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On the Polar Star
IN THE ARCTIC SEA
BY HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS
LUIGI AMEDEO OE SAVOY
DUKE OF THE ABRUZZI
WITH THE STATEMENTS OF COMMANDER U. CAGNI UPON THE
SLEDGE EXPEDITION TO 86° 34' NORTH, AND OF DR. A. CAVALLI
MOLINELLI UPON HIS RETURN TO THE BAY OF TEPLITZ
TRANSLATED BY
WILLIAM LE OUEUX
IN TWO VOLUMES, WITH 212 ILLUSTRATIONS
IN THE TEXT, I 6 FULL-PAGE PHOTOGRAVURE
PLATES, 2 PANORAMAS, AND 5 MAPS
VOL. I
LONDON
HUTCHINSON & CO,
PATERNOSTER Row
PRINTED BY
HAZF.LL. WATSON AND V1NEV, LD.
LONDON AND AYLESBURY.
700
v.l.
TO HER MAJESTY
THE QUEEN-MOTHER
WILL YOUR MAJESTY ALLOW ME TO DEDICATE THESE PAGES TO THE MEMORY OF
KING HUMBERT, WHOSE LOSS WE DEPLORE? HIS MORAL AND MATERIAL
ASSISTANCE ENABLED ME TO CARRY OUT THIS VOYAGE, BY THE RESULTS OF WHICH
HE WOULD HAVE BEEN MUCH REJOICED IF THE HAND OF AN ASSASSIN HAD
NOT SUDDENLY ENDED HIS LIFE BEFORE THE RETURN OF THE EXPEDITION.
THE DEDICATION OF THESE PAGES TO THE MEMORY OF KING HUMBERT
IS TO ME A DUTY DICTATED BY GRATITUDE, AND THE EXPRESSION OF MY
AFFECTION WHICH HAS BECOME STILL GREATER SINCE HIS DEATH. MAY
YOUR MAJESTY BE PLEASED TO ACCEPT THE ASSURANCE OF MY UNSWERVING
LOYALTY.
LUIGI DI SAVOIA.
INTRODUCTION
" I ^HE object of the expedition of the Polar Star was to sail
-*- as far to the north as possible along some coast-line,
and then to travel on sledges towards the Pole from the
place where the winter had been passed. The Pole was not
reached, but the sledge expedition, led by Commander Cagni,
pushed on to a latitude which no man had previously attained,
and proved that with determination and sturdy men, and a
number of well-selected dogs, the frozen Arctic Ocean can actually
be crossed to the highest latitude.
The practical use of Polar expeditions has often been
discussed. If only the moral advantage to be derived from
these expeditions be considered, I believe that it would suffice
to compensate for the sacrifices they demand. As men who
surmount difficulties in their daily struggles feel themselves
strengthened for an encounter with still greater difficulties, so
should also a nation feel itself still more encouraged and urged
by the success won by its sons, to persevere in striving for its
greatness and prosperity.
Our expedition was composed of Italians and Norwegians.
The willing and disinterested assistance of Captain Evensen, and
of the Norwegians, in navigating in the midst of ice, brought the
Polar Star to the highest latitude in the north of Europe hitherto
attained by a ship following a coast-line. The well-tried courage,
viii Introduction
the steadfast perseverance, the moral and physical endurance
of every sort of privation and hardship shown by the Italians
composing the sledge expedition under Commander Cagni, has won
for Italy the first place among the nations which have approached
nearest to the Pole.
Italians and Norwegians behaved throughout this voyage as
though the crew were composed of one nationality. I had comrades
with me, rather than subordinates. I express, therefore, my
gratitude towards all, since to their harmonious co-operation is
due the success of my expedition ; and I express the same
gratitude to the memory of the three brave men who perished
whilst on the sledge expedition. Honour to those who sacrificed
their young lives in pursuit of a noble idea, and may my ad-
miration, as well as that of their comrades on board the Polar
Star and of the whole civilised world, afford some consolation
to their afflicted families.
As conclusion of this introduction, I feel it my duty to thank
His Excellency the Italian Minister of Marine, Vice-Admiral
Morin, for having allowed me to have a great part of my work
executed in the Royal Hydrographical Institution, and all those
who have helped to compile the narrative and scientific portions : —
Commander Cagni, Dr. Cavalli, A. Alessio, and G. Schoch
(Lieutenants in the Royal Navy), Professors Rizzo, Aimonetti,
Palazzo, Cappa, Camerano, Salvadori, Pollonera, Giglio-Tos,
Nobili, Parona, Mattirolo, Belli, Spezia, Colomba, Piolti, Ermanno
Ferrero, Dr. Filippo de Filippi, and the Cavaliere Uffiziale
Vittorio Sella.
November, 1902.
TRANSLATOR'S NOTE
THE temperature is given in Centigrade scale. The miles are
geographical miles, or 6,080 feet. The tracks, the bearings, the
direction of the winds and currents, are in the true meridian when
not otherwise indicated.
VOL. I
CONTENTS
REPORT OF H.R.H. THE DUKE OF THE ABRUZZl
PAGE
DEDICATION v
INTRODUCTION vii
CHAPTER I
PLAN OF THE EXPEDITION
CHAPTER II
PREPARATION AND DEPARTURE OF THE EXPEDITION .... 21
CHAPTER III
IN BARENTZ SEA AND QUEEN VICTORIA SEA 53
CHAPTER IV
IN BARENTZ SEA AND QUEEN VICTORIA SEA (continued') . . .73
CHAPTER V
PRINCE RUDOLPH ISLAND 95
CHAPTER VI
WE ABANDON THE SHIP I21
CHAPTER VII
THE LAST DAYS OF LIGHT • M3
xii Contents
CHAPTER VIII
PAGE
THE POLAR NIGHT AND THE FEASTS OF CHRISTMAS AND THE
NEW YEAR 159
CHAPTER IX
THE POLAR NIGHT AND THE PREPARATIONS FOR OUR DEPARTURE 179
CHAPTER X
DEPARTURE OF THE EXPEDITION TOWARDS THE POLE . . . .197
CHAPTER XI
LONG AND PAINFUL EXPECTATION OF THE RETURN OF THE FIRST
DETACHMENT 219
CHAPTER XII
RETURN OF DR. CAVALLI AND COMMANDER CAGNI 241
CHAPTER XIII
CAPTAIN CAGNI BREAKS THE POLAR RECORD. IS IT IMPOSSIBLE TO
REACH THE POLE? 269
CHAPTER XIV
A POLAR SUMMER 289
CHAPTER XV
THE SHIP IS SET FREE 301
CHAPTER XVI
OUR RETURN TO CAPE FLORA. OUR ARRIVAL IN NORWAY . . .325
INDEX '. At End of Volume
VOL. I
LIST OF PLATES
FACING PAGE
1. H.R.H. Luigi Amedeo of Savoy, Duke of the Abruzzi . . . Frontispiece
2. The Polar Star .............. 32
3. Capes Forbes, Stephens, and Grant (Alexandra Land) ...... 64
4. The Polar Star under the first ice pressure in British Channel . ... 76
5. The camp in autumn . . . . . . . . . . . .136
6. Our camp from the west ............ 160
7. Returning from hunting 184
8. Position of the ship in the Bay of Teplitz, in March, 1900 ..... 224
9. View of the Bay of Teplitz, July 1 5th, 1900 296
10. We liberate the ship with mines . 320
11. Meeting between 1' Ilertha and the Polar Star in the Bay of Hammerfest . . 344
MAP
I. Position of the mines 308
ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
PAGE
I. Commander C. J. Phipps ............ 4
2. Commander W. E. Parry ............ 5
3. The attempt to reach the Pole— W. E. Parry, 1827 7
4. Commander A. H. Markham ........... 8
5- Captain J. B. Lockwood ........ 9
6. Professor Fridtjof Nansen ............ 1 1
7. Nansen and Johansen in the Arctic, 1895 . . 13
8. To the unknown goal ............. 17
9. Leaving Europe ........... . . 23
10. The Polar Star at Larvik • 25
11. Longitudinal section of the Polar Star 26
12. Plan of the deck 26
13. Transverse section of the officers' quarters ...... .27
14. The crew of the Polar Star 29
15. In the port of Christiania 31
16. At Tromso 33
17. We overtake a steamer in the White Sea 34
xiv Illustrations in the Text
18. At Solombol 35
19. The kennels at Archangel 37
20. Alexander Ivanov Trontheim 39
21. Siberian dogs 41
22. Kennels on board 43
23. Embarkation of the dogs on the Polar Star 45
24. The last farewell 47
25. Puzzled ! 54
26. The Polar Star meets the first ice (looking forward) 55
27. The Polar Star meets the first ice (looking aft) 57
28. Cape Flora and Cape Gertrude, on Northbrook Island : seen from the south . . 59
29. The huts left by Jackson's expedition . . . . . . . . • .61
30. In Nightingale Sound— Bell, Mabel, and Bruce Islands 63
31. A walrus hoisted on board .... 65
32. Bates Sound — Cape Flora in the distance ......... 67
33. In open water 73
34. The ice to the north of Bruce Island 75
35. The Polar Star nipped by the ice (side view) 77
36. The Polar Star nipped by the ice (seen from the stern) 79
37. The dogs on the ice 81
38. Our comrades come back to the ship 83
39. The first Arctic bear 85
40. Dramatis persons . 87
41. We force our way through the ice 88
42. Waiting for clear weather near Maria Elizabeth Island 89
43. Cape Fligely, from the north-west 91
44. In training ............... 95
45. Cape Fligely, seen from the north, near the coast 97
46. Disembarking in the Bay of Teplitz 99
47. Cape Germania, seen from the north-east 101
48. Cape Saulen, seen from the south-east 103
49. The ice-field in Teplitz Bay, with the channel cut in it by the Polar Star . . 104
50. The ship in Teplitz Bay 105
51. A Polar bear 107
52. The end of the chase 109
53. Kennels on the ice in
54. Bringing the dogs into the kennels 113
55. Training the dogs 114
56. An excursion on Prince Rudolph Island 115
57. Typical ice-cliff of the coast of Prince Rudolph Island 117
58. Our position : a distant view 123
59. Lanaing the stores while the ship is nipped by the ice 125
60. One of the two field-tents which fanned the interior of the hut . . . .127
61. How the hut was constructed . . . . . . . . . . .129
62. The Polar Star after the ice pressure 131
63. Vertical section of the hut 133
64. Plan of the hut 133
65. Framework of the hut 133
66. The kennels being dragged up on the beach 134
67. The entrance to the tent 136
Illustrations in the Text xv
PAGE
68. Ivory gulls
69. Under repair . . ........... 144
70. Landing the coal ........ 145
71. The leak mended 146
72. The ship abandoned 147
73. Interior of the tent 149
74. The kennels during the summer . . . . . . . . . . .150
75. The kennels after the snowstorm 151
76. The cage for the instruments during summer 152
77. The cage protected from the drift by canvas screens 153
78. The first fall of snow . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
79. A view forward . 161
80. In the sailors' tent 163
81. Dr. Cavalli in the tent 166
82. The hut by moonlight 169
83. Our Christmas dinner . . . . . . . . . . . . -'71
84. Interior of the tent 179
85. Dr. Cavalli prepares the rations . . . 181
86. A kayak 183
87. A sledge 183
88. A tent 185
89. A sleeping-bag 186
90. Lamp and cooking-stove 187
91. The door of the tent after the storm .......... 189
92. The ship after the storm 191
93- The porch of the hut buried in snow . . . . . . . . • .192
94. A typical team 199
95. Entrance to our tent 201
96. The magnetic box 203
97. Dogs in front of the tent . 205
98. A group of our friends 207
99. Our camp in the spring of 1900 ....... ... 209
100. The sledges on their way to Cape Rohlfs 211
101. The sledge expedition ready for departure 212
102. The sledge expedition crossing the pack -213
103. Grasso. the dog given by Dr. Nansen . . . . • • • • • .214
104. A prize ... 221
105. A sentry! 223
106. Captain Evensen . . .......••••• 227
107. Cape Fligely, as seen from the highest point of the island ..... 229
1 08. The hut at Cape Fligely 231
109. The Polar pack .... 233
HO. Skinning a bear .......... ... 235
in. Overhauling the sledges 243
112. Lieutenant Querini, the engineer Stokken, and the guide Oilier . 245
113. The Norwegian Hans 247
114- A Polar bear -249
115. Near Cape Fligely 25'
116. The ship and hut, seen from the west
117. Rocks of Cape Siiulen 255
xvi Illustrations in the Text
PAGE
1 1 8. Another view of the rocks 257
119. Travelling over soft snow 259
1 20. Arrival of Cagni 265
121. A friendly pair 271
122. Equipment of the third detachment 273
123. The names by which we called them 274
124. Messicano 275
125. Sacripante and Teresa 277
126. Moro 278
127. Piccin 279
128. Orlando 281
129. Pantalone 283
130. Dogs brought back to Italy ... ......... 284
131. Hard at work ... 290
132. The hut during summer 291
133. The siesta 292
134. Commander Cagni taking observations 293
135. The magnetic box fallen in the water .......... 294
136. The magnetic box in peril ............ 295
137. Out shooting 296
138. Bringing the magnetic box to land .......... 297
139. The return from Cape Auk 297
140. On duty 302
141. Position of the ship ............. 303
142. Canal taking water to the ship 305
143. The canal opening at the poop 307
144. Gull (Stercorarhis parasilicus} ... ........ 309
145. Return from shooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
146. Laying the mines in the ice . 312
147. A mirror of water alongside ........... 313
148. Getting out a piece of ice ............ 314
149. The Polar Star righting herself . . . 315
150. Making a canal to liberate the ship 317
151. Ready to return 319
152. Leaving the Bay of Teplitz 321
153. One of our difficulties 327
154. Our last glimpse of Cape Saulen 328
155- Cape Auk and Cape Brorok ............ 329
156. The ice in British Channel ............ 330
157. A white dolphin . . 331
158. Against an iceberg 333
159. The drift in British Channel . 335
160. TLe dogs on their way home . . . . . . . . . . . 337
161. On our way towards Europe 339
162. Our arrival at Tromso 343
CHAPTER I
Plan of the Expedition
VOL. I.
CHAPTER I
PLAN OF THE EXPEDITION
THE Arctic expeditions which have had as their sole object the
reaching of the North Pole, on account of the difficulties
of such an undertaking, and the very small advantages to be
derived from it, have been few. Since the seventeenth short History of
Arctic Voyages
century the English have attempted to penetrate to towards the Pole,
the far east by advancing towards the north in the Arctic
Ocean. The voyages of Henry Hudson were followed by others
which are not deserving of notice, until 1773, when the British
Government sent Commander C. J. Phipps, with the ships Racehorse
and Carcars, expressly for the purpose of reaching the Pole. Passing
to the north of Spitzbergen, Phipps was stopped by ice in the latitude
of 80° 48'; and though some captains of whalers attained the latitude
of 81° 30' with sailing ships, and though in 1868 Baron Nordenskiftld
with the steamer Sophia went so far as 81° 42' in the same direction,
these attempts only proved that, even with the help of steam, ships
could not advance into the ice of the Arctic Ocean far away from land.
But although ships were stopped by the ice, might not an attempt
be made to cross it with sledges ? Commander Parry, R.N., sailed on
board the Hecla, which he left in June, 1827, in Treurenberg Bay, on
the northern coast of Spitzbergen. With two launches built so as
to serve as sledges, three officers, twenty-four men, and provisions
for seventy-one days, he sailed north, and then drew his boats over
4 On- the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
the ice-fields. These did not form, as had been reported, a level plain
without obstacles. They were, on the contrary, crossed by ridges
of ice, over which the boats had to be hauled with ropes, and
intersected by numerous channels on which the boats had to
be launched, to be drawn up again on the opposite shore, and
thus had to be unloaded and loaded. As the snow was
COMMANDER C. J. PHIPI'S
softened by the high temperature, the sailors sank in it up to
their waists.
Although the ground covered each day was much less than
had been anticipated, Parry continued to push on towards the
north, hoping that his difficulties might diminish according as he
went farther ; but as the state of the ice did not change, and as,
Plan of the Expedition 5
moreover, it drifted every day as much as four miles to the south,
thirty-six days after his departure, when in the latitude of 82° 45',
he gave the order to return. For many years this was the
highest latitude ever attained by man, and Parry's attempt showed
COMMANDER \V. K. I'AUKV
the difficulty, especially during summer, of travelling with sledges
over the ice of the Polar Ocean.1
1 Commander Parry was sixty-one days absent from his ship, from June 2ist
to August 2 ist. He passed thirteen days in the boats and forty-eight on the ice.
The distance in a straight line from Treurenberg Bay (79° 55' N. lat. by 16 48' E.
long.) to the most northern point reached (82° 45' N. lat. by 19° 25' K. long.) is
172 miles.
6 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
In 1875 the English Admiralty dispatched for the third time an
expedition to the North Pole. The preceding voyages had shown
that it was as difficult to advance with ships as with sledges. It was
hoped that by penetrating into the basin lying between Greenland
and America, it would be possible to sail along some coast-line up to
the 8jrd or 84th parallel, where it would winter, and then advance
towards the Pole on sledges in the following spring.
The expedition Jed by Commander Nares was composed of two
ships, the Alert and the Discovery, one of which was to push as far as
possible to the north in the above-mentioned basin, whilst the other
should take shelter in some safe anchorage, and bring home the crews
in case the former met with any mishap. The ships passed by Smith
Sound into Kennedy Channel, and reached Lady Franklin Bay. The
Discovery was left there at 81° 44', whilst the Alert, entering Robeson
Channel, reached the latitude of 82° 27' off Grant Land. The excur-
sions made during the autumn to discover the direction of the coast
ascertained that it trended towards the west, and thus took away all
hope of utilising it to establish depots for the expedition towards
the Pole.
In the following spring, however, Nares dispatched towards the
north Commander A. H. Markham, with an officer, eighteen men,
three sledges, and provisions for seventy days. He could only
advance slowly and laboriously, as it was necessary to return over
the same road several times in order to transport the heavy loads.
After very great efforts he reached the latitude of 83° 20', where
he was obliged to stop on account of the fatigue of his men, among
whom had also appeared some cases of scurvy. On his returning to
the ship the situation was still more difficult. To the weight of the
baggage was added that of the sick, who had to be carried on the
sledges, and the expedition would hardly have succeeded in reaching
Plan of the Expedition 7
the Alert if a man had not volunteered to go forward to seek for
o
help. The latitude reached by Parry was thus slightly exceeded, by
a different road, although the advance had been carried out in
the most favourable months.1
A few years later, in 1882, the United States succeeded in bearing
away from England the Polar record, which had been jealously guarded
THE ATTEMPT TO REACH THE POLE. — W. E. PAKKY, 1827
for so many years. During the sojourn in Lady Franklin Bay of the
expedition led by Lieutenant A. W. Greely for scientific purposes,
Captain J. B. Lockwood, by advancing along the coast ot Greenland,
reached with sledges the latitude of 83° 24'. The fact of having gone
1 Commander Markham started on April 3rd and returned to the Alert on
June i4th, after being seventy-two days absent. The distance in a straight line
from the Alert (82° 27' N. by 61° 18' W. long.) to the most northern point
reached (83° 20' N. by 63° W. long.) is fifty-four miles.
8 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
farther than Markham, though only by four miles, whilst starting
from a latitude forty-three miles lower, appeared to demonstrate the
advantage to be gained by following the land in order to advance to
the north, but it afforded at the same time additional proof of
the great difficulty of reaching the Pole.1
COMMANDER A. H. MARKHAM
Professor Nansen was to give a fresh stimulus to those who
were desirous of penetrating the secrets of Arctic regions, but was
discouraged by the results of the last expeditions. Abandoning
the system followed until then of sailing along some coast-line
1 Captain Lockwood was absent from Fort Conger for sixty days, from
April 3rd to June ist. The distance in a straight line from Fort Conger (81° 44' N.
by 64° 45' W. long.) to the farthest point attained (83° 24' N. by 40° 46' W. long.) is
220 miles.
Plan of the Expedition 9
into the highest latitudes where shelter could be obtained during
o o
the winter, and then dispatching sledge expeditions in the following
spring, he formed the plan of taking advantage of the current
which causes the masses of ice in the Arctic Ocean to drift from
east to west, and allowing his ship to be carried along by them.
CAl'TAIN J. H. LOCKUOOD
When he reached the 84th parallel, and was convinced that the Fram,
while drifting, would not pass by the Pole, he left his ship with a
single companion in order to advance towards the Pole, and from
thence proceed to Emperor Franz Josef Land. By the use of
sledges drawn by dogs, which had one by one to be killed to feed
the survivors, and by daring to abandon all hope ot retreat, as he
had previously done in Greenland, he succeeded in making an
immense advance beyond the parallel reached by his predecessors,
io On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
and extended up to 227 miles from the Pole the limits of what
was known of the Arctic Ocean.1
The uncertainty of the existence of a great extent of land
to the north of what was already known rendered it necessary, in
Plan of the or^er to reach the Pole, to travel over the moving ice-
fields of the Arctic Ocean. No deposit of provisions
could be made on these ice-fields, and, therefore, to facilitate this
advance it was essential that the point of departure for the expe-
dition should be established as far as possible towards the north.
How could that be done ? By Jetting the ship drift again in the
ice, or by sailing along some coast-line as far as possible to the
north, by the routes already discovered ?
To repeat the attempt made by the Fram, and submit to
imprisonment by the ice farther to the east than Nansen had done,
necessitated remaining for perhaps three or four years in the Polar seas,
in which case the sledging expedition could be only carried out after
two or three years ; and a depot of supplies should first of all be safely
established on Emperor Franz Josef Land, where the sledge expedi-
tion would touch on its return. All honour, therefore, is due to
Nansen, who, knowing that he should have to stay so long in the
Polar ice, prepared and carried out his voyage with that intention.
Although my desire of arriving at the Pole was most ardent, it
was not, however, strong enough to induce me to remain for some
years in those solitary and icy regions. The danger of losing the
dogs by disease, the risk of trusting to drifting on the Arctic
, from March i4th (84° 4' N. by 101° 47' E. long.) to August gth,
the day on which he arrived at Adelaide Island (81° 38' N. by 62° n' E. long.),
having attained in the meanwhile the parallel of 86° 13', and the longitude of
96° E., had covered a total distance of 500 miles. To arrive at Cape Flora he
travelled a further distance of about 210 miles.
Plan of the Expedition i r
Ocean (a voyage which, though it may be repeated with the same
probability of success, may also be accompanied by unknown dangers,
even in the case of vessels built like the Fram), dissuaded me
from attempting to follow the same system, which is, however,
certainly the best, because it brings the expedition nearer to its goal,.
PROFESSOR FRIUTJOF NANSEN
while at the same time the sledge expedition can be under-
taken over ice-fields which are less uneven, because they are
farther from land.
The Alert, which passed the winter in 82° 27' latitude off Grant
Land, is the ship which has reached the highest latitude by following
a coast-line. Considering that it was sometimes, if not always, possible
1 2 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
to steam forward into the sea stretching from Greenland to America,
that seemed to be the route most clearly pointed out to be followed.
But two expeditions had already taken that direction — that from
Norway on the Framy and another from America on the Windward.
These expeditions, and the obstacles which Markham had encountered
with his sledges, led me to discard that route and to tend towards
Emperor Franz Josef Land, which is certainly known to extend
to about the latitude of 82°. The observations made by Payer,
Nansen, and Jackson led me to believe that a ship could reach Prince
Rudolph Island, which is the most northern of that archipelago. The
crossing of the Sea of Barentz up to Cape Flora might be considered
almost free from danger, and if it were not possible for a ship
to reach the northern extremity of that group of islands, the
lands situated towards the north would at any rate facilitate the
sledge expedition.
As there was no certainty that we could reach Prince Rudolph
Island, the probable departure of the sledges from Cape Flora,
in about 80° latitude, had to be taken into consideration. From
this point to the Pole 600 miles, had, therefore, jto be traversed
in going, and as many in returning — a total of 1,200 geographical
miles. Would it, I wondered, be possible to cover this distance
with the means at our disposal, and in the few months in which an
expedition was feasible ?
In Eastern Siberia, Baron Wrangell, by employing a number of
sledges drawn by dogs, which he sent back according as his supplies
were consumed, was able, in the four expeditions which he led
along the coast in 1821, 1822, and 1823, to cover the distance of
647 miles in twenty-two days; of 698 miles in thirty-six days;
of 782 miles in fifty-seven days ; and lastly of 1,326 miles in seventy-
eight days.
V
Plan of the Expedition 13
Lieutenant Peary, in his journeys on the inland ice1 of Greenland,
in 1892 and 1895 covered four times in 140 days a distance of 444
miles from MacCormick Bay to Independence Bay. It remained to
be seen if what it had been possible to accomplish along the coast of
Siberia, and on the inland ice of Greenland, could not also be achieved
on the ice-fields of the Arctic Ocean.'2
XAXSEX AXU JOHAXSEX IX THE ARCTIC, 1895
In what was the best season for travelling, from March I4th
to May J_5th,:i Nansen never made more than a daily average of
1 The name of " inland ice " is given to the mantle of ice which covers the
interior of Greenland.
2 Independence Bay is situated in 81° 37' N. by 34° 5' W. long. The point
comprised between MacCormick Bay and Baldwin Bay is at 77° 45' N. by 69° 39'
W. long.
3 The latitude and longitude of the Pram when Nansen left it was 84° 4' N.
by 101° 47 E. long. The farthest latitude reached was 86° 13' N. by 96° E. long.
On May i5th he was in 83° 38' N. by 64° 12' E. long.
14 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
five and a half miles. If, by progressing as speedily as Wrangell
and Peary, the 1,200 miles required to reach the Pole and to return
from it could be accomplished in less than a hundred days, by
advancing at the same rate as Nansen, the same distance could not
be covered in less than two hundred. During winter in the Arctic
regions the continual darkness puts an end to travelling, and during
summer, the softness of the snow, the pools and channels which
are formed in the ice, render it difficult to make any progress ; so
that only from ninety to a hundred days in the months of February,
April, and May can be utilised for making an -expedition. Taking,
therefore, only as a basis, the distances accomplished every day by
Nansen, I did not feel inclined to attempt the undertaking.
The difficulty of advancing speedily over the ice-fields during the
spring is especially caused by the channels which open out even
during intense cold, and by the pressure-ridges formed by the ice-floes
rising up over each other. Nothing could be done to lessen the
delay caused by the channels. But by having many sledges at my
disposal, lightly laden, and each driven by a single person, it might be
possible for a number of men to make their way much more speedily
through the pressure-ridges, whilst progress would be rendered more
easy in those tracts which would be comparatively level. By increas-
ing the number of men, and having as many as there were sledges in
our expedition, I hoped to exceed the daily average of Nansen, and
to attain that of Peary and Wrangell.
Allowing that it might be possible to obtain an average of twelve
miles a day, and fixing the maximum weight of a sledge at 617 Ib.
(so that it might be easily managed by the men, and drawn by
eight dogs over slightly uneven, ground), calculating also the daily
ration for each man at 2 Ib. 12 oz., like other explorers, and that
for the dogs at I Ib. i oz. iodr., and being resolved to kill the dogs
Plan of the Expedition 15
one after the other to feed those which survived, could the problem
of reaching the Pole, and returning to the ship, be solved ? The
enormous distance of 1,200 miles could not be traversed by a single
party unaided. Either the sledges would be too heavily laden or, as
in the case of Nansen, it would be necessary to have a greater number
of sledges than men. It would, therefore, be absolutely necessary to
establish depots on the lands farthest to the north, and to employ
auxiliary parties to carry on from them the supplies required to enable
a small number of persons to proceed still farther. The expedition,
therefore, required to be formed of three detachments, each composed
of several persons. The first detachment was to advance from Cape
Fligely to the 85th parallel, carrying supplies to feed the entire expedi-
tion during the first stage of its march, and for its own food during its
return to the ship. The second detachment was to go on farther to
the north, up to the 88th parallel, with provisions for the rest of the
expedition in its march to the north, and for itself when on its way
back ; and, lastly, the third detachment was to advance from the 88th
parallel to the Pole. These detachments, while returning, could not
rely upon the magazine at Cape Fligely, as various causes might oblige
them to deviate from their route and to return directly to the ship at
Cape Flora.
The plan, as thus conceived, had certainly its drawbacks, which
were, chiefly the great number of the staff, and the large amount of
supplies that would be necessary. Although it might be possible
before starting to carefully select the men composing the expedition,
it might, nevertheless, be expected that they would not all prove
suited for that mode of life, and that, therefore, the delays would be
increased by accidents which would occur all the more frequehtly the
greater the number of the party. On the other hand, it presented
many advantages, such as the possibility of selecting, among the
1 6 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
members of the expedition, those who would be more capable of going
on farther, while sending back the weaker ; further, the abundance
of supplies would enable us to replace whatever might be damaged
without wasting time in repairs ; and, lastly, the large number of
dogs, besides drawing the sledges, would also form a reserve of
provisions which did not require transport.
My original intention was to proceed to Emperor Franz Josef
Land and build a house there, but not to make the ship winter there,
as Wellman and Jackson had done ; being uncertain, however, as
to whether the ship could be sent back with safety, and thinking
also that it might afford the expedition greater comfort, I afterwards
decided to use it as a dwelling during the winter.
The plan of the new expedition to the Arctic Ocean was there-
fore as follows : It was to leave Archangel not later than July loth
for Cape Flora and Northbrook Island, where a magazine was to be
established with provisions for eight months, and four boats should
be left. Thence it was to proceed to Queen Victoria Sea, and there
seek a safe anchorage as far as possible to the north, close to the lands
lying to the west of Emperor Franz Josef Land. Sledge expeditions
were to be carried on in autumn and in spring : the former were to
transport supplies to the lands situated more to the north, and the
latter to attempt to reach the highest latitude. When these latter
expeditions came back at the beginning of summer, the place where
we had wintered should be left, or, if it were then too late to do
so, a second winter might be passed there, and in the following year
the expedition was to return to Cape Flora with or without the ship.
In case we were shipwrecked during the autumn, the supplies on
board, and what had been left at Cape Flora, would enable us to subsist
until the arrival of the relieving ship which, when two years had
elapsed after our departure, would be dispatched to that place. If it
Plan of the Expedition 17
were impossible to do otherwise, we might retreat by means of the
boats left at Cape Flora towards Novaya Zemlya or to the Spitz-
bergen Islands, according to circumstances.
The plan of the sledge expedition was as follows : It was to
start as soon as possible in spring, from the place where we had
wintered, advancing in the direction of the magazines we had left
.
TO THE UNKNOWN GOAL
during the autumn, and from these, after leaving the land, cross
over the ice toward the Pole. The supplies were calculated so as
to maintain a party of four men for forty days ; a second party of
four men for seventy days ; and a third party, composed also of
four men, for ninety days. The first party — that which carried
the supplies for forty days— was to return to the ship after fifteen
days' march, to be reckoned from the last depot, which might be
VOL. i. 2
1 8 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
supposed to be situated in 82° latitude, at Cape Fligely ; the second
party, with rations for seventy days, was to separate from the rest
of the expedition after thirty days' march ; and the third party was
to go as far as possible in the direction of the Pole, advancing for
forty days from Cape Fligely. These parties were to be quite
independent of each other as soon as they separated. By means of
the depot which I hoped to establish at Cape Fligely, I reckoned on
starting from that latitude with sufficient supplies for the above-
mentioned parties, in the hope that the last of them might succeed
in reaching the Pole and returning to the ship, which would
probably be stationed at 80° latitude. The plan was not to be
modified, whatever might be the distance which could be covered
every day.
Besides attempting to reach the highest possible latitude, the
expedition would carry instruments for taking observations on gravita-
tion and terrestrial magnetism, seek to enlarge our meteorological
and hydrographical knowledge of the localities which were to be
visited, and collect as much information as possible with regard to
the fauna and flora of Emperor Franz Josef Land.
CHAPTER II
Preparation and Departure of the Expedition
CHAPTER II
PREPARATION AND DEPARTURE OF THE EXPEDITION
DOGS are undeniably the most useful animals for man in his
expeditions with sledges over the ice of the Polar Sea. They
have this advantage, too, that, unlike horses and reindeer, they readily
eat their fellows. Their weight is small, and they can be
' Getting the Ex-
easily carried on light boats or on ice-floes. Their loss pedition ready'
represents but a small diminution of motive power in comparison with
what would result from the death of a reindeer or of a horse. The
best dogs for the sledge are to be found in Greenland and in Eastern
Siberia ; but the Danish Government has forbidden their exportation
from Greenland, and it was difficult to procure them from Eastern
Siberia. It was, therefore, decided to bring dogs from Western Siberia,
as they, too, are good, and in July, 1898, an order for 120 was given
to Alexander Trontheim (who had formerly provided Nansen with
his dogs). -— The English Vice-Consul in Archangel, Mr. Henry
Arthur Cooke, kindly took charge of the correspondence with
Trontheim, in which he took a special interest and for which I
am deeply grateful to him.
Of all the ships for sale in January, 1899, t^ie best ^or tne
strength of its timber and the quality of its engines was the Jason,
a whaler about to start for the seal fishery. It had been built at
Sande-Fiord in 1881, and could carry 570 tons of cargo. Its dimen-
sions were as follows : Length on the deck, 1 3 1 ft. ; width, 30 ft. 6 in. ;
22 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
and it drew from 15 ft. n in. to 16 ft. 6 in. Its engines, which were
nominally of 60 h.p., gave a speed of from six to seven miles an hour.
The ship had a new boiler, and carried a spare propeller and rudder.
It had no propeller -well or rudder-well. The Jason was getting
ready to start, under the command of Captain Evensen, one of
the most experienced and daring whaling captains. When its
destination was changed, all the iron tanks which filled the hold were
taken out, except four which were to serve to carry fresh water. The
coal was put on shore, and the ship was sent to Colin Archer's
dockyard at Larvik to undergo the overhauling and changes rendered
necessary by its new enterprise.
Many changes required to be made : in its hull, in its masts, and
in its cabins. Stanchions were placed in the hold, which met in the
centre under the transverse beams supporting the deck, while the lower
ends rested on the floor timbers, and the lower deck, which had hitherto
been entirely movable, so as to allow the large tanks to be easily
filled, was firmly fixed in its position. The masts were changed and
the vessel was transformed from a barque to a barquentine. This
change was advisable on account of the diminished number of the
crew, which having, moreover, only a small proportion of sailors,
would hardly have been able to manage two masts carrying square
sails. The ten boats of the Jason, which were 19 ft. 8 in. and
20 ft. 1 1 in. long, were kept. Although they were not large
enough for a long journey, they were well adapted by their light-
ness for dragging over the ice, as they weighed only 1,542 Ib.
without their rigging. The forecastle was cleared out, and accom-
modation for all the crew provided on the lower deck near the
engines. The places which had to be kept warm were thus brought
close together, with the advantageous result of a smaller consump-
tion of fuel and the utilisation of the heat of the boiler. The
Preparation and Departure of the Expedition 23
deck-house at the stern was taken away, and replaced by a
shelter extending from the main-mast to the wheel, built expressly
for the Polar regions and covering the officers' cabins, the dining-
room, the laboratory, the kitchen, the cabinet for the instruments,
and the pumps. The doors opening on it were double, with
high leaves. The cabins had no windows, light being only admitted
by the doors and by three skylights. To keep the ship free
from water, we had, besides the pumps just mentioned, those which
LEAVING EUROPE
were worked by a windmill fitted up on deck, and by the donkey-
engine, and, when the engines were working, the pipe from the
condenser to the bilge.
The straight sides of the ship did not present the shape most
adapted for resisting pressure ; but as we were to sail in a sea
frequented by whalers, and seek an anchorage for winter, a special
build was not as necessary as in the case of the Fram, which was
intended to be imprisoned in the ice. Our old ship, which had
already sailed in the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans, and had acquired
24 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
celebrity by taking over Nansen to make the crossing of Greenland,
had its name changed. As the object of the expedition was to
reach that spot on the surface of the earth near the zenith of which
shines a star known to all from the man of learning to the peasant,
what name could be more suited to the ship than that of Stella
Polare — the Polar Star?
Commander Schley (now Admiral), who had been sent by the
American Government to search for Greely's ill-fated expedition, a
part of which he succeeded in rescuing, and who went farther than
all the whalers dispatched on the same undertaking, says in his
account of his journey1 that if a naval officer who is put in com-
mand of a ship intended to navigate the Polar regions does not fall
a victim to his inexperience at the beginning, he soon acquires the
knowledge which whaling captains gain by long practice. From
the very first I suspected, and later on I verified, that during the
short space of time requisite for the acquisition of this knowledge
events may occur which, in the case of one who for the first time
attempts that sort of navigation, are enough to ruin the expedition,
or, at least, to cause the loss of favourable opportunities. An
officer who only knew the ice of the Polar Sea by having read
about it in books, and who would have wished to man his ship
with a crew composed entirely of sailors with little experience of
the region of ice, would have endangered the expedition from its
very beginning through his false pride. I, therefore, gave up the
idea of having a crew composed entirely of Italians. I preferred
to choose a safe and capable Norwegian commander, to whom I
might trust the guidance of the ship through the ice, and a crew
of the same nationality, associating with them some Italian sailors and
guides who were specially intended to take part in the expedition
1 W. S. Schley and Soley, The Rescue of Greefy, p. 181. (London, 1885.)
Preparation and Departure of the Expedition 25
with sledges. By fitting out the vessel in Norway, it would
be more easy to provide it with all that was requisite for an
expedition in the midst of ice, whilst if any mishap occurred to our
THE POLAR STAR AT LAKVIK.
undertaking the captain and crew would find it more easy to
return to Europe. Although the assemblage of a crew of two
different nationalities on a ship intended to make an expedition to
the Arctic regions did not seem to me to be without its drawbacks,
26 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
I was firmly convinced from the outset that, if the men were all
equally well treated by their chief, the good understanding between
them would not be disturbed.
The number of persons composing the expedition was strictly
limited to what was necessary to navigate the ship from Norway
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE POLAR STAR
1. Storeroom next the Wheel.
2. After-Hold.
3. Officers' Quarters.
4. Engines and Boilers.
5. Water-Tanks.
6. Hatches.
7. Powder Magazine.
8. Lower Deck.
9. Main Hold.
10. Stairs.
11. Sails and Cables.
12. Fore-Hold.
13. Mizzen-mast.
14. Main-mast.
15. Fore-mast.
16. Sleeping Quarters of the
Crew.
1. Stores.
2. Mizzen-mast.
3. Workroom.
4. Officers' Saloon.
5. Crew's Room.
6. Skylights.
7. Galley.
PLAN OF THE DECK
8. Storeroom.
9. Infirmary.
10. Storeroom for Drugs.
11. Passages.
12. W.C.
13. Storeroom for Instruments.
14. Skylight over the Engine
Room.
15. Chimney.
16. The Pumps.
a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, Officers*
Cabins.
» Cook's Cabin.
to Emperor Franz Josef Archipelago, and for the further advance
with the sledges. The object of the expedition was to cross over
the ice of the Arctic Ocean, so the choice of the persons destined
to take part in it required to be carefully considered. It was
essential to have men among them well acquainted with nautical
Preparation and Departure of the Expedition 27
astronomy, who could use instruments and make calculations so as
to find their way back to land. It was, moreover, necessary that
if we found ourselves in difficult circumstances, these persons should
have the knowledge possessed by those accustomed to command.
The officers of the Italian Royal Navy were those who were most
certain to possess this double capacity, and to them I applied, with
the kind consent of the Government. Captain Umberto Cagni had
TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE OFFICERS' QUARTERS
a. Space filled with Cork. — b. Felt. — c. Inner Timbers. — d. Outer Timbers. — c. Empty Space.
since the summer of 1898 been already chosen to be second in
command of the expedition. He undertook to take charge of the
scientific observations. I selected Lieutenant Francesco Querini to
assist him in making these observations, and as well to command one
of the parties in the sledging expedition towards the Pole, and for
medical officer of the expedition, Dr. Achille Cavalli Molinelli, doctor
of the highest grade. Although I had not at first intended that this
officer should form part of the sledge expedition, he showed later on
28 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
so much experience and daring that he was naturally selected as the
leader of one of our detachments in the attempt to reach the Pole.
Not only the officers, but also all the men intended to take
part in the expedition required to be endowed with more than
ordinary endurance, both moral and physical. During my journey
to Alaska I became convinced that it would be more easy to find
such men among our Alpine guides, and among the inhabitants of
i our coasts, than elsewhere. I therefore took with me four guides and
two sailors of the Italian Navy, who were specially intended to serve
in the boats which were to be carried on sledges ; and at Archangel
. I fortunately replaced, by an Italian, the cook whom I had engaged
in Norway.
The Norwegian^ crew was recruited by M. Torres Bonnevie.
Evensen was at once selected as captain, for, being disengaged on
account of the sale of the Jason^ he showed a great desire to take
part in this expedition. We required also a mate, two engineers,
a boatswain, a carpenter, and three stokers.
They all came willingly, well aware of the dangers they were
going to face, and eager to penetrate by courage and fatigue into
the mystery which still surrounds the North Pole, and to enrich
science by new discoveries.
When definitely organised, the expedition consisted of : —
H.R.H. Louis of Savoy, Lieutenant of the Italian Navy, aged 26, born in Turin,
Commander of the Expedition.
Umberto Cagni, Captain of the Italian Navy, aged 36, born in Asti, Second
in Command of the Expedition, and in charge of the Scientific observations.
Francesco Querini, Lieutenant of the Italian Navy, aged 31, born at Venice, who
took charge of the Mineralogical collections, and was also appointed to assist
Commander Cagni in his Scientific observations.
Achille Cavalli Molinelli, doctor of the highest grade, Italian Navy, aged 33, born
at Sale (Province of Alessandria), Medical Officer of the Expedition, in charge
of the Zoological and Botanical collections.
Preparation and Departure of the Expedition 29
C. Julius Evensen, aged 47, of Sande- Fiord, Captain of the Polar Star.
Andreas Andresen, aged 28, of Sande-Fiord, Second Officer of the Polar
Star.
Henrik Alfred Stokken, aged 24, of Sande-Fiord, First Engineer.
Anton Torgrinsen, aged 30, of Larvik, Second Engineer.
1. Dittnan Olausen.
2. Johan Johansen.
3. Felice Oilier.
4. Cipriano Savoie.
45678 9 i
THE CKKW OF THE rOI.AR STAR
5. Carl Christian Hansen.
6. Alessio Fenoillet.
7. Giuseppe Petiga*.
8. Simone Canepa.
9. Hans Magnus Dahl.
10. Gino Gini.
11. Giacomo Cardenti.
12. Ole Johansen.
Guides /"Giuseppe Petigax, aged 38, of Courmayeur, Val d'Aosta.
intended to form Alessio Fenoillet, aged 37, of Courmayeur, Val d'Aosta.
part of the 1
Expedition with Cipriano Savoie, aged 30, of Pre Saint Didier, Val d'Aosta.
Sledges. ^ Felice Oilier, aged 30, of Courmayeur, Val d'Aosta.
Giacomo Cardenti, aged 32, of Porto Ferraio, Boatswain, Royal Navy.
Simone Canepa, aged 21, of Varazze (Province of Genoa), Sailor of the second
class.
30 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
Gino Gini, aged 35, of Acquapendente (Province of Rome), Cook.
Carl Christian Hansen, aged 37, of Larvik, Boatswain's Mate.
Ditman Olausen, aged 28, of Tonsberg, Carpenter.
Hans Magnus Dahl, aged 21, of Christiania, Fireman.
Johan Johansen, aged 42, of Sande-Fiord, Fireman.
Ole Johansen, aged 25, of Larvik, Fireman.
The expedition took with it supplies for four years. Commander
Cagni and Michaelangiolo Chiotti, First-class Commissary (in Italy),
and Mr. Heim (in Norway) were entrusted with the care of this most
important department. A preference was given to those kinds of food
which had been chosen by Nansen for the first expedition of the Fram,
and Sverdrup had chosen for the second, selecting those which had
been proved to have been kept well preserved rather than others
more tasty, perhaps, but not as yet tried. Most of the biscuits
and butter, all the macaroni and rice, came from Italy. In
countries where farinaceous food-stuffs are indispensable, macaroni is
a very good substitute for bread, which it is very difficult to have
fresh every day on board ship, and cannot be conveniently
baked in camp. The provisions were all supplied in hermetically
sealed tins, an essential condition for their preservation, which also
contributes to ward off the danger of scurvy. As much variety
as possible was aimed at in the choice of these supplies, so as
to avoid tiring the palate. Only a small quantity of wine and
spirits was taken, for if it is harmful to drink too much alcohol in
the Arctic regions, a moderate amount is not only wholesome, but has
also a decidedly moral effect by making the crew more cheerful. The
system adopted with the provisions brought from Italy — that is to say,
of dividing them into cases of fifty-five pounds each containing the
same sort of food — ought to have been followed with regard to all
the stores. The cases would thus have been more convenient to
handle, and as their contents would be accurately known, it would
Preparation and Departure of the Expedition 31
have been easy to verify at any moment how much remained of any
given article of food.
