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MOLECULAR and MICROSCOPIC
•SCIENCE

VOLUME THE SECOND

LOKDON: PRINTKI) BY

SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., KKW-STUEET SQUAKH

AND PARLIAMENT STREET

Fig. 118, p. 107.

GALEOLARIA LUTEA.

{Froyitixpiece to Vol. J I.

\MOLECULAR -^^

MICROSCOPIC SCIENCE J^^^^

BY MAEY JOMEEVILLE

ACTIIOU OF 'THE MECHANISM OF THE HEAVENS ' ' PHYSICxVL GEOGILVPirj
' COXNBCIIOX OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES ' ETC.

Deus magniis in magnis, maximus in minimis — St. Angiistino

In Two Volumes — Vol. II.

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS

LONDON

JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET

1869

The riijht of trandation id reserved

CONTENTS

THE SECOND VOLUME.

PART III.

ANIMAL ORaANISMS.

SECT.
I.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL FRAME

II.

PROTOZOA

III.

HYDROZOA ZOOPHYTES

IV.

ANTHOZOA ZOOPHYTES

ANNIJLOSA, OR WORMS

VI.

ECHINODEEMATA

VII.

THE CRUSTACEA

vm.

CIRRIPEDIA .

IX.

BRYOZOA, OR POLYZOA

TUNICATA, OR ASCIDTANS

XI.

MOLLUSCA
INDEX

PAGE
1

81
110
141
169

188
213
218
222
229
253

ILLUSTRATIONS

THE SECOND VOLUME.

FIG.

PAGE

118. Galeolaria lutea (To^/^O

. frontii^jpiece

86. Ainceba princeps . . . . .

87. Actinoplirjs sol .

. 17

88. Acantliometra bulbosa i

to face 19

89. Eucyrtidium cranoides \ {Hacckel) "^'^

frontispiece to vol. i.

90. Dictyopodiiim trilobum J

to face 20

91, Podocyrtis Scliombiirgi . . . .

. 20

92. Aulacautha scolymantha \

to face 21

93. Actinomma drymodes \.{Hacc7cd)

„ 21

94. Haliomma echinaster J . . •

„ 21

95. Simple Ehizopods

. 22

96. Gromia oviformis

97. Various forms of Foraminiiera .

98. Simple disk of Orbitolites complanatus .

99. Animal of Orbitolites complanatus

100. Eosalina ornata (Fo^/<;?;)

to J

ace 41

101. Section of Faujasina

102. Interior of the Operculina

103. Section of Sponge

104. Paramoecium caudatum .

105. Kerona silurus ....

106. Noctiluca ....

107. Vorticellse ....

108. Acineta .....

109. Thread-cells and darts .

110. Hydra fusca ....

111. Syncoryna Sarsii with Medusa-buds

] ] 2. Thaumantia pilosclla

^ From Dr. Ernst Hacckel's ' Radiolari

211.'

ILLUSTRATIONS TO THE SECOND VOLUME.

PIO.

113. Otolites of magnified Thaumantias

114. Development of Medusa-buds

115. Rhizostoma

116. Cydippe pileus and Beroe Forskalia

117. Praya diphyes . -»

118. Galoolaria lutea . . U 77,^/,/n *

119. Apolemia eontorta . j ' . . . fofac

120. Physophora liydrostatiea ^

121. The Physalia

122. Velella spirans ( F(;>9A/) .

123. Alcyonian polypes, highly magnified

124. Polype of Alcyonidium elegans .

125. Spieula of Alcyonium digitatum .

126. Red coral branch

127. Red coral greatly magnified

128. Tubipora musica .

129. Actinian polype . * .

130. Lobophylla angulosa
131 Nervous system of Leech

132. Foot of Nais

133. Terebella conchilega

134. Pushing poles of Serpula

135. Foot of a Polynoe

136. Braehionus pala .

137. Common Rotifer .

138. Section of shell of Echinus

139. Sucker-plate of Sea-Egg .

140. Section of a sucker-plate

141. Spine of Echinus miliaris

142. Pluteus of the Echinus .

143. Larvse of Echinus in various stages of development

144. Skeleton of Synapta

145. Wheel-like plates of Chirodata violacea

146. Ear of Crab

147. Section of a Crab

148. Young of Carcinus moenas in various stages of development

149. Lucifer, a stomapod crustacean .

150. Female Cyclops .

151. Cypris ....

152. Section of Daphnia pulex

153. Balanus culcatus

154. Tentacles or feet of the Balanus

* From Yoght's ' Sj-phonopliores de la Mer dc Nice.

PAGE
93

95
98
102
to face 103
frontispiece
■c 108
109
112
115
120
120
121
126
127
130
131
135
151
152
154
155
160
163
167
177
179
179
181
181
182
185
186
191
193
195
200
205
207
208
213
214

iii ILLUSTRATIONS TO THE SECOND VOLUME.

FIG.

155. Section of Lepas anatifora , '.

156. Development of Balaniis balanoides

157. Lepas . . . .'!

158. Cells of Lepraliai

159. Cellularia ciliata and Bugula avicularia

160. Magnified group of Perophora .

161. Highly magnified Perophora

162. Ascidia virginea .

163. Salpa maxima

164. Young of Salpa zonaria

165. Cardium or Cockle

166. Foot of Cockle .

1 67. Section of shell of Pinna transversely teethe direction of its prisms

168. Membranous basis of the shell of th-e Pinna ...

169. Section of nacreous lining of the shell of. Avicula margaritacea

(pearl oyster) .

170. Tongue of Helix aspersa .

171. Palate of Trochus zizyphinus

172. Grramdated Trochus

173. Tongue of Limpet

174. Whelk .

175. The Crowned Eolis

176. Tongue-teeth of Eolis coronata

177. Hyalsea and Clio

178. Clione borealis .

179. Cuttle Fish

180. Arm of Octopus .

PAGE
215

216
217
219
220
222
2fi3
225
227
227
230
231
233
233

234
237
237
238
238
240
240
241
243
243
245
247

MOLECULAE AM) MICEOSCOPIC
SCIENCE.

PAET ni.

ANIMAL OEGANISMS.

SECTION I.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL FEAME.

Although animal life is only known to us as a mani-
festation of divine power not to be explained, yet the
various phases of life, growth, and structure in animals,
from the microscopic Monad to Man, are legitimate sub-
jects of physical inquiry, being totally independent of
those high moral and religious sentiments which are
peculiar to Man alone.

The same simple elements chemically combined in de-
finite but different proportions form the base of animal
as well as of vegetable life. But besides the elementary
gases and carbon, many substances, simple and com-
pound, are found in the animal frame ; the phosphate
and carbonate of lime, iron which colours the blood,
and common salt which, with the exception of water,
is the only article of food we use in a mineral state.
Animals derive their nourishment, both directly and in-
directly, from vegetables. Their incapacity to change

VOL. II. B

2 SARCODE AND MUSCLE. part hi.

inert into living matter is one of the most characteristic
distinctions between the animal and vegetable king-
doms.

Protoplasm was shown to be rudimentary formative
vegetable matter : so Sarcode, or rudimentary flesh, forms
the whole or part of every animal structure. It is a
semi-fluid substance, consisting of an albuminous base,
mixed with particles of oil in a state of very fine di-
vision. It is tenacious, extensile, contractile, and dia-
phanous, reflecting light more than water, but less than
oil. It is rendered perfectly transparent by citric acid,
and is dyed brown by iodine. This substance, in a ho-
mogeneous state, constitutes the whole frame of the
lowest grade of animal life ; but when gradually differ-
entiated into cell-wall and cell-contents, it becomes the
origin of animal structure from that which has little
more than mere existence to man himself; in fact, cel-
lular origin and cellular structure prevail throughout
every class of animal life. Unicellular plants and ani-
mals live for themselves independently and alone ; but
the cells which form part of the higher and compound
individuals of both kingdoms, may be said to have two
lives, one peculiarly their own, and another depending on
that of the organized beings of which they form a part.

Flesh or muscle, which is organized sarcode, consists
of two parts, namely, bundles of muscular fibre im-
bedded in areolar tissue. Nervous matter also consists
of two parts, differing much in appearance and struc-
ture, the one being cellular, the other fibrous. The
vital activity of the nerves far surpasses that of every
other tissue ; but there is an inherent irritability in
muscular fibre altogether indej)endent of nervous action :
both the nervous and muscular tissues are subject to
decay and waste.

The blood, which is the ultimate result of the assimi-
lation of the food and respiration, conveys nourishment

SECT. I. WASTE AND REPAIR. 3

to all the tissues during- its circulation ; for mth every
breath, with every effort, muscular or mental, with
every motion, voluntary or involuntary, at every instant
of life, asleep or awake, part of the muscular and ner-
vous substances becomes dead, separates from the living
part, is returned to the circulation, combines with the
oxygen of the blood, and is removed from the system,
the waste being ordinarily in exact proportion to the
exertion, mental and physical. Hence food, assimilated
into blood, is necessary to supply nourishment to the
muscles, and to restore strength to the nervous system,
on which all our vital motions depend ; for, by the nerves,
volition acts upon living matter. Waste and repair is a
law of nature, but when nature begins to decay, the
waste exceeds the supply.

However, something more than food is necessary, for
the oxygen in the blood would soon be exhausted were
it not constantly restored by inspiration of atmospheric
air. The perpetual combination of the oxygen of the
air with the carbon of the blood derived from the food
is a real combustion, and the cause of animal heat ; but
if the carbonic acid gas produced by that chemical union
were not continually given out by the respiratory organs,
it would become injurious to the animal system. Thus
respiration and the circulation of the blood are mutually
dependent; the activity of the one is exactly propor-
tional to that of the other : both are increased by exer-
cise and nervous excitement.

External heat is no less essential to animals than to
vegetables ; the development of a germ or egg is as de-
pendent on heat as that of a seed. The amount of
heat generated by respiration and that carried off by
the air is a more or less constant quantity ; hence, in
hot countries, rice and other vegetable diet is sufficient,
but as the cold increases with the latitude, more and

B 2

4 THE HEART AND RESPIRATION. part hi.

more animal food or hydrocarbon is requisite for tlie
production of heat.

The waste of the tissues, and the aeration of the vital
juices, that is, the exchange of the respiratory gases,
are common to all animals. The heart, upon whose ex-
pansions and contractions the circulation of the blood
depends, is represented in the lower animals by pro-
pelling organs of a variety of forms ; and the organs of
respiration differ exceedingly, according to the medium
in which the animals live. Water, both fresh and salt,
though a suffocating element to land animals, contains
a great deal of air, iiot only in the state of gas, but also
in solution, the quantity in solution being directly as
the pressure ; so that animals living in the deepest re-
cesses of the ocean breathe as freely as those that live
on land, but with respiratory organs of a very different
structure. In the lowest classes, which have no respi-
ratory organs at all, the gases are exchanged through
their thin delicate skins.

The mechanical forces act within the living being
according to the same laws as they do in the external
world : the chemical powers too, which are the cause of
digestion, heat, and respiration, follow the same laws of
definite and quantitative proportion as they do in inert
matter ; but neither the mechanical forces, nor the
physical powers, could create a germ ; nor could they
even awaken its dormant state to living energy, unless a
vital power existed in it, the origin of which is beyond
the reach of man.

Animals are endowed with nerve-force, in addition to
mechanical force and the physical powers which are
common to them and vegetables ; a force which consti-
tutes their prime distinction, which is superior to all
the other powers from its immediate connection with
mind, and which becomes more evident, and more evi-
dently under the control of the animal, in proportion as

SECT. I. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 5

the animal approaclies tlie higher grades of life, and
only attains its perfect development in the hnman race.

The bones of man and the higher animals are clothed
with a system of muscles, so attached that the head,
eyes, limbs, &c., can be moved in various directions.
In each of these muscles the fibres of two sets of nerves
ramify, namely, the sensory and the motor nerves.

The sensory nerves convey external impressions, to
the brain, and by them alone the mind is rendered con-
scious of external objects. The impressions made by
light and sound upon the eye and the ear, or by me-
chanical touch on the body, are conveyed by the sensory
nerves to the brain, where they are perceived, though
the impressions take place at a distance from it. Con-
versely, the mind or ;will acts through the brain on the
motor nerves, which by alternately contracting, relaxing,
and directing the muscles, produces muscular motion.
Thus the motor nerves convey the emotions of the mind
to the external world, and the sensory nerves convey
the impressions made by the external world to the mind.
By these admirable discoveries. Sir Charles Bell has
proved that "^ we are placed between two worlds, the
invisible and the material ; ' our nervous system is
the bond of connection. The connection, however,
between the mind and the brain is unknown : it has
never been explained, and is probably inexplicable;
yet it is evident that the mind or will, though im-
material, manifests itself by acting on matter ; that is,
as a power which stimulates the nerves, the nerve-force
acting on the muscles. Mental excitement calls forth
the most powerful muscular strength, and an iron will
can resist the greatest nervous excitement. The ner-
vous and muscular forces are perpetually called into
action, because, for distinct perception, the muscles re-
quire to be adjusted. Mind is passive as well as active :
we may see an object without perceiving it, and we may

6 NER VE FORCE. pakt hi.

hear a sound without attending to it. We must look in
order to see, listen in order to hear, and handle in order
to feel ; that is, we must adjust the muscular apparatus
of all our senses, of our eyes, ears, &c., if we would have
a distinct perception of external exciting objects : and
that is accomplished by the power of mind acting upon
matter.

Dr. Carpenter has shown that it is by a series of
forces acting upon matter that man conveys his ideas to
man, the sonorous undulations of the atmosphere being
the medium between the two. On one side the will, or
power of mind, acts upon the nerves, nerve-force acts
upon the muscles of speech, and these muscles, while
in the act of speaking, produce sonorous undulations
in the atmosphere. On the other side, these undula-
tions are communicated by the mechanism of the ear to
the auditory nerves, exciting nerve-force, and nerve-force
acts upon the mind of the hearer. ' Thus the conscious-
ness of the speaker acts upon the consciousness of the
hearer by a well-connected series of powers.'

Nerve-force generates, directly or indirectly, light,
heat, chemical power, and electricity. When the optic
nerve is pressed in the dark, a luminous ring is seen
round the eye, and a blow on the face excites a flash of
light. Nervous excitement, by accelerating respiration,
increases the chemical combination of the oxygen of
the air with the carbon of the blood, and thus produces
animal heat. But the development of electricity by
nervous and muscular force, is one of the most unex-
pected and singular results of physiological research.

MM. Matteucci and Du Bois Reymond have proved
that the intensity of the nervous and muscular forces
is at a maximum when the muscles are contracted ; and
that if each arm of a man be put in contact with a wire
of a galvanometer so as to form an electric circuit, an
instantaneous deviation of the needle will take place.

SECT. I. ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN THE MUSCLES, 7

now in one direction and now in the other, according
as he contracts his right arm or his left. The electri-
city thus evolved, when conveyed to the needle through
several miles' length of coiled insulated wire, will cause
a deflection amounting to sixty or seventy degrees, ac-
cording to the strength of the man — that is, according
to his muscular and nervous force ; the amount of the
electricity being exactly in proportion to the amount
of muscular force.

It appears that the electric currents in the nerves are
eight or ten times stronger than those in the muscles.
M. Helmholtz found that the time required to contract
a muscle, together with the time required to rela,x it
again, is not more than the third of a second, and is a
constant quantity, for the compensation of energy pre-
vails also in organic nature. He also found that the
motion or velocity of the electric current in a man is
at the rate of 200 feet in a second. The electric equi-
valent, as determined by M. Helmholtz, is equal to the
electricity produced in a voltaic battery by the seven
millionth part of a milligramme of zinc consumed in the
ten-thousandth part of a second, a milligramme being
the 0'015432 part of a grain.

The contraction and muscular action or mechanical
labour produced by the passage of an electric current
through a nerve is 27,000 times greater than the me-
chanical labour which results ft-om the heat disengaged
by the oxidation of that small quantity of zinc requisite
to generate the electricity ; that is to say, the mecha-
nical labour really produced by the contraction of the
muscles is enormously greater than the labour corre-
sponding to the zinc oxidized. In fact, the electric ex-
citement of a nerve is analogous to an incandescent
particle or electric spark that sets fire to a great mass
of gunpowder. This result, and the association between
the greatest activity of respiration and the intensity of

8 BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD. part hi.

the muscular energy, led M. Matteucci to suspect tliat
a chemical action must take place in the interior of a
muscle during its contraction ; and he found by experi-
ment that there actually is what he calls a muscular
respiration, namely, that the muscles themselves absorb
oxygen, and give out carbonic acid gas and nitrogen
when contracted. This kind of respiration is more or
less common to all animals ; if impeded, the blood is
imperfectly oxygenized, and loss of animal heat is the
consequence. The heat that is perpetually escaping
from animals is replaced, by the combustion of the
carbon of the tissues or of the food with the oxygen
inhaled by the lungs and the skin.

In the highest class of animal life the brain is at once
the seat of intelligence and sensibility, and the origin
of the nervous system. In the lower animals intelli-
gence and sensibility decrease exactly in proportion
to the deviation of their nervous system from this high
standard. The forms of the nervous system are more
and more degraded as the animals sink in the scale of
being, till at last creatures are found in which nerves
have only been discovered with the microscope ; others
apparently have none, consequently they have little or
no sensibility.

The brain and the spinal cord enclosed in the ver-
tebrae of the backbone form a nervous system, which in
the vertebrated creation is equal to all the contingencies
and powers of these animated beings, but is beyond
all comparison most perfect in the human race. The
brain alone is the seat of consciousness, for the spinal
cord, though intimately connected with it, and of a
similar ' mysterious albuminous electric pulp,' appears
to have no relation to the faculties of perception and
thought, yet it is essential to the continuance of
life. It is a distinct nervous centre which generates
muscular energy in man and animals corresponding to

SECT. T. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 9

external impressions, but without sensation, and is en-
tirely independent of the will ; the vegetative functions
of respiration, the contractions of the heart, circulation
of the blood, and digestion, are carried on under every
circumstance, even during sleep. The reason of their
being independent of sensation and the will is, that
the nerves in the organs performing these functions
never reach the brain, which is the seat of intelligence
and sensation, but they form what is called the reflex
system ; for any impressions made upon them are
carried to the upper part of the spinal cord alone, and
are reflected back again to the muscles of the heart,
lungs, &c., which, by their contractions, produce these
involuntary motions. For instance, the flow of blood
into the cavities of the heart while dilating, acts upon
the nerves, and these excite a rhythmical movement in
the muscular fibres of the heart. For there is a vital
contractility in muscular tissue which is one of the
most universal attributes of living beings, and is pro-
bably the sole cause of motion in the lowest grades of
life, and the movements produced by it in the higher
grades are in all cases the most directly connected with
the vegetative functions. The involuntary reflex system
of nerves constitutes the chief locomotive power in a
number of the lower animals ; but it forms a continually
decreasing portion of the whole nervous system in pro-
portion as animals rise in the scale of life, till in man
its very existence has been overlooked. If the spinal
cord were destroyed, instant death would be the conse-
quence; whereas infants born without brain have sucked
and lived for a day or two.

There are numerous actions, especially among the
lower animals, as little under the influence of the will or
intelligence as the reflex nerves, which nevertheless de-
pend upon sensation for their excitement. The sensa-
tion may call the muscular apparatus into action with-

I o NER VO US SYSTEMS part hi.

out any exertion of reason or will, in such a manner as to
produce actions as directly and obviously adapted to the
well-being of the individual as the reflex system. For
example, a grain of dust irritates the nostrils, and in-
voluntarily excites the complicated muscular movements
concerned in the act of sneezing. This class of actions,
which is called sensori-motor, or consensual, includes
most of the purely instinctive motions of the lower
animals, which, being prompted by sensations, cannot
be assigned to the reflex group.

Purely emotional movements are nearly allied to the
preceding. Sensation excites a mental feeling, or im-
pulse, which reacts upon the muscular system without
calling either the will or the instinct into exercise.
These emotional movements are often performed in op-
position to the strongest efforts of the will, as when a
sense of something ridiculous may excite irresistible
laughter at an improper time. It is probable that the
strong emotions exhibited by many of the lower ani-
mals, which have been ascribed to instinct, are referable
to this group. ^

The movements of such animals as have no nerves
are merely owing to the vital contractility of muscular
fibre.

In the highest province of animal life, which includes
the mammalia, birds, reptiles, and fishes, the general
structure of the nervous system consists of a double
lobed brain, from whence a spinal cord proceeds, pro-
tected by articulated bones, which extend along the
back of the animals, and from thence nerve-fibres extend
to every part of the body. But in order to suit a great
variety of forms, this system undergoes many modifica-
tions. In all the lower grades of life that have nerves,
the system chiefly consists of small globular masses, or

* The nervous system is ably explained in Dr. Carpenter's ' Manual of
Physiology.'

SECT. I. OF THE LOWER ANIMALS. 1 1

nuclei, of nervous matter, technically called ganglia,
wMch are centres of nervous energy, each of which is
endovred w^ith its own peculiar properties ; the nervous
cords and filaments proceeding from them are merely
organs of transmission. The arrangement of these
centres of nerve-force is symmetrical, or unsymmetrical,
according to the form of the animal.

In the lower portion of Articulated animals, such as
insects, Crustacea, annelids, worms, &c. &c., there is
a double cord extending along the ventral side of the
animal, united at equal intervals by double nerve-centres,
or ganglia. These two cords diverge towards the ujDper
end, surround the gullet, and unite again above that
tube to form a distinct bilobed princi23al nerve-centre
or brain. A thii'd form of the nervous system is only a
ring round the gullet; the points in it from whence the
nerves radiate are swollen nerve-centres, or ganglia.
Those on the sides and upper parts of the ring represent
the brain, and supply the eyes, mouth, &c., with nerves :
other centres, connected with the lower side of the ring,
send nerves to the locomotive organs, viscera, and re-
spiratory organs. In animals of a still lower grade there
are single nuclei irregularly scattered, but in every case
they are centres of energy from whence filaments are
sent to the different parts of the creature. The last
and lowest system consists of filamentous nerves, chiefly
microscopic.

Intelligence, or the mental principle, in animals differs
in degree, though not in kind, from that in the human
race. It is higher in proportion as the nervous system,
especially the brain, approximates in structure to that of
man ; but even in many of the lower orders may be traced
the dawn of that intelligence which has made man
supreme on earth. Every atom in the human frame,
as well as in that of other animals, undergoes a periodi-
cal change by continual waste and renovation ; but the

12 INTELLIGENCE OF ANIMALS. part m.

same frame remains : the abode is clianged, not the
inhabitant. Yet it is generally assumed that the living-
principle of animals is extinguished when the abode
finally crumbles into dust, a tacit acknowledgment of
the doctrine of materialism ; for it is assuming that the
high intelligence, memory, affection, fidelity, and con-
science of a dog, or elephant, depend upon a combi-
nation of the atoms of matter. To suppose that the
vital spark is evanescent, while there is every reason
to believe that the atoms of matter are imperishable, is
admitting the superiority of matter over mind: an as-
sumption altogether at variance with the result of geo-
logical sequence; for Sir Charles Lyell observes, that
'sensation, instinct, the intelligence of the higher
mammalia bordering on reason, and lastly the improvable
reason of man himself, presents us with a picture of
the ever-increasing dominion of mind over matter.'

The physical structure of a vast number of animals
has been investigated from such as are a mere microscopic
speck to the highest grade of animal life ; but very little
is comparatively known of their intelligence and means
of communication. We know not by what means a
pointer and greyhound make an agreement to hunt
together ; nor how each dog is not only aware that his
companion possesses a property which he has not, but
that by their united talents they might accomplish their
purpose, which is merely sj)ort, for they never eat the
game.^ The undulations of the air and water are no
doubt the means by which most animals communicate ;
but there is reason to believe that many inhabitants of
the earth, air, and water are endowed with senses which
we do not possess, and which we are consequently in-
capable of comprehending.

2 A pointer and greyhound, belonging to a friend of the author's, re-
peatedly brought home hares. Upon watching the dogs, the pointer was seen
to find the hare, which was coursed and killed by the greyhound, Singular
as this may seem, it is by no means unprecedented.

SECT. II. RHIZOPODA. 1 3

SECTION 11.

PROTOZOA.

The Protozoa are tlie very lowest forms of animal
existence, the beginning and dawn of living things.
They first appear as minnte shapeless particles of semi-
fluid sarcode moving on the surface of the waters.
The pseudopodia, or false feet, with which they move,
are merely lobes of their own substance which they
project and retract. In creatures of a somewhat
higher grade the form is definite, the pseudopodia,
numerous and filamental, serving for locomotion and
catching prey; and from the resemblance they bear
to the slender roots of plants are called Ehizopods.^
The microscopic organisms possessing these means of
locomotion and supply, are of incalculable multitudes,
and of innumerable forms. Thus the waters, as of old,
still ' bring forth abundantly the moving creature that
hath life ; ' in them the lowest types of the two great
kingdoms have their origin, yet they are diverse in the
manifestation of the living principle, that slender but
decided line which separates the vegetable from the
animal Amoeba.

Class I. — Ehizopoda.

The Amoeba, which is the simplest of the group, is
merely a mass of semi-fluid jelly, 'changing itself into
a greater variety of forms than the fabled Proteus,
laying hold of its food without members, swallowing

' From rhizon, a root, and pons, podos, a foot.

AMCEBA PRINCEPS:

PART III.

it without a mouth, digesting it without a stomach,
appropriating its nutritious material without absorbent
vessels or a circulating system, moving from place to
place without muscles, feeling (if it has any power to do
so) without nerves, multiplying itself without eggs, and
not only this, but in many instances forming shelly
coverings of a symmetry and complexity not surpassed
by those of any testaceous animal.'

Such is the description given by Dr. Carpenter of the
Amoeba and its allies. The Amoeba princeps, which

.Si

Fig. 86. Amoeba princeps.

is the type of the naked group, fig. 86, is merely a
shapeless mass of semi-fluid sarcode, coated by a soft,
pellucid and highly contractile film, called diaphane by
Mr. W. J. Carter, and in many forms of Amoeba the
whole is inclosed in a transparent covering. It is in
the interior semi-fiuid sarcode alone, that the coloured
and granular particles are diffused, on which the hue
and opacity of the body depend, for the ectosarc or
external coat is transparent as glass. These creatures,
which vary in size from the -^-^-qq to the -^ of an inch in
diameter, are found in the sea, but chiefly in ponds

SECT. II. ITS MOTIONS AND FOOD, 15

inhabited by fresh-water plants. They move irregularly
over the surface of the water, slowly and continually
changing their form by stretching out portions of their
gelatinous mass in blunt finger-like extensions, and
then drawing the rest of it into them ; thus causing
the whole mass to change its place. Before it protrudes
these pseudopodia or false feet, there is a rush of the
internal semi-fluid matter to the spot, due to the highly
contractile power of the diaphane, which is often so thin
and transparent as to be scarcely perceptible.

When the creature in its progress meets with a
particle of food, it spreads itself over it, draws it into
its mass, vdthin which a temporary hollow or vacuole is
made for its reception ; there it is digested, the refuse is
squeezed out through the external surface ; the nutri-
tious liquid that is deft in the vacuole seems to be
dispersed in the sarcode, for the vacuole disappears. An
Amceba often spreads itself over a Diatom, draws it into
a vacuole newly made to receive and digest it ; the
siliceous shells of the diatom are pushed towards the
exterior, and are ultimately thrust out ; then the vacuole
disappears, either immediately or soon after. These
improvised stomachs are the earliest form of a digestive
system.

Besides the vacuoles of which there may be several
at a time, the slow and nearly rhythmical pulsations of
a vesicle containing a subtle fluid may be seen, which
changes its position in the interior of the sarcode with
every motion of the Amceba. It gradually increases in
size, then diminishes to a point, and as some of the
digestive vacuoles nearest the surface of the animal are
observed to undergo distension when the vesicle con-
tracts, and to empty themselves gradually as it fills.
Dr. Carpenter thinks it can hardly be doubted that the
function of the vesicle is to maintain a continual move-
ment of nutritious matter, among a system of channels

1 6 REPRODUCTION OF AMCERyE. pakt hi.

and vacuoles excavated in the substance of the body.
It is the first obscure rudiment of a circulating system.

In all the Amoebse the semi-fluid sarcode, with the
numerous bodies suspended in it, rotates at a varied
rate within the pellucid coat ; a motion presumed to be
for respiration, that is to exchange carbonic acid gas
for oxygen, so indispensable for animal life."^

Although like other animals, the Amoeba cannot
change inorganic into organic matter, as the vegetable
Amoeba can do, these two Protozoa are similar in one
mode of reproduction ; for portions of the animal Amoeba
or even one of the pseudopodia separate from the gela-
tinous mass, move to a little distance on the surface
of the water, and become independent Amoebse.

With a high microscopic power, many bodies besides
the digesting vacuoles and pulsating vesicles may be
seen imbedded in the sarcode of the Amoeba princeps ;
namely, coloured molecules, granules, fat-globules, and
nuclei. All these bodies were seen by Mr. Carter,
in certain Amoebina he found at Bombay, together with
what he believed to be female reproductive cells, and
motile particles similar to spermatozoids, or male fer-
tilizing particles.

The Actinophrys, a genus of the order Radiolaria,
differs from the Amoeba princeps in having a definite
nearly spherical form with slender root-like filamental
pseudopodia radiating from its surface in all directions
as from a centre. They taper from the base to the apex,
and sometimes end in knobs like a pin's head, but vary
much in length and number, and can be extended and
retracted till they are out of sight. They are exter-
nally of a firmer substance than the sarcode of the
body, which is merely a viscid fluid inclosed in a pel-
lucid film. The Actinophrys sol, which is the type of

* ' On the Amoeba princeps and its reproductive cells,' by Mr J. H. Carter:
Annals of Natural History, July 1863.

31-

SECT. II.

ACTINOPHRYS SOL.

the genus, is a sphere of from -j^Vo^ to -^^ of an inch
in diameter, with slender contractile filaments the length
of its diameter extending from its surface as rays from
the sun. It can draw them in and flatten its body so as
to be easily mistaken for an Amoeba. This creature,
which is common in fresh-water pools where aquatic
plants are growing and even in the sea, has little power
of moving about like the Amoeba; it depends almost
entirely on its pseudopodia for food. They have an
adhesive property, for when any animalcule or diatom

Fig. 87. Actinophrys sol.— A, ordinary form ; B, act of division or conjugation ; c, pro
cess of feeding ; d, discharge of fsecal matter, a and b', o o, contractile vesicles.

comes in contact with one of them, they adhere to it ;
the filament then begins to retract, and as it shortens
the adjacent filaments apply their points to the captive,
enclose it, coalesce round it, the whole is drawn within
the surface of the Actinophrys, the captive is imbedded
in the sarcode mass, and passes into a vacuole where it
is digested, and then the pseudopodia thrust out the
undigested matter by a process exactly the reverse of
that by which the food was taken in (d fig. 87). The
pseudopodia are believed by Professor Rupert Jones to

VOL. II. G

i8 REPRODUCTION OF ACTINOPHRYNA. pabt hi.

have the power of stnnnmg their prey, for if an animal-
cule be touched by one of them, it instantly becomes
motionless, and does not resume its activity for some
time. The pulsations of the contractile vesicle are very
regular, and its duty is the same as in the Amoeba
princeps.

The Actinophryna are propagated like the lowest
vegetables by gemmation and conjugation, shown in
B fig. 87 ; moreover Mr. Carter saw the production of
germ-cells and motile particles in the Actinophrys
exactly after the mode already described in the Amoeba.

Mr. Carter mentions an instance in which the Actino-
phrys sol showed what may possibly be a certain degree
of instinct. An individual was in the same vessel with
vegetable cells charged with particles of starch ; one of
the cells had been ruptured and a little of the internal
matter was protruded through the crevice. The Actino-
phrys came, extracted one of the starch-grains, and
crept to a distance ; it returned, and although there were
no more starch-grains in sight, the creature managed
to take them out from the interior of the cell one by one,
always retiring to a distance and returning again,
showing that it knew its way back, and where the
starch-grains were to be found. On another occasion
Mr. Carter saw an Actinophrys station itself close to the
ripe spore cell of a plant, and as the young zoospores
came out one after another, the Actinophrys caught
every one of them even to the last and then retired to a
distance as if instinctivety consciotis that no more
remained. Like Amoebse these animals select their food,
but notwithstanding the superior facility and unfailing
energy with which they capture prey larger and more
active than themselves, they are invariably overcome
even by a very small Amoeba which they avoid if possible.
Wlien they come into contact the Amoeba shows un-
wonted activity, tries to envelope the Actinophrys with
its pseudopodia, but failing to capture the whole animal

Fig. 88, p. 19.

ACANTHOMETRA BULBOSA.

SECT. II. THE ACANTHOMETRM. ,g

it tears out portions and conveys them to improvised
vacuoles to be digested. Dr. Wallich mentions that
he had seen nearly the half of a large Actinophrys
transferred piecemeal to the interior of its enemy, where
it was quickly digested.

As every part of the body of the Actinophrys is
equally capable of performing the part of nutrition,
respiration, and circulation ; and as in the absence of
muscles and nerves they may be presumed to have no con-
sciousness, the marks of apparent intelligence can only
be attributed to a kind of instinct, and their motions
to the vast inherent contractility of the sarcode and its
enclosing film, which is also the case with the Amoebae.

The Acanthometrse (see fig. 88, Acanthometra bulbosa)
are all marine animals ; their skeleton consists of a num-
ber of long spicules which radiate from a common centre,
tapering to their extremities. These spicules are tra-
versed by a canal with a furrow at the base through
which groups of pseudopodia enter, emerging at the
apex. Besides, there are a vast number of pseudopodia
not thus enclosed, resembling those of the Actinophrys
in appearance and action. The body is spherical, and
occupies the spaces left between the bases of the spicules.
The exterior film covering the body seems to be more
decidedly membranaceous than that of the Actinophrys,
but it is pierced by the pseudopodia which radiate
thr6ugh it.. This exterior film itself is enclosed in a
layer of a less tenacious substance, resembling that of
which the pseudopodia are formed. There is a species
of Acanthometra (echinoides) extremely common in
some parts of the coast of Norway, which, to the nakecj
eye, resembles merely a crimson point.

The Polycystina are an exceedingly numerous and
widely dispersed group of siliceous rhizopods. They are
inhabitants of the deep waters, having been brought up
from vast depths in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

c 2

POLYCYSTINA.

PART in.

Their bodies are inclosed in siliceous sliells, whicli have
either the form of a thin hollow sphere perforated by
large openings like windows, or of a perforated sphere
produced here and there into tubes, spines, and a
variety of singular projections : so they have many
varied but beautiful microscopic forms. The animal
which inhabits these shells is a mouthless mass of sar-
code, divided into four lobes with a nucleus in each
and covered with a thick gelatinous coat. It is crim-
son in the Eucyrtidium and Dictyopodium trilobum of
Haeckel (figs. 89 and 90) : in others, as the Podocyrtis
Schomburgi, it is olive brown with yellow globules
(fig. 91). These creatures extend themselves in radiating
filaments through the perforations of their shells in
search of food, like their tjrpe the Actinophrys sol, to
whose pseudopodia the filaments are per-
fectly similar in form, isolation, and in
the slow movements of granules along
their borders. The Polycystine does not
always fill its shell, occasionally retreating
into the vault or upper part of it, as in
the Eucyrtidium (fig. 89, frontispiece to
vol. i.). Sometimes the shell is furnished
with radiating elongations, as in the
Dictyopodium trilobum (fig. 90) . In both
of these shells the animal consists of four
crimson lobes. These beautiful micro-
scopic organisms are found at present in
the Mediterranean, in the Arctic and
Pig. 91. Podocyrtis Autarctic seas, and on the bed of the
North Atlantic. They had been exceed-
ingly abundant during the later geological periods;
multitudes are discovered in the chalk and marls in
Sicily, Greece, at Bermuda, at Richmond in Yirginia
and elsewhere; in all 282 different fossil forms have
been described, grouped in 44 genera.

Fig. 20, p. 20.

DICTYOPODIUM TRILOBUM.

Fig. 92, p. 21.

AULOCANTHA SCOLYMANTHA.

Fig. 93, p. 2\.

ACTINOMMA DRYMODES.

Fig. M, p. 21.

HALIOMMA ECHINASTER.

SECT. II. THE AULOCANTHA. ' 21

In certain Polycystina, the perforations of the shell
are so large and so close together, that the sarcode body
of the animal appears to be covered by a siliceous net.
This connects them with the ThalassicoUse, minute crea-
tures found passively floating on the surface of the sea.
Th. morum, which is one of the most simple of the few
forms known, has a spherical body of sarcode covered
with a siliceous net, through which the pseudopodia
radiate in all directions, as in the Actinophrys, but it is
studded at regular distances with groups of apparently
radiating siliceous spicules.

The Aulocantha scolymantha (fig. 92), found by M.
Haeckel in the Mediterranean, may be taken as an
example of the most general form of the Thalassicolla.
The siliceous skeleton of some of the Eadiolaria re-
sembles the Chinese ivory toy of ball within ball. That
of the Actinomma drymodes (fig. 93) consists of three
perforated concentric spheres, with six strong spicules
attached to the outer surface, perpendicular to one
another and prolonged in the interior to the central
sphere. Hundreds of finer bristle-like spicules radiate
from the surface. The animal is chiefly contained in
the central sphere, and from it a perfect forest of fine,
long pseudopodia radiate in thick tufts through the
apertures of the exterior sphere.

The skeleton of the Haliomma (fig. 94) consists of only
two concentric spheres. In many species of Haliomma
and Actinomma the animals are of the most vivid ver-
milion or purple colour. Little or nothing is known
of the reproduction of these microscopic organisms.

The Actinomma drymodes and the Haliomma are two
of the most beautiful microscopic rhizopods discovered
by M. Haeckel.

There is a family of fresh- water testaceous rhizopods
of which one group secretes its sheU and the other builds
it. The homy shell secreted by the group of the Arcella

SIMPLE RHIZOPODS.

PART III.

presents various degrees of plano-convexitj, tlie con-
vexity in some cases amounting to a hemisphere. They
rarely, if ever, have mineral matter on their surface,
which is studded with regular but very minute hexa-
gonal reticulations. The aperture or mouth of the
shell is small, and invariably occupies the centre of the
plane surface, its margins being more or less inverted.
The form of the shell is exceedingly varied, sometimes
it even has horns indefinite in number, sometimes sym-
metrical, sometimes not ; when its test or covering be-
comes too small for its increasing size, it quits it, and
secretes a new one. The filamental pseudopodia proceed
from the mouth of the shell only, and by means of these
it creeps about on its mouth in search of food.

Fig. 95. Simple Rhizopods.— A, B, Difflugiae ; c, D, Arcellae.

The Difflugia build their own shells, which are usually
truncated spheres, ovate, or sometimes elongated into
the form of a pitcher or flask. The most minute recog-
nisable of these shells is about the -roVo ^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^
diameter, but they are constructed with the most perfect
regularity. The Difflugia pyriformis or symmetrica has
the form of an egg with an aperture at the small end.
It is entirely made up of rectangular hyaline plates,
arranged with the greatest regularity in consecutive
transverse and longitudinal rows, the smaller ones being
at the extremities, while the larger ones occupy the
central and widest portion of the structure. The inhabi-
tant of this abode is an Amoeba with a sarcode body

SECT. II. ARCELLA AND DIFFLUGIA. 23

covered with, a thin fihn, from whence it sends off pseu-
dopodia through the mouth of its shell. The Difflugia
is propagated bj conjugation, but before that takes
place it becomes densely charged with chlorophyll-cells
and starch-grains. The former disappear during the sub-
sequent changes, and are replaced by a mass of colourless
cells full of granules which are supposed to be the ele-
ments of a new generation. The embryo or earliest
form is a minute truncated sphere, but the animal builds
up its habitation very much according to local circum-
stances.

The greater number of the Difflugise secrete a sub-
stance which forms a smooth layer in the interior,
which the animal covers with sarcode from its mouth,
and then it drags itself with its pseudopodia to the par-
ticles which it selects, "and they adhere to it. The par-
ticles selected are invariably mineral matter. 'The
selective power is carried to such an extent that colour-
less particles — sometimes quartzose, sometimes felspa-
thic, sometimes micaceous — are always chosen.' *The
particles seem to be impacted into the soft matter, laid
on the exterior in the same way that a brick is pressed
into the yielding mortar, and that too, in so skilful a
manner as to leave the smallest possible amount of va-
cant area ; whilst in the specimens of Difflugia in which
tabular or micaceous particles are used, they are some-
times disposed with such nicety that there is no over-
lapping, but the small fragments are placed so as to
occupy the space left between the larger ones. These
excellent architects seem to know that in the valves of
the Diatoms are combined the properties best suited to
their wants, that is, transparency and form, capable of
being easily arranged.'

Both the Difflugia and Arcella are Amoebae in the
strictest sense of the word; their bodies consist of
sarcode, which sends out finger-like lobes from the

24 THE EUGLYPHJE. pakt m.

moutli of the shell at one end, while the other end has
an adhesive property, which fixes it to the bottom.
The nucleus and contractile vesicles are identical in
character with those of the Amoebse, and exhibit the
same tendency to subdivision at certain periods of the
creature's history that is witnessed on a large scale in
the Amoeba proper ; and the reproductive process is the
same.^

The Difflugise are found in rivulets and pools con-
taining aquatic plants ; the condition of the water and
the nature of the soil have a great influence on the
form of their shell.

The Euglyphse is the third group of fresh-water rhi-
zopods. They are extremely minute, and there are no
mineral particles whatever on their shells, the axes of
which do not coincide with the aperture. The interior
of the animal is like that of the Arcella and Difflugia,
but it differs from them in as much as the pseudopodia
and ectosarc, or external coat, are finely granular, and
the whole mass of the body possesses a decided degree
of adhesive viscidity. The pseudopodia are filiform,
tapering, radiating, and readily coalesce ; and ' as if to
compensate for the restricted power of locomotion,
compared with that of the Amoeba proper, the pseudo-
podia of the Euglyphse are much more active. The
rapidity with which they admit of being projected
outwards, and withdrawn into the shell, is unequalled
in any other form, presenting the most wonderful ex-
ample of inherent contractility in an amorphous animal
substance, that is to be met with in either of the great
organic kingdoms.' ^

The order Eeticularia, with a very few exceptions,
are animals dwelling in calcareous microscopic shells,
and differing essentially in constitution from all the

5 ' On Dififlugian Rhizopods,' by 'G-. C. Wallich ]M.D. Annals of Natural
History, March, 1864. " Dr. WaUich.

SECT. n. RETICULARIA. 25

preceding Rhizopods. The ectosarc or surface -layer
of the sarcode in the Amoeba and Actinophrys has so
much consistence, that their pseudopodia, which are
derived from it, have a decidedly firm outline and never
coalesce ; whereas in the order Reticularia, the sarcode
is merely a semi-fluid protoplasm or colourless viscid
fluid, without the smallest surface-layer or film, so that
their pseudopodia possess no definiteness either in shape,
size or number. Sometimes they are cylindrical, and
sometimes form broad flat bands, whilst they are often
drawn into threads of such extreme tenuity, as to
require a high magnifying power to discern them.
They coalesce and fuse into each other so freely and so
completely when they meet, that no part of their
substance can be regarded as having more than a
viscous consistence. .Their margins are not defined by
continuous lines, but are broken by granules irregularly
disposed among them, so that they appear as if torn ;
and these granules, when the animal is in a state of
activity, are in constant motion, passing along the
pseudopodia from one end to the other, or passing
through the connecting threads of this animated net-
work from one pseudopodium to another, with con-
siderable rapidity, analogous to the movement of the
particles in the cells of the hairs of the Tradescantia
and other plants.'^

The sarcode body of the Gromise is inclosed in a
yellowish brown horny envelope or test of an oval shape,
with a single round orifice of moderate size, through
which the pseudopodia extend into the surrounding
water, some forms of the animal being marine, others
inhabitants of fresh water. When the animal is at rest
all is drawn within the test, and when its activity
recommences, single fine threads are put out which
move about in a groping manner until they find some

' ' Introduction to the Study of the Foraminifera,' by W. B. Carpenter.

THE GROMIJE.

PAKT III.

surface to whicli they may attach themselves. When
fixed, sarcode flows into them so that they rapidly
increase in size, and then they pnt forth finer ramifica-
tions, which diverging come in contact with those from

other stems, and by
mutual fusion form
bridges of connec-
tion between the
different branching
systems; for the pro-
toplasm spreads over
the exterior of the
test, and from it
pseudopodia extend
and coalesce, wher-
ever they meet, so
that the whole forms
a living network,
extending to a dis-
tance of six or eight
times the length of
the body. Fig. 96
represents the Gro-
mia oviformis with
its pseudopodia ex-
tended.

In the Gromise the
granular particles in
the semi-fluid proto-
plasm are in con-
stant motion. In
the finer filaments
there is but one current, and a particle may be seen to
be carried to the extremity, and return again bringing
back with it any granules that may be advancing ; and
should particles of food adhere to the filament they

Fig. 96. Gromia oviformifl.

SECT, n. THE GROMI^. 27

take part in the general movement. In tlie broader
filaments two currents carrying particles pass backwards
and forwards in opposite directions at tbe same time,
and the network in which these motions are going on
is undergoing continual changes in its arrangements.
New filaments are put forth sometimes from the midst
of the ramifications, while others are retracted; and
occasionally a new centre of radiation is formed at a
point where several threads meet. The food consists of
diatoms and morsels of vegetable matter ; but the
Gromise have no vent, so that the indigestible matter
collects in a heap withui them. However, as the form of
the test is such that the animal cannot increase its size,
it leaves it when it becomes too small for its comfort
and forms another, and it is supposed to get rid of the
effete matter at the same time. The Gromise have no
nucleus or contractile vesicle.

Class II. — FoEAMmiFERA.

The geological importance of the Foraminifera, their
intrinsic beauty, the prodigious variety of their forms,
their incredible multitude, and the peculiarity of their
structure, have given these microscopic organisms the
highest place in the class of Ehizopods. The body of
these animals consists of a perfectly homogeneous
sarcode or semi-fluid protoplasm, showing no tendency
whatever to any film or surface-layer. It is inclosed
in a shell ; and the only evidence of vitality that the
creature gives, is a protrusion and retraction of slender
threads of its sarcode, through the mouth or pores of
the shell, or through both according to its structure.
Fig. 97 shows some of their forms.

By far the greater number of the Foraminifera are
compound or many-chambered shells. When young,
the shell has but one chamber, generally of a globular

28 FORAMINIFERA. part hi.

form ; but as tlie animal grows, others are successively
added by a kind of budding in a definite but different
arrangement for each order and genus of the class.
When the creature increases in size, a portion of its
semi-fluid sarcode projects like a bud from the mouth
of its shell. If it be of the one-chambered kind, the
bud separates from its parent before the shelly matter
which it secretes from its surface consolidates, and a
new individual is thus produced. But if the primary

Fig. 97, Various forms of Foraminifora :— A, Oolina claxata ; B, Nodosaria rugoaa ;
c, Nodosaria spinicosta ; Cristellaria compressa ; k, Polystomella crispa ; p, Den-
dritina elegans ; g, Globigerina bulloides ; h, Textularia Mayeriana ; i, Quinquelocu-
lina Bronniana.

shell be of the many^ chambered kind, the shelly secre-
tion consolidates over the sarcode projection which
thus remains fixed, and the shell has then two chambers,
the aperture in the last being the mouth, from which,
by a protrusion of sarcode, a third chamber may be
added, the new chamber being always placed upon the
mouth of its predecessor, a process which may be
continued indefinitely, the mouth of the last segment
being the mouth of the whole shell.

By this process an ovate shell with a mouth at one
extremity may have a succession of ovate chambers

SECT. n. STRUCTUHE OF FORAMINIFERA. 29

added to it, each chamber being in continuity with its
predecessor J so that the whole shell will be straight
and rod-like, the last opening being the mouth. K the
original shell be globular, and if all the successive
gemmae given out be equal and globular, the shell
covering and uniting them will be like a number of
beads strung upon a straight wire. Sometimes the
successive gemmae increase in size so that each chamber
is larger than the one which precedes it ; in this case
the compound shell will have a conical form, the pri-
mary shell being the apex, and the base the last formed,
the aperture of which is the mouth of the whole shell ; a
great many Toraminifera have this structure. The
spiral form is very common and much varied. A series
of chambers increasing in size may coil round a longi-
tudinal axis, like the shell of the snail ; but if each of
the successive chambers, instead of being developed
exactly in the axis of its predecessor, should be directed
a little to one side, a curved instead of a straight axis
would be the result; there is a regular gradation of
forms of Foraminifera between these two types. The
convolutions are frequently flat and in one plane, but
the character of the spiral depends upon the successive
enlargement or not of the consecutive chambers ; for
when they open very wide and increase in breadth,
every whorl is larger than that which it surrounds ; but
more commonly there is so little difference between the
segments after the spiral has made two or three turns,
that the breadth of each whorl scarcely exceeds that
which precedes it.

However varied the forms may be, the mouth of the
last shell is the mouth of the whole, either for the
time being or finally. For all the chambers are con-
nected by narrow apertures in the partitions between
them. Each chamber is occupied by a segment of
the gelatinous sarcode body of the animal, and all the

30 ORDERS OF FORA^IINIFERA. paet hi.

segments are connected by sarcode filaments passing
throngh the minute apertures in the partitions between
the chambers, so that the whole constitutes one com-
pound creature.

Although the character and structure assumed by the
semi-fluid bodies of the known Foraminifera have been
determined in most cases with admirable precision, it
is still thought advisable to arrange them according to
the substance of the shell : consequently they form three
natural orders ; namely, the Porcellanous or imperfo-
rate, which have calcareous shells often so polished and
shining that they resemble porcelain; secondly, the
Arenaceous Foraminifera, consisting of animals which
secrete a kind of cement from their surfaces, and cover
themselves with calcareous or siliceous sand-grains ; and
lastly, the Vitreous and Perforated order, which is the
most numerous and highly organized of the whole class,
has siliceous shells transparent as glass, but acquires
more or less of an opaque aspect in consequence of
minute straight tubes which perforate the substance of
the shell perpendicularly to its surface, and consequently
interfere with the transmission of light.

Order of Porcellanous Foraminifera,

The Miliolidse constitute the porcellanous order, which
consists of twelve genera and many species, varying
from a mere scale to such as have chambered shells of
complicated structure.

The genus Miliola has minute white shells resem**
bling millet seeds, often so brilliantly polished that they
are perfectly characteristic of the porcelain family to
which they belong. No Foraminifera are better suited
to give an idea of the intimate connection between the
shell and its inhabitant than the Miliola, the funda-
mental type of this genus. The shell is a spiral (i, fig. 97),

SECT. n. THE MILIOLA. 3 1

which is made up of a series of half turns arranged
symmetrically on its two sides. Each half turn is
longer and of greater area than that on the opposite
side, so that each turn of the spire has a tendency to
extend itself in some degree over the preceding one,
which gives a concave instead of a convex border to
the inner wail of the chamber. The sarcode body of
the Miliola consists of long segments which fill the
chambers, connected by threads of sarcode passing
through the tubular constrictions of the shell. As the
animal grows, its pseudopodia extend alternately now
from one end, and now from the other extremity of the
spiral, and by them it fixes itself to seaweeds, zoophytes,
and other bodies, for these Foraminifera never float or
swim freely in the water. The genus Miliola is more ex-
tensively diffused than, almost any other group of Fora-
minifera ; they are most abundant between the shore and
a depth of 150 fathoms, and are occasionally brought
up from great depths. Beds of miliolite limestone show
to what an extent the Miliola abounded in the seas of
the Eocene period ; but the type is traced back to the
Lias.

The genus Peneroplis is distinguished by a highly
polished opaque white shell ; its typical form is an ex-
tremely flat spire of two turns and a half opening
rapidly and widely in the last half whorl. It is strongly
marked by depressed bands which indicate the septa or
shelly partitions between the chambers in the interior.
The polished surface of the shell is striated between
and transversely to the bands by parallel platted-look-
ing folds -3-J^-Q of an inch apart. But the peculiarity of
this shell and its congeners is, that the partitions be-
tween the chambers in its interior are perforated by
numerous isolated and generally circular pores which
in this compressed type are in a single linear row.
Their number depends upon the length of the partition

32 THE PENEROPLIS. part in.

between tlie chambers, which increases with the age of
the animal and size of the shell. There is but one pore
in each of the consecutive partitions from the globular
centre to the fourth chamber. Erom the fourth to the
seventh chamber the communication is bj two pores ;
after this the number is gradually increased to three,
four, six, &c., up to forty-eight, so that the last seg-
ment may send out forty-eight pseudopodia from the
mouth of the shell. In its early youth one pseudo-
podium appears to have been sufficient to find food for
the animal, but as the shell increased in size and the
segments in number, a greater supply of food was
requisite and a greater number of pseudopodia were
necessary to fish for it. Moreover when an addition to
the shell is required the pseudopodia coalesce at their
base and form a continuous segment upon which the
new portion of the shell is moulded.

In varieties of the Peneroplis where the spire is less
compressed there are sometimes two rows of pores in
the partitions between the chambers. The Dendri-
tine variety deviates most from that described. It is
characterised by a single large aperture in each par-
tition which sends out ramifications from its edges.
The form of these openings depends upon that of
the spire ; when compressed the aperture is linear
and less branched at its edges; but in shells which
have a very turgid spire it is sometimes broader than
it is long, and much branched ; but these extremes are
connected by a variety of forms. The shells of this
variety of the Peneroplis are strongly marked by
the depressed bands and strise, as in the Dendritina
elegans (p, fig. 97). The segments of the animal
inhabiting these shells must be more intimately con-
nected than in most of the other Foraminifera ; and
the pseudopodia sent through these large apertures
out of the mouth of the shell must be comparatively

SECT. Ti. THE ORBITOLITK 33

quite a mass of sarcode. The Dendritinse are inhabi-
tants of shallow water and tropical seas, while the other
members of the genus Peneroplis abound in the Red
Sea and the seas of other warm latitudes, especially in
the zone of the great laminarian fuci. Thej do not
appear in a fossil state prior to the beginning of the
Tertiary period.

The last whorls of some of the compressed spiral
Foraminifera of the Porcellanous order so nearly encom-
pass all their predecessors, that the transition from a flat
spiral to the Orbitolite with its flat disk of concentric
rings is not so abrupt as might at first appear. The
gradual change may be distinctly traced in the species
of the genus Orbiculina. The exteriors of the shells of
the genus Orbitolites have less of the opaque whiteness
than many others of its family. In its simplest form it is
a disk about the 3-^ of an inch in diameter, consisting
of a central nucleus surrounded by from ten to fifteen
concentric circular rings. The surface is usually plane,
though sometimes it is concave on both surfaces in con-
sequence of the rings increasing in thickness towards
the circumference. The rings or zones are distinctly
marked by furrows on the exterior of the shell, and each
of these zones is divided by transverse furrows into ovate
elevations with their greatest diameter transverse to the
radius of the disk, so that the surface presents a number
of ovate elevations arranged in consecutive circles round
the central nucleus. The margin of the disk exhibits
a series of convexities with depressions between them ;
in each of these depressions there is a circular pore sur-
rounded by a ring of shell: these pores are the only means
the animal possesses of communicating with the water
in which it lives.

Fig. 98 is a horizontal section of the simple Orbitolite
showing the internal structure of the disk. A pear-
shaped chamber with a circumambient chamber forms

VOL. II. D

34'

THE SIMPLE OliBITOLITE.

PART III.

a nucleus which is surrounded by series of concentric

The chambers of the nucleus

rings of ovate cavities

Fig.

Simple disc of Orbitolites complanatus.

and all the cavities are filled vs^ith segments of homo-
geneous semi-fluid sarcode, which constitute the body

Fig. 99. Animal of Orbitolites complanatus.

of the animal (fig. 99). The segments in the rings are
connected circularly by gelatinous bands of sarcode

SECT. II. THE SIMPLE ORBITOLITE, 35

extending through passages which connect the cavities
laterally. The segments are also connected radially
by similar sarcode bands, which originate in the mass
of sarcode filling the nucleus, and extend to the pores
in the margin of the disk. The cavities of each zone
alternate in position with those of the zones on each
side of it. The animal sends out its pseudopodia
through the marginal pores in search of food, which
consists of Diatoms and Desmidiacese ; they are drawn
in, digested without any stomach, and the nutritious
liquid is conducted by the gelatinous bands from seg-
ment to segment and from zone to zone, even to the
innermost recesses of the shell.

It is supposed that during the growth of the Orbito-
lite, when the animal becomes too large for its abode,
its pseudopodia coalescie and form a gelatinous massive
coat over the margin of the exterior zone, which secretes
a shelly ring with all its chambers and passages, each
ring being a mere vegetative repetition of those pre-
ceding it. That vegetative property enables the animal
to repair its shell or add a part that is wanting. For,
if a small portion of a ring be broken off and separated
from the living animal, it will increase so as to form a
new disk, the want of the central part or nucleus not
appearing to be of the smallest consequence ; indeed,
the central rings are very often imperfect. The sarcode
of these animals is red, and although the shell is of a
brownish-yellow by transmitted light, it is so translu-
cent that the red tint is seen through it.

The simple Orbitolite has many varieties. Sometimes
it begins its life as a spiral which changes to a circular disk
as it advances in age. It varies in thickness, and some
of its very large varieties may be said to consist of three
disks or stories of concentric chambers and many mar-
ginal pores instead of one. The upper and base stories
of concentric chambers are alike, the intermediate one

D 2

-^6 COMPOUND ORBITOLITE.

very different, but the sarcode segments in all the three
are so connected as to form a very complex compound
animal.^ Different as this structure is from that of
the simple Orbitolite, they are merely varieties of the
same species ; for it has been shown by Dr. Carpenter
that, although many pass their lives in the simple one-
storied state, they may change into the complex form
at any stage of their growth ; and as an equally exten-
sive range of variation has been proved by Professor
Williamson and Mr. Parker to prevail in other groups
of Foraminifera, the tendency to specific variation
seems to be characteristic of that type of animal life,
and consequently the number of distinct species is less
than they were supposed to be.

The Orbitolites are found in the dredgings of all the
warmer seas, in vast multitudes at the Philippine Islands,
but those from Australia are the most gigantic, being
sometimes the size and thickness of a shilling.

Order of Arenaceous Foraminifera,

In the numerous family of Lituolidse the abode of the
animal consists of a cement mixed with very fine par-
ticles of sand with larger ones imbedded in the surface.
The order includes a wide range of forms divided into
three genera, the simplest of which consists of a cylin-
drical tube twisted into a spiral gradually increasing
in diameter, and attached to a foreign substance by one
of its surfaces. The creature which lives in it is a
uniform cord of sarcode, which sends its pseudopodia
out through a large aperture at the extremity of its
tube in search of food. Although the tube consists of
sand imbedded in an ochreous-coloured cement secreted
by the animal, its surface is smooth as a plastered wall.

* A complete description of this complex type is given by Dr. Carpenter
in the Phil. Trans. 1856.

SECT. II. ARENA CEO US F0RA3IINIFERA . 3 7

The spiral tubes of this genus take various forms, and
in some cases are divided into chambers.

The members of the genus Lituola exude from their
surfaces a thick coat of cement with a quantity of
siliceous particles roughly imbedded in it, but in some
instances the particles are so uniform in size and shape,
and are so methodically arranged, that the surface re-
sembles a tesselated pavement. The usual form of the
Lituola is a mere string of oval convex chambers in-
creasing gradually in size, and fixed to shells and corals
by their flat surfaces. In some instances the shells, or
rather the substitutes for shells, take a nautiloid form,
and become detached from the foreign bodies to which
they were attached. In the highest forms of this genus
the chambers are divided by secondary partitions.

The typical form of the genus Yalvulina is a three-
whorled, three -sided pyramidal shell, with three cham-
bers in every turn of the spire. The aperture is large
and round, with a valve of smaller size attached by
a tooth of shell to its rim. The creature itself has an
exceedingly thin perforated vitreous shell, covered by
an incrustation of calcareous particles, which so entirely
blocks up the perforations that it can only extend its
pseudopodia through the mouth of its shell.

Order of Vitreous Foraminifera.

Nearly all the Foraminifera on the British coasts
belong to the Vitreous or Perforated order, which con-
sists of three natural families and many genera. Their
shells are vitreous, hyaline, and generally colourless,
even although the substance of the animal is deeply
coloured ; in some species both the animal and its sheU
are of a rich crimson. The glassy transparency of the
shells would be perfect were they not perforated by
numerous tubes running from the interior of the chani-

3» VITREOUS F0RA3IINIFERA. tart in.

bers straight through the shell, and ending in pores on
its surface. According to niicroscoj)ic measurement the
tubes in the Rotalia, which are the largest, are on an
average the -j-^^-q of an inch in diameter, and as the}-
are somewhat more than that apart, the transparency
of the shell appears between them and gives the surface
a vitreous aspect. The pseudopodia of the animal have
been seen to pass through every part of the wall of the
chambers occupied by it ; the apertures of the tubuli in
this case are wide enough to permit particles of food to
be drawn into the interior of the shell. But threads of
sarcode of extreme tenuity alone could pass through the
tubuli of the Operculina, which are not more than the
T'o'oTo" ^^ ^^^ vndh in diameter, and the distance between
them not much greater, which gives the shell an opaque
appearance. Particles of food can hardly be small
enough to pass through such tubes into the interior to
be digested. Dr. Carpenter, however, is almost certain,
from the manner in which the animal repairs injuries
done to its shell, that the semi-fluid sarcode extends
itself at certain times, if not constantly, over the exterior
of the shell, as in the Gromia ; and therefore it is by no
means impossible that the digestive process may really
be performed in this external layer, so that only the
products of digestion may have to pass into the portion
of the sarcode occupying the body of the shell.

