definite revelations of his attributes they make .'
Imagine for a moment the Old Testament with the prophetic ele-
ment omitted. What a void in our understanding of God's character
and providential dealings, even with the New Testament in our
hands. If we would know and understand God and his methods, his
love and his holiness, his attitude toward the righteous and the
wicked, his treatment of individuals and of nations, let us take great
care not to omit the prophetic element ; for here as nowhere else, we
feel and see the divine.
Some views of biblical history, especially those which are urged
by Wellhausen and his school, are, theoretically, very attractive and
plausible. Presented, it must be allowed, with literary skill, and sup-
ported by what seems to be a series of undoubted facts, these theories
have gained many supporters. But as is often the case in such mat-
ters the claim is reasonably made that they have failed to account for
all the facts and hence need only to be thoroughly applied to any
period of biblical history to be found wanting. It would seem that
what is required, therefore, is a full and strong presentation of the
hypothesis as it seeks to account for every phase in the life of the
people of Israel. Then it may easily be proved to be unscientific. It
would be convicted of failure to account satisfactorily for the historical
Editobial. 363
and undoubted elements of the situation under review. A recent
article in this journal presented a hypothesis similar to these views of
the Wellhausen school, in its application to the time and work of the
prophet Amos. It has called forth, among other criticisms, the fol-
lowing letter :
At the suggestion of one deeply interested in your journal and what it dis-
cusses, I venture a brief criticism upon Mr. Atkinson's " Amos," in the April
number. Able as is the paper, it is misleading in uot clearly stating the historic
condition of those times. Amos was a reformer rather than a teacher of a system
of ethics and of theology. The ten tribes were apostate from Yahweh's cove-
nant. Their priests and prophets may have reeled with drink, but they were not
priests of Tahweh. From the disruption under Jeroboam, northern Israel was
without a true sanctuary, without a true priest, without atoning sacrifices, and
apparently without celebration of the Passover. What, therefore, Yahweh's
prophets said to Eplu'aim must be viewed from this historic status.
Wellhausen errs in representing that Ahab did not intend to abandon Jeho-
vah's worship when he set up an altar to Baal in Samaria. He had been brought
up in apostasy and followed the sin of the calf-worship of Bethel and of Dan ; so
a shrine to Baal for Jezebel was but another step in the old-time backsliding. It
is evident from the records that prophets to the northern kingdom, from the man
of God out of Judah to Micaiah, Elijah and Amos, were resolutely concerned in
efforts to recover those apostate tribes, and their utterances are to be explained
by that endeavor. This is shown in 1 Kgs. 12:25-14:20 ; while ch. 17 shows Elijah
as repairing the ruined altar of Yahweh, and taking twelve symbolical stones with
which to build another. It illustrates how far from divine covenant-worship the
ten tribes had really gone. Even those who secretly remained loyal to Yahweh
were unknown to Elijah. Obadiah was a notable exception (ch. 18). and had
concealed the true prophets. Hence the historical impropriety of seeking for a
development in theology, or for systematic ethical teaching, in prophets to north-
ern Israel, from Jeroboam I. to Sargon II., who carried her captive. They voiced
the messages needed for the time, some of which, like Elijah's letter to Jehoram,
were of national importance because of the royal influence, 2 Chron. 21:12-20.
Apostate Israel never returned to Yahweh's worship, and never as a people
returned from captivity.
That " Amos does not lay much stress on the institutional character of the
covenant" (p. 289) seems to be answered by saying, so Kalisch renders the
word, " You only have I covenanted with," viz., the seed of Abraham. Little
value indeed attached to the worship of Baal and the calf-shrines of Bethel.
Yahweh demanded loyal seiTice from all the people with whom He had cove-
nanted. Hence the exhortations and denunciations of His prophets.
Only in the southern kingdom of Judah, if anywhere, was any development
in ethic, in ritual, in theology, of value thereafter. And it needed the strong
hand of Nebuchadnezzar to root out the tendency to idolatry in that people. No
prophet of the eighth century B. C. had a system to teach, but a message to
deliver which should reform the erring. If I am wrong, I desire to be corrected ;
but I cannot now read the history of that era otherwise than as above stated.
The old church was as much disrupted by Jeroboam and his successors as the
disrupted kingdom which they governed. C. COWLEY.
New York City.
THE FORMAL ELEMENT IN POETRY.
Bt Puof. E. H. Johnson, D. D.,
Crozer Theol. Seminary, Chester, Pa.
In a study of Hebrew poetry, uudertaken long ago as a student task, I tried
to make out what right that poetry had to its name. A good many authorities
rested its claims on the poetical elevation of its ideas. Parallelism passed for a
peculiarity of Hebrew poetic thought, and not as an artifice of the poetic form.
And yet it would seem that what we think of as poetry is always artificial in
form. Poetical ideas alone do not make a poem, for there are poems in plenty
quite void of poetical ideas. But neither will every kind of artificiality pass for
poetic form, because to spoil prose is not to make poetry of it. The expert
Hebraists had given over in those days demonstrating a metre in the inspired
lays, and no one. so far as I could find, was then pretending that Hebrew poetry
had any structural element in common with the classic and modern tongues.
Xow this seemed as good as admitting that, if what people now-a-days call
poetry is poetry, then Hebrew poetry is not poetry at all, but some other pleasing
trick in speech. It was a predicament that a Lowth or a Herder might consent
to stay in, but of course no tyro could. The true idea of poetry must be come by ;
and it was. Ere long the discoverj- was announced in that seminary that the
universal and constitutive element in poetry is repetition. The professor took
the announcement calmly, and so did the students. I was neither ordered out of
the room, nor made a doctor of anything on the spot. No, nor since that day
have I been able to find out whether I was right or wrong. Xo one seems to
know. I have applied to two or three erudite Semitists, who do their thinking in
Hebrew and keep up English merely for family reasons ; but they decline to give
any opinion. They have forgotten about classic and other recent poetry, but
agree that a fit disposal of my whimsey would be to submit it to the sniffs and
sneers of the learned pundits who read these columns.
Now, to make my little notion quite intolerable, it needs only some reasons in
its favor ; and here they are :
1. A fairly good reason, as reasons go, for taking repetition to be the common
factor in all poetry is that it is found in all poetiy. In classic and modern
examples it is repetition of sound; with the Hebrew it is repetition of sense.
Now, repetition is far from being an universal and studied characteristic of prose.
Ordinarily it would be offensive in prose. To become agreeable it must be con-
stant and regular ; but a rhythmic repetition of impressions on either the mind or
the eai% when it occurs in prose, is felt to be an illicit and absurd simulation of
poetry.
That repetition in the case of Hebrew parallehsm is a foi-mal element of
poetic style needs, one would think, only to be stated. Any doubt that it is essen-
tially an artifice of form, and not essentially a turn of thought, that, so to speak,
the form is the substance of parallelism, ought to be plain enough to him who
The Formal Element in Poetry. 365
considers the different kinds of parallelisms. In the synonymous variety, where
the strictest repetition of thought may be found, the appearaiice normally of two
members in each parallel is noticeably formal, and gives to the accustomed reader
or listener much the same sense of rule and harmony that metre and rhyme pro-
duce. In antithetic parallelism the same impression is made, with the added
mental charm of comparison ; but the form of a repetition is retained. In free
synthetic parallelisms the form is all that is retained. Here is no marked corre-
spondence of ideas ; but clause answers to clause, and the parade of repetition, like
soldiers marching in platoons, is carefully kept up as a formal element common to
all poetry.
2. Poetry has a distinctive aim ; it must always be interesting. Of course
it often falls short of its object ; but to be interesting is not even an object with
prose. To be " prosaic " is quite proper in prose. But repetition, artfully employed,
is the charm common to all poetry, and to the kindred arts of music and dancing.
Metre owes its agreeable effect to the constant recurrence of feet which are alike
in quantity or accent. Variety but Introduces more complex repetitious. The
most artful Pindar or Swinburne must not postpone so long the line that answers
to line as to prevent memory from notifying us of the repetition, or the poetic
grace is lost. The regular pulse of a bass drum will draw after it all the boys in
the street. Tlie refrain of Sunday-school ditties will set them all shouting,
though they have no breath to waste on the interloping stanzas. The Negro race
has a notable ear for time or movement. Even in that super-refined musical
style called " classic," the sonatas and symphonies of a Mozart or Beethoven
remind one of the Hebrew parallelism by their constant recurrence to the
"theme"; while the "learned school" of the Bachs and Handels are bent on
producing an intellectual delight by repeating in many an ingenious f ugueal form
a musical idea dull in itself, but to the connoisseur intensely interesting
when so treated. It would, of course, be pains thrown away to attempt expound-
ing to the readers of such a periodical as this the witchery of repeated steps and
figures that charm our giddy youth in the mazes of the modern dance. If perfectly
imderstood, it would but add a needless example of the pleasure derived, in
poetry or its sister arts, from incessant repetition according to rule.
3. The historic method of inquiry would reach the same results as the
analytic. Poetry is the oldest extant literature, because it is the oldest literature.
That is, poetry is the oldest composition that meu took the trouble to preserve.
Poetry was preserved because it presented in a form at once pleasing and easily
remembered, as every school boy can testify, the legends, laws and precepts of
ancient peoples. And it was repetition which gave to poetry both its mnemonic
use and its artistic charm.
Poetry was associated in its inception not only with music, but also with the
dance. Among an artless people the passion of an orator naturally seeks expres-
sion in wild gesture which by and by becomes a rude dance, and in a swinging
intonation which formed the earliest chant. Now, when that barbaric cantilla-
tion and dance fall under some rule, then the language which they set off follows
the same order, and becomes poetry. Order first appears when one clause of the
speech, or pln-ase of the melody, or figure in the dance, corresponds in some way
to that which has just preceded it. But this is to repeat the movement, the
strain, or the thought which went before. The repetition may be purely formal.
366 The Old Testament Stihjent.
not identical ; but it must be set over against tlie thesis of idea, sound or gesture,
as " answer" stands over against question in speech, or theme in music, or first
swing of body or lling of leg in the dance. At all events, until repetition began,
poetry had not begun. There might be frantic gesture or pompous song ; but the
language was prose, no matter how eloquent, so long as repetition, incessant and
according to some law, did not set off what was said as different in form from
common speech.
I have not based anything on the more or less successful attempts to find a
rhythm in the Hebrew poetry. If it is there, then the poetic form is somewhat
further developed than appears to the average reader of the Hebrew Bible ; but
repetition would still mark the kinship of that ancient poetry to those composi-
tions which we dignify by that name, and repetition made the Hebrew parallels
poetic even in the absence of rhythm.
I have argued myself into believing tliat I w.is right, after all, in those old
student days ; but this will make my present intrusion into an alien domain of
learning all the more presumptuous, and the more sure of its grievous but fit
punishment.
HOW FAK DOES THE CLAIM OF A DIVINE ORIGIN FOR THE
BIBLE DEPEND UPON THE GENUINENESS OF
ITS SEPARATE BOOKS ?
By Eev. Geo. W. King,
Providence, H. I.
There is so much confusion in the minds of some as to this question, that a
few facts need to be deduced and emphasized. In the work of Conybeare and
Howson, on the " Life and Epistles of St. Paul," in the chapter on the Epistle to
the Hebrews, is the following : " There is no portion of the New Testament
whose authorship is so mucli disputed ; nor any of which the inspiration is more
indisputable." This statemeut concerns a single book, and has the following
qualifications: (1) It was written in apostolic times, and under apostolic sanc-
tion. As proof of this are the facts that it was certainly written before the
destruction of Jerusalem (A. D. 70) as evidenced by the many allusions to the
temple and temple-services as still existing (e. g. ch. 13:11-13); that the author
was acquainted with Timothy (13:23), and was over an apostolic church (13:19);
and that it was accepted from the earliest times by the church as apostolic (see
Conybeare and Howson, ibid.). {-) It is in harmony, in its teaching, with other
books whose genuineness is undoubted, i. e. it is in harmony with the analogy of
faith. (This pertains to it as didactic and not historic.) (3) It does not claim to
have been written by any known author, i. e. its author is not given in its con-
tents. With tliese qualifications the genuineness of the book does not affect its
inspiration. If there are other books with tl:ese qualifications, or similar ones,
they stand upon the same basis. Thus, in this category are to be placed, for exam-
ple, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings and some of the Psalms. That is, the genu-
ineness of these books does not affect the question of their inspiration because of
The Claim of a Divine Origin fob the Bible. 367
certain qualifications which make this appear. Among other things, (1) it is evi-
dent, in the case of the historic books, that they were written by authors who had
sufficient sources of material for truthful history. Besides, there is no just reason
to suspect their trustworthiness. (2) In the case of the Psalms referred to and
also the historical books, no claim is made for any particular author.
But, from these and similar special cases, the broad generalization is fre-
quently and loosely made, that the Bible, as a whole, is not affected, in its inspira-
tion, by the question of genuineness. Thus, in a recent book by a popular writer
(" In Aid of Faith," by Lyman Abbott, D. D., — a book, by the way, which is qual-
ified more to unsettle than aid faith) we find the following: "Questions of
authorship are literary questions, not religious questions ; and the value of the
Bible as a literature which embodies the promise of God does not in the least
depend upon them " (p. 135). Over against this loose talk I place a statement of
an eminent biblical scholar as to Ecclesiastes : " If this book was not written by
Solomon, it is a base forgery " (Dr. James Strong, of Drew Theol. Seminary. Prom
memory in class-room). The reason for this assertion is the assumption that the
book claims to have been written by Solomon (ch. 1:1). I know that other schol-
ars decide that the book does not make this claim, i. e. they explain away the
apparent claim, and this is a matter of criticism and beyond my aim in this article
to determine ; but if the book really claims to have been written by Solomon, then
the conclusion of Dr. Strong is inevitable, of course.
So far, then, in this case, is the question of genuineness intimately con-
nected with that of authenticity and inspiration.
The same is true of other books, as, for instance, the Pentateuch. There
seems to be clear internal evidence, in these books, that they claim to have been
written by Moses. If this claim is made, then, clearly, the Mosaic authorship is
bound up with the question of their inspiration as this is bound up with that of
its authenticity. Furthermore, if they were not written by Moses, but at some
later date, as, for instance, in the time of the claim of some critics — in the time
of David. Josiah, or Jeremiah, for example — then there is no sufficient historic
basis for the miracles recorded in them, and the conclusions of such critics are the
more probable ; indeed, the only sound ones.
To state the matter in another form, to prove that the genuineness of the
Pentateuch does not afiect its authenticity, it must be shown (1) that it makes no
claim to have been written by Moses; (2) that, not making this claim, it was cer-
tainly WTitten at, or soon after, the time in which the events and miracles axe
said to have occurred, and by some ti'ustworthy authority ; at least, these things
must not be disproved. In any case the question of authorship is closely con-
nected with that of authenticity. It is needless to multiply illustrations. The
following may be regarded as some, at least, of the rules by which these questions
are to be governed: (1) The genuineness of a book must not be claimed unless
admitted. Otherwise (provided the claim cannot be shown to be an interpolation
of later date) the book is a forgery, and this is not compatible with the idea of its
inspiration. (2) In any case, it must be shown to have been written by a compe-
tent and trustworthy authority. (3) If didactic it must be hi harmony with the
other Scriptiu'es.