Plenty of fur coats and woollen garments were taken, in order
that when we arrived at our destination we might adopt whatever
it would be found best to wear. Caps, gloves, and gauntlets of wool
and of fur were selected, so as to meet every possible degree of cold.
For summer wear the expedition was provided with the boots and
IN THE PORT OF CHKISTIAMA
shoes usually worn by sailors, which keep the feet and legs dry, and
are easy to put on. Lapp shoes of sealskin called komager were
taken for winter wear (they come as high as ordinary shoes, but are
not open on the instep, and are tied round the ankle by two thongs), as
well as Finn shoes called fmsko, of reindeer skin, with the hair outside,
and of the same shape as the komager. Besides stockings of every
degree of thickness, a quantity of sedges were taken as padding for
32 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
\ the komagers andfaskos. There were also plenty of woollen blankets,
sleeping-bags lined with down, beds, and two field-tents, in case the
expedition should be obliged to abandon the ship.
The suggestions of Professor Nansen were followed with regard
to the equipment to be carried by the expedition designed to cross
the ice. The same sorts of lamps and stoves were selected which had
rendered him such good service, and had been also employed in
the Alaska expedition. The tents were made on the model of that
adopted by Mummery for mountaineering, but a little larger, and
special attention was paid to the dogs' harness. Everything was got
ready while we were in Europe, so as to leave as little as possible to
be done on board during the winter, and to avoid the risk of having
it badly made.
To the arms already on the Jason, which were those carried by
all whaling crews, were added eight double-barrelled guns, having one
shot barrel of 2O-bore, and the other for ball of -303 calibre for
the sledge expedition, a Paradox rifle of i6-bore, a double-
barrelled gun of -303 calibre, and two Euoplia rifles for ordinary
use. Over 440 Ib. of guncotton to be used for blasting the ice,
were also taken.
Besides the usual meteorological observations which were to
o
be made at the spot where we should pass the winter, the most
important were those for astronomy, gravitation, and terrestrial
magnetism. For the purpose of observing the temperature and
the hygrometrical state of the atmosphere, the direction and the
velocity of the wind, and the solar heat, registering instruments
were carried which were to be compared with standard barometers,
thermometers, and hygrometers. A Sternek pendulum was purchased
for the study of gravitation, and a Schneider magnetometer for
magnetic observations. There were also sounding lines, current
Preparation and Departure of the Expedition 33
gauges, and thermometers to observe the temperature and the
density of water at different depths as well as the temperature of
the ground, a theodolite, and four sea chronometers. The collection
of instruments was completed by six Longines pocket chronometers,
sextants of aluminium, and artificial glass horizons for the sledge
expedition. Most of these were furnished by the Italian Naval
AT TUOMSO
Hydrographic Office, and I thank the Government, in the person
of Admiral Palumbo, who was then Minister of Marine, for having
allowed them to be lent to me for the expedition. The others were
purchased. I also here express my gratitude to Captain Ernesto
Filippone and to Professors Cesare Aimonetti, Nicodemo Jadanza,
Giuseppe Lombard, Andrea Naccari, Luigi Palazzo, Francesco Porro,
and Giovanni Battista Rizzo for the help they gave me in getting
ready the scientific equipment of the expedition. Besides the instru-
VOL i. 3
34 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
ments, we also had a collection of books on the Arctic regions, and
other scientific works.
I had thought to make use of captive balloons to assist the
expedition on its way towards the Pole. The weight of a sledge
WE OVERTAKE A STEAMER IN THE WHITE SEA
being fixed at 280 kilos (617 lb.), and a cubic metre of gas (36 cubic
feet) being able to raise about a kilo (2 lb. 3 oz.), a small balloon
of 440 cubic metres1 (15,954 cubic feet) attached to a sledge
• could raise it ; thus sixteen dogs harnessed to two sledges, placed
one above the other, would drag a weight equivalent only to that of
a single sledge. If the balloons were destroyed by a storm or any
other accident, their loss would not have any bad results, as the
advance could be continued all the same ; moreover, if they could have
been employed, for at least a few days, the more serious obstacles, which
are those next the shore, would by that time have been surmounted.
Orders were given to prepare four of these balloons and the
necessary apparatus to make hydrogen gas. Experiments were made
in Paris to ascertain what might be the most suitable form to give
them, whether spherical or cigar-shaped, and in Turin the tissues were
1 The weight of a balloon is about 160 kilos (348 lb.).
Preparation and Departure of the Expedition 35
tested to ascertain if it were possible to inflate these balloons when the
temperature was from thirty to forty degrees below zero. Commander
Cagni's experiments in Paris proved that the cigar-shaped balloon
was absolutely useless, but that the spherical might be of service.
AT SOLOMBOL
The experiments made in the Royal Industrial Museum at Turin,
under the direction of Professor Lombard, showed that tissues which
had long been exposed to very low temperatures were no longer
sufficiently elastic to allow the balloons to be inflated in the Arctic
regions. Both Professor Lombard and the firm of Godard & Surcouf,
36 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
which furnished the balloons, pointed out how necessary it would be to
have at our service a room where the temperature could be artificially-
maintained not far from the freezing point, whilst the balloon was
being inflated. The difficulty of procuring such a locality, and the
great weight of sulphuric acid which it would be necessary to carry
to inflate the four balloons, as well as the uncertainty of being able
to make use of them, rendered it, therefore, advisable to reduce our
aeronautic equipment to two balloons which might serve as an
experiment.
The photographic equipment consisted of a Dallmeyer camera and
of several Kodaks (bull's-eye, cartridge, and No. 5 folding Kodak),
with the requisite materials for the development of the negatives.
The total expense of the expedition was as follows:—
Lire. £
(a) The Jason, purchase and overhauling . 300,000 12,500
(£) StafF and Crew ..... 160,000
(V) Dogs 17,000
(*/) Provisions ...... 172,000
(e) Clothing ...... 72,000 3,000
(/) Outfit of the Sledge Expedition . 20,000 833
(g) Scientific Instruments, Books, and Arms 79,000 3,291
(/z) Aeronautic Outfit .... 52,000 2,166
(/') Medical and Photographic Outfit . 14,000 583
(y) Sundries, Transport, Coal . . . 36,000 1,500
Lire 922,000 £38,413
_ _
All these preparations kept us fully occupied from the
The Departure en<^ °^ January until the beginning of May. On
May 7th the members of the expedition took their
departure for Norway from Rome, where H.M. King Humbert I.
•
Preparation and Departure of the Expedition 37
and the officers of the Royal Navy took leave of them at the station.
Whilst Cagni, Querini, and Cavalli were putting the stores in order
at Christiania as they arrived, I was at Larvik hastening as much
as possible the departure of the ship ; by May 28th, when the Polar
Star left Mr. Archer's dockyard for the capital of Norway, the
most essential part of the work was completed.
It is not easy to stow away the cargo of a vessel which is about
THE KKXXKLS AT ARCHANGEL
to undertake a Polar expedition. The ships intended for these
journeys are not very large; the number of articles to be taken
on board is very great, and must be so packed that those, at least,
required for daily use can be easily got at.
The Polar Star had four places for stowage : an under-hold,
a hold on the lower deck, a hold aft of the engines beneath the
officers' saloon, and another on the deck beneath the steering-wheel.
The under-hold was filled with coal only, which, together with that
in the bunkers, amounted, when we left Archangel, to about 350 tons.
The forward part of this hold was reserved for the dogs' food, in
38 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
order not to sink the bow of the vessel too much, for as these
provisions mostly consisted of dried fish and biscuit they took up much
room but weighed very little. On the lower deck all the provisions
for the crew were stowed away, except towards the stern, where
ten tons of petroleum in four large tanks were placed. Next the main
hatch of the lower deck, on one side, the provisions which were to be
loaded on the sledges were stored, and the clothing in a press on the
other side, so that both could easily be removed in case the vessel had
to be suddenly abandoned. In the hold next the stern, which opened
into our saloon, and since it was near the engines was also the
warmest, was placed the wine, which would thus keep better. What-
ever might be required to be always within reach was put below
the wheel at the stern, and the ammunition, separated from the
rest of the cargo, was in the centre of the lower deck in a small
magazine. The balloons, which were packed in crates to allow the
air to circulate, were placed on deck, along with the apparatus for
producing hydrogen gas, and a small boiler. Thirty-six iron tanks,
containing about twelve tons of sulphuric acid, were placed in the
centre of the deck in an enclosure lined with lead, and provided with
a gutter, so as to prevent the acid from burning the boards of the
deck in case of leakage. Six tons of iron filings completed our
aeronautic outfit. Although we had ascertained the cubic capacity
of the holds and knew the volume of the cargo which was
forwarded to us, we mistrusted the exactitude of our calculations
when we saw the enormous quantity of cases which had to be stowed
away within the sides of the Polar Star. Thanks, however, to our
scrupulous care, we succeeded in getting everything on board.
The morning of June I2th had been fixed for our departure.
Visits from august personages, hospitable invitations, and some un-
pleasant incidents had filled up our time during the last days of our
Preparation and Departure of the Expedition 39
stay. On June 8th we went to Lijsaker to pass the evening with
Professor and Madame Nansen. It was late at night, but the sky
was bright when we took leave of our kindlv hosts Ourstayat
' Christiania and
after passing a pleasant evening, enlivened by dancing, ?£nceParture
and we could not help thinking with sadness of the unknown regions
whither we were tending, where dancing would have to be forgotten.
ALEXANDER IVANOV TKONTIIKIM
T.R.H. the Prince and Princess of Naples arrived on June 9th,
and we were much pleased by their visit, and kindly wishes
for our success. On account of a dispute which occurred with
regard to the life assurance of a part of the crew, I took upon
myself to assure the Norwegians, as had already been done for
the Italians. The officers had been assured by an Italian company,
4-O On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
and, at their formal request, only in case of some accident which
might oblige them to leave the service.
On the evening of June I ith we had taken leave of those persons
who had most specially helped us. First of all was Professor Nansen,
who, since the winter, had placed himself entirely at my disposal for
all the information I might require, helping me with his advice, and
busying himself about many matters, which thus allowed me to com-
plete in a short time the organisation of the expedition ; and I shall
never forget the hours I passed at Lijsaker seeking instruction, during
which he not only answered my questions, but anticipated them,
taking the same cordial interest in the expedition as if he himself were
to lead it. I shall always preserve a grateful remembrance, not only
of his advice with regard to the Arctic regions, but also of his great
courtesy. I also heartily thank Professors Mohn, Collett, Brogger, and
Geelmyden, and Consul Hallager for the help they gave me. I also
express my gratitude to all Norway — to its Government, to its learned
societies, and to its people, for the assistance they gave to my ex-
pedition, for the courtesy I received from them, and for the kindly
wishes which they offered on my departure.
We were ready to weigh anchor on the morning of June I2th.
H.M. the King of Sweden and Norway had telegraphed to us his good
wishes for the success of the expedition. The ships were decked
with flags, and many friends came on board. The ladies brought
bouquets of flowers — a pleasant remembrance for us, who were going
to a flowerless land. Professor Nansen had kindly given me two
of his dogs which were born on the Fram. We left Christiania at
eleven o'clock, whilst the crews of the men-of-war cheered us,
and the fort saluted us with its guns.
We arrived at Larvik that night. The captain and the Nor-
wegian sailors went on shore to visit their families ; we stayed on
v
Preparation and Departure of the Expedition 41
board with the guides and sailors to superintend the embarkation
of the remaining supplies. I breathed freely at the thought that
until Archangel was reached there would be nothing On the w
more to take on board, but that we would merely have
to put in order what we had. The following day we resumed
our course towards the White Sea. On the morning of June 2 8th
Cape Sviatossnoss was seen in the distance, and at the same time
the first signs of ice appeared, indicated by the whitish colour
of the sky. Strange forms appeared on the horizon, caused by
SIBKKIAN 1>O<;S
refraction, which, as we advanced, changed into small blocks of
ice. It was the ice of the White Sea, only then beginning to
leave the vast inner basin, having been previously held back by the
north-east wind. It was thin, weak ice, broken up into small floes.
A steamer which had overtaken and had passed us had been forced
to draw nearer to the land in order to be able to continue its
course. We followed the same route, but the 'Polar Star^ which
easily broke up the small floes with its stem, advanced without
stopping, and overtook the steamer in its turn. Our propeller was
placed very low, and the planks of the bow were strong, so that we
ran no danger from the shock or from the sharp points of the ice ; we
42 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
were thus able to advance at our usual speed, whilst the steamer
had been obliged to slow down. In the previous year, at the same
season, I had found the White Sea entirely free from ice ; these
masses of ice confirmed the report that the spring had been rather
cold, and that the summer was late, and therefore unfavourable to
the continuation of our journey. We passed through that tract
of drifting ice, and entered the Dvina during the night ; on the
morning of June 3<Dth we arrived at Archangel, and cast anchor
at Solombol.
Having paid the usual formal visits to the Governor, His
Excellency General Engelhardt, and to the Vice-Governor, Prince
The siedge GortschakofF, who, on the arrival of the Polar Star,
had kindly come on board, I went with the courteous
English Vice-Consul, Mr. Cooke, to see the dogs. On entering
into the enclosure where they were chained, they jumped up and
turned towards us, barking furiously. Their aspect was not very
reassuring ; but as soon as I had fondled one or two of them,
I perceived that they were not so ferocious as they had seemed at
first. They feared man, probably remembering the many blows they
had received since their puppyhood, and if they were kept tied
up, it was simply in order that they should not tear each other to
pieces. When a few blows had been given to the most turbulent,
the uproar soon came to an end ; they lay down, and I was enabled
to examine them more attentively. There were 121 — one more than
the number at first agreed upon ; some of them were white, others
black and white, black, brown, and iron-grey ; some were lithe, others
thick and heavy ; their hair was thick and short, or long and curly ;
their noses were pointed or blunt. They all had deep chests, strong
legs, straight and pointed ears ; their tails were long and bushy or
fringed, like their hair, and were carried more or less curled up.
Preparation and Departure of the Expedition 43
Some resembled large foxes, others were like wolves ; the former
barked, the latter howled. The tallest were twenty-three inches
in height. They were then nearly all losing their hair from the
heat, and either from want of sufficient food or on account of
the gnats, or because they were tired after their journey, seemed
thin and weakly.
On seeing the condition of these animals, on which I had reckoned
so much, I felt very uneasy lest they might not be fit to cover the
distance over which we intended to travel. It was useless for Tront-
KENNELS ON BOARD
heim to assure me that the dogs should not be judged according to
their appearance just then. He did not succeed in convincing me,
and the long marches made by Peary and Wrangell seemed a dream
which might have been realised by means of other dogs, but never
with the help of those we had.
This pack had been brought there by Alexander Ivanov Tront-
heim, a Russian by birth, but of Norwegian origin. With two other
men he had started from Tobolsk, in Eastern Siberia, towards the
end of May, and had reached Tumen by means of the Rivers Tobol
44 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
and Toura ; he had then made the journey from Tumen to Koltass
by rail, and come down the Dvina to Archangel ; in all, a journey
of 1,100 miles. He had arrived at Archangel in the early part of
June,
The Siberian tribes dwelling along the shores of the Arctic
Ocean — the Ostiaks, the Yakuts, and the Tchuktches — make great
use of dogs as well as reindeer for drawing their sledges. Baron
Wrangell, who passed three years in Eastern Siberia, and employed the
dogs of that country in his expeditions, writes concerning them thus : —
" Of all the animals living in the northern regions, none is so
worthy of bt-ing noticed as the dog. It is the companion of man in all
climes, from the South Sea Islands, where he feeds on bananas, to the
Polar Ocean, where he eats fish ; and here he toils in a way to which
he is unaccustomed in more favoured regions. Necessity has taught
the inhabitants of the north to employ for draught these animals,
which are comparatively weak. On all the coasts of the Polar Sea —
from the River Obi to Behring Straits, in Greenland, Kamtschatka)
and the Kurile Islands — dogs are employed to drag sledges laden with
goods and persons for great distances.
" These dogs have much resemblance to the wolf. They have
long, sharp, and projecting noses, sharp and upright ears, and a
long bushy tail ; some have smooth and some have curly hair.
They are of various colours — black, brown, reddish brown, white,
and spotted. Their height varies. A good sledge-dog should not
be less than 2 ft. 7 in. high, and 3 ft. 8J^ in. in length.
" Their bark resembles the howl of a wolf. They pass their life
in the open air. In summer they burrow in the earth to keep
themselves cool, or lie in the water to avoid the gnats ; in winter
they bury themselves in the snow, and lie rolled up with their nose
Preparation and Departure of the Expedition 45
covered with their bushy tail. The females are killed as soon as born,
except enough to preserve the race, and the males alone are employed
for sledging. Those born in winter begin to draw in the following
autumn, but they are not used in long journeys until their third year.
Their feeding and training is a special art, and much skill is required
to harness and drive them. The best-trained dog is made leader, and
as the speed and the safety with which a sledge travels with its usual
EMBARKATION OK
THE DOGS ON
THE POLAR
team of twelve dogs depend on the sagacity and docility of the leading
dog, no pains are spared in so training it that it shall always obey its
master's voice, and not turn aside from its path when it comes on the
scent of game. This last quality is the most difficult to obtain. It
sometimes happens that the entire team on meeting with a trail follows
it, and no efforts on the part of the driver can check it. In these
cases we have often had to admire the skill with which the leading
dog has been trained to prevent the others from following the scent.
46 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
If other methods fail, it would suddenly turn round and try to induce
its comrades to follow it by barking as if it scented a fresh trail. In
crossing the lonely tundra in the darkness of night, when the vast
plain is veiled by an impenetrable fog, or snowstorms are raging,
and the traveller is in danger of not finding a shelter and of
perishing in the snow, he often owes his safety to a good leading
dog. If the animal has ever been once in that plain, and has
stopped there at a cabin with his master, he will safely guide the
sledge to the spot where it lies deeply buried in the snow, and when
arrived at it, will stop to point out the place where his master must
dig to find it.
" These dogs are not employed merely in winter, for in summer
they tow the boats up the rivers, and it is curious to witness how
they obey their master's voice, and cross from one bank to another.
At his call they plunge into the water with the tow-line, swim to
the opposite shore, and on reaching it they re-form in good order
and wait for the command to go on. Sometimes even those who
have no horses employ the dogs on their hunting expeditions to
drag their light boats from one lake or river to another. In a
word, for the inhabitants of this country, the dog is as useful
and indispensable a domestic animal as the reindeer to the wander-
ing tribes." *
A small number of our dogs resembled those of Eastern Siberia
as described by Wrangell. They were, however, smaller in height ;
the others were Samoyed dogs or crossings of different breeds. In the
district of the Lower Obi, whence Trontheim had brought them,
which is situated between Eastern Siberia and the country of the
1 Wrangell's Siberia and the Polar Sea, edited by Major Edward Sabine,
pp. 72-74. (London, 1840.)
Preparation and Departure of the Expedition 47
Samoyeds, dogs are to be found from both parts of Siberia, as well as
those bred from crossings of eastern and western races. Although all
the dogs brought by Trontheim had been trained to draw the sledge,
the great superiority in endurance and strength of those which most
resembled the type described by Wrangell was shown later on.
The deck was so encumbered that it was not very easy to
. . •
THE LAST FAREWELL
accommodate so many animals. Two rows of cages, one above
the other, were built against the bulwarks of the ship, on both
sides. The first row rested on the deck, the other, was one yard
above it, and these cages were separated by wooden partitions.
Four dogs were placed in each, arid chained to the corners, so that
though they could stand up to eat and drink, they could not bite
48 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
each other. As the cages and their floors were covered with gratings
and tarpaulin, they could be frequently washed while the dogs
were kept dry. This was an excellent arrangement, and thanks
to it these animals lived for a month on board without suffering
much discomfort, while, as they were left undisturbed and always
kept clean, they gave very little trouble, to our great satisfaction.
We were awakened on the morning of July 3rd by a pleasing
announcement. Count Oldofredi, Count Rignon, Cavaliere Silvestri,
The Polar star and Colonel Nasalli had just arrived from Moscow,
leaves Europe. XTT. , , . c , . , , . ^ „ , ,
With the greetings or their Majesties, Count Oldo-
fredi also brought many presents from the Queen and from
the Duchesses Letitia and Helena of Aosta, who, following the
practice observed in other expeditions, had thought before our de-
parture of packing up in boxes various objects to be distributed
on certain anniversaries among the officers and crew. This pleasant
visit was followed the next day by that of the Ambassador, His
Excellency Count Morra di Lavriano, who also brought me the kindly
wishes of the staff of the Embassy at St. Petersburg imprinted on
the cylinder of a graphophone. General Morra went away the
same evening, leaving with all of us, but especially with me, a grateful
recollection of his visit.
On July 9th the ship was decked with flags to salute the Grand
Duke Vladimir, who was passing by on his return from Katharinen-
hafen. He came on board to visit the ship and to wish the expedition
good luck, but though the Polar Star was ready to go to the
Arctic regions, it was not as yet in a fitting state to receive a visit
from a Prince. The deck and the inner rooms were encumbered
with cargo, and we had only ceased coaling on the previous evening,
on account of the draught of the vessel, which had already attained
the maximum depth the navigation of the Dvina allowed of.
Preparation and Departure of the Expedition 49
Our departure had been fixed for July i2th. On the eve of
that day those among us who were Catholics had assisted at mass in a
chapel, which had been courteously opened at our request, when more
than one of us turned his thoughts towards Heaven to implore it to
give success to our enterprise, and to watch over those who were
dear to us. In the afternoon the dogs were brought alongside on a
pontoon, and put into their kennels one after the other. Towards
the evening the Polar Star, with the Italian and Norwegian flags
at its mast-head, left her moorings, and descended the Dvina, towed
by two tugs. Dr. Cavalli and I remained on shore to pass a last
evening with our friends from Italy.
On the following morning we left Archangel. The timber
rafts between which we passed, lowered their flags to greet us as
we went rapidly on our way towards the bar of Berezof. We then
finished coaling, and our visitors took their leave at five o'clock.
What a friendly inspiration had been theirs, to come to greet us in
that remote country, and to bring us at the last port of civilisation
the farewell of our distant home ! Their society had enabled us to
pass those days more quickly, and the thought of the long months
which must elapse before we could again communicate with the rest
of the world rendered us all sad at that moment. They went down
into the tug, and we gave them a last cheer from the deck. The
Polar Star, driven by her propeller, then began to glide over
the tranquil waters of the estuary, and whilst standing out to sea
we were saluted by a Russian cruiser which signalled to us : " We
wish you a happy voyage."
VOL. i.
-CHAPTER III
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea
IN BARENTZ SEA AND QUEEN VICTORIA SEA
r I ^HE Emperor Franz Josef Archipelago was accidentally discovered
-•- in 1873, by the Austrian expedition under the command
of Weyprecht and Payer. The newly found land which had
been sighted that autumn by the explorers was visited A sketch of the
History of the
in the following spring by Payer, who went as far as
Cape Fligely with sledges. He believed that the group Archipelago.
consisted of lands of considerable extent, some ot which, such as
King Oscar Land and Petermann Land, he discerned to the north
and to the west of Prince Rudolph Land. As it was impossible
to extricate the Tegethoff from the ice, it was abandoned towards
the end of the second year, and the explorers reached Novaya
Zemlya in their boats.
In 1880 and 1881 Mr. Leigh Smith, in his yacht Eira, reached
the southern coast of Emperor Franz Josef Archipelago without
much difficulty, and as he found a certain extent of free water
to the south, he surveyed the coast up to Cape Lofley. He
thus increased our knowledge of that group of islands, and proved
that they could be reached by ships, but whilst the Eira was
on the point of leaving that land for the second time, it was
crushed by the ice near Cape Flora, and rapidly sank. The ship-
wrecked sailors passed that winter, with only a small quantity of
provisions, in a wretched hovel built of stone and with the wreckage
54
the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
which they had been able to save from the ship, and in the
following summer sailed in their boats to Novaya Zemlya, where
they were taken on board a ship which had been sent to their
assistance.
The discoveries of Leigh Smith had thrown no light on the
northern and western part of the group of islands forming Emperor
Franz Josef Archipelago, and, in consequence, it was still believed
PUZZLED !
that vast tracts of land extended to the north of the Arctic Sea.
The English explorer, Jackson, thought, therefore, to take advantage
of these lands by establishing depots of provisions there, and thus
facilitate an advance in sledges towards the Pole. Having arrived
with his ship, the Windward, into an open sea near Cape Grant,
towards the middle of September, 1894 — which was rather late in the
season — he was forced to build a station at Cape Flora, on Northbrook
Island, and winter there. The Windward returned to Europe in
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea 55
the following summer ; two years later it again touched at Cape
Flora, in order to communicate with the explorers, and again in
1897, to bring them back to Europe. Jackson and his companions
made three expeditions with sledges. In the first two he travelled
towards the north, and, passing through the British Channel, reached
81° 20' N. lat. In the third he went towards the west, making
THE POLAR STAR MEETS THE FIRST ICE (LOOKING FORWARD)
the circuit of Alexandra Land, and ascertained the most westerly
point of that group, to which he gave the name of Cape Mary
Harmsworth. Jackson, in his first two journeys, was prevented
from advancing towards the north by stretches of open sea. He
succeeded, however, in making a hydrographical survey of the coasts
of the north-west portion of the group, and cast doubts on the
existence of any great continents whilst confirming, on the con-
56 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
trary, that of a great expanse of sea, called by him, in honour of
his Sovereign, Queen Victoria Sea.
When, finally, Nansen came to the south of White Land
(Hvidten Land), he added to our knowledge of the part already
explored by Jackson — that of the portion of the archipelago ex-
I tending up to the islands which he discovered. He corrected the
data of Payer, and also questioned the existence of Petermann Land
and King Oscar Land.
The voyages of the Eira and Windward, as well as those
of the whalers (Baleina and Diana, had proved that it was
always easy to cross Barentz Sea as far as Emperor Franz Josef
Archipelago, whether by advancing from Novaya Zemlya in an
expanse of sea comprised between the 45th and 55th degrees of east
longitude, or by following the south-east coast of Spitzbergen, and
sailing thence directly to Alexandra Land. No ship had ever sailed
in Queen Victoria Sea, nor was it known how to get there;
but since, in accordance with the observations of Payer, Jackson,
and Nansen made in different years during the spring, we supposed
that that sea was navigable as far as Cape Fligely, we might
hope to reach it either by advancing into the British Channel
or by coasting towards the west along Emperor Franz Josef
Archipelago.
It was a splendid evening when we lost sight of the Dvina, and
the ship, although heavily laden, steamed swiftly into the White
Sea, then free from ice. The next day at mid-day, Cape Kanin
was indistinctly seen through the mist ; and this was our last
sight of Europe.
In conformity with the practice of those who had preceded
me, I had resolved to advance as far as a point situated in
the yind degree of latitude and the 48th of east longitude,
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea 57
whence I intended to steer directly to Cape Flora. On leaving Cape
Kanin a light north-westerly wind had sprung up, which soon
freshened, and rendered the sea rather choppy. The
ship began to roll, and this our guides and dogs
found rather unpleasant. The former disappeared into their bunks,
whilst the latter by their howling showed their annoyance at the
The First Ice of
the Arctic Sea.
THE POLAR STAR MEKTS THE FIRST ICK (LOOKING AFT)
occasional splashings which they received. Luckily, the wind soon
dropped, and the sea became calm, thus allowing both men and
beasts to rest in peace.
During the afternoon of July iyth we met ice for the first
time, in the form of long strips, noteworthy merely as the fore-
runners of larger masses. Larger masses were encountered in
the night and towards eight o'clock on the following morning,
58 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
during a thick fog, we were stopped by the ice-pack : in about
75° 14' N. lat.
I began to walk impatiently up and down the deck, fixing my
eyes on the impenetrable curtain which hindered us from seeing
thirty yards before us. All around us reigned a profound
stillness the air being only disturbed by the flight of some stormy
petrels, or by the sound of pieces of ice falling into the
channels opening between one ice-field and another. I felt
uneasy at this loss of time, reflecting that it would be difficult for
us to reach Emperor Franz Josef Archipelago if we began to
meet with hindrances while still 300 miles away. It would be
an unfortunate beginning for the expedition if we were unable to
reach that archipelago, and obliged to winter in Barentz Sea.
A slight breath of wind arose towards three in the afternoon,
and all at once the fog disappeared. To the north-east and to the
north-west one vast ice-field was to be seen from the deck, whilst
to the south, from whence we came, the sea stretched away out of
sight. The sun was sparkling on the points of the hummocks,2 and
reflected by the pools of fresh water which the thaw was forming
on the ice-fields. When looking from the quarter-deck, it seemed as
if it would be impossible to go farther, but on going up the
rigging, or to the tops, or into the crow's-nest at the mast-head,3
1 The ice-pack is a mass of drifting ice, formed by separate ice-floes, of
which the limits cannot be seen. It is called " open " when the pieces of ice
do not touch; "closed" when they are pressed one against the other.
- Heaps of ice of various heights caused by the pressure of the ice-fields.
3 The whalers' look-out. It is an open barrel as high as a man. The
bottom is movable, to allow entrance ; it is usually placed at the top of the
main-mast or fore-mast, at a height of from fifteen to twenty yards above the
sea-level. It is indispensable for ships sailing through ice, as from thence can
be seen channels invisible from the deck.
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea 59
it could be seen, according as one went higher, that what appeared
to be a boundless field of unbroken ice was a number of small
floes, from 300 to 500 yards broad, separated by channels
through which the ship could proceed. The captain went up
into the crow's-nest, and with a powerful telescope tried to discover
the best route to follow. We made reckonings to ascertain our
position (on account of the fog, we had not been able to take
CAPE FLORA AND CAPE GERTRUDE, ON NOKTHBROOK. ISLAND: SEEN FROM THE SOUTH
observations for the last two or three days), and found that we
had deviated from our course by three degrees towards the east,
and were then in the 5ist meridian.
Masses of ice soon began to strike against the hull and scrape
along it. They were not, however, very thick or very solid, and the
bow easily cut its way through. From the look-out in the crow's-
nest the captain signalled to the engine-room to stop or go full speed
ahead, and to the steersman to shift the helm to one side or the other.
60 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
The ship passed on from one mirror-like expanse of water to another,
and advanced at a good speed towards the north, a region which
the very dark tint of the sky above it indicated was more free
from ice.1 Towards midnight, when the mate took the captain's
place, we were sailing among ice-floes, and at six o'clock next morning,
in 76° 20' N. lat., the open sea lay stretched before us. The strong
north-east winds which had prevailed during spring had probably
driven the ice away from Emperor Franz Josef Archipelago, and,
indeed, we saw no more of it, but continued our course in open water
f until, during the night of July 2Oth, we sighted the misty outline of
Northbrook Island.
Emperor Franz Josef Archipelago lay before us, and we had
reached it without much difficulty. As the vessel drew near, by a
our First Anchor- clear bright night, lit up by the sun low down on the
age in the Arctic
Regions. horizon, we saw Northbrook Island rise slowly out of the
sea — a mass of white with a few dark headlands projecting out of the
ice-cap which covered it. Then Cape Flora and Cape Gertrude, with
their great masses of rock, rose slowly on the horizon, whilst in
the west we began to make out Bell Island and Mabel Island, which
resembled Northbrook Island. Drawing still nearer, we could dis-
tinguish on a level tract of ground the huts left by Jackson's
expedition and hear the cries of the sea-birds flying above the
rocks. As we came up, some walruses which were lying on the ice
plunged into the water and followed our ship. When we were close
to the shore, the part of the island covered by ice was hidden from us
by a high, pointed mountain. The verdant plain on which stood
Jackson's huts, the open sea stretching away out of sight towards
1 Even when water cannot be seen, its presence in the midst of the pack can
be easily divined from the colour of the overhanging sky, which is dark at that
spot, whilst the rest is lit up by the reflection of the ice.
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea 61
the south, the thousands of birds hovering over the rocks, and the
brightness and warmth of the day, made the place seem less Arctic,,
and Cape Flora made a favourable impression upon us.
Our first thought was to go on shore, to visit the huts in which
those other explorers had passed nearly three years cut off from
civilisation, with no other object than to increase our geographical and
scientific knowledge. We had also to seek for news of Wellman's
THE HUTS LEFT BY JACKSON'S EXPEDITION
expedition, which had landed the year before at Cape Tegethoff, in
Emperor Franz Josef Archipelago, and was to be brought back to
Europe during the present summer by the whaler Capella, which was
to leave Norway shortly after the Polar Star. A stranded iceberg
projected to about a hundred yards from the beach,1 and we cast
anchor near it, with the ship's bow i 50 yards from the shore.
1 An iceberg is a mass of ice of considerable size, which becomes detached
from the glaciers covering the Arctic lands, and drifts according to the currents
and the winds. An iceberg, therefore, cannot be formed by the piling up of
ice-floes. These form what are called floebergs.
62 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
The bottom was of sand and rock. A narrow strip of ice fixed
to this, which the wind had not been able to detach, nor the
heat of the weather to melt, ran along the beach, which at a short
distance from the sea rose to the height of seven or eight yards, and
formed the edge of the level ground on which the huts of Jackson's
expedition had been built. These huts were five in number — three
were made of logs, as is the custom in the north of Norway and
in Siberia, whilst the other two were cottages of irregular shape, with
double walls built of thin boards. The house where the expedition
had lived was built against a great rock, which protected it from the
north-west wind, and seemed to have been only recently abandoned
by the explorers. The provisions remaining in the two circular huts,
which had served as store-houses, were for the most part unfit
for use.
Half a mile away, and near the sea, the remains of the dwelling
where the crew of the Eira had sought shelter were still to be seen.
A few men had passed the winter there, uncertain of the future, but
thanks to the energy and the capacity of their leaders, they maintained
their courage, and safely returned to their country. What lessons
might be gathered from these few remains of a dilapidated hut !
We thought that we were the first to arrive that year in that
locality and were, therefore, much surprised to find the captain
of the Capella had already been here, and left a note for us.
That vessel had arrived on July 1 5th, and perceiving no traces of
Wellman's expedition, had started again to look for them at Cape
TegethofF. The Capella had steered more to the east than we had,
and had always sailed in an open sea.
Our observations were facilitated by a calm and bright day.
Whilst we were taking them, the crew was busied in landing provisions
for eight months and five tons of coal ; in case any misfortune
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea 63
happened to the ship, which would oblige us to retreat, these stores
would enable us to subsist until the following summer. Owing to the
never-ending twilight, it was a pleasure to remain on deck and observe
the varied effects of light which followed each other swiftly across the
heavens and the ease with which we had made so speedy a voyage
augmented our hopes of being able to make the Polar Star pass the
winter in a high latitude.
On July 22nd, with Captain Evensen, I ascended to the top of
IN NIGHTINGALE SOUND— BELL, MABEL, AND BRUCK ISLANDS
the cape in the direction ot Miers Sound, to find out if from
that point it might be possible to perceive British Channel. We
were enveloped in fog while on the summit, but when it lifted,
Miers Sound was seen to be completely closed by ice, near
Windward Island. Bates Sound, on the contrary, was free, and
from the tint of the sky it might be conjectured that Nightingale
Sound was also free from ice almost as far as the northern end of
Bruce Island. The port where the Eira had been sunk, when seen
from on high, appeared to be a good anchorage, although open to the
64 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
ice descending from Nightingale Sound. The sea was open towards
the south. When Nansen had come to Cape Flora towards the end
of May, and when in the preceding year the whaler Fridtjof had
brought Wellman's expedition to Cape Tegethoff, British Channel
was found closed by the ice in the direction of De Bruyne Sound ;
when we arrived at Cape Flora much ice was seen in that
direction from the crow's-nest. I was, therefore, convinced that De
Bruyne Sound was probably closed, and as I had seen that Nightingale
Sound was open as far as the north of Bruce Island, decided on
advancing to the north of British Channel by that route. Later
on I bitterly regretted my decision ; in the Arctic regions, more
than elsewhere, one should never be tired of keeping a look-out, for
an expedition while advancing can be only guided by the eyes.
On returning to the ship we found Captain Cagni taking pendu-
lum observations. He had shut himself up in one of Jackson's huts,
and lay stretched on the earth watching the swing of the pendulum — a
position which was anything but pleasant, considering the temperature,
and the sheet of ice which covered the ground. During the night a
wind set in from the south. The ice began to drift against the coast,
and rendered our position so unsafe that in the morning we were
obliged to raise anchor and seek shelter in Miers Sound. An iceberg
of moderate size, but large enough to make our launches run some
danger, was for some time a very inconvenient neighbour. The
weather was bad on the 2jrd, and no work could be carried on. The
wind dropped during the night ; but on the following morning it
began to blow with still greater force, from the south-west and from
the north-west alternately in strong gusts, on account of which it was
thought prudent to keep the fires lighted and the engines ready.
Captain Cagni, who had gone on shore that morning to bring back
the instruments, had much difficulty in coming on board. In the
v
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea 65
afternoon the wind appeared to abate. Four launches were drawn up
on the shore, and we could have left Cape Flora had not a thick fog
hindered us from continuing our voyage.
On July 26th, though the fog still continued, I resolved,
nevertheless, to raise anchor, and to enter Nightingale Sound. We
A WALRUS HOISTED ON BOARD
went on, with our eyes fixed on the bow ot the vessel, whilst
soundings were taken every half-hour to ascertain the nature of
the bottom. We passed close to a few icebergs, which we try to pass
through British
were not very large, and were flat on the top. A light channel from
1 Nightingale
breeze cleared away the fog, and allowed the sun to 8ound-
light up Nightingale Sound, through which we were about to
proceed. Alexandra Land appeared to the west, entirely covered
VOL. i.
5
66 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
with ice, and ending in the sea by an ice-cliff, whilst to the east
the rocky coast to the south of Bell and Mabel Islands stood out
sharply against the sky in dark tints. Ahead of us the channel
appeared to be free from ice, and we continued to advance at full
speed, stopping only every half-hour to take soundings. On the low
headland of Bell Island could be seen the wooden hut left by
Leigh Smith ; and near Bruce Island strips of rotten ice made us
slow down. On the approach of the ship numerous seals dis-
appeared into their rocky retreats, while groups of walruses remained
motionless. We succeeded in bringing the vessel near to a group
of three, which were fast asleep. Several shots awoke them, when
they glided instantly into the sea, and the mass of ice on which
they had lain, freed from their weight, rocked up and down in every
direction. One had been mortally wounded, and our men jumped
on the ice with harpoons to prevent it from sinking. We skinned
the enormous animal when it was hoisted on deck with some diffi-
culty, and brought its skin back to Italy. It was the only walrus
that we killed.
We continued to advance through Nightingale Sound, gradually
slackening our speed through the ice-fields, which we found more
closely packed as we made our way towards the north. The Polar Star
was at last completely imprisoned, and unable to stir ; but it was only
for a few hours, as a little later, during the night, and near the
northern extremity of Bruce Island, we were once more in a large
expanse of smooth water. Although the fog had again become thick,
and it was not prudent to advance, I was still determined to go on,
and we proceeded thus for more than half an hour, having always open
water ahead. The unexpected opening out of the ice which had taken
place during the night led me to believe that I had passed British
Channel while in the fog, without even seeing its shores, when a
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea 67
violent shock caused all my illusions to vanish. The captain came
down on deck and said quietly, " We have got to the end of the
navigable region." "What a strange land," I exclaimed, "where we
ceaselessly pass from hopes to delusions, and from delusions to hopes ! "
It was only the beginning of my trials ; patience and perseverance
were the virtues most frequently required through this voyage.
The next day was calm and clear. To the west could be
made out the great glacier which covers Alexandra Land, and all
Clement Markham Bay ; to the south, Bruce Island ; in the distance,
BATES SOUND — CAPE FLORA IN THE DISTANCE
Northbrook Island, which, seen from the north, presented the Arctic
appearance of all the other islands in this locality, and Hooker
Island was seen indistinctly to the east. British Channel, in a westerly
direction, showed a level stretch of ice which, judging by the absence
of hummocks, did not seem to have been subjected to any pressure. It
was impossible to advance, and it therefore became necessary to attempt
to reach Queen Victoria Sea by doubling Cape Mary Harmsworth,
a route which ever since our departure I had always considered as
presenting the greatest likelihood of success.
As the state of Barentz Sea was so favourable, since the pack
68 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
had drifted 240 miles from Emperor Franz Josef Archipelago, it
we return to was probable that the navigation of that sea would
Nightingale r , ,. „. , . .
sound after not be round too difficult, and it was there that in
having failed to
advance towards ! 8 07 the Windward had made its way beyond Cape
Cape Mary J
Harmsworth. Mary Harmsworth.
We again made Nightingale Sound. The glaciers were spark-
ling to right and left of us ; the walruses, startled by the shots and
the presence of the ship, had disappeared. We passed near Cape
Forbes, and from thence followed the coast in the direction of Cape
Grant. To the south of Alexandra Land could be seen a white
reflection of the sky ; might it not be the indication of an ice-field ?
On arriving at Cape Grant we were obliged to acknowledge that, on
the contrary, it was the ice-pack, which stretched away from the coast,
out of sight, towards the south and west. After going a short
distance farther, the fog obliged us to stop. The extensive ice-fields
which surrounded us were of old ice, a mile and -more broad,
and more than two yards thick, and we were therefore obliged to
steer carefully in order to avoid collisions which might injure the ship.
We gained a few miles more on July 28th, until we arrived in the
neighbourhood of Cape Crowther, but without any hope of being
able to go farther.
If the state of the ice were the same as that which had been met
with by Jackson, it stood to reason that since we had arrived near
Cape Mary Harmsworth, we should have waited for a favourable
opportunity of continuing our journey into Queen Victoria Sea. But
since we had been stopped near Cambridge Bay, and as we should
have to travel in that direction, in a year unfavourable to navigation
judging by the obstacles we had already encountered, it was not.
advisable to wait, and then to persist in advancing by that route.
Moreover, by following that coast-line, we went farther and farther
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea 69
from the more northern of the Emperor Franz Josef Islands, and
in case we found it impossible to reach Queen Victoria Sea, the sledge
expedition would be forced to traverse a much greater distance in
order to be able to make use of the stores left on the islands. By
going back into British Channel we would, on the contrary, remain
almost on the same meridian as the lands lying to the north ; and
even supposing that we were not able to reach them, we might feel
Jess uneasy in leaving the ship in the channel and carrying out the
expedition with sledges. Though I had come at first with the in-
tention of attempting to reach Queen Victoria Sea at any cost, after
all other attempts had failed by circumnavigating Alexandra Land in
a westerly direction, I was constrained to change my plans when I
found myself checked so soon, and to turn towards British Channel,
either to pass through it or to winter there.
All these thoughts were passing through my mind whilst I looked
from the crow's-nest over the immense ice-fields which lay stretched
around us, and through which we were making our way towards Cape
Grant. All their details were distinctly visible from aloft, and the
eye could follow the ridges formed by the pressure of the ice and the
channels which intersected them in every direction. The captain
suggested to me to explore De Bruyne Sound, but I preferred, on the
contrary, to return to Nightingale Sound, in order not to lose more
time. My impatience made me commit another error of judgment,
and persevere in that already made when I was on the summit of
Cape Flora. On the evening of the same day (July 28th) we were
again moored to the ice situated to the north of Bruce Island, but
more to the east and to the south of the point which we had reached
on the previous day.
CHAPTER IV
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea
(continued)
CHAPTER IV
IN BARENTZ SEA AND QUEEN VICTORIA SEA— (continued).
WE were in the midst of very extensive ice-fields ; the ice, which
was about thirty inches thick, could be easily crossed by
sledges, but was a serious barrier to the further progress of the ship.
Unlike, however, the ice which two days previously we NearBruce
had seen more to the north, near Cape Peterhead, these ofth^bay1^
fields were crossed by pressure -ridges and intersected by
lanes, which led us to suppose that navigation might be possible.
IN OPEN WATER
For three days (July 29th, 3Oth, and jist) we remained near
the northern extremity of Bruce Island, in perfectly smooth water,
entirely surrounded by ice-fields, and almost always enshrouded in fog,
which was often very thick. We took advantage of this enforced
rest to give the dogs some exercise. We feared that we might have
74 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
had to assist at a furious combat, but they were so surprised to find
themselves at liberty that they took no notice of each other.