In such many-chambered shells as are pierced by
tubuli wide enough to permit particles of food to be
drawn into the interior, each segment of the animal,
being fed within its own chamber, has a life of its own,
at the same time that it shares with all the others in
a common life maintained by food taken in through the
mouth of the shell. There are many instances of this
individual life combined with a common life among the
lowest tribes of animals.

Although the Perforated order contains types widely

SECT. II. VITREOUS F0RA3IINIFERA. 39

apart, they are always connected by intermediate forms :
but there is no such connection between the two great
natural orders, which are not only separated by the
tubuli in the shell, but in many instances by the struc-
ture of the interior and the corresponding character of
the animal.

In the Lagenidse, which form the first family of the
Perforated order, the vitreous shell possesses great
hardness, and is pierced by numerous small tubuli. It
is very thin, and of glossy transparency. The first four
shells in fig. 9 7 represent some of its forms.

The genus IvTodosaria has a very extensive range of
forms, from the elongated structure to the nautiloid
spiral, depending upon the relative proportions and
arrangement of the segments. The segments are se-
parated by constrictions transverse to the axis of growth^
or by bands as in the Nodosaria rugosa, b, fig. 97. It
frequently happens that parts of the sheU are not per-
forated ; and there are generally longitudinal ribs which
sometimes have spines projecting from every part of the
interior, as in Nodosaria spinicosta, c, fig. 97.

In the genus Nodosaria, the axis of growth changes
fi'om a straight line to that of a spiral, so that the
septa or divisions between the segments cross the axis
obliquely, and the aperture instead of being exactly
central becomes excentric. Between these extremes
there is a numerous series of gradations. The Cristal-
laria is the highest type ; the form is a nautiloid spiral,
more or less compressed (d, fig. 97), of which each whorl
has its chambers extended by winged projections so as
to reach the centre, and entirely encloses the preceding
whorl. The number of chambers in each whorl is
much smaller than in most of the nautiloid spirals, not
being more than eight or nine. The divisions are
always strongly marked externally by septal bands,
varying in character according to the species. The

VITREOUS FOR AM INI FER A. part hi.

margin of the shell runs into a keel, which is sometimes
extended into a knife-edge. Nearly all the Lagena
family are found in the North Atlantic and Mediterra-
nean, especially in the Adriatic, which is rich in species.
In the Nodosaria the cells which compose the shell
have so little connection one with another that they
may be easily detached ; which gives reason to believe
that the separation of the parts may be a means of
reproduction and dispersion.

The Globigerinidse are the most numerous family of
the perforated series, and the most remarkable in the
history of the existing Foraminifera. They are distin-
guished by the coarseness of the perforations in their
shells, and by the crescentic form of the aperture by
which the chambers communicate with each other.

The genus Globigerina consists of a spiral aggrega-
tion of globose segments, which are nearly discon-
nected from each other although united by mutual
cohesion. The segments are always somewhat flattened
against one another in their planes or junctions, and
sometimes the flattening extends over a pretty large sur-
face as in G, ^g. 97. The entire series of segments shows
itself on the upper side, but on the lower side only the
segments forming the latest convolution are prominent ;
they are usually four in number, and are arranged
symmetrically round a deep depression or vestibule ; the
bottom of which is formed by the segments of the earlier
convolutions. In this vestibule each segment opens by
a large crescent-shaped orifice, the several chambers
having no direct communication with each other. The
entire shell of the ordinary type may attain the dia-
meter of about -^-Q of an inch, but it is usually much
smaller; the typical form, however, is subject to very
considerable modifications. In newly formed segments
of Globigerina, the hyaline shell substance is perforated
by tubuli varying from T^o-roir ^^ ToVo ^^ ^^ "^^^ ^^

Fig. 100, />. 41.

ROSALINA ORNATA.

HEcr. II. VITREOUS FORAMINIFERA. 41

diameter, arranged at pretty regular distances ; but in
deep seas the surface of the shell is raised by an external
deposit into tubercles or ridges, the orifices of the pores
appearing between them.

Each chamber of the shell is occupied by a reddish-
yeUow segment of sarcode, from which pseudopodia
are seen to protrude ; and it is supposed that the
sarcode body also fills the vestibule, since without such
connecting band it is difficult to understand how the
segments which occupy the separate chambers can com-
municate with each other, or how new segments can be
budded off. In the Globigerina the slight cohesion
gives reason to believe that the separation of the parts
may be a means of reproduction.

The Rosalina ornata, one of the most beautiful speci-
mens of this group, and remarkable for the size of its
pores, is represented in fig. 100 with its pseudopodia ex-
tended, and coalescing in some parts.

The shells of the genus Textularia consist of a double
series of chambers disposed on each side of an axis, so that
they look as if they were mutually interwoven. As the
segments for the most part increase gradually in size,
the shell is generally triangular, the apex being
formed of the first segment, and its base of the two last
(H, fig. 97).

The aperture is always placed in the inner wall of
each chamber, close to its junction with the preceding
segment on the opposite side. In the compressed sheUs
it is crescent-shaped, but it is semilunar in the less
compressed, and may even be gibbous. The shell is
hyaline, with large pores not very closely set, though
in some varieties they are minute and near to one
another. Sometimes the pores open on the surface in
deep hexagonal pits. The older sheUs are frequently
incrusted with large coarse particles of sand, and some
specimens from deep water are almost covered with fine

42 THE ROTA LI A BECCARIL part hi.

sand, but with a good microscope the pores may be
seen between them.

The sarcode segments of the animal perfectly corre-
spond in shape and in alternate arrangement with the
segments of the shell, and are connected by bands of
sarcode passing through the crescent-shaped apertures
by which each chamber communicates with that which
precedes and follows it.

The Textularise are among the most cosmopolitan of
Foraminifera ; some of their forms are found in the
sands and dredgings from all shores, from shallow or
moderately deep water. In time they go back to the
Palaeozoic period.

The Rotalia Beccarii, common on the British coast,
affords a good example of the supplemental skeleton, a
structure peculiar to some of the higher vitreous Fora-
minifera. It has a rather compressed turbinoid form
with a rounded margin. Its spire is composed of a
considerable number of bulging segments gradually
increasing in size, disposed with great regularity, and
with their opposed surfaces closely fitted to each other.
The whole spire is visible on the exterior, with all its
convolutions, and on account of the bulging form of the
segments, their lines of junction would appear as deep
furrows along the whole spire, were they not partly or
wholly filled up with a homogeneous semi-crystalline
deposit of shell-substance, which is very different in
structure and appearance from the porous shell wall of
the segments.

The genus Calcarina is distinguished by a highly
developed intermediate skeleton with singular out-
growths, which is traversed by a system of canals ;
through these the animal sends its pseudopodia into the
water for food to nourish the whole.

A homogeneous crystalline deposit invests almost
the whole of the minute spiral shell of a, Calcarina,

SECT. II. INTERMEDIATE SKELETON, 43

and sends out many cylindrical, but more generally
club-shaped spines in all directions, though they usually
affect more or less that of the equator, as in the
typical form Calcarina calcar, which is exactly like the
rowel of a spur. The spines are for the most part
thick and clumsy, and give the shell a very uncouth
appearance, especially when their extremities are forked.
The turbinoid spire of the shell has a globose centre
surrounded by about five whorls progressively increasing
in size, and divided by perforated septa into chambers.
Each whorl is merely applied to that preceding it, and
does not invest it in the least degree. Internally the
turns of the spire are separated from each other by
the interposition of a solid layer of shell-substance quite
distinct from the walls of the chambers. A crystalline
deposit begins at the Very centre of the spire in a thin
layer gradually increasing in thickness as it proceeds,
and sending off club-shaped spines from time to time
so that the spines are of later and later production, and
become thicker and longer. From this it is evident that
the intermediate skeleton grows simultaneously with
the turns of the spire, but strange as it may seem, their
growth is independent, though both are nourished and
increased by the sarcode in the interior of the chambers.
For the intermediate skeleton is traversed in every part
by an elongated network of canals, which begin from
irregular lacunse or openings in the walls of the cham-
bers, and extend to the extremities of the spines.
Through these canals threads of the sarcode body of
the animal within the chambers have access to the
exterior, and provide nourishment for the intei-mediate
skeleton; while pseudopodia, passing into the water
through pores in the last partition of the shell, provide
for its growth and procure nourishment for the animal.
The communication between the adjacent chambers
in the whorls, is by means of a series of pores in the

44 , THE ROT ALINE GENUS. rARX in.

septa, or partitions ; and it is through the pores of the
last septum that the pseudopodia of the animal have
access to the water to provide for the growth of the
spire, for the punctures on the surface are merely the
terminations of some of the branching canals. On ap-
proaching the surface the canals become crowded to-
gether in some parts, leaving columns of the shelly
skeleton unoccupied which either appear as tubercles
on the surface, or, if they do not rise so high, form
circular spots surrounded by punctations which are
the apertures of the canals.

The Rotaline series of the Globigerina family is one
of the most numerous and varied of the whole class of
Foraminifera ; but varied as their forms are, they all bear
the characteristic marks which distinguish their order,
with this essential difference, that in the genus Globi-
gerina each chamber of the spire has a communication
with the central vestibule by a crescent-shaped aperture,
while in the Rotalinse each chamber only communicates
by a crescentic aperture with that which precedes and
follows it.

In the Rotaline group the internal organization rises
successively from the simple porous partition between
the chambers, to the double partition with the radiating
passages, and from the latter to the double partitions,
intermediate skeleton, and complicated system of canals.
To these changes the structure of the compound animal
necessarily corresponds, for it may be presumed that
not only the chambers but all the passages and canals
in the interior of the shell are either permanently or
occasionally filled with its sarcode body.

However, it is in the Nummuline family that the
Foraminifera attain the highest organization of which
they are capable. This family surpasses all the
Vitreous tribe in the density and toughness of the shell,
the fineness of its tubuli, and in the high organization

SECT. II.

THE NU3IMULITES.

of its canal system. Their forms vary from that
resembling a nautilus or ammonite to a flat spiral or
cyclical disk, like an Orbitolite, though vastly superior
to it in organization both with regard to the animal
and to the structure of the shell.

All the species of the genus Nummulite are spiral ; in
the typical form the last turn of the spire not only
completely embraces, but entirely conceals, all that
precede it. In general, the form is that of a double
convex lens of more or less thickness ; some are flat,
lenticular, and thinned away to an acute edge, while

Fig. 101. Section of Faujasina.

others may be spheroidal with a round, or obtuse edge»
They owe their name to their resemblance to coins,
being, in general, nearly circular. Their diameters
range from ^^^h of an inch to 4^ inches, so that they
are the giants of their race ; but the most common
species vary from ^ an inch to 1 inch in diameter.

Fig. 101 represents a section of the Nummulite
Faujasina near and parallel to the base of the shell.
It shows a series of chambers arranged in a flat

46 THE GENUS POLYSTOMELLA. part in.

spiral, and increasing in size from the centre to the
last turn of the spire, which embraces and conceals all
that precede it. Every segment of the animal is en-
closed in a shell of its own, so that they are separated
from one another by a double wall and space between ;
however, they are connected in the spiral direction by
narrow passages in the walls.

The segments of the animal in the exterior whorl have
direct communication with the water by means of a
shelly marginal cord, a, fig. 101, perforated by multitudes
of minute tubes, less than the -jh^itq ^^ ^^ inch in

Fig. 102. Interior of the Operculina.

diameter, through which threads of sarcode finer than
those of a spider's web can be protruded. These tubuli
are so very fine and numerous, that they characterize
the Nummuline family.

Fig. 102 represents the interior of the Operculina,
which is an existing representation of the Nummuline
type. Every segment of the animal is enclosed in a
shell of its own, but all the segments are connected in
the spiral direction by narrow passages in the walls as
in the Eaujasina.

Although each of the interior whorls has its perforated
marginal band, the segments can have no direct access
to the water ; however, they are indirectly brought into
contact with it by means of a system of branching

SECT, II. POLYSTOMELLA CRISPA. 47

shelly canals, radiating" from the central chamber,
ending in conspicuous pores in the external surface
of the shell. During this course the canals send small
tubes into the chambers on each side of them ; through
these the mternal segments of the animal can fill the
canals with cords of sarcode, and protrude them into
the water, whence they are supplied with food.

The genus Polystomella is distinguished by the high
development of the intermediate skeleton and the canal
system that maintains it. The Polystomella crispa
(fig. 97, e), a beautiftd species common on the British
coasts and in other temperate seas, has a lenticular
form, the -^-^ to the -^^ of an inch in diameter. It con-
sists of a small number of convolutions winding round
the shorter axis of the lens, increasing rather rapidly in
breadth, and each one almost entirely enclosing its pre-
decessor, so that the shell is exactly alike on both sides,
and only the last convolution is to be seen. At the
extremities of the axis there is a mass of solid shell-
substance, perforated by orifices which are the apertures
of a set of straight, parallel canals. In the figure only
the last convolution is visible, upon which the convex
septal bands are very conspicuous, dividing the surface
into well marked segments, upon the exterior edge of each
of which there are strong transverse crenulations. The
only communication which the chambers have with the
exterior, is by means of a variable number of minute
orifices near the inner margin of the sagittate partition-
plane, close to its junction with the preceding convolu-
tion ; a very high microscopic power is required to see
them, as well as the minute tubercles with which the
surface of the shell is crowded, more especially on the
septal bands and in the rows of depressions between the
segmental divisions.

The sarcode animal itself corresponds exactly vnth
the form and spiral arrangement of the chambers so

/l8 CYCLOCLYPEUS. part in.

strongly marked on the exterior of the shell. The
segments form a spiral of crescents, smooth on the
convex and crenulated on the concave side ; and from
the latter threads of sarcode proceed, w^hich pass
through pores in the inner margins of the partitions,
and unite them into one animal.

The Polystomella lives in tropical seas ; P. crispa in
temperate latitudes, and P. striate -punctata inhabits
the polar waters ; the genus is found everywhere.

Although variety of form without specific difference
is characteristic of the Foraminifera, it sometimes
happens that identity of external form is accompanied
by an essential difference in internal structure. Of this
the Cycloclypeus is an instance ; it is a rare species of
nummuline, dredged up from rather deep water off the
coast of Borneo. The shell is gigantic, some specimens
being two and a half inches in diameter ; but its mode
of growth is the same with that of the most complicated
Orbitolite. It consists of three superposed stages of
circular discs, each circle of chambers enclosing all
those previously formed. However, each segment of
the animal being enclosed in its own shelly envelope, a
supplemental skeleton, and a radial, vertical and annular
system of canals, prove that the two animals belong to
essentially different families of Foraminifera. There
are many instances, especially in the Rotaline group, of
isomorphism accompanied with generic difference ; thus
no reliance can be placed on variety of external form,
unaccompanied by change of internal structure.

An attempt has been made in the preceding pages to
describe a few species most characteristic of some of the
genera of this multitudinous class ; and of those selected
a mere sketch of the most prominent features of the
animal and its abode is given, that some idea may be
formed of the wonderfully complicated structure of
beings, which are mostly microscopic specks. Yet the
most minute circumstances in the forms of the animals

SECT. II. GLOBIGERINjE. 49

and their shells, with their varieties and affinities,
have been determined with an accuracy that does honour
to microscopic science.

They are now arranged in a natural system by
William B. Carpenter, M.D. F.R.S. assisted by William
K. Parker, Esq., and T. Eupert Jones, Esq., and pub-
lished in the Transactions of the Eay Society in 1862.
To this admirable work, the author is highly indebted.

It was known that different types of Foraminifera
abound at different depths on the coasts of the ocean ;
but it was long believed that no living creature could
exist in its dark and profound abyss. By deep-sea
sounding, it has been ascertained that the basin of the
Atlantic Ocean is a profound and vast hollow or trough,
extending from pole to pole ; in the far south, it is of
unknown depth, and the deepest part in the north is
supposed to be between the Bermudas and the Great
Banks of Newfoundland. But by a regular series of
soundings made by the officers of the navies of Great
Britain and the United States, for the purpose of laying
a telegraphic cable, that great plain or steppe was
discovered, now so well known as the telegraphic
plateau, which extends between Cape Race in New-
foundland, and Cape Clear in Ireland. From depths of
more than 2,000 fathoms on this plateau, the ooze
brought up by the sounding machine consisted of
97 per cent, of Globigerinse. The high state of preser-
vation of these delicate shells was no doubt owing to
the perfect tranquillity which prevails at great depths ;
for the telegraphic plateau and the bed of the deep
ocean everywhere is covered by a stratum of water
unruffled by the commotion raised by the hurricane
which may be raging on the surface. The greater
number of the Globigerinse were dead empty shells ;
but although in many the animal matter was quite
fresh, Professor Bailly of New York could not believe

VOL. II. E

50 METHOD OF SOUNDING. part hi.

that sucli delicate creatures could live on that dark
sea bed, under the pressure of a column of water
more than 2,000 fathoms high, a weight equal to rather
more than that of 340 atmospheres or 5,100 lbs. on every
square inch of sea-bed ; wherefore he concluded that the
tropical ocean and the Gulf Stream, which absolutely
swarm with animal life, must have been the birth-place
and home of these minute creatures, and that this
mighty ' ocean river,' which divides at the Great Banks
of Newfoundland, and spreads its warm waters Hke a
fan over the north Atlantic, deposits their remains over
its bed, which has thus been their grave-yard for un-
known periods, and which, in the lapse of geological
time, may be raised above the waves as dry land.

Professor Ehrenberg on the contrary concluded that
residentiary life exists at the bottom of the ocean, both
from the freshness of the animal matter found in the
shells, and from the number of unknown forms which
are discovered from time to time at various and often
great depths along the coasts. This opinion has been
confirmed beyond a doubt on several occasions, especially
by Dr. Wallich, who accompanied an expedition sent
under the command of Sir Leopold M'Clintock, to sound
the North Atlantic for laying a telegraphic line.

In doing that two operations are requisite. The first
is to ascertain the depth : when that is known, the
nature of the sea-bed must be determined, and on that
account a sample of it is then sounded for ; but owing to
the difficulty of ascertaining the exact time at which
the ground is struck, a quantity of rope in excess of the
depth is given out, which lies on the bottom of the sea
while the machine is being drawn up, which occupies a
considerable time when the depth is great. About
midway between Greenland and the north of Ireland,
when the machine was hauled up from a depth of a
mile and a half, several starfish were clinging with

SECT. II. COCCOSPHERES.

their long spiny arms to fifty fathoms of the rope that
had been lying on the surface of the sea-bed while the
machine was being drawn up, and to that part of the
rope alone. They continued to move their limbs ener-
getically for more than a quarter of an hour after they
were out of the water. They certainly had not been
entangled in the line while swimming, because star-
fishes are invariably creeping animals. The deposit on
which they had rested at the bottom of the ocean con-
tained ninety-five per cent, of Globigerinse. Abundance
of these minute Foraminifera were found in the sto-
machs of the starfish ; which seemed to prove not only
that the starfish were caught on their natural feeding
ground, but that their food was living organisms whose
normal abode is the surface of the bed of the deep
ocean. -

Dr. Wallich also discovered in the ooze brought up
from a depth of nearly two miles and a quarter a num-
ber of small bodies from Jg- to \ of an inch in length
and about a line in breadth. They consisted of equal
globes arranged in a straight line like the Nodosaria, or
built up, each lying on part of the one below it, and in-
creasing in size from the uppermost about y-oVo ^^ ^^^
undermost about -^^ of an inch in diameter. Both of
these forms, called coccospheres, consisted of sarcode
enclosed in a calcareous deposit ; and were studded at
nearly regular distances by minute round or oval bodies
concave below, and with an aperture on their convex
surface sometimes single, sometimes double. These
coccospheres were also found free in the ooze, and had
been seen previously by Capt. Dayman. They have
likewise been seen as free organisms living on the
surface of the ocean.

The ooze in the bed of the Atlantic ocean, as well
as of the Mediterranean and Adriatic contains fifty per
cent, of Globigerinse ; they exist in the Red Sea, in the

52 FOSSIL FORAMINIFERA. part hi.

vicinity of the West Indian Islands, on both, sides of
South America and near the Isle of France, but not in
the Coral Sea which is occupied by different genera.
Though in utter darkness, at the bottom of a deep
ocean, these little creatures can procure food by means
of their pseudopodia, whose extreme sensibility makes up
for the want of sight ; and the very excess of pressure
under which they live insures them a supply of oxygen
at depths to which free air cannot penetrate, for it is
believed that the quantity of dissolved air that water
contains is in proportion to the pressure.

Fossil Foraminifera enter so abundantly into the
sedimentary strata, that Buffon declared ^ the very dust
had been alive.' 58,000 of these fossil shells have been
computed in a cubic inch of the stone of which Paris and
Lyons are built. The remains of these Rhizopods are
for the most part microscopic. M. D'Orbigny estimated
that an ounce of sand from the Antilles contained
1,800,000 shells of Foraminifera. A handful of sand
anywhere, dry sea-weeds, the dust shaken from a dry
sponge, are full of them.

When the finer portions of chalk amounting to one
half or less are washed away, the remaining sediment
consists almost entirely of the shells of Foraminifera,
some perfect, others in various stages of disintegration.
In some of the hard limestones and marbles, the relics
of Foraminifera can be detected in polished sections
and in thin slices laid on glass. It is now universally
admitted that some crystallized limestones which are
destitute of fossil remains, had been originally formed
by the agency of animal life, and subsequently altered
by metamorphic action; the opinion is gradually gain-
ing ground among geologists that such is the history of
the oldest limestones.

At certain geological periods circumstances favoured
the development of an enormous multitude of indivi-

SECT. II. FOSSIL FORAMINIFERA. 53

dual animals. In the earlier part of the Tertiary period
the Nmnmulites acquired an extraordinary size. They
were like very large coins two or more inches in dia-
meter, and were accumulated in such quantities as to
constitute the chief part of the nummulitic limestone ;
a formation in some places 1,500 feet thick, which
extends through southern Europe, Libya, Egypt, Asia
Minor, and is continued through the Himalayan moun-
tains into various parts of the Indian peninsula, where
it is extensively distributed. The Great Pyramid of
Egypt is built of this limestone, which gave rise to
singular speculations with regard to the Nummulites in
very ancient and even in more recent times. Although
this is incomparably the greatest, it is by no means
the only instance of an accumulation of the fossil shells
of individual animals.- The ' Lingula flags,' a stratum
in the upper Cambrian series of North Wales, was so
named from the abundance of the Brachiopod Lingula
that it contains.

Professor Ehrenberg discovered that the shells of
the Eoraminifera sometimes undergo an infiltration of
silicate of iron, which fills not only the chambers, but
also their canal-system even to its minutest ramifications,
so that if the shell be destroyed by dilute acid, a per-
fect cast of the sarcode matter remains. The green-
sands in the different geological strata from the Silmian
formation upwards, are chiefly composed of these casts ;
and Professor Baily of the United States more recently
discovered that a process of infiltration is even now taking
place in some parts of the ocean bed, and that beautiful
casts of Eoraminifera may be obtained by dissolving
their shells with dilute acid.

A most extensive comparison of the Eoraminiferous
group of Rhizopods, recent and fossil, has been made
by Messrs. Parker and Rupert Jones from almost every
latitude on the globe, from the arctic and tropical seas.

54 BOZO ON CANADENSE. part hi.

from the temperate zones in both, hemispheres, and from
shallow as well as deep-sea beds. They have also reviewed
the fossil Foraminifera in their manifold aspects as
presented by the ancient geological faunas throughout
the whole series from the Tertiary down to the Carbonifer-
ous strata inclusive ; and have come to the astonishing
conclusion that scarcely any of the species of the Fora-
minifera met with in the secondary rocks have become
extinct. All that they had seen have their counterparts
in the recent Mediterranean deposits. Throughout
that long series of geological epochs even to the present
day, the Foraminifera show no tendency to rise to a
higher type; but variety of form in the same species
prevailed then as it does now.

Subsequently to this investigation, a gigantic Orbi-
tulite twelve inches in diameter, and the third of an
inch thick, has been found in the Silurian strata in
Canada. The largest recent species Dr. Carpenter had
seen was about the size and thickness of a shilling.

The lowest stratum of the Cambrian formations has
been regarded as the most ancient of the Palaeozoic
rocks ; now, however, strata of crystallized limestone
near the base of the Laurentian system, which is 50,000
feet thick in Canada, are discovered by Sir W. E. Logan
to have been the work of the Eozoon Canadense, a
gigantic Foraminifer, at a j)eriod so inconceivably
remote that it may be regarded as the first appearance
of animal life upon the earth. In a paper published by
Dr. Carpenter, in May 1865, he expressed his opinion
that the Eozoon would be found in the older rocks of
central Europe ; and in the December following he
received specimens from the fundamental quartz rocks
of Germany, in which he found undoubted traces of the
Eozoon. Here the superincumbent strata are 90,000
feet thick ; the transcendent antiquity of the Eozoon is
therefore beyond all estimation.

SECT. II. FOSSIL EOZOON. 55

The fossil Eozoon consists of a succession of parallel
rows or tiers of chambers, in which the sarcode of the
living animal had been rejDlaced by a siliceous infiltra-
tion, so that when the Calcareous shell was destroyed
by dilute acid, the cast was found to be precisely like
that of a Nummulite ; thin slices of it taken in dif-
ferent directions being examined with a microsco]3e, it
was found that the siliceous matter had not only filled
that portion of the chambers which had been occupied by
the sarcode-body of the animal and the canal-system, but
had actually taken the place of the pseudopodial threads,
the softest and most transitory of living substances,
which were put forth through tubuli in the shell-walls
of less than the to~o'o 0" P^^'^ ^^ ^^ inoh. in diameter.
' These are the very threads themselves turned into
stone by the substitution which took place, particle by
particle, between the sarcode body of the animal and
certain constituents of the water of the ocean, before
the destruction of the sarcode by ordinary decompo-
sition.'^ The shell had an intermediate skeleton, but
the minute tubes in the walls of the chambers are
so characteristic of the Nummulites, that they were
suflicient alone to determine the relationship of the
Eozoon to its modern representative.

The external shape and limits to the size of the
individual Eozoon have not been determined with
certainty, on account of its indefinite mode of growth,
and the manner in which the fossilized masses are
connected with the highly crystalline matrix in which
they are imbedded ; there is no doubt, however, that they
spread over an area of a foot or even more, and attained
a thickness of several inches. As they seem to have
increased laterally by buds which never fell off, they
formed extensive reefs ; at the same time they had a
vertical growth, for in some of the reefs the older

® Dr. Carpenter.

6 THE EOZOON. part hi.

portions appear to have been fossilized before tbe newer
were built up on them as a base, exactly like the coral
reefs in the tropical ocean of the present day,^ with
this difference however, that shells and other crusta-
ceans are associated with the corals, while no organic
body has been found in the Eozoon reefs ; nevertheless
the Eozoon must have had food. It may therefore be
inferred that parts at least of that primeval ocean
swarmed with animal life, whose remains have been
obliterated by metamorphic action. Carbon (which in
the form of graphite both constitutes distinct beds, and
is disseminated through the siliceous and calcareous
strata of the Laurentian series, as well in Norway as in
Canada), may indicate the existence of vegetation in the
Eozoon period.

The Eozoon is by no means confined to Canada and
central Europe. The serpentine marble of Tyree which
forms part of the Laurentian system on the west of
Scotland, and a similar rock in Skye, when subjected to
minute examination, are found to present a structure
clearly identical with that of the Canadian Eozoon!
And the like structure has been discovered by Mr.
Sanford in the serpentine marble of Connemara, known
as Irish green. The age of that rock however, is
doubtful : for when it was discovered to contain Eozoon,
Sir Roderick Murchison who had previously studied its
relations was at first inclined to believe it belonged to
the Laurentian series ; now however, he considers the
Connemara marble to be of the Silurian age. ' If this be
the case it proves that the Eozoon was not confined to
the Laurentian period, but that it had a vast range in
time, as well as in geographical distribution ; in this
respect corresponding to many later forms of Eoramini-
fera which have been shown by Messrs. Parker and

^ StructTire of the Organic Remains in the Laurentian Rocks of Canada :
by J. W. Dawson. Esq., Principal of M'Gill University, Montreal.

SECT. II. SPONGUS. 57

Rupert Jones to range from the Trias to the present
epoch.' ^

The Carpenteria found in the Indian seas forms a
link between the Foraminifera and Sponges. The shell
is a minute cone adhering to the surface of corals and
shells, by its wide base which spreads in broad lobes.
Double-walled chambers and canals form a spiral within
it, and are filled with a spongy sarcode of a more con-
sistent texture than the sarcode of the Foraminifera,
which in the larger chambers is supported by siliceous
spicules similar to those which form the skeletons in
sponges.

Class III. — SpoNaES.

According to the observations of Mr. Carter, sponges
begin their lives as solitary Amcebse which grow by
multiplication into masses, and assume endless forms
according to the species ; turbinate, beU-shaped, like a
vase, a crater, a fan, flat, foliaceous and lobed or
branching and incrusting the surface of stones. All
the Amoebae are so connected as to form one compound
animal. The whole substance of a sponge is permeated
by innumerable tubes which begin in small pores on the
surface, and continually unite with one another as they
proceed in their devious course to form a system of canals
increasing in diameter and ending in wide openings
called oscula, on the opposite side of the mass. Currents
of water enter through the pores on the surface, and
bring minute portions of food which are seized upon by
a vast multitude of Amoebse with long cilia which form
the walls of the tubes and canals ; and after they have

^ The discovery of Eozoon and the minute details of its stmcture are
published in the Intellectual Observer for May 1865. Also the ' Laurentian
Rocks of Canada,' a small work, contains articles by various authors on the
occurrence, structure, and mineralogy of certain organic remains of these
rocks.

58 SKELETONS OF SPONGES: part hi.

extracted the nutritious part, the offal is carried into the
sea through the oscula, by the current of water whose flux
is maintained by the vibrations of the cilia. In the
compressed and many of the tubular sponges the water
passes through them in a straight line ; in branched
and encrusting sponges, the afferent and efferent open-
ings are on the same surface. The water is inhaled
continuously and gently like an animal breathing, but it
is rapidly and forcibly ejected ; and in its passage it no
doubt furnishes oxygen to aerate the juices of the com-
pound animal, whose flesh or sarcode is irritable while
alive, and which has the power to open and shut the
pores and oscula of the canals, for the whole sponge
forms one compound creature whose mass is nourished
by the myriads of Amoebae of which it is constituted.

Within the animated sarcode mass of the sponges
there is in most cases a complicated skeleton of flbrous
network, either horny, calcareous, or siliceous, which
supports the soft mass, and determines its form.

Besides the skeleton, the mass of sponges is for the
most part strengthened and defended by siliceous, and
more rarely by calcareous, spines or spicules, either
imbedded among the fibres of the skeleton, or fixed to
them by their bases. The fibres of the skeleton network
always unite, whether they be horny, calcareous, or
siliceous ; the spicules never, though they often lie in
confused heaps over one another. They are of in-
numerable forms and arrangements. Some are like
long needles lying close together in bundles, pointed or
with a head like a pin at one or both ends; a great
number are stellate with long or short rays ; there may
even be several different forms in the same sponge.
Many calcareous sponges have cavities full of organic
matter ; and when the calcareous matter is dissolved by
dilute acid, the organic base is left.

The common commercial sponges have a skeleton

SECT. III.

CALCAREOUS AND SILICEOUS.

Fig. 103. Section of Sponge.

whicli consists of a network of tubular, horny, tough,
and elastic fibres which cross in every direction. They
have no spicules or very
few ; and when such do
project from the horny
skeleton, they are gene-
rally conical, attached
by their bases, and their
surface is often beset
with little spines ar-
ranged at regular inter-
vals, which gives them
a jointed appearance.
The common sponge
which is so abundant in
the Mediterranean has
many forms ; those from the coast of North America
are no less varied, but that most used in the United
States is turbinate, concave, soft, and tomentose.

In the calcareous sponges a mass of three-rayed spi-
cules surround the interior canals, where they are held
together by a cartilaginous substance which is wanting
in the horny sponges, but which remains in this order
after the destruction of the more delicate matter when
the sponge is dried. ^ The pores are also occasionally
defended by the projecting points of half buried spines.

In nearly every species of this order the pores on the
surface are protected by spicules ; and they are also pro-
jected from the surface of the large cloacal cavity, and
curved towards its opening, to defend it from Annelids
and other enemies.'^ Some species have a long ciliary
fringe at the orifice of the cavity, through which the
water may pass out, but no animal can come in.

3 ' Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebres,' par MM. Deshayes et
H. Milne-Edwards.

* Memoir by Dr. Bowerbank in the Transactions of the Microscopic
Society.

6o PROPAGATION OF MARINE SPONGES, pakt hi.

The spicula and skeleton of most of the marine
sponges are siliceous and singularly beautiful; the
skeleton of the Dactylocalyx pumiceus of Barbadoes is
transparent as spun glass ; and a species from Mada-
gascar has numerous simple transparent and articu-
lated spicules implanted in the siliceous fibres of the
skeleton. The Cristata, Papillaris, Ovulata, and many
more have siliceous skeletons, some garnished with
spicules of various forms, and the surface occasionally
covered with a layer of siliceous granules.

The variety in the size, structure, and habits of the
marine sponges is very great : temperate and tropical
seas have their own peculiar genera and species ; some
inhabit deep water, others live near the surface, while
many fix themselves to rocks, sea-weeds, and shells,
between high and low water mark. There are very few
dead oyster, whelk, scallop, and other shells that escape
from the ravages of the Cliona, an extremely minute
burrowing sponge of the simplest structure, which has
a coat of siliceous spicules supposed to be the tools with
which it tunnels a labyrinth through the mid-layer of
the shell, in a pattern that varies with the species of
the sponge. A communication is formed here and
there with the exterior by little round holes, through
which the sponge protrudes its yellow papillae. Erom
the force exhibited by this little sponge, it may perhaps
be inferred to possess a rudimentarj^ muscle and nerve.^

Sponges are propagated twice in the year by minute
ciliated globules of sarcode, detached from the interior
of the aquiferous canals, which swim like zoospores to
a distance, come to rest, and lay the foundation of new
sponges. The little yellow eggs of Halichondria pani-
cea are lodged in the interstices between the interior
canals 5 when mature, they are oval and covered with
cilia, and are carried out by the currents ; and after

* Professor Huxley's Lectures.

SECT. II. FRESH- WA TER SPONGES. 6 1

swimming about for some days fix on a solid object,
become covered with, bristles, spread out into a trans-
parent film, charged with contractile vesicles of different
sizes in all degrees of dilatation and contraction, as
well as with sponge ovules. Spicules are developed at
the same time, and these films ultimately become young
sponges, and if two happen to meet they unite and are
soldered together.*^ Besides eggs, larger bodies covered
witb radiating spicules are produced, containing granu-
lar particles of sarcode, each of which, when set free
by the rupture of the envelope, becomes an Amoeba-
like creature, and ultimately a sponge.

Fresh-water sponges are sometimes branched, and
sometimes spread over stones, wood, and other sub-
stances ; and one species covers an earthy mass some
inches thick formed 'by its own decayed matter. The
skeleton of such species as have one, consists of bundles
of siliceous spicules, held together and mixed with,
groups of needles, the rods of which project through
the surface of the sponge and render it spinous. The
motions in the gelatinous sarcode mass are the most
remarkable feature in the fresh-water sponges, which all
belong to the genus Spongilla. Mr. Carter observed
that poi-tions of the surface of some individuals of the
Spongilla fluviatilis in bis aquarium had long cilia by
means of whicb they rapidly changed their places
during the spring, but wben winter came they emitted
processes from such parts of their surfaces as were free
from cilia and retracted them again just like Amoebse.
These portions often bad cells, and when the Amoeba-
like motions ceased, a nucleus and nucleolus appeared
within them, and at last the whole gelatinous sarcode
mass consisted of these cells or globules. Some had no
nucleus, but were filled with green or colourless granules.

At certain seasons of the year, whatever the form of

« M. Milne-Edwards.

62 FOSSIL SPONGUS. part hi.

the fresh-water sponges may be, a multitude of minute
hard yellow bodies are produced in their deeper parts.
They consist of a tough coat containing radiating spi-
cules like a pair of spoked wheels united by an axle with
a pore in its surface. Within this last there is a mass of
motionless granular cells, and when put into water the
cells come out at the pore and give rise to new sponges.

Insulated groups of germs covered with cells called
swarm-cells seem to form parts of the sponges ; they lie
completely within the mass of the living sponge. They
have the form of a hen's egg, are visible to the naked
eye, and when they come into the water they swim in
all directions for a day or two ; become fixed ; a white
spot within is enlarged ; and the constituents of young
sponges appear.^

The generic forms of fossil sponges augment in
number and variety from the Silurian to the Cretaceous
beds, where the increase is rapid ; but all the sponges
which had a stony reticulated form without spicules
passed away with the Secondary epoch, so that the
family has no representatives in the Tertiary deposits or
existing seas. The calcareous sponges which abound
in the Oolite and Cretaceous strata, and attain their
maximum in the Chalk, are now almost extinct, or are
represented by other families with calcareous spicules.
Siliceous fossil sponges are particularly plentiful. In
England extensive beds of them occur in the Upper
Greensand, and in some of the Oolitic and Carboni-
ferous Limestones; and some beds of the Kentish Eag
are so full of their siliceous spicules, that they irritate
the hands of the men who quarry them. Since every
geological formation except the Muschelkalk is found
in England, the number and variety of fossil sponges
are very considerable. The horny sponges are more
abundant now than they were in the former seas. Ac-

^ Professor Huxley's Lectures.

SECT. II. INFUSORIA. 63

cording- to M. D'Orbigny the whole number of fossil
sponges known and described amount to thirty-six
genera and 427 species, which is probably much below
the real number.^

Class IY. — Infusoria.

The Infusoria, which form the second group of the
Protozoa, are microscopic animals of a higher grade
than any of the preceding creatures, although they go
through their whole lives as isolated single cells of
innumerable forms. They invariably appear in stag-
nant pools and infusions of animal and vegetable matter
when in a state of rapid decomposition. Every drop of
the green matter that mantles the surface of pools in
summer teems with the most minute and varied forms
of animal life. The' species called Monas corpusculus
by the distinguished Professor Ehrenberg, has been
estimated to be -g-oVo P^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^ diameter. ' Of such
infusoria a single drop of water may contain 500,000,000
of individuals, a number equalling that of the whole
human species now existing upon the face of the earth.
But the varieties in size of these animalcules invisible
to the naked eye are not less than that which prevails
in almost any other natural class of animals. From
the Monad to the Loxades or Amphileptus, which are
the fourth and sixth part of a line in diameter, the
difference in size is greater than between a mouse and
an elephant ; within such narrow bounds might our
ideas of the range in animal life be limited if the sphere
of our observation was not augmented by artificial aid.' ^

This singular race of beings has given rise to the
erroneous hypothesis of equivocal or spontaneous gene-
ration, that is to say, the production of living ani-
malcules by a chemical or even fortuitous combination

^ ' Palseontology,' by Professor Owen. ^ Prof. Owen.

64 INFUSORIA. part hi.

of the elements of inert matter. That question has
been decided bj direct experiment, for Professor Schultz
kept boiled infusions of animal and vegetable matter
for weeks in air which had passed through a red-hot
tube, and no animalcules were formed, but they appeared
in a few hours when the same infusions were freely ex-
posed to the atmosphere, which shows clearly that the
germs of the lowest grade of animal life float in the air,
waiting as spores do, till they find a nidus fit for their
development.

M. Pasteur, Director of the Normal School in Paris, in
a series of lectures published in the ' Comptes Rendus,'
has not only proved that the atmosphere abounds in
the spores of cryptogamic fungi and moulds, but with
infusoria of the form of globular monads, the Bacteria,
and vibrios, which are like little rods round at their
extremities and extremely active. The Bacteria mona
and especially the Bacteria terma, are exceedingly
numerous. These minute beings are the principal
agents in the decomposition of organic matter. They
are more numerous in dry than in wet weather, in
towns than in the country, on plains than on mountains.

In a memoir read at the Academy of Sciences, Paris,
Mr. J. Samuelson mentions that he had received rags
from Alexandria, Japan, Melbourne, Tunis, Trieste and
Peru. He sifted dust from the rags from each of these
localities respectively through fine muslin into vases of
distilled water. Life was most abundant in the vases
containing dust from Egypt, Japan, Melbourne, and
Trieste. The development of the different forms was
very rapid, and consisted of protophytes, Rhizopods and
true Infusorise. In most of the vases monads and vibrios
appeared first, and from these Mr. Samuelson traced a
change first into one then into another species of infu-
soria. In the dust from Japan he followed the develop-
ment of a monad into what aj^peared to be a minute

SECT. II. INFUSORIA. 65

Paramcecium, then into Lexodes cucullus, and finally
into Colpoda cucullus. From these and other experi-
ments it is proved that many infusoria now classed as
distinct types are really one and the same animal in
different states of development. That appears to be
the case also with the Amoebee. In the dust from
Egypt Mr. Samuelson found a new Amoeba whose
motions were very rapid; as to shape and mode of
motion he compared it to soap bubbles blown with a
pipe. He traced the gradual changes of the globular
form of this Amoeba until its pseudopodia were in full
action, its increase by conjugation, and other circum-
stances of its life. In the same dust and in that only,
the development of the Protococcus viridis was seen,
and that in such abundance that at last the water was
tinged green by that plant. In the dust from Egypt a
vibrio was changed into a vermiform segmented infu-
soria of an entirely new type. Its length varied from
the -jfo" to -jip- of an inch, each ring was ciliated, and
the whole series of cilia extending along the body acted
in concert ; a circlet of them surrounded the anterior
segment ; a canal seemed to extend throughout the body.
It was propagated by bisection ; the two parts remained
attached to one another ; an independent ciliary motion
was observed in each which did not interfere with the
motion of the whole. It was supposed to be a larval
form or series of forms. Mr. Samuelson's observations
show, that the atmosphere in all the great divisions of
the globe is charged with representatives of the three
kingdoms of nature, animal, vegetable, and mineral :
that the animal germs not only include the obscure
types of monads, vibrios, and Bacteria, but also the
Glaucoma, Cyclides, YorticeUa, and other superior
Infusorise, and occasionally though very rarely germs
of the Nematode worms.

It has been already mentioned that many of the

VOL. II. F

6b INFUSORIA. part hi.

microscopic fungi are ferments, aiding greatly in the
decomposition of organic matter. They however are
by no means the only agents in decomposition. The mo-
ment life is extinct in an animal or vegetable, Infusoria
of the lowest grade seize upon the inanimate sub-
stance, speedily release its atoms from their organic
bond, and restore them to the inorganic world whence
they came. The ferment which transforms lactic acid
into butyric acid is a species of vibrio which abounds in
the liquid, isolated or united in chains ; they glide, pirou-
ette, undulate, and float in all directions, and multiply
by spontaneous division. Yibrios possess the unprece-
dented property of living and propagating without an
atom of free oxygen; they not only live without air,
but air kills them. This singular property forms an
essential difference between the Vibrios and the Myco-
derms : the former cannot live in oxygen ; the latter
cannot live without it, and as soon as it is exhausted
within the infusion, they go to the surface to borrow it
from the atmosphere.

There are also two groups of Infusoria which possess
these opposite characters, one being unable to live in
oxygen, while the other cannot live without it ; some-
times they even inhabit the same liquid. When the
tartrate of lime is put into water along with some
ammoniacal and alkaline phosphates, a Monad, the
Bacteria terma, and other Infusoria appear after a time.
These little animals bud rapidly in an infusion of animal
matter, then a slight motion is produced by the ap-
pearance of the Monas corpusculum and the Bacterium
terma, which glide in wavy lines in all directions in
quest of the oxygen dissolved in the liquid, and as soon
as it is exhausted they go to the surface in such numbers
as to form a pellicle, where by aid of the oxygen they
form the simple binary compounds water, ammonia, and
carbonic acid. In the meantime the Yibrios, which are

SECT. II. INFUSORIA. 6j

without oxygen, are developed below, and keep up the
fermentation, and between the two, the work of de-
composition is completed.

It is not the worm that destroys our dead bodies ; it
is the Infusoria, the least of living beings. The in-
testinal canal of the higher animals, and of man, is
always filled during life not only with the germs of
vibrios, but with adult and well-grown vibrios them-
selves. M. Leewenhoeck had already discovered them
in man, a fact which has since been confirmed. They
are inoffensive as long as life is an obstacle to their
development, but after death their activity soon begins.
Deprived of air and bathed in nourishing liquid, they
decompose and destroy all the surrounding substances
as they advance towards the surface. During this
time, the little Infusoria, whose germs from the air had
been lodged in the wrinkles and pores of the skin, are
developed, and work their way from without inwards,
tiU they meet the vibrios, and after having devoured
them, they perish, or are eaten by maggots.

Of all the Infusoria and ferments the Vibrios are the
most tenacious of life ; their germs resist the destructive
effect of a temperature of 100° Cent. The spores of the
Mucedines are still more vivacious ; they grow after being
exposed to a heat of 120° Cent., and are only killed by
a temperature of 130° Cent. As neither spores of the
fungi nor the germs of the Infusoria are ever exposed
to so high a temperature while in the atmosphere,
they are ready to germinate as soon as they meet with
a substance that suits them.

M. Ehrenberg has estimated that the Monas corpus-
culum is not more than the 2-i;^th part of an inch in dia-
meter ; whence Dr. M. C. White, assuming that the ova
of the Infusoria and the spores of minute fungi are only
the ^-q^Yl part in linear dimensions of their parent
organisms, concludes that there must be an incalculable

68 INFUSORIA. part hi.

amount of germs no larger than the ^J^^^ or iooTw'fcl^
part of an inch in diameter; and since according to
MM. Sullivant and Wormlej, vision with the most
powerful microscope is limited to objects of about the
8o;5oo'tb part of an inch in diameter, we need not be sur-
prised if Infusoria and other organisms appear in pu-
trescible liquids in far greater numbers than the germs
in atmospheric dust visible by the aid of microscopes
would lead us to expect.

The ferments are the least in size and lowest in or-
ganization of all the Infusoria. The higher group
which abounds in stagnant pools and ditches are ex-
ceedingly numerous, and their forms are varied beyond
description. They are globular, ovoid, long and slender,
short and thick, many have tails, one species is exactly
like a swan with a long bending neck, but whatever
the form may be, all have a mouth and gullet.
Although the skin of the Infusoria is generally a mere
pellicle, that of the red Paramoecium and some others
resembles the cellulose covering of a vegetable cell,
engraved with a pattern ; but in all cases respiration is
performed through the skin.

Whatever form the cell which constitutes the body
of the Infusoria may have, the highly contractile dia-
phanous pellicle on its exterior is drawn out into minute
slender cilia which are the locomotive organs of these
creatures. Yibrating cilia form a circlet round the mouth
of some of these animalcules, a group of very long ones
are placed like whiskers on each side of it, as in the
Paramoecium caudatum, and in some cases there is a
bunch of bristles in front. Certain Infusoria have
cilia in longitudinal rows, and in many the whole body
is either partially or entirely covered with short ones.
In some Infusoria their vibrations are constant, in
others interrupted, and so rapid that the cilia are in-
visible. These delicate fibres which vary from the

SECT. II.

INFUSORIA.

sJoth to the fs^tli part of an inch in length, move
simultaneously or consecutively in the same direction
and back again, as when a fitful breeze passes over a
field of corn. These animalcules seize their prey with
their cilia, and swim in the infusions or stagnant pools,
in which they abound, in the most varied and fantastic
manner; darting like an arrow in a straight line,
making curious leaps and gyrations, or fixing them-
selves to an object by one of their cilia and spinning
round it with great velocity, while some only creep.

/ '//'

Fig. 104. Paramoecimii caudatum.
a a, contractile vesicles ; b, mouth.

Fig. 105. Kerona silums. — a, contractile
vesicle ; h, mouth ; c c, animalcules which
have been swallowed by the Kerona.

These motions, which bring the animalcules into fresh
portions of the liquid, are probably excited by the
desire for food and respiration.

None of the Infusoria have regular jointed limbs, but
certain families of the higher genera have peculiar and
powerful organs of locomotion partly consisting of
strong ciliary bristles placed on the anterior in rows,
used for crawling or climbing, and partly consisting of
groups of strong processes which serve as traction feet,
generally trailing behind the animal while swimming.

70. INFUSORIA. part hi.

or used to push it forward. When the bristles or cilia
of this high group of Infusoria are used for crawling
their motions may be traced to the contraction of the
skin; but in the Infusoria that are never fatigued
though their cilia vibrate incessantly night and day, it
may be presumed that these motions are altogether
independent of the will of the animal, in as much as
there are innumerable cilia in the human frame that
are never at rest during the whole course of our exis-
tence, nor do their vibrations cease till a considerable
time after death — a striking instance of unconscious
and involuntary motion.

The cell which constitutes the body of the Infusoria
is filled with sarcode, which is the receptacle of the food,
and in that substance all the internal organs of the
animalcule are imbedded. In the higher genera it is
full of granular particles of different sizes and forms,
and it contains a nucleus in its centre, characteristic of
cellular protozoa generally. The nucleus is of a dull
yeUow colour, and is enclosed in a transparent capsule,
which, in the smaller Infusoria reflects light brilliantly.
It is generally of an ovoid form and single, but in
several species the nucleus is double, and in others
there are several nuclei.

The Infusoria have a distinct mouth and gullet, and
for the most part another aperture for ejecting the in-
digestible part of their food, though some discharge it by
the mouth, others through any part of their surface.
A few of the larger Infusoria devour the smaller ; others
feed on minute vegetable particles, chiefly diatoms.
Solid substances that are swallowed are collected into
little masses mixed with water, and enter into clear
spherical spaces called vacuoles in various parts of the
sarcode, where they are partially digested. When the
animal has not had food for some time, clear spaces
only filled with a very transparent fluid are seen, vari-

SECT. II. INFUSORIA. 71,

able both in size and number. It was on account of
the digestive vacuoles that the Infusoria were called
Polygastria by Ehrenberg.

Transparent contractile vesicles of a totally different
nature from the vacuoles are peculiarly characteristic of
such Infusoria as have a digestive cavity. They exist
either singly or in even numbers, from 2 to 16, according
to the species, and never change their places ; but they
dilate and contract rhythmically at pretty regular
intervals. When dilated, they are filled with a clear,
colourless fluid, the product of the digestive process
which they are supposed to diffuse through the body of
the animal.

The Euglena, a very extensive genus of Infusoria,
have smooth bodies and green particles imbedded in the
sarcode, which fills their interior ; and M. Wohler dis-
covered that the green mantle covering the saline
springs at E-odenberg and Konigsborner, which consists
of three species of these green Infusoria, gives out bub-
bles of pure oxygen ; thus indicating a respiratory pro-
cess in these animals, the same with that in plants,
namely, fixing the carbonic acid of the atmosphere and
exhaling oxygen, a singularly close analogy, if not iden-
tity, of action. The Euglense are also distinguished by
an irregular oblong space in the head filled with a red
liquid ; but, as it does not contain a crystalline lens, it
can only be regarded as the very earliest rudiment of an
eye, totally incapable of distinguishing objects, though
probably sensible to the influence of light. They swim
with a smooth gliding and often rotatory motion, pro-
ducing a kind of flickering on the surface of the water
by the lashing of a long filament attached in front, and
supposed to be their only organ of locomotion ; never-
theless, Mr. Gosse thinks that they are covered with
most minute cilia from their manner of swimming. The
Euglena acus is one of the prettiest of these little

72 INFUSORIA. PART III.

animals ; it is long and slender, of a sparkling green
with colourless extremities, a thread-like proboscis, and
a rich crimson spot. When it swims it rotates, and a
series of clear, oblong bodies are seen towards the head,
and another at the tail, as if they were imbedded in the
flesh round a hollow.

The Loxades bursaria, which is a giant among its
fellows, has an ovoid body with green particles imbedded
in its interior. The outer skin is spirally grooved, so
as to form a kind of network, the elevated points of
which support the cilia with which its body is beset. It
has a mouth and gullet lined with cilia, which force the
food in balls into the soft matter in the interior, where
both the food and the green particles circulate, being
carried along by a gyration of the gelatinous matter in
which they are imbedded.

A species of Peridinium, which is luminous at night,
and occasionally covers large portions of the Bay of
Bengal with a scarlet coat by day, nearly approaches
the character of the unicellular Algse. Mr. J. H. Carter
observed that at first, when these animalcules were in a
state of transition, their nearly circular bodies were
filled with translucent green matter, closely allied, if
not identical with, chlorophyll, which disappeared when
the animal approaches its fixed state, and a bright red
took its place : the Infusoria were then visible to the
naked eye, and the sea became scarlet. The scarlet
state only lasts for a few days, for each of these innu-
merable Infusoria becomes encysted or capsuled, and
either floats on the water, or sinks to the bottom and
remains motionless. The Euglena sanguinea has a
scarlet state analogous to that of the Peridium. It is
so minute and versatile that it is difficult to ascertain its
true form, which, however, seems to be a spindle shape,
with a pointed and blunt round head. In general it is
of a rich emerald green, with perfectly clear, colourless

SECT. II. INFUSORIA. 73

extremities ; but it sometimes occurs of a deep red, and
in such multitudes as to give the water the appearance
of blood.'

The Noctiluca miliaris, a luminous inhabitant of the
ocean, and the most beautiful of the Infusoria, is dis-
tinguished by its comparatively gigantic size, and
by its brilliant light, which makes the sea shine
like streams of silver in the wake of a ship in a warm
summer evening, when they come to the surface in
countless multitudes. It is a globular animal like a
minute soap bubble, consisting of gelatinous matter, with

Fig. 106. Noctiluca.

a firmer exterior, and being about the thirtieth of an
inch in diameter, it is visible to the naked eye, when a
glass in which it is swimiiiing is held to the light. On
one side of the globe there is an indentation, from
whence a tail of muscular fibre springs striped with
transverse rings, which aids the animal in swimming.
At the root of the tail lies the mouth, bordered on one
side by a hard dentile lip leading into a funnel-shaped
throat, from whence a long flickering cilium is protruded,
supposed to be connected with respiration. The throat

' Mr. Gosse.

74 PROPAGATION OF INFUSORIA. pakt in.

leads into a large cavity in the gelatinons substance,
from whence the rudiments of an alimentary canal
descend. From the internal surface of the globe sarcode
fibres extend through the gelatinous matter, so as to
divide it into a number of irregular compartments, in
which vacuoles are often seen. They give buoyancy to
the animal, and enable it to rise and sink in the water,
but seem to disappear when the food is digested. The
sarcode fibres constantly change their form and position,
and the electric light emitted by a direct exertion of
nerve power, which seems to be constant to the naked
eye, really consists of momentary scintillations that in-
crease in rapidity and intensity by the dash of an oar or
the motion of the waves.

The Noctiluca is propagated by spontaneous division,
a line appears bisecting the globe, which becomes more
and more constricted till the animal is like a dumb-bell ;
the slender thread separating the two parts is then
broken by their efforts to get free ; the two new creatures
swim off in different directions, and soon assume their
adult form. But in many individuals there are clear,
yellow globules with a well-defined nucleus, of a rich
reddish-brown, which are the germs of the animal.

Most of the Infusoria multiply by continuous bisection,
like the unicellular Algse. The division generally begins
with the nucleus, and is longitudinal or across, according
to the form and nature of the animal, and is accom-
plished with such rapidity, that, by the computation of
Professor Ehrenberg, 268,000,000 of individuals might
be produced from one single animalcule of the species
Paramoecium in a month. The Paramoecia are repro-
duced too by gemmation, and, as they are male and
female, they are reproduced also like the higher classes.

The Infusoria have another mode of increasing. The
animalcules either draw in or lose their cilia, and con-
sequently come to rest. The animal then assumes a

sect.it. propagation OF INFUSORIA. 75

more globular form, and secretes a gelatinous substance
from its surface, which hardens into a case or cyst, in
which its body lies unattached and breaks up into
minute ciliated gemmules, which swim forth like zoo-
spores as soon as they come into the water by the thin-
ning away of part of the cyst. In fact the animal is
resolved into its offspring, which, as soon as free, gradu-
ally acquire the parent's form, though at first they may
bear no resemblance to it. The scarlet Peridium seen
by Mr. Carter in the Bay of Bengal is propagated in
this manner. For the parent Peridium is broken up
within its cyst into from two to four new ones, each of
which when set free and grown up might undergo the
same process.

The Loxades bursaria increases by three distinct
methods, and sometimes by two at a time. In autumn,
or the beginning of winter, six or eight germs contain-
ing granular matter and one or more hyaline nuclei
are formed within the animal, each enclosed in two
contractile cysts : they lie freely in the cavity of the
body, and come one by one into the water through a
canal ending in a protuberance in the skin. During
this time the pulsations of the vesicles within the
Loxades are continued, but the gyration of the green
particles is suspended till all the germs are excluded
and swim away, and then it is renewed as vigorously
as ever. At first the young are totally unlike their
parent, but by degrees acquire its form. The Lox-
ades is also increased by division, sometimes across,
sometimes longitudinally, and, in the latter case, one
half is occasionally seen to contain germs which have
been excluded before the other half had separated, so
that the two distinct systems of projDagation are simul-
taneous.^

The Yorticella nebulifera and some others of the

- ' Lectures on Comparative Anatomy,' by Professor Owen.

VORTICELL^E.

PART III.

Infusoria are remarkable for the diversity of their re-
productive powers ; for, besides division and gemmation,
they are reproduced by a kind of alternate generation,
accompanied by singular metamorphoses. The Yorti-
cella, one of the most beautiful animals of its class, lives
in pools of fresh water : groups of them are found on
almost every mass of duckweed like little blue bells
upon slender stalks, creating active currents in the
water by the vibrations of long and powerful cilia with

Fig. 107. Vorticellae.

which the margin of the bell is fringed. The lip or
edge of the bell is bent outwards into a permanent rim,
and a deep groove cleaves the rim on one side, in which
a wide cavity forming the mouth is placed. The mouth,
the short throat or gullet, and the whole bell, are bristled
with vibratile cilia.

The Vorticellse feed on vegetable organisms, chiefly
diatoms, and are exceedingly voracious. The cilia round
the rim of the bell entangle the food, draw it into the
mouth, and those in the gullet force particle after

SECT. II.

THE ACINETA.

l^article mixed with water into vacuoles which they
make in the interior of the soft sarcode which fills the
bell, and there the particles undergo rotation till di-
gested and absorbed, and, if refuse remain, it is ejected
through a softer part in the outer layer of the bell.

The stem that
fixes the animal
to a solid object
is a tubular con-
tinuation of its
outer membrane,
containing a high-
ly contractile fila-
ment; and, as the
creature is ex-
tremely sensitive
to external impres-
sions, it folds up
the ciliated rim of
its bell, and its
stalk shrinks down
in a spiral on the
slightest alarm, but
the bell opens and
the stalk stretches
out again as soon
as the alarm is
over. WhenaYor-
ticella is repro-
duced by division,
the bell separates longitudinally into two parts; one is
often smaller than the other, and separates from its
parent, swims about till it gets a stem, and fixes itself
to an object. When the two parts are of equal size, the
division extends to a greater or less distance down the
stalk, and as each of these become perfect bells, and do

Pig. 108. Acineta.

78 rORTICELL.E. part hi.

not fall off but subdivide in the same manner, it follows
that, by successive divisions, a whole group of these
beautiful animals may spring from the same stem, as
in fig. 107.

The Vorticella has a most wonderful mode of repro-
duction common to a few other Infusoria. A gelatinous
substance is secreted by the bell, which hardens and
envelopes it in a cyst; the encysted bell then separates
from its stalk, and is transformed into an infusorial
animal called an Acineta (fig. 108), closely resembling the
Actinophrys sol with radiating filaments which it conti-
nually stretches out and draws in. A motile ciliated
embryo, or Yorticella bud, is then formed within the Aci-
neta, which, after a time, comes out at a slit in its side,
swims about, gets a stem, fixes to some object, and is de-
veloped into a Yorticella. The slit closes again, and the
Acineta keeps moving its filaments as usual, and another
motile embryo is formed within it, which is emitted by
a slit in the same manner, and is also developed into a
Vorticella. As these young Yorticellse, or bell animals,
may undergo the same transformations, there may be an
indefinite alternation of the two forms. The Yorticella-
bud, when it issues from the slit in the Acineta, has an
oval form, with a circlet of long cilia at its narrow end,
a mouth at the more obtuse, a nucleus, and contractile
vesicles, and, after swimming about till it finds a suitable
place, it becomes fixed by one end of its oval body, a
style or stem is formed, which rises rapidly, and the
adult shape is developed. The Acinetse are said to live
upon Infusoria : they apply the dilated apex of their rays
as sucking discs to the animal, and suck its contents
tiU it dies. The Tricoda linceus undergoes metamor-
phoses analogous to those of the Yorticella, but more
numerous and complicated.^

Most of the Yorticellse, and probably the majority of

2 Described in ' The Microscope,' by Dr. Carpenter.

SECT. II. INFUSORIA. 79

Infusoria, remain unchanged for a time within their cysts,
being then in a state analogous to the hybernal sleep of
some of the reptiles. The cyst shelters them from cold
and draught, and, when heat and moisture are restored,
they resume their active vitality. The motions of the
Infusoria are probably automatic, and in some instances
consensual; they have neither true eyespecks, though
their whole body seems to be conscious of light and dark-
ness; nor have they ears ; and, with the exception of touch,
which the Vorticellse have in a marvellous degree, it may
be doubted whether the Infusoria have any organs of
sense whatever, though they avoid obstacles and never
jostle one another. The vibrations of their cilia are
involuntary as in plants, an instance of the many ana-
logies which perpetually occur between the lowest tribes
of the two great kingdoms of nature. In both there are
examples of propagation by bisection, conjugation, bud-
ding, and the alternation of generation, which occurs
more frequently among Protozoa than among any other
class of animals. There is a perfect resemblance be-
tween Zoospores and Protozoa ; they both cease to move,
the Zoospore when it secretes its cellulose coat and be-
comes a winter or resting spore, the Protozoon previous
to encysting, a process presumed to be universal among
that class of animals, before subdivision or reproduction
begins. It is the dried cysts or germs of the Infusoria
that float in the atmosphere as winter spores do, and it
is believed that, like the fungi, the same germs may
develope themselves into several different forms accord-
ing to the nature of the liquid into which they may
chance to be deposited ; consequently, it is not necessary
that the variety of germs should be very great, although
the Infusoria themselves are of numerous forms.'*

The Infusoria, the smallest of beings, apparently so
insignificant, and for the most part invisible to the

* ' Lectures on Comparative Anatomy,' by Professor Owen.