To state the conclusion in a single sentence. The question of inspiration is
concerned with the question of genuineness in proportion as the question of
368 The Old Testament STUDfiNT.
authenticity is concerned wth it. The whole work of the higher criticism— a
work conducted by many of the ablest and most scholarly men we have— bears
lasting witness to the importance of the question. Besides, so important is it,
that many critics, starting with the assumption that miracles and all supernatural
religion are unreasonable, seek to prove that the books of the Bible are not
authentic by endeavoring to prove that they are not genuine.
So far, then, is the statement of Dr. Abbott from being true, unless it be
assumed that the promise of God can be found in the midst of books written by
impostors, or in the midst of fables and myths. Perhaps the author would not
object to this conclusion ; but to most men it would invalidate any claim of any
revelation other than that of deists. The question is more than literary ; it is
religious, as the claim of a divine revelation is at the foundation of all true
religion.
THE FIGURATIVE ELEMENT IN JOB. II.
By Mii. John S. Zelie,
Tale Divinity School, New Haven.
It is almost impossible to make any exact classification of Job's figures ; but
there are certainly lines of thought and usage along which the figurative element
is specially distinct. The first con.spicuous characteristic is that, while Job uses
not fewer figures, he uses them less conmousiy. To this conflict of ideas the friends
brought nothing new, and so it became their object to state their ideas in the best
possible form. They would not admit the possibility of any addition to their
knowledge, and so the addition must be to their rhetoric. They are conscious of
their style and we occasionally find them looking back, as it were, over a flue piece
of eloquence and calling attention eitlier to its truth or beauty. But in Job we
come into contact with a human life and not a creed, and the figures change, as
we might expect, becoming less stilted and more natural. His figures are always
subservient to his thought. Job's thought carries us along with it, and we forget
his rhetoric in thinking of him. No doubt in this very fact we find a design of
the author, who reveals his liighest art in concealing it. Thought and figure are
woven together and we do not separate.
We cannot name the source of Job's figures. From every department of life
and knowledge the figures come trooping up into his mind. We may say of his
figures what Davidson says of his thought : '• There is much humanity in Job and
his mind moves by preference in the region of human feelings, rights of the
wretched, claims of sentient life, mysteries and riddles." From the human body,
the heavens, business, warfare, common vegetation and more largely from the
phenomena of nature he draws his illustrations, but his view of nature yields him
no high idea of law. but only mere will. Courts of justice and their mannera
furnish him a constant source of flgure ; the friends take up the same line to show
the absurdity of his asking for such justice as courts give ; we find it in Elihu's
pretentious offer of his services as daysman, in Jehovah's final answer from the
storm, and the last figure of the book from Job's own lips is drawn from this line
of life.
The FiGtTRATiVE Element in Job. 369
Job's sickness has a marked influence on liis speecti. His delineation of tlie
suffering of human life is colored by his own calamity. In every possible expres-
sion he has put the attacks of his disease, and in the midst of his argument the
remembrance of his misfortune springs up to interrupt or illustrate his theme.
Under Eliphaz's words ran somewhat distinctly his conception of life and govern-
ment, and it gave connection to his work ; but in Job such an element is absent,
and so it is most conveiiient to group his figures by the ideas to which they cling.
Humaji life is a prominent theme with Job, and his figures correspond to his
disordered idea of it. Two things appear to him in connection with human life;
first, that it is short and worthless ; and second, that it is a struggle. The first
thought develops in skillful figures of sudden disappearance drawn from clouds,
the passing of the weaver's shuttle and the courier's course. About the second
we find mainly figures of warfare as, " The terrors of God set themselves in array,*
his troops come on together. ''t His notions of C4od's dealing with man draw out
his largest number of figures and they are chosen from everywhere to denote spite,
chance and injustice on the part of God. In describing God and his ways in the
universe his language goes no higher than to describe omnipotence, mystery and will.
Like the rest of the speakers. Job has a few long descriptions, viz., the wicked
man's prosperity in ch. 21 ; the description of the poor in ch. 24 ; his own former
life in ch. 29, and his present state in ch. 30. Simplicity is the characteristic of
these chapters. Things are told as they are, with such skill as to render figures
almost unnecessary. In ch. 21 the scene might be that of Job's old home as he
had known it in prosperity, and from this point on we notice a more distinctly
domestic tone to the illustrations and thoughts. Job is less ideal but not less
beautiful than the others. In all affairs of men he is at home. His figures are
more local, forcible and applicable than are found elsewhere in the book, though
briefer aud less complete. The friends rounded out their similes ; but Job
glances at some one point in the comparison and hurries on, some of his finest
figures being in single words. He makes little use of proverbs, and if the phrases
of the others serve his purpose he uses them in his own work. Throughout-
his speeches there are the abounding elements of pathos and humanity. Elihu
adds little to the figurative power of the book. His purpose is wholly argument-
ative and he keeps persistently before him the formal question of the debate.
Not only is his figurative language strangely limited ; but worse than this, it is
not his ovra ; for of the one hundred and ten figures in his speeches more than a
third are borrowed from the other parts of the book. We notice a frequent and
tiresome repetition of figures, as in the 33d chapter, where the figure of the " soul
redeemed from the pit " occurs five times in thirteen verses. It is a disagreeable
feature in all his speeches, and were we to deduct his repetitions his figures would
number still less. In speaking of human suflering inflicted by God for discipline,
Elihu's contribution to the religious philosophy of the book, he derives his com-
parisons largely from Job's own disease, but uses them less skillfully than Job.
Until the account of the storm, then, we find little that is original or interesting
in Elihu's argument. In the storm picture the figures accumulate rapidly, and
whOe they are his own the elements of them belong to the whole book.
In the Jehovah speeches we discover no such poverty of figures as in the
EUhu portion. The qualities of style and the source of the figures are clearly
■Ch. 6:4c. +Ch. 19:12.
370 The Old Testament Student.
marked. Natural phenomena and the animal world are the fields from which the
material is taken, the fonner appearing in the 38th chapter, the latter in the fol-
lowing three. In the 38th chapter the imagerj' has certain characteristics that
have not been visible before. The conception of God's dealing with the world and
its peoples is sometliiug gi-ander than the rest of the book has furnished. The
persons of the poem have all had each his own theory of the divine nature ; we
have obsen'ed Eliphaz's stereotyped idea of God's goodness; Bildad's conception
of God as just because tlie ancestral theologj' bore no trace of his ever having been
considered unjust ; Zophar's God of unsearchable ways, man's relation to whom
is that of unreasoning obedience, and Job's alternating notions of a God of malice,
power, and sometimes, but indistinctly, of justification ; but here we are confronted
by the ways of a God free from the defects which human imagination has attributed
to him and yet One wlio will enter into judgment. Here Jehovah seems nearer
but not less sublime ; for his course in earth, sea and sky are the most impressive
of the book. These two new atti-ibutes in the idea of God, revealed by God him-
self, the attributes of spotless majesty and interest in the ways of human life, the
lack of which before has brought about an increasing entanglement, now clear up
the whole problem in the mind of Job. The figures increase in beauty and serve
the purpose of intensifying the idea of the jtersomdity of the divine being who has
wrought these wonders. The phrases expressive of his creative power are from
the language of man's own mechanical skill, but furnish none the less rich a
picture of the divine operations. Irony and interrogation, prominent tliroughout
the book, are especially so here ; but while the irony is sharp and effective, it is a
different irony from that of the friends. The treatment of animal life, though
perfect in all its details, seems like a descent from the previous noble subject of
natural law. The war-horse is the finest of all these pictures. Except in the case
of Behemoth the writer's object is not to give us a picture of the animal or a tech-
nical description, but rather the leading features of the animal's habits.
Description is the literary feature of the book, and in the description vision
is the prominent element; for Job and all the speakers see things and make us see
them. But the most noticeable point in this element which we are discussing is
that the imagery is not the imagery of Israel. There are no allusions to the great
events of their history or worship, scenery or climate. Few of the figures are
founded on rivers or torrents, except Job's beautiful comparison of the failing
desert-brook, which is distinctly Arabic. There are no specific allusions to mount-
ains, and the vegetation is also foreign. We can find no figures whicli point
unmistakably to Israel. The groundwork of the figurative element is Arabian,
and of the eight points in which reference seems to be made to Egypt four are
doubtful, and from the others we should hardly be justified in inferring more than
that the author was acquainted with that country, the very minuteness of the
Leviathan and Behemoth descriptions seeming to prove that they are the animals
of a strange land, while the animals of Arabia are dismissed with brief but accu-
rate descriptions, as if too well known to require more attention.
The general impressions which one gathers from a careful reading of the book
we have tried to analyze and establish by an inductive study and classification of
the details. This subject, studied for one's own interest, can serve only to increase
one's appreciation of the broadness of the author's knowledge and the wonderful
creative power which has been able to produce so marked and different characters
and styles with which to personify his ideas.
A PLEA FOE SEPTUAGINT STUDY.
By Rev. L. W. Batten,
West Philadelphia, Pa.
The writers on the uses of the Septuagint have dealt almost exclusively with
its value as authority for textual criticism. In this respect, however, very little
use of the text is actually made. It is only read for comparison in isolated pas-
sages, consequently in a fragmentary manner. It is not valued for itself. Like
a witness in court, its whole use is to throw light on something exterior to itself.
There is no especial use of its being in Greek, since any other language would have
served equally well. The Greek is esteemed peculiarly useful only in so far as it
was capable of making such a literal translation that it can easily be turned back
into the original Hebrew. Many students have read no more of the Septuagint
than occasional verses to which they have been referred by some authority. The
value of the Septuagint as thus employed is very gi-eat. I do not say a word to
disparage even such a limited use. Indeed, this would be its sole value if the
Old Testament stood by itself. All I have to say is based on the assumption that
every Old Testament student is primarily a Bible-student.
The Old Testament has an enormous value in itself, but after all, its greatest
value is its position as the foundation of the New Testament.
The New Testament cannot be understood without the Old. Its life, its
customs, its thought were Hebrew through and through. Though the New Tes-
tament comes to us in Greek form, the Greek is essentially only a translation of
the Aramaic which was spoken by the men whose deeds and words are there
recorded. The best New Testament commentators throw much light on some
passages by showing what must have been the Aramaic original, in Christ's dis-
courses for example.
The Septuagint was used very largely in Christ's time ; and Hebraistic Greek
was founded on it, as modern German on Luther's translation of the Bible. A
wide knowledge of the Septuagint is therefore absolutely necessary for any one
who would make any pretensions to New Testament scholarship. Yet the Sep-
tuagint does not belong to the New Testament field of study primarily. To be
understood and appreciated it must be made throughout an Old Testament study.
A classic cannot be translated so that the translation shall be anything like as
good as the original.
The Septuagint must be read as a translation with constant reference to the
Hebrew which it represents. It would not be of such great value to one who did
not read Hebrew. The student must read the Septuagint and understand all the
time exactly what Hebrew ideas are conveyed by the Greek words. That makes
it so valuable for the understanding of the New Testament. The one who has
read the Septuagint as I have suggested can read the New, seeing in the Greek
the original ideas of the Hebrew mind, or of the mind trained to Hebrew learning.
This use of the Septuagint has been recognized and employed chiefly by
lexicographers of the New Testament. Thayer elucidates many words by giving
the corresponding Hebrew word for which they were used in the Septuagint.
372 The Old Testajient Student.
The practical question is how to use the Septuagint so as to make it most
effective for tliis purpose. In my judgment it could not be clone best by a minute
study of particular words, or of selected passages, but by rapid reading of large
amounts. Questions of exegesis could be dispensed with except so far as neces-
saiy to get a clear sense of tlie original.
The aim sliould be to learn the meaning of the Greek language by reference to
the Hebrew. Constant reference to the Hebrew would be necessai-y. The classical
use of the Greek words must of necessity be presupposed iis known ; but the exact
meaning of a word in any given case must be determined by the Hebrew original.
If one were to read frequently in tlie Septuagint in tliis way, he would soon
find liis New Testament easy, pleasant and prolitable reading.
I make this plea for a larger use of the Septuagint, with full consideration for
the difficulties. The student in the theological seminary— the most available candi-
date for such work— is already pretty well crowded witli studies. No translation
of the Old Testament can make a very strong claim to tlie department of the
New Testament ; though it would be so vastly profited thereby. So long as stu-
dents are admitted to our seminaries without knowing a Hebrew character, it is
necessary to use the whole time on that language.
At the present time when so much progress is being made with the cognate
languages, strong efforts are made to induce students to attempt these. On the
other hand, it is to be considered that seminaries as a rule require as a condition
of admission the ability to read ordinary CUeek prose with facility. Students
begin at once the study of the New Testament Greek. A large part of the
Septuagint could therefore be read in the way I have suggested in a compara-
tively short time. It could not be undertaken with greatest profit until consider-
able Hebrew was mastered ; and by that time the continued reading of the New
Testament Greek would make it an easy task to read all the parts of the Septua-
gint which had been read in the original.
In one seminary (Alexandria) the Septuagint and Hebrew are read compara-
tively ; but with the result, as I am told, of accomplishing too little in Hebrew.
One means of making this reform would be to give a larger proportion of the
student's time to Bible study. In one seminary the senior class has one hour a
week in Old Testament study, and four hours in systematic divinity. If those
figures could be reversed there would be better equipped men coming from that,
in most respects, excellent institution. The Bible— not dogmatics— is the clergy-
man's specialty.
It is not only in the seminary that good work could be done. The American
Institute of Hebrew has done much to further Bible study. Its commendable
zeal could do something with this important subject. A course in the Septuagint
might be given in each of its Summer Si-hools. The recent publication of an
excellent text (Swete's) makes this all the easier. Then the Correspondence
School could have a course in this subject. In no case would this be a departure
from the purpose of the Institute. It would be an attractive addition to the
already extensive list of courses, and would do something toward winning the
attention of a new class of students to Bible study.
I hope this paper will appeal to a wider field still. A start in this direction
may be made at once by any minister or student who reads Greek and Hebrew at
all. If only he sees the importance of it, he may begin without any vote of Fac-
ulty or Corporation. Any such individual movement is making in the right
direction, a wider range of Bible knowledge.
OLD TESTAMENT WORD-STUDIES: 10. TIME AND
ETERNITY.
Bt Kbv. p. a. Nordell, D. D.,
New London, Conn.
While the Hebrew verbs may be said to be almost destitute of tense in the Indo-
European sense of the word, the language itself is quite rich in terms expressing
with more or less definiteness the relations of time. Only a small number of them
can be considered here. Por a full and satisfactory development of their relations,
and comparative value in the cognate languages, see Orelli, Die Hehrdischen
Synonyma der Zeit und Ewigkeit, Leipzig, 1871.
Re'shith first, beginning.