Our days were passed in the following manner ; We rose
between six and seven, and met at eight o'clock for our first breakfast,
consisting of cooked ham or compressed meat, oatmeal, butter, and
coffee or chocolate on alternate days. The morning was always spent
in preparing the dried fish for the dogs' food (by cutting it up and
steeping it in water), and in cleaning out the cages where they lived,
which was rendered easy by the tarpaulin which lined the bottom.
At mid-day we met again for dinner, which consisted of soup,
two dishes of meat, and dried fruit. From two to five, whatever work
had to be done on board was performed, for which, after deducting
the officers, the engineers, the firemen, and the cook, there remained
only seven persons available, and there was always plenty to do in
mending the partitions of the kennels, at which the dogs were con-
tinually gnawing. The dogs were given i Ib. i oz. 10 dr. of fish
before our supper, which took place at half-past six, and consisted of
soup, a dish of meat, and preserved fruits. We drank tea at our morning
repast, and in the evening each of us had a glass of wine. The end
of the day was spent in walking up and down on the deck or on the
ice, and in listening to the gramophone or the piano. On account of
the prolongation of daylight, it was sometimes late at night when we
withdrew to our cabins. On Sunday, prayers were said together, and
Captain Cagni used to give a short address.
The temperature was not Arctic. The thermometer was always
above freezing point, and calm weather was the rule, but it also
brought on fog, which hindered all navigation. We were still clothed
as on our departure from Archangel, with the exception that we
wore high sailors' boots, which kept our feet dry while walking
among the pools on the ice.
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea 75
August ist. — The weather has at last become clear in the
morning ; the wind blows at first from every point of the compass,
and then a breeze sets in from the east. Since we have First Pressure
, . , , , . . of the Ice. We
been in the channel, the easterly and westerly winds despair of ever
passing British.
have brought clear weather, whilst a northerly or channel,
southerly wind carries fog with it. Ought that to be attributed
to the open water to be found near Cape Flora and in Queen
Victoria Sea ? The fog clears away at last, and we can see the shores
of the lake in which we are shut up.
THE ICE TO THE NORTH OF BRUCE ISLAND
From the crow's-nest we can see other lakes towards the north-
west on the other side of a narrow strip of ice, but it seems impossible
to break through the two ice-fields which surround us. We can only
try to continue our journey towards the north-west by forcing a way
with the bow of our ship through the ice which closes to the north the
open water in which we are lying. The pressure of the two ice-fields
which have met at this point has made them overlap and form a
pressure-ridge for a distance of about a hundred yards. By backing two
or three ship's lengths, and then steaming forward at full speed, the
On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
Polar Star breaks the ice for ten or fifty yards at every shock, and
then remains embedded in the fragments. The ship can usually be
extricated by backing the engines, and when that does not succeed,
our crew goes down on the ice and clears away the broken ice around
the ship with long poles, thus allowing the engines to back. After
frequently repeating this manoeuvre the ship remains at last com-
pletely hemmed in, and can be no longer backed, which seems at first
to be the consequence of the pressure of the masses of ice broken
by each shock, until we remark a slight movement in the ice-field
to our left Much against our will, the ship unfortunately remains
situated in the line of pressure, whilst a few hundred yards away, both
in front and to the rear, she would be in complete safety. The ice-
field to our left scrapes slowly along the sides of the ship, and,
floating forward, destroys the result of all our work, by closing up
again the passage before us. It then stops, remains motionless for a
few hours, and moves on again towards five o'clock, while still press-
ing on us strongly. The ice bends, it is lifted straight on end, and
runs along the sides of the ship, rising until it touches the tafFrail; at
the stern the rudder receives the full force of the concussion, and
bends towards the left, creaking from top to bottom. The "Polar
Star heels over five or six degrees.
Our conversation, whilst we are at table, is drowned by the noise
of the creaking of the rudder, and we listen attentively to every
sound, though we do not like to seem to notice it. The rudder
continues to groan under the pressure of the ice, and from time to
time the vessel receives slight shocks ; then all is silent. But after
a few minutes the noise begins again. After supper the ice-fields
begin once more to crack and to move. The pressure is stronger
than before, and it is now perpendicular to the sides of the ship, which,
being driven sideways, is carried about twenty yards to the left, and
•HHHIHHi
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea 77
breaks with her sides, instead of with her bow, the ice, which rocks,
sinks, and disappears beneath her. The rudder, which previously had
been driven to the left, is now carried to the right, and after this last
effort the pressure luckily ceases.
August 2nd. — We are this morning moored to another ice-field,
at about 300 yards from our previous position. During the night
the ice opened ahead of us, and we cleared the barrier which had
caused us so much fatigue yesterday, and no little excitement. It
THE I'Ol.AR STAR NIPPED HY THE ICE (SIDE VIEW)
often happens thus in these regions ; many hours of labour are vainly
spent in attempting to force a passage through ice which does not
move, or which closes up again, whilst later on it opens out in a
moment, from some cause or another, and we can proceed without any
effort. To what is due this opening and closing of the ice-fields ? To
the tides, to the currents, or to the winds ? We take care to keep
far away from the point where the pressure is felt. The sky is
again clouded, and there is a light breeze.
7 8 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
In the evening we take a walk towards an iceberg a few
miles from the ship, but we cannot reach it ; the ice is broken all
around, and we hear it groan. The movement of this colossus of
ice is not the same as that of the ice-fields which surround it ; on
the side towards which it advances the ice-floes are piled up, and
on the other it leaves behind it a small space of open water. On
the ice in the neighbourhood are seen the circular holes made by
the seals coming to the surface to breathe, though we do not
perceive any. The ice-fields are level ; some are small, and others
several square miles in extent. Where they meet, they form a line
of piled-up blocks of ice of varying height, or a channel of varying
width, according as at that moment the pressure is felt or not.
August yd. — The day is cloudy, and, the ice being compact,
the dogs are let out. Shortly after, the sky becomes clear and
we perceive that channels are being rapidly formed. As ' it takes
some time to bring the dogs on board, I am doubtful whether I
ought to advance or not ; but seeing that the channels grow wider,
I decide to go forward, and to leave the dogs on the ice, taking
them up later on at the spot where we shall stop, which certainly
cannot be far off. I leave them, therefore, and along with them
Lieutenant Querini, two guides, and a sailor ; the dogs follow us
and go faster than we can, as we are forced to break our way
through the ice with the prow of the ship. The points where
there is any pressure are passed without much difficulty ; there is
a succession of stretches of open water, and as we think that the
ice will soon stop our progress, we continue to advance towards
the north-east. The fog returns and makes us lose sight of Lieu-
tenant Querini and his companions, who have been stopped by
some channel. In about half an hour, seeing that only a few
obstacles impeded our progress, I begin to feel uneasy as to
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea 79
getting our comrades on board and the dogs we had left behind.
After remaining several days without moving, I can hardly believe
that I am continuing my voyage in the right direction, but the
anxiety I feel for my comrades and the dogs obliges me, although
reluctantly, to stop the ship. Captain Cagni goes back in a launch
through the channel through which we had passed, and after a few
minutes he, too, disappears in the fog. Captain Evensen and I remain
THE I'OL.-tR STAR NIPPED BY THE ICE (SEEN FROM THE STERN)
on deck, watting either till the launch returns or until the fog lifts
and allows us to see those we have left behind. An hour passes
while waiting, and the ice-fields close again. As we are impatient
to go on, the whistle is sounded from time to time, in the hope of
receiving some answer, but we hear nothing. I begin to fear
that Captain Cagni had not been able to reach Lieutenant Querini
with his boat, and I am on the point of steaming back as far as
I can to look for them, when the fog lifts for a moment, and I
see them all together about two miles away. It takes an hour
80 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
to bring them up to the ship and get them on board, and when,
at seven o'clock, we are again able to go forward, the favourable
opportunity has passed, and we are obliged to stop where we are.
The dogs have made me lose an advance of some miles, and
henceforth I shall keep them on board until we arrive at our winter
quarters.
We are enclosed as in a lake. To the north we can see
another extensive ice-field several miles long, to the edge of which
smaller fields are joined on. We must continue our advance along
the larger field, and thus pass from one space of open water to
another, breaking our way with the prow at those points where
the smaller fields press upon the larger. At our present moorings
we are sure of passing a quiet night. Shortly after going to bed
the sound of persons running on deck makes me rush out of my
cabin. A bear has come to greet us for the first time ; it can be
seen running away, followed by nearly all the crew. I see it dis-
appear in the distance, and hear several shots, and then return to
my cabin, weary and dissatisfied with my day's work.
August 4//2. — On getting up I hear that the bear had been killed
by Lieutenant Querini. Its rlesh is given to the dogs to eat, for we
have still too much fresh beef to care to feed on bear. Towards
eight o'clock, as the horizon was tolerably clear, and the ice showed
signs of opening out again, we made a further move. We can
only see to a distance of three or four miles round the ship ; the
ice appears more broken towards the east, but towards the north
and west it is quite compact. The captain has not much faith in
Queen Victoria Sea : he is not satisfied with our position, and he
does not look forward with pleasure to passing the winter in British
Channel. I completely share his opinion on that subject. It would
be a bad beginning to the expedition if we were to pass the winter
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea 81
off a coast which has already been explored, and then travel in
sledges through places which Jackson said were better suited for
ships than for sledges. But what can be done ? It seems im-
possible to pass through this channel in the present year. If we
had at least a fine day to see to a distance all around us !
We remain motionless from half-past ten till two, waiting for the
movement of the ice. It is necessary to watch unceasingly, so as
not to lose an opportunity of advancing as soon as we see that the
ice-fields begin to recede from each other. At two o'clock we again
begin to assail with our prow the point where the ice-fields touch,
and we were stopped this morning, and with some success. We
do not, however, make much progress, owing to the difficulties we
VOL. i. 6
82 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
encounter, and the slight feeling of discouragement which begins
to come over us, and at half-past four we are again moored in another
space of open water about half a mile from our position of this morning.
August 5///. — The fog continues both night and morning.
Lieutenant Querini and the doctor are down on the ice, and go forward
we sight the to see ^ tnere ^s anv P°mt at which the vessel can pass.
As we lose sight of them, the sun appears slowly through
the fog, and our horizon widens. Little by little the day becomes
perfectly clear. The islands to the west are completely covered with
ice ; Eaton, Scott Keltic, and Hooker Islands can be made out
towards the east ; they are for the most part free from snow, and
their coasts, which fall sheer to the sea, give them the same appearance
as Northbrook Island when seen from the south. Some icebergs are
to be seen towards the north in the direction of Cape Murray, and
others are perceived near Cape Peterhead, but none to the east.
I remain for some time with the captain in the crow's-nest to seek
tor some indication of free water far away towards the north, in
the direction of Queen Victoria Sea, which might encourage me to
push on towards that part. An attentive scrutiny only produces a
disheartening result ; nothing is to be seen but extensive ice-fields
divided by narrow channels, through which it is now impossible to
proceed. These channels trend towards the east ; to the north the
ice seems impenetrable, and the way by which we have come is
closed up. A few days previously it had seemed to me that one
day of fine weather might put an end to my indecision ; the fine
weather has come at last, and my indecision has disappeared, but
only to leave me convinced that we cannot go any farther.
At breakfast we are all in very low spirits ; the barometer has
indeed risen, on account of the fine weather, but our spirits, on the
contrary, have fallen very low. Towards the evening we try to spring
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea 83
a mine of guncotton ; the lane to be opened should be about fifteen
yards wide, but as the ice has been heaped up by the pressure of the
fields, it is here about four feet thick. The mine makes a loud
report, but gives no practical result ; we therefore give up the idea
of employing this method, and shall wait to advance until the ice-
fields open out.
The captain seems to have taken up his abode in the crow's-
OUK COMRADES COMK HACK TO TI1K SIIII'
nest ; for the last two hours 1 have seen him from the deck fixing
his eyes repeatedly towards the same direction. Has he at last
descried open water in Queen Victoria Sea ? Whilst I am getting
ready to join him, he comes down hurriedly and points with his hand
towards the north-east. On reaching the deck, he tells me that there
is a ship near Scott Keltic Island. At first it seems to me impossible.
I go up into the crow's-nest, and see that not only is there a ship in
84 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
that direction, but that her sails are spread, and that she is under way,
which is a certain proof that she is in open water that we cannot see,
and of the existence of which we cannot even find a sign in the tint of
the sky. The ship must be a whaler ; since it is in that locality it
must have got there easily, and it is, therefore, all the more humiliating
to us to be thus stopped in the middle of the British Channel, whilst
it would have been easy to arrive to the north of Eaton Island by
another route. We must, at all costs, enter the open water which
is to the east of us, in order to arrive at the same latitude as the
whaler by the same route it has followed outside the ice. The ship
we perceive must be the Cape/la, but on account of the distance we can
only see its masts, and therefore cannot be certain.
Towards five o'clock in the afternoon the ice-fields show signs of
opening, and without losing time we attack with the prow of our ship
the pressure-ridge which stopped us this morning. Thanks to our
wounded pride, our dogged pertinacity, and the gradual opening up of
the channels, we succeed, after about an hour's toil, in bringing the
vessel beyond the point of pressure into another open space. A long
channel leads from this in the direction of Eaton Island ; beyond it we
find a belt of thicker ice, through which we can only pass by gradually
gaining a few feet at a time. Two hours after sunset we are six
or seven miles nearer Eaton Island ; the ice is beginning to hem us
in once more, and we must stop. We profit by this delay to write
our last dispatches. The ship in sight has been made out to be
the Capella.
August 6th. — At nine o'clock, as the weather is as clear as
yesterday, we resume our progress towards Eaton Island, between
which and Hooker Island we can see the Capella under sail in
the distance. The ice, which is less compact than yesterday, offers
but slight resistance, so that we can advance rapidly. At twelve
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea 85
o'clock we are a few hundred yards from Eaton Island, in open
water which stretches away to British Channel to the north, and to
the east of the island.
We steer towards the Capella, and when near it we signal to
know if Wellman's expedition is on board. A launch, in which a
THE KIKST ARCTIC BEAK
man who has the appearance of an invalid is lying, with one leg
stretched out, leaves the Capella and comes towards us. Although
very dissimilar from the photographs which I had seen in the
newspapers, I recognise Wellman. As the companion ladder is
not in its place, we have to lift him on board. The doctor helps
86 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
him into our saloon, where he is joined by his three companions—
Dr. Edward Hofman, doctor and naturalist to the expedition ; Mr.
Baldwin, the meteorologist ; and Mr. Harlan, the physicist. We
question them eagerly, and learn that Wellman had met with an
accident shortly before arriving at Crown Prince Rudolph Island ;
that the expedition was forced to return, as it had lost some of its
provisions when pressed by the ice-floes, and that it had reached
its highest latitude near the above-mentioned island. They inform
us with deep regret of the death of the Norwegian, Bernt Bentzen,
on Wilczek Land, during the winter. Lieutenant Querini and our
doctor show them over the ship, and on seeing our dogs Wellman
kindly places at my disposal those which he has still on board, but
I cannot accept them, as I have already too many on the Polar Star.
Meanwhile, Captain Stokken, of the Capella, the father of our
engineer, has also come on board the Polar Star. He is chatting
gaily with Captain Evensen, and expressing his astonishment at the
transformations undergone by the Jason. As he tells me that from
the dark tint of the sky he is inclined to believe that the sea is open
up to the spot where Nansen had wintered, I am impatient to
go on, so as not to lose the advantage of a clear horizon on such
a fine day. We and the Americans drink to each other's health —
we wishing them a happy return to their country, and they wishing
us a prosperous voyage — and the two ships sail away. The Capella
steers southwards to return to civilisation, and we penetrate still
farther towards unknown and solitary regions.
We steer for Maria Elizabeth Island. The eastern coast of
British Channel seems less desolate than the western, and in many
Queen victoria places is free from snow. WTe pass through strips of ice
coming down from Allan Young Sound between Hooker
and Koettlitz Islands. Few icebergs are met with; they are smaller than
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea 87
those we found to the south of Northbrook Island, and not more than
ten to fifteen yards high. British Channel is closed by the ice only
in its western portion, from Eaton Island to the northern extremity of
Northbrook Island, and as far as Cape Murray, whilst it is perfectly
free to the east of this imaginary line. The thick fog, which came
on in the north-west, which we enter about an hour after leaving the
Capella, prevents us from making out Prince George Land and the
other islands seen by Jackson in that direction.
DRAMATIS PKKSO.V. /-'
We continue to advance at full speed, while keeping a very
careful look-out ; from time to time a violent concussion, which is telt
all over the ship, shows us that during the fog we sometimes mistake
a large piece of ice for one of smaller dimensions.
Our compasses are out of order. For standard compass \ve
have Magnaghi's liquid compass, the regulation compass of the
Italian Navy. In this the floating card has been made very light,
so that pure alcohol can be used as the liquid, and thus all risk
88 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
of freezing is avoided. At the stern we have a Thompson com-
pass, which formerly belonged to the Jason, and until now has given
satisfaction, but to-day we cannot even reckon on it.
When at a short distance from Koettlitz Island I do not feel
reassured in this very thick fog. A white line is ahead of us, which is
at first taken for an ice-field, but as it is seen to stretch. toi right and
WE FORCE OUR WAY THROUGH THE ICE
left of the prow, it is suddenly perceived to be the coast, and the
vessel is brought to at a few yards from the shore. To keep away
from Koettlitz Island we resume our course towards the west, but as
we turn again to the north soon after, we find ourselves in the same
situation, and thus we twice run the risk of being wrecked. Now that
we are in open water, we must still continue to advance through the
In Barentz Sea and Queen Victoria Sea 89
fog until we find ourselves near the ice, and then select the route
to follow as soon as the fog lifts.
August jt/i. — We steam all night until about two in the morning,
when we are stopped in foggy weather near Maria Elizabeth Island by
thick ice ahead. The close ice-pack appears to extend up to the island,
and when the fog lifts for a few moments we can find no means of
going farther ; but we have already made considerable progress. A few
WAITING FOR CLEAR WEATHER NEAR MAKIA ELIZABETH ISLAND
days ago I found it difficult to escape from British Channel, and
now we have reached the same parallel of latitude as that where
Nansen passed the winter. We are not, however, satisfied with this
result, and our hopes are now directed, not only to Prince Rudolph
Island, but even still farther to the north, to Petermann Land, which,
it is to be hoped, exists, and is within our power to reach.
The fog is so thick in the morning and in the afternoon that
we are obliged to remain motionless at the limit to which the open
water extends.
At nine o'clock in the evening, by a light easterly wind,
which we hail with joy as the forerunner of clear weather, the fog
lifts somewhat, and shows us Maria Elizabeth Island, and the neigh-
bouring headlands of Salisbury, Fisher, and MacClintock Islands.
We steer at once so as to try to pass to the east of Maria Elizabeth
90 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
Island ; the channel seems free, and we enter it at full speed. The
northern part of the island is completely covered with snow, but
the most prominent capes of Salisbury Island are all uncovered. We
steer for Cape Norway ; the two fjords to the east and the great
glaciers in the distance are distinctly visible. On the mountains of
Salisbury Island are seen verdant declivities, which suggest the idea
of putting in there. We would wish to seek for the remains of
Nansen's hut, but the bright weather and the open water urge us to
proceed, and we do not even leave a depot at this spot, as we at
first intended. We pass outside the small islands situated near
Cape Mill, and between them and Neale, Harley, and Ommaney
Islands, and continue our journey rapidly towards the north.
There is ice to the east of Maria Elizabeth and Ommaney
Islands, and from the latter it trends away to the north, leaving
towards the north-east a large belt of navigable water, with here
and there some strips of ice coming from the channels between
Jackson, Leigh Smith, and Karl Alexander Islands. The thick
fog sets in again. Our single idea is to keep on our course with-
out losing a minute, and to take advantage of this favourable
moment to push on as far as possible to the north. Towards seven
o'clock we sight land ahead, which, judging by the route we have
followed, is probably Karl Alexander Island, and it obliges us to
change our course to the west. Shortly afterwards we again steer
towards the north-east, and crossing a rather broad belt of broken ice,
we are again in open water. The horizon ahead is overclouded. After
nine o'clock we expect every moment to sight Prince Rudolph Island ;
but at mid-day we are obliged to lie to in the fog, unable to see the
land, or even the ice.
We pass that evening and night in a dense fog. The next day
the weather is clearer, and at intervals we can see a white land
In Barentz Sea and Qjaeen Victoria Sea 91
towards the south-east, but nothing to the east or to the north-east,
where we think Prince Rudolph Island may lie. We begin to
fear that we have gone past it. We take the height of The Polar star
. , . reaches 82 4
the sun at mid-day on an ice-held and, to our great joy, N. iat.
the result of our calculations shows us that the Polar Star is in
latitude 82° 4'. The land we see is, therefore, Prince Rudolph
Island.
After the Frarn, which drifted as far as 85° 47' N., and after the
CAl'E FLIGELY, FROM THE NOKTH-NVEST
Alert and the Polaris^ which reached, respectively, 82° 27' and 82° 16',
the Polar Star thus takes the fourth place among the ships that have
gone nearest to the Pole. Our vessel has reached the northern
extremity of Prince Rudolph Island twenty-seven days after leaving
Archangel, including five days passed at Cape Flora ; and here I may
remark that, if we had advanced into De Bruyne Sound instead of
repeatedly attempting to pass by Nightingale Sound, we should have
92 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
reached the same latitude whilst sailing always in open water, except
for a few hours.
The Polar Star has thus with the greatest ease reached Emperor
Franz Josef Archipelago, which in 1873 Payer had thought so difficult
to approach, and has followed its coast as far as Cape Fligely.
CHAPTER V
Prince Rudolph Island
CHAPTER V
PRINCE RUDOLPH ISLAND
BEFORE leaving the position we had reached, we carefully
observed the horizon, which was clear enough to let us see to a
distance of twenty miles. To the north the sea was Tne most norti_
covered with ice, through which we might still have Emperor Franz
Josef Archi-
proceeded for a few miles, and to the south there was peiago.
a wide expanse of open water. Prince Rudolph Island was the
only land in sight.
As we were more to the north and to the west than the point
IN TRAINING
reached by Payer, we were more favourably situated for seeing
Petermann Land and King Oscar Land, which Payer thought he
sighted from Cape Fligely on a rather misty day. Although I
96 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
hardly expected to find them, yet, at times when I felt more sanguine,
I had entertained a faint hope that they might perhaps exist, and
that I could reach them with my ship, or at least leave a store
of provisions there. These hopes had now completely vanished,
and it was therefore necessary to seek an anchorage at Prince
Rudolph Island. Silence reigned on board, but the joy caused
by the arrival of our ship in such a high latitude might be read
in the eyes of the crew. Since, after so many days of uncertainty,
we had been able to pass through British Channel and reach Prince
Rudolph Island without much difficulty, I was led to hope that,
with good-will and perseverance, the other obstacles which that region
where our undertaking was to be fully developed wras likely to
present, might also be surmounted. Since we had brought our ship
as far as the most northern point of the archipelago, I felt confident
that our expedition would continue to be equally prosperous.
A light breeze was blowing from the east, and the sky was
overcast in that direction when at one o'clock in the afternoon we set
out to the south-east towards the island. After two hours
Cape Fligely.
and a half we were off the most northern cape of the
island, which Payer had reached in 1873, and had named Cape Fligely.1
While comfortably seated on the deck of the Polar Star, we viewed
with profound interest the place where, twenty-five years before, Payer
1The note left by Payer at Cape Fligely ran thus: "Some members of the
Austro-Hungarian expedition to the North Pole have attained their highest point at
82° 5' N., after a journey of seventeen days from their ship, which is imprisoned in
the ice at a latitude of 79° 51'. They saw along the coast a small extent of open sea
surrounded by ice, and stretching to north and north-west towards lands which may
be approximately reckoned to be sixty or seventy miles from this point, but it was
impossible to determine how they were united to Prince Rudolph Island. On
returning to the ship we all intend to abandon it and to return home. The state of
the ship, which we have no hope of extricating from the ice, and the many cases
of illness on board, oblige me to take this step."
Prince Rudolph Island 97
and his companions, after undergoing great fatigues and privations, had
planted the Austro-Hungarian flag. We felt the warmest admiration
for the men who, conquering every obstacle, had reached such a high
latitude, without giving a thought to their ship, which the drifting ice
CAPE FLIGELY, SEEN FROM THE NORTH, NEAR TIIK COAST
might carry away, or of the mode in which they might hope to make
their retreat, which in the end was accomplished only by means of
their boats.
Cape Fligely, which rises to 230 or 260 feet above the level of
the sea, is crowned by a table-land, and was the only part of the island
VOL. i. 7
On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
left free from snow. To the north-east a small, rocky buttress
with a pointed summit projected into the sea. To the east and
west of the cape the glacier, which covered all the northern part of the
island, sloped gently to the coast, where it ended in an ice-cliff. To
the east no trace could be discerned of Cape Sherard Osborn, nor
of Cape Buda-Pesth, nor of the islands seen by Nansen.
We steamed on towards the south-east, until the ice-pack along
the island checked our progress. The coast turned towards the
south, tending certainly to join Cape Rath, which Payer had already
seen. It was thus certain that Prince Rudolph Island was only
a small island and that the latitude of Cape Fligely could not be
82° 5' N. as Payer had stated,1 since we had been obliged to
sail about fifteen miles towards the south-east, from the point
where our ship had lain that morning, to reach it. We then
steered to the west, towards Cape Germania.
The coast was still formed by an ice-cliff, in some places
twenty-five or thirty feet high, trending towards the west-south-west,
and curving slightly inwards before reaching Cape Germania. This
caps rises 300 feet above the level of the sea ; its summit was then
free from snow, and, seen from the north-east, it presented the
appearance of a trapezium. We recognised Cape Saulen, so named
by Payer from its two bare and rocky pillars— a striking feature
in these regions, where the icy covering effaces all natural char-
acteristics. After passing Cape Saulen we saw Cape Auk, and Teplitz
Bay came in view.
Our first impressions of Teplitz Bay were not favourable. From
Cape Saulen the coast trended towards the south-east,
Teplitz Bay.
and consisted of a steep ice-cliff about thirty feet high ;
it was prolonged towards the east by a rocky beach which took
1 The latitude of Cape Fligely was found later to be 81° 50' 43".
Prince Rudolph Island 101
up all the north side of the bay, and it turned again to the south
with an ice-cliff, extending almost uninterruptedly as far as Cape
Auk but varying in height. The rocks of Cape Saulen formed
CAPE GKKMANIA, SEEN FROM THE NOKTH-EAbT
the northern boundary of the bay, and at the same time the extreme
western point of the island. From south to west the bay was open
to the pressure of the ice-pack ; the western side of the island
IO2 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
was entirely covered with an immense glacier descending from the
interior down to the coast, and the ground was visible only in a few
places. The few living creatures consisted merely of some birds near
Cape Saulen.
Seen from the south, the bay wore a more pleasing aspect ; its
northern side, exposed to the south, was to a great extent free from
snow, and some parts of it were level and rocky. On that side the
coast was not ended by an ice-cliff, but by a gently sloping beach about
1,500 feet long. Along this beach was a belt of ice about thirty feet
broad, which adhered to the shore and to the bottom ; and in touch
with it was an ice-field several square miles in extent, which filled the
bay, rising and falling with the tide, and therefore detached from
the fixed ice along the shore.
The shape of the bay was not the best adapted to provide the ship
with a safe anchorage for the winter, but it was the most northern bay
of the Emperor Franz Josef Archipelago. As this was of the utmost
importance for our future expedition on sledges, we were obliged to
attempt to remain there. Though the bay was not protected by
its situation, the ice-field might serve to guard the ship from pressure.
But the ice was mostly from six feet to nine feet thick, and it
would be difficult for us by means of our saws, which were only
three feet long, or by blasting and the help of the prow of the
ship, to prepare a dock sufficiently deep for it to lie in safety.
Along the ice adhering to the shore, however, the ice-field was
much broken up, and it appeared easy to cut a canal through that.
On sounding through the crevasses, we found a sandy bottom at
twenty-six or thirty feet, which became much deeper farther out. If
we broke through the ice here, the ship could be moored close to
the sloping strand, which would render it easy to land the stores,
and the ice-field would serve as a barrier to keep off the pressure
Prince Rudolph Island
103
from without. The width and thickness of this ice-field, which clung
to the coast for a distance of several miles, led me then to believe
that, if later on the ice-pack pressed it against the island, it would
remain stationary.
On August loth, by driving our ship many times against the ice,
we succeeded in opening a channel about 580 feet long and sixty feet
'•
CAPE SAULEN, SEEN FROM THE SOUTH-EAST
wide. The ice, which was already crevassed at that place, broke up
into large pieces under each blow of the prow ; the water from
the melting snow which was falling down the rocks along the shore
swept them out to sea, and thus much facilitated the toils of our crew.
By the evening the channel was completed, and the ship moored in
the ice of the bay, with its bow towards the west.
We immediately set to work to prepare our winter's quarters in this
IO4 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
locality. Though the fact that the season was not too much advanced,
and that the sea was still open, tempted me to carry out some interest-
ing explorations with the help of the ship, the ice-pack was always in
sight, and I thought it more prudent not to leave, as, if I were surprised
THE ICE-FIELD IN TEPL1TZ BAY, WITH THE CHANNEL CUT IN IT BY THE POLAR STAR '
by the ice, I would run the risk of hot being able to return to aur
anchorage. Since I was in the most northern bay that could be reached,
it was my duty to avoid everything that could in any way imperil our
future expedition on sledges, or increase its difficulties.
During the first week following our arrival the weather con-
tinued fine, with slight breezes, and the temperature above freezing
point. The snow melted rapidly, and torrents of water fell from all
sides into the bay. The water, flowing over the foot-ice along the
strand, hollowed out a channel, which grew speedily broader. This
prevented us from landing, and made it difficult to disembark our
stores on the beach. Pools had formed all over the ice-field wherever
there was a hollow ; indiarubber boots had to be worn to avoid being
Prince Rudolph Island
105
continually wet, and with so much water all around us it was almost
possible to forget that we were on a frozen land.
The fine weather helped us in our work, and allowed us to take
pleasant walks every evening in the neighbourhood of the ship. Cape
Germania, Cape Saulen, and Cape Auk, which were free from ice and
frequented by birds, were the limits of our excursions. The glacier,
which covered all the island, descended into the sea to the north of
Cape Germania, and to the south into Teplitz Bay. The part of the
island free from ice to the north of the bay presented a succession of
terraces, rising above each other and composed of detritus, with a
few isolated rocks. Small glaciers had been formed on the slopes
THE SHIP IN TEl'LIT/ BAY
between one terrace and another, between the terraces and the sea,
and in the hollows. At the time of our arrival these level places
were quite free from snow, but their flora was very scanty. In
this summer, and in the following, a few fungi, among which may
be noted a new species of ascochyta, some briophytes, lichens,
106 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
and phanerogams,1 were all the plants which we could collect in
Teplitz Bay, at Cape Fligely, and at Cape Auk. The rocks, which
for the most part are formed of basalts, are a proof that the island is
volcanic, like all the others already known in the Emperor Franz Josef
Archipelago. A piece of granite found in the neighbourhood of Cape
Saulen, and some remains of reindeer's horns picked up in the same
place, have given rise to the opinion that, if not Cape Germania,
at least Cape Saulen and all the northern part of the island were
once submerged. Almost all the way from Cape Saulen to Cape
Auk the coast was formed by an ice-cliff, interrupted only, at that
spot near which the ship lay, by the short stretch of rocky shore.
Cape Auk, 580 feet above sea-level, quite free from ice, and with
precipitous sides, formed the northern extremity of the bay. Karl
Alexander Island, from its most northerly cape to Cape Brogger,
could be seen from Cape Saulen, and Cape Clement Markham
could also be made out in the distance.
Animal life, as I have stated, was not abundant. The birds most
frequently seen were : The Fulmar petrel (Fulmarus glacialis. Linn.),
the ivory gull (Pagophila eburnea, Gm.), the glaucous gull (Lams
glaucus^ Brilnn.), a guillemot of a species closely allied to the black
guillemot (Uria mandtiy Linn.), and the little auk (Mergulus alley
Linn.). In the following year we also saw the kittiwake gull (Rissa
1 For the zoological, botanical, and mineralogical collections made during the
expedition by Lieutenant Francesco Querini and Dr. Achille Cavalli Molinelli,
doctor of the first class, see Part II. of Osservazioni Scientifiche Eseguite
Durante la Spedizione Polare di S.^A. R. Luigi Amedeo di Savoia, Duca degli
Abruzzi, 1899-1900 (Milan : Ulrico Hoepli). Thus :— Chapter I. — Zoology. — The
reports of Professor Camerano, of Dr. Conte Tommaso Salvadori, of Dr. Carlo
Pollonera, of Dr. Hermann Giglio-Tos, of Dr. Giuseppe Nobili, and of Professor
Corrado-Parona. Chapter II. — Botany. — The reports of Professor Oreste Mattirolo
and of Professor Saverio Belli. Chapter III. — Mineralogy. — The reports of
Professor Giorgio Spezia, of Dr. Luigi Colomba, and of Dr. Giuseppe Piolti.
Prince Rudolph Island 107
trldactyla^ Linn.), the Arctic skua (Stercorarius crepidatus, Gm.), and
the snow bunting (Plectophenax nivalis, Linn.). These, and two
other species of skua (Stercorarius parasiticus^ Linn. ; Stercorarius
pomatorhinus, Schal.), which we shot in British Channel, were the
only birds we met with in the archipelago. We never saw Ross's
gull (Khodostethia rosea, Macgill.), though we sought it carefully.
Seals were rare, and walruses still more so, but, on the other
hand, the place seemed to be much frequented by bears. On the
day of our arrival we killed a she-bear and two cubs. In the
whole course, of our voyage we killed thirty-seven bears, thirty-
four in Teplitz Bay alone. Most of these were killed by Lieutenant
Querini, an ardent sportsman and an excellent shot ; he was always
A 1'OLAK HKAK
ready, both by day and hy night, to face the cold and the wind, it
he had the chance of hunting one of these animals.
Bear-hunting is very easy. A bear sees and smells a camp long
before man is aware of his presence, and hunger generally compels
him to approach. It is not, therefore, necessary to look for him.
Our dogs, which were so many, and wandered about treely all day,
io8 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
pursued every bear they saw. The larger he-bears were able to escape
if they had only eight or ten dogs at their heels, but if they were
attacked by a pack of thirty or forty, they were obliged to stop, and
climb up on a hummock, or to range themselves against a block
of ice by way of defence. We thus had time to come up and
shoot them from a distance of a few feet. None could escape us.
The dogs were sometimes wounded in the hunt, almost always
by the he-bears, and rarely by the she-bears. They were so nimble
in avoiding the bears' blows that their wounds were never serious,
and the doctor's assistance was only required three or four times
to sew them up, even later on, when they became more daring
in their attacks.
We killed many she-bears, often accompanied by two cubs, which
from their equal growth seemed to be twins. During the summer we
mostly killed she-bears, and later on, during the winter and the spring,
only males : some of these were of considerable size, measuring up
to 9 ft. 5 in. along the back. We had very often bears' flesh to eat ;
the best parts were the heart, the kidneys, and the tongue ; the rest
was not equally palatable.
A bullet from a rifle of -303 calibre aimed at the shoulder, or at
the forehead, was quite enough to kill a bear ; but if they were
running away, several shots were required. We never found that the
bear attacked us ; we always saw them make off in the opposite
direction to that from which the shot had been fired. During all our
expedition we used only Dum-Dum cartridges laden with cordite.
The dogs had been landed as soon as we had arrived. They
were not only anxious to be at liberty, but this had become a necessity
OUT Dogs at ^or them, after having been shut up in their cages on
board for a month. As a single sailor could not watch
so many dogs during the night, and as it was impossible to re-embark
Prince Rudolph Island 109
them every evening, we were obliged to build new kennels on land to
keep them separated from each other during the night, and to give
them shelter in stormy weather. The doors of the kennels had hinges
at the bottom, so that they could be raised up after the dogs had been
driven in, and inner partitions separated one dog from another, so
that they could not bite each other. It was at first a tedious and
THE END OF THE CHASE
difficult task to shut up the dogs every evening, but it became easier
later on when they got their suppers in their kennels. We con-
tinued to give them fish, as on board, but we did not require to
give them water, as the snow served to quench their thirst. By
giving them their food in their kennels it was not only more
easy to shut them in, but it prevented them from quarrelling
no On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
and stealing each other's food while feeding ; we could also be
certain that they would all be equally well fed, and that nothing
would be wasted.
The ways of these animals were very strange. They had strong
likes and dislikes ; when one was killed there was a general rejoic-
ing ; and if one were seen to go away from the others with tail and
ears down, it was a sign that he had incurred the displeasure of his
companions. The entire pack pursued him barking, and we had to
interfere to separate them, and to rescue the unfortunate animal. No
distinction was made between the strongest and the weakest ; the
females only were respected. Two or three of our dogs were thus
torn to pieces by their companions, and we rescued many others from
the same fate.
They showed little affection, and still Jess obedience ; they feared
only the whip and water ; for in the intensely cold regions where they
live, if they get wet the water freezes immediately on their bodies, and
forms a cuirass which hinders every movement. The dogs, therefore,
instinctively avoid running that risk. They barked readily at the
sight of a bear, or of a bird, and often without motive. Sometimes at
night one dog would set up a howl for a few minutes, which was then
echoed by all the other dogs. The uproar lasted for some hours, led
by the dog which had begun, until it stopped without any reason, as
it had commenced. These noisy manifestations took place when they
were left alone, and the presence of a man was enough to put an
end to them.
On account of the calms and the changes of the wind, the pack
had receded from the island, and approached it again without, how-
First Pressure ever, reaching as far as the coast. After August 2Oth,
of the Ice in
TepiitzBay. westerly and south-westerly winds brought it near to
Teplitz Bay, and on August 2yth it began to make its pressure
Prince Rudolph Island 1 1 1
felt against the coast. A sound was heard like that of waves
breaking on the shore, caused by the ice-floes being piled up one
over the other. The ice-field driven by the pack turned round at
KENNELS ON THE ICE
the bottom of the bay during the night, thus closing up the channel
made by the Polar Star, and driving the ship against the ice fixed
against the coast, where she remained, heeling over about thirteen
degrees to the right. When the pressure ceased, she remained
in the same position. The next day the ice-pack again receded from
the island.
This movement of the ice-field dispelled the pleasing illusion
which I had entertained on arriving at Teplitz Bay. I had believed
that if this ice-field were not immovable, it might, at least, offer some
resistance ; it had, on the contrary, shifted at the first 'impulse of the
ice, and when the pack came back, it would move again. The ship
was not in a secure position, but if we were to bring on board
again the stores we had landed, and were to toil for several days
till we were extricated from the ice-field where we lay imprisoned,
ii2 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
to sail then to the south, even perhaps as far as Nansen Bay, it
would not only very much increase the fatigues of our future
expedition on sledges, but would be a very serious task, and might
also endanger the ship. I therefore decided not to leave Teplitz
Bay.
Towards the end of August the temperature, which by day was
a few degrees below zero, had begun to fall during the night to
Excursion to — o° C. Even on August 2Oth new ice had begun to
Prince Rudolph
form alongside the ship and on the fresh-water pools,
upon which, a few days later, we were all able to skate. Captain
Cagni, having established on the fixed ice along the beach the hut
which he had got ready at Christiania for magnetic observations
and a field-tent for taking pendulum observations, gave himself up
to these important researches.
The recent cold weather had hardened the snow, and we were
thus able to undertake some expeditions with sledges to explore the
eastern coast of Prince Rudolph Island, and to test the dogs. Until
now the softness of the snow would have rendered these expeditions
too fatiguing both for the dogs and for the men.
When we were at Archangel, Trontheim had harnessed the dogs
abreast by separate traces attached to the sledge. This system, which
had been followed by Nansen in his expedition, and is that usually
employed by the Esquimaux and the Samoyeds, allows the dogs more
liberty in their movements and utilises all their strength. It has, how-
ever, this disadvantage — that the traces get mixed up, and it requires
continual and tiresome labour to put them again in order. To avoid
this inconvenience, I decided when at Christiania to follow the method
adopted by the Yakuts of the Lower Lena, who make use of a single
long trace, to each side of which the dogs are harnessed by shorter
traces, and as the latter are attached by swivels to the central trace,
Prince Rudolph Island 113
they cannot become entangled. A bamboo pole was fixed beneath
the trace to keep the leading dogs from being mixed up with
those behind.
On the afternoon of September 2nd, I left the ship, with
Lieutenant Querini and the guide Savoie, in a sledge drawn bv
nine dogs. We followed the coast at a distance of a few hundred
yards, and pitched our tent on the first day near Cape Fligely
WRINGING THK DOGS INTO THE KENNKLS
and on the second at Cape Rath. From Cape German i a to Cape
Rath the coast is formed by a vertical ice-cliff, which is interrupted
only for some distance at Cape Fligely. This cape is formed by an
extensive table-land a mile long, free from snow, and resembling
that near Cape Saulen ; some fossil remains found upon it have
given rise to the opinion that, like the same table-land, it, too, had
once been submerged.
From a height of about 290 feet above the sea, and in very
clear weather, we observed the horizon attentively ; it was the
VOL. i. 8
114 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
same place where Payer had thought he saw Petermann Land and
King Oscar Land. We could make out nothing to the north or
to the west, but towards the east we now saw Nansen Islands, which
we had not been able to see from the ship a few days previously.
To the north of the group were Eva and Liv Islands in line with
TRAINING THE DOGS
each other ; to the south was Freeden Island and in the middle
Adelaide Island. While I am convinced that Payer may have
been deceived by the fog when he thought he saw Petermann Land
and King Oscar Land, which do not exist, I believe, on the other
hand, that he really saw Cape Sherard Osborn, and that this
cape is nothing else than the northern point of Eva Island.
The mistake made in marking the position of that cape can be
explained by a deviation of the compass, in a locality where the
needle is strongly affected by rocks which are mostly composed of
iron ore.
At Cape Habermann the coast rises steeply to about 2,900 feet
or so above the sea. The light westerly winds which had prevailed
during the last few days had driven away the pack from Prince
Prince Rudolph Island 115
Rudolph Island towards the east, and from Cape Rath to Nansen
Islands ; towards the south the open sea stretched as far as Arch-
duke Rainer Island. On our third day out, as we were not able
to continue our advance along the coast with the sledge, we were
obliged to ascend the island, and to encamp on the ice at Middendorf,
on the summit of Cape Habermann. Hohenlohe Island and Archduke
Rainer Island were seen in the distance. On the fourth day, we
encamped during a thick fog at Cape Brorok, while still remaining
on the summit of the island. The part which is comprised between
Cape Habermann and Cape Brorok, as well as the other islands
situated more to the south of Northbrook, Bell, and Mabel Islands,
A
AN EXCURSION ON PRINCE RUDOLPH ISLAND
is high and precipitous, and free from ice. The fog was still very
thick when we encamped on the fifth day in Teplitz Bay. We
returned to the ship on September 6th, after a journey of about
seventy miles.
The bamboo pole fixed under the trace was found to be
1 1 6 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
inconvenient, as it was too unyielding. It also required that some
one should walk ahead of the dogs, which naturally diminished the
speed of our advance, and left the sledges without any attendant.
The swivels were of no use ; they only increased the weight of the
harness and rendered it more liable to break. The dogs showed
strength and endurance, and I felt more confidence in them after this
trip than I had felt at Archangel, when I saw them in such a state of
exhaustion.
Like the interior of Greenland, Prince Rudolph Island lies
completely buried under one immense glacier, which descends to the
sea in every direction except at a few points, such as Cape Germania,
Cape Saulen, Cape Fligely, Cape Brorok, Cape Habermann, and Cape
Auk. At some of these points, such as Cape Auk, Cape Brorok, and
Cape Habermann, the coast is almost perpendicular, which prevents
the ice from descending to the sea. At others, like Cape Fligely,
Cape Germania, and Cape Saulen, the ice, stopped by a hollow,
falls into the sea on each side of the headland, which thus remains
uncovered. Moreover, wherever the snow can rest, there are glaciers
which end at the sea in an ice-cliff, like that formed by the main
glacier, so that it can be said that the entire coast, with the
exception of a short extent of strand near Teplitz Bay, is formed
by a vertical ice-cliff.
As Prince Rudolph Island is not very high, the movement of
the ice is slow ; in fact, we detected very few crevasses, never
witnessed the formation of an iceberg, and when, in the months of
March, April, May, and June, we set up a line of posts on the
glacier, we could perceive no movement. Near the coast, and where
the declivity is steep, there are crevasses which, unlike those of the
Alps, are almost invisible ; hence great care is required to avoid
mishaps, which the most experienced guide cannot foresee or prevent.