8o INFUSORIA. tart hi.

unaided eye, have high functions assigned to them in
the economy of nature. They ' are useful for devouring
and assimilating the particles of decaying animal and
vegetable matter from their incredible numbers, uni-
versal distribution, and insatiable voracity — they are
the invisible scavengers for the salubrity of the atmo-
sphere. They perform a still more important office
in preventing the gradual diminution of the present
amount of organic matter upon the earth. For, when
this matter is dissolved or suspended in water in that
state of comminution and decay, which immediately
precedes its final decomposition into the elementary
gases, and its consequent return from the organic to the
inorganic world, these wakeful members of Nature's
invisible police are everywhere ready to arrest the fugi-
tive organic particles, and turn them back into an
ascending stream of animal life. Having converted the
dead and decomposing matter into their own living
tissues, they themselves become the food of larger In-
fusoria, as the Eotifera and numerous other small
animals, which, in their turn, are devoured by larger
animals as fishes, and thus a pabulum fit for the nourish-
ment of the highest organized beings is brought back
by a short route from the extremity of the realms of
organized matter.'^

^ Lectures on Comparative Anatomy,' by Professor Owen.

ZOOPHYTES. Hi

SECTION III.

HTDROZOA, ZOOPHYTES.

Zoophytes are animals of a mucli higher organization
than the Protozoa, inasmuch as they are furnished
with special organs of prehension, ofPence and defence,
of attachment, and in many of locomotion. For the
most part they consist of numerous individuals called
Polypes, united in a community, and living together in
intimate sympathy and combined action, so as to form
one single compound animal.

Zoophytes are divided into two groups, namely the
Hydrozoa, whose type is the common fresh- water Hydra,
and the Actinozoa, which are composite animals, in-
cluding the reef-building corals, whose polypes are
formed according to the type of the Actinia, or common
Sea Anemone. The Hydrozoa consist of seven orders,
the first of which are the Hydridse, inhabitants of fresh
water ; the next constitute the oceanic Hydrozoa, some of
which, though extremely varied in form, are connected
by the most wonderful relations.

The solitary Hydra that lives in fresh-water pools
and ditches, consists of a soft cylindrical muscular bag,
capable of being stretched into a slender tube, shrunk
into a minute globe, or widely distended at will. At
one end there is a circular mouth, which is highly sensi-
tive, opening, closing, or protruding like a cone, and
surrounded at its base by six long flexible arms called
tentacles, arranged symmetrically. The mouth opens

VOL. II. G

THREAD-CELLS AND DARTS.

PAET III.

into a cavity extending thronghont the length of the
body, which is the stomach ; the other end of the

sac is narrow, and ter-
minates in a disk-shaped
sucker, by which the Hy-
dra fixes itself to aquatic
plants, or floating objects,
from whence it hangs
down, and the tentacles
float in the water.

The sac or body is
formed of two layers, an
inner and an outer layer,
of firmer texture, formed
of cells imbedded in a
kind of sarcode, and the
space between the two
layers is filled with
a semifluid substance,
mixed with solid parti-
cles and full of vacuoles.
The inner and outer layers
are united at the mouth,
and the tentacles are
closed tubes in communi-
cation with the cavity of
the stomach. The ex-
terior layer of the tenta-
cles is beset with wart-
like excrescences, formed
of clusters of cells, with

Fiff. 109. Thread-cells and darts.— A, B, c, D, , • xi x

Thread-cells at rest ; k, p, g, h, appearance a larger OUe lU the CCutre
of the darts when projected. ^^^^ ^.^j^ ^ j.^^.^^ j^

all of them a long spicula, or sting, often serrated at
the edge, is coiled up like a thread, and fixed by one
end to a kind of tube, like the inverted finger of a glove,
that the animal can dart out in an instant.

SECT. III. TENTACLES OF HYDRJE. 83

Thus armed, the tentacles are formidable weapons ;
they are highly contractile and wonderfully strong, tena-
ciously adhering to the small worms and aquatic insects
on which the Hydree feed, and they are aided by the
roughness of their surface. They transfix their prey,
and are believed to infuse a liquid poison from the dart,
or thread-cells, into the wound, then twisting their other
tentacles round the victim, it is instantly conveyed to
the mouth, and slowly forced into the digesting cavity,
where it is seen through the transparent skin to move for
a short time, but as soon as the nutritious juice is ex-
tracted, the animal ejects the refuse by its mouth. In the
inner layer, enclosing the cavity of the stomach, there
are cells containing a clear liquid with coloured particles
floating in it, which is supposed to perform the part of
a liver ; and, as the Hydrse have no respiratory organs,
their juices are aerated through their skin. They havo
no perceptible nerves nor nerve centres, yet they are irri-
table, eminently contractile, and are attracted towards
the light — all these being probably sympathetic motions.

Though in general stationary, the Hydra can change
its place ; it bends its body, stretches to a little distance,
and fixes its anterior extremity firmly by its tentacles ;
then it detaches its sucker and brings it close to its
mouth, fixes it, and again stretches its fore part to a
little distance along its path, and repeats the same
process, so that it moves exactly after the manner of
certain caterpillars. It can even move along the water
by attaching the expanded disk of its sucker to the
surface, where it soon dries on being exposed to the
air, and becomes a float, from whence the Hydra hangs
down with its tentacles extended like fishino- lines, as in
fig. 110 ; or it can use them as oars to row itself along
under the surface of the water.

On account of their simple organization, the Hydrse
are endowed with the most astonishing tenacity of life.

HYDRA'S TENACITY OF LIFE.

PAET in.

As the whole animal is nourished from the surface of
the digestive cavity, they appear to suffer no incon-
venience from being turned inside-out, the new cavity

performing all the func-
tions of digestion as well
as the old one. They may
be cut into any number
of pieces, and, after a little
time, each piece becomes
a perfect Hydra. The head
may be cut off and they
get a new one ; or it may
be split into two or three
parts or more, and the
animal becomes many-
headed ; and, what is still
more marvellous, two
Hydrae may be grafted
\ WW } together direct, or head

C If ^ ^^^ ^^^^' ^^^ they com-

^^' ^ bine into one animal.

These singular and vo-
racious creatures increase
like plants by budding. A
little protuberance rises
on the body by the
bulging out of the double
skin or wall, so that the
interior of the bud is a
clear cavity in communication with the stomach of
the Hydra (fig. 110, h). The bud increases in length,
opens at its extremity into a mouth, and gradually
acquires the size and form of its parent (fig. 110, c) ;
the communication is then by degrees closed, and at
last the matured bud drops off and becomes an inde-
pendent Hydra. Dr. Carpenter observed that this pro-

Fig. 110. Hydra fuscca.

SECT. III. COMPOUND FRESH-WATER HYDRJE. 85

cess, which so closely resembles the budding of plants,
must be regarded as a modification of the ordinary
nutritious process. The same may be said of the power
of reparation, which every animal body possesses in a
greater or less degree, but which is most remarkable
among the lower tribes, for when an entire member is
renewed, or even when the whole body is regenerated
from a small fragment, which is the case in many po-
lypes, it is by a process exactly analogous to that which
takes place in the reparation of the simplest wound in
our own bodies, and which is but a modification of the
process that is constantly renewing, more or less rapidly,
every portion of our frame.

There is but one species of the single colourless Hydra,
but there are four compound fresh-water Hydrse in Eng-
land— the rubra, viridis, vulgaris, which is of an orange
brown, and the fusca. They have coloured particles,
either imbedded in their external coat, or immediately
under it. The Hydra viridis and H. vulgaris have short
tentacles, whilst H. fusca, which is a rare animal, has
arms from seven to eight inches long, and so contractile,
that they can shrink into the space of small tubercules.
All these four Hydrse are compound and permanently
arborescent animals ; each springs from one individual
hydra of its own race, which increases in length and
forms the stem, while young ones spring from it and from
one another consecutively, like the compound branches
of a tree. The numerous tentacles that hang down like
fishing lines, thickly covered with thread-cells and their
envenomed darts, catch prey for the whole colony, because
the communication between the stomachs of the young
polypes or Hydrse and that of their parent is never cut
off, as it is when the offspring is deciduous ; but tubes
from the base of each individual Hydra or polype, pass-
ing through the stalks and branches of the living tree,
unite their stomachs with the stomach or assimilating

86 OCEANIC HYDROZOA. paht iii.

cavitj in tlie main stem. Each individual polype, some-
times to the number of nineteen, after having digested
its food or prey, ejects the refuse from its mouth, and
the nutritious juice traverses the labyrinth of tubes to
that general reservoir.

Since every portion of the bodies of the Hydrse is
nearly of the same kind, and as every part of their sur-
face inside and outside is in contact with the water in
which they live, and from whence they derive oxygen to
aerate their juices, no circulation is necessary in these
simple animals, either for nutrition of their tissues, or to
furnish them with oxygen.

If the Hydrse only produced deciduous buds which
are developed into facsimiles of their parent, their race
would become extinct, since they die in winter, unless
kept artificially in water of mild temperature ; but the
animals are hermaphrodite, so that each individual pro-
duces fertilized eggs in autumn, which are hatched in
spring, so that the Hydra is alternately propagated by
deciduous buds and by eggs. The fresh-water hydrse
are the only hydroids that are locomotive, all the others
being fixed to some solid substance.

The oceanic Hydrozoa comprehend the three families
of CorynidEe, Tubulariidse, and Sertulariidse. They are
chiefly compound animals, numerous in genera and
species, and have great variety of form. They may be
simple and slender, they may be creeping or like a bush
or tree, more or less compound and regularly branched
according to the form of the polypary or tubular sub-
stance which unites their numerous hydra-form polypes
into one animal. In general they are exceedingly
small ; three or four inches in height is quite gigantic.
There is scarcely a still clear pool left by the retiring
tide among the rocks along the British coasts, that does
not abound with these beautiful creatures attached to
stones, old shells, or sea-weeds. But they must be

SECT. in. COMPOUND OCEANIC HYDROZO A. 87

sought for amidst the luxuriant marine vegetation and
profusion of animal life which adorn these rocky pools,
otherwise they would escape notice ; and even when
large enough to be conspicuous, the eye must be aided
in order to see the wonderful minuteness and delicacy
of their structure. The aquaria have furnished an op-
portunity to study their forms, habits, and the marvellous
circumstances of their lives and reproduction.

The compound oceanic Hydrozoa are essentially the
same in structui-e as the compound fresh-water Hydrse.
They differ, however, from them in often having a
greater number of tentacles, and in being defended
by a firm and flexible horny coat; notwithstanding
which they increase in size by budding from the base
of a single primary polype. The horny coat covers the
bud and grows with it ; but as soon as the polype is
formed within it, the top of the bud 0]3ens and the
young polype protrudes itself, so that a separation is
effectually prevented ; and while the stem and branches
are being formed, and increase by the continual deve-
lopment of new buds, the communication between the
stomachs of the whole brood of polypes with that in the
parent stem is maintained by tubes from their bases
passing through the interior fleshy matter in the
branches.

In short these marine Hydrozoa consist of a ramified
tube of sensitive animal matter, covered by an external
flexible and often jointed and horny coat or skeleton,
and they are fed by the activity of the tentacles and the
digestive powers of frequently some hundreds of hydra-
formed polypes, as in the Sertularia cupressina. The com-
mon produce of their food circulates as a fluid through
the tubular cavities, for the benefit of the whole commu-
nity, while the indigestible part is ejected from the mouth
of each individual. The stomach of each polype has a
more or less ciliated lining, containing cells with nutri-

88 REPRODUCTION OF POLYPES. part in.

tive juices, which are supposed to perform the part of* a
liver. The liquid which circulates in these animals is
colourless, with solid particles floating in it ; and there
is reason to believe that sea- water is admitted into the
tubes, and that, mixed with the juices prepared by the
polypes, it circulates through the ramified cavities, is
sent into the hollow prehensile tentacles, and returns
back into the digesting cavity after having contributed
to res]3iration by its oxygen. The movements of this
fluid appear to depend upon the delicate ciliated fibre
which lines the cavities of the tentacles and those of the
stem and branches of the compound animal, possibly
aided by vital contraction. The soft skin of the ten-
tacles contains cells full of liquid, with a thread and its
sting or dart coiled up within it. These thread stings
are protruded when the skin is irritated, which fre-
quently gives the tentacles the appearance of being
beset with bristled warts. In many instances these
kinds of Hydrozoa are covered with a gelatinous sub-
stance, either as a film or thick coat.

The reproduction of many of these arborescent or com-
pound Hydrozoa is one of the most unexpected and ex-
traordinary phenomena in the life-history of the animal
creation. For besides the system of consecutive budding
from a single polype which builds up the compound
animal, peculiar buds are formed and developed, which
bear no resemblance whatever to the polype buds : on
the contrary, when mature, they assume an organiza-
tion exactly the same as that of the common jelly-fish
or Medusoid Acalephge, and swim freely away from their
fixed parent as soon as they are detached. These medu-
siform zooids, which are extremely small, consist of a
cup or umbrella-shaped bell of colourless transparent
matter, which is their swimming apparatus ; it is con-
tracted and expanded by a muscular band under the
rim, the water is alternately imbibed and forcibly ejected.

SECT. ni. MEDUSIFORM ZOOIDS. 89

and by its reaction the zooid is impelled in a contrary
direction. From the centre of the bell a stomach han^rs
down in the form of a proboscis, with a mouth at its ex-
tremity, either with or without tentacles and sting-cells.
Four canals, or a greater number, which begin in the
stomach, radiate through the transparent matter of the
bell, and are united by a circular canal round the rim ;
they convey the nutritious liquid from the stomach
throughout the system. This general structure may be
traced in the zooids of the three great families of the
oceanic hydraform -zoophytes, in a greater or less degree,
from deciduous perfect meduste to such as are imperfect
and fixed.

These medusiform zooids are male and female, and
when detached from their parent they are independent
creatures, each of them being furnished with nutrient
and locomotive organs of its own. They produce ferti-
lized eggs, which are developed into ciliated locomotive
larvse; after a time these lose their cilia and acquire
a rayed sucking disc, with which they ^s. themselves
permanently to a solid object, and, after various changes,
each gets a mouth and tentacles and becomes a perfect
young hydra. Thus a brood of young hydrse is pro-
duced, each of which acquires the compound form of its
parent by budding, and as each of these compound
animals in its turn gives off medusa-buds, there is a
cycle of the alternate forms of hydra and medusa or jelly-
fish, showing a singular connection between two animals
which seem to have nothing in common. The analogy
which so often prevails between plants and animals ob-
tains here also, for the medusa-buds bear the same re-
lation to the hydra or polype-buds that the flower-buds
of a tree do to the leaf-buds : the flower-buds contain
the germs of future generations of the tree, while the
leaf-buds contain only the undeveloped stems, stalks, and
leaves of the individual plant on which they grow.

SYNCORYNA SARSII.

TART III.

The Corjnidae form the first of the three families of
the oceanic hydra zoophytes. They comprise six genera,
and many species of compound animals of various forms,
each derived from a single animal by budding ; and
although they possess a thin flexible coat, the polypes
are sheathed either in a thin membrane or bone. Their
club-shaped tentacles form either a single or double
circlet round the base of their conical mouth, and are
also scattered over their bodies when bare.

The zooids are developed at once in the Syncoryna
Sarsii, which is a long, thinly branched, and horny

zoophyte, with a single
naked, spindle - shaped
polype at the extremity
of each branch, as in
fig. Ill, A. The bodies of
the polypes are studded
with numerous tentacles,
among which buds appear
(fig. Ill, a, 6) ; these gra-
dually expand into bell-
shaped medusa-zooids (fig.
Ill, c),some being mascu-
line and others feminine.
They drop off their parent,
swim away by the con-
traction of their bell, and
their fertilized eggs are
developed into single
hydra3, which become ar-
borescent like their parent
by budding.

The family of the Ser-
tulariidse take branching
forms, sometimes of perfect symmetry : they have a firm,
horny coat, which not only covers the stem and branches,
but becomes a cup for the protection of the polype.

Fig. 111.

Syncoryna Sarsii with Medusa-
buds.

SECT. III. TUBULARIID.^. 91

The most common form of the family of the Tubu-
laria has no branches : it has an erect, hollow stem
like a straw, sometimes a foot high, coated by a horny
sheath. The polype which terminates each plant has
a mouth surromided by alternately long and short ten-
tacles. The stomach of the polype is connected with
the hollow in the stem by a muscular ring, by whose
alternate dilatation and contraction, at intervals of
eighty seconds, the fluid is forced up from below, enters
the stomach, and is again expelled. Another liquid
carrying solid particles circulates in a spiral through
the whole length of the stem. Some of this family are
propagated by perfect deciduous medusae, others by im-
perfect fixed ones ; both are developed on the polypes
or among their tentacles. Like the fresh-water Hydrse,
these creatures can restore any part of their bodies that
is injured.

Numerous instances might be given to show that the
minute medusiform zooids are only a stage or phase in
the life of an oceanic hydra : conversely it will now be
shown, that the single simple hydra is but a stage in the
life-history of the highly organized medusa, jelly-fish,
or sea-nettle of sailors, the Acalepha of Cuvier.

The medusse vary in size, from microscopic specks
that swim on the surface of the sea in a warm summer
day to large umbrella-shaped jelly fish almost a yard in
diameter. They abound in every part of the ocean and
in all seas, often in such shoals that the surface of the
water is like a sheet of jelly. Their substance is trans-
parent, pure, and nearly colourless ; chiefly consisting of
water, with so little solid matter, that a newly caught
medusa, weighing two pounds, dries into a film scarcely
weighing thirty grains.

The Pulmograde Medusse, which swim by the con-
tractions of their umbrella-shaped respiratory disc,
form two distinct groups, the naked-eyed medusse and
the covered-eyed group. Both are male and female;

92 NAKED-EYED MEDU8M pakt hi.

eacli has its own form of thread-cells ; and the stinging
power or strength of the poison is nearly in proportion to
the size of the animal and the coarseness of its threads.
The disk, or umbrella-shaped swimming organ, in both
groups consists of a large cavity included between two
layers of gelatinous matter, which unite at the rim.
The interior membrane, called the sub-umbrella, is en-
circled at its edge by a ring of highly contractile mus-
cular fibre like the iris of our eyes, by which this swim-
ming organ is expanded and contracted. From the
centre of the sub-umbrella a stomach, in the form of a
proboscis, is suspended, which is of a very different
structure in the two groups.

The Thaumantia pilosella, a member of the naked-
eyed group, is like an inverted watch-glass
(fig. 112), less than an inch in diameter.
The roof of this umbrella is much thicker
than the sides, and gradually thins off
|;<^\^^^?&:. towards the rim. The proboscis, or
v^"^ stomach, descends from the centre of the

Fig.n2. Thaumantia sub-umbrcUa, but uot SO far as to the
pilosella. g^^g ^£ ^^ ^^j^ . ^^ g^^^g |j^ ^ mouth with

four sensitive fleshy lips. Four slender canals, which
originate in the cavity of the stomach, radiate from the
centre of the roof of the umbrella and extend to its mar-
gin, where they unite at the quadrants with a canal
which encircles the rim, and are prolonged beyond it in
the form of tentacles armed with numerous thread-cells
containing poisonous darts. These tentacles must be
formed of muscular fibre, for they are very irritable :
each of them may be extended and contracted sepa-
rately or along with the others ; they guide the medusa
through the water, and can anchor it by twisting round
a fixed object.

The prey caught is digested in the stomach, the re-
fuse is ejected by the mouth, and the nutritious fluid
that has been extracted is carried up through the base

SECT. III.

NAKED-EYED MEDUSA.

of the stomach into the four radiating canals, to supply
the waste and nourish the system. The digestive cavity
and canals are lined with a soft membrane, covered with
cilia, whose vibrations maintain the circulation of the
juices and perform the duty of a heart; for the medusae
have none, nor have they any special respiratory system :
their juices are aerated through the im^der-surface of the
rim of the umbrella, while passing through the circular
canal lying either within the water or on its surface.

A fringe of filamental tentacles hangs down into the
water from the rim of the disc or umbrella, which is
studded at equal distances by fleshy bulbs, each of which
has a group of fifty dark eye- specks, being the rudiment
of an eye ; and if the animal be disturbed when in the
dark, each eye-speck shines with a brilliant phosphoric
light, and the umbrella looks as if it were begirt with
a garland of stars.

Close to the edo^e of the canal which encircles the

Fig. 113. Otclites of Magnified Thaumantias.

margin of the umbrella, there are eight hollow semi-
oval enlargements of the flesh, two in each quadrant
formed by the four radiating canals : they are the eight
ears of the medusa, for in these hollow organs there are
from thirty to fifty solid, transparent, and highly refrac-
tive spheres, arranged in a double row, so as to form a
crescent, those near its centre being larger than the
more remote. The solid spheres are analogous to the
otolites in the ears of the more highly organized animals.

NAKED-EYED MEDUSAE. tart iii.

Mr. M'Cready has discovered nerve-centres behind eacli
tentacle, and under each, marginal coloured speck in
several species of the open-eyed medusse, which places
this group of Acalephse in a higher grade than any of
the preceding orders. The medusse swim by the mus-
cular energy of their umbrellas : at each rhythmical con-
traction the water, which enters by the mouth and fills
the great central cavity within the umbrella, is forced
out again through an orifice at the other end, and by its
reaction the medusa is impelled with considerable ve-
locity in the contrary direction, so that the top of the
umbrella goes first, and all its tentacles are dragged
after it.

The medusse are dioecious : in the males four repro-
ductive cells full of reddish or purple granular matter
surround the cavity of the stomach, and appear like a
coloured cross through the top of the gelatinous um-
brella. In the females, at a point just before the four
radiating canals enter the marginal canal, the flesh on
the exterior of the umbrella swells out into bulbs, con-
taining vessels full of clear eggs with minute globular
yolks. These eggs, when fertilized, are hatched, and
the young are developed within these ovaries, so that
they come into the water as a kind of infusorial ciliated
animalcule destitute of a mouth. One end of the crea-
ture acquires a suctorial disc, fixes itself to an object,
and uses its cilia. The other end opens into a mouth,
round which tentacles like fishing lines sj^ring forth ; the
central part is converted into the cavity of the stomach,
and thus a perfect hydra is formed, capable of being
propagated naturally by budding, or artificially by being
cut in pieces, each piece becoming a perfect hydra, dif-
fering in no respect from a common simple fresh- water
Hydra.

From one of these, numberless successive generations
of simple hydrse may be produced by budding, all catch-

SECT. III. DEVELOPMENT OF MEDUSA-BUDS.

ing their prey with their tentacles and digesting it in
their stomachs. The limits to this budding-system
seems to be indefinite : years may pass in this stage, but
at length it ceases, and either the original hydra, or one
of its descendants, undergoes a series of remarkable
changes. The body of the hydra lengthens into a
cylinder ; it is then marked transversely by a number of
constrictions beginning at the free end ; these become
deeper and deeper, till at length they break up the body
into a pile of shallow
cups, each lying in the
hollow of the other, and
leaving a kind of fleshy
wall at the point of sus-
pension or fixture. The
edges of the cups are
divided into lobes with
a slit in each, in which
the coloured rudiment
of the eye is sunk. The
cups are permanent,
and characteristic of
the group of naked-
eyed medusae. After a
time, the cups begin to
show contractile mo-
tions, which increase
till the fibre of their
attachment is broken,
and then the superim-
posed cups are detached

-fVm-n +TiP -nilp nriA n-pfo-p Fig. 114. A,B, c, D, developmentof Medusa-btide;
irom Xne piie one alter ^^ polype-body ; b, tentacles ; c, a secondary

another, and swim freely ^^J^^ °^ tentacles a, proboscis; e, new polype-

away by the contrac-
tions of their lobes as young medusae, leaving what
remains of the parent hydra to repair its loss and

96 ALTERNATION OF GENERATION. paet iii.

again repeat tliis singular process. However, the
young medusae are not yet perfect. As they increase in
size the divisions on the edge of the cup fill up; a pro-
boscis-shaped stomach, v^ith its four coloured cells and
its square mouth, is developed from the centre of the
sub-umbrella ; the radiating canals extend from the cen-
tral cavity, the encircling canal and fringe form round
the umbrella- shaped cups, and the result is a highly
organized Thaumantia pilosella, in whose life-history a
simple hydra forms a singular stage.

Thus hydrse produce medusae whose offspring are
hydrse, and perfect medusae produce hydrae whose off-
spring are perfect medusae. However, the law of the
alternation of generation is by no means peculiar to
the Thaumantiae. Many species of medusae are subject
to it, as the Turris neglecta, a beautiful little medusa
not larger than a hempseed, common on the British
coasts. It has a white muscular pellucid umbrella, a
large proboscis of a rich orange colour at its upper part :
in the orange-coloured flesh of it there are ovaries con-
taining rose-coloured eggs, which are hatched within
them, and come into the water as ciliated gemmules,
which, after swimming about for a time, become fixed
and are developed into small hydrae of a rich purple
colour with sixty-four tentacles. From these hydrae
others bud off indefinitely till the time comes when one
of them becomes lengthened, constricted, divided into
cups which drop off, and finally become a brood of the
Turris neglecta.

The naked-eyed medusae are extremely numerous.
There are six orders of them and many genera, chiefly
distinguished by the position and nature of their ovaries
and the number of canals which radiate through their
swimming organs. Both of the medusae that have been
described have four radiating canals ; yet they belong to
different orders, for the ovaries of the Thaumantia are
in the edge of the umbrella, while those of the Turris

SECT. III. COVERED-EYED MEDUSA.

are in the substance of the proboscis. Neither of these
kinds have more than four ovaries, but some other kinds
have eight ovaries and eight radiating canals. Most of
the canals are simple, but in one genus they are branch-
ing. All are furnished v^ith tentacles, some of them
having stings, others none.

The covered-ejed group consists only of two natural
divisions — the Rhizostoma, or many-mouthed medusae,
and the Monostoma, or one-mouthed medussG. In both
the coloured eye-specks at the margin of the umbrella
are larger and more numerous, than in the naked-eyed
group, and they are covered with a hood. The proboscis
of the one-mouthed order terminates in a square mouth,
the four angles of which are prolonged into tentacles
with a solid hyaline axis. They have a fringed mem-
brane along their under-surface, containing numerous
stinging thread-cells. Sixteen canals, connected with
the stomach or cavity of the proboscis, radiate over
the flattish, cup-shaped umbrella; eight of these are
branched, and terminate in the circular canal which runs
round its fringed edge, and they form the nutrient and
respiratory system of the animal, while the eight simple
and alternate canals terminate in eight openings at the
rim of the umbrella, through which the refuse or indi-
gestible part of the food is discharged, thus forming an
exception to the other pulmograde medusae, and indeed
to the Hydrozoa in general, which eject it at the mouth.
All the canals are lined with cilia, whose vibrations
maintain the circulation of the fluids, and perform the
duties both of a heart and respiratory apparatus. Dr.
A. Krohn has observed that in three species of the genus
Pelagia belonging to the covered-eyed medusae, the young
are at once developed as medusae without the interven-
tion of the hydra form.

The disk of the Ehizostoma, or root-mouthed medusae,
is rather flat, and the large proboscis is unlike any
VOL. II. H

(53

COVERED-EYED MEDJJSJE.

PART III.

divided
very long

Fig. 115. Rhizostoma.

other of the tribe. In the naked-eyed medusEe diges-
tion is performed in the cavity of the proboscis ;

— = but in this order the

proboscis is
into four

branches ending in
club - shaped knobs
(fig. 115), and nutri-
ent tubes extend to
their extremities from
the great central cavity
in the umbrella. Their
broadish frilled bor-
ders are divided and
subdivided along their
whole lengths, and the
nutrient canals, Avhich
follovr all their ramifi-
cations, end in numerous fringed pores upon their
edges and upon the club-shaped ends of the quadrifid
proboscis. These numerous pores are mouths ; they
absorb minute animalcules, which are digested while
passing through the united canals to the great central
cavity of the umbrella, which receives the products
of digestion. Eight canals radiate from that great
cavity and traverse the umbrella ; and the nutrient fluid,
mixed with the sea-water, passes from the great cavity
through these canals into an elegant network of large
capillary tubes spread on the under-surface of the margin
of the umbrella, which is always in contact with the
water ; and in this beautiful respiratory organ the car-
bonic acid gas is exchanged for the oxygen in the water
of the sea. The indigestible part of the food is dis-
charged through the mouths or pores, whose edges are
prolonged into solid tentacles containing thread-cells,
with their usual weapons of offence and defence. Besides

SECT. III. ARMED OR STINGING MEBUSJE. 99

these armed tentacles, whicL. are very numerous in the
covered-eyed group, the gelatinous umbrella has a mul-
titude of oval thread- cells on its external coat, in each
of which a very long filament is spirally coiled, which
darts out to a considerable distance on the smallest
touch, and stings severely.

A few only of the British pulmonigrade medusae sting :
the Cyanea capillata, one of the single-mouthed covered-
eyed family, is most formidable. It has very long ten-
tacles, w^hich it can throw off if they get entangled, but
they continue to sting, even after they are detached from
the medusa.

This is one of the most remarkable instances of the
inherent irritability of muscular fibre still in full force
after the tentacles have been separated from the living
animal. In many of the lower animals, as in the Hydra
itself, vitality is so far from being extinguished in the
severed members that it repairs the injury. Since the
covered-eyed medusse have eyes, ears, and very sensitive
tentacles, it may be inferred that they possess nerves of
sight, hearing, and touch, though none have been dis-
covered, probably on account of the softness and trans-
parency of their tissues. The stinging power by which
they kill their prey and defend themselves may be
classed among the consensual powers prompted by the
sympathetic sensations of hunger or danger.

In all latitudes the medusse are highly luminous, espe-
cially in warm seas. Professor Yogt remarked that
flashes of light passed over their disk when they touched
one another in swimming, and they appear at intervals
like globes of fire among the lesser lights of the Nocti-
lucse ; if from involuntary nervous contraction, as is
most likely, the light must be electric.

The medusse are infested by many parasites. Entozoa
are often abundant in their gelatinous substance, and
crustaceans of various kinds and colours, such as shrimps,

H 2

lOO PARASITES INFESTING MEDUSJE. part hi.

sand-hoppers, and a galsemon of glassj transparency,
move abont in the substance of their disc and arms,
entering unscathed by the poisonous darts which inflict
instant death on others of their class. The Libanea
crab, of gigantic size compared with its host, is in the
habit of taking up its abode between the four columns
of the Rhizostoma. But the most singular intruder is
the Philomedusa Yogtii, which is a polype with twelve
thick short tentacles, its whole body and tentacles being
covered with cilia and thread-cells. These polypes live
in the disk, arms, and stomach of the medusae, and, when
taken out, their stomachs are found to contain frag-
ments of the tentacles of their host, and even the thread-
cells with their stings. The larger polypes devour the
smaller ones, and the latter live for weeks within the
larger ones without apparent inconvenience to either.'^

Mr. M'Cready mentions that the larvse of the medusa
Cunina octonaria swim as parasites in the cavity of the
bell of the medusa Turritopsis nutricula, which not only
famishes a shelter and dwelling-place to the larvse
during their development, but it also serves as a nurse,
by permitting the parasites, which adhere by their ten-
tacles, to take the food out of its mouth by means of
their long proboscides. They undergo many trans-
formations, and become nearly perfect medusse while
within their nurse.

Medusse of different species are met with in every sea
from the equator to the poles. They are eminently social,
migrating in enormous shoals to great distances. The
largest shoal of young sea nettles on record was met
with in the Gulf Stream, ofP the coast of Florida, by a
vessel bound for England. The captain likened them
to acorns ; they were so crowded as completely to cover
the sea, giving it the appearance from a distance of a

« Dr. F. Miillcr, of Santa Caterina.

SECT. III. CILIOGRADE IIYDROZOA. loi

boundless meadow in the yellow leaf. He was five or
six days in sailing tlirougli them, and in about sixty
days afterwards, on returning from England, he fell in
with the same school, as the sailors call it, ofP the
Western Islands, and was three or four days in sailing
through them again. Mr. Piazzi Smyth, when on a
voyage to TeneriflPe in 1856, fell in with a vast shoal
of medusse. With a microscope he found part of the
stomach of one of these creatures so full of diatoms of
various forms — stars, crosses, semicircles, embossed
circles and spirals — that he computed the whole stomach
could not have contained less than 700,000. The flinty
shells of the diatoms ejected in myriads by the medusse,
accumulate in the course of ages into siliceous strata,
which, heaved up by subterranean fires, at length be-
come the abode of man. Thus gelatinous transj)arent
beings indirectly aid in forming the solid crust of the
earth by means of the microscoxDic vegetation of the sea.

Ciliograde Rydrozoa,

The ciliograde Acalephse, which form four orders and
many genera, and which swim by means of symmetrical
rows of long cilia, are represented on the British coasts
by the Cydippe pileus and the Beroe Forskalia (fig. 116),
little delicately tinted, gelatinous, and transparent ani-
mals that shine in the dark.

The Cydippe pileus is a globe three-eighths of an inch
in diameter, like the purest crystal, with eight bands of
large cilia, stretching at regular distances from pole to
pole. A mouth, surrounded by extremely sensitive ten-
tacles, is situated at one pole, the vent at the other. The
Cydippes poise and fix themselves to objects by means of
two very long tentacles, fringed on one edge by cirri,
that is, short curled tentacles. These cirrated tentacles,
which in some species stretch out to more than twenty

I02

CILIOGRADE HYDROZOA.

PART m.

times tlie length of the animal, can be instantaneously
retracted into cavities at the posterior end of the body,
while, at the same time, the marginal filaments are as
rapidly coiled up in a series of close spirals. The
whole of these complex organs are enclosed within the
limits of a pin's head.

The manner in which these little gems swim is beau-
tiful; sometimes they rise and descend slowly, like a
balloon, and when they glide along the surface of the
water in sunshine, the cilia on the eight meridional

Fig. 116. A, Cydippe pileiis ; B, Beroe Forskalia.

bands exhibit the most brilliant iridescence. The
long cirrated tentacles follow all their motions in grace-
ful curves, or hang indolently down, and sometimes they
are suddenly stretched to their full length, and as sud-
denly retracted, and in all their varied convolutions the
cirri that fringe them are in constant vibration, and ex-
hibit all the tints of the rainbow. Sometimes these
creatures whirl round their axis with great rapidity, but,
active as they are, no nervous system has yet been dis-
covered in them.

The common Beroe is like an elongated melon, ob-

Fig. 117, p. 103.

PRAYA DIPHYS.

SECT. TIT. CAMPANOGRADE ACALEPHJE. 103

tiisely octangular, with eight rows of cilia, extending
from a mouth at one end to a kind of ciliated star at the
other. The Beroes are of a gelatinous transparent sub-
stance, which expands and contracts with great facility :
it is always expanded when they swim.

The Cestum Veneris belongs to another genus of the
same family. It is like a blue ribbon, the mouth and
vent being on the opposite sides in the middle of the
band, which is furnished throughout its whole length
with active cilia for swimming. The ciliograde Hydrozoa
are monoecious, and do not produce medusa-zoids.

Campanograde Acalephce,

There is a group of oceanic Hydrozoa, consisting of
several families, which are fed by numerous suctorial
organs called polypites, with tentacula and thread-cells
attached to their bodies, so that they are analogous to
the marine hydrse, in being colonies of individuals
luiited into a compound animal. Some have air-vessels,
which enable them to float on the surface of the water ;
but the locomotive organs of this group are bells, so
that they may be called Campanograde Acalephse.

The family of the Diphyidse are colourless, and of such
transparency that they are all but invisible when in the
water, and are gelatinous masses clear as crystal when
taken out of it. They are chiefly inhabitants of the
warmer parts of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, but
many fine specimens are found in the Mediterranean.
Of these the Praya diphys is one of the most extraordi-
nary (fig. 117). It has two large swimming-bells, their
mouths turned backwards, with which the whole com-
munity is connected. They are nearly equal in size,
soft, gelatinous, transparent, and colourless, rounded in
front, open and truncated behind. The adjacent sides
are parallel, with a groove between them, into which

I04 DIPIIYID^. PART III.

one end of tlie long tubular filiform body of the animal
is fixed by slender tubes, through, which a nourishing
liquid passes into radiating canals in the bells, and from
them into a circular canal at their margins, which are
surrounded by a muscular contractile iris, like that in our
eyes, which shuts and opens the bells. By the alternate
absorption and ejection of the water the bells go head
foremost, and regulate the motions of the whole com-
pound animal. When both bells are active it goes
straight forward ; when the right hand bell is alone in
action^ it goes to the left, and vice versa y in fact, the
bells act as a rudder.

The slender cylindrical body or axis of the Pray a is
so transparent, that the cavity and muscular fibres of its
walls are distinctly seen. These animals are extremely
contractile. Professor Vogt mentions an individual he
met with at Nice more than three feet long, when ex-
tended on the surface of the water, which could contract
itself into little more than a finger length. It was said
to have had a hundred isolated groups of polypites with
their appendages attached to it; but in general the
Prayse are not so long, and seldom have more than thirty
or forty of these isolated groups, which are attached to
the under-side of the long flexible body, and hang down
like a rich and beautiful fringe. In the figure, the po-
sition of the numerous groups of polypites and their ap-
pendages are merely indicated by round marks and lines.

In the body of the Praya diphys (fig. 117), as in that
of the whole family, there is a nutritious liquid, which,
by means of cilia, flows on its interior surface in two
directions : it enters the canals in the two large bells,
and supplies them with nourishment.

The polypites which digest the food are vermiform
double sacs communicating at one end by a valve with
the canal in the body of the animal ; and at the free
end they are prolonged into a mouth with an everted lip,

SECT. III. PR AY A DIPHYS.

and tlie digesting apparatus lies in the centre. Each
polypite is supplied with food by its own fishing-line
descending from a point close to where the j)olypite is
fixed to the long axis. It is a long, tubular, branched
tentacle, each branch ending in a coloured, pear-shaped,
or fusiform battery of thread- cells with their stings.
A gelatinous plate is placed on the upper side of the
common axis immediately over the isolated groups, to
protect and separate them.

Such are some of the most general characters of the
family Diphyidse : the Praya diphys has something pe-
culiar to itself.

In the Praya, each individual group has a swimming-
bell of its own adjacent to the polypite, and lying paral-
lel to the axis of the animal, with its mouth turned
backwards. It is connected by tubes both with the
general central canal, and with a helmet-shaped protect-
ing plate. On the other side of the polypite, there is a
tuft of vermiform buds with spiral terminations, bristled
with thread- cells. From the centre of this tuft a ten-
tacle, or fishing-line, descends with numerous branches,
the whole forming a tubular system connected with the
common canal in the axis. Each of the branches of the
tentacle terminates in a vermilion-coloured tendril,
coiled up into a minute capsule. The inside of the
tendril is not only bristled with the points of sabre-
shaped darts, but it conceals a filament crowded with
thread-cells. On the slightest touch, the tendril
stretches out like a corkscrew of red coral, and every
dart springs forth. Such is, more or less, the compli-
cated structure of the ofiensive and defensive weapons of
many of this order of oceanic Hydrozoa, which appear
to the naked eye as merely brightly-coloured points.
The use of these tentacles, or fishing-lines, is the same
in all ; they seize, kill, and carry their victims to the
mouth of the polypite by contracting their long lines.

io6 • PRAY A BIPHYS. part hi.

In the Praya, the groups are individualized in the
highest degree consistent with union ; for, when the
animal is at rest, each of the individual groups, amount-
ing to thirty or forty, swims about by means of its little
bell independent of the rest. Their motions can be com-
pared to nothing but a troop of jugglers performing
gymnastic exercises round a cord represented by the
common body of the animal ; except for adherence to
which the life and will of each group are so perfectly in-
dependent, that the mutual dependence of the whole is
only seen when the common trunk contracts to bring
all its appendages towards the two principal bells, which
then begin to move.'^

Thus each group has a special life and motion, con^
trolled by a general life and motion ; strong individual
muscular power controlled by general muscular power ;
yet no nervous system has as yet been discovered, so
this animal activity must for the present be attributed
to a strong, inherent, contractile power in the muscular
fibre. The Praya is seldom complete, on account of
the ease with which it casts off its great bells.

Kone of the Diphyidse have special organs for respira-
tion ; their juices are aerated through their delicate
tissues. They are dioecious, and invariably produce
perfect male and female medusiform zooids ; they are
situated among the groups of the polypites and their
appendages, and are attached to the axis of the animal.
When free, they swim away by the contraction of their
bells ; the eggs are fertilized, and produce young Di-
phyidse, male and female ; so these animals, like most
of the oceanic Hydrozoa, have two alternate stages
of existence.

' 'RecTierches sur quelques Animaux inferieurs de la Mediterran^e/ par
C. Vogt: Mcmoires de VInstitut National Gencvois, torn. i.

SECT. III. GALEOLARIA LUTEA. 107

PJiysograde Acalephce.

The Graleolaria lutea (fig. 118, frontispiece) is similar
to the Praya diphys in having a slender, tubular body,
with groups of sterile polypites and their appendages
hanging at intervals along its under-side like a fringe,
and also in having two swimming-bells at its anterior
extremity ; but it has no special small bells. The large
ones differ from each other in size, form, and position.
The largest is nearly cylindrical, its mouth is turned up-
wards, and its rim is elevated at one part into two stiff
organs like the blinkers that are put over horses' eyes :
besides these, it has six salient points, which nearly
close the mouth of the bell at each contraction of the
muscular iris that Knes the margin of the cavity. The
small bell, which, goes first in swimming, is thicker and
shorter, and its side rises in a bump, upon which the
closed end of the large bell rests, and in the cavity be-
tween the two the anterior extremity of the filiform body
is fixed. Each of the groups of polypites, with their
tentacles, lies immediately under its spathe-shaped pro-
tecting plate. The polypites are very contractile, and on
their protuberant part, containing the digestive cavity,
there is a large circular space, which, as well as the
whole tissue of the polypite and the stinging capsules
at the extremities of the tentacles, are of an orange
colour, and are akin in structure to those described.

When very young the Galeolaria and its congeners
have only their swimming-bells and one polypite group
affixed to the end of a short tubular axis ; by and by a
second group is developed from buds between the bells
and the first group ; then a third is developed between
the bells and the second group, and so on ; the length
of the body and the number of groups continue to in-
crease indefinitely. It is only when the animal is full
grown and complete in all its parts, that reproductive

io8 GALEOLARIA LUTEA, part in.

organs are developed towards its posterior end. Buds
then appear upon the hollow stems of the polypites to-
wards the posterior end of the body. But as the Galeo-
laria is dioecious, male and female buds are never on
the same individual. The female buds become medusi-
form. zooids, like those of the Praya diphys, only the
transparent cup, with which it swims away from its
parent, has two projections like ears on its rim.

The development of the buds in the male Galeolaria
is similar. At first they are pale, but they assume an
orange red colour as they advance towards maturity,
and, when complete, the sac which hangs down from the
centre of the transparent cup becomes of a brilliant
vermilion. These male and female medusa-zooids swim
about for several days, and the fertilized eggs are
hatched into young Galeolarise, male and female.

Thus the Galeolaria lutea has two kinds of polypites,
both nutritive, but one is sterile, the other prolific. The
latter are similar to the prolific individuals of the syn-
corine Hydrse, in which the anterior part is a digestive
organ, while on the base or stalk true medusa-zooids are
found. It is curious that the spathe-protecting plate of
the Galeolaria appears in the Q^g as a globe of such size
that the other parts seem to be merely the appendages.

The Apolemia contorta (fig. 119) unites the most
graceful form to the utmost transparency and delicacy
of tissue. It has a double float, the first small and glo-
bular, the second long and oval. The neck is short, the
rose-coloured body is flat as a ribbon, and covered with
thin, curved, pointed, and imbricated plates, like tiles
on the roof of a house, but so minute that they are only
perceptible to the naked eye by a slight iridescence. At
the extremity of the short neck buds, semi-developed
buds, and perfect swimming cups are arranged in ver-
tical series ; and as the flat body is twisted into a spiral
to its farthest end, the cluster of bells forms a perfect

Fig. \\^,p. 108.

APOLEMIA CONTORTA.

Fig. \20,p. 109.

PHYSOPHORA HYDROSTATICA.

SECT. III. APOLEMIA CONTORT A. 109

cone with, the float at its apex. The bells are flattened ;
and there is always in their more solid j)Osterior part a
single canal rising directly from the general trunk which
divides into four branches ; and these, having traversed
the swimming cavity, unite anew in a circular canal,
or iris, destined to shut and open the cup.

The sterile polypites that are attached at intervals by
their hollow stems to the twisted body of the Apolemia,
have twelve rows of cells inserted in the bright lining of
their digestive cavities ; their anterior part has a trumpet-
shaped mouth full of thread-cells. The tentacles afiixed
to their stems and their secondary lines are like those
of the Diphyidse. Besides these sterile polypites, which
serve only to feed the animal, the Apolemia has a kind
of mouthless prolific organs, which do not contribute
to the general nourishment : each group has a pair of
them attached to the extremity of a branching stem.
They resemble polypites in being long and contractile
at their exLremities; the interior is full of a substance
like sarcode, and encompassed by a red ring. Female
buds yielding eggs appear on the stem of one of these
organs, while male buds are developed into medusiform
zooids on the stem of the other, which become detached,
swim away, and the fertilized eggs yield young Apo-
lemise.

The natural position of an individual of the family of
the Physophoridse when at rest is to hang perpendicu-
larly from its air-vessel. The body, which begins with
a pyriform float, descends in a slender filiform scarlet
tube with a number of hyaline natatory cups or bells
attached on each side. The lower end of the body en-
larges into a bulb or disk supporting various appen-
dages.

The Physophora hydrostatica (fig. 120), common in
the Mediterranean, has a transparent pear-shaped air-
vessel tipped with red, from which the slender cord-like

1 1 o PHYSOPHORID.E. part hi.

tube of tlie body descends. Tmmediately below the air-
vessel, a number of buds and young bells are attached,
followed by a series of perfect three-lobed swimming
bells, placed on each side obliquely one below the other ;
and as they alternate and embrace the body with their
deeply excavated sides, they give it the appearance of a
crystal cone. Four canals spring from the hollow stalks
of the bells, traverse them, and end in a circular canal
close to the membranaceous iris which surrounds the
margin of the internal cavity. Below the cone the tubu-
lar body expands, and is twisted into a flat spiral, so as
to form a hollow disk or bulb, to which three different
circlets of organs are appended. The first and uppermost
is a coronet of red, worm-like, closed sacs, in constant
motion, with large thread-cells at their pointed extre-
mities. They are attached to the upper surface of the
bulb by their broad bases, and communicate with its
tubes by a small valve. Male and female capsules follow
either in a circle, or mixed with the third and under-
most circlet of organs, which consist of sterile nourish-
ing polypites, fixed by hollow stems to the bulb, each of
which has a long branching tentacle fixed to the base
of its digesting cavity.

There are as many polypites on the under-side of the
bulb as there are red worm-like sacs on its upper edge.
Each polypite consists of three distinct parts. The
posterior part is a hollow red stalk inserted under the
circumference of the disk ; the second part is a bright
yellow globular expansion containing the digestive
cavity lined with cilia ; the third and anterior part,
which ends with the mouth, is quite colourless and
transparent, and assumes various shapes by constant
expansion and contraction.

At the limit between the red stalk and the yellow
globular part of the polypites there is a tuft of cylindri-
cal appendages, from which a long tentacle descends
with its secondary tentacles and red nettle-bulbs. All

SECT. III. PHY SALUDA^. 1 1 1

the canals of this Physophora are connected, and their
walls are lined with muscular fibres, either circular,
longitudinal, or both, which give a marvellous contrac-
tile and motive power. When the animal is suspended
from the surface of the sea by its float, every member is
in motion, especially the numerous tentacles, which are
perpetually in search of food, and are so extremely sen-
sitive that even a sudden motion of the water makes
them shrink under the red worm-like organs on the edge
of the disk. This animal is generally from one to three
inches long.

All the preceding members of the physograde group
are really campanograde, for the action of the wind upon
the floats of the Physophoridse must be small, otherwise
they would not be furnished with so many swimming
cups. The Physaliidse and Velellidse are the only two
orders that are truly physograde, for the wind is their
only locomotive power.

The Physalia, or ' Spanish man-of-war ' of sailors, is by
far the most formidable animal of the Acalephse tribe ;
its poisonous stings, which burn like fire, inflict instant
death on the inferior animals, and give painful wounds
to man himself. Its body, as it floats, is a long hori-
zontal double sac (fig. 121), which begins with a blunt
point, gradually enlarges, and becomes cylindrical about
the middle; then it somewhat suddenly widens in a
transverse or lateral direction. Along the upper surface
of the pointed half the membrane or wall of the sac is
raised into a transversely placed crest, which dies away
at the enlarged end. The greater part of the body is
smooth, but the under-surface of the transversely en-
larged end swells into lobes, from whence numerous
tentacles and other organs descend.

Almost the whole of the body of the Physalia is filled
by an air-vessel, so that it floats on the surface of the
sea, and is wafted to and fro by the wind. The bladder
containing the air is enclosed in two membranes, the

112

PHYSALIIDjE,

PAKT III.

outer one dense, thick, and elastic, the inner formed of
delicate fibres and lined with cilia. The air-sac is only
attached to one ^Dart of the interior ; and there it com-
municates with the exterior by a small aperture, which
may be seen at about half an inch from the pointed apex
of the animal. The body is several inches long, of a

Fig. 121. The Physalia.

delicate pale green colour, passing gradually into dark
indigo blue on the under-surface ; the ridge of the crest
is tipped with dark crimson, and the j^ointed end is
stained with deep bluish green.

The appendages, which hang down from the inferior
and thick part of the body, are large and small branch-

SECT. iir. PHYSALIID^, 1 1 3

less tentacles of various lengths, and sterile poljpites in
different stages of development. In some individuals
the tentacles are nine or ten feet long, of a deep blue
colour at their origin, and formed of two distinct parts,
which have a common base. One is a long conical bag,
formed bj an extension of the under-surface of the body
lined with cilia, and ending in a pointed apex full of
stinging thread-cells. It is flat on one side, attached
throughout its length to the tentacle, and is supposed
to furnish poison for the stings. The tentacle itself is
a closed tube whose canal communicates with the cavity
of the long sac, and consequently with that in the ani-
mal's body. The interior of the tentacle is ciliated, its
upper part is gathered into folds ; and the rest, which
hangs straight down, is like a delicate narrow ribbon,
highly contractile from muscular fibres, of which the
most conspicuous are longitudinal. The tentacle is
marked at regular intervals by blue kidney-shaped
masses, containing myriads of powerful thread-cells, in
which the threads of the darts are coiled in a spiral,
and contain muscular fibres, that serve to contract and
extend them. The smaller tentacles vary as much in
length as the large ones ; they are of similar struc-
ture, but of a paler colour, and are indiscriminately
mixed with the other appendages.

The polypites, which are direct processes from the
under-surface of the body, are crowded in groups of
various sizes round the base of the large tentacles and
mixed with the small ; they are of a deep blue at their
base, frequently of a bright yellow at their extremities,
and on an average about three-fourths of an inch long.
They are as irritable and contractile as the tentacles,
and are in constant motion. Their mouth is large, with
an everted lip armed with thread-cells ; it sucks in the
prey caught and brought to it by the contraction of the

VOL. II. I

114 VELELLIDM part in.

tentacles, and whicli is speedily dissolved by the power-
ful solvent juices in its digesting chamber.

Among the numerous appendages attached to the
under-surface of the Physalia, there are bluish-green
velvety masses fixed to extremely small branching pro-
cesses from the body of the animal, which seem with a
microscope to consist of tentacles, polypites in various
stages of development, male reproductive capsules which
are never detached, and female buds that are developed
into medusiform zooids, and are presumed to become
free as in other cases. The Physaliidse are social animals,
assembling in numerous shoals in the warm latitudes of
the Atlantic and Pacific. They naturally have their
crest vertical, kept steady by their tentacles, which drag-
down in the water ; but Professor Huxley has seen them
at play, in a dead calm, tumbling over and over. The
Physalia does not possess the power of emptying and re-
filling its float with air : it is doubted whether any of
the physograde animals have that power, but the subject
is still in abeyance.

The Velellidse are little sailing members of the physo-
grade group. The Velella spirans (fig. 122), a Mediter-
ranean species, has a body or deck consisting of a hollow
horizontal disk, of a firm but flexible cartilaginous sub-
stance, surrounded by a delicate membranous fringe or
limb half the width of the body. A triangular vertical
crest, formed of a firm transparent plate, also encom-
passed by a delicate limb, is fixed diagonally from one
angle of the disk to the other, but not on the fringe ;
and as the natural position of the Yelella is to float
horizontally on the surface of the water, the crest is
exposed to the wind and acts as a sail.

The float or air-vessel is flat, horizontal, and nearly
fills the whole body of the animal : it consists of two thin,
firm, and rather concave plates joined at their free edges,
and united also by a number of concentric vertical par-

SECT. III.

VELELLA SPIRANS,

titions, between which there is a series of concentric
chambers or galleries filled with air. The chambers
communicate with one another by apertures in the
dividing membrane ; thej also communicate with the ex-
terior by perforations through the surface of the body.
Very long pneumatic filaments, that is tubes filled with
air, descend from the inferior surface of the float, and
pass through the lower plate of the disk into the water.
The disk is transparent, and appears to be white from
the air within it ; and it is marked by concentric rings

Fig. 122. Velella spirans :— 1, upper side ; 2, under-side.

corresponding to the divisions in the air-vessel below.
The fringe-like limb that surrounds it is flat, flexible,
semi-transparent, and of the richest dark blue passing
into green, with a light blue ring ; it is very contractile,
and moves in slow undulations. The sail or crest is
thin, firm, and transparent, covered by a bluish mem-
brane ; its limb is dark blue, crossed by waving yellow
lines.

An irregular microscopic network of vascular canals,
containing yellow matter, is seen in the soft substance
which covers the sail; it ends in a canal round its

I-*

ii6 VELELLA SriRANS. part in.

margin. A similar system exists both in tlie upper
and under- surface of the disk. All these systems are
connected with one another, and with organs pending
from the inferior side of the disk, which are hid when
the Velella is in its natural horizontal position. These
organs consist of a large central sterile polypite, which
supplies the whole system with elaborated juices ; it is
surrounded by smaller polypites, which are both nutri-
tive and reproductive ; and the whole is encircled with a
ring of prehensile and armed tentacles fastened to the
rim of the disk, immediately adjoining to the under-
side of the limb. The pneumatic filaments already men-
tioned are mixed with these different organs.

In the Yelellidse caught by M. Yogt, he invariably
found the stomachs of the large as well as of the small
polypites, fall of the carapaces of minute Crustacea,
shells, the bones of small fishes, and larvse, so as even to
be swelled out with them. The indigestible parts are
thrown out at the mouth, and the elaborated juices are
transferred to the various systems of canals to be dis-
tributed through all the members of the animal. The
mouths of the small polypites take various forms; some-
times they are wide and trumpet-shaped, with everted
lips, sometimes they are contracted. These small poly-
pites consist of a double sac, fastened to the disk by a
hollow stem with many rounded elevations on their sur-
face full of thread-cells. The tentacles of the Velellidse
are strong, thick, club-shaped tubes, completely closed
at their extremities, which abound in thread-cells ; their
cavity is filled with a transparent liquid, supposed to
play an important part in their elongation.

Medusiform zooids are formed on the slender stems of
the small polypites. It is presumed that they lay fer-
tilized eggs which yield Velellidse, so that this animal
has probably alternate states of existence ; but nothing-
is known of its earliest stages of development. The

SECT. III. THE PORPITA. 1 1 7

youngest form yet discovered is that described by Prof.
Huxley, in his excellent monograph, on ' Oceanic Hy-
drozoa.'^ The Velellidse are inhabitants of warm and
tropical seas, but are occasionally found on the coasts
of Great Britain, being carried by the Gulf Stream to
the Bay of Biscay, and thence wafted northwards by
the prevalent winds.

Although the Porpita, a genus of the Yelellidse, has no
sail, it is akin to the Velellse in size and structure. The
body of the Porpita consists of two circular cartilaginous
disks, united at theu' edges and surrounded by a blue
membranous limb. On the surface of the upper disk
there are beautifully radiating striae, each of which ends
at the circumference of the disk in a little protuberance,
which gives it the appearance of a toothed wheel. A
large sterile poiypite occupies the centre of the under-
surface of the body, surrounded by a zone full of
smaller ones ; and the space between the zone and the
blue limb is occupied by a narrow area of a reticulated
appearance, to which numerous circles of tentacles
are fixed, that spread out and radiate all around the
margin of the animal. The interior circular rows are
simple, short, and fleshy, not extending much beyond
the edge of the limb : the succeeding circles are gra-
dually longer, while the exterior row, which extends far
beyond the limb, are branched and beset with slender
filaments, ending in minute globes, sometimes filled
vdth. air, so that a Porpita is like a floating daisy,
though differently coloured. The Porpita glandifera, a
pretty little inhabitant of the Mediterranean, which
only appears in calm weather, is not more than eight
lines in diameter ; somewhat convex, white, marked by
radiating striae, and encompassed by a dark blue limb.
The central poiypite and those next to it are whitish,

« Published in 1858, by the Ray Society.

1 1 8 THE POJRPITA. part iii.

the rest become of a darker blue towards the limb ; the
tentacles are pellucid and bluish, and the three last rows
have little dark blue globes attached to them by slender
filaments.

The Porpita has a horizontal air-vessel divided ver-
tically into air-chambers like the Velella, but they are
much more numerous. In a middle-sized Porpita, four or
five lines in diameter, there are twenty-three or twenty-
four air-chambers surrounding a central one, and eighty
or ninety pneumatic filaments, so that the animal is ex-
tremely buoyant. Brown matter, supposed to be a liver,
lies directly below the undermost wall of the air-vessel,
through which, as well as through the base of the ani-
mal, all the pneumatic filaments penetrate ; the greater
number go straight down into the water, but a portion
of them terminate in the walls of the polypites.

A complete system of canals, ciliated internally, tra-
verses all parts of the animal ; and it may be presumed
that the cilia maintain its juices in. a state of circulation
similar to that in the Yelella ; and the functions of the
polypites, great and small, that are in connection with
the liver, are also similar to those of the Velella. The
Porpita is armed with thread-cells like all the class.
The central polypite is sterile and nutritive ; the small
ones are both nutritive and reproductive : buds spring
from their stems, which become independent male and
female medusiform zooids, swim away from their parent
and produce abundance of eggs, whence a new genera-
tion of Porpitse arise.

In this singular class of fresh -water and oceanic Hy-
drozoa, the internal cilia, aided by the contraction of the
walls of the body, are the sole means provided by nature
for the circulation of the fluids.

SECT. IV. AN2H0Z0A ZOOPHYTES. 119

SECTION lY.

ANTHOZOA ZOOPHYTES.

The life-history of the oceanic H jdrozoa, which may be
regarded as one of the triumphs of microscopic science,
wonld have been incomplete had it been separated from
that of the Pulmograde Acalephse and the Physograde
groups : but the most important part of that numerous
race of animals are the Anthozoa zoophytes, which in-
clude the builders of the coral reefs and atolls of the
Indian and Chinese seas. The coral polypes, though
feeble and inconspicuous individually, when united in
large communities acquire a power which enables them
to build the most stupendous structures in the midst of
a tempestuous ocean.

The Anthozoa zoophytes, or living flowers, form two
extensive groups — the Asteroids, or Alcyonian zoophytes,
whose polypes have six or eight hollow prehensile ten-
tacles radiating round their mouth like a star or the
petals of a single blossom, and the Actinian or Helian-
thoid zoophytes, which have ten, twelve, or more hollow
tentacles encircling their mouth in several rows, like the
blossom of a double sun-flower.

Alcyon Zoophytes,

The Alcyon zoophytes comprise the Alcyons, Gorgons,
and Pennatulidse, or sea-pens. The polypes are of the
same form in all, and are united by a fleshy or horny

I20

ALCYON ZOOPHYTES.

TART III.