This word and the next are perhaps the simplest notions of time considered
in relation to the present moment. Re'shith, from r 6 ' s h , head, is an indefinite
term designating past events. It does not point to the head in contrast with the
feet, but to the previous in contrast with the subsequent. "The re'shith of the
first fruits," Ex. 23:19 ; 34:36, or of the corn and fleece, Deut. 18:4, is that which
comes at the head of a series, the first in point of time. Peculiar excellence was
attributed to the increase which appeared earliest, whether in the field or in the
family. The first-born among the Egyptians are called "the chief, re'shith,
of their strength," Ps. 78:51 ; 106:36. In Israel the first fruits of the field, as well
as the first-bom among the cattle or in the family were set apart as the special
property of Jehovah. In the attributes of wisdom and knowledge the fear of the
Lord is re'shith, a thing of supreme value, and therefore to be sought before
anything else, Ps. 111:10; Prov. 1:7; 4:7. Re'shith almost always occurs in the
construct state with a sufiix or genitive of definition. The only exceptions are
Gen. 1:1 and Isa. 46:10. In these instances it is not used in the sense of first, or
foremost, but absolutely in the beginning, precisely as h apx'j in John 1:1, which is
unquestionably suggested by b're'shith in Gen. 1:1. Does this phrase carry
the mind back merely to the beginning of the creation, or to tlie starting-point of
human thought ? As employed by John it certainly points to a pre-temporal life.
It is possible that b're'shith, standing on the remotest verge of the thinkable
past, really looks into an eternity which cannot be described except in terms of
time and of relation.
Furthermore, it appears that when the Hebrew intended to express the thought
that a thing was elementally, essentially so, he said that it was so from the begin-
ning, e. g. "from the beginning it hath not been so," Mt. 19:8, i. e. the stability
of the marriage relation reposes in the very nature of things. " He was a mur-
derer from the beginning," John 8:44, i. e. in his central, essential character.
Each of these instances has of course an historical basis, but it seems also to
expand into a philosophical conception. Without projecting modern metaphysical
374 The Ou» Testajient Student.
notions into the simple archaic phrase b're'shith ''lohlm, " in the beginning
— God," it may fairly be held to imply more than the starting-point of the genera-
tions of the heavens and of the earth. It seems to elude all relations of before
and after, and to escape into the timelessness of the elemental and absolute Life
out of which proceeded, in the very nature of the case, the world of manifestation
and change.
'ah'rith last, end.
'ah*rith denotes the last of a series, Ps. 13'9:9; Amos 9:1, and from this
relation to space it passes easily into a relation to time, Prov. 29:21. Joined with
yamim in the phrase yaiuim 'ah'rith, ''the end of days," it becomes a fre-
quent designation for an indefinite future especially characteristic of prophetic
discourse, Gen. 49:1; Num. 24:14; Deut. 4:30; Isa. 2:2, etc. In Prov. 19:20 it
stands for old age, and in Num. 23:10 for the end of life. In a sense a man may
be said to live in his children after he himself has passed away ; accordingly it is
said that there is an ' a h ' r 1 1 li , a future, for the man of peace, but the ' a h * r i t h
of the wicked shall be cut off, Ps. 37:37,38.
'eth time.
This is the most frequent word for the general designation of time. Its
derivation is uncertain. If that suggested by Fleischer from 'anab be accepted
as most probable, it would denote an entrance, a meeting, and this meaning would
be supported in many of its occurrences. In common usage, therefore, it desig-
nates, not time in the abstract, ,rpwoc, but a particular time, naipdi, determined by
natural law, Gen. 18:10; 31:10: Lev. 26:4 ; by custom. Gen. 29:7, or in general by
the concurrence of specific events. In Ps. 31:16 the plural, " my times." gathers
up not only the details of human life, but its whole general course and destiny.
Mo'edh season, appointed time.
Mo'edh is stronger and more definite than 'eth, involving predetermina-
tion in respect to a specified time. Its widest sense is that of the seasons fixed by
the movements of the heavenly bodies. Gen. 1:14 ; Ps. 104:19. Hence also a time
fixed by mutual agreement. 1 Sam. 13:8,10, or by a recognized authority. Gen.
18:14, especially the regularly recurring religious feasts of Israel, cf. Lev. 23:4,
which iuchide Sabbaths and other holy days. Lev. 23:2; Hos. 2:11(13). These
are known as the ni o ' * d h e y y ' b o w a h , feasts of the Lord, a designation which
is pre-eminently applicable to the great national feasts that drew the people from
all parts of the land to the central sanctuaiy.
A
Yom day.
Yom designates both a period of twenty-four hours and that portion of the
twenty-four hours which is light in distinction from that which is dark, — " Elo-
him called the light y u ni ,'' Gen. 1 :-5. In the account of creation y o m may have
been employed by the narrator in its diurnal sense, though not necessarily so,
inasmuch as the same writer, the " Elohist," employs the word a little further
on. Gen. 5:2, in the elastic sense of a period of time indefinitely extended.
This sense is also presented in the frequently recurring phrase bay yom bShu'
in that day, the day of Israel's redemption, foretold by the prophets and eagerly
Old Testament Word-studies. 375
anticipated by an oppressed and afflicted people. With the article, hayy om , it
denotes the present day, to-day, Gen. 4:14. With kol, in the phrase kol-hay-
yom, Ps. 42:4; 73:14, or the plural kdl-hayy amim , 1 Kgs. 5:11(15), it is used
in the same sense as tamidh , continually.
An idiomatic use occurs in the expression, " the day of any one," designating a
day especially important or significant. Job "cursed his day," 3:1, i. e. the day
of his birth; "the day of our king," Hos. 7:5, was the coronation day; "in the
day of Midian," Isa. 9:4(3), denoted the day of Midian's overthrow and slaughter;
" O thou deadly wounded whose day is come," Ezek. 21:25(30), i. e. the day of
death. A peculiar interest attaches to this word in the favorite prophetic phrase
yom y'howah, the day of Jehovah, or of the Lord. Its first occurrence is in
Obadiah, v. 12, " For near is the day of Jehovah upon all the nations," though it
must have been in use before his time. From this date onward it becomes a
stereotyped designation of the approaching political and religious crisis in the
history of Israel, and of the contemporaneous nations. An examination of the
phrase shows that it includes the twofold thought of judgment and redemption.
It was a day of divine vengeance upon the enemies of the chosen people for their
sin and oppression, but not on them exclusively; for, contrary to the expectation
of the proud and rebellious in Israel and Judah who comforted themselves with
the false hope of a divine rescue, Amos exclaims, " Woe imto you that desire the
day of Jehovah ! Wherefore would ye have the day of Jehovah ? It is darkness
and not light," 5:18, and Joel (1:15 ; 2:2) cries, " Alas for the day ! for the day of
Jehovah is at hand, and as destruction from Shaddai it shall come " "a day of
darkness and gloominess, a day of clouds and thick darkness." It was a day when
Jehovah would visit upon his people their sins. After the darkness comes the
light in the redemption of the true Israel, and its establishment upon Moimt Zion
as a blessed and holy remnant. God's compassion is shown at the same time to
the outward world in so far as it repents and seeks salvation through Israel's
God. Universal grace follows universal judgment. In this pregnant phrase, then,
we discern, not the events of a day of twenty-four hours, but the transactions of
the entire period of divine retribution and redemption which followed the close
of Israel's probation, and which must precede the consummation of the kuigdom
of God. The phrase passed into the New Testament, where in the various forms
" the day of the Lord," " the day of Christ," " the day of the Lord Jesus Christ,"
it designated his second advent at the close of the Messianic period.
Tamidh continually.
Tamidh is derived from an unused stem which presents the thought of
spreading out, and hence tamidh is that which is spread out, or continuity of
time, unbroken, uninterrupted duration. It is most frequently used as an adverb
in the sense of continually, an extension in time to which the writer or speaker
sees no immediate limit. An established custom may be spoken of as t a m i d h , as
Mephibosheth "did eat continually at the king's table," 2 Sam. 9:13. The ritual
services connected with the tabernacle or the temple are to be observed tamidh,
continually, because the period through which they were to be perpetuated was not
limitable by human authority. Thus tlie shew-bread on Jehovah's table, Ex. 25:
80; the oil for the golden lamp, Ex. 26:20; the morning and evening sacrifice,
Ex. 29:42, were to be presented through all generations. In glancing over the uses
of the word, it will be seen that it refers almost exclusively to human activity,
376 The Old TESTAiaarr SruDEarr.
hence to continuity witliin the houndaries of linmau life or of national existence.
The only exceptions are Deut. 11:12. " The eyes of Jehovah are upon it [the land
of Canaan], tamidh, from the beginning of the year even unto the end of the
year," and Isa. 58:11, '-Jehovah shall guide thee tamidh." Even in these
instances limits are asserted or implied. It never refers to that which has in itself
the (juality of endless continuance, as the permanent activities or attributes of the
Divine Being.
'adh forever.
The root meaning of this word seems to be a forthgoing. hence duration,
perpetuity. It differs from tamidh in designating continuance of being or
action without assignable limits. Its predominant employment, therefore, is in
the description of divine attributes or activities. Jehovah's " righteousness
endureth la' adh,' I's. 111:3; "he retaineth not la'adh his anger," Mic.
7:18. In a single instance, Isa. 57:15, it is employed absolutely, shoken 'adh,
KOTocKuv Tov a'luvft, LXX., inhabilaiis aeternitateru. Vulg., inhabiting eternity, A. V.,
and that inhabiteth eternity, R. V. Prof. Cheyne and other modern commenta-
tors render it " dwelling forever," thus securing apparent consistency in the ren-
derings. This translation seems hardly exact, since " forever '" is not a rendering
of ',"idh, but of la'adh, unto perpetuity, to eternity. The phrase in question
seems, in harmony with the older versions, to present not merely the thought of
God's unbroken existence, but it suggests the thought that he sustains an alto-
gether different relation to time from ourselves,— that he dwells in the time-
world, a'lav, just as he dwells in the space-world, Koa/wi;.
The idea of endless duration is still more fully and emphatically brought out
in the frequent association of "adh with ' o 1 a m , in the phrase 1 ' ' o 1 a m
wa'edh, Ex. 15:18, etc.
A -
'olam forever, etet-nity.
The discouraging limitations of human life led the Hebrews, as well as other
peoples, early to form the idea of an imending life of illimitable existence. This
thought found frequent and predominant expression in the word '61am, very sel-
dom written defectively ' o 1 a ni . It is derived from ' a 1 a m , to hide, which gives
also the derivative ta'eliimah, that which is hidden, a secret. Job 28:18; Ps.
44:22(21). Used as a time-word ' 6 1 a lu suggests a duration whose limits are
hidden from human sight, hence immeasurableness, illimitableness. It describes
ahoarypast, gibbdrini '"slier uie'olam, " mighty men which were of old,"
immemorably distant aborigines, Gen. 6:4. " remember y ' ni 6 th '61 a m , the days
of the vanished past," Deut. 32:7. So also the people that dwell in Sheol seem to
emerge out of a remote and timeless past, Ezek. 20:20 ; Lam. 3:6. With equal pro-
priety this word designates ahso a future that, according to the speaker's point of
view, may expand horn a horizon more or less remote into a duration inconceivably
vast. The idea of absolute limitlessness attaches itself especially to the exist-
ence of God. At 15eer-slieba Abraham " called on the name of the everlasting
God," 'el 'oliiiii . Gen. 21:33. The thought is stated more fully in tlie phrase
me'olam w' 'adh-' oliim , from eternity |past| to eternity [future] thou art
God," I's. 90:2. The same thought occurs in 1 Cliron. 16:36. " Blessed be Jeho-
vah, God of Israel, from the everlasting [past] to the everlasting [future]," mTn -
h a " 6 1 a m w ' ' a d h - h a " 6 1 ii m . The A. V. renders it " world "in two instiinces
The Song of Deborah. 377
only, Ps. 73:12 and Eccl. 3:11. In the former place, instead of " the ungodly who
prosper in the world," we should read "being always at ease they increase in
riches." In the latter instance, " He hath made everything beautiful in its time ;
also he hath set '61am in the heart of man," notwithstanding the disposition of
Gesenius and other Hebraists to give it the meaning " world," saeculum, which
it acquired in the later Hebrew, we are not justified in departing from the ordi-
nary meaning of the word. There is not an instance in Scripture where '61am
may fairly be interpreted "world." Such instances as Ps. 145:13; 106:4, which
have been adduced, yield a far better sense when '61 am is translated by a time-
word. In the passage before us the preacher would say, that God has indeed
made the course of nature and of human life attractive with beauty and delight ;
still he has put eternity in man's heart, and therefore man cannot find permanent
contentment and satisfaction in the finite world. Anything less than the infinite
and eternal, for which his spirit yearns irrepressibly, becomes in the end hateful,
a vanity and vexation of spirit, 2:12 seq. He may not be able to understand the
work that God doeth from the beginning to the end, nevertheless he turns wearily
from the perishable works of his own hands in which there is no good, to the
imperishable works of God. In the contemplation of these cind in douig good
man finds the joy of life, v. 12.
THE SONG OF DEBORAH-JUDGES V.
By Pkofessoe Thomas Hill Eich, M. A.,
Cobb Divinity School, Lewiston, Me.
I. An Interpretation of the Song.
Verse 1. Deborah begins her song with an exhortation to praise Jehovah,
that he has stirred the mighty in Israel to exert their might ; that he has given
the people heart to seek the foe.
Vs. 3-5. She would have the neighboring kings and princes listen while she
extols Jehovah, the God whom Israel serves. At once addressing Jehovah, and
referring to the time when he adopted Israel as his people, she makes mention of
the commotions in nature attending that transaction. Thus she indicates that
Israel's God has power to defend the people of his choice ; and might be expected
to interpose in their time of need — as these kings and princes have just seen him
do— and make his people always triumph.
Vs. 6-8. True it is, she says, that in spite of what Shamgar and Jael might
do, the highways and villages of Israel were long deserted ; and so continued
until I, Deborah, arose, and my mother-like counsels prevailed.
But this abject condition of Israel, she says, was due to their forsaking .Jeho-
vah, their God ; who therefore punished them with war and lack of courage to
defend themselves with shield and spear.
Vs. 9-12. But a better day has come, and with heart turned to those who
have brought it to pass — grateful both to those who gave command, and to their
volunteer army— Deborah again summons to Jehovah's praise. All classes should
378 Tna Old Tkstament Student.
join in it, —the dignified, who ride on white asses ; the wealthy, who recline on rich
divans ; the commonalty, who, engaging in business pursuits, are oftenest found
upon the road— all should wisely consider what Jehovah has wrought ; the archers
should rehearse it, as, returned from the conflict, they rest at the quiet fountain
by the city gate— should rehearse the gracious deeds of Jehovah, whereby his
people have been restored to their deserted homes. Deborah stirs up herself to
celebrate the victory in her song ; and bids Barak display his captives, and so pro-
claim the greatness of the triumph.