Prince Rudolph Island 117
During the summer, on those days when the temperature remains
above zero, the snow thaws rapidly, and torrents of water flow from
the glacier to the sea, hollowing out channels many feet wide.
As the table-lands at Cape Fligely and Cape Germania, situated from
162 to 260 feet above the sea-level, are free from snow, we might
believe that that is the limit of perpetual snow in this locality ;
but as at the same height the glacier is never to be seen without
TYPICAL ICE-CLIFF OF THE COAST OF PKIXCE RUDOLPH ISLAND
a covering of snow, we might also come to a perfectly different
conclusion.
The lines of stratification, which were observed at many points
of the sea-front of the ice-cliff formed by the glacier near Cape Saiilen
and Cape Fligely, would seem to indicate that precipitation is greater
here than thaw or evaporation, and on seeing the photographs of
Teplitz Bay, Captain Payer was inclined to believe that the glaciation
of the island had increased since 1874. He has often told me that in
the district between Cape Germania and Cape Fligely he has walked
over level tracts, free from snow, which are no longer to be found
1 1 8 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
there, and there is now only one uncovered space, 3,000 feet in length,
near Cape Fligely. None the less, even if, during the lapse of time
between 1874 until now, the ice has increased on Prince Rudolph
Island, there could be no doubt that, during our stay in the bay,
the thaw and the evaporation had been greater than the precipitation.
Also, a period of retrogression was perhaps then setting in, in its
glacial state, which would tend to bring the island back to the
same condition it was in when discovered by the Austro-Hungarian
explorer.
CHAPTER VI
We abandon the Ship
•
CHAPTER VI
WE ABANDON THE SHIP
DURING my absence the ship had been righted, by means of
some guncotton mines which had been sprung on the left
side. The pack had again come up against the bay, and as the early
frosts were beginning to bind the ice-fields together, we we prepare our
r . . Winter Quarters.
had greater hopes or passing a quiet winter.
The aeronautic apparatus had been landed and put in order on
the shore, so as to be ready for the coming spring. The deck had
been covered with an awning from the main-mast up to the fore-
mast, and on the side next to the bow. This was to be closed
by a wooden partition crossing the ship from one side to the other.
The dogs' provisions had been landed, and the lower deck had
been partly cleared, that we might more easily get at the stores
we wanted.
We had never made so many plans with regard to the work to
be done in the autumn, to the expedition towards the north, and
to our return home, as on the evening of September yth. A few
hours later all these day-dreams had vanished.
During the last few days light westerly winds had driven the
Polar ice against the coast, and had kept it there, without, however,
making its pressure felt. During the night of Septem- The ship is beset
by the Ice on
ber yth a light breeze set in from the south, and later September stn.
on it blew more violently from the south-west. The ice-pack was
122 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
gradually driven against the ice-field in the bay, which in its turn was
pressed up against the fixed ice along the coast.
I was disturbed two or three times during the night by slight
creaking noises, but towards half-past six loud reports coming from all
sides, and sudden movements of the ship, which first heeled over to
the left and then twenty degrees to the right, roused me completely.
Before they ceased I rushed out on deck, half-dressed, to see what
was happening.
The ice-field in the bay, driven by the ice-pack, had risen all
around over that which lay along the coast, and had reached up to the
kennels, against the doors of which some large floes had been piled up,
thus preventing egress. When the dogs gave the alarm, the crew ran
to extricate them by breaking the inner partitions and letting them out
on the side of the land. A pressure-ridge had been formed along the
coast with hummocks about fifteen or eighteen feet high. Under
the strong pressure of the ice against the bow the ship had backed
about ninety feet, and had risen at the same time on the ice where she
remained, with her bow out of water, heeling over about twenty
degrees to the left. Great slabs of ice had been raised against her
side and stern while she was making her way through them. At the
bow, all the rigging of the fore-mast had broken loose, and on the
right side of the ship, which was exposed from the middle to the bow,
when she heeled over, the outer planks of green-heart were seen to
have been driven in to a depth of two and a half or three and a
quarter inches for a length of eighteen or twenty feet, so much so
that a hand could be passed between them. The ice had this time
shown itself stronger than the ribs of the Polar Star, and as some
damage like that visible on the right side might also exist on the left
side, then under water, I gave orders to light the fires.
Whilst I was dressing, the engineer informed me that the ship had
We abandon the Ship 123
sprung a leak, and that the water had risen to the floor of the engine-
room. As it was pouring in fast, the pumps were immediately set
going, to prevent it from rising, and to give time for steam to be
raised to work the donkey-engine. The wind had gone down, and the
windmill-pump acted only intermittently ; the level of the water had
OUK POSITION : A DISTANT VIEW
therefore to be kept down for about two hours with only the hand-
pump. As it was not certain that the leak could be kept down
by a single pump, and as any additional pressure of the ice might
throw the ship on her beam ends, when, if the ice gave way, she
would sink, we were obliged to land, with the utmost haste, the
124 On tne P°tar Star in the Arctic Sea
stores for winter, and to secure the necessary materials for building
a dwelling-house.
The rose-coloured illusions of the preceding evening had
vanished, and the^e remained before me the gloomy outlook of a
winter passed in this bay with but scanty resources, and of a retreat
to be carried out with still more scanty resources in the following
spring. There arose in my mind involuntary recollections of the
unfortunate expeditions of De Long, Greely, and Franklin, which
increased my present anxiety by the thought of the heavy responsi-
bility the unknown future would bring.
When ordered to disembark the provisions, the crew, well aware
of the gravity of the situation, set to work eagerly and without the
slightest confusion. It was seven o'clock when we began to draw,
partly from the fore-hold and partly from the middle-hold, and to
throw on the ice to our left the tinned provisions, the clothing, and
the field-tents; the petroleum was poured out provisionally into every
available vessel — into washing tubs, buckets, and barrels. It was hard
to work on board, as the ship heeled over so much, and the deck
was covered with ice. Under these circumstances the advantage of
having light packages was soon perceived, for the crew could hand
them along from one to the other. The heavier cases had to be
raised by pulleys, and once on the deck, it was difficult to bring them
farther. With the exception of the two engineers, who were busied
with the engines, and the four men who were working the pumps,
all the others were employed in landing the stores.
At eight o'clock we sat down to table, dirty and excited ; we
took our breakfast almost without speaking to each other, and went
back to work immediately.
The wind had quite fallen, and our single hand-pump did not
suffice to keep down the water, which in the left stoke-hole had
LANDING THE STORES WHILE THE SHIP IS MI'I'EU liY THE ICE
125
We abandon the Ship
127
already risen to the bars of the furnaces. The two engineers were
working up to their ankles in water, and we were continually sending
to know what the pressure of the steam was. When at last, about
half-past eight, we heard the sound of the donkey-engine working, it
seemed to us that our anxiety was about to enjoy a momentary relief.
The donkey-engine and hand-pump kept down the water, but,
ONE OK THK TWO FIELD-TENTS WI1JCH KOKMED THE INTEK1OX OK THE HUT
considering how we were situated, we could not hope to make it
remain at the same level. Our crew could not work the hand-
pump much longer ; the donkey-engine alone was not enough ; the
windmill-pump could not be reckoned on ; and the exhaust-pipe ot
the condenser could not act because the shaft of the propeller required
to be first put out of gear, which could not be done, as it was already
under water. We were, therefore, obliged to give up the idea of
128 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
keeping the water below the fires, and we could only continue to use
the hand-pump for a few hours while we landed the most necessary
stores, after which we should abandon the ship.
The disembarkation continued all that day, with the exception
•of intervals for meals. At midnight we took a light supper, no
longer in our saloon, but near the bow of the ship ; our food had
been prepared on the ship's forge, as the cook's galley had been
taken to pieces and sent on shore.
As the ship still remained in the same situation, which had not
become more dangerous, and as we had rescued all that was required
to pass the winter, we began to disembark what would be wanted
for the sledge expedition, so that if the vessel were lost we
should still have the means of accomplishing the undertaking for
which we had set out. The suction-pipe of the hand-pump then
became partly obstructed, and, moreover, as it was very fatiguing
work, it was set aside, and a smaller pump used which could be
.worked by two men ; but this pump and the donkey-engine, which
was still working, could not prevent the water from rising.
Daylight still lasted during twenty-four hours. A calm had
succeeded the wind, and everything predicted a fine day. The ice
had not stirred. The holds were open, the cases had been flung here
and there, the lamps had been taken away from their places, the cabins
were in confusion, and everything bore traces of the hasty work of
the last few hours. It was sad to see by that bright daylight the
state of our ship, which had hitherto been always kept in such good
order. By six o'clock in the morning we had safely landed provisions
for more than a year — clothing, tents, all that we wanted for lighting
purposes, and all that was requisite for the sledge expedition. We
then ceased to work the hand-pump, the water was allowed to rise
and put out the fires, and after twenty-four hours of uninterrupted
We abandon the Ship
129
labour, except during the short intervals for meals, the last case was
landed. The Italian flag and my own flag were then hoisted at the
stern and the main-mast, so that if the vessel sank they might be
the last objects to be seen, and if she did not stir from the place
where the pressure of the ice had driven her, their sight would
sustain our hopes of raising her. The crew, which was worn out,
then went below to take a well-deserved rest.
HOW THE HUT WAS CONSTRUCTED
When I got up at nine o'clock, Captain Cagni told me that there
had been no change in the position of the ship, and that the water
continued to rise. The ship, however, did not stir, either because
she was resting on the ground or was merely fixed in the ice.
The day was bright and calm, without a cloud, but the sight
round the ship was dreary.
What a change had taken place in less than twenty-four hours !
I was still bewildered by the feverish toil of the preceding day, and
could not be persuaded to believe that I should have to abandon the
VOL. i. 9
130 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
Polar Star, on the outfit of which so much care had been lavished.
I walked several times round it, followed by the dogs ; they had
fasted for twenty-four hours, and were begging for food. I then
went on board, and down into the engine-room. The water was
rising slowly. The left furnace was already extinguished, as it was
under water, and that on the right would soon be in the same state.
I was convinced that the ship must have been damaged on the
left side as well as on the right. As the fires could not be lighted,
it was hard to free the ship from water by any means whatever. It
seemed probable that we could never make use of it again, and that
to make our way home we would be obliged to retreat to Cape Flora
on our sledges in the coming spring, or in our boats in the summer.
This would be a very different matter from reaching the Pole, for
we should arrive in Norway as shipwrecked sailors.
About ten o'clock the water, which had risen a few inches
more, stopped at last.
The heeling over of our vessel had rendered lite on board
uncomfortable ; it would be difficult just then to raise her by
blasting, which might also make her run the risk of
We build a Hut.
sinking still more, whilst any further pressure of the ice
might cast her on her beam ends, and oblige the expedition to
abandon her completely. It would therefore, no doubt, be better
to leave her and to take up our quarters on land, where we should
be safe from any sudden danger, and we did not lack materials to
build a house.
The expedition had been provided with two field-tents which
would lodge the whole crew, though they alone would not suffice to
protect us during the winter or to resist the violence of the wind,
but by strengthening them with additional covers, also of canvas, so
as to form air-spaces between them, a sufficiently high temperature
THE POLAR STAR AFTER THE ICE PRESSURF
We abandon the Ship 133
could be kept up inside, and if the outer covering were made of
stronger sailcloth it would be able to resist the wind. The canvas
awning which had stood on the deck, with the poles and cross-
bars which formed its framework, was well suited to stand over the
-J&T-
VERTICAL SECTION OF THE HUT
FRAMEWORK OF THE HUT
•field-tents, and with the spars and the sails of the ship, a third tent
could be constructed which would cover the others.
We set to work at once ; Captain Cagni was the architect of our
new home, and that night we slept under our tents.
134
Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
A week of uninterrupted work followed, in which we were much
assisted by the continuation of fine weather. I relate it here as I then
put it down in my diary :—
September ioM.— We begin by taking down the awning which
had been put up over the deck ; the sails are then unbent, the spars
are lowered, and we carry everything we require from the ship to the
tents, which are about 450 feet away. The ship has not stirred
THE KENNELS BEING DRAGGED UP ON THE BEACH
since, but at the highest tide the water rises to the sailors' quarters
on the left side.
September nth. — With the spars belonging to the boats, we get
ready three sheers for the boom to rest on ; the sails are stretched
over it, and thus form the outer tent. The sails are fastened to the
top-mast spars, which have been placed at the sides of the field-tents.
By evening they are already in their proper places, but not yet sewn
together. In the meantime we continue to disembark all that can
We abandon the Ship 135
be of use to the sledging expedition, and begin to set in order the
piles of stores which had been put on shore on the day when we were
first crushed by the ice. We already begin to feel the discomfort of
our new dwelling. As it is now covered in, the interior is darkened,
and we are obliged to keep the lamps lighted.
The first day we had to use the forge for cooking, but now the
kitchen is set up again, and it stands between the two field-tents.
The only one who profits by our change of dwelling is the cook, who
had previously to perform his duties in a small room, badly aired, and
therefore always full of smoke.1 It is not very pleasant, however, to
have to cook in a temperature of seven degrees below zero, nor is it
pleasant to dine in a tent with such a temperature. We have to
stamp our feet continually on the frozen ground, and rub our hands,
while hurrying over our meals that we may warm ourselves again
by walking about.
September \ith. — The sails are now being sewn together, and it
is trying work, although the weather is fine, for the men are obliged
to come down frequently from the sheers and run about to warm
themselves. Towards evening the work is ended. While the boat-
swain sews the sails together, the sailors and carpenters are making
the two ends of the tent ; these are formed of battens placed in a
semi-circle on the ground, with their upper ends lashed to the
1 Both petroleum and coal could be used in our kitchen Not more than five
pints of petroleum were required to give us thirty-four gallons of boiling water every
day. Besides the great saving in fuel, the use of petroleum would have allowed of
quicker cooking, and rid us of the discomfort of smoke. But a few days after
leaving Christiania, we had to cease using petroleum and employ coal. The real
consumption had proved to be more than ten pints a day, and there had been
much loss by leakage. When coal was used, owing to the smallness of the room
and the bad ventilation, not only the kitchen, but even our cabins, were filled with
smoke every morning, and even up to the day on which the pressure of the ice
occurred, this discomfort had not ceased.
136 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
tops of the sheers. They resemble in shape the buttresses of the
piers of a bridge. To strengthen the sheers at both ends, three of
the six sets of tackle belonging to the boats are made fast to each, so
THE ENTRANCE TO THE TENT
that two are stretched in the direction of the length of the tent and
four transversely. Our dogs have to be kept tied up all day,
otherwise they would drive the cook to despair by gnawing at the
cases of provisions ranged upon the snow.
September \^th. — One of the tanks, containing 187 gallons of
petroleum, is landed, and carried up to the hut.1 While the inner
tent, which is to cover the two field-tents, is being set up, the canvas,
which is to form the ends of the third and outermost tent, is put into
its place. The inner tent is supported by the same framework as on
1 Another tank was landed later on.
We abandon the Ship
board. The ground has to be levelled before the inner tents are
completely put up ; it requires a good deal of labour and time to get
rid of the large stones frozen into the ground ; they require to be
IVOKY GULLS
hammered away, and the soil all round loosened with pick-axes. By
evening the floor of our dwelling is levelled, and we can settle down
there.
138 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
September I4//;, i 5///, i6th. — Although during the night the
temperature in the tent was — 16° C., we all slept well. The fine
weather, which facilitates our work, continues ; the second tent is
put up. When it served as an awning on deck, its sides were
formed by the bulwarks of the ship ; they are now formed of
boards, for which we make use of those which had closed it at
the end next the bow. As we have not wood enough to close
both ends, we employ canvas for that purpose, and leave only a
single communication with the exterior. The sails which form
the outermost tent are now stretched over the top-mast spars, and
the stones are cleared away from the sailors' field-tent as they were
from ours, so that their beds can be put in their places.
September 17 'th. — After seven days' labour we take a rest to-day,
and resume the life that we led on board. The principal part of
the hut is already finished ; some less important work has still to be
done, but this can be performed more conveniently later on. In seven
days twenty persons have been transferred from ship-board to land, and
settled there in a dwelling made by the tents, the sails, and the spars,
without causing any serious damage to the rigging of the ship.
Our work during the following days consisted specially in carry-
ing provisions, coal, and clothing into the tent and its immediate
neighbourhood, taking away everything that had been laid on the ice,
and putting it in a safe place on the beach. The clothing was put into
the empty space between the two inner field-tents on a shelf hung from
the top. In the interval or passage between the inner tents where we
slept and the first tent, were the tins of unsweetened milk and the
wine which, being more liable to be spoiled by the cold, required to be
kept in a comparatively warm place. As these tins were heaped up one
against! the other, they almost formed a wall, which helped still more to
keep out the cold. As a further protection to prevent the cold air from
We abandon the Ship 139
penetrating into the field-tents, bands of canvas were sewn to the sides
of the field-tents, and bags of coal were laid on the part of these
bands which trailed on the ground. The open space between the
two field-tents was occupied on one side by the kitchen, and on
the other by the bags and cases containing the clothing. We had
taken down the partitions which had enclosed the sailors' quarters
on board, and used them as flooring for the tents. The tents were
warmed by two stoves, the chimneys of which passed through the
three coverings until they rose above the boom, so that from what-
ever point the wind might blow they were sure to draw well. The
canvas was protected against fire by plates of asbestos. The cases which
held the provisions most likely to be consumed during the winter were
placed between the second and third tents, thus furnishing additional
shelter, and coal bags were laid down round the first tent. To guard
still more against the cold, a vestibule was added to the outer tent,,
and thus made a third entrance to our dwelling, while other cases of
biscuits and provisions were laid outside the tent, where they formed
an enclosure in which were placed about thirty tons of coal. A hut
for the smithy was built alongside this depot by means of sails and
cases. Lastly, the kennels, which had remained on the ice along the
beach, were transferred to a short distance from our dwelling. These
occupations took up our time until the end of September.
During the second half of this month the weather was mostly calm
and fine, with some winds of short duration from the east. After the
pressure of September the ice-fields between Cape Saulen The Birds leave
Teplitz Bay.
and Cape Clement Markham to the south, and Karl
Alexander and Prince Rudolph Islands to the east, had not stirred again,
but beyond the bay, when the east winds blew, the pack was easily
driven back, leaving a broad channel between the ice fixed to the
islands just mentioned and the movable part of the ice-pack. The
140 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
temperature fell sometimes to —19° C., but the mean temperature was
between —5° C. and —6° C., and therefore did not force us to make
any change in our clothing. It rained on September 2ist and 22nd,
and the temperature rose again up to 3° C., which made the snow thaw.
Some of the birds had already begun their migration to the south.
The first to leave Cape Saulen in the early days of September had been
the guillemots and the little auks ; there remained only the petrels, the
glaucous and the ivory gulls, and they also left towards the end of the
same month.
CHAPTER VII
The Last Days of Light
CHAPTER VII
THE LAST DAYS OF LIGHT
AS our ship, which we had abandoned after it had been seized
by the ice, was the only means of our returning home in the
following year, we had to consider how to save her. Part of the
engines, the condenser, and the furnaces were under water, First Attempts
to extricate the
which had frozen to a thickness or about nineteen inches,
The ship had not changed her position, but had heeled over still
more as the ice which had supported her had given way.
The water had first to be pumped out of the ship to enable
us to find the leak on the left side, and this had to be mended as
well as that which was visible on the right side ; we had then to
see if it would be possible to keep the ship dry, and if not, to
protect the engines so that they might remain under water during
winter without being injured. Such was the work before us. At
that time I did not believe it possible, but Captain Cagni never
despaired for a moment of being able to carry it out, and if it was
accomplished, it was owing to his strong will and to his perse-
verance, which was never discouraged by any difficulty.
It has been seen that, on a breezy day, the pump worked by
the windmill was able to lower the level of the water in the hold,
but it acted so intermittently that it could not be reckoned on,
and the hand-pumps alone were not enough. The water had been
let out of the boilers on September 26th, lest it should damage the
144
the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
tubes when it froze, and it was therefore necessary to find some
other efficacious means which could be employed for some days.
We then thought of a pump which we had brought to serve in
the production of the hydrogen for inflating the balloons. It was a
UNDER REPAIR
double-action pump with two large discharge pipes, and calculated
to produce a powerful effect. As it was worked by means of a small
Field boiler connected with the generator, it was easy to make use of.
The boiler and the pump were at first set up and made to work on
deck in the open air, but the water quickly froze in the hose-pipes
exposed on deck, and the boiler ceased to act. It was then taken down
and placed under cover in what had been the cook's galley, where it
was easy to maintain a high temperature by closing the doors and
lighting the stoves.
As soon as we could reckon on the steady working of the boiler
and the pump, we began to clear away the upper part of the ice in the
engine-room. One day when there was a strong breeze the windmill-
The Last Days of Light
pump was made to act ; it emptied out most of the water in the hold,
and, with the help of the small boiler, the ship was completely freed.
The engine-room was speedily disengaged from the layer of ice which
had been formed there, by working at it from above and from below ;
a great part of the ice which still adhered to the engines was thawed by
means of burning balls of tow steeped in petroleum, and what remained
melted away when the fires were lit.
LANDING THE COAL
While the engines were being put in order, the coal was removed
from the left side, so as to allow the state of that side of the ship to be
examined from the interior, and at the same time to lighten her. The
provisions which still remained on the lower deck were landed along
with the coal ; they were laid on the beach, and the coal on the
VOL. i. 10
146 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
ice which adhered to the shore alongside the ship. When the
left side was uncovered, it was found to be but little damaged,
and that only a few angle-irons had been slightly bent. The
right side, on the contrary, showed for a length of thirty feet, about
nineteen and a half inches below the beams supporting the lower
deck, traces of the violent pressure which it had undergone. The
inner planking had been driven in, and the angle-irons between
the deck-beams and the frame timbers twisted by about four
•L X* - .-»
THE LEAK MENDED
inches from their original shape. The pressure of the ice had not
only damaged the spot immediately subjected to it, but it had dis-
located every part of the vessel. The stanchions in the middle of
the vessel had been separated from the deck-beams and the keelson
by about four inches, and the upper and lower ends of the lateral
The Last Days of Light
J47
diagonals placed between the deck-beams and the frame timbers had
also been detached.1
As there were no signs of a leak to be seen on the left side, nor
on the water-line, it was feared that the principal damage might have
THE SHIP ABANDONED
been caused at the bow. There was also some uneasiness about the
propeller, but on cutting away the ice down to the level of the sea,
the end of a blade could be seen, and with even that much it might be
7 o
possible to return to Europe.
1 When the ship was again floated, she never regained her original shape. On
being docked on her return, it was found that the shaft of the propeller had been
bent by one inch. The screw-post had also been moved from its position, in
spite of the strong timbers between the keel and the hull, and had caused
considerable leakage.
148 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
As we could not find the leak, it was necessary to decide whether
the hold should be still kept dry by means of the pumps, or whether
the water should be allowed to fill it again. The hold could only be
kept dry by wearing out the small boiler and the pump, which it
would be more advisable to keep in order till wanted in the summer,
and the hose could not have been used without subjecting the crew to
very severe toil during winter. If, on the other hand, the water were
allowed to rise again, only the boiler and the condenser could be
in any way injured by the length of their icy bath. But it was almost
certain that these important parts could be kept in good condition by
closing up all their tubes with wooden plugs, and it was therefore
better to leave the ship and allow the water to rise in the hold and in
the engine-room.
The carpenter, meanwhile, with Petigax, the guide, had been
employed in mending the outside of the leak on the right. He
had cut into the outer planking of green-heart to a depth of
about two inches at the place where it had been damaged. This
was covered with tarpaulin, over which boards taken from the
lower deck were fixed with long bolts. Although, when the work
was finished, the outline of the ship's side was changed, since the
pressure of the ice had distorted the shape of the frame timbers,
the leak at that spot was stanched. For fear, however, the
ship might heel over on her beam-ends, two strong steel cables
were finally stretched from the tops of the main-mast and of the
fore-mast to the shore.
The work which had begun on October Trd lasted till November
O >J
1 5th; it preserved the condenser and the boiler, and proved to us
that the ship could still be of use if we could succeed in extricating
her from the situation into which by the pressure of the ice she had
been driven ; it gave the crew some occupation for more than a month,
The Last Days of Light
149
INTERIOR OF THE TKNT
and again raised our spirits, which had been somewhat cast down by
the events of September 8th.
In the meantime our hut had been made as comfortable as
possible by bringing up to it from the ship whatever was most
requisite.
In our tent we four had taken our places on the same side —
Captain Cagni and the doctor at the ends, Lieutenant Querini and I
in the middle. The Norwegian officers were on the 0urLifem
... . . . -Jill • tne Tent.
opposite side, the two engineers in the middle, the captain
and the mate at the ends. The table of our saloon was placed
between the two engineers, and by day it served for our meals and
our work.
While under canvas we followed the same order of the day as
150 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
on board. We were called at seven, and as we lived in a common
room, we were all obliged to rise at nearly the same time. The first
breakfast was at eight ; work began after nine, lasted till mid-day, and
was taken up again after dinner till five. Supper was at half-past six,
and few of us sat up after ten.
Our mode of life was thus as monotonous as that of a school,
where all are obliged to act in the same way at the same time. Our
different occupations helped us to pass the day quickly enough, but we
found the evening tedious. After some months, subjects of conver-
sation had become rare, and in order not to repeat the same things,
we spoke little.
The health of all the members of the expedition was excellent.
We always lived in the open air, we slept in a dry and well-aired
tent, we wore warm clothing, our food was wholesome, and we had
fresh bear's flesh served out to us once or twice a week ; such were
the causes of this satisfactory condition. We owed our good health
THE KENNELS DURING THE SUMMER
The Last Days of Light 151
not only to the excellent quality of the preserved food, but also to our
cook, and to his wholesome and varied cookery. His place was no
sinecure. As he had to prepare two meals a day for twenty persons,
as well as to make bread, he was kept busy from morning till night.
THE KENNELS AFTER THE SNOWSTORM
During a whole year, the days passed over without change or rest for
him, and he had even more work to do on feast-days.
On November 4th the weather became bad, and a very strong
wind set in from the east. The snow, which was whirled A violent
Hurricane.
up and driven by the wind, made breathing difficult
and rendered objects invisible at the distance of a few yards.
This was the most severe storm which we experienced during
our stay in Teplitz Bay, and also the longest. It raged without
ceasing for eight days. Our hut was not as yet covered with snow,
and so had to stand the full force of the wind, which penetrated into
the space between the first and second huts through the holes made
at the seams in the canvas, and shook the entire framework, making a
noise like that made by the sails of a frigate of former days. We
could hardly hear each other speak, and considering that this enter-
tainment lasted without interruption for eight days, it is easy to
152 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
imagine how we rejoiced when we saw by the rising of the barometer
that the end of the tempest was approaching.
Our dogs were exposed to very great danger in this storm ; when
it began they had already been shut up in their kennels, as -was usual
every evening, but when, next day, we tried to bring them their food,
we found that the wind had driven such a mass of snow round the
kennels that they were nearly buried, and that we could not open
THE CAGE FOR THE INSTRUMENTS DURING SUMMER
the doors. That day we all had to work to extricate the dogs, and
we passed a most unpleasant time in the dark, while the snow whirled
round us and the wind continually extinguished our lanterns. A few
minutes after the kennels were opened, they were completely filled with
snow, so that the dogs remained without any shelter. Two or three
of them were forgotten, and three days after one was discovered
walled up in the snow, which had become as hard as ice, and would
have been its tomb if we had not rescued it in time. After the storm
The Last Days of Light 153
our hut remained half-buried in snow, the weight of which tightened
the sails ; it also reduced the extent of surface exposed to the wind,
and rendered our abode very safe ever after.
The tempest of November 4th drove the ice-pack out to sea
again, and left a vast stretch of open water between Cape Saulen and
Cape Clement Markham, which, even at such a late period of the
season, would have allowed us to sail up to Teplitz Bay. Later on,
the dark tint of the sky towards the west showed us that this extent
of water remained free from ice for a considerable time, as the wind
THE CAGE PROTECTED FROM THE DRIFT BY CANVAS SCREENS
blew without ceasing, with greater or less strength from the east
or north-east, and thus prevented the ice-pack from again approaching
the shore.
November was a windy month, and easterly and north-easterly
winds predominated ; on some days the temperature rose to — i° C.,
and we might have thought that we were in Europe The Tempera-
ture. The Drift
instead of the Polar regions.
The snow never fell in large flakes, as we see at home, but was
granulated, and hardened by the wind as soon as it fell, so that walk-
ing over it left no trace. It was carried by the wind like the desert
154 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
sand ; under a light breeze it ran along the ground, but when the
wind freshened, the level of the driven snow rose to the height of
several feet, and if there was a violent storm, it was impossible to
know if the snow which enveloped us fell from the sky or was
carried by the fury of the tempest.1 The snow did not lie evenly
on the ground, but was piled up against every obstacle ; it filled
the hollow places and did not stay on flat surfaces, which made it
impossible to calculate how much had fallen. Whatever wind blew
with the greatest force, made furrows in the snow answering to the
point from which it came, and these furrows rendered the surface of
the ice uneven.2
We continued to wear the same clothes as when on board, but
instead of leather, we wore wooden shoes, or boots made of felt for
everyday use, and komager and fnsko for walking. Wooden shoes
lined with sealskin and felt boots were warm foot-gear, and wore
well, but they were not adapted for walking. On stormy days we
put on over our usual clothes what are called wind-repellers, of
stout duck, without any opening, and tied at the wrists and
ankles to keep out the snow. For head-dress we all wore the
caps used by whalers, which are provided with flaps to protect
the ears.
We soon began to find it difficult to make our registering
instruments work. The cage which had been furnished by our
wefinditdiffi- Meteorological Office was very good for summer, but of
cult to continue J °
tionf4i?JSteh7a" little use in winter. The drift was heaped up on it
Registering In- „ c . T
struments. and cut off the instruments from the outer air. It
was thought that this drawback could be remedied by surround-
ing the cage with several rows of Venetian blinds, which should
1 The snow carried along by a high wind is called " drift."
• The Esquimaux call these undulations Sastrug.
The Last Days of Light 155
stop the snow and let the air circulate freely in the interior. They
were, however, useless. The cage was then wrapped up in canvas, in
which holes had been pierced with large needles, and finally placed
in a hut made of the same sort of canvas. All these coverings,
to '
put one over the other, made the state of the instruments worse,
instead of better. The snow got between them, and was piled
up everywhere ; it penetrated into the openings of the registering
instruments, and stopped the clockwork. It soon rose gradually until
it reached the same height as the outer hut, thus placing the instru-
THE FIRST FALL OF SNOW
ments as though at the bottom of a well. It was hoped at first that
this would not often occur, but there were gales laden with flying drift
so frequently, that we were obliged to seek various devices in order
to be able to continue taking observations. When the weather was
fine, we began to observe the stars, but later on our work was rendered
very trying by the low temperature. It was impossible to handle the
screws of the instruments while keeping our gloves on, and if we took
them ofFour fingers were frozen. It was difficult to read the scales on
the instruments, as our breath, in condensing, hid the divisions. The
chronometers which had been placed in our tents showed remarkable
156 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
variations in their daily movements. We were obliged to give
up taking pendulum observations on account of the changes in the
temperature of the tents, and as it was difficult to take magnetic
observations with Schneider's magnetometer in the hut built for that
purpose, since the temperature which prevailed there was low, that,
too, had to be given up. It may, perhaps, be useful to remark
here that instruments intended for the Arctic regions should be easy
to manage, because many delicate operations which, in our part of
the world, can be performed with the greatest ease, there become
very difficult or even impossible.1
The sun on October I5th had already set, but during the second
half of October, and nearly the whole of November, there were still
Daylight several hours of twilight every day. Stars of the first
magnitude were visible at noon on November 3rd, and
the others came out little by little. Then the Aurora borealis began
to appear, and with more or less brilliancy lit up the sky thenceforth,
during all the winter. As the tints on the horizon became gradually
Jess intense, the time drew near when there would no longer be any
difference between day and night. I find an entry in my diary on
November 2Oth to the effect that, though at mid-day there is still
a pale light on the horizon, there is not enough to cause any perceptible
difference in the appearance of the surrounding objects. The Polar
night had begun,
1 For the scientific observations, see the various reports in the volume entitled
Scientific Observations — viz., Chapter II., " Astronomical Observations," Lieutenant
Alberto Alessio ; Chapter VII.," Pendul u m Observations," Professor Cesare Aimonetti ;
Chapter VIII., " Observations of Terrestrial Magnetism," Professor Luigi Palazzo.
CHAPTER VIII
The Polar Night and the Feasts of Christmas
and the New Year
CHAPTER VIII
THE POLAR NIGHT AND THE FEASTS OF CHRISTMAS AND
THE NEIV YEAR
WHEN the Polar night set in, it was lit up by the moon, and
thenceforward our satellite gave us light enough, for a
fortnight every month, to work and to walk about in. When
there was no moon, we were in utter darkness. The ,
The Polar
feeble twilight, which was visible every day at noon, lg '
became paler every day until in the first week of December it
disappeared completely.
My companions and I were not struck by the transparency of
the sky. As there was always snow suspended in the air like dust,
the stars did not shine in calm weather, as I had often seen them
shine in tropical regions, and even in our own country. The sur-
rounding landscape, indeed, was very distinct, but that could be
accounted for by the strong reflection from the ice.
The darkness was to last for about two months. There was
plenty of work to be done both inside and outside the tents, and
since it was impossible to make excursions in the neighbourhood,
and we had no other exercise, we had to be content with walking
to and fro between signal posts, over well-known ground, as had been
the practice of those who had preceded us in the Arctic regions.
On calm and fine days, by the pale light of the moon these
hours of exercise were almost pleasant ; but when there was utter
160 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
darkness, drift, and wind, with a temperature of - 20° C., it
required a strong effort of the will not to go back to the hut, but
to bear with the discomfort of remaining outside for over an hour,
unable to see more than a few yards, and with one's face stung by
the driven snow.
We had been busied until now with the ship and the tent ;
but henceforth, while the crew was getting ready the outfit for the
expedition in spring, we had to note down the observations already
taken, to work out the calculations, and with the help of the
observations of other explorers which we collected from the books
we had brought with us to draw up the plan of the expedition
towards the Pole.
.The time passed over quickly. As for me, I had set out with
a well-stocked library, thinking that I should have much leisure for
reading, as there would be no other occupation, but I ended by
reading very little.
After the storm in the first days of November our dogs had no
longer any. shelter in bad weather, so they took refuge partly in
our porch and partly in the instrument hut. Some remained in the
open air, and though the dogs that were stronger could stand the
exposure, the weaker would have soon broken down. It frequently
happened when dogs had lain curled up for some time, and the heat
of their bodies had melted the snow beneath them, that the water
froze again, when their tails became fixed in the ice and they could
not free themselves.
We then thought of sheltering the dogs in holes dug into the
snow, which had been carried and heaped up by the drift which had
nearly buried them a few days previously. All the crew set to work
eagerly at this new undertaking, and with pick-axes and shovels
they hollowed out two caves more than three feet high, many feet
IV*
mi
-\
.
V
The Feasts of Christmas and the New Year 161
square, and ventilated by means of the wind-sails belonging to the
engine-room. By the light of our lanterns these grottoes presented
a fantastic appearance. The dogs were shut up in them ; but with
the help of their teeth and claws, they made a passage beside the
doors and escaped. Our guides, like good mountaineers, persisted
A VIEW FORWARD
in their determination to keep them shut up ; they, therefore, placed
close to the door boxes of biscuits, round which they poured water.
This, when it froze, made a wall in which the dogs' claws could
open no breach. But it was all in vain, for the dogs then dug out,
alongside the boxes, tunnels, which in some cases were from sixteen to
nineteen feet long. At other times, by dint of incredible efforts, they
VOL. i. i i
1 62 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
made their way out through the wind-sails, the inner end of which
was over four feet from the ground. As they surpassed us in
obstinacy and cunning, at last we gave up the idea of keeping
them always shut in, and left them free to take shelter in the
caverns during bad weather if they chose.
Later on, their former kennels underwent another transforma-
tion. The partitions were taken away and they were changed into
long corridors, in which the dogs were housed until the departure
of the expedition.
The Italian Queen's birthday was celebrated on November 2oth
by the distribution of the gifts whidi Her Majesty had sent to me by
The Italian Count Oldofredi when I was about to leave Archangel.
Queen's
Birthday. When the mishap to our ship had occurred, the boxes
had not been forgotten, for I attached great value to these
memorials, which we highly prized, particularly at this time. One
of these boxes had been opened on October 2ist, and the presents
so kindly sent by the Duchess Helena of Aosta distributed to
the officers and sailors. Her Majesty the Queen had sent silver
chains for the sailors, and various other trinkets for the officers-
each gift bearing the name of the person for whom it^was intended
— an act of kindly courtesy which enabled me to gladden my
comrades with memorials of Italy, which was so far away. The
day was not very fine, for I read in my diary : " Stiff breeze
from the north-east, which subsides towards six o'clock in the
evening; temperature -22° C. ; the sky is clouded at times, the
surroundings are lit up by the moon. Before dinner I take my
usual monotonous walk before the tent for about two hours, dressed
in a wind-proof coat." But if our situation did not allow us much
in the way of amusement, the thought that we were the first Italians
who had ever celebrated the anniversary of our Queen's birth in so
The Feasts of Christ mas and the New Year 163
high a latitude, together with the memories of our distant country,
which on such an occasion arose more vividly in our minds, were
enough to inspire us all with an unwonted gaiety.
IN THE SAILORS TENT
On December I5th I explained to my companions the plan ot
our sledge expedition, of which only the main outlines were known
until then, and not the details. As on November ist
we still had had daylight for three or four hours, I had
calculated that the sledge expedition would have been
able to start from the hut in the second half of February, when it
Changes in the
164 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
would have been possible to march for six or seven hours daily.
Every day gained at our departure, without adding much to the
hardships caused by the cold (for the temperature remains very
low until the end of March), would have very much advanced
the date of the return of the expedition ; and I was positively
determined not to let our return be delayed beyond the end
of May. If the expedition was to carry provisions for ninety
days, and to start on February 1 5th, it would be able to return
between May I5th and 2oth, and there would remain a few days
to spare, if, for any reason, our arrival at Prince Rudolph Island
were delayed.
I also drew attention to the changes which my provisional plan
might undergo when it was carried out. By Dr. Cavalli's advice the daily
rations had been definitely fixed at 2 Ib. 13 oz. 13 dr. per head ; this did
not include the weight of the cases, but if they were taken into account,
the total would be more than 3 Ib. 4 oz. 14 dr., the weight which had
been at first decided on. On account of this increase it was thought
advisable to reduce the number of men in each detachment from four
to three, while keeping the same number of sledges. At starting
there would not be a man to every sledge ; but, after a few days, as
the provisions were consumed, the number of sledges would be
equal to the number of men.
According to my original plan, I had intended to establish during
the autumn depots of provisions to the north of the place where we
should pass the winter. But, since 1 had succeeded in reaching the
most northern island of the archipelago, and as I did not believe
that there was any land beyond it, it was no longer necessary
to take that matter into consideration. I had also thought at
first that the sledge expedition would have to return as far as
80° N., instead of to Teplitz Bay, which is in 81° 47' N. For
The Feasts of Christmas and the New Year 165
that reason 1 had changed somewhat the number of days in my
definitive plan.
In starting, therefore, from Cape Fligely, the expedition was
to be composed of three detachments of three men each ; the
first carrying provisions for thirty days, the second for sixty, and
the third for ninety. A fourth detachment, acting as an auxiliary,
was to enable the third detachment to march two days longer,
making in all forty-seven days, and would also help the expedition
on the first two days of its march. Nansen had taken with him
a kayak 1 for each man, in order to be able to travel more
speedily along the coast, and, if necessary, to reach Spitzbergen.
I had several kayaks like Nansen's, which would hold one or two
persons, so that I could have left some at different points along
our route, in case we had not been able to sail as far as Prince
Rudolph Island, and still have two remaining for each of our detach-
ments. But on account of the place where we were passing the
winter, I thought — and my companions agreed with me — that it would
be enough to give two kayaks, each with room for a single person,
to the two last detachments only, since it would be useless to give
any to the first, as this would return in the month of March, and
would not, therefore, want them. In the case of the last detachment,
the one most likely to make use of these boats, they would only
serve to cross the channels, and to send one or two men from
the edge of the ice-pack to the camp on Prince Rudolph Island
for assistance. Two of these canoes lashed together can support
tour men, and were, therefore, more than enough for these two
purposes. As to the balloons, we all agreed that they could be of no
use. On account of the accident which had happened to the ship, a
part of the aeronautic outfit (that is to say, the small boiler and the
1 The canoe of the Esquimaux. It is described in Chapter IX.
1 66 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
pump) had been employed to free the ship from water ; another part
(the iron filings) had been left in the water at the bottom of the hold,
and could not be got out. Whatever else would have served to
get the balloons ready and to inflate them, had been employed to
build our dwelling place. Moreover, the state of the ice near Prince
DR. CAVALLI IN THE TENT
Rudolph Island required that some one should be continually near
the sledges while on the march, so that there would be only one man
left to attend to the balloons, and as wind is so infrequent in these
regions, we could not hope to make use of them, or even to inflate
them. If the ship had not been driven on shore, it might have been
The Feasts of Christmas and the New Year 167
of some use to inflate the balloons (and we should certainly have
attempted it), but in the present state of the expedition, when there
was still so much work to be done, it was useless to waste our time
in getting ready apparatus from which we were certain that we could
not derive any real advantage.
Although the Aurora borealis was visible nearly every evening,
it was only now and then that it was so bright as to attract our
attention. One of the most beautiful was that which occurred on
the evening of December ist. Nearly all the vault The Aurora
of heaven was lit up by curtains of light, with folds
undulating in all directions, some of which seemed to be moving
at a considerable height. To the north-east, beyond a mountain,
from whence the Aurora always began, the heavens were reddened
as though by the flames of an immense conflagration. The light,
indeed, was so strong that it lit up everything as though there
were a full moon. The period of greatest intensity lasted tor
a couple of hours, and then the Aurora resumed its usual
appearance.1
The birthdays of Captain Cagni and of Lieutenant Querini,
which occurred on December i6th and i8th, were Wetrainthe
celebrated by drinking many toasts to them. On
December i9th we began to harness the dogs in order to
train them, and to accustom those less docile to pull together
with the others.
The first attempts were enough to make us .despair. When a
sledge drove away, the teams which remained behind were thrown into
the utmost disorder. All the dogs wanted to follow it, and they
became entangled in their traces by the bounds they made while trying
1 See Scientific Obsewations, Part I., Chapter V., "Aurora borealis": report
of Commander Umberto Cagni.
1 68 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
to drag their sledges forward. Some dogs were very willing, but
others only let themselves be dragged along by their comrades, and if
they were beaten, they tried to turn round and bite. Others, again, as
soon as the sledges stopped, began at once to gnaw the traces in order
to escape. Even then we ascertained that when they worked willingly
they could easily drag over level ground the weight of 617 Ib.
on which we had decided. After these trials we put a mark
on the dogs which had worked best, in order to distinguish them
from the others, and those which were less docile we harnessed with
dogs not yet tried, so that all might be trained in the course of
January.
We went out as usual on the afternoon of the 23rd. The
temperature was about— 2° C., and a light wind was blowing from
the north-west.
We drove at a rapid pace towards the bottom of the bay ; the
snow was in a better state than on other days, and so we were able to
travel more quickly than usual. As we advanced, the wind freshened,
raising a slight mist, which hid the sledges and barely allowed us to
see the lantern carried by Petigax, who led the train. After driving
for an hour and a half, Captain Cagni, who was in front, stopped to
allow the other sledges to come up with him. Just at that moment
the wind began to blow more strongly from a different point, and the
temperature fell quickly to —20° C. The traces left by the sledges
on the snow, which were visible only in some places where it was
softer, were soon covered up, and we found it difficult to ascertain our
true position.
We started to return. Captain Cagni, who was in the first
sledge along with Petigax, felt assured that the dogs would of them-
selves find their way back to the hut, but, after a few minutes,
we realised that they had lost the track they made when on the
169
The Feasts of Christmas and the New Year 171
journey out. The sledges then began to run with great speed,
and it was evident that we were descending a rather steep declivity.
How had we gone astray ? — for whilst we believed that we were
OUK CHRISTMAS UIXXEK
on the ice in the bay, we were, on the contrary, on the glacier ot
the island.