Fig. 123. Alcyonian polypes highly magnified.

substance into large communities, so connected and
mutually dependent as to constitute one compound

animal. Figure
123 represents a
highly magnified
group of Alcyo-
nian polypes in
different stages of
expansion. The
body of the polype
is soft, contrac-
tile, and composed
of thin, delicate
transparent tis-
sues. It has the
form of a cone
resting upon its
base, which is generally of a firm material. Its upper
extremity presents a central orifice, which serves both
;^ for a mouth and vent, and

'T is encompassed by six or

eight broad, short, hollow
tentacles, enlarged towards
^y their base so as to meet, and
their edges are seen with a
lens only to be fringed with
minute hollow tubes or pinnse
closed at their free end.

The narrow slit of the
mouth opens into the sto-
mach, which is a flat, short
sac hanging down in the
central cavity of the polype's
body, with an orifice at its
lower end. The stomach is
fixed to the internal walls
of the body by eight vertical

Pig. 124, Polype of Alc^onidium

SECT. IV.

ALCYON ZOOPHYTES.

121

folds forming' so many longitudinal chambers open at
their lower extremity. The whole of the surface of the
interior, the walls, the stomach, and the septa or divi-
sions, are covered with fine cilia, by whose vibrations
constant currents are maintained in the water which
bathes every part of the cavity freely entering at the
mouth. The polypes are carnivorous, living upon infu-
soria and minute particles of animal matter floating on
the water, which they seize with their mouth, or arrest
with their flexible and contractile tentacles. The food
is digested by the solvent juices in the stomach, and the
refuse is ejected at the mouth.

The eggs of these polypes are formed and fertilized
among the vertical folds adjacent to the stomach. When
hatched, the larvse pass through the stomach and come
out at the mouth as active ciliated creatures, so like eggs
that the Alcyon zoophytes were believed to be oviparous.
However, in some of the genera they are discharged
through pores between the bases of the tentacles.

The Alcyon polypes have multitudes of needle-like
spicules, rough with projecting knots. They are col-
lected into triangular groups at the foot of each ten-
tacle ; the cen-
tral and largest
point runs up
into the tentacle.
Towards the
lower end of the
polype, spicules
again occur scat-
tered through
the skin and
crowded into
groups, as in fig.
125. These, however, form short thick cylinders, each
end being dilated into a star of five or six short branches.
The spicules always contain an organic base hardened by

Fig. 125. Spicula of Alcyonimn digitatum.

122 ALCYONIUM DIGITATUM. part m.

carbonate of lime, for when Dr. Carpenter dissolved the
lime with dilute acid, a gelatinous substance remained,
which had the form of the spicules. Fig. 125 shows
those of the Alcyonium digitatum, or Dead Man's Fin-
gers, generally assumed as the type of this numerous
order, which contains sixteen genera and many species,
differing much in form but connected by a similarity of
digitate structure.

The Alcyonium digitatum, when torn from the rock to
which these animals are attached, shrinks into a cream-
coloured fleshy mass of somewhat solid texture, rough
and hard to the touch, and studded all over with hol-
low depressions or pits. When put into sea- water,
these lumps, from the size of a pea and upwards, expand,
become semi-transparent, and from each depression a
polype protrudes its beautifully symmetrical eight-
petalled blossom. Their tentacles are short, broad, and
prehensile ; and the slender pinnae, which fringe their
edges arching outwards, are seen with a high magnifying
power to be rough with prickly rings, discovered by Mr.
Gosse to be accumulations of . thread-cells with their
darts.

These Alcyons, when expanded, are about an inch-
and-a-half high and two-thirds of an inch thick, but
individuals are met with two or three times as large,
and much divided into blunt finger-like lobes. The
sarcode mass of these compound animals is channelled
like a sponge, by branching canals, the orifices of which
open into the stomachs of the polypes; and, by bringing
them into communication with each other, unite the
whole into one compound animal, which is maintained
by the food caught and digested by each individual
polype. Currents of sea-water mixed with the nutri-
tious juices are made to circulate through the branching
canals by the vibrations of cilia with which they are
lined ; they flow round the stomachs of the polypes,

SECT. IV, GORGONIID^. 123

supply their juices with oxygen, and carry off the car-
bonic acid gas and refuse of the food. In this case, as
in many others, the cilia may be regarded as respiratory
organs.

The unarmed Alcyons are generally thick, short, and
rough ; some form a crust on rocks from whence lobes
rise. With the exception of the Xenia, a tropical species,
the polypes of the unarmed Alcyons can retreat within
their polypary, so as to be entirely or partially out of
sight.

The polypary, or mass, of the armed Alcyons is either
membranous or leathery, and is entirely bristled with
large spicules similar to the very small ones in the
tentacles of its polypes. It forms branching masses
terminated by prominent tubercules thickly beset by
spicules. The polypes, retreat into the mass when they
are in a state of contraction.

The Gorgons, which form the second family of Al-
cyonian zoophytes, are compound animals, consisting of
a solid stem or axis either simple or branched, adher-
ing by its base to a rock or some submarine body, and
coated by a layer of a softer fleshy or horny substance
exactly in the same manner as the bark covers the stem
and branches of a tree. This bark or fleshy substance
is filled with polypes similar to those described; however,
they are shorter, their base is a little enlarged, and is
turned towards the axis of the stem and branches of the
Gorgon. The softer substance or bark is much de-
veloped between the polypes, and is full of spicules, of
forms varying with the genera. A system of almost
capillary canals traverses the soft coating and opens
into the lower part of the cavity containing the viscera
of the different individuals, thus affording a passage for
the circulation of the nutritive juices.

The larvse of the Gorgons are like ciliated eggs ; they
swim with their thick end foremost, and are perfectly soft.

124 GORGONIIBJi. PART III.

That state, however, is transitory ; for no sooner do they
lose their cilia and settle on a submarine substance
than their lower part becomes hard, forms a solid layer
on the substance, and constitutes the base for a Gorgon's
stem. A small elevation rises on it, and at the same
time the upper part of the larva assumes a fleshy consist-
ence and surrounds the elevation. These two grow
simultaneously ; the small elevation rises higher and
higher, and its coat containing the polypes grows pro-
portionally with it, and continues to cover it whatever
form it may take, whether a branching or plumage
stem, or a simple slender rod. The stem and branches
are increased in thickness by successive concentric
layers of horny or calcareous matter between their sur-
face and the soft bark.

The Gorgoniidse are divided into three natural groups,
the Gorgon s, Isidse, and Corallines, according to the
nature of their axis. The two first agree in having
stems either of a substance like cork or horn entirely
or partly flexible ; but the stem of the Gorgons has no
joints, while that of the Isidinse is jointed. The stem
of the Corallines has no joints, and is entirely stony and
branching.

The Gorgonia verrucosa, so common in the Mediter-
ranean, British Channel, and the intermediate seas, is
like a small shrub a foot high, with numerous branches :
the cup-shaped tubercules inhabited by the polypes are
irregularly distributed, and not very salient, yet enough
to give the white encrusting coat a rough warty surface.
In this Gorgon there is an ovary at the base of each
polype : the eggs are discharged through eight small
pores placed between the bases of the eight tentacles.
These animals are wonderfully prolific : a Gorgon, six
inches high, produced ninety eggs in one hour.

The Gorgonia graminea, found on the coast of Al-
giers, instead of being arborescent, is thin and cylin-

SECT. IV. GORGONIID^. 125

drical throughout its whole length. The covering is
white, and nearly smooth; the cups containing the
polypes either have no salient border, or are deeply
sunk in the coat.

The Gorgons known as sea-fans live in warm seas, and
are of numerous species. Not only all their branches,
but all their branchlets and twigs, spread in the flat
form of a fan, are soldered together so as to form a net
with open meshes ; the coating is thin, and the polypes
are placed bilaterally.

The stems and branches of the Isidse, which form
the third group of Gorgoniidse, are composed of a series
of calcareous cylinders, separated by either horny or
cork-like nodes ; the polypes are only born in the bark
of the former. In the genus Isis the calcareous cylinders
are deeply striated by straight or wavy lines. This race
of animals are mostly inhabitants of warm seas ; but
they once lived in a colder climate. Some species of
them are pi^eserved in a fossil state in the cretaceous
earth in Belgium, and in the plastic clay near London.

There is but one genus of the Coralline Gorgon, and
the type of that is the common red ornamental coral of
commerce found in the Mediterranean Sea only. Dr.
Carpenter has discovered that the solid calcareous stem
of the Corallium rubrum is made up of aggregations of
spicules closely resembling those of the other Alcyonian
zoophytes, but of an intense red, sometimes rose colour
or whitish. The stem and branches are delicately striated
along their length, and covered with a soft substance of
the same colour as the stem, into which the polypes
retreat when alarmed ; but when fishing for food, with
their eight white tentacles expanded, the red stem and
branches appear as if they were studded with stars. Prof,
de Lacaze Duthiers, who was appointed by the French
Government to investigate the natural history of the
red coral with a view to the regulation of the fishery at

GOnGOmiBjE.

PAKT III.

Fig. 126. Red Coral Branch.

Algiers, found that the individual polypes are either
male or female, but that the males and females are on
diiferent branches of the same coral, one branch being

almost exclusively the abode
of male pol3rpes, and another
of female. The eggs are fer-
tilized by the intervention of
the water. After an ^g'g is
fertilized, it is transferred to
the stomach of the female,
vrhich thus serves both for
digestion, incubation, and
transformations of the ^g'g.
At first the ^^g is naked and
spherical ; afterwards it be-
comes elongated and covered
with cilia. A cavity is formed
in it, which opens externally,
and finally becomes the mouth ; it then acquires the
form of a little white worm, and when it comes into the
water it is very active, swimming in all directions,
avoiding its comrades when they meet, rising and de-
scending in the water with its hinder end foremost.
It loses its cilia after a time, fixes itself to a rock, and
acquires the form of its parent in the manner described
as to other Gorgons.

The red coral generally grows on the under-side of
ledges or rocks, in a pendent position, and at consider-
able depths. It is not found at 15 or 20 fathoms ; they
only begin to fish for it at from 30 to 60 fathoms ; and it
is brought up from even 100 or 120, while the strong
reef-building corals cannot exist below 25, or at most
30 fathoms ; being immensely superior in vigour, these
require a greater supply of air, light, and heat. The
red coral is generally fished for along the coasts of
Algiers and Tunis; it is also found in the seas round

SECT. IV.

GORGONIIBJE.

127

Sicily and Sardinia, and in the Grecian Archipelago.
The red coral is always irregularly branched. The

Fig. 127, Eed Coral (greatly magnified), from ' Histoire Natiirelle
du Corail,' par M. Lacaze Duthiers.

branches are sometimes white, supposed to be from dis-
ease ; the white coral of commerce is a species of Caryo-
phyllia, an Actinian, and not an Alcyon, zoophyte.

The Corallium Johnstoni, a native of the Atlantic,
has a white axis, with branches spreading flatly and
horizontally like a fan from the rock to which it is
attached; it is entirely covered with a yellowish flesh,
but the polypes only inhabit the upper surface, as if they
could not live in shade. The Corallium secundum, a
similar zoophyte, was discovered by Professor Dana near
the Sandwich Islands, with a white or rose-coloured fan-

1 2 8 PENNA TULID^. part hi.

shaped stem and brandies, covered bj a scarlet coat,
having the polypes also only on the upper surface.

The Pennatulidse, or sea-pens, which are the third
family of the Alcyon zoophytes, bear a great resemblance
to a goose's feather. The genus Pennatula has a flatly-
feathered, upright, calcareous axis, the bare part of
which is analogous to the quill ; but, instead of being
fixed like the stem of a Gorgon, it is merely stuck into
sand or mud at the bottom of the seas, while the upper
feathered part, containing the polypes, remains in the
water. The axis decreases in thickness upwards, and
the pinnules, which diverge from it transversely like
wings, are angular, thin, membranaceous, and strength-
ened by spicules. The whole animal is covered with a
soft fleshy tissue ; the polypes, which have eight pin-
nated tentacles, are arranged in a single row along the
edges of the pinnules, with their visceral extremities
prolonged into the soft tissue, so as to give it a tubular
structure, through which the nourishing juice prepared
by the polypes is carried for the maintenance of the
general envelope, the refuse being thrown out at their
mouths. When the sea-pens leave the mud or sand,
they do not swim actively with their pinnules, but move
languidly at the bottom. The Pennatulse are phospho-
rescent ; they are of a dull reddish brown during the
day, but at night they shine with the most brilliant
iridescence. In the tropical seas they occasionally
exceed a foot in length; in the cool latitudes they are
not more than five or six inches. The Pennatula phos-
phorea, found on the British coasts, has a hollow axis,
occupied by a well-developed stylet ; long pinnulse sym-
metrically disposed on each side of the middle and upper
part of the axis ; the polypes, which are very contrac-
tile, are arranged transversely on their upper and an-
terior edges ; the pinnae of the wings are scythe-shaped,
and furnished with a vast number of sharp spicules,

SECT. IV. PENNATULIDM. 129

and these combine in bundles at the base of the cells, in
which the polypes live. The back of the pen, lying
between the feathery wings, is sometimes smooth, some-
times crowded with scales, arising from the development
of the spicules with which it is filled. The eggs of this
animal are yellow, and have the size and form of poppy
seeds. They are developed into ciliated larvae within
the polypes, w^hich come out at their mouths, and swim
away ; but their activity is much diminished when they
have acquired their mature form. These Pennatulse in-
crease also by a kind of budding. There are species of
phosphorescent sea-pens in all the European seas and
Indian Ocean.

The Virgularise are sea-pens which have long slender
stems, with short transverse pinnules, on both sides of
their extremity : they have no spicules, and are remark-
able for the contractile power both of their axis and
l^olypes. Mr. Darwin mentions a species he met with
during his voyage in the Southern Ocean, which seems to
be akin to the Virgularia juncea common in the Indian
Seas. They were long and slender, projecting in vast
numbers like s^ ubble above the surface of muddy sand.
When touched or pulled, they suddenly shrunk down
with such force as to disappear partly or altogether.
Sensitive as these animals are, they have no nerves ;
hence their motions must be owing to the irritable
nature of muscular fibre. The eggs of the Virgularia
mirabilis, native on the Scotch and Norwegian coasts,
are formed in the fleshy coat at the base of each polype.
As soon as they acquire their yellow colour and ciliated
surface they enter into its body, and revolve in it for a
little time before they come out at its mouth.

The family of the Tubipora, inhabitants of warm seas,
are the most beautiful of the Alcyons. They consist of
rounded masses of considerable size, formed of fragile,
hollow, and nearly parallel calcareous tubes. The tubes

VOL. II. K

I30

TUBIPORA.

PART III.

do not toucli one another, but they are united at inter-
vals by horizontal plates, formed of an extension of
their bases, dividing their mass into stages. In the

Tubipora niusica, a native
of the Indian Ocean, there
are several superincumbent
series of equal and parallel
tubes, exactly like the pipes
of an organ. The whole
compound fragile mass is of
the richest crimson, and the
pol3^pes spread their white
tentacles like stars over the
nioaths of the uppermost pipes, or retreat into them.
Buds spring from the upper part of the tubes, and the
result is the death of the parents, which are succeeded
by a young living race a stage above them. The Tubi-
pora purpurea lives in the Mediterranean and Eed Seas.
The polypes of a species found by Professor Dana, at the
Teejee Islands, have their centre and mouth of a brownish
red, and their tentacles yellow, edged by a double fringe
of violet-coloured pinnules.

Pig. 128. Tubipora rnusica.

Actinian Zoophytes.

The great family of the Actinian zoophytes abounds
in genera and species. The common Sea Anemone, or
Actinia, of which there are more than seventy species on
the British coasts, is the model of the minute poljrpes
which inhabit the stony corals, and build the coral reefs
and atolls of the tropical Pacific.

The Sea Anemone has a cylindrical body, attached at
one end by a sucker to rocks or stones at no great depth,
and a flat circular disk at the other, with the mouth
in its centre : the mouth, which is surrounded by a
series of tubular, smooth-edged, radiating tentacles, re-

SECT. IV.

ACTINIA.

Fig. 129. Actinian polype.

sembles a blossom. The soft smooth body consists of
two layers, as may be seen in the sections of an Actinia
(fig. 129). The outer layer generally contains red
matter, the inner
one is of muscular
fibre, and contains
a great cavity, in
which a somewhat
globular bag or
stomach is sus-
pended. The space
between the sto-
mach and the
cylindrical body
of the animal is
divided into cham-
bers by perpen-
dicular radiating
partitions, consisting of thin plates or lamellse. The
mouth, which opens at once into the stomach, imbibes
sea-water ; and the hollow tentacles surrounding it
being perforated at their extremities, and in communi-
cation with the chambers immediately below them, also
imbibe the sea-water and convey it into the chambers ;
and the vibrations of the innumerable cilia, with which
all the cavities of the animal are lined, keep them per-
petually bathed with the respiratory medium mixed with
nutrient juices from the coats of the stomach.^

The Sea Anemone is monoecious and oviparous ; the
eggs are formed and fertilized in the lower parts of the
perpendicular lamellse or radiant plates ; but they are
hatched within the visceral cavity, and the larvse issue
from the mouth. The Actiniae are also propagated by
buds. They have as great a power of repairing injuries
as the Hydrse, and like them too, though generally fixed,

^ ' Lectures on Comparative Anatomy,' by Professor Owen.
K 2

1 3 2 THREAD- CELLS OF A CTINLJE. part in.

tliey can creep about by means of their expanded suctorial
disk, and even float on the surface of the water. In many
species the tentacles, as well as the body, are brightly
coloured. The Actinia sulcata, an inhabitant of the
British Channel, is of a deep crimson, with from 100 to
200 grass-green tentacles. The tints are owing to
coloured particles in minute globules, that lie under the
transparent skin of the animal and its tentacles.

With the exception of some of the Acalephse, the
thread-cells of the Sea Anemone are more highly deve-
loped than in any other animals. They not only differ in
the various Actinian zoophytes, but sometimes even in
the same individual. The complicated structure and
action of this warlike apparatus was unsuspected pre-
vious to the microscopic observations of Mr. Gosse on
the A.ctini8e in general, and especially on the little scarlet
fringed Sagartia miniata, a native of the British coasts.
Like all the Anemones, it is highly sensitive ; on the
slightest touch it draws in its scarlet blossom, and
shrinks into the form of a hemispherical bulb. While
in the act of contracting, white filaments like ribbons
shoot out from various parts of its surface, and new ones
appear on every fresh eifort, streaming out to the length
of several inches, irregularly twisted and tangled. As
soon as the contraction is finished, these fine white fila-
ments begin to be recalled, and gradually retire in small
irregular coils into the interior chambers between the
stomach and the wall of the body, where they are stored
up when not in activity.

Each filament makes its egress and ingress through
an almost imperceptible transverse slit, discovered by
Mr. Gosse, in the middle of an oval depression in the
wall of the animal's body. The slits, which are called
cinclides, are very numerous, and resemble a pair of in-
verted eyelids, which can be opened and shut at plea-
sure. W^hen the animal is irritated it contracts, and the

SEci. IV. THREAD- CELLS OF A CTINIA^. 1 3 3

water which fills the perpendicular chambers is forced in
a stream through the slits, and carries with it the white
filaments lodged within them ; and then these quivers,
which are full of deadly weapons, are ready for action.

Under the microscope, the white filaments are like
narrow flat ribbons with their edges curled in, and
thickly covered with cilia. They have not the slightest
trace of muscular fibre, even when viewed with a mi-
croscopic power of 800 diameters ; yet they extend,
contract, bend, and coil in every direction; they bring
together the margins of the ribbon so as to form a
tube, and open them again ; and the filaments perform
all these motions even when severed from the animal,
no doubt by the contractile nature of the clear jelly
or sarcode, of which their bases are composed, as in the
tentacles of the Acalephae.

Innumerable oblong dart or stinging-nettle cells,
closely packed together, lie under the folded edges of
the ribbons, throughout their whole length, especially
at their tips.^

The polypes of the stony corals, though extremely
small, are essentially the same in structure as the Sea
Anemone, but they have no sucker at their base. The
Sea Anemone is of soft tissue throughout its whole body.
In the polypes of the madrepore corals, on the contrary,
the whole of the perpendicular lamellae which divide
the interior of the body into chambers become hard,
from being consolidated by particles of carbonate of
lime; and their upper edges, which appear as rays round
the mouth of the animal, give that starry appearance
to the surface of dead madrej^ores after the soft part of
the polypes has been destroyed.

Most of the coral polypes are unarmed; but in some, as,
for example, the Caryophyllia Smithii, there are multi-
tudes of dart-cells in the tentacles, besides numerous

' ' Evenings at tlie Microscope,' by P. H. Gosse, E:?q.

134 CARYOPIIYLZIJr. part in.

pellucid filaments or ribbons, full of thread-cells, lying
in coils within the chambers which sun^ound the sto-
mach.

We are indebted to Mrs. Thynne's interesting obser-
vations on the Caryophyllia Smithii in her aquarium
for the life -history of the animals armed with this for-
midable artillery. This madrepore, which inhabits many
parts of the Euroj)ean seas, at various depths, is a species
of the only lamelliform genus of corals which range
beyond the tropics. It is a solitary individual polype,
with an external calcareous cylindrical coat, wider at
the base, when it is fixed to a rock; and the mouth,
which has several rows of tentacles, is in the centre of the
disk of the cylinder. The tentacles are delicate, trans-
parent, granular tubes, about an inch long, tapering to
their extremities, and ending in an opaque white knob
full of chambered thread-cells with their darts ; but the
thread-cells are of a larger size in the ribbons coiled in
the chambers round the stomach of the animal. These
madrepores are described by Mrs. Thynne as of various
tints, from a pure white to a bright apricot colour. At
intervals they eject from the mouth a whitish blue fluid,
resembling wood smoke, in a stream three or four inches
long, sometimes containing a few eggs. But the eggs,
though no doubt formed at the base of the lamellae, be-
come densely packed like fine dust in the hollows of the
tentacles, from whence they are expelled by contractions,
and escape by the mouth. The eggs lie quiet for a few
days in the place where they are deposited : by and by
they begin to rotate, slowly at first, then more rapidly,
and finally they are developed into most minute madre-
pores, with the star and colour of the parent. In a few
months they become as large as a crown piece, with a
very wide mouth and a membranous integument or
covering, for they do not get their hard calcareous coat
till they are two years old. While in that soft state
they propagate by spontaneous division, which always

SECT. IV,

CARYOPHYLLIAl.

beg-ins at tlie mouth, and is repeated every few weeks
during the second year of their lives. When they split
into segments, the broken ends of each segment bend
round and unite ; and the mouth, which at first is on one
side, being a portion of the old one, comes to the centre
of the disc, and in addition to the few old tentacles that
remain, new ones are added, with their interior cham-
bers, till they amount to five rows, and in this m.anner a
brood of young Caryophyllise is formed.

During the second year of their soft state, these ma-
drepores increase by budding. The buds spring from the
base of the membranous covering, they expand, get
a mouth and tentacles, aid in feeding themselves by
greedily taking any small particles of animal food of-
fered to them, and seem also to share in the sustenance
provided by the mother, as they dilate when she is fed ;
ultimately they separate from her. These madrepores
have patches of a milk-white fiuid substance, which unite
and almost cover the space between the mouths and the
rows of tentacles : in others of the madrepore tribe these
patches are purple.

green, yellow, or ul-
tramarine blue. The
Caryophyllise have
locomotion while
their skin is soft,
but no activity ;
they merely avoid
obstacles, and move
away from one an-
other; but, as soon
as they get their
hard calcareous

coat, they become j)ei^iiia,nently fixed, and no longer
undergo division or gemmation, but lay eggs.^

2 £ Observations on tlip, Caryophyllia Smithii,' by Mrs. Thynne, in the
Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

Fig. 130. Lobophylla angulcsa.

1 36 TENT A CLES OF A CTINlyE. paet hi.

The European Caryophyllise never have more than one
star, but sometimes a great man}^ individuals are united
in a spreading bunch, as in the madrepore Lobophylla
angulosa (fig. 130), or in a branched or tufted mass.
Their exterior is invariably striated, and each terminates
in a star, with the polypes, mouth and tentacles in its
centre. These compound madrepores are inhabitants of
warm seas.

The number of tentacles possessed by the Actinian
polype varies with the species of the coral. When full
grown they have twelve, twenty-four, even forty-eight,
or more. When young, they have only four or six, but
in general the number increases rapidly as they advance
in age. The perpendicular hard lamellae, which divide
the cavity round the stomach of the polype into perpen-
dicular chambers, as in fig. 129, and form stars round the
mouth, consist of thin sheets or plates, either applied
or soldered together ; and for every new tentacle that is
produced at the mouth, a corresponding new chamber is
formed immediately below it, between the sheets or
leaves of the lamellae ; so that the number of chambers
and perpendicular plates is always equal to the number of
tentacles, and so the circulation of the fluids is main-
tained. Since the upper edges of the lamellae form the
rays of the stars round the mouth of the polype, it is clear
that the number of rays in a star must always be equal to
the number of lamellae. The new tentacles are always
produced exterior to and between the adjacent old ones,
so as to form an outer circle, and consequently a new
circle of rays will be added to the star round the mouth
exterior to the old ones. There may be two, three, or more
concentric circles of tentacles round the month of the
polype, the last being the shortest. However, some
polypes never have more than twelve tentacles during
the whole course of their lives. The first formed rays of
a star are generally, though not always, the longest and

SECT. IV. TENT A CLES OF A CTIXLE. 1 3 7

most prominent ; and sometimes the edges of the lamellse
rise high above the hollow or cup which is the centre
of the star, and contains the month of the polype. In
some families of corals these edges, which form the rays,
are toothed or spined.^

A horny column in the axis of the polype, hardened
by sulphate and carbonate of lime, and called the
columella, generally shows its top in the centre of the
star, and varies in structure in the different genera.
Thus the Actinian polypes may be said to possess an
internal skeleton, and as they approach maturity they
also acquire an external one in the form of a cylindrical
coat, or stony wall, which surrounds them, and into which
most of them can withdraw the soft upper ]3art of theii
bodies and tentacles, so as to be partly or altogether con-
cealed. The perpendicular lamellae are sometimes ex-
tended through the stony walls of the polype, so as to
form a series of broad, well-developed ribs on its exterior
surface.

The stony substance of corals is chiefly carbonate of
lime, which the polypes have the power of abstractijig
from the sea-water, combined with a small quantity of
animal matter, and a still smaller quantity of phosphate
of lime, with a trace of silver and magnesia. This stony
substance takes the crystalline form of needles. By the
successive deposition of these needles, a network is
formed round the body of the animal, which by a series
of these deposits is condensed into a hard impervious
coat or wall. During this formative process many cha-
racteristic forms may be produced by division and build-
ing, depending upon the genus and species of the polype ;
but they do not lay eggs till they come to maturity.

Some corals increase both by budding and division,
but by far the greater number grow in size by budding,

^ ' Histoire des Corallines,' par Professeur Milne-EcUvards,

138 HEEF-BUILBING CORALS. part m.

as the AstrEea, which constitutes a j^ortion of the reef-
building* corals of the tropical seas. They form groups,
in which the whole of the polypes, except their starry
summits, are soldered or pasted together by a living-
viscous substance, consolidated by carbonate of lime,
abstracted from the sea-water, so that the resulting
coral frequently becomes a rounded mass, the surface of
which is more or less covered with stars, which may be
circular or a,ngular, large or small, deeply set or promi-
nent, according to the genera or species, both of which
are exceedingly numerous. In fact the forms produced
vary according as the buds spring from the base of the
polypes, from the sides of the cylindrical body, from
the summit or disk, from the limits of these three parts,
or from the whole animal. In all these varieties the
buds are the result of a superabundance of vital activity
in the part. When the buds proceed from the sides of
the polypes the corals are rounded masses ; but when they
spring from the disk or cups of the star, the consequence
is the death of the parent polypes, and the development
of a new layer of living individuals above the dead ones.
No part of the new polypes is seen except their stars,
their bodies being enclosed in the common tissue. As
this process may be continued indefinitely, the coral may
increase to any size ; but the size becomes still greater
when successive buds are formed over every part of the
j)olypes, and when all the successive generations are
soldered together by the common tissue. In every case
the polypes are alive only on the surface where they have
free access to light, heat, and air, which is furnished by
the sea-water in which they live."*

In the reef-building corals the living viscous substance
that covers the surface and connects the polypes into a
mass, is in process of time so completely consolidated by

* ' Histoire cles Corallinos,' par Professeur Milne-Edwards.

SECT. IV. REEF-BUILDING CORALS. 139

abstracting the small quantity of carbonate of lime that
the sea-water contains, that little if any animal matter
remains ; and as this process is continually repeated, one
generation of polypes perishes after another, the inert
matter increases indefinitely, and the surface at which
the consolidation is actually going on is the only part
that is alive.

The surfaces of the dense convex masses of many of
these Astrsean corals are entirely covered with deep hex-
agonal stars, whose rays extend upwards all round, and
end in narrow, sharp, and elevated lines formed by the
junction of the rays of the adjacent stars ; in other
species the rays are often crowded together, and the
columella only shows a few points in the deep hollows.
Through these deep cups the polypes protrude their
circular disks and tentacles in quest of food, the nutri-
tious products of which maintain the polypes as well as
the general living fabric which unites them, and the
refuse is ejected from their mouths ; for each polype has
an inde]3endent life of its own besides the incidental life
that it possesses as part of a compound being. In many
of the corals the polypes show great sensibility, shrink-
ing into their cells on the slightest touch, yet no ner-
vous system has been discovered.

The variety of compact and branching corals far ex-
ceeds description : 120 species are inhabitants of the Red
Sea alone, and an enormous area of the tropical Pacific
is everywhere crowded with the stupendous works of
these minute agents, destined to change the present
geological features of the globe, as their predecessors
have done in the remote ages of its existence.

Four distinctly different formations are due to the
coral-building polypes in the Pacific and Indian Oceans,
namely, lagoon islands or atolls, encircling reefs, barrier
reefs, and coral fringes, all nearly confined to the torrid
zone.

HO BEEF-BUILDIXG CORALS. tart ni.

An atoll is a ring or chaplet of coral, enclosing a
lagoon or portion of the ocean in its centre. The average
breadth of that part of the ring which rises above the
surface of the sea is about a quarter of a mile, often less,
and it is seldom more than from six to ten or twelve feet
above the waves : hence the lagoon islands are not visible
even at a very small distance, unless when they are
covered by the cocoa-nut palm or the pandanus, which
is frequently the case. On the outside, the ring or
circlet shelves down for a distance of one or two hundred
yards from its edge, so that the sea gradually deepens to
about twenty-five fathoms, beyond which the sides of the
ring plunge at once into the unfathomable depths of the
ocean with a more rapid descent than the cone of any
volcano. Even at the small distance of some hundred
yards no bottom has been reached with a sounding line
a mile and a half long. All the coral on the exterior of
the ring, to a moderate depth below the surface of the
water, is alive ; all above it is dead, being the detritus
of the living part washed up by the surf, which is so
heavy on the windward side of the tropical islands of the
Pacific and Indian Oceans, that it is often heard miles
off, and is frequently the first warning to seamen of
their approach to an atoll.

On the inside, these coral rings shelve down into the
clear calm water of the lagoon by a succession of ledges
of living corals, but of much more varied and delicate
kinds than those on the exterior wall and foundation of
the atoll. The corals known as Porites are the chief
agents in building the exterior face of the ring : they
form great rounded irregular masses, like the Astrsea, but
much larger, being many feet in thickness ; and as the
polypes are only alive on the surface, numberless gene-
rations must have lived and died before they could have
arrived at that size. The rays of the stars are toothed
at the edges, so that they present roAvs of little points ;

SECT. IV. REEF-BUILDING CORALS. 141

in some species the rays are almost invisibly slender,
the interstitial matter is full of pores, and the i)olypes
have twelve tentacles.

The Millepora complanata or palmipora is very com-
monly associated with the Porites ; it is the largest coral
knoTvn. It grows in thick vertical plates, intersecting
each other at various angles, and forms an exceedingly
strong honey-combed mass, generally affecting a cir-
cular form, the marginal plates alone being alive. In-
stead of stars, the j)olypes live in simple pores : myriads
of these small cylindrical pores penetrate the surface of
the plates perpendicular to their axes ; sometimes they
are so minute as to be scarcely visible.

Between the plates, and in the protected crevices of
the outer circle of the ring, a multitude of branching-
zoophytes and other productions flourish ; but the Porites,
Astra3ans, and Millej)br8e seem alone able to resist the
fury of the breakers, essential to the very existence of
these hardy corals, which only obtain their full develop-
ment when washed by a heavy sea. The outer margins
of the Maldive atolls, consisting chiefly of Milleporse and
Porites, are beat hy a surf so tremendous that even ships
have been thrown by a single heave of the sea high and
dry on the reef. The waves give innate vigour to the
pol}T3es by bringing an ever-renewed supply of food to
nourish them, and oxygen to aerate their j uices : besides,
uncommon energy is given and maintained by the heat
of a tropical sun, which gives them power to abstract
enormous quantities of solid matter from the water to
build their stony homes, a power that is efiicient in pro-
portion to the energy of the breakers which furnish the
supply.

The Porites and Milleporse, which are the chief reef-
building corals, cannot live at greater depths than fif-
teen or twenty-five fathoms : not for want of heat, for
the temperature of the ocean in these latitudes does not

142 LAGOON CORALS. paet m.

sink to 68° Fahr. till a depth of 100 fathoms, but light
and abundance of uncombined air are essential, and
these decrease as the depth increases. The polypes
perish if exposed directly to the sun even for a short
time, so they build horizontally between these limits.
The actinian polypes in the corals, which live at diffe-
rent depths in the crevices of the atolls, have the same
general structure ; their disks and tentacles are some-
times tinted with brilliant colours ; some sting, others
have a considerable diversity of individual character.

On the margin of the atolls, close within the line
where the coral is washed by the tide, three species of
NuUipores flourish ; they are beautiful little plants, very
common in the coral islands. One species grows in
thin spreading sheets, like a lichen ; the second in stony
knobs as thick as a man's finger, radiating from a com-
mon centre ; and the third species, which has the colour
of peach blossom, is a reticulated mass of stiff" branches
about the thickness of a crow's quill. The three species
either grow mixed or separately, and, although they can
exist above the line of the corals, they require to be
bathed the greater part of each tide : hence a layer two
or three feet thick, and about twenty yards broad,
formed by the growth of the Nullipores, fringes the
circlet of the atolls and protects the coral below.

The lagoon in the centre of these islands is supplied
with water from the exterior by openings in the lee side
of the ring, but as the water has been deprived of the
greater part of its nutritious particles and inorganic
matter by the corals on the outside, the hardier kinds
are no longer produced, and species of more delicate
forms take their place. The depths of the lagoon varies
in diff'erent atolls from fifty to twenty fathoms or less, the
bottom being partly detritus, partly live coral. In these
calm and limpid waters the corals are of the most varied
and delicate structure, of the most charming and daz-

SECT. lY. ENCIRCLING REEFS. 143

zling" hues. When the shades of evening come on, the
lagoon shines like the milky way with myriads of bril-
liant sparks. The microscopic medusae and crustaceans
invisible by day form the beauty of the night, and the
sea- feather, vermilion in da3dight, now waves with green
phosphorescent light. This gorgeous character of the
sea bed is not peculiar to the lagoons of the atolls ; it
prevails in shallow water throughout the whole coral-
bearing regions of the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

Encircling reefs differ in no respect from the atoll ring,
except in having islands in their lagoons, surrounded
also by coral reefs. Barrier reefs are of the same
structure as the atoll rings, from which they only differ
in their position with regard to the land. They form
extensive lines along the coasts, from which they are
separated by a channel of the sea of variable depth and
breadth, sometimes large enough for ships to pass. A
very long one runs parallel to the west coast of New
Caledonia, and stretches for 120 miles beyond the ex-
tremities of the island. But a barrier reef off the north-
eastern coast of the Australian continent is the grandest
coral formation existing. Rising at once from an un-
fathomable depth of the ocean, it extends for a thousand
miles along the coast with a breadth varjdng from 200
yards to a mile, and at an average distance of from 20
to 60 or 70 miles from the coast, the depth of the chan-
nel being from 10 to 60 fathoms. The pulse of the
ocean, transcendently sublime, beats perpetually in peals
of thunder along that stupendous reef, the fabric of
almost microscopic beings.

144 ENTOZOA. tart in.

SECTION V.

ANNULOSA, OR WORMS.

The Annulosa, whicli are the lowest grade of articu-
lated animals, consist of four distinct orders: the En-
tozoa, which are muscle and intestine parasites; the
Turbellarise, fresh and salt-water animals covered with
cilia ; the Annelida, or Worms ; and the Rotifers, or
Wheel animalcules.

Entozoa.

There are three genera and numerous species of
Entozoa. Every animal has one or more species peculiar
to itself; fourteen infest the human race. They have
a soft, absorbent body of a white or whitish colour, in
consequence of being excluded from light, and living as
they do by absorbing the vitalized juices of the ani-
mals they infest. Their nutritive system is in the lowest
state of development ; yet there are some of a higher
grade. All are remarkable for their vast productive-
ness.

The Tsenioidse, which belong to the inferior group,
are intestinal, nianj^-jointed worms, w^hicli have neither
mouth nor digestive organs ; and what is called the
head has only hooks and suckers to fasten it to the
internal membrane of the animal at whose expense it
lives. The common Tsenia, or Tape-worm, sometimes
ten feet long, which is the type of the order, has four

SECT. V. ENTOZOA. 145

suckers and a circle of hooklets roTind a terminal pro-
boscis to attach it to its victim. Though destitute
of the organs of nutrition it is extremely prolific, for
each segment of its long flat body is a reproductive
monoecious zooid, which forms and lays its own eggs
exactly as if it were a single independent animal, thus
furnishing a very remarkable instance of the law of
irrelative repetition, which is a series of organs per-
forming the same functions independently of one an-
other. Two pairs of canals containing a clear colourless
liquid extend throughout the body of the worm.

Bags, or vesicles called cysts, had been found in the
glands and muscles of various animals, afterwards dis-
covered to contain young worms, which attain their
perfect development within such creatures as eat the
flesh containing the cysts. Under circumstances so un-
precedented, it required no small skill and patience to
determine the life-history of these singular creatures.
The cysts differ in size and form according to the genera,
and are embedded singly or in groups in the flesh of
their victim, on whose ready prepared juices they live.

The greater number of the Taenia genus begui their
lives as sexless cysted larvse, and on entering their final
abode, segments are successively added till the worm
has arrived at its adult state. The tape- worm of the
cat has its origin in the encysted larvae found in the
livers of the mouse and rat. One species of Entozoa,
while in its primary state, inhabits the stomach of the
stickleback, and only comes to perfection within the
aquatic birds that feed on this fish. Another species
infests the livers of the salmon tribe, and gets its per-
fect form in the pike and perch.

Sheep and the hog are more tormented with cysted
worms than any other domestic animals used for food.
If introduced into the human intestines by eating raw
ham or sausages, the larvse soon acquire the perfect

VOL. II. L

] 4-6 ENTOZOA. paet hi.

form. The eggs of the Tsenia may be introduced into
the human or animal stomach ; for dogs and other car-
nivora which eat raw imwholesome meat are infested
by full grown tsenia, which fix themselves to their
entrails by their hooks and suckers, while at the same
time egg-bearing segments separate successively from
their posterior extremity, and being voided scatter the
esfsfs far and wide on land and in water.

The young of some Entozoa undergo various trans-
formations, as those of the Distoma of the Lymnsea.
When fall grown that entozoon is like a sole, flat,
broad, and long, with a kind of head at the broad end,
and two suckers on its under- surface, in one of which
there is a pore serving as a mouth, whence an alimen-
tary canal extends, which spreads in branches almost
throughout the whole body. This animal has a fila-
mentary nerve round its gullet, from which minute
fibres pass to the mouth, and two filaments extend
backward on each side as far as the second sucker.
The eggs which occupy the whole margin of the body
are developed into worms, each of which seems to be
merely a mass of structureless cells enclosed in a con-
tractile case. By a second change each of these cells
is transformed into a freely swimming ciliated zooid
endowed with eyes. Having escaped from their con-
tractile case, they remain for a time in that state, and
then imbed themselves in the mucus on the foot of the
fresh- water mollusk Lymnsea, or pond snail, where they
are transformed into true Distomata, and ultimately
enter into the body of the Lymnsea itself, where they
lose their eyes and cilia, which are no longer of use in
their dark and permanent abode. The Fluke found in
the livers of sheep that have the rot is a Distoma.

The Nematoid order, or thread- worms, that live in the
muscles of men and animals, are long, smooth, and cy-
lindrical, with a structureless skin covering layers of

SECT. V. EXTOZOA. 147

longitudinal and circular fibres, by means of wliicli they
can stretch and contract themselves. They are gene-
rally pointed at both ends with a mouth at one ex-
tremity and an orifice at the other. The Filarise are
slender, sometimes of great length, as the Guinea worm,
which varies in length from six inches to two, eight, or
even twelve feet. In Persia they are believed to be in-
troduced into the system by drinking water in which
their eggs have been deposited. This worm may grow
in the muscles of a man to the size of ^yq or six feet
without giving much annoyance, but when its head
bores through the skin it produces a painful sore unless
extracted. In Persia, where the worm is common, the
natives seize it by the head, draw it carefully out, and
wind it round a bit of wood, an operation which may
require several days to accomplish. It has a numerous
viviparous progeny, which come out through the mouth.
There are certain very small slender species of Filaria
which atta.ck the eyes both of men and horses ; some
bury themselves close to the eye, and a very minute kind
enters the ball itself.

The Ascaris lumbricoides, a common intestinal thread-
worm of the hog, ox, and the human race, is sometimes of
great length. The sexes are distinct, and their fertility
enormous. The ovaries are two tubes sometimes several
feet long, in each of which the eggs are arranged in
whorls round a central stem, like the flowers of a plantago.
By counting the number of microscopic eggs in a whorl,
and the number of whorls. Dr. Eschricht ascertained
that in a full grown female the average number of eggs
amounted to sixty-four millions. In this species of
worm the embryo is not developed from the egg while
within the victim, so that most of the eggs perish.

Difi'erent species of AnguiUulse, which are minute
eel-like worms slender as a hair, inhabit the alimentary
canal of fresh-water snails, frogs, and fishes, but many

148 TVRBELLARIjE. tart III.

species are not parasitic. These are often united in
swarming masses that nesth) in mud, wet moss, wet
earth, and aquatic plants. One species causes the cockle
in wheat, appearing like a living tuft of white wool in
the blackened grains. They appear in sour paste and in
other decomposing substances, and are so tenacious of
life that, after being completely dried for months, and
apparently dead, they revive on being moistened.

Tnrhellarioe.

The Turbellarise are fresh- and salt-water animals,
distinguished by having the whole surface of their
bodies covered by cilia, under which in some species
there are thread-cells containing six, eight, or a greater
number of darts. Most of the members of this tribe
have elongated flattened bodies, and move by a sort of
crawling or gliding motion over the surface of aquatic
plants and animals. Some of the smaller kinds are
sufficiently transparent to allow their internal structure
to be seen by transmitted light. The mouth, which is
situated at a considerable distance from the rounded
end of the bod}^, opens into a sort of gullet leading into
the stomach, which has no other orifice, but a great
number of branching canals are prolonged from it,
which carry its contents into every part of the body.
A pair of oval nerve-centres are placed near the
rounded end of the animal, whence nerves extend to
various parts of the body ; and near to these there are
from two to forty rudimentary eyes according to the
species, each of which has its crystalline lens, its pig-
ment layer, nerve bulb, and its cornea. The power of
the Planaria to reproduce portions which have been
removed is but little inferior to that of the Hydra.

SECT. V. ANNELIDA. 149

Annelids.

The Annelids are the most highly organized of all
the worm tribe. They are exceedingly numerous and
varied ; some are inhabitants of fresh water, others are
terrestrial, but by far the greater number and most
highly endowed are marine. They generally have a
long, soft, and smooth body, divided or marked by trans-
verse rings into a succession of similar segments. In
many the first and last segments are alike ; in others
the first segment can scarcely be called a head, though
it exercises several functions, while in the highest two
orders the head is the seat of several senses. On each
side of the bodies of the Annelida there are one or two
long rows of tufted bristles or feet, which may be re-
garded as the earliest form of symmetrical locomotive
organs. Most of the Annelids have ocelli or eye-specks,
and in many of them the head supports soft cylindrical
tentacles, which are obviously organs of touch. These
worms are divided into four orders, the Suctorial, Ter-
restrial, Tubercular, and Err antia, or Wandering Worms.^

The first order consists of Leeches of different kinds :
their body is long, slightly segmented, with a suctorial
disc at each end. Their skin is smooth, whitish, and
translucent ; beneath it are cells filled with brown or
greenish matter, and three layers of muscular fibres
follow; the first are transverse, the second cross one
another diagonally so as to form a network, and the
third are longitudinal. The mouth, which occupies the
centre of the principal sucking disk, varies in form
with the genera. In the common leech it has an en-
larged lip, and opens into a short gullet leading into a
capacious and singularly complicated stomach, divided
by deep constrictions into eleven compartments, the last

^ According to the system of M. Milne-Edwards, who made the Annulosa
it particular object of investigation.

1 50 LEECHES. part iir.

of wliicli is connected witli an intestinal canal, which
ends in a vent in the middle of the terminal sucker.

Within the mouth there are three crescent-shaped
jaws, presenting- their convex edges towards the cavity
of the mouth, beset with from seventy to eighty teeth,
formed of a highly refractive crystalline substance re-
semblino^ o-lass. The leech makes a vacuum with its
sucker, which forces the part to which it is applied into
contact with the three-toothed jaws, which are moved
sidewise by strong muscles, and saw through the sldn
:ind small bloodvessels below it.

The leech, like the other Annelids, has two distinct
systems of circulating liquids, one red, the other colour-
less. The red liquid or blood is kept in circulation by
the pulsations of a heart, or rather a contractile vessel
behind the head. It is carried away from the heart by
a pulsating canal passing along the back of the leech,
and is brought back to the heart by a similar canal ex-
tending along its ventral side. During this course, por-
tions of the liquid are sent off through veins to different
parts of the body. The resph-atory organs of the leech
are pores arranged at regular distances on each side of
the body which open into little sacs having capillary
bloodvessels distributed under the skin through which
the blood is aerated.

The colourless liquid which contains many organic
molecules, occupies the space between the alimentary
canal and the inner wall of the body, from whence it
passes into canals Vv^hich ramify extensively, but are not
furnished with returning passages. This liquid forms a
support to the muscles of the skin, and is kept in circu-
lation by the motions of the leech.

Fig. 131 shows the highly developed nervous system
of the leech. From the double lobe of the brain ten
optic nerves go to the bases of ten black eye-specks,
vv^hich mark at equal distances the upper margin of the

SECT. V.

LEECHES.

expanded lip. A nerve-centre below the gullet supplies
the lip and jaws with strong nerves. A double longitu-
dinal cord, united at equal distances bj twentj-oue
double nerve-centres, extends from a ring
round the gullet thi'oughout the whol e
length of the body, supplies the different
organs with nerves, and ends near the
vent in a nerve-centre, from whence
nerves radiate through the terminal
sucker.

The circulation of the blood and of the
colourless liquid, as well as the nerve sys-
tem, prevail generally in the Annelids,
modified by the structure of the individual.

The leech, though greedy of blood, lives
in fresh-water ponds, wet grass, and damp
places, where it never can meet with
warm-blooded animals. It probably lives
on minute aquatic insects.

The common Earth-worm, which is a
principal member of the second order of
Annelids, has a more important part as-
signed to it in the economy of nature
than its humble appearance leads us to
suspect. It has a long, soft, cylindrical
body tapering to a point at both ends,
divided into numerous rings. The mouth
is furnished with a short proboscis, or
snout, without teeth. A long salivary
glandular mass surrounds a short wide
gullet, which leads to a digestive organ similar to a
gizzard, whence a canal is continued to the vent. The
circulation of the two fluids, and the nervous system
modified at head and tail, are like those of the leech.
Four rows of minute bristles extend longitudinally
alono^ the ventral surface of the worm, two on each side.

7^.

Fig. 131. Nervous
System of Leech..

1 5 2 EAR TH- WORM. part hi.

With a low magnifying-power they appear to be minute
points regularly pushed out and drawn in; but when
more highly magnified each point is seen to consist of
two transparent glassy rods having their points bent
backwards : on these feet the worm crawls very rapidly.
While making its cylindrical burrow a slimy mucus
exudes from the body of the worm, which cements the
particles of earth together and renders the walls of the
burrow perfectly smooth and slippery. When the worm
pierces the earth it stretches its snout into a fine ]3oint
that it may penetrate more easily, and when it is fixed,
it draws its ringed body towards its head by a muscular
effort; and to prevent it from slipping back again, it fixes
the hooks of its posterior feet firmly into the ground.
Having thus secured a point of support it penetrates
deeper into the earth, draws up its body, fixes the hooks
of the posterior feet into the smooth surface of the bur-
row, and continues the same process till the burrow is
deep enough. Thus the feet are employed as points of
resistance for the exertion of muscular force. This
worm swallows earth mixed with decaying animal and
vegetable matter, assimilates the nutritive part, and
casts out the refuse in the form of fine mould, which
may be seen in little heaps at the
edges of their burrows. In fact,
nearly all the fine vegetable mould
so precious to gardeners and farmers
has passed through the intestines of
the common earth-worm.

There is a colourless little fresh-
water species of the genus Nais, re-
markable for the beauty of its bristled
feet. There are two pairs on each

Fig. 132. FootofNais. . ,, , i • \- n ^

ring 01 the worm, consisting oi wart-
like perforated protuberances, through which a number
of microscopic bristles protrude, arranged in a radiating

SECT. V. TUB ICO LA. 153

pencil like a fan. They are very slender, bent at the
tip, and so transparent that they look like threads of
spnn glass ; the worm thrnsts them out and draws them
in with extreme rapidity.

A blood-red Nais lives in burrows in the mud at the
bottom of springs and pools in immense multitudes ;
large tracts of the mud of the Thames are red with a
species of them ; half of their bodies stretched out ol*
their burrows maintain a constant oscillating motion on
its surface, but, like the earth-worm, they instantly
shrink into their burrows on the least alarm. They
have no respiratory organs ; but their blood is aerated
through their skin, which is so transparent that, with a
microscope, the whole of the internal structure, the mo-
tions of the liquids, and the particles they contain are
distinctly visible. The blood acts the part of internal
gills, by aerating the colourless liquid contained in a set
of vascular coils sun-ounding the organs of digestion.

The Tubicola are marine worms, forming the third
order of Annelida, according to the system of M. Milne-
Edwards. They live in tubes, either of a shelly cal-
careous substance, which forms naturally on the tena-
cious mucus of their skins, or in tubes artificially con-
structed by themselves of sand and particles of shell
glued together. All the Tubicola can protrude their
gills and the anterior part of their bodies, and some
can leave their tube and return to it again. These
worms, which form beautiful objects for the microscope,
have ringed bodies with tubular bristled feet, and respi-
ratory organs or gills fixed either on the head or near it.
They have an alimentary canal loosely attached to the
ventral wall of the body, and two systems of circulating-
liquids, one red, the other colourless. In the Tubular
Annelids the principal organs of respiration are the con-
tractile plumes on the head.

In the Terebella there are distinct oro-ans for the

1 54

TUB I COL A.

PAUT Tir.

aeration of both liquids, -svliich form a beautiful plume
when expanded, as in fig. 133, wliicli shows the animal

when out of its tube. What
may be called the head is
fixed upon the first ring of
the body. The mouth has a
lip like a funnel-shaped cup
with numerous long slender
tubular tentacles ; and two
delicate arborescent branches
or gills are fixed immediately
behind the head. The colour-
less liquid which occupies the
space between the alimentary
canal and the ventral wall of
the worm, is sent by the con-
tractions of the body into
the slender tubular filaments
round the mouth, which are
covered by cilia, whose action
continually renews the stra-
tum of water in contact with
them. The blood in its usual
course enters the capillary
tubes of the arborescent gills,
where it is oxygenized, and,
after being distributed to the
different parts of the body,

Fip. 1

-a, lip,

Terebella conchilega.
suiTounded by tentacles, 6 b, all placed
upon the first segment of the body, c ;
the skin of the back, d, is laid open,
exposing the circulatoiy system ; e,
pharynx ; /, intestine ; g, muscles of
the belly ; h, gland, supposed to be the
liver ; i, generative organs ; j, feet ;
k k, gills ; /, heart ; w, dorso-intestinal
vessel ; n , intestinal vessel ; n, venous
sinus ; o o, ventral trunk, bi'anching
into smaller veins, p.

returns to the heart and gills

The slender filaments which
radiate from the head of the
tubicular worms are flattened,
sometimes tortuous, always ciliated, and are often barred
and variegated by bright purple, green, and yellow tints,
forming a rich and gorgeous crown.

SECT. y. TUB ICO LA. 155

Tlie mucus, which cements together the particles of
sand and shell for the artificial tubes of this kind of
worms, is believed to be secreted from glands in the
first segment of the body ; but the long slender filaments
of the head are the active agents in the structure. The
tentacles are hollow bands with strong muscular edges,
which the worm can bring together so as to form a
cylinder, at any point of which it can take up a particle
of sand, or a whole row of particles, and apply them to
its glutinous body. The fibres at the free ends of the
tentacles act both as muscular and suctorial organs ; for
when the worm is going to seize a particle of sand or food,
the extremity of the tentacle is drawn in by the reflux of
the colourless liquid in its interior, so that a cup-shaped
cavity is formed in which the particle is secured by
atmospheric pressure, aided by the power of the circular
muscular fibres at the extremity of the tentacle.

The Serpula and its allies are richly-coloured worms,
living in contorted tubes with lids, frequently seen

Fig. 134. Pushing poles of Sei-pula.

encrusting rocks, the shells of oysters, and other mol-
lusca. By a peculiar mechanism of their bristly feet
they can oj)en the lid of their tube, push out their fan
of gorgeous tentacles, pull it in again, and shut up the
tube. As the protrusion of the worm from its tube is
slow, cautious, and gradual, the retreat swift and sudden
as lightning, there are two distinct sets of organs in
the feet by which these motions are performed.*^

'^ Dr. Thomas Williams on ' British Annelides,' British Association, 18-52.

156 ERRANT I A. paet in.

On the back of the worm there is a sort of shield,
the sides of which bear seven pairs of wart-like feet,
which are perforated for the working of protrusile mi-
croscopic bristles (fig. 134). Their upper parts are double-
edged, with a groove between them, and serrated with
close-set teeth. The organs of retreat are much more
complicated and numerous. Mr. Gosse has computed
that there are about 1,900 blades on the seven pairs of
feet, each movable at the will of the worm, and that
there are nearly 10,000 teeth hooked into the lining of
the tube when it wishes to retreat. The manner in
which it comes out of its tube and retires into it again
is the same as that employed by the earth-worm.

There are twenty-four genera of the order Errantia,
or wandering sea-worms. Multitudes swarm on every
coast ; they have considerable muscular strength, and
are highly irritable ; some are called sea-centipedes, from
the number of their feet and length of their segmented
bodies, which are slender, and vary from a few inches or
less to thirty-five or forty feet. They are generally
coiled up under stones, or wander by the slipperiness
of their smooth skins through masses of sea-weeds or
shells at low tide. In most of them the rings are de-
cidedly marked ; the first and last segments are unlike,
while the rest are mere repetitions one of another.
Their locomotive organs are a pair of perforated fleshy
warts on each of their numerous segments, through
which groups of rigid, simple or ba^rbed bristles are pro-
truded and retra.cted.

The Errant Worms have a distinct small head with
a mouth, or rather an orifice, on the upper side of it,
through which a cylindrical gullet is from time to time
turned inside out, forming a kind of pear-shaped bag,
whose surface is studded with secreting glands ; and its
extremity, which is perforated, is surrounded by a muscle
that contracts strongly on whatever it is applied to, and

SECT. T. ERRANTIA. i-j

holds it firmly wliile the re-inversion of the sac draws it
into the body to be digested. This apparatus is un-
armed in the genera Arenicola, Phyllodoce, and others,
but in the Nereis it has one pair of strong curved horny
jaws. In the Eunice there are three toothed jaws on
one side and four jaws on the other side of the gullet,
each pair having a different form, and the tiny Lombri-
nereis has eight little black hooks which are seen
through its pellucid tissues, sna^Dping like so many pairs
of hooked scissors. The Errant "Worms are voraciously
carnivorous, and when the gullet is turned inside out
the toothed jaws project, seize the prey, and drag it into
a ciliated alimentary canal, for there is no proper
stomach in these worms. The canal is generally straight,
and terminates in a vent at the posterior end of the
body.

The respiratory organs of the Errantia are external
gills of great variety of forms : they are chiefly like
branching trees, or filamentary bushes, traversed by ca-
pillary bloodvessels. They are sometimes small, and
arranged on every segment along both sides of the back ;
sometimes they are large and fixed only at intervals.
Like the lower Annelids, they have two liquid systems,
one red and the other colourless, and the circulation of
the blood is the same ; but as the pulsations of the vessel
behind the head are too feeble to send the blood throuo-h
the labyrinth of capillary vessels in these long worms,
there is a supplementary heart, or pulsating vessel, in
each segment of the worm, which partakes in and
facilitates the general circulation.

The Eunice and other very long worms may have
hundreds of these centres of propulsion, which make
the circulation rapid ; and it is increased by the rest-
lessness and activity of the worms themselves, which
bring their gills perpetually into new strata of water.

The nervous system of the Errantia consists of a

158 ERRANT I A. paet iii.

double cord extending along the ventral side of the
body, and united at eqnal intervals by double nerve-
centres, as in fig. 131 ; but in the Annelids the two
cords diverge below the gullet, surround it, unite again
above that tube, and form a principal bilobed nerve-
centre or brain. Each segment of the worm is occupied
by a small double nerve-centre. In some of these
marine worms there are hundreds of segments and as
many nerve-centres. There are more than a thousand
of these pairs of nerve-centres on the ventral cord of
the Nemertes gigas, or Great Band Worm, which is
sometimes forty feet long and an inch broad. The head
is like a snake, and the bristled feet are jointed to enable
it to move over hard surfaces.

The movements of the bristly feet of the Errantia
are reflex, depending on the nerve-centres in their seg-
ments; but they are controlled and connected by the
double cord which passes through them.

Every hair, cirrus, and tentacle on the bodies of the
Errant Worms is a living organ of feeling, shrinking at
the smallest touch, but enabling them to select their
food, to move towards and retreat from objects, and to
thread their way through the most intricate labyrinths
with unerring certainty, which seems to render them
independent of eyes ; yet many of them have multitudes
of eyes, or rather eye-specks, according to the genera.
Some have but one eye-speck placed in the forehead ; one
genus has a double row throughout their whole length,
two in each segment, while the Amphicora has two in
its tail. All these eye-specks have their crystalline
lens, pigment-layer, and nerve-bulb, so that the Errant
Worms must see objects, and their motions show that
they do ; but we can form no idea of the kind of vision.

Besides the variety of organs on the skin of the
Errantia, some of these worms have two rows of flat
plates on their backs overlapping each other at their

SECT. V. ERRAXTIA,

^S9

edges like the scales of a fisli. They are well developed
in the Aphrodita hystrix, or the Sea Moase of fisher-
men, and its congeners. That Annelid, which is an
inhabitant of European coasts, is thicker and broader
than other sea- worms. The two rows of overlapping
shields on its back, and the quantity of iridescent
hairs, cirri, and other appendages covering the body,
is so great as to form a kind of felt or fur like the
skin of a mouse. The members of this genus of sea-
worms have no gills properly so called ; the only ex-
ternal sign of respiration is a periodical elevation and
depression of the shields on their backs by the action
of a complex system of muscles. The thick covering of
felt on the body of the v/orm below the shields becomes
filled with water during their elevation, which is ejected
forcibty at the posterior end of the body during their de-
pression. Although "the water does not penetrate the
thin skin on the back of the worm, its oxj^gen does, and
is accumulated in the colourless liquid in which the
stomach fioats ; and from it the blood, which is of a paie
yellow colour, receives its oxygen. The feet of the worm
are fan-shaped groups of sharp glassy bristles enclosed
between two plates, which prevent them from hurting the
animal when it puts them out or draws them in. The
Aphrodita is male and female : the eggs escape through
X3ores in the female, and are received in a kind of pouch
beneath the dorsal shields till hatched. The embryo
is an oval locomotive mass, with groups of cilia, and
indications of an eye-speck: after swimming about for
twenty-four hours, the segments begin to be developed.

Worms of the genus Polynoe have also two rows of
shields on their backs, but they are studded with trans-
parent oval bodies on short stems, supposed to be
organs of touch- The filiform tentacles and antennae
that are developed between the shields, as well as the
cirri or cm-ly bristles of the feet, are likewise covered

i6o

ERRANTIA.

PART III.

Fig. 1-35. Foot of a Polynoe.

with similar sensitive organs. Fig. 135 sliows the foot,
cirri, and bristles of a Poljnoe, which are enclosed in

plates which preserve
them from hurting the
worm. These glassy
bristles are beautiful
objects under the mi-
croscope ; still more so
are the jointed feet,
transparent as the
purest flint glass, of
the PhjUodoce viridis,
one of the most beau-
tiful Annelids on our
coasts, where it threads
its way among young mollusca like a slender green cord,
exhibiting foliaceous gills in the highest perfection.

In the marine Annelids the embryo, on leaving the
Qgg, is a gelatinous globular mass of cells furnished with
strong cilia. In a few hours the mass elongates and
divides into four parts, a head, a large ciliated segment,
a smaller one without cilia, and a ciliated tail. After a
time a succession of new segments are interposed, one
by one, next to the tail segment, and the correspond-
ing internal organs of each are developed till the worm
arrives at its adult state. In many Annelids the
embryo is highly developed within the parent ; that of
the Eunice has from 100 to 120 segments before it leaves
her ; and in the Nereis diversicolor the young, covered
with cilia, come out by hundreds at an orifice in the
side of the mother.