Vs. 13-18. And now Deborah goes on to sketch in lively manner who were
ready for the encounter, and who declined to come to it. No great number com-
posed the achieving army, but, as it were, a remnant of the nation ; yet its true
noblemen — heroes with wliom Jehovah is present, as Deborah joyfully perceives I
From Ephraim there come such as had dislodged Amalek and established
themselves in his possessions. With Ephraim Benjamin fitly combines, having
also descended from Rachel, being his neighbor, and not numerous. From
Machir— so the half ti'ibe of Manasseh, west of tlie .Jordan, is poetically designated,
Machir being Manasseh's only son— from ilachir come able* commanders— whose
following we are left to infer. From Zebulon they come in long procession,
directed by their leader's lance. The princes of Is.sachar respond to the call of
Deborah, and the tribe in general shares the spirit of Barak- their very feet
seem moved by it, and speed them to the battle-field. Reuben at first warmly
resolves to aid bis brethren ; but loth to leave his verdant pastures and choice
flocks, his resolves tum to questionings that detain him in his well-watered land,
Gilead — that is, all beyond Jordan— keeps aloof from the war. Dan prefers his
commerce to national interests; Asher in his seaside home, remote from the
strife, gives it little regard. But Zebulon and Naphtali, hardy mountaineers, are
ready to sacrifice their lives for their country's good !
Vs. 19-23. This small but choice army, at Taanach, and by the waters of
Megiddo, meets King Jabin's hosts, strengthened by the other kings of Canaan,
and commanded by Sisera. The enemy had come for spoil, but— wholly failed to
win it ! The heavens blinded them with impetuous hail and rain.f and thus the
stars might seem to have left their courses to discomfit Sisera. Many of his war-
riors the swollen Kishon swept aveay. How vain becomes the strength of this
great multitude ! And now there is a great stamping of horses; for their chariot-
riders, put to (light, dash along with hunter's speed I Meroz neglects to intercept
the fugitives, and thereby brings heavy curse upon her inhabitants.
Vs. 24-27. On the contrary, rich blessing is invoked on Jael's fearless zeal
for the cause of Jehovah and his people — (real it may be, not .according to the
knowledge of these later times).
Vs. 28-30. Sisera the mighty is despoiled of his might— is dead ! But his
mother, with longing, still looks for his return, yet with great forebodings ! The
wise ones of the princesses of Sisera's harem would explain his delay by the
great amount of booty to be gathered up. (IIow their wisdom fails to reach the
trutli of the case !)
V. 31. Deborah asks— and in a sort predicts it— that like destruction may
come to all of Jehovah's enemies; but, for his friends, she desires that, like the
sun, witli a hero's strength they may enter upon and accomplish their day !
•The same root word here as In verse 9.
t Cf. Josephus in Inc.
The Song of Debokah. 379
II. A Fkee Rendering of the Song.
That the strong in Israel, laid bare their strength ;*
That the people came to battle willingly ;
Bless ye Jehovah's name !
Hear, O ye kings of earth ! ye princes lend your ear !
1 of Jehovah, I would sing ; would touch the harp,
In honor of Jehovah, God of Israel !
Jehovah, when thou wentest out from Seir ;
When thou didst march from Edom's field,
Earth quaked ; yea, heaven dissolved ;
Yea, clouds dissolved in rain !
Mountains flowed down, at presence of Jehovah —
Sinai there, at presence of Jehovah, God of Israel !
In days of Shamgar, Anath's son ;t
In days of Jael, idle lay the ways ;t
And they who troddeu paths frequent,
Went ways circuitous.
Idle lay the villages in Israel — idle !
Until 1, Deborah, arose — arose.
And like a mother wrought for Israel.
He chose new gods !
Then war was at his gates.
Did shield appear — or lance,
'Mong Israel's forty thousand men !
My heart goes out to them who were the law of Israel ;
To such as of the people came to battle willingly !
Bless ye Jehovah's name !
Who on white asses ride ;
Who on rich carpets sit ;
And ye who tread the way, in toil for bread —
Muse on the victory !
* " For that leaders, etc.," of the Revision, is intelligible and well. The original seems also
to tell us that these leaders have long- hair, unconfined; that they are Samsons, giving play to
the strength residing in their locks. The original of v. 9, with poetic word, designates these
leaders as goiieraors, law-givers, judges; and perhaps would say that these leaders were judicimis
as well as strong, and so fitted to give the word of command.
t Shamgar's superhuman deed, recorded in ch. 3:31, brought no permanent deliverance; nor
could Jael's daring spirit have done so, while Israel delighted in idols.
t "The highways were unoccupied," that is, unused, ceased to be traveled. It would hardly be
said here that rulers ceased to be, or ceased to exert themselves, when Shamgar has just been
mentioned, and his deed alluded to. But the villages were unoccupied, had ceased to be inhabited,
as we see from v. 11, which speaks of their ?'eoecupation. So one may be inclined to hold to vil-
lages, which is not without authority— and then can translate the verb ChadHu uniformly in
vs. 6 and 7, and render perazon, in vs. 1 and 11, by the same word.
380 The Old Testament Student.
By voice of archers, 'mid the water troughs-
There be rehearsed Jehovah's righteous acts,
His righteous acts, done for his villages in Israel.
Then from their refuges on high,
Down to their gates again Jehovah's people came —
No foe to fear !
Awake, Deborah, awake !
Awake, awake, the triumph sing !
Arise, Barak, Abinoam's son.
And lead thy captives to captivity !
Then, as a remnant 'scaped— the nation's noblemen—
Down to the battle came ;
Jehovah, 'mid those heroes— joy to me I —
Came down to Jezreel !
From Ephraim — they with root in Amalek ;
Next thee, Benjamin, with thy hosts combined ;
From Machir, leaders, with their train come down ;
And out of Zebulon they onward march,
With captain's staff;
And princes of Issachar with Deborah league.
And Issachar, like Barak brave,
Do'WTi to the vale his feet impel.
By streams of Eeuben were determinations great !
Why taiTying still amid the fold V
Is bleat of flocks so sweet to hear ?
By streams of Reuben were— deliberations great ;
But none the battle sought.
GUead, beyond Jordan, settled down ;
And Dan — why sojourns he within his ships V
Asher by the seashore sat.
And at his havens rests he quietly.
Zebulon accoimts it nought to die ;
And likewise Naphtali, of mountain home.
Kings came ; they fought ;
The kings of Canaan fought ;
At Taanach, by waters of Megiddo —
No piece of silver took !
The heavens against them fought ;
The stars their courses left, to light gainst Sisera !
By Kishon's brook their hosts were swept away,
The Song of Deborah. 381
That brook of ancient days — by Kishon's brook.
My soul tread down their strength !*
Then hoofs of horses smote the ground,
For on and on the mighty fled.
Curse ye Meroz, the angel of Jehovah saith,
Curse, curse ye, her inhabitants,
Coming not to help Jehovah,
To help Jehovah 'mid the heroes in the strife.
But Jael, Kenite Heber's wife.
Let her beyond women blessed be !
Beyond women who in tents abide.
Let her blessed be !
Water he asked, she gave him milk ;
In costly bowl she offered cream.
But deep his sleep within her tent ;
Her hand out to the naD she stretched.
And her right hand — hammer of toilers took ;
She Sisera smote, she broke his head ;
And crushed and pierced his temples through.
At her feet he sank, he fell,— lay dead !
At her feet he sank, he fell ;
Where he sank, there he fell — a thing of nought !
Through the window there looks forth, and cries aloud —
Through the lattice — the mother of Sisera :
" Why does his chariot delay to come !
Why step his steeds so slow !'"
The vrisest of her princesses reply —
But her own words she still repeats unto herself —
" Surely they booty find, and share ;
A maiden, two maidens for each man ;
Booty of garments bright for Sisera ;
Booty of garments bright, with ueedle wrought ;
A garment bright, on both sides wrought —
Booty for me to wear I"t
So perish, O Jehovah ! — all thine enemies !
But them who love him —
Let them like the sun go forth,
In strength of victory !
* Seeing the enemy overthrown, and as it were prostrate, Deborah in spirit tramples on them.
V. 28, As chariot can also stand for the horses that draw it, so here pa'amay (steps) of the original
seems to demand that chariots (the plural) should be used in like manner.
■t By a slight change in pointing we get my neck, and a ready sense for this vexed passage.
For the chief speaker should be the chief wife of Sisera, and might well hope for precious rai-
ment from the spoil ; which she could fasten at and let flow down from her neck, (and shoulders).
OLD TESTAMENT NOTES AND NOTICES.
Mr. W. W. White, of Yale University, has been appointed as Professor of Old
Testament Literature in the Xenia Theological Seminary.
It is expected that Miss. Amelia B. Edwards, the distinguished Egyptologist,
will visit the United States in the winter of 1889-'90 and deliver a series of lect-
ures on Egypt and the recent discoveries there.
The Babylonian expedition sent out by the University of I'ermsylvania has
been working at the ruins of Niffer, whose site is marked by an Immense mound,
about sixty miles southwest of ancient Babylon, and bordering on the AfBosch
swamps, so-called from the tribe of Bedouins that dwell near by. Niffer is iden-
tical with the old Babylonian Nippiru, founded about 3,000 years before the
Christian era. In its ruins lie buried the remains of the famous Bel temple,
which is to be thoroughly explored.
The books published by the Palestine Exploration " Fund " aie : (1) The
Store City of Pithom. Revised edition. Thirteen plates and two maps. In the
heUotype appeai- the bricks made by the Israelites, with and without straw, and
wth stubble, to build the city. The route of Exodus is treated. (2) Zoan (Tanis).
Part. I Nineteen plates and plans. Account of the greatest of all colossi is in
this volume. (3) Naukratis. Part I. Forty-six plates and plans. Particularly
valuable to classical readers, students in Greek arts, and all interested in antiques,
such as coins, amulets, scarabs, potterj', weights, etc., etc., and in ancient epi-
graphy. (4) Zoan (Tanis). Part II. Including Am and Tahpanhes. Sixty-three
plates and plans. Valuable to biblical and art students. (5) Goshen. AVith
eleven plates, maps and plans. The plates are large and unfolding. The identifi-
cation of Goshen is of supreme impoi-tance. Dr. Wm. C. Winslow, of Boston, is
the Vice-president and Hon. Treasurer of the " Fund " for America, and has done
great service to the cause of biblical study in stimulating the American interest
in this enterprise. He is greatly desirous that America be largely represented in
the gifts which are to sustain and carry on to larger success the work which has
been thus far so wonderfully productive. He will gladly receive and forward all
contributions.
SYNOPSES OF IMPORTANT ARTICLES.
The Prophecy of the Virgin Mother.* Isa. 7:14.— The use of the word
translated "virgin" in this passage to denote an unmarried person seems favored
by biblical usage elsewhere. The phrase " thou shalt call," which is the better
translation of the Hebrew qarath (cf. Jer. 3:4; Gen. 16:11; Isa. 60:18), recalls
older and similar phraseology used in connection with the birth of Ishmael (Gen.
16:11), Isaac (Gen. 17:19), Samson (Judg. 13:5,7). Isaiah was not addressing
some woman there present, but was quoting a familiar phrase. The passage
occurs in the midst of the prophetic discourse which might fairly be entitled The
Discourse of the Three Children (Isa. 7-12). The Immanuel child in some respects
is put on the same footing with the two other children. Ahaz is told that before
a child, that moment conceived, can tell good from bad, Jehovah's promise will be
fulfilled. But in other respects Immanuel stands apart in dignity and importance
from the other two (Isa. 8:6-8; 9:1-6; 11). The promise of a child to be born
wonderful in attributes and power would recall the promises to David. This
sign to Ahaz would be understood merely as a repetition of those promises in a
new form. It may be doubted whether Isaiah or any who heard him had in mind
the idea of just such a person as Jesus, to be born of a virgin in some future
century.
Tbe point of interest in this article is the relation sought to be established between the
phraseology of the passage in Isaiah and that of earlier passages of Scripture. It may fairly be
questioned whether there is anj^hing more than accidental coincidence. The conception of
prophecy is a thoroughly scientific and sensible one, though less account is made of the histor-
ical situation than might reasonably be done.
Iniinoralities of 0. T. Heroes, t — The problem of the paper is. How reconcile
the immoralities of O. T. characters with the N. T. praise of them as virtuous
saints'? Some general principles are stated which will throw light upon it. (1)
The Scripture biographers do not profess to be complete. A knowledge of the
details of a crime might modify our opinion of the blackness of the offense. (2)
Distinguish between Scriptural silence and Scriptural approval, when reading the
candid and fearless accounts of the sins of saints. (3) Recall the low, infantile
state of the ancient morality. Thus while not excusing we will be more just to
the patriarchs. (4) The divine revelation of truth has been a process slowly
unfolding. The character of Paul was impossible in the age of Abel with his
light. (5) Distinguish between absolute truth and relative truth, or truth as it
appears to God and truth as it appears to us under different circumstances.
God's revelation is one of divine accommodation. Gloriously worthy as were
many of the O. T. heroes and saints for their times, were they living now they
would be denied membership in our churches and perhaps be inmates of our peni-
* By Prof. Willis J. Beecher, D. D., in The Hnmiletic Review, April, 1889, pp. 354-359.
+ By Rev. Geo. Dana Boardman, D. D., in The Andover Review, March, 1889, pp. 378-285.
384 Thb Old Testament Student.
tentiaries. (6) An a matter of fact the sins of tbe O. T. worthies were punished.
(7) Observe the trend of character. Never judge a man by spots. Let us, then,
be lenient in judging O. T. heroes, while we are rigorous in judging ourselves.
" To whom much is given, of bim will much be required."
Written in a cbarmJtiffrly clear and vivid style, this article presents positions which are
strong, and, perhapB, near the truth of thhiKS, in view of the fact that conservative students
will thinli that the writer has yielded too much while radicals will declare that he does not go
far enough. It is worthy of a careful reading by all earnest students of tbe Scripture.
Lost Writings Cited in the 0. T.* One of the difficulties connected with the
Old Testament is the large specific reference in portions of it to works now
entirely unknown. These references when gathered show the existence of a large
body of literature embedded in the O. T. This literature consists of 1) eight
" Books " of annals cited forty-five times, or four if some of these are not inde-
pendent works ; 2) seven "Histories" by specified authors, cited eight times ; 3)
two " Commentaries," cited once each; 4) one '-Chronicle," cited once; 5) one
" Acts," cited once ; 6) two '• Visions," cited each once ; 7) one " Prophecy," cited
once ; 8) one " Lamentations," referred to once ; 9) five " Miscellaneous Works,"
referred to ; there are therefore twenty-four titled lost works to be traced from
references in the O. T. Some questions and problems suggested by this line of
study: (1) several books of the O. T. are pure compilations finding their sources
in these lost works, and the query arises whether more of them are not so like-
wise, though not giving credit to these sources. (2) The earlier and later kings
kept accurate records of their reigns. (3) The prophets were writers of history,
secular and sacred, as well as of visions and prophecies. (4) The existence of
these lost works explains references to events about which contemporary biblical
history is silent, cf. dovmfall of Shiloh (Jer. 7:12,14 ; 26:6,9). (5) Writing was no
new or late thing in Israel.
A useful suuiiuary of fact* which have been known in a more or less general way, but
which the ordinary reader has not previously possessed in so detailed and so systematic a pres-
entation.