I went forward with Petigax, but I had not gone thirty yards
when I saw, by the light of the lantern, that the glacier ended abruptly.
We shouted in vain to our companions to stop ; for the dogs, which
172 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
saw Petigax's lantern ahead of them, rushed forward, and two sledges
with their dogs, as well as Captain Cagni and I, fell from the glacier
down to the bay, a fall of some twenty-three feet. The other sledges
luckily stopped. Captain Cagni's first words, mingled with the howls
of the dogs, alarmed me, but I was soon reassured. Neither of us was
hurt. We calmed the fears of our companions, who from the glacier
above us were inquiring anxiously about our safety, and waited till
they rejoined us. Where were we ?
The glacier was ended by a fall of several yards down to the
frozen sea, except at the spot at the bottom of the bay which I had
visited in my autumn excursion, where a gradual slope led from the
island down to the ice-field. We must have gone up on the island
exactly at that spot, but it was impossible to know if we were now to
the right or the left of it — that is to say, in the direction of the bottom
of the bay or towards the sea. A quarter of an hour elapsed, and
the time seemed long, but at last, to my great relief, I saw close
by me a flickering light, and the tall form of Petigax, who was pre-
ceding his companions and the sledges.
We relieved the sledges of all burden in order to facilitate our
homeward journey, and leading the dogs, we tried to find a way out of
the place we were in. Petigax went first, sinking every now and then
up to his knees in some crevasse which he could not see. The wind
put out his lantern continually, and in order to relight it we were
obliged to stop and stand round it. In the direction which we took at
first we found holes and crevasses, and were forced to retrace our steps.
Owing to the darkness and the drift we could see nothing, and it was
not easy to advance over such a rugged surface. We succeeded at last
in extricating ourselves from the place into which we had fallen, and in
finding more level ice, which was probably that of the bay. But our
difficulties were not yet ended. We hoped, indeed, that we were
The Feasts of Christmas and the New Year 173
trending in the right direction, but as we could see nothing, we could
not tell whither we were going. The snow, driven by the wind, froze
on our eyelashes, and to be able to keep our eyes open, we had to
remove it from time to time with ungloved hands.
As we went farther away from the ice-cliff of the glacier, we felt
still more the force of the wind, and as we had come out lightly
clad, so as not to become too much heated whilst running after the
sledges, we felt the cold very much.
I had already begun to fear that unless the weather changed we
might be exposed to this storm for several hours, when the sky
became clear overhead and the stars were to be seen. We then
guided our course by a star which we recognised, and soon heard
the distant sound of a bell, which showed us that our friends in
the camp were uneasy about us, and making signals to help us
on our way back. The drift carried by the wind was so thick
that until we were close to the ship we did not see a lantern
which hung at the mizzen-mast. Captain Evensen was getting
ready to go and look for us, but our hardships were ended at last.
We had only lost a dog, hurt by the fall> and left two sledges
behind. I was already congratulating myself that our excursion had
ended so happily when, on taking off my gloves, I was disagreeably
surprised to find that the fingers of my left hand were partly frozen ;
so were also those of Captain Cagni's right hand. Our doctor was
just then rubbing one of the ears of Gini, our cook, which was in the
same state. Snow and water were immediately brought into the tent,
and we rubbed ourselves for a considerable time, but, unfortunately,
without restoring the circulation of the last joints of two of my fingers.
A violent snowstorm from the west raged all day on the 2jrd.
The force of the wind was such that Lieutenant Querini was not able to
go to the instrument hut, which was hardly thirty yards away from
174 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
the tent. He would have required to have been tied with a rope to
get there. The storm made us lose all hope of finding our sledges
again, and although we often looked for them, not only in winter, but
also later on, in summer, our search was useless.
We celebrated Christmas with as much splendour as possible.
In honour of the occasion we gave our tents a good washing, of
Christmas and which they stood much in need. When this was finished
New Year's Day.
we relt as though the huts were no longer the same, and
when we sat down to breakfast everything seemed beautiful, though
this miraculous change had been brought about only by water.
The gifts sent by Her Majesty the Queen and the Princesses
Letitia and Helena, Duchess of Aosta, were put together to form a
Christmas tree. The fir-tree was represented by our tent-poles, on
which were hung a part of the presents, and with the handsomest
of which we got up a grand lottery. The crew were invited into our
tent, and we passed part of the day together. The feast ended in the
evening by a dinner, with which the cook, although unwell, sought to
make us forget the hardships of the season. We even had some
pastry, made with the last remaining eggs, which, although frozen,
had been well preserved.
In the last days of December the temperature, fell to — 35° C.
During the night of the 2yth, four days after our unlucky excursion,
the pain in my fingers grew worse, and gave me no rest by day or by
night. Inflammation had set in at the junction of the living and the
dead flesh. My fingers were of a dark colour ; the skin rose from
the part which had been frozen, and formed blisters full of serous
matter. They had the appearance of having been severely scalded.
These pains lasted for three or four days, and then ceased ; but my
hand remained very sensitive to cold.
The beginning of the New Year drew near, and this feast, too.
The Feasts of Christmas and the New Year 175
was celebrated with the utmost enthusiasm. The doctor had the
greatest share in promoting these rejoicings. Fireworks, consisting
of rockets and fiery fountains, were got ready to welcome at midnight
the New Year, which was to be the last of the expiring century.
At midnight we fired salutes from our small gun ; the sailors lit
fountains of fire and sent off rockets, while piles of wood steeped
in petroleum were burnt round the tent, and threw a white light
on the surrounding ice. The temperature that night was bitterly
cold ( — 31° C.), and made us return soon to the hut, to begin our
first sleep of the New Year.
CHAPTER IX
The Polar Night and the Preparations for our
Departure
VOL. I. 12
CHAPTER IX
THE POLAR NIGHT AND THE PREPARATIONS FOR OUR
DEPARTURE
T
HE preparation of an expedition on sledges across ice demands
much care, so that the weight to be carried may be reduced to
a minimum, while, by judicious selection of rations Equipment of
the Expedition
and outfit, the members of the expedition may be towards the Pole,
enabled to resist fatigue, and live in a climate for which man is
not adapted.
Two sorts of stores were to be carried on the sledges — those for
INTERIOR OF THE TENT
daily consumption, such as food for the men and dogs, and those
which would not vary, such as kayaks, tents, sleeping-bags, cooking-
stoves, arms, instruments, and changes of clothes.
180 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
Dr. Cavalli, guided by the data furnished by Greely and
Nares, had fixed our rations at 2 Ib. 12 oz. 9 dr., as may be seen
by the following list :—
Biscuit .
Tinned Meat 2
Pemmican 3
Butter .
Milk
Liebig's Extract
Vegetables 4 .
Italian Paste .
Sugar
Salt
Pepper .
Coffee, Tea, and
Chocolate 5 .
Onions
Alcohol .
Stearine
Petroleum
GREELY.
Oz.1 Kilos.
NARES. OUR RATIONS.
Oz.
Kilos. Kilos.
Oz. Dr.
10*00 0*283
11*00 0*311
1 1*00 o'3 1 r
2'00 0-057
I*OO O'O28
4*00
16*00
0*396 0*400
0-113 0-250
°"453 0-300
O'lOO
0-040
H I-7532
8 I3-0958
ro 9-3149
3 8-4383
i 6-5753
0*50 0*014
3*00 0*085
2 '00
O'OIO
0*057 ©'030
i 0-9315
2*00 0057
2'OO
0*050
0^057 0-040
i 12-2192
i 6-5753
0*25 0*007
0*25
0*007 0-014
7"9OI3
0*05 o'ooi
o 05
0*001
— —
i'oo 0*028
3-50
0*12
0*099 0*026
0*004 o'oo""j
- H-6739
2-8219
41*80 1*182
4I*92
1-187 1-265
44 9-9444
1*50 0*042
2'OO
3'00
0-057
0-085
o'i8o
6 5-5889
43-30 1*224
46*92 I-329 I"445
5° 15-5333
1 The English ounce is equal to 0*0283 kilos.
2 GREELY : Tinned meat, 7 oz. ; salt meat, 4 oz. NARES : Salt meat. OUR
RATION : Tinned beef cooked.
3 Pemmican is pulverised meat mixed with an equal or larger quantity of beef-fat,
so that it furnishes at the same time the albuminoids, the azotates, and the hydro-
carbonates necessary for man's food. It is easily cooked, and can even be eaten raw ;
it keeps well, and does not require to be hermetically sealed in a tin. It has, however}
the drawback of not being always well suited to the digestive organs.
4 GREELY : Potatoes. NARES : Potatoes. OUR RATION : Desiccated vegetables
(Knorr).
5 GREELY : Tea, chocolate. NARES : Tea, ^ oz. ; chocolate, i oz. ; rum, 2 oz.
OUR RATION : Tea, 3 dr. ; coffee, 10 dr.
The Preparations for our Departure 181
The quantity of petroleum required to cook our food had
been calculated from what Nansen had consumed. As we had the
same cooking-stoves, and were to use them while exposed to the same
temperature, the quantity which he had found sufficient ought to be
enough for us. It had been fixed at 3 oz. 8 dr. for each man daily,
DR. CAVALLI PREPARES THE RATIONS
and thus brought up the weight of the daily ration for each person
to 3 Ib. o oz. 2 dr., without reckoning the weight of the cases. 1
made the mistake, at first, of looking on this weight as insignificant,
but found, on the contrary, it augmented by not a little the weight
of what we consumed each day. Nansen had reduced it to a
1 82 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
minimum by carrying all the desiccated food in bags, and doing
away with jars. With regard to many sorts of food which might
be spoiled by changes of temperature, such as meat and condensed
milk, we did not consider it safe to do without the cases ; as to
others, such as biscuits and Italian paste, we thought it would be
better to keep them in boxes, lest they should be spoiled if the
sledge which carried them fell into the water. Tea, coffee, sugar,
and salt, in compressed tabloids, were put in little tin cases to
prevent spoiling by the jolting of the sledges. The total difference
between the nett weight of the provisions we carried and the gross
weight of the same with their cases was about 14 per cent., and
this difference brought the gross weight of each ration up to
3 Ib. 9 oz. 13 dr.
The dogs' ration of pemmican was fixed at i Ib. i oz. 10 dr., which
was a large quantity, but we thought it necessary for them on account
of the long marches they would have to make. On weighing our
dogs, we found that, if we slaughtered them, they would not furnish
the twenty rations each on which, judging by Nansen's experience,
I had thought at first that I might have calculated. In order, there-
fore, to have a certain number of rations over and above, it was settled
that each dog slaughtered should be reckoned as providing only ten
rations.
We had already begun in December to make experiments with
regard to the packing of that part of our outfit which should form the
dead weight to be carried on our sledges.
Our boats were kayaks, like those used by Nansen. They were
built in the shape of punts, but their planking was replaced by canvas,
carefully sewn, so as to render the boat stanch. They had also a
canvas deck, with a hole in the centre, in which sat the rower, who
thus had his legs in the interior of the kayak. The framework alone,
The Preparations for our Departure 183
on which the canvas was stretched, was of wood, and to make the boat
light, it was formed of thin rods. The bottoms of Nansen's kayaks
were slightly convex, but mine were flat-bottomed, so as to be more
easily fitted on the sledges. Their greatest length was 1 1 ft. 7 in.,
their width 2 ft. 6 in., and their height 1 1 in. They were provided
with a small sail, a pump to empty out the water, and a pair of
oars with their rowlocks. Although these kayaks, being made of
canvas and thin rods, had the drawback of being easily injured if they
struck or scraped against a rock, they Were still sufficiently strong,
and besides formed the lightest mode of transport known, and the
most easily mended.
The sledges were after the model of those used by Nansen, and,
like the kayaks, had been built according to his suggestions. They
were 1 1 ft. 5 in. long, I ft. 6 in. wide, and 6^ in. high. The
184 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
runners were provided with a convex section, so that it might
be more easy to turn the sledge ; they were shod with plates of
white metal, in order to slide more easily over soft snow, and
wooden runners were strapped beneath them, to be used when
crossing ice, or when the snow was granulated during intense
cold. The foremost ends of the runners were joined by a bow,
to which the trace was attached ; no nails were used, but the
various parts were lashed together so as to give more elasticity
to the entire sledge. Nansen had used his bags of provisions to
support and protect the kayaks on the sledges ; but as I feared that
they might be too easily wrenched off by the sharp points of the ice
and their contents devoured by the dogs, I had provided aluminium
cases, which could be placed on the sledges, and on the top of which
the kayaks could be safely carried.
The runners were saturated with a mixture of pitch, stearine, and
tallow, to render them more slippery and more durable.
When in Alaska, I had always used a rectangular Mummery tent,
which could hold three persons, and was supported at the ends by two
poles. I had our new tents made after the same model, but of larger
size, so that four persons could sleep in them — three lengthwise and one
crosswise. They were 9 ft. long, 6 ft. 5 in. wide, 4 ft. 1 1 in.
high in the middle, and 2 ft. 1 1 in. at the sides. These dimensions
had been so calculated that no space remained beyond what was occu-
pied by the four persons. The tents were of silk, the bottom only
of canvas. There were two bamboo poles, to which were attached
six tent ropes, two front and rear, and four at the sides.1
The single and double sleeping-bags purchased in Norway were
1 This tent for four persons was again enlarged, so that the four might lie
comfortably side by side, and leave room at the foot for the cooking-stove and the
provisions.
^su>.6u, /'/////s/ //'(>/// /> ////
/' '
The Preparations for our Departure 185
found to be too short ; we made others large enough to hold three or
four persons comfortably, and long enough to allow them to lie at full
length without exposing their heads beyond the upper edge of the
opening, so that their shoulders were always covered. The flap which
closed the opening, which was secured by three straps with buckles,
was of ample size, and could thus prevent the cold air from pene-
trating into the interior. By making the sleeping-bags large enough
to hold several men, a great saving in weight was effected, and there
was an increase of warmth inside. These bags were lined with the
same canvas as that employed to make the wind-repellers.
We had chosen lamps made on the Primus system, which burn
petroleum; they are best adapted for an expedition like ours, and the
most to be relied on. The cooking-stove was that designed by
Nansen ; it was of aluminium, but the saucepans were of German
silver. They were so light that we doubted whether they could stand
much wear, and tested them over the fire for several days, until we
1 86 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
were perfectly reassured. The table service consisted of a tin dish, a
glass, and a spoon for each man, and were made so as to fit into each
other, and be packed up in the inner saucepan.
For our arms we chose double-barrelled rifles of -303 calibre and
20 bore, with which we could fire both ball and small shot. As we
could not hope to meet with much game in the months in which
A SLEEPING-BAG
our expedition was to take place, we decided to carry only a few
charges.
The cooking-stoves fitted exactly into the openings in the kayaks^
where they were safely placed and well protected while travelling ; the
Primus lamps, the scientific instruments, a few books and notebooks,
the cartridges and everything else which we might require, such as
string, needles and thread, were packed in a wooden box. Our instru-
ments consisted of a sextant of aluminium, an artificial glass horizon,
two ordinary thermometers, a maximum and a minimum thermometer,
a pocket aneroid, and a surveyor's compass.
The Preparations for our Departure 187
We had also a stereoscopic telescope by Zeiss, and three pocket
chronometers for the last detachment, two for the second, and one for
the first. Besides these chronometers, each detachment had a good
watch. A small medicine-chest contained the drugs most requisite
for an expedition in case of accidents or illness.
The lightness and softness of camel-hair coats had led me to
purchase some in England for the sledge expedition. On account
of their great warmth, they had seemed to me preferable to the fur
clothing we had previously worn, but we found afterwards that they
heated the body too much while marching, and let it be chilled when
halting, and the perspiration froze. For foot-gear we chose the fins 'kos
and the komagers^ which, along with two or three pairs of stockings
LAMP AND COOKING-STOVE
and some sedge grass for padding, kept the feet warm, and were
very light.
As we had given up using the bamboo pole and the traces made
in Norway, we made new traces of ordinary rope. To each trace were
1 88 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
attached eight shorter ones, two by two, four on each side, to which
the dogs' harness was tied merely by a knot. Rings were fixed on the
central trace, on a level with the heads of the dogs when they were
pulling, and to which they were hooked on by a short chain, which
also served to tie them up during the night. Our dogs' harness, like
that made by other explorers, consisted of canvas collars carrying
four strips of canvas, two of which passed between the animal's fore-
legs and two along its back, where they were all united to the
trace. Each sledge was provided with a small steel rope, with as
many rings as there were dogs, to tie them to, at a distance of four
and a half feet from each other, when we encamped. We were
obliged to make larger hooks than those we had brought with us,
so as to be able to hook the dogs to the traces and the steel ropes,
and to loosen them again while wearing our woollen gloves.
Captain Cagni's forefinger was already nearly healed, but, in my
case, it was found necessary to amputate the ends of my fingers.
i yield the Com- I was anxious that the doctor should perform the opera-
mand of the
siedge Expedi- tion as soon as possible, that the wounds might be
tion to Captain
cured in time, but he delayed it, hoping to save the
part which was not irretrievably lost. As he could not perform the
amputation before the middle of the month, I began to fear that I
should not be able to take part in the coming expedition. It would
be impossible to make use of my hand, if my fingers had recently
undergone an operation, and they would require to be dressed under
a tent, which would be impossible while on the march. If under
ordinary conditions it is awkward not to be able to use one's
hand, in these regions, and in such a state of health, I should have
been under the necessity of being continually assisted by others,
which would have rendered me useless in a position where all of
us, and especially those .in command, were obliged to give a good
The Preparations for our Departure 189
example. Considering also that a sudden augmentation of the injury,
or a second frost-bite, which might easily happen to a finger that
had once been frozen, might oblige me to return to the hut, it
is easy to see that I should be a source of anxiety for my com-
panions, and might at any moment cause the failure of the
THE UOOK OF THE TENT AFTER THE STORM
expedition. Even on January i5th, when the doctor had not
as yet informed me what he intended to do, I had told
Captain Cagni that he was to take command of the expedition
instead of me. I could not have entrusted it to a leader more
gifted with energy and activity, more prompt at finding expedients,
190 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
or endowed with greater moral and physical endurance. In giving
Captain Cagni the command of the expedition, I left him free to
take all the measures with regard to details which he might think
best adapted to ensure success, while following the general lines on
which we were both agreed. On January i8th nearly all the first joint
of my middle finger was amputated, and ten days later a part of the
fourth finger.
o
On the evening of January I2th a violent storm burst out, which
lasted until the morning of the I4th. We could take no obser-
vations, as it was impossible to remain outside the tent.
Our Tent is
anow!11weecanielt was ^e only -time in the course of the winter when
hardly get out. i j i
we could not go out to carry on our usual occupations,
and were unable to take observations. While the storm lasted,
our tent, although buried under the snow, was shaken by the force
of the wind, and the whirling snow, beating against its sides, made
a noise like the rushing of water through a conduit. When, on
the morning of the I4th, we wished to go out, we found the
door blocked up by snow, to a depth of ten or twelve feet, and
were obliged to draw the snow into the porch and dig a way
through it, which could let a single person pass out. Outside the
tent the snow had been piled up to leeward of the different huts
till on a level with them, and the roof of our tent rose only a
yard above it. These gusts of wind, which lasted only a few
hours, had prepared work for us for two or three days.
These snowstorms had obliged us to cease to protect our in-
struments with cages ; we decided to hang them on a pole, and
leave them always exposed to the air, as the wind would carry away
the snow which fell on them. There was, at first, some trouble
with the thermograph ; but later on, when the larger openings had
been closed with waterproof paper, and several tins of butter had
The Preparations for our Departure 191
been employed in filling up the clefts round the cover, it was
able to act, even during the strongest winds ; and, as it was
free from snow all round, it always gave exact results. The
thermograph, the two hair hygrometers, and the thermometers
THE SHIP AFTER THE STORM
were all hung on this pole, and remained there for the winter
and the following spring until May.
On January i yth the temperature rose again to — 6° C., and
on the 9th to — 2° C. To the north-west and south-west there were
wide belts of open water, stretching almost all round the
Daylight returns. . .
island ; the sea could be heard breaking against the ice
fixed along the coast ; and, towards the west, we could not see by
1 92 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
moonlight the edge of the ice-pack. We were not much pleased to
observe this open water, on account of the hindrance which it would
prove at the beginning of our sledge expedition. January was, how-
ever, a cold month ; and there were very few days on which the
temperature rose. There was but little wind in the second half.
As the stoves were kept lighted nearly all day in the tents, the
temperature there was always between 15° C. and 16° C. ; but at
THE PORCH OF THE HUT BURIED IN bNOW
night, when they were put out, it fell to i° C. In the first tent
the temperature, which by day rose to 10° C., fell at night to
— 5° C. or —6° C., and in the second tent to —15° C., while
outside the temperature was — 40° C. The consumption of coal,
both for the stoves and for the kitchen, was never more than
33 Ib. 3 oz. 2 dr. a day.
As the brightness of the twilight continued to increase, we
The Preparations for our Departure 193
harnessed the dogs to the sledges every day in order to break in the
more stubborn, and to be able to select the best. The Polar night
ended on January 2ist; this joyful event coincided with the name-
day of the King of Sweden, which we celebrated. On January 26th,
between eleven and one, the sky was already bright enough to
allow us to see what was around us, while walking on the ice.
The horizon, as the sun came nearer to it, became lit up with
different colours — greenish at first, and then red. These colours
appeared towards morning in the east, followed the sun in its
progress towards the south and then to the west. Although several
days were still to elapse before the sun appeared, we could feel that
it was slowly returning. The sea froze again in the last days of
January, on account of the prevalence of calm weather and the
low temperature, and we could see nothing from the summit of Cape
Saulen but snow and ice both on land and sea.
On January 29th, which was my name-day, the tent was de-
corated with Italian and Norwegian flags, and as they fluttered in
the breeze, and were lit up by the gradually increasing daylight, they
filled my mind with emotion. But seeing them on land, beside our
hut, and not on our ship, I could not but reflect that, in order to
return home, we should have to find means to free the Polar Star
from the ice in which she lay imprisoned.
VOL. i. 13
CHAPTER X
Departure of the Expedition towards the Pole
CHAPTER X
DEPARTURE OF THE EXPEDITION TOWARDS THE POLE
LIGHT came back quickly, and the progressive lengthening of
the days was very apparent to us after living so long in
utter darkness. On February 8th the stars were no longer to be
seen at noon. The aspect of the bay and of everything
; / t> Aspect of Tep-
around us had changed. The hut, and the ship, which
. r . ...... Excursion.
lay to the north or the bay, were entirely buried in snow,
which covered also the porch, the carpenter's hut, and the kennels.
Some passages leading from the door of our hut gave access to
other places which were buried. The sea was everywhere frozen,
and the recently formed belts of ice were easily distinguished from
the rest, as they were perfectly level.
We worked energetically to fit out the expedition to the Pole ;
the sledges and kayaks were got ready on board the ship ; the
provisions, clothes, sleeping-bags, and tents in our hut. The
sledges were loaded one after the other beneath the shelter of the
magnetic hut ; they were then dragged out and covered with tarpaulin
until the time came for leaving.
The belt of open or hardly frozen water, which was often to be
found to the west of the island, made us doubt as to whether on
starting we could proceed from Teplitz Bay direct towards the north.
If this belt were to stop the march of the expedition, it would be
necessary to advance along the coast up to the point where the belt
'97
198 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
came to an end, so as not to delay the departure for some days, or
even for some weeks. Since the ice drifted towards the west, we
were almost certain that at Cape Fligely we should always find the
ice-pack touching the coast, and, therefore, be obliged to follow the
island, at farthest, only as far as Cape Fligely. The ice-cliff which
ends the glacier rendered it impossible to descend everywhere, so
Captain Cagni resolved to go with the guides, Petigax and Fenoillet,
to examine it. He was away from February 12th to I4th, and
enabled to ascertain that it was possible to descend from the
glacier at many points along the coast between Cape Germania and
Cape FHgely. He also tested our equipment by a temperature of
— 31° C. The sleeping-bag was found to be sufficiently warm, and
there was plenty of food for the men and the dogs. As there was not
as yet much light, on cloudy days especially, we could not see distinctly
for more than six or seven hours. We decided, therefore, to put off
the departure for some days.
While Captain Cagni was away, the dogs had been caught and
tied in front of the hut, to be fed for some days on pemmican.
The Health of During the six months we had passed in Teplitz Bay only
the Dogs. Some .
varieties are thirteen or them had been lost, oix had died in autumn,
Better than
others. ancj tne seven others in winter ; some were killed by
their companions, others by falling into a crevasse or by being buried
under the snow in a storm. They had fought with each other
frequently in the autumn, but very rarely in the darkness of the
winter ; and though it was impossible then to watch them carefully,
a fight could not have taken place even when they were at some
distance, without attracting our attention.
We were glad to see our dogs again in as good a condition as
they had been in the autumn, for they had become so thin during the
winter that we had felt alarmed. This was on account of the intense
Departure of Expedition towards the Pole 199
cold, and because their dried fish had been so hardened by the frost
that they could not eat it, whilst they had only frozen snow to quench
their thirst ; it was also on account of the frequent storms, and perhaps,
too, of the darkness. When they had been nourished on food which
contained more fat, and was more easy to eat (such as Fedte-Grever's
excellent tablets and Spratt's English biscuits), they were soon brought
almost to their former condition. Although born in an intensely
cold country, they were not insensible to temperatures below --30° C.
A TYPICAL TEAM
When it was very cold, they were often seen to raise their paws out of
the snow from time to time, and to go about looking for straw or
wood to lie upon. They often went up on the top of our tent to
warm themselves round the kitchen chimney. Both while training
them and in stormy weather, we had become convinced that the short-
haired dogs resembling wolves, of the type described by Wrangell,
were very much superior to the long-haired dogs of various races ;
they showed greater resistance to the inclemency of the weather and
greater strength when drawing the sledges. When there was a storm,
2OO On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
the hair of the long-haired dogs was filled with snow, which froze and
formed a cuirass round the body, which prevented them from moving.
This did not happen to the short-haired dogs, which were also more
nimble, stronger, more willing and more strenuous when harnessed to
the sledges, and also more courageous when hunting the bear.
While the Polar night lasted, the number of our dogs had been
augmented by twenty-one puppies ; seven more were born later, so
that twenty-eight in all were born at Teplitz Bay ; but, with few
exceptions, those dogs born during the winter always remained small
and of little use for draught.
Captain Evensen and the sailors, Hans and Ole, had been chosen
to form the auxiliary detachment, which was to accompany the expe-
Formationof dition for two days only, and would prove especially
the Auxiliary
Detachment. useful while crossing the belt of ice near the island, which,
it was foreseen, would present difficulties to our advance. To
facilitate the return of the detachments to the island, in case there
should be belts of open water or of newly formed ice, it was decided
to place an outpost at Cape " Eligely, and the following agreement was
made with the leaders of the detachrhehts : —
On the twenty-fifth day after the departure of the expedition from
Teplitz Bay, men should be sent to Cape Fligely to watch for the
return of the first detachment, and to assist it. They would be pro-
vided with a good- telescope and a boat. If the first detachment, when
not more than eight miles from the north coast of the island, were to
find it impossible to continue its journey, it would hoist some sort of
a ball on its tent-poles tied together. When the men at Cape Fligely
saw the signal made by the detachment on the ice-pack, they too were
to hoist a ball, as high as possible, in some place where it could be
easily seen, and where it might stand out against the island in the back-
ground. The same outlook was to be kept on the fifty-fifth day after
Departure of Expedition towards the Pole 201
the departure of the expedition, until the return of the second detach-
ment, and on the eighty-fifth day until the third detachment came
back.
We celebrated Captain Cagni's birthday in advance on Sunday,
February i8th. We then met for our usual Sunday devotions, after
which Captain Cagni, addressing me, saluted me in the name of all
ENTRANCE TO Ol'K TENT
present, and assured me that he and his companions would do every-
thing in their power to achieve success. In reply, I expressed my
regret at our separation, and my conviction that the expedition would
end happily, since I saw that they were leaving fully resolved to over-
come every obstacle and to endure every privation.
The 1 9th had been fixed for the departure. Contrary to our
2O2 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
hopes, there was to the west of the island a belt of ice too thin to bear
the weight of the sledges. This belt, which in some places was
Departure of as much as a mile and one-third wide, began at Cape
the Expedition .
towards the Pole. Rohlrs, and, skirting the coast up to Cape Saulen,
trended towards Cape Clement Markham. It would not have
been prudent to attempt to cross it, because the ice was not
thick enough, and moreover was intersected in every direction by
channels. We were, therefore, obliged to give up the idea of start-
ing from the bay towards the north, and to follow the coast to
beyond Cape Rohlfs.
We began, then, that morning to send the sledges towards Cape
Rohlfs. There was a breeze which at the temperature of —28° C.
caused great pain to whatever part of the face was left uncovered.
The dogs would not pull against the wind, and thus the ascent was
most difficult and fatiguing. When some of the sledges had been
dragged about twenty minutes' distance from the camp, we were
obliged to leave them there and return to our hut ; the rest of the
sledges were brought up in the afternoon.
The fine weather of the previous day lasted during the night, and
the temperature fell to — 35°C. The place where the sledges had
been left was about half-way up the ascent to Cape Germania, and
another day's work was necessary to collect them together on the top
of the cape. The guides, Petigax and Fenoillet, were left there along
with the dogs to pass the night, while all the others returned to the
hut. As the day was cold and calm, we felt sure that the ice along the
coast would be thick enough next day to allow the sledges to cross it.
On the morning of the 2ist, Captain Cagni, with the rest of his
men, left the hut at an early hour to rejoin Petigax and Fenoillet, and
I followed them shortly afterwards with the doctor and the cook. We
found the expedition at the camp ready to start. The sledges were
Departure of Expedition towards the Pole 203
drawn up in line, with the dogs tied to ice-axes stuck in the ice before
them. At Captain Cagni's word of command they set out. The snow
was in good condition and the land sloped gently downwards. This
helped their progress, and the sledges were able to advance at a short
distance from each other, taking up a length of about 200 yards. As
the descent became more steep farther on, ropes were put round the
THE MAGNETIC BOX
runners to act as brakes, and we walked on together, stopping every
fifteen or twenty minutes to wait for the sledges. The expedition
halted near the coast. What was for me the most painful moment had
come at last. I shook hands with them all, and the intensity of the
various emotions which I felt brought tears to my eyes. Then, as the
train of sledges moved slowly away, we saluted each other once more,
with the cry three times repeated of " Long live the King ! " and my
last sight of the expedition was when it halted near Cape Rohlfs.
204 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
The temperature that day remained at about — 35° C. ; the
weather was calm and bright, and, except for the cold, seemed most
promising for the beginning of the expedition, which was marching
away in perfect order. It was composed of twelve men, 104
dogs, and thirteen sledges, which, with their loads, weighed 617 Ib.
each ; it had provisions for forty-five days for the last detach-
ment, which, if it were able to return on May 2oth, would have
passed the three most favourable months on the ice-packs. The
leader was capable, the men determined, it was not the first time
they were about to face dangers and privations, and they were
all eager to win for Italy the glory of first reaching the Pole. But
I could not conceal from myself the difficulties of the undertaking.
The future and the success of the expedition were now in the hands
of God, who, by protecting them against mishaps, illness, and bad
weather, and by helping them en their way, could enable them to
reach the goal.
The Norwegians came back that evening. Andreas told me that
they had lost sight of the expedition after it had crossed over a part
of the belt of thin ice. That evening, although attentively cared
for by my remaining companions, I felt myself overcome by a deep
melancholy.
My first thought next morning was to ascertain what had been
the lowest temperature during the previous night, and I was sorry to
unexpected see that it had fallen to — 47° C. Andreas had come
Return of the
Expedition. back with the fingers of one hand slightly frost-bitten.
Although not a doctor, I was already beginning to understand this
sort of accident rather well, and I was glad to perceive that, in this
case, no bad results were to be apprehended. We passed the day
in putting our hut somewhat in order, as it had been neglected on
account of the pressure of work during the last few days. The
Departure of Expedition towards the Pole 205
absence of the dogs made the bay appear silent and deserted, and the
desolation around us seemed intensified.
The same calm and the same low temperature prevailed on the
2jrd. The breaking up of the ice, as it was driven against the coast,
DOGS IN FRONT OF THE TENT
made a noise which could be heard many miles away ; it was like the
entrance of a train into a station, or the booming of cannon. If, in
one way, this reassured me, since it would prevent channels from being
formed along the island which might prevent the return of the
auxiliary detachment, it made me also feel uneasy, as I feared the
expedition might chance to be on some belt of newly formed ice
subjected to pressure.
As I was walking before the hut, about six o'clock that evening,
I heard dogs barking in the distance. I thought that it was Captain
Evensen who was coming back, but there seemed to be a large number
of dogs, and the sounds did not become more distinct, as would have
206 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
been the case if they were advancing towards us. Nothing could be
seen from the level ground where our hut stood, and thinking that I
had been deceived by the echo, and that Captain Evensen had stopped
for a few minutes to make tea and would soon rejoin us, I continued
my walk. But Lieutenant Querini suddenly appeared, and, to my
amazement, told me that the entire expedition had come back, and
that he had been sent forward a little in advance of his companions,
who were coming without their sledges, some of which they had left at
Cape Germania, and others at Cape Rohlfs.
Lieutenant's Querini's few words surprised me very much,
and I set out for Cape Germania with Andreas and Stokken.
We soon met Hans, who was preceded and followed by dogs.
On seeing the members of the expedition returning thus one after
the other, I began to fear still more that something serious had
occurred, which was being concealed from me ; Captain Cagni
had expressly arranged to send a man to announce his return
before any of the dogs could arrive. At Cape Germania we
found seven sledges with the dogs lying down about them, but,
though we called repeatedly, we got no answer. Captain Cagni and
his party had probably passed us by unseen in the dark, and we
returned without delay to the hut, where, such was our anxiety, we
arrived running rather than walking. To my great relief, I found
at the tent Captain Cagni, the doctor, and Captain Evensen, all in
good health. Captain Cagni had fallen into a channel, and was busy
getting off his trousers, which had frozen upon him. The others
were eating with a good appetite, and the sailors were doing the
same in the adjoining tent. They were all well except Oilier, who
had a toe frost-bitten. When I heard from Captain Cagni a brief
account of what had happened, I congratulated him on the decision
which he had reached, although it had been very painful to him
Departure of Expedition towards the Pole 207
to do so. He had brought back his men in good health, no part
of the equipment had been lost, and the only consequence would be
a delay of some days, after which the expedition could start again.
The three days which the expedition had passed on the ice-pack
had shown defects in its preparation which required to be avoided
\
before setting out again. About twenty days would be requisite to
have everything in perfect order for this new departure, and better
A GROUP OF OUR FRIENDS
prepared than for the first. I therefore agreed with Captain Cagni
to modify the plan of the expedition in accordance with this delay,
for I looked upon it as absolutely necessary that all its members
should be back by May 2oth at the latest. As the departure was to
take place on March loth, the various detachments could no longer
begin their return after fifteen, thirty, and forty-five days, as had been
previously settled, but after twelve, twenty-four, and thirty-six days
208 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
respectively, so that the entire duration of the expedition would be
reduced to seventy-two days. The length of the march of the third
detachment might be increased by two days, which would bring it
up to thirty-eight days, and Captain Evensen could again accompany
the train on its two first marches. As Captain Cagni was of opinion
that it would be advisable to increase the number of the first detach-
ment by one, in order to give more help during the first marches,
the number of men forming the expedition was brought up to ten.
As the engineer, Stokken, had expressed a desire to take part in
the enterprise, he was chosen for the purpose. As a temporary
arrangement, which Captain Cagni might vary as he judged fit
while the expedition was on its way, the first detachment was com-
posed of the doctor, Stokken, and the two younger guides ; the
two sailors were placed in the second, and the two other guides in
the last.
We should have seen the sun on February 26th, but a light
breeze from the north-east, which rose during the night and carried
The Expedition drift snow along with it, darkened the sky. On the
leaves Teplitz
Bay- 26th, 2yth, and 28th, the wind set in strongly from
the north-east, with drift snow, which made it painful to work out
of doors, and I did not regret that the sledge expedition had come
back. As the weather became fine again on March ist, the
o
sledges which had been left at Cape Rohlfs were brought to the
hut. It was a bright, clear day, and we were able for the first time
to greet once more the luminary which we had not seen for so long.
The beautiful rosy tint which at noon that day was once more shed
over the surrounding landscape, after so many months of darkness
and of twilight or moonlight, made us experience an unwonted glad-
ness. The colours of the sky that day seemed splendid. The sun,
which was setting in a mist at the horizon, had taken a dark red
VOL. I.
209
Departure of Expedition towards the Pole 211
tint, and the stretch of sea still unfrozen, which was of a deep blue
intensified by the surrounding ice and by the dark rocks of Cape
Saulen, reminded us of the fantastic scenery of the stage. When
the light returned, the birds (little auks and guillemots) arrived almost
at the same time to bear us a greeting from inhabited lands.
During the following days up to March 8th, the provisions
were once more packed on the sledges. The recent winds had
formed a lake of open water extending from Cape Saulen to Cape
Clement Markham. The low temperature of the last few days had
THE SLEDGES ON THKIR WAY TO CAPE ROHLFS
again frozen this belt, and on the morning of March loth we hoped,
judging by the thickness of the ice, that we might be able to cross
it on the following day.
The expedition, composed of thirteen sledges, which were now
laden with only 551 Ib. and drawn by 102 dogs, set off on Sunday,
212 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
March nth ; it was a fine and calm morning with a temperature
of- 28° C.
Near Cape Saulen, the expedition left the ice which was fixed to
the island and crossed over to that, about four and a half inches thick,
which had been formed on what had been a few days previously a belt
of open water. Just then there was a slight movement in the ice,
THE SLEDGE EXPEDITION READY FOR DEPARTURE
tending to detach -it from the coast and to form small channels, of
which only the most recently formed were not frozen. Those which
had been opened some hours before our departure were already covered
with a thin crust of ice, which could only be distinguished from that
which was thicker by its greater whiteness. As the water froze, the
salt separated from it on the surface, and produced an efflorescence
which looked pretty, but hindered the progress of the sledges, and
being very wet under foot, immediately soaked our shoes.
As the sledges advanced over the ice, they were obliged to change
their course every minute to avoid the larger channels as well as
Departure of Expedition towards the Pole 213
the belts of thinner ice, which, though it might have borne the dogs,
could not certainly bear the weight of the sledges. The dogs which
drew the hindermost sledges tried continually to keep up with the
leading sledge by the shortest way, and if the men were not able to
come up in time to turn them aside, they rushed upon the dangerous
places which the first sledge had avoided. The sledges were twice in
danger, but owing to the speed at which the dogs dragged them across
the weakest spots, the ice luckily resisted, though it bent under their
weight.
Captain Cagni was at the head with the sledges which formed
t
THE SLEDGK EXPEDITION CROSSING THE PACK
his detachment ; he was followed by Lieutenant Querini and Dr.
Cavalli, who came last. We marched thus in file for a distance of about
twenty yards over ice which was continually moving under our feet. A
man walked before the dogs of the first sledge ; others walked beside
the sledges which followed and pushed them on. On reaching the
214
the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
old ice, we had to turn to the south-west to find a spot where it would
be easy to get on it, and I assisted at this first struggle with difficult
ice. If the whole ice-pack were similar to that we had already crossed,
it would be an easy matter to reach the Pole, both on account of the
speed with which the journey could be performed, and because the
smooth ice would not damage the sledges. On the rugged ice-pack,
however, two guides armed with ice-axes had to precede us, to level
GKASSO, THE DOG GIVEN BY DR. NANSEN
the surface where it was most broken up, and we were forced to
follow a winding path to avoid the places where it was impracticable.
The sledges were often overturned while crossing those uneven
stretches of ice, and the men obliged to raise them up, or else the
runners remained caught among the sharp points of the ice. The
sledges were, therefore, frequently and easily damaged, and our way was
lengthened by the continual zig-zags our guides were obliged to make
Departure of Expedition towards the Pole 215
in order to find the best places. It was then that I left my companions,
bidding them good-bye one by one.
Captain Cagni and I took leave of each other with heartfelt words,
which expressed our sincere and mutual good wishes of soon meeting
again after a successful expedition. I felt that this time our parting
was definite, and that I could not see him again until many weeks had
elapsed, on his return from the most severe trial he would have to
undergo in all his life. If it had not been always easy to live together
in the limited space of the same tent, at that solemn moment no
memory of slight misunderstandings ruffled the tranquillity of our
minds, or rendered the last clasp of our hands less affectionate.
The sledges then went on ; the doctor was the last to salute me,
and the convoy disappeared among the tall hummocks. Gini and
I climbed a mound of ice to see the convoy once more as it proceeded
on its way. Just now it was they who had saluted us ; this time we
saluted them, and from far away the cry of " Evviva," three times
repeated, replied to our cheer. It was the last farewell. We lost
sight of the convoy shortly after.
CHAPTER XI
Long and Painful Expectation of the Return of
the First Detachment
CHAPTER XI
LONG AND PAINFUL EXPECTATION OF THE RETURN OF
THE FIRST DETACHMENT
OUR return to the hut was very sad, as it had been some
days previously. My mind was troubled by the same
thoughts, the same discomfort of being separated from my com-
panions, and anxiety with regard to the hardships which T]ie Reason for
awaited them. As I was absent-mindedly walking, I did my
not perceive a recently formed channel ; the ice broke, and I fell
into the water. My boots, trousers, and jacket immediately became
stiff, and on reaching the tent I had to be helped to take off my
frozen clothes, which had begun to thaw in the warmth, and were
drenching me. Some hours later, about two in the afternoon, the
others came back.
Our daily life was thenceforth filled by a single thought — the
return of our comrades ; and as a record of this time I think
it will be well to repeat here what I wrote in my diary, and also
mention the observations which were then taken, so as to give an exact
idea of the state of the atmosphere and of the ice in the neigh-
bourhood of the island, as well as of our ideas and of the measures
which we took at that period.
March I2f/i. — A calm day without wind ; temperature —22° C.
The ice-pack is moving slightly near the island ; it tends .to recede
from the land and to form small channels here and there. On
220 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
returning to the hut we see a large bear, which, as it is not
disturbed by the dogs, comes close to our dwelling. Andreas and
Christian get near and kill it. A screen is put up at the south
side of our instruments to keep them in the shade. I develop
the negatives taken when the expedition left ; they are the first
instantaneous photographs taken this season.
March i^th. — We still have the same calm weather and clear
sky of the previous days. A coloured halo is seen round the
sun for the first time. In the morning, only the lower half is
visible, but in the course of the day the sides rise till they meet
above. The halo showed only a single circle, and two mock suns
were faintly visible on a line with its horizontal diameter.
I visit Cape Germania and Cape Saulen with Andreas, and
ascertain that it is impossible to reckon on being able to see
to a great distance. When the weather is clear, and the sun is
shining, the shadows cast by the hummocks form dark spots, which
cannot be distinguished from a train of sledges. The ice continues
to move slightly, with a tendency to open out, but sledges could
still travel over it. We return to the hut without having sighted
the sledge of the auxiliary detachment, and are therefore much
surprised when Captain Evensen returns that evening at six. He
informs us that the expedition is progressing safely ; that the dogs
are going on very well ; that the sledges are not breaking down ;
that the cold is not felt too much ; and that the daily marches,
although impeded by many pressure-ridges, have been fairly good.
March 14/77. — It is the birthday of His Majesty the King.
I should have preferred to celebrate it with all my comrades ; as it
The King of is> I am the only Italian in my tent, and Gini the only
Italy's Birthday.
Italian in the sailors' tent. We can all, at least, however,
celebrate the feast in our hearts if not outwardly. The Norwegians
Expectation of Return of First Detachment 221
join us, for they always take part in our feasts, as we take part in
theirs. In the evening the temperature again falls to — 37° C. ;
and at night sounds of ice-pressure are heard near Cape Saulen. The
weather is still clear and perfectly calm.
March i^th. — The cold continues, and at night reaches —39° C.
The ice-pack again comes gradually nearer to the island, breaking
and raising up the freshly formed ice. The moon shows a halo>
with a fine cross in the centre.
March i6///. — Still the same weather — fine, calm, and cold.
The tide-gauge, which had been set up on the beach during summer,
can no longer be used, as it is now covered by ice. 1 place another
gauge on the edge of the fixed ice, on the line which separates the
fixed from the floating ice. A sight put up in the neighbourhood
enables me to make sure that the pole remains steady. Observations
222 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
are taken every hour by each of us in turn, beginning on the
following day.1
March ijt/i. — A fine, calm day like the preceding, with a
cloudless horizon. The sun sets at six, and from the summit of
Cape Saulen no land can be made out towards the west, though, if
there were any, this would be the most favourable moment for seeing
it. The sailors begin to set the deck of the ship in order by clearing
away the snow which had been piled up there.