Many of the marine Annelids are luminous ; electric
scintillations are given out during the act of nervous
contraction, which are increased in brilliancy and ra-
pidity by irritation.

According to Professeur Quatrefages, the Annelida

SECT. V.

TARDlGItADA. i6i

Errantia and Tubicola liave no zoological regions clia-
racterized bj one or more special t3^pes like tlie other
classes of animals; they have representatives in all seas.
Bnt it is exactly the contrary v^ith regard to species.
The number of species common to any tvro seas, or the
shores of two continents, is very small; there is not a
single species common to the Atlantic coasts of France
and the Mediterranean. The sea-v^orms are not affected
by climate, bnt they are said to be more abundant on
granitic and schistose coasts than on the calcareous."^

With regard to fossil remains, worm-tracks are seen
in the Forest marble, long calcareous tubes occur in
the Upper Silurian and Carboniferous strata, and in all
the later formations tubercular Annelids abound, espe-
cially of the genera Serpula, Spirorbis, and Vermilia.^

Tardigrada.

The Tardigrades are slow creeping animalcules, which
seem to form a link between the Worms and the Rotifers,
though they are more nearly allied to the former in
having a vermiform body divided transversely into five
segments, the first of which is the head, and each of the
others has a pair of little fleshy protuberances furnished
with four curled hooks. They resemble the Eotifers in
their jaws, in their general grade of organization, and
in the extreme length of time they can remain dried up
without loss of life. When in the dried state they can
be heated to a temperature of 250° Fahr. without the
destruction of life, although when in full activity they
cannot endure a temperature of more than from 112° to
115° Fahr. When alive the transparency of their skin
is such as to show a complicated muscular system, the
fibre of which is smooth; and as no respiratory organs

" ' Comptes rendus,' Ji;ly 1864.
^ ' Palseontology,' by Professor Owen.
VOL. II. M

1 6 2 RO TITER A. part hi.

liave yet been found, tlieir respiration mnst be cuta-
neous. These animalcules Lave no nerve-centre in the
head, but they have one in each segment of the body ;
and they are furnished with a suctorial mouth at the
end of a retractile proboscis, on each side of which are
two tooth-like styles, the rudiments of lateral jaws. The
structure of these creatures is microscopic.

'Rotifera,

Although the Eotifera are microscopic objects, their
organization is higher than that of the Annelida in some
respects. They are minute animalcules, which appear
in vegetable infusions and in sea-water, but by far the
greater number are found in fresh-water pools long ex-
posed to the air: occasionally they appear in enormous
numbers in cisterns which have neither shelter nor cover ;
a few can live in moist earth, and sometimes individuals
are seen in the large cells of the Sphagnum or Bog-Moss.

The bodies of the Rotifers have no cilia; they are
perfectly transparent, elongated, or vermiform, but not
segmented ; they have two coats, both of which in some
genera are so soft and flexible that the animal can as-
sume a variety of forms; while in others the external
coat is a gelatinous horny cylindrical shell or tunic en-
closing the whole body except the two extremities, which
the animal can protrude or draw in. The soft kind can
crawl over solid surfaces by the alternate contraction
and extension of their bodies like a worm, and the stift*
Rotifers are capable of doing the same by the contrac-
tility of their head and tail. All can swim by means
of cilia or lobes at their head. The greater number pos-
sess means of attaching themselves to objects by the
posterior end of their bodies and of removing to an-
other place.

The wheel-like organs from which the class has its

SECT. V.

ROTIFERA.

163

name, are most characteristic in tlie common Eotifer
(fig. 137), where they consist of two disk-like lobes pro-
jecting from the body whose margins are fringed with
long cilia. It is the nninterriipted succession of strokes
given bj these cilia, passing consecutively like waves
along the lobes, and apparently returning into them-
selves, which gives the impression of two wheels in
rapid rotation round their axes.

The Brachionus pala (fig. 136) affords another instance
of the two- wheeled Rotifers. Though of unusually large
dimensions in its class, it is just visible to the naked
eye as a brilliant particle of diamond when moving in
a glass of water. Its transparent horny tunic, when
viewed in front with a micro-
scope, is a cup of elegant form,
bulging at the sides*; One side
of the rim is furnished with
four S23ines, of which the middle
pair are slender and sharp as
needles, with a deep cleft between
them ; the other side of the rim
is nndulated but not toothed, and
the bottom of the cup ends in
two broad blunt points.

Between the terminal blunt
points there is a ronnd opening
for the protrusion of the foot of
the animal. The tunic is of
glassy transparency, so that
every organ and function of the
animal can be traced with per-
fect distinctness.

The foot of the animal is
long, rough and wrinkled, not
unlike the flexible trunk of an elephant. It can be
lengthened, shortened, drawn within, or pushed out of

M 2

Fig. 136. Bracliionus pala, vdth.
three eggs attached to its foot.

164 ROTIFERA. PART III,

the tunic in an instant. It terminates in two short
conical fingers or toes, which can be widely sepa-
rated or brought into contact. By means of these, the
Brachion has the power of mooring itself even to the
smooth surface of glass so firmly, that it can stretch
itself in all directions, shaking itself to and fro with
sudden violence without letting go its hold. The Roti-
fers usually fix themselves before they set their wheels
in motion in search of food.

From the anterior rim of the shelly cup, the Brachion
j^rotrudes a waved outline of limpid flesh which, as soon
as it rises above the level of the sharp-pointed spines,
spreads out into three broad flatfish muscular lobes.
On the edges of the middle one there are very strong
cilia like stifP bristles, w^hich do not vibrate, but are
either erect or converge to a point, whereas the edges
of the other two lobes are thickly fringed with long
stout cilia, which, by striking the water in perj^etual
rapid succession, each cilium bending and rising again,
produce the appearance of two circles of dark spots in
rapid horizontal rotation, like wheels on their axis. It is
merely an optical deception, for both the animal and its
lobes may be at rest. The vibrations of the cilia can
be instantaneously arrested, and the whole apparatus
drawn out of sight, and as instantaneously protruded
and set in motion.

In the flesh, on the ventral side of the Brachion, there
is a deep cleft, the edges of which as well as the whole
interior of a tube of which it is the orifice, are thickly
covered with vibratile cilia. This tube leads to a mouth
with powerful jaws of unwonted structure, which is so
deeply sunk in the tissues of the body, that it never
comes into contact with the water. It opens into a
gullet leading to a stomach, intestine, and vent, at the
posterior end of the body.

The vibrations of the cilia on the lobes of the animal's

SECT. Y. ' ROTIFEBA. 165

head form two circular currents in the water, like
whirlpools, which draw all floating particles into their
v.ortices, and the streams from the two Avhirlpools uni-
ting into one current, flow off horizontally and pass im-
mediately over the slit on the ventral side of the animal.
Some of the floating particles are arrested by the cilia
on the edges of the slit, and are drawn into the sunken
mouth by the vibrations of the cilia in the tube. The
edges of the slit act like lips, and seem to possess the
sense of taste, or of some modification of touch, which
enables them to select from the particles presented to
them, such as are fit for food ; these are admitted into
the mouth, where they are bruised by the powerful jaws.
The mouth or masticating apparatus is the most extra-
ordinary and complex part of this animal. It consists
of two horny toothed jaws, acting like hammers upon an
anvil. The two hammers, which approach each other
from the dorsal sides of the body, are each formed of
two par+s united by a hinge ; the first parts correspond
to the handles ; the second parts, which are bent at
right angles to the first, resemble hands with five or
six finger-shaped teeth united by a thin membrane. The
teeth are parallel to one another when they meet on the
anvil, and are seen through the transparent mass tear-
ing the food into fragments. Some of the Rotifers re-
semble the Errant Annelids in being: able to turn this
complicated machine inside-out through the ciliated
tube and slit, so as to bring it into contact with the
water. When the food has been masticated it is sent
into the stomach, where it is digested. The whole of
this process is seen through the transparent and colour-
less body of the Brachion, because its favourite food
is the Syncryn velox, a minute bright green plant, which
from its active motions was at one time believed to be
an animal.

The Brachion h:i3 four longitudinal muscular bands

1 66 ROTIFER A. part hi.

transversely striated, which move the ciHated lobes of
the head, push them out and draw them in. From
these muscular thi-eads are sent to the different parts
of the body, to the mouth especially, two strong bands,
w^hich bend and unbend the joints of the hammer-like
jaws. The vigorous motions of the long serpentine
foot and the firm hold of its anchors are owing to
muscular bauds fixed high up on the interior wall of the
body, which extend throughout the whole length of the
flexible organ. As long as the Brachion is fixed, the
vibrations of the cilia on its lobes only produce wliirl-
pools in the water, but the moment that it lets go its
hold, these vibrations, in consequence of the reaction of
the water, give the animal both a smooth progressive
motion and a rotation round its axis.

Minute as the Brachionus pala is, it has several organs
of sense. A sparkling, ruby-coloured, square eye-speck
with a crystalline lens and crimson pigment layer is
placed on a wai4:-like prominence on its back, and this
prominence Mr. Gosse believes to be the bram of the
animal. In the cleft between the spines and close to
the eye-S]3eck are two tubes, one within the other. The
innermost tube, which can be protruded and withdrawn,
has a bunch of bristles at its extremity that have the
sensibility of antennse. Nerves from the brain pass into
these, to the various organs of the body, and to the
lobes on the head.

The Brachion has no propelling vessel or heart to
maintain the circulation of its liquids, but, like the
Annelids, a colourless liquid occupies the general cavit}'-
between the alimentary canal and the internal wall of
the body. It is believed to be connected with nutrition,
and is furnished with oxygen by a complicated organism,
and is kept in motion by the vibrations of long cilia.
The determination of the whole structure and motions
of a creature barely visible to the naked eye, is a won-

SECT. V.

ROTIFERA.

167

derful instance of microscopic research, and of the per-
fection of the mechanism exhibited in the most minute
objects of creation.

Fig*. 137 represents the common Eotifer when its
wheels are expanded and when they are retracted. The
body is slender and flexible,
it is stretched out by longi-
tudinal muscles, and its girth
is diminished by circular
ones. The internal struc-
ture is similar to that of
the Brachion, but there is a
2)rominence or head between
the wheels on which there
are two crimson eye-specks,
and the foot terminates in
three concentric movable
tubes that can be protruded
and dra-v\ni in like the tubes
of a telescoj^e ; each has, a
pair of claspers to enable
the Eotifer to fix itself to
any object.

The Rotifers are male and
female, but, like the greater
number of Infusoria, the
males are only produced at
intervals. The female Roti-
fers have their perfect form
when they leave the egg :
they even come out of the
egg while it is attached to the tail of the mother, as
in the Brachionus pala (fig. 136). The males, when
hatched, have neither spines nor mouth, yet, dm-ing
their short lives, their motions are very fleet on account
of the vibrations of long cilia round their front.

Fig. 1 37. Common Rotifer :— a, mouth ;
b, eye-spots ; c, wheels ; d, probably
antenna ; e, jaws and teeth ; /, ali-
mentary canal ; g, glandular mass
enclosing \t;h, longitudinal muscles ;
i I, tubes of water-vascular system ;
k, young animal ; I, cloaca.

i68 ROTIFER A. part in.

Some Rotifers are remarkably fertile. Professor
Ehrenberg estimated that, in the course of twenty-four
days, the offspring of a single individual of the genus
Hydatina might amount to seventeen millions. Female
eggs laid in autumn are collected in heaps and covered
with a gelatinous substance, which protects them from
the cold in winter, though the Rotifers themselves are
sufficiently protected by their great tenacity of life.
They revive after being frozen ; they may be dried for
an unlimited time, but, as soon as they meet with
warmth, moisture, and food, they resume their vitality.

SECT. Ti. ECHINODERMA TA. 169

SECTION YI.

ECHINODEEMATA.

This class consists of five orders, all of wliicli are
marine. They are, with one exception, creeping ani-
mals, and the whole class is remarkable for having
most of their members and general structure either in
fives or multiples of five. Their skin is hardened by
calcareous deposits, sometimes of beautiful microscopic
structure : they have a digestive cavity, a vascular fluid
system, and some distinct respiratory organs, so that
they are comparatively of a high grade.

Echinodermata Asteroidea,

The Asteroidea, or Star-Fishes, which are the highest
order, form two natural families, the Stelleridse and
Ophiuridse, which comprise twenty-two genera.

The simplest form of the Stelleridee is the common
star-fish, with its flat regularly five-sided disk. A tough
membrane, strengthened by reticulated calcareous mat-
ter, covers the back, and bends down along the sides,
while the under-side of the body or disk, on which the
animal creeps, is soft and leathery, with the mouth in
its centre. In the other genera, although the body is
still a flat, five, equal-sided disk, the angles are extended
into long arms, broad whence they diverge from the disk,
but decreasing rapidly in width to their extremities, so
that the animal is exactly like a star with five long,
equal, and flexible rays.

1 70 ECHINODERMA TA. part hi.

The backs of all the star-fishes are covered with
most mmute movable spmes, and with microscopic
organs like minute pincers, called pedicellarise, which
are diffused generally over the surface, and form dense
groups round the spines. They have a slender, con-
tractile, calcareous stem, and a head formed of two
blades, which they continually open and shut, the whole
being coated with a soft external tissue. They grasp
anything very firmly, and are supposed to be used to
free the star-fish from parasites. In some species of
Goniaster the pedicellarise resemble the vane of an
arrow, and are so numerous as to give a villous appear-
ance to the skin of the back.

On the under-side of each ray of a star-fish, a cen-
tral groove or furrow extends throughout its whole
length, and the semi-calcareous flexible membrane which
covers the back and rays not only bends down round
the sides of the rays, but borders both edges of the
grooves. Upon these edges ridges of small calcareous
plates beset with spines are placed transversely : they
are larger near the mouth, and gradually decrease in
size as they approach the point of the ray.

Interior to the spines, these ridges are pierced by
alternate rows of minute holes for the long row^s of feet,
which diminish in size to the end of the ray. The feet
are contractile muscular tubes communicating through
the holes with internal muscular sacs, which are re-
garded as their bases. The sacs are full of a liquid,
and when the animal compresses them the liquid is
forced through the holes into the tubular feet, and
stretches them out ; and when the muscular walls of the
hollow feet are contracted, the liquid is forced back
again into the sacs, and the feet are drawn in. The
liquid is furnished by a circle of small vascular tentacles,
or sacs, surromiding the mouth, which are both loco-

SECT. VI. ECHINODERMATA, 171

motive and prehensile. From these a canal extends
through the centre of each ray, which in its course
sends off lateral branches to the bases of the feet to
supply them with liquid. The whole of this system of
vessels and feet are lined with vibratile cilia, which
maintain a perpetual circulation in the liquid.

The toothless mouth on the under-side of the disk
dilates so as to admit large mollusca with their shells.
The short gullet and stomach are everted, protruded
through the mouth, and applied round the object to be
swallowed, which is then drawn in, digested, and the
shell is discharged by the mouth. However, in three
orders of this family there is a short intestine and
vent. From the large stomach, which occupies the cen-
tral part of the disk of the star-fish, a couple of tubes
extend to the extremity of each ray, where they secrete
a substance essential for digestion : the stomach is in
fact a radiating organ, partaking the form of the animal
it sustains.

A pulstitory vessel near the gullet propels the yellow
blood into a system of fine tubes, that are spread over
the walls of the stomach and its rays. Through these
walls the blood receives a nutritious liquid, which it
carries with it into a network of capillary vessels,
widely extended throughout the body, being propelled
by the contractile powers of the vessels themselves, and
after having supplied the tissues with nourishment, it
is carried by tubes to the point from whence it started,
to begin a new course. The capillary network passes
immediately under a portion of the skin of the star-fish,
through which an exchange of the respiratory gases
takes place. Besides, the star-fishes breathe the sea-
water through numerous conical tubes, that project in
patches from the back. Through these tubes, which
can be opened and shut, the water is readily admitted

172 ECHINODERMA TA. part hi.

into the cavity containing the digestive organs, with
which they are in communication. The star-fish slowly
distends itself with water, and then gives out a portion
of it, but at no regular time. The cavity is never
empty of water, and as its lining is densely bristled with
cilia, their vibrations keep the vascular surface of the
digestive organs perpetually bathed with the respiratory
medium.

The star-fishes have a radiating system of nerves
suited to their form. A ring of slender nerve-cords
surrounds the mouth, from whence three nerves are sent
off at the commencement of each ray : two of these,
which are filaments, go to the organs in the central
disk, while the middle one, which is a great trunk,
passes through the centre of the rays, and terminates in
a nerve-centre, or ganglion, placed under a coloured eye-
speck at their extremity. The structure of the rays,
the eye-specks, and the nerve-centres below them, are
so similar, that they are merely, repetitions of one
another ; hence no nerve-centre can control the others,
but they are all connected by the ring encircling the
mouth, which is a common bond of communication.
How far the movements of these animals mdicate sensa-
tion we have not the power to determine, but they feel
acutely, for the mouth, the feet, and especially the
pedicellarise, are highly sensitive, and shrink on the least
touch. The eye-specks are probably sensitive to light,
and as the star-fishes often feed on putrid matter, they
are supposed to be endowed with the sense of smell.

The family of the Ophiuridse, or Snake Stars, are
widely distributed in the ocean. The genus Euryales
with branching rays, and that of Ophiura with simple
rays, comprising the Brittle and Sand Stars, are abundant
in the British seas. In the sand stars there are cavities
full of sand at the points from whence the rays diverge,
which appear like warts on the surface of the disk.

SECT. VI. ECHINODERMATA.

173

Their rays are exceedingly long, thin, and flexible;
they have no central groove nor feet, but they are em-
ployed as organs of locomotion and prehension, for by
their alternate strokes the sand stars can elevate or
depress themselves in the water, creep on the bottom,
and by twisting them round objects they can fix them-
selves, firmly aided by spines or bristles on their edges.
The Ophionyx has the addition of movable hooks be-
neath bristled spines. The rays are bent by the con-
traction of internal muscles, and extended again by the
elasticity of the external leathery coat. The Ophiuridse,
like the Luidia fragilissima belonging to the preceding
order, cast off a ray if touched, and even all the five if
rudely handled ; but they can replace them with as much
ease. If only a fragment of a disk remains attached to
a ray the whole animal may be reproduced.

The Ophiuridse have an internal calcareous skeleton
or framework, in the form of spicules, scattered in their
tissues. They have a capacious mouth with tentacles
and ten small chisel-shajDed teeth, ^yq on each side,
which meet and close the mouth. The mouth is sepa-
rated from the stomach by a circular muscle that opens
and shuts the passage, but no canal diverges from the
stomach through the rays. The nervous system and the
circulation of the blood are similar to those in the Stel-
leridse ; and respiratory organs, in the form of from two
to four plates, or lamellae, project from each of the sj^aces
between the bases of the rays into the central cavity, by
which sea-water has free access to bathe the digestive
organs and aerate the blood.

The colour of the star-fishes, as well as of other ma-
rine invertebrate animals, seems to be independent of
light. The Ophiuridse that had been living at a depth
of 1,260 fathoms in the North Atlantic were coloured,
though not a ray of light could reach their dark home,
and those dredged up from 100 to 300 fathoms on the

1 74 ECHINODERMA TA, part hi.

coast of Korway were of brilliant hues — red, vermilion,
•white, and yellow. In general, both plants and animals
of the lower kinds become of a sickly white when kept
in darkness.

The Stellerida? are male and female, and form fertilized
eggs of an orange or red colour. These eggs are first
converted into a mass of cells and then into larvse, not
radiating symmetrically like their parents, but of a bi-
lateral form, the two sides being perfectly alike and
bordered by a ciliated fringe nearly throughout their
whole length. These two fringes are united by a superior
and inferior transverse ciliated band, and between the
two the mouth is placed. A stomach, intestine, and vent
are formed ; the creatures can provide for themselves,
and swim about as independent zooids. A young star-
fish is gradually developed by a succession of internal
growths, part of the original zooid is retained, and the
rest is either thrown oif or absorbed ; then the star-
fishes having lost the power of swimming, crawl slowly
away and acquire their full size. There is great diversity
in the external form of the zooids of the different genera,
as well as in the portion of them retained in the adult
star-fish.

Eossil star-fishes have a very wide range. They are
found among the earliest Silurian organic forms, but
they scarcely bear any resemblance to existing genera.
The Ophiuridse, fished up from the bottom of the North
Atlantic, come nearest to them. Five genera are found
in the Oolitic formation, all extinct ; three genera range
from the Lias to the present seas ; and five genera be-
longing to the Cretaceous period are represented by
living species.

Echinodermata Crinoulea.

The Crinoid Echinoderms, or Stone-Lilies, are like a
tulip or lily on an upright stem, which is firmly fixed

SECT. VI. ECHIN0DER3fA TA. 17^

to a substance at the bottom of the sea. During the
Jurassic period, miniature forests of these beautiful ani-
mals flourished on the surface of the Oolite strata, then
under the ocean. Myriads of their fossil remains are
entombed in the seas, and extensive strata of marble are
chiefly composed of them. Their hollow joints are known
in several parts of England as wheel stones, and as St.
Cuthbert's beads on the Northumbrian coast, in honour
of the patron saint of Holy Island, where they abound.
The Crinoidea are of two kinds : the Encrinites, which
chiefly flourished in the Palaeozoic period and are now
represented by a minute species (Rhizocrinus Lofo-
tensis) lately discovered on the coast of Norway by
Professor Sars, have a smooth, cylindrical, jointed stem ;
and the Pentacrinites, which began at the Lias, and have
a five-sided jointed stem, the present representative of
which is the Pentacrinus caput-Medusse, found in the
West Indian seas.

The hollow, five-sided, calcareous, jointed stem of the
living Pentacrinite is filled with a spongy substance, and
supports a cup on its summit, containing the digestive
organs, mouth, and tentacles of the animal. The cup
is formed of a series of calcareous plates, and from its
margin five long many-jointed rays diverge, each of
which is divided into two-jointed branches. Groups of
curled filaments, called cirri, are placed at regular dis-
tances from the bottom of the stem to the extremity of
the rays, while, on the opposite side of the rays, there
are groups of feathery objects called pinnse at each joint.
Food is caught by the tentacles and digested by the
stomach and viscera at the bottom of the cup, from
whence vessels diverge through a system of canals in
the axes of the rays, pinnse, and down the stem, all of
which convey sea-water mixed with nutritious liquid,
for the nourishment of the animal.

The genus Comatula are star-fishes, believed to have

,76 ECHINODERMAIA.

PART III.

alternately a fixed and a free state. Mr. J. V. Thomson
discovered that the Pentacrinns Europsens is merely the
fixed state of a Comatula. These star-fishes have pairs
of pimiEG placed at regular distances along their long-
jointed rays, and in the pinnse sacs containing eggs are
placed as far as the fifteenth or twentieth pair. The
eo-o«s yield active ciliated larvae, which attach themselves
in the form of flat oval disks to corallines and sea-weeds.
By degrees they develop a stem, about three-fourths of
an inch high, with twenty-four distinct joints. Its ex-
panded top bears five sulphur-coloured bifurcating rays
with their pinnae and dorsal cirri. A mouth is formed
in the centre with its tentacles, and a lateral prominent
vent. The actual change of a Pen tacrine into a Co-
matula has not been seen, but as the small Pentacrinites
disapx^ear in September, at which season the Comatulse
appear, it is believed that when full grown the top of
the fixed Pentacrinite falls off and becomes a Comatula,
which swims backwards with great activity by striking
the water alternately with its long rays. The Penta-
crinns caput-Medusee, which is fixed by its stem to sea-
weeds and zoophytes, forms a most beautiful object for
the lower magnifying powers when viewed in a fluid by
a strong refracting light.

Echinodermata Echino'idea.

The family of Echinidse, commonly known as Sea-Eggs
or Sea-TJrchins, have a beautiful but complicated struc-
ture. The calcareous shell of an Echinus is a hollow
spheroid with large circular openings at each pole. In
the larger of the two, called the corona, the mouth of the
animal is situated ; in the lesser circle the vent is placed.
The spheroid itself is formed of ten bands extending in a
meridional direction from the corona to the lower ring ;
that is, from one jDolar circle to the other. Each band
consists of a double row of pentagonal plates increasing

SECT. VI. ECHINODEEMATA.

in size from tlie poles to the equator, nicely dovetailed
into one another, and the bands are neatly joined by a
zigzag seam. Every alternate band is perforated by a
double series of minute double holes for the passage of
the tubular feet of the animal. The five perforated or
ambulacral bands have rows of tubercules parallel to
the series of feet holes, supporting spines movable in
every direction. The ^yq imperforated bands are charac-
terized by a greater number of spines, but there are none
within the polar circles. The spines may be long rods,
or merely prickles, or stout,
club-shaped bodies, accord-
ing to the genera.

The microscopic structure M^^^^i^^^-^lW^t^
of the shell of the Echinus P^0(yOmM^
is everywhere ih^ same ; it ^^^^([^(^^^^^
is composed of a network of ,(^^s(l^ (jr^
carbonate of lime, with a '"^ -^^^ A v«t >*w ^r\ n>
very small quantity of ani-
mal matter as a basis. In
general, the network ex- '^

tends in layers united by ^'^■rportSlTfaSert^S""-'
perpendicular pillars, but so

arranged that the open spaces, or meshes, in one layer
correspond to the solid structure in the next.

The spheroid of the Echinus is covered with spines,
and both outside and inside by a contractile and exten-
sile transparent membrane, which supports the shelly
plates at the poles, and dips between the bands but does
not penetrate them. Its extensile nature admits of the
addition of calcareous matter to the edges of the plates
when the animal is increasing in size. The membrane
lining the interior of the shelly globe is tough; it
encloses the digestive organs, and forms a muscular lip
to the mouth, which is armed with five triangular,
sharp-pointed, white teeth, and surrounded by five pairs

VOL. II. N

1 78 ECHINODERMA TA. paet hi.

of pinnate tubular tentacles. The outer margin of the
lip is fringed with a circle of snake-headed pedicellarise
visible to the naked eye.

The five teeth, whose sharp tijDS meet in a point when
closed, are triangular prisms, the inner edge is sharp
and fit for cutting. Each tooth is planted upon a
larger triangular socket, two sides of which are trans-
versely grooved like a file, and as these two sides are in
close contact with the sides of the opposite socket, the
food when cut by the small teeth is ground down by the
sockets, and a salivary secretion finishes the masti-
cation. The sockets of the teeth are connected by
ten additional solid pieces, placed two and two between
them, which completes the pyramidal apparatus called
Aristotle's lantern ; it consists of forty solid calcareous
pieces arranged in fives, and moved by forty muscles at-
tached to five calcareous ridges, and five arches near the
internal edge of the corona.

Five pairs of these muscles when acting together
protrude and retract the teeth ; when acting separately
they draw them to one side or to the other ; five pairs
separate the five teeth, five pairs shut them, and the
remaining ^ve pairs work the bruising machine. The
masticated food passes through a short gullet into the
stomach, where it is digested, and the indigestible part
is carried by an intestine to the vent in the smaller
polar circle.

The smaller polar circle is formed of ten triangular
plates, five are attached to the bands containing the feet
holes, and five to the intermediate bands. The last five
are perforated, and are the reproductive plates : the
other five are also perforated for the discharge of the
liquid that moves the tubular feet, and which, after
having circulated in the body, is no longer of use. In
five of these polar plates there are red specks, the rudi-
ments of eyes, the only organs of sense these creatures

SECT. VI.

ECHIN0DER3IA TA.

179

seem to possess except that of touch and probably
smell. The nervous system is a slender, equal- sided
j)entagon round the gullet, from the sides of which five
nerves are sent to the muscles of
the mouth, and others, extending
along the ambulacral or feet bands,
end in nerve-centres under the
eye-specks.

The mechanism for extending
and retracting the feet by a liquid,
is the same with that in the star-
fishes, but the pores which admit
the liquid into the feet are double.
The tubular feet swell at their
extremity into a fleshy sucker, within which there is a
thin glassy reticulated rosette (fig. 139), of which fig.
140 is a highly mag-
nified segment. It
is perforated in the
centre by a large
round opening. The
sea-urchins can
stretch their feet
beyond the spines,
and by means of the
suckers they can at-
tach themselves even
to smooth objects, or
aided and directed by their spines they roll themselves
along with a rotatory motion head downwards.

The circulation of the bright yellow blood is like that
of the star-fishes. It is aerated both internally and
externally. The external respiratory organs are short,
branched, and highly vibratile bodies attached in pairs to
thfi oval extremities of the fine imperforated bands.

N 2

Fig. 139. Sucker-plate of
Sea-Egg.

'4M^Mm

Fig. 140. Section of a sucker -plate.

1 80 ECHINOBERMA TA. pakt hi.

There are pedicellarise scattered among the spines of
the sea-urchins which are in constant motion, protruding
themselves beyond the spines and withdrawing again,
snapping their pincers, and grasping firmly anything
that comes within their reach, or that is presented to
them. The pedicellarise vary much in form and posi-
tion in the different genera of the Echinidse ; but they
invariably consist of a long, slender, calcareous stem, and
generally tripartite head, the whole coated with a gela-
tinous fibrous transparent substance. The head of the
Pedicellaria globosa is a formidable weapon ; at the apex
of each of its three serrated and toothed blades there is
a strong sharp spine directed horizontally inwards, so
that the three spines cross each other when the blades
close, which they do so energetically that nothing could
escape from such a grasp. The pedicellarise are curious
microscopic objects; they are extremely irritable, and
although their use is unknown, they must be essential
to the well-being of the animals, since hundreds are
scattered over their shells.

The spines of the Echinidse vary in shape and structure
in the different genera and species. Those of the
Scutella form merely a velvety pile. On the common sea
urchin the spines are simple, and shed twice in the
year ; those on the Amphidetus are both club and spoon-
shaped ; and, on the Cidaris, they are large formidable
clubs moved by a ball and socket. All the spines, what-
ever their form may be, are moved in that manner ; for
there are little tubercules on the surface of the shell on
which a cup at the bottom of the spines is pressed
down by the muscular skin which covers the shell and
spines, and by its contractile power it enables the ani-
mal to move the spines in any direction.

The microscopic structure of the calcareous spines is
often beautifully symmetrical. Those of the Acrocladia
mamillata consist of concentric alternate layers of net-
work and sheaths of pillars ; so that a section of the

SECT. VI.

ECHINODERMA TA.

I8l

Fig. 141. Spine of Echinus
miliaris.

spine perpendicular to its axis exhibits a succession of

concentric rings like those of an exogenous tree. The

cup at the bottom of the spine is

very dense network^ and the last

of a sheath of encircling pillars

form the ribs, sometimes seen on

the exterior of the spines.

The spines of the Echinus
miliaris, of which fig. 141 repre-
sents the segment of a section
highly magnified, are fluted co-
lumns of calcareous glass, the
grooves of which are filled with
solid glassy matter curved on the
exterior. The innumerable hair-
like objects attached to the shells
of some of the Echinidse, the
almost filamental spines of others, and the pedicellariee
themselves, are formed of a regularly reticulated sub-
stance. When the Echinidse are stripped of their spines
and all their appendages,
their shells show 2,400
plates united with the
symmetry of a tesselated
pavement.

The Echinidse are male
and female, and the eggs
are excluded through the
five perforated productive
plates at the posterior end
of the shell. According to
the observations of Prof.
Fritz Miiller the embryo,
soon after issuing from the

c^cfcr f.filrPQ Q -frkfrn vo-rvv/a Fig. 142. Pluteus of the Echinus: — a, mouth;
e^^, ttlJtes d lUim lepre- ^^ stomach; c, echinoid disk ; d d d d,

sented (masfnified) in fio*. ^^"^ ^"^? °* *^® piuteusbody; e, cai-

^ o / & • careous framework ; /, ciUated lobes ;

142. 99 9 9y ciliated processes of the proboscis.

ECHINODERMA TA.

PART III.

All parts of this creature, which is called a Pluteus,
are strengthened by a framework of calcareous rods
tipped with orange colour, all the rest being transparent
and colourless. It swims freely, back foremost, by means
of its cilia.

While in this active state a circular disk (c, fig. 142),
covering the stomach (6, fig. 142), appears within it,
which gradually expands, and sends through the skin of

the Pluteus spines,
pedicellarise, andtu-
bercules, ultimately
developed into hol-
low feet. Then the
feet are pushed out
and drawn in, the
pedicellarise (d, ^g.
143) snap their pin-
cers ; and while the
half-formedEchinus
is making these mo-
tions within the
Pluteus, the mouth
and gullet of the Pluteus itself are in constant activity ;
and, while it swims about, the unformed Echinus within
it gets a globular shape, the shell is formed, and when
the Echinus is complete, the rest of the Pluteus is
thrown off, and the young animal rolls away.

The free swimming larval zooids of the Echinodermata
are generally hyaline, and some are phosphorescent.
The Pluteus is also the larval zooid of the ophiurid star-
fishes ; they may be seen in great numbers on the surface
of the sea in August and September. The young star-
fish is formed in them by a process analogous to that
described. The motions of the Echinidse are reflex ;
nothing indicates volition.

The fossil Echinidte first appeared in the lower Lud-

Fig. 143. Larvae of Echinus in various stages of
development within the Pluteus, which is not
represented : — b, disk with the first indication
of the cirrhi ; c, disk with the origin of the
spines between the cirrhi ; D, more advanced
disk with the cirrhi, g, and spines, x, projecting
from the surface.

SECT. VI. ECHINODERMATA. 183

low limestone, and attained their maximum in the Creta-
ceous strata. A species of Diadema, with annulated hol-
low spines, common in the Chalk, still exists. Numerous
species of the genus Cljpeaster, remarkable for their
flattened form, and known as lake urchins, are peculiar
to the Tertiary strata and existing seas ; and, lastly, five
species of Spatangidse, heart-shaped urchins, which lived
in the Tertiary periods, still exist. In consequence of
the porous texture of the solid calcareous parts of the
Echinidse, their fossil remains are commonly impregnated
with pyrites or silex, without altering their organic
structure, so that they exhibit a fracture like that of
calcareous spar.

Echinodermata Holothuro'idea,

The Holothuridse, or Sea-Cucumbers, are of a higher
organization than the preceding Echinoderms. They
are soft, worm-shaped, five-sided animals, covered by a
flexible, leathery integument or skin, in which are im-
bedded a vast multitude of microscopic calcareous plates
of reticulated structure. The mouth, which is placed at
one end of the animal, is surrounded by ten bony plates
forming a lantern, analogous to that of the Echinus; they
support branching, tubular, and retractile tentacles, which
encompass the mouth like a star. The tentacles are con-
nected with sacs at their bases, and are extended and
retracted by the injection of a watery liquid contained
in them. Innumerable tubular, suctorial feet, precisely
similar to those of the Echinus, are protruded and re-
tracted through corresponding pores in the skin of the
animal by a watery liquid, in sacs, at their bases. The
water is supplied by a system of canals connected with an
annularreservoir round the top of the guUet, which is sup-
plied with water by a bottle-shaped bag at the mouth.

Besides transverse muscles, five pairs of muscles at-
tached to the lantern at the mouth, extend throughout

1 84 ECIIINODERMATA. part m.

the whole length of the animal. Nerve-chords from the
ring at the gullet accompany these, and such is the irri-
tability of this muscular system, that the Holothurise
eject their viscera w^hen alarmed or caught; but they
have the power of reproducing them: sometimes they
divide their whole body into parts.

The respiratory organs are two very long and beau-
tifully arborescent tubes veined with capillary blood-
vessels. The circulation of the blood is similar to that
of the star-fishes, but more complicated.

The minute calcareous particles scattered indepen-
dently in the tough leathery skin of the HolothuridsD
remain as fine dust when the flesh is dissolved and
washed away ; but, upon microscopic observation, Mr.
Gosse found that the forms of these particles are re-
markable for elegance, regularity, and variety of struc-
ture, but that the normal form is an ellipse of open work
built up of five pieces of a highly refractive, transparent,
glassy material, having the shape of dumb-bells.

The Holothurise found under stones at low spring tides,
on the British coasts, are small ; those dredged up from
deep water are five or six inches long, and not unlike a
well-grovm warty cucumber ; they do not form an ar-
ticle of food in Europe, but they are highly esteemed
by the inhabitants of the Indian Archipelago and in
China, where many shiploads of the trepang are imported
annually. It is a species that swarms in the lagoons of
the coral islands, the reefs of the coral seas, and at Ma-
dagascar. Some species are two feet long, and six or
eight inches in circumference.

The order of the Holothuridse form eggs like all the
other Echinoderms ; the larval zooid has the same form
as that of the star-fishes, and changes its form twice,
while the members of the Holothuria are forming
within it ; at last they combine with those of the zooid,
and no part is cast off.

SECT. VI.

ECHINODERMA TA.

Fig. 144. Skeleton of S3^napta.

Echinodermata Synaptidce.

The Sjnaptidse are five-sided creatures, similar in
structure to the Holothurise, though more worm-like.
The whole order, which consists of the two genera of Syn-
apta and Chirodota, have twelve calcareous plates round
the mouth, five of which are perforated for the passage
of the vascular water canals, which convey the liquid for
the protrusion of the feet.

The calcareous particles imbedded in the skin of
the genus Synapta are anchor-shaped spicules fixed to
elliptical or oval plates,
(fig. 144). The plates
are reticulated and some-
times leaf-shaped, and the
flukes of the anchors are
either plain or barbed.
All the anchors are fixed
transversely to the length
of the animal, lying with great regularity in the inter-
spaces of the longitudinal muscular bands. Some-
times a thousand anchors are crowded into a square
inch, each elegant in form, perfectly finished, and ar-
ticulated to an anchor-plate, whose pattern as well as
that of the anchor itself is characteristic of the species
to which it belongs. In the Synapta digitata, which
has four fingers and a small thumb on each of its
twelve oval tentacles, the anchors are but just visible to
the naked eye f in all the other species they are micro-
scopic. Besides the anchors, the skin of the genus
Synapta contains innumerable smaller particles, 'miliary
plates,' which are crowded over the muscular bands. The
muscular system of the Synapta digitata is so irritable
that, on being touched, it divides itself into a number of

* Messrs. Woodward and Barrett on the Synapta. Trans, of Zoological
Society, London.

i86 ECHINODERMATA. pakt iii.

independent fragments, each of which keeps moving for
a time, and ultimately becomes a perfect animal like its
parent. Specimens of this Synapta have been fonnd on
the southern coasts of England and in the West of
Scotland, but the genus is rare, although containing
several species in the British seas ; it is more common
in the Adriatic; but they cannot be compared, as to
size, with the great Synapta of Celebes, which is some-
times a yard in length, and is known among the natives
as the Sea Serpent.

The calcareous particles imbedded in the skin of the
allied genus Chirodota are wheel-shaped when viewed

with a microscope (fig. 145) .
One species is British, but
they are mostly inhabitants
of warm seas . In Chirodota
violacea, a Mediterranean
species, the skin is full of

Fig. 145. meeWjke Kates of Chirodota ^^^^^g ^f ^^^^^ ^j^-^ j^^^_

line wheels lying upon one
another and connected by a fine thread. The wheels
have five or six flat radiating spokes.^ The wheels are
exceedingly small in the Chirodota Isevis, and are ar-
ranged in groups ; in the C. myriotrochus they are im-
bedded in myriads, as the name implies.

Echinodermata Sipunaulidce,

The Sipunculidse, which form the last order of the
Echinoderms, consist of several genera of marine worm-
shaped animals which burrow in the sand, and form a
link between the Holothuridse and the true sea- worms.
They have no calcareous particles in their flexible skins,
nor have they any tubular feet, or special respiratory
organs, but a vascular liquid is kept in motion in the

' ' The Microscope,' by Dr. Carpenter.

SECT. VI. ECHINODERMATA. 187

internal cavity by the cilia with which it is lined. The
mouth of the Sipunculus is a kind of proboscis with a
circular fringed lip and two contractile vessels, supposed
to serve for raising the fringes. An alimentary canal
extends to the end of the animal, turns back again,
and the intestine ends in a vent near the mouth, so
that the creature need not leave its burrow and expose
itself to enemies in order to eject the refuse of its food.
The locomotive larval zooids from the rose-coloured
eggs undergo two metamorphoses ; at last the young
Sipunculus unites with the zooid, and no part is thrown
off.

1 8 8 CR USTA CEA. part hi.

SECTION YIL

THE CRUSTACEA.

The Crustacea are free, locomotive, articulated ani-
mals, covered with a crust or external skeleton, and dis-
tinguished bj having jointed limbs, and gills that fit
them for aquatic respiration. Thej are male and female,
and, though extremely diversified, they have a similarity
in their general structure. Many are microscopic.

The Crustacea constitute ten orders, many genera,
and innumerable species. The Decapods, or the ten-
footed order, are by far the most complicated in organi-
zation. They have prominent eyes, movable on jointed
stalks, antennse, gills in a cavity on each side of the
throat, a mouth opening into a digesting apparatus, a
heart, liver, circulation of the blood, and a nervous sys-
tem, and are therefore animals of a higher grade than
any that have come under consideration.

The Decapods are divided into three tribes : — the
Macrura, or long-tailed Crustacea, of vrhich the Lob-
ster and Astacus fluviatilis, or fresh-water Crawfish, are
types ; the Anomura, or tailless tribe, of which the Her-
mit crab is the type ; and the Brachyura, or short-tailed
crustaceans, which are represented by the common Crab.
The greater number of these animals are marine ; some
inhabit fresh water ; and some are amphibious, living in
holes in the ground ; others climb reeds and bushes with
their long claw-feet ; the last two kinds come to water
to spawn.

SECT. VII. DECAPOD CRUSTACEA. 189

MacTura,

The body of the Macrura, or long-tailed crustaceans,
consists of a number of segments or rings joined end to
end, having jointed members on each side. Every indi-
vidual joint is covered with a hard crust to afford
support to the muscles. A certain number of the rings,
which form the tail, are always distinct, similar, and
movable on one another, whilst the remainder, which
form the carapace or shell, are confluent so as entirely to
obliterate the divisions. But generally the arrangement
of these twenty-one rings is such that seven of them are
confluent and form the head, seven confluent rings form
the thorax or throat, and the seven non-confluent rings
form the tail. In the Decapods the three last head
rings greatly expanded are cemented to those of the
thorax, so as to form the carapace or shell, which covers
all the body of the animal except the tail. This struc-
ture may be traced on the under-surface of the crab.

A ring consists of an upper and an under arch, with
a space between them, so as to let the feet and other
appendages pass through. In the long-tailed tribe the
tail is bent and unbent by muscles attached to the under
and upper surfaces of each ring, which give the tail a
powerful motive force, for, by bending it suddenly under
the body, and then as suddenly stretching it out, the
animal darts backwards through the water.

The Decapods have five pairs of walking feet ; the
front pair are claws employed to seize their prey, and
occasionally for walking ; the other four pairs are cylin-
drical, and end in sharp hooked points.

Brachyura,

The Brachyura surpass all the other Decapods in
compactness and concentration, and are without excep-

I go DECAPOD CRUSTACEA. part m.

tion the highest of the Crustacea. Though apparently
without a tail, they really have one, as their name
implies ; but it is short, rudimentary, and folded under
the posterior end of the carapace. The genera and
species are exceedingly numerous, many swim and
inhabit the deep oceans, others live on the coasts but
never leave the water ; a numerous tribe live as much
in the air as in the water, hiding themselves under
stones and sea-weeds on the rocky coasts, while some
dig holes for themselves in the sand, and the land crabs
only come to the sea or to fresh-water lakes to spavni.
The Brachyura have two claws, and are divided into
the two chief families of walking and swimming crabs,
according as their posterior pairs of legs end in a sharp
horny nail, or a ciliated lamellar joint.

The great shell or carapace which covers the body
varies in form with the genera ; it may be square, oval, or
circular, longer than it is broad, or broader than it is
long ; it may be straight or beaked between the eyes ; but
its lateral edges always extend over the haunches of the
feet. In the Cancri, or walking crabs, of which there
are eighteen genera and many species, the carapace is
generally much broader than it is long, and broader
before than behind.

The carapace, or shell, of the common crab is too well
known to require a particular description. The deep
lines which indent it correspond with the limits of the
internal organs ; the parts between the lines often
bulge very much above the parts occupied by the
stomach, heart, gill chamber, &c., but in the flat crabs
these divisions are not so evident.

The compound eyes, which in all the crabs have
hexagonal facettes, are on short jointed stems placed in
deep and nearly circular orbits like cups, so that the
stems are scarcely visible. These orbits, whose edges are
sometimes smooth and sometimes notched, are so con-

SECT. VII. DECAPOD CRUSTACEA. 191

structed that the crab can bend the eje- stems horizon-
tally to the right and left, and the front of the carapace
either conceals the orbit, or forms the eyebrow.

In all crabs the antennae appear in front between the
eyes. The first or interior pair are short, jointed, and
capable of being bent into cavities, which contain their
basal joints ; these cavities are near the eye orbits, with
which they are connected in cer-
tain species. Well-developed ears
are placed in their basal joints.
Fig. 146 represents a magnified ,^-_b^_
ear seen from behind, and Mr. %j^^^^K^ \MW> ))
Gosse mentions that the large
eatable crab, whether at rest or
feeding, carries these antennse

, ^ T T ill J.1 ^iS- 146. Ear of Crab.

erect and elevated, always on the

watch, and either vibrating them, or incessantly striking

the water with them in a peculiar jerking manner.

The exterior or lower pair of antennse are always
longer than the interior pair ; sometimes they are simple
and similar to them, as in the flat crabs ; and sometimes
they have jointed filaments at their extremities. In all
the species they are attached to the under-side of the
crab, and the organs of smell are openings at the point
of junction between their second and third joints.
These openings, which lead into the mouth, are covered
by a membrane, and closed by a calcareous lid. Each
lid is fastened by a little hinge to the side of its cavity,
and is opened and shut by muscles fixed at the ex-
tremity of a long tendon. Thus the lower antennse are
the organs of smell, while the upper pair are the organs
of hearing, and both are probably the organs of touch.

The mouth of the crab is on the under part of the
head, its lips are horny plates, and it has a pair of
mandibles to cut the food ; their action is from side to
side. On each side of the mouth there are two pairs of

192 DECAPOD CRUSTACEA. part iji.

jaws, followed by three pairs of foot-jaws ; so called
because they are legs modified to serve as jaws, but in
some crustaceans they are also instruments of loco-
motion or prehension, and sometimes of both. The
two last pairs have palpi, or feelers, at their base. All
the jaws and foot-jaws, when not in use, are folded over
the mouth ; the joints of the two last are so broad that
they completely conceal this complicated apparatus.

Posterior to the mouth and its organs there is a flat
broad plate, which forms the ventral side of the body,
with a groove in its surface, into which the rudimentary
tail is folded back, as in the Carcinus moenas (d, ^g,
148), and the feet are fixed by movable joints on each
side of this sternal plate. The first pair, which are a
little in advance of the others, and bend forwards in a
curve towards each other, may be called hand-feet, as
they occasionally serve for both. They have very thick
short arms and swollen hands, having a curved finger
and a thumb with a movable hinge, armed throughout
their internal edge with a row of blunt teeth, and ter-
minated by sharp points. Tlie other four pairs, which
are the real walking feet, spread out on each side of
the animal, and often bend a little backwards ; they are
ra.ther thin, compressed, and end either in a horny nail,
or flattened blade for swimming.

The gills, which are the breathing organs of the crabs
and other Decapods, are spindle-shaped bundles of long,
slender, four- sided pyramids, fixed by their points on
each side of the mid line of the throat, so that they ex-
tend in opposite directions, and their spreading bases
fit and rest upon the vaulted sides of the carapace, or
rather gill chambers, to the right and left. Each of the
pyramids is formed of a multitude of parallel membra-
nous cylinders fixed to the axis of the pyramid, and
an infinity of capillary bloodvessels form a network in
their surfaces.

The crab has nine of these bundles of gills in each

SECT. VII.

DECAPOD CRUSTACEA.

193

gill chamber ; a few of them are shown hi fig. 147. Each
gill chamber has two openings ; the water is admitted by
a slit in the base of the claw feet, and ejected by another
into the mouth. But the act of breathing is regulated
by a plate on the second pair of jaws, so connected with
the exterior pair of foot-jaws that, when the crab applies
the latter to its mouth, the plate shuts the slit, the water
in the gill chamber is ejected by the mouth, and in order to
admit a fresh supply, the crab must open the foot-jaws

Pig. 147. Section of a Crab.

again, so that they are in constant motion. There are
plates called whips on all the appendages of the crab,
from the last pair of foot-jaws to the fourth pair of
walking feet inclusive, which ascend and descend verti-
cally between the bunches of gills to sweep particles of
sand or other foreign matter out of them.

The heart of the crab, as in all the Decapods, is placed
under the skin of the back next to the throat ; and the
blood, which is white or bluish, flows from the heart
through a complicated system of vessels, and, having

VOL. II. 0

DECAPOD CRUSTACEA.

nourislied the different organs, it is collected in reser-
voirs at the base of the gills, is aerated while passing
through them, and returns to the heart again.

The month oi)ens through a short gullet into a large
globular stomach, from the walls of which calcareous
toothed organs meet in the centre. One serves as an
anvil, while the others bruise the food on it. Some of
the long-tailed crustaceans can evert this apparatus and
push it out of their mouth. The bruised food is lique-
fied bj solvent juices from the liver and stomach, and
the nutritious part enters the bloodvessels by imbi-
bition.

The nervous system is condensed to suit the form of
the crab. An oval nervous mass with a hole in its centre
surrounds the gullet, from each side of which a nerve
extends to a nerve-centre in the head. The organs of
sense are as usual supplied with nerves from the latter,
and, from the circumference of the massy ring, nerves
radiate to every part of the animal, voluntary or reflex,
as may be required.

Dr. Carpenter has proved, by microscopic observations,
that the shell of the Decapod, in its most complete form,
consists of three strata : the first is a horny structureless
layer covering the exterior ; the second, a cellular stra-
tum ; and the third is a laminated tubular substance.
In the large, thick-walled crabs, as the Cancer pagu-
rus, the three strata are most distinctly marked. The
tubuli of the lowest layer rise up through the pigment
stratum in little papillary elevations, which give the
coloured parts of the shell a minutely speckled appear-
ance. There are various deviations from this general
plan. In many of the small crabs belonging to the genus
Portunus, the whole substance of the shell below the
structureless horny investment is made up of hexagonal,
thick- walled cells; and in the prawns there are large
stellate coloured cells.

SECT. YII,

DECAPOD CRUSTACEA.

The eggs of the Brach^aira are attached by gluten to
the false ciliated feet of the tail of the female, which
being bent up under the body forms a temporary protec-
tion till they are hatched. On leaving the egg the 3^oung
have not the smallest resemblance to the parent ; it is
only after the fourth moult that they even acquire the
crab form. "When the young of our common shore crab,
the Carcinus moenas, leaves the egg, it is scarcely half a
line in length. The body is ovoid, the dorsal shield large
and swelled (fig. 148, a). On the middle of its upper
edge there is a long, hollow spine bending backwards, in

Fig. 148. Young of Carcinus mcenas in different stages of development:— a, fii-st stage :
B, second stage ; c, third stage ; D, perfect form.

which the white blood may be seen to circulate with a
sufiicient microscopic power. In front there is a pair
of large sessile eyes, and the circumference of the pupils
is marked by radiating lines : behind, there is a long,
six-jointed tail, the last segment of which is forked and
spined. On each side of the shield there is a pair of
swimming feet attached to its waved margin. Fixed
also to the margin, but in advance of these, there are
three pairs of jointed feet ending in slender hairs. Im-
mediately in front, between the eyes, there is a very long
compressed appendage, which is bent backwards between
the claws when the animal moves. Under each eye there

196 DECAPOD CRUSTACEA. part iii.

is another appendage, shorter and rather more com-
pressed. There are three pairs of claws, each composed
of three joints, and ending in four long slender hairs :
the claws stand at right angles to the body. The young,
w^hen it escapes from the egg, is quite soft, but it rapidly
hardens by the deposition of calcareous matter on its
surface. The progress of the consolidation is shown by
the circulation of the white blood in the hollow dorsal
spine. When the creature is yet soft, the blood globules
may be seen ascending to its apex ; but, as the consolida-
tion advances, the circulation becomes more and more
limited till at length it is confined to the base. This
creature, whose shield is sap green and the rest trans-
parent, swims with great activity, beating the water
with his claws and tail. Such is the first stage in the
life of the common shore crab. At this period the
young of the Decapods bear a strong resemblance to one
another, whether they are afterwards to become long or
short tailed crustaceans.

After a time this creature loses its activity, moults,
and is no longer to be recognised as the same, so great
is the change (fig. 148, b). The dorsal spine has vanished,
the shield has become flatter, its anterior part pointed,
the eyes raised on stalks, and certain rudimentary or-
gans that were below the eyes now form long antennse.
The first pair of feet have got hands, the others are
jointed and simple, except the last pair, which are still
natatory : with these and with the tail, which is now
much smaller, these creatures swim and congregate
round sea-weeds and floating objects. After the third
moult they have the form of a crab, though neither that
of the genus nor species of the parent (fig. 148, c). The
tail is folded under a square carapace, the four pairs of
walking feet spread widely and laterally, while the great
hand-feet attached to the anterior sides of the carapace
stretch strai^-htforwards, the antennae are short, and the

SECT. VII. JJECAPOI) CRUSTACEA. 197

eye-stalks bent to the right and left. It requires several
moults to bring this creature to its final size and
form.^

Crabs sometimes die while moulting, and occasionally
are unable to extricate a limb from its shell, and conse-
quently lose it. But if a limb be fractured the}^ can cast
it off at the second joint, and soon after a diminutive
limb is formed, v^hich attains its full size at the next
moult ; but if the crab has not strength enough to cast
it off, it bleeds to death.

Anomnra.

The Anomura is a family of Decapods intermediate
between the long and short- tailed Crustacea. There are
nine or ten genera and many species, chiefly distin-
guished by the development of the head and thorax,
and the softness of a non-locomotive tail : of these the
Pagurus, or Hermit crab, is assumed as the type or
representative.

The carapace is long and convex, scarcely extending
over the basal joints of the feet. The claw feet are
short, with a very broad hand and sharp pincers ; but
the Hermit crab and some of its congeners are irregu-
larly formed ; for the last pair of walking feet, instead
of being attached to the thorax, like the others, are
fixed to the first part of the tail, are generally folded
over the back, and are employed to sweep foreign
matter out of the gills. The mouth and its masti-
cating organs are similar to those in the crab, except the
exterior pair of foot-jaws, which are longer and move
like feet. But that which distinguishes the Pagurus
and its fellows from every other Decapod is the softness
of its unsymmetrical tail, all the appendages of which
are abortive, and the extremity, instead of ending in a

2 'Mr. C. Spence Bate.

1 9 8 CR USTA CEA. part hi.

swimming fin, terminates in a pair of grasping organs.
In order to protect this soft-skinned tail, the Hermit
crab folds it np and thrusts it into some old empty shell,
clasps the column of the shell with its grasping organs,
draws in the rest of its body, and covers it with the
broad hands folded in such a manner as to close the
mouth of the shell, and to defend itself if attacked. It
holds so fast that it cannot be drawn out ; but, when in
search of food, it stretches out its mailed head and legs,
and walks off with its house on its back. However, it
sometimes comes out of its shell to feed, and, like some
other crustaceans, it holds its prey with one claw, and
tears it to pieces with the other. They are very pug-
nacious, and come out of their shells to die. The larvse
of the Paguridse undergo transformation, and they
moult when full grown.

Stomapoda.

The Stomapods are all swimmers; they have long-
bodies with a carapace ; but it is so varied in form and
size, that no general description of it can be given.
They have external, instead of internal, organs of respi-
ration ; gills in the form of tufts are in some cases
attached to a few of the foot-jaws, but they are much
more frequently fixed to the basal joints of their swim-
ming feet, so that the blood in their capillary veins is
aerated through their thin skin as they float in the
water. In the Squilla mantis, or S. Desmarestii, mem-
bers of a genus of this family, the gills, which are
fixed to the basal joint of their last pair of feet, consist
of a long conical tube, on each side of which there are
numerous parallel tubes, like the pipes of an organ, and
each of these has a row of many long cylindrical fila-
ments that drag in the water. The mouth and its
appendages are similar to those of the common Deca-
pods, with the exception of the anterior jaw-feet, which

SECT. Yii. CRUSTACEA. 199

are of a singular and formidable structure. They are
bent outwards, and their basal joint is exceedingly
large, broad, and compressed; the next joint is less, with
a groove in its side; the third joint is a blade like
a scythe, whose cutting edge is furnished with long
pointed teeth. The Squillse are carnivorous, and, if any
unfortunate animal comes within their grasp, they bend
back the toothed edge of the first joint into the groove
of the second joint like a clasp-knife, and cut it in two.
These prehensile foot-jaws, or 'pattes ravisseurs,' are
like the fore-feet of the praying Mantis, and like them
weapons of defence.

The genus Mysis, or Opossum Shrimps, have a long
straight carapace, which covers most of the thorax, and
folds down on each side so as to conceal the base of
the feet : in front it is narrow, and ends in a flattened
beak ; at the posterior end it is deeply scooped out.
The two last rings of the thorax are more or less
exposed ; the tail is long, almost cylindrical, tapering to
the end, and terminating in a swimming fin composed
of five plates spread like a fan. Both pairs of antennse
have jointed stems ending, the outer in one, the inner
in two very long many -jointed filaments. On the top of
the basal joint of the outer pair there is a very long
lamellar appendage, ciliated on the side next the joint.
Between the second and third joints of the exterior
antennae, Mr. Spence Bate found the organ of taste :
the aperture is simply covered by a membrane, as in the
lobster. The ears are in the last appendage of the tail.

The Mysis has two pairs of jaw-feet differing little
from feet ; five pairs of thoracic feet, all thin and divided
into two branches, which increase in length as they are
nearer the tail, and are all provided with a ciliated ap-
pendage to adapt them for swimming. In the female,
broad horny plates, attached to the two last pairs of legs,
are bent under the body so as to form a kind of pouch,
destined to lodge the eggs and the young during the

200

CRUSTACEA.

PAET III.

first period of tlieir lives, whence their name, ' Opossum
Shrimps ' : the young are crowded in this pouch, and
acquire their adult form before they come into the water.
The circulation of the white blood of the Mysis was
discovered by Mr. Thompson : the pulsations of the heart
are so rapid that they resemble vibrations. There are
many species of these small shrimps.

The genus Lucifer is one of the most singular of the
crustaceans from its almost linear form (fig. 149), the
excessive length of the anterior part of the head, the
extreme shortness of the thorax, the smallness of the

Fig. 149. Lucifer, a stomapod crustacean.

carapace or shell, and the great development of the tail,
which is more than three times as long as the thorax.
The thin eye- stalks, which are of exaggerated length,
extend at right angles from the top of the long cylindri-
cal part of the head, and terminate in large, staring,
dark-coloured eyeballs covered with a multitude of fa-
cettes. The two pairs of antennse are placed between and
below the eye-stalks. The undermost pair, which are
the shortest, have a little lamellar appendage at their
base : in some Lucifers, when viewed in front, it looks
like a cross. The salient mouth is placed at the base of
the long organ that carries the eye-stems. It has strong
toothed mandibles, two pairs of jaws with plates attached
to each jaw, and three pairs of foot-jaws. The tail is
very narrow, consisting as usual of seven rings movable
on one another ; but they are quite abnormal, for each of
the rings is at least as long as the thorax ; the last has

SECT. Yii. CRUSTACEA. 201

five plates sprep^ding like a fan. All tlie bristly feet,
which seem to hang loosely down from the animal, are
fitted for swimming ; those of the tail have long ciliated
plates in their basal joints. These creatures are small,
and inhabitants of warm seas.

The Amphipods are very numerous, and abound in the
British seas. They have long, slender, and many-jointed
bodies which have no carapace : the tail in some genera
is more fitted for swimming, in others for leaping. The
Talitrus, or Sandhopper, common on every sandy shore
in Europe, is a well-known example of the leaping genus.
It is very small and exceedingly active. The upper an-
tennse are very short, the inferior pair are large, and
longer than the whole body. The anterior feet are thin
and not prehensile. The first pair end in an immov-
able claw ; the second pair have a kind of hand, and
are folded beneath the body; the following feet end in
a crooked nail. The appendages of the last three rings
of the tail are thick and spiny, and the tail serves as a
leaping organ.

The sandhoppers hide themselves between tidemarks
in large communities under masses of wet sea- weeds, on
which they feed. When disturbed they leap away with
great agility, and bury themselves in the sand by dig-
ging with their fore-feet, and kicking the sand away
with their tail-feet. They have a strong sense of smell,
for if a dead fish be buried in the sand, it is devoured
by these little voracious animals in a few days.

In the fin-tailed genera the gills are suspended be-
tween the bases of the thoracic legs : they swim lying on
their side, and their feet are very varied in form, but
always more or less furnished with spines and hairs.

There are several genera of Amphipods that are nest-
building animals ; all have hooks at the end of their tails.

202 CH US TA CEA. TART III.

The Ampliithoee enclose themselves in a cylindrical tube
open at both ends. The animal is very active, running
along the branches of the sea-weeds by means of its an-
tennse instead of its feet, which remain within the tube.
In general only the first pair of antennse are put out to
catch prey. If the animal be prevented from advancing,
it immediately turns its body within the tube, and pro-
trudes its head from the other extremity.

Iso^oda.