0. T. Criticism iu the Light of N. T. (Jiiotatioiis.t— The study of the text and
structure of the O. T. books has become wide-spread and fruitful. Yet the
conchisious reached in this study have alarmed many who have held the unwar-
rantable view that the Bible is perfect in form. Some critics are desirous of
undermining the authority of the O. T., but there is a devout criticism also by
which a clearer insight is to be given into the matter and manner of the Divine
llevelation. In former days, Calvin and the men of his time accepted many of
the results of criticism and yet in no wise undervalued Scripture. They distin-
guished between the divine purpose of revelation and the fallible human agency.
It is with the latter that criticism deals, and its operations need alarm no one.
The use of the O. T. by our Lord and his Apostles shows that, while they were
not concerned about the exactness of their quotations, they were profoimdly
conscious that the O. T. was profitable for instruction in righteousness. They
• By Hev. Prof. Ira M. Price, Ph. D., in BUjlinOieca Sacra, April, 1889, pp. 357-368.
t By Kev. Prof. 3. Eawson Lumby In The Expusilor, May, 1889, pp. 337-351.
Synopses of Important Articles. 385
often quoted from an inaccurate version, the Septuagint. They used passages
where a wrong translation is made from the Hebrew, cf. Matt. 21:16; Heb.
2:7 ; Acts 15:17. It was not because tliey were ignorant of Hebrew, for when
they wish they quote from it directly, cf. John 19:37; 1 Cor. 3:19. Their practice
makes it quite manifest that what they sought and found was something with
which verbal and literal criticism does not interfere. Christ quotes from all
parts of the O. T. regarding the whole as one book. He would have heard
without concern the conclusions concerning the mixed authorship of any or all
those books. The faithful of those times believed that it was the same Divine
Spirit in Haggai as in David. The Apostles even make, on their own authority,
some slight changes in their quotations from the Septuagint to suit their argu-
ment, cf. 1 Cor. 3:20 ; Eph. 4:8. All this shows that we need not fear but rather
be thankful that men are searching into the origin and structure of O. T. books.
It will clear away mistakes and make more evident that those records have
their chief if not indeed well-nigh their entire value in the fact that they bear
witness unto Christ.
This article brings out into clear relief the distinction which must always be observed in the
discussion of this important topic — the knowledge of the N. T. writers, as over against their pur.
pose, in the use of the O. T. What conceptions did these writers have of the O. T. and what, in
their opinion, was the use to be made of it— these are the fundamental questions which are here
briefly but thoughtfully and candidly considered. The argument here urged is an element
in the settlement of the 0. T. problem and deserves to be widely read. The facts presented are
too few, however, for a safe induction.
The Idea of God in Ainos.*— This must be gathered from the prophet's prac-
tical instructions, since he was no logical theologian. He has a clear idea of God,
and as he is the first of the writing prophets it is important to know what that
• idea is. The name given to God by the prophet is most frequently " Jehovah "
(52 times); also "Elohim," "Adhouai," and combinations of these and with
"sebaoth." He is the universal creator, abides in and governs the world (4:11;
5:8 ; 9:6). His hand appears in all the phases and processes of nature (5:8 ; 9:13 ;
4:6 seq.; 3:6). He is the God of all men (cf. 3:2 with 9:7; 2:9 seq. with 6:14),
controlling the destinies of the whole earth (1:3-2:6). He is omniscient (4:13),
omnipotent (5:9). Jehovah is not only supreme; he is the only God. This is
plainly implied, as is seen in preceding passages, and also in 8:14 ; 5:26 sqq.; 5:5 ;
9:12. God is also a moral being; this is the striking element in the book, its
elevated morality. The attribute of holiness is prominent (2:7 ; 4:2). This
holiness in the form of justice or righteousness is seen also in 2:6 sqq.; 8:9 ; 5:10 sqq.;
8:4-6. There is no book in the Old Testament in which the righteousness of
Israel's God is more strongly emphasized than in Amos. There are only a few
references to the faithfulpess of God (2:10 ; 9:11-15). Amos' Crod is stern, yet he
has tender features ; — he loves his people and all men, manifesting this love in
being pitiful (1:3,6,11,13; 5:2), and merciful (.3:7; 4:6-11), patient unto the last
(7:1-8). Such is Jehovah, who revealed himself in a real way, though not necessa-
rily in a visible and audible way, to Amos. He is the same mighty and merciful
being whom the other Scriptures (e. g. Exodus 34:6 seq., John 4:24) reveal.
"* By Prof. H. G. Mitchell In Journal of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis. Dec,
1887, pp. 33-42.
*4
386 The Old Testament Student.
This article may well be compared with one In the April number of The Old Testamekt
Student. The attention Is hero directed to the facts without any reference to their position In
the history of Israel's rcllRlous thought or their bearing upon that history. This is a kind of
work that any intelligent student of the Bible can do for himself. It Is intensely interesting
and wonderfully profltiibie. Professor Mitchell's article may serve as a model to any who may
wish to enter upon similar lines of study. From bim In this case one could wish for some fur-
ther suggestions as to the relations of these facts to current hypotheses of Israelitish history.
The Messianic Element in the Book of Job.* — An exegetical study is made of
Job 9:32-35; 16:19-22; 19:2.5-27; 33:23,24 to discover in what sense and to what
extent is a Messianic element predicated of the Boole of Job. The results are as
follows : 1) the Messianic element in Job is concerned not so much with a person
as with a work such as is ascribed to Jesus Christ. 2) Tliis work embraces (a)
sacrifice, substitution, atonement ; (b) need of divine bestowal of righteousness ;
(c) necessity of a mediator; (d) reconciliation of man with God through tliis medi-
ator; (e) this mediator a divine-liuman being; (f ) this divine-human being iden-
tified with God; (g) two opposing conceptions of God united in him; (h) God as
the Saviour; (i) spiritual and physical sight of God as an embodied personality;
(j) bodily resurrection, eternal life, immortality. 3) This Messianic work ascribed
by Job to God, identifies Jesus Christ with God. It is the same work and hence
done by the same person.
The same material is considered from the point of view of Egyptology. The
three teachings of the Book of Job here brought out are 1) Monotheism; 2)
Messianism ; 3) immortality. But in the literature of Ancient Egypt these three
ideas are clearly set forth. ■■ Hence it is only by utterly and willfully blinding its
eyes to the facts and discoveries of Egyptology that negative criticism can con-
tinue to urge its main objections to the book in favor of a recent date and a
plurality of authorship."
A statement which, if valid, is far-reaching in its issuei?. But its e-xegesis might be fairly
objected to, as finding more in the passages than emi niisdriably be drawn from them. An
entire system of theology appears to be contained in tlie Book of Job. The argument from
Egyptology is fresh and suggests new and unworked fields of investigation. As used by the
writer it would seem to prove too much.
• By Prof. J. G. Lansing, D. D., in Christian Tlwuuht, June, 1889, pp. 401-1.30.
^]BOOIf-M?OTIGES.<-
MEDIA, BABYLONIA AND PERSIA.*
In this volume Madame Kagozin continues the narrative of the history which,
closing with the fall of Nineveh, she told in " The Story of Assyria." It is now
carried down to the closing years of Dareios I. A full exposition is also given
of the Zend-avesta or religion of Zoroaster. The epoch of Cyrus is full of inter-
est, not only in itself, but by reason of the relation of that monarch to the Jewish
people. The whole subject is clearly treated and the material furnished is quite
accurate. Of course, in a sphere of study in which the materials are continually
being increased and new light constantly being shed upon the situation, it is
difficult to write anything which will remain for any reasonable time authorita-
tive and satisfactory. Students of the subject will note that Tiele, the great
authority in this department, in his ■' Babylonian- Assyrian History" takes a
different view of some transactions, e. g. the relations of Necho to Josiah. It is
also to be observed that the facts recently brought to light fail to sustain the
position here maintained that there was a great banking house of Egibi in Baby-
lon. Madame Ragozin's style is spirited and clear; with the abundant and well-
selected illustrations, over seventy in number, this volume contains the best
attainable popular account of the history and life of Media, Babylon and Persia.
THE TEN COMMANDMENTS.t
In a " prefatory note " the wi'iter of this volume tells us that the Provost and
Deans of the Faculties of the University of Pennsylvania requested him to deliver
before the students " a series of Sunday Afternoon Addresses upon Religious
Topics." The request was acceded to, the Ten Commandments were chosen as
the theme and the present volume contains the lectures which were then deliv-
ered. Regarding the Commandments as " the foundation stones of authoritative
morality or true society," the author has made his book a kind of treatise upon
individual and social ethics. But throughout the treatment of the subject a con-
tinuous stream of apposite illustration and quotation has banished any suspicion
of dullness. The well-known briUiant style, weighed down, sometimes, with excess
of ornament, which characterizes all the works of Dr. Boardman, is not out of
place in dealing with these weighty themes. The pages abound in quotable pas-
sages. Common sense in interpretation and fearlessness in application are joined
* The Storf of Media, Babylonia and Persia, from the fall of Nineveh to the
Persian Wak. By Zenaide A. Ragozin. New York : G, P. Putnam's Sons. 1888. Price $1.50.
+ The Ten Command.\ients: A course of Lectures delivered before the Uairersity of Penn-
sylvania. By George Dana Boardman. Philadelphia: The American Baptist Publication Society.
Price, $1.25.
388 The Old Testament Student.
wiUi a beauty of form and address that carries the truth home. As to the stand-
point of interpretation adopted, the Commandments are regarded as Jewisli in form
and letter, but iiniversal in spirit. Hence the fourth is not "taken as though it
settles for all men and all lime the questions of the origin, the basis, or the author-
ity of the Sabbath."' The remarks on the fifth commandment are especially
interesting and timely, though perhaps too much is made of the word '• honor "" as
distinguished from "obey."' In the discussion of the seventh command, the
account of the creation of woman and the first bridal is taken as a " divine para-
ble," not as literal truth. Here again the tendency to find in the .Scripture
more than it fairly contains is apparent. The old derivation of "Ishah,"" " man-
ess" from " ish" "man,'" is accepted. Still, in spite of these minor defects, the
book is e.xcellent. It .strikes a true note. It teaches many wise lessons that the
age needs. It is a shining model of that style of ethical preaching which is com-
ing into vogue and which is bound to enter more and more into the staple of the
sermons of the future. Everywhere one feels not only the wisdom and insight of
the teacher of morals, but also the earnestness and power of the preacher of
Jesus Christ.
BIBLICAL A>TI(JUITIES.
Professor Bissell has performed an excellent service in providing this popular
manual of Biblical Antiquities for students of Scripture. The whole field is
covered in sixteen chapters divided under three heads, entitled. Domestic Antiqui-
ties, Civil Antiquities, Sacred Antitiuities. Any intelligent church-member
wo\ild find it both an interesting occupation and a profitable task to read this
book through from beginning to end, while the material furnished is of such a
character as to make the book useful for purposes of reference to every one who
studies the Bible. We do not vouch for all the statements made: some are
surely inaccurate and will be corrected in future editions : the views of biblical
criticism are not always satisfactory ; but taken as a whole we heartily recom-
mend the book as a scholarly and popular survey of biblical antiquities which
few men could have done as well as Professor Bissell.
FUTURE PUSISHMEM.t
The WTiter of this volume asserts that the church doctrine of future punish-
ment is wholly drawn from the Kew Testament, and that the Old Testament has
been consulted only to find what support it could give to this already formulated
doctrine. He believes that this is a wrong method— that we should first inquire
what the Old Testament prophets believed on this great question, since Jesus
himself placed his divine seal upon their teaching. This teaching of the Old
• Biblical Antiquities : A Haad-book for use in Seminaries, Sabbath-schools, Families
and by nil Students of the Dible. By Edwin Cone BlSiJell, T). n.. Professor in Hartford Theo).
Seminary. I'liilndt'lpliln : T)ic American SuiuloyScliiitil Ciiion. \SS&
tTiiF. FiUE OF God's Anoer, ok Lioiit fhom the O. T. rpON the N. T. Teach iko
CONCERNING Fl'ture P0NISH.MENT. By L. C. Bakeh. Pulilisbod at office of " Words of Recon-
ciliation," Philndolphin, Pa. Price, 75 cents ; by mall, 80 cents.
Book Notices. 389
Testament, begiiming in the Song of Moses, is found to be summed up in the har-
monious action of two forces — the principle of judgment, condemning the wicked
to Sheol ; "the principle of redemption, providing forgiveness and salvation for
all men, securing to all at least a ransom from the power of death." God's fire is
his ''judgment " and its feature is destruction, not extinction. From these prin-
ciples the author builds up a view of universal restoration or future probation,
which he believes to be in harmony with the teaching of the Kew Testament.
All men are raised, the faithful, to eternal life, the wicked to further trial, The
hell for those who sin in this life lies between death and the last judgment. The
second death is for those who fail in their second trial.
The main point of criticism with this theory seems to be that it is founded on
that part of the Scripture whose intimations about the future life are most frag-
mentary and obscure. The Old Testament teaching gathers itself chiefly if not
entirely about this present life. Even the doctrine of immortality is only dimly
discerned. The universal church has judged more wisely than Mr. Baker, in
laying the emphasis upon the teaching of the New Testament concerning the
doctrines of the future life and its concerns, and then finding in the Old Testa-
ment no disagreement but rather harmony so far as any intimations of these
things are there given. The trouble with orthodox theologians has been that they
have tried to find too much in the earlier Scriptures about the details of the life
to come and have wrested texts to fit their theories. The trouble with our author
is that he has failed to find in the later Scriptures of the New Testament the
fullness and clearness of teaching on these points which are manifest — too sadly
manifest, concerning the future of those who " believe not " the Gospel.
BUDDHISM.*
It is our purpose to call attention to this work and to indicate its contents
rather than to make any criticisms upon it. This is not to say that it contains
nothing to criticise. No doubt those who know Buddhism from within would be
able to point out some defects and errors in this exposition of its character and
teaching. Christians might reasonably ask that a book which purposed to analyze
and expound their faith be written by one who was in sympathy with the Gospel,
as Sir Monier- Williams is not with Buddhism. Yet he is candid and fair ; " more
sensitively anxious,"' as he himself says, from this very danger of prejudice;
desiring to give a view of this religious belief which exhibits it as it really is in its
history and tendencies. His qualifications for the task are by no means unworthy.