A creaking sound has been heard all day along the line
which separates the fixed ice from the movable ice, caused by the
equinoctial tides.
March i8//z. — The continuation of fine weather up to to-
day must have allowed the expedition to advance, and the pres-
About the Tem- sures coming from the west show that the ice-pack
perature when
there is wind, has either remained steady or has had a slight movement
towards the east. To-day, there is a fresh easterly wind with much
snowdrift. When the wind sets in steadily, the temperature rises
several degrees. What makes the temperature rise ?
The open water which must certainly exist to the west of White
Land when the east wind blows, may have a share in raising the
temperature. So might have all the winds from an easterly direction,
which, before reaching us, pass over land and, consequently, over
belts of open water. The temperature, therefore, ought not to rise
when the wind blows from a westerly direction. But, on the contrary,
we have always observed that it does during these winds.
If the phenomenon occurred only along the land, and not in
the Arctic Sea, it might be easily explained. During the Polar
night the earth is the sole source of heat. As there is no radiation
1 See Scientific Observations, Part I., Chapter III., " Tidal Observations," a report
by Lieutenant Alberto Alessio.
Expectation of Return of First Detachment 223
through the ice, the air which rests on the earth on calm days must
take the temperature of the ice little by little, and become exceed-
ingly cold. When a wind sets in from the surrounding ice-belts,
the cold air lying over the land becomes mingled with that which
lies on the ice-fields, which ought to have a higher temperature
on account of the open channels, and because the ice is thin in
many places. The expeditions which have passed a winter on the
A SENTRY !
ice have also observed the same fact ; and, contrary to what might
have been expected, we, too, have found the temperature on the
ice-pack colder than that on Prince Rudolph Island. The sea,
therefore, is not the principal cause of this increase of temperature.
It is only by many further observations that we can learn to what
it may be attributed.
It is difficult to take observations with the tide-gauge, as the
well in which the pole stands is filled by a large quantity of snow
224 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
driven by the wind. Each time that we examine it, it requires
about ten minutes to clear this away.
March \ yth. — It was impossible to observe the tide-gauge last
night ; the wind was so high and the drift so thick that a lantern
could not be carried to show the way. The porch of the tent was
again filled with snow during the night, and in the morning we
had to work hard to get out. The wind is still blowing at nine,
but the drift has ceased. The temperature has risen to —22° C.,
where it stays. We stretch a rope from the hut to the tide-gauge,
to guide us in any state of the weather, and allow us to take obser-
vations without interruption. The officers' saloon on board, which
was always so well kept, has now from sheer necessity been changed
into a sort of tannery. Christian has established himself there with
our bearskins to rid of fat and get ready for tanning.
March loth. — The wind is blowing intermittently, the drift is
sometimes light, and sometimes so thick that we can see nothing
around us.
March list. — The day is calm, not cold — there is no wind; the
temperature is — 24° C. A large channel, caused by the wind of these
last two days, can be seen extending from Cape Saulen to Cape Clement
Markham. The crew begin once more to clear the snow from the
ship. The anemometer and the anemoscope, which had been left on
board during winter, are set up on a little scaffolding placed on the
top of the second tent.
March 12nd. — Another fine day without wind. Although the
temperature is — 26° C., I begin to feel for the first time the warmth
of the sun, which until now had only given us light. Fresh ice is
being formed on what was yesterday open water. Several little
auks and guillemots are to be seen near Cape Saulen. The snow
is thawing for the first time along the side of the tent which is
f vm
.
X
Expectation of Return of First Detachment 225
exposed to the sun, and trickles down into the interior of our
second tent.
March iyd and i^th. — The sky is clear, and the barometer does
not move ; the wind is blowing in slight gusts from every point of
the compass. The afternoon of the 24th is calm. It is still bright
at ten o'clock at night. In a few days we shall again have daylight
for twenty-four hours.
March 2 $l/i. — According to the plan agreed upon with Captain
Cagni, the first detachment should return to-day. This evening, in
our cabin, we discuss the question of what latitude it may have
reached. If the weather on the ice-pack was like what we had in
Teplitz Bay, its march must have been stopped, at most, on the i8th
or the 1 9th. We may, therefore, suppose that, if the ice did not
present too many obstacles, the detachment must have made good
progress.
With the return of calm weather and a clear sky, the temperature
falls again to — 30° C. Light breezes blow from the north. The ice-
pack has once more moved up the coast. These movements of the
ice, towards the east in the early days of the month up to the i8th,
towards the west on the i8th and I9th, and now again to the
east, have probably not made the first detachment deviate much in
longitude. We go to bed at a later hour, as we take advantage of the
fine evenings to remain out of doors chatting together, though the
temperature is still between— 25° C. and — 30° C.
March 26th and 2yM. — Calm weather and bright sky. The
atmosphere is clear, and the ice-pack close up against the coast.
The instructions for those who are to wait at Cape „
On the look-out
Fligely for the return of the various detachments are at Cape ^s®1^
now changed. It was agreed between us that the group of helpers
is not to be at Cape Fligely on the twenty-fifth, fifty-fifth, and
VOL. i. 15
226 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
eighty-fifth day after the departure of the expedition from Teplitz
Bay, but on the twentieth, the forty-fourth, and the sixty-eighth. I
therefore decide on going to Cape Fligely to-morrow with a boat.
March i%th. — The sledge on which the boat has been fixed with
clamps made by the carpenter, is a strange and particularly heavy load
for the seven dogs left behind with us — four females, and three
of the more stubborn males. We leave at • eight in the morning
for Cape Germania, whence, instead of going down directly towards
Cape Rohlfs, as I had done the -first time that I went to Cape Fligely,
I go on along the upper part of the island. The weather is fine ; there
is no wind ; the temperature is very low (—32° C.). We do not, how-
ever, feel cold while walking, and what is still more strange, though
the sun is right in front and low down, it does not hurt our eyes.
After sending back, about eleven o'clock, the men who helped us, I go
on towards the north, with Andreas and Hans. From the summit of
the island, about 1,141 feet above the level of the sea, the immense
plain of closely packed ice which surrounds us can be seen. Nothing
could be more favourable for the return of our companions, and I
say, jestingly, that our excursion is useless, since the first detachment
will arrive at the hut in the course of the day, or to-morrow. After
a short rest, we go on about twelve o'clock towards Cape Fligely,
which we reach after eight hours' march. We stop here, intending to
look out next day for the best place to put up the signal agreed on.
In the evening the temperature falls to —36° C.
March ityh. — There is no wind, and it is cold. The weather is
splendid, and the ice-pack is close up to the coast. I have slept for
the first time in a sleeping-bag of reindeer-skin, with the temperature
at — 34° C. I can bear the cold, but I am still more convinced that I
•did well not to take part in a long expedition in my present state. As
I can only use one hand, I require to be helped by my companions to
Expectation of Return of First Detachment 227
get into the sleeping-bag, to put on my shoes, and to dress. Althojugh
my hand is bandaged and covered with two gloves, wrapped in. a
sling lined with down, which is covered by another sling of rein-
deer-skin, I suffer continually from cold, and am obliged to warm
my hand over the lamp.
CAPTAIN EVENSEN
The sledge, the boat, and tent are brought a little to the east of
Cape Fligely, to the top of a ridge covered with snow, at a height
of about 293 feet above the level of the sea, whence there is a
view which extends from east to nearly due west. As the detach-
ment will come from the west, and the coast from Cape Fligely
228 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
to Cape Germania trends nearly towards the west, they will probably
touch land first at Cape Saulen, or at Cape Germania where we are
also watching for them continually. We carry the boat close to the
little promontory and leave it at the foot of the rock.
We then get ready a dwelling-place, so as to be able to stay on
that cape exposed to every wind. Thinking at first of the grotto for
the dogs, hollowed out of the snow during winter, we try to make
something of the same sort ; but we cannot find snow sufficiently
deep, whilst to dig into the ice to form a similar shelter would demand
too much time. At the spot where we have set up our tent, the snow
has been drifted by the wind to a depth of one foot. W"e excavate
in this snow, space large enough to hold the diameter of the tent,
and we work into the ice so that the tent may be half buried. We
then build a wall round it with large blocks of snow, on which we
lay the sledge and the spare oars of the boat, and cover them with
snow. We thus put up a hut like those (3f the Esquimaux, but w.th
this difference ; they place the blocks of snow in a circle, and
make each course project beyond the lower one, till they meet at the
top, while we make use of the sledge and the oars to support the
roof of our hut. The hut is finished on March 3Oth, and the door is
made to look to the north, so as to be completely sheltered from
any wind. Inside this house of snow we place the tent, which will
prevent the water from trickling down upon us from the walls. Near
the house is placed the pole on which the ball is to be hoisted ; it
will stand out distinctly against the glacier. The weather is still fine
and calm, the ice-pack close up to the coast, and the temperature
varies between —25° C. and —36° C.
March ^\st. — The weather is like that of the preceding days.
Nansen Islands are again seen faintly in the distance. At night there
is wind and drift from the south.
Expectation of Return of First Detachment 229
il i st. — The bad weather continues, the wind blows from the
south and then from the west, and there is a fall of snow. As the
temperature at night rises to — ij° C. in our hut, we find ourselves
comfortable.
The wall of snow enables us to have a higher temperature than
if we had the tent only, and at our meals, when the cooking-stove is
lighted, we can take off our gloves. The dogs- come at night to lie
CAPE FLIGELY, AS SEEN FROM THE HIGHEST POINT OF THE ISLAND
in the porch at the door, to seek shelter from the drift, and make so
much noise that we have more than once to send them away. The
driven snow penetrates into the tent, and in the morning we can hardly
leave it. The wind has formed a channel about 200 yards wide.
Towards evening the mist increases, and we cannot see farther than
a mile. The comrades we expect have most certainly been unable
to stir.
April 2nd. — The wind still continues, and in the evening, after a
few hours, shifts to the south-west. To-day, however, is finer than
230 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
yesterday. We carefully examine the edge of the ice-pack, without
perceiving any trace of the first detachment. The ice-pack near the
island does not stir, but only the smaller ice-floes formed in the channel.
Strange to say, the temperature rises during the day to — 5° C. While
walking near the level summit of the cape, Hans sinks into a den
inhabited by a she-bear. The den is hollowed out of the snow and
communicates with the exterior only by a small opening, through which
Hans, taking up a good position, fires, and kills the beast. We then
come up, and enlarging the opening of the den, drag out the bear,
and two little cubs, hardly larger than cats, which are immediately killed
by striking them on the head with an axe.
April yd. — The wind blows steadily from west -north -west, with
a drift which shuts out everything. As we cannot leave the hut, since
there is nothing to see we pass nearly all day in the sleeping-bag. It
is impossible to stay still in the hut outside the sleeping-bag ; our
hands and feet are frozen. We are obliged, therefore, in this delightful
place either to keep moving or to shut ourselves up in our sleeping-
bag. Towards evening it clears up for a moment and the wind falls;
we then see that the ice-pack has again come up to the coast, at which
I am much pleased.
April <\.th. — The wind continues to blow from west-north-west.
The evening is calm. The ice to the north of the island touches the
coast.
April $th. — This is the last day for which the first detachment
has provisions. They must certainly have economised their rations
we feel uneasy during these last few days when they must have been
about the First
Detachment. unable to advance. I feel most uneasy with regard
to the petroleum. It is true that they were provided with a
large quantity, but it may have been all consumed, and in that case,
although they might still have provisions, they would find themselves
THK HUT AT CAl'E KLIGELY
231
>:-%;'•• v -\f - .^**'..-
Expectation of Return of First Detachment 233
in a difficult situation. I cannot understand how the detachment
should not have been able to reach the island during the fine days
we had up to April ist ; it is true that on the ist, and on part of the
3rd and 4th, it could not have made long marches.
As the day is very clear, we distinctly see Nansen Islands towards
the east. This transparency of the atmosphere gives me hope that
even though the first detachment might be still far away from the
island, it would perceive and be able to reach it.
THE POLAR PACK
The sky becomes cloudy again towards evening, and a light wind
sets in from the south, which opens out another channel, from 200 to
300 yards wide, along the northern coast of the island. There is a fall
of snow in the evening.
April 6th. — The morning and evening are moderately fine, with
a light wind from the north-west, and snow in the afternoon. Towards
Cape Rohlfs the ice is closely pressed against the coast. Ice is being
formed in the channel along the island, and though we watch the ice-
pack next the coast for several hours continuously, we can detect only
234 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
a very slight movement. No birds are to be seen. We search in vain
with the telescope. As the channel is only 500 yards wide, we could
certainly see our friends if there. We give the flesh of the bear we
killed to our dogs, which relish it very much. We had thought of
cooking the cubs, but as neither of us is a good cook, we must
deprive ourselves of this dish, and continue to make our usual soup,
into which we put all the food-stuffs we have, which, with our good
appetite, we always find excellent. Hans makes lamps with bears' fat,
which we light in the evening ; they warm our hut a little, but they
' fill it dreadfully with smoke.
April Jt/i. — A fine day with light breezes from the north-west
and north-east. Nothing can be seen on the horizon. I begin to feel
anxious about the first detachment. Although the doctor is well
accustomed to take observations and make calculations, it is the first
time that he has to make land, and this under difficult conditions,
which might embarrass and make it hard for him to ascertain his
position if he has gone far away from the island. The illness of one
of the party may have retarded the march and thereby caused delay,
but surely for fourteen days they must have been on their way.
Andreas remarks that Captain Cagni may perhaps have made some
change in his plans, and have kept the first detachment some days
longer with him. I do not think that such a change is probable, and
I feel certain that if he has varied his plans, it has been by sending
the detachment back a few days sooner rather than later.
As this evening we have provisions remaining for only two more
days, I decide on returning to the hut to-morrow morning, -and on
sending Captain Evensen and Ole on Monday to take the place
of Hans.
April 8//2. — It is a fine bright day, rather cold, with light breezes
from the south-east. I leave the tent with Andreas at seven
Expectation of Return of First Detachment 235
o'clock, and walking quickly along the coast, we reach the hut at mid-
day. A part of the ice-pack touches the island, and in many places it
is possible to pass from it on to the shore. We find everybody at the
hut very uneasy, and the news they can give us is not more comforting
than ours. The ice-pack remained touching the coast from Cape
Saulen to Cape Rohlfs until April ist; it went away from it on the
2nd and part of the 3rd. It was again and almost always in contact
with the coast on the 4th, 5th, 6th, yth, and 8th, and on the 3rd, 4th,
and 5th there had been considerable pressure.
SKINNING A BEAR
April 9//z. — The weather is alternately cloudy and bright, with
snow from time to time, but no wind. The temperature has risen
to— 12° C., with light breezes from the south. The ice is up
D
to the coast on the south side of the island, but with this wind
236 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
there must certainly be a small channel on the north side. I see
a stormy petrel for the first time. Besides our dogs, we have at the
hut two little bear cubs, which were also found in a den near Cape
Germania. They are bigger than those killed at Cape Fligely, and
we keep them alive for some days in the carpenter's hut, but they
make such a noise that we are obliged to kill them.
April io//z. — I feel still more anxious about the first detachment.
I now fear that not only it is lost, but that some misfortune has
happened to the whole expedition. The first high wind a few days
after their departure may have caused some mishap ; or does the
delay of the first detachment mean that the whole expedition is
coming back together ?
John is suffering from a swollen face. My medical knowledge
can give him no relief, though the doctor, before leaving, handed over
to me not only all his drugs, but also books and instructions in case
of necessity. At night the snow fell in large flakes, and as there
is no wind, there is a layer of four inches in the morning. In the
evening the wind shifts to the west, and at night the temperature fell
from —12° C., as it was in the morning, to —34° C. At six o'clock
Hans returns to the hut.
April \\th. — A fine, clear day, with a temperature below
— 20° C., and light winds from the north-west and north. I am glad
of this change of weather, and that the wind has gone back to the
north, as it will delay the melting of the snow, and drive the ice-pack
to the south, which will help the return of the first two detachments.
The ice-pack is now in contact with the island.
April iith. — The men are resting, and they will do the same
to-morrow, which will be Good Friday. The day is cloudy, with
southerly and south-westerly winds. A narrow channel is formed
along the coast. The high temperature of the last few days
Expectation of Return of First Detachment 237
has softened the snow, and in walking, one sinks in it up to
the ankle.
April i3//z. — Cloudy weather, with light breezes from the south
and south-west. A little sleet and a little drift snow. The tempera-
ture rises again to — 4° C. Is this the beginning of summer ? To
the west and north of Cape Saulen the ice-pack is in motion ; a
channel is being formed along the coast.
April i4//z and \^th. — There are still light winds from the south
and south-west ; the sky is cloudy. The temperature varies from
-I3°C. to — 4° C. The snow becomes soft with this rise of tem-
perature, and one sinks still more deeply in. The stormy petrels
are seen in greater numbers, and, for the first time, I see the snow
on the windlass of the ship trickling in the sunshine. Water is
trickling down everywhere in the interior of our hut. We pass Easter
Sunday very sadly.
CHAPTER XII
Return of Dr. Cavalli and Commander Cagni
CHAPTER XII
RETURN OF DR. CA I'ALLI AND COMMANDER CAGNI
/fPRIL. i6//z. — A cloudy day, with snow and south-easterly wind.
The temperature rises to — 8° C. Captain Evensen returns
from Cape Fligely in the evening, as I had told him to do. The
south-easterly winds of these last days have opened a unexpected
Return of the
channel which extends from Cape Clement Markham second Detach-
ment with Dr.
in the south as far as Cape Fligely. cavaiii.
April ijt/i. — -Light winds from the north. The fog is so thick
in the evening that we cannot see the ship from the hut. Water is
O 1
beginning to flow in the tents and on the boxes of provisions stacked
in the passage ; they are,' therefore, taken away and put in a dry place
on level ground. I see an ivory gull for the first time.
April i8M. — At six o'clock in the morning I hear John call out
several times : " Cardenti has come back." While dressing hastily in
my anxiety to question him, I also hear the names of Dr. Cavalli and
Savoie. Our anxiety is ended at last. The first detachment has
returned. But why is Cardenti with it, and how did Cavalli get a
kayak ? Did the second detachment give him one ? Have the two
detachments come back together ? I hasten out of the tent before I
am quite dressed, and before greeting Cardenti, -I ask him : " Of what
detachment are you ? " " The second," he answers ; " the first, con-
sisting of Lieutenant Querini, Stokken, and Oilier, left Commander
Cagni on March 23rd, and we left him on the Jist."
VOL. i. *4' 1 6
242 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
Alas ! my soul had for a moment entertained some hope, but these
few words fill it again with grief. I then read a note from the doctor.
He writes on the iyth — that is to .say, yesterday — that on the ifth
(Easter Sunday) he was near Cape Saulen, but was unable to get up on
the island, and that he had dispatched Cardenti with the kayak, to ask
me to send a boat for him. We dig a canvas boat from out of the
snow; it is in excellent condition, though it has lain without shelter
all the winter. We put it on a sledge, harness the seven dogs we
have at the hut to it, and all leave immediately for Cape Germania.
The ice-pack has receded about 300 or 400 yards ; its edge is very
much broken up. It is moving slightly towards the east, so that the
doctor must have been carried towards Cape Rohlfs. His camp is
hidden by the hummocks, and we cannot see it from the glacier. An
hour goes by. We feel anxious till at last we see one, and then two,
persons moving about on the ice. It is they, and they, too, have
seen us. Captain Evensen and Christian leave at once in the boat
to meet them.
Meanwhile, 1 make Cardenti tell me how he passed the night.
He had been sent off while the ice-pack was still near the land,
and had steered his kayak • towards the island, with the intention of
getting up on the glacier, which ends there in an ice-cliff from three
to four yards high. Wishing to take advantage of a crevasse which
opened out on the sea, he left his kayak and tried to creep up it,
but the current carried away the kayak, and when he found himself
in the crevasse and uncertain of being able to climb it, he was
obliged to work for fully two hours, cutting his way through the ice
with his axe.
He then went towards the bay, but as he could not find in what
direction this was, he turned towards the highest part of the island.
Next morning he saw in the distance the masts of the ship, and reached
Return of Dr. Cavalli and Commander Cagni 243
the hut after being all night on foot. It was only a man of his great
strength who could have withstood such fatigue.
After the short interval necessary for packing up the tent, we see
the boat on its way back with three persons, eight dogs, and a part
of the equipment. On reaching the shore, we greet it with three
OVERHAULING THE SLEDGES
cheers, which are repeated as we clasp the hand of our excellent doctor,
whom we all love, and hail with joy after thinking that he was lost.
A second boatload brings over Savoie and the remainder of the equip-
ment, and we are back at the hut by eight o'clock. Cavalli, Cardenti,
and Savoie, although very slightly thinner, are in excellent health. So
are the fifteen dogs which they have brought back. There is rejoicing
244 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
in our hut. After so many anxious days, it makes me feel a momen-
tary gladness to welcome back one of the detachments. The doctor's
return dispels, at least, the gloomy thought which had distressed me
more and more these last few days, that the entire expedition had met
with some disaster. But I am still more convinced that Querini's
detachment must have met with some serious mishap.
I pass the evening with the doctor, in a long conversation about
Cagni and Querini. The doctor had left the former in excellent health
ca*^ from1 an on t^le mornmg or" March 3ist, proceeding towards
LaSSSe? the north with forty-eight dogs and six sledges. On
taking leave of the doctor, Cagni had given him the following
note for me :—
" The cold still continues, and it is no slight hindrance to us ; it
appears, moreover, that during these last days the ice-pack has drifted
towards the south, and that we are in a very low latitude. For three
days, however, we have found the way easier : there are wide, level
tracts, and only few pressure-ridges, which are easily crossed. I do
not, therefore, despair of doing something. I shall advance for twenty
days longer, and, if necessary, for a couple of days more, should the
\ success of the expedition depend on it. The doctor will explain to
you the reasons why I go on with four men and six sledges. I think
that I shall advance thus more rapidly. I again repeat to your Royal
Highness that I shall do everything that lies in my power and as much
as my strength will permit, without wilfully endangering the lives of
L my men. The health of all of us is excellent."
In his advance towards the north, Cagni had made some changes
in the programme of the expedition, according to which the first
detachment, consisting of four men, was to turn back fourteen days
after their departure from Teplitz Bay — that is to say, on the morning
Return of Dr. Cavalli and Commander Cagni 24.5
of March 25th — and the second detachment of three men, twenty-six
days after their departure — that is, on the morning of April 6th.
Instead of this, the first detachment, consisting of Querini, Stokken,
and Oilier, was sent back on the morning of March 23rd with pro-
L1EUTENANT QUERIM, THE ENGINEER STOKKEN, AND THE GUIDE OLL1KK
visions for ten days ; and the second detachment, consisting of Cavalli,
Cardenti, and Savoie, on the morning of March 3ist, with twenty-four
dogs and food for eighteen days. I shall not dwell here on the reasons
for these changes, which Captain Cagni explains in his report. I merely
repeat that at the time of their departure the organisation of the
246 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
detachments was purely provisional. It was left to Captain Cagni to
give them their definitive formation, and to send back any one of the
members of the expedition before the others, according to the general
ideas laid down in the first chapter of this book — that is to say, that,
as he advanced towards the north, he should select those who showed
most endurance and seemed most capable.
I had left the hut to stay at Cape Fligely on March 28th,
eighteen days after the departure of the expedition from Teplitz Bay,
r.s had been settled. Lieutenant Querini should have reached the
island ten days at most after leaving Cagni — that is to say, on April 2nd
at the latest. He and his two companions had left the expedition
about forty-five miles from Prince Rudolph Island, which was still
visible to the south, two days before they turned back ; and the fine
weather from March 25th to 3ist ought to have assisted their return.
The second detachment had sighted Prince Rudolph Island to the
south on April 8th — that is to say, twenty-nine days after leaving
Teplitz Bay. The fact that Dr. Cavalli was on the meridian of the
island shows that during that time and in that neighbourhood the
position of the ice-pack had not shifted much. While returning to
the hut from the highest latitude he had reached, the doctor had
travelled eighty-nine miles in sixteen days, a daily average of over five
miles, and there is no reason to suppose that Querini did not do
as much.
If it was discouraging to find that the first latitudes of which
observations were taken did not correspond to our expectations, I
feel convinced that it was due partly to a movement of the ice in the
contrary direction, and partly because at the outset the daily marches
may have been a little exaggerated. As the march was directed
towards the north-north-east, and the ice-pack moves more easily in
those parts from east to west, it is more probable that this movement
Return of Dr. Cavalli and Commander Cagni 247
was towards the south-west, which would retard the progress of the
expedition towards the north, and keep it on the meridian of Teplitz
Bay. The first observations of the island taken by the doctor
confirm this supposition. Querini must therefore have been carried
towards the south-west. Supposing, moreover, that the illness of one
of the party may have delayed their march, and that the bad weather
and the south-easterly and south-westerly winds which prevailed after
April 1 2th may have stopped the drift of the ice-pack to the south
THE NORWEGIAN HANS
and driven it to the east, the first detachment can, at most, have been
carried to the meridian of the Nansen Islands.
Calculating, therefore, from the distance covered by the expe-
dition, the information collected by Dr. Cavalli, and the observations
made in the neighbourhood of the island, it is very difficult to come
to a conclusion as to what might be the best direction in which to
send a search expedition. It seems to me useless to send one to the
south, for if they went in that direction and have not yet reached
us, they must have been carried very far, and they will go on to
248 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
Cape Flora. It is useless also to seek towards the west and the
north, where the ice-pack is much broken up and always in
motion, and where the horizon is very much circumscribed.
There only remains White Land, towards which it is possible that
they may have been carried, or to which they may have gone,
mistaking it for Prince Rudolph Island, and from which they have not
since stirred. The supposition does not seem probable, but as it is
the only one on which I can act, I decide on sending an expedition
towards that island, and give the command to Andreas. Dr.
Cavalli, Cardenti, and Savoie express a desire to form part of it, but
it seems to me that after their fatigues they require absolute rest.
On April I9th, 2oth, and 2ist the ice generally remained close
to the island, the weather was fine and calm, and the temperature
varied between — 15° C. and — 29° C. The calm weather and the
cold have caused the open water near Cape Saulen to freeze, and
the birds have disappeared from that locality. On the morning of
the 22nd, Andreas, accompanied by Hans and Ole, sets out with
two sledges, sixteen dogs, food for twenty-six days, and a folding
canvas boat (that which brought back the doctor), to enable him to
cross the canals more speedily. I have instructed him to march
towards Nansen Islands for twelve days, but if by that time he has
not reached them, or is still far away from them, he is to come back.
Towards evening I go with Cavalli to Cape Saulen. Owing to
the calm weather of the last few days, and the light breezes from the
west, the ice-pack is again in contact with the coast. To- the south of
Cape Saulen can be seen a pressure-ridge, which is certainly from seven
to eight yards high. I can clearly see how impossible it is to travel
with sledges over such ice. In a recently formed pressure-ridge the
blocks of ice, which are piled up one over the other, and rise almost
vertically from the surrounding ice, present such sharp points and
249
Return of Dr. Cavalli and Commander Cagni 251
projections that a man finds it difficult to cross them, and a sledge
requires to be lifted over. The sun is already so high that when
we return to the tent it warms us, and allows us to remain outside
for more than half an hour, though the temperature is —22° C.
NEAR CAI'K FL1GKLY
End of the
Intense Cold.
April 2yd to 26//;. — The ice is still in contact with the
coast. The warmth of the sun causes some difference
to be felt between day and night. The wind blows
from various points ; it is sometimes strong, sometimes light.
We begin to get our tent ready for summer. It is deeply buried
252 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
in the snow, and, unless removed, when the thaw comes the water
will fall into it as into a well. The snow must, therefore, be
cleared away from the ground which lies at a lower level than the
tent, so as to allow the water to run past it and flow away. Near
the door the snow has been heaped up to a height of three or four
yards, and will require much work to remove. On the evening of
the 25th a solar halo is visible. These atmospheric phenomena have
never been strongly marked or completely formed.
The cold has been gradually diminishing during these last few
days, and the end of winter seems to be drawing near. On April 26th
the temperature at night was —35° C., and since then it has risen slowly.
On the 2yth light easterly winds drive the ice-pack away from
the island. On the 29th a stiff breeze sets in from the south-east,
which at night increases to a -storm, and reaches more than forty-
five miles an hour. On the morning of the 3Oth it shifts to the
north-east, and has still the velocity of a hurricane. The drift is
again so thick that we cannot stay outside the tent, and the weather
continues thus without interruption until May ist. It is terrible
weather for the search expedition, for, as it is in the neighbourhood
of the island, it must have been exposed to the same storm. Wide
belts of open water are being formed to the west and south-west.
The snow has been hardened by the wind, and is in good condition
for walking on. On account of the open water to the west of the
island, the temperature rises to — 9° C. on the evening of May 2nd,
and on coming out of the tent one experiences a real sensation
of warmth.
Changeable weather with south-westerly and north-westerly winds
drive the ice-pack once more against the coast, and keep it there
until May 9th. The temperature rises gradually, and fine weather
and the absence of wind soften the snow.
Return of Dr. Cavalli and Commander Cagni 255
The snow had been nearly all cleared away from before our tent ;
but the last storm brought more, so that our work has been of
no use. I could never have believed that the snowdrift could cause
so much annoyance. Ever since last September until now, the
slightest breeze has always raised the snow ; and this, lifted
up and carried by the wind, has penetrated everywhere, and
covered up everything lying outside the tent. The wind and the
drift overwhelm in a short time what has cost us hours and days of
toil. We are now lifting the boxes of provisions out of the snow,
ROCKS OK CAl'K SAULEN
where they lay buried, and carrying them up to a high rock, where
they will be kept dry. The sunshine is so bright that we are obliged
to wear spectacles.
May tyh. — The thermometer rises for the first time to — 1° C.
On board our ship, the snow lying on the windlass and on everything
painted black is thawing. The wind sets in from the north-east ; it
256 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
lasts all day, accompanied as usual by snowdrift, and makes a new
channel to the west. Yesterday we put our instruments back into the
meteorologic cage to protect them from the influence of the sun, and
they now suffer from the same drawbacks as before.
The wind goes down on the evening of May loth. It has done
more to harden the snow than the temperature. Andreas, Hans, and
i give up ail Ole return at half-past seven in the evening. We are
further Attempt
to seek for the glad to see them again, but grieve to learn that they have
First Detach- '
found no trace of our companions. The mate has carried
out my orders, and has come back on the twelfth day, after
marching for eight days over ice which was very much broken, and
having been hindered from advancing for four days by the stormy
weather at the end of April and the beginning of May. They had
covered about two-thirds of the distance to Nansen Islands, and
had gone nearly as far as a belt of open water which the last tempest
had formed to the west of these islands.
Twelve days of actual marching might have brought the expedi-
tion to the islands, and five or six days more should have been spent in
exploring them ; on the whole, the expedition would have required
about a month. I had added to the sledges a folding canvas boat,
which is more convenient than a kayak for crossing narrow channels,
but as the season was advanced, I ought to have left it aside, and
given the expedition a larger amount of provisions. The Joss of
three men rendered me perhaps too cautious, and unwilling to risk
others. On the other hand, I felt more and more convinced that men
who were short of provisions, and who knew that they were in the
neighbourhood of the hur, could have easily reached Teplitz Bay from
Nansen Islands in eight or ten days ; and that if our unfortunate com-
panions had not come back, it was not because they had gone to those
islands. I therefore gave up making any further attempt to search for
Return of Dr. Cavalli and Commander Cagni 257
the missing detachment. It was not in our neighbourhood, or it would
have reached the hut ; if it were far away on the ice-pack, we could do
nothing to help it ; if it were more to the south, it must already have
gone on towards Cape Flora.
May nth to i8//z. — The ice-pack is very much broken up.
Channels appear everywhere near the island. The ice-fields are not of
great extent — 300 or 400 yards at most. The channels -me Look-out at
between them are full of lumps of ice and half-melted Tneice-Pack
near the Island
snow, so that it is impossible to make use of a boat, is in a Bad state,
and very difficult to cross with sledges. The ice-pack is continually
moving ; the westerly winds drive it against the island, and the
ANOTHER VIEW OF THE ROCKS
easterly winds drive it away. The weather is almost always
cloudy ; it makes me feel uneasy for Captain Cagni, who will find it
difficult to take observations and to sight the island. The snow is,
however, still good for walking on, especially after a windy day.
VOL, i. 17
258 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
To the left of the ship some water has trickled down between
the side and the ice, and formed a small pool. To the right, the
snow is being cleared away down to the level of the water. The
doctor sees for the first time an Arctic sparrow (Passero polari].
May iyth. — Dr. Cavalli, Andreas, and Cardenti set out for Cape
Fligely, with provisions for ten days, to look out for Cagni's return.
From Cape Germania I examine the surroundings every day with a
telescope. Light westerly winds bring the ice-pack close to the island
again. The sky is still cloudy and there are often fogs. The sun is
seldom visible.
May 22nd. — This evening we kill four bears, an entire family —
a he-bear, she-bear, and two large cubs. After killing the she-bear
and the cubs, we had gone away, leaving Gini (the cook) and two
sailors to guard our quarry, when the he-bear came up unexpectedly.
The cook only was armed, and his companions prudently withdrew,
but Gini luckily killed the bear with a single shot.
On the evening of the 22nd, a wind set in from the east
which lasted till the morning of the 25th, and formed a stretch of
open water along the coast extending to seven or eight miles from
land.
May 26th. — According to Captain Cagni's letter, he ought to be
already on his way back, for thirty-seven days have passed. He has
still provisions for three days, but afterwards must subsist, until
June loth, on what he may have been able to economise. During
these last few days the sky has been always overcast, and this, with the
mistiness of the horizon, would have prevented him from seeing the
island and even from taking observations. If he is to the west of
the island, he cannot, under present circumstances, reach the hut. It
would be necessary to send a launch along the edge of the ice-pack to
look for him. But is that possible, for the sea will certainly freeze ?
Return of Dr. Cavalli and Commander Cagni 259
To my great relief, the wind sets in from the north, and it will, I hope,
soon bring the ice-pack back to the coast. Cavalli returns at five o'clock
from Cape Fligely. The ice-pack is now only a few hundred yards
distant from Cape Fligely and Cape Rohlfs ; but several channels are
visible between Nansen Islands and Prince Rudolph Island.
TRAVELLING OVER SOFT SNOW
May ijth. — Ice has again been formed during the night where
yesterday there were stretches of open water. What I foresaw is
now taking place, and at this moment a launch would run the risk of
being imprisoned in the newly formed ice, which, on the other hand,
is not strong enough to allow a man to walk on it. A launch is,
however, got ready with provisions for ten days ; but 1 am convinced
the north winds, which are shifting round to the west, will bring the
pack up to the island, and render it unnecessary to send it.
I leave in the evening with Savoie for Cape Fligely. Northerly
winds set in, and last during the fifteen days that I pass at Cape
Fligely. The ice-pack is driven against the coast, and again closed
up, so that it is in a fit state for sledge travelling. It is moving
260 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
slightly to the west, but to the east of Cape Fligely, as far as the
eye can reach, it is not. The ice which is in motion moves along a
line drawn from Cape Fligely to the most northerly of the Nansen
Islands.
The fog hardly ever lifts. In twelve days I have only been able
twice to take an observation at noon. It thaws for the first time
on June loth, and water is seen flowing on the level ground near
our tent.
This is how we pass our days. We rise at nine, breakfast
about ten, dine at six in the evening, and at nine get into our
sleeping-bag to sleep until the next day. We turn our telescope
first towards one side of Cape Fligely, and then towards the other,
passing entire hours in careful observation, so as to be certain that
nothing which is within reach of our sight can escape us. When
under the tent, we often talk about our comrades, and although we
do our best to keep up our spirits, we do not succeed in overcoming
our painful anxiety. It is not a very gay life, but, at least, we now
live without physical suffering, which was not the case in March.
The cooking is excellent, although Cardenti and Savoie sometimes
forget to put Liebig's Extract into the soup. The reindeer-skin
sleeping-bags are very warm with the present temperature ; we
can sleep in them undressed without feeling cold, and can thus keep
the bags always dry. The slight inconvenience of having to run about
now and then to warm ourselves is nothing when we think of the
time when, to bear the cold, we were obliged to take violent exercise
almost continually, or else to get into the sleeping-bag, close up every
opening, and stay there, even when we did not want to sleep.
I have given to this post the name of Eldorado, and I find
one day that the men have given to the hut the name of Columbiay
and that they all prefer to live at Columbia than at Eldorado, with
Return of Dr. Cavalli and Commander Cagni 261
the exception of Cardenti, who is glad to stay there, or who at
least says he is, and repeats continually, " Who can be better off
than we are ? " On this point I do not agree with him, for I think
that there are many other places where one might be better off than
on this desolate headland, in a house built with snow, where the
only tranquil moments are those passed in sleep, because we then
cease to feel anxious as to the comrades for whom we are waiting.
It is now June loth. According to our calculations, Cagni's
resources must be exhausted by this time. When he separated from
the second detachment he had forty-eight dogs and provisions for
twenty days' further march towards the Pole, and forty days' return.
His rations would come to an end on May 26th ; but he said that
by economising them he might make them last until June loth.
But that day has now come, and he has not appeared. Unless he
has found means to procure food by hunting, he must be in a
very difficult situation. I have full confidence in Captain Cagni's
endurance, in his perseverance, and in his talent for surmounting ,
obstacles, but there are limits to everything.
What can have happened to him to thus delay his march ? Has
the strength of the dogs been exhausted? Savoie and Cardenti have
the greatest confidence in those animals, as they had Anxiety with
regard to Cagni's
forty days' experience of them, and the fact that theRetum-
doers of the second detachment came back in excellent condition,
o
and were ready to start off immediately for another march, is a
proof of their endurance. It is true that in other expeditions
these animals have sometimes been suddenly attacked by a malady
similar to rabies, which carried them off very soon. It does not,
however, seem to me probable that this mishap can have happened
to Cagni, because, if that were so, we too should have had some
case of that malady among the dogs staying at the hut.
262 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
Has he been attacked by scurvy ? The advance of the English
expedition of 1873 was checked by the outbreak of this malady,
\/ among a crew which, before its departure, had been certified by the
doctors on board as being in a perfect state of health. The disease
appeared with great intensity, after a few days only of the exhausting
life they led while on the ice. Cagni and his men were still in
excellent health twenty days after they left ; but who can tell whether
sixty days more of fatigue may not have developed the same malady
in them ? Although from the outset I had taken precautions against
scurvy, by following the example of what had been done on board
the Fram, I could not feel perfectly safe, since, even at the present
day, doctors do not positively know to what cause it is to be
attributed. They are all of opinion, especially after the latest ex-
peditions in which salt meat has not been used, that this disease
may be ascribed to the use of such food ; but this is only a sup-
position, and the real cause is still unknown.
Some accident may have happened to some member of the
detachment, and perhaps to Cagni himself, thus depriving the ex-
pedition of the only person capable of ascertaining its position..
But may he not have been prevented by fogs and bad weather
from taking the observations he requires for his guidance ?
As our stores of food and petroleum were nearly exhausted on
June loth, I decide on returning to the hut with my two companions.
We go along the coast, in order to bring back a boat which had
been abandoned near Cape Rohlfs, and reach the hut after a march
of four and a half hours. We find many changes there. The
thaw has necessitated the removal of all the boxes which formed
the carpenter's shed ; they have been carried up to rocky ground,
where the shed was rebuilt. To the south of our tent the snow
has been cleared away, so that as it melts the water may run
Return of Dr. Cavalli and Commander Cagni 263
down to the sea. Though the snow is soft, the inside of the tent
is perfectly dry.
The launch is always kept in readiness to put to sea. The
doctor tells me that, on the day after I left, the north-west wind had
driven the ice-pack up to the coast, and thereby rendered it useless
to send out a boat. The ice-pack is now more closely pressed against
the coast than ever during the last month.
I explain to the doctor my opinion of our present situation.
It is time to think of saving our ship, and Cagni has not
returned. What ought we to do? I believe that we we set to work
to extricate the
ought now to begin to try to extricate the ship. I ShiP
have reflected much on the matter during the long hours 1 passed
in my sleeping-bag at Cape Fligely. It would not be of much use
to pass a second winter in Teplitz Bay waiting for Captain Cagni.
A sledge expedition to White Land to search for him could only be
undertaken in autumn, and during summer we could only explore
Queen Victoria Sea with our launches in the neighbourhood of Prince
Rudolph Island. Now, if Cagni has reached either of these places,
he must have the means of reaching by some way or another either the
hut or Cape Flora. If I left some men here, and brought the others
home in the ship, those who remained would be less able to help
themselves, and a smaller crew would have more trouble to bring
the ship back. The most sensible plan seems to be to bring back the
whole crew, leaving a sufficient store of provisions at Teplitz Bay
and Cape Flora, and to send a ship to Cape Flora next summer.
We shall leave Teplitz Bay at the end of July, and if Cagni has
not returned by then, we may be almost certain that he is no longer
to the north of us, that we must look for him in the direction of
the south, and that we can do so more easily by means of the ship.
While the doctor and Andreas go back to Cape Fligely, we set
264 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
to work to extricate the ship. The ice, which is about four feet thick,
is first of all cleared away from the engines and the hold. The latter
is easily freed from water by means of the small boiler, just as we
did last autumn. Our operations then, though, were carried on very
slowly, as the water froze in the hose, but now there is nothing to stop
them. As the ship adheres to the ice, there is less leakage than
formerly, and once it is freed, two or three hours' pumping will suffice
to make the hold dry. The furnaces, which were completely filled
with ice, are also cleared ; it is rather hard work, and to get on more
expeditiously we again make use of petroleum and coal.
The ice in the bay shows no cracks, and the bay still presents th«
same appearance as in winter. The snow has become soft, and one
sinks in it up to the knee ; but the thaw has not yet liquefied it. We
are now in about the middle of June. The ice-pack has been driven
up against the coast by the continuance of westerly winds.
It has been my custom to go every day to the top of Cape
Germania and examine with a telescope the immense expanse of frozen
sea. The softness of the snow lengthens the journey so much that
I lose half the day. I am beginning to make use of skiy and
becoming accustomed to this sort of skates ; but I find that, though
on level ground they can help a skilful person, they cause a loss of
time when one is on an uneven surface, such as the ice-pack, and
especially when following a sledge. While the snow is hard, the ski
are a hindrance to any sort of work ; and as a loaded sledge does not
go quickly, the ski are not of much advantage when travelling. They
might, on the other hand, be useful when the snow is soft towards the
end of spring, but then an expedition would still have its dogs, which
cannot go over snow into which a man sinks.
The ice-floes are small and thin. There are channels everywhere ;
it would seem as though this ice had been formed late in spring in the
Return of Dr. Cavalli and Commander Cagni 265
neighbourhood of the island. No large ice-fields are visible. The
ice-pack appears to be almost motionless ; but if an easterly wind sets
in, it is driven away from the coast in a few hours.
There have been fogs and calm weather during these last few
days. The ice-pack remained in contact with the coast until the iyth,
on which day it receded and left a vast expanse of open water to the
west of the island. On Sunday, June iyth, we see for the first time a
,***fff\ f^^JCiT"
ARRIVAL OF CAGNI
Briinnich's guillemot (Uria brunnichi), and Hans finds the eggs of the
blue gull among the rocks of Cape Saulen, which are the first birds'
eggs we have found this season. After the blue gull, the first to lay
their eggs were the little auks, on June 2 8th.
On June 1 9th Dr. Cavalli returns from Cape Fligely. A small
channel has been formed. The ice-pack is intersected by channels, and
has been driven a little to the north of the island. I leave towards
evening for Cape Fligely, and shall stay there till the end of the
month, after which I shall give up that position.
266 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
Though the snow is soft, we can still advance at a moderate
speed, but it should be remarked that we have with us a sledge
laden with only 220 Ib. On arriving at Eldorado* we
Captain Cagni
find our hut half destroyed by the thaw, but that does
not matter much now, as the weather is generally calm. A light
north-westerly wind drives the ice-pack again up to the coast. We
pass the 22nd enveloped in a dense fog. The weather is dark and
foggy on the morning of the -23rd, but becomes brighter towards
evening, with a northerly breeze. We take advantage of it to examine
the horizon. That evening we return to our tents later than usual,
and while making our soup, hear our dogs bark.
We think at first that a bear is approaching, and hasten out.