The order of Isopoda are so called because of the
sharp and equal claws of their walking feet, which
are often prehensile. Their body is short and flat-
tened, and their small head is almost always distinct
from the throat. They are very numerous, and are di-
vided into walking, swimming, and sedentary animals;
the females have horny plates on some of their feet,
which fold under the throat and form a pouch, in which
the eggs are hatched.

The Oniscus, common Wood-louse, or Slater, is a ter-
restrial Isopod. It is an oval jointed creature, which
rolls itself into a ball when touched. The second of its
six pairs of ]30sterior limbs perform the part of lungs :
they contain hollow organs in their interior, into which
the atmospheric air penetrates directly through openings
in their exterior covering: so the Oniscus and its con-
geners, which live on land, are drowned when put into
water.

In the swimming Isopods, the five first pairs of tail-
limbs are false feet, and are suspended under the tail.
The gills, consisting of two great oval leaves, are fixed to
them by a stalk; and are dragged through the water.
This group is very numerous ; many live among the sea-
weeds on the coasts, others perforate submerged wood
in all directions, and live in the winding galleries they

SECT. Yii. CRUSTACEA. 203

have formed. The Limnoria lignornm is particularly de-
structive in the harbours on the British coasts, and in the
locks of the canals. The tortuous holes it bores are from
the fifteenth to the twentieth of an inch in diameter, and
about two inches deep. The female Isopod is not more
than a line or two in length, the male is a third less,
and of a grey or greenish brown. These minute crea-
tures bore their holes with their mandibles, which are so
sharp and strong that they can penetrate the hardest
wood, and appear to feed on it, from the quantity found
in their stomachs. Their bodies are covered with pin-
nated hairs, their antennae are short, and their posterior
end or tail is rounded.

Most of the genus Cymothea are parasitical ; they can
bend the sharp nail of the three first pairs of feet upon
the preceding joint, so as to form hooks with which they
fix themselves to the fishes on whose juices they feed.

The Isopods bear a strong resemblance, an almost
identity of structure, with the Trilobites, a jointed race
of Crustaceans long extinct. Some of the Isopods roll
themselves into a ball, as these most ancient inhabitants
of the ocean were wont to do ; whose large compound
eyes are exactly like those of the Iso23ods ; whence it was
inferred by Dr. Buckland, that neither the constitution
of the sea nor the light of the sun had changed for in-
numerable ages. The discovery of the Eozoon has
proved that Nature has not varied during a period im-
measurably prior even to that.

Entomostraca.

The Entomostraca form an immense group of the
lower Crustacea, consisting of five orders. A vast
number are just visible to the naked eye, and many
are microscopic ; they teem in every climate along the
coasts, and in the deep blue oceans. The horny coat,

204 CRUSTACEA. paet in.

enclosing the minute bodies of these animals, is often
so transparent that their internal structure, and occa-
sionally the process of the assimilation of the food, is
distinctly seen by the aid of a microscope. Small as they
are, their beauty is often very great ; when transparent
they sometimes radiate all the prismatic colours;
when opaque, they are frequently of the most brilliant
and varied hues, others shine with vivid phosphores-
cent light. The segments of their bodies are often very
numerous, and similar to one another ; but their appen-
dages are very different. They form two distinct natural
groups of the bristly-footed and gill-footed Crustacea.

Co;pejpoda,

The first order, Copepoda, or oar-footed tribe, have
a distinctly articulated body formed of movable rings,
bristly swimming limbs ; and the females carry their
eggs in huge pouches suspended on each side of the
posterior part of their bodies.

The Sapphirina fulgens is a beautiful example of the
two-eyed tribe ; its body is nearly oval, divided into
nine distinct joints, and so flat that it is almost folia-
cious. The head has two brilliantly coloured eyes, with
large cornea so connected with the shell that they look
like spectacles. The two pairs of antennse are silky,
and the last pair of foot-jaws that cover the mouth are
garnished with silky plumes. It has five pairs of swim-
ming feet, and the tail ends in two little plates.

The Sapphirina is about a line and a half long, of a
rich sapphire blue, and floats on the surface of the
Mediterranean and tropical oceans. It shines with the
most brilliant phosphorescent colours, passing from
deep blue to a golden green, or splendid purple. The
brilliant colouring is seated in the layer of cells that
secrete the firm substance of the body. With a micro-

SECT. VII.

CRUSTACEA.

20:

scope the cells are seen to pass alternately from one
colour to another. There is a little three-lobed body
between the eyes connected with the central nervous
system by a small nerve ; it contains several corpuscules,
which Professor Gegenbaur regards as the remains of
the single eye of the larva which undergoes many trans-
formations before it arrives at its adult form.

According to Professor Gegenbaur, the Sapphirina
fulgens is a true Copepod and the Mediterranean Phyl-
losoma is a Decapod, although it has a lacunar blood
system.

Some genera of the order Copepoda inhabit salt water,
others fresh, as the Cyclops quadricornis (fig. 150), which
abounds in the water
with which London
is supplied.

The genus Cyclops
is a type of the
bristly-footed group,
distinguished by a
single compound eye
placed in the middle
of the forehead. The
head and thorax are
almost entirely co-
vered with an oval
j ointed buckler, which
has an opening below
to let the bristly
limbs pass through
(fig. 150); and the
tail, which is ^yq-
j ointed, ends in two
plates furnished with
bristly plumes. It is traversed by the intestine, which
ends near its extremity. The brilliant little eye in front

Fig. 150. Female Cyclops:— a, body ; b, tail ; c, an-
tenna ; d, antennule ; e, feet ; /, plumose setag of
tail ; B, taU, with external egg-sacs ; c, D, E, F, G,
successive stages of development of young.

2o5 CRUSTACEA. paet iii.

consists of a nnmber of simple eyes placed under one
glassy cornea. It rests upon tlie base of a cone of mus-
cular fibres, which give it a movement of rotation upon
its centre. Its upper pair of antennse, situated below the
eye, spread to the right and left. In the female they have
numerous joints with a bristle at each joint; the lower pair
of antennse are short-jointed and bristled. The mouth
of the Cyclops has a pair of jaws, and two pairs of foot-
jaws covered with bristles. The five pairs of branching
legs, which are fitted for swimming, are thickly beset
with plumose tufts. In the female the egg-sacs are
hung on each side of the tail (b, fig. 150) by a slender
tube, through which the eggs pass from the ovary within
the mother into the sacs where they are deposited in
rows, and there they remain till hatched. When the
larvse come into the water the sacs drop off, and the
young undergo various changes before coming to ma-
turity, as shown in fig. 150. The Cyclops swims with
great activity, striking the water with its antennae, feet,
and tail ; and the rapid movement of its foot-jaws makes
a whirlpool in the water which brings minute animal-
cules to its mouth, and even its own larvse, to be devoured.
Some species of the Calanus, a marine genus of the
one-eyed group, are eminently social. Professor Dana
found that the colour of those vast areas of what the
sailors call bloody water, met with off the coast of
Chili, was owing to shoals of the Calanus pontilla ; and
another immense area of bloody water he met with in
the North Pacific was owing to a vast multitude of the
Calanus sanguineus. Although this genus abounds
more in individuals in the temperate seas, the sjpecies
are more varied in the tropical. Those figured and
described in Captain Maury's works were mostly micro-
scopic and very beautiful ; one fished up was grey with
a bunch of yellow feathers at the end of its tail. The
egg-bags were purple, another was green marked with

SECT. Yir. CRUSTACEA. 207

scarlet tufted antennse longer than itself spread ont at
rio'ht ano'les from its liead. This creatnre shone with a
bright phosphorescent light, visible even when a candle
was burning. These and many more were taken in tropi-
cal seas. They were remarkable for the length of their
antennae ; and it was observed that no eyes were per-
ceptible in such Crustacea as had these exaggerated
antennae ; these organs of intelligence and warning were
probably sufficient for their wants. When animals live
without eyes on the surface of a tropical sea, it is quite
conceivable that similar instruments of touch may suffice
for those who live in the dark abyss below.

The Ostrapods, which form the second order of the
bristly-footed Crustacea, are defended by a bivalve
carapace ; they have swimming limbs and a confluent
eye ; that is, a number of simple eyes placed under a
glassy cornea.

The genus Cypris belongs to this group. Several
species may be seen swimming in our streams and
fresh- water pools. The
body of the common VA , ' '

Cyi^ris (fig. 151) is ^.. ,^ ^.

enclosed between two \\%JV'

flat oval shells, united \wu^

by a hinge on the back. V " •: •

The little animal can '.^ y

open and shut the ;/

valves by means of two fesgs^^^^E.a^^i^'?

slender muscles, ex- \"^-^ ~'^^y

tending from its back ^,^^ ,,,^ cypris.

to the shells, which

are much curved above and rather flat below. There

are two pairs of antennae beneath the eye, they are

perfectly transparent, many-jointed, and end in tufts of

filaments. One pair ]Drojects forward and then bends

gracefully backwards; the other pair are bent down-

208

CRUSTACEA.

PART III.

wards. The mouth has no foot-jaws, and there are
only two pairs of feet. Only one pair is seen in the fe-
male, for the other pair is bent upwards to support the
egg sacs. The Cypris attaches her eggs to the leaves
of aquatic plants by a greenish fibre. Not more than
twenty or thirty eggs are deposited by one individual,
while the heaps contain several hundreds ; so many fe-
males contribute to form one heap. The young are
hatched in the form of their parent in about four days
and a half. As the pools dry up, the Cyprides bury
themselves in the sand or mud at the bottom ; if that

Fig. 152. Section of Daplinia pules.

remain moist they survive, if it becomes dry they perish ;
but the eggs remain dormant till the return of rain,
when they are hatched, and the surface of the water
is soon crowded with a swarm of young Cyprides.

The Cladocera is the first order of the gill-footed
Crustacea : their body is defended by a bivalve carapace ;
they have from four to six gill-footed limbs, one com-
pound eye, and two pairs of antemise, one pair of which
is large and adapted for swimming. The Daphnia pulex,
or Arborescent Water-flea, of which fig. 152 is a sec-
tion, is a common form of this tribe. It is very abundant

SECT. VII. CRUSTACEA. 209

in pools and ditches, coining in groups to the surface
in the mornings and evenings in cloudy w^eather. The
bivalve shell is transparent, flexible, and open belov^ ;
it ends behind in sharp toothed peaks. The eye placed
in front is moved by four muscles, and on each side of
it are the great antennse, v^hich are jointed, branched,
and garnished with feathery filaments, and are the chief
organs of locomotion. This animal has no foot-jaws,
but it has a nervous system and a heart, whose pulsa-
tions are repeated two or three hundred times in a
minute, and the blood is aerated by gills at the extre-
mities of six pairs of bristly feet situated behind the
mouth, and only used for respiration and prehension.

The eggs, when laid, are deposited in a receptacle
between the back and the shell of the female Daph-
nia, and after the young come into the water they
undergo no transformations. Between each brood the
Daphnia moults, and the egg receptacle is thrown off
with the exuvia. After several changes of skin the young
Daphnise come to maturity and lay eggs, which pro-
duce successive generations of females throughout the
spring and summer ; but in the autumn males appear,
and then the eggs are retained in the receptacle of the
female and are not hatched till spring. If the female
should moult after this, the case with the eggs in it is
cast off with her outer skin, which then becomes a pro-
tection to the eggs during the winter, and they are
hatched in spring, producing females.

Fhyllopoda,

The second order of gill-footed Crustacea are called
Phyllopoda, because they have gills like the leaves of a
book attached to their lamelliform swimming feet.
Their bodies are divided into many segments, and they
form two groups, one of which has a carapace, the

VOL. II. p

2 1 o CR USTA CEA, paet hi.

other has not. The Apus cancriformis is an example of
the first. It is about two inches and a half long, and is
a large animal compared with the others of its class. Its
head and thorax are covered by an oval carapace, and
its cylindrical body is composed of thirty articulations.
It has a compound movable eye in the middle of its
forehead, and a sessile eye on each side of it. All the
members that follow the apparatus of the mouth have
a foliaceous form, and are in constant motion even
when the animal is at rest. The Apus has sixty pairs
of jointed legs; the number of joints in these and in the
other appendages is estimated to be not less than two
millions. However, the instruments chiefly used for
locomotion are the first pair of feet, which are very long
and serve for oars ; with these the animal can swim freely
in any position, but when they are at rest it floats on
the surface of the stagnant water in which it lives, and
the fin feet maintain a constant whirlpool in the water,
which brings the small animals on which it feeds to its
mouth.

The BranchiiDCs stagnalis, which may be taken as a
type of the second order, has a perfectly transparent
segmented body nearly an inch long, eleven pairs of
pale red gill-feet, antennae of bluish green, and a long
tail ending in red bristles. The head has two large
eyes on movable stems, and a sessile black oculus be-
tween them. Filiform antennse spring from the upper
part of the head ; the other pair, like two large horns,
are turned downwards. The last ring of the swimming
tail has two plates with ciliated appendages.

The Artemia salina differs \Qvy little from the Bran-
chipes. It abounds so much in the brine pans at
Lymington and other salt works, as to give a red
tinge to the nearly concentrated brine, the temperature
of which is so high that no other animal could live for
a moment in it.

SECT. VII, CRUSTACEA, 211

Pycnogonoidea or Spider Grabs,

Some of the Spider crabs liook themselves to fishes,
while others live Tinder stones, or sprawl vnth their long
hairy legs over sea-weeds, and feed on the gelatinous
matter these weeds afford. The throat with its mem-
bers, and the head soldered to its first ring, forms
nearly the whole animal. It has a pair of antennsa and
fonr rudimentary eyes, set on a tubercule. A proboscis-
like projection extends from the front ; ih.Q mouth is fur-
nished with cilia and one pair of foot-jaws. Four pairs
oflong hairy legs proceed fi-om the throat, spread widely
on each side, and end in a hooked claw. The stomach,
which occupies the centre of the animal, sends off five
pairs oflong closed tubes like rays ; one pair enters the
foot-jaws, the others penetrate the legs. This digesting
system is in a state of perpetual vermicular motion,
which, as well as the movements of the animal itself,
aerate its transparent blood through the skin, by keeping
it in circulation. So this insignificant-looking creature
has a very curious and complicated mechanism.^

Fossil Crustacea,

Analogues to the Anomura are found in the Chalk
formation, but the Macrura are the prevailing forms.
Extinct species of lobster, crawfish, and shrimps are
met with in the secondary strata, from the Chalk to the
Coal measures. In the Coal formation all these higher
forms disappear, but then the gigantic King Crab, or
Limulus, is found accompanied by the minute Entomo-
stracan forms in infinite variety of species.

^ ' Histoire natiirelle des Crustaces/ par M. Milne-Edwards.

212 CRUST A CEA. part hi.

Epizoa, or Suctorial Crustacea,

The Epizoa infest the skin, eyes, and gills of fishes.
Many of them in their adult state bear a. strong resem-
blance to the lowest of the Crustacea ; but, in general,
the resemblance between these two classes of animals
can only be traced during the extraordinary changes
which the Epizoa undergo in their early life, and they
differ so much in their perfect state that it is wonderful
any connection should ever have been discovered be-
tween them. The Epizoa are extremely varied in their
perfect forms, and the class generally is supposed to be
more numerous than the whole race of fishes. In the
lower orders of the Epizoa the mouth is suctorial ; the
higher orders adhere to their victim by jointed mandibles
ending in hooks. The Epizoa are male and female : the
male is small and free, the female is fixed, and generally
has a pair of long egg-sacs hanghig from her body.

SECT. VIII

CIRRIPEDIA,

213

SECTIO]^ YIII.

CIREIPEDIA.

The metamorplioses of the Cirripeds, and their resem-
blance to the lower Crustacea at each moult, are still
more remarkable than those of the Epizoa. Thej form
two primary groups, the Balanidse, or Acorn shells, and
the Barnacles or Lepadidse, which have peduncles or
stalks. Both are parasites, but they do not draw their
sustenance from the substances they adhere to.

The Balanidse (fig. 153) are grouped in innumerable
multitudes, crowded together on the rocks of the southern
and westei^n coasts of England, like
brown acorns. They have an ob-
scurely articulated body, enclosed
in a membrane, and defended by a
multivalve conical shell. The base
of the shell is a broad disk fixed to
a foreign substance by a cement
secreted by the animal. The walls
consist of twelve triangular com-
partments. Six rise upright from
the edge of the disk, and end in a
point at the open margin of the shell ; the other six are
inverted and wedged into the interstices. The whole
cone thus constructed is divided into from four to eight
pieces by expansive seams. The mouth of the cone is
closed by a lid formed of four triangular valves, which
meet in a point in the centre, and shut in the creature.

Fig. 153. Balanus culcatus.

214

CIRRIPEDIA,

Six pairs of long, slender, curly feet rise from tlie throat
of tlie animal, and bend over the prominent mouth, which
is placed at the bottom of a kind of
funnel, formed by the divergence
of these six pairs of thoracic feet.
It is furnished with a broad upper
lip, two palpi, and three pairs of
jaws, of which the outermost are
horny and toothed, the innermost
soft and fleshy. Each foot is di-
vided into two similar many-
jointed branches : the shortest
pair is nearest to the mouth, the
others increase gradually in length
and number of joints to the most
distant (fig. 154). Mr. Gosse
estimated that, in a specimen he
possessed, the whole apparatus
included nearly five hundred dis-
tinct articulations. Since each
joint is moved by its own system of muscles, the per-
fection of the mechanism may be conceived. But it is
as sensitive as flexible, for every separate joint is fur-
nished with a system of spinous hairs, which are no
doubt organs of touch, since the whole of the branches
are supplied with nerves. These hairs, which extend
at somewhat wide angles from the axis of the curling
filaments, are barbed, for they have numerous projec-
tions, or shoulders, surrounded by whorls of micro-
scopic hairs.''

This beautiful and complicated structure is the fishing
apparatus of the animal, which it is continually pushing
out and drawing in through the valved lid of the shell.
When the whole is thrown out it is widely spread, and

Fig. 154.

Tentacles or feet of
the Balanus.

* ' Evenings at the Microscope,' by Mr. Gosse.

SECT. VIII.

CIRRIPEDIA,

215

tlie filaments uncurled ; then, as they close again, the in-
numerable hairs meet and form a sieve through which
the water escapes, but whatever minute particles it may
contain are inextricably entangled, and when the small
animals fit for food have been selected, the filaments
curl inwards, and carry them to the mouth ; there they
are seized by the jaws and sent through a short gullet to
be digested.

The feet and cirri are moved by very strong muscles,
the valves of the lid are opened and shut by muscles at-
tached to the mouth of the shell ; and when the animal
wishes to protrude its cirrhated feet, the longitudinal
muscles attached to the lid come into action, and it
draws itself in again by short muscles attached to the
base. All the organs of the animal are supplied with
nerves by a double nerve-centre in the head, and a circle
of nerve-centres round the gullet. The ears are situated
at the base of the first pair of cirrhated
feet, and consist of a cavity enclosing a
vesicle closed by a nerve, and contain-
ing a liquid, but no otolites.

The common Lepas anatifera, of
which fig. 155 is a section, as well
as its allies, have a thick stem and a
conical shell closed on the back, but
gaping in front. Their internal struc-
ture does not differ essentially from
that of the Balanidse, and it has been
proved by Mr. J. Y. Thompson and
others, that there is no material dif-
ference between their transformations
during the early stages of their lives.

Each individual cirriped is both male
and female, and the eggs are hatched before they
come into the water. Mr. Gosse mentions that he had
seen the Balanus porcatus throw out a dense column

Section of
Lepas anatifera.

Fig. 155.

2l6

CIRRIPEDIA.

PART III.

of atoms from the moutli of its sliell for several suc-
cessive days ; each column was composed of thousands
of active microscopic creatures, bearing a strong simi-
larity to the young of the Cyclops Crustacea. A, fig. 156,
represents one of these creatures. Its body is enclosed
in a carapace with a pair of flexible organs like horns,
six swimming feet, and a very black eye deeply set
In front. The creature swims and sometimes rests, but
never alights on anything. After some changes this

Fig. 156. Development of Balanus balanoides :— A, earliest form ; b, larva after second
moTilt ; c, side view of the same ; d, stage preceding the loss of activity ; a, stomach ;
b, nucleus of future attachment.

creature takes a form whose front is represented at B,
and its side by c, fig. 156. It is larger, more deve-
loped, and swims with its back downwards.

A new series of transformations changes this embryo
into the form represented by d, fig. 156, which is closely
allied to the Daphnia pulex, or Water Flea. The body is
enclosed between two flat oval shells, united by a hinge
on the back, and is capable of being opened in front for

SECT. VIII, CIRRIPEDIA. 217

the protrusion of a pair of prehensile limbs; and six pairs
of swimming feet cause the animal to swim by a succes-
sion of bounds. Instead of the single eye, it has now
two raised on pedestals, attached to the anterior part of
the body.

This animal having selected a piece of floating wood
for its permanent abode, attaches itself to it by the
head, which is immovably fixed by a tenacious glue ex-
uded from glands at the base of the antennae. The
bivalve shell is subsequently thrown off, a portion of the
head becomes excessively elongated to form the peduncle
of the Barnacle or Lepas, and in that state it is exactly

Fig. 157. Lepas.

like the Lucifer Stomapod. In the Balanus, on the con-
trary, the head expands into a broad disk of adhesion,
and the animal resembles the Mysis or Opossum Shrimp.

From the first segment of the throat a prolongation is
sent backwards which covers the whole body, and the
outer layer is converted into the multivalve shell ; and
the three pairs of cirrhated feet, which were formed in
the larval state, now bend backwards from the other three
rings of the throat.

Though the Cirripeds lose their eyes in their mature
state, they are sensitive to light. They draw in their
cirrhated feet, and the Balanus even closes the lid of its
shell under the shadow of a passing cloud.

21 8 POLYZOA, PART III.

SECTION IX.

BRTOZOA, OR POLYZOA.

A Brtozoon is a microscopic polype, inclosed in an
open horny or calcareous sheath, out of which it can
protrude and draw in the anterior part of its body. It
is seldom or never seen alone, on account of its tendency
to propagate by budding. When the buds spring from
the sides of the sheath or cell, it is known as the Sea
Mat, or Flustra. The Flustra, which is common on our
coasts, spreads its hexagonal cells like a delicate net-
work oyer sea- weeds, shells and other marine substances.
Sometimes the polypes are so closely arranged on both
sides of a leaf that a square inch may contain 1,800.
In the calcareous genera, Eschara and Cellipora, the
cells have a lid movable by two muscles, so that the
polypes can close the orifice, and shut themselves in.

In the greater number of the Polyzoa the polype
has a cylindrical form, a mouth at its anterior extre-
mity surrounded by an annular disk, which forms the
roof of the internal cavity containing the stomach and
the other digestive organs. The disk is furnished with
eight, ten or a greater number of tubular tentacles,
which surround the mouth, their tubes being continua-
tions of the internal cavity below. The mouth leads
into a funnel-shaped space, separated by a valve from
the gullet ; and the guUet ends in a capacious stomach.
Short vibratile cilia are arranged like a fringe on the
opposite sides of each tentacle, which form two currents

SECT. IX.

JPOLYZOA.

219

in the surrounding water — an ascending stream on the
outside, and a descending one on the inside. When any
particles of food that may be carried down the inner
surface of the tentacles arrive at the mouth, a selection
is made, the rejected particles being carried off" by the
stream, while those that are chosen are received by the
funnel-shaped mouth, and pass through a valve in the
gullet into the stomach, where they are kept in con-
tinual motion by cilia, and the refuse is ejected by an
orifice near the mouth.

Fig. T58. Cells of Lepralige.— A, L. Hyndmanni ; b, L. figularis ; c, L. verrucosa.

rig. 158 represents the cells of different species of the
genus Lepralia, which form crusts upon marine objects.
Other genera grow as independent plant-like structures,
and some take an arborescent form, and creep over rocks
and stones. The Cellularia ciliata, of which fig. 159 is
a magnifi.ed portion, rises in upright branching groups
like little shrubs ; and as many are commonly assembled
together, they form miniature groves, fringing the sides
of dark rocky sea pools on our coasts. Most of the

220

TOLYZOA.

PART III.

Polyzoa liave pedicellarise attached to their stems, either
sessile or stalked. Their forms are various : a jointed
spine, a pair of pincers, &c. But on the Cellularia thej
are like a bird's head with a crooked beak, opening very-
wide, and attached by a stem, b, fig. 159, represents
a highly magnified pedicellaria in the act of seizing
another. These bird's head appendages are numerous

Fig. 159. A, Cellularia ciliata ; b, ' bird's head ' process of Bugula avicularia, liigMy
magnified, seizing another.

on the Cellularia ciliata, and in constant motion ; the
jaws are perpetually snapping little worms, or anything
that comes in their way, while the whole head nods
rhythmically on its stalk. Two sets of muscles move
the jaws ; when open, a pencil of bristles projects beyond
them, which is drawn in again when they are closed ;
they are supposed to be organs of feeling. The Polyzoa

SECT. IX. FOLYZOA, 221

have organs also called vibracnla, which, are bristle-
shaped, as on A, fig. 158; these sweep over the surface
of the Poljzoon to remove anything that might injure
the polypes.

It is believed that the polypes of the Polyzoa are
male and female, and that the ciliated locomotive larvse
which appear in spring are developed from eggs. The
fresh-water Polyzoa are as worthy of microscopic exami-
nation as the marine.

222

TUNIC AT A, OR ASCIDIANS.

PAET III.

SECTION X.

The form of the Tunicata is irregular. Tliey have
two orifices — one at the top, for the entrance of a cur-
rent of water, and another at one side for its egress.
They have two tunics only adhering to one another at
the edges of these orifices, which are furnished with a
circle of cilia. The irregular or scattered condition of
the nerve-centres, as well as the alternation in the cir-
culation, are eminently characteristic of the whole class.
They consist of three distinct groups : the compound
or social gelatinous Ascidians ; the solitary Tunicata,
with leathery coats ; and the Salpse,
which are gelatinous. The two
first, though mobile when young,
become fixed when they arrive at
maturity ; the third floats free on
the surface of the ocean.

The fixed gelatinous Ascidians
resemble the Polyzoa in structure
and tendency to gemmation ; never-
theless, they differ in their circu-
lating and respiratory systems. The
Perophora Listeri is an examj)le
which is found on the south coast
of England and Ireland (fig. 160.)
It consists of minute globes of clear jelly, not larger
than a pin's head, spotted with orange and brown,

Fig. 160. Magnified group of
Perophora.

SECT. X.

TUNIC AT A, OR ASCIDIANS.

223

and attached by a foot-stalk to a silvery stem like a
thread which stretches over the surface of stones, or
twines round the stalks of sea- weeds ; and as the stem
increases in length, buds spring from it, which in time
come to maturity, so that the silvery thread connects
a large community ; but, though thus connected, every
member has its own individuality. Fig. 161 repre-
sents one of these transparent individuals very highly
magnified.

The respiratory sac
occupies the upper
part of the body. It
is perforated by four
rows of narrow slits,
edged with cilia,
whose vibrations are
distinctly seen
through the transpa-
rent tunic of the little
animal. A portion of
the water which is
drawn by the cilia
into the upper orifice
or mouth, passes into
the respiratory sac,
escapes through the narrow slits into the space between
the sac and the tunic, and from thence into the stomach,
where any particles of food it may bring are digested,
and the refuse is carried by the current through the
intestinal canal, and ejected at the lateral orifice.

The heart is a long multiform muscle, attached to the
respiratory sac, from whence capillary vessels spread over
that sac and throughout the body. The pulsations of
the heart drive the blood through the general system,
and bring it back to the heart again. After a time the
pulses of the heart become faint, and the blood ceases

Fig, 161. Highly magnified Perophora.

224 TUNICATA, OH, ASCIDIANS. pakt iii.

to flow. A short pause takes place, the heart gives an
opposite impulse, and the blood makes its circuit in a
direction exactly contrary to what it did before. The
circulation in all these little globes is brought into con-
nection by a simultaneous circulation through two tubes
in the silvery thread to which they are attached.

The average duration of the ebb and flow of the
blood is probably the same, but the period between the
changes varies from thirty seconds to two minutes. As
the blood is colourless and transparent, it probably
would have been impossible to determine its motion had
it not been for solid particles floating in it.

The larva of the compound sessile Ascidians is like
the tadpole of a frog, which swims about for a time ; it
then fix:es itself by the head to some object, the tail falls
ofiF, and in a few days it becomes a solitary Ascidian,
with its two orifices and currents of water. This soli-
tary animal gives origin by budding to a connected
group, which in its turn lays fertilized eggs, so that
there is an alternation of generations.

The Botryllidse or Star-like Ascidians, appear as masses
of highly coloured gelatinous matter, spread over stones
or fuci in which from ten to twenty minute oblong As-
cidians are arranged in a circle round a common open
centre which is the discharging orifice of the whole
group, for the mouth of each individual is at the oppo-
site extremity. The only indication of life given by this
compound creature is the expansion and contraction of
an elastic band surrounding the discharging orifice.
The organization of each of these individuals is similar
to that of the Perophora.

Although many Tunicata form composite societies,
the most numerous and largest in size are always soli-
tary, as the Ascidia virginea (fig. 162). Its outer
tunic contains cellulose, it is pale and semitransparent,
the inner tunic is orange-coloured or crimson. These

ciaia virgiuea.

SECT. X. FLOATING ASCIDIANS. 225

creatures vary in length from one to six inches : there-
fore thej are not microscopic, yet their internal struc-
ture, which is similar to
that described, cannot be ' ^;

determined without the aid [^ '^

of that instrument. The
organ of hearing is a cap-
sule containing an otolite
and coloured spots placed
between the orifices ; the
uppermost orifice or mouth
is surrounded by eight eye-
specks, and six of a deep
orange colour surround the

lateral one, a nerve-centre between the two supplies
the animal with nerves. These Tunicata live on
diatoms and morsels, of sea-weeds, and, like all the
fixed Ascidians, they show no external sign of vitality
except that of opening and shutting the two orifices.
More than fifty species of these solitary Ascidians in-
habit the British coasts from low-water mark to a
depth of more than one hundred fathoms.

The Pyrosomidee are floating compound Ascidians,
composed of innumerable individual animals united
side by side, and grouped in whorls so as to form a
hollow tube or cylinder open at one end only, and from
two to fourteen inches long, ^vith a circumference varying
from half an inch to three inches. The inhalent orifices
of the component animals are all on the exterior of the
cylinder, while the exhalent orifices are all on its inside,
and the result of so many little currents of water dis-
charged into the cavity is to produce one general outflow
which impels the cylinder to float with its closed end

VOL. II. Q

2 26 FLOATING ASCIDIANS. part m.

foremost. The side of each annual in which the nerve-
centre is placed is turned towards the open end of the
cylinder, the whole of which is cartilaginous and non-
contractile. Each of the Ascidians forming this com-
pound creature has its outer and inner tunic united and
lined with a vascular blood system, a respiratory cavity
of large size completely enclosed by a quadrangular net-
work, and digesting organs. The sexes are combined,
and they are propagated by buds and single eggs. The
Pyrosomidse are gregarious and higlily luminous ; vast
shoals of them extend for miles in the warm latitudes of
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and as soon as the
shade of night comes on they illuminate ships with
bright electric flashes as they cleave the gelatinous mass ;
half a dozen of these animals give sufficient light to ren-
der the adjacent objects visible. The intensity depends
upon muscular excitement, for Professor Fritz MuUer
observed that the greenish blue light of the P^^rosoma
Atlantica is given out in a spark by each of the separate
individuals ; it first appears at the point touched, and
then spreads over the whole compound animal. This
species a^^pears in such aggregations in the Mediter-
ranean as to clog the nets of the fishermen.

8alpidce,

The Salpidse are another family of free- swimming
Ascidians. The tunic is perfectly hyaline, the body is
somewhat cylindrical, but compressed and open at
both ends (fig. 163). The mouth is a slit, the dis-
charging orifice is tubular and can be opened and shut.
The breathing apparatus is in the form of a ribbon ex-
tending obliquely across the cavity of the tunic, the ear
with four otolites is in the ventral fold, and the flux of
the pale blood is alternate as in other Tunicata.

The Salpidse are produced by alternate generation.

SECT. X.

FLOATING ASCIDIANS.

227

A solitary floating Salpa is always found to contain a
chain of embryos joined end to end winding spirally

Fig. 163. Salpa maxima.

wittdn her. They are all of one size, and portions are
liberated in succession through an apertm^e in the tunic.
In a little time these connected larvae are developed
into a chain of adult Salpse. The individuals are from
half an inch to several inches long, according to the

Fig. 164. Young of Salpa zonaria.

species, and when joined end to end the chain may ex-
tend many feet, but the attachment is so slight that
they often break up into shorter portions. The chains
swim with an undulating serpentine motion either end
foremost by the simultaneous expulsion of water from
the muscular tunic of each individual.

A single eg^ is

228 FLOATING ASCIDIANS. paet iii.

formed by eacli of these creatures, which remains within
the parent till a solitaiy Salpa is hatched, and then
it comes into the water, and after a time produces a
chain of larvae.

The aggregate young of the Salpa zonaria, instead
of being united end to end, are applied side to side, and
as the individuals are broad at one extremity and nar-
row at the other, they constitute groups continually
diminishing in size, which take a spiral form.

The reproduction of the whole genus of Salpidae is
rapid and enormous. Dr. Wallich mentions that while
sailing between the Cape of Good Hope and St. Helena,
the ship passed for many miles through water so crowded
with the Salpa mucronata that it had the appearance
of jelly to apparently a great depth. The Salpse, which
were from one to two inches long, had yellow digestive
cavities, about the size of a millet seed, which contained
diatoms, Foraminifera, Polycystinse, small shrimps, arid
other microscopic creatures.

SECT. XI. MOLLUSC A. 229

SECTION XI.

MOLLUSCA.

Although the MoUusca do not come within the limits
of this work they nevertheless afford objects worthy of
microscopic investigation. The gills of a bivalve mol-
lusk are like crescent-shaped leaves fixed by their stalks
to the transverse extremities of the mantle, so that the
greater part floats freely in the water.

To the naked eye the gills appear to be formed of
radiating fibres of admirable structure ; but the micro-
scope shows that each leaf consists of a vast number of
straight transparent and tubular filaments, arranged side
by side so close that 1,500 of them might be contained
in the length of an inch. These filaments, however,
apparently so numerous, in fact consist of only one ex-
ceedingly long filament in each giU^ bent upon itself
again and again throughout its whole length, both at the
fixed and free ends of the leaf. These long filaments
are fringed on both sides by lines of cilia continually
vibrating in contrary directions. By this action a cur-
rent of water is perpetually made to flow up one side of
the filaments and down the other, so that the blood
which circulates in their interior is exposed tlu'oughout
their long winding course to the action of oxygen in the
water. The duration of these vibrations in the mollusca
is marvellous. The cilia on a fragment of a gill put
into water by Mr. Gosse fifteen hours after the death of
the mollusk caused a wave to flow uniformly up one

230 MOLLUSC A. PART III.

side of the filaments and down the other. Even twenty-
hours after the death of the animal the ciliary motion
was continued on such j^arts as were not corrupted, a
remarkable instance of the inherent contractility of
the animal tissues.

The refined mechanism of the gills of the common
Mussel enables it to live when attached to rocks above
high-water mark, so as only to be immersed at spring
tides. By the movements of cilia, water is retained
in the gill-chamber, which derives oxygen from the at-
mosphere, and animalcula supply the Mussel with food.

The moUusks that burrow in sand or mud have two
tubes fringed with cilia, which they protrude into the
water above them. The water which is drawn into
one of these tubes by the action of the cilia passes in

rig. 1G5. Cardium or Cockle.

a strong current over the gills, aerates the blood, brings
infusorial food for the animal, and is expelled in a jet
from the other tube. The foot at the other extremity
of the shell is the organ with which the mollusk makes
its burrow in sand, clay, chalk, stone or wood.^

The common Cockle digs into the sand, and uses its
foot both for digging and lea^Ding ; it is cylindrical, and
when the Cockle is going to leap, it puts out its foot and

^ Jeffrey's ' British Conchology.'

SECT. XI.

MOLLUSC A.

231

bends it into an elbow ; then having- fixed the hooked
point firmly in the sand, by a sudden contraction
of the mnscles it springs
to a considerable height
and distance, and leaps
actively along the sur-
face of the sand. The
lowest part of fig. 166 is a
magnified section of the
foot, showing the muscular
system which gives the ani-
mal that power. It con-
sists of many rows of longi-
tudinal muscles, interlaced
at regular distances by
transverse fibres. Wlien
the foot is extended, the
Cockle has the power of
distending it by filling a
network o^ capillary tubes
with water till it is almost
transparent. The water is
also distributed through
the body and into the gill-
chamber, which opens and
shuts every ten minutes or
oftener, in order to main-
tain the supply ; and it has
egress through the pores
in the mantle and foot, for
some burrowing moUusks
squirt it out through the foot when disturbed. This
water-system is unconnected with the circulation of
the blood.

Each bivalve mollusk is both male and female ; and
the fertilized eggs pass into the gills of the parent,

Fig. im. Foot of Cockle.

232 SHELLS OF MOLLUSCA. paet iii.

where they undergo a kind of incubation. At a certain
time the yellow yolk of the egg* is divided into a granu-
lar mass, which separates from the liquid albumen and
produces cilia. The cilia cause the albumen to revolve
round the interior of the egg ; at last the granular mass
revolves with it, while at the same time it rotates about
its axis in a contrary direction at the rate of six or
eight times in a minute. When still in the egg, all the
organs of the little embryos are formed in succession,
even the little valves of the shells are seen to open and
shut, but the embryos are hatched before they leave
the parent, and swim about in the cavity of the external

gill-

Shells of the Molliisca.

When these mollusks come into the water, they soon
find their transparent white shell too small, and begin
to increase its size by m_eans of the mantle, which is
an exquisitely sensible fleshy envelope applied to the
back of the animal, extending round its sides like
a cloak, only meeting in front, and it is for the most
part in close contact with the whole interior of the
shell. Its edges are fringed with rows of slender ten-
tacles, and studded with glands, which secrete the
coloin^s afterwards seen in the shell ; the glands in the
rest of the mantle secrete only colourless matter.

When the animal begins to enlarge its shell, it at-
taches the borders of the mantle to the margin of the
valves, secretes a film of animal matter^ and lines it
with a layer of mucus containing carbonate of lime
and colour in a soft state, which soon becomes hard,
and is then coated internally by the other glands of the
mantle with colourless carbonate of lime.

The two strata thus formed, one richly coloured, the
other white, often nacreous and brilliantly iridescent.

SECT. XI.

SHELLS. 01 MOLLUSC A.

233

are highly organized substances. Examined with the
niicroscoj)e, they present remarkable varieties in some
of the natural groups of bivalve Mollusca ; the structure
of the Monomyarian Oyster is characteristic of the divi-
sion which has but one muscle ; the Dimyaria, having
two muscles, are represented by the Cockle.

The exterior la-
minse at the edge
of the fragile valves
of a Pinna are often
so thin and trans-
parent that the or-
ganization of the
shells may be seen
with a low mag-
nifying power. A
fragment has the
appearance of a
honeycomb on both

surfaces (fig. 167), whereas its broken edge resembles
an assemblage of basaltic columns. The exterior layer
of the shell is thus com-
posed of a vast number
of nearly uniform prisms,
usually approaching to
the hexagonal structure.

Fig. 1G7

Section of shell of Pinna transvei-sely to the
direction of its prisms.

T >r-^\Jy X

)-=-

J-^

rig. 168.

whose lengths form the
thickness of the lamina,
their extremities its sur-
faces. When the calca-
reous part of the la.mina
is dissolved by dilute
acid, a firm membrane
is left, which exhibits a

hexagonal structure (fig. 168), as in the original shell;
but it is only in the shells of a few families of bivalves

Membranous basis of the shell of
Pinna.

234

SHELLS OF MOLLUSC A.

PART in.

nearly allied to the Pinna that this combination of the
organic and mineral elements is seen in this distinct
form ; it is beautifully disj^layed in the nacreous shells.

In many shells the internal la3^er has a nacreoiis or
iridescent lustre, shown by Sir David Brewster to de-
pend upon the striation of its surface, by a series of
nearly parallel grooved lines. When Dr. Carpenter had
dissolved the calcareous matter from a thin piece of
nacreous substance, taken from the shell of the Haliotis

u„_ . . _ ^_ ,:3

Fig. 1C9. Section of nacreous lining of the shell of Avicula margaritacea
(pearl oystei).

splendens, or Ear Shell, there remained an iridescent
membrane, which presented to the microscope a series
of folds or plaits somewhat regular, and splendidly iri-
descent, but when the plaits were unfolded and the
membrane stretched, the iridescence vanished. So the
varied hues of mother-of-pearl are owing to the folds of
an organic membrane.

The shells of the Gastropoda, or crawding moUusks,
have a structure peculiar to themselves, but by no
means so much varied as that of the bivalve class. The
Strombus gigas, or Queen Conch, the Cassis, or Helmet

SECT. XI. EYES OF MOLLUSCA. 235

Shell, and the beautiful porcellanous Cyprsea3 or Cowries,
are much valued by the artists who cut cameos, on ac-
count of the structure of their shells, which consists
of three strata, the same in composition, but differing in
arrangement, and sometimes in colour. Each stratum
of the shell is formed of many thin laminse, placed
side by side, perpendicular to the plane of the stratum,
and each lamina consists of a series of prismatic
spicules with their long sides in close approximation;
the laminee of the inner and outer strata have their
spicules parallel to one another, while the spicules of
the intermediate lamina are perpendicular to those on
each side. According to Dr. Bowerbank, who discovered
this complicated structure, the spicules are microscopic
tubes filled with carbonate of lime.

The Spondylus gsedaropus has sixty ocelli constructed
for accurate vision; One can form no idea of the ef-
fect of so many eyes, unless they combine to form one
image as our eyes do. The common Pecten, or Scal-
lop, pretty both in form and colour, has a number of
minute brilliant eyes arranged along the inner edge of
the mantle, like two rows of diamond sparks. Some
families of mollusks are destitute of eyes, even of the
simplest kind; and it has been observed that those
mollusks most liberally provided with eyes are also en-
dowed with the most active and vigorous motions. The
bivalves do not appear to have either taste or organs of
hearing, but they are exceedingly sensitive to touch. It
is singular that animals which have neither head nor
brain should have any senses at all. A nerve-collar
round the gullet with a trilobed nerve-centre on each side
supplies the place of a brain ; nerves extend from these ;
besides there are nerve-centres in various parts of the
unsymmetrical bodies of the acephalous mollusks.

The Gastropoda, or crawling mollusks, have a head,
and are consequently animals of a higher organization

236 TONGUES OF MOLLUSCA. part iii.

than the Conchifera or bivalve class. Theu' mantle forms
a vaulted chamber over the head and neck, and envelopes
the foot or crawling-disk ; all these the animal can pro-
trude or dra.w in at pleasure. The head is of a globular
form, with two or four exceedingly sensitive tentacles,
arranged in pairs on each side of it, as in the garden
snail, which has four, two long and two short. These
tentacles, which the snail can push out and draw in at
pleasure, are hollow tubes, the walls of which are com-
posed of circular bands of muscle. The tentacles are
pushed out by the alternate contractions of these circular
bands, but they are drawn in again like the inverted
finger of a glove by muscular cords proceeding to the
internal extremity of the tentacle from the muscle that
withdraws the foot. The structure of the tentacles is
the same in all the crawling moUusks ; they are most
sensitive in the Helix or Snail family, but they are be-
lieved to be delicate organs of touch in all.

The Gastropod moUusks never have more than two
eyes, either placed on the tips, or at the base of one pair
of tentacles ; in the snail they may be seen as black
points on the tips of the longest pair. In some of the
higher Gastropods they are of great beauty, and appear
to be perfectly adajited for distinct vision. Organs of
hearing were discovered by Dr. Siebold at the base of
one of the pairs of tentacles, consisting of vesicles con-
taining a liquid and calcareous otolites, which perform
remarkable oscillations due to the action of vibratile cilia.
In the Snail and Slug group the number of otolites varies
from eighty to one hundred.

The mouth of a Gastropod is a proboscis, with fleshy
lips, generally armed with horny plates or spines on the
jaws. The Snail has a crescent- shaped cutting plate on its
jaw, and a soft bifid lip below, but the tongue is the most
remarkable microscopic object in this group of Mollusca.
In the terrestrial Gastropods, it is short and entirely
ontained within the nearly globular head. It is tubular

SECT. XI.

TONGUES OF MOLLUSC A.

.^^«

Fig, 170. The tongiie of Helix aspersa.

behind, but in front it is spread into a nearly flat narrow
plate, traversed by numerous rows of minute recurved
teeth, or spines set
upon flattened plates ;
in the Garden Snail
or Slug each principal
tooth has its own
plate. Fig. 170 re-
presents a magnified
portion of a Snail's
tongue by Dr. Car-
penter ; the rows at
the edge are sepa-
rated to show the

structure. The teeth are set close one to another,
and are often very numerous. In the Helix pomatia,
a snail found in the middle and southern counties of
England, they amount to 21,000, and in the great
slug (Arion ater), there are 26,800. This kind of
tongue only serves for
rasping vegetable food.
All the Trochidse, which
are marine moUusksthat
are supposed by some
naturalists to live on
fuci, are remarkable for
the length and beauty
of their narrow sj)in3'
tongues. Fig. 171 is a
small portion of the
tongue or palate of the
Trochus zizyphinus,
highly magnified ; the
large teeth of the lateral
bands, as well as the small teeth in the centre, have
minutely serrated edges. Fig. 172 shows the Trochus
granulatus in the act of crawling.

- ^ ^'-<^^'

r/^V

f4i

I'lg. 171. Palate of Trochus zizyphinus.

23:

TOXGUES OF MOLLUSC A.

PART III.

G-ranulated Trochus.

it.

The Limpet lives on sea-weeds. The animal is large in
propoi-tion to the size of its conical shell ; it has a long

leaf- shaped gill un-
der the edge of the
mantle. The head has
a short proboscis and
pointed tentacles,
with eyes at their
base. The mouth has
a horny jaw and a
very long tongue,
moved by muscles
rising from firm ob-
jects on each side of
Fig. 173 represents the tongue beset with recm-ved
hooks, and a shows a portion highly magnified. These
recurved teeth are transparent, amber-coloured, and
in the Limpet, as in most of the other Gastropods, they
are chitinous. The teeth towards the point of the tongue
are sufficiently hard to rasp the food ; and it is said that
when they are worn down, the part of the tongue suj^port-
A ing them falls off,

and that the waste
is supplied by a
progressive growth
of the tongue from
behind, and a har-
dening of the teeth
in front. The soft
reserved portion is
coiled in a spiral
when not in use.
All the species of Patellidse, or Limpets, have the
power of making cavities with their foot in the surface
of the rocks to which they adhere. The cavity exactly
corresponds in shape and size with the mouth of the

Fig. 173. Tongue of Limpet:— A, portion of
surface magnified.

SECT. XI. TONGUES OF MOLLUSC A.

239

shell, wliicli is sunk and very strongly glued into it,
yet the Limpet dissolves the glue with a liquid secretion,
roams in quest of food, and returns again to its home :
both fluids are secreted by a multitude of glands in the
foot, which is the instrument of adhesion.

The tongue of the carnivorous Gastropods is a very
formidable weapon, used for boring holes in the hardest
shells. The round holes in dead shells frequently met
with on our coasts show that their inhabitants had
fallen a prey to some of these zoophagous Mollusks. The
tongue of these predatory Gastropods is a narrow me-
chanical file, sometimes twice or even three times the
length of the whole animal, and when not in use it is
curled up near the foot. It is spined in various micro-
scopic patterns according to the genus, and is supported
by two firm parts from whence the muscles spring that
work the rasp.

The Periwinkles have a ribbon-shaped tongue, rough
with hooked teeth ; the Scalarise have also predatory
tongues, but of all the Gastropod mollusks, the Whelk
and its numerous allies are the most predacious. The
Purpura or Dog Whelk especially is the most ravenous
of mollusks. Its long tongue is armed with hooked and
spined teeth, placed three in a row ; with this weapon
and a proboscis capable of boring, they have been
knoAvn to exterminate a whole bank of Mussels.

The Common Whelk is represented in fig. 1 74. When
in the act of crawling, its head, with two tentacles, is at
one extremity, its foot at the other, sometimes used as
an organ of prehension ; and it has a siphon for carrying-
water to the gills at the end of the shell.

All the families of the naked mollusks or Sea Slugs,
furnish beautiful objects for the microscope. The two
sexes are united in the same individual, and in their
embryonic state they have a shell, which is cast off long-
before they come to maturity. The gills placed on the

240

NAKED MOLLUSC A.

PART III.

naked body are capable of being withdrawn into a cavity
in the medial line of the back, and are either plumose, or

Fig. 174. Whelk.

like the leaf of a plant pinnated again and again, but
they vary in form and position in the different genera.

Fig. 175. The Cro\\Tied Eolis.

In the group of the Eolidse, the gills are like leafless
trees in most genera, but in the principal genus Eolis,
they are long, spindle-shaped, sharp-pointed papillse,
arranged in transverse rows or clusters along the sides

SECT. XI.

NAKED MOLLUSC A.

241

of the back, leaving a space between them, as in fig.
175. They are covered with long cilia, whose vibra-
tions send a perpetual current of sea- water along each
of them, the respiration is aided by vibrating cilia, scat-
tered almost over the whole body, and the circulation
of the blood is very simple.

The Eolis has a head prolonged into a pair of tenta-
cles which are active and as sensitive as antennse.
Another pair on the back have ten or twelve narrow
plates twisted in a spiral round them ; the eyes are at
the base of these horns. The mouth contains horny
jaws and a spiny tongue like a mere strap covered by
numerous transverse jDlates armed with recurved spines
not more than a sixth part the thickness of a human
hair. Fig. 1 76 repre-
sents the tongue and
some of the spines
greatly magnified.
The mouth leads in-
to a short and large
membranous sto-
mach, from each side
of which branches
are sent off, from
whence long canals
traverse the papillse
longitudinally, and
perform the part of
a liver. In many
species these tubes
are brilliantly co-
loured, but none are
more beautiful than
those in the Eolis
coronata, which is found under stones, like a mass of
jelly, not larger than a pea, at low spring tides, on

VOL. II. R

Fig. 176. Tongue-teeth of Eolis coronata.

242 PTEROPODA. paet hi.

our own coasts. When put into sea- water it expands till
it is about an inch long (fig. 175). It is then pellucid,
tinged with pink, and the central tubes in its numerous
papillse are of a rich crimson hue, their surface reflects
a metallic blue, and their tips are opaque white ; as the
animal keeps its papillae in constant motion the effect
is very pretty.

The Eolis coronata, like all its congeners, has a
stinging apparatus, consisting of an oblong bag, full of
thread cells, placed at the extremity of each papilla,
from whence darts can be ejected through an aperture
in the tip. The whole of the Eolididse are carnivorous,
fierce, and voracious, setting up their papillse like the
quills of a porcupine when they seize their prey ; they
tear off the papillse of their weaker brethren, and even
devour their own spawn, though their chief food con-
sists of zoophytes.

The Pteropoda, or wing-footed moUusca, are very
small ; they are incapable of crawling or fixing them-
selves to solid objects, but they are furnished with
two fins like the wings of a butterfly, w^th which they
float or row themselves about in the ocean, far from
land in vast multitudes. The shell of the typical spe-
cies HyalaBa (a, fig. 177), which resembles the thinnest
trans]3arent glass, consists of two valves, one, which is
placed on the front of the animal, is long, flat, and ends
in three points ; the other valve, which is applied to the
back, is short and convex, and in the lateral fissure be-
tween the two, the mantle is protruded. The head and
fins project from an opening at the top of the shell.
The fins, which are formed of muscular fibre, are fixed
on a short thick neck, with the mouth lying between
them, containing a tongue crossed by rows of long re-
versed teeth. The head has no tentacles, and the
animal appears to be blind, but it has an auditory
vesicle lined with cilia, which keeps a few otolites in

SECT. XI.

PTEROPODA.

243

motion. This little animal is highly organized ; it has a
gullet, a kind of crop and gizzard, a liver, a respiratory
tnbe, a heart, a circnlating and nervous system, which
enables it to swim with a flapping motion of its fins.

^'"^Nf"'*\

Fig. 177. A, Hyalfea; B, Clio.

The Clio pyramidata (b, fig. 177) is an elegant animal
belonging to the same class. Its fragile transparent
shell has the form of a triangular pyramid ; and from
its base proceeds a slender spine, and a similar spine
extends from each side of the middle of the shell. The
posterior part of the body is globular and pellucid, and
in the dark it is vividly luminous, shining
through the glassy shell. The fins of the
Hyalsea and Clio or Cleodora are of a bright
yellow, with a deep purple spot near the
base. Both are inhabitants of the ocean.

The Clione borealis (fig. 178), which
exists in millions in the Arctic Seas, is
the most remarkable instance of the
Naked Ptero^Dods. It has neither shell
nor mantle; its membranous body is not
more than half an inch long, its head is
formed of two round lobes, on each side
of the neck there is a large muscular wing
or fin ; in swimming the animal brings the tips of the
fins almost in contact, first on one side of the neck and

Fig. 178. Clioue
borealis.

244 PTEROPODA. part hi.

then on tlie other. In cahn weather, they come to the
surface in myriads, and quickly descend again. There
is a pair of slender tentacles close to the head, which
are organs of feeling, a pair of eyes are placed on the
back of the neck, and acoustic vesicles lined with cilia
keep otolites in motion. Besides these organs of sense,
the Clione has respiratory, digestive, and nervous sys-
tems. The latter consists of a nerve-collar round the
gullet, with two nerve masses in its upper part, so the
Clione is well supplied with nerves.

Upon each of the two round lobes of the head, there
are three tentacles, totally different from those of feel-
ing. They are, in fact, organs of prehension, which can
be protruded or withdrawn at pleasure into a fold of the
skin. When protruded, these six tentacles form a
radiating crown round the mouth, which is terminal,
and furnished with fleshy lips. Each of these tentacles is
perforated by numerous cavities, appearing like red spots
to the naked eye; however. Professor Eschricht dis-
covered that each spot consists of a transparent sheath,
enclosing a central body composed of a stem terminated
by a tuft of about twenty microscopic suckers, capable
of being thrust out to seize prey. The whole number
of these prehensile suckers in the head of one Clione was
estimated by Escliricht to amount to 330,000. Not-
withstanding the vast prehensile power and multitude
of these animals, they find abundance of food m the
Arctic Ocean, for although the water is generally of the
purest ultramarine blue, one fourth of the Greenland
Sea, extending over 10° of latitude and some hundred
feet deep, is green and turbid, with a profusion of
minute animal life. The indefinite increase of the
Clione borealis is checked by the whales, who feed
upon them, and other minute inhabitants of the Arctic
Seas. The Pteropods first appear in a fossil state in
the Lower Silm-ian strata.

SECT. XI.

NAKED CEPHALOPOBS.

245

Naked Cephalopods.

The Naked Cephalopods have an internal skeleton
instead of a shell, in the shape of a transparent horny
pen in the Calamary, or the well-known internal shell
of the Cuttle Fish ; they are divided into Octoj)ods and
Decapods, according to the number of their tentacles :
the Poulpe, or Octopus vulgaris, is a type of the first,
the Sepia or Cuttle Fish, fig. 179, and the Loligo
vulgare or Squid, are types of the last. These crea-
tures may be seen on rocky coasts, or in the ocean
hundreds of miles distant
from V.nd. They are noc-
turnal, gregarious, carni-
vorous, and fierce, — their
structure enables them to
be t3rrants of the ocean.
They are strange-looking,
repulsive creatures, with
staring bright-coloured
eyes, while crawling awk-
wardly on their fleshy arms
head downmost ; yet they
are the most highly or-
ganized of all m.ollusks.

They have a distinct
brain, enclosed in a carti-
laginous skull, and all
their muscles are attached
to cartilages. The lower
part of their body is sur-
rounded by a mantle,
which extends in front to
form a gill chamber, in

which there is a pair of plume -like gills ; a funnel or
siphon projects from the gill chamber immediately

179. Cuttle Fish.

246 NAKED CEPHALOPODA. part m.

below the tentacles. All the naked Cephalopods propel
themselves back foremost in the sea, by the forcible
expulsion of water from the gill chamber through this
siphon.

The head i)rotrudes from the top of the mantle ; it
has a pair of large eyes on sockets, and some species of
these animals have eyelids. The ears are cavities under
the cartilage of the skull, containing a small sac and an
otolite. The mouth, which is terminal, and surrounded
by the tentacles, has powerful jaws like a parrot's beak
reversed, acting vertically. The tongue is large, the
j>osterior part is covered with recurved spines, and the
organ of smell is a cavity near the eyes. The Naked
Cephalopods are remarkable for having three hearts, or
pro]3elling A^essels — one for the circulation of arterial
blood through the body, the others for projecting venous
blood through the gills, at whose base they are situated.

The arms or tentacles of all the Naked CephalojDoda
are formidable organs of defence and prehension, but
are most powerful in the Loligo vulg-aris, the Poulpe,
and the Cuttle, on account of one i^air of the tentacles
being long slender arms, dilated at their extremities
into flat clubs. On the inner surface of each of the
tentacles, and upon the lower surface of the dilated ex-
tremities of the long ones, there are multitudes of suck-
ing disks, which, once fixed to an object, adhere so
firmly that it is easier to tear off a portion of the ani-
mal's tentacle than to make it release its hold. These
sucking disks, which are placed in j^arallel rows, are
represented magnified in fig. 180. Each sucker consists
of a firm cartilaginous or fleshy ring (e), across which a
disk of muscular membrane (/) is stretched, having a
circular opening {g) in its centre. A cone-shaped mass of
flesh fills the opening like a piston, capable of being"^
drawn backwards ; the membranous disk can also be
drawn in. When one of these sucking-disks touches

SECT. XI.

NAKED CEPHALOPODS.

247

a fish, the fleshy piston is instantaneously retracted, a
vacuum is formed, and the edges of the disk are pressed
asfainst the victim with a force
equal to the pressure of the
superincumbent water and that
of the atmosphere. The fish is
powerless when embraced by
the eig'ht tentacles and their
hundreds of suckers ; but, if
large enough still to struggle,
the force is increased by draw-
ins: in the membranous disk.
The Poulpe, the most power-
ful of the group which swims
far from land, and has to con-
tend with large slippery fishes,
has a liooked claw in the centre
of each sucking-disk, which is
clasped into the fish the instant
the vacuum is formed. The expansions at the extre-
mities of their two long arms, which are thickly and
irregularly beset with hooked sucking-disks, not only
drag the fish into the embrace of the eight short ten-
tacles, but they clasp round it and interlock, so that
the fish can be torn to pieces by the parrot-like jaws,
and eaten at leisure. The tentacles, long and short,
have strong nerves, and a little nerve-mass occupies
the centre of each sucking-disk, which gives the ten-
tacles great power.

The sepia, or inky liquid, which all the ^fTaked Cepha-
lopods possess as a means of defence, is secreted in a
pyriform bag, which has an outlet near the respiratory
siphon. If the animal be alarmed when devouring its
prey, it instantly lets go its hold, discharges the inky
liquid into the water, and escapes unseen.

The skin of this class of animals is thin and semi-

Fig. 180. Arm of Octopus.

248 NAKED CEPHALOPODS. tart iii.

transparent ; tlie surface immediately below it consists
of numerous cells, of a flattened oval or circular form,
containing' coloured particles suspended in a liquid.
The colour is seldom the same in all these cells; the
most constant kind corresponds with the tint of the
inky secretion. In the Sepia there is a second series of
cells, containing a deep yellow or brownish colour ; in
the common Calamary, or Squid, there are three kinds
of coloured cells — yellow, rose-coloured, and brown ;
and in the Poulpe there are red, yellow, blue, and black
cells. The cells possess the power of rapid contraction
and expansion, by which the coloured liquid is drawn
into deeper parts of the surface, and is again brought
into contact with the semi-transparent skin— thus con-
stantly varying. In consequence of the high develop-
ment of the nervous system, the skin of the Naked
Cephalopods is of extreme sensibility ; a mere touch
brings a blush on that of the Poulpe, and they all
assume the colour of the surface on which they rest as
readily as the chameleon. Many of these nocturnal
animals are luminous, and are easily attracted by bright
metallic objects.

PART III. RECAPITULATION. z^c)

RECAPITULATIOlSr.

Numerous instances of microscopic structure may be
found in the vertebrate series of marine animals, but
the field is too extensive for the Author to venture
upon.

In the first section of this book, an attempt has been
made to give some idea of the present state of mole-
cular science — far short, indeed, of so extensive a sub-
ject; yet it may be sufficient, perhaps, to show the views
now entertained with regard to the powers of nature,
the atoms of matter, and the general laws resulting
from the phenomena of their reciprocal action. By spec-
trum analysis it has been shown that not only many
terrestrial substances, in a highly attenuated state, are
constituents of the luminous atmospheres of the sun
and stars, but that the nebulse in the more distant
regions of space contain some of the elementary gases
of the air we breathe.

In the succeeding sections it has been proved that
the atmosphere teems with the microscopic germs of
animal and vegetable beings, waiting till suitable con-
ditions enable them to spring into life, and perform
their part in the economy of the world. The life his-
tory of the lower classes of both kingdoms has been a
triumph of microscopic science.