He tells us in his preface of six points which may invest his researches with a
distinctive character of their own. The chief of these are as follows : a larger
body of literature consulted than has been previously available ; a popular exposi-
tion, presenting in one volume a comprehensive survey of the entire range of
Buddhism, a task hitherto unattempted ; a life-long preparatory study of Brah-
manism and its language, Sanskrit, with personal investigation of Buddhism in
the place of its origin, from three times traveling through the sacred land ; an
* Buddhism in its Conne.xion with Buahmakism and HiNDnissi and in its Contrast
WITH Christianity. By Sir Monier Monier- Williams, K.C.I. E. New York: Macinillan and Co.,
1889. Price, .?o.:.'5.
390 The Old TasTAiiENT Sti;dent.
exposition from the Cliristian stand-point, with an earnest desire to give these
religions credit for all tlie good they contain. The book is crammed witli facts,
and is therefore rather dry reading. The life of Buddha, the law of Buddliism,
its order of monks, philosophical doctrines, morality and chief aim. nin'ana.
its history in its tlieistic, polytheistic, mystical, hierarcliical and ceremonial
phases, its festivals and prayers, sacred places, sacred objects, temples, and
idols, — these are some of the subjects that are taken up. Tiie concluding
lecture contrasts Buddhism with Cliristianity. Ttie doctrines are compared —
Christ's call of men to become perfect tlirough suffering, with Buddha's call
to get rid of suffering by suppression of desires and extinction of personal
existence; the former teaching to honor tlie body, the latter, to despise it: the
former seeking to store up merit, like capital at a bank : the latter, offering a free
gift of pardon and tlie liope of eternal life tlirougli divine grace. While the pre-
cepts of Buddhism are lofty, they have not tlie power to stir the heart and move
the life, which is manifested in the teaching of Jesus Christ. As for Buddha and
Christ, the latter declares himself God-sent ; the former, self-sent. The latter
bade men follow Ilim. the former threw them back upon themselves. The one
dies and lives again— the other dies and desires for his followers a similar fate.
" What shall I do to inherit eternal life ?— says the Christian. What shall I do to
inherit eternal extinction of life?— says the Buddhist." The conclusion of the
whole matter is this : •' It seems a mere absurdity to have to ask in concluding
these lectures : — AVhom shall we choose as our Guide, our Hope, our Salvation? "the
Light of Asia." or ' the Light of the World " V the Buddha or the Christ 'i It seems
a mere mockery to put this final question to rational and thoughtful men in the
nineteenth ceutiu'y : Which book shall we clasp to our hearts in our last hourV —
the book that tells us of the dead, the extinct, the death-giving Buddha y or the
book that reveals to us the living, the eternal, the life-giving Christ ?"'
An important postscript calls attention to a wide-spread error concerning the
probable number of adherents to Buddhism. Instead of numbering about 500
millions and being the most numerous of any religious body, there are not more
than 100 millions of real Buddhists, as over against 430 to 450 million Christians,
while the " present condition of Buddhism is one of rapidly increasing disinte-
gration and decline." It is probably fourth in the numerical scale of religions,
coming after Confucianism, Brahmiinism and Hinduism, as they follow Chris-
tianity.
ELLIOTT'S OLD TESTAMENT PROPHECT.*
To Dr. Elliott, the author of this new work on prophecy, biblical students are
indebted for much upon the same subject in the volume of Lange"s Commentary
on the Minor I'roiihets. As is indicated by the title-page, the material of the
book falls into four parts: (1) prophecy in general; (2) the connection of Old
Testament prophecy with Old Testament history; (3) Messianic prophecy; (4)
the New Testament fulfillment.
• Old Testament Prophecy : Its niituro, ort'iuiic connection with Old Tcetnment History,
Messianic Prophecy, and New Testament FulOllnicnt. I!y Charles Elliott. D. D.. Professor of
Hebrew in Lafayette College, Easton. Pa. 8vo. pp. 314. New York: A. C. Anmlroiig & Co.
Price $3.(10.
Book Notices. 391
In the chronological order, as well as in his general treatment, he has fol-
lowed, as he says, " the traditional view instead of the critical subjective theory of
the Old Testament historical interpretation." " It is the custom," he adds in the
preface, " of some besides rationalists to dichotomize Isaiah ; but the author has
never seen any arguments sufficiently convuicing to justify such treatment. Jew-
ish tradition says that he was sawn asunder by the order of Mauasseh ; modern
critics tear asunder his book because it does not harmonize with their presupposi-
tions."
The gradual development of prophecy is everywhere recognized ; the moral
element, as compared with the miraculous, is emphasized. The old derivation of
the word nahhi, prophet, from a root to bubble forth is given, notwithstanding the
now generally accepted etymology which connects it with a word meaning to
speak, for which both Assyrian and Arabic furnish parallels. And yet the
meaning which he assigns to " prophecy," viz., declaration, interpretation, in
spite of the wrong etymology, is correct.
Three modes of divine communication are specified : vision, dream, direct
communication and manifestation. "The highest form," it is said, "was the
last and was reserved for Moses." Will the author then classify all of Isaiah's
prophecies under " vision " or "dream"? This is manifestly wrong. The third
mode would better be called spiritual illumination or enlightenment. Here belongs,
by far, the greatest part of the work of all the prophets except, perhaps, Ezekiel,
Zechariah, and Daniel ; and here, too, belongs the work of Moses. There were
not four modes of divine communication ; nor is it true that communication by
word of mouth would be more direct or higher than that by spiritual enlighten-
ment. Of this last there were different degrees, and of these the highest was
employed in the work of God with Moses. The most interestmg, as well as the
most profitable portion of this work is that which relates to the connection of
Old Testament prophecy with Old Testament history. In the average mind there
is not the faintest suspicion of any such connection. One of the curiosities of
modern thinking, or rather non-thinking, is the utter indiifereuce maintained by
interpreters of prophecy to the historical setting. Here, however, a distinction
must be made between (1) the historical setting or background of distinct proph-
ecies, for example, Isaiah's Immanuel prophecy; and (2) the prophetic element
which everywhere cliaracterizes Israelitish history. Tlie supernatural element in
Israelitish history shows itself in the record of that history ; and the record of
that history is itself prophecy. AVhile, now, our author is sufficiently clear on the
second of these points, the first does not receive the needed emphasis. Ojie must
confess, indeed, that even a close study of the book will leave the student unen-
lightened on this, perhaps, most important feature of prophecy. Is it not rather
strange that nine pages should have been given to the " Shiloh " prophecy, while
the whole period of David and Solomon, with all its valuable material, is treated
in three V
In his treatment of the New Testament fulfillment of prophecy the canon
laid down is the only true one, viz., "the Old Testament contained only the rudi-
ments of the good things of the New ;" " it is inchoate and progressive, less clear
and full than the New ;" " there is danger of making New Testament fulfillment
extend very little beyond Old Testament knowledge." " New Testament knowl-
edge must not be sought in the prophets of the Old Testament." "Old Testa-
392 Tub Old Testament Student.
ment prophecy must be stripped of the form and drapery which it borrowed from
the institutions and historical relations of its times."'
With these correct principles as the basis of his work, we must confess some
surprise at the way in which they have received application. The typical element,
much abused by many, and yet one of the most fundamental in Scripture inter-
pretation, is largely ignored, and special passages almost universally recognized
as typical are treated as directly prophetic.
The last four cliapters of the book contain a large amount of sound matter
on the premillenial question under the heads : the Kingdom of God and of the
Messiah : the relation of the Messianic Kingdom to the world ; the future of the
Jewish people ; the millenium and the judgment.
The book is fresh, stimulating and helpful. If the author had followed more
closely the principles which he himself laid down : if he had recognized more
fully the historical background of the distinct prophecies ; and if there had been
greater proportion in the treatment, the work would have been one of the most
valuable yet produced upon the general subject of prophecy.
CUERENT OLD TESTAMENT LITERATURE.
AMERICAS AND FOREIGN PtBUCATIONS.
Der dngmatUch-ethische Lchnjehalt der aUUsta-
mentUcfien WelsheiWachern. By H. Zschokke,
Wien: Manz M"
St. Augufitinus u. der Momische Schopfungsber-
icM. Frankfurter Zeitgemasse Broehuren,
N. F. X. 5. By M. Haich oO,
Das Wesen der Religinn. Zur Orienlirg. f.
angeh. TlKologen dargeboten. By F. LilUe
Hanover, Hahn
La Bible et Us Decuuvertes nujdemes en Palestine
en Egypte te en Assyrie. Aveo 160 cartes,
plans et illustrations d'aprf s les monuments
par M. Douillard. Par F. Vigoiiroux. 5 e
edit, revue et augmentfie. 4 vols. Paris:
lib. Berche et Tralin.
Elude Critique sur la CompoMion de la Oenese.
ThSse. Par P. Julian. Paris: LethielUeux,
1888.
Exodus, with Introduction. Commentary and
Special Notes. By Kev. James MacGregor,
D. D. New York: Scribner & Welford.
Tlic Parables of the Old Testament. By lit. Rev.
Alfred Barry, D. D., D. C. L. London: S. F.
P. C. New York: E. J. & J. B. Young & Co.
4s.
The Latin Heptateuch. Published piecemeal by
the French printer William Morel (1560), the
French Benedictines. E. Marline il'33), and J.
B. Pitra (lS5'-'-.58i. Critically reviewed by Joho
E. B. Mayor, M. A. Cambridge: University
Press.
Hindu Pantheism. A Manual. The Vedantasara.
Translated with notes by Col. G. A. Jacob.
London: Triibner 6s.
Die Altjildischc Religinn im TJebergange zum
Talmudismus. By J. Sack M.7.
The Book of Job, translated from the Hebrew.
By E. Kenan os.
ARTICLES AND REVIEWS.
Biblical Anthropomorphism. By S. T. Spear, D.
D., in The Independent, April 18, 1889.
The Origin and Structure of the Bonk of Judges.
By Rev. Prof. S. R. Driver, U. D., in Jewish
Quarterly Review, April, 1889.
Hiob und Faust. Sine parallelle. By M. Gen-
sichen, in Evang. Kixch.-Ztg. 1. 3, 5, 6. 1889.
Das Buch Daniel u. die assyriologisehe Forschung.
3. Darius der Meder (Dan. 81. By O. Andreae,
in Der Beweis des Glaubens, Feb., 1889.
Tide's Babyloyiisch-Assip-ische Geschichte. Re-
view by John Phelps Taylor, in Andover
Review, April. 1889.
Second Twilights and Old Testament Miracles.
By Rev. T. G. Selby, in The Expositor, April,
1889.
Critical Observations on my Hebrew New Testa-
ment. By Rev. Prof. F. Delitzsch, D.D. Ibid.
Cheytie's The Book of Psalms. Review by Kuenen
in Theol. Tijdschr., 1, 1889.
Four Hebrew Prophets. Hosea, Joel, Habakkuk,
Zechariah. By Rev. Prof. Elmslie. D. D., In
The Sunday School Chronicle, March 29,
April 5, 12, 19. 1889.
The Psalms and Modern Criticism. London
Quarterly Review, April, 1889.
Editions of Josephus. By H. E. Ryle, in Clas-
sical Review, April, 1889.
Zur Urgescliichte. By D. C. Bredenkamp, in
Theo. Stud. u. Krit., 3, 1889.
Workman's Text of Jeremiah. Review by Mat-
toon M. Curtis in The Andover Review, May,
1889. Review in S. S. Times, May 18, 1889.
Treetsure from Egypt. By Rev. James Johnston,
in Sunday School Times, April 27, 1889.
Bound ahinit JerusaUm. By Edward L. Wilson,
in The Century, May, 1889.
Baethgcn's Beitriige zur semitischen Religimis-
Oeschichte. By Siegfried, in Theol. Ltrztg.,
April 20. 1889.
Menzel's Der 0>-ieschische Einjluss auf Prediger
und Wei-iheit Salomos. By Siegfried. Ibid.
D'un important manuscrit des Scptante a propos
de Vedition de Cambridge. Par P. Batissal, in
Bulletin critique, B, 1889.
The Bible and the Talmud. By Prof. George B'
Stevens, D. D., in Sunday School Times, May
18, 1889.
The Bible God. By S. T. Spear, D. D., in The
Independent, May 16, 1889.
Are the Jews really the Chosen People'! Con-
densed from the German of Franz Delitzsch
by Rev. B. Pick. Ibid.
A Critical Reconstruction of the History of Israel.
Review of Stade & Holtzmann, " Geschichte
des Volkes Israel." Ibid., May 9, 1889.
Dawson's Modern Scieiwe in Bible Lands. Re-
view in Westminster Review, May, 1889.
Benan's History of Israel. Review in the Spec-
tator, May II, 1889.
Micah: Homiletical Commentam. By Rev. A.
C. Thistleton, in Homiletic Magazine, May,
1889.
Der Monoiheismus der legitimen Religion Israels,
nach seiner Einzigartigkeit Worhlichkeit und
Entstehuny gewUrdigt. Von Prof. Dr. Eduard
Konig, in Ztschr. f. d. Kirch. Wiss. u. Leb.,
III., 18K9.
Tlie Botanical Geography of Syria and Palestine.
By Rev. Geo. E. Post. M. D., in Trans, of the
Victoria Inst.. Vol. 22, No. 88.
OF
INDUCTIVE BIBLE-STUDIES.-SEGOND SERIES.
ICcijyrlKht by W. R. Hirp^r, U^.'i
Forty Studies ou tUe Life of the Christ, based ou the Gospel of Marli.
Edited by William K. Harper, Talc Universllj-, New Haven.
STUDY XXXVII.— THE PLAN AND METHODS OF JESUS.*
I. His Early Life and Thought.
1. Note carefully the following statements concernluK the early life, work and thoughts of
Jesus: (a) the promise to Mary, Lk. l:i;»-35; (h> to Joseph, Mt. l:20,-'l; ic) to the shep-
herds, Vk. 2:10-14,17-20: (di the words of Simeon. Lk. 2:2o-3.i; {e» growth of Jesus. Lk. 2:40,
52; (fi Jesus in the temple, Lk. 2:4«-51: (g) his work, Mk. 6:3.
2. What may be inferred from the above statements (and othersi as to the idea that Jesus had
of his mission ?+ Note the following views and decide between them: (ai Jesus. Influenced
by expectations which others cherished for him and forced by the desires of the people,
let himself be regarded as the Christ; *b» Jesus, conscious from the beginning of a
unique relation to God, recognized a divine call to be also the Christ to his people: (c)
this consciousness developed with his growth in meutal and spiritual power; (d) bis
knowledge of the details of his mission came to him in the course of hn work; (el he was
fully aware from the first of all the events and the issue of his ministry.
II. His Plan.*
1. Study the following events and teachings to ascertain what they reveal as to
the plan of Jesus: 1) Jesus and John the Baptist, Mt. 3:1.2,11,12,13-17;
Lk. 3:15-17,21,22; consider the testimony of these things to (a) his Mes-
sianic consciousness; (b) his Messianic purpose; 2) the temptation, Mt.
4:1-10 and par. ; bearing of this on (a) his idea of the Christ, and (b) the
work the Christ was to do; 3) his declarations and actions, (a) Mt. 4:17;
* Upon the subjects of this " Study " the best and fullest discussion is found in Neander, Life
of Christ, Book IV,: Lange, Lt.fe i>f Je»u». Book II., Part 3.
t Valllngs, chs. 8, 7,; Neander, Hook II., oh. 2.
*2
New Testament Supplement. 395
10:7; Lk.9:60; 17:21; Mt. 16:18; (b) John 6:15; 18:36; (c) Lk. 24:25-27;
Mt. 20:28; (d) John 4:25,26; Mt. 16:16,17 ; Mk. 14:61,62; (e) Mk. 3:11,12;
Mt. 16:20; (f) Mk. 2:17; Mt. 19:14; Lk. 19:10; John 12:47.