What is our surprise when we see in the distance a sledge coming
rapidly towards us ! As for some time I have not been accustomed to
hear good news, my first idea is that some accident has happened at
the hut ; a fire, perhaps, or some one has fallen dangerously ill. But
all my fears vanish when Andreas calls out : " Cagni has come back ! "
and when I ask: "With his companions?" "Yes, and he has
reached 86° 34'." Cardenti and I give a cheer. All my anxiety is
dispelled by the joy I feel at the return of our comrades, who have
gone to the highest latitude yet reached.
We load the sledges, and about half-past eleven leave for the hut,
where we arrive at five next morning. The sound of my voice awakens
Captain Cagni. who hastens out, and we greet each other again after
being separated for 104 days. If my anxiety has not quite disappeared,
the return of four of the persons whom I thought lost and the success
obtained by Captain Cagni procure for me a short interval of real
happiness.
CHAPTER XIII
Captain Cagni breaks the Polar Record. Is it
Impossible to reach the Pole ?
CHAPTER XIII
CAPTAIN CAGNI BREAKS THE POLAR RECORD, IS IT
IMPOSSIBLE TO REACH THE POLE?
CAPTAIN CAGNI, Petigax, Fenoillet, and Canepa had the
appearance of having suffered much, but the last-named less
than the others. Although their strength had been much reduced
by want of sufficient food, they were not exhausted. Appearance of
' J the Men and
; The seven dogs which survived seemed much worse ;
some of them were merely skin and bone. The only tacnment.
part of their outfit they had brought back that was still capable of
being of any use, was their tent, and this had been mended. The
framework of the kayaks had been broken and their canvas torn, so
that they could not be used unless a week were spent in mending
them. The sledges which remained had been mended with pieces of
other sledges. All that was left of their cooking utensils was the outer
covering of the stove> a saucepan which had been mended, and the
plates. The Primus lamp had been replaced by a pot, in which dog's
grease had been burned for the last few weeks. The sleeping-bag had
been thrown away, and only the thick canvas lining kept, Their
clothes were in rags.
The health of the men during the march had been excellent ;
but Cagni had had the forefinger of his right hand frozen for the third
time, so that the doctor now deemed it necessary to amputate a part
of the bone. The dogs had given proofs of endurance, and none of
269
270 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
them had died of disease. Their number had been reduced to seven,
as some of them had served to feed their companions, and even the
men, too, in the last few weeks.
Captain Cagni had marched towards the North Pole for forty-five
days, from March nth to April 24th. When he saw how difficult it
•\ The March per- would be to reach the same latitude as Nansen, he did
formed by
captain cagni. not allow himself to be discouraged by the first marches,
which were so trying ; but he thought that if he sent the two first
detachments back to the hut before the time which had been agreed
on, he might be able to push on towards the north for some days
longer by means of the provisions which would be thus economised.
He was in this way able to reach 86° 34' N. lat., and could even
have got back to Teplitz Bay (while still living on the rations which
he had brought with him) if the drift of the ice-pack had not carried
him away to the west. Both Cagni, as leader of the detachment, and
those who followed him are worthy of being recorded in history for
the courage which they displayed, not merely while under the influence
of a momentary enthusiasm, but with an admirable perseverance for
many consecutive days.
Although the difficulties encountered by the first two detach-
ments, which were a shorter time on the march, were fewer, they were
still such as to demand men of exceptional courage and force of
character to surmount them. The fact that all the members of the
expedition performed their respective duties so well, even those which
were less important but not on that account less difficult, renders
them all equally worthy of my admiration and of my gratitude.
Cagni's march has surpassed all those hitherto made on the ice
of the Arctic Ocean at a distance from land. Reckoning the miles in
a straight line from Teplitz Bay to the most northern point reached
by the expedition, and from thence to Ommaney Island, we find
Captain Cagni breaks the Polar Record 271
that Cagni travelled 60 1 miles in ninety-five days. Adding to that
the distance between Ommaney Island and Prince Rudolph Island,
it gives a total distance in a straight line of 637 miles, observations
with regard to
covered in 104 days,1 without any help from depots, any Future Expe-
J ' ] dition towards
This march may be divided into three periods: from the North Pole<
the departure from Teplitz Bay (March iith) till the second
detachment was sent back (March 3ist) ; from March 3ist to May
•
A FRIENDLY PAIR
i 5th ; and from May ifth till the return to the hut. While during
the first and last of these periods the average distance travelled every
1 The entire distance travelled, measured by the trace on the map, is 753
miles.
272 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
day was only five miles, in the second period it was over ten. Nansen's
speed, which was at the rate of five miles a day at the utmost, has
therefore been surpassed and brought up to ten miles a day by Cagni's
expedition, which, moreover, was able to perform the same daily
marches as Nansen, while it was crossing the rough ice near the island
at its departure, and after the thaw on its return. But Cagni's march
shows that this speed is not sufficient to enable a train of sledges to
/ cover the distance between Emperor Franz Josef Archipelago and the
Pole within the short space of time in which such a march can be
accomplished. The rate of ten miles a day, at which Cagni was able
to travel only during that portion of his journey when the ice was
in an exceptionally favourable condition, ought to represent the rate
of the average march during a period of a hundred days. Should we
therefore give up all hope of reaching the Pole ?
It would be useless to repeat the attempt by following the same
plan. It would, at most, be possible to push on a few miles farther
towards the north, if the ice on the Arctic Ocean was in an unusually
favourable state ; but the results would not afford any compensation
for the fatigue and the privations undergone. While following, there-
fore, the invariable plan of setting out from some point on land, and
not from a ship drifting in the ice, on account of the reasons put forth
in the first chapter of this work, it will be necessary to find some other
method of shortening the distance which has to be travelled with
sledges. What 1 should recommend would be to sail along the western
coast of Greenland to the north of Kennedy Sound, where it ought to
be possible, under favourable conditions, to go to a still higher latitude
than that reached by the Alert off Grant Land.
I think it likely that the ice which presented such great obstacles
to the sledge expedition Markham attempted to undertake to
the north of Grant Land, was not very dissimilar to that which
Captain Cagni breaks the Polar Record 273
hindered our sledges from advancing in the neighbourhood of Prince
Rudolph Island. I do not here allude to the greater or lesser thickness
of the ice-fields ; but to the difficulty of travelling over a rugged
surface.
The weight of the load carried by the sledges should not be
calculated according to what the men and dogs can draw, but
EQUIPMENT OF THE THIRD DETACHMENT
according to the limitations imposed by the unevenness of the ground
over which the march must be performed. On ice in the neighbour-
hood of land, the weight of the load, together with that of the sledge,
must not be over 550 Ib, otherwise, after a few days' march, the
sledges would be broken and unfit to serve, or it would be necessary
to unload and make a level way for them.
It should be remembered that no matter from where the start may
VOL. i. 18
274
the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
take place, there will always be a belt of very difficult ice in the vicinity
of land. This may be easily understood if it is considered that, when
the wind is from the land, the ice-fields are driven away from the
coast ; and that they are again driven back to the land when the wind is
from the sea, and when they become piled up one over the other at their
weakest points, which are those formed by the belts of new ice. This
belt of rugged ice, as was observed when Cagni's expedition set out,
Moro.
THE NAMES BY WHICH WE CALLED THEM:
Messicano. Pantalone. Teresa. Sacripante. Piccin.
Orlando
may be looked upon as extending about 1 20 miles from the coast. In
any future expedition the crossing of this belt will form a special
period of the journey. During this time, which will also prove the
coldest, several men must be employed to clear the way wherever it
may be necessary ; warmer sleeping-bags and an equipment made of
stronger materials should be taken, and larger rations given out. In a
word, the preservation of the outfit and the comfort of the men should
be the first consideration. It would seem that when this belt is passed,
the ice becomes comparatively better ; I say comparatively, because the
lesser obstacles also depend much upon the weather, both before and
during the expedition. This second period will be totally different
from the first. The advance should be made with a few picked men,
Captain Cagni breaks the Polar Record 275
several dogs, well trained during the first part of the expedition
to drag the sledges and selected from among the strongest and
most docile, and the equipment should be lighter. An expedition
which should start about February 2Oth, to cross the frozen sea in the
direction of the Pole from a latitude such as has already been reached
in that locality by a ship (82° 16') might find itself on March loth,
after travelling for twenty days at the same rate as Cagni (five miles
a day), in 84° N. lat., and upon ice which, being far from land,
may be supposed to be level and easy to cross. From this point a
detachment composed of as many men as Cagni's, but carrying pro-
visions for eighty days, and furnished with more dogs and sledges than
he had, should push on quickly towards the north at the rate of ten
miles a day. If they did not reach the Pole, they would at least
...
MESSICANO
come very near it, and then, returning to 84° latitude, land on the
northern coast of Greenland. They might find there depots of equip-
ment and fresh provisions, and even in the months of June and July,
when it is difficult to travel over the frozen sea, they could rejoin their
ship by coming down along the land.
2j6 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
Leaving aside, therefore, the obstacles presented by the ice, which
are the same in both places, Greenland possesses the following advan-
tages over Emperor Franz Josef Archipelago. The funnel formed by
the northern opening of Robeson Sound and Grant Land to the
west, and Greenland to the east, must stop the movement of the ice
towards the south in spring, when the expedition would be on its way
towards the north, and would thus prevent the drift which reduced
the length of Cagni's daily marches so much, especially during the
period of the expedition.
Emperor Franz Josef Archipelago forms a triangle, with its
summit towards the north, and is therefore difficult to find ; and what
happened to Cagni, who, because he went past this point when coming
down to the south, had therefore to travel a greater distance, might
also happen to any detachment that wanted to reach the camp on
Prince Rudolph Island. This danger does not exist in Greenland,
as the ship or the camp from which the expedition towards the Pole
would start would be situated to the south of any other land, and even
if the expedition deviated from its course when returning, it would
easily find the camp by following the coast.
There were several defects in our equipment which it may
be well to state here, together with the changes which seem most
Defects in our advisable.
The sledges were sufficiently high from the ground,
and strong enough to carry a weight not greater than 550 Ib. The
runners were broad enough, but I think that the under-runner is use-
less. As the expedition was not to return later than the end of May,
it was not necessary to take off the under-runner and use runners
shod with white metal to enable the sledge to slide better. On the
other hand, the under-runners, which are made of a thin slip of wood,
break very easily when on hard ice, and allow the entire weight of
Captain Cagni breaks the Polar Record 277
the sledge to bear upon the runner, from which the white metal plating
is soon worn off, thereby losing the advantage derived from this
addition, and weakening the sledge. I think that if these white metal
covers were done away with, and the runners made stronger, the
weight of the sledge would be reduced, and its strength increased,
while its speed would not be diminished. The aluminium boxes
placed at the bottom of the sledge are not of much use. It is more
convenient to make use of sacks, which do not weigh much more, and
. .
SACKIPANTE AND TKRESA
can be mended. As the flat-bottomed kayaks fitted perfectly well on
to the boxes, it was easy to pack them, and they were sufficiently sea-
worthy to be of use in crossing the channels. We did not all agree
as to whether it was better to carry this Esquimaux canoe, or a plain
folding boat of canvas, which we had, on the model of the James
folding boat, but lighter.
As two kayaks weigh no lb., and a boat weighs 131 lb.,
canoes might be made of the same weight as two kayaks, which would
278 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
have the advantage of being able to cross a channel more easily, and of
not being so liable to be injured by blows. For my part, I am convinced
that after a long journey a folding boat would be equally torn, and be
in the same state as Cagni's kayaks when he came back. The sole
advantage of a boat or a kayak is the help it gives when crossing a
channel, but considering that Cagni never used his kayaki, and that
the doctor could very well have done without them, as when he was
starting he had not the courage to take one, there would be a saving
of 110 Ib. if they were left aside, which would represent some days
of food and, in my opinion, would be more useful than either kayaks
or boats.
Sleeping-bags like ours can still be much improved. Wrangell
I
used a double bag in his expeditions ; I would advise doing the
same, and not seek to economise any weight in this part of the
outfit, so as to be able to bear the intense cold in spring. It would,
moreover, be better if, besides the double bag for three or four
persons, each one had his own. The outer bag should be made in
Captain Cagni breaks the Polar Record 279
such a way that, when the season is more advanced and less inclement,
the inner bag might be taken away and only the outer one used. I
do not know how to avoid the humidity which exists in all sleeping-
bags. It has two causes : the condensation of the breath in the
,.>
interior of the bag when the men get into it and closed every aperture,
and the snow brought into the bag on their clothes and melted during
the night by the rise of temperature. This latter cause of discomfort
can be remedied to a certain degree by taking great care to brush
one's clothes before entering the bag, and by making use of overalls;
as to the former, it is impossible to avoid it as the bags are now made.
It is impossible to sleep with the head exposed ; it is necessary to
close every aperture to keep off the cold, and then the breath is
condensed. Any one who thinks seriously of organising an expedi-
tion should go to some cold country, such as Siberia, to make
experiments with different sorts of bag, and make changes in them
on the spot. In this way, I am certain that the comfort of the
members of an expedition could be much increased.
280 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
The cooking-stove designed by Nansen is, without doubt, that
which best utilises the heat of the combustible employed, and the
Primus lamps are. the ^quickest that exist. The speed with which a
meal can be cooked' >s 'of great importance, .as" it -allows the men to
take refuge as 'soon as possible in. their sleeping-bags, and thus put
an end to the hardship of remaining exposed to temperatures for
which their bodies -were not created. They could not go to bed
before eating, as the bags would be saturated with water after a few
days, on account of the steam which condenses in the tent during
meals, and is so dense that the men cannot see. each other. The
saucepans must have 'very thick bottoms, otherwise, if they are
filled with snow or ice' while the temperature is*low, the strong flame
of the lamp might burn them before there was • water enough to
cover the bottom.^.*
The tents .we used' were easily put up, and ' sufficiently strong
for a journey of that length.
The clothes should all be of wool" and very closely woven, as
well as the vests^ worn '-next the skin ; they should not be hairy, so
as not to catch the snow. The jackets should open in front, and
not be made like a smock-frock, for the latter when frozen cannot
be taken off without help. The clothing worn during the march
was more than enough to meet all the variations of temperature of
those regions, and we all agreed in preferring it to furs. Instead
of the wind-repellers, I would suggest a light flannel coat, which
could be taken off before getting into the bag, and should be always
worn when on the march. It would hinder transpiration, and would
keep the clothes underneath it dry and free from snow. The best
shoes are the finskos, but they must be very wide, so that they can
be put on over several socks and with sedge-grass padding, even
when they are frozen. They should be specially made, for those
Captain Cagni breaks the Polar Record 281
that are bought ready made are adapted only for the Finns, who
have very small feet. Over the knitted helmet should be worn a
woollen cap, covering the head well ; it will keep it warmer, and
prevent the helmet from getting wet, which is very important, as it
has to be worn day and night. When wearing this helmet, the
282 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
mouth should always be left uncovered, otherwise the breath
would condense on the wool, and soon form a mask of ice which
might easily cause frost-bites. A strap of woollen stuff fixed to one
.side of it, which can be placed over the nose at will, is the best
protection for the nose and for the cheeks. The best gloves are
very thick woollen gauntlets, wide and long, so as to cover the
entire hand.
Aluminium instruments are not suitable, as they are easily spoiled.
I think it well to be furnished with an artificial mercurial horizon,
as it is difficult to level a glass horizon when the temperature is
low. A skilful observer can always take observations, even with a
small artificial horizon, and the trifling quantity of mercury which
has to be carried cannot weigh more than two pounds at most. The
greater rapidity, ease, and certainty of the observation are advantages
which compensate for the slight increase of weight. Pocket chrono-
meters, if properly carried, are not injured by shocks or changes of
temperature ; but it is indispensable that they should go for more than
forty-eight hours without being wound up; The bearer should always
carry them hung from his neck, beneath his clothes and next his skin,
-so that they may be protected against jolting.
. The ice-axes, without which it is impossible to cross the ice-
ridges, are also an important part of the outfit. The wood and the
steel must be very carefully selected, otherwise they are broken
after a few days' march.
The harness for the dogs had been well prepared, and worked well.
Our rations were excellent and plentiful. It is well to have a
small surplus, as thus the ration can be diminished if necessary, and
the provisions made to last longer, while the men are kept in good
health. More milk and butter might be allowed at the outset, and
less pemmican in proportion ; in this way the ration would be more
Captain Cagni breaks the Polar Record 283
varied, though the weight would be the same. Seventeen ounces of
pemmican was a very large ration for the dogs, and, indeed, strictly
speaking, an expedition might travel while giving them only
10 oz. 8 dr. ; but it should be observed that the endurance shown
by our dogs at the end of the expedition, when they had no other
food than the dogs we killed, was, without doubt, chiefly owing to their
PANTALONE
having been well fed at the beginning. In any future expedition the
dogs' daily ration should be fixed at sixteen ounces of pemmican,
which, in case of necessity, will allow their existence to be prolonged.
In these expeditions the guides were of the greatest use. There
are many who still believe that they can serve only in their Alpine
regions. I remember the astonishment I caused in America by
284 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
bringing guides from the Alps for the ascent of Mount St. Elias.
The state of the places through which a guide is continually passing
The use of changes from year to year, sometimes from day to day,
Alpine Guides .
and of sailors and the guide does not ascend to the summit or a moun-
in a Polar
Expedition. tajn j^y ^Q same path, but by various ways among
the seracs of a glacier, the crevasses of a high table-land, or the
rocks of a cliff, according to the state of the ice, of the snow, or
the rock. The guides are therefore accustomed from their youth to
DOGS BROUGHT BACK (TO ITALY
observe attentively and decide prudently, and the active life as well
as the dangers which they encounter in following their trade give
strength to their bodies and fortitude to their minds. The same gifts
are often put to the trial at sea, although for other reasons, and to
form the expedition I had, therefore, chosen men from the Alps and
sailors, giving the preference, however, to^the former, on account of
their knowledge of ice.
The greatest care should be given to the choice of the men
and dogs. One should not start for these expeditions unless with
Captain Cagni breaks the Polar Record 285
persons who have given proofs of their moral and physical capacity.
Only those who are in a state of perfect health should go on an Arctic
expedition. The illness of one man may cause the loss of a detach-
ment, or the failure of an expedition ; and, moreover, it is only
the absolute obedience of all the men (not the blind obedience of
persons who do not know what they are doing, but the obedience
inspired by the sense of duty and of confidence in their chiefs) which
can allow the leader to come to decisions he would otherwise find
it very difficult to carry out.
The order for the dogs ought to be given in time. When
they are collected in Siberia, those of inferior quality should be
put aside, and only those selected which seem the strongest and to
have the most power of endurance, otherwise they are an em-
barrassment, both on ship-board and, later on, when travelling with
the sledges.
If an expedition which is getting ready to undertake a long
march over ice is not composed of men who are already very well
acquainted with the Arctic regions, it ought to make frequent excur-
sions in winter, not only to test the outfit, but also to accustom the
men to the life which they shall have to lead. Once they are on
the march, it is difficult even for the most active and intelligent
leader to look after his subordinates continually, and so make
everything go as he would wish. The men should be convinced
how necessary it is that each one should take the greatest care of
his personal outfit and clothing, as after the departure it will be
impossible to replace anything that may be spoiled or lost. It is
also necessary on setting out, having been in a state of inaction
for so many months, that the work should be increased little by
little, so as not to put too great a strain at the beginning on the
strength of the men composing the expedition, as they are already
286 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
weakened by the intense cold, and the first nights they have
passed sleeping out of their usual beds.
The Polar regions admit within their limits only well-prepared
and resolute men, and they are terribly severe towards those who go
there carelessly and trusting too much in their strength.
CHAPTER XIV
A Polar Summer
CHAPTER XIV
A POLAR SUMMER
A FTER Captain Cagni's return, the tent and ship were
•^~~\. decorated with flags for several days. Sadness had given way
to joy, and these days of material repose for the detachment just come
back were for us days of moral repose.
My anxiety was now at an end. The ship had to be extricated
from the ice as soon as possible. There was no longer The situation of
the Polar Star
any hope that, after so many months, the first detachment in the ice-Fieid.
might still be found to the north on White Land. The fact that, in
a much more advanced season, Cagni, although much exhausted, was
able to reach Teplitz Bay from Harley Island, was the clearest proof
that, if Querini's detachment had succeeded by any means in reaching
the island discovered by Nansen, or any other land within the distance
covered by Cagni, at a time when the season was more favourable, he
would certainly have been able to return to the hut.
The wind ought now to have set in from the east, to drive the
ice-pack away from the shore and leave the bay free once more. We
were at the end of June. The sun was beginning to sink, after having
reached the highest altitude. We had already remarked that, with the
latter days of August, navigation as a rule came to an end in this
locality. We had therefore only two months to extricate the ship and
bring her at least as far as Cape Flora.
But there came Jong periods of calm, alternately with winds from
VOL. i. 289 19
290 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
every point of the compass. The sea was as much covered with ice at
the end of June as it had been at the worst times during our stay, and
the bay was in the same state as during winter. Although the snow
was soft everywhere, it did not form those streams of water which last
HARD AT WORK
year ran alongside the ship, and encouraged me to hope that by their
means I might be able to free her. If it were not for the temperature,
we might think that we were still in April or in May.
The ice had been cleared out of the ship ; the engines were in
good order ; and she was ready to leave. She was at i 80 yards from
A Polar Summer
291
the edge of the ice in the bay, and not only required to be righted,
but to be got out of the ice by which she was shut in. If the ice
in the bay had not turned round under the pressure of the ice-pack,
and built up against the coast an ice-ridge at the very point where the
ship's bow had opened a channel, the ice which had been formed
during winter would not have become very thick, and would have
gone to pieces, or we could have broken it up with the ship's bow or
by blasting. But, after the pressure, the ice-field in front of the ship
had obtained in some points a thickness of five yards ; it would not,
therefore, melt during the summer, and we should even find it difficult
to break it up by blasting.
July 5th marked the beginning of summer. Since the end of
June, a few streamlets had been trickling here and there, Our Tents in
and on the level ground above the place where we had
pitched our tent, a small lake had been formed, which froze and thawed
THIi HUT DURING SUMMER
2()2 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
according to the temperature. On July 6th the temperature was
above freezing point all day, which caused a rapid thaw. Water
began to flow on all sides, with a deafening noise, which we found
pleasant. The fifteen days following were really like summer ; there
was neither wind nor fog. It was very agreeable to work out of doors,
THE SIESTA
and we could believe that we had been transported to another land.
It rained for the first time on July nth.
We feared that, during the thaw, the water might penetrate into
our tent, but as the upper part was still buried in the ice, it protected
us by turning the water aside and making it flow on either side of the
hut. The small quantity of water which got into the tent ran out>
and left the floor of our dwelling dry. The temperature of the hut
became so warm that we were obliged to make as many outlets as
possible to air it. When the temperature was from five to seven
degrees above freezing point, we could lie for hours comfortably
A Polar Summer
293
stretched against the outer tent without feeling the cold, and it was
there that we always met in our leisure moments. But, if the sun was
hidden by a cloud for a few minutes, we were reminded that we were
in the Arctic regions. On rainy days we remained under the first tent,
where, by opening and raising up the sides, we could enjoy the air
without getting wet ; for we avoided, as much as possible, staying in.
the inner tent, where we continued to burn petroleum lamps.
In July, after a week's rest, Cagni and those of his detachment
COMMANDER CAGNI TAKING OBSERVATIONS
set to work again. He re-commenced taking pendulum observations,
this time in the carpenter's hut, where, as the temperature was
always the same, they could be taken with precision. The magnetic
observations were also taken up again in their special hut, but were
interrupted later on, when the hut was carried away by a rush of water.
294
Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
We had been struck last year by seeing how quickly ice melted
when water flowed over it, and we therefore thought of making use of
water to free the right side of our ship. Two channels
We cut Channels
were dug to bring the water coming down from the
glacier alongside the ship. One of them, which formed a
cascade, was named Niagara ; the other, which was wider, was named
the Amazon. The doctor had undertaken to supervise and direct the
construction of these canals, on which we had founded great hopes.
THE MAGNETIC BOX FALLEN IN THE WATER
These torrents, changed into canals, caused us sometimes some
uneasiness, especially on rainy days, when the water overflowed and
sought to reach the sea by the shortest road, instead of following the
longer way, which we had dug out with so much toil. At first these
canals produced no great effect, but later, towards the end of July,
they wore away the ice, as we had seen last year.
The snow was thawing quickly, and here and there appeared the
bluer tint of the ice. The kennels, which were still buried in the snow
A Polar Summer 295
when Cagni came back, were now almost quite uncovered. It was
fatiguing to walk on the glacier, as one sank in the snow up to
the knees, and it was the same wherever there was an extent of
THE MAGNETIC HOX IN PERIL
thin ice covered with snow, with, moreover, the danger of going
through the ice. Wherever the ice formed a hollow without any
cracks, there were pools. We were again in a land streaming with
water, just as last year. From Cape Saulen to Cape Clement Markham
296 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
the ice-pack receded from the shore, or came back, according to
how the wind changed. But the ice-fields between Karl Alexander
and Prince Rudolph Islands did not move, or give signs of
moving, and, on July i5th, there was only to be seen a small
channel a few yards wide, which during all the winter had been
hidden by the drift, and was now visible when the snow which had
covered it thawed.
^^BFRT^H ^L •
OUT SHOOTING
It was an agreeable distraction for us to look for eggs in the nests
around us. The first eggs collected were given to the doctor to be
preserved. Later on, we thought of procuring some for the kitchen,
and made excursions for that purpose to Cape Auk. When out
walking we shot little auks and guillemots, whose flesh helped to vary
A Polar Summer 297
our food. We also tasted, but without much liking it, the flesh of the
ivory gull.
The fine weather came to an end on July 2oth, and from thence-
BRINGING THE MAGNETIC BOX TO LAND
forward the sky was again almost always hidden by frequent fogs,
with rain and snow at intervals. The Arctic summer was already
at an end, and autumn rapidly drawing near. We had a
THE RETURN FROM CAL'E AUK
298 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
banquet to celebrate the day on which last year we had reached
Emperor Franz Josef Archipelago. The pleasure we then felt,
Anniversary on arriving in an Arctic land was now changed into
of our Arrival
in Emperor a totally different reeling, so that, when we touched our
Franz Josef
Archipelago. glasses together, we drank to our speedy departure.
Twelve months passed on those shores had been enough to bring
about this change.
The following table may give some idea of the temperature at
Teplitz Bay during the year we spent there : — *
TEMPERATURES.
MONTHS.
AVERAGE. MAXIMUM.
MINIMUM.
1899.
Deg. (Cent.). Deg. (Cent.).
Deg. (Cent).
August ....
— 1-84 -1- 6-9
- 7'3
September ....
• 5'34 + 5'2
-16-5
October ....
— I5"92 — 2"O
— 28-0
November ....
— 1875 — 7'4
— 26-4
December ....
- 1774 - 12-3
- 22'2
1900.
January
- 19-87 2-4
- 37 '5
February .
— 2965 - 18-4
- 42-9
March ....
— 28-97 - 19-4
- 40-5
April .....
- '9-I4 3'5
- 35'4
May .....
- 9'57 - 2-5
-- 17-9
June .....
i'34 T 3'1
— 7-1
July
-t- 2-32 -t- II 0
2-4
August
+ 3-09 + 6'6
O'O
1 See Scientific Observations, Part I., Chapter VI., "Meteorological Observations,"
report by Professor Giovanni Battista Rizzo.
CHAPTER XV
The Ship is set Free
CHAPTER XV
THE SHIP IS SET FREE
T ~\ TIL had been making preparations to extricate the ship from
V V the ice since the spring. The snow had been cleared away
from her sides, and as we foresaw that we should require to do some
blasting, we had got ready a drill to sink holes in the ice.1 Difficulty of
righting' the
We could not as yet know if the Polar Star, which snip,
had been driven towards the shore by the pressure of the ice in the
autumn, was resting on the bottom or on ice. It was most important
that we should know, that we might decide what should be done. We,
therefore, for this purpose sank holes in the ice round the ship to find
its thickness, and found that on the right side, next the coast, both
at the bow and at the stern, it was 17 ft. 10 in. thick, and to the
left, next the sea, from 9 ft. 9 in. to 16 ft. 3 in., with water beneath
it. There was no fear, therefore, of the ship being stranded.
The first of the two canals which brought water to the ship ended
at the stern, opposite the propeller well ; the second, to the right, at
the bow. Some of the water which ran through the canal next the
1 We had forgotten to take one on leaving Christiania. The drill which we
made at Teplitz Bay was composed of a screw, which pierced the ice, and carried
on the top two cutting edges of the same width as the cylinders which held the gun-
cotton. A long pole with a handle, worked by two men, made the screw turn in
the ice, and the cutting edges made the hole, which, in two hours, was sunk to the
depth of sixteen feet. The crushed ice was taken out with a ladle from time to
time, so that it should not prevent the screw from biting into the hard ice beneath.
3O2 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
stern flowed along the right side of the ship till it met the water
brought by the canal next the bow, and some of it passing through
the opening of the well, and round the rudder, flowed along the left
side, and fell into the sea through the clefts in the ice. Some of the
water ran also in front of the ship towards the sea, along the line
dividing the fixed ice from the movable ice-field, and hollowed out a
channel which, in some places, was more than a yard deep.
The aspect of the ice-field had been very much changed in the last
few days ; the ice-field was becoming detached from the ice fixed to the
shore ; the crevasses which existed already were being enlarged, and
others appeared. Whether because the thawing of the snow on the
ice-field had allowed it to rise, or because the ice-field had receded, the
steel cables, which we had made fast to the shore during winter, and
had always been tightly stretched, were now slack at high tide.
To set the ship free it was necessary to carry out the same
The Ship is set Free
303
operations as last year, except that the action of the bow had to
be replaced by blasting. A channel had to be dug, beginning at
the outer limit of the ice-field, up to the stern of the ship, and passing
along her left side ; the ship would then slide on the ice fixed along
the coast, and right herself, or if a mine were sprung under her right
side, she would become loosened with a violent shock from the hollow
in which she rested. This operation would have been easy if the ice
POSITION OF THE SHIP
which adhered to Prince Rudolph and Karl Alexander Islands had
receded. But on July I5th it not only had not moved, but gave no
sign of moving ; and the season was already so far advanced that it was
to be feared, if we did not move under the pressure of a high
wind, we might not have been able to do all that was necessary to open
the canal and set the ship free in time. We had less than a month
304 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
before us. Our longing to return home made us attempt to right the
Polar Star in the place where she lay.
It was a long and tedious undertaking to right the ship without
first clearing away the ice on the side next the sea, for it had not only
to be broken, but also removed from the left side, so as to let the ship
slide down into the water. As the ice was very solid, and could not
open out when it was blasted, it was necessary to break it up into
small pieces, so as to form a large pool, and the pool should be freed
from these pieces of ice either by dragging them out by ropes and
pulleys, or by sending them down to the sea by the canals alongside
the ship. The amount of cubic yards of ice which would require to
be thus taken away was very great. Could we hope to succeed ?
As from this point we shall have to allude frequently to mines,
it will be well to describe our materials. We had 437 Ib. of gun-
The ice-Fieid cotton in hexagonal cakes, weighing ten ounces each. Ten
of these cakes formed a mine, and we had therefore enough
for sixty-four mines. They were placed in strong bronze cylinders,
hermetically sealed by a cover which screwed on, and was pierced
to receive a plug, carrying the wires for the electrical current.
This plug was of indiarubber, and tightened by a screw which
completely closed the case.
Some of these guncotton cakes were thoroughly soaked in
paraffin ; the rest had it merely on the outside. To ignite them
we had a Siemens machine, and an ordinary pile as well. We had also
a very small quantity of blasting powder and ordinary gunpowder.
We had enough tin cylinders, holding 8 Ib. 12 oz. of powder each,
to furnish thirty-five of these mines.
Not being certain as to the effect of mines on .ice, we began by
placing one of guncotton at thirty-two feet from the ship, where the ice
was fourteen feet thick. When it exploded the ship was much shaken,
VOL. I.
20
The Ship is set Free
307
but the ice was merely starred. As the effect was so slight, we saw that
we should have to diminish the distance from the ship if we wished to
form a pond of open water alongside of her. On the following days,
other mines, charged with only eight cakes of guncotton, were tried to
the right of the ship at a distance of from nineteen to twenty-six feet.
These were placed on the rocky bottom and in the ice fixed to the shore,
THE CANAL OPENING AT THE POOP
but when they exploded they merely made a well two yards in diameter.
We then placed two mines in the same hole in front of the ship, beneath
ice which was 14 ft. 6 in. thick, and not resting on the bottom.
They were fired together, and shook the vessel very much, but the
only result was to bring the ice to the surface. Three other mines
were placed round the ship, which are marked on the annexed plan by
the numbers 6, 7, 8, without producing any practical result. These
308 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
mines so shook the ship as to make us fear that it might sustain some
damage, but they produced very little effect. When placed under ice
from nine to sixteen feet thick, they only cracked it slightly, and
when on the ice at the bottom of the sea, they made a well, it is
true, but so small in diameter that to make a small lake round the
ship would require more charges than we possessed. Eight had
been spent in these attempts apparently without any result ; we
had only fifty remaining,1 and it would be necessary to use these
slowly, so as not to be without any when the season should be
more advanced.
As we saw how difficult it would be to continue to employ the
same method, and as the channel at the boundary of the ice-field
had become wider, we tried a mine of guncotton under the ice near
its edge, where it was about thirteen feet thick. As it was a spot
where the ice might be able to move a little, at least in one direction,
we could hope that the mine would detach a large piece. But though
it was put at five or six yards from the edge, it did not break it.
As the ship was about i 80 yards from the edge of the ice-field, all
the charges we had would not suffice to make the canal in this fashion.
The result of our two attempts was discouraging. The work was,
therefore, suspended for a time, and we resolved to wait another
week to allow the temperature to rise higher and have some effect
on the ice.
In the meantime we continued to sink holes in the ice to the left
of the ship, to place a chain of thirteen mines, marked on the plan
by the numbers 9 to 21. which were to be exploded three by three.
They were sprung on the 2ist. The ship was so violently shaken
that all the doors were torn off their hinges ; but even then she
did not move, and the ice showed only the usual cracks. We had
1 Six had been spent in the preceding year.
POSITION OF THE MINES
Gun-cotton Mines.
1 - under ice 14 ft. 8 int. thick at 32 ft. from the »hip
(a full charge).
2 - at the bottom, in ice 9 ft. 10 ing. thick, at 26 ft. from
the ship (a charge of only 8 cakes).
8 - at the bottom, in ice 9 ft. 10 ing. thick, at la ft. 8 ins.
from the ship (the same charge)
4-5 under ice 14 ft. 8 ins., sprung together. The
bottom wag at 19 ft.
6 - at the bottom, in ice 8 ft. 9 ing. thick, at 8 ft. 1 in.
from the ship.
7 - at the bottom, in ice 11 ft. 9 in«. thick, at 8 ft. I in.
from the ship.
8 - under ice 8 ft. 9 ing. thick, the bottom beiu? at 19 ft.
9 - under ice 11 ft. 8 in». thick.
10-11-12-13-11-15-16-17 -under ice 10 ft. 9 in*, 'thick.
18-19-20-20A - under ice 8 ft. 9 iu». thick.
21 - at the bottom, in ice 11 ft. 9 ins. thick.
Gunpowder Mines.
32-23-24-25-26-27 - in ice 8 ft. 9 ins. thick, at 4 ft. 10 ins,
from the surface, at 4 ft. 10 ins. from the ship.
•38-29-30-31-32-33-34-35-36-37-38 - in ice 10ft. 9 ins. thick.
at about 6 ft. from the surface, and at 4 ft. 10 ins. from
the ship.
39-40-41 - in ice 14 ft. 8 in. thick, at about 8 ft. 1 in. from
the surface .
A - Foremast.
B - Mainmast.
C - Mizzenmast.
D - Ice adhering to the shore.
E - Ice 14 ft. 8 ins. thick.
F - Ice 11 ft. 10 ing. thick.
O - Ice 8 ft. 9 ins. thick.
The Ship is set Free
309
only twenty-two charges left, and our work did not seem to have
made any progress.
The ice-field next the islands gave no sign that it was about
to move, and it was therefore, thought, advisable to continue-working
GL'LL (stcrcorarius parasitic us]
round the ship. But there all our charges were being spent without
producing any result. It seemed better, therefore, to attempt to
reconstruct the channel leading from the outer part of the ice-field
towards the inner, making use of the small channel which ran along
the bay-ice to carry away the broken floes. There could not be the
310 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
slightest doubt that that was the best method of freeing the ship ;
but every time that we tried to break up the ice in that direction,
the results were so trivial as to dissuade us from seeking to attempt
it. On July 29th and 3<Dth eight charges of gunpowder and one
of guncotton were exploded at the end of the channel ; but after
about eighteen hours' work, only six or seven yards of ice were
broken off. There was also another matter still more serious. The
guncotton had been sent to me from the manufactory in four cases,
three containing guncotton mixed with paraffin, and one containing
some of the same sort of guncotton, together with sixty cakes of
cotton without paraffin, to be used for igniting the charge. Half
of these cakes were already pierced to receive the detonators, the
others were not. When the former sort were spent, Andreas, while
charging the mines, asked me if it mattered which sort he used,
and I, without thinking, erroneously replied that it was all the same.
In order not to keep all the cases of guncotton open, the cakes
intended for lighting were used as ordinary cakes, and after all
these attempts we were left with only a small quantity of guncotton
mixed with paraffin, and without the means of igniting it. I felt
very uneasy on learning this, as I feared that, in consequence of
my absence of mind, we might be unable to leave the bay. What
ought we to do ?
If we continued to make the channel from outside towards the
ship, we might bring it, by means of the few remaining charges,
up to within a few yards of her, and then have no way of ex-
tricating her ; while, on the other hand, if we raised her up by
springing mines of guncotton and powder, and set her afloat, we
might still have some hope of working our way out, with the help
of the engines and the bow of the ship.
On August ist an easterly wind drove the ice-field between
The Ship is set Free 311
Karl Alexander and Prince Rudolph Islands about 200 yards from
the coast, and, at the same time, formed in the south ^ Polar Sfap
near Cape Auk a broad channel through which the ship 1S
could easily have passed. Another channel was opened between Karl
Alexander and Hohenlohe Islands. The sea was at last once more
RETURNING FROM SHOOTING
free from ice, and we could foresee that if the wind were to continue
for a few more hours, the bay would be brought back to the same
state that it was in last year. As the ice-pack had gone away out
of sight, it was a sign that the open water round Emperor Franz
Josef Archipelago extended as far as it did last year. We were
already at the beginning of August, we had worked hard, and
had achieved nothing. Should we, then, have to pass a second
winter here, and lose the 'Polar Star ?
312 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
We again began to sink mines round the ship with febrile
activity. Three mines of powder were placed at 4 ft, 10 in.
from each other, and 4 ft. 10 in. from the ship, -in the large
floe next her stern, between her side and a crevasse. These -mines
LAYING THE MINES IN THE ICK
at last detached a large 'block of ice, which was broken up into smaller
pieces by small charges of powder, which were again broken up with
pick-axes. . We thus formed the first lake of open water which should
afterwards help us in our work. The broken ice was driven with
poles into the channels alongside the ship, to be carried away to
the sea, and as these channels were only i ft. 7 in. to I ft. 1 1 in.
deep, the ice required to be splintered into very small pieces. On
The Ship is set Free 313
August 2nd and 3rd the same method was employed, until the
ship's stern and left side up to the middle were freed from ice.
There were so many of these floating blocks of ice that, to
get rid of them, we put up sheers to raise the largest with ropes
and pulleys, worked by the ship's windlass. It was not easy to hoist
these enormous blocks of ice. They sometimes slipped from their
slings, and fell back into the water with a loud splash. The work
had to be interrupted from time to time, as when the blocks were
A M1KROK OF WATER AI.ONGSI I)K
piled up they left no room to use the sheers, and a small sledge was
therefore made to carry them away to a distance of thirty or forty
yards. All this took up much time, and though the sheers were
of no slight help in quickly clearing away the ice, the greater part of
this very fatiguing work was done with the help of pick-axes.
314 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
We all worked with ardour ; we could not afford to lose a day,
as speed might perhaps decide whether it would be possible for us to
return home that year. The work, with a short rest for meals, lasted
from eight in the morning till seven in the evening, and sometimes
till ten. As the largest pieces broken off by the smaller mines
were lifted up with the sheers, the crew smashed up the remainder
and drove them down the channels, which were thus doubly useful ;
GETTING OUT A PIECE OF ICE
they carried away to the sea the fragments made by blasting, and
they wore away quickly the ice alongside the ship, as they had done
in the previous year.
If the number of mines could have been increased, the work would
have progressed more rapidly. But we had now only, a few charges
remaining. Hence, when one was exploded, we worked for several
hours with pick-axes in the hole which it had made to bring the smaller
pieces of ice to the surface, as, when they were taken away, the
The Ship is set Free
3*5
larger pieces could rise in their turn. Dr. Cavalli was indefatigable
at this work. He sometimes sat in the launch for hours struggling
obstinately with small projections of ice; and when these were broken,
large pieces rose to the surface, without requiring any more mines,
and struck the launch with such violence that it was in danger of cap-
sizing. The pressure of the ice as time went on piled blocks up under
THE POLAR STAR RIGHTING HERSELF
the ship ; there were thus large masses lying one over the other with
water between them, which sometimes caused an erroneous idea that
all the ice had been taken away, whereas some still remained adhering
to the ground and under the keel. Although the work was most
fatiguing, the incidents which occurred now and then made the time
pass rather quickly. The men fell with their pick-axes on the large
blocks of ice as they floated up. Then, as they were broken to
316 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
pieces, their centre of gravity was changed ; they began to sway, and
at last turned over, ducking those upon them.
Although the charges of guncotton could not act for want of
the detonating cakes, we tried to ignite them by every means. But the
result was so discouraging that I resolved to use them no more, but
to work only with the help of gunpowder and pick-axes.
By continuing on the 6th, yth, and 8th, to sink mines near the
ship at intervals of two or three yards, and by working with pick-axes
for several hours after each mine was sprung, we succeeded in forming
an open pool about four or five yards wide on the left side of the ship,
which reached as far as the shrouds of her fore-mast. The ship was,
therefore, held only by the ice at the bow.
On August 8th, eleven months had elapsed since the Polar Star
had been abandoned, and on the afternoon of that day, after a mine
had been sprung, the ship was seen to move and right herself slowly.
The sight caused general enthusiasm. It was the reward of the
fatigues of the previous days ; we had regained possession of our ship,
and the success of this part of our work filled us with hope for the
future.
On the two following days, the 9th and loth, we continued
breaking the ice which still remained round the bow, in order to form
o
The snip is a dock large enough to allow the ship to move and to
extricated from
the ice-Fieid. carry out, with the help of her bow and her engines, the
work hitherto done with powder and the arms of the crew. Two
or three mines cut away about ten yards of ice at the bow, but
here the work became harder, as the lower part of the ice was less
broken up in the places where no guncotton mines had been sprung.
We then found that these mines, which had seemed at first to produce
no results, had shattered the bottom ice ; and that, where none had
been sunk, it took twice as much time to advance a few yards. The
The Ship is set Free
entire ice-field along the coast had receded, driven by the easterly
winds, and only 180 yards from the ship there was open water, which
could be seen from the upper part of the beach, stretching as far as the eye
could reach. This, for us, who were constrained to remain imprisoned,
was like the punishment of Tantalus. On the evening of August 9th
we had but five charges remaining. There were only ten yards' length
MAKING A CANAL TO LIBERATE THK SIIH'
of water in front ot the ship, which were not enough to allow her to
move and bring her weight to bear upon the ice. Every possible
means had been discussed to procure some new explosive. The
rockets and the cartridges of the Very lights had been opened, and we
had even tried experiments on the ice with sulphuric acid, but without
any result.
That day a stiff breeze set in from the east, and, on account of the
force with which it drove the ice towards the open sea, there never had
318 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
been such a favourable opportunity for making the channel from the
outer part towards the cleared space. We took advantage of it to
make a last attempt with a guncotton mine, into which five detonators
were placed, one for every two cakes. The attempt succeeded. While
the crew continued to break up the ice round the ship with their pick-
axes, the mine was sprung near the edge of the ice which filled the
bay. This time, great was our surprise, for the report of the mine
was followed by the rumbling noise caused by all the snow-ridges,
which came down, while the ice was broken in every direction round
the mine for about fifty yards, and came up to the surface.
All the men stopped working, and we immediately felt that our
labours were nearly ended. If these fifty yards of ice had been blasted
by a single mine, we might be able to bring the canal up to the ship
with a few more, and, as the wind was in our favour, it would carry
the broken ice out to sea without any effort on our part. It was then
six o'clock in the evening. We went to supper, and then set to work
again. Three more mines were enough to break the ice up to thirty
yards from the ship, and it was speedily driven away by the wind.