The molecular structure of vegetables and animals
has been investigated by men of science in their mi-
nutest details ; the fragment of a tooth, bone, or shell,

250 RECAPITULATION. part hi.

recent or fossil, is sufficient to determine tiie nature of
the animal to which it belonged ; and, if fossil, to assign
the geological period at which it had lived, whether on
the earth, in the waters, or the air. By the microscopic
examination of a minnte Foraminifer or shell-like or-
ganism, it has been proved beyond a donbt that the
Eozoon, an animal which existed at a geological period
whose remoteness in time carries ns far beyond the
reach of imagination, only differs in size from a kind
living in the present seas. Simplicity of structure has
preserved the race through all the geological changes
which, during millions of centuries, have swept from
existence myriads of more highly organized beings.
The Eozoon is the most ancient form of life known,
and was probably an inhabitant of the primeval ocean.
Patches of carbonaceous matter imbedded in the same
strata show that vegetation had already begun; so
at that most remote period of the earth's existence,
the vivifying influence of the sun, the constitution and
motions of the atmosphere and ocean, and the vicis-
situdes of day and night, of life and death, were the
same as at the present time.

INDEX.

Abrotliallus, organs of reproduction of, i. 307
Absorption of light and heat, i. 34

effects of, i. 35, 36

generally independent of colour, i. 36

Mellon^'s investigations into the laws of, i. 38

Prof. Tyndall's experiments, i. 38

amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfumes of flowers and
plants, i. 43-45

experiments showing radiation to be equal to absorption, i. 46

great absorption of olefiant gas, i. 47

absorptive power of aqueous vapour, i. 53

dynamic absorption, i. 49

absorption a phenomenon irrespective of aggregation, i, 53

absorption of invisible rays by solids, liquids, and gases, i. 65
Absorption bands in the red and green parts of the solar spectrum, 1,131
Acalepha, the simple hydra a phase in the life of the, ii. 91
Acalephse, Campanograde, characters of, ii. 103
Acalephse, Ciliograde, characters of the, ii. 101

mode of reproduction of, ii. 103
Acalephse, Physograde, characters of, ii. 107
Acanthometrse, structure and habitat of, ii. 19
Acetic acid, chemical combination forming, i. 97
Acetic fermentation, fungus producing, i. 288
Acetylene, formation of, i. 97

2 54 INDEX.

Acetylene, chemical composition of, i, 1 28

Aclilya prolifera, structure and reproduction of, i. 220

Acids, their affinity for alkalies, i. 96

Acineta, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 77, 78

food of, and mode of seizing it, ii. 78
Acorn-shell, structure of the, ii. 213
Acrocarpi, characters of the group, i. 328
Acrocladia mammillata, spines of the, ii. 180, 181
Acrostichese, characters of the, i. 359, 360
Actinia sulcata, structure of, ii. 132

Actinian polype, structiu'e and mode of reproduction of, ii. 130, 131
Actinian zoophytes, characters of, ii. 130, 131

thread-cells, ii. 132

structure of, ii. 134-136
Actinism of star-light, i. 55

of moon-light, i, 55

of sun-light, i. 56
Actinocyclus undulatus, structure of, i. 199, 200
Actinomma drymodes, structure of, ii. 21
Actinophrys sol, structure and reproduction of, ii. 16-18

certain degree of instinct exhibited by, ii. 18

its enemy, the Amoeba, ii. 18
Adder's tongue fern, i. 365
Adiantiese, characters of the groups, i. 358

Adiantum Capillus- Veneris, or maiden's-hair fern, structure and habi-
tat of, i. 359
Adriatic sea, Foraminifera in the ooze of the bed of the, ii. 51
Adularia, or moonstone, fluorescent property of, x. 66
^cidium, characters of, i. 280
^gean sea, zones of Algae in the, i. 259
^thalium septicum, structure and habitat of, i. 270-272

Amceba-like motions of, i. 270

mode of reproduction of, i. 271
Affinity, chemical, of kind and of degree, i, 95

relation between chemical affinity and mechanical force, i. 98
Agaricini, the order, i. 261
Agaricus, the genus, i. 261, 263

structure of the, i. 263
Agaricus arvensis, spawn of, i. 262
Agaricus campestris, or common mushroom, i. 261

structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 261
Agaricus gardneri, luminosity of, i. 264

INDEX. 255

Agaricus olearius, luminosity of, i. 264
Air, a non-conductor of electricity, i. 32

amount of force exerted by the sun's light within the limits of the
terrestrial atmosphere, i. 34

absorption of radiant heat by, i. 41

effect of the rays of the sun falling on the earth through pure dry
air, i, 53

spectrum analysis of the component parts of the atmosphere, i. 139
Air-vessel of Nereocystis Lutkeana, i. 249, 250
Alaria esculenta, fruit of, i. 249
Alaria Pylaii, fruit of, i. 249

Albumen, formation and structure of, in vegetable organisms, i. 423
Alcohol, chemical combination forming, i. 97
Alcyon zoophytes, characters of, ii, 119, 120

structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 120-123
Alcyonidium elegans, structure of, ii. 120

Alcyonium digitatum, or dead man's lingers, structure of, ii. 121, 122
Aldebarau, spectrum of, i. 155
Algae, i. 179 •;

classification of the group, i. 179-181

green Algse, i. 181-220

zones or degrees of depth at which different Algse exist, ii. 221, 258,
259

brackish water often a cause of change in the form of Algse, i. 245

colossal Algse of the North Pacific, i. 245

rings of growth of some of the larger sea- weeds, i. 252
Alizarine blue, from what obtained, i. 124, 125
Alkalies, their affinity for acids, i. 96
Alkaloids, chemical structure of, i. 427

Allosorus crispus, or parsley fern, structure and habitat of, i. 358
Allotropism, i. 8

of carbon, i. 15
Alsophilse, structure of, i. 360
Alum, a free radiator but a bad conductor of radiant heat, i. 37

partial decomposition of, by diffusion, i. 109

manufacture of, i. 120
Alumina, effect of electricity on, i. 32
Aluminum, i. 4

spectrum of, i. 65
Amalgams of metals, illustrating the relation between chemical affinity

and mechanical force, i. 98
Amansia, structure of, i. 242

256 INDEX.

Araaryllidacese, stri;cture and mode of reproduction of, i. 388

America, North, enormous quantities of petroleum in, i. 126

Amidogen combines with other substances and simple atoms''as if it

were a simple element, i. 106
Ammonia, amount of absorption of radiant heat ])y, i. 41
characteristics and constituents of, i. 119
chemical composition of, i. 128
combination forming, i. 107
carbonate of, i. 119
extent of the manufacture of, i. 120
muriate of, i. 120
manufacture of, i. 120
sulphate of, i. 120
how manufactured, i. 120
Ammonium, sulphide of, i. 119

Amoeba princeps, structure, motions, food, and reproduction of, ii. 13-16
its capture of the Actinophrys, ii. 18
a new species found in dust from Egypt, ii. 65
Amorphous substances, conduct of, under magnetic influence, i. 76
Amphicora, two eye-specks in the tail of, ii. 158
Amphidotus, spines of the, ii. 180
Amphipoda, characters of the, ii. 201
Amphithose, structure of, ii. 203
Analysis, chemical, electricity and light instruments of, i. 95

the most powerful means of, i. 96
Andrsea subulata, leaves of, i. 330
Andrseacese, characters of the tribe, i. 328

Angiocarpei, structure, mode of reproduction, and habitat of, i. 309, 310
Angiopteris erecta, perfume from, i, 364, 365

Angrgecum sesquipedale, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 402
Anguillidae, eel-like entozoa, structure and habitat of, ii. 147, 148
Anemone, sea, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 130, 131
Aniline, formation of the fulminate of, i. 92
combination forming, i. 107
how produced, i. 121, 122
constituents and characteristics of, i. 122
formation of the aniline colours, i. 122, 123
mauve, i. 122
magenta, i. 122
purple, i. 123
yellow, i. 124
chemical composition of, i. 128

INDEX. 257

Aniline, acetate of, i. 123

Animals, functions of the frame of, ii. 1

sarcode and muscle, ii. 2

blood, ii. 2

waste and repair, ii. 3
food, ii. 3

animal heat, ii. 3

the heart, digestion, heat, and respiration, ii. 4

nerve-force of animals, ii. 4

nervous system, ii. 5

structure and functions of the brain and spinal cord, ii. 8

intelligence, or the mental principle, in animals, ii. 11, 12
Anise seed, amoimt of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i. 44
Annelida, characters of the, ii. 149

mode of reproduction of, ii. 160

luminosity of, ii. 160

fossil remains of, ii. 161
Annulosa, or worms, characters of, ii. 144
Anomura, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 197
Antennaria Eobinsonii, mode of reproduction of, i. 296
Antennariei, structure of, i. 296

Anthoxauthum odoratum, or sweet-scented vernal grass, mode of repro-
duction of, i. 386
Anthozoa zoophytes, or living flowers, characters of, ii. 119
Antiaris toxicaria, causes of the vnruleuce of, i. 426

fruit of, innocuous, i. 426
Antozone, i. 8

Aphrodita hystrix, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 159
Apolemia contorta, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 108,

109
Apple, fructification of the, i. 381
Apus cancrifurmis, structure of the, ii. 210
Aqueous vapour, i. 53

absorptive power of, i. 53-55
Arachnoidiscus Ehrenbergii, structiire of, i. 199

Arcella, structure and mode of foi-mation of the shell of, ii. 21, 22, 23
Aregma speciosum, spores of, i. 276
Arenicola, structure of, ii. 157
Arragonite, i. 108

external and internal alteration of, by heat, i. 108
Artenia salina, structure of, ii. 210
Artocarpus, or bread-fruit tree, i. 426
VOL. II. S

258 INDEX.

Arum, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 388

water secreted by the, iit night, i. 429
Arundo Donax, size of the, i. 386

Ascaris lumbricoides, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 147
Asci, or sporidia sacs, of Ascomycetes, i. 290
Ascidia virginea, structure, food, and habitat of, ii, 224, 225
Ascidians, or Tunicata, character of, ii. 222

compound or social gelatinous, ii. 222

star-like, ii. 224
Ascomycetes, structure of, i. 290
Ascophora elegans, fructification of, i. 226
Ashes, i. 14

Aspergillus dubius, spores of, i. 286
Aspergillus glaucus, spores of, i. 286
Asphalt, sources of, in various parts of the world, i. 126
Aspidise, characters and habitat of the group, i. 346, 348
Aspleniese, characters and habitat of the group, i. 351, 352, 353
Asplenium lanceolatum, structure, fructification, and habitat of, i. 354
Asplenium marinum, structure and habitat, i. 355, 356
Asplenium Euta-muraria, or wall rue, structure, habitat, and reproduc-
tive organs of, i. 353, 354
Asteroidea, or star-fishes, characters of the,, ii. 169

fossil star-fishes, ii. 174
Athyrium Filix-foemina, or lady fern, herbaceous caudex of, i. 340

structure and fructification of, i. 352, 353
Atlantic Ocean, profound depths of, north and south, ii, 49

foraminifera at great depths in the, ii. 49, 50
Atmolysis, or method of analysing gases, i. Ill

Atmosphere, effect of the heat radiated by the moon on the higher regions
of the, i. 55

opalescence of the, and its effect on the chemical power of the sun's
light, i. 55

causes of this opalescence, i. 55

its permeability to every kind of chemical rays, i. 58
Atmosphere of the sun, thirteen terrestrial subsUiuees in the, i. 59
Atolls, or coral lagoons, ii. 140

Atoms or molecules of matter, power of atoms of matter on the rays of
the solar beam, i. 58

aggregation of matter by electricity, i. 74

effect of the physical forces on molecular arrangement, i. 90, 91

proof of the individuality and polarity of the atoms of matter, i. 91

effect of motion, i. 91

IXBFX. 259

Atoms : eiFect of catalysis, i. 91
of matter, i. 2
cohesion of, i. 25
unit of mechanical force, i. 26
the atomic theory, i. 93
the law of definite proportions, in combination and resolution of the

component parts of substances, i. 94
affinity of kind and of degree, i. 95
force of chemical combination, i. 97, 98
relative atomic weights, i. 99

table of atomic weights compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100
relation between the atomic weights and the specific gravities

of substances, i. 100
capacities of atoms for heat and electricity, i. 100, 101
law of equivalency in weight and volume, i. 102, 103
substitution the basis of this law, i, 104
sequence of atomic numbers, i. 105
groups of substances whose atomic weights are in regular arithme-
tical series, i. 106 •
groups of combined atoms called compound radicles, i. 106
the polyatomic theory, i. 107
the force of molecular attraction more powerful than gravitation,

i. 109
internal movement of molecules of matter in a gaseous state, i. 113
Aulocantha scolymantha. structure of, ii. 21

Avicula margaritacea, or pearl oyster, nacreous lining of shell of, ii. 234
Azores, the black mildew of the, i. 297
Azote in vegetable organisms, i. 423
Azuline dye, production of, i. 123

Eabylon, the asphaltic mortar used in building, i. 126
Bacillaria cursoria, motion of, i. 203
Bacillaria paradoxa, motion of, i. 203
Back, Sir George, his arctic journey, i. 308
Bacteria, their structure, size and habitat, ii. 64
Bseomyces, structure of, i. 306
Balanidse, structure of, ii. 213
Balanus balanoides, development of, ii. 216

s 2

26o INDEX.

Balanus ciilcatus, structure of, ii. 213-215

Baldness caused by fungi, i. 275

Balms, clieniical combination forming the principle of the, i. 97

Bamboo, size and structure of, i. 386

Bangia, characters of the genus, i. 222

Bangia ceramicola, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 223

Bangia ciliaris, structure and reproduction of, i. 223

Bangia fuscopurpurea, structure and reproduction of, i. 223

Barium, i. 3

one of an isomeric triad with calcium and strontium, i, 105

spectrum analysis of the rarefied vapour of, i. 142

effect of high temperature, i. 143

chloride of, spectrum of, i. 146
Bark of trees, structure of, i. 406, 407

Baryta, green coloured light obtained by the combustion of, i. 133
Batarrea, structure of, i. 267
Batrachospermese, habitat and structure of, i. 210
Bean, common, fungus of the, i. 280
Beans, caseine obtained from, i. 125
Beer, yeast of, i. 287
Beetles, fungi in the stomachs of, i. 274
Begonia, structure and mode of reproduction, of, i. 376
Bengal, Bay of, causes of the scarlet colour of the, ii. 72
Benzol, combination forming, i. 118, 127

constituents and characteristics of, i. 121

chemical composition of, i. 128
Bergamot, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i, 44
Beroe Forskalia, structure of the, ii. 102, 103
Bhang, whence obtained, i. 427

intoxicating effect of, i. 427
Biddulphia pulchella, structure of, i. 198
Bignonia, fructification of, i. 381, 382
Bilin, polishing slate of, of what it consists, i. 206
Biscay, Bay of, zones of Algge in the, i. 259
Bisection, propagation of diatoms by, i. 200, 204
Bismuth, diamagnetism of, i. 75, 76

chloride of, spectrum of, i. 146
Bittern, i. 18
Bleaching properties of: —

chlorine, i. 19

bromine, i. 20

iodine, i. 21

INDEX. 261

Blechnum Spicant, structure, habitat, and mode of reproduction of, i.

366, 307
Blood, formation and functions of, ii. 2, 3
Blue dyes, i. 123, 124

Bog moss, structure, fructification, and habitat of, i. 332
Boleti, habitat and structure of the, i. 265
Boletus seneas, large amount of heat evolved by, i. 265
Bombyx rubi, fungi destructive of, i. 282
Boron, i. 18

whence obtained, i. 18

insolubility of, i. 18

heat at wliich it burns, i. 18
Botrychium, habitat of the genus, i. 366

Botrychium Lunana, or moonwort, structure and habitat of, i. 366
Botryllidae, or star-like Ascidians, ii. 224
Botrytis Bassiana, a fungus parasite of the silk-worm, i. 274
Botrj'tis carta, development of, i. 294
Botr}i:is, the cause of the murrain in potatoes, i. 284

structure of, i. 284
Brachionus pala, structure of, ii. 162-166
Brachyura, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 189-197
Brackens, i. 358

Brain, struct'ire and functions of the, ii. 8
Branchipes stagnalis, structure of, ii. 210
Bread, fungus which attacks, hot from the oven, i. 296
Bread-fruit tree, food obtained from the, i. 426
Bristle fern, structure and habitat of, i. 361
Bromine, i, 18

whence obtained, i. 18

properties of, i. 20, 22

Professor Sehonbein's views as to, i. 20, 21

spectrum of, i. 21.

amount of absorption of radiant heat by, i. 41, 42, 43

atomic weight of, compared with tliat of hydrogen, i, 100

spectrum analysis of, i. 140
Bryei, characters and structure of the, i. 329
Bryopsis, structure and habitat of, i. 219, 224
Bryozoa, or Polyzoa, characters of, ii. 218
Buckthorn, green dye obtained from, i. 124
Buds of trees, structure and functions of, i. 411
Bugularia avicularia, structure of, ii. 220
Bulbous plants, beauty of, i. 387

262 INDEX,

Bulbous plants, structure and reproduction of, i. 388
Bunt, germination of the spores of, i. 281

Cadmium, i. 4

spectrum of volatilized cadmium, i. 64

chloride of, spectrum of, i. 146
Cseomaeei, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 278
Caesium, i, 3, 4

atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100

one of an isomeric triad with rubidium and potassium, i. 105

M. Bunsen's discovery of the metal by spectrum analysis, i. 134, 135

mode of distinguishing it from potassium, i. 136

its properties, i. 136

changes in its spectrum by high temperature, i. 144
Caffeine, the neutral crystallisable principle of coffee, i. 428
Caladium distillatorium, water secreted by at night, i. 429
Calanus, structure and social habits of the, ii. 206

bloody water formed by the, ii. 206
Calanus pontilla, structure of, ii. 206
Calanus sanguineus, structure of, ii. 206
Calcarina, intermediate skeleton of, ii. 42, 43
Calcium, i. 3, 4

one of an isomeric triad with strontium and barittm, i. 105

spectrum analysis of the rarefied vapour of, i. 142
effect of high temperature, i. 143

chloride of, spectrum of, i. 146
Caliciei, characters and habitat of the order, i. 309
Calicium inquinans, spores of, i. 309
Calicium tympanellum, organs of reproduction of, i. 301
Calico-printing, use of oxalic acid in, i. 116
Callithamnion, structure of the genus, i. 231
Callithamnion corymbosum, structure and reproductive organs of, i. 231

232
Callithamnion sparsum, structure of, i. 231
Calorescence, property of, in some solids and liquids, i. 61
Calyx of flowering plants, i. 378
Cambium of plants, structure of, i. 407, 417

Camptosorus, or walking fern, structure and mode of reproduction of,
i. 352

INDEX. 263

Campylopus lamellinervis, leaves of, i. 330

Canada, enormous quantities of petroleum in, i. 126

Canina octonaria, larvae of, parasites of the Turritopsis nutricula, ii. 100

Caoutchouc, whence obtained, i. 426

Carbazotic acid, constituents of, i. 121

Carbohydrates, combinations forming the, i. 116

Carbolic acid, combination forming, i. 107, 120, 121, 128

its property of arresting putrefaction, i. 121

becomes solid when dried and purified, i. 121
Carbon, i. 13

allotropism of, i. 15

at variance with the geometrical system of crystallization, i. 15

analogy between carbon and silicon, i. 18

effect of the combination of the atoms of carbon and oxygen in
combustion, i. 30

property of the bisulphide of, in the transmission of heat, i. 36

effect of a discharge of the nitric acid electric battery, with car-
bon balls on the terminals, i. 8-t

will not combine directly with hydrogen, i. 97

atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100

spectra of the compounds of carbon, i. 146

bisulphide of, absorption of radiant heat by, i. 40
opacity of, to the invisible rays, i. 65

in coal gas, i. 118

how freed from coal gas, i. 118
Carbonic acid gas, i. 14

reduced to a solid, i. 15

weight of the atoms of, compared with those of hydrogen, i. 99

absorption of radiant heat by, i. 41

how freed from coal gas, i. 118

one of the illuminants in coal gas, i. 118
Carbonic oxide, absorption of radiant heat by, i. 41

action of different thicknesses of, on radiant heat, i. 48

the poisonous quality of coal gas, i. 118
Cardium, or cockle, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 230, 231
Carpentaria, structure and habitat of the, ii. 57

a link between the Foramiuifera and the sponges, ii. 57
Carrigeen, or Irish moss, structure andmode of reproduction of, i. 235, 236
Carcinus mcenas, structure and reproduction of, ii. 192, 195

moulting and power of reproducing limbs, ii. 197
Caryophyllia Smithii, its formidable artillery, ii. 133, 134

structure and development of, ii. 134, 135

264 INDEX.

Caryophyllia Smitliii, locomotion of, ii. 135
Caseine, or cheese, used as a mordant, i. 125

obtained also from pease and beans, i. 125

formation and structure of, in vegetable organisms, i. 423
Cassava, or Manihot, food obtained from the, i. 426
Cassis, or helmet shells, structure of, ii. 2.3-i
Catalysis, effect of, on molecular arrangement, i. 91

instances of, i. 91, 92
Catasetum, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 601
Caterpillars, fungus destructive of, i. 282
Catsup made from the morel, i. 292
Caulerpas, where found, i. 219
Celidiuro, organs of reproduction of, i. 307
Cellepora, structure of, ii. 218
Cells, vegetable. See Vegetation
Cellulose, produced by plants, i. 419
Cellularia ciliata, structure of, ii. 219, 220
Cephalopoda, naked, characters of, ii. 245
Ceramiacese, beauty and habitat of, i. 231

characters of the genus, i. 232
Ceramium ciliatum, structure and organs of reproduction of, i. 232
Ceratopteridinese, or Parkeriacese, characters, structure, and habitat of

the group, i. 345, 363
Cerealia, the grasses from whence they were derived unknown, i. 383
Cestum Veneris, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 103
Ceterach, characters of the genus, i. 354

structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 354

brought by ocean currents to Europe, i. 355
Ceterach officinarum, or scaly spleen -wort, structure, organs of fructifica-
tion, and habitat of, i. 354, 355
Cetraria, or Iceland moss, characters of the genus, i. 304
Cetraria tristis, structure of, i. 304
Ceylon, the black mildew of, i. 297
Chamomile flowers, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of,

i. 44
Chantarelle, veins of the, i. 264
Characese, structure and habitat of, i. 312

fluid currents of, i. 312, 313

reproductive organs of, i. 313
Chara fragilis, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 314, 315
Charcoal, i. 13

as a conductor of electricity, i. 32

JXDEX. 265

Cheese, blue and brick-red moulds on, i, 285

Cheilantlies odorn, scent of, i. 347

Chelidonine, whence obtained, i. 427

Chemistry, laws placing it on a strict!}- numerical basis, i, 93

Chimneys of bad construction, i. 14

Chiodecton monostiehum, structure and habitat of, i. 309

Chiodecton myrticola, habitat of, i. 309

Chirodota, structure and habitat of, ii. 186

Chirodata Isevis, wheels of the, ii. 186

Chirodata myriotrochus, wheels of the, ii. 186

Chloride of lime, i. 19

Chlorides, spectra of the, i. 146, 147

Chlorine, i. 18

whence obtained, i. 18, 19

properties of, i. 19, 22

affinity for hydrogen, i. 19, 20

substances produced by the combination of chlorine with oxygen, i. 20
and with nitrogen, and with sulphur, i. 20

Professor Schonbein's views as to, i. 20, 21

spectrum of, i. 21 '

absorption of radiant heat by, i. 41, 42

its affinity for iodine, i. 96

atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogc-n, i. 100

spectrum analysis of, i, 140
Chlorine gas, substances which take fire spontaneously in, i. 19

combustion of, i. 19
Chlorospermese, characters of, i. ISO

structure and development of, i. 181
Chondrus crispus, or Carrigeen, structure and mode of propagation of,
i. 235, 236

effect of fresh water on the form of, i. 243
Chorda filium, structure and habitat of, i. 245
Chordaria divaricata, spore cysts of, i. 246
Chordariffi, stiiicture of, i. 245
Chrysophouie acid, whence obtained, i. 303

Chylocladia kaliformis, structure and mode of propagation of, i. 235
Cibotium Barometz, caudex of, i. 350
Cidaris, spines of the, ii. 180
Cinchoniese, alkaloids obtained from, i. 427
Cinchonine, structure of, and whence obtained, i. 427
Cirripedia, characters of the, ii. 213
Cladocarpi, characters of the group, i. 328

266 INDEX.

Ciadocera, characters of tlie order, ii. 208

Cladonia, structure of, i. 306

Cladopliora, structure of the genus, i. 222

Cladophora pelhicida, structure of, i. 222

Claudea, structure of, i. 2-i2

Clavariei, structure and habitat of, i. 266

Clio pyrnmidata, structure of, ii. 2-i2, 243

Ciioua, structure and burrowing apparatus of, ii. 60

Clione borealis, structure and habitat of, ii. 243

fossil remains of, ii. 244
Closterium, double circulation of the internal fluid in, i. 193
Closterium lunula, structure and development of, i. 193
Cloud, force of the chemical combination requisite to form a, i. 98
Cloves, oil of, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i. 44
Club mosses. Sec Lyeopodiacese
Coal, i. 13

efFeet of the consumption of a pound of, in a steam-engine, i. 29,
30

energy in abeyance in the coal existing in the whole globe, i. 30
Coal gas, i. 117, 118

poisonous quality of, i. 118

explosive quality of, i. 1 1 8

impurities from which it is freed, i. 118

■uses of the black foetid gas water resulting from the distillation of
coals, i. 119
Coal tar, i. 120

substances produced from, by distillation, i. 120

colours, i. 121, 122
Cobalt, i. 4, 5

crystals of, formed artificially by electricity, i. 74

effect of heat in the magnetism of, i. 77
Coccocarpei, characters of, i, 307
Coccocarpia smaragdina, section of, i. 300
Coccospheres, found at a vast depth in the ocean, ii. 51
Cockle, structm'e and mode of life of the, ii. 230, 231
Codiura, structure and habitat of, i. 219-224
Codium Bursa, structure of, i. 224
Codium tomentosum, structure of, i. 214
Coffee, active principle of, i. 428
Cohesion, properties of, i. 25

in solids, i. 25

in liquids, i. 25

INDEX. 267

Cohesion : reciprocal attractions between solids and liquids, i. 25

instance of the power of the cohesive force, i. 91
Colchicum, or meadow saifron, mode of reproduction of, i. 388

poisonous alkaloid obtained from, i. 427
Collemacei, structure and habitat of, i. 307
Colloid bodies, i. 109, 110

less diffusible than crystalloids, i. 109

permeable to solutions of crystalloids, but impermeable to solutions
of colloids, i. 110

characteristics of colloids, i. Ill
Collomia grandiflora, fructification of, i. 380
Colocasia, water secreted by, i. 430
Colour, causes of, in flowers, green leaves, dyed cloth, gold, and copper,

i. 35, 36
Colouring matter of flowers and plants, i. 428, 429
Comatula, structure of, ii. 175, 176
Combination, chemical, i. 94

the law of definite proportions, i. 94, 95

force of, i. 97, 98 ;

Combustion, effect of, in the consumption of coal in the steam-engine,
i. 29, 30

combustion a case of impetus, i. 30
Comers, spectra of, i. 159 note, 163
Conferva glomerata, development of, i. 207
Confervaceai, habitat of, i. 206, 207

structure and development of, i. 207

reproduction of, i. 208

modes of action of the vital forces of, i. 210
Confervse, cells and development of, i. 171

Conferva, marine, structure, habitat, and reproduction of, i. 221, 222.
Conidium, or spore-dust cell, of fungi, i. 279
Coniomycetes, characters of the family of, i. 275
Conjugatfe, structure of the genus, i. 216
Conjugation, propagation of diatoms by, i. 200, 204
Constantinea rosa marina, i, 235
Constantinea sitchensis, i. 235
Copepoda, characters of the, ii. 204
Copper, properties of, i. 4

colour of, in reflected and absorbed light, i. 35, 36

its power of transmitting electricity, i. 90

atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100

spectra of copper and its compounds, i. 145, 146

268 INDEX.

Copper, poi'oxide of, combination forming, i. 104
Coral, structure of the coral polypes, ii. 133, 134

composition of the stony substance of, ii. 137

reef-building corals, ii. 138

red, ii. 125

white, ii. 127
Corallina officinalis, mode of reproduction of, i. 230

structure and development of, i. 240
Corallines, structure and mode of propagation of, i. 240
Corallium Johnstoni, structure and habitat of, ii. 127
Corallium rubrum, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 125, 126, 127

coral fishing in the Mediterranean, ii. 126
Corallium secundum, structure of, ii. 127
Cordiceps miliaris, characters of, i. 283, 293
Cordiceps purpurea, the second form of ergot, i. 293

structure of, i. 293
Cordiceps Eobertsii, form of, i. 293
Coremium glaucum, production of, i. 287
Corolla of flowering plants, i. 378
Corundum, i. 4

Corynidse, characters of the family, ii. 90
Cosmarium, structure and development of, i. 194
Cotton, dyes for, i. 125

necessity for mordants for fixing cotton dyes, i. 125

enormous manufacture of cotton in Britain, i. 125
Cowries, shells of, ii. 234, 235
Cow-tree, beverage obtained from the, i. 426
Crabs, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 189-197

hermit, structure of, ii. 197

king, fossil, ii. 211

spider, structure of, ii. 211
Creosote, i. 121

its property of preventing the decay of organic matter, i. 121
Cressylic acid, how produced, i. 120, 121

chemical composition of, i. 128
Cristallaria compressa, form of, ii. 28

structure of, ii. 39
Cristata, siliceous skeleton of, ii. 60

Crocus, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 387, 388
Cruoria pellita, tetraspores of, i. 237
Crustacea, characters of the, ii. 188

fossil Crustacea, ii. 211

IXLEX. 269

Crustacea, Decaprxl. See Decap'xls
Crj'ptogamia, spores of, i. 177, 178
Cryxjtonemiacese, multitude of forms of, i. 234

structure of, i, 234
Crystal, rock, its transmission of chemical solar rays, i. 65

absorption of invisible rays by, i. 65

change of position of the oj^tical axes of the crv'stals of, by heat,
i. 73
Crj'stallization, relation of polarization of light and heat to crj-stalliza-
tion, i. 70, 71

axes of symmetry of crystals, i. 71, 72

change of p^jsition of the optical axes of crystals by heat, i. 72

effect of pressure on the optical axes of crystals, i. 73

influence on the aggregation of, i. 73, 74

probable origin of the crystalline form, i. 74

causes of the variety of forms assumed by matter, i. 74

deviation of dimorphous crystals from the general law of crj-htal-
lization, i. 75

proof of the connection- between the magnetic forces and CTystalline
structure, i. 76

conditions of the position which cr)-stals take with regard to the
magnetic force, i. 76
Crystalloids, or crj'stalline substances, diflfusibility of, i. 109
Crystals, water an essential element in, i. 107

alterations in crj'stals by heat, i. 108
Cusconine, structure of, and whence obtained, i. 427
Cuthbert's, St., beads, ii. 175
Cutaneous diseases caused by fungi, i. 274
Cutleriit multifida, structure, mode of reproduction, and habitat of,

i. 248
Cuttle fish, structure of the, ii. 245-247

Cyanogen, combines with other substances and simple atoms, as if it
were a simple element, i. 106

combination forming it, i. 106
Cyathea medullaris, used as food in New Zealand, i. 360
Cyathese, structure of, i. 360
Cyatheinese, characters of the group, i. 344

sporangia of, i. 343

structure and fructification of, i. 360
Cydoclypeus, structure and habitat of, ii. 48

Cyclops quadricomis, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 205, 206
Cydippe pileus, structure of, ii. 101, 102

270 INDEX.

Cyniothea, their food and mode of taking it, ii. 203

Cypraeae, or cowries, shells of, ii. 234, 235

Cypris, structure and mode of reproduction of, |207, 208

Cystopteris, characters and habitat of the genus, i. 348, 349

Cystopus candidus, or Uredo Candida, structure, habitat, and mode of

reproduction of, i. 278
Cystopteris fragilis, or brittle bladder fern, structure and habitat of,

i. 349
Cystoseira, structure and habitat of, i. 255
Cystoseireae, habitat of, i. 255
Cyttaria, the food of the Fuegians, i. 292
habitat of the, i. 292

Dactylocalyx pumiceus, spicula and skeleton of, ii. 60
Daphnia pulex, or arborescent water-flea, structure and mode of repro-
duction of, ii. 208
Dasya, structure of, i. 241, 242
Dasygloea, structure of, i. 215
Datura sanguinea, intoxicating effect produced by a drink obtained

from, i. 427
Davallia canariensis, or hare's-foot fern, i. 351
DavaUiese, structure and habitat of, i. 350, 351
Bead bodies, agents in the decomposition of our, ii. 67
Decapoda, structure of, ii. 245
Decapods, tribes of the, ii. 188

characters of the, ii. 189
Delesseria alata, structure of, i. 243
Delesseria angustissima, structure of, i. 243
Delesseria sanguinea, structure and habitat of, i. 239
Dematiei, structure of, i. 283
Dendritina elegans, form of, ii. 28

structure of, ii. 32
Dendritina variety of the Peneroplis, characters and habitat of, ii. 32

fossils of, ii. 33
Dennstsedtia, indusium of, i. 350
Deparia prolifera, sorus and indusium of, i. 350
Desmidiacese, structure and development of, i. 191 et seq,

their habitat, i. 195

INDEX. 271

Dextrine, production of in plants, i. 421

Dialysis, as a method of separating and analysing substances, i. 108

what constitutes dialysis, i. 110

Prof. Graham's instrument for, i. 110

an extraordinary result of, i. 110
Diamagnetism, i. 75
Diamond, i. 13, 15

heat required to consume the, i. 15

crystallisation of the, i. 15

its resistance to electricity, i. 90
Dianthine, production of, i. 127
Diastase, production of, in plants, i. 420
Diatoma vulgare, structure and development of, i. 197
Diatomacese, or Brittleworts, found all over the globe, i. 196, 204

variety of forms of, i. 196

structure of, i, 197

development of, i. 200

social plants, i. 205

food for many aquatic ^.nimals, i. 205

fossil deposits of shells of, i. 206

enormous geological changes caused by, i. 206
Dicksonia antarctica, structure of, i. 349
Dicksonia lauata, structure of, i. 349
Dicksonia squamosa, habitat of, i. 349
Dicksoniea;, i. 349

structure of, i. 350
Dicotyledonous, or exogenous, plants, structure and mode of reproduc-
tion of, i. 404-428
Dicranei, structure of, i. 329

Dictyopodium trilobum, structure and habitat of, ii. 20
Dictyota, structure of the genus, i. 246

Dictyota dichotoma, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 247
Dictyotese, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 246
Dictyurus purpurascens, structure of, i. 242
Diffiugia, structure and minuteness of the shells of, ii. 22

their architecture, ii. 23
Diffiugia pyriformis, structure, and habitat, and mode of propagation of,

ii. 22, 23
Diflfusibility, most substances differ in, i. 109

partial decomposition of definite chemical compounds by, i. 109

reciprocal diffusion of gases through porous plates, i. 111-113
the diffusing instrument used by Prof. Graham, i. 112

272 INDEX.

Digestion, chemical powers causing, ii. 4
Dimorphism, contrasted with isomorphism, ii. 99
Diphyidge, stnicture and habitat of the, ii. 103
Diplaziese, characters of the groiip, i. 352
Diplazivim, structure and fructification of, i. 3o2
Distillation, ordinary, i. 117

destructive, i. 117
of coal, i. 117
Distomata, characters of the, ii. 146
Dracaena Draco, or dragon tree of Teneriffe, i. 387
Drummond's light, how produced, i. 30

the continuous spectra of, i. 132
Dry rot in wood, cause of, i. 266

on various substances, i. 285
Dulses, red, i. 235

Dumontia filiformis, structure of, i. 235
D'Urvillea, structure, fructification, and habitat of, i. 256
Dyes obtained from aniline, i. 122-124

vegetable dyes, i. 124

mordants for cotton when dyed, i. 125

effects of electricity and the east wind on the process of dyeing,
i. 126

obtained from preparations of petroleum, i. 127

obtained from lichens, i. 303

blue dye obtained from some club mosses, i. 374

Ear-shell, structure of the, ii. 234

Earth, quantity of heat which would be generated if it were arrested in

its orbit, i. 27
and if it struck the sun, i. 28
Eirth light, causes of, i. 68

Earth-worm, structure and food of the, ii. 151, 152
Echinodermata asteroidea, structure, mode of reproduction, and habitat

of, ii. 169-174
Echinodermata crinoi'dea, or stone-lilies, structure, habitat, and mode of

reproduction of, ii, 175, 176
fossil remains of, ii. 175
Echinodermata Echiuoidea, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii.

177-182

INDEX. 273

Echinodennata: fossil Echinidae, ii. 182, 183

Echinodermata Holothuroidea, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii.

183
Echinodermata Sipunculidse, characters of, ii. 186, 187
Echinodermata Synaptidse, characters of the order of, ii. 184, 185
Echinus, structure of, ii. 176, 177
Echinus miliaris, spines of the, ii. 181
Ecklonia, structure and habitat of, i. 252
Ecklonia buccinalis, structure of, i. 250
Ectocarpeae, form, structure, and habitat of, i. 244, 245
Ectocarpus pulsillus, fruit of, i. 245
Effusion of gases by pressure, i. 109, 110

Prof. G-raham's experiments, i. 113
Electricity, i. 30

permanent and regular current of, over the earth, in the atmosphere

and in the surface of the earth, i. 31
thunder and lightning, i. 31

force exerted in the creation of the deep, i. 31
the voltaic battery and. the electro-magnetic induction apparatus,

i. 31, 32
reciprocity of action of electricity and heat, i. 31
electricity produced by chemical action, and conversely, i. 32
intensity of the light and heat of the electric spark, i. 32

produced by fifty Bunsen elements, i. 32
conducting power of charcoal, i. 32
air and glass non-conductors, i, 32
proof of the correlation of heat and electricity, i. 33
motion of the atoms of a conducting wire during the passage of an

electric current, i. 33
effect on a conducting wire of an invariable transit of electricity

sent from the same pole of an inductive apparatus, i. 33
difference between electric and magnetic currents, i. 33
influence of electricity on the aggregation of matter, i. 74
ratio between the specific heat and weight of the atoms of matter, i. 74
influence of magnetism on the stratified appearance of the electric

light, i. 78
extreme heat and light of electric discharges, i. 84

the arc discharge, i. 84
cause of the stratified discharge, i. 85
effect of varied intensity on electric discharges, i. 86, 87
effect of varied resistance on electric discharges, i. 88, 89
varied facility with which substances transmit electricity, i. 90
VOL. II. T

274 INDEX.

Electricity : illustration of the action of electricity and magnetism on
. light, i. 90

instances of the correlation of electricity and heat, i. 91

voltaic electricity, and its combination and resolution of substances
according to the law of definite proportions, i. 94

Faraday's law of the quantity of electricity required to separate and
unite the same atoms, i. 94

superiority of voltaic over static electricity, i. 95

electricity the most powerful instrument of analysis, i. 95

capacity of atoms for electricity, i. 100

a given quantity of electricity required to separate combined
substances into their component parts, i. 101

spectrum analysis of the electric spark, i, 138

development of electricity in plants and flowers, i. 430

electric currents in the nerves and muscles of animals, ii. 7
Electro-chemical action in heterogeneous atoms of matter, i. 95
Electro-magnetic induction apparatus, i. 31

Ruhmkorff's, i. 32
Elvellacei, characters of the, i. 290
Empusa Muscse, or fly fungus, i. 274
Encalypta vulgaris, organs of fructification of, i. 326
Encrinites, structure of, ii. 175
Endocarpei, structure and habitat of, i. 310 •

Endocarpon lacteum, structure and organs of reproduction of, i. 299
Endogenous plants, i. 383-403
Enteromorpha, characters of the genus, i. 223
Enteromopha intestinalis, structure and habitat of, i. 223, 224
Entomostraca, characters of the, ii. 203
GntophyteS; characters of the group of, i. 275, 276

sporangia, or spore-cells, of, i. 279
Entozoa, characters of the order of, ii. 144

transformations of the j^oung of the, ii. 146
Eolis, the crowned, structure of, ii. 240, 541

Eozoon Canadense, may be regarded as the first appearance of animal
life upon the earth, ii. 54

found in fundamental quartz rocks, ii. 54

structure of, ii. 55

range of its existence, ii. 56
Epipactis palustris, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 397, 398
Epiphytes, characters of the group of, i. 275
Epithemia, mode of development of, i. 202

Epizoa, or suctorial Crustacea, structure, habitat, and mode of reproduc-
tion of, ii. 212

INDEX. 275

Equisetacese, or horse-tails, characters of, i. 367

contrasted with ferns, i. 369

large quantity of silex in, i. 369

size and habitat of fossil and existing species, i. 369
Equisetum giganteum, structure and fructification of, i. 368
Ergot, Cordiceps the second form of, i. 293
Errantia, structure and habitat of the, ii. 156, 157, 161
Erysiphe, mildew formed by, i. 295
Eschara, structure of, ii. 218

Ether, sulphuric absorption of radiant heat by, i. 40
Eucamptodon perichaetialis, leaves of, i. 330
Eucyrtidium, structure of, ii. 20
Eugh'ua acus, structure of, ii. 72
Euglena sanguinea, structure of, ii. 72
Euglena, structure of the genus, ii. 72
Euglyphse, structure and habitat of, ii. 22
Eunice, structure of, ii. 157

mode of reproduction of, ii. 160
Euparmeliacese, characters of the group, i. 304
Euphorbiaceae, or spurgeworts, poisons and food supplied by the, i. 425,

426
Evernia flavieans, colour of, i. 303
Evernia jubata, structure of, i. 302
Evernia vulpina, i. 303

brown dye obtained from, i. 303
Exchange, law of, i. 35

independent proofs of the, i. 35, note
Exidia Auricula Judse, or Jew's Ear fungus, structure and fructification

of, i. 266
Exccecaria Agallocha, poison of the, i. 426
Exogenous plants, i. 404-408
Eyes of man, fimgi in, i. 275

Eairy rings of the fields, i. 262
Eaujasina, structure of, ii. 45
Felspar, fluorescence of, i. 66
Fermentation, fungi producing, i. 286-288

minuteness and lowness of organization of the ferments, ii. 68

habitat of the, ii. 68
Fibrin, formation and structure of, in vegetable organisms, i. 423

T 2

276 INDEX.

Pig, common, juices of fruit of, changed into sugar, i. 426

poison of the white juice of the, i. 426
Filariae, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 147
Filices, or ferns, structure and habitat of, i. 335

range of non-arborescent ferns, i. 335

number of species in North America, Britain, and in other places,
i. 336

development of spores, i. 336, 337

roots and stems of, i. 339

leaf-stalks of, i. 340

fronds of, i. 340, 341

structure of tree-ferns, i. 341

fructification of, i. 341
sori, i. 341, 342
sporangia, i. 342, 343

foundation of the systematic arrangement of the ferns, i. 343
annulate and exannulate ferns, i. 344
Film fern, structure and habitat of, i. 362
Fire-damp of coal mines, i. 118

Fireworks, mode of the obtaining of different colours in, i. 132
Fish, phosphorence of, i. 67
Flowering fern, i. 364
Flowers, absorption of radiant heat by the perfumes of, i. 44

weight of the perfumes, i. 45

chemical combinations forming the perfumes of, i. 97

general structure of flowering plants, i. 378

chemical nature of the colours of, i. 428, 429
Fluorescence, property of, in some solids and liquids, i. 60

Sir D. Brewster's discovery of, i. 66

Professor Stokes's examination of the fluorescent spectra of metals,
i. 64

employed in tracing substances in impure chemical solutions, i. 67

rapid absorption accompanied by copious fluorescence, and the
converse, i. 67

essential difference between fluorescence and phosphorence, i. 67, 68
Fluorine, i. 18
Fluor spar, i. 18

crystals of, i. 18

acid obtained from, i. 18

fluorescence of, i. 60, 66

absorption of invisible rays by, i. 65

phosphorescence of, i. 66
•Flustra, or sea-mat, structure of the, ii. 218

INDEX. 277

Fly fungus, i. 274

Fontinalei, structure and habitat of, i. 331
Food, miraculous descent of, i. 305
lichens as, i. 305, 308
importance of, to the animal frame, ii. 3
Foot-pound, the, of Mr. Joule, i, 26
unit of mechanical force, i. 26
Foraminifera, structure and geological importance of, ii. 27
various forms of, ii. 28
order of porcellanous foraminifera, ii. 30
order of arenaceous foraminifera, ii. 36
order of vitreous foraminifera, ii. 37

abundance of fossil foraminifera in the sedimentary strata, ii. 52
mode of obtaining casts of, ii. 53
comparison of foraminifera recent and fossil, ii. 53
the Eozoon Canadense, ii. 54

the Carpentaria a link between the foraminifera and sponges, ii. 67
Force, i. 23

store of, eternal and unchangeable, i. 24, 25
cohesion, i. 25

in solids, i. 25
in liquids, i. 25

reciprocal attraction between solids and liquids, i. 25
unit of mechanical force, i. 26
heat generated by impetus, i. 27
unit, or mechanical equivalent of heat, i. 2 9
combustion a case of impetus, i. 30
energy existing in the coal fields on the globe, i. 30
magnetism and electricity, i. 30
influence of force on the aggregation of matter, i. 73
power of electricity in this respect, i. 74
relations between the force of magnetism and atoms of matter
1.75
effect of the physical forces on molecvdar arrangement, i. 91
electricity, i. 91
motion, i. 91
catalysis, i. 91
force of chemical combination, i. 97, 98

relation between chemical affinity and mechanical force, i. 98
Formic acid, synthetical formation of, i. 424
Fragillaria, development of, i. 201
Frauenhofer's lines, i. 129

278 INDEX.

Frond, or thallus, of lichens, i. 301

of ferns, i. 340, 341
Fruit, chemical combinations forming the perfumes of, i. 97

preserved, greenish and grey moulds on, i. 285

fungus on decayed, i. 290
Fucacese, structure and fructification of, i. 244, 250, 251
Fuci, sexual fructification of, i. 253
Fucoidse, habitat of some, i. 256

Fucus platycarpus, male and female cells of, i. 253, 254
Fucus vesiculosus, or bladder- wrack, structure and fructification of, i.
252, 253

form of, in the Mediterranean, i. 258
Fuegians, staple food of the, i. 292
Funaria hygrometrica, structure of, i. 324, 327
Fungi, enormous numbers of, i. 260

structure of, i. 260

two principal groups of, i. 260

lamilies of, i. 261, et seq.

poisonous matter in all, i. 264

luminous, i. 264

stems of, i. 268

spawn of the gelatinous or creamy fungi, i. 269

universality of the lower fungi, i. 273
destruction caused by them, i. 273
parasitic fungi, i. 274

conidium, or spore-dust cell, i. 279

propagation of fungi by fragments of spawn, i. 281

extreme minuteness and profusion of fungi, i. 297

sudden and often disastrous appearance of the lower fungi, i. 297

conditions necessary to the development of fungi, i. 297
Furcellaria fastigiata, mode of reproduction of, i. 229

structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 235, 238
Fusarium tremelloides, its identity with the nettle Peziza, i. 292

Graleolaria lutea, structure, development, and mode of reproduction of,

ii. 107, 108
Garancine, from what obtained, i. 124
Gas coal. See Coal gas.
Gases, absorption and radiation of radiant heat by gases and vapours, i. 38

INDEX. 279

Gases : relation between the density of the gas and the quantity of
heat extinguished or absorbed, i, 40
experiments on coloured gases, i, 40
table showing the absorption of various gases at a common pressure,

or tension of one atmosphere, i. 41
table of absorption for one inch of tension, i. 4
causes of the diSerence between the absorptive power of compound

and simple gases and vapours, i. 42
radiation equal to absorption, i. 46
action of different thicknesses of the same gas or vapour on radiant

heat, i. 47
dynamic absorption and radiation, i. 49
great opacity of a gas to radiations from the same gas, i. 52
the specific heat of compound gases generally greater than that of

their component elements, i. 101
law of equivalency in weight of, i. 102
diffusion of, i. Ill

Prof. Graham's experiments, i. 112
effusion of, 109, 110, 113

Prof. Graham's experiments, i. 113
atmolysis, or method of analysing gases, i. Ill, 112, 114
internal movement of molecules of matter in a gaseous state, i. 1 1 3
coal gas, :. 117

spectrum analysis of, i. 139
oxygen, i. 139
hydrogen, i. 139
nitrogen, i. 140
chlorine, i. 140
bromine, i. 140
iodine, i. 140

superposed spectra of rarefied compound gases, i. 141
researches of M.M. Bunsen and Kirchhoff, i. 141
spectra of the rarefied vapours of: —
sodium, i. 141
iron, i. 142
calcium, i. 142
strontium, i. 142
lithium, i. 142
barium, i. 142
magnesium, i. 142

effect of high temperature on various spectra, i. 142, 143
effects of pressure on various spectra, i. 145

28o INDEX.

Gasteromycetes, characters of the family, i. 267
Gastropoda, structure of the shells of, ii. 234

structure of the animal, ii. 235

tongue of the, ii. 239
Gelidiacese, structure and mode of propagation of, i. 238
Gelidium corneum, structure and mode of propagation of, i. 238

form of, i. 243
Gems, crystals of, formed artificially by electricity, i. 74
Geranium, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i. 44
Glass, a non-conductor of electricity, i. 32

property of, in regard to the transmission of light, i. 36

impervious to chemical solar rays, i. 63
Gleicheninese, sporangia of, i. 34

structure and habitat of, i. 344, 360
Globigerina bulloides, form of, ii. 28
Globigerina, structure of the genus, ii. 40, 41
Globigerinse, abundance of at vast depths in the ocean, ii. 49-51
Globigerinidse, characters of the family of, ii. 40
Glycerine, chemical combination forming, i. 97
Glyphidei, characters of the order, i. 309
Glucinum, i. 4
Gold, colour of, in reflected and in absorbed light, i. 35, 36

crystals of, formed artificially by electricity, i. 74
Gonidia, propagation of diatoms by, i. 202, 204

of lichens, i. 300
Goniometer, i. 38

Gorgonia graminea, structure and habitat of, ii. 124, 125
Gorgonia verrucosa, structure, habitat, and mode of reproduction of,

ii. 124
Gorgonidse, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 123, 124

the three natural groups of, ii. 124
Gracilaria compressa, i. 239
Gracilaria lichenoides, or Ceylon moss, i. 239
Gracilaria armata, mode of reproduction of, i. 230
Graminacese, structure and mode of reproductiou of, i. 385, 386
Grammatopbora serpentina, structure and development of, i. 197
Graphidei, characters of the order, i. 308

habitat of the, i. 309
Graphite, form of the crystals of, i. 15

natural, little or no porosity of, i. 112

porosity of artifical graphite, i. 112
Grasses, silica in the stalks and leaves of the, i. 1 7

INDEX. 281

Grasses, structure and mode of reproduction of, i, 385-387
Gravitation, force of, less powerful than that of molecular attraction, i.

109
Gravity, specific, of atoms, i. 100
Green dye, obtained from the buckthorn, i. 124
Griffithsia, structxire, habitat, and organs of reproduction of, i. 233
Grimmiei, structure of the tribe, i. 329

Grinnelia americana, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 230, 239
Gromia oviformis, structure of, ii. 26, 27
Gromiae, structure of the genus, ii. 25-27
Guano, mauve dye obtained from, i. 125

Guernsey, richness of the iodine obtained from the sea-weeds of, i. 258
Guinea worm, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 147
Gums, formation of, i. 422

Gymnogramma rutsefolia, remarkable distribution of, i. 336
Gyrophora, structure of the genus, i. 308

Hairs of plants, structure of, i. 411

Halichondria panicea, mode of propagation of, ii. 60, 61

Haliomma, structure of, ii. 21

Haliotis splendens, or ear-shell, structure of, ii. 234

Haliseris, structure of, i. 247

Halogens, spectra of the, i. 146

Halurus, structure and mode of propagation of, i. 233

Hare's-foot fern, i. 351

Hart's-tongue fern, caudex of, i, 340

structure, habitat, and fructification of, i. 351, 352
Heart, and organs representing it in the lower animals, ii. 4
Heat generated by impetus, i. 27

quantity of heat which would be generated if it were arrested in its
orbit, i. 27

probable cause of the heat of the sun, i. 28

effect of the absorption of heat on a body in expansion and contrac-
tion, i. 28

specific heat, i. 28

mechanical equivalent of heat, i. 29

causes of the heat which is the motive force of the steam-engine,
i. 29

reciprocal action of heat and electricity, i. 31

282 INDEX.

Heat: intensity of the heat of the electric spark, i. 32
proof of the correlation of heat and electricity, i. 33
constancy in the amount and refrangibility of the light and heat

absorbed and radiated, i. 34
property of some substances in the transmission of heat, i. 36
substances which transmit radiant heat freely but radiate badly, and

vice versa, i. 37
Tyndall's experiments on the radiation and absorption of radiant

heat by gases and vapours, i. 38
relation between the density of the gas and the quantity of heat ex-
tinguished or absorbed, i. 40
absorption of radiant heat by the vapours of volatile liquids, i. 40
Prof. Tyndall's experiments showing the radiation to be equal to

the absorption of radiant heat, i. 46
action of different thicknesses of the same gas or vapour on radiant

heat, i. 47
dynamic absorption and radiation, i. 49
dynamical evolution of heat, i. 52

experiment illustrating the change of heat into light, i. 62
polarization of heat and light, i. 68, 69
by reflection and refraction, i, 69

eifect of heat on the magnetism of iron, nickel, and cobalt, i. 77
extreme heat and light of electric discharges, i. 84
instances of the correlation of electricity and heat, i. 91
capacity of atoms for heat, i. 1 00

Mr. Croll's experiments, i. 101
effects of heat on vegetation, i. 169
large amount of heat evolved by vegetables, i. 265
cause of animal heat, ii. 63

Helix, or snail, tentacles of, ii. 236

Helix aspera, structure of the tongue of, ii. 237

Helix pomatia, teeth of, ii. 237

Hellebore, white, poisonous alkaloid of, i. 427

Helmet shell, structure of, ii. 234

Helminthosporium Hoffmanni, spores of, i. 285, 286

Helrainthosporium nodosum, spores of, i. 286.

Helvella, structure and habitat of, i. 291

Hepaticffi, or liverworts, characters of the, i. 316

Hepialus virescens of New Zealand, Cordyceps Eobertsii of the, i. 293

Herschel, Sir W., his discovery of invisible rays of light of high heating
power, i. 36

Hewardia, structure of, i. 359

INDEX. 283

Himanthalia lorea, structure, fructification and habitat of, i. 256

Holly fern, structure of, i. 347

Holothuridse, or sea-cucumbers, structure and mode of reproduction of,

ii. 183-186
Hop, fungus constituting the mildew of the, i. 295
Hormosiphon arcticus, wide distribution of, i. 212
Hormotrichum, structure of the genus, i. 222
Hormotrichum collabens, structure and mode of reproduction of,

i. 222
Hyacinth, structure and mode of reproduction of the, i. 388
Hyalsea, structure of the, ii. 242

Hydra fusca, structure and mode of propagation of, ii. 84, 85
Hydra viridis, structure and mode of propagation of, ii. 85
Hydra vulgaris, structure and mode of propagation of, ii. 85
Hydrse, structure of, ii. 81, 84

mode of propagation of, ii. 84

compound fresh-water Hydrse, ii. 85

development of medusa-buds, ii. 95

alternation of generation of hydrse and medusae, ii. 96
Hydraulic machine, bog moss" acts as a, i. 333
Hydridse, characters of the group, ii. 81

Hydrobromic acid, amount of absorption of radiant heat by, i. 42
Hydrochloric acid, absorption of radiant heat by, i. 41, 42
Hydrodictyon utriculatum, structure and habitat of, i. 211

reprodxiction and development of, i. 211
Hydrofluoric acid, i. 18
Hydrogen gas, i. 11

aflB.nity of chlorine for hydrogen, i. 19

absorptive power of, i. 39, 41

proportion of hydrogen to oxygen in the composition of water, i. 94

will not combine with carbon, i. 97

weights of the atoms of, as compared with those of oxygen, i. 99

probable cause of its greater cooling power than that of oxygen,
i. 115

one of the illuminants in coal gas, i. 118

spectrum analysis of, i. 139, 144

and of hydrogen, carburetted and attenuated, during and after
decomposition, i. 141

carburetted, one of the illuminants in coal gas, i. 118

marsh-gas and fire-damp, i. 118

peroxide of, i. 9

combination forming, i. 104

284 INDEX.

Hydrogen : combines witli other substances and simple atoms as if it were
a simple element, i. 106
sulphuretted, amount of absorption of radiant heat by, i. 41
opacity of, to the invisible rays, i. 65
one of the illuminants in coal gas, i. 118
how freed from coal gas, i. 118
Hydrozoa, campanograde, characters of, ii. 103
ciliograde, characters of the, ii. 101
mode of reproduction of, ii. 103
oceanic, structure of, ii. 81, 86
compound oceanic, structure of, ii. 87
medusiform zooids, ii. 88, 89
mode of reproduction of, ii. 89, 90
Hymenocetes, family of, i. 261
Hymenophyllum, stem of, i. 339

Hymenophyllumtunbridgense, or film fern, structure and habitat of, i. 362
Hymenophyllum unilaterale, habitat and structure of, i. 362
Hyphomycetes, characters of the family, i. 282
Hypogaei, structure and fructification of the subterranean sub-order of,

i. 267, 268
Hyponitrous acid, combination forming, i. 95
Hypopterygium Smithianum, leaves of, i. 330

Ice, absorption of invisible rays by, i. 65

believed to be a colloid body, i. 1 1 1
Iceland moss, characters of, i. 304
Iceland spar, polarization of light and heat in, by refraction, i. 69

change of position of the optical axes of the crystals of, by heat,
i. 73
Heodictyon, eaten as food, i. 268
Impetus, i. 26, 27

heat generated by, i. 27

combustion a case of, i. 30
Indian rubber, dissolved by naphtha for waterproofing, i. 120
Indium, discovery of the metal so called, i. 137

properties of, i. 137
Infusoria, structure, form, and habitat of, ii. 63

abundance of infusoria in the atmosphere, ii. 63, 64

different states of development in one and the same animal, ii. 65

INDEX. 285

Infusoria : groups of, of opposite characters in the same liquid, ii. 66

the agents in the decomposition of animal matter, ii. 67

minuteness of the ferments, ii. 68

cilia of Infusoria, ii. 68

as organs of locomotion, ii. 69

cell constituting the body of Infusoria, ii. 70

food and organs of digestion of, ii. 70

transparent contractile vesicles, ii. 71

modes of propagation, ii. 74 et seq.

in a state analogous to hybernation, ii. 78, 79

functions assigned to Infusoria in the economy of nature, ii. 79
Insects, phosphorescence of, i. 167

Intelligence, or the mental principle, of animals, ii. 11, 12
Iodine, i. 18, 21

whence obtained, i, 19

properties of, i. 21, 22

spectrum of, i. 21

atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100

preparation of, from sea -weeds, i. 128

spectrum analysis of, i. 140, 141

iodine richer at Guernsey than elsewhere, i. 258
Iris germanica, vertical section showing the cellular tissue of, i. 173
Iron heated by percussion or impetus, i. 27

eflfect of electricity on, i. 32

effect of magnetism of, i. 75, 76, 77

and of heat on the magnetism of, i. 77

feeble affinity of iron for mercury, i. 98

atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100

spectrum analysis of the rarefied vapour of, i. 142
Isaria, its structure and habitat, i. 282

its destruction of caterpillars, i. 282, 293
Isaria crassa, characters of, i. 283
Isaria farinosa, characters of, i. 283
Isariacei, structure and habitat of, i. 282
Isidse, structure, habitat, and mode of reproduction of, ii. 125
Isis, structure of the genus, ii. 125
Isomeric substances, i. 104

law of the sequence of three isomeric bodies, and their respective
atomic numbers, i. 105
Isomorphism, property of, in determining atomic weights, i. 99
Isomorphous substances, conduct of, under magnetic influence, i. 76
Isopoda, characters of the order, ii. 202

286 INDEX.

Jam, greenish, and grey moulds on, i. 285

Jungermanniacese, or scale mosses, structure, fertilization, and deve-
lopment of, i. 320-322
Jupiter, the planet, spectrum of, i. 157, 161
constitution of, i. 158

Kelp, i. 258

former and present uses of, i. 128
Kerona silurus, structure and food of, ii.