2. In view of these facts, 1) let the student write out a brief summary of the plan
of Jesus ; 2) consider whether it may be characterized by (a) originality ;
(b) boldness ; 3) what ground for asserting a unity in the plan from first to
last ?
III. His Methods.
1. Having gained a general idea of the plan, proceed to study the methods by
which the plan was carried out. Make a list of these as complete as pos-
sible; e. g. 1) public teaching addressed (a) to the leaders in Jerusalem; (b)
to the common people in Galilee, etc.; 2) choice, training and mission of
disciples ; 3) miracles , 4) death and resurrectiou. Enumerate any others
which may be reasonably included.
2. Study these methods in detail, e. g. :
1) Teaching, (a) Read Luke ch. 11 as an example; (b) note the persons
addressed, (1) disciples; (2) people; (8) individuals ; (4) classes of society;
(c) note some characteristics of the teaching, (1) brief, pithy sajings ; (2)
relative predominance of assertion over argument; (3) figurative language;
(4) parables ; (5) long discourses as well as brief sayings ; (d) significance of
(1) prominence given to teaching ; (2) the abundance of parable in the teach-
ing ; (e) its success in the carrying out of his plan.
2) The Disciples, (a) Note the following passages: (1) Mk. 3:13-19; Lk.
7:11; (2) Mt. 10:1,5-42; Lk. 10:1-20; (3) Mt. 13:51,52; Mk. 4:11 ; Mt. 17:9;
16:20; Mk. 9:31 ; (b) observe that they are trained to be (1) teachers; (2)
the nucleus of an organization, Mt. 16:18; 19:14; John 21:16; (c) their part
in fulfilling the plan.
3) Miracles. Review the Gospel miracles from this point of view and (a)
classify themf, e. g. miracles (1) on nature; (2) on man, (3) on the spirit-
world; (b) consider how the people regarded them, John 3:2; Mk. 4:41,
etc.; (c) the purpose of Jesus, t whether (1) as signs that he is the Christ, or
(2) as a part of his self -revelation of character, or (3) as a pledge of the
future ; (d) their part in the accomplishment of his plan.
4) His Death and Resurrection, (a) Read the following passages : John 3:
14,15; 12:24,32,83; Lk. 18:31-33; 24:25-27; (b) in what respect may these
events be regarded as means in cari7ing out his plan ? cf . Acts 2:22-36 ;
(c) what may be said in favor of the view that he had these events in mind
from the beginning of his work V
* For a discussion of this topic see Liddon, Our Lord's Divinity, Lect. iii, also Schaff-Herzog
Ency., p. 1171 aeq.
t Westcott, Intrnductinn to (he OoepeU, Appendix E.
t Bruce, The Qalilean Orispel, ch. 8,— a book whicii might be very profitably read in connec-
tion with " Studies " 37 and 39.
896 The Old Testament Student.
STUDY XXXVIII.— JESUS AND THE OLD TESTAMENT.
I. Introductory.
1. By the "Old Testament " as used here are understood not only the Scriptures themselves, but
also the life and thought which they unfold.
2. Jesus the Christ lived and worked as one amoni; this people whose past history and literature
were preserved in this volume. It continued a livinic force in his day, the chief element
in education, read in the synagogues, appealed to as authoritative in determining the
will of God.
3. Hence Jesus must have stood in most vital relations to this Book. What be thought of It,
the use he made of it, and his position in connection with the life and thought which It
re>'caled, are important topics to be considered In this "Study."
II. Jesus and Old Testament liistory.
Consider the following points :
1. He was familiar with the events of the O. T. history, e. g. : Mk. 10:6,7 ; John
1:51; 3:U; 6:49; Lk. 4:25-27; 17:26-32; Mt. 12:3-8; 11:24; 23:35, etc.
2. He was himself closely connected witli that history and life : 1) by descent, Mt.
1:1-17 ; 2) by recalling and emphasizing its lessons (see above) ; 3) by exer-
cising the functions of some of the most important elements of that life,
e. g. (a) the legislative* — he was a law-giver— cf. Mt. chs. 5-7 ; Mk. 10:6-12 ;
John 13:34; 14:15; 15:12; (b) the prophetic— he was a prophet— John 6:14 ;
including (1) authoritative teaching. John 7:16; (2) prediction, Mk. 13 ; (3)
prophetic themes of his teaching, Mt. 4:17, etc.
3. His independence of the Old Testament :t 1) Consider the following passages :
Mt. 12:6; John 8:58; Lk. 5:36-39; Mk. 2:28; Mt. 7:29; John 4:21-23; 2)
view the Sermon on the Mount from the point of view of a legislation
unique and independent of all other teachers; 3) inquire thoughtfully into
the strength of the following positions : (a) Jesus recognized much of the
Old Testament teaching as imperfect in form and spirit; (b) in his teaching
and his action he showed his superiority to it ; (c) while (1) not bidding men
to abandon this revelation, but (2) rather revealing the deep moral and
spiritual elements in it, — he yet superseded it as an authoritative system by
(1) fulfilling its teachings and life; (2) claiming a supreme authority for
himself and his teachings ; (d) he was, then, (1) not a revolutionary upsetter ;
(2) nor a more devout follower, merely, of the O. T. ; but (3) the founder of
a new order of life, which takes up into itself, surpasses and only therein
abrogates the Old Testament.
4. He claimed to be the Christ to whom all the fathers looked forward and in
whom all the history was fulfilled, cf. John 8:56 (see below).
III. Jesus and the Old Testament Scriptures.
The foUowmg topics are to be noted :
1. His quotations from the O. T. : 1) about thirty direct quotations and many
other references; 2) observe the names he gives it, e. g. Lk. 4:21 ; 24:44;
Mk. 12:24 ; Mt. 7:12 ; John 10:35, etc. ; 3) note the form of these quotations ;
compare Mt. 21:16 with Ps. 8:2 ; Mt. 19:5 with Gen. 2:24 ; Mk. 7:6 with Isa.
* Ecce Homo, ch. 4.
t See Neander, Life of ChrM, Bk. IV., Part I., ch. 2.
New Testament Supplement. 397
29:13, etc. ; 4) from a comparison of passages note his method of interpret-
ing the Old Testament, whether (a) the traditional method of his time; (b)
essentially the modern historical method ; (c) an original method, peculiar
to himself, ignoring the formal contents, but drawing out the spiritual and
divine elements in the Old Testament revelation ; 5) conclusion as to his
knowledge of and training in the O. T.
2. His use of the O. T. : 1) for illustration and argument, Mt. 12:3-5,39-42 ; 6:29 ;
2) in defence of his claims as the Christ, John 5:39,46,47 ; Lk. 24:26,27 ;
Mk. 12:35-37 ; 3) in time of sore trial, Mt. 4:4,7,10 ; Mk. 15:34 ; Lk. 23:46.
3. His regard for the O. T. :* 1) from the foregoing facts sum up what may be
said of Jesus' regard for the O. T. ; 2) note also Mt. 5:17,18; John 10:35;
Lk. 16:31; Lk. 24:44,46; 3) the bearing of all these facts upon our con-
ception of the O. T. history and writings.
STUDY XXSIX.— JESUS AND HIS TIMES.
I. lutrodnctory.
1. Jesus was a man of his time. It is important to emphasize this fact which is often over-
looliea. It was not accidental that he lived in Palestine among: Jews. His earthly
activity and leaching were suited to those whom he saw and addressed. Through the
forms of speech and courses of life which characterized his people he conveyed the
message of universal truth.
2. If this is true, then, in studying his relation to his times we gain the only sure foundation on
which to build our understanding of his teaching and relations to all time. We shall hope
to escape many dangers arising from the attempt to apply indiscriminately and imme-
diately to other and different circumstances what was first intended for a special case
among a particular series of circumstances. It is believed that not only will the person
and life of Jesus be more clearly seen and more highly estimated, but also his universal
relations and the breadth and power of his teaching for us and all men will be more
firmly grasped by a study of "Jesus and his times."
3. It is to be remembered by the student that these outlines are not intended to be accepted by
him without study, reflection and reading. They are to guide and stimulate, not to
furnish a substitute for, original, careful study. Eefereuces to the best literature, as
also to that presumably available to all, are given.
II. Jesus as a Jew.
Recall the topics of "Study" XXXIII. and note, 1) his genuinely Jewish
childhood ;t 2) the absence of any foreign influences (cf . Saul of Tarsus) ; 3)
the geographical limits of his life and activity ; cf . Mt. 15:24.
2. Observe the Jewish customs which he observed, e. g., 1) the language he spoke ;
2) observance of feasts; 3) synagogue-worship, Lk. 4:16; 4) other customs,
e. g. clothing, John 19:23 ; feasting, Lk. 5:29, etc.
3. A similar Jewish characteristic in the form of his discourses, 1) their gnomic
character, cf. Lk. 10:1-5; 2) their figures of speech, cf. Mt. 13.
III. Jesus and the People.
1. From hints in the Gospels determine to what class of the people Jesus
belonged; cf. Mk. 6:2,3; Lk. 2:1-7, etc.
* See some remarks in Weiss, Life of Christ, vol. II., pp. 63 sq.
t Vallings, p. 52.
898 The Old Testament Student.
2. Consider his ministry as related to the people 1 ) his preference for the people
rather than for the authorities ; 2) his choice of Galilee and its people
rather than Judea; 3) his choice of the sinful and despised rather than of
the righteous, Mk. 2:17; 4) the impression he made upon them; In) author-
ity, Mk. 1:22; (b) sympathy. Lk. 7:3(;-50; (c) moral purity, Lk. 19:1-10.
IV. Jesus and the Parties.
1. Make a more or less careful study of the religious parties of Jesus' time; 1)
the Pharisees;* (a) their name as signiticant of their origin and characteris-
tics ; (b) the schools of Hillel and Shammai : (c) their political views ; (d)
their religious views, including (1) tlie doctrine of providence ; (2) tradition,
Mk. 7:1-9; (3) resurrection; (4) O. T. interpretation ; 2) the Sudducees ;^ cf.
"Study" XXII. iii., 2,3); 3) the Essenes;l (a) their origin and characteris-
tics; (b) their religious and political views, including (1) fatalLsm ; (2)
literal and formal observance of law ; (3) monasticism ; (4) communism ;
(5) mysticism ; 4) John the Baptist, cf. ■' Study '" I., iii., 2,3 )-o).
2. Inquire thoughtfully into the relation of Jesus to these parties: 1) the view
that he drew something from their views and incorporated it in his teach-
ings ■,i in favor of this, (a) probability of a pharisaic training in his early Ufe ;
(b) resemblances in his teaching to (1) pharisaic, Mt. 22:31,32 ; 6:25-34 ; and
(2) Essenell views ; (b) his relations to John the Uaptist, cf. '■ Study " II., iii.,
2, 2 ; 2) the position that he owed nothing to any of these parties ;** in favor
of this, (a) liis denunciations of Pharisees, Mt. ch. 23; and Sadducees, Mk.
12:24,27 ; (b) no reference to Esseues ; (c) his language concerning John,
Mt. 11:11; (d) his language concerning himself, John 6:35; 8:26; 14:10;
3) a mediating position ; Jesus was influenced in his teaching both as to
matter and form by the religious views of his time, but was entirely orig-
inal in the essential ideas of his Gospel ; in favor of this view are all the
arguments which are urged in behalf of both of the former positions.
V. His Teaching for his Times, tt
It will be possible here only to suggest the greater topics and leave the student
to work them out and add the lesser elements of the teaching. Xote the
teaching of Jesus :
1 . For the Religions People of his Time. 1 ) He accepted and used some of their chief
religious conceptions and forms, e. g. -God," "kingdom of God," "the
Christ," " the Old Testament," " feasts," etc. ; 2) he put new meaning
into these conceptions and forms, e. g. (a) God is the Father in the highest
sense of that word ; (b) the Christ is a siHi-itual deliverer; (c) the kingdom
of God is within the man; 3) the special message for special classes: (a)
the Pharisees, Mt. 15:1-20; Lk. 18:9-14; (b) the Sadducees, Mk. 12:18-27;
(c) the genuinely religious, Mt. 5:6; 11:25-30, etc.
* Stnpter, Bk. II., chs. 1-ij.
+ Stnpfer, Bk. II., ch. H.
i Ncnnder, Bk. II., ch. I.
S Stiipfer, pp. 468 seq.; 4«9 seq.
I Elllcott, Life of ChrM.
•• Stapler, pp. 4B8 seq.
++ Stapter, Bk. II., ch. 16, has some excellent suggestions though in some respects yielding too
much to the rationalists. See also Bruce, The OaUlean Qoepel. ch. 2.
New Testament Supplement. 39&
2. For the Siuful of his Time. 1) He sought them out; 2) he called them to
repentance; 3) he promised forgiveness; 4) he revealed the possibility of
reform and of the attainment of righteous character.
3. Summary of his teaching for his time in two great ideas ; 1) the doctrine of
faith in God as over against salvation by works ; 2) the doctrine of a cruci-
iied Messiah.
STUDY XL.— JESUS THE CHRIST.
I. Introductory.
1. If there is dangei- that we forget the local and temporal in the life of Jesus, It is also
supremely necessary to remember that he was more than a Jew and a teacher of Jews.
In this " Study" an endeavor is made to apprehend some of the larger, the universal
elements in his life and work.
2. This subject may suitably close a series of "Studies" which has been entitled "The Life and
Times of the Christ." The student may well be reminded that the aim of these "Studies"
has been, 1) to approach and consider the subject from the O. T. stand-point; 3) to sug-
gest methods of work and material for study; 3) to present the work from the inductive
point of view; 4) to afford a plan or basisupon which further studies might be prosecuted.
Those who have followed the course may be left to judge in what measure the attempt
has been successful.
II. Jesus as the Jewish Messiah (Christ).
1. His own realisation of it : 1 ) recall " Study " XXXVII., ii., and inquire whether
be realized all its meaning at the beginning of his work, e. g. that it
involved death, etc. ; 2) observe the manner in which he reveals it and the
reasons for this; cf. Mk. 1:34; 3:11,12; 8:29,30; John 4:25,26; 9:35-38;
Mk. 14:61.62, etc.
2. The grounds* on which he is shown to be the Christ : 1) the testimony of John
the Baptist ; 2) the voice from heaven ; 3) his wonderful miracles ; 4) his
express language claiming it (see above) ; 5) his resurrection as its crowning
evidence, Acts 2:32-36.
3. Note the success of the Gospel at the beginning as dependent upon the Messi-
anic element in it, i. e. 1) its fulfillment of the O. T. conceptions, 2) in a
new and unexpected but convincing manifestation of Jesus as the Christ.f
III. Jesus the Christ lu his UuiTcrsal Relations. 1:
1. His Character.^ Endeavor to grasp, 1) one or more of the principal elements in
the character of Jesus the Christ ; the following are suggested : (a) moral
purity; (b) unselfish love; (c) lofty ideals; 2) certain minor elements, e. g.
(a) self-control; (b) the passive virtues; (c) union of diverse qualities; joy
and sadness, humility and pretension, etc.
* See Stanton, Jewish and ChrMiati Messiah, p. 352.