A last block of ice, thicker than the others, still separated her from
the open water. A mine was sprung in it at half-past one in the
morning, in the hope that it would complete the channel, but it did
not produce as much effect as had been expected, and merely opened
a deep cleft in the ice. The work was therefore suspended, to be
taken up again next day, and we hoped that during the night the
wind and the tide would clear away the ice-field.
What we wished for occurred while we were taking a slight repast.
Not only the ice in front of the ship, but also that to the north of the
bay, driven by the wind, moved out to sea, taking with it the ship,
which was held only by a small anchor. There was no danger of her
being wrecked, but she might be carried far away from the bay. We
The Ship is set Free 319
immediately ran headlong, just as we were, some in slippers and some
in shoes, to get on board before the ship got far from the beach, and
ropes were thrown on shore, which were made fast to the rocks astern,
and she was safely moored. All the ice round us, from the bottom of
the bay to the sea, had moved away and left a splendid natural harbour
at the place where we had undergone so many hardships. We returned
READY TO RETURN
to the tent after this stirring event, and that night rested peacefully,
for we were now certain that nothing could hinder us from leaving,
as the way was open, and all we had to do was to put on board the
necessary provisions, the coal, and whatever else was wanted. We
had, indeed, to make haste to depart, as there was but little time before
us. In these last few days the sea had begun to freeze round the ship,
as had been the case last year.
320 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
That day was Sunday, and we rested. The next day (August 1 3th)
we substituted the spare rudder for the one we had used. On the
DC arturefrom mornmg °f tne J4tn we loaded a part of the coal which
TepiitzBay. had ^Gn landed. I do not think that what we left on
the beach will ever be found, as it had been put near the edge of the ice
adhering to the shore, in a place where, during summer, the flow of
water will drive it little by little into the sea. In the afternoon we
made ready to bring the ship near the tent, in order to put provisions
and the rest of our equipment on board, and to be ready to start as
soon as the wind should set in from the west and threaten to cut off
our retreat. But when we tried to move the ship, we found that
she was stuck fast ; for the tide was low, and the coal, which had
been stowed away at the stern, had made the keel rest on the rocks.
We had, therefore, to wait till the tide rose to again float the Tolar
Star, and, when the engines began to work, we had the satisfaction
to see her strike against the ice in the channel, and come to her
moorings a few hundred yards from the hut. Although the ship had
suffered from the pressure of the ice, she was still sound. We felt as
if we were already in Italy, and we did not even think how difficult
it would be to reach Barentz Sea. That same evening we left the
tent for good ; our beds were brought on board and put into the
quarters newly fitted up by the carpenter.
On August i fth, whatever remained in the tent, such as clothing,
cooking utensils, etc., was embarked. In the afternoon provisions
for eight months were taken. The work went on quickly, as the
vessel was now moored in a place where the boxes could be put
on board without requiring to be loaded on the launches and then
unloaded.
I had intended remaining only the next day in order to take on
board the sails and the spars of the tent, which would be of the utmost
The Ship is set Free
321
use to us in case the ice were to prevent us from reaching Cape Flora,
or the engines were to break down.
At six o'clock, the day, which had been cloudy, was followed by
a splendid evening. A light breeze from the south-east had quite
cleared the horizon. The continuity of these easterly breezes made me
feel sure that our way to the south was open, and a steady wind would
enable me to go forward even if I were to meet with ice. I therefore
decided on leaving the bay. At half-past one in the morning of
LEAVING THE HAY OK TEI'LITX.
August 1 6th everything was ready, and we steamed slowly away from
the shore, giving three cheers as we turned round the ice of the bay,
which had held us so long imprisoned. But the sound of our voices
recalled sad thoughts to our minds. Indeed, at that moment the memory
of our comrades who were not going home with us was more vivid
than ever. We had lost almost all hope of ever seeing them. Our
looks turned towards the north, where, far away beyond the open
water, it was only too probable that the ice hid the tombs of the brave
VOL. I. 21
322 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
Querini, of the zealous Stokken, and of the faithful Oilier — tombs
which we should never be allowed to see, for the Arctic Ocean was a
jealous custodian of its secrets. May the day at least be not far off
when the mystery of the Arctic regions shall be revealed, and the
names of those who have sacrificed their lives to it shine with still
greater glory — the day when a small band of men, subduing these
inhospitable and repellent lands, shall avenge all the past sacrifices and
the lives so sadly lost in this obstinate struggle, which has lasted for
centuries !
We left some clothing packed up in boxes, a gun and some
cartridges in the carpenter's hut, as well as provisions enough to support
more than twenty persons for over a year, together with some things
which belonged to the Polar Star but had not been brought back
to the ship, as they were not absolutely wanted on board, such as
petroleum, coal, and a launch. Of the dogs which remained, we took
away with us only the strongest and those which had taken part in the
sledge expedition. All the others were killed with the exception of
the eight which we had spared (four males, two females, and two
puppies born during the winter). They might, however, have been
able to live for a long time by means of the provisions which lay
scattered about, and might also, perhaps, have been of use to our
comrades.
CHAPTER XVI
Our Return to Cape Flora. Our Arrival in Norway
CHAPTER XVI
OUR RETURN TO CAPE FLORA. OUR ARRIVAL IN NORWAY
IT was a beautiful morning ; there was no wind and the horizon
was rather clear. We therefore hoped to be able to go
speedily towards the south. The ice-pack was far away on the
horizon, and around us, to north, south, and west, there we are stopped
in British
was open water, as there had been last year, and perhaps channel,
even more, though the season of calms or of winds chiefly from the
west had now gone by.
During our stay on Prince Rudolph Island we had remarked
how easily, both in summer and in winter, the ice receded towards
the west in the space between Cape Saulen and Cape Mill, when the
wind blew from the east. Jackson in his sledge expeditions had
found belts of open water to the south of Cape Mill ; we there-
fore supposed that, from British Channel to Cape Fligely, Queen
Victoria Sea is always, or almost always, navigable in the summer.
The general drift of the ice in the Arctic Sea to the west, and the
wind, which is generally from the east, are the causes of this open
water. The drift thins out the ice-fields of the belt between Cape
Fligely, Cape Mary Harmsworth, and British Channel, and enables
the wind to drive easily towards the west the vast masses of ice in
contact with the islands. Thus may be explained the fact which I
have often observed, that while to the north of Cape Fligely the
ice-pack had only a slight movement, to the west of Prince Rudolph
Island it moved away to the horizon in a few hours.
325
326 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
Our ship went on but slowly, as she still dragged with her large
pieces of ice sticking to her side from the bow to the middle. They
dropped away from the hull little by little, and our speed increased
until it again reached six knots an hour. Gradually, too, the bay
where we had lived for twelve months vanished from our eyes.
First the rocks of Cape Saulen disappeared, then Cape Auk and
Cape Brorok, while to the south we sighted Cape Clement Markham.
The channel between Hohenlohe and Karl Alexander Islands
was open, but the ice was not drifting from the channel towards
the west, as was the case last year, which was a sign that to the
east of Prince Rudolph Island the ice-pack was not as yet broken
up. On approaching Karl Alexander Island we made out distinctly
Cape Felder, seen by Payer in his first voyage, and Cape Brogger,
seen by Nansen. A fog shut us in when we had got past Cape
Brogger ; but we held on the same course until towards eight that
evening, when we sighted Ommaney Island through the mist.
Passing between Ommaney, Harley, and Neale Islands and the
coast, we steered for Maria Elizabeth Island, intending to pass
between it and the coast, as we had already done in the preceding
year, but when we came near it we found that our course was stopped
towards the east by ice. On the other hand, the ice-pack had this
year gone away from the island. We changed our course to that
direction, and held on towards the south in Queen Victoria Sea, which
was free from ice.
A stiff breeze had set in from the south-east, and our horizon
was bounded by mist. From time to time belts ot ice were crossed,
Drifting in which did not stop the progress of the ship. Towards
British Channel. • , , , , . , . L j i rv /~» i r ,.
eight o clock in the evening we had left Queen Victoria
Sea behind us, and sighted through the fog the northern coast
of Prince George Land. The water seemed more open towards the
Our Return to Cape Flora
327
west, and, as it was impossible to see very far, we followed the
direction which allowed us to advance most easily. But when we
were at the height of Cape Murray, the sky suddenly cleared ; we
discovered that we had entered a funnel, and, according as the
ONE OF OUR DIFFICULTIES
distance became more clear, we saw all British Channel barred
by the ice.
It was impossible to steer to the west towards Alexandra Land.
To the east were to be seen a number of lanes through the ice ; and
though from the crow's-nest it was not easy to form a decided opinion,
it seemed more advisable to continue to advance through the part of
the channel by which we had passed in the preceding year, and which
this year also seemed more easy. We therefore steered towards the
east. The night had become very clear, which was very helpful to us
328 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
as our course was continually checked when we were sailing from one
channel to another. These were anxious moments, and our eyes were
fixed on Captain Evensen, who spent weary hours in his post at the
mast-head seeking to ascertain the best direction to follow. Just as
we began to fear that we could advance no farther, it revived our
hopes to hear the order given to the engines to go ahead. We thus
OUR LAST GLIMPSE OF CAPE SAULEN
came about four o'clock to- 'Eaton Island, where we were again en-
veloped in fog, but remembering that the year before we had found
open water in this locality, we thought that we had got over all
our difficulties. The lanes here were wider, and open water was
probably before us. We went ahead at full speed, as we were certain
that we had left the ice behind us, but after going a short distance
we were again stopped. We were not as yet in open water, but only
in a very large channel.
We waited all the morning in the fog, hoping that it would
lift. When the distance became clear, we beheld a most discouraging
sight. We were in a narrow channel off Hooker Island ; British
Channel to the south, and Barentz Sea beyond it, were covered with
ice. A ship could not now sail where last year there had been
open navigable water.
The wind had again set in steadily from the south-east ; it made
Our Return to Cape Flora 329
the ice-pack drift to the north-west, and we retreated slowly with
it towards Eaton Island. There was a stiff breeze all night, which
D
fell in the morning, and then blew gently from the north. The
ice then ceased moving, and a few hours later began to move again
to the south-east. We could not be mistaken. We were at the
mercy of the ice, which, in its turn, was at the mercy of the winds.
We passed the i8th and I9th in a small expanse of open
water near Hooker Island. The place was full of life ; bears, white
dolphins, narwhals, and seals afforded us some distraction in our
prison. We saw a bear hunting a seal ; the bear followed the edge of
the ice-field, hiding itself as much as possible, so as to be able to
spring on the seal and seize it when it came near enough. The bear
approached, little by little, to within fifty yards of , the ship, without
perceiving that several of us were watching its movements with as
CAl'E AL'K. AND CAKE HKOKOK
much attention as it watched those of the seal ; and when it least
expected it, we shot it.
On the evening ot August I9th, as the weather turned out
brighter, and the open water where we lay became more extended,
we pushed on as far as we could to the south towards Cape Barentz.
It was a splendid night lit up by the sun, and we saw around us
Hooker, May, Etheridge, and Northbrook Islands. As it was then
33° On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
calm, the ice-fields were somewhat distant from each other, and the
ship could advance slowly in the direction of Cape Barentz.
Four hours of continuous effort brought us six or seven miles
nearer to Northbrook Island. Captain Evensen's great experience
was of much use to us. From the crow's-nest he selected at a glance,
from among so many channels, that by which the ship could pass,
examining them one by one till he could perceive a long stretch of
open water. He made the ship cross continually from one side to
the other; he stopped the engines, backed them or sent them full
speed ahead, to break up small ice-floes, to force a way through them,
and not remain shut in. Ships of short build, with slanting bows
and powerful engines, are the best for this purpose. They can
be more easily handled in a small space, are better adapted for
THE ICE IN BRITISH CHANNEL
breaking the ice, and if they cannot shatter it by striking against it,
they rise upon it and break it with their weight. But even strongly
built ships and powerful engines can only make their way through
the open ice-pack ; when the pack is closed, there is nothing for it
but to wait patiently, taking care not to lie in an unsafe position, where
there might be danger of encountering the shock of two ice-fields.
Our Return to Cape Flora
331
The power which is latent in an ice-field, either when it is exercising
pressure or when resisting pressure, is nothing in comparison with
that of masses of ice in motion. It is only by unceasing and
intelligent watchfulness that mishaps can be avoided and a ship
directed on her course.
A WHITE DOLPHIN
Although from the crow's-nest no open water could be seen
to the south of Northbrook Island, we felt certain that if we
reached Cape Barentz we could also reach Cape Flora. But
towards midnight we were surrounded with ice on all sides, and
could not stir.
Our situation was very unsafe, especially with a ship the sides of
which had already been weakened. Everything requisite to enable
us to march to Cape Flora in case of necessity, such as provisions,
tents, petroleum, clothes, arms and cartridges, were placed on the deck
332 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
so as to be at hand in any emergency. We remained thus from the
2Oth to the 23rd, drifting with the ice towards the north-west. On
the evening of the 23rd there set in a stiff south-west wind, which was
the worst of all winds for us, as it meant drifting quickly towards the
north and greater pressure from the ice-fields, which, being squeezed
between the islands and driven by the wind, would naturally become
piled up at the entrance to the channel. The ice then began to drift
towards the north-west, and about seven in the morning we were only
two or three miles from Eaton Island. The ship was drifting towards
three large icebergs stranded to the south of the island. The wind
was blowing, snow was falling from time to time, and the ice, which
was in motion on all sides, was pressing on the vessel. It was an
anxious situation ; and, keeping the fires lighted and the pumps
manned in case the water rose in the hold, we held ourselves in
readiness for whatever might happen.
The icebergs were three in number, standing at a few hundred
yards from each other in the shape of a triangle, the middle one being
the nearest to us. If we were carried against one of these colossal
masses, we should be stopped and the side of our ship exposed to the
pressure of the ice-pack, which was drifting with considerable speed
towards the north. The ice-field, along with which we were drifting,
was stopped at a few hundred yards from the nearest iceberg, but all
the ice near us continued on its way northwards. Large and small
ice-floes swept along rapidly past the sides of the Polar Star. It was
a magnificent spectacle, but it rendered us uneasy. The loss of the
vessel in the midst of this moving ice would have been a real disaster.
For about an hour, by keeping the engines working, we held the ship
up to the ice-field, against which it had been in contact until then, in
the hope of finding protection from it ; but this could not last long.
When Captain Evensen saw the ice-floes passing thus alongside the
AGAINST AN ICEBERG
333
Our Return to Cape Flora 335
ship, he thought of bringing her in among them and, while following
them, trying to avoid the iceberg with the help of the engines. When
he came to suggest this manoeuvre, I remained undecided. I, too, was
aware that we could not stay long where we were, but in my opinion
it would have hastened our destruction if we put ourselves in the
power of this ice which was moving so rapidly. As I could not,
however, suggest anything better, and as I saw that if we did not exert
THK UKll-T IX KK1TISH CHANNEL
ourselves we should be soon upon the iceberg, I told the captain to
carry out his plan. He then, taking advantage of the momentary
formation round us of a space of open water, while the ice-field was
breaking up in all directions under the pressure of the iceberg, brought
the vessel by a rapid manoeuvre into the midst of the moving ice-floes.
As they were less closely pressed together than they seemed to be, we
were able to move away from the iceberg, and, carried along by the
ice-floes, we soon left it behind us. We could just make out the
second iceberg through the fog, and we steered so as to avoid it ; we
succeeded in doing so by keeping the engines constantly working, and
336 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
then entered a stretch of open water which extended almost a mile to
the north of it. We then moored the ship to the iceberg, and went
to take some rest for the first time for more than seventeen hours.
We were now protected by the icebergs which had caused us so much
anxiety.
The wind subsided during the night. The following day was
very fine, but our position was no longer safe, for as the wind had
ceased to drive the ice to the north, it "^filled the open water in which
we had taken refuge. Towards evening the ice began to move south-
wards, and a large ice-field which was carried by the current against
the ship struck her violently, and made her heel over about twenty
degrees. The blow was, luckily, abaft the beam, and the pressure
made the ship glide forwards, thus freeing her from this dangerous
situation. But other ice-floes were pressing on around us and were
threatening to shut us in. We had therefore to let go our steel
cable, leave the small anchor on the ice, and hasten away from the
iceberg at full steam. A moment afterwards it was surrounded by
the ice on all sides.
We tried in vain that evening to reach Hooker Island, and look for
an anchorage there, where we could wait till a favourable wind enabled
us to come to Cape Flora, and we had to return to the only space of
open water which was still in British Channel between the icebergs
and Eaton Island. We passed a part of the night trying to avoid the
pressure of the ice and making every effort not to be carried away
to the north. As long as the weather was bright, we succeeded in
accomplishing both our purposes, but when a fog came on, our task
became impossible. We drifted away towards the north and sought
for Eaton Island for some time without knowing where it was.
When at last the fog lifted for a moment, the pale light of morning
enabled us to return to the island, to the only place where there was
Our Return to Cape Flora
337
open water, and where we were at least sure of not drifting away.
There we remained on the 26th and 2yth.
Our position was very insecure, and during these two days there
was a continual succession of alarms. The ice in British Channel near
Eaton Island was in a state of perpetual unrest, and floated past the
sides of the ship at the rate of one or two miles an hour. Ice-fields
with a surface of several square miles, borne on by the current, grated
THK DOGS ON TIIKIK WAY HOME
against the ship. Some of these did not exercise any pressure ; others,
which met some obstacle, turned round, and struck the sides of the
Polar Star, driving her up against the coast. In one of these pressures
against an iceberg which was near the beach, our ship met with some
injuries to the wheel of the rudder and to the taffrail, which had no
importants results, but which made us dread that at any moment
some much more serious mishap might occur.
I was already beginning to believe that, against my will, Eaton
VOL. I.
22
338 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
Island might prove to be our second winter quarters. The wind had
set in from the north, yet, in spite of my hopes, no channel was
opened towards the south, and without some channel, how could we
reach Cape Barentz ? Masses of ice now drifted towards the south,
with only a momentary delay in their progress, while on the previous
days, when there was a calm, they had moved to north and south
alternately, according to the tidal currents, which are very strong on
the eastern side of the channel. This uninterrupted drift of the ice
showed that it was moving out into Barentz Sea, and that to reach
Cape Barentz we ought to try to get into the ice and let ourselves drift
along with it. If the drift went rather quickly, we might be able
to accomplish the twenty-five miles between Eaton Island and Cape
Barentz in two or three days. The defect of this plan was, that if the
wind veered to the south instead of continuing to blow from the north,
we should be again driven back into the channel and probably be
forced to pass the winter there. Our position, however, at Eaton
Island was so insecure that it was better to leave it ; for in the
neighbourhood of Cape Flora we were sure of finding a refuge if any
misfortune happened to us in the midst of the drifting ice.
On the evening of the 2yth we brought the ship into open water,
to the west of the same island in the direction of Miers Sound. The
wind was blowing from the north, and as the barometer was rather high,
we hoped that there would be no change of weather. We then began
a strange mode of travelling. The wind had freshened on the 28th,
and on going on deck at mid-day I was not a little surprised to see
Eaton Island on the horizon, while the northern end of Northbrook
Island, which could hardly be made out on the previous evening, now
rose high and distinctly. The ice-floes were certainly moving more
quickly than I could have believed. It seemed at first as though the
drift would have brought us into Miers Sound, but after having carried
Our Return to Cape Flora
339
us to the south-west on the 28th and during the following night, it
made us follow the coast of Northbrook Island.
We advanced rather rapidly on the 29th and the same night,
without the slightest pressure, always driven by northerly winds,
which were sometimes strong and sometimes light. Though we did
ON OUR WAY TOWARDS KUKOI'K
not travel very fast, we made more than eight miles a day, and when,
on the evening of the 3Oth, we were near Cape Barentz, we could feel
certain that if the wind continued to blow from the same point, we
should reach that cape on the following day. We passed an anxious
night. A change of wind would mean that when just on the point of
reaching our goal we should be again driven back into the channel, and
340 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
be unable to leave it, and compelled to pass another winter in those
regions, in a worse condition than in the previous year, and perhaps even
lose the ship. We felt so uneasy that we came up on deck several times
during the night. There was no sign that the north-west wind was
going to fall, and we drew nearer and nearer to Cape Barentz. When
morning came, we saw the ice-pack in Barentz Sea stretching away out
of sight to the east and to the south. To the west, along Northbrook
Island, the sea was quite free up to ten miles from land.
Since the previous evening we had tried to advance gradually
towards the open water near the cape, by taking advantage of every
moment when the ice was less closely packed ; and on the morning of
the 3ist, after keeping the engines working for several hours, we
reached it. Our troubles were ended at last, and our return home,
which had been hitherto so uncertain, was now only a question
of days.
We went on quickly towards Cape Flora. On arriving there, we
felt agitated by the hope that we should find our lost comrades, and
cape Flora ^at some whaling vessel might have left dispatches.
The Last Ice. ,-r-., , r r i i
ihe rocks were now more free from snow than they were
last year, and the crowds of birds and the verdure of the level ground
where the huts stood made the place seem very beautiful in comparison
with Teplitz Bay. A boat was sent on shore, but we could not find
the slightest indication that our unfortunate comrades had ever
been there.
Since leaving Teplitz Bay, I could no longer cherish the illusion
that the missing detachment might be at Cape Flora, but I had still a
faint hope that in some unexpected manner they might have been
helped to reach this spot, where was the only depot of provisions in
the Emperor Franz Josef Archipelago. Five months had passed us
since March 23rd, when our comrades had separated from the expedi-
Our Return to Cape Flora 341
tion. They would most certainly have reached Teplitz Bay if they had
touched land at the northern part of the archipelago ; or Cape Flora,
if they had been carried away towards Alexandra Land ; or, what is
very improbable, towards Wilczek Land. If one considers that Jackson,
accompanied by one man and five dogs, was able, in the month of
May, to reach Cape Flora from Cape Mary Harmsworth in eighteen
days, and that this cape is the most westerly of the group, it is
evident that if our comrades had touched Alexandra Land, or Albert
Edward, Harmsworth, Salisbury, or Hall Lands, which are com-
prised within the same radius of eighty miles, they would have been
able to push on as far as Cape Flora. They could not have lived
for five months upon the ice-pack with the provisions and the dogs
which they had, and if any unusual movement of the ice had carried
them to the south towards Alexandra or Wilczek Land, they would
have come there in the month of April, when the frozen channels and
fiords would have allowed them to advance quickly to Cape Flora.
The only conclusion, which seemed, indeed, to be inevitable, was
that they probably never reached Emperor Franz Josef Archipelago, from
which they were only forty-five miles distant. It is useless to attempt
to seek why they failed to return. I have believed from the first
that the disappearance of that detachment was owing to some acci-
dental cause, but as it is very difficult to make any suppositions
regarding it, I shall not attempt any.
We were much pleased to find in Jackson's hut a packet of letters
brought by the Capella on July ijth. We all received good news ; the
latest newspapers were eagerly read ; while I went with Captain Evensen
to the summit of the mountain, to see what might be the best direc-
tion to follow towards the south. From Cape Barentz, the white line
of the ice-pack was seen stretching towards the west at more than ten
miles from the coast. From Miers Sound and Nightingale Sound
342 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
there issued strips of ice floating away to the south. From the colour
of the sky, this ice seemed to be impenetrable towards the south and
south-east. Towards the south-west, on the contrary, the very dark
tint of the sky at the horizon was an indication that in that direction
there were vast belts of open water,
We landed clothes and beds for the missing detachment, which
would also find the provisions left in the preceding year, which were
sufficient to feed twenty men for eight months ; we also left letters to
state that a ship would be sent out in the following summer, and on
the same evening we continued our journey, which had been interrupted
for a few hours by this stoppage. We passed through the strips of
ice which came out of Miers Sound and Nightingale Sound, and then
at the height of Cape Grant we changed our course to nearly south-
south-west, which soon took us away from the coast, while we met
only a few ice-floes. The weather had then become cloudy, and rain
and fog followed each other at intervals. Towards seven o'clock on
the following morning the ship began to pitch slightly, and this move-
ment, which gradually became stronger, was a sign that we had got
clear of the ice-pack.
Ice could still be seen from time to time to the west ; sometimes
near to us and sometimes far away out of our course, which was now
directed to Cape North.
On September 2nd stormy weather had set in from the west, and
we had belts of ice again in our neighbourhood. It would have been
easy to cross them, if the weather had been clear and calm ; but,
enveloped as we were in a fog, with a tempestuous wind which caused
a heavy sea, and in a pitch dark night, it was no easy matter to find
our way to the south. That day we had tried to cross one of these
strips in that stormy sea, and we had found ourselves in the midst of
huge masses of ice which at one moment rose on the waves as high as
Our Arrival in Norway
343
the deck, and at another sank into the depths of the sea ; tons of ice
struck us on all sides, and for some time we were very uneasy. The
ship was stopped on entering this strip of ice, and we were subjected
to the blows of these floating masses, which made our propeller run
some danger. On escaping from this difficult position and getting
OUR ARRIVAL AT TROMSO
back into open water, we did not forget the lesson we had received,
and we went on that evening with great circumspection, lest we should
again meet with a similar adventure. It was the last farewell of the
ice-pack, and it was for all of us our last sleepless night. We followed
the strip of ice towards the east, looking for an opening which might
allow the ship to cross it, and from ten at night till nearly two next
344 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
morning we drew near the ice every now and then, only to go
away from it again. At last, about two o'clock, we entered a belt
which was tolerably practicable, and, after crossing it, we were again
in open water. The storm subsided towards morning, and as
the light returned, we saw nothing but the sea round us as far as
the horizon.
The rest of our voyage was easy, and we came in sight of the
rugged mountains of Norway on the morning of the 5th. We all felt
Arrival at sac^ on seeing again the continent of Europe, as we
Hammerfest. ,11. c ^\ i j ^ ^u
thought more or the news we had to communicate than
of that we were going to receive. The letters we had found at Cape
Flora had reassured us with regard to all who were dear to us, but in
a few hours our telegrams would spread both joy and grief. Near the
anchorage of Hammerfest a ship, the Hcrtha, came to meet us. I
recognised on board the Cavaliere Silvestri, who was the last to bid me
good-bye when I left, and was now the first to greet me on the part
of my distant country. Alas ! it was not to greet me, but to make
known to me a death. A cruel destiny had wounded my dearest,
feelings on the same day that my heart was grieved to be obliged to
inform three familes that their gallant sons had disappeared.
Going on to Tromso, I sent from thence on the morning of
the 6th the following telegrams to His Majesty the King of Sweden
and Norway, and to His Majesty King Victor Emmanuel III. :—
"To His MAJESTY KING OSCAR, STOCKHOLM.
" The Polar Star has arrived. Captain Cagni has reached
86° 34' N. lat. I deeply regret the loss of the Norwegian Stokken,
and of two Italians who formed part of the sledge expedition, and did
not return to the ship. The help afforded me by the Norwegian
members of the expedition augments my sympathy for the Norwegian
-\
Our Arrival in Norway 345
people. May your Majesty deign to accept the homage of the
members of the expedition."
"To His MAJESTY KING VICTOR EMMANUEL III.
" The Polar Star has arrived, and goes on to Tromso and
Christiania. She passed through British Channel last summer, went
beyond Cape Fligely in Prince Rudolph Island, and came down to pass
the winter in Teplitz Bay, in 81° 47' N. lat. On September 8th a
strong pressure of the ice crushed the ship, and caused much leakage.
Being unable to keep down the water, we abandoned the ship. We
built a hut on the shore with the spars, the sails, and the tents, in
which we passed the winter very well. At the beginning of the year
the ends of two fingers of my right hand were obliged to be ampu-
tated on account of frost-bite. I left the command of the sledge
expedition to Cagni. It set out on February 2Oth. The intense cold
forced it to return after two days. It left again, under Cagni, on
March iith, and was composed of Querini, Cavalli, the engineer of
the ship, two Italian sailors, four guides, thirteen sledges, and 104
dogs. Three Norwegians helped them for the first two days. The
first detachment, composed of Querini, the engineer, and a guide, was
sent back after twelve days' march, and never returned to the hut.
The second detachment, composed of Cavalli, a sailor, and a guide,
was sent back after twenty days' march, and arrived at the hut in
excellent health on April i8th. Cagni pushed on to the north with
two guides and a sailor until April 25th, and reached 86° 34' N. lat.
A strong drift of the ice and the want of food made the return of
this detachment difficult and laborious. For several weeks it fed on
its dogs, and reached the hut on June 25th, after passing 104
days on the ice-pack. Petermann Land and King Oscar Land do
not exist. The Polar Star was held up by the ice, and did not sink.
346 On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea
A faint hope of saving her had made us undertake at the end of
autumn whatever measures were most necessary to repair her ; they
were continued in July, and after many efforts I succeeded in floating
her on August 8th, We left Teplitz Bay on the i6th. We were
blocked up by the ice in British Channel for fourteen days. We
reached Cape Flora on August 3ist, and Hammerfest to-day. Querini
was sent back by Cagni while still within sight of Prince Rudolph
Island. The weather was cold, but fine, during the following days,
the ice was in contact with the coast, and everything was exceptionally
favourable to his return. It is with great grief that I must suppose
that his loss and that of his two men must have been caused by some
accidental mishap. The steadfast courage and determination manifested
by the leader of the sledge expedition and by all those who composed
it, in spite of immense hardships, assured its success, and acquired
fresh glory for our country, by making its flag wave at the highest
latitude which has hitherto been reached. All present are in excellent
health. May your Majesty deign to accept the loyal homage of all the
members of the expedition."
END OF VOL. I
INDEX
Abruz/i, the Duke of the, 28 ; gets frost-
bitten, 174, 227; mishap to, 219; his
excursion to Cape Rohlfs, 226 ; his
suggestions for reaching the North
Pole, 272
Advances made by Polar Star, 78 ; home-
wards, 339
Aeronautic outfit and cost, 36, 38
Alert, the, expedition of, 6, u, 91
Alexandra Land, 55, 65, 67, 69
Alpine guides, advantages of, 28
Anchorage, first, in the Arctic regions, 60
Andresen, Andreas, 29 ; takes a search
party, 248, 256
Animal life, 329
Arctic Sea, general ice-drift in, 325
Arms taken, 32, 168 ; for sledge expedition,
186
Assurance of lives of expedition, 39
Aurora borealis, 156, 167 and note
Austro-Hungarian North Polar expedition,
53, 96
Balloons, suggested use of, 34, 38, 144, 165 ;
shape of, 34-5 ; apparatus for, 36
Barentz Sea, 12, 56, 67
Bates Sound, 63
Bears, 107, 236 ; hunting, 107 ; 'incidents,
80, 230, 258
Bell Island, 60, 66
Bird life, 106, 224, 258, 265, 296
Blasting, ice : operations, 304 ; changes in,
308
British Channel, 56, 64, 67, 69 ; ice-fields in,
80, 86, 326
Bruce Island, 66-7 ; ice-fields in, 73
Cagni, Commander Umberto, 27, 28, 64 ;
makes balloon experiments, 35 ; takes
command of sledge expedition, 189;
makes a sledge excursion, 198 ; makes
a first start, 201 ; unexpected return of,
206 ; letter from, 244 ; speculations re-
garding, 258, 261 ; anxiety regarding,
261; return of, 266; achievement of,
266 ; march of, 270
Cambridge Bay, 68
Camp-making, 139
Canepa, Simone, 29
Canoes, usefulness of, 278
Cape Auk, 106
Cape Fligely, 1 8, 96 and note, 97, 98 and
note, I I3-T4, 1 17, 200
Cape Flora, 12, 16, 54, 60-61 ; return to,
340
Cape Forbes, 68
Cape Germania, 98, 1 17
Cape Gertrude, 60
Cape Grant, 68, 69
Cape Habermann, 1 14
Cape Mary Harmsworth, 55 ; failure to
advance to, 67
XV111
Index
Cape Rohlfs, 202
Cape Saulen, 98, 101
Cape Sherard Osborn, 1 14
Cape Tegethoff, 61
Capella, the, 61-2 ; meeting, 83
Cardenti, Giacomo, 29 ; adventures of,
241-2
Cavalli Molinelli, Dr. A., 27-8
Channel-making, 103, 241, 294, 301, 309-10
Choice of men, 284 ; of dogs, 284
Christiania, departure from, 40
Christmastide in Arctic regions, 40
Clement Markham Bay, 67
Clothing taken, 31, 154, 187; cost of, 36;
suggested, 280
Coal, 36, 135 and note; consumption of,
192
Compasses carried, 87
Cooking, 135
Cooking-stoves, 185, 280
Cost of expedition in detail, 36
Currents" in Arctic Ocean, 9
Crew, composition of, 24-6 ; choice of, 26,
28 ; Norwegian, 28 ; cost of, 36
Crow's-nest of whalers, 58 (note)
Dahl, Hans Magnus, 30
Daylight, disappearance of, 156; reappear-
ance of, 193
De Bruyne Sound, 64, 91
Departure from Norway, 36; from Europe,
49 ; of sledge expedition, 201
Depots, proposed, 15, 16, 17
Detachment, first : uneasiness about, 230,
256 ; hopes regarding, 340 ; provision
for, 342 ; loss of, 346
Detachment, second : unexpected return of,
241 ; achievements of, 246
Detachment, third : return of, 269 ; appear-
ance of, 269
Detachments of sledge expedition, arrange-
ment of, 15, 2co ; arrangement altered,
208
Diary of life during absence of sledge ex-
pedition, 219
Distances covered by Baron Wrangell, 12 ;
Captain Cagni, 271 ; Lieutenant Peary,
13 ; Nansen, 13-14
Dogs, sledge: use of, 9, 12, 21, 34, 46;
ration for, 14, 38, 74, 182 ; places of
origin, 21, 43-4; cost of the, 36; first
view of the, 42 ; description of the, 42-
6 ; condition at departure, 43 ; Siberian,
44, 285 ; appearance of, 44 ; training
of, 45, 167 ; accommodation of the, 47,
and bears, 107-8 ; at Teplitz Bay, 108 ;
kennels of, on ice, 109; ways of, no;
harness of, 112, 115 ; hardships of the,
152 ; shelter for the, 160-61 ; trying the,
168; health of the, 198, 261; best
variety of, 199 ; births of, 200; brought
back, 322
Eaton Island, 84
Eira expedition, the, 53, 62, 63
Emperor Franz Josef Land, 12, 16; history
of expeditions to, 18, 53-6, 60, 92, 102,
276
Equipment for sledge expedition, 32 ;
defects of, 276
Equipment, scientific, 32-3 ; aeronautic, 36 ;
photographic, 36
Equipment, state of, third detachment,
269
Eva Island, 114
Evensen, Captain, 22, 28, 29
Excursions, sledge, necessity of, 285
Expeditions, Arctic : —
Nordenskiold, 3
Parry, Commander, 3
Phipps, Commander C. J., 3
Nares, Commander, 6
Greely, Lieutenant A. W., 7, 24
Nansen, 8
Leigh Smith, 53
Index
xix
Expeditions, Arctic (continued] : —
Payer, 53, 96
Jackson, 54
Results of, 3, 5, 6, 8
Experience necessary for, 24
Fenoillet, Alessio, 29
Finsko, 31, 280
Eogs, 75, 87, 89
Food, 30, 74
Fram, the, in the Arctic Sea, 10, 91
Frost-bite, 173-4, 188, 204
Fungi, 105
Gini, Gino, 30
Glaciers, 105, 172
Greely's (Lieutenant A. W.) Arctic expedi-
tion, 7 ; data as to rations, 180
Greenland, 13 and note, 276
Greenland dogs, 21
Guides, Alpine, for sledge expedition, 28,
29, 283
Guncotton used, 304, 310
Hammerfest, arrival at, 344
Hansen, Carl Christian, 30
Harness, dogs', 188, 282
Health of the expedition, 150
Helmet, suggested, 281
History, short, of Arctic voyages, 3
Hummocks, 58 and note
Hut, first, built, 130; sections of, 133
temporary, 228
Ice action in Teplitz Bay, in, 291
Ice-axes, 282
Icebergs, 61 and note, 64, 78, 82, 87, 332
Ice, blasting, 32, 303
Ice, breaking of, 205, 212, 304
Ice-drifts, 5, 9, 64, 198, 338
Ice-drill, 301 and note
Ice-fields, 58, 66 ; formation of, 4, 78, 102 ;
in Nightingale Sound, 68; near Bruce
Island, 73 ; in British Channel, 75 ;
vagaries of, 77 ; in general, 296, 302,
329, 326
Ice, first sight of, 57
Ice-floes, 59, 60, 332
Ice, indications of, 41, 60 and note
Ice-pack, 58 and note, 68, lor, no, 121,
153, 214, 219, 225, 235, 248, 257, 274
Ice, shifting broken, 313
Independence Bay, 13 (note)
Indications of ice, 60 (note)
Instruments, scientific, 18, 32, 33, 155-6;
care of, 190 ; suggested, 282 ; for sledge
expedition, 186-7
Jackson's Arctic expedition, 54, 60, 341 ;
encampment, 62
Jason, the, afterwards Polar Star, 21 ;
alterations to, 22; boats of, 22; cost
of purchase and overhaul, 36
Johansen, Johan, 30
Johansen, Ole, 30
Kayaks, 165 and note, 182, 278
King Oscar Land, 56, 114, 345
Kitchen, camp, 135 and note
Koettlitz Island, 88
Komagcr, 31
Lamps, 185
Larvik, 22
Latitudes reached by Nansen and the
Fram, 13 (note)
Lockvvood's (Captain J. B.) sledge expedi-
tion, 7, 8 (note)
Look-out of Polar Star, 58-9
XX
Index
Mabel Islands, 60
Maria Elizabeth Island, 89, 90
Markham's (Commander ,A. H.) sledge
expedition, 6, 7 (note), 272
Medical department, 28; outfit and cost,
36
Members of the expedition, list of, 28
Miers Sound, 63
Migration of birds, 140
Mines, springing, 83, 121, 303, 318 ; powder,
312
Molinelli, Dr. A. Cavalli, 27-8
Nansen's (Professor) Arctic expedition, 8,
10 (note), 56, 90 ; plan, tribute to, 10,
u, 40; latitudes reached, 13 (note);
data as to rations, 181
Nares's (Commander) Arctic expedition, 6 ;
data as to rations, 180
New Year festivities, 175
Nightingale Sound, 63, 64, 66 ; return to,
68, 91
Nordenskiold's (Baron) Arctic expedition, 3
North Pole, possibility of reaching, 272
Northbrook Island, 16, 60, 67
Novaya Zemlya, 56
Observations, scientific, 27, 32, 293 ; pendu-
lum, 64, 156 ; from latitude 80° 4', 95 ;
difficulties of, 154
Officers of Polar Star, 27
Olausen, Ditman, 30
Oilier, Felice, 29
Order of the day, aboard Polar Star, 74 ;
under canvas, 149, 260
Packing food, system of, 30
Packing sledge outfit, 182
Payer's Arctic expedition, 53, 96, 1 14
Peary, Lieutenant, 13
Peary's (Commander) Arctic expedition, 3-5
(note)
Pemmican, 180 and note
Petermann Land, 56, 114, 345
Petigax, Giuseppe, 29
Petroleum taken, 38, 135 and note, 136 ;
ration of, 181
Phipps's (Commander C. J.) Arctic explora-
tion, 3
Photographic outfit and cost, 36
Plan of the expedition : conditions govern-
ing, 10, 14-15, 17; drawbacks to, 15;
advantages of, 1 6
Point of advance of Polar Star, 56
Polar night, the, 159
Polar regions, experience necessary for
navigating, 24
Polar Star, formerly Jason : dimensions
of, 21-2; fittings, 22-3; boats, 22; ac-
commodation, 22 ; pumps of, 23, ditto
at work, 123, 127, 144; shape of, 23;
crew of, 24-6 ; longitudinal section
of, 26 ; deck plan of, 26 ; officers'
quarters, 27, shelter on, 23 ; Italian
officers of, 27, cabins of, 23 ; cost of
purchase and overhaul, 36 ; in dock,
37 ; stowage aboard, 37 ; ice obstruc-
tion, 41, 76; use of mines, 83, 121;
beset by ice, etc., 122; springs a leak,
123; abandonment of, 130; salvage
work, 143 ; damages by ice, 146-7
(note); mending leakage of, 148; ex-
tricating, 263, 289 ; rights herself, 316 ;
drifts in British Channel, 327
Polaris, the, 91
Preparations for expedition, 37
Pressure, ice, first, 75 ; in Teplitz Bay, no
Prince Rudolph Island, 12, 91, 96, 98, 325;
glaciers of, 105, 116; fungi of, 105;
geology, 1 06, capes of, 106 ; birds of,
106 ; excursion to, 112; camps on, 115;
ice-movement on, 116; stratification of,
117
Index
xxi
Provisions, choice of, 30 ; system adopted
with, 30; cost of, 36 ; landing, 62, 124,
128
Queen Victoria Sea, 16, 56, 67, 69, 80, 325
Querini, Lieutenant Francesco, 27, 28,
78, 107 ; sledge detachment, 246 ; non-
return of, 256, 289
Ration, daily : for men, sledge expedition,
14, 164, 282 ; details of, 180; for dogs,
283
Records for North Polar exploration, 7
Results of early Arctic expeditions, 3, 5, 6, 8
Return of Polar Star, difficulties of, 328,
336
Route of advance of Polar Star, 64
Salisbury Island, 90
Sastri(g, \ 54 (note)
Saucepans used, 185
Savoie, Cipriano, 29
Schley, Commander, 24
Scientific observations, 27, 32 ; equipment
and cost of, 32, 36
Season, best, for Arctic travel, 13, 14
Selection of men, 284 ; of dogs, 284
Scurvy, fears of, 262
Ships, best, for Polar voyages, 330
Ski, 262
Sledge expedition, arrangement of, 16, 27,
165, 213, altered, 207 ; plan of the, 17,
changes to, 163, 225, 244; supplies for
the, 17; proposed objects of the, 18;
cost of the, 36; preparation for, 179,
197; composition of, 204, 211; unex-
pected return of, 206 ; defects in, 207 ;
dangers of, 213; iinal departure of,
215
Sledges, weights of, 14, 273; description of,
183, 214; defects of, 276
Sledges, Jackson's, 55
Sleeping-bags, 184-5, 27&
Smith's (Mr. Leigh) Arctic expedition, 53
Snowdrift, 154, 255
Sources of assistance for the expedition, 33
Spitzbergen, 56
Staff of Polar Star, 28 ; cost of, 36
Stokken, Henrik Alfred, 29
Stoppages of Polar Star, 58, 68, 88-9 ; on
return, 326, 331
Stores, disembarking, 124; re-embarking,
320
Storms, 190
Stowage aboard Polar Star, 37
Sulphuric acid taken, 36, 38
Summary of the expedition, 345-6
Sun, observations of the, 220, 251
Sundries, cost of, for expedition, 36
Supplies taken, 30
System, best, of approaching North Pole, 1 1
Telegram, the Duke's, to King Oscar of
Sweden, 344 ; to the King of Italy,
345
Temperature, 74, 112, 135, 138, 140, 153,
168, 174-5, 191-2, 202, 204, 221-4,
236, 248, 298 ; for a year at Teplitx
Bay, 298
Tents taken, 32, 130, 184 and note; con-
structed, 134, 135-6, 135-9, 252, in
summer, 291
Teplitz Bay, 98, 102; state of ice in, 118,
139; camp at, 139; migration of birds
from, 140; aspect in February, 197;
temperature for a year at, 298 ; leaving,
321
Tide-gauge, 221, 223
Torgrinsen, Anton, 29
Transport, cost of, 36
Travel, Arctic : chief obstacle 10,14; aver-
age per day, 14
Trontheim, Alexander Ivanov, 43
XX11
Index
Visitors to the Polar Star, 48
Walruses, 66
Weather, 64, 75, 139, 151, 173, 208, 221,
237, 252, 342 ; summef, 292
Wellman's Arctic Expedition, 61, 86; com-
panions, 86
White Land, 56, 222
White Sea, 41
Winds, 60, 64, 75, 121, 153, 166, 208, 222,
247, 252, 332
Windward, the, 54, 68
Winter quarters, 16, 103 ; preparation of,
121
Work, aboard the Polar Star, 74 ; at Tep-
litz Bay, 138, 224
Wra'ngell, Baron, 12, 44
Printed by Hazclt, Watson 6^ Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury.
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1899
L93
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Luigi, Duke of the Abruzzi
On the "Polar Star" in the
Arctic Sea,
v.l.
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