Labellum of orchides, i. 401
Lactarii, lactiferous vessels of, i. 263
Lady Fern, herbaceous caudex of, i. 340

structure and fructification of, i. 352, 353
Lagenidse, characters and habitat of the family, ii. 39
Lagoons formed by corals, ii. 140-143
Laminaria bulbosa, structure and fruit of, i. 248
Laminaria debilis, structure of, i. 248
Laminaria digitata, or oar-weed, structure of, i. 249

richness of the iodine obtained from, at Guernsey, i. 258
Laminaria radiata, structure, habitat, and fructification of, i. 250
Laminaria saccharina, or devil's apron, structure and mode of reproduc-
tion of, i. 249
Laminarise, submarine forests of, i. 248

Lanosa nivalis, the probable cause of the mildew in rye, i. 297
Lastrea, structure of the genus, i. 346
Lastrea semula, structure of, i. 346
Lastrea filis-mas, structure of, i. 340
Lastrea rigida, scent of, i. 347

Lastrea Thelypteris or marsh fern, structure of, i. 346
Latex, structure of the, in plants, i. 417

INDEX. 287

Laughing-gas, or protoxide of nitrogen, combination forming, i. 95
Laurel, oil of, amoimt of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i. 44
Laurencia dasyphylla, antheridia of, i. 241
Laurencia pinnatifida, or pepper dulse, structure, habitat, and mode of

propagation of, i. 241
Laurencia tenuissima, antheridia of, i. 241
Laurenciacese, characters of, i. 240, 241
Laurentian system, ancient formation of the crystallized limestone near

the base of the, ii. 54
Lavender, absorption of radiant heat by the perfume of, i. 44
Lead, its resistance to electricity, i. 90

chloride of, spectrum of, i. 146
Leathesia, structure of, i. 245
Leaves of plants, structure and functions of, i. 410
Lecanora affinis, section of, i. 300

structure ^^nd habitat of, i. 305
Lecanora esculenta, habitat of, i. 305
Lecidea, characters of the genus, i. 306
Lecidea geographica, great age of, i, 306
Lecidinei, characters of the order, i, 306
Leeches, structure of, ii. 149-151

Lemon, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i. 44
Lepadidse, structure of, ii. 213, 215

Lepas anatifera, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 215
Lepidodendron, structure of the fossil, i. 375
Lepidostrobus ornatus, structure of, i. 375
Lepralise, structure of, ii. 219
Leptopteris, characters of, i. 364
Lessonia, arborescent, forests of, i. 251
Lessonia nigrescens, structm'e of, i. 251

rings of growth of, i. 252
Leucobrjum, structure of, i. 329
Leucobryum glaucum, leaves of, i. 330
Leveillea, structure of, i. 242
Libanea crab, a parasite of the medusse, ii. 100
Lichens, characters and habitat of, i. 298

two groups of — Grymnocarpei and Angiocarpei, i. 299

horizontal lichens, i. 299

gonidia, i. 300

asci, i. 301

thallus or frond, i. 301

dyes obtained from, 1. 124, 303

288 INDEX.

Lichens : brilliancy of the colours of, i. 304
Lichina, characters of the genus, i. 310
Lichinei, characters of the group, i. 310
Life, the mystery of, i. 97

instances of individual combined with a common life in the lower
orders of animals, ii. 38
Light, probable cause of the, of the sun, i. 28
Drummond's light, how produced, i. 30
intensity of the, of the electric spark, i, 32
chemical action of, i. 34

amount of force exerted by the sun's light within the limits of
the terrestrial atmosphere, i. 34
constancy of the amount and refrangibility of light and heat

absorbed and radiated, i. 34
causes of colour of flowers, leaves, dyed cloth, and gold and copper,

i. 35, 36
property of some substances in the transmission of radiant light and

heat, i. 36
invisible rays of high heating power existing beyond the red end

of the solar spectrum, i. 36
Melloni's investigation of the laws of radiation and absorption of

radiant heat in solid and liquid matter, i. 38
chemical power of the light of the moon and stars, i. 55
and of solar light, i. 56

effect of the opalescence of the atmosphere on the light of the
sun, i. 55
probable causes of the blueness of the sky, and the brightness of

the tints at sun-rise and sun-set, i. 58
solar spectrum, i. 58

myriads of ethereal waves constituting the seven colours of the,
i. 58
fluorescent or degraded light, i. 60

experiment illustrating the change of heat into light, i. 62
absorption of invisible rays, by solids, liquids, and gases, i. 65
causes of earth light, i. 66
polarization of light and heat, i. 68, 69

by reflection and refraction, i. 69
relation of polarization to crystallization, i. 70, 71
M. Gassiot's experiments on stratified electric light, i. 78
influence of magnetism on the stratified light, i. 78
cause of the stratified discharge, i. 85
effect of varied intensity on electric discharges, i. 86

INDEX. i89

Light : action of magnetism and electricity on light, i. 90

delicate power of analysis in light, i. 95

Dr. Young's establishment of the undulatory theory of light, i. 129

Drummond's light, i. 132

coloured light obtained from the combustion of the salts of different
metals, i. 132

effects of light on vegetation, i. 168, 169

effects of light as an exciting cause in the vegetable world, i. 431
Lightning, spectrum of, i. 1-17
Ligneous tissue, i. 174, 175

Liliacese, structure and development of the, i. 388
Limboriei, structure and habitat of the, i. 310
Lime, carbonate of, different modifications assumed by, i. 74

chloride of, properties of, i. 19

oxalate of, formation of, i. 117
Limestones, probable history of the oldest, iL 52

the nummulitic, ii. 53

the limestone formed by the Eozoon Canadense, ii. 54
Limnoria lignorum, structure Qf, ii. 203
Limpet, structure, food, and habitat of, ii. 238, 239
Lindsseese, characters of, i. 351
Linculus, fossil remains of, ii. 211
Lingbya, structure of, i. 213
Lingula flags, fossil animals composing the, ii. 53
Listera ovata, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 399
Lithium, i. 3

spectrum analysis of, i. 133

existence of lithium in all three kingdoms of nature, i. 134

spectrum analysis of the rarefied vapour of, i. 142

effect of high temperature, i. 142, 143

chloride of, spectrum of, i. 146
Litmus, or orchil, from what obtained, i, 124, 303

Lituola, structure of the genus, ii. 37 \

Lituolidse, characters of the family of, ii. 36, 37
Liver worts. See Hepaticae
Lobophyila angulosa, structure of, ii. 135, 136
Locomotion of some diatoms, i. 204
Lo-hao, a Chinese green dye, i. 124
Loligo vulgare, or squid, structure of, ii. 245, 246
Lomaria, characters of the genus, i. 357
Lomariopsis, characters of, i. 360
Loxades bursaria,. structure of, ii.- 72
VOL. II. U

290 INDEX.

Loxades bursaria, mode of propagation of, ii. 75
Lucifer, characters of the genus, ii. 200

matches, i. 17
Luminosity of the medusae in warm seas, ii. 99

of Annelida, ii. 160

of Pyrosomidse, ii. 226
Lycoperdon giganteum, structure, habitat, and frtiCtification of, i. 267
Lycoperdon, structure and fructification of, i. 267
Lycopodiacese, or club mosses, characters of, i. 373

habitat and fructification of, i. 373, 374

uses to which they have been applied, i. 374
Lycopodium, or wolf s-claw, characters of the genus, i. 374
Lycopodium clavatum, structure and habitat of, i. 374

inflammability of the dried spores of, i. 374
Lycopodium inundatum, structure and habitat of, i. 374
Lygodium articulatum, structure of, i. 363
Lymnea, or pond snail, distoma of the, ii. 146

Macrocystis pyrifera, structure, habitat, and fructification of, i. 2G0
Macrura, characters of the, ii. 189

fossil remains of, ii. 211
Madder, dyes obtained from, i. 124, 125
Magenta, or aniline red. Dr. Hofmann's discovery of, i. 122

how produced, i. 122

purple dye produced by mixing it with aniline, i. 123
Magnesium, i. 3, 4

spectrum of, i. 65

spectrum analysis of the rarefied vapour of, i. 142

shown to be one of the metals existing in the sun> i. 151—153

spectrum of the light of a magnesium flame, i. 153, 154

its use in photography, i. 154
Magnetism, i. 30

periodic and secular variations of, i. 30

probably stand in some periodic connection with the solar i^ts
i. 30, 31

probable cause of terrestrial magnetism, i. 31

iiflference between magnetic and electric currents, i. 33

INDEX. 291

Magnetism : relations between the force of magnetism and the atoms of
matter, i. 75
all substances either magnetic or diamagnetic, i. 75
proof of the connection between the magnetic forces and crystalline

structure, i. 76
conduct of amorphous and isomorphous substances under magne-
tic influence, i. 76
action of magnets upon matter most powerful in the line of maxi-
mum density, i. 76
conditions of the position which crystals take with regard to the

magnetic force, i. 76
magnetic changes in the relations and distances between the ulti-
mate atoms of matter, i. 77
effect of magnetism on the stratified appearance of the electric

light, i. 78
causes of the polarity of a magnet, according to Ampere, i. 80
action of magnetism on the stratified discharges of electric light, i. 82
illustration of the action of magnetism and electricity on light, i. 90
Maiden's hair fern, structure and habitat of, i. 359
Malixis paludosa, or bog malixis, structure and mode of reproduction of,

i. 400
Malic acid, chemical combination forming, i. 97
Manchineel, poison of the, i. 426

Manganese, peroxide of, relative weight of the atoms of oxygen and
metal in, i. 99
atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100
peroxide of, combination forming, i. 104
Manihot, or Cassava, food obtained from the, i. 426
Marasmius Oreades, spawn of, i. 262
Marattia salicina used as food, i. 365
Marattiacese, characters of the group, i. 364
Marchantia polymorpha, structure, development, fructification, and

habitat of, i. 317-320
Marchantiaceae, characters of the order, i, 317
Mars, the planet, spectrum of, i. 158, 161
Marsh-gas, i. 118

amount of absorption of radiant heat by, i. 41
Marsilea, characters of the genus, i. 372
Marsileacese, or Rhizospermse, characters of the tribe, i. 371
Matonineae, characters of the group, i. 344
Matter, molecules of, i. 2

u 2

292 INDEX.

Matter : agency of electricity in the chemical composition and decompo-
sition of, i. 32

decomposing and elective power of, i. 35
Mauve, Dr. Hofmann's discovery of the aniline colour, i. 122

at first made from orchil, i. 124

derived from guano, i. 125
Mediterranean sea, zones of algae in the, i. 259

foraminifera, the ooze in the bed of the, ii. 51
Medusae, form and structure of, ii. 91
Medusae, pulmograde, form and structure of, ii. 91, 92 >

naked-eyed medusae, ii. 91-96

mode of reproduction of, ii. 94

armed or stinging medusae, ii. 99

luminosity of, in warm seas, ii. 99

development of medusa-buds, ii. 96

alternation of generation of hydrae and medusae, ii. 96

covered-eyed medusae, ii. 97

parasites of, ii. 99

abundance of species of, ii. 100

food of medusae, ii. 101
Medusa-buds, development of, ii. 95
Medusiform zooids of hydrozoa, ii. 88, 89
Melanconiei, characters of the group of, i. 281, 282
Melanogaster, the red trufiQe of Bath, i. 268
Melanospermeae, characters of, i. 181

marine forests of, i. 244

structure of the, i. 244, et seq.
Mercury, conditions under T^-hich he may be habitable, i. 55
Mercury, its feeble affinity for iron, i. 98
Meridion circulare, structure and development of, i. 200, 201
Merulius lacrymans, the cause of dry rot in wood, i. 266
Mesocarpus, reproduction of, i. 217
Mesogloias, structure of, i. 245
Metals and their properties, L 3

alkaline metals, i. 3

of alkaline earths, i. 3

from non-alkaline earths, i. 4

avidity of some of them for oxygen, a. 4

metals whose oxides are not reducible by heat, i. 4
diatomic metals, i. 4
triatomic metals, i. 5

conduction of heat and radiation, ,.i. 5

INDEX. 293

^Metals : vaporization, i. 5

spectra of volatilized metals, i, 64

coloured light obtained from the combustion of the salts of different

metals, i. 132
spectrum of, not always the same, i. 145
number of the metals of which the spectra has been determined

1. 147
metals shown to exist in the sun, i. 151-153

and not to exist in it, i. 154
metals contained in every plant, i. 414
Meteorites probably not of solar origin, i. 15S
Mica, opacity of, to the invisible rays, i. 65
Mignonette, weight of the perfume of, i. 45
Mildew of the vine, hop, &c., i. 295

the black mildews of the Azores and Ceylon, i. 297
Miliola, structure and habitat of, ii. 30

abundance of, in the seas of the Eocene period, ii. 31
Miliolidae, characters of the order, ii. 30
Milk sap of plants, i. 425 ;

vessels of plants, i. 417
Milleporse complanata or palinipora, structure of, ii. 141
Mimosa pudica, irritability of the tissues of, i. 432
Mind and matter connection between, ii. 5
Molecules of matter, i. 2
cohesion of, i. 25
unit of mechanical force, i. 26

causes of the ethereal undulating motions of, i. 34, 35
See Atoms
Mollusca, structure, habitat, and mode of reproduction of, ii. 229, et scq.
shells of the, ii. 232
naked, ii. 240
winged, ii. 240
Monas corpusculus, extreme minuteness of, ii. 63, 67

and of its ova, ii. 67
Monocotyledonous, or endogenous plants, structure, growth, and repro-
duction of, i. 383
seeds of this class, i. 383
stems, or axes, i. 384

remarkable plants belonging to the monocotyledons, i. 387
Monostoma, or one-mouthed medusae, structure and mode of repro-
duction of, ii. 97
Monormia, habitat and structure of, i. 212

294 INDEX.

Moon, interception of the heat radiated by the full, by the earth'
atmosphere, i. 55

its effect on the higher regions of the atmosphere, i. 55

chemical power of the moon's light, i. 55
Moonstone, or adularia, fluorescent property of, i. 66
Moon wort, structure and habitat of, i. 366
Morchella esculenta, the morel, i. 291

catsup made from, i. 292
Mordants for fixing dyes in cotton cloth, i. 125
Morphine, the probable narcotic principle of opium, i. 427
Mother-of-pearl, composition of, ii. 234
Motion, effect of, on molecular arrangement, i. 91
Moulds, fungus, on various substances, i. 285
Mucedines, structure of the, i. 283

the origin of all fermentation, i. 289
Mucorini, or moulds, structures of the, i. 296

habitat of the, i. 296, 297
Muriatic acid, formation of, i. 20

action of, upon ammonia, i. 120
Musci, or Mosses, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 3

antheridia of, i. 324

sporangia of, i. 325

gemmae or buds, i. 327

leaves of, i, 330

aquatic mosses, i. 331

peat, i. 333

uses of mosses, i, 334
Muscle, structure and functions of, ii. 2

functions of the muscles, ii, 5

electric currents formed in the muscles, ii. 7

muscular respiration, ii. 8
Mushrooms, i. 261

mycelium, or spawn, i. 262
Musk, power of absorption of radiant heat by the perfume of, i. 45
Mussel, structure of the gills of the common, ii. 230
Mycelium or mushroom spawn, i. 261, 262
Mysis, or opossum shrimps, structure of, ii. 199
Myxogastres, structure, habitat, and reproduction of, i. 269, 270

their Amceba-like motions, i. 270

INDEX. «95

Nai's, structure and habitat of the, ii. 152, 153
Naphtha, manufacture of, i. 120

uses to which it is applied, i. 120
sources of, in various parts of the world, i. 126
naphtha procured by tne distillation of petroleum, i. 127
Napthalin, production of, i. 127

Narcv)tics, exciting, known to almost all people, however savage, i. 427
Navicula, structure of, i. 198
Naviculae, spontaneous locomotion of, i. 202
Nebulae, spectra of various, i. 158-160, 163
constitution of the, i. 163

probable existence of primordial nebulous matter according to the
theories of Sir W. Herschel and La Place, i. 164
Nectria, characters of the genus, i. 295
Nectria Peziza, structure of, i. 295

Nematoid entoza, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 146
Nemertes gigas, or great band worm, nervous system of, ii. 158
Neotteae, characters of the British tribe of, i. 397, 398
Neottia Nidus-avis, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 400
Nephrolepis tuberosa, characters and habitat of, i. 348
Nereis, structure of, ii. 157

Nereis diversicolor, mode of reproduction of, ii. 160
Nereocystis Lutkeana, structure and habitat of, i. 249
NeiT^e-force of animals, ii. 4, 6

chemical powers generated by, ii. 6
Nerves of animals, structure and functions of, ii. 5
electric currents in tlie, ii. 7

structure and functions of the brain and spinal cord, ii. 8
the nervous systems of the higher and lower animals, ii. 9-11
Nervous system of animals, ii. 5
Nickel, i. 4, 5

crystals of, formed artificially by electricity, i. 74
effect of heat on the magnetism of, i. 77
atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen^ i. 100
Nidulariacei, characters of the order of, i. 272, 273
structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 273
habitat of, i. 273
Nitella flexilis, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 312
Nitophyllum, st,iTjcture and fronds of, i.,238, 239

296 INDEX.

Nitric acid, combination forming, i. 95
Nitrogen gas, i. 12

combination of nitrogen with chlorine, i, 20

absorptive power of, i. 39, 41

fulminates compounds of, i. 92

number of combinations of, with oxygen, i. 95

atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100

one of the illuminants in coal gas, i. 118

spectrum analysis of, i. 140, 145
in high temperature, i. 144

binoxide of, combination forming, i. 95

chloride of, catalysis of, i. 91

iodide of, catalysis of, i. 91

protoxide of, or laughing gas, combination forming, i. 95
Nitrous oxide, absorption of, radiant heat by, i, 41, 43

combination forming, i. 95
Noctiluca miliaris, structure and mode of propagatio-n of, ii. 73, 74
Noctiluci, their food, i. 205
Nodosaria, characters of the genus, ii. 39
Nodosaria rugosa, shell of, ii. 28

structure of, ii. 39
Nodosaria spinicosta, form of, ii. 28

structure of, ii. 39
Nostoc commune, wide distribution of, i. 212
Nostochinese, structure and habitat of, 211

reproduction of, i. 212

wide distribution of, i. 212
Nullipores, structure and habitat of, i. 142
Nummulites, structure of the, ii. 44-46

circumstances favouring their existence in the Tertiary period, ii. 5*i

Ocean, force exerted in the creation of the, i. 31

Octoblepharum albidum, leaves of, i. 330

Octopoda, structure of, ii. 245

Octopus vulgaris, or poulpe, structure of, ii. 245-247

Odonthalia, structure of, 242

CEdogonian capillare, reproduction of, i. 216

Oidium, structure and habitat of, i. 290

Oidium Tuckeri, or vine mildew, fungus producing, i. 295

INDEX, 297

Oils, dead, manufacture of, i. 120

essential, chemical combinations forming, i. 97

•vegetable, i. 422

formation of fixed and essential, artificially, i. 424
Oleandria, characters of the genus, i. 347
Oleandria neriiformis, structure of, i. 347
defiant gas, absorptive power of, i. 39, 40, 41

amount of absorptive power, i. 41

great absorption of, i. 47

formation of, i. 97

amount of carbon in, i. 105

one of the illuminants in coal gas, i. 118

chemical composition of, i. 128
defiant oil, i. 104
Olive oil, i. 422

Onion, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 388
Oniscus, common wood-louse or slater, structure of the, ii. 202
Onoclea, characters of the genus, i. 348
Onoclea sensibilis, characters and habitat of, i. 348
Oolina clavata, shell of, ii. 2^
Opacity in liquids and solids synonymous with accord, i. 37

causes of opacity, i. 37
Operculina, structure of, ii. 38, 46

an instance of an individual combined with a common life,
ii. 38.
Ophioglossacese, character's of the group, i. 365
Ophioglossum, characters of the genus, i. 365
Ophioglossum vulgatum, structure and habitat of, i. 365
Ophiouyx, structure of, ii. 173
Ophiuridse, or snake stars, structure of, ii. 172, 173

power of reproducing rays, ii. 1 73
Ophrys apifera, or bee ophrys, structure and mode of reproduction of,

i.397
Ophrys, fly, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 396
Opium, alkaloids obtained from, i. 427

almost universal use of, in the East, i. 427
Orange, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i. 44

fructification of the, i. 381
Oranges, fungus of decayed, i. 290
Orbitolite, characters of the, ii. 33

a fossil gigantic one found in Canada, ii. 54
Orbitolites eomplanatus, structure of, ii. 33, 34

298 INDEX,

Orbitolites: development and varieties of, ii. 35, 36

habitat of, ii. 36
Orchidg, their structure, habitat, and mode of reproduction, i. 388-403

theoretical structure of, i. 403
Orchil, whence obtained, i. 303
from what obtained, i. 124
Orchis mascula, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 389, et seq.
Orchis pyramidalis, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 393, et seq.
Oscillatoria littoralis, structure and motions of, i. 213
Oscillatoria spiralis, motions of, i. 213
Oscillatorise, structure, habitat, and motions of, i. 213

reproduction of, i. 214
Osmunda regalis, structure and habitat of, i. 363
Osmundinese, characters of, i. 363

sporangia of, i. 343

characters of the group, i. 345
Ostrapods, characters of the, ii. 207
Otolites of Gasteropoda, ii. 236
Otolites of Thaumantias, ii. 93
Ovulata, siliceous skeleton of, ii. 60
Oxalic acid, former and present modes of making, i. 116

produced by lichens, i. 303

synthetical formation of, i. 424
Oxygen, i. 6-11

effect of the combination of the atoms of oxygen and carbon in com-
bustion, i. 30

absorptive power of ozonized oxygen, i. 43

absorptive power of, i. 39, 41

proportion of oxygen to hydrogen in the composition of water, i. 94

limit to the number of combustions of, with nitrogen, i. 95

weight of the atoms of, in the peroxide of manganese, i. 99

weight of the atoms of, compared with those of hydrogen, i. 99, 100

spectrum analysis of, i. 139

inhalation and exhalation of, by plants, i. 416, 417
Oysters, iodine found in, i, 19
Ozone, i. 7-

effect of the combination of ozone and oxygen in the absorption of
radiant heat, i. 43

Prof. Tyndall's conjecture as to the production of ozone,' i. 44

its affinity for iodine, i. 96

its possible effect on the solar spectrum, i. 132

production of, i. 17

INDEX. 'i^9

Padanus or screw pine, roots and habitat of, i. 387
Padina Pavonia, or Peacock's tail laver, structure of, i. 247
Pagui-us, or hermit crab, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 197
Palm, stem or axis of a, i. 384

growth and reproduction of palms, i. 384, 385
Palmogloea macrococca, structure and development of, i. 182
Palmyra palm, growth of the stem of, i. 385
Papillaris, siliceous skeleton of, ii. 60
Paraffin, i. 105

crystals of, how produced, i. 127
Paraffin oil and candles, i. 119, 127
Paramcecium caudatum, cilia and mouth of, ii. 68, 69

immense propagation of, ii. 74
Parkeriaceae, or Ceratopteridinese, structure and habitat of, i. 363
Parmelia saxatilis, structure and habitat of, i. 305
Parmeliacei, structure of the, i. 302

characters of the group, i. 304
Parmelia parcolerina, yellow dye obtained from the, i. 124
Parmelia parietina, dye obtained from, i. 303
Passalus cornutus, parasitic fungus in the stomach of, i. 274
Patchouli, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i. 44
Patellidse, or limpets, structure, food, and habitat of, 238, 239
Paulia perforata, organs of reproduction of, i. 301
Pea mildew, fungus producing the, i. 295
Peach, cause of blistered leaves of the, i, 291
Pear, cause of blistered leaves of the, i. 291
Pearl oyster, nacreous lining of shell of, ii. 234
Pease, caserne obtained from, i. 125
Peat, and peat mosses, i. 333
Pecten, or scallop, eyes of the, ii. 235
Pediastrum, structure and development of, i. 194
Pedicellaria globosa, structvire of, ii. 180
Pelagia, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 97
Peltigeri, characters of the group, i. 305
Peneroplis, structure of, ii. 31, 32
Penicillia mould, structure of the, i. 285
Penicillium armeniacum, spores of, i. 285, 286
Penicillium candidum, production of, i. 287
Penicillium glaucum, structure and habitat of, i. 286, 2S7

300 INDEX.

Penicillium glaucum : its polymorphous character, i. 287
in the yeast of Leer, i. 288
its production of acetic fermentation, i. 288
Pennatula phosphorea, structure and habitat of, ii. 128

modes of reproduction of, ii. 129
Pennatulidse, or sea-pens, structure, habitat, and mode of reproduc-
tion of, ii. 128, 129
Pentacrinites, structure of, ii. 175

Pentacrinus caput-Medusae, structure and habitat of, ii. 175
Pentacrinus Europseus, structure of, and change to acomatula, ii. 176
Peppermint, absorption of radiant heat by the perfume of, i. 44
Peranemese, or Woodsiese, characters of the group, i. 350
Perfumes of flowers and plants, absorption of radiant heat by the, i. 44
■weight of the perfiimes, i. 45
chemical combinations forming, i. 97
Peridinium, structure and habitat of, ii. 72

scarlet colour it gives to the sea, ii. 72, 75
mode of propagation of, ii. 75
Perisporacei, structure and habitat of, i, 295
Periwinkle, tongue of, ii. 239

Peronospora infestans, its destruction of the potato, i. 284
structure and mode of working, i. 284, 285
its effects on the branches and wood of trees, i. 285
Perophora Listeri, structure, habitat, and development of, ii. 222, 223

larva of, ii. 224
Petroleum, enormous quantities of, in North America, i. 126
the Babylonian petroleum fountains of Is, i. 126
geological formation in which it occurs, i. 126
dangers of petroleum wells, i. 127

substances yielded by it on destructive distillation, i. 127
Peyssonelia, habitat of, i. 237

Peziza aurantia, cells of staff-shaped particles of, i. 291
Peziza elegans, beauty and habitat of, i. 291
Peziza vesiculosa, force of its ejection of its sporidia, i. 292
Pezizse, structure and habitat of the genus, i. 290, 291
fructification of, i. 291

eel-shaped particles or antherozoids of, i. 292
force with which many of them eject their sporidia, i. 292
Phacopsis, organs of reproduction of, i. 307
Phalloidei, structure of, i. 268
Phallus Mokusin, a food of the Chinese, i. 268
Phascei, characters of, i. 329

INDEX. 301

Phenic acid, i. 123

Phenyle, chemical composition of, i. 128
Philomedusa Vogtii, a parasite of the medusae, ii. 100
Phonolite stono, on the Rhine, of what it consists, i. 206
Phosphorescence, property of, i. 66

of insects, fish, and plants, i. 67

of inorganic substances, i. 67

essential difference between phosphorescence and fluorescence, i.
67, 68
Phosphorescent light of luminous fungi, i. 264

causes of this, i. 264
Phosphorus, i. 17

whence procured, i. 17

red allotropic, i. 17

takes fire spontaneously in chlorine gas, i. 19

atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100
Photography, importance of the magnesium light in, i. 154
Phyllodoce, structure of, ii. 157
Phyllopoda, characters of the erder, ii. 209
Physalia, or * Spanish man-of-war,' structure, and modes of locomotion

and reproduction of, ii. 111-114
Physaliidse, characters of the order, ii. Ill
Pbysomycetes, characters of the order, i, 296
Physophora hydrostatica, structure and habitat of, ii. 109, 110
Physophoridse, characters of the family of the, ii. 109-111
Pillwort, structure and habitat of, i. 371, 372
Pilularia globulifera, or pillwort, structure and habitat of, i. 371
Pilularia minuta, structure of, i. 371
Pinna, structure of the shell of, ii. 233
Pitch, manufacture of, i. 120
Planets, spectra of the, i. 157, 158, 161, 162
Plants, absorption of radiant heat by the perfumes of, i. 44

weight of the perfumes, i. 45

phosphorescence of, i. 67

their synthetic process of rearing their fabrics, i. 96

this process imitated by artificial means, i. 96

chemical nature of the colouring matter of, i. 428, 429
Platinum, properties of, i. 5

how vaporized, i. 30

effect of electricity on, i. 32

crystals of, formed artificially by electricity, i. 74

its resistance to electricity, i. 90

302 INDEX.

Plenrocarpi, characters and habitat of the group, i. 328
Pleurosigma angulatum, structure of, i. 198, 199
Plumbago, or natural graphite, little or no porosity of, i. 11 2
Podocyrtis Schomburgi, structure and habitat of, ii. 20, 21

fossil and existing species of, ii. 20
Poisons, vegetable, i. 425, 426
Polarization of light and heat, i. 68, 69

relation of polarization of light and heat to crystallization, i. 70, 71
Pollen of flowering plants, i. 379
Polyatomic theory, the, i. 107
Polycistina, structure and habitat of the, ii. 19, 20
Polydes rotundis, mode of reproduction of, i. 229
Polygastria, a name for the Infusoria, ii. 71

Polyides rotundus, structure and mode of propagation of, i. 237, 238
Polynoe, structure of, ii. 160
Polypary of the Alcyon zoophytes, ii. 123
Polypes. See Hydrozoa
Polypodiacese, characters of the order, i. 344

sporangia of, i. 343
Polypodineae, characters of the group, i. 344

habitat of the, i. 345
Pol}^odium, structure and habitat of the genus, i. 345

Tulgare, fronds of, i. 340, 345

sori of, i. 342, 345

structure of, i. 345
Polyporei, structure, habitat, and growth of, i. 264, 265
Polysiphonia, structure of the genus, i. 233

Polysiphonia elcngata, structure and mode of propagation of, i. 234
Polystichum, characters of the genus, i. 347

sorus and indusium of, i. 347
Polystichum aculeatum, characters of, i. 348
Polystichum angularum, characters of, i. 348
Polystichum Lonchitis, structure of, i. 347
Polystichum proliferum, organs of reproduction of, i. 348
Polystomella, characters of the genus, ii. 47
Polystomella crispa, form of, ii. 28

structure and habitat of, ii. 47, 48

cristata, form of, ii. 28

striato-punctata, habitat of the, ii. 48
Polytrichei, characters of the tribe, i. 329
Polytrichum commune, organs of fructification of, i, 325
Polytrichum dendroides, structure of, i. 329

INDEX. 305

Polyzoa, or Bryozoa, characters of, ii. 218

Polyzonia cuneifolia, structure of, i. 242, 243

Porites, or reef-building corals, ii. 140

Porph}Ta laciniata, structure and habitat of, i. 227

Porphyra vulgaris, structure, habitat, and mode of reproduction of, i. 227

Porpita, characters of the genus, ii. 117

glandifera, structure, habitat, and mode of reproduction of, ii. 117,
118
Potash, caustic, effect of the heating of, by an electric discharge, i. 84

its effect on electricity in a vacuum tiibe, i. 86

cyanite of, combination forming, i. 106

nitrate of, its opacity to the invisible rays, i. 65

oxalate of, formation of, i. 117

violet coloured light obtained by the combustion of, i. 133

in the land plants, i. 414
Potassium, i. 3

affinity for oxygen, i. 96

atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100

one of an isomeric triad with cicsium and rubidium, i. 105

iodide of, whence obtained, i. 19
Potato, fungi causing the murrain in the, i. 284, 285

mode in which the injury is done, i. 284

poisonous nature of the leaves and berries of the, i. 426, 427
Poulpe, structure of the, ii. 245

Praya diphys, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 103-106
Propagation of diatoms by bisection, by conjugation, and by gonidia,

i. 200
Protein produced by plants, i. 419
Protococcus pluvialis, structure and development of, i. 184

cycles of reproduction, i. 186
Protococcus viridis, abundance of, found in dust from Egypt, ii. 65
Protophytes, structure and development of, i. 182
Protoplasm of plants, structure and function of, i. 412, 413
Protozoa, structure of the, ii. 13
Pteridse, characters of the group, i. 357 •

Pteris, characters of the genus, i. 357
Pteris aquilina, stems of, i. 339

or bracken, structure, mode of reproduction, and habitat of, i.
357, 358
Pteris esculenta of New Zealand, i. 358
Pteris serrulata, development of spores of, i. 337

antheridium and spermatozoids of, i. 338

304 INDEX,

Pteris serrulata : archegonixitn of, i. 338

Puccinise, structure and habitat of the sub-order, i. 276, 277

Puccinia Amorphse, spores of, i. 276

Puceinia Fabse, structure, habitat, and method of reproduction of, i. 280

alternation of generations of, i. 280
Puccinia Graminis, spore-cases of, i. 280
Puccinia lateripes, spores of, i. 276
Puff-balls of the meadows, i. 267
Purple dyes, i. 123, 124

Pycnogonoidea, or spider crabs, structure and habitat of, ii. 211
Pyrosomidae, structure and mode of reproduction of the, ii. 225
Pyxinei, characters of the, i. 307

Quartz, rock-crystal the purest form of, i. 1 7

certain thickness of, not transparent to invisible rays of light, i. 65

axis of symmetry of, i. 72

aqueous solution of, i. 110

characteristics of the, i. Ill
Queen conch, shell of, ii. 234
Quinine, structure of, and whence obtained, i. 427
Quinqueloculina Bronniana, form of, ii. 228

Eadiation of light and heat, i. 34, 35

effects of, i. 35, 36

generally independent of colour, i. 36

Professor Tyndall's experiments, i. 38

experiments showing radiation to be equal to absorption, i. 46

dynamic radiation, i. 49

absorption a phenomenon irrespective of aggregation, i. 53
Eadicles, compound, i. 106
Ramalina calicaris, gluten of, i. 303
Ramalina polymorphum, dyes obtained from, i. 303
Ramalina xopulorum, dyes of, i. 303
Eaphides, structure and formation of, i. 424, 425
Eed Sea, foraminifera in the, ii. 61

INDi:X. 305

Eeed, cordiceps on the ergot of the, i. 293

Eeed, Italian, vegetable tissues represented in, i. 175, 176

Keef-building corals, ii. 138-142

Eeefs, barrier, formation of, ii. 143

Kesius, formation of, i. 422

Kespiration, chemical powers causing, ii. 4

Eespiration of the muscles, ii. 8

Eeticularia, characters of the order, ii. 24

Eeticularia maxima of cucumber beds, i. 269

Ehabdonia Coulteri, mode of propagation of, i. 236

Ehamnus cathartica, M. Charwin's discovery of a green dye obtained

from the, i. 124
Ehizocrinus Lofotensis, structure of, ii. 175
Ehizopoda, structure of the, ii. 13

simple Ehizopods, forms of, ii. 22
Ehizoselenia, enormous masses of, in the Indian Ocean, i. 205
Ehizospermse. See Marsileacese

Ehizostoma, or many-mouthed medusae, structure and mode of repro-
duction of, ii. 97, 98

food of, ii. 98 ■

Ehodomelacese, structure &c. of, i. 241
Ehodospermese, characters of the, i. 180

structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 227, et seq.

causes which affect the form and limits of, i. 243
Ehodymenia palmata, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 236
Ehodymeniacege, structure of, i. 236

Eicciacese, or Crystalworts, characters of the order, i. 316
Eichmond, in Virginia, siliceous deposit upon which it stands, i. 206
Eiella, characters of the genus, i. 316, 317
Eivularia, structure of the genus, i. 213, 215
Eivularia nitida, structure and motions of, i. 213, 215
Eocella fuciformes, dye and orchil obtained from, i. 303
Eocella tinctoria and fusiformis, blue and purple dyes obtained from,

i. 124
Eock-crystal, formation of, i. 17
Eock-salt, chlorine obtained from, i. 18

permeable to radiant heat but radiates badly, i. 37
Eoots, downward tendency of, i. 382

structure and functions of, i. 409
Eosalina ornata, structure of, ii. 41
Eosaniline, or roseine, the base of aniline, i. 123

production of, i. 123
VOL. II. X

3o6 INDEX.

Rosaniline, chemical composition of, i. 128

Eosemary, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of i. 44

Roses, otto of, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i. 44

Rotalia, structure of, ii. 38

Rotalia Beccarii, habitat and structure of, ii. 42

Eotaline group of foraminifera, ii. 44

Rotifer, common, structure of the, ii. 167

Rotifera, characters of the, ii. 162

mode of reproduction of the, ii. 162
Rubia tinctorum, madder obtained from the roots of, i. 124
Rubidium, i. 3, 4

atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i, 1 00

one of an isomeric triad with caesium and potassium, i. 105

M. Bunsen's discovery of the metal by spectrum analysis, i. 134,
135

mode of distinguishing it from potassium, i. 135

properties of, i. 136

where found, i. 136
Ruby, i. 4

RuhmkorflP's electro-magnetic induction apparatus, i. 32
Russulse, lactiferous vessels of, i. 263
Rust of wheat, i. 281

Rye, probable cause of the mildew of, i. 29/
Rytiphsea pinastroides, antheridia of, i. 243
Rytiphlsea tinctoria, antheridia of, i. 242

Saflfron, meadow, poisonous alkaloid obtained from, i. 427
Sagarta miniata, structure and habitat of, ii. 132

its deadly weapons, ii. 132, 133
Salpa maxima, structure of, 226, 227
Salpa mucronata, vast shoals of, ii. 228
Salpa zonaria, young of, ii. 227
Salpi, their food, i. 205
Salpidae, characters of the, ii. 226-228
Salt, change of volume of, by chemical combination, i, 20

partial decomposition of, by diffusion, i. Ill

yellow coloured light produced by the combustion of, i. 132

spectrum analysis of i. 134

INDEX. so?

Salt : more universally diffused than any other matter, i. 134

spectrum analysis of the rarefied vapour of, i. 141
Sand of the sea-shore, the debris of quartz rocks, i. 17
Sandal wood, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i. 44
Sandhopper, structure of the, ii. 201, 202
Sap milk, composition and formation of, i. 425
Sapindacese, or soapworts, fruits of, innocuous, i. 426
Sapphire, i, 4

Sapphirina fulgens, structure and habitat of, ii. 204, 205
Sarcode, structure and functions of, ii. 2
Sarcophycus of the Antarctic Ocean, i. 256
Sarcophycus potatorum, fruit of, i. 256
Sargassum, habitat of the, i. 255

Sargassum bacciferum, structure, fructification, and habitat of, i. 257
Sargassum vulgare, structure, fruit, and habitat of, i. 257
Saturn, the planet, spectrum of, i. 158, 161
Sausages, fatal effects caused by, i. 285
Saw-dust, manufacture of into oxalic acid, i. 116, 117
Scalariae, tongues of, ii. 239
Scallop, or pecten, eyes of the, li. 235
Schistocarpi, characters of the group, i. 328
Schistostegei, structure and habitat of, i. 331
Schizaea, structure of, i. 363
Schizseinese, characters of the, i. 363

sporangia of, i. 343

characters of the group, i. 345
Sclerogen, i. 175

production of, in plants, i. 421
Scolopendriese, characters of, i. 351, 352

Scolopendrium, structure and development of the caudex of, i. 340
Scolopendrium vulgare, or Hart's-tongue fern, structure, fructification,

and habitat of, i. 351, 352
Screw pine, roots and habitat of, i. 387
Scutella, spines of the, ii. 180
Scutula, organs of reproduction of, i. 307
Sea-cucumbers, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 183
Sea-eggs, or sea-urchins, structure of, ii. 176 et seq.
Sea-fans, structure of the, ii. 125
Sea-mat, structure of, ii. 218
Sea-nettles, vast shoals of, ii. 100, 101
Sea-pens, structure of, ii. 128, 129-131
Sea-salt, chlorine obtained from, i. 18

X 2

3o8 INDEX.

Sea-serpent of Celebes, ii. 186

Sea-slugs, strvicture of, ii. 239, 240

Sea- weeds, former and present uses of, i. 128

Seeds of two lobes, i. 177

of one lobe, i. 177

of plants, i. 381, 382, 383, 404
Selagiuella, structure and habitat of, i. 374
Selenium, atomic weight of, i, 105

its properties analogous with those of sulphur and tellurium, i. 105
Sepedonium mycophilum, spores of, i. 286
Sepia, or cuttle fish, structui'e of, ii. 245, 246, 247
Serpentine marble of Tyree and of Connemara, composition of, ii. 56
Serpula, structure of, ii. 155
Sertularia cupressina, structure of, ii. 87
Sertulariidse, characters of the family of, ii. 90, 91

modes of propagation of, ii. 91
Shells of mollusks, ii. 234
Shrimps, opossum, ii. 199, 200
Sigillaria, structure of the fossil, i. 375
Silex, quantity of, in the Equisetacese, i. 369

in the grasses, i. 386
Silica, abundance of, i. 17

in the stalks and leaves of the grasses, i. 386

effect of electricity on, i. 32
Silicon, i. 17

combined with oxygen gas forms rock-crystal, i 17

three different states in which it exists, i. 18

analogy between silicon and carbon, i. 1 8

Professor Graham's limpid solution of, i. 18
Silk, dyes for, i. 125

mode of preparing it if it is to be moire, i. 125

advantages of the climate of Lyons in the manufacture of, i. 126
Silk-worm, a fungus parasite of the, i. 274
Silver, affinity of, for oxygen, i. 5

conduction of heat and radiation, i. 5

iodine found in combination with, i. 19

crystals of, formed artificially by electricity, i. 74

transmissive power of, of electricity, i. 90
Sipunculidae, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 186, 187
Sky, probable cause of the blue colour of the, i, 58
Slate, polishing, of Bilin, of what it consists, i. 206
Smoke, i. 14

INDEX. 3Q9

Smut of wheat, i. 281

Snails, structure of, ii. 235-237

Soda, chlorate of, singular property of, in crystallization, i. 7')

Soda, oxalate of, formation of, i. 117

Soda, silicate of, i. 110

Prof. Graham's dialysis of, i. 110
Soda, former and present mode of procuring, i. 128

yellow coloured light produced by the combustion of, i. 132
abundance in the Algge, i. 414
Sodium, i. 3

atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100
spectrum analysis of the rarefied vapour of, i. 141
chloride of, spectrum of, i. 146

reversion of the coloured lines of sodium burning in air, i. 150
Solar spectrum, i. 58

myriads of ethereal waves constituting the seven colours of the,

i. 58
rayless spaces crossing the, at right angles, i. 59
length of the undulations of the ether producing the impression of

the colours of the solar spectrum, i. 59
mode of bringing the invisible rays of the chemical spectrum before

the human eye, i. 59
fluorescen<'e and calorescence, i. 60-62
experiments producing the long spectrum, i. 63
spectra of volatilized metals, i. 64
absorption of invisible rays, i, 65
discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton of the solar spectrum and the laws

of coloured rings, i. 129
Fraunhofer's lines, i. 129, 148

MM. Bunsenand Kirchhoff's experiments, i. 130, 148
Mr. Glaisher's experiments, i. 130
absorption bands, i. 131

Sir D. Brewster's discovery, i. 131
coincident dark and coloured lines, i. 148
reversion of the coloured lines, i. 149
Prof. J. P. Cook's discoveries, i. 149
M. Foucault's discoveries, 1. 149

M. Kirchhoff's discovery of the law of exchanges, i, 150
metals shown by MM, Kirchhoff and Angstrom to exist in the sun,
i. 151-153
and those proved to have no existence in the sim, i. 154
Solferino, production of, i. 127

3IO INDEX.

Salids, the specific heat of compound, generally greater than that of their

component elements, i, 101
Solorina, structure of the genus, i. 305
Solorina crocea, structure of, i. 306
Solorina saccata, structure of, i. 305
Space, matter wandering in, i, 28

Spearmint, absorption of radiant heat by the perfume of, i. 44
Specific gravity, i. 26

unit of, i. 26
Spectra, continuous, from glowing solids and liquids, i. 132
spectrum analysis, i. 133

experiments of Sir David Brewster and Mr. Fox Talbot, i. 133
spectrum of rubidium and caesium, i. 136
of thallium, i. 136, 137
of indium, i. 137

of the flame of the iron in the manufacture of the Besse-
mer steel, i. 137, 138
of gases, i. 139, et seq.

efifect of high temperature on various spectra, i. 142-

144
effects of pressure on a variety of gases and vapours,
i. 145
of metals not always the same, i. 145
of the halogens, i. 146

of the vaporized mixture of five chlorides, i. 147
of lightning, 147
of the sun. See Solar spectrum
of the fixed stars, i. 155, 162, 163
of temporary and periodic stars, i. 156, 157
of the planets, i. 157, 158, 161
of various nebulae, i. 158-160
Spermatozoidsof confervacese, i. 210
Sphseria aquila, structure and habitat of, i. 295
Sphseria bombarda, structure of, i. 295
Sphaeria, candle-snuff, habitat of, i. 295
Sphseria Desmazierii, development of, i. 294
Sphseria miliaris, characters of, i. 283
Sphaeriacei, characters and habitat of the order, i. 293

development of, i. 294
Sphaerobolus, force with which its sporangium is ejected, i. 273
Sphserococcoidese, characters of the, i. 238
Sphserococcus coronopifolius, mode of reproduction of, i. 236, 238

INDEX. 311'

Sphseroccus, habitat of the genus, i. 239
Sphserophorei, characters of the, i. 310

Sphseroplea annulina, structure and reproduction of, i. 208, 209
Sphagnei, characters of, i. 331
Sphagnum latifolium, leaves of, i. 330

Sphagnum, or common bog-moss, structure, fructification, and habitat of,
i. 332

uses of, in Lapland, i. 334
Spikenard, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i. 44
Spinal cord, structure and functions of the, ii. 8
Spines of plants, structure and formation of, i. 411
Spirogyra, mode of reproduction of, i. 218
Spirulina tenuissima, motions of, i. 213
Splachnei, characters of the tribe, i. 330
Splachnum ampuUaceum, structure and habitat of, i. 331
Splachnum rasculosum, structiu'e and colour of, i. 330
Spondylus gsedaropus, eyes of the, ii. 235
Sponges, iodine found in, i. 19
Sponges, the Carpentaria a link between the foraminifera and the, ii. 57

structure and development of, ii. 57

varieties in size, structure, and habits of the marine sponges, ii. 60

propagation of, ii. 60, 61

structure of fresh-water sponges, ii. 61

fossil sponges, ii. 62
Spongilla fluviatilis, structure and development, and propagation of,

ii. 61
Spongiocarpege, structure and mode of propagation of, i. 237, 238
Spores of Cryptogamia, i. 177, 178
Sporidia, or spore-bearing cells, of Ascomycetes, i. 290
Sporidiiferi, structure and fructification of, i. 260

orders of, i. 260, 261
Sporiferi, structure and fructification of, i. 260

orders of, i. 260
Sporopodium Leprieurii, ascus of, i. 300
Spurgeworts, poisons and food supplied by the, i. 425, 426
Squamarise, structure and modes of propagation of, i. 237
Squid, structure of the, ii. 245, 246
Squilla Desmarestii, structure of, ii. 198
Squilla mantis, structure of, ii. 198
Stamens of flowering plants, i. 379
Starch, production of, by plants, i. 420
Star-fishes, structure of, ii. 169

312 INDEX.

Stars, absorption of the heat radiated by the, by the earth's atmo-
sphere, i. 55

chemical power of the light of the, i. 55
Stars, falling, i. 28
Stars, fixed, constitution and spectra of the, i. 154, 155, 162, 163

spectra of periodic stars, i. 156
Staurastrum, structure and development of various species of, i. 192
Steam-engine, equivalence between the mechanical work and heat of
the, as between cause and effect, i. 29

causes of the motive force in the, i. 29 *
Steel, effect of magnetism on, i. 77

importance of the spectrum analysis in the manufacture of, by
Bessemer's process, i. 137, 138
Stegobolus Berkelianus, structure and organs of development of, ii. 299
Stelleridae, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 169-172, 174
Stems of plants, structure of, i. 384, 405
Stenochlsena, stem of, i. 339

Stephanosphsera pluvialis, structure and development of, i. 187-189
Stickleback, entozoon of the, ii. 145
Sticta, structure of the genus, i. 304
Sticta pulmonacea, structure and habitat of, i. 304
Stilbacei, structure and habitat of, i. 283
Stomach, human, fungus in the, i. 275
Stomapoda, characters of the, ii. 198
Stomata of plants, structure of the, i, 405, 406
Stone-lilies, structure of, ii. 174, 175
Strawberry, fructification of the, i. 381
Strorabus gigas, or queen conch, shell of, ii. 234
Strontium, i. 3

one of an isomeric triad with calcium and barium, i. 105

red-coloured light obtained by the combustion of, i. 133

spectrum analysis of, i. 133

spectrum analysis of the rarefied vapour of, i. 142
effect of high temperature, i. 142, 143
Strychnos nux vomica, fruit of, food for birds, i. 426
Substitution, direct or indirect, the basis of the modern doctrine of equi-
valents, i. 104
Succinic acid, chemical combination forming, i. 97
Sugar, production of, in plants, i. 421
Sugar-cane, size and structure of, i. 386
Sulphur, i. 16

extensive range of affinities of, i. 16

INDEX. 3 1 3

Sulphur: dimorphism and allotropisra of, i. 16

combination of chlorine with sulphur, i. 20

atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100, 105

its analogous properties with selenium and tellurium, i. 105

spectrum analysis of, in different tejaperatures, i. 144
Sulphuretted hydrogen gas, i. 16

Sulphurous acid, amount of absorption of radiant heat by, i, 41
Sun, probable cause of the light and heat of the, i. 28

probability of the periodic connection of the solar spots with mag-
netic phenomena, i. 30, 31

amount of force exerted by the sun's light within the limits of the
terrestrial atmosphere, i. 34

chemical action of the light of the sun, i. 56

effect of the opalescence of the atmosphere on the chemical power
of the sun's light, i. 57
Sun, spectrum of the, i. 58

thirteen terrestrial substances in the sun's atmosphere, i. 59
, metals shown by M. Kirchhoff to exist in the sun, i. 151-153

and those proved not to exist in it, i. 154

the structure of the sun'in some respects still a mystery, i. 164

the luminous gaseous atmosphere of the, i. 164

mottled appearance of the photosphere of the sun, i. 164, 165

the fac^las, i. 165

the red flames or protuberances round the edge during a total
eclipse, i. 165

the solar spots, i. 168

their periodicity, i. 166

appear to be influenced by the planet Venus, i. 166
Sun- rise and sun-set, causes of the bright tints at, i. 58
Surirella, mode of development of, i. 202
Synapta, structure of the genus, ii. 185
Synapta digitata, structure and habitat of the, ii, 185
Syncladei, structure of the branches of, i. 328
Syncoryna Sarsii, structure and development of zooids of, ii. 90
Synthesis, in the animal and vegetable creation, i. 96

Taenia, or tape-worm, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 145

transformation of the young of, ii. 146.
Tsenioidse, characters of, ii. 144

314 INDEX.

Talitrus, or sand-hopper, structure of, ii. 201, 202

Tar, coal. See Coal tar

Tardigrada, characters of the, ii. 161

Tartaric acid, chemical combination forming, i. 97

Tea, active principle of, i. 428

Tellurium, atomic weight of, i. 105

its properties analogous to those of sulphur and selenium, i. 105
Terebella conchilega, structure of, ii. 153-155
Textularia, structure and habitat of the genus, ii. 41

fossils of, ii. 42
Textularia Mayeriana, form of, ii. 28
Thalassicolla morum, structure of, ii. 21
Thalassicollse, structure of, ii. 21

Thalassyophyllum Clathrus, habitat and structure of, i. 250
Thallium, i. 3, 4.

effect of the spectrum from an electric spark between points of, i, 64

atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100

Mr, W. Crookes's discovery of the metal so called, i. 136

spectrum analysis of, i. 137

properties of, i. 137

where found, i. 137

changes in the spectrum of, by high temperature, i. 144
Thallus or frond, of lichens, i. 301
Thaumantia pilosella, form and structure of, ii. 92

otolites of, ii. 93

mode of reproduction of, ii. 94
Thorinum, i. 4

Thtmder-dirt of the New Zealanders, i. 268
Thyme, absorption of radiant heat by the perfume of, i. 44
Timmia, leaves of, i. 330
Tobacco, spectrum analysis of, i. 136

Tobacco, narcotic effect of, and as a relief from hunger, i, 428
Toluidine, property of, in producing the aniline colours, i. 122
Toluol, constituents of, i. 121
Topaz, oriental, i. 4
Torula cerevisise, structure, development, and cell-multiplication of,

i. 287
Transparency in liquids and solids synonymous with discord, i. 36

causes of transparency, i. 37
Transpiration of gases, i. 110, 114
Tree ferns, structure of, i. 341
Trees, constitution of the stems of, i. 1 74

INDEX. 3 1 5

Tremellini, structure, habitat, and fructification of, i. 266

Trepang, used as food, ii. 181

Triceratium farus, structure and habitat of, i. 199

Triceratium genus, structure and habitat of, i. 199

Trichodesmiurn erythrseum, structure, habitat, and reproduction of,

i. 215, 216
Trichogastres, characters of the group, i. 267

Trichomanes radicans, or bristle fern, structure and habitat of, i. 361
Trichomaninese, characters of the group, i. 345

characters and habitat of, i. 360, 361
Trilobites, structure of, ii. 203
Tripe de Eoche, structure of, i. 308
Triphragmium dubens, spores of, i. 276
Tripoli stone on the Ehine, of what it consists, i. 206
Trochus granulatus, structure of, ii. 237, 238
Trochus zizyphinus, palate of, ii. 237
Truffle, structure and habitat of the, i. 292, 293

modes of tracing them, i. 293

the red, of Bath, i. 268;
Trypethelium Sprengelii, pustules and sporidia of, i. 299
Tuberacei, characters and habitat of the order, i. 292
Tubicola, structure of, ii. 153

found m all seas, ii. 161
Tubipora, characters of the family of, ii. 129
Tubipora musica, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 130
Tubipora purpurea, habitat of, ii. 130
Tubularia, form and structure of the family, ii. 91

mode of propagation of, ii. 91
Tulip, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 388
Tunicata, or Ascidians, characters of, ii. 222

groups of, ii. 222, et seq.
Turbellarise, structure of the, ii. 148
Turkey red, from what obtained, i. 124
Turpentine, oil of, takes fire in chlorine gas, i. 19
Turritopsis nutricula, larvae of the Canina octonaria parasites of, ii. 100

Ulva, structure and reproduction of, i. 171, 225

Ulva bullosa, reproduction of, i. 227

Ulva lactuca, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 226

3i6 INDEX.

Ulva latissima, structiu'e and mode of reproduction of, i. 225-227
Ulva Linza, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 226
Umbilicaria, structure and habitat of, i. 308
Upas-tree of Java, causes of the virulence of, i. 426

fruit of, innocuous, i. 426
Uranium, i, 4, 5

nitrate of, phosphorescence of, i. 67
Uranite, yellow, fluorescent property of, i. 66
Uredines, structure and habitat of the, i. 277
Uredo, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 277
Uredo Candida, or Cystopus candidus, structure, habitat, and mode of

reproduction of, i. 278
Uredo linearis, the rust on the leaves and chaff scales of wheat, i. 281
Uromyces appendiculatus, or fungus of the common bean, i. 280
Usnea, structure of, i. 302
Usnea melaxantha, splendour of, i. 304
Usnea Taylori, splendour of, i. 304
Usnese, brilliancy and wide diffusion of the, i. 304
Usnic acid, produced by lichens, i. 303
Uva di mare, fruit of, i. 257

Vacuum tubes, i. 78, note

electric discharges in, i. 78, 79
Valvulina, structure of, ii. 37
Vanilla, reproduction of, i, 402
Vapours, absorption of radiant heat by gases and vapours, i. 38

radiation of, equal to absorption, i. 46
Variola dealbata, litmus or orchil obtained from, i. 124
Vaucheria, character of the genus, i. 218, 224

structure, habitat, and modes of reproduction of, i. 218
Vaucheria marina, structure and habitat of, i. 224
Vaucheria sessiles, mode of reproduction of, i. 219
Vaucheria velutina, habitat of, i. 224
Vegetable world, microscopic structure of the, i. 167
Vegetation, i, 167

effects of light and heat on, i. 168, 169

the primordial cell, the universal framework or skeleton of the
vegetable world, i. 170, 172

formation of cellular tissue, i. 171, 173

INDEX. 317

Vegetation: fibro-vascular bundles constituting the wood of trees, i. 173

the vascular ducts, i. 73

the pitted tissue, i. 174

the woody fibre, i. 174
sclerogen, i. 175
the laticiferous vessels, or vasa propria, i. 176, 177
seeds and spores, i, 177

cycles of existence in the vegetable world, i. 178, 186
variation of marine vegetation, horizontally and vertically with the

depth, i. 258
instance of mechanical power exerted by vegetable matter, i. 269
seeds brought to Europe by the great Atlantic currents, i. 355
gradual changes of structure from the lowest to the highest crypto-
gamic forms, i. 375

reproduction and fructification, i. 376, 377
general structure of flowering plants, i. 378

calyx and corolla, i. 378

stamens and pollen, i. 379

pistil, ovary, and style, i. 380

fructification, i. 381
monocotyledonous, or endogenous plants, their structure, growth, and
reproduction, i, 383

the earliest dawn of plant life, as shown in the colourless pro-
toplasm of the grasses, i. 387

bulbous plants, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 388

orchids, their structure and fructification, i. 389
dicotyledonous, or exogenous plants, i. 404-428

seeds, i. 404

stems, i. 405

stomata, i. 405, 406

bark, i. 406, 407

cambium, i. 407

wood, i. 408

roots, i. 409

leaves, i. 410

buds, spines, and hairs, i. 411

protoplasm, i. 412

chemical elements of vegetable matter, i. 413

sap and sap motion, i. 415-417

inhalation and exhalation of oxygen, i. 416, 417

latex, i. 417

milk vessels, i. 418

3i8 INDEX,

Vegetation : chemical functions, i. 419
cellulose, i. 419, 420
starch, i. 420

diastase and dextrine, i. 420, 421
sclerogen, or colouring matter of wood, i, 421
sugar, i. 421

oils, resins, and wax, i. 422, 423
albumen, fibrin, and casein, i. 423
raphides, i. 424
milk sap, i. 425

poisons, i. 425, 426
food and other purposes, i. 426
alkaloids, chemical structure of, i. 427
colouring matter of flowers, chemical nature of, i. 428, 429
water secreted by plants night and morning, i. 429
electricity developed by plants and flowers, i. 430
irritability of the tissues of plants, i. 430

light the most universal and important exciting cause in
the vegetable world, i. 431
Velella spirans, structure and modes of locomotion and reproduction of,
ii. 114-116
food of, ii. 116
habitat of, ii. 117
Velellidse, characters of the order, ii. Ill, 114
Venus, the planet, spectrum of, i. 168, 162

Veratrum album, or white hellebore, poisonous alkaloid of, i. 427
Verrucariei, structure of, i. 310
Verrucaria muralis, structure and habitat of, i. 310
Verrucaria variolosa, structure and development of, 299, 300
Vibrissea, motions of the sporidia in, i. 292
Vibrios found in dust from Egypt, ii. 65

agents in the decomposition of organic matter, ii. 66, 67
difference between vibrios and mycoderms, ii. 66
extreme tenacity of life of the vibrios, ii. 67
Vine, fungus constituting the mildew of the, i. 295, 297
Vinegar plant, fungus producing the, i. 288
Virgularia juncea, ii. 129

Virgularia mirabilis, mode of reproduction of, ii. 129
Virgularise, structure and mode of reproduction of the, ii. 129
Vis viva, or impetus, i. 26, 27
heat generated by, i. 27
combustion, a case of, i. 30

INDEX. 319

Vittarieje, characters of the group, i. 356

Volatility of a compound, law of, i. 22

Voltaic battery, i. 31

Voltaic electricity. See Electricity

Volvocinese, structure and reproduction of, i. 187, 189

Volvox globator, structure and development of, i. 189

Vorticella nebulifera, diversity of their reproductive powers, ii, 75, 76

Vorticellse, structure of the, ii. 76

food of, and mode of taking it, ii. 76, 77

mode of reproduction of, ii. 77
Vulpinic acid, whence obtained, i. 303

"Walking fern, structui'e and mode of reproduction of, i. 352.
Walnut, cause of blistered leaves of the, i. 291
Wasp, a West Indian, killed by fungi, i. 293, 294
Water almost impervious to heat, i. 36

proportions of oxygen and hydrogen in, i. 94

combination and decomposition of, i. 94

force of the chemical combination requisite to form a gallon of,
from the combustion of the two gases, i. 97, 98

force required to freeze water, i. 98

amount of voltaic electricity required to separate a given quantity
of water into hydrogen and oxygen, i. 101

the most common radicle in the inorganic and organic world, i. 107

the water of crystallization, and the effect of heat upon it, i. 108

production of aqueous solutions of organic and inorganic matter, i. 1 1 1

water secreted night and morning by plants, i. 429
Water-flea, arborescent, structure of the, ii. 208
Waterproofing, Lidia rubber prepared for, i. 120
Wax, vegetable, formation of, i. 422, 423

functions of, i. 423
Wheat, probable causes of the rust and smut of, i. 281

Cordiceps on the ergot of, i. 293
Whelks, tongues of, ii. 239, 240
Wood-louse, or slater, structure of, ii. 202
Wood of trees, fibro-vascular bundles constituting the wood of, i. 1 73, 1 74

structure of, i. 408
Woodsia, structure of, i. 349
Woodsia ilvensis, structure and fructification of, i. 350

320 INDEX.

Woodsiese, or Peranemese, characters of the group, i. 350

"Worms, or annulosa, characters of, ii. 144

Wormskioldia sanguinea, structure and habitat of, i. 239, 240

"Wormwood, absorption of radiant heat by the perfume of, i. 44

Wrangelia pencillata, spores of, i. 237

"Wrangeliacese, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 237

Xenodochus parodoxus, spores of, i. 276

Yeast plant, i. 286, 288

yeast of beer, i. 287, 288

German yeast, i. 288
Yellow dye, obtained from aniline, i. 124
Yttrium, i. 4

Zinc, i. 4.

spectrum of volatilized zine, i. 64

atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100

peroxide of, combination forming, i. 104

seleniate of, different forms assumed by, according to the tempera-
ture of the -water united with, i. 107, 108
Zirconium, i. 4
Zonaria, structure of, i. 247
Zooids of Hydrozoa, ii. 88-90
Zoophytes, characters of, ii. 81

hydrozoa, ii. 81, 86

actinozoa, ii. 130

anthozoa, ii. 119
alcyon, ii. 119
Zoospores of Confervacese, i. 208
Zostera marina, or sea wrack, crimson fringe of the, i. 231

characters of the flowers of, i. 387
Zygnema quininum, mode of reproduction of, i. 217
Zygodesmus fuscus, spores of, i. 286

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