+ Cf. Stanton, pp. 150,151, "The new religion did not spread . . . chiefly through the fas-
cination exerted by the moral beauty of . . . Jesus, but by virtue of the faith that the Christ
was such an one, that, as the 'Christ,' Jesus had said and done and endured what He did."
J Vallings, ch. 32.
§ Bushnell, Character of Jesm, being ch. 10 of " Nature and the Supernatural." Smith's Bible
Dictionary, p. 1384.
400 The Old Testamejit Student.
2. The Superhuman Element.* 1 ) In view of the following facts note the exist-
ence of the divine element in Jesus the Christ : (a) his claims ; (b) his mar-
velous deeds; (c) his personal character and teaching: (d) his resurrection ;
2) note the existence of other explanations of these facts and test their
adequacy : (a) delusion ; (b) forgery; (c) myth.t
3. His Teaching. Ask yourself what are tlie primary and universal elements in
the teaching of Jesus the Christ. The following are suggested : 1) the rev-
elation of the grace of God toward all siiniers ; 2) the promise of salvation
through faith in Jesus as the Son of God and the universal Christ ; 3) the
transformation of the inward life, including (a) love, (b) obedience, (c) like-
ness to Jesus the Christ.
4. His Death and Ucsurrection. 1) Recall the teachings of Jesus in relation to
this subject as to (a) the facts, (b) the times at which tliey were uttered,
(c) the emphasis which he laid upon them ; 2) state, then, briefly the signif-
icance which Jesus saw in his own death and resurrection, especially in its
universal relations, cf. John 12:20-33; 3) observe the prominence these
facts assume in the teaching of the Apostles; Peter (1 Pet. 1:2,3,19) ; John
(1 John 1:7; 4:10; 6:6); Paul (Rom. 3:25; 4:24,25; 6:9, etc.); 4) form for
yourself a statement of the universal significance of these facts as related
to (a) humansin ; (b) divine forgiveness; (c) the ultimate state of believers
in Jesus the Christ.
6. His Church. 1) Recall the passages in which Jesus refere to an organization
of his followers (see above "Study" XXXVII., iii, 2, 2). (b), (2) and other
passages, John 17:20-23); 2) note his idea of it, e. g. (a) spiritual, John
18:36; (b) democratic, Mk. 10:42-44; (c) permanent, Mt. 16:18; Mk. 14:9;
(d) having certain ordinances, Lk. 22:19; Mt. 26:29; 28:19.20; 3) note a
similar idea and the realization of this idea among the early believers ; cf .
the Acts, in various passages; (4) the purpose of the church. + e. g. (a) to
unite believers ; (b) to teach and develop them ; (c) to preserve the teaching
of Jesus ; (d) to manifest his spirit and proclaim his truth to the world ;
(e) to be the instr;iment for the conversion of humanity to the faith of Jesus
the Christ.
6. Jesus the Christ and the Future. 1) In view of the claims of Jesus and their
substantiation by his works and words, what may be said as to the relations
of Jesus the Christ to the future of the world ; 2) consider the same ques-
tion in the light of the history of the progress of His doctrine and life among
the nations of the earth ; 3) compare the schemes of life and doctrine which
would substitute themselves for Ilini; 4) conclude with a statement as to
the permanence and predominance of Jesus the Christ as the Universal and
Eternal King of Humanity.
* Llddon, Lect. 4.
+ On the myllilcal thooiy see Smith, lllb. Did., art. (jivpclf, pp. il54 sqq.
t It would lie lielpfiil to tlie student to e.vumine tliese points in the llfrht of the New Testa-
incut life nud leaeliinif, e.vaniininj.' and classifying the passages.
^^^^^Vt^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
GENERAL INDEX
Geeeml Index,
Amos, the Book of, the Literary Study of the Bible, its Methods and Pur-
poses illustrated in a Criticism of 10
Amos, Keligious Ideas of the Book of 284
Asurbanipal, The Assyrian King 57,96
Atkinson, E. E., The Religious Ideas of the Book of Amos 28-1:
Babylonian Istar-Epic, the 249
Ballantine, W. G., Jeremiah's Temperament 181
Batten, L. W., A Plea for Septuagint Study 371
Bearing of New Testament Statements upon the Authorship of Old Testa-
ment Books, the 164
Boardman, G. D., D. D., The Stoiy of Samson 88
Book Notices : Baker, The Fire of God's Auger, 388 ; Bartlett and Peters, Script-
ures Hebrew and Christian, vol. II., 308 ; Bissell, Biblical Antiquities, 388 ;
Blaikie, The Books of Samuel, 231 ; Boardman, The Ten Commandments,
387; C/iej/Jie, The Hallowing of Criticism, 308; CoZ«s, The Psalms in Verse,
310; Concordance of the Septuagint, 271; Beane, Abraham: his Life and
Times, 67 ; Elliott, Old Testament Prophecy, 390 ; Farrar, Solomon : his
Life and Times, 68 ; Oeikie, Holy Land and the Bible, 190 ; Holy Bible in
Hebrew and Greek, 271 ; Hovey, Biblical Eschatology, 189 ; Humphrey, Sacred
History, 150; The Inspired Word, 28; Love, Future Probation Examined,
309; Milligan, Elijah: his Life and Times, 69; Monier- Williams, BuMhiam,
389; Parker, The People's Bible, vols. V., VI., 69 ; Pressense, The Ancient
World and Christianity, 189 ; Bagozin, Media, Babylonia and Persia, 387 ;
Schaff, Church History, vol. VI, 190 ; Stapfer, Palestine in the time of Christ,
149 ; Stearns' Old Testament Introduction, 231 ; Swete's Septuagint, 67 ;
Teri-y and Newhall, A Commentary on Genesis and Exodus, 349 ; Trumhull,
Tale Lectures on the Sunday School, 110 ; Wellhausen, History of Israel, 271.
Brown, Charles Rufus, Manly's Biblical Doctrine of Inspiration 105
Carrier, A. S., Tiele on Babylonian- Assyrian Culture 170, 214, 266, 290, 335
Chancellor, Wm. E., The Literary Study of the Bible : Its Methods and Pur-
poses Illustrated in a Criticism of the Book of Amos 10
Cheyne's Commentary on the Psalms 23
Correspondence School of Hebrew 29, 70, 151, 191, 311
Craig, James A., Ph. D., The Babylonian Istar-Epic 249
Current Old Testament Literature 30, 71, 111, 152, 192, 232, 272, 312, 350, 393
Curtis, Edward L., Ph. D., Cheyne's Commentary on the Psalms 23
Deborah, the Soug of— Judges V 377
404 The Old Testament Student.
Editorials: Tlie Principle of Accommodation, 42; An " American Institute of
Sacred Literature,'' 203, 282; Anonymous Literature of Israel, 122; An
Attitude of Conciliation, 201 ; The Bible Compared, 241 ; Bible Students
in tlie Pews, 121 ; Bible Study among Pastors, 281 ; Bible Study. Bible
Listening, Bible Reading, 3 ; More Bible Teachers Wanted, 82 ; Biblical Key-
Words, 241 ; College Bible Study, 82; Constructive Study, 242; Use of Con-
trast in Prophetic Teaching, 43 ; A Criticism of " The Religious Ideas of
Amos," 362 ; A Devout Spirit, 41 ; Prof. Edwards' Reasons for Hebrew
Study, 161; Egypt Exploraliou Fund, 81; Hebrew Summer Schools, 323;
The Higher Critics. 242; The Human and Divine in the Bible, 162; I'he
Law of Perspective, 324 ; Majesty of the Bible, 321 ; The Miracle of the Word,
41 ; A New Feature, 1 ; A New Journal, 321 ; New Testament Interpretation
of Old Testament, 122 ; The Old Testament and the Gospel, 81 ; The Old
Testament more than a National Literature, 201 ; The Pastor as a Teacher,
121; Patience iu Bible Study, 242; The Pentateuclial Discussion, 203; The
Point of View, 44, 61 ; Prophecy in the Old Testament, 361 ; Recent Biblical
Literature, 163; Redemption, the Keynote of Ancient Religions, 162;
Redemption, the Old Testament Keynote, 123; The Revelation of God at
Sinai, 281 ; A Review of Theories relating to Old Testament Quotations in the
New Testament, 205 ; Prof. Stevens' Letter, 202 ; Superiority of Old Testa-
ment to Talmud, 84; The Talmud and the New Testament, 2; Talmudic
Ideas and Symbols in the New Testament, 42; True Spirit of Bible Study, 83
Figurative Element in Job, the, 1 332
" " " II 368
Formal Element in Poetry, the 364
Harper, R. F., Ph. D., A Visit to Zinjirii 183
Hovey, Alvah, D. D., The New Testament as a Guide to the Interpretation
of the Old Testament 207
How Far does the Claim of a Divine Origin for the Bible depend on the
Genuineness of its Separate Books ? 366
Inspiration, Manly's Biblical Doctrine of 105
Jeremiah's Temperament 181
Job, the Figurative Element in 332. 368
Johnson, E. H., D. D., The Formal Element in Poetry 364
Judges V. — the Song of Deborah 377
King, George W., How Far does the Claim of a Divine Origin for the Bible
Depend on the Genuineness of its Separate Books 'i" 366
Literary Study of the Bible, the. Its Methods and Purposes illustrated in a
Criticism of the Book of Amos 10
Manly's Biblical Doctrine of Inspiration 105-
McCurdy, J. F., D. D., Proportion and Method iu Old Testament Study 325
Moses, Apocalypses of 19
New Testament as a Guide to the Interpretation of the Old Testament, the 207
New Testament as Interpreter of the Old Testament, the 124
New Testament Supplement : Studies on the Life and Times of the Christ.
" " Advance and Retreat 116
" " Arrest and Condemnation of Jesus 277
" " Beginning in Galilee 36
General Index.
405
New Testament Supplement : Beginnings of Opposition 72
Burial and Resurrection of Jesus 315
The Christ 354
Continued Controversies 235
Course and Chronology of the Life of the Christ 359
The Crucifixion 313
A Day of Controversy 233
Deeds of Power 114
False Reports 78
The First Conflicts 74
The Future 237
The Galilean Ministry : Period of Public Favor 38
Gethsemane 275
The Gospels 355
The Hour of Decision 119
Into the Shadow of Death 196
Jerusalem 198
Jesus and His Times 397
Jesus and the Old Testament 396
Jesus before Pilate 278
Jesus the Christ ■ 399
Journeys on the Borders 153
The Land and the People 351
The Last Instructions 317
The Last Supper 273
Ministry of John 31
New Methods 76
Parables of the Kingdom 112
Perea 194
The Plan and Methods of Jesus 394
Preparation of the Christ 34
Review of the Galilean Ministry 193
Review of the Later Period 319
Training of the Twelve 158
The Traitor 239
Transfiguration of Jesus 156
The Welcome Confession and the Unwelcome
Teaching 154
Nordell, P. A., D. D., Old Testament Word-Studies : Angels, Demons, etc., 341 ;
Constituent Parts of Man, 49 ; Divine Law, 176 ; Idols and Images, 296 ; Man
and Woman, 6 ; Moral Evil, 143 ; Moral Good, 101 ; Sacrifice and Worship,
257 ; Theocratic Functionaries, 220 ; Time and Eternity, 373.
Notes and Notices, Old Testament 26, 148, 272, 302, 346, 382
Old Testament Study, Proportion and Method in 328
Old Testament Word-Studies : Angels, Demons, etc 341
" " Constituent Parts of Man 49
" " Divine Law 176
" " Idols and Images 296
406 The Old Testament Student.
Old Testament Word-Studies : Man and Woman 6
Moral Evil 143
" Moral Good 101
" " Sacrifice and Worship 257
" " Theocratic Functionaries 220
Time and Eternity 373
Kepenbring's Old Testament Theology 54
Plea for Septuagint Study, a 371
Poetry, the Formal Element in 364
Price, Ira M., Ph. D., The .Schools of the Sons of the Prophets 244
Proportion and Method in Old Testament Study 325
Psalms, Cheyne's Commentary on the 23
Religious Ideas of the Book of Amos, the 284
Report of the Principal of Schools of the American Institute of Hebrew
(1888) 224
" Treasurer of the American Institute of Hebrew 229
Reynolds, J. B., B. D., Piepenbring's Old Testament Theology 54
Rich, Thomas Hill, M. A., The Song of Deborah— Judges V 377
Samson, the Story of 88
Schodde, George H., Ph. D., The Targums 262
The Septuagint 134
Schools of the Sons of the Prophets, the 244
Septuagint Study, a Plea for 371
Septuagint, the 134
Song of Deborah, the— Judges V 377
Stevens, George B., D. D., Weber on the Eschatology of the Talmud. 4, 45, 85, 140
The Bearing of Xew Testament Statements upon the Authorship of
Old Testament Books 164
Synopses of Important Articles : Adler, Views of the Babylonians concerning Life
after Death, 66 ; Ai-mstrong, The Pentateuchal Story of Creation, 109 ; Beecher,
The Prophecy of the Virgin Mother, 3S3; Boardman. Immoralities of Old
Testament Heroes, 383 ; Douglas, The Two Isaiahs, the Real and the Imag-
inary. 188 ; Driver. Origin and Structure of the Book of Judges, 347 ; Flanders,
The Rise and Decline of Idolatry, 187 ; Qenung. The Interpretation of the
Book of Job, 185; Hooper, The Unchangeable Word. 65; Hughes. The Mus-
lim's Faith, 63; Hutton and Davis, Two Discussions of Job 19:23-27, 108;
Lansing, The Messianic Element in the Book of Job, 386; Lansing, The
Egyptian Nile as a Civilizer. 347 ; LutujHng. Elijah the Tishbite a Gentile,
186 ; Lumby, Old Testament Criticism in the Light of Jfew Testament Quo-
tations, 384 ; Milligan, Idea of Old Testament Priesthood fulfilled in the Xew
Testament, 109 ; Mitchell, The Idea of God in Amos, 385 : Orr. Assyrian and
Hebrew Chronology, 306 ; O.'^ood, The Resurrection in the Pentateuch, 1S6;
Peabody. Classic and Semitic Ethics, 306 ; Price, Lost Writings cited in the
Old Testament, 384 ; Bujyp, The Higher Criticism in its Theological Bearings,
64; Sau-yer, The Civilization and Religion of Central America and Peru, 307;
Summerbdl, Does the Nirvana of Buddha imply Immortality ? 348 ; Thayer,
A Revised Text of the Hebrew Bible, 65 ; Thomas, Characteristics of Hebrew
Poetry, 64.
General Index. 407
Taigums, the 262
Terry, M. S., S. T. D., Apocalypses of Moses 19
Tiele on Babylonian-Assyrian Culture 170, 214, 266, 290, 335
Toy, Crawford H., D. D., The New Testament as Interpreter of the Old
Testament 124
Visit to Zinjirli, a 183
Walker, Dean A., B. A., The Assyrian King, Asurbanipal 57, 96
Weber on the Eschatology of the Talmud 4, 45, 85, 140
Zelie, John S., The Figurative Element in Job, 1 332
" II 368